Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Henriette Herz

2024-10-20T23:07:47Z

NidabaM: /* Biography */

{{Short description|German writer (1764–1847)}}{{Inline|date=August 2024}}[[File:Therbusch - Herz.jpg|thumb|200px|Henriette Herz, née Henriette de Lemos, by [[Anna Dorothea Therbusch]], 1778]]
[[File:Grab HenrHerz.jpg|thumb|200px|Grave of Henriette Herz]]

'''Henriette Julie Herz''' ([[née]] '''de Lemos''') (September 5, 1764 – October 22, 1847) was a German wroter, best known for the "salonnieres" or literary [[salon (gathering)|salon]]s that she started with a group of emancipated Jews in Prussia.

==Biography==
She was the daughter of a physician, Benjamin de Lemos (1711–1789), descended from a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Jewish]] family of [[Hamburg]], and Esther de Lemos (née Charleville) (1742–1817).

Henriette Herz had grown up in the [[Berlin]] of the [[Jewish emancipation]] and had shared tutors apparently with [[Moses Mendelssohn]]'s daughters. At age fifteen, she married a physician [[Markus Herz]] (1747–1803), seventeen years her senior. Markus Herz had studied medicine at the [[University of Königsberg]], one of only three universities that accepted Jews—but only in its medical faculty.<ref name="Elon-p71">Elon, Amos (2003). ''The Pity of It All: A Portrait of the German-Jewish Epoch, 1743–1933''. New York: Picador/Holt. p. 71.</ref> She was said to be an extremely beautiful woman.<ref>Davies, M. L., ''Identity Or History?: Marcus Herz and the End of the Enlightenment'' ([[Detroit]]: [[Wayne State University Press]], 1995), [https://books.google.com/books?id=t3OLbfLdReMC&pg=PA149 p. 149]</ref>

After a few years the salon split in two, a science-seminar led by her husband and a literary salon by Henriette herself. Most notable men and women in Berlin were said to have attended her salon. Among her friends and acquaintances were [[Dorothea von Schlegel]], [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] and his brother [[Alexander von Humboldt]],<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=15 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> [[Jean Paul]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau|Mirabeau]], [[Friedrich Rückert]], [[Karl Wilhelm Ramler]], [[Johann Jakob Engel]], [[Georg Ludwig Spalding]], the Danish [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr]], [[Johannes von Müller]], the sculptor [[Johann Gottfried Schadow|Schadow]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Friedrich von Gentz]], [[Fanny von Arnstein]], [[Madame de Genlis]], [[Friedrich Ferdinand Alexander zu Dohna-Schlobitten|Alexander zu Dohna-Schlobitten]], Gustav von Brinkmann, and [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]].

[[Alexander von Humboldt]] often visited and even received Hebrew lessons from Henriette. The theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] was another frequent visitor. After the death of her husband she came under the powerful influence of Schleiermacher and converted to [[Protestantism]]. Her grave is preserved in the [[Protestant]] ''Friedhof II der Jerusalems- und Neuen Kirchengemeinde'' (Cemetery No. II of the congregations of [[Jerusalem's Church]] and [[Deutscher Dom|New Church]]) in [[Kreuzberg|Berlin-Kreuzberg]], south of [[Hallesches Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hallesches Tor]].

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{de-ADB|12|258|260|Herz, Henriette|Ludwig Geiger|ADB:Herz, Henriette}}

===Further reading===
*{{cite book |first=Deborah |last=Hertz |title=Jewish High Society in Old Regime Berlin |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-8156-2955-9}}
*{{cite book |first=Henriette de Lemos |last=Herz |title=Henriette Herz: Ihr Leben und ihre Erinnerungen |publisher=Nabu Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1277188660 }}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.batguano.com/VLBhohenzol.jpg Painting of Henriette Herz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116032231/http://www.batguano.com/VLBhohenzol.jpg |date=2008-11-16 }}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=fCpBAAAAYAAJ Henriette Herz: Ihr Leben und ihre Erinnerungen (Google eBook)]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Herz, Henriette}}
[[Category:1764 births]]
[[Category:1847 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century German Jews]]
[[Category:Converts to Protestantism from Judaism]]
[[Category:German people of Portuguese descent]]
[[Category:German Protestants]]
[[Category:German salon-holders]]
[[Category:German Sephardi Jews]]
[[Category:Jewish women]]
[[Category:People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:People of the Haskalah]]
[[Category:Writers from Berlin]]

Henriette Herz

2024-10-20T23:06:29Z

NidabaM: /* Biography */

{{Short description|German writer (1764–1847)}}{{Inline|date=August 2024}}[[File:Therbusch - Herz.jpg|thumb|200px|Henriette Herz, née Henriette de Lemos, by [[Anna Dorothea Therbusch]], 1778]]
[[File:Grab HenrHerz.jpg|thumb|200px|Grave of Henriette Herz]]

'''Henriette Julie Herz''' ([[née]] '''de Lemos''') (September 5, 1764 – October 22, 1847) was a German wroter, best known for the "salonnieres" or literary [[salon (gathering)|salon]]s that she started with a group of emancipated Jews in Prussia.

==Biography==
She was the daughter of a physician, Benjamin de Lemos (1711–1789), descended from a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Jewish]] family of [[Hamburg]], and Esther de Lemos (née Charleville) (1742–1817).

Henriette Herz had grown up in the [[Berlin]] of the [[Jewish emancipation]] and had shared tutors apparently with [[Moses Mendelssohn]]'s daughters. At age fifteen, she married a physician [[Markus Herz]] (1747–1803), seventeen years her senior. Markus Herz had studied medicine at the [[University of Königsberg]], one of only three universities that accepted Jews—but only in its medical faculty.<ref name="Elon-p71">Elon, Amos (2003). ''The Pity of It All: A Portrait of the German-Jewish Epoch, 1743–1933''. New York: Picador/Holt. p. 71.</ref> She was said to be an extremely beautiful woman.<ref>Davies, M. L., ''Identity Or History?: Marcus Herz and the End of the Enlightenment'' ([[Detroit]]: [[Wayne State University Press]], 1995), [https://books.google.com/books?id=t3OLbfLdReMC&pg=PA149 p. 149]</ref>

After a few years the salon split in two, a science-seminar led by her husband and a literary salon by Henriette herself. Most notable men and women in Berlin were said to have attended her salon. Among her friends and acquaintances were [[Dorothea von Schlegel]], [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], [[Jean Paul]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau|Mirabeau]], [[Friedrich Rückert]], [[Karl Wilhelm Ramler]], [[Johann Jakob Engel]], [[Georg Ludwig Spalding]], the Danish [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr]], [[Johannes von Müller]], the sculptor [[Johann Gottfried Schadow|Schadow]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Friedrich von Gentz]], [[Fanny von Arnstein]], [[Madame de Genlis]], [[Friedrich Ferdinand Alexander zu Dohna-Schlobitten|Alexander zu Dohna-Schlobitten]], Gustav von Brinkmann, and [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]].

[[Alexander von Humboldt]] often visited and even received Hebrew lessons from Henriette. The theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] was another frequent visitor. After the death of her husband she came under the powerful influence of Schleiermacher and converted to [[Protestantism]]. Her grave is preserved in the [[Protestant]] ''Friedhof II der Jerusalems- und Neuen Kirchengemeinde'' (Cemetery No. II of the congregations of [[Jerusalem's Church]] and [[Deutscher Dom|New Church]]) in [[Kreuzberg|Berlin-Kreuzberg]], south of [[Hallesches Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hallesches Tor]].

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{de-ADB|12|258|260|Herz, Henriette|Ludwig Geiger|ADB:Herz, Henriette}}

===Further reading===
*{{cite book |first=Deborah |last=Hertz |title=Jewish High Society in Old Regime Berlin |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-8156-2955-9}}
*{{cite book |first=Henriette de Lemos |last=Herz |title=Henriette Herz: Ihr Leben und ihre Erinnerungen |publisher=Nabu Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1277188660 }}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.batguano.com/VLBhohenzol.jpg Painting of Henriette Herz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116032231/http://www.batguano.com/VLBhohenzol.jpg |date=2008-11-16 }}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=fCpBAAAAYAAJ Henriette Herz: Ihr Leben und ihre Erinnerungen (Google eBook)]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Herz, Henriette}}
[[Category:1764 births]]
[[Category:1847 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century German Jews]]
[[Category:Converts to Protestantism from Judaism]]
[[Category:German people of Portuguese descent]]
[[Category:German Protestants]]
[[Category:German salon-holders]]
[[Category:German Sephardi Jews]]
[[Category:Jewish women]]
[[Category:People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:People of the Haskalah]]
[[Category:Writers from Berlin]]

Henriette Herz

2024-10-20T23:06:07Z

NidabaM: /* References */

{{Short description|German writer (1764–1847)}}{{Inline|date=August 2024}}[[File:Therbusch - Herz.jpg|thumb|200px|Henriette Herz, née Henriette de Lemos, by [[Anna Dorothea Therbusch]], 1778]]
[[File:Grab HenrHerz.jpg|thumb|200px|Grave of Henriette Herz]]

'''Henriette Julie Herz''' ([[née]] '''de Lemos''') (September 5, 1764 – October 22, 1847) was a German wroter, best known for the "salonnieres" or literary [[salon (gathering)|salon]]s that she started with a group of emancipated Jews in Prussia.

==Biography==
She was the daughter of a physician, Benjamin de Lemos (1711–1789), descended from a [[Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Spanish and Portuguese Jews|Jewish]] family of [[Hamburg]], and Esther de Lemos (née Charleville) (1742–1817).

Henriette Herz had grown up in the [[Berlin]] of the [[Jewish emancipation]] and had shared tutors apparently with [[Moses Mendelssohn]]'s daughters. At age fifteen, she married a physician [[Markus Herz]] (1747–1803), seventeen years her senior. Markus Herz had studied medicine at the [[University of Königsberg]], one of only three universities that accepted Jews—but only in its medical faculty.<ref name="Elon-p71">Elon, Amos (2003). ''The Pity of It All: A Portrait of the German-Jewish Epoch, 1743-1933''. New York: Picador/Holt. p. 71.</ref> She was said to be an extremely beautiful woman.<ref>Davies, M. L., ''Identity Or History?: Marcus Herz and the End of the Enlightenment'' ([[Detroit]]: [[Wayne State University Press]], 1995), [https://books.google.com/books?id=t3OLbfLdReMC&pg=PA149 p. 149]</ref>

After a few years the salon split in two, a science-seminar led by her husband and a literary salon by Henriette herself. Most notable men and women in Berlin were said to have attended her salon. Among her friends and acquaintances were [[Dorothea von Schlegel]], [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], [[Jean Paul]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Honoré Gabriel Riqueti, comte de Mirabeau|Mirabeau]], [[Friedrich Rückert]], [[Karl Wilhelm Ramler]], [[Johann Jakob Engel]], [[Georg Ludwig Spalding]], the Danish [[Barthold Georg Niebuhr]], [[Johannes von Müller]], the sculptor [[Johann Gottfried Schadow|Schadow]], [[Salomon Maimon]], [[Friedrich von Gentz]], [[Fanny von Arnstein]], [[Madame de Genlis]], [[Friedrich Ferdinand Alexander zu Dohna-Schlobitten|Alexander zu Dohna-Schlobitten]], Gustav von Brinkmann, and [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]].

[[Alexander von Humboldt]] often visited and even received Hebrew lessons from Henriette. The theologian [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] was another frequent visitor. After the death of her husband she came under the powerful influence of Schleiermacher and converted to [[Protestantism]]. Her grave is preserved in the [[Protestant]] ''Friedhof II der Jerusalems- und Neuen Kirchengemeinde'' (Cemetery No. II of the congregations of [[Jerusalem's Church]] and [[Deutscher Dom|New Church]]) in [[Kreuzberg|Berlin-Kreuzberg]], south of [[Hallesches Tor (Berlin U-Bahn)|Hallesches Tor]].

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{de-ADB|12|258|260|Herz, Henriette|Ludwig Geiger|ADB:Herz, Henriette}}

===Further reading===
*{{cite book |first=Deborah |last=Hertz |title=Jewish High Society in Old Regime Berlin |publisher=Syracuse University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-8156-2955-9}}
*{{cite book |first=Henriette de Lemos |last=Herz |title=Henriette Herz: Ihr Leben und ihre Erinnerungen |publisher=Nabu Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1277188660 }}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.batguano.com/VLBhohenzol.jpg Painting of Henriette Herz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081116032231/http://www.batguano.com/VLBhohenzol.jpg |date=2008-11-16 }}
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=fCpBAAAAYAAJ Henriette Herz: Ihr Leben und ihre Erinnerungen (Google eBook)]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Herz, Henriette}}
[[Category:1764 births]]
[[Category:1847 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century German Jews]]
[[Category:Converts to Protestantism from Judaism]]
[[Category:German people of Portuguese descent]]
[[Category:German Protestants]]
[[Category:German salon-holders]]
[[Category:German Sephardi Jews]]
[[Category:Jewish women]]
[[Category:People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:People of the Haskalah]]
[[Category:Writers from Berlin]]

Markus Herz

2024-10-20T23:03:44Z

NidabaM: /* Biography */

{{Infobox philosopher
| name = Markus Herz
| image = Marcus Herz2.jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Friedrich Georg Weitsch]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1747|01|17|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Königsberg]], [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
| death_date = {{nowrap|{{death date and age|df=yes|1803|01|19|1747|01|17}}}}
| death_place = [[Königsberg]], [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
| education = [[University of Königsberg]]
| language = German Hebrew
}}

'''Markus Herz''' ({{IPA|de|hɛʁts|lang}}; Berlin, 17 January 1747 – Berlin, 19 January 1803) was a [[German Jew]]ish [[physician]] and [[lecturer]] on [[philosophy]].<ref>[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=660&letter=H Profile], Jewish encyclopedia.com. Accessed 5 August 5, 2022.</ref>

== Biography ==

Born in [[Berlin]] to very poor parents, Herz was destined for a [[mercantile]] career, and in 1762 went to [[Königsberg]], [[East Prussia]]. He soon gave up his position as [[clerk (position)|clerk]] and attended the [[University of Königsberg]],<ref name=C>[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/kants-critique-of-pure-reason/marcus-herz/A361AD19BF45C67F1528CCB1773EE83B Cambridge University Press website, ''Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason, Chapter 7 - Marcus Herz'']</ref> becoming a pupil of [[Immanuel Kant]], but was obliged to discontinue his studies for want of means. He thereupon became secretary to the wealthy Russian Ephraim, travelling with him through the [[Baltic Provinces]].

On 21 August 1770, he travelled from [[Berlin]] and acted as respondent when Kant presented his [[Inaugural dissertation]]<ref>[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095933656 Oxford Reference website, ''Marcus Herz'']</ref> at the University of Königsberg for the post of ordinary professor. In 1770 he had returned to Germany and studied [[medicine]] in [[University of Halle|Halle]], where he became a [[Doctor of Medicine]] in 1774, in which year he established himself in Berlin, being appointed physician at the [[Jewish]] [[hospital]]. Beginning in 1777, he delivered public lectures on medicine and philosophy, which were well attended by the students and the principal personages of the Prussian capital. At some of them even members of the royal family were present.

Herz married [[Henriette Herz|Henriette de Lemos]] in 1779<ref name=M>[https://muse.jhu.edu/article/472805/pdf Johns Hopkins University website, Project Muse section, ''Identity or History? Marcus Herz and the End of the Enlightenment (review)'' by Manfred Kuehn (2000)]</ref> and their house was for a long time the meeting place of Berlin's political, [[artist]]ic, scientific, and literary intellectuals such as [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]], [[Friedrich Schlegel]],<ref name=C /> and the young [[Alexander von Humboldt]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=15 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> In 1782 he became ill through overstudy, and had to give up his lectures until 1785, when a sojourn in [[Bad Pyrmont]] restored his health.

In 1791, he received the title of Professor of Philosophy at the academy and that of "[[Geheimrat|Hofrath]]", but lectured only for a few years, giving most of his time to his medical practice. Herz was a friend and pupil of [[Moses Mendelssohn]], and was also well acquainted with [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Lessing]]. For many years, Herz corresponded with Kant and their letters are considered to be of great philosophical importance.<ref name=M /> He died in Berlin.

== Views ==
Compulsory vaccination was strongly condemned by Herz, and in 1801 he wrote an open letter on the subject to Dr. D. Dohmeyer, under the heading "Ueber die Brutalimpfung" ("About Brutal Vaccination").<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bGcXyAEACAAJ Google Books website, ''Markus Herz an den D. Dohmeyer, Leibarzt des Prinzen August von England über die Brutalimpfung und deren Vergleichung mit der humanen'']</ref><ref>[https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/receive/jportal_jparticle_00019810 University of Jena website, ''Herz, M.: An den D. Dohmeyer über die Brutal Impfung und deren Vergleichung mit der humanen. Berlin: Unger 1801'']</ref>

== Works ==
Herz was the author of:
* ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6bUAAAAAcAAJ Betrachtungen aus der Spekulativen Weltweisheit]'', Königsberg, 1771;<ref name=M />
* ''Freimüthige Kaffeegespräche Zweier Jüdischer Zuschauerinnen über den Juden Pinkus'', Berlin, 1772, a satirical essay;
* ''Versuch über die Ursachen der Verschiedenheit des Geschmacks'' (or ''Versuch über den Geschmack''), [[Mitau]], 1776;
* ''Briefe an Aerzte'', Berlin, 1777–84;
* ''Grundriss der Medizinischen Wissenschaften'', ib. 1782;
* ''Versuch über den Schwindel'', ib. 1786, 2d ed. 1791, an important study;
* ''Grundlage zu den Vorlesungen über die Experimental-Physik'', ib. 1787;
* ''Ein Sendschreiben an die Redaktion der Meassefim über das zu Frühe Beerdigen der Todten bei den Juden'', ib. 1789.

== Sources ==
* R.J. Wunderbar, in ''Der Orient'', [[Leipzig]], 30 June 1849, pp. 408 et seq
* [[Ludwig Geiger]], in ''[[Allg. Deutsche Biographie]]'', 1880, xii. 261 et seq.;
* ''[[Oesterreichische Wochenschrift]]'', 23 January 1903, pg. 59

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Herz, Markus}}
[[Category:1747 births]]
[[Category:1803 deaths]]
[[Category:Prussian physicians]]
[[Category:18th-century German Jews]]
[[Category:18th-century German philosophers]]
[[Category:Jewish philosophers]]
[[Category:People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:Writers from Berlin]]
[[Category:University of Königsberg alumni]]
[[Category:University of Halle alumni]]
[[Category:German male writers]]
[[Category:19th-century German philosophers]]

Markus Herz

2024-10-20T23:03:15Z

NidabaM: /* Biography */

{{Infobox philosopher
| name = Markus Herz
| image = Marcus Herz2.jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Friedrich Georg Weitsch]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1747|01|17|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Königsberg]], [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
| death_date = {{nowrap|{{death date and age|df=yes|1803|01|19|1747|01|17}}}}
| death_place = [[Königsberg]], [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
| education = [[University of Königsberg]]
| language = German Hebrew
}}

'''Markus Herz''' ({{IPA|de|hɛʁts|lang}}; Berlin, 17 January 1747 – Berlin, 19 January 1803) was a [[German Jew]]ish [[physician]] and [[lecturer]] on [[philosophy]].<ref>[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=660&letter=H Profile], Jewish encyclopedia.com. Accessed 5 August 5, 2022.</ref>

== Biography ==

Born in [[Berlin]] to very poor parents, Herz was destined for a [[mercantile]] career, and in 1762 went to [[Königsberg]], [[East Prussia]]. He soon gave up his position as [[clerk (position)|clerk]] and attended the [[University of Königsberg]],<ref name=C>[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/kants-critique-of-pure-reason/marcus-herz/A361AD19BF45C67F1528CCB1773EE83B Cambridge University Press website, ''Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason, Chapter 7 - Marcus Herz'']</ref> becoming a pupil of [[Immanuel Kant]], but was obliged to discontinue his studies for want of means. He thereupon became secretary to the wealthy Russian Ephraim, travelling with him through the [[Baltic Provinces]].

On 21 August 1770, he travelled from [[Berlin]] and acted as respondent when Kant presented his [[Inaugural dissertation]]<ref>[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095933656 Oxford Reference website, ''Marcus Herz'']</ref> at the University of Königsberg for the post of ordinary professor. In 1770 he had returned to Germany and studied [[medicine]] in [[University of Halle|Halle]], where he became a [[Doctor of Medicine]] in 1774, in which year he established himself in Berlin, being appointed physician at the [[Jewish]] [[hospital]]. Beginning in 1777, he delivered public lectures on medicine and philosophy, which were well attended by the students and the principal personages of the Prussian capital. At some of them even members of the royal family were present.

Herz married [[Henriette Herz|Henriette de Lemos]] in 1779<ref name=M>[https://muse.jhu.edu/article/472805/pdf Johns Hopkins University website, Project Muse section, ''Identity or History? Marcus Herz and the End of the Enlightenment (review)'' by Manfred Kuehn (2000)]</ref> and their house was for a long time the meeting place of Berlin's political, [[artist]]ic, scientific, and literary intellectuals such as [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]], [[Friedrich Schlegel]],<ref name=C /> and the young Alexander von Humboldt.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=15 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> In 1782 he became ill through overstudy, and had to give up his lectures until 1785, when a sojourn in [[Bad Pyrmont]] restored his health.

In 1791, he received the title of Professor of Philosophy at the academy and that of "[[Geheimrat|Hofrath]]", but lectured only for a few years, giving most of his time to his medical practice. Herz was a friend and pupil of [[Moses Mendelssohn]], and was also well acquainted with [[Gotthold Ephraim Lessing|Lessing]]. For many years, Herz corresponded with Kant and their letters are considered to be of great philosophical importance.<ref name=M /> He died in Berlin.

== Views ==
Compulsory vaccination was strongly condemned by Herz, and in 1801 he wrote an open letter on the subject to Dr. D. Dohmeyer, under the heading "Ueber die Brutalimpfung" ("About Brutal Vaccination").<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=bGcXyAEACAAJ Google Books website, ''Markus Herz an den D. Dohmeyer, Leibarzt des Prinzen August von England über die Brutalimpfung und deren Vergleichung mit der humanen'']</ref><ref>[https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/receive/jportal_jparticle_00019810 University of Jena website, ''Herz, M.: An den D. Dohmeyer über die Brutal Impfung und deren Vergleichung mit der humanen. Berlin: Unger 1801'']</ref>

== Works ==
Herz was the author of:
* ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=6bUAAAAAcAAJ Betrachtungen aus der Spekulativen Weltweisheit]'', Königsberg, 1771;<ref name=M />
* ''Freimüthige Kaffeegespräche Zweier Jüdischer Zuschauerinnen über den Juden Pinkus'', Berlin, 1772, a satirical essay;
* ''Versuch über die Ursachen der Verschiedenheit des Geschmacks'' (or ''Versuch über den Geschmack''), [[Mitau]], 1776;
* ''Briefe an Aerzte'', Berlin, 1777–84;
* ''Grundriss der Medizinischen Wissenschaften'', ib. 1782;
* ''Versuch über den Schwindel'', ib. 1786, 2d ed. 1791, an important study;
* ''Grundlage zu den Vorlesungen über die Experimental-Physik'', ib. 1787;
* ''Ein Sendschreiben an die Redaktion der Meassefim über das zu Frühe Beerdigen der Todten bei den Juden'', ib. 1789.

== Sources ==
* R.J. Wunderbar, in ''Der Orient'', [[Leipzig]], 30 June 1849, pp. 408 et seq
* [[Ludwig Geiger]], in ''[[Allg. Deutsche Biographie]]'', 1880, xii. 261 et seq.;
* ''[[Oesterreichische Wochenschrift]]'', 23 January 1903, pg. 59

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Herz, Markus}}
[[Category:1747 births]]
[[Category:1803 deaths]]
[[Category:Prussian physicians]]
[[Category:18th-century German Jews]]
[[Category:18th-century German philosophers]]
[[Category:Jewish philosophers]]
[[Category:People from the Margraviate of Brandenburg]]
[[Category:Writers from Berlin]]
[[Category:University of Königsberg alumni]]
[[Category:University of Halle alumni]]
[[Category:German male writers]]
[[Category:19th-century German philosophers]]

Oilbird

2024-10-20T22:56:53Z

NidabaM: /* Distribution and habitat */ footnote

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Oilbirds.jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="iucn status 11 November 2021">{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International |date=2016 |title=''Steatornis caripensis'' |volume=2016 |page=e.T22689633A93240317 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-3.RLTS.T22689633A93240317.en |access-date=11 November 2021}}</ref>
| greatgrandparent_authority = Mayr, 2010
| grandparent_authority = [[Charles Lucien Bonaparte|Bonaparte]], 1842
| genus = Steatornis
| parent_authority = [[Alexander von Humboldt|Humboldt]], 1814
| display_parents = 4
| species = caripensis
| authority = [[Alexander von Humboldt|Humboldt]], 1817
| range_map = Steatornis caripensis map.svg
}}
[[File:Steatornis caripensis MHNT ZON STEA 1.jpg|thumb| ''Steatornis caripensis'' – [[MHNT]]]]

The '''oilbird''' ('''''Steatornis caripensis'''''), locally known as the '''{{Lang|es|guácharo}}''', is a bird species found in the northern areas of [[South America]] including the [[Caribbean]] island of [[Trinidad]]. It is the only species in the genus '''''Steatornis''''', the family '''Steatornithidae''', and the order '''Steatornithiformes'''. Nesting in colonies in caves, oilbirds are [[nocturnal]] feeders on the fruits of the [[List of plants known as oil palm|oil palm]] and tropical [[Lauraceae|laurel]]s. They are the only [[nocturnal]] flying fruit-eating birds in the world (the [[kākāpō]], also nocturnal, is flightless). They forage at night, with specially adapted eyesight. However, they navigate by [[Animal echolocation|echolocation]] in the same way as [[bat]]s, one of the few birds to do so. They produce a high-pitched clicking sound of around 2 kHz that is audible to humans.<ref>Snow (2008), pp. 137–143.</ref>

==Taxonomy and etymology==
Oilbirds are related to the [[nightjar]]s and have sometimes been placed with these in the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Caprimulgiformes]]. However, the nightjars and their relatives are [[insectivore]]s while the oilbird is a specialist [[fructivore]], and it is sufficiently distinctive to be placed in a family (Steatornithidae) and suborder (Steatornithes) of its own. Some research indicates that it should even be considered a distinct order (Steatornithiformes).<ref>{{cite web|last1=Van Remsen|first1=J.|title=Elevate Steatornithidae and Nyctibiidae to rank of Order|url=http://www.museum.lsu.edu/~Remsen/SACCprop703.htm|website=South American Classification Committee|access-date=26 February 2017|date=2016}}</ref>

The [[Specific name (zoology)|specific name]] ''caripensis'' means 'of [[Caripe]]', and the [[Generic name (biology)|generic name]] ''Steatornis'' means 'fat bird', in reference to the fatness of the chicks. The oilbird is called a {{Lang|es|guácharo}} or {{Lang|es|tayo}} in [[Spanish language|Spanish]], both terms being of indigenous origin. In Trinidad it was sometimes called {{Lang|fr|diablotin}} (French for 'little devil'), presumably referring to its loud cries, which have been likened to those of tortured men. The common name ''oilbird'' comes from the fact that in the past chicks were captured and boiled down in order to make oil.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-09-09 |title=Treasure of the month: Humboldt's nightbird |url=https://hamburg.leibniz-lib.de/en/aktuelles/news/news-archiv/2019-news-archiv/2019-09-09-news.html |access-date=2022-09-23 |website=hamburg.leibniz-lib.de}}</ref>

The fossil record of the family suggests that they were once more widely distributed around the globe. The first fossil oilbird was described by [[Storrs Olson]] in 1987 from a fossil found in the [[Green River Formation]] in Wyoming.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Storrs|first1=Olson|title=An early Eocene oilbird from the Green River Formation of Wyoming (Caprimulgiformes: Steatornithidae)|journal=Documents des Laboratoires de Géologie de Lyon|date=1987|volume=99|pages=57–69|url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/15586/VZ_196_Eocene_oilbird.pdf?sequence=1}}</ref> The species, ''Prefica nivea'', was probably not adapted to hovering flight or living in caves, unlike the oilbird. Some of the same families and genera of plants the present day oilbird feeds on have been found in the Green River Formation, suggesting that prehistoric species may have eaten the same fruit and spread the same seeds. Another species from the [[Upper Eocene]] has been discovered in France.<ref name= "HBW">Thomas, B.T. (2017). Oilbird (''Steatornithidae''). In: del Hoyo, J., Elliott, A., Sargatal, J., Christie, D.A. & de Juana, E. (eds.). ''Handbook of the Birds of the World Alive''. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. (retrieved from http://www.hbw.com/node/52261 on 25 February 2017).</ref>

==Description==
This is a large, slim bird at {{convert|40|–|49|cm|abbr=on}}, with a wing span of {{convert|95|cm|abbr=on}}. It has a flattened, powerfully hooked, [[beak]] surrounded by deep chestnut rictal bristles up to {{convert|5|cm}} long. The adult weighs {{convert|350|-|475|g|abbr=on}} but the chicks can weigh considerably more, at up to {{convert|600|g}}, when their parents feed them a good deal of fruit before they fly.<ref name="Burnie">Burnie D and Wilson DE (Eds.), ''Animal: The Definitive Visual Guide to the World's Wildlife''. DK Adult (2005), {{ISBN|0789477645}}</ref> The feathers of the oilbird are soft like those of many nightbirds, but not as soft as those of owls or nightjars, as they do not need to be silent like predatory species. The oilbird is mainly reddish-brown with white spots on the nape and wings. Lower parts are cinnamon-buff with white diamond-shaped spots edged in black, these spots start small towards the throat and get larger towards the back. The stiff tail feathers are a rich brown spotted with white on either side.<ref name= "HBW"/>

The feet are small and almost useless, other than for clinging to vertical surfaces. The long wings have evolved to make it capable of hovering and twisting flight, which enables it to navigate through restricted areas of its caves. For example, the wings have deep wingtip slotting, like [[New World vulture]]s, to reduce the stalling speed, and the wings have a low aspect ratio and low wing-loading, all to make the oilbird capable of flying at low speeds.<ref name= "HBW"/>

The eyes of oilbirds are highly adapted to nocturnal foraging. The eyes are small, but the pupils are relatively large, allowing the highest light-gathering capacity of any bird ([[f-number]] of 1.07).<ref name="Martin">{{cite journal|last1=Martin|first1=G|last2=Rojas|first2=L. M.|last3=Ramírez|first3=Y.|last4=McNeil|first4=R.|title=The eyes of oilbirds (''Steatornis caripensis''): pushing at the limits of sensitivity|journal=Naturwissenschaften|date=2004|volume=91|issue=1|pages=26–9|doi=10.1007/s00114-003-0495-3|pmid=14740100|bibcode=2004NW.....91...26M|s2cid=23366820}}</ref> The retina is dominated by [[rod cell]]s, 1,000,000 rods per mm2, the highest density of any vertebrate eye,<ref name="Martin"/> which are organised in layers, an arrangement unique among birds but shared by [[deep-sea fish]]. They have low numbers of [[cone cell]]s, and the whole arrangement would allow them to capture more light in low light conditions but probably have poor vision in daylight.<ref name = "Rojas">{{cite journal|last1=Rojas|first1=L. M.|last2=Ramírez|first2=Y.|last3=McNeil|first3=R.|last4=Mitchell|first4=M.|last5=Marín|first5=G.|title=Retinal Morphology and Electrophysiology of Two Caprimulgiformes Birds: The Cave-Living and Nocturnal Oilbird (''Steatornis caripensis''), and the Crepuscularly and Nocturnally Foraging Common Pauraque (''Nyctidromus albicollis'')|journal=Brain, Behavior and Evolution|date=2004|volume=64|issue=1|pages=19–33|doi=10.1159/000077540|pmid=15051964|s2cid=44485301}}</ref>

Although they have specially adapted vision to forage by sight, they are among the few birds known to supplement sight by [[Animal echolocation|echolocation]] in sufficiently poor light conditions, using a series of sharp audible clicks for this purpose. The only other birds known to do this are some species of [[Swift (bird)|swift]].<ref name="Brinkløv">{{cite journal|last1=Brinkløv|first1=Signe|last2=Fenton|first2=M. Brock|last3=Ratcliffe|first3=John|title=Echolocation in Oilbirds and swiftlets|journal=Frontiers in Physiology|date=2013|volume=4|issue=123|pages=188|doi=10.3389/fphys.2013.00123|pmid=23755019|pmc=3664765|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{Birdsong|species = oilbirds|url = https://xeno-canto.org/explore?query=steatornis}}
In addition to clicks used for echolocation, oilbirds also produce a variety of harsh screams while in their caves. Entering a cave with a light especially provokes these raucous calls; they also may be heard as the birds prepare to emerge from a cave at dusk.

==Distribution and habitat==
[[File:Roosting Oilbirds.jpg|thumb|Oilbirds roosting on a more open ledge in Ecuador]]
The oilbird ranges from [[Guyana]] and the island of [[Trinidad]] to [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]] and [[Brazil]].<ref name=cavidades>{{in lang|es}} Carreño, R., J. Nolla & J. Astort (December 2002). Cavidades del Wei-Assipu-tepui, Macizo del Roraima, Brasil. ''Boletín de la Sociedad Venezolana de Espeleología'' '''36''': 36–45.</ref> They range from sea-level to {{convert|3400|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The species has highly specific habitat requirements, needing both [[Troglofauna|caves to breed in]] and roost in frequently, and forest containing fruiting trees. Where suitable caves are absent, oilbirds will roost and breed in narrow gorges and grottos with suitable rock shelves.

One such colony in Ecuador held a population of a hundred birds in a canyon with ledges protected by vegetation.<ref name="Cisneros-Heredia">{{cite journal|last1=Cisneros-Heredia|first1=D. F.|last2=Henry|first2=P. Y.|last3=Buitrón-Jurado|first3=G.|last4=Solano-Ugalde|first4=A.|last5=Arcos-Torres|first5=A.|last6=Tinoco|first6=B.|title=New data on the distribution of Oilbird Steatornis caripensis in Ecuador|journal=Cotinga|date=2012|volume=34|issue=28–31|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/216330055}}</ref> Some smaller caves and gorges are used only for roosting.<ref name= "HBW"/> While it was once thought that oilbirds always or nearly always roosted in caves, canyons or gullies, researchers placing GPS trackers on non-breeding birds found that they regularly roost in trees in the forest as well as in caves.<ref name="Holland">{{cite journal|last1=Holland|first1=R. A.|last2=Wikelski|first2=M.|last3=Kümmeth|first3=F.|last4=Bosque|first4=C.|title=The Secret Life of Oilbirds: New Insights into the Movement Ecology of a Unique Avian Frugivore|journal=PLOS ONE|date=2009|volume=4|issue=12|pages=e8264|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0008264|pmid=20016844|pmc=2788423|bibcode=2009PLoSO...4.8264H|doi-access=free}}</ref>

It is a seasonal [[bird migration|migrant]] across some of its range, moving from its breeding caves in search of fruit trees. It has occurred as a rare vagrant to [[Costa Rica]], [[Panama]] and [[Aruba]]. The [[Cueva del Guácharo National Park|Guácharo Cave]] (Oilbird Cave), in the mountainous [[Caripe]] district of northern [[Monagas]], [[Venezuela]], is where [[Alexander von Humboldt]] first studied the species.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=62 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref>

==Behaviour==
[[File:Oilbird (Steatornis caripensis).jpg|thumb|The widespread habit of roosting in trees was only recently discovered by scientists]]

Oilbirds are [[nocturnal]]. During the day the birds rest on cave ledges and leave at night to find fruit outside the cave. It was once thought that oilbirds only roosted in caves, and indeed never saw daylight, but studies using GPS/acceleration loggers found that non-breeding birds only roosted in caves or other rock shelters one night in three, the other nights roosting in trees.

The scientists responsible for the discovery also found that birds roosting in caves were highly active through the night, whereas birds roosting in the forest were far less active. They hypothesised that each environment carried costs; birds roosting in the forest were more vulnerable to predators and birds roosting in caves expended considerable energy competing with rivals and defending nesting and roosting ledges.<ref name="Holland"/>

===Breeding===
[[File:Oilbird (17370415445).jpg|thumb|Oilbird on a ledge in a cave]]
Oilbirds are [[bird colony|colonial]] cave nesters. The nest is a heap of droppings, usually above water—either a stream or the sea—on which 2–4 glossy white eggs are laid which soon become stained brown. These are rounded but with a distinctly pointed smaller end and average {{convert|41.2|mm}} by {{convert|33.2|mm}}. The [[wikt:squab|squabs]] become very fat before fledging, weighing around a third more than the adult birds.

==Status and conservation==
The Guácharo Cave was Venezuela's first national monument and is the centerpiece of a national park; according to some estimates there may be 15,000 or more birds living there. [[Colombia]] also has a national park named after its "[[Cueva de los Guácharos]]", near the southern border with Ecuador. Oilbirds have been reported in various other places along the [[Andes|Andean]] mountain chain, including near Ecuador's [[Cueva de los Tayos]] and in [[Brazil]]: they are known to dwell as far south as the [[Carrasco National Park]] in [[Bolivia]]. [[Dunston Cave]], at the [[Asa Wright Nature Centre]] in [[Trinidad]], is home to about 200 nesting pairs. The species is classified as 'Least Concern' by the IUCN red list as of October 2016, despite a decreasing population.<ref>{{cite web |title=The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species |url=http://www.iucnredlist.org |website=IUCN 2019 |access-date=1 April 2019}}</ref>

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book
| last = ffrench
| first = Richard
| title = A Guide to the Birds of Trinidad and Tobago
| edition = 2nd
| year = 1991
| publisher = Comstock Publishing
| isbn = 0-8014-9792-2 }}
* Herklots, G. A. C. (1961). ''The Birds of Trinidad and Tobago''. Collins, London. Reprint 1965.
*{{cite book
| last = Hilty
| first = Steven L
| title = Birds of Venezuela
| publisher = Christopher Helm
| year = 2003
| location = London
| isbn = 0-7136-6418-5 }}
* Holland RA, Wikelski M, Kümmeth F, Bosque C, 2009 ''The Secret Life of Oilbirds: New Insights into the Movement Ecology of a Unique Avian Frugivore.'' PLoS ONE 4(12): e8264. {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0008264}}
* Stiles and Skutch, ''A Guide to the Birds of Costa Rica.'' {{ISBN|0-8014-9600-4}}
* [[Snow, D.W.]] (2008). ''Birds in Our Life''. William Sessions Limited. {{ISBN|978-1-85072-381-3}} (pbk).
* ''Bulletin of the British Ornithologists' Club'', volume 124 issue 6.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Steatornis caripensis}}
{{EB1911 poster|Guacharo}}
*[http://www.showcaves.com/english/misc/showcaves/Guacharo.html Cueva del Guácharo (ShowCaves)]
*[http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/oilbird-steatornis-caripensis Oilbird videos, photos & sounds] on the Internet Bird Collection
*The oilbird's [https://web.archive.org/web/20070716090718/http://database.biomimicry.org/item.php?table=organism&id=1120 visual acuity]
*[http://www.caripe.net Caripe.net – ''La Puerta de Entrada''] {{in lang|es}}
*[http://www.darkeypang.org.uk/level1_pages/trinidad/oilbird_caves_of_trinidad.htm Oilbird Caves of Trinidad] Accessed 30 March 2011
*{{cite web|title=Finding the cave-dwelling Oilbird!|date=August 7, 2015|publisher=Toledo Zoo|website=YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Lm5YEsUreY |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/5Lm5YEsUreY| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}
*{{cite web|title=Oilbird|date=August 10, 2018|publisher=American Bird Conservancy|website=YouTube|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3NeFqERO7Pk |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211212/3NeFqERO7Pk| archive-date=2021-12-12 |url-status=live}}{{cbignore}}

{{Strisores|S.|state=collapsed}}
{{Taxonbar|from1=Q213785|from2=Q10821410|from3=Q1409287}}



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[[Category:Steatornithiformes]]
[[Category:Birds of Panama]]
[[Category:Birds of the Northern Andes]]
[[Category:Birds of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Birds of Colombia]]
[[Category:Birds of Venezuela]]
[[Category:Birds of Trinidad and Tobago]]
[[Category:Birds of Peruvian Amazonia]]
[[Category:Cave birds]]
[[Category:Animals that use echolocation]]
[[Category:Birds described in 1817]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Alexander von Humboldt]]

Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre

2024-10-20T22:53:44Z

NidabaM: /* Legacy */ English -language edition

{{Short description|French writer and botanist (1737–1814)}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre
| image = jacques henri bernardin.jpg
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| pseudonym =
| birth_name = Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1737|1|19|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Le Havre]], [[Normandy]], [[Kingdom of France]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1814|1|21|1737|1|19|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Éragny, Val-d'Oise|Éragny]], [[Seine-et-Oise]], France
| occupation = Writer
| nationality = French
| ethnicity =
| citizenship =
| education =
| alma_mater =
| period = 18th century
| genre = Novel, travel narrative
| subject =
| movement =
| notableworks = ''Paul et Virginie''
| spouse =
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'''Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre''' (also called '''Bernardin de St. Pierre''') (19 January 1737, in [[Le Havre]] – 21 January 1814, in [[Éragny, Val-d'Oise|Éragny]], [[Val-d'Oise]]) was a French writer and [[botanist]]. He is best known for his 1788 novel, ''[[Paul et Virginie]]'', a very popular 18th-century classic of [[French literature]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre {{!}} French writer|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jacques-Henri-Bernardin-de-Saint-Pierre|access-date=2021-06-26|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref>

==Biography==
At the age of twelve he had read ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'' and went with his uncle, a skipper, to the West-Indies. After returning from this trip he was educated as an engineer at the [[École des ponts ParisTech|École des Ponts]]. Then he joined the French Army and was involved in the [[Seven Years' War]] against Prussia and England, but was dismissed for insubordination. After travels around Europe he returned to Paris in 1765.<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Saint-Pierre, Jacques Henri Bernardin de|volume=24|page=41}}</ref>

He received a small inheritance on his father's death,<ref name="EB1911"/> and in 1768 he traveled to [[Mauritius]] where he served as engineer and studied plants.<ref name=":0" /> On his return in 1771 he became friendly with and a pupil of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. Together they studied the plants in and around Paris, and Rousseau helped form his character and style.<ref name="EB1911"/>

His ''Voyage à l'Île de France'' (2 vols., 1773) gained him a reputation as a champion of innocence and religion, and in consequence, through the exertions of the [[Jean de Dieu-Raymond de Cucé de Boisgelin|bishop of Aix]], a pension of 1000 livres a year. The ''Études de la nature'' (3 vols., 1784) was an attempt to prove the existence of God from the wonders of nature; he set up a philosophy of sentiment to oppose the materializing tendencies of the [[Encyclopédistes|Encyclopaedists]]. His masterpiece, ''Paul et Virginie'', appeared in 1789 in a supplementary volume of the ''Études'', and his second great success, less sentimental and showing some humour, the ''Chaudière indienne'', not until 1790.<ref name="EB1911"/>

In 1795 he was elected to the [[Institut de France]],<ref name="EB1911"/>in 1797 became manager of the [[Jardin des Plantes|Botanical Gardens]] (Jardin des plantes) in Paris and in 1803 was elected a member of the [[Académie française]].
{{French literature sidebar}}

Saint-Pierre was an avid advocate and practitioner of [[vegetarianism]], and although he was a devout Christian was also heavily influenced by [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment-era]] intellectuals like [[Voltaire]] and his mentor [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]].<ref>Tristram Stuart, ''The Bloodless Revolution'', W. W. Norton & Company, 2006, p. 212.</ref><ref>[[Rod Preece]], ''Sins of the Flesh: A History of Ethical Vegetarian Thought'', UBC Press, 2008, p. 224.</ref>

In 1792 he married a very young girl, Félicité Didot, who brought him a considerable [[dowry]]. After his first wife's death he married in 1800, when he was sixty-three, another young girl, Desirée Pelleport.<ref name="EB1911"/>

==Legacy==
:"Barye's predators devouring their living prey indulge the emotions in a Romantic way of course, but they also embody a romantically [[moralizing]] point of view like those held by Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, [[Anne Louise Germaine de Staël|Mme de Staël]], and [[Victor Hugo]]. The ''Oeuvres complètes'' of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre appeared in [[Paris]] in 1834 and was surely known to Barye, for the author was the former director of the [[zoo]] in the [[Jardin des Plantes]] and one of the "masters of genuine poetry" for the [[romanticism|arch-romantic]] Mme de Staël. Bernardin de Saint-Pierre maintained that a [[carnivorous]] animal in devouring its [[prey]] alive committed a sin against the laws of its own nature."<ref>From ''[[Antoine-Louis Barye]]: [[Sculpture|Sculptor]] of [[romanticism|Romantic]] [[Realism (arts)|Realism]]'' by Glenn F. Benge, p. 8:</ref>

[[Alexander von Humboldt]], next to [[Charles Darwin]] the best known naturalist of the nineteenth century, belonged to the admirers of Bernardin de Saint-Pierre and cherished the novel ''Paul et Virginie''.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=45 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref>

==Works==
*''Voyage à l’Île de France, à l’île Bourbon et au cap de Bonne-Espérance'' (1773)
*''L’Arcadie'' (1781)
*''Études de la nature'' (1784)
*''[[Paul et Virginie]]'' (1788)
*''La Chaumière indienne'' (1790)
*''Le Café de Surate'' (1790)
*''Les Vœux d’un solitaire'' (1790)
*''De la nature de la morale'' (1798)
*''Voyage en Silésie'' (1807)
*''La Mort de Socrate'' (1808)
*''Harmonies de la nature'' (1815)

[[File:Bernardin de Saint-Pierre-Etinne Frédéric Lignon mg 8550.jpg|thumb]]

==See also==
*[[Society of the Friends of Truth]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=825}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Bernardin de St. Pierre}}
* {{Librivox author |id=5318}}
* [http://www.ivu.org/history/williams/stpierre.html International Vegetarian Union,"The Ethics of Diet": Jacques-Henri Bernardin de Saint-Pierre]

{{Académie française Seat 27}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Bernardin de Saint-Pierre, Jacques-Henri}}
[[Category:1737 births]]
[[Category:1814 deaths]]
[[Category:18th-century French botanists]]
[[Category:18th-century French male writers]]
[[Category:18th-century French novelists]]
[[Category:19th-century French botanists]]
[[Category:19th-century French writers]]
[[Category:19th-century French male writers]]
[[Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery]]
[[Category:Corps des ponts]]
[[Category:École des Ponts ParisTech alumni]]
[[Category:French children's writers]]
[[Category:French male novelists]]
[[Category:French vegetarianism activists]]
[[Category:Lycée Pierre-Corneille alumni]]
[[Category:Members of the Académie Française]]
[[Category:Writers from Le Havre]]
[[Category:Scientists from Le Havre]]

Charles Darwin

2024-10-20T22:50:28Z

NidabaM: /* Early life and education */ Readings

{{Short description|English naturalist and biologist (1809–1882)}}
{{Other people}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
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{{Featured article}}
{{Use British English|date=October 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Charles Darwin
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS|JP}}
| image = Charles Darwin seated crop.jpg
| alt = Three quarter length studio photo showing Darwin's characteristic large forehead and bushy eyebrows with deep set eyes, pug nose and mouth set in a determined look. He is bald on top, with dark hair and long side whiskers but no beard or moustache. His jacket is dark, with very wide lapels, and his trousers are a light check pattern. His shirt has an upright wing collar, and his cravat is tucked into his waistcoat which is a light fine checked pattern.
| caption = Darwin, {{circa|1854}}, when he was preparing ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''{{sfn|Freeman|2007|p=76}}
| birth_name = Charles Robert Darwin
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=y|1809|2|12}}
| birth_place = [[Shrewsbury]], [[Shropshire]], England
| death_date = {{death date and age|1882|df=y|4|19|1809|2|12}}
| death_place = [[Downe|Down]], [[Kent]], England (now Downe, [[Greater London]])
| resting_place = [[Westminster Abbey]]
| alma_mater = {{ubli|
[[University of Edinburgh]]|
[[Christ's College, Cambridge]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]], [[Master of Arts|MA]])<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/5032354/Charles-Darwins-personal-finances-revealed-in-new-find.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019230458/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/5032354/Charles-Darwins-personal-finances-revealed-in-new-find.html|url-status=dead|title=Charles Darwin's personal finances revealed in new find|date=22 March 2009|archive-date=19 October 2017|work=The Telegraph
}}</ref>}}
| known_for = [[Natural selection]]
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]]|1839}}
| children = 10, including [[William Erasmus Darwin|William]], [[Henrietta Litchfield|Henrietta]], [[George Darwin|George]], [[Francis Darwin|Francis]], [[Leonard Darwin|Leonard]] and [[Horace Darwin|Horace]]
| parents = {{ubl|[[Robert Darwin]]|[[Susannah Darwin|Susannah Wedgwood]]}}
| family = [[Darwin–Wedgwood family|Darwin–Wedgwood]]
| awards = {{ubl|[[Fellow of the Royal Society|FRS]] (1839)<ref name="catalogues.royalsociety.org-2015">{{cite web | title=Search Results: Record – Darwin; Charles Robert | website=The Royal Society Collections Catalogues | date=20 June 2015 | url=https://catalogues.royalsociety.org/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Persons&id=NA8196&pos=1 | access-date=2 December 2021 | archive-date=2 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202200044/https://catalogues.royalsociety.org/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Persons&id=NA8196&pos=1 | url-status=live }}</ref>|[[Royal Medal]] (1853)<ref name="Freeman 2007">{{harvnb|Freeman|2007|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=A27b&viewtype=text&pageseq=113 106]}}.</ref>|[[Wollaston Medal]] (1859)<ref name="Freeman 2007" />|[[Copley Medal]] (1864)<ref name="Freeman 2007" />|{{lang|fr|[[Pour le Mérite#Civil class|Pour le Mérite]]}} (1867)<ref name="Freeman 2007" />|[[Baly Medal]] (1879)<ref name="Freeman 2007" />}}
| module = {{Infobox writer
| embed = yes
| notableworks = {{plainlist|
* ''[[The Voyage of the Beagle]]''
* ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''
* ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]''}}
| module = {{Infobox scientist
| embed = yes
| fields = {{ubli|[[Natural history]]|[[Geology]]}}
| work_institutions = [[Geological Society of London]]
| academic_advisors = {{ubl|[[John Stevens Henslow]]|[[Adam Sedgwick]]}}
| author_abbrev_bot = '''Darwin'''
| author_abbrev_zoo = '''Darwin'''
| signature = Charles Darwin Signature.svg
| signature_alt = "Charles Darwin", with the surname underlined by a downward curve that mimics the curve of the initial "C"
}}
}}
}}


'''Charles Robert Darwin''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|FRS|FRGS|FLS|FZS|JP}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=van Wyhe |first1=John |last2=Chua |first2=Christine |date= |title=Charles Darwin: Justice of the Peace: The Complete Records (1857–1882) |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/2021_John_van_Wyhe_%26_Christine_Chua%2C_Charles_Darwin._Justice_of_the_Peace_A2115.pdf |url-status=live |url-access= |format= |language= |location= |publisher= |isbn= |access-date=3 August 2022 |archive-date=3 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803163838/http://darwin-online.org.uk/converted/pdf/2021_John_van_Wyhe_%26_Christine_Chua%2C_Charles_Darwin._Justice_of_the_Peace_A2115.pdf }}</ref> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɑr|w|ɪ|n}}<ref>[http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin "Darwin"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718234042/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/darwin |date=18 July 2014 }} entry in ''[[Collins English Dictionary]]''.</ref> {{Respell|DAR|win}}; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English [[Natural history#Before 1900|naturalist]], [[geologist]], and [[biologist]],<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2004}}.</ref> widely known for his contributions to [[evolutionary biology]]. His proposition that all species of life have descended from a [[Common descent|common ancestor]] is now generally accepted and considered a fundamental scientific concept.<ref>{{cite book |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |author-link=Jerry Coyne |title=Why Evolution is True |publisher=Viking |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8 8–11] |isbn=978-0-670-02053-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/whyevolutionistr00coyn/page/8}}</ref> In a joint publication with [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], he introduced his scientific theory that this [[Phylogenetics|branching pattern]] of [[evolution]] resulted from a process he called [[natural selection]], in which the [[struggle for existence]] has a similar effect to the artificial selection involved in [[selective breeding]].<ref name="Larson 2004">{{Harvnb|Larson|2004|pp=79–111}}.</ref> Darwin has been described as one of the most influential figures in [[human history]] and was honoured by [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey|burial in Westminster Abbey]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200 |title=Special feature: Darwin 200 |access-date=2 April 2011 |work=New Scientist |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110211051412/http://www.newscientist.com/special/darwin-200 |archive-date=11 February 2011}}</ref><ref name="Westminster Abbey-2016" />

Darwin's early interest in nature led him to neglect his medical education at the [[University of Edinburgh Medical School|University of Edinburgh]]; instead, he helped to investigate [[marine invertebrates]]. His studies at the [[University of Cambridge]]'s [[Christ's College, Cambridge|Christ's College]] from 1828 to 1831 encouraged his passion for [[natural science]].<ref name="Leff 2000">{{Harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130723181529/http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/WhoWas.html About Charles Darwin]}}.</ref> However, it was his [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|five-year voyage]] on {{HMS|Beagle}} from 1831 to 1836 that truly established Darwin as an eminent geologist. The observations and theories he developed during his voyage supported [[Charles Lyell]]'s [[uniformitarian|concept of gradual geological change]]. Publication of his [[The Voyage of the Beagle|journal of the voyage]] made Darwin famous as a popular author.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=210, 284–285}}.</ref>

Puzzled by the geographical distribution of wildlife and fossils he collected on the voyage, Darwin began detailed investigations and, in 1838, devised his theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=263–274}}.</ref> Although he discussed his ideas with several naturalists, he needed time for extensive research, and his geological work had priority.<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=184, 187}}</ref> He was writing up his theory in 1858 when Alfred Russel Wallace sent him an essay that described the same idea, prompting the immediate joint submission of [[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection|both their theories]] to the [[Linnean Society of London]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1=Beddall | first1=B. G. | title=Wallace, Darwin, and the Theory of Natural Selection | journal=Journal of the History of Biology | volume=1 | issue=2 | pages=261–323 | year=1968 | doi=10.1007/BF00351923 | s2cid=81107747 | df=dmy-all |issn=0022-5010}}</ref> Darwin's work established evolutionary descent with modification as the dominant scientific explanation of natural diversification.<ref name="van Wyhe 2008" /> In 1871, he examined [[human evolution]] and [[sexual selection]] in ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]'', followed by ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' (1872). His research on plants was published in a series of books, and in his final book, [[The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms|''The Formation of Vegetable Mould, through the Actions of Worms'']] (1881), he examined [[earthworm]]s and their effect on soil.

Darwin published his theory of evolution with compelling evidence in his 1859 book ''[[On the Origin of Species]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Why Evolution is True |last=Coyne |first=Jerry A. |author-link=Jerry Coyne |year=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-923084-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 17] |quote=In ''The Origin'', Darwin provided an alternative hypothesis for the development, diversification, and design of life. Much of that book presents evidence that not only supports evolution but at the same time refutes creationism. In Darwin's day, the evidence for his theories was compelling but not completely decisive. |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780199230846/page/17 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Forerunners of Darwin |last=Glass |first=Bentley |author-link=Bentley Glass |year=1959 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore, MD |isbn=978-0-8018-0222-5 |page=iv |quote=Darwin's solution is a magnificent synthesis of evidence ... a synthesis ... compelling in honesty and comprehensiveness}}.</ref> By the 1870s, the scientific community and a majority of the educated public had accepted [[evolution as fact and theory|evolution as a fact]]. However, many initially favoured [[The eclipse of Darwinism|competing explanations]] that gave only a minor role to natural selection, and it was not until the emergence of the [[modern synthesis (20th century)|modern evolutionary synthesis]] from the 1930s to the 1950s that a broad consensus developed in which natural selection was the basic mechanism of evolution.<ref name="van Wyhe 2008">{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}.</ref><ref name="Bowler 2003">{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=178–179, 338, 347}}.</ref> Darwin's scientific discovery is the unifying theory of the [[life sciences]], explaining the [[diversity of life]].

==Biography==

===Early life and education===
{{further|Charles Darwin's education|Darwin–Wedgwood family}}
Darwin was born in [[Shrewsbury]], Shropshire, on 12 February 1809, at his family's home, [[The Mount, Shrewsbury|The Mount]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Desmond |first=Adrian J. |title=Charles Darwin |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=13 September 2002 |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin |access-date=11 February 2018 |archive-date=6 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206114419/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Charles-Darwin |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/ |title=The Mount House, Shrewsbury, England (Charles Darwin) |author=John H. Wahlert |date=11 June 2001 |work=Darwin and Darwinism |publisher=[[Baruch College]] |access-date=26 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010149/http://darwin.baruch.cuny.edu/biography/shrewsbury/mount/ |archive-date=6 December 2008}}</ref> He was the fifth of six children of wealthy society doctor and financier [[Robert Darwin]] and [[Susannah Darwin]] (née Wedgwood). His grandfathers [[Erasmus Darwin]] and [[Josiah Wedgwood]] were both prominent [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionists]]. Erasmus Darwin had praised general concepts of evolution and [[common descent]] in his ''[[Zoonomia]]'' (1794), a poetic fantasy of gradual creation including undeveloped ideas anticipating concepts his grandson expanded.<ref>{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Homer W. |url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit |title=Man and His Gods |date=1952 |publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]] |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/339 339–340] |author-link=Homer W. Smith |url-access=registration}}</ref>

[[File:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Three-quarter length portrait of seated boy smiling and looking at the viewer; he has straight, mid-brown hair and wears dark clothes with a large, frilly, white collar; in his lap he holds a pot of flowering plants|A chalk drawing of the seven-year-old Darwin in 1816, with a potted plant, by [[Ellen Sharples]]. Part of [[:File:Charles and Catherine Darwin, 1816, by Sharples.jpg|a double portrait]] showing him together with his sister Catherine.]]
Both families were largely [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]], though the Wedgwoods were adopting [[Anglicanism]]. Robert Darwin, a [[Freethought#United Kingdom|freethinker]], had baby Charles [[baptism|baptised]] in November 1809 in the Anglican [[St Chad's Church, Shrewsbury]], but Charles and his siblings attended the [[Shrewsbury Unitarian Church|local Unitarian Church]] with their mother. The eight-year-old Charles already had a taste for natural history and collecting when he joined the day school run by its preacher in 1817. That July, his mother died. From September 1818, he joined his older brother [[Erasmus Alvey Darwin|Erasmus]] in attending the nearby Anglican [[Shrewsbury School]] as a [[boarding school|boarder]].<ref name="Desmond-3">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=12–15}}; {{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=21 21–25]}}.</ref>

Darwin spent the summer of 1825 as an apprentice doctor, helping his father treat the poor of Shropshire, before going to the well-regarded [[University of Edinburgh Medical School]] with his brother Erasmus in October 1825. Darwin found lectures dull and surgery distressing, so he neglected his studies.{{sfn|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=48 46–48]}} He learned [[taxidermy]] in around 40 daily hour-long sessions from [[John Edmonstone]], a freed black slave who had accompanied [[Charles Waterton]] in the South American [[rainforest]].<ref name="Darwin 1958-6">{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=53 51]}}; {{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VTNIBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA18 18–26]}}.</ref>

In Darwin's second year at the university, he joined the [[Plinian Society]], a student [[natural history|natural-history]] group featuring lively debates in which [[radicalism (historical)#Popular agitation|radical democratic]] students with [[materialism|materialistic]] views challenged orthodox religious concepts of science.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=31–34}} He assisted [[Robert Edmond Grant]]'s investigations of the anatomy and life cycle of [[marine invertebrates]] in the [[Firth of Forth]], and on 27 March 1827 presented at the Plinian his own discovery that black spores found in [[oyster]] shells were the eggs of a skate [[leech]]. One day, Grant praised [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck|Lamarck]]'s [[Lamarckism|evolutionary ideas]]. Darwin was astonished by Grant's audacity, but had recently read similar ideas in his grandfather Erasmus' journals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=72–88}}.</ref> Darwin was rather bored by [[Robert Jameson]]'s natural-history course, which covered geology{{snd}}including the debate between [[neptunism]] and [[plutonism]]. He learned the [[alpha taxonomy|classification]] of plants and assisted with work on the collections of the [[Royal Museum|University Museum]], one of the largest museums in Europe at the time.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=42–43}}.</ref>

Darwin's neglect of medical studies annoyed his father, who sent him to [[Christ's College, Cambridge]], in January 1828, to study for a Bachelor of Arts degree as the first step towards becoming an Anglican country [[parson]]. Darwin was unqualified for Cambridge's ''[[Tripos]]'' exams and was required instead to join the ordinary degree course.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=47–48, 89–91}}; {{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|2009|pp=47–48}}.</ref> He preferred [[equestrianism|riding]] and [[shooting sports|shooting]] to studying.{{sfn|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=66&itemID=F1452.1&viewtype=text 48]}}

[[File:Young-Charles-Darwin-statue-by-Anthony-Smith-(Christ's-College-Cambridge)-3.jpg|thumb|alt=Bronze statue of Darwin in 1830 clothes, seated on the arm of a wooden bench; behind him plants partly cover a stone wall, a window has white-painted wooden frames|[[Commemoration of Charles Darwin#Darwin day, and 2009 commemorations|Bicentennial]] portrait by [[Anthony Smith (sculptor)|Anthony Smith]] of Darwin as a student, in the courtyard at [[Christ's College, Cambridge]], where he had rooms<ref name="BBC News-2009">{{cite web | title=Darwin statue unveiled at college | website=BBC News | date=12 February 2009 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/7886278.stm | access-date=22 April 2022 | archive-date=16 February 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216155859/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/cambridgeshire/7886278.stm | url-status=live }}</ref>]]

During the first few months of Darwin's enrolment at Christ's College, his second cousin [[William Darwin Fox]] was still studying there. Fox impressed him with his butterfly collection, introducing Darwin to [[entomology]] and influencing him to pursue [[beetle]] collecting.<ref name="Smith-1952">{{cite book |last=Smith |first=Homer W. |url=https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit |title=Man and His Gods |date=1952 |publisher=[[Grosset & Dunlap]] |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/357 357–358] |author-link=Homer W. Smith |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="Darwin 1887">{{harvnb|Darwin|1887|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=68&itemID=F1452.1&viewtype=text 50–51]}}.</ref> He did this zealously and had some of his finds published in [[James Francis Stephens]]' ''Illustrations of British entomology'' (1829–1932).<ref name="Darwin 1887" /><ref>{{Cite web |editor-last=van Wyhe |editor-first=John |title=Darwin's insects in Stephens' Illustrations of British entomology (1829–32) |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html |url-status=dead |access-date=3 July 2020 |website=Darwin Online |archive-date=1 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190901090213/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_Stephens.html}}</ref>

Through Fox, Darwin became a close friend and follower of botany professor [[John Stevens Henslow]].<ref name="Smith-1952" /> He met other leading [[parson-naturalist]]s who saw scientific work as religious [[natural theology]], becoming known to these [[University don|dons]] as "the man who walks with Henslow". When his own exams drew near, Darwin applied himself to his studies and was delighted by the language and logic of [[William Paley]]'s ''Evidences of Christianity'' (1795).<ref name="Desmond">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=73–79, 763}}; {{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=59 57–67]}}.</ref> In his final examination in January 1831, Darwin did well, coming tenth out of 178 candidates for the ''ordinary'' degree.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=97}}.</ref>

Darwin had to stay at Cambridge until June 1831. He studied Paley's ''[[Natural Theology or Evidences of the Existence and Attributes of the Deity]]'' (first published in 1802), which made an [[teleological argument|argument for divine design in nature]], explaining [[adaptation]] as God acting through [[Physical law|laws of nature]].<ref name="von Sydow 2005">{{Harvnb|von Sydow|2005|pp=5–7}}.</ref> He read [[John Herschel]]'s new book, ''Preliminary Discourse on the Study of Natural Philosophy'' (1831), which described the highest aim of [[natural philosophy]] as understanding such laws through [[inductive reasoning]] based on observation, and [[Alexander von Humboldt]]'s ''Personal Narrative'' of scientific travels in 1799–1804.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=137-138 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> Inspired with "a burning zeal" to contribute, Darwin planned to visit [[Tenerife]] with some classmates after graduation to study natural history in the tropics. In preparation, he joined [[Adam Sedgwick]]'s geology course, then on 4 August travelled with him to spend a fortnight mapping [[strata]] in Wales.<ref name="Darwin 1958-5">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=69 67–68]}}.</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=128–129, 133–141}}.</ref>

===Survey voyage on HMS ''Beagle''===
{{further|Second voyage of HMS Beagle}}

[[File:Voyage of the Beagle-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.8|alt=Route from Plymouth, England, south to Cape Verde then southwest across the Atlantic to Bahia, Brazil, south to Rio de Janeiro, Montevideo, the Falkland Islands, round the tip of South America then north to Valparaiso and Callao. Northwest to the Galapagos Islands before sailing west across the Pacific to New Zealand, Sydney, Hobart in Tasmania, and King George's Sound in Western Australia. Northwest to the Keeling Islands, southwest to Mauritius and Cape Town, then northwest to Bahia and northeast back to Plymouth.|The round-the-world voyage of the [[HMS Beagle|''Beagle'']], 1831–1836]]

After leaving Sedgwick in Wales, Darwin spent a few days with student friends at [[Barmouth]]. He returned home on 29 August to find a letter from Henslow proposing him as a suitable (if unfinished) naturalist for a self-funded [[wikt:supernumerary|supernumerary]] place on {{HMS|Beagle}} with captain [[Robert FitzRoy]], a position for a [[gentleman]] rather than "a mere collector". The ship was to leave in four weeks on an expedition to chart the coastline of South America.<ref name="Peter Lucas-2010">{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Lucas_Lowe_Journal.html |title=The recovery of time past: Darwin at Barmouth on the eve of the Beagle |author=Peter Lucas |date=1 January 2010 |website=Darwin Online |access-date=5 December 2021 |archive-date=11 April 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411090308/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Lucas_Lowe_Journal.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-105.xml|title=Letter no. 105, Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 24 Aug 1831|website=Darwin Correspondence Project|access-date=29 December 2021|archive-date=29 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229182043/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-105.xml|url-status=live}}</ref> Robert Darwin objected to his son's planned two-year voyage, regarding it as a waste of time, but was persuaded by his brother-in-law, [[Josiah Wedgwood II]], to agree to (and fund) his son's participation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=94–97}}</ref> Darwin took care to remain in a private capacity to retain control over his collection, intending it for a major scientific institution.<ref name="Browne 1995">{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=204–210}}</ref>

After delays, the voyage began on 27 December 1831; it lasted almost five years. As FitzRoy had intended, Darwin spent most of that time on land investigating geology and making natural history collections, while HMS ''Beagle'' [[hydrography|surveyed and charted]] coasts.<ref name="van Wyhe 2008" /><ref name="Keynes 2000">{{harvnb|Keynes|2000|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1840&pageseq=12 ix–xi]}}</ref> He kept careful notes of his observations and theoretical speculations, and at intervals during the voyage his specimens were sent to Cambridge together with letters including a copy of [[The Voyage of the Beagle|his journal]] for his family.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|pp=18–21}}</ref> He had some expertise in geology, beetle collecting and dissecting marine invertebrates, but in all other areas, was a novice and ably collected specimens for expert appraisal.<ref name="Randal Keynes-2006">{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|title=Darwin's field notes on the Galapagos: 'A little world within itself'|author=Gordon Chancellor|author2=Randal Keynes|date=October 2006|publisher=[[Darwin Online]]|access-date=16 September 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901082402/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_Keynes_Galapagos.html|archive-date=1 September 2009|author2-link=Randal Keynes}}</ref> Despite suffering badly from seasickness, Darwin wrote copious notes while on board the ship. Most of his zoology notes are about marine invertebrates, starting with [[plankton]] collected during a calm spell.<ref name="Keynes 2000" /><ref name="Keynes 2001-4">{{Harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1925&viewtype=text&pageseq=53 21–22]}}</ref>

[[File:Darwin, detail from Augustus Earle (presumed) - Quarter Deck of a Man of War on Diskivery (sic) or interesting Scenes on an Interesting Voyage.jpg|thumb|180px|Darwin (right) on the ''Beagle''{{'s}} deck at [[Bahía Blanca]] in Argentina, with fossils; caricature by [[Augustus Earle]], the initial ship's artist]]

On their first stop ashore at [[Santiago, Cape Verde|St Jago]] in Cape Verde, Darwin found that a white band high in the [[volcanic rock]] cliffs included seashells. FitzRoy had given him the first volume of [[Charles Lyell]]'s ''[[Principles of Geology]]'', which set out [[uniformitarian]] concepts of land slowly rising or falling over immense periods,{{Ref label|B|II|none}} and Darwin saw things Lyell's way, theorising and thinking of writing a book on geology.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=183–190}}</ref> When they reached Brazil, Darwin was delighted by the [[Bahia coastal forests|tropical forest]],<ref>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=73 41–42]}}</ref> but detested the sight of [[Slavery in Brazil|slavery there]], and disputed this issue with FitzRoy.<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=75 73–74]}}</ref>

The survey continued to the south in [[Patagonia]]. They stopped at [[Bahía Blanca]], and in cliffs near [[Punta Alta]] Darwin made a major find of fossil bones of huge [[List of prehistoric mammals|extinct mammals]] beside modern seashells, indicating recent [[extinction]] with no signs of change in climate or catastrophe. He found bony plates like a giant version of the armour on local [[armadillo]]s. From a jaw and tooth he identified the gigantic ''[[Megatherium]]'', then from [[Georges Cuvier|Cuvier's]] description thought the armour was from this animal. The finds were shipped to England, and scientists found the fossils of great interest.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=223–225}} {{Harvnb|Darwin|1835|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1&viewtype=text&pageseq=7 7]}} {{cite web|url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-213.xml|title=Letter no. 213, Henslow, J. S. to Darwin, C. R., 31 August 1833|website=Darwin Correspondence Project|access-date=29 December 2021|archive-date=29 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211229182046/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-213.xml|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Keynes 2001">{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=138 106–109]}}</ref> In Patagonia, Darwin came to wrongly believe the territory was devoid of reptiles.<ref name="Jaksic-2022">{{Cite journal |title=Historical account and current ecological knowledge of the southernmost lizard in the world, Liolaemus magellanicus (Squamata: Liolaemidae) |journal=[[Revista Chilena de Historia Natural]] |last=Jaksic |first=Fabian M. |issue=7 |volume=95 |doi=10.1186/s40693-022-00112-y |year=2022|s2cid=252717680 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022RvCHN..95....7J }}</ref>

On rides with [[gaucho]]s into the interior to explore geology and collect more fossils, Darwin gained social, political and [[anthropology|anthropological]] insights into both native and colonial people at a time of revolution, and learnt that two types of [[rhea (bird)|rhea]] had separate but overlapping territories.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=189–192, 198}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref> Further south, he saw stepped plains of shingle and seashells as [[raised beach]]es at a series of elevations. He read Lyell's second volume and accepted its view of "centres of creation" of species, but his discoveries and theorising challenged Lyell's ideas of smooth continuity and of extinction of species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=131, 159}} {{harvnb|Herbert|1991|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A342&pageseq=16 174–179]}}</ref><ref name="Darwin Online-2">{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.8.html|title=Darwin Online: 'Hurrah Chiloe': an introduction to the Port Desire Notebook|access-date=24 October 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081204201413/http://www.darwin-online.org.uk./EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.8.html|archive-date=4 December 2008}}</ref>

Three [[Fuegians]] on board, who had been seized during the [[HMS Beagle#First voyage|first ''Beagle'' voyage]] then given Christian education in England, were returning with a missionary. Darwin found them friendly and civilised, yet at [[Tierra del Fuego]] he met "miserable, degraded savages", as different as wild from domesticated animals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1845|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=218 205–208]}}</ref> He remained convinced that, despite this diversity, all humans were interrelated with [[Monogenism|a shared origin]] and potential for improvement towards civilisation. Unlike his scientist friends, he now thought there was no unbridgeable gap between humans and animals.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=243–244, 248–250, 382–383}}</ref> A year on, the mission had been abandoned. The Fuegian they had named [[Jemmy Button]] lived like the other natives, had a wife, and had no wish to return to England.<ref>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=258 226–227]}}</ref>

[[File:HMS Beagle by Conrad Martens.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|alt=On a sea inlet surrounded by steep hills, with high snow-covered mountains in the distance, someone standing in an open canoe waves at a square-rigged sailing ship, seen from the front|As [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']] surveyed the coasts of South America, Darwin theorised about geology and the extinction of giant mammals; watercolour by the ship's artist [[Conrad Martens]], who replaced Augustus Earle, in [[Tierra del Fuego]]]]

Darwin experienced [[1835 Concepción earthquake|an earthquake in Chile]] in 1835 and saw signs that the land had just been raised, including [[mussel]]-beds stranded above high tide. High in the [[Andes]] he saw seashells, and several fossil trees that had grown on a sand beach. He theorised that as the land rose, [[island|oceanic islands]] sank, and [[coral reef]]s round them grew to form [[atoll]]s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=160–168, 182}} {{cite web | title=Letter no. 275 – Charles Darwin to Susan Elizabeth Darwin – 23 April 1835 | website=Darwin Correspondence Project | url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-275.xml | access-date=6 December 2021 | archive-date=6 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211206101229/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-275.xml | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Darwin 1958">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=100 pp. 98–99]}}</ref>

On the geologically new [[Galápagos Islands]], Darwin looked for evidence attaching wildlife to an older "centre of creation", and found [[mockingbird]]s allied to those in Chile but differing from island to island. He heard that slight variations in the shape of [[tortoise]] shells showed which island they came from, but failed to collect them, even after eating tortoises taken on board as food.<ref name="Keynes 2001-2">{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=388 356–357]}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sulloway|1982|p=19}}</ref> In Australia, the [[marsupial]] [[Potoridae|rat-kangaroo]] and the [[platypus]] seemed so unusual that Darwin thought it was almost as though two distinct Creators had been at work.<ref name="Darwin Online">{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.3.html|title=Darwin Online: Coccatoos & Crows: An introduction to the Sydney Notebook|access-date=2 January 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114015611/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/Chancellor_fieldNotebooks1.3.html|archive-date=14 January 2009}}</ref> He found the [[Indigenous Australians|Aborigines]] "good-humoured & pleasant", their numbers depleted by European settlement.<ref>{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=430 398–399].}}</ref>

FitzRoy investigated how the atolls of the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands]] had formed, and the survey supported Darwin's theorising.<ref name="Darwin 1958" /> FitzRoy began writing the official ''Narrative'' of the ''Beagle'' voyages, and after reading Darwin's diary, he proposed incorporating it into the account.<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-5">{{cite web | title=Letter no. 301, Charles Darwin to Caroline Darwin, 29 April 1836, Port Lewis, Mauritius. | website=Darwin Correspondence Project | url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-301.xml | access-date=12 February 2022 | archive-date=15 February 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220215113535/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-301.xml | url-status=live }}</ref> Darwin's ''Journal'' was eventually rewritten as a separate third volume, on geology and natural history.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=336}}</ref><ref name="Darwin 1839">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1839|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=13&itemID=F10.3&viewtype=text viii]}}</ref>

In [[Cape Town]], South Africa, Darwin and FitzRoy met John Herschel, who had recently written to Lyell praising his [[uniformitarianism]] as opening bold speculation on "that mystery of mysteries, the replacement of extinct species by others" as "a natural in contradistinction to a miraculous process".<ref name="van Wyhe 2007">{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=21 197]}}</ref>
When organising his notes as the ship sailed home, Darwin wrote that, if his growing suspicions about the mockingbirds, the tortoises and the [[Falkland Islands wolf|Falkland Islands fox]] were correct, "such facts undermine the stability of Species", then cautiously added "would" before "undermine".<ref name="Keynes 2000-2">{{Harvnb|Keynes|2000|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1840&pageseq=22 xix–xx]}} {{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref> He later wrote that such facts "seemed to me to throw some light on the origin of species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=16 p. 1]}}</ref>

Without telling Darwin, [[Extracts from Letters to Henslow|extracts from his letters to Henslow]] had been read to scientific societies, printed as a pamphlet for private distribution among members of the [[Cambridge Philosophical Society]], and reported in magazines,{{sfn|Darwin|1835|p=1}} including [[The Athenaeum (British magazine)|''The Athenaeum'']].<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-3">{{cite web | title=Letter no. 291, Caroline Darwin to Charles Darwin, 29 December [1835], [Shrewsbury] | website=Darwin Correspondence Project | url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-291.xml | access-date=19 January 2022 | archive-date=11 February 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211205926/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-291.xml | url-status=live }}</ref> Darwin first heard of this at Cape Town,<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-4">{{cite web | title=Letter no. 302, Charles Darwin to Catherine Darwin, 3 June 1836, Cape of Good Hope | website=Darwin Correspondence Project | url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-302.xml | access-date=19 January 2022 | archive-date=27 January 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127212812/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-302.xml | url-status=live }}</ref> and at [[Ascension Island]] read of Sedgwick's prediction that Darwin "will have a great name among the Naturalists of Europe".<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-2">{{cite web | title=Letter no. 288, Susan Darwin to Charles Darwin, 22 November 1835, Shrewsbury | website=Darwin Correspondence Project | url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-288.xml | access-date=19 January 2022 | archive-date=13 February 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213100832/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-288.xml | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=83 81–82].}}</ref>

===Inception of Darwin's evolutionary theory===
{{further|Inception of Darwin's theory}}
[[File:Charles Darwin by G. Richmond.png|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=Three-quarter length portrait of Darwin aged about 30, with straight brown hair receding from his high forehead and long side-whiskers, smiling quietly, in wide lapelled jacket, waistcoat and high collar with cravat|While still a young man, Darwin joined the scientific elite; portrait by [[George Richmond (painter)|George Richmond]]]]

On 2 October 1836, ''Beagle'' anchored at [[Falmouth, Cornwall|Falmouth]], Cornwall. Darwin promptly made the long coach journey to Shrewsbury to visit his home and see relatives. He then hurried to [[Cambridge]] to see Henslow, who advised him on finding available naturalists to catalogue Darwin's animal collections and to take on the botanical specimens. Darwin's father organised investments, enabling his son to be a self-funded [[gentleman scientist]], and an excited Darwin went around the London institutions being fêted and seeking experts to describe the collections. British zoologists at the time had a huge backlog of work, due to natural history collecting being encouraged throughout the British Empire, and there was a danger of specimens just being left in storage.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=195–198}}</ref>

Charles Lyell eagerly met Darwin for the first time on 29 October and soon introduced him to the up-and-coming anatomist [[Richard Owen]], who had the facilities of the [[Royal College of Surgeons of England|Royal College of Surgeons]] to work on the fossil bones collected by Darwin. Owen's surprising results included other gigantic extinct [[ground sloth]]s as well as the ''Megatherium'' Darwin had identified, a near complete skeleton of the unknown ''[[Scelidotherium]]'' and a [[hippopotamus]]-sized [[rodent]]-like skull named ''[[Toxodon]]'' resembling a giant [[capybara]]. The armour fragments were actually from ''[[Glyptodon]]'', a huge armadillo-like creature, as Darwin had initially thought.<ref name="Keynes 2001" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Owen|1840|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=26 16], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=83 73], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F9.1&pageseq=116 106]}} {{Harvnb|Eldredge|2006}}</ref> These extinct creatures were related to living species in South America.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=201–205}} {{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=349–350}}</ref>

In mid-December, Darwin took lodgings in Cambridge to arrange expert classification of his collections, and prepare his own research for publication. Questions of how to combine his diary into the ''Narrative'' were resolved at the end of the month when FitzRoy accepted [[William Broderip|Broderip's]] advice to make it a separate volume, and Darwin began work on his ''Journal and Remarks''.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=345–347}}{{sfn|Keynes|2001|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=20 xviii–xix]}}

Darwin's first paper showed that the South American landmass was slowly rising, and with Lyell's enthusiastic backing he read it to the [[Geological Society of London]] on 4 January 1837. On the same day, he presented his mammal and bird specimens to the [[Zoological Society of London|Zoological Society]]. The ornithologist [[John Gould]] soon announced that the Galápagos birds that Darwin had thought a mixture of [[Common blackbird|blackbirds]], "[[Grosbeak|gros-beaks]]" and [[finch]]es, were, in fact, twelve [[Darwin's finches|separate species of finches]]. On 17 February, Darwin was elected to the Council of the Geological Society, and Lyell's presidential address presented Owen's findings on Darwin's fossils, stressing geographical continuity of species as supporting his uniformitarian ideas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=207–210}} {{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=20–23}}</ref>

[[File:Darwin Tree 1837.png|right|thumb|alt=A page of hand-written notes, with a sketch of branching lines|In mid-July 1837 Darwin started his "B" notebook on ''Transmutation of Species'', and on page 36 wrote "I think" above his first [[tree of life (biology)|evolutionary tree]]]]
Early in March, Darwin moved to London to be near this work, joining Lyell's social circle of scientists and experts such as [[Charles Babbage]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 346 – Darwin, C. R. to Darwin, C. S., 27 Feb 1837|access-date=19 December 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192201/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-346.html|archive-date=29 June 2009}} proposes a move on Friday 3 March 1837, Darwin's Journal ({{harvnb|Darwin|2006|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=22&itemID=CUL-DAR158.1-76&viewtype=text 12 verso]}}) backdated from August 1838 gives a date of 6 March 1837</ref> who described God as a programmer of laws. Darwin stayed with his [[freethought|freethinking]] brother Erasmus, part of this [[British Whig Party|Whig]] circle and a close friend of the writer [[Harriet Martineau]], who promoted the [[Malthusianism]] that underpinned the controversial Whig [[Poor Law Amendment Act 1834|Poor Law reforms]] to stop welfare from causing overpopulation and more poverty. As a Unitarian, she welcomed the [[radicalism (historical)|radical]] implications of [[transmutation of species]], promoted by Grant and younger surgeons influenced by [[Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire|Geoffroy]]. Transmutation was anathema to Anglicans defending social order,<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=201, 212–221}}</ref> but reputable scientists openly discussed the subject, and there was wide interest in John Herschel's letter praising Lyell's approach as a way to find a [[Scientific law|natural cause]] of the origin of new species.<ref name="van Wyhe 2007" />

Gould met Darwin and told him that the Galápagos mockingbirds from different islands were separate species, not just varieties, and what Darwin had thought was a "[[wren]]" was [[Warbler-finch|in the finch group]]. Darwin had not labelled the finches by island, but from the notes of others on the ship, including FitzRoy, he allocated species to islands.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sulloway|1982|pp=9, 20–23}}</ref> The two rheas were distinct species, and on 14 March Darwin announced how their distribution changed going southwards.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=360}} {{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1643&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|title=Darwin, C. R. (Read 14 March 1837) Notes on Rhea americana and Rhea darwinii, ''Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London''|access-date=17 December 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090210085710/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1643&viewtype=text&pageseq=1|archive-date=10 February 2009}}</ref>

By mid-March 1837, barely six months after his return to England, Darwin was speculating in his ''Red Notebook'' on the possibility that "one species does change into another" to explain the geographical distribution of living species such as the rheas, and extinct ones such as the strange extinct mammal ''[[Macrauchenia]]'', which resembled a giant [[guanaco]], a llama relative. Around mid-July, he recorded in his "B" notebook his thoughts on lifespan and variation across generations{{snd}}explaining the variations he had observed in [[Galápagos tortoise]]s, mockingbirds, and rheas. He sketched branching descent, and then a [[genealogical]] branching of a single [[tree of life (science)|evolutionary tree]], in which "It is absurd to talk of one animal being higher than another", thereby discarding Lamarck's idea of independent [[lineage (evolution)|lineages]] progressing to higher forms.<ref>{{harvnb|Herbert|1980|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1583e&pageseq=9 7–10]}} {{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=44}} {{harvnb|Darwin|1837|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&pageseq=1 1–13, 26, 36, 74]}} {{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=229–232}}</ref>

===Overwork, illness, and marriage===
{{further|Health of Charles Darwin}}

While developing this intensive study of transmutation, Darwin became mired in more work. Still rewriting his ''Journal'', he took on editing and publishing the expert reports on his collections, and with Henslow's help obtained a Treasury grant of £1,000 to sponsor this multi-volume ''[[Zoology of the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle]]'', a sum equivalent to about £115,000 in 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=£1,000 in 1832 → 2021 {{!}} UK Inflation Calculator |url=https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1832 |access-date=8 August 2021 |website=www.in2013dollars.com |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815234035/https://www.in2013dollars.com/uk/inflation/1832 |url-status=live }}</ref> He stretched the funding to include his planned books on geology, and agreed to unrealistic dates with the publisher.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=367–369}}</ref> As the [[Victorian era]] began, Darwin pressed on with writing his ''Journal'', and in August 1837 began correcting [[Galley proof|printer's proofs]].<ref name="Keynes 2001-3">{{harvnb|Keynes|2001|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1925&pageseq=21 xix]}}</ref>

As Darwin worked under pressure, his health suffered. On 20 September, he had "an uncomfortable [[palpitations|palpitation]] of the heart", so his doctors urged him to "knock off all work" and live in the country for a few weeks. After visiting Shrewsbury, he joined his Wedgwood relatives at [[Maer Hall]], Staffordshire, but found them too eager for tales of his travels to give him much rest. His charming, intelligent, and cultured cousin [[Emma Darwin|Emma Wedgwood]], nine months older than Darwin, was nursing his invalid aunt. His uncle Josiah pointed out an area of ground where cinders had disappeared under [[loam]] and suggested that this might have been the work of [[earthworm]]s, inspiring "a new & important theory" on their role in [[pedogenesis|soil formation]], which Darwin presented at the Geological Society on 1 November 1837.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=233–234}} {{cite web |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-404.html |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 404 – Buckland, William to Geological Society of London, 9 Mar 1838 |access-date=23 December 2008 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090629192234/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-404.html |archive-date=29 June 2009}}</ref> His ''Journal'' was printed and ready for publication by the end of February 1838, as was the first volume of the ''Narrative'', but FitzRoy was still working hard to finish his own volume.<ref name="Keynes 2001-3" />

[[William Whewell]] pushed Darwin to take on the duties of Secretary of the Geological Society. After initially declining the work, he accepted the post in March 1838.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=233–236}}.</ref> Despite the grind of writing and editing the ''Beagle'' reports, Darwin made remarkable progress on transmutation, taking every opportunity to question expert naturalists and, unconventionally, people with practical experience in [[selective breeding]] such as farmers and [[pigeon keeping|pigeon fanciers]].<ref name="van Wyhe 2008" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=241–244, 426}}</ref> Over time, his research drew on information from his relatives and children, the family butler, neighbours, colonists and former shipmates.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|1995|p=xii}}</ref> He included mankind in his speculations from the outset, and on seeing an [[orangutan]] in the zoo on 28 March 1838 noted its childlike behaviour.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=241–244}}</ref>

The strain took a toll, and by June he was being laid up for days on end with stomach problems, headaches and heart symptoms. For the rest of his life, he was repeatedly incapacitated with episodes of stomach pains, vomiting, severe [[boil]]s, palpitations, trembling and other symptoms, particularly during times of stress, such as attending meetings or making social visits. The cause of [[Charles Darwin's illness|Darwin's illness]] remained unknown, and attempts at treatment had only ephemeral success.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=252, 476, 531}} {{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=119 115]}}</ref>

On 23 June, he took a break and went "geologising" in Scotland. He visited [[Glen Roy]] in glorious weather to see the parallel "roads" cut into the hillsides at three heights. He later published his view that these were marine-raised beaches, but then had to accept that they were shorelines of a [[proglacial lake]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=254}} {{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=377–378}} {{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=86 84]}}</ref>

[[File:Emma Darwin.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Three-quarter length portrait of woman aged about 30, with dark hair in centre parting straight on top, then falling in curls on each side; she smiles pleasantly and is wearing an open-necked blouse with a large shawl pulled over her arms|Darwin chose to marry his cousin, [[Emma Wedgwood]]]]
Fully recuperated, he returned to Shrewsbury in July 1838. Used to jotting down daily notes on animal breeding, he scrawled rambling thoughts about marriage, career and prospects on two scraps of paper, one with columns headed ''"Marry"'' and ''"Not Marry"''. Advantages under "Marry" included "constant companion and a friend in old age ... better than a dog anyhow", against points such as "less money for books" and "terrible loss of time".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=238 232–233]}}</ref> Having decided in favour of marriage, he discussed it with his father, then went to visit his cousin Emma on 29 July. At this time he did not get around to proposing, but against his father's advice, he mentioned his ideas on transmutation.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=256–259}}</ref>
He married Emma on 29 January 1839 and they were the parents of ten children, seven of whom survived to adulthood.

===Malthus and natural selection===

Continuing his research in London, Darwin's wide reading now included the sixth edition of [[Malthus]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Principle of Population]]''. On 28 September 1838, he noted its assertion that human "population, when unchecked, goes on doubling itself every twenty-five years, or increases in a geometrical ratio", a [[geometric progression]] so that population soon exceeds food supply in what is known as a [[Malthusian catastrophe]]. Darwin was well-prepared to compare this to [[Augustin Pyramus de Candolle|Augustin de Candolle]]'s "warring of the species" of plants and the struggle for existence among wildlife, explaining how numbers of a species kept roughly stable. As species always breed beyond available resources, favourable variations would make organisms better at surviving and passing the variations on to their offspring, while unfavourable variations would be lost. He wrote that the "final cause of all this wedging, must be to sort out proper structure, & adapt it to changes", so that "One may say there is a force like a hundred thousand wedges trying force into every kind of adapted structure into the gaps of in the economy of nature, or rather forming gaps by thrusting out weaker ones."<ref name="van Wyhe 2008" /><ref name="Darwin transmutation notebook D pp">{{cite web | title=Darwin transmutation notebook D pp. 134e–135e | url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | access-date=4 June 2012 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718105154/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR123.-&pageseq=112 | archive-date=18 July 2012 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> This would result in the formation of new species.<ref name="van Wyhe 2008" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=264–265}} {{Harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=385–388}} {{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1556&viewtype=text&pageseq=39 7]}}</ref> As he later wrote in his ''[[The Autobiography of Charles Darwin|Autobiography]]'':

{{Blockquote|In October 1838, that is, fifteen months after I had begun my systematic enquiry, I happened to read for amusement Malthus on Population, and being well prepared to appreciate the struggle for existence which everywhere goes on from long-continued observation of the habits of animals and plants, it at once struck me that under these circumstances favourable variations would tend to be preserved, and unfavourable ones to be destroyed. The result of this would be the formation of new species. Here, then, I had at last got a theory by which to work...<ref name="Darwin 1958-2">{{harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=124 120]}}</ref>}}

By mid-December, Darwin saw a similarity between farmers picking the best stock in selective breeding, and a Malthusian Nature selecting from chance variants so that "every part of newly acquired structure is fully practical and perfected",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=63 |title=Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 75 |access-date=17 March 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628082830/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=63 |archive-date=28 June 2009 }}</ref> thinking this comparison "a beautiful part of my theory".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=61|title=Darwin transmutation notebook E p. 71|access-date=17 March 2009|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628080656/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=CUL-DAR124.-&pageseq=61|archive-date=28 June 2009}}</ref> He later called his theory [[natural selection]], an analogy with what he termed the "artificial selection" of selective breeding.<ref name="van Wyhe 2008" />

On 11 November, he returned to Maer and proposed to Emma, once more telling her his ideas. She accepted, then in exchanges of loving letters she showed how she valued his openness in sharing their differences, while expressing her strong Unitarian beliefs and concerns that his honest doubts might separate them in the afterlife.<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Belief: historical essay|access-date=25 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090225124103/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/130/125/ |archive-date=25 February 2009 }}</ref> While he was house-hunting in London, bouts of illness continued and Emma wrote urging him to get some rest, almost prophetically remarking "So don't be ill any more my dear Charley till I can be with you to nurse you." He found what they called "Macaw Cottage" (because of its gaudy interiors) in [[Gower Street (London)|Gower Street]], then moved his "museum" in over Christmas. On 24 January 1839, Darwin was [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1839|elected a Fellow of the Royal Society]] (FRS).<ref name="catalogues.royalsociety.org-2015">{{cite web | title=Search Results: Record – Darwin; Charles Robert | website=The Royal Society Collections Catalogues | date=20 June 2015 | url=https://catalogues.royalsociety.org/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Persons&id=NA8196&pos=1 | access-date=2 December 2021 | archive-date=2 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202200044/https://catalogues.royalsociety.org/CalmView/Record.aspx?src=CalmView.Persons&id=NA8196&pos=1 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=272–279}}</ref>

On 29 January, Darwin and Emma Wedgwood were married at Maer in an Anglican ceremony arranged to suit the Unitarians, then immediately caught the train to London and their new home.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=279}}</ref>

===Geology books, barnacles, evolutionary research===
{{further|Development of Darwin's theory}}

[[File:Charles-Darwin-and-William-Darwin,-1842.png|thumb|left|alt=Darwin in his thirties, with his son dressed in a frock sitting on his knee|Darwin in 1842 with his eldest son, [[William Erasmus Darwin]]]]

Darwin now had the framework of his theory of natural selection "by which to work",<ref name="Darwin 1958-2" /> as his "prime hobby".<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-6">{{cite news |url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 419 – Darwin, C. R. to Fox, W. D., (15 June 1838) |newspaper=Darwin Correspondence Project |access-date=8 February 2008 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070904124133/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-419.html |archive-date=4 September 2007}}</ref> His research included extensive experimental selective breeding of plants and animals, finding evidence that species were not fixed and investigating many detailed ideas to refine and substantiate his theory.<ref name="van Wyhe 2008" /> For fifteen years this work was in the background to his main occupation of writing on geology and publishing expert reports on the ''Beagle'' collections, in particular, the [[barnacle]]s.<ref name="van Wyhe 2007-2">{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=10 186–192]}}</ref>

The impetus of Darwin's barnacle research came from a collection of a barnacle colony from Chile in 1835, which he dubbed [[Mr. Arthrobalanus]]. His confusion over the relationship of this species (''Cryptophialus minutus'') to other barnacles caused him to fixate on the systematics of the taxa. He wrote his first examination of the species in 1846, but did not formally describe it until 1854.<ref name="buch">{{cite journal |last1=Buchanan |first1=Roderick D. |title=Darwin's "Mr. Arthrobalanus": Sexual Differentiation, Evolutionary Destiny and the Expert Eye of the Beholder |journal=Journal of the History of Biology |date=May 2017 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=315–355 |doi=10.1007/s10739-016-9444-9 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27098777/ |access-date=3 September 2024 |issn=1573-0387}}</ref>

FitzRoy's long delayed ''Narrative'' was published in May 1839. Darwin's ''Journal and Remarks'' got good reviews as the third volume, and on 15 August it was published on its own. Early in 1842, Darwin wrote about his ideas to Charles Lyell, who noted that his ally "denies seeing a beginning to each crop of species".<ref name="Darwin 1839" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=284–285, 292}}</ref>

Darwin's book ''[[The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs]]'' on his theory of atoll formation was published in May 1842 after more than three years of work, and he then wrote his first "pencil sketch" of his theory of natural selection.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=292–293}} {{Harvnb|Darwin|1842|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1556&pageseq=18 xvi–xvii]}}</ref> To escape the pressures of London, the family moved to rural [[Down House]] in Kent in September.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=118 114]}}</ref> On 11 January 1844, Darwin mentioned his theorising to the botanist [[Joseph Dalton Hooker]], writing with melodramatic humour "it is like confessing a murder".<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=7 183–184]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 729 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (11 January 1844)|access-date=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307235150/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-729.html#back-mark-729.f6|archive-date=7 March 2008}}</ref> Hooker replied, "There may, in my opinion, have been a series of productions on different spots, & also a gradual change of species. I shall be delighted to hear how you think that this change may have taken place, as no presently conceived opinions satisfy me on the subject."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 734 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., 29 January 1844|access-date=8 February 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226141303/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-734.html|archive-date=26 February 2009}}</ref>

[[File:Darwins Thinking Path.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|right|alt=Path covered in sandy gravel winding through open woodland, with plants and shrubs growing on each side of the path|Darwin's "sandwalk" at [[Down House]] in Kent was his usual "thinking path"<ref name="Darwin Online-3">{{cite web | title=Charles Darwin: a life in pictures, The Sand Walk near Down House, Darwin's thinking path | website=Darwin Online | url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/life19.html | access-date=1 October 2022 | archive-date=1 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001173155/http://darwin-online.org.uk/life19.html | url-status=live }}</ref>]]

By July, Darwin had expanded his "sketch" into a 230-page "Essay", to be expanded with his research results if he died prematurely.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|p=188}}</ref> In November, the anonymously published sensational best-seller ''[[Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation]]'' brought wide interest in transmutation. Darwin scorned its amateurish geology and zoology, but carefully reviewed his own arguments. Controversy erupted, and it continued to sell well despite contemptuous dismissal by scientists.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=461–465}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 814 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., (7 Jan 1845)|access-date=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084645/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-814.html#back-mark-814.f5|archive-date=5 December 2008}}</ref>

Darwin completed his third geological book in 1846. He now renewed a fascination and expertise in marine invertebrates, dating back to his student days with Grant, by dissecting and classifying the barnacles he had collected on the voyage, enjoying observing beautiful structures and thinking about comparisons with allied structures.<ref>{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2007|pp=190–191}}</ref> In 1847, Hooker read the "Essay" and sent notes that provided Darwin with the calm critical feedback that he needed, but would not commit himself and questioned Darwin's opposition to continuing acts of [[creation myth|creation]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=320–323, 339–348}}</ref>

In an attempt to improve his chronic ill health, Darwin went in 1849 to Dr. [[James Manby Gully|James Gully]]'s [[Great Malvern|Malvern]] spa and was surprised to find some benefit from [[hydrotherapy]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 1236 – Darwin, C. R. to Hooker, J. D., 28 Mar 1849|access-date=24 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081207005457/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-1236.html|archive-date=7 December 2008}}</ref> Then, in 1851, his treasured daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] fell ill, reawakening his fears that his illness might be hereditary. She died the same year after a long series of crises.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|1995|pp=498–501}}</ref>

In eight years of work on barnacles, Darwin's theory helped him to find "[[homology (biology)|homologies]]" showing that slightly changed body parts served different functions to meet new conditions, and in some [[genus|genera]] he found minute males [[parasitism|parasitic]] on [[hermaphrodite]]s, showing an [[Androdioecy|intermediate stage]] in evolution of [[Gonochorism|distinct sexes]].<ref name="Darwin 1958-3">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=121 117–118]}}</ref> In 1853, it earned him the [[Royal Society]]'s Royal Medal, and it made his reputation as a [[biologist]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=383–387}}</ref> Upon the conclusion of his research, Darwin declared "I hate a barnacle as no man ever did before."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bromham |first=Lindell |date=1 October 2020 |title=Comparability in evolutionary biology: The case of Darwin's barnacles |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/lingty-2020-2056/html?lang=en |journal=Linguistic Typology |language=en |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=427–463 |doi=10.1515/lingty-2020-2056 |issn=1613-415X |s2cid=222319487 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1885/274303}}</ref>{{sfn|van Wyhe|2007}} In 1854, he became a Fellow of the [[Linnean Society of London]], gaining postal access to its library.<ref>{{harvnb|Freeman|2007|pp=107, 109}}</ref> He began a major reassessment of his theory of species, and in November realised that divergence in the character of descendants could be explained by them becoming adapted to "diversified places in the economy of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=419–420}}</ref>

===Publication of the theory of natural selection===
{{further|Publication of Darwin's theory}}

[[File:Charles Darwin by Maull and Polyblank, 1855-crop.png|thumb|alt=Studio photo showing Darwin's characteristic large forehead and bushy eyebrows with deep set eyes, pug nose and mouth set in a determined look; he is bald on top, with dark hair and long side whiskers but no beard or moustache|Darwin aged 46 in 1855, by then working towards publication of his theory of [[natural selection]]. He wrote to [[Joseph Dalton Hooker|Joseph Hooker]] about this portrait, "if I really have as bad an expression, as my photograph gives me, how I can have one single friend is surprising."<ref>[http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_MaullandPolyblankPhoto.html Darwin Online: Photograph of Charles Darwin by Maull and Polyblank for the Literary and Scientific Portrait Club (1855)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107045842/http://darwin-online.org.uk/EditorialIntroductions/vanWyhe_MaullandPolyblankPhoto.html |date=7 January 2012 }}, John van Wyhe, December 2006</ref>]]

By the start of 1856, Darwin was investigating whether eggs and [[seed]]s could survive travel across seawater to spread species across oceans. Hooker increasingly doubted the traditional view that species were fixed, but their young friend [[Thomas Henry Huxley]] was still firmly against the transmutation of species. Lyell was intrigued by Darwin's speculations without realising their extent. When he read a paper by [[Alfred Russel Wallace]], "On the Law which has Regulated the Introduction of New Species", he saw similarities with Darwin's thoughts and urged him to publish to establish precedence.<ref name="Desmond-2">{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=412–441, 457–458, 462–463}} {{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | pp=283–284, 290–292, 295}}</ref>

Though Darwin saw no threat, on 14 May 1856 he began writing a short paper. Finding answers to difficult questions held him up repeatedly, and he expanded his plans to a "big book on species" titled ''[[Natural Selection (manuscript)|Natural Selection]]'', which was to include his "note on Man". He continued his research, [[Correspondence of Charles Darwin|obtaining information]] and specimens from naturalists worldwide, including Wallace who was working in [[Borneo]].<ref name="Desmond-2" />

In mid-1857, he added a section heading; "Theory applied to Races of Man", but did not add text on this topic. On 5 September 1857, Darwin sent the American botanist [[Asa Gray]] a detailed outline of his ideas, including an abstract of ''Natural Selection'', which omitted [[human evolution|human origins]] and [[sexual selection]]. In December, Darwin received a letter from Wallace asking if the book would examine human origins. He responded that he would avoid that subject, "so surrounded with prejudices", while encouraging Wallace's theorising and adding that "I go much further than you."<ref name="Desmond-2" />

Darwin's book was only partly written when, on 18 June 1858, he received a paper from Wallace describing natural selection. Shocked that he had been "forestalled", Darwin sent it on that day to Lyell, as requested by Wallace,<ref>Ball, P. (2011). Shipping timetables debunk Darwin plagiarism accusations: Evidence challenges claims that Charles Darwin stole ideas from Alfred Russel Wallace. Nature. [http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222191430/http://www.nature.com/news/shipping-timetables-debunk-darwin-plagiarism-accusations-1.9613 |date=22 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01808.x|title=A new theory to explain the receipt of Wallace's Ternate Essay by Darwin in 1858|journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society|volume=105|pages=249–252|year=2012|last1=van Wyhe|first1=John|last2=Rookmaaker|first2=Kees|doi-access=free}}</ref> and although Wallace had not asked for publication, Darwin suggested he would send it to any journal that Wallace chose. His family was in crisis, with children in the village dying of [[scarlet fever]], and he put matters in the hands of his friends. After some discussion, with no reliable way of involving Wallace, Lyell and Hooker decided on a joint presentation at the Linnean Society on 1 July of ''[[On the Tendency of Species to form Varieties; and on the Perpetuation of Varieties and Species by Natural Means of Selection]]''. On the evening of 28 June, Darwin's baby son died of scarlet fever after almost a week of severe illness, and he was too distraught to attend.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=466–470}}</ref>

There was little immediate attention to this announcement of the theory; the president of the Linnean Society remarked in May 1859 that the year had not been marked by any revolutionary discoveries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=40–42, 48–49}}</ref> Only one review rankled enough for Darwin to recall it later; Professor [[Samuel Haughton]] of Dublin claimed that "all that was new in them was false, and what was true was old".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=text&pageseq=126 122]}}</ref> Darwin struggled for thirteen months to produce an abstract of his "big book", suffering from ill health but getting constant encouragement from his scientific friends. Lyell arranged to have it published by [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=374–474}}</ref>

''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' proved unexpectedly popular, with the entire stock of 1,250 copies oversubscribed when it went on sale to booksellers on 22 November 1859.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=477}}</ref> In the book, Darwin set out "one long argument" of detailed observations, inferences and consideration of anticipated objections.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=477 p. 459]}}</ref> In making the case for common descent, he included evidence of homologies between humans and other mammals.{{sfn|van Wyhe|2008}}{{Ref label|C|III|none}} Having outlined sexual selection, he hinted that it could explain differences between [[Race (human categorization)|human races]].<ref name="Darwin 1859-2">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=217&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 199]}} {{harvnb | Darwin |Costa | 2009 | p=199}} {{harvnb | Desmond |Moore | 2009 | p=310}}</ref>{{Ref label|D|IV|1}} He avoided explicit discussion of human origins, but implied the significance of his work with the sentence; "Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."<ref name="Darwin 1859">{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F373&pageseq=506 488]}} {{harvnb | Darwin |Costa | 2009 | pp=199, 488}} {{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}}</ref>{{Ref label|D|IV|2}} His theory is simply stated in the introduction:
{{blockquote|As many more individuals of each species are born than can possibly survive; and as, consequently, there is a frequently recurring struggle for existence, it follows that any being, if it vary however slightly in any manner profitable to itself, under the complex and sometimes varying conditions of life, will have a better chance of surviving, and thus be ''naturally selected''. From the strong principle of inheritance, any selected variety will tend to propagate its new and modified form.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=20 p. 5]}}</ref>}}

At the end of the book he concluded that:
{{blockquote|There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being, evolved.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1859|loc=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=508 p. 492]}}</ref>}}

The last word was the only variant of "evolved" in the first five editions of the book. "[[Evolutionism]]" at that time was associated with other concepts, most commonly with [[Prenatal development (biology)|embryological development]]. Darwin first used the word [[evolution]] in ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' in 1871, before adding it in 1872 to the 6th edition of ''The Origin of Species''.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|p=59}}, {{harvnb|Freeman|1977|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=80&itemID=A1&viewtype=text 79–80]}}</ref>

===Responses to publication===
{{further|Reactions to On the Origin of Species}}

[[File:Charles Darwin by Julia Margaret Cameron, c. 1868.jpg|thumb|alt=Three-quarter length portrait of sixty-year-old man, balding, with white hair and long white bushy beard, with heavy eyebrows shading his eyes looking thoughtfully into the distance, wearing a wide lapelled jacket|During the Darwin family's 1868 holiday in her [[Isle of Wight]] cottage, [[Julia Margaret Cameron]] took portraits showing the bushy beard Darwin grew between 1862 and 1866]]
[[File:Editorial cartoon depicting Charles Darwin as an ape (1871).jpg|thumb|alt=White bearded head of Darwin with the body of a crouching ape.|An 1871 caricature following publication of ''[[The Descent of Man]]'' was typical of many showing Darwin with an [[ape]] body, identifying him in popular culture as the leading author of evolutionary theory<ref name="Browne 2002-2" />]]

The book aroused international interest, with less controversy than had greeted the popular and less scientific ''Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation''.<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=48}}</ref> Though Darwin's illness kept him away from the public debates, he eagerly scrutinised the scientific response, commenting on press cuttings, reviews, articles, satires and caricatures, and corresponded on it with colleagues worldwide.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=103–104, 379}}</ref> The book did not explicitly discuss human origins,<ref name="Darwin 1859" />{{Ref label|D|IV|3}} but included a number of hints about the animal ancestry of humans from which the inference could be made.<ref>{{harvnb|Radick|2013|pp=174–175}} {{harvnb|Huxley|Kettlewell|1965|p=88}}</ref>

The first review asked, "If a monkey has become a man – what may not a man become?" It said this should be left to theologians as being too dangerous for ordinary readers.<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|p=87}} {{harvnb|Leifchild|1859}}</ref> Among early favourable responses, Huxley's reviews swiped at [[Richard Owen]], leader of the scientific establishment which Huxley was trying to overthrow.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=477–491}}</ref>

In April, Owen's review attacked Darwin's friends and condescendingly dismissed his ideas, angering Darwin,<ref>{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=110–112}}</ref> but Owen and others began to promote ideas of supernaturally guided evolution. [[Patrick Matthew]] drew attention to his 1831 book which had a brief appendix suggesting a concept of natural selection leading to new species, but he had not developed the idea.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|pp=158, 186}}</ref>

The [[Church of England]]'s response was mixed. Darwin's old Cambridge tutors Sedgwick and Henslow dismissed the ideas, but [[liberal Christianity|liberal clergymen]] interpreted natural selection as an instrument of God's design, with the cleric [[Charles Kingsley]] seeing it as "just as noble a conception of Deity".<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-2007">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/|title=Darwin and design: historical essay|year=2007|publisher=Darwin Correspondence Project|access-date=17 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090615191012/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/content/view/110/104/ |archive-date=15 June 2009}}</ref> In 1860, the publication of ''[[Essays and Reviews]]'' by seven liberal Anglican theologians diverted [[clergy|clerical]] attention from Darwin. Its ideas, including [[higher criticism]], were attacked by church authorities as [[heresy]]. In it, [[Baden Powell (mathematician)|Baden Powell]] argued that [[miracle]]s broke God's laws, so belief in them was [[atheism|atheistic]], and praised "Mr Darwin's masterly volume [supporting] the grand principle of the self-evolving powers of nature".<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=487–488, 500}}</ref>

Asa Gray discussed [[teleology]] with Darwin, who imported and distributed Gray's pamphlet on [[theistic evolution]], ''Natural Selection is not inconsistent with natural theology''.<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-2007" /><ref name="Miles 2001">{{Harvnb|Miles|2001}}</ref> The most famous confrontation was at the public [[1860 Oxford evolution debate]] during a meeting of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]], where the [[Bishop of Oxford]] [[Samuel Wilberforce]], though not opposed to transmutation of species, argued against Darwin's explanation and human descent from apes. Joseph Hooker argued strongly for Darwin, and Thomas Huxley's legendary retort, that he would rather be descended from an ape than a man who misused his gifts, came to symbolise a triumph of science over religion.<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-2007" /><ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=185}}</ref>

Even Darwin's close friends Gray, Hooker, Huxley and Lyell still expressed various reservations but gave strong support, as did many others, particularly younger naturalists. Gray and Lyell sought reconciliation with faith, while Huxley portrayed a polarisation between religion and science. He campaigned pugnaciously against the authority of the clergy in education,<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-2007" /> aiming to overturn the dominance of clergymen and aristocratic amateurs under Owen in favour of a new generation of professional scientists. Owen's claim that brain anatomy proved humans to be a separate [[order (biology)|biological order]] from apes was shown to be false by Huxley in a long-running dispute parodied by Kingsley as the "[[Great Hippocampus Question]]", and discredited Owen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=156–159}}</ref>
In response to objections that the [[abiogenesis|origin of life]] was unexplained, Darwin pointed to acceptance of [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|Newton's law]] even though the cause of gravity was unknown.<ref name="National University of Singapore News-2022">{{cite web | title=Science ahead of its time: Secret of 157-year old Darwin manuscript | website=[[National University of Singapore]] News | date=24 November 2022 | url=https://news.nus.edu.sg/secret-of-157-year-old-darwin-manuscript/ | access-date=25 November 2022 | archive-date=25 November 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125100051/https://news.nus.edu.sg/secret-of-157-year-old-darwin-manuscript/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Despite criticisms and reservations related to this topic, he nevertheless proposed a prescient idea in an 1871 letter to Hooker in which he suggested the origin of life may have occurred in a "[[warm little pond]]".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Peretó |first1=Juli |last2=Bada |first2=Jeffrey L. |last3=Lazcano |first3=Antonio |date=1 October 2009 |title=Charles Darwin and the Origin of Life |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11084-009-9172-7 |journal=Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres |language=en |volume=39 |issue=5 |pages=395–406 |doi=10.1007/s11084-009-9172-7 |issn=1573-0875 |pmc=2745620 |pmid=19633921 |access-date=8 December 2023 |archive-date=18 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218114111/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11084-009-9172-7 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Darwinism]] became a movement covering a wide range of evolutionary ideas. In 1863, Lyell's ''[[Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man]]'' popularised prehistory, though his caution on evolution disappointed Darwin. Weeks later Huxley's ''[[Evidence as to Man's Place in Nature]]'' showed that anatomically, humans are apes, then ''[[The Naturalist on the River Amazons]]'' by [[Henry Walter Bates]] provided empirical evidence of natural selection.<ref name="Browne 2002">{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=217–226}}</ref> Lobbying brought Darwin Britain's highest scientific honour, the Royal Society's [[Copley Medal]], awarded on 3 November 1864.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4652.html|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4652 – Falconer, Hugh to Darwin, C. R., 3 Nov (1864)|access-date=1 December 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084616/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4652.html|archive-date=5 December 2008}}</ref> That day, Huxley held the first meeting of what became the influential "[[X Club]]" devoted to "science, pure and free, untrammelled by religious dogmas".<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project-7">{{cite web|url=http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4807.html#mark-4807.f8|title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Letter 4807 – Hooker, J. D. to Darwin, C. R., (7–8 Apr 1865)|access-date=1 December 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205084621/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-4807.html#mark-4807.f8|archive-date=5 December 2008}}</ref> By the end of the decade, most scientists agreed that evolution occurred, but only a minority supported Darwin's view that the chief mechanism was natural selection.<ref>{{harvnb|Bowler|2003|p=196}}</ref>

The ''Origin of Species'' was translated into many languages, becoming a staple scientific text attracting thoughtful attention from all walks of life, including the "working men" who flocked to Huxley's lectures.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=507–508}} {{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=128–129, 138}}</ref> Darwin's theory resonated with various movements at the time{{Ref label|E|V|none}} and became a key fixture of popular culture.{{Ref label|F|VI|none}} Cartoonists parodied animal ancestry in an old tradition of showing humans with animal traits, and in Britain, these droll images served to popularise Darwin's theory in an unthreatening way. While ill in 1862, Darwin began growing a beard, and when he reappeared in public in 1866, caricatures of him as an [[ape]] helped to identify all forms of evolutionism with Darwinism.<ref name="Browne 2002-2">{{harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=373–379}}</ref>

===''Descent of Man'', sexual selection, and botany===
{{further|Darwin from Orchids to Variation|Darwin from Descent of Man to Emotions|Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms|label 1=Orchids to Variation|label 2=Descent of Man to Emotions|label 3=Insectivorous Plants to Worms}}

[[File:1878 Darwin photo by Leonard from Woodall 1884.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Head and shoulders portrait, increasingly bald with rather uneven bushy white eyebrows and beard, his wrinkled forehead suggesting a puzzled frown|By 1878, an increasingly famous Darwin had suffered years of illness]]

Despite repeated bouts of illness during the last twenty-two years of his life,{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2007|pp=73–75}} Darwin's work continued. Having published ''On the Origin of Species'' as an [[abstract (summary)|abstract]] of his theory, he pressed on with experiments, research, and writing of his "[[Natural Selection (manuscript)|big book]]". He covered human descent from earlier animals, including the evolution of society and of mental abilities, as well as explaining decorative beauty in [[wildlife]] and diversifying into innovative plant studies.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|Browne|2007|pp=78–83, 86–90}}

Enquiries about insect [[pollination]] led in 1861 to novel studies of wild [[orchid]]s, showing adaptation of their flowers to [[Pollination syndrome|attract specific moths]] to each species and ensure [[heterosis|cross fertilisation]]. In 1862 ''[[Fertilisation of Orchids]]'' gave his first detailed demonstration of the power of natural selection to explain complex ecological relationships, making testable predictions. As his health declined, he lay on his sickbed in a room filled with inventive experiments to trace the movements of [[vine|climbing plants]].<ref>{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|pp=50–55}}</ref> Admiring visitors included [[Ernst Haeckel]], a zealous proponent of Darwinism incorporating Lamarckism and [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s idealism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1866-survival-fittest |title=The correspondence of Charles Darwin, volume 14: 1866 |access-date=6 March 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605110511/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/correspondence-volume-14 |archive-date=5 June 2010 }} Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 25 June 2012</ref> Wallace remained supportive, though he increasingly turned to [[Spiritualism (religious movement)|Spiritualism]].<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|1999}}.</ref>

Darwin's book ''[[The Variation of Animals and Plants Under Domestication]]'' (1868) was the first part of his planned "big book", and included his unsuccessful hypothesis of [[pangenesis]] attempting to explain [[heredity]]. It sold briskly at first, despite its size, and was translated into many languages. He wrote most of a second part, on natural selection, but it remained unpublished in his lifetime.<ref>{{Harvnb|Freeman|1977|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A1&pageseq=123 122]}}</ref>

Lyell had already popularised human prehistory, and Huxley had shown that anatomically humans are apes.<ref name="Browne 2002"/> With ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex'' published in 1871, Darwin set out evidence from numerous sources that humans are animals, showing continuity of physical and mental attributes, and presented sexual selection to explain impractical animal features such as the [[peacock]]'s plumage as well as human evolution of culture, differences between sexes, and physical and cultural racial classification, while emphasising that humans are all one species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.2&pageseq=402 385–405]}} {{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=339–343}}</ref> According to an editorial in Nature journal: "Although Charles Darwin opposed slavery and proposed that humans have a common ancestor, he also advocated a hierarchy of races, with white people higher than others."<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nobles |first1=Melissa |last2=Womack |first2=Chad |last3=Wonkam |first3=Ambroise |last4=Wathuti |first4=Elizabeth |date=8 June 2022 |title=Science must overcome its racist legacy: Nature's guest editors speak |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=606 |issue=7913 |pages=225–227 |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-01527-z |pmid=35676434 |bibcode=2022Natur.606..225N |s2cid=249520597 |quote="In The Descent of Man, Darwin describes what he calls the gradations between the highest men of the highest races and the lowest savages*. He uses the word 'savages' to describe Black and Indigenous people." (*see Darwin, C. R. The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (John Murray, 1871))|doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{Multiple image|total_width=400
|image1=Darwin letter.jpg
|alt1=handwritten letter from Charles Darwin to John Burdon-Sanderson dated 9 October 1874
|caption1=Letter of enquiry from Charles Darwin to the physiologist [[John Burdon-Sanderson]]
|image2=Man is But a Worm.jpg
|alt2=Darwin's figure is shown seated, dressed in a toga, in a circular frame labelled "TIME'S METER" around which a succession of figures spiral, starting with an earthworm emerging from the broken letters "CHAOS" then worms with head and limbs, followed by monkeys, apes, primitive men, a loin cloth clad hunter with a club, and a gentleman who tips his top hat to Darwin
|caption2=''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]''{{'}}s [[almanac]] for 1882, published shortly before Darwin's death, depicts him amidst evolution from chaos to Victorian gentleman with the title ''Man Is But A Worm''
}}

His research using images was expanded in his 1872 book ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'', one of the first books to feature printed photographs, which discussed the [[evolutionary psychology|evolution of human psychology]] and its continuity with the [[ethology|behaviour of animals]]. Both books proved very popular, and Darwin was impressed by the general assent with which his views had been received, remarking that "everybody is talking about it without being shocked."<ref>{{Harvnb|Browne|2002|pp=359–369}} {{harvnb|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.3&pageseq=145 133]}}</ref> His conclusion was "that man with all his noble qualities, with sympathy which feels for the most debased, with benevolence which extends not only to other men but to the humblest living creature, with his god-like intellect which has penetrated into the movements and constitution of the solar system{{snd}}with all these exalted powers{{snd}}Man still bears in his bodily frame the indelible stamp of his lowly origin."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=422 405]}}</ref>

His evolution-related experiments and investigations led to books on ''[[Insectivorous Plants (book)|Insectivorous Plants]], [[The Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the Vegetable Kingdom]]'', different forms of flowers on plants of the same species, and ''[[The Power of Movement in Plants]]''. He continued to collect information and exchange views from scientific correspondents all over the world, including [[Mary Treat]], whom he encouraged to persevere in her scientific work.<ref>[https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/darwins-women Darwin's Women] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212213901/https://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/darwins-women |date=12 February 2020 }} at [[Cambridge University]]</ref> He was the first person to recognise the significance of carnivory in plants.<ref name="Hedrich-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Hedrich |first1=Rainer |last2=Fukushima |first2=Kenji |title=On the Origin of Carnivory: Molecular Physiology and Evolution of Plants on an Animal Diet |journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology |date=17 June 2021 |volume=72 |issue=1 |pages=133–153 |doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-080620-010429 |pmid=33434053 |s2cid=231595236 |issn=1543-5008|doi-access=free }}</ref> His botanical work{{Ref label|I|IX|none}} was interpreted and popularised by various writers including [[Grant Allen]] and [[H. G. Wells]], and helped transform plant science in the late 19th century and early 20th century.<ref name="Pain-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Pain |first1=Stephanie |title=How plants turned predator |journal=Knowable Magazine |date=2 March 2022 |doi=10.1146/knowable-030122-1 |doi-access=free |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2022/how-plants-turned-predator |access-date=11 March 2022 |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308103952/https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2022/how-plants-turned-predator |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Endersby-2016">{{cite journal |last1=Endersby |first1=Jim |title=Deceived by orchids: sex, science, fiction and Darwin |journal=The British Journal for the History of Science |date=June 2016 |volume=49 |issue=2 |pages=205–229 |doi=10.1017/S0007087416000352 |pmid=27278105 |s2cid=23027055 |url=http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=10359900&fulltextType=RA&fileId=S0007087416000352 |access-date=17 March 2022 |language=en |issn=0007-0874}}</ref>

===Death and funeral===
{{See also|Darwin from Insectivorous Plants to Worms#Death}}

[[File:Herschel&darwin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Tombs of John Herschel, left black marble, and Charles Darwin. white marble in Westminster Abbey|The adjoining tombs of the scientists [[John Herschel]] and Charles Darwin in the nave of [[Westminster Abbey]], London]]

In 1882, he was diagnosed with what was called "[[angina pectoris]]" which then meant [[coronary thrombosis]] and disease of the heart. At the time of his death, the physicians diagnosed "anginal attacks", and "heart-failure"; there has since been scholarly speculation about his [[health of Charles Darwin|life-long health issues]].<ref name="Colp-2008">{{cite book |title=Darwin's Illness |pages=116–120 |first=Ralph |last=Colp |doi=10.5744/florida/9780813032313.003.0014 |chapter=The Final {{sic|nolink=y|reason=error in source|Illnes}} |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8130-3231-3 }}</ref><ref name="Clayton-2010">{{cite journal |last=Clayton |first=Julie |date=24 June 2010 |title=Chagas disease 101 |journal=Nature |volume=465 |issue=n7301_supp |pages=S4–S5 |doi=10.1038/nature09220 |pmid=20571553 |bibcode=2010Natur.465S...3C |s2cid=205221512 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

He died at Down House on 19 April 1882. His last words were to his family, telling Emma, "I am not the least afraid of death{{mdash}}Remember what a good wife you have been to me{{mdash}}Tell all my children to remember how good they have been to me". While she rested, he repeatedly told Henrietta and Francis, "It's almost worthwhile to be sick to be nursed by you".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR210.9&pageseq=16 |title=[Reminiscences of Charles Darwin's last years.] CUL-DAR210.9|author=Darwin, Emma|author-link=Emma Darwin |year=1882 |access-date=8 January 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628080442/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=side&itemID=CUL-DAR210.9&pageseq=16 |archive-date=28 June 2009}}</ref>

He had expected to be buried in St Mary's churchyard at [[Downe]], but at the request of Darwin's colleagues, after public and parliamentary petitioning, [[William Spottiswoode]] (President of the Royal Society) arranged for Darwin to be honoured by [[Burials and memorials in Westminster Abbey|burial in Westminster Abbey]], close to John Herschel and [[Isaac Newton]]. The funeral, held on Wednesday 26 April, was attended by thousands of people, including family, friends, scientists, philosophers and dignitaries.<ref>{{Harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=664–677}}</ref><ref name="Westminster Abbey-2016">{{cite web | title=Westminster Abbey » Charles Darwin | website=Westminster Abbey | date=2 January 2016 | url=http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/charles-darwin | access-date=2 January 2016 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200905/http://www.westminster-abbey.org/our-history/people/charles-darwin | archive-date=4 March 2016 | df=dmy-all }} {{Harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[https://web.archive.org/web/20140410153323/http://www.aboutdarwin.com/darwin/burial.html Darwin's Burial]}}</ref>

== Legacy and commemoration ==
{{further|List of things named after Charles Darwin|List of taxa described by Charles Darwin|Commemoration of Charles Darwin}}

{{Anchor|Legacy}}

[[File:Darwin Statue.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=Unveiling of the bronze Darwin Statue outside the former Shrewsbury School building in 1897 surrounded by schoolboys in straw hats|Unveiling in 1897 of the Darwin Statue at the former [[Shrewsbury School]] building where he had studied]]

As Alfred Russel Wallace put it, Darwin had "wrought a greater revolution in human thought within a quarter of a century than any man of our time{{snd}}or perhaps any time", having "given us a new conception of the world of life, and a theory which is itself a powerful instrument of research; has shown us how to combine into one consistent whole the facts accumulated by all the separate classes of workers, and has thereby revolutionised the whole study of nature".<ref name="Van Wyhe-2021">{{cite book | last=Van Wyhe | first=J. | title=Charles Darwin: The Man, His Great Voyage, and His Theory of Evolution | publisher=Rosen Publishing Group, Incorporated | series=Pioneers of Science | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-4994-7110-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JnZeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155 | access-date=23 May 2022 | pages=154–155 | archive-date=18 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218114110/https://books.google.com/books?id=JnZeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }}</ref>

Most scientists were now convinced of evolution as descent with modification, though few agreed with Darwin that natural selection "has been the main but not the exclusive means of modification".<ref name="van Wyhe 2008Darwin 1872">{{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}} {{harvnb|Darwin|1872|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F391&pageseq=449 421]}}.</ref> During "[[the eclipse of Darwinism]]" scientists explored alternative mechanisms. Then [[Ronald Fisher]] incorporated [[Mendelian genetics]] in ''[[The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection]]'',<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.genetics.org/content/154/4/1419.full |journal=Genetics |title=The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection |first=A. W. F. |last=Edwards |author-link=A. W. F. Edwards |date=1 April 2000 |volume=154 |issue=4 |pages=1419–1426 |doi=10.1093/genetics/154.4.1419 |pmid=10747041 |pmc=1461012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924041631/http://www.genetics.org/content/154/4/1419.full |archive-date=24 September 2015 }}</ref> leading to [[population genetics]] and the [[modern synthesis (20th century)|modern evolutionary synthesis]], which continues to develop.<ref name="Bowler 2003" /> Scientific discoveries have confirmed and validated Darwin's key insights.<ref name="Van Wyhe-2021" />

Geographical features given his name include [[Darwin Sound]]<ref>{{Harvnb|FitzRoy|1839|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F10.2&viewtype=text&pageseq=267 216–218]}}.</ref> and [[Mount Darwin (Andes)|Mount Darwin]],<ref>{{harvnb|Leff|2000|loc=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130903005348/http://www.aboutdarwin.com/timeline/time_04.html Darwin's Timeline]}}</ref> both named while he was on [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|the ''Beagle'' voyage]], and [[Darwin Harbour]], named by his former shipmates on [[HMS Beagle#Third voyage (1837–1843)|its next voyage]], which eventually became the location of [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]], the capital city of Australia's [[Northern Territory]].<ref name="Northern Territory Department of Planning and Infrastructure, Australia">{{cite web|url=http://www.ipe.nt.gov.au/whatwedo/landinformation/place/origins/palmdarwin.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060918153343/http://www.ipe.nt.gov.au/whatwedo/landinformation/place/origins/palmdarwin.html|archive-date=18 September 2006|title=Territory origins| access-date=15 December 2006|publisher=Northern Territory Department of Planning and Infrastructure, Australia}}</ref> Darwin's name was given, [[Binomial nomenclature|formally]] or [[Common name|informally]], to numerous plants and animals, including many he had collected on the voyage.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Heard, Stephen B. |title=Charles Darwin's barnacle and David Bowie's spider : how scientific names celebrate adventurers, heroes, and even a few scoundrels |others=Damstra, Emily S. |date=2020 |isbn=978-0-300-25269-9 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |oclc=1143645266}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.darwinfacts.com/ |title=Charles Darwin 200 years – Things you didn't know about Charles Darwin |access-date=23 May 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090528033253/http://darwinfacts.com/ |archive-date=28 May 2009 }}</ref> The Linnean Society of London began awards of the [[Darwin–Wallace Medal]] in 1908, to mark fifty years from the joint reading on 1 July 1858 of papers by Darwin and Wallace publishing their theory. Further awards were made in 1958 and 2008, since 2010 the medal awards have been annual.<ref name="The Linnean Society-2016">{{cite web |date=1 February 2016 |title=The Darwin-Wallace Medal |url=https://www.linnean.org/the-society/medals-awards-prizes-grants/the-darwin-wallace-medal |access-date=22 April 2022 |website=The Linnean Society |archive-date=29 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329223140/https://www.linnean.org/the-society/medals-awards-prizes-grants/the-darwin-wallace-medal |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Darwin College, Cambridge|Darwin College]], a postgraduate college at [[Cambridge University]] founded in 1964, is named after the Darwin family.<ref>{{cite web |title=Darwin College – Maps and directions – University of Kent |url=https://www.kent.ac.uk/maps/canterbury/canterbury-campus/building/darwin-college |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031024930/https://www.kent.ac.uk/maps/canterbury/canterbury-campus/building/darwin-college |archive-date=31 October 2016 |access-date=30 October 2016 |website=www.kent.ac.uk}}</ref> From 2000 to 2017, UK £10 banknotes issued by the [[Bank of England note issues|Bank of England]] featured Darwin's portrait printed on the reverse,<ref name="BBC News-2000">{{cite web |date=7 November 2000 |title=How to join the noteworthy |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1009901.stm |access-date=24 April 2022 |website=BBC News |archive-date=30 June 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630102007/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/1009901.stm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="CBBC Newsround-2013">{{cite web |date=24 July 2013 |title=Author Jane Austen to feature on new £10 note |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/23434198 |access-date=24 April 2022 |website=CBBC Newsround |archive-date=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424113045/https://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/23434198 |url-status=live }}</ref> along with a [[hummingbird]] and [[HMS Beagle|HMS ''Beagle'']].<ref name="bankofengland.co.uk-2005">{{cite web |date=25 May 2005 |title=Bank of England – Banknotes – Current Banknotes – £10 |url=http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/current/current_10.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050525230931/http://www.bankofengland.co.uk/banknotes/current/current_10.htm |archive-date=25 May 2005 |access-date=24 April 2022 |website=bankofengland.co.uk}}</ref>

==Children==
{{further|Darwin–Wedgwood family#Charles Darwin}}

{|class=toccolours style=float:right;clear:right;font-size:small;margin-left:1em;
|[[William Erasmus Darwin]]||style=text-align:right;|27 December 1839 –||8 September 1914
|-
|[[Anne Darwin|Anne Elizabeth Darwin]]||style=text-align:right;|2 March 1841 –||23 April 1851
|-
|Mary Eleanor Darwin||style=text-align:right;|23 September 1842 –||16 October 1842
|-
|[[Henrietta Litchfield|Henrietta Emma Darwin]]||style=text-align:right;|{{nobr|25 September 1843 –}}||17 December 1927
|-
|[[George Darwin|George Howard Darwin]]||style=text-align:right;|9 July 1845 –||7 December 1912
|-
|Elizabeth Darwin||style=text-align:right;|8 July 1847 –||8 June 1926
|-
|[[Francis Darwin]]||style=text-align:right;|16 August 1848 –||{{nobr|19 September 1925}}
|-
|[[Leonard Darwin]]||style=text-align:right;|15 January 1850 –||26 March 1943
|-
|[[Horace Darwin]]||style=text-align:right;|13 May 1851 –||29 September 1928
|-
|Charles Waring Darwin||style=text-align:right;|6 December 1856 –||28 June 1858
|}

The Darwins had ten children: two died in infancy, and Annie's death at the age of ten had a devastating effect on her parents. Charles was a devoted father and uncommonly attentive to his children.<ref name="Leff 2000" /> Whenever they fell ill, he feared that they might have inherited weaknesses from [[inbreeding]] due to the close family ties he shared with his [[cousin marriage|wife and cousin]], Emma Wedgwood. He examined inbreeding in his writings, contrasting it with the advantages of [[outcrossing]] in many species.{{sfn|Desmond|Moore|1991|p=447}}

[[File:Emma Darwin with Charles Waring Darwin.jpg|thumb|125px|Emma Darwin with Charles Waring Darwin]]

Charles Waring Darwin, born in December 1856, was the tenth and last of the children. Emma Darwin was aged 48 at the time of the birth, and the child was mentally subnormal and never learnt to walk or talk. He probably had [[Down syndrome]], which had not then been medically described. The evidence is a photograph by William Erasmus Darwin of the infant and his mother, showing a characteristic head shape, and the family's observations of the child.<ref>David P. Steensma (15 March 2005). "Down syndrome in Down House: trisomy 21, GATA1 mutations, and Charles Darwin". ''[[Blood (journal)|Blood]]'' 105 (6) 2614–2616.</ref> Charles Waring died of scarlet fever on 28 June 1858,<ref>Freeman, R. B. (1984), ''Darwin Pedigrees'', London, p. 43.</ref> when Darwin wrote in his journal: "Poor dear Baby died."<ref>Darwin, C. R. ''Journal (1809–1881)'', p. 37.</ref> 

Of his surviving children, [[George Darwin|George]], Francis and [[Horace Darwin|Horace]] became [[Fellow of the Royal Society|Fellows of the Royal Society]],<ref>{{cite web|title=List of Fellows of the Royal Society, 1660–2006, A–J|url=http://royalsociety.org/trackdoc.asp?id=4274&pId=1727|access-date=16 September 2009|format=PDF|archive-date=3 February 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203000229/https://royalsociety.org/trackdoc.asp?id=4274&pId=1727}}</ref> distinguished as an astronomer,<ref>{{MacTutor Biography|id=Darwin}}</ref> botanist and civil engineer, respectively. All three were knighted.<ref>Berra, Tim M. ''Darwin and His Children: His Other Legacy,'' (Oxford: 2013, Oxford UP), 101, 129, 168. George became a knight commander of the Order of the Bath in 1905. Francis was knighted in 1912. Horace became a knight commander of the KBE in 1918.</ref> Another son, [[Leonard Darwin|Leonard]], went on to be a soldier, politician, economist, [[Eugenics|eugenicist]], and mentor of the statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher.<ref>Edwards, A. W. F. 2004. Darwin, Leonard (1850–1943). In: ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'', Oxford University Press.</ref>

==Views and opinions==

===Religious views===
{{Further|Religious views of Charles Darwin}}

Darwin's family tradition was [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|nonconformist]] [[Unitarianism]], while his father and grandfather were [[freethinkers]], and his baptism and boarding school were [[Church of England]].<ref name="Desmond-3" /> When going to Cambridge to become an Anglican clergyman, he did not "in the least doubt the strict and [[Biblical inerrancy|literal truth]] of every word in the Bible".<ref name="Desmond" /> He learned John Herschel's science which, like William Paley's natural theology, sought explanations in laws of nature rather than miracles and saw adaptation of species as evidence of design.<ref name="von Sydow 2005" /><ref name="Darwin 1958-5" /> On board HMS ''Beagle'', Darwin was quite [[orthodoxy|orthodox]] and would quote the Bible as an authority on [[morality]].<ref name="Darwin 1958-4">{{Harvnb|Darwin|1958|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F1497&viewtype=side&pageseq=87 85–96]}}</ref> He looked for "centres of creation" to explain distribution,<ref name="Keynes 2001-2" /> and suggested that the very similar [[antlion]]s found in Australia and England were evidence of a divine hand.<ref name="Darwin Online" />

[[File:Annie Darwin.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Three-quarter length studio photo of seated girl about nine years old, looking slightly plump and rather solemn, in a striped dress, holding a basket of flowers on her lap|In 1851 Darwin was devastated when his daughter [[Anne Darwin|Annie]] died; by then his faith in Christianity had dwindled, and he had stopped going to church<ref name="van Wyhe 2008b">{{harvnb|van Wyhe|2008b|p=41}}</ref>]]

Upon his return, he expressed a [[Historical criticism|critical view of the Bible's historical accuracy]] and questioned the basis for considering one religion more valid than another.<ref name="Darwin 1958-4" /> In the next few years, while intensively speculating on geology and the transmutation of species, he gave much thought to religion and openly discussed this with his wife Emma, whose beliefs similarly came from intensive study and questioning.<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project" />

The [[theodicy]] of Paley and [[Thomas Malthus]] vindicated evils such as starvation as a result of a benevolent creator's laws, which had an overall good effect. To Darwin, natural selection produced the good of adaptation but removed the need for design,<ref>{{harvnb|von Sydow|2005|pp=8–14}}</ref> and he could not see the work of an omnipotent deity in all the pain and suffering, such as the [[ichneumon wasp]] paralysing [[caterpillar]]s as live food for its eggs.<ref name="Miles 2001" /> Though he thought of religion as a [[tribe|tribal]] survival strategy, Darwin was reluctant to give up the idea of [[deism|God as an ultimate lawgiver]]. He was increasingly troubled by the [[problem of evil]].<ref>{{harvnb|von Sydow|2005|pp=4–5, 12–14}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Moore|2006}}</ref>

Darwin remained close friends with the [[Vicar (Anglicanism)|vicar]] of Downe, [[John Brodie Innes]], and continued to play a leading part in the parish work of the church,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/religion/darwin-and-church |title=Darwin Correspondence Project – Darwin and the church: historical essay |access-date=26 November 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161128133709/https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/religion/darwin-and-church |archive-date=28 November 2016 |date=5 June 2015 }}</ref> but from {{circa|1849}} would go for a walk on Sundays while his family attended church.<ref name="van Wyhe 2008b" /> He considered it "absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist"<ref name="Letter 12041 Archived 7 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine">[http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-12041.html Letter 12041] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091107174817/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/darwinletters/calendar/entry-12041.html |date=7 November 2009 }} – Darwin, C. R. to Fordyce, John, 7 May 1879</ref><ref name="Darwin">[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/sep/17/darwin-evolution-religion Darwin's Complex loss of Faith] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211082018/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2009/sep/17/darwin-evolution-religion |date=11 February 2017 }} [[The Guardian]] 17 September 2009</ref> and, though reticent about his religious views, in 1879 he wrote that "I have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a God. – I think that generally ... an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind".<ref name="Darwin Correspondence Project"/><ref name="Letter 12041 Archived 7 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine"/>

The "[[Elizabeth, Lady Hope|Lady Hope Story]]", published in 1915, claimed that Darwin had reverted to Christianity on his sickbed. The claims were repudiated by Darwin's children and have been dismissed as false by historians.<ref>{{harvnb|Moore|2005}} {{Harvnb|Yates|2003}}</ref>

===Human society===

Darwin's views on social and political issues reflected his time and social position. He grew up in a family of [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig]] reformers who, like his uncle Josiah Wedgwood, supported [[Reform Act 1832|electoral reform]] and the emancipation of slaves. Darwin was passionately opposed to slavery, while seeing no problem with the working conditions of English factory workers or servants.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=196–197}}

Taking taxidermy lessons in 1826 from the freed slave John Edmonstone, whom Darwin long recalled as "a very pleasant and intelligent man", reinforced his belief that black people shared the same feelings, and could be as intelligent as people of other races. He took the same attitude to native people he met on the ''Beagle'' voyage.{{sfn|Browne|1995|pp=66, 198, 240}} Though commonplace in Britain at the time, [[Benjamin Silliman|Silliman]] and [[John Bachman|Bachman]] noticed the contrast with slave-owning America. Around twenty years later, racism became a feature of British society,<ref name="Darwin 1958-6"/><ref name="Silliman-1810">{{cite book | last=Silliman | first=B. | title=A Journal of Travels in England, Holland and Scotland: And of Two Passages Over the Atlantic, in the Years 1805 and 1806 ... | publisher=D. & G. Bruce | year=1810 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4pCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA216 | access-date=29 August 2022 | pages=216–217 | quote=As there are no slaves in England, perhaps the English have not learned to regard negroes as a degraded class of men, as we do in the United States | archive-date=18 December 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218114110/https://books.google.com/books?id=z4pCAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA216#v=onepage&q&f=false | url-status=live }} {{cite book | last=Bachman | first=J. | title=The Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race Examined on the Principles of Science | publisher=C. Canning | series=American culture series | year=1850 | isbn=978-0-608-43507-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qKYdfBlX-GMC&pg=PA105 | access-date=29 August 2022 | page=105 | archive-date=18 September 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230918120545/https://books.google.com/books?id=qKYdfBlX-GMC&pg=PA105 | url-status=live }}</ref> but Darwin remained strongly against slavery, against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species", and against ill-treatment of native people.<ref>{{harvnb|Wilkins|2008|pp=408–413}}</ref>{{Ref label|G|VII|none}}

Darwin's interaction with [[Yaghan people|Yaghans]] (Fuegians) such as Jemmy Button during the second voyage of HMS ''Beagle'' had a profound impact on his view of indigenous peoples. At his arrival in Tierra del Fuego he made a colourful description of "[[Fuegian]] savages".<ref name="Rozzi-2018" /> This view changed as he came to know Yaghan people more in detail. By studying the Yaghans, Darwin concluded that a number of basic emotions by different human groups were the same and that mental capabilities were roughly the same as for Europeans.<ref name="Rozzi-2018">{{cite journal |last1=Rozzi |first1=Ricardo|author-link=Ricardo Rozzi |date=2018 |title=Transformaciones del pensamiento de Darwin en cabo de hornos: Un legado para la ciencia y la etica ambiental|trans-title=Transformations of Darwin's thought in cape horn: A legacy for science and environmental ethics |language=es |journal=[[Magallania]] |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=267–277|doi=10.4067/S0718-22442018000100267 |doi-access=free }}</ref> While interested in Yaghan culture, Darwin failed to appreciate their deep ecological knowledge and elaborate cosmology until the 1850s when he inspected a dictionary of [[Yaghan language|Yaghan]] detailing 32,000 words.<ref name="Rozzi-2018" /> He saw that European colonisation would often lead to the extinction of native civilisations, and "tr[ied] to integrate colonialism into an evolutionary history of civilization analogous to natural history".<ref name="Barta-2005">{{cite journal |first=Tony|last=Barta|title=Mr Darwin's shooters: on natural selection and the naturalizing of genocide|journal=Patterns of Prejudice |volume=39|issue=2|pages=116–137 |doi=10.1080/00313220500106170 |date=2 June 2005 |s2cid=159807728}}</ref>

[[Darwin and women|Darwin's view of women]] was that men's eminence over them was the outcome of sexual selection, a view disputed by [[Antoinette Brown Blackwell]] in her 1875 book ''[[The Sexes Throughout Nature]]''.<ref name="Vandermassen, Griet-2004">{{cite journal |author=Vandermassen, Griet |title=Sexual Selection: A Tale of Male Bias and Feminist Denial |journal=European Journal of Women's Studies |year=2004 |volume=11 |issue=9 |doi=10.1177/1350506804039812 |pages=11–13 |citeseerx=10.1.1.550.3672 |s2cid=145221350 }}</ref>

Darwin was intrigued by his [[half-cousin]] [[Francis Galton]]'s argument, introduced in 1865, that [[Historiometry|statistical analysis]] of [[heredity]] showed that moral and mental human traits could be inherited, and principles of animal breeding could apply to humans. In ''The Descent of Man'', Darwin noted that aiding the weak to survive and have families could lose the benefits of natural selection, but cautioned that withholding such aid would endanger the instinct of sympathy, "the noblest part of our nature", and factors such as education could be more important. When Galton suggested that publishing research could encourage intermarriage within a "caste" of "those who are naturally gifted", Darwin foresaw practical difficulties, and thought it "the sole feasible, yet I fear [[utopian]], plan of procedure in improving the human race", preferring to simply publicise the importance of inheritance and leave decisions to individuals.<ref>{{harvnb|Desmond|Moore|1991|pp=556–557, 572, 598}} {{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=180 167–173], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.2&pageseq=419 402–403]}} {{cite web|url=http://www.galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|title=Correspondence between Francis Galton and Charles Darwin|access-date=8 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090102150434/http://galton.org/letters/darwin/correspondence.htm|archive-date=2 January 2009}}</ref> Francis Galton named this field of study "eugenics" in 1883,{{Ref label|H|VIII|1}} after Darwin's death, and his theories were cited to promote eugenic policies.<ref name="Barta-2005" />

==Evolutionary social movements==
{{further|Darwinism|Eugenics|Social Darwinism}}

[[File:VanityFair-Darwin2.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=Full-length portrait of a very thin white-bearded Darwin, seated but leaning eagerly forward and smiling|A [[Caricatures of Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theory in 19th-century England|caricature of Darwin]] from ''[[Vanity Fair (British magazine)|Vanity Fair]]'' in 1871]]

Darwin's fame and popularity led to his name being associated with ideas and movements that, at times, had only an indirect relation to his writings, and sometimes went directly against his express comments.

Thomas Malthus had argued that population growth beyond resources was ordained by God to get humans to [[Protestant work ethic|work productively]] and show restraint in getting families; this was used in the 1830s to justify [[workhouse]]s and [[laissez-faire economics]].<ref name="Wilkins 1997Moore 2006">{{harvnb|Wilkins|1997}} {{Harvnb|Moore|2006}}</ref> Evolution was by then seen as having social implications, and [[Herbert Spencer]]'s 1851 book ''Social Statics'' based ideas of human freedom and individual liberties on his Lamarckian evolutionary theory.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sweet|2004}}</ref>

Soon after the ''Origin'' was published in 1859, critics derided his description of a struggle for existence as a Malthusian justification for the English industrial capitalism of the time. The term ''Darwinism'' was used for the evolutionary ideas of others, including Spencer's "[[survival of the fittest]]" as free-market progress, and [[Ernst Haeckel]]'s [[polygenism|polygenistic]] ideas of [[Ernst Haeckel#Polygenism and racial theory|human development]]. Writers used natural selection to argue for various, often contradictory, ideologies such as laissez-faire dog-eat-dog capitalism, [[colonialism]] and [[New Imperialism|imperialism]]. However, Darwin's holistic view of nature included "dependence of one being on another"; thus [[pacifism|pacifists]], socialists, liberal social reformers and anarchists such as [[Peter Kropotkin]] stressed the value of co-operation over struggle within a species.<ref>{{Harvnb|Paul|2003|pp=223–225}}</ref> Darwin himself insisted that social policy should not simply be guided by concepts of struggle and selection in nature.<ref>{{Harvnb|Bannister|1989}}</ref>

After the 1880s, a eugenics movement developed on ideas of biological inheritance, and for scientific justification of their ideas appealed to some concepts of Darwinism. In Britain, most shared Darwin's cautious views on voluntary improvement and sought to encourage those with good traits in "positive eugenics". During the "Eclipse of Darwinism", a scientific foundation for eugenics was provided by [[Mendelian inheritance|Mendelian]] [[genetics]]. Negative eugenics to remove the "feebleminded" were popular in America, Canada and Australia, and [[eugenics in the United States]] introduced [[compulsory sterilisation]] laws, followed by several other countries. Subsequently, [[Nazi eugenics]] brought the field into disrepute.{{Ref label|H|VIII|2}}

The term "[[Social Darwinism]]" was used infrequently from around the 1890s, but became popular as a derogatory term in the 1940s when used by [[Richard Hofstadter]] to attack the [[laissez-faire]] conservatism of those like [[William Graham Sumner]] who opposed reform and socialism. Since then, it has been used as a term of abuse by those opposed to what they think are the moral consequences of evolution.<ref>{{Harvnb|Paul|2003}} {{Harvnb|Kotzin|2004}}</ref><ref name="Wilkins 1997Moore 2006"/>

==Works==
{{further|Charles Darwin bibliography}}

Darwin was a prolific writer. Even without the publication of his works on evolution, he would have had a considerable reputation as the author of ''The Voyage of the Beagle'', as a geologist who had published extensively on South America and had solved the puzzle of the formation of [[coral atoll]]s, and as a biologist who had published the definitive work on barnacles. While ''On the Origin of Species'' dominates perceptions of his work, ''The Descent of Man'' and ''The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals'' had considerable impact, and his books on plants including ''The Power of Movement in Plants'' were innovative studies of great importance, as was his final work on ''[[The Formation of Vegetable Mould through the Action of Worms]]''.<ref>{{Harvnb|Balfour|1882}} {{Harvnb|van Wyhe|2008}} {{Harvnb|Anonymous|1882}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Brummitt|first=R. K.|author2=C. E. Powell|title=Authors of Plant Names |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |year=1992 |isbn=978-1-84246-085-6}}</ref>

==Arms==
{{Infobox COA wide
| image = Charles_Darwin_Coat_of_Arms.svg
| crest = A demi griffin Vert, holding between the claws an escallop Or.
| escutcheon = Argent on a bend Gules between two cotises Vert, three escallops Or.
| motto = '''CAVE ET AUDE'''<ref>{{cite book |last=Burke |first=Bernard |date=1884 |title=The General Armory of England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales |location=London |publisher=Harrison & Sons |page=264 |url=https://archive.org/details/generalarmoryofe00burk}}</ref>
}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Biology}}


{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* ''[[1991 Darwin]]''
* [[:Category:Cultural depictions of Charles Darwin]]
* ''[[Creation (2009 film)|Creation]]'' (biographical drama film)
* [[Creation–evolution controversy]]
* [[European and American voyages of scientific exploration]]
* [[History of biology]]
* [[History of evolutionary thought]]
* [[List of coupled cousins]]
* [[List of multiple discoveries#19th century|List of multiple discoveries]]
* [[Multiple discovery]]
* [[Portraits of Charles Darwin]]
* [[Tinamou egg]]
* [[Universal Darwinism]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{refbegin}}
'''{{small|I}}.''' {{Note label|B|II|none}} [[Robert FitzRoy]] was to become known after the voyage for [[biblical literalism]], but at this time he had considerable interest in Lyell's ideas, and they met before the voyage when Lyell asked for observations to be made in South America. FitzRoy's diary during the ascent of the River Santa Cruz in [[Patagonia]] recorded his opinion that the plains were [[raised beach]]es, but on return, newly married to a very religious lady, he recanted these ideas.{{Harv|Browne|1995|pp=186, 414}}

'''{{small|II}}.''' {{Note label|C|III|none}} In the section [[Morphology (biology)|"Morphology"]] of Chapter XIII of ''On the Origin of Species'', Darwin commented on [[Homology (biology)|homologous]] bone patterns between humans and other mammals, writing: "What can be more curious than that the hand of a man, formed for grasping, that of a mole for digging, the leg of the horse, the paddle of the porpoise, and the wing of the bat, should all be constructed on the same pattern, and should include the same bones, in the same relative positions?"<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=452&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 434]}}</ref> and in the concluding chapter: "The framework of bones being the same in the hand of a man, wing of a bat, fin of the porpoise, and leg of the horse … at once explain themselves on the theory of descent with slow and slight successive modifications."<ref>{{harvnb|Darwin|1859|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=497&itemID=F373&viewtype=text 479]}}</ref>

'''{{small|III}}.''' {{Note label|D|IV|1}}{{Note label|D|IV|2}}{{Note label|D|IV|3}}
In ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' Darwin mentioned [[human evolution|human origins]] in his concluding remark that "In the distant future I see open fields for far more important researches. Psychology will be based on a new foundation, that of the necessary acquirement of each mental power and capacity by gradation. Light will be thrown on the origin of man and his history."<ref name="Darwin 1859"/>

In "Chapter VI: Difficulties on Theory" he referred to [[sexual selection]]: "I might have adduced for this same purpose the differences between the races of man, which are so strongly marked; I may add that some little light can apparently be thrown on the origin of these differences, chiefly through sexual selection of a particular kind, but without here entering on copious details my reasoning would appear frivolous."<ref name="Darwin 1859-2"/>

In ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|The Descent of Man]]'' of 1871, Darwin discussed the first passage:
"During many years I collected notes on the origin or descent of man, without any intention of publishing on the subject, but rather with the determination not to publish, as I thought that I should thus only add to the prejudices against my views. It seemed to me sufficient to indicate, in the first edition of my 'Origin of Species,' that by this work 'light would be thrown on the origin of man and his history;' and this implies that man must be included with other organic beings in any general conclusion respecting his manner of appearance on this earth."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=14&itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text 1]}}</ref> In a preface to the 1874 second edition, he added a reference to the second point: "it has been said by several critics, that when I found that many details of structure in man could not be explained through natural selection, I invented sexual selection; I gave, however, a tolerably clear sketch of this principle in the first edition of the 'Origin of Species,' and I there stated that it was applicable to man."<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1874|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?pageseq=13&itemID=F944&viewtype=text vi]}}</ref>

'''{{small|IV}}.''' {{Note label|E|V|none}} See, for example, WILLA volume 4, ''[http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/old-WILLA/fall95/DeSimone.html Charlotte Perkins Gilman and the Feminization of Education]'' by Deborah M. De Simone: "Gilman shared many basic educational ideas with the generation of thinkers who matured during the period of "intellectual chaos" caused by Darwin's Origin of the Species. Marked by the belief that individuals can direct human and social evolution, many progressives came to view education as the panacea for advancing social progress and for solving such problems as urbanisation, poverty, or immigration."

'''{{small|V}}.''' {{Note label|F|VI|none}} See, for example, the song "A lady fair of lineage high" from [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s ''[[Princess Ida]]'', which describes the descent of man (but not woman!) from apes.

'''{{small|VI}}.''' {{Note label|G|VII|none}} Darwin's belief that black people had the same essential humanity as Europeans, and had many mental similarities, was reinforced by the lessons he had from [[John Edmonstone]] in 1826.<ref name="Darwin 1958-6" /> Early in the ''Beagle'' voyage, Darwin nearly lost his position on the ship when he criticised FitzRoy's defence and praise of slavery. {{Harv|Darwin|1958|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1497&pageseq=76 74]}} He wrote home about "how steadily the general feeling, as shown at elections, has been rising against Slavery. What a proud thing for England if she is the first European nation which utterly abolishes it! I was told before leaving England that after living in slave countries all my opinions would be altered; the only alteration I am aware of is forming a much higher estimate of the negro character." {{harv|Darwin|1887|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F1452.1&pageseq=264 246]}} Regarding [[Fuegians]], he "could not have believed how wide was the difference between savage and civilized man: it is greater than between a wild and domesticated animal, inasmuch as in man there is a greater power of improvement", but he knew and liked civilised Fuegians like [[Jemmy Button]]: "It seems yet wonderful to me, when I think over all his many good qualities, that he should have been of the same race, and doubtless partaken of the same character, with the miserable, degraded savages whom we first met here." {{Harv|Darwin|1845|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F14&viewtype=text&pageseq=218 205, 207–208]}}

In the ''Descent of Man'', he mentioned the similarity of Fuegians' and Edmonstone's minds to Europeans' when arguing against "ranking the so-called races of man as distinct species".<ref>{{Harvnb|Darwin|1871|pp=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F937.1&pageseq=227 214], [http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F937.1&viewtype=text&pageseq=245 232]}}</ref>

He rejected the ill-treatment of native people, and for example wrote of massacres of [[Patagonia]]n men, women, and children, "Every one here is fully convinced that this is the most just war, because it is against barbarians. Who would believe in this age that such atrocities could be committed in a Christian civilized country?"{{harv|Darwin|1845|p=[http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=F14&pageseq=115 102]}}

'''{{small|VII}}.''' {{Note label|H|VIII|1}}{{Note label|H|VIII|2}} [[Geneticist]]s studied human heredity as [[Mendelian inheritance]], while [[eugenics]] movements sought to manage society, with a focus on social class in the United Kingdom, and on disability and ethnicity in the United States, leading to geneticists seeing this movement as impractical [[pseudoscience]]. A shift from voluntary arrangements to "negative" eugenics included [[compulsory sterilisation]] laws in the United States, copied by [[Nazi Germany]] as the basis for [[Nazi eugenics]] based on virulent racism and "[[racial hygiene]]". ({{cite news | url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/SHR/5-supp/text/thurtle.html | title=the creation of genetic identity | last=Thurtle | first=Phillip | date=17 December 1996 | issue=Supplement: Cultural and Technological Incubations of Fascism | volume=5 | periodical=SEHR | access-date=11 November 2008 |ref=none}} {{Cite news |url=http://www.genetics.org/cgi/content/full/154/4/1419#The_Eclipse_of_Darwinism| title=The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection | last=Edwards | first=A. W. F. |author-link=A. W. F. Edwards | date=1 April 2000 | issue=April 2000 | volume=154 | pages=1419–1426 | pmc=1461012 | pmid=10747041 | periodical=Genetics | access-date=11 November 2008 | ref=none}}{{cite web |url=http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |title=Evolving Thoughts: Darwin and the Holocaust 3: eugenics |last=Wilkins |first=John |access-date=11 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205154013/http://scienceblogs.com/evolvingthoughts/2006/09/darwin_and_the_holocaust_3_eug_1.php |archive-date=5 December 2008 |ref=none}})

'''{{small|VIII}}.''' {{Note label|I|IX|none}} [[David Quammen]] writes of his "theory that [Darwin] turned to these arcane botanical studies – producing more than one book that was solidly empirical, discreetly evolutionary, yet a 'horrid bore' – at least partly so that the clamorous controversialists, fighting about apes and angels and souls, would leave him... alone". [[David Quammen]], "The Brilliant Plodder" (review of Ken Thompson, ''Darwin's Most Wonderful Plants: A Tour of His Botanical Legacy'', [[University of Chicago Press]], 255 pp.; Elizabeth Hennessy, ''On the Backs of Tortoises: Darwin, the Galápagos, and the Fate of an Evolutionary Eden'', [[Yale University Press]], 310 pp.; Bill Jenkins, ''Evolution Before Darwin: Theories of the Transmutation of Species in Edinburgh, 1804–1834'', [[Edinburgh University Press]], 222 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVII, no. 7 (23 April 2020), pp. 22–24. Quammen, quoted from p. 24 of his review.
{{refend}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

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| access-date=7 December 2008
| archive-date=5 December 2008
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205020823/http://www.wku.edu/~smithch/essays/ARWPAMPH.htm
| url-status=live
}}
* {{cite journal
| last=Sulloway
| first=Frank J.
| author-link=Frank Sulloway
| year=1982
| title=Darwin and His Finches: The Evolution of a Legend
| journal=Journal of the History of Biology
| volume=15
| issue=1
| pages=1–53
| url=http://www.sulloway.org/Finches.pdf
| access-date=9 December 2008
| doi=10.1007/BF00132004
| citeseerx=10.1.1.458.3975
| s2cid=17161535
| archive-date=16 December 2008
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081216211931/http://www.sulloway.org/Finches.pdf
| url-status=dead
}}
* {{cite web
| last=Sweet
| first=William
| title=Herbert Spencer
| publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
| year=2004
| url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/spencer/
| access-date=16 December 2008
| archive-date=28 May 2010
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528161329/http://www.iep.utm.edu/spencer/
| url-status=live
}}
* {{cite web
| last=Wilkins
| first=John S.
| year=1997
| title=Evolution and Philosophy: Does evolution make might right?
| publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]
| url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/social.html
| access-date=22 November 2008
| archive-date=14 May 2011
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514095809/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/evolphil/social.html
| url-status=live
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Wilkins
| first=John S.
| year=2008
| contribution=Darwin
| editor-last=Tucker
| editor-first=Aviezer
| title=A Companion to the Philosophy of History and Historiography
| series=Blackwell Companions to Philosophy
| pages=405–415
| location=Chichester
| publisher=Wiley-Blackwell
| isbn=978-1-4051-4908-2}}
* {{cite journal
| last=van Wyhe
| first=John
| title=Mind the gap: Did Darwin avoid publishing his theory for many years?
| journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society
| volume=61
| issue=2
| pages=177–205
| date=27 March 2007
| doi=10.1098/rsnr.2006.0171
| s2cid=202574857
| url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=1
| access-date=7 February 2008
| archive-date=11 January 2011
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110111012141/http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?viewtype=text&itemID=A544&pageseq=1
| url-status=live
}}
* {{cite web
| last=van Wyhe
| first=John
| year=2008
| title=Charles Darwin: gentleman naturalist: A biographical sketch
| publisher=Darwin Online
| url=http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html
| access-date=17 November 2008
| archive-date=13 January 2020
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113061826/http://darwin-online.org.uk/darwin.html
| url-status=live
}}
* {{cite book
| last=van Wyhe
| first=John
| publication-date=1 September 2008
| year=2008b
| title=Darwin: The Story of the Man and His Theories of Evolution
| location=London
| publisher=Andre Deutsch Ltd
| isbn=978-0-233-00251-4}}
* {{cite book
| last=von Sydow
| first=Momme
| year=2005
| contribution=Darwin – A Christian Undermining Christianity? On Self-Undermining Dynamics of Ideas Between Belief and Science
| contribution-url=http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf
| editor-last=Knight
| editor-first=David M.
| editor2-last=Eddy
| editor2-first=Matthew D.
| title=Science and Beliefs: From Natural Philosophy to Natural Science, 1700–1900
| location=Burlington
| publisher=Ashgate
| pages=141–156
| isbn=978-0-7546-3996-1
| access-date=16 December 2008
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326070105/http://www.psych.uni-goettingen.de/abt/1/sydow/von_Sydow_(2005)_Darwin_A_Christian_Undermining_Christianity.pdf
| archive-date=26 March 2009
}}
* {{cite web
| last=Yates
| first=Simon
| year=2003
| title=The Lady Hope Story: A Widespread Falsehood
| publisher=[[TalkOrigins Archive]]
| url=http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html
| access-date=15 December 2006
| archive-date=12 October 2009
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012194435/http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/hope.html
| url-status=live
}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Library resources box
| onlinebooks = yes
| by = yes
| viaf = 27063124
| label = Charles Darwin
}}
* {{cite web |title=The Complete Work of Charles Darwin Online |url=https://darwin-online.org.uk/ |access-date=4 March 2024}}
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/charles-darwin}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=485| name=Charles Darwin}}
* {{Internet Archive author |name=Charles Robert Darwin}}
* {{Librivox author |id=166}}
* [[The Complete Works of Charles Darwin Online]] – [http://darwin-online.org.uk/ Darwin Online]; Darwin's publications, private papers and bibliography, supplementary works including biographies, obituaries and reviews
* [http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/ Darwin Correspondence Project] Full text and notes for complete correspondence to 1867, with summaries of all the rest, and pages of commentary
* [http://darwin.amnh.org/ Darwin Manuscript Project]
* {{UK National Archives ID}}
* View books owned and annotated by [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/collection/darwinlibrary Charles Darwin] at the online Biodiversity Heritage Library.
* [http://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/collections/darwin_mss Digitised Darwin Manuscripts] in [[Cambridge Digital Library]]
* {{NPG name}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/003703}}
* [https://www.rhs.org.uk/about-the-rhs/pdfs/publications/lindley-library-occasional-papers/volume-3-july-2010.pdf Charles Darwin in the British horticultural press] – Occasional Papers from RHS Lindley Library, volume 3 July 2010
* [[Scientific American]], 29 April 1882, pp. 256, [https://books.google.com/books?id=zoE9AQAAIAAJ&q=Charles%20Darwin Obituary of Charles Darwin]
* {{IEP|/darwin/}}

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Caroline von Humboldt

2024-10-20T22:47:19Z

NidabaM: /* Life */

{{Short description|German salonnière and art historian}}
[[File:Germany Caroline von Humboldt.jpg|thumb|Caroline von Humboldt by an unknown artist, 1808, [[National Museum, Warsaw|National Museum]] in [[Warsaw]]]]
[[File:Humboldt, Caroline von (1766-1829).jpg|thumb|Caroline von Humboldt by [[Gottlieb Schick]]]]
[[File:Christian Gottlieb Schick 001.jpg|thumb|''Adelheid and Gabriele von Humboldt'' by [[Gottlieb Schick]], 1809]]

'''Caroline von Humboldt''' (23 February 1766 in [[Minden]] – 26 March 1829 in [[Berlin]]), née ''Carolina Friederica von Dacheröden'', was a German [[salonnière]] and art historian.

==Life==
She was the daughter of [[Karl Friedrich von Dacheröden]] (died 20 November 1809), chamber-president of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], and his wife, Countess Ernestine Friderike von Hopfgarten (died 1 May 1774). She grew up in [[Erfurt]] and her parents' estates in [[Hettstedt|Burgörner]] and [[Auleben]], where she befriended the von Lengefeld sisters, [[Caroline von Wolzogen|Caroline]] (later one of her best friends) and [[Charlotte von Lengefeld|Charlotte]] (later wife of the playwright [[Friedrich Schiller]]).

On 29 June 1791 she married in Erfurt the linguist and later Prussian statesman [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], brother of the naturalist [[Alexander von Humboldt]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=12, 39, 81, 92 133 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> Their marriage was an unconventional one and both allowed each other many freedoms. Until 1797 they lived in [[Jena]] next door to Schiller but they later lived apart for several years until from 1819 they shared Wilhelm's family home at [[Schloss Tegel]]. Caroline's only brother Ernst died childless in 1806.<ref>Anna von Sydow (ed): ''Gabriele von Bülow. Tochter Wilhelm von Humboldts'' Berlin 1913, Mittler & Sohn</ref> Caroline and Wilhelm had eight children:
* Caroline (1792–1837)
* Wilhelm (1794–1803)
* Theodor (1797–1871)
* Adelheid (1800–1856)
* [[Gabriele von Bülow|Gabriele]] (1802–1887)
* Louise (1804)
* Gustav (1806–1807)
* Hermann (1809–1870)

Due to Wilhelm's diplomatic work they spent prolonged periods in Paris (1797–1801, 1804), Rome (1802–1803, 1805–1810, 1817–1819) and Vienna (1810–1814), where their house became known as a social and cultural hub. She took her three children on a 7-month trip from Paris to Spain, where she catalogued and wrote about Spanish artworks – her works on the topic were praised by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], who published some of them.

Her favourite city was Rome, where she was in contact with several German and Danish artists living in the city ([[Gottlieb Schick]], [[Christian Friedrich Tieck]], [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]], [[Wilhelm von Schadow]], [[Karl Wilhelm Wach]]), financially supporting them and buying several of their works. She had a particularly intense friendship with the sculptor [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], whilst [[Angelika Kauffmann]] and [[Louis I of Bavaria]] also stayed in her house.

She also ran a form of literary [[salon (gathering)|salon]] in Berlin, where politicians, scientists and writers met. She was also in extensive correspondence with major figures, through which she took part in the currents of the day and played a major role in her husband's writings.

== Namesakes ==
*''Caroline-von-Humboldt-Preis'' at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hu-berlin.de/de/foerdern/altes/forschung/caroline-von-humboldt-preis|title=Caroline-von-Humboldt-Preis — FUNDRAISING|website=www.hu-berlin.de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.exzellenz.hu-berlin.de/en/funding/young-researchers/the-caroline-von-humboldt-grant-programme |title=The Caroline von Humboldt Grant Programme |website=[[Humboldt University of Berlin]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202014553/https://www.exzellenz.hu-berlin.de/en/funding/young-researchers/the-caroline-von-humboldt-grant-programme |archive-date=2 February 2017}}</ref>
* Caroline-von-Humboldt-Weg, Berlin-Mitte<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.berlin.de/ba-mitte/bezirk/gedenken/caroline_von_humboldt.html# |title=Caroline-von-Humboldt-Weg, Berlin-Mitte |access-date=2017-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513052811/http://www.berlin.de/ba-mitte/bezirk/gedenken/caroline_von_humboldt.html# |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* ''Caroline-von-Humboldt-Gymnasium'' in Minden, affiliated to the [[Herder-Gymnasium Minden]] in 1988

== Bibliography (in German) ==
* [[Dagmar von Gersdorff]]: ''Caroline von Humboldt. Eine Biographie.'' Insel, Frankfurt a. Main 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-458-17502-5}}.
* Hermann Hettler: ''Karoline von Humboldt. Ein Lebensbild aus ihren Briefen gestaltet.'' Koehler & Amelang, München 2001, {{ISBN|3-7338-0305-1}}.
* [[Hazel Rosenstrauch]]: ''Wahlverwandt und ebenbürtig. Caroline und Wilhelm von Humboldt.'' Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 2009.<ref>Besprechungen: Judith von Sternburg: [http://www.fr-online.de/kultur/literatur/die-geschichte-von-bill-und-li/-/1472266/3038910/-/index.html ''Buch über das Ehepaar Humboldt. Die Geschichte von Bill und Li.''] In: ''[[Frankfurter Rundschau]]'', 29. Oktober 2009; Ulrike Baureithel: [http://www.tagesspiegel.de/kultur/Humboldt;art772,2854292 ''Ehepaar Humboldt. Ein Forum der Liebe.''] In: ''[[Der Tagesspiegel]]'', 23. Juli 2009.</ref>
* Beate Neubauer: ''Schönheit, Grazie und Geist: Elisabeth, Caroline, Gabriele und Constanze. Die Frauen der Familie von Humboldt''. Ebersbach & Simon, 2007, {{ISBN|978-3-9387-4039-2}}.

== External links (in German) ==
{{Commons category|Caroline von Humboldt}}
* {{DNB-Portal|118554719}}
* [http://www.lwl.org/literaturkommission/alex/index.php?id=00000003&letter=H&layout=2&author_id=00000141 Umfassende Literaturübersicht] in ''Lexikon Westfälischer Autorinnen und Autoren''.
* [http://m-tag.de/inhalt.htm The Correspondence of Wilhelm and Caroline von Humboldt]
* Astrid Reuter: [http://www.diegeschichteberlins.de/geschichteberlins/berlinabc/stichworteag/542-frauenbilder-der-romantik.html ''Blickwechsel – Frauenbilder der Romantik.''] In: Verein für die Geschichte Berlins (ed.): ''Mitteilungen'', Ausgabe April 2002.
* [[Dorothee Nolte]]: [http://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/die-schillernde-gattin-des-universitaetsgruenders/4453272.html ''Caroline von Humboldt. Die schillernde Gattin des Universitätsgründers.''] In: ''[[Der Tagesspiegel]]'', 2. August 2011.
* [[Hazel Rosenstrauch]]: [http://www.fembio.org/biographie.php/frau/biographie/caroline-von-humboldt2/ ''Caroline von Humboldt.''] In: ''FemBio des Instituts für Frauen-Biographieforschung'' (biography, literature and sources)

== References==
<references />

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Humboldt, Caroline von}}
[[Category:German art historians]]
[[Category:1766 births]]
[[Category:1829 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Minden]]
[[Category:Prussian nobility]]
[[Category:German salon-holders]]
[[Category:Humboldt family]]
[[Category:German women historians]]
[[Category:Historians from the Kingdom of Prussia]]
[[Category:Noblewomen in the Kingdom of Prussia]]

Caroline von Humboldt

2024-10-20T22:45:56Z

NidabaM: /* Life */

{{Short description|German salonnière and art historian}}
[[File:Germany Caroline von Humboldt.jpg|thumb|Caroline von Humboldt by an unknown artist, 1808, [[National Museum, Warsaw|National Museum]] in [[Warsaw]]]]
[[File:Humboldt, Caroline von (1766-1829).jpg|thumb|Caroline von Humboldt by [[Gottlieb Schick]]]]
[[File:Christian Gottlieb Schick 001.jpg|thumb|''Adelheid and Gabriele von Humboldt'' by [[Gottlieb Schick]], 1809]]

'''Caroline von Humboldt''' (23 February 1766 in [[Minden]] – 26 March 1829 in [[Berlin]]), née ''Carolina Friederica von Dacheröden'', was a German [[salonnière]] and art historian.

==Life==
She was the daughter of [[Karl Friedrich von Dacheröden]] (died 20 November 1809), chamber-president of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]], and his wife, Countess Ernestine Friderike von Hopfgarten (died 1 May 1774). She grew up in [[Erfurt]] and her parents' estates in [[Hettstedt|Burgörner]] and [[Auleben]], where she befriended the von Lengefeld sisters, [[Caroline von Wolzogen|Caroline]] (later one of her best friends) and [[Charlotte von Lengefeld|Charlotte]] (later wife of the playwright [[Friedrich Schiller]]).

On 29 June 1791 she married in Erfurt the linguist and later Prussian statesman [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], brother of the naturalist [[Alexander von Humboldt]].<ref>[[Steffen Raßloff]]: [http://www.erfurt-web.de/Wilhelm_von_Humboldt ''Gastliches Haus. Im Haus Dacheröden am Anger waren einst große Geister zu Gast und heiratete Wilhelm von Humboldt seine Frau Caroline von Dacheröden.''] In: ''[[Thüringer Allgemeine]]'', 1 December 2012.</ref> Their marriage was an unconventional one and both allowed each other many freedoms. Until 1797 they lived in [[Jena]] next door to Schiller but they later lived apart for several years until from 1819 they shared Wilhelm's family home at [[Schloss Tegel]]. Caroline's only brother Ernst died childless in 1806.<ref>Anna von Sydow (ed): ''Gabriele von Bülow. Tochter Wilhelm von Humboldts'' Berlin 1913, Mittler & Sohn</ref> Caroline and Wilhelm had eight children:
* Caroline (1792–1837)
* Wilhelm (1794–1803)
* Theodor (1797–1871)
* Adelheid (1800–1856)
* [[Gabriele von Bülow|Gabriele]] (1802–1887)
* Louise (1804)
* Gustav (1806–1807)
* Hermann (1809–1870)

Due to Wilhelm's diplomatic work they spent prolonged periods in Paris (1797–1801, 1804), Rome (1802–1803, 1805–1810, 1817–1819) and Vienna (1810–1814), where their house became known as a social and cultural hub. She took her three children on a 7-month trip from Paris to Spain, where she catalogued and wrote about Spanish artworks – her works on the topic were praised by [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], who published some of them.

Her favourite city was Rome, where she was in contact with several German and Danish artists living in the city ([[Gottlieb Schick]], [[Christian Friedrich Tieck]], [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]], [[Wilhelm von Schadow]], [[Karl Wilhelm Wach]]), financially supporting them and buying several of their works. She had a particularly intense friendship with the sculptor [[Christian Daniel Rauch]], whilst [[Angelika Kauffmann]] and [[Louis I of Bavaria]] also stayed in her house.

She also ran a form of literary [[salon (gathering)|salon]] in Berlin, where politicians, scientists and writers met. She was also in extensive correspondence with major figures, through which she took part in the currents of the day and played a major role in her husband's writings.

== Namesakes ==
*''Caroline-von-Humboldt-Preis'' at the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hu-berlin.de/de/foerdern/altes/forschung/caroline-von-humboldt-preis|title=Caroline-von-Humboldt-Preis — FUNDRAISING|website=www.hu-berlin.de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.exzellenz.hu-berlin.de/en/funding/young-researchers/the-caroline-von-humboldt-grant-programme |title=The Caroline von Humboldt Grant Programme |website=[[Humboldt University of Berlin]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202014553/https://www.exzellenz.hu-berlin.de/en/funding/young-researchers/the-caroline-von-humboldt-grant-programme |archive-date=2 February 2017}}</ref>
* Caroline-von-Humboldt-Weg, Berlin-Mitte<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.berlin.de/ba-mitte/bezirk/gedenken/caroline_von_humboldt.html# |title=Caroline-von-Humboldt-Weg, Berlin-Mitte |access-date=2017-01-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513052811/http://www.berlin.de/ba-mitte/bezirk/gedenken/caroline_von_humboldt.html# |archive-date=2013-05-13 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* ''Caroline-von-Humboldt-Gymnasium'' in Minden, affiliated to the [[Herder-Gymnasium Minden]] in 1988

== Bibliography (in German) ==
* [[Dagmar von Gersdorff]]: ''Caroline von Humboldt. Eine Biographie.'' Insel, Frankfurt a. Main 2011, {{ISBN|978-3-458-17502-5}}.
* Hermann Hettler: ''Karoline von Humboldt. Ein Lebensbild aus ihren Briefen gestaltet.'' Koehler & Amelang, München 2001, {{ISBN|3-7338-0305-1}}.
* [[Hazel Rosenstrauch]]: ''Wahlverwandt und ebenbürtig. Caroline und Wilhelm von Humboldt.'' Eichborn, Frankfurt am Main 2009.<ref>Besprechungen: Judith von Sternburg: [http://www.fr-online.de/kultur/literatur/die-geschichte-von-bill-und-li/-/1472266/3038910/-/index.html ''Buch über das Ehepaar Humboldt. Die Geschichte von Bill und Li.''] In: ''[[Frankfurter Rundschau]]'', 29. Oktober 2009; Ulrike Baureithel: [http://www.tagesspiegel.de/kultur/Humboldt;art772,2854292 ''Ehepaar Humboldt. Ein Forum der Liebe.''] In: ''[[Der Tagesspiegel]]'', 23. Juli 2009.</ref>
* Beate Neubauer: ''Schönheit, Grazie und Geist: Elisabeth, Caroline, Gabriele und Constanze. Die Frauen der Familie von Humboldt''. Ebersbach & Simon, 2007, {{ISBN|978-3-9387-4039-2}}.

== External links (in German) ==
{{Commons category|Caroline von Humboldt}}
* {{DNB-Portal|118554719}}
* [http://www.lwl.org/literaturkommission/alex/index.php?id=00000003&letter=H&layout=2&author_id=00000141 Umfassende Literaturübersicht] in ''Lexikon Westfälischer Autorinnen und Autoren''.
* [http://m-tag.de/inhalt.htm The Correspondence of Wilhelm and Caroline von Humboldt]
* Astrid Reuter: [http://www.diegeschichteberlins.de/geschichteberlins/berlinabc/stichworteag/542-frauenbilder-der-romantik.html ''Blickwechsel – Frauenbilder der Romantik.''] In: Verein für die Geschichte Berlins (ed.): ''Mitteilungen'', Ausgabe April 2002.
* [[Dorothee Nolte]]: [http://www.tagesspiegel.de/wissen/die-schillernde-gattin-des-universitaetsgruenders/4453272.html ''Caroline von Humboldt. Die schillernde Gattin des Universitätsgründers.''] In: ''[[Der Tagesspiegel]]'', 2. August 2011.
* [[Hazel Rosenstrauch]]: [http://www.fembio.org/biographie.php/frau/biographie/caroline-von-humboldt2/ ''Caroline von Humboldt.''] In: ''FemBio des Instituts für Frauen-Biographieforschung'' (biography, literature and sources)

== References==
<references />

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Humboldt, Caroline von}}
[[Category:German art historians]]
[[Category:1766 births]]
[[Category:1829 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Minden]]
[[Category:Prussian nobility]]
[[Category:German salon-holders]]
[[Category:Humboldt family]]
[[Category:German women historians]]
[[Category:Historians from the Kingdom of Prussia]]
[[Category:Noblewomen in the Kingdom of Prussia]]

Gabriele von Bülow

2024-10-20T22:41:19Z

NidabaM: /* Bibliography */

{{Short description|German noblewoman}}
{{Infobox nobility
|name = Gabriele von Bülow
|image = File:GabrieleVonBuelow.png
|caption = Gabriele von Bülow, ca. 1880
|birth_date = 28 May 1802
|birth_place = [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1887|4|16|1802|5|18|df=y}}
|death_place = Berlin, [[German Empire]]
|spouse = [[Heinrich von Bülow (diplomat)|Heinrich von Bülow]]
|issue = Gabriele Adelheid Caroline Therese Constanze Wilhelm Bernhard Hans
|father = [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]
|mother = [[Caroline von Humboldt|Caroline von Dacheröden]]
}}
'''Gabriele von Bülow''' (28 May 1802 – 16 April 1887) was a German noblewoman.

== Life ==
The third daughter of [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] and [[Caroline von Humboldt|Caroline von Dacheröden]], she was born in [[Berlin]]. She had seven sisters and spent her early years in Rome at her father's ambassadorial residence, remaining there even after his return to Berlin – in 1809 her portrait was painted in Rome by [[Gottlieb Schick]]. In 1810 the children and Caroline moved to Vienna, where Wilhelm acted as ambassador until 1814. The family then moved to Berlin for two years then to [[Frankfurt am Main]].[[File:Christian Gottlieb Schick 001.jpg|thumb|Gabriele von Humboldt aged seven (right) with her sister Adelheid, to whom she was particularly close.]]On 30 October 1816 Gabriele became engaged to her father's secretary [[Heinrich von Bülow (diplomat)|Heinrich von Bülow]], though the marriage only occurred years later. Gabriele spent two more years in Rome and in 1819 she returned to Berlin. Bülow returned from London in 1820 and they married on 10 January 1821. As a successful diplomat, Bülow spent most of his life in London – he was appointed ambassador in 1827. Gabriele spent 1828 to 1836 in London with her husband, where her portrait was painted by [[August Grahl]] in 1831. She also spent long periods back home around the deaths of her parents in 1829 and 1835, especially the several years she spent caring for her father at [[Schloss Tegel]].

Bülow became Prussia's foreign minister in 1842 but died in 1846. Gabriele moved to [[Potsdam]] then to Rome, looking after her children and grandchildren. Although she was the last surviving heir of her father, particularly to his estates in Tegel and Burgörner, she lived a very modest life, in contrast to her mother, though still in contact with major figures of her time – for example, she acted as [[oberhofmeisterin|chief lady in waiting]] to [[William I, German Emperor|William I]]'s consort [[Augusta of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach|Augusta]] at William's coronation. Her 81st birthday in 1883 was chosen as the occasion for unveiling the two Humboldt monuments in front of the [[University of Berlin]]. She was also a patron to the writer and salon-leader [[Marie von Olfers]], whilst the Gabriele von Bülow Oberschule in Berlin was named after her in 1938.

She died in Berlin on 16 April 1887.

== Children ==
She and Heinrich von Bülow had seven children;

* Gabriele (7 January 1822 – 16 February 1854), married [[Leopold von Loën]] (1815–1895) on 29 August 1842
* Adelheid (16 October 1823 – 21 December 1889), died unmarried
* Caroline (27 February 1826 – 19 November 1887), died unmarried
* Therese (15 August 1829 – 20 July 1841)
* Constanze (10 April 1832 – 1920), married Carl von Heinz (1818–1867) on 17 January 1857
* Wilhelm (12 May 1836 – 6 September 1836)
* Bernhard Hans (8 June 1838 – 17 October 1889), married Anna Luise Emilie of [[Byern]] (1847–1931) on 28 September 1865

== Bibliography ==
* {{in lang|de}} Sydow, Anna von (ed.): ''Gabriele von Bülow. Tochter Wilhelm von Humboldts. Ein Lebensbild aus den Familienpapieren Wilhelm von Humboldts und seiner Kinder 1791–1887.'' Mittler &.Sohn, Berlin 1913.
* {{in lang|de}} Antonius Lux (ed.): ''Große Frauen der Weltgeschichte. 1000 Biographien in Wort und Bild''. [[Sebastian Lux Verlag]], München 1963, S. 87.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bulow, Gabriele von}}
[[Category:1802 births]]
[[Category:1887 deaths]]
[[Category:Bülow family|Gabriele]]
[[Category:German ladies-in-waiting]]
[[Category:People from Berlin]]

Contour line

2024-10-20T22:38:20Z

NidabaM:

{{Short description|Curve along which a 3-D surface is at equal elevation}}
{{About|lines of equal value in maps and diagrams|more meanings of the word "contour"|Contour (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Courbe niveau.svg|thumb|The bottom part of the diagram shows some contour lines with a straight line running through the location of the maximum value. The curve at the top represents the values along that straight line.]]
[[Image:Contour3D.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|A three-dimensional surface, whose contour graph is below.]]
[[Image:Contour2D.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|A two-dimensional contour graph of the three-dimensional surface in the above picture.]]

A '''contour line''' (also '''isoline''', '''isopleth''', [[isoquant]] or '''isarithm''') of a [[Function of several real variables|function of two variables]] is a [[curve]] along which the function has a constant value, so that the curve joins points of equal value.<ref>Courant, Richard, Herbert Robbins, and Ian Stewart. ''What Is Mathematics?: An Elementary Approach to Ideas and Methods''. New York: Oxford University Press, 1996. [https://books.google.com/books?id=_kYBqLc5QoQC&pg=PA344 p. 344.]</ref><ref name="Hughes">{{cite book|last1=Hughes-Hallett|first1=Deborah|last2=McCallum|first2=William G.|last3=Gleason|first3=Andrew M.|title=Calculus : Single and Multivariable|date=2013|publisher=John wiley|isbn=978-0470-88861-2|edition=6}}</ref> It is a [[cross-section (geometry)#Definition|plane section]] of the [[graph of a function of two variables|three-dimensional graph]] of the function <math>f(x,y)</math> parallel to the <math>(x,y)</math>-plane. More generally, a contour line for a function of two variables is a curve connecting points where the function has the same particular value.<ref name="Hughes"/>

In [[cartography]], a contour line (often just called a "contour") joins points of equal [[elevation]] (height) above a given level, such as [[mean sea level]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of contour line |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/contour-line |access-date=2022-04-04 |website=Dictionary.com |language=en}}</ref> A '''contour map''' is a [[map]] illustrated with contour lines, for example a [[topographic map]], which thus shows valleys and hills, and the steepness or gentleness of slopes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Definition of CONTOUR MAP |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/contour+map |access-date=2022-04-04 |website=Merriam-Webster |language=en}}</ref> The '''contour interval''' of a contour map is the difference in elevation between successive contour lines.<ref>Tracy, John C. ''Plane Surveying; A Text-Book and Pocket Manual''. New York: J. Wiley & Sons, 1907. [https://books.google.com/books?id=lp0NAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA337 p. 337.]</ref>

The [[gradient]] of the function is always perpendicular to the contour lines. When the lines are close together the magnitude of the gradient is large: the variation is steep. A [[level set]] is a generalization of a contour line for functions of any number of variables.

Contour lines are curved, straight or a mixture of both lines on a [[map]] describing the intersection of a real or hypothetical surface with one or more horizontal planes. The configuration of these contours allows map readers to infer the relative gradient of a parameter and estimate that parameter at specific places. Contour lines may be either traced on a visible three-dimensional model of the [[surface (mathematics)|surface]], as when a photogrammetrist viewing a stereo-model plots elevation contours, or interpolated from the estimated surface [[elevations]], as when a computer program threads contours through a network of observation points of area centroids. In the latter case, the method of [[interpolation]] affects the reliability of individual isolines and their portrayal of [[slope]], pits and peaks.<ref>Davis, John C., 1986, ''Statistics and data analysis in geology'', Wiley {{ISBN|0-471-08079-9}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Halley compass variations 1702.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Edmond Halley]]'s ''New and Correct Chart Shewing the Variations of the Compass'' (1701)]]
The idea of lines that join points of equal value was rediscovered several times. The oldest known [[isobath]] (contour line of constant depth) is found on a map dated 1584 of the river [[Spaarne]], near [[Haarlem]], by [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutchman]] Pieter Bruinsz.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|url=http://www.age-geografia.es/ojs/index.php/bage/article/viewFile/2414/2262|title=Orígenes de la representación topográfica del terreno en algunos mapas hispanoamericanos del s. XVI|last=Morato-Moreno|first=Manuel|date=2017|journal=Boletín de la Asociación de Geógrafos Españoles|doi=10.21138/bage.2414|doi-access=free}}</ref> In 1701, [[Edmond Halley]] used such lines (isogons) on a chart of magnetic variation.<ref>Thrower, N. J. W. ''Maps and Civilization: Cartography in Culture and Society'', University of Chicago Press, 1972, revised 1996, page 97; and Jardine, Lisa ''Ingenious Pursuits: Building the Scientific Revolution'', Little, Brown, and Company, 1999, page 31.</ref> The Dutch engineer [[Nicolaas Kruik|Nicholas Cruquius]] drew the bed of the river [[Merwede]] with lines of equal depth (isobaths) at intervals of 1 [[fathom]] in 1727, and [[Philippe Buache]] used them at 10-fathom intervals on a chart of the [[English Channel]] that was prepared in 1737 and published in 1752. Such lines were used to describe a land surface (contour lines) in a map of the [[Duchy of Modena and Reggio]] by Domenico Vandelli in 1746, and they were studied theoretically by Ducarla in 1771, and [[Charles Hutton]] used them in the [[Schiehallion experiment]]. In 1791, a map of France by J. L. Dupain-Triel used contour lines at 20-metre intervals, hachures, spot-heights and a vertical section. In 1801, the chief of the French Corps of Engineers, [[François Nicolas Benoît, Baron Haxo|Haxo]], used contour lines at the larger scale of 1:500 on a plan of his projects for [[Rocca d'Anfo]], now in northern Italy, under [[Napoleon]].<ref name="Skel58">R. A. Skelton, "Cartography", ''History of Technology'', Oxford, vol. 6, pp. 612–614, 1958.</ref><ref>Colonel Berthaut, ''La Carte de France'', vol. 1, p. 139, quoted by Close.</ref><ref>C. Hutton, "An account of the calculations made from the survey and measures taken at Schehallien, in order to ascertain the mean density of the Earth", ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London'', vol. 68, pp. [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k55873m/f808.item 756]–[http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k55873m/f809.item 757]</ref>

By around 1843, when the [[Ordnance Survey]] started to regularly record contour lines in [[Great Britain]] and [[Ireland]], they were already in general use in European countries. Isobaths were not routinely used on [[nautical chart]]s until those of [[Russia]] from 1834, and those of Britain from 1838.<ref name="Skel58"/><ref>C. Close, ''The Early Years of the Ordnance Survey'', 1926, republished by David and Charles, 1969, {{ISBN|0-7153-4477-3}}, pp. 141–144.</ref><ref>T. Owen and E. Pilbeam, ''Ordnance Survey: Map Makers to Britain since 1791'', HMSO, 1992, {{ISBN|0-11-701507-5}}.</ref>

As different uses of the technique were invented independently, cartographers began to recognize a common theme, and debated what to call these "lines of equal value" generally. The word ''isogram'' ({{ety|grc|''ἴσος'' (isos)|equal||''γράμμα'' (gramma)|writing, drawing}}) was proposed by [[Francis Galton]] in 1889 for lines indicating equality of some physical condition or quantity,<ref>{{cite journal|journal =Nature|volume= 40|date = 1889|page =651|first = Francis|last = Galton|title = On the Principle and Methods of Assigning Marks for Bodily Efficiency|issue= 1044|doi= 10.1038/040649a0|bibcode= 1889Natur..40..649.|s2cid= 3996216|url = https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uva.x001089260&view=1up&seq=891|doi-access = free}}</ref> though ''isogram'' can also refer to a [[isogram|word without a repeated letter]]. As late as 1944, [[John Kirtland Wright|John K. Wright]] still preferred ''isogram'', but it never attained wide usage. During the early 20th century, ''isopleth'' ({{lang-grc|πλῆθος|plethos|amount|label=none}}) was being used by 1911 in the United States, while ''isarithm'' ({{lang-grc|ἀριθμός|arithmos|number|label=none}}) had become common in Europe. Additional alternatives, including the Greek-English hybrid ''isoline'' and ''isometric line'' ({{lang-grc|μέτρον|metron|measure|label=none}}), also emerged. Despite attempts to select a single standard, all of these alternatives have survived to the present.<ref name="Wright1930">{{cite journal |last1= Wright |first1=John K. |title=Isopleth as a Generic Term |journal=Geographical Review |date=Apr 1930 |volume=20 |issue=2 |page=341 |jstor=208890 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/208890}}</ref><ref name="wright1944">{{cite journal |last1=Wright |first1=John K. |title=The Terminology of Certain Map Symbols |journal=Geographical Review |date=Oct 1944 |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=653–654 |doi= 10.2307/210035 |jstor=210035 |bibcode=1944GeoRv..34..653W |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/210035}}</ref>

When maps with contour lines became common, the idea spread to other applications. Perhaps the latest to develop are [[air quality]] and [[noise pollution]] contour maps, which first appeared in the United States in approximately 1970, largely as a result of national legislation requiring spatial delineation of these parameters.

== Types ==
Contour lines are often given specific names beginning with "''iso-''" according to the nature of the variable being mapped, although in many usages the phrase "contour line" is most commonly used. Specific names are most common in meteorology, where multiple maps with different variables may be viewed simultaneously. The prefix "'''iso-''" can be replaced with "''isallo-''" to specify a contour line connecting points where a variable changes at the same ''rate'' during a given time period.

An '''isogon''' ({{ety|grc|''γωνία'' (gonia)|angle}}) is a contour line for a variable which measures direction. In meteorology and in geomagnetics, the term ''isogon'' has specific meanings which are described below. An '''[[isocline]]''' ({{lang-grc|κλίνειν|klinein|to lean or slope|label=none}}) is a line joining points with equal slope. In population dynamics and in geomagnetics, the terms ''isocline'' and ''isoclinic line'' have specific meanings which are described below.

=== Equidistant points ===
A curve of equidistant points is a set of points all at the same distance from a given [[point (geometry)|point]], [[line (geometry)|line]], or [[polyline]]. In this case the function whose value is being held constant along a contour line is a [[distance function]].

=== Isopleths ===
In 1944, John K. Wright proposed that the term ''isopleth'' be used for contour lines that depict a variable which cannot be measured at a point, but which instead must be calculated from data collected over an area, as opposed to ''isometric lines'' for variables that could be measured at a point; this distinction has since been followed generally.<ref name="wright1944" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Robinson AH | author-link = Arthur H. Robinson | year = 1971 | title = The genealogy of the isopleth | journal = Cartographic Journal | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 49–53 | doi = 10.1179/caj.1971.8.1.49 | bibcode = 1971CartJ...8...49R }}</ref> An example of an isopleth is [[population density]], which can be calculated by dividing the population of a [[census tract|census district]] by the surface area of that district. Each calculated value is presumed to be the value of the variable at the centre of the area, and isopleths can then be drawn by a process of [[interpolation]]. The idea of an isopleth map can be compared with that of a [[choropleth map]].<ref>T. Slocum, R. McMaster, F. Kessler, and H. Howard, ''Thematic Cartography and Geographic Visualization'', 2nd edition, Pearson, 2005, {{ISBN|0-13-035123-7}}, p. 272.</ref><ref>ArcGIS, [http://www.arcgis.com/home/item.html?id=830338fc8ca947c38b8d97f51724f5c9 Isopleth: Contours], 2013.</ref>

In meteorology, the word ''isopleth'' is used for any type of contour line.<ref>NOAA's National Weather Service, [http://w1.weather.gov/glossary/index.php?letter=i Glossary].</ref>

=== Meteorology ===
[[File:Isohyet.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Isohyetal map of precipitation]]

Meteorological contour lines are based on [[interpolation]] of the point data received from [[weather station]]s and [[weather satellite]]s. Weather stations are seldom exactly positioned at a contour line (when they are, this indicates a measurement precisely equal to the value of the contour). Instead, lines are drawn to best approximate the locations of exact values, based on the scattered information points available.

[[Weather maps|Meteorological contour maps]] may present collected data such as actual air pressure at a given time, or generalized data such as average pressure over a period of time, or forecast data such as predicted air pressure at some point in the future.

[[Thermodynamic diagrams]] use multiple overlapping contour sets (including isobars and isotherms) to present a picture of the major thermodynamic factors in a weather system.

==== Barometric pressure ====
[[File:Loop isallobaric tendencies.gif|thumb|Video loop of isallobars showing the motion of a [[cold front]]]]
An '''isobar''' ({{ety|grc|''βάρος'' (baros)|weight}}) is a line of equal or constant [[pressure]] on a graph, plot, or map; an isopleth or contour line of pressure. More accurately, isobars are lines drawn on a map joining places of equal average atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level for a specified period of time. In [[meteorology]], the [[barometric pressure]]s shown are reduced to [[sea level]], not the surface pressures at the map locations.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=University of Wisconsin |author=Edward J. Hopkins, Ph.D. |date=1996-06-10 |url=http://www.meteor.wisc.edu/~hopkins/aos100/sfc-anl.htm |title=Surface Weather Analysis Chart |access-date=2007-05-10}}</ref> The distribution of isobars is closely related to the magnitude and direction of the [[wind]] field, and can be used to predict future weather patterns. Isobars are commonly used in television weather reporting.

'''Isallobars''' are lines joining points of equal pressure change during a specific time interval.<ref name="OMM">{{cite web | url= http://www.eumetcal.org/resources/ukmeteocal/rapid_cyclo/www/english/glossary/isalloba.htm | title= Isallobar | author= World Meteorological Organisation | author-link= World Meteorological Organisation | work= Eumetcal | access-date= 12 April 2014 | url-status= dead | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140416031654/http://www.eumetcal.org/resources/ukmeteocal/rapid_cyclo/www/english/glossary/isalloba.htm | archive-date= 16 April 2014 }}</ref> These can be divided into ''anallobars'', lines joining points of equal pressure increase during a specific time interval,<ref name="OMM-1">{{cite web | url= http://www.eumetcal.org/euromet/glossary/analloba.htm | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150924003018/http://www.eumetcal.org/euromet/glossary/analloba.htm | url-status= dead | archive-date= 24 September 2015 | title= Anallobar | author= World Meteorological Organisation | author-link= World Meteorological Organisation | work= Eumetcal | access-date= 12 April 2014 }}</ref> and ''katallobars'', lines joining points of equal pressure decrease.<ref name="OMM-2">{{cite web | url= http://www.eumetcal.org/euromet/glossary/katallob.htm | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080205124154/http://www.eumetcal.org/euromet/glossary/katallob.htm | url-status= dead | archive-date= 5 February 2008 | title= Katallobar | author= World Meteorological Organisation | author-link= World Meteorological Organisation | work= Eumetcal | access-date= 12 April 2014 }}</ref> In general, weather systems move along an axis joining high and low isallobaric centers.<ref>{{ cite web | url= http://apollo.lsc.vsc.edu/classes/met130/notes/chapter13/isallobars.html | title= Forecasting weather system movement with pressure tendency | work= Chapter 13 – Weather Forecasting | publisher = Lyndon State College Atmospheric Sciences | access-date = 12 April 2014}}</ref> Isallobaric gradients are important components of the wind as they increase or decrease the [[geostrophic wind]].

An [[isopycnal]] is a line of constant density. An ''isoheight'' or ''isohypse'' is a line of constant [[geopotential]] height on a constant pressure surface chart. Isohypse and isoheight are simply known as lines showing equal pressure on a map.

==== Temperature and related subjects ====
[[Image:arctic.svg|thumb|The {{convert|10|C}} mean isotherm in July, marked by the red line, is commonly used to define the border of the [[Arctic region]]]]

An '''isotherm''' ({{ety|grc|''θέρμη'' (thermē)|heat}}) is a line that connects points on a map that have the same [[temperature]]. Therefore, all points through which an isotherm passes have the same or equal temperatures at the time indicated.<ref name="DataAir">{{cite web|author=DataStreme Atmosphere|publisher=American Meteorological Society|url=http://www.ametsoc.org/amsedu/dstreme/learn/sample.act.html |title=Air Temperature Patterns|date=2008-04-28|access-date=2010-02-07 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080511124504/http://www.ametsoc.org/amsedu/dstreme/learn/sample.act.html |archive-date = 2008-05-11}}</ref><ref name="Hughes"/> An isotherm at 0 °C is called the [[freezing level]]. The term ''lignes isothermes'' (or ''lignes d'égale chaleur)'' was coined by the [[Prussia]]n geographer and naturalist [[Alexander von Humboldt]], who as part of his research into the geographical distribution of plants published the first map of isotherms in Paris, in 1817.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=106-107 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Munzar|first=Jan|date=1967-09-01|title=Alexander Von Humboldt and His Isotherms|journal=Weather|language=en|volume=22|issue=9|pages=360–363|doi=10.1002/j.1477-8696.1967.tb02989.x|issn=1477-8696|bibcode=1967Wthr...22..360M}}</ref>

An '''isocheim''' is a line of equal mean winter temperature, and an '''isothere''' is a line of equal mean summer temperature.

An '''isohel''' ({{lang-grc|ἥλιος|helios|Sun|label=none}}) is a line of equal or constant [[solar radiation]].

An '''isogeotherm''' is a line of equal temperature beneath the Earth's surface.

==== Rainfall and air moisture ====
An '''isohyet''' or '''isohyetal line''' ({{ety|grc|''ὑετός'' (huetos)|rain}}) is a line joining points of equal rainfall on a [[map]] in a given period. A map with isohyets is called an '''isohyetal map'''.

An '''isohume''' is a line of constant relative [[humidity]], while an '''isodrosotherm''' ({{ety|grc|''δρόσος'' (drosos)|dew||''θέρμη'' (therme)|heat}}) is a line of equal or constant [[dew point]].

An '''isoneph''' is a line indicating equal [[cloud]] cover.

An '''isochalaz''' is a line of constant frequency of [[hail]] storms, and an '''isobront''' is a line drawn through geographical points at which a given phase of thunderstorm activity occurred simultaneously.

[[Snow]] cover is frequently shown as a contour-line map.

==== Wind ====
An '''isotach''' ({{ety|grc|''ταχύς'' (tachus)|fast}}) is a line joining points with constant [[wind]] speed.
In meteorology, the term '''isogon''' refers to a line of constant wind direction.

==== Freeze and thaw ====
An '''isopectic''' line denotes equal dates of [[ice]] formation each winter, and an '''isotac''' denotes equal dates of thawing.

=== Physical geography and oceanography ===

==== Elevation and depth ====
[[File:Topographic map example.png|thumb|right|[[Topographic map]] of [[Stowe, Vermont|Stowe]], [[Vermont]]. The brown contour lines represent the [[elevation]]. The contour interval is 20 [[foot (length)|feet]].]]

Contours are one of several [[Cartographic relief depiction|common methods]] used to denote [[elevation]] or [[altitude]] and depth on [[map]]s. From these contours, a sense of the general [[terrain]] can be determined. They are used at a variety of scales, from large-scale engineering drawings and architectural plans, through [[topographic maps]] and [[bathymetric charts]], up to continental-scale maps.

"Contour line" is the most common usage in [[cartography]], but [[isobath]] for underwater depths on [[bathymetric]] maps and '''isohypse''' for elevations are also used.

In cartography, the '''contour interval''' is the elevation difference between adjacent contour lines. The contour interval should be the same over a single map. When calculated as a ratio against the map scale, a sense of the hilliness of the terrain can be derived.

===== Interpretation =====

There are several rules to note when interpreting terrain contour lines:
* '''The rule of Vs''': sharp-pointed vees usually are in stream valleys, with the drainage channel passing through the point of the vee, with the vee pointing upstream. This is a consequence of [[erosion]].
* '''The rule of Os''': closed loops are normally uphill on the inside and downhill on the outside, and the innermost loop is the highest area. If a loop instead represents a depression, some maps note this by short lines called hachures which are perpendicular to the contour and point in the direction of the low.<ref>{{cite web|last =Leveson|first= David J.|title = Depression Contours – Getting Into and Out of a Hole |url= http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/geology/leveson/core/linksa/depression.html |publisher= [[City University of New York]] |date= 2002}}</ref> (The concept is similar to but distinct from hachures used in [[hachure map]]s.)
* '''Spacing of contours''': close contours indicate a steep slope; distant contours a shallow slope. Two or more contour lines merging indicates a cliff. By counting the number of contours that cross a segment of a [[stream]], the [[stream gradient]] can be approximated.

Of course, to determine differences in elevation between two points, the contour interval, or distance in altitude between two adjacent contour lines, must be known, and this is normally stated in the map key. Usually contour intervals are consistent throughout a map, but there are exceptions. Sometimes intermediate contours are present in flatter areas; these can be dashed or dotted lines at half the noted contour interval. When contours are used with [[hypsometric tints]] on a small-scale map that includes mountains and flatter low-lying areas, it is common to have smaller intervals at lower elevations so that detail is shown in all areas. Conversely, for an island which consists of a plateau surrounded by steep cliffs, it is possible to use smaller intervals as the height increases.<ref>''[[Sark]] (Sercq)'', D Survey, Ministry of Defence, Series M 824, Sheet Sark, Edition 4 GSGS, 1965, [[Online Computer Library Center|OCLC]] {{OCLC|27636277}}. Scale 1:10,560. Contour intervals: 50 feet up to 200, 20 feet from 200 to 300, and 10 feet above 300.</ref>

==== Electrostatics ====
An '''[[isopotential map]]''' is a measure of electrostatic potential in space, often depicted in two dimensions with the electrostatic charges inducing that [[electric potential]]. The term '''[[equipotential]] line''' or '''isopotential line''' refers to a curve of constant [[electric potential]]. Whether crossing an equipotential line represents ascending or descending the potential is inferred from the labels on the charges. In three dimensions, '''[[equipotential]] surfaces''' may be depicted with a two dimensional cross-section, showing [[equipotential]] lines at the intersection of the surfaces and the cross-section.

The general mathematical term [[level set]] is often used to describe the full collection of points having a particular potential, especially in higher dimensional space.

==== Magnetism ====
[[Image:IGRF 2000 magnetic declination.gif|thumb|left|Isogonic lines for the year 2000. The agonic lines are thicker and labeled with "0".]]
In the study of the [[Earth's magnetic field]], the term '''isogon''' or '''isogonic line''' refers to a line of constant [[magnetic declination]], the variation of magnetic north from geographic north. An '''agonic line''' is drawn through points of zero magnetic declination. An '''isoporic line''' refers to a line of constant annual variation of magnetic declination
.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://historicalcharts.noaa.gov/historicals/preview/image/3077-00-1946
|access-date=2015-07-20
|title=isoporic line
|website=historicalcharts.noaa.gov
|date=1946
|archive-date=2015-07-21
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721172841/http://historicalcharts.noaa.gov/historicals/preview/image/3077-00-1946
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>

An '''isoclinic line''' connects points of equal [[magnetic dip]], and an '''aclinic line''' is the isoclinic line of magnetic dip zero.

An '''isodynamic line''' (from {{lang|grc|δύναμις}} or ''dynamis'' meaning 'power') connects points with the same intensity of magnetic force.

==== Oceanography ====
Besides ocean depth, [[oceanography|oceanographers]] use contour to describe diffuse variable phenomena much as meteorologists do with atmospheric phenomena. In particular, '''isobathytherms''' are lines showing depths of water with equal temperature, '''isohalines''' show lines of equal ocean salinity, and '''[[isopycnal]]s''' are surfaces of equal water density.

=== Geology ===
Various [[Geology|geological]] data are rendered as contour maps in [[structural geology]], [[sedimentology]], [[stratigraphy]] and [[economic geology]]. Contour maps are used to show the below ground surface of geologic [[stratum|strata]], [[Fault (geology)|fault]] surfaces (especially low angle [[thrust fault]]s) and [[unconformity|unconformities]]. [[Isopach map]]s use '''isopachs''' (lines of equal thickness) to illustrate variations in thickness of geologic units.

=== Environmental science ===
In discussing pollution, density maps can be very useful in indicating sources and areas of greatest contamination. Contour maps are especially useful for diffuse forms or scales of pollution. Acid precipitation is indicated on maps with '''isoplats'''. Some of the most widespread applications of [[environmental science]] contour maps involve mapping of [[environmental noise]] (where lines of equal sound pressure level are denoted '''isobels'''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sfu.ca/sonic-studio/handbook/Isobel.html
|access-date=2010-04-25
|title=Isobel
|website=www.sfu.ca
|date=2005-01-05
}}</ref>), [[air pollution]], [[soil contamination]], [[thermal pollution]] and [[groundwater]] contamination. By [[contour planting]] and [[contour ploughing]], the rate of [[water runoff]] and thus [[soil erosion]] can be substantially reduced; this is especially important in [[riparian]] zones.

=== Ecology ===
An '''isoflor''' is an isopleth contour connecting areas of comparable biological diversity. Usually, the variable is the number of species of a given genus or family that occurs in a region. Isoflor maps are thus used to show distribution patterns and trends such as centres of diversity.<ref name="Specht 1981">{{cite book | author = Specht, Raymond | title = Heathlands and related shrublands: Analytical studies | publisher = Elsevier | pages = 219–220}}</ref>

=== Social sciences ===
[[File:Simple-indifference-curves.svg|thumb|left|From [[economics]], an indifference map with three indifference curves shown. All points on a particular indifference curve have the same value of the [[utility function]], whose values implicitly come out of the page in the unshown third dimension.]]

In [[economics]], contour lines can be used to describe features which vary quantitatively over space. An '''[[wikt:isochrone|isochrone]]''' shows lines of equivalent drive time or travel time to a given location and is used in the generation of [[isochrone map]]s. An '''isotim''' shows equivalent transport costs from the source of a raw material, and an '''[[isodapane]]''' shows equivalent cost of travel time.

[[File:TE-Production-Isoquant.png|thumb|A single production isoquant (convex) and a single isocost curve (linear). [[labor demand|Labor]] usage is plotted horizontally and [[physical capital]] usage is plotted vertically.]]

Contour lines are also used to display non-geographic information in economics. '''[[Indifference curves]]''' (as shown at left) are used to show bundles of goods to which a person would assign equal utility. An '''[[isoquant]]''' (in the image at right) is a curve of equal production quantity for alternative combinations of [[factors of production|input usages]], and an '''[[isocost|isocost curve]]''' (also in the image at right) shows alternative usages having equal production costs.

In [[political science]] an analogous method is used in understanding coalitions (for example the diagram in Laver and Shepsle's work<ref>Laver, Michael and Kenneth A. Shepsle (1996) Making and breaking governments [https://books.google.com/books?id=nFeKE07AUMsC&pg=PA132&lpg=PA132 pictures].</ref>).

In [[population dynamics]], an '''[[isocline]]''' shows the set of population sizes at which the rate of change, or partial derivative, for one population in a pair of interacting populations is zero.

=== Statistics ===
In statistics, isodensity lines <ref name="Fernandez 2011">{{cite journal |vauthors= Fernández, Antonio|date=2011 |title= A Generalized Regression Methodology for Bivariate Heteroscedastic Data|journal= Communications in Statistics – Theory and Methods|volume= 40|issue=4 |pages= 598–621 |doi=10.1080/03610920903444011 |s2cid=55887263 |url= http://oa.upm.es/12253/1/INVE_MEM_2011_92717.pdf}}</ref> or isodensanes are lines that join points with the same value of a [[probability density]]. Isodensanes are used to display [[bivariate distribution]]s. For example, for a bivariate [[elliptical distribution]] the isodensity lines are [[ellipse]]s.

=== Thermodynamics, engineering, and other sciences ===
Various types of graphs in [[thermodynamics]], engineering, and other sciences use isobars (constant pressure), isotherms (constant temperature), isochors (constant specific volume), or other types of isolines, even though these graphs are usually not related to maps. Such isolines are useful for representing more than two dimensions (or quantities) on two-dimensional graphs. Common examples in thermodynamics are some types of [[phase diagram]]s.

'''[[Isocline]]s''' are used to solve [[ordinary differential equations]].

In interpreting [[radar]] images, an '''isodop''' is a line of equal [[Doppler effect|Doppler]] velocity, and an '''isoecho''' is a line of equal radar reflectivity.

In the case of hybrid contours, energies of hybrid orbitals and the energies of pure atomic orbitals are plotted. The graph obtained is called hybrid contour.

=== Other phenomena ===
* '''''isochasm''''': [[aurora (astronomy)|aurora]] equal occurrence
* '''''isochor''''': [[volume]]
* '''''isodose''''': [[absorbed dose]] of radiation
* '''''isophene''''': biological events occurring with [[coincidence]] such as plants [[flowering]]
* '''''isophote''''': [[illuminance]]
* mobile telephony: [[Received signal strength indication|mobile received power]] and [[Coverage (telecommunication)|cell coverage area]]

==Algorithms==
* finding boundaries of level sets after [[image segmentation]]
** [[Edge detection]]
** [[Level-set method]]
** [[Boundary tracing]]
* [[Active contour model]]

== Graphical design ==
{{For|features specific to [[topography]]|Terrain cartography#Contour lines|Topographic map#Conventions}}

To maximize readability of contour maps, there are several design choices available to the map creator, principally line weight, line [[color]], line type and method of numerical marking.

'''Line weight''' is simply the darkness or thickness of the line used. This choice is made based upon the least intrusive form of contours that enable the reader to decipher the background information in the map itself. If there is little or no content on the base map, the contour lines may be drawn with relatively heavy thickness. Also, for many forms of contours such as topographic maps, it is common to vary the line weight and/or color, so that a different line characteristic occurs for certain numerical values. For example, in the [[topographic]] map above, the even hundred foot elevations are shown in a different weight from the twenty foot intervals.

'''Line color''' is the choice of any number of [[pigment]]s that suit the display. Sometimes a [[Gloss (paint)|sheen or gloss]] is used as well as color to set the contour lines apart from the [[base map]]. Line colour can be varied to show other information.

'''Line type''' refers to whether the basic contour line is solid, dashed, dotted or broken in some other pattern to create the desired effect. Dotted or dashed lines are often used when the underlying base map conveys very important (or difficult to read) information. Broken line types are used when the location of the contour line is inferred.

'''Numerical marking''' is the manner of denoting the [[arithmetic]]al values of contour lines. This can be done by placing numbers along some of the contour lines, typically using [[interpolation]] for intervening lines. Alternatively a map key can be produced associating the contours with their values.

If the contour lines are not numerically labeled and adjacent lines have the same style (with the same weight, color and type), then the direction of the gradient cannot be determined from the contour lines alone. However, if the contour lines cycle through three or more styles, then the direction of the gradient can be determined from the lines. The orientation of the numerical text labels is often used to indicate the direction of the slope.

== Plan view versus profile view ==
{{see also|Topographic profile}}
Most commonly contour lines are drawn in plan view, or as an observer in space would view the Earth's surface: ordinary map form. However, some parameters can often be displayed in profile view showing a vertical profile of the parameter mapped. Some of the most common parameters mapped in profile are [[air pollutant concentrations]] and [[Sound exposure level|sound level]]s. In each of those cases it may be important to analyze (air pollutant concentrations or sound levels) at varying heights so as to determine the air quality or [[noise health effects]] on people at different elevations, for example, living on different floor levels of an urban apartment.  In actuality, both plan and profile view contour maps are used in [[air pollution]] and [[noise pollution]] studies.

[[Image:Cntr-map-1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Contour map labeled aesthetically in an "elevation up" manner.]]

== Labeling contour maps ==

[[Labeling (map design)|Labels]] are a critical component of elevation maps. A properly labeled contour map helps the reader to quickly interpret the shape of the terrain. If numbers are placed close to each other, it means that the terrain is steep. Labels should be placed along a slightly curved line "pointing" to the summit or nadir, from several directions if possible, making the visual identification of the summit or nadir easy.<ref>Imhof, E., "Die Anordnung der Namen in der Karte," Annuaire International de Cartographie II, Orell-Füssli Verlag, Zürich, 93–129, 1962.</ref><ref>Freeman, H., "Computer Name Placement," ch. 29, in Geographical Information Systems, 1, D.J. Maguire, M.F. Goodchild, and D.W. Rhind, John Wiley, New York, 1991, 449–460.</ref> Contour labels can be oriented so a reader is facing uphill when reading the label.

Manual labeling of contour maps is a time-consuming process, however, there are a few software systems that can do the job automatically and in accordance with cartographic conventions, called [[automatic label placement]].
{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Aeronautical chart]]
* [[Bathymetry]]
* [[Dymaxion map]]
* [[Fall line (topography)]]
* [[Geologic map]]
* [[Marching squares]]
* [[Planform]]
* [[Tensor field]]
* [[TERCOM]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=35em}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://phrontistery.info/contour.html ''Forthright's Phrontistery'']

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Contour Line}}
[[Category:Cartography]]
[[Category:Curves]]
[[Category:Multivariable calculus]]
[[Category:Topography]]
[[Category:Relief maps]]

Teide

2024-10-18T15:23:40Z

NidabaM: /* Major climbs */ more percise footnote

{{Short description|Volcano in Tenerife}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{Expand French|Teide|topic=geo|date=December 2020|fa=yes}}
{{Expand Spanish|topic=geo|date=March 2022}}
}}

{{Use mdy dates|date=November 2012}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Teide
| photo = Roque Cinchado und Teide.jpg
| photo_caption = Teide volcano and [[Roque Cinchado]] (left)
| elevation_m = 3,715
| elevation_ref = <ref name="IGN_PhysicalMap_2012"/>
| prominence_m = 3,715
| prominence_ref = <ref name="IGN_PhysicalMap_2012"/> [[List of peaks by prominence|Ranked 40th]]
| map = Canary Islands
| map_caption = Location of Teide in the Canary Islands
| label_position = top
| listing = [[List of countries by highest point|Country high point]] [[Ultra prominent peak|Ultra]]
| location = [[Tenerife]], [[Canary Islands]], [[Spain]]
| coordinates = {{coord|28|16|23|N|16|38|22|W|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref = <ref name="peaklist">[http://peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/EuroAtlanticP1500m.html "Europe: Atlantic Islands – Ultra Prominences"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050214035042/http://peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/EuroAtlanticP1500m.html |date=February 14, 2005 }} on peaklist.org as "Pico de Teide". Retrieved October 16, 2011.</ref>
| topo =
| type = [[Stratovolcano]] atop basalt [[shield volcano]]
| last_eruption = 18 November 1909
| first_ascent = 1582
| easiest_route = [[Scrambling|Scramble]]
}}
[[File:Teide 3d - version2.gif|thumb|This 3D panoramic view of Teide was created using [[Shuttle Radar Topography Mission|SRTM]] data (160% elevation).]]
'''Teide''', or '''Mount Teide''', ({{lang-es| El Teide, Pico del Teide}}, {{IPA|es|ˈpiko ðel ˈtejðe|pron}}, "Peak of Teide") is a [[volcano]] on [[Tenerife]] in the [[Canary Islands]], [[Spain]]. Its summit (at {{convert|3715|m|abbr=on}})<ref name="IGN_PhysicalMap_2012"/>{{refn |Many published sources give Teide's height as {{cvt|3718|m|ft}} above sea level, but [[Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Spain)|IGN]] (the national mapping agency of the Government of Spain) gives Teide's height as 3715 m on the 2012, 2015 and 2019 versions of its ''"Mapa Físico de España"'' ("Physical Map of Spain"),<ref name="IGN_PhysicalMap_2012">{{cite web | url=http://centrodedescargas.cnig.es/CentroDescargas/busquedaRedirigida.do?ruta=PUBLICACION_CNIG_DATOS_VARIOS/MapasGenerales/Espana_Mapa-fisico-de-Espana-1-3.000.000_2012_mapa_11999_spa.jpg | title=Mapa Físico de España (Physical Map of Spain) | publisher=[[Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Spain)]] | work=Atlas Nacional de España (National Atlas of Spain) | date=2012 | access-date=18 April 2023 | archive-date=April 18, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418212324/http://centrodedescargas.cnig.es/CentroDescargas/busquedaRedirigida.do?ruta=PUBLICACION_CNIG_DATOS_VARIOS/MapasGenerales/Espana_Mapa-fisico-de-Espana-1-3.000.000_2012_mapa_11999_spa.jpg | url-status=live }}</ref> as well as in its ''"MTN25 edición impresa: 2"'' ("National Topographic Map 1:25000 second edition") map series of Tenerife,<ref name="IGN_MTN25_2014">{{cite web | url=http://centrodedescargas.cnig.es/CentroDescargas/buscar.do?filtro.codFamilia=02308&filtro.codCA=&filtro.codProv=&filtro.numeroHoja25=1091-4# | title=1091-4 La Montañeta (Tenerife) map sheet | publisher=[[Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Spain)]] | work=MTN25 edición impresa: 2' (National Topographic Map 1:25000 second edition) | date=2014 | access-date=18 October 2018}}</ref> published in 2014 and in its ''"Altitudes de las provincias"'' (list of highest points in the provinces of Spain).<ref name="IGN_HighestPoints_2020">{{cite web | url=http://www.ign.es/web/ign/portal/ane-datos-geograficos/-/datos-geograficos/datosGenerales?tipoBusqueda=altitudes | title=Altitudes de las provincias (List of highest points in the provinces of Spain) | publisher=[[Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Spain)]] | work=Datos geográficos y toponimia (Geographical data and place names) | date=2020 | access-date=19 May 2020 | archive-date=October 23, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023020026/https://www.ign.es/web/ign/portal/ane-datos-geograficos/-/datos-geograficos/datosGenerales?tipoBusqueda=altitudes | url-status=live }}</ref>|group=lower-alpha}} is the highest point in Spain and the highest point above sea level in the [[List of islands in the Atlantic Ocean|islands of the Atlantic]]. If measured from the ocean floor, its height of {{convert|7500|m|abbr=on}} makes Teide the third-highest volcano in the world,{{refn |After [[Mauna Kea]]<ref name="NOAA">{{cite web | url=http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/highestpoint.html | title=What is the highest point on Earth as measured from Earth's center? | publisher=[[NOAA]] | work=Ocean Facts | access-date=31 January 2017 | archive-date=February 2, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202004808/http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/highestpoint.html | url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Mauna Loa]]<ref name="MaunaLoa">{{cite web | url=https://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/parks/havo/index.cfm | title=Hawaii Volcanoes National Park | publisher=National Park Service | date=2005 | access-date=31 January 2017 | archive-date=February 2, 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202093204/https://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/parks/havo/index.cfm | url-status=dead }}</ref> at {{cvt|10.2|km|mi}}.}} [[UNESCO]] and [[NASA]] rank it as Earth's third-tallest volcanic structure.<ref name=unesco/><ref name="NASATeide">{{cite web | url=http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=88659 | title=Teide, Canary Islands | publisher=[[NASA]] | work=Visible Earth | access-date=31 January 2017| date=2009-08-11 }}</ref>{{refn |Teide is Earth's third-tallest volcanic structure only if the island of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaii]] is considered to be a single structure.| group = lower-alpha }} Teide's elevation above sea level makes Tenerife the [[list of islands by highest point|tenth highest island in the world]].

Teide started forming 170,000 years ago due to volcanic activity following a catastrophic [[volcanic landslide|landslide]]. Teide's base is situated in Las Cañadas crater (the remains of an older, eroded, extinct volcano) at a height of around {{convert|2190|m|abbr=on}} above sea level. Teide is an [[active volcano]]: its most recent eruption occurred in late 1909 from the El Chinyero vent on the northwestern Santiago rift.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2013 |editor-last=Carracedo |editor-first=Juan Carlos |editor2-last=Troll |editor2-first=Valentin R. |title=Teide Volcano |url=https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-25893-0 |journal=Active Volcanoes of the World |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-25893-0 |isbn=978-3-642-25892-3 |s2cid=127366439 |issn=2195-3589 |access-date=November 19, 2023 |archive-date=August 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814190144/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-25893-0 |url-status=live }}</ref> The United Nations Committee for Disaster Mitigation designated Teide a [[Decade Volcano]]<ref name="USGS">http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/DecadeVolcanoes/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221103516/http://vulcan.wr.usgs.gov/Volcanoes/DecadeVolcanoes/ |date=February 21, 2011 }} Decade Volcanoes – USGS</ref> because of its history of destructive eruptions and its proximity to several large towns, of which the closest are [[Garachico]], [[Icod de los Vinos]] and [[Puerto de la Cruz]]. Teide, [[Pico Viejo]] and [[Montaña Blanca]] form the Central Volcanic Complex of Tenerife.

The volcano and its surroundings make up [[Teide National Park]], which has an area of {{convert|18900|ha|acre}} and was named a [[World Heritage Site]] by UNESCO in 2007.<ref name=unesco>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1258|title=Teide National Park|work=World Heritage List|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=January 18, 2009|archive-date=June 12, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612093927/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1258|url-status=live}}</ref> Teide is the most visited natural wonder of Spain, the most visited [[national park]] in Spain and Europe and, by 2015, the eighth most visited in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elespanol.com/ciencia/20160318/110489216_0.html|title=En las entrañas del volcán|website=elespanol.com|access-date=April 9, 2018|date=2016-03-21|archive-date=April 19, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419193948/https://www.elespanol.com/ciencia/20160318/110489216_0.html|url-status=live}}</ref> with some 3 million visitors yearly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webtenerife.com/que-visitar/parque-nacional-del-teide/?tab=1Lang=es|title=Parque Nacional del Teide. Ascenso, Fauna, Flora...|access-date=March 21, 2016|archive-date=November 22, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122114009/https://www.webtenerife.com/que-visitar/parque-nacional-del-teide/?tab=1Lang=es|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2016, it was visited by 4,079,823 visitors and tourists, reaching a historical record.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laopinion.es/sociedad/2017/04/11/teide-bate-record-visitantes-supera/766274.html|title=El Teide bate récord de visitantes y supera los cuatro millones|first=M.|last=Plasencia|publisher=La Opinión de Tenerife|website=laopinion.es|date=April 11, 2017|access-date=April 9, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728124446/http://www.laopinion.es/sociedad/2017/04/11/teide-bate-record-visitantes-supera/766274.html|archive-date=July 28, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europapress.es/islas-canarias/noticia-teide-bate-record-visitantes-2016-mas-cuatro-millones-20170411151629.html|title=El Teide bate su récord de visitantes en 2016, con más de cuatro millones|date=April 11, 2017|publisher=Europa Press|access-date=April 9, 2018|archive-date=August 12, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170812215916/http://www.europapress.es/islas-canarias/noticia-teide-bate-record-visitantes-2016-mas-cuatro-millones-20170411151629.html|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Teide Observatory]], a major international [[astronomical observatory]], is located on the slopes of the mountain.

== Name and legends ==
Before the [[Canary Islands#Castilian conquest|1496 Spanish colonization]] of Tenerife, the native [[Guanches]] referred to a powerful figure living in the volcano, which carries light, power and the sun. ''El Pico del Teide'' is the modern Spanish name.<ref name="elsevier.com">{{Cite web|title=The Geology of the Canary Islands - 1st Edition|url=https://www.elsevier.com/books/the-geology-of-the-canary-islands/troll/978-0-12-809663-5|access-date=2021-02-26|website=www.elsevier.com|archive-date=October 15, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201015012533/https://www.elsevier.com/books/the-geology-of-the-canary-islands/troll/978-0-12-809663-5|url-status=live}}</ref>

Teide was a [[sacred mountains|sacred mountain]] for the aboriginal [[Guanches]], so it was considered a mythological mountain, as [[Mount Olympus]] was to the ancient [[Greeks]]. When going on to Teide during an [[eruption]], it was customary for the Guanches to light bonfires to scare [[Guayota]]. Guayota is often represented as a black dog, accompanied by his host of demons ([[Tibicena]]s).

The Guanches also believed that Teide held up the sky. Many hiding places found in the mountains contain the remains of stone tools and pottery. These have been interpreted as being ritual deposits to counter the influence of [[evil]] spirits, like those made by the [[Kabyle people|Berbers of Kabylie]]. The Guanches believed the mountain to be the place that housed the forces of evil and the most evil figure, Guayota.<ref name="Sheehan, William 1816"/>

Guayota shares features similar to other powerful deities inhabiting volcanoes, such as the goddess [[Pele (deity)|Pele]] of [[Hawaiian mythology]], who lives in the volcano [[Kīlauea]] and is regarded by the [[native Hawaiians]] as responsible for the eruptions of the volcano.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_NpMxAQAAMAAJ|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_NpMxAQAAMAAJ/page/n161 458]|quote=guayota y pele.|title=Ethnografia y anales de la conquista de las Islas Canarias|publisher=Imp., Litogr. y Librería Isleña|access-date=January 5, 2016|last1=Berthelot|first1=Sabin|year=1819}}</ref> The same was true for the ancient Greeks and Romans, who believed that [[Vulcano]] and [[Mount Etna]] were chimneys of the foundry of the fire god [[Hephaestus]] ([[Vulcan (mythology)|Vulcan]] in Latin).

In 1492, when [[Christopher Columbus]] arrived at the island of Tenerife, his crew claimed to see flames coming from the highest mountain of the island (Teide).<ref>{{cite web |title=El Teide, mucho más que un volcán |url=https://www.vipealo.com/blog/el-teide-mucho-mas-que-un-volcan/ |website=Vipealo |date=November 20, 2020 |access-date=20 November 2020 |archive-date=November 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124084354/https://www.vipealo.com/blog/el-teide-mucho-mas-que-un-volcan/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{Clear}}

==Geography==
===Location===
Teide is located on Tenerife, the largest island of the Canary Islands, situated in the Atlantic Ocean, {{cvt|290|km|mi}} northwest of the coast of [[Western Sahara]]. The volcano is located in a central position on the Tenerife island. Administratively, the Canary Islands are a Spanish autonomous community. Teide itself is located within the commune of [[La Orotava]] in the [[province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]. <ref name=whproposal>{{cite book|language=en|author1=Gobierno de Canarias|author2=Ministerio de Medio Ambiente|title=Proposal to inscribe Teide National Park on the World Heritage List|year=2006|url=https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1258.pdf|pages=10–12|access-date=March 31, 2024|archive-date=March 31, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331025218/https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1258.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Topography===
[[File:Mirador ucanca.jpg|thumb|Teide (right) and Pico Viejo (left)]]
Before reliable measurements were available, Teide was considered by Europeans to be the highest mountain on Earth for a long time. With a height of {{cvt|3715|m|ft}}, it is the highest point in Spain and the Atlantic Ocean.<ref name=wovo>{{cite web|url=http://www.wovo.org/1803.html|website=World Organization of Volcano Observatories|title=Canary Island Volcano Monitoring Program|language=en|date=9 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223134243/http://www.wovo.org/1803.html|archive-date=23 February 2017}}.</ref> If it is measured from the ocean floor, it surpasses {{cvt|7000|m|ft}}, making it the third highest volcanic structure in the world after [[Mauna Loa]] and [[Mauna Kea]], both on the island of [[Hawaii]].<ref name=carratroll>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/835630472|title=Teide volcano : geology and eruptions of a highly differentiated oceanic stratovolcano|date=2013|publisher=Springer|editor1=J. C. Carracedo|editor2=V. R. Troll|isbn=978-3-642-25893-0|location=Berlin|oclc=835630472}}</ref>

[[File:Summit of Teide Volcano on Tenerife in Canary Islands - 2023-06-20 09h5312.jpg|thumb|''El Pitón'', a small volcanic cone at the summit of Teide]]
The formation of the mountain is marked by its long and complex volcanic history. It rests on the [[Las Cañadas]] caldera, an asymmetric depression {{cvt|15|km|mi}} in diameter in the form of a horseshoe which opens to the north. The floor of the caldera varies from {{cvt|2000|to|2200|m|ft}} in altitude, although its sides in the south rise to {{cvt|2717|m|ft}}, the level of [[Mount Guajara]]. To the north, the slopes of Teide continue directly to the ocean, with a break in the slope at around {{cvt|2000|m|ft}}. The volcano of Teide itself can be described as a [[volcanic cone]] {{cvt|8|km|mi}} in diameter at its base, with quite steep slopes, approximately 20 to 40° for a total volume of {{cvt|150|to|200|km3}}.<ref name="Girault">{{cite book|language=fr|first1=François|last1=Girault|first2=Philippe|last2=Bouysse|first3=Jean-Philippe|last3=Rançon|title=Volcans vus de l'espace|location=Paris|publisher=[[Nathan (publisher)|Nathan]]|year=1998|pages=21–23|isbn=2-09-260829-0}}.</ref> The summit is marked by a small volcanic cone, about {{cvt|150|m|ft}} high, named {{lang|es|El Pitón}},<ref name="Arnay_de_la_ Rosa_et_al_2006">{{cite web | url=https://whc.unesco.org/uploads/nominations/1258.pdf | title=Proposal to inscribe Teide National Park on the World Heritage List | publisher=[[Ministry of Environment (Spain)|Ministerio de Medio Ambiente]] / Gobierno de Canarias | date=18 January 2006 | accessdate=26 August 2024 | author=Arnay de la Rosa, M. |display-authors=etal | page=216}}</ref> which has a summit crater {{cvt|100|m|ft}} in diameter and {{cvt|30|m|ft}} deep. A secondary cone, named Pico Viejo emerges on the western slopes of the main peak; its crater is much larger, with a diameter of {{cvt|800|m|ft}} and a depth of {{cvt|140|m|ft}}. It rises to {{cvt|3414|m|ft}},<ref name="OAPN">{{cite book|language=es|author1=OAPN|title=Guía de visita Parque Nacional del Teide|year=2015|isbn=978-80-8414-883-2|url=https://www.miteco.gob.es/va/red-parques-nacionales/nuestros-parques/teide/guia-teide_tcm39-68119.pdf|access-date=March 31, 2024|archive-date=August 11, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811090739/https://www.miteco.gob.es/va/red-parques-nacionales/nuestros-parques/teide/guia-teide_tcm39-68119.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> but with a low [[prominence]], not more than {{cvt|100|m|ft}} higher than the slopes of the main volcano. On the outside of these two main peaks, the relief Teide also has some smaller formations, of which the most notable are {{lang|es|Roques Blancos}}, {{lang|es|Pico Cabras}}, and {{lang|es|Montaña Blanca}}, situated next to the base of Teide.<ref name=carratroll />

The slopes of Teide are covered in radial ravines. However, the majority of the ravines have been covered by recent lava flows, the {{lang|es|Lavas Negras}}, in particular the northern part. The main ravines, with prominence around {{cvt|100|m|ft}}, are located on the south slope: from east to west, the {{lang|es|Corredor Mario}}, {{lang|es|Corredor La Corbata}} and {{lang|es|Corredor La Bola}}.<ref name=carratroll />

[[File:Panorama Teide BW.jpg|thumb|center|upright=3.0|alt=To the left, the rock walls of the caldera; to the right the volcano and rocky formations with tourists at the first level.|Panorama of Teide from Los Roques de Garcia]]

[[File:Teide national park map (fr).svg|thumb|center|upright=2.0|Map of Teide and its caldera]]

===Climate===
[[File:Llano de Ucanca 01.jpg|thumb|left|Snow on the peaks of Teide]]

Despite its proximity to the Sahara, the Canary Islands have a relatively temperate climate. The [[sunshine duration]] is very high due to Teide's subtropical latitude and proximity to the [[Azores high]], as well as a very high [[UV index]] caused by the height of the peak (greater than 11 in the middle of the summer). This sunshine of around 3,450 h<ref name="OAPN" /> per year is partially compensated by the [[Canary current]], a relatively cold ocean current which makes the climate more temperate. The situation at the level of Teide and its caldera is very unlike the climate at its base. In effect, the climate of Tenerife is marked by an [[inversion (meteorology)|inversion layer]] around at an altitude of {{cvt|1000|m}}, isolating the high-altitude zones from ocean influences present at the lower altitudes. This leads to a more continental climate on Teide, with strong changes in temperature over the course of the day (typically on the order of 15 °C) and in the course of the year (with a range of -15 °C in winter to 30 °C in the summer).<ref name=whproposal />

[[File:Pico del Teide 04(js).jpg|thumb|Sea of clouds in the northern part of Tenerife, watering the leafy part of the island but leaving Teide and its caldera in an arid climate.]]

Humidity is also very affected by this inversion layer. The presence of the Axores high in the northwest of the Canaries in summer induces relatively constant winds ([[trade winds]]) blowing from the northeast to the southwest. These winds carry moisture across the Atlantic and goes to rain on the north of Tenerife, forming in particular a dense layer of clouds between {{cvt|800|and|1600|ft}} of altitude. But the inversion layer also stops these clouds from rising, and the climate is thus very dry below the level of Teide. The precipitation in the caldera in the caldera is thus less than 500 mm per year, the majority falling in the winter, and in total, around one third in the form of snow. Variation can be quite high from one year to the next. Meanwhile the peak of Teide is covered by [[wave clouds]], forming the "hat of Teide" ({{lang|es|Toca del Teide}}) which was probably confused with signs of an eruption by sailors.<ref name="OAPN" /><ref name=carratroll />

{{Weather box
| location = Izaña [[Teide Observatory]] (altitude: {{convert|2371|m|abbr=off}})
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| Jan high C = 7.5
| Feb high C = 8.0
| Mar high C = 10.2
| Apr high C = 11.8
| May high C = 14.5
| Jun high C = 18.9
| Jul high C = 23.0
| Aug high C = 22.6
| Sep high C = 18.6
| Oct high C = 14.3
| Nov high C = 11.1
| Dec high C = 8.8
| year high C =
| Jan mean C = 4.3
| Feb mean C = 4.7
| Mar mean C = 6.4
| Apr mean C = 7.6
| May mean C = 10.1
| Jun mean C = 14.4
| Jul mean C = 18.5
| Aug mean C = 18.2
| Sep mean C = 14.5
| Oct mean C = 10.6
| Nov mean C = 7.8
| Dec mean C = 5.6
| year mean C =
| Jan low C = 1.1
| Feb low C = 1.3
| Mar low C = 2.7
| Apr low C = 3.5
| May low C = 5.8
| Jun low C = 9.9
| Jul low C = 14.0
| Aug low C = 13.8
| Sep low C = 10.4
| Oct low C = 6.9
| Nov low C = 4.5
| Dec low C = 2.4
| year low C =
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 47
| Feb rain mm = 67
| Mar rain mm = 58
| Apr rain mm = 18
| May rain mm = 7
| Jun rain mm = 0
| Jul rain mm = 0
| Aug rain mm = 5
| Sep rain mm = 13
| Oct rain mm = 37
| Nov rain mm = 54
| Dec rain mm = 60
| Jan rain days = 4.5
| Feb rain days = 4.0
| Mar rain days = 4.1
| Apr rain days = 2.7
| May rain days = 1.1
| Jun rain days = 0.2
| Jul rain days = 0.1
| Aug rain days = 0.5
| Sep rain days = 1.6
| Oct rain days = 3.7
| Nov rain days = 4.4
| Dec rain days = 5.6
| unit rain days = 1.0 mm
| Jan humidity = 50
| Feb humidity = 54
| Mar humidity = 48
| Apr humidity = 45
| May humidity = 40
| Jun humidity = 32
| Jul humidity = 25
| Aug humidity = 30
| Sep humidity = 43
| Oct humidity = 55
| Nov humidity = 54
| Dec humidity = 52
| year humidity =
| Jan sun = 226
| Feb sun = 223
| Mar sun = 260
| Apr sun = 294
| May sun = 356
| Jun sun = 382
| Jul sun = 382
| Aug sun = 358
| Sep sun = 295
| Oct sun = 259
| Nov sun = 220
| Dec sun = 218
| year sun =
| source 1 = Agencia Estatal de Meteorología<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aemet.es/en/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l=C430E&k=coo|title=Standard Climate Values. Izaña }}</ref> (1981–2010)
| date = March 2018
}}

==Geology==
{{See also|Geology of the Canary Islands}}
===The Canary Islands===
Teide is a [[stratovolcano]] created by the same forces which formed the Canary Islands. The islands are aligned relatively east to west, but continue to the northeast in a series of [[undersea mountains]] which are part of the same volcanic region as the Canary Islands.<ref name=whproposal /> Dating indicates that the age of these islands changes from east to west, with the older islands and undersea mountains to the east and more recent ones to the west. This makes [[Fuerteventura]] and [[Lanzarote]] the oldest islands, from 20.2 [[Mya (unit)|Mya]], and [[El Hierro]] the youngest, from 1.1 Mya. Counting the undersea mountains, Mount Lars is the oldest, from 68 Mya. The [[Madeira islands]], located not far to the north of the Canary islands and also volcanic, have many islands and undersea mountains aligned in the same general direction and with similar dates. This pattern is consistent with archipelagoes which have formed over a [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] such as the Hawaiian Islands. However, there are many differences with Hawaii. First, the Hawaiian Islands are sinking rapidly (in geological time) into the ocean, forming [[atolls]], yet the rate of subsidence is insignificant in the Canary Islands. If the Canary islands were sinking at the same rate as the Hawaiian islands, Teide would be actually below sea-level. But one of the most fundamental differences, and which lends doubt to the theory of a hotspot, is the fact that the volcanic activity is not constrained to the most recent island, but continues through all the islands in the chain. This has aroused an intense debate in the scientific community, which continues to a certain extent today. One hypothesis which allows reconciliation of these observations is the presence in the [[Earth's mantle]] of a [[convection cell]] which enters one part of the magma more towards the east, thus activating the old islands. According to this hypothesis, the magma would be also responsible for scattered volcanic activity to the northwest of the African continent to the south of Spain.<ref name=carratroll />

===Formation of Tenerife===
The formation of Tenerife began a little less than 12 Mya. It started with the formation of a [[shield volcano]] centered not far from Teide itself, with volcanic activity which endured to around 8.9 Mya. The volcanic activity then stopped, and the volcano underwent some collapses in the process of erosion. One new shield volcano formed between 6 and 5 Mya, more to the west, in [[Teno]] then another in [[Anaga]], to the east, between 4.9 and 3.9 Mya. Together, these three shield volcanoes represent 90% of the volume of Tenerife. The lavas are [[Ocean island basalt|basalts]],<ref>{{cite journal|title=39Ar–40Ar ages and geochemistry of the basaltic shield stage of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain|author1=M.F Thirlwall|author2=B.S Singer|author3=G.F Marrinera|language=en|journal=Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research|volume=103|year=2000|issue=1–4 |pages=247–297|doi=10.1016/S0377-0273(00)00227-4 }}</ref> basic rocks (i.e. having a low content of silica) and therefore very fluid, this explains the characteristic form of shield volcanoes.<ref name=carratroll />

[[File:Teide, Tenerife - WLE Spain 2015.jpg|thumb|The cliffs of the caldera mark eroded front of the landslides, and are the remainder of the slopes of the Las Cañadas volcano.]]

Around 3.5 Mya, after a pause of 5.5 million years, volcanic activity resumed to the level of the first shield volcano. This is the start of the rejuvenation phase, forming the volcano Las Cañadas. It was also in this period that the volcanic activity began in the [[rift (geology)|rifts]] of the island, formed by radial fractures due to the thrust of magma in the central volcano. The eruptions of Las Cañadas were initially basic and fluid lavas, but they [[Igneous differentiation|differentiated]] over time ([[trachybasalt|trachybasalts]] and [[phonolite|phonolites]]), which gave place to more explosive eruptions. Around 200,000 years ago, the peak of the volcano was swept away in a giant land slide to the north, forming the caldera of Las Cañadas. These massive landslides were quite frequent and were in part cased by the fractures of the rifts. Besides the caldera, the landslides were also responsible for the valley of {{lang|es|La Orotava}} (around 600,000 years ago) and [[Güímar]] (around 850,000 years ago).<ref name=carratroll />

=== Formation of Teide ===
[[File:TNF-NASAmap-Labels.png|thumb|[[Synthetic-aperture radar]] image of Tenerife with different volcanic massifs labeled]]
[[File:Teideform2.png|thumb|upright|Summary diagram for formation of Tenerife through to current Teide volcano]]
The [[stratovolcano]]es Teide and [[Pico Viejo]] (Old Peak, although it is in fact younger than Teide) are the most recent centres of activity on the volcanic island of [[Tenerife]], which is the largest ({{convert|2058|km2|disp=or|abbr=on}}) and highest ({{convert|3715|m|disp=or|abbr=on}}) island in the [[Canary Islands|Canaries]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/835630472|title=Teide volcano : geology and eruptions of a highly differentiated oceanic stratovolcano|date=2013|publisher=Springer|others=J. C. Carracedo, V. R. Troll|isbn=978-3-642-25893-0|location=Berlin|oclc=835630472}}</ref> It has a complex volcanic history. The formation of the island and the development of the current Teide [[volcano]] took place in the five stages shown in the diagram on the right.

==== Stage one ====
Like the other [[Canary Islands]], and volcanic ocean islands in general, Tenerife was built by accretion of large [[shield volcano]]es, three of which developed in a relatively short period.<ref>Guillou, H., Carracedo, J. C., Paris R. and Pérez Torrado, F.J., 2004a. K/Ar ages and magnetic stratigraphy of the Miocene-Pliocene shield volcanoes of Tenerife, Canary Islands: Implications for the early evolution of Tenerife and the Canarian Hotspot age progression. Earth & Planet. Sci. Letts., 222, 599–614.</ref> This early shield stage volcanism formed the bulk of the emerged part of Tenerife. The shield volcanoes date back to the [[Miocene]] and early [[Pliocene]]<ref>Fúster, J.M., Araña, V., Brandle, J.L., Navarro, J.M., Alonso, U., Aparicio, A., 1968. Geology and volcanology of the Canary Islands: Tenerife. Instituto Lucas Mallada, CSIC, Madrid, 218 pp</ref> and are preserved in three isolated and deeply eroded [[massif]]s: [[Macizo de Anaga|Anaga]] (to the northeast), [[Macizo de Teno|Teno]] (to the northwest) and [[Macizo de Adeje|Roque del Conde]] (to the south).<ref name="Carracedo and Day 2002">Carracedo, Juan Carlos; Day, Simon (2002). Canary Islands (Classic Geology in Europe 4). Terra Publishing, 208 pp. {{ISBN|1-903544-07-6}}</ref> Each shield was apparently constructed in less than three million years, and the entire island in about eight million years.<ref name=Carracedo2007>Carracedo, J. C., Rodríguez Badioloa, E., Guillou, H., Paterne, M., Scaillet, S., Pérez Torrado, F. J., Paris, R., Fra-Paleo, U., Hansen, A., 2007. "Eruptive and structural history of Teide Volcano and rift zones of Tenerife, Canary Islands." Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, 119(9–10). 1027–1051</ref>

==== Stages two and three ====
The initial juvenile stage was followed by a period of 2–3 million years of eruptive quiescence and [[erosion]]. This cessation of activity is typical of the Canaries; [[La Gomera]], for example, is currently at this stage.<ref>Paris, R, Guillou, H., Carracedo, JC and Perez Torrado, F.J., Volcanic and morphological evolution of La Gomera (Canary Islands), based on new K-Ar ages and magnetic stratigraphy:implications for oceanic island evolution, Journal of the Geological Society, May 2005, v.162; no.3; p.501-512</ref> After this period of quiescence, the volcanic activity became concentrated within two large edifices: the central volcano of Las Cañadas, and the Anaga massif. The Las Cañadas volcano developed over the Miocene shield volcanoes and may have reached {{convert|40|km|abbr=on}} in diameter and {{convert|4,500|m|abbr=on}} in height.<ref name="Carracedo 2002">Carracedo, J.C., Pérez Torrado, F.J., Ancochea, E., Meco, J., Hernán, F., Cubas, C.R., Casillas, R., Rodríguez Badiola, E. and Ahijado, A., 2002. In: Cenozoic Volcanism II: the Canary Islands. The Geology of Spain (W. Gibbons and T. Moreno, eds), pp. 439–472. Geological Society, London</ref>

==== Stage four ====
Around 160–220 thousand years ago the [[Summit (topography)|summit]] of the Las Cañadas I volcano collapsed,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Paris|first1=Raphaël|last2=Bravo|first2=Juan J. Coello|last3=González|first3=María E. Martín|last4=Kelfoun|first4=Karim|last5=Nauret|first5=François|date=2017-05-15|title=Explosive eruption, flank collapse and megatsunami at Tenerife ca. 170 ka|url= |journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=8|issue=1|pages=15246|doi=10.1038/ncomms15246|pmid=28504256|pmc=5440666|bibcode=2017NatCo...815246P|issn=2041-1723}}</ref> creating the Las Cañadas (Ucanca) [[caldera]].<ref name=Carracedo2007/> Later, a new stratovolcano, Las Cañadas II, formed in the vicinity of Guajara and then catastrophically collapsed. Another volcano, Las Cañadas III, formed in the Diego Hernandez sector of the caldera. All of the Las Cañadas volcanoes attained a maximum altitude similar to that of Teide (which is sometimes referred to as the Las Cañadas IV volcano).

Two theories on the formation of the {{convert|16|x|9|km|abbr=on}} caldera exist.<ref name="gvp">{{cite gvp|name=Tenerife|vn=383030|access-date=December 12, 2007}}</ref> The first states that the depression is the result of a vertical collapse of the volcano triggered by the emptying of shallow [[magma chamber]]s at around sea level under the Las Cañadas volcano after large-volume [[explosive eruption]]s.<ref name=Carracedo2007/><ref>Martí, J., Mitjavila, J., Araña, V., 1994. Stratigraphy, structure, and geochronology of the Las Cañadas Caldera (Tenerife, Canary Islands). Geol. Mag. 131: 715–727</ref><ref>Martí. J. and Gudmudsson, A., 2000. The Las Cañadas caldera (Tenerife, Canary Islands): an overlapping collapse caldera generated by magma-chamber migration. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 103: 167–173</ref> The second theory is that the caldera was formed by a series of lateral gravitational collapses similar to those described in [[Hawaii]].<ref>Moore, J. G., 1964. Giant submarine landslides on the Hawaiian Ridge. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap., 501-D, D95-D98</ref> Evidence for the latter theory has been found in both onshore observations<ref>Carracedo, J.C., 1994. The Canary Islands: an example of structural control on the growth of large oceanic island volcanoes. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 60: 225–242</ref><ref>Guillou, H., Carracedo, J.C., Pérez Torrado, F. and Rodríguez Badiola, E., 1996. K-Ar ages and magnetic stratigraphy of a hotspot-induced, fast grown oceanic island : El Hierro, Canary Islands. J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 73: 141–155</ref><ref>Stillman, C.J., 1999. Giant Miocene Landslides and the evolution of Fuerteventura, Canary Islands J. Volcanol. Geotherm. Res. 94, pp. 89–104</ref> and [[marine geology]] studies.<ref name=Carracedo2007/><ref>Masson, D.G., Watts, A.B., Gee, M.J.R., Urgelés, R., Mitchell, N.C., Le Bas, T.P., Canals, M., 2002. Slope failures on the flanks of the western Canaested in the embayment itself.</ref>

==== Stage five ====
From around 160,000 years ago until the present day, the stratovolcanoes of Teide and Pico Viejo formed within the Las Cañadas caldera.<ref>{{cite web|website=ScienceDaily|date=April 2012|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120413101117.htm|title=Canary Islands: The base of the Teide was formed in just 40,000 years|author=Plataforma SINC|access-date=May 23, 2018|archive-date=May 24, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180524082619/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2012/04/120413101117.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Historical eruptions ==
Teide last erupted in 1909 from the El Chinyero vent,<ref name=Carracedo2007/> on the Santiago Ridge. Historical volcanic activity on the island is associated with vents on the Santiago or northwest [[rift]] (Boca Cangrejo in 1492, Montañas Negras in 1706,<ref name=Carracedo2007/> Narices del Teide or Chahorra in 1798, and El Chinyero in 1909) and the Cordillera Dorsal or northeast rift (Fasnia in 1704, Siete Fuentes and Arafo in 1705). The 1706 Montañas Negras eruption destroyed the town and principal port of Garachico, as well as several smaller villages.<ref name="elsevier.com"/>

Historical activity associated with the Teide and Pico Viejo stratovolcanoes <ref name=Carracedo2007/> occurred in 1798 from the Narices del Teide on the western flank of Pico Viejo. Eruptive material from Pico Viejo, Montaña Teide and Montaña Blanca partially fills the Las Cañadas caldera.<ref name="Carracedo and Day 2002" /> The last explosive eruption involving the central volcanic centre was from Montaña Blanca around 2000 years ago. The last eruption within the Las Cañadas caldera occurred in 1798 from the Narices del Teide or Chahorra (Teide's Nostrils) on the western flank of Pico Viejo. The eruption was predominantly [[strombolian]] in style and most of the lava was [[ʻaʻā]]. This lava is visible beside the Vilaflor–Chio road.

Christopher Columbus reported seeing "a great fire in the [[Orotava Valley]]" as he sailed past Tenerife on his first voyage to the New World in 1492. This was interpreted as indicating that he had witnessed an eruption there. Radiometric dating of possible lavas indicates that in 1492 no eruption occurred in the Orotava Valley, but one did occur from the Boca Cangrejo vent.<ref name=Carracedo2007/>

The last summit eruption from Teide occurred about the year 850 AD, and this eruption produced the "Lavas Negras" or "Black Lavas" that cover much of the flanks of the volcano.<ref name=Carracedo2007/>

About 150,000 years ago, a much larger explosive eruption occurred, probably of [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] 5. It created the Las Cañadas caldera, a large caldera at about {{cvt|2000|m|ft}} above sea level, around {{convert|16|km|abbr=on}} from east to west and {{convert|9|km|abbr=on}} from north to south. At Guajara, on the south side of the structure, the internal walls rise as almost sheer cliffs from {{convert|2,100|to|2,715|m|abbr=on}}. The {{convert|3,715|m|abbr=on}} summit of Teide itself, and its sister stratovolcano Pico Viejo ({{convert|3,134|m|abbr=on}}), are both situated in the northern half of the caldera and are derived from eruptions later than this prehistoric explosion.<ref name="EncycloGeol2021">{{Cite book | author1-last=Carracedo | author1-first=J.C. | author2-last=Troll | author2-first=V.R. | chapter=North-East Atlantic Islands: The Macaronesian Archipelagos | editor1-last=Alderton| editor1-first=D. | editor2-last=Elias | editor2-first=S.A. | title=Encyclopedia of Geology | edition=2nd | pages=674–699 | publisher =Elsevier | location=Amsterdam | date=2021 | isbn=9780081029084 | doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-102908-4.00027-8| s2cid=226588940 }}</ref>

==Future eruptions==
Future eruptions may include [[pyroclastic flow]]s and surges similar to those that occurred at [[Mount Pelée]], [[Mount Merapi|Merapi]], [[Vesuvius]], [[Mount Etna|Etna]], the [[Soufrière Hills]], [[Mount Unzen]] and elsewhere. During 2003, there was an increase in seismic activity at the volcano and a rift opened on the north-east flank. No eruptive activity occurred but a quantity of material, possibly liquid, was emplaced into the edifice and is estimated to have a volume of ~1011 m3.{{citation needed|date=November 2015}} Such activity can indicate that magma is rising into the edifice, but is not always a precursor to an eruption.<ref name="elsevier.com"/>

Teide additionally is considered structurally unstable and its northern flank has a distinctive bulge.{{citation needed|date=June 2016}} The summit of the volcano has a number of small active [[fumarole]]s emitting [[sulfur dioxide]] and other gases, including low levels of [[hydrogen sulfide]].

A scientific assessment in 2006, published in the journal Eos, observed that "in the past 30,000 years, eruptions have occurred at a rate of only four to six per millennium, with a predominance (70%) of very low hazard, basaltic eruptions".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carracedo|first=Juan Carlos|date=2006|title=Recent Unrest at Canary Islands' Teide Volcano?|journal=Eos|volume=87|issue=43|pages=462–465|doi=10.1029/2006EO430003|bibcode=2006EOSTr..87..462C|doi-access=free}}</ref> The authors further commented that "the recent eruptive record, combined with the available petrological and radiometric data, provides a rather optimistic outlook on major volcanic hazards related to Teide and its rift zones, posing only very localized threats to the one million inhabitants of Tenerife and the 4.5 million annual visitors to Teide National Park." However, another study in 2009 concluded that Teide will probably erupt violently in the future, and that its structure is similar to that of Vesuvius and Etna.<ref>[http://www.laopinion.es/sociedad/2009/10/30/estudio-preve-teide-sufriria-erupciones-violentas/252111.html Un estudio prevé que el Teide sufriría erupciones violentas] (La Opinión.es)</ref> Thus the magnitude of the risk posed by Teide to the public remains a source of debate.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783642258923|title=Teide Volcano: Geology and Eruptions of a Highly Differentiated Oceanic Stratovolcano|date=2013|publisher=Springer-Verlag|isbn=978-3-642-25892-3|editor-last=Carracedo|editor-first=Juan Carlos|series=Active Volcanoes of the World|location=Berlin Heidelberg|language=en|editor-last2=Troll|editor-first2=Valentin R.|access-date=September 23, 2020|archive-date=October 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013183714/https://www.springer.com/gp/book/9783642258923|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Major climbs ==
In a publication of 1626, Sir Edmund Scory, who probably stayed on the island in the first decades of the 17th century, gives a description of Teide, in which he notes the suitable paths to the top and the effects its considerable height causes for travellers, indicating that the volcano had been accessed via different routes before the 17th century.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Francisco Javier Castillo |url=http://sederi.org/docs/yearbooks/02/2_5_castillo.pdf |title=The English Renaissance and the Canary Islands: Thomas Nichols and Edmund Scory |journal=Proceedings of the II Conference of SEDERI |year=1992 |pages=57–69 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306104303/http://sederi.org/docs/yearbooks/02/2_5_castillo.pdf |archive-date=2016-03-06}}</ref> In 1715 the English traveler J. Edens and his party made the ascent and reported their observations in the journal of the Royal Society in London.<ref name="nicolasglemus.es">{{cite web|url=http://www.nicolasglemus.com/2009/01/el-parque-nacional-del-teide-patrimonio-mundial-de-la-unesco-con-juan-carlos-carracedo-y-manuel-durban/|title=El Parque Nacional del Teide: patrimonio mundial de la UNESCO, con Juan Carlos Carracedo y Manuel Durbán - Nicolás González Lemus|access-date=January 5, 2016|archive-date=April 22, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160422091731/http://www.nicolasglemus.com/2009/01/el-parque-nacional-del-teide-patrimonio-mundial-de-la-unesco-con-juan-carlos-carracedo-y-manuel-durban/|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], most of the expeditions that went to East Africa and the Pacific had Teide as one of the most rewarding targets. The expedition of Lord [[George Macartney, 1st Earl Macartney|George Macartney]], [[Sir George Staunton, 1st Baronet|George Staunton]] and [[Sir John Barrow, 1st Baronet|John Barrow]] in 1792 almost ended in tragedy, as a major snowstorm and rain swept over them and they failed to reach the peak of Teide, just barely getting past Montaña Blanca.<ref name="nicolasglemus.es"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Staunton|first=George|title=An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China|publisher=George Nicol|year=1797|location=London|pages=122}}</ref>

The German naturalist [[Alexander von Humboldt]] stopped in Tenerife during his voyage to South America in June 1799 and climbed Teide with his travelling companion [[Bonpland|Aimé Bonpland]] and some local guides. This excursion confirmed the volcanic origin of basalt<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=61| isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref>

During an expedition to [[Kilimanjaro]], the German adventurer [[Hans Meyer (geologist)|Hans Heinrich Joseph Meyer]] visited Teide in 1894 to observe ice conditions on the volcano. He described the two mountains as "two kings, one rising in the ocean and the other in the desert and steppes".<ref name="nicolasglemus.es"/>

More recently in November 2017, [[Gema Hassen-Bey]] became the first Paralympic athlete in the world in a wheelchair to reach 3,000 meters altitude with only the momentum of her arms. Initially, Gema wanted to reach the top of Teide, although, due to weather conditions, she could not meet this objective.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.20minutos.es/deportes/noticia/hassen-bey-abandona-ascenso-teide-3186009/0/|title=Gema Hassen-Bey abandona el ascenso el Teide a 3.000 metros|last=20Minutos|website=20minutos.es|access-date=April 9, 2018|date=2017-11-14}}</ref>

== Flora and fauna ==
[[File:Echium wildpretii.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Echium wildpretii]]'' on Tenerife]]

The lava flows on the flanks of Teide weather to a very thin but nutrient- and mineral-rich [[soil]] that supports a wide variety of plant species. [[Vascular plant|Vascular]] flora consists of 168 plant species, 33 of which are [[Endemism|endemic]] to Tenerife.<ref name="Dupont 2003">Dupont, Yoko L., Dennis M., Olesen, Jens M., Structure of a plant-flower-visitor network in the high altitude sub-alpine desert of Tenerife, Canary Islands, Ecography. 26(3), 2003, pp. 301–310.</ref>

Forests of [[Canary Island Pine]] (''Pinus canariensis'') with [[Canary Island juniper]] (''Juniperus cedrus'') occur from {{convert|1000|to(-)|2100|m|ft}}, covering the middle slopes of the volcano and reaching an [[alpine climate|alpine]] [[tree line]] {{convert|1,000|m|abbr=on}} lower than that of continental mountains at similar [[latitude]]s.<ref>Gieger, Thomas and Leuschner, Christoph. Altitudinal change in needle water relations of the Canary pine (Pinus Canariensis) and possible evidence of a drought-induced alpine timberline on Mt. Teide, Tenerife, Flora – Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants, 199(2), 2004, Pages 100-109y</ref><ref name="Palacios 1992">J.M. Fernandez-Palacios, Climatic response of plant species on Tenerife, the Canary islands, J. Veg. Sci. 3, 1992, pp. 595–602</ref> Within the Las Cañadas caldera and at higher [[altitudes]], plant species endemic to the Teide National Park include: the Teide white [[Broom (shrub)|broom]] (''[[Cytisus supranubius]]''), which has white flowers; ''[[Descurainia bourgaeana]]'', a shrubby [[Brassicaceae|crucifer]] with yellow flowers; the Canary Island [[wallflower]] (''[[Erysimum]] scoparium''), which has violet flowers; and the Teide bugloss (''[[Echium wildpretii]]''), whose red flowers form a pyramid up to {{convert|3|m|abbr=on}} in height.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Home/Disfruta+sin+perderte+nada/Mas+sobre+Tenerife/Naturaleza/Espacios+naturales/Parque+Nacional+de+El+Teide/Flora+del+Teide.htm?Lang=en |title=Tenerife National Park – Flora |publisher=Tenerife Tourism Corporation |access-date=December 12, 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080614031136/http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Home/Disfruta+sin+perderte+nada/Mas+sobre+Tenerife/Naturaleza/Espacios+naturales/Parque+Nacional+de+El+Teide/Flora+del+Teide.htm?Lang=en |archive-date=June 14, 2008 }}</ref> The Teide [[Asteraceae|daisy]] (''[[Argyranthemum]] teneriffae'') can be found at altitudes close to {{convert|3,600|m|abbr=on}} above sea level, and the Teide [[Viola (plant)|violet]] (''[[Viola cheiranthifolia]]'') can be found right up to the summit, making it the highest flowering plant in Spain.<ref>J.M. Fernandez-Palacios and J.P. de Nicolas, Altitudinal pattern of vegetation variation on Tenerife, J. Veg. Sci. 6, 1995, pp. 183–190</ref>

These plants are adapted to the tough environmental conditions on the volcano, such as high altitude, intense sunlight, extreme temperature variations, and lack of moisture. [[Adaptation]]s include hemispherical forms, a downy or waxy cover, a reduction of the exposed [[leaf]] area, and high [[flower]] production.<ref name="Palacios 1992" /><ref>C. Leuschner, Timberline and alpine vegetation on the tropical and warm-temperate oceanic islands of the world: elevation, structure and floristics, Vegetatio 123, 1996, pp. 193–206.</ref> Flowering takes place in the late spring or early summer, in May and June.<ref name="Dupont 2003"/>
[[File:Eidechsen Teide.jpg|thumb|left|Southern Tenerife lizard (''[[Gallotia galloti]] galloti'')]]
Teide National Park contains a large number of [[invertebrate]] species, over 40% of which are endemic species, and 70 of which are found only in the National Park. The invertebrate fauna includes [[spider]]s, [[beetles]], [[diptera]]ns, [[hemiptera]]ns, and [[hymenoptera]]e.<ref>Ashmole, M. and Ashmole, P. (1989) Natural History Excursions in Tenerife. Kidston Mill Press, Scotland. {{ISBN|0 9514544 0 4}}.</ref>

In contrast, Teide National Park has only a limited variety of [[vertebrate]] fauna.<ref name="Thorpe, R.S. 1994, pp. 230-240">Thorpe, R.S., McGregor, D.P., Cumming, A.M., and Jordan, W.C., DNA evolution and colonisation sequence of island lizards in relation to geological history: mtDNA RFLP, cytochrome B, cytochrome oxidase, 12s rRNA sequence, and nuclear RAPD analysis, Evolution, 48(2), 1994, pp. 230–240</ref> Ten species of bird nest there, including the [[Tenerife blue chaffinch|blue chaffinch]] (''Fringilla teydea''), [[Berthelot's pipit]] (''Anthus berthelotii berthelotii''), the [[Atlantic canary]] (''Serinus canaria'') and a subspecies of [[kestrel]] (''[[Falco tinnunculus]] canariensis'').<ref>Lack, D., and H.N. Southern. 1949. Birds of Tenerife. Ibis, 91:607–626</ref><ref>P.R. Grant, "Ecological compatibility of bird species on islands", Amer. Nat., 100(914), 1966, pp. 451–462.</ref>

Three endemic [[reptile]] species are found in the park: the Canary Island lizard (''[[Gallotia galloti]] galloti''), the Canary Island wall gecko (''[[Tarentola delalandii]]''), and the Canary Island skink (''[[Chalcides viridanus]] viridanus'').<ref name="Thorpe, R.S. 1994, pp. 230-240"/><ref>{{cite book | last = Lever | first = Christopher| title = Naturalized Reptiles and Amphibians of the World | edition = First | year = 2003 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-850771-0 }}</ref>

The only mammals native to the park are [[bat]]s, the most common of which is Leisler's bat (''[[Nyctalus leisleri]]''). Other mammals, such as the [[mouflon]], the [[rabbit]], the [[house mouse]], the [[black rat]], the [[feral cat]], and the [[North African hedgehog]], have all been introduced to the park.<ref>Nogales, M., Rodríguez-Luengo, J.L. & Marrero, P. (2006) "Ecological effects and distribution of invasive non-native mammals on the Canary Islands" Mammal Review, 36, 49–65</ref>

== Shadow ==
[[File:Teide Shadow Gomera.jpg|thumb|Shadow of Teide at dawn]]
Teide casts the world's largest shadow projected on the sea.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.volcanoteide.com/es/el_cielo_del_teide/la_sombra_del_teide |title=La sombra del Teide |access-date=April 13, 2018 |archive-date=April 14, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414092008/https://www.volcanoteide.com/es/el_cielo_del_teide/la_sombra_del_teide |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.supranubius.es/2014/08/la-sombra-del-teide.html |title=Suprenubius. La sombra del Teide. |access-date=April 13, 2018 |archive-date=April 14, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180414172051/http://www.supranubius.es/2014/08/la-sombra-del-teide.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=current sources are a Teide tour company website and a meteorology blog|date=October 2018}} The shadow is cast for more than {{cvt|40|km|mi}} from the mountain's summit, reaching as far as the island of [[La Gomera]] at dawn, and the island of [[Gran Canaria]] at sunset. The shadow has a perfectly triangular shape, even though Teide's silhouette does not; this is an effect of [[aerial perspective]].<ref name="NASA_APOD">{{cite web | url=https://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap110705.html | title=A Triangular Shadow of a Large Volcano | publisher=[[NASA]] | work=Astronomy Picture of the Day | date=5 July 2011 | access-date=19 October 2018 | author=Nemiroff, R. and Bonnell, J.}}</ref><ref name="AtmosOptic1">{{cite web | url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/atoptics/mtshad.htm | title=Mountain shadow | publisher=atoptics.co.uk | work=Atmospheric Optics | access-date=19 October 2018 | author=Cowley, L.}}</ref><ref name="AtmosOptic2">{{cite web | url=http://www.atoptics.co.uk/atoptics/mtshform.htm | title=Mountain shadow formation | publisher=atoptics.co.uk | work=Atmospheric Optics | access-date=19 October 2018 | author=Cowley, L. | archive-date=April 16, 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416003311/https://atoptics.co.uk/blog/mountain-shadow-formation/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ApplOptics1979">{{cite journal | title=Mountain shadow phenomena | first1=W. | last1=Livingston | first2=D. | last2=Lynch | journal=Applied Optics | date=1979 | volume=18 | issue=3 | pages=265–269 | doi=10.1364/AO.18.000265| pmid=20208703 | bibcode=1979ApOpt..18..265L }}</ref> Visitors and tourists climb to the top of the volcano at sunset to witness this phenomenon.

== Scientific use ==
Teide National Park is a useful volcanic reference point for studies related to [[Mars]] because of the similarities in their environmental conditions and geological formations.<ref name="elmundo">{{cite web|url=http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2010/11/03/ciencia/1288783782.html|title=Tenerife se convierte en un laboratorio marciano - Ciencia - elmundo.es|author=Unidad Editorial Internet|date=November 3, 2010|access-date=January 5, 2016|archive-date=March 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174525/http://www.elmundo.es/elmundo/2010/11/03/ciencia/1288783782.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010 a research team tested the [[Raman spectroscopy|Raman]] instrument at Las Cañadas del Teide in anticipation of its use in the 2016–2018 [[ExoMars|ESA-NASA ExoMars]] expedition.<ref name="elmundo"/> In June 2011 a team of researchers from the UK visited the park to test a method for looking for life on Mars and to search for suitable places to test new robotic vehicles in 2012.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120317002531/http://www.loquepasaentenerife.com/vivir/10-08-2011/buscandomarcianosenelteide Buscando "marcianos" en el Teide] La Laguna, 10 August 2011. (Archived)</ref>

== Access ==
[[File:Volcano Teide.JPG|thumb|Teide from a distance with a cloud at the top]]
The volcano and its surroundings, including the whole of the Las Cañadas caldera, are protected in the Teide National Park. Access is by a public road running from northeast to southwest across the caldera. [[TITSA]] runs a return service to Teide once a day from both [[Puerto de la Cruz]] and [[Playa de las Americas]]. The park has a [[Paradores|Parador]] (hotel) and a small chapel. A [[Teide Cableway|cable car]] goes from the roadside at {{convert|2,356|m|abbr=on}} most of the way to the summit, reaching {{convert|3,555|m|abbr=on}}, carrying up to 38 passengers (34 in a high wind) and taking eight minutes to reach the summit.<ref>{{cite web |title=Teleférico del Teide |url=https://www.webtenerife.com/que-visitar/parque-nacional-del-teide/teleferico-teide.htm |website=Turismo Tenerife |access-date=20 November 2020}}</ref> Access to the summit itself is restricted; a free permit is required to climb the last {{convert|200|m|abbr=on}}. Numbers are normally restricted to 200 per day.{{citation needed|date=September 2019}} Several footpaths take hikers to the upper cable car terminal, and then onto the summit.

Because of the altitude, the air is significantly thinner than at sea level. This can cause people (especially with heart or lung conditions) to become light-headed or dizzy, to develop [[altitude sickness]],<ref name="AltSick">{{cite web | url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/canary-islands/narratives/practical-information/health | title=Canary Islands in detail: Health and Insurance | publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] | accessdate=12 August 2021}}</ref> and in extreme cases to lose consciousness. The only treatment is to return to lower altitudes and acclimatise.

== Astronomical observatory ==
[[File:Obs 1.jpg|thumb|right|[[Teide Observatory]]]]
{{Main|Teide Observatory}}
An [[astronomical observatory]] is located on the slopes of the mountain, taking advantage of the good weather, and the altitude, which puts it above most clouds, and promotes stable [[Astronomical seeing]]. The [[Teide Observatory]] is operated by the [[Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias]]. It includes solar, radio and microwave telescopes, in addition to traditional optical night-time telescopes.

== Symbol ==
Teide is the main symbol of Tenerife and the most emblematic natural monument of the Canary Islands. An image of Teide, gushing flames, appears at the centre of Tenerife's coat of arms. Above the volcano appears [[St. Michael]], the patron saint of Tenerife. The [[Flag of Tenerife|flag colors of the island]] are [[Dark blue (color)|dark blue]], traditionally identified with the sea that surrounds the island, and [[white]] for the whiteness of the snow-covered peaks of Teide during winter. The logo of the [[Cabildo de Tenerife]] (governing body of the island) includes a symbol of Teide in eruption.

Teide has been depicted frequently throughout history, from the earliest engravings made by European conquerors to typical Canarian craft objects, on the back of the 1000-[[Spanish peseta|peseta]] [[banknote]], in oil paintings and on postcards.

In the Canary Islands, especially on Tenerife, Teide has cultural symbolism deeply rooted in traditions and history. It is popularly referred to as ''Padre Teide'' (Father Teide).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eldia.es/ultima/2008-04-13/4-cara-menos-conocida-padre-Teide.htm|title=La cara menos conocida del padre Teide -|date=April 13, 2008|website=eldia.es|access-date=April 9, 2018|archive-date=April 16, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416003442/https://www.eldia.es/ultima/2008-04-13/4-cara-menos-conocida-padre-Teide.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laopinion.es/sociedad/2010/05/24/disputa-padre-teide/287165.html|title=Disputa por el padre Teide - La Opinión de Tenerife|first=La Opinión de|last=Tenerife|website=www.laopinion.es|access-date=April 9, 2018}}</ref>

<gallery class="center">
File:Coat of Arms of Tenerife.svg|[[Coat of arms of Tenerife]]
File:Flag of Tenerife.svg|[[Flag of Tenerife]]
File:Logotipo del Cabildo de Tenerife.svg|Logo of the [[Cabildo de Tenerife]].
File:Billet 1000 Pesetas Verso Galdos.jpg|Spanish 1,000 [[Spanish peseta|peseta]] banknote (1979)
</gallery>

== Lunar mountain ==
[[Mons Pico]], one of the [[Montes Teneriffe]] range of lunar mountains in the inner ring of the [[Mare Imbrium]], was named by [[Johann Hieronymus Schröter]] after the ''Pico von Teneriffe'', an 18th-century German name for Teide.<ref name="Sheehan, William 1816">Sheehan, William & Baum, Richard, Observation and inference: Johann Hieronymous Schroeter, 1745–1816, JBAA 105 (1995), 171</ref><ref>Schroeter, Johann Hieronymous, Selenotopographische Fragmente sur genauern Kenntniss der Mondfläche [vol. 1]. – Lilienthal: auf Kosten des Verfassers, 1791</ref>

There is also a [[brown dwarf star]] located in the open [[star cluster]] of the [[Pleiades]] called [[Teide 1]].

==See also==
* [[Roque Cinchado]]
* [[Mount Guajara]]
* [[List of tallest mountains in the Solar System]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist
| group = lower-alpha
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Teide}}
* [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1258 UNESCO World Heritage Site datasheet]
* [http://reddeparquesnacionales.mma.es/en/parques/teide/index.htm Teide National Park—Official Website]
* [http://www.iac.es/eno.php?op1=3&op2=7 Teide Webcam]
* [http://www.telefericoteide.com/ Cable car ]
* {{in lang|es}} [http://www.komandokroketa.org/Teide/Teide.html Description of the ascent of Teide]
* {{APOD |date=December 17, 2013 |title=Geminid Meteors over Teide Volcano}}

{{Ultras of Europe}}
{{Decade Volcanoes}}
{{Culture of Canary Islands}}
{{Highest points of Europe}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mountains of the Canary Islands]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of the Canary Islands]]
[[Category:VEI-5 volcanoes]]
[[Category:Active volcanoes]]
[[Category:Pleistocene stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Holocene stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Hotspot volcanoes]]
[[Category:Decade Volcanoes]]
[[Category:Three-thousanders]]
[[Category:Mythological mountains]]
[[Category:Tenerife]]
[[Category:Tourism in Spain]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Tenerife]]
[[Category:Highest points of countries]]
[[Category:Extreme points of Spain]]
[[Category:Underworld]]
[[Category:Sacred mountains]]

Orinoco

2024-10-18T15:19:26Z

NidabaM:

{{short description|River in Venezuela and Colombia}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Orinoco River
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| name_other = Río Orinoco
| name_etymology = [[Warao language|Warao]] for "a place to paddle"

| image = Orinoco Bridge.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = Orinoquia Bridge near [[Ciudad Guayana]], Venezuela
| map = Orinoco drainage basin map (plain)-es.svg
| map_size =
| map_caption = The Orinoco [[drainage basin]]
| pushpin_map = Venezuela
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_caption= Mouth location in Venezuela

| subdivision_type1 = Countries
| subdivision_name1 = {{hlist|[[Colombia]]|[[Venezuela]]}}
| subdivision_type2 =
| subdivision_name2 =
| subdivision_type3 = Region
| subdivision_name3 = [[South America]]
| subdivision_type4 =
| subdivision_name4 =
| subdivision_type5 =
| subdivision_name5 =

| length = {{cvt|2,140|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref> {{cvt|2,150|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="Orinoco River Basin, South America">{{cite web|url=https://files.worldwildlife.org/wwfcmsprod/files/Publication/file/5o1b74cnbo_English_Version_Orinoco_River_Report_Card_3_High_Res.pdf|title=Orinoco River Basin, South America|year=2016}}</ref>

| basin_size = {{cvt|981,446|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="Orinoco River Basin, South America">{{cite web|url=https://files.worldwildlife.org/wwfcmsprod/files/Publication/file/5o1b74cnbo_English_Version_Orinoco_River_Report_Card_3_High_Res.pdf|title=Orinoco River Basin, South America|year=2016}}</ref> to {{cvt|1,014,797|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max = {{cvt|100|m|abbr=on}}

| source1 = Hydrological source (main stem)
| source1_location = Cerro Delgado-Chalbaud, [[Parima Mountains]], [[Venezuela]]
| source1_coordinates= {{coord|2|19|05|N|63|21|42|W|display=inline}}
| source1_elevation = {{cvt|1,047|m|abbr=on}}

| source2 = Geographical source (Orinoco–Guaviare–Guayabero–Papamene–Sorrento)
| source2_location = [[Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)|Cordillera Oriental]], [[Colombia]]
| source2_coordinates= {{coord|3|31|36.5952|N|74|28|27.3684|W|}}
| source2_elevation = {{cvt|3,080|m|abbr=on}}

| mouth = [[Delta Amacuro]]
| mouth_location = [[Atlantic Ocean]], [[Venezuela]]
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|8|37|N|62|15|W|display=inline,title}}<ref>{{GEOnet2|32FA87C3E20B3774E0440003BA962ED3|Orinoco River}}</ref>
| mouth_elevation = {{convert|0|m|abbr=on}}

| discharge1_location= [[Orinoco Delta]]
| discharge1_avg = (Period: 1983–2020){{cvt|39,000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>
| discharge1_min = {{cvt|8,000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>
| discharge1_max = {{cvt|85,000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>

| discharge2_location= [[Ciudad Guayana]]
| discharge2_avg = (Period: 1926–2011){{cvt|37,740|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="La geografía del agua">{{cite web|url=https://bibliofep.fundacionempresaspolar.org/media/1378189/agua_ti_cap03.pdf|title=La geografía del agua|last1=José Rafael|first1=Córdova|last2=Marcelo González|first2=Sanabria}}</ref>

|discharge3_location= [[Ciudad Bolívar]], [[Venezuela]] (Basin size: {{cvt|836,000|km2|abbr=on}})
|discharge3_avg = (Period: 1926–2011){{cvt|32,760|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="La geografía del agua">{{cite web|url=https://bibliofep.fundacionempresaspolar.org/media/1378189/agua_ti_cap03.pdf|title=La geografía del agua|last1=José Rafael|first1=Córdova|last2=Marcelo González|first2=Sanabria}}</ref>

|discharge4_location= [[Puerto Ayacucho]], [[Venezuela]] ( Basin size: {{cvt|342,000|km2|abbr=on}})
|discharge4_avg = (Period: 1926–2011){{cvt|16,182|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="La geografía del agua">{{cite web|url=https://bibliofep.fundacionempresaspolar.org/media/1378189/agua_ti_cap03.pdf|title=La geografía del agua|last1=José Rafael|first1=Córdova|last2=Marcelo González|first2=Sanabria}}</ref>

|discharge5_location= ''Masagua'', [[Colombia]] (Basin size: {{cvt|101,000|km2|abbr=on}})
|discharge5_avg = (Period: 1926–2011){{cvt|4,400|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}; ''Tama Tama'', [[Venezuela]] (Basin size: {{cvt|37,870|km2|abbr=on}} {{cvt|1,400|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}

| progression = [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| river_system = Orinoco River
| tributaries_left = [[Casiquiare River|Casiquiare]], [[Guaviare River|Guaviare]], [[Vichada River|Vichada]], [[Tomo River|Tomo]], [[Cinaruco River|Cinaruco]], [[Capanaparo River|Capanaparo]], [[Meta River|Meta]], [[Arauca River|Arauca]], [[Apure River|Apure]], [[Guárico River|Guárico]]
| tributaries_right = [[Mavaca River|Mavaca]], [[Sipapo River|Sipapo]], [[Ocamo River|Ocamo]], [[Ventuari River|Ventuari]], [[Suapure River|Suapure]], [[Parguaza River|Parguaza]], [[Caura River (Venezuela)|Caura]], [[Cuchivero River|Cuchivero]], [[Aro River|Aro]], [[Caroní River|Caroní]]

| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra = {{Infobox mapframe |wikidata=yes |zoom=5 |height=250 | stroke-width=1.5 |coord {{WikidataCoord|display=i}}}}
}}

The '''Orinoco''' ({{IPA|es|oɾiˈnoko}}) is one of the longest [[river]]s in [[South America]] at {{cvt|2,140|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>

Its [[drainage basin]], sometimes known as the '''Orinoquia''',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Orinoquia, Orinoquía |encyclopedia=Diccionario panhispánico de dudas |year=2005 |publisher=Royal Spanish Academy |location= |id= |url=https://www.rae.es/dpd/Orinoquia |access-date=2023-01-07}}</ref> covers ca 1 million km2, with 65% of it in [[Venezuela]] and the 35% in [[Colombia]]. It is the [[List of rivers by discharge|fourth largest river]] in the world by [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] volume of water. The nevertheless high volume flow (39,000 m3/s at [[Orinoco Delta|delta]]) of the Orinoco can be explained by the high precipitation in almost the entire catchment area (ca 2,300 mm/a). The Orinoco River and its tributaries are the major transportation system for eastern and interior Venezuela and the [[Llanos]] of Colombia. The environment and wildlife in the Orinoco's basin are extremely diverse.<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref><ref>Supplement of {{cite journal|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/35/2022/hess-26-35-2022-supplement.pdf|year=2021|access-date=21 February 2022|archive-date=4 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104103919/https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/35/2022/hess-26-35-2022-supplement.pdf|url-status=live|doi=10.5194/hess-26-35-2022|title=How well are we able to close the water budget at the global scale? |last1=Lehmann |first1=Fanny |last2=Vishwakarma |first2=Bramha Dutt |last3=Bamber |first3=Jonathan |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=26 |pages=35–54 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Orinoco River Basin, South America–WWF">{{cite web|url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/orinoco_river_basin|title=Orinoco River Basin, South America–WWF}}</ref><ref name="Publications-
EcoHealth Report Cards">{{cite web|url=https://ecoreportcard.org/report-cards/orinoco-river/publications/|title=Publications-EcoHealth Report Cards}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The river's name is derived from the [[Warao language|Warao]] term for "a place to paddle", itself derived from the terms ''güiri'' (paddle) and ''noko'' (place) i.e. a navigable place.<ref>{{cite web |title=Orinoco River |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Orinoco-River |website=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Orinoco |url=http://etimologias.dechile.net/?Orinoco |website=Diccionario Etimológico Español en Línea |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>

== History ==
{{More citations needed|section|date=December 2022}}
[[File:Map of Lower Orinoco pub. 1897.jpg|thumb|left|Map of the Lower Orinoco, 1897]]
The mouth of the Orinoco River at the [[Atlantic Ocean]] was documented by [[Christopher Columbus]] on 1 August 1498, during his [[Christopher Columbus#Third voyage and arrest|third voyage]]. Its source at the Cerro Delgado–Chalbaud, in the [[Parima Mountains|Parima range]], was not explored until 453 years later, in 1951. The source, near the Venezuelan–[[Brazil]]ian border, at {{convert|1047|m|ft}} above sea level ({{coord|2|19|05|N|63|21|42|W|}}), was explored in 1951 by a joint French-Venezuelan expedition.

The Orinoco, as well as its tributaries in the eastern [[llanos]] such as the [[Apure River|Apure]] and [[Meta River|Meta]], were explored in the 16th century by German expeditions under [[Ambrosius Ehinger]] and his successors. In 1531, starting at the principal outlet in the delta, the Boca de Navios, [[Diego de Ordaz]] sailed up the river to the Meta. [[Antonio de Berrio]] sailed down the [[Casanare River|Casanare]] to the Meta, and then down the Orinoco River and back to [[Santa Ana de Coro|Coro]]. In 1595, after capturing de Berrio to obtain information while conducting an expedition to find the fabled city of [[El Dorado]], the Englishman [[Sir Walter Raleigh]] sailed down the river, reaching the [[Llanos|savanna country]].

From April to May 1800, the Prussian-born [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and his companion, [[Aimé Bonpland|Aime Bonpland]], explored stretches of the Orinoco, supported by indigenous helpers and guided by his interest to prove that South America's waterways formed an interconnected system from the Andes to the Amazon.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=68‒70 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> He reported on the [[Boto|pink river dolphins]] and later published extensively on the river's flora and fauna.<ref>Helferich, Gerard (2004) ''Humboldt's Cosmos: Alexander von Humboldt and the Latin American Journey that Changed the Way We See the World,'' Gotham Books, New York; {{ISBN|1-59240-052-3}}.</ref>

The sources of the Orinoco River, located at Cerro [[Carlos Delgado Chalbaud]] (2º19’05” N, 63º21’42” W), were discovered in 1951 by the French-Venezuelan expedition that went back and explored the Upper Orinoco course to the [[Parima Mountains|Sierra Parima]] near the border with Brazil, headed by Venezuelan army officer Frank Risquez Iribarren.<ref>Alberto Contramaestre Torres. Expedición a las fuentes del Orinoco. Caracas, 1954.</ref><ref>Pablo J. Anduce. ''Shailili-Ko. Descubrimiento de las fuentes del Orinoco''. Caracas: Talleres Gráficos Ilustraciones S.A., 1960.</ref>

The first bridge across the Orinoco River, the [[Angostura Bridge]] at [[Ciudad Bolívar]], Venezuela, was completed in 1967.<ref>{{cite book|title=In the Wake of Tacoma: Suspension Bridges and the Quest for Aerodynamic Stability|author=Scott, R.|date=2001|publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers|isbn=9780784470732|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dLOR_CjeiBMC|page=184|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref>

In 1968, an expedition was set off by [[National Geographic]] and [[Hovercraft]] from [[Manaus]] ([[Brazil]]) to Port of Spain (Trinidad). Aboard a [[SR.N6]] hovercraft, the expedition members followed the Negro river upstream to where it is joined by the [[Casiquiare canal]], on the border between Colombia and Venezuela. After following the Casiquiare to the Orinoco River they hovered thru perilous rapids of the rivers Maipures and Atures. The Orinoco was then traversed down to its mouths in the Gulf of Paria and then to Port of Spain. The primary purpose of the expedition was filming for the [[BBC]] series ''[[The World About Us]]'' episode "The Last Great Journey on Earth from Amazon to Orinoco by Hovercraft", which aired in 1970, and demonstrated the abilities of a hovercraft, thereby promoting sales of this British invention.

The first powerline crossing of the Orinoco River was completed in 1981 for an 800{{nbsp}}kV{{nbsp}}TL single span of {{convert|1200|m|ft}} using two towers {{convert|110|m|ft}} tall.<ref name="SAE-Power">{{Cite web |title=Experience |publisher=SAE Power Lines |url=http://www.saepowerlines.com/eng/esperienze.htm |access-date=13 October 2015 |archive-date=2 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802012558/http://www.saepowerlines.com/eng/esperienze.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1992, an overhead power line crossing for two 400{{nbsp}}kV-circuits was completed just west of Morocure (between the cities of [[Ciudad Bolívar]] and [[Ciudad Guayana]]), north of the confluence of Routes{{nbsp}}1 and 19. It had three towers, and the two spans measured {{convert|2161|m|ft}} and {{convert|2537|m|ft}}, respectively.<ref name="SAE-Power" /><ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Critical Path |date=June 2005 |magazine=[[PEI (magazine)|PEI]] |pages=105–111, page 107 |url=http://www.pbpower.net/inprint/articles/critical/critical.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923215840/http://www.pbpower.net/inprint/articles/critical/critical.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pylons of the Orinoco High-Voltage Crossing |work=International Database for Civil and Structural Engineering |url=http://structurae.net/structures/pylons-of-the-orinoco-high-voltage-crossing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200554/http://structurae.net/structures/pylons-of-the-orinoco-high-voltage-crossing |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=13 October 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Orinoco Powerline Crossing |publisher=Skyscraper Source Media Inc. |url=http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=58412 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305034956/http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=58412 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2006, a second bridge, known as the [[Orinoquia Bridge]], was completed near [[Ciudad Guayana]], Venezuela.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

== Geography ==

The course of the Orinoco forms a wide ellipsoidal arc, surrounding the [[Guiana Shield]]; it is divided in four stretches of unequal length that very roughly correspond to the longitudinal zonation of a typical large river:
* '''Upper Orinoco''' – {{convert|286|km|mi}} long, from its headwaters to the Raudales de Guaharibos rapids, flows through mountainous landscape in a northwesterly direction
* '''Middle Orinoco''' – {{convert|805|km|mi}} long, divided into two sectors, the first of which ca. {{convert|515|km|mi}} long has a general westward direction down to the confluence with the [[Atabapo River|Atabapo]] and [[Guaviare River|Guaviare]] rivers at [[San Fernando de Atabapo]]; the second flows northward, for about {{convert|290|km|mi}}, along the Venezuelan–Colombian border, flanked on both sides by the westernmost granitic upwellings of the Guiana Shield which impede the development of a flood plain, to the [[Raudales de Atures|Atures rapids]] near the confluence with the [[Meta River]] at [[Puerto Carreño]]
*'''Lower Orinoco''' – {{convert|959|km|mi}} long with a well-developed alluvial plain, flows in a northeast direction, from Atures rapids down to Piacoa in front of [[Barrancas del Orinoco|Barrancas]]
* '''Delta Amacuro''' – {{convert|200|km|mi}} long that empties into the [[Gulf of Paría]] and the Atlantic Ocean, a very large [[river delta|delta]], some {{convert|22500|km2|mi2|-2|abbr=on}} and {{convert|370|km|mi|-1}} at its widest.

[[File:Deltaorinoco.jpg|thumb|right|Orinoco in Mariusa National Park (Delta Amacuro)]]
[[File:Ciudad guyana.jpg|thumb|right|Orinoco at its confluence with the [[Caroní River]] (lower left)<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=6215
| title=Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela : Image of the Day
| publisher=earthobservatory.nasa.gov | access-date=2009-10-31
| date=2006-01-23
}}</ref>]]
[[File:Orinoco-Landschaft.JPG|right|thumb|Rapids of the Orinoco, near Puerto Ayacucho airport, Venezuela]]
[[File:Orinoco 33. 2005.jpg|right|thumb|Orinoco in [[Amazonas (Venezuelan state)|Amazonas State]], Venezuela]]
[[File:Orinoco4.jpg|right|thumb|Orinoco in Amazonas State, Venezuela]]

At its mouth, the Orinoco River forms a wide delta that branches off into hundreds of rivers and waterways that flow through {{convert|41,000|km2|-3|abbr=on}} of swampy forests. In the rainy season, the Orinoco River can swell to a breadth of {{convert|22|km|0}} and a depth of {{convert|100|m|-1}}.

Most of the important Venezuelan rivers are tributaries of the Orinoco River, the largest being the [[Caroni River (Venezuela)|Caroní]], which joins it at [[Puerto Ordaz]], close to the [[Llovizna]] Falls. A peculiarity of the Orinoco river system is the [[Casiquiare canal]], which starts as an arm of the Orinoco, and finds its way to the [[Rio Negro (Amazon)|Rio Negro]], a tributary of the [[Amazon River|Amazon]], thus forming a 'natural canal' between Orinoco and Amazon.

The [[stream gradient]] of the entire river is 0.05% (1,047 m over 2,250 km). Downstream of Raudales de Guaharibos the gradient is 0.01% (183<ref name="gv">{{Cite web |title=Raudal de Guaharibos rapids, Estado Amazonas, Venezuela |url=https://ve.geoview.info/raudal_de_guaharibos,3640388 |access-date=2021-07-21 |website=ve.geoview.info}}</ref>/1,964), which is also the gradient from Ciudad Bolivar to the ocean (54/435).

=== Major rivers in the Orinoco Basin ===
* [[Apure River|Apure]]: from Venezuela through the east into the Orinoco
* [[Arauca River|Arauca]]: from Colombia to Venezuela east into the Orinoco
* [[Atabapo River|Atabapo]]: from the [[Guiana Shield|Guiana Highlands]] of Venezuela north into the Orinoco
* [[Caroní River|Caroní]]: from the Guiana Highlands of Venezuela north into the Orinoco
* [[Casiquiare canal]]: in SE Venezuela, a [[distributary]] from the Orinoco flowing west to the Negro River, a major affluent to the Amazon
* [[Caura River (Venezuela)|Caura]]: from eastern Venezuela (Guiana Highlands) north into the Orinoco
* [[Guaviare River|Guaviare]]: from Colombia east into the Orinoco
* [[Inírida River|Inírida]]: from Colombia southeast into the Guaviare.
* [[Meta River|Meta]]: from Colombia, border with Venezuela east into the Orinoco
* [[Ventuari River|Ventuari]]: from eastern Venezuela (the Guiana Highlands) southwest into the Orinoco
* [[Vichada River|Vichada]]: from Colombia east into the Orinoco
{{see also|Casiquiare canal-Orinoco River hydrographic divide}}

==Discharge==

Average, minimum and maximum discharge at [[Ciudad Bolívar]] and [[Ciudad Guayana]] (Lower Orinoco):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="3" | Year
! colspan="6" |Discharge (m3/s)
|-
! colspan="3" | [[Ciudad Bolívar]]
! colspan="3" | [[Ciudad Guayana]]
|-
! Min
! ''Mean''
! Max
! Min
! ''Mean''
! Max
|-
|2000
|4,799
|''33,415''
|67,667
| colspan="2" rowspan="8" |
|71,080
|-
|2001
|3,438
|''25,695''
|59,527
|60,493
|-
|2002
|3,868
|''34,002''
|74,367
|66,561
|-
|2003
|3,287
|''34,728''
|74,367
|77,802
|-
|2004
|4,071
|''35,717''
|74,208
|66,367
|-
|2005
|5,439
|''31,980''
|64,800
|57,471
|-
|2006
|6,521
|''35,901''
|77,422
|71,446
|-
|2007
|3,949
|''34,477''
|71,527
|65,611
|-
|2008
|4,754
|''32,378''
|70,536
| colspan="3" |
|-
|2009
|7,419
|''26,041''
|59,671
| colspan="2" |
|67,992
|-
|2010
|3,067
|''35,286''
|75,807
| rowspan="7" |
|''40,101''
|86,581
|-
|2011
|6,368
|''37,957''
|74,367
|''40,189''
|92,258
|-
|2012
|7,805
|''38,685''
|77,909
|''44,049''
|74,566
|-
|2013
|5,581
|''32,041''
|65,850
|''36,484''
|62,151
|-
|2014
|4,364
|''31,632''
|71,214
|''36,018''
|66,050
|-
|2015
|5,725
|''29,476''
|71,136
|''33,742''
|65,903
|-
|2016
|3,514
|''35,474''
|78,398
|''39,841''
|83,098
|-
|2017
|7,520
|''34,302''
|77,315
|8,936
|''39,057''
|85,997
|-
|2018
|4,693
|''36,467''
|82,611
|6,637
|''40,870''
|87,303
|-
|2019
|4,846
|''32,017''
|72,203
|
|''34,620''
|70,248
|-
|2020
|4,570
|''28,915''
|63,638
|6,018
|''31,551''
|54,640
|-
|2021
|7,279
|''39,378''
|74,873
|9,199
|''42,786''
|79,487
|-
|2022
|6,463
|''39,094''
|75,912
|9,679
|''42,663''
|85,238
|-
|2023
|8,377
|''32,523''
|68,742
|8,774
|''36,380''
|81,831
|}
<ref name="Actualidad Hidrometeorológica">{{cite web|url=https://hidromet-ucv.org.ve/category/actualidad-meteorolog/|title=Actualidad Hidrometeorológica}}</ref><ref name="The Flood Observatory">{{cite web|url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/141.htm|title=The Flood Observatory}}</ref>

Monthly average discharge (m3/s) at [[Ciudad Bolívar]] (2018 to 2023):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!Month
! 2018
! 2019
! 2020
! 2021
! 2022
! 2023
! ''1926–2023''
|-
|JAN
|11,009
|8,955
|13,667
|19,108
|11,067
|14,528
|''11,637''
|-
|FEB
|7,593
|6,414
|7,142
|9,554
|6,463
|9,412
|''6,840''
|-
|MAR
|4,693
|4,846
|4,570
|7,279
|10,187
|8,377
|''5,521''
|-
|APR
|6,862
|5,634
|5,080
|16,378
|13,860
|10,036
|''7,347''
|-
|MAY
|27,262
|17,343
|11,688
|33,363
|28,156
|19,290
|''20,295''
|-
|JUN
|46,541
|36,447
|29,204
|63,086
|50,344
|41,963
|''39,205''
|-
|JUL
|73,295
|57,240
|42,542
|68,208
|68,499
|59,398
|''57,550''
|-
|AUG
|82,611
|72,203
|57,742
|74,873
|75,912
|68,742
|''69,207''
|-
|SEP
|70,591
|69,859
|63,638
|68,441
|73,589
|67,129
|''66,502''
|-
|OCT
|50,838
|48,298
|50,060
|53,294
|54,020
|52,622
|''51,206''
|-
|NOV
|34,852
|34,644
|36,926
|36,518
|45,509
|23,332
|''35,752''
|-
|DEC
|21,457
|22,317
|24,718
|22,437
|31,527
|15,450
|''22,974''
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
|''Mean''
|''36,467''
|''32,017''
|''28,915''
|''39,378''
|''39,094''
|''32,523''
|'''''32,836'''''
|}
<ref name="Actualidad Hidrometeorológica">{{cite web|url=https://hidromet-ucv.org.ve/category/actualidad-meteorolog/|title=Actualidad Hidrometeorológica}}</ref>

Monthly average discharge (m3/s) at [[Ciudad Guayana]] (1996 to 1998):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!Month
! 1996
! 1997
! 1998
! '''''1943–1998'''''
|-
|JAN
|17,627
|24,386
|10,919
|''16,661''
|-
|FEB
|14,486
|17,144
|7,583
|''10,108''
|-
|MAR
|15,334
|15,767
|8,906
|''7,702''
|-
|APR
|12,514
|12,615
|12,411
|''10,609''
|-
|MAY
|23,670
|25,152
|32,751
|''26,317''
|-
|JUN
|45,781
|43,142
|49,062
|''45,179''
|-
|JUL
|61,177
|55,597
|63,659
|''58,412''
|-
|AUG
|67,639
|61,275
|67,756
|''64,975''
|-
|SEP
|65,933
|53,825
|66,416
|''63,244''
|-
|OCT
|57,912
|38,742
|54,189
|''53,201''
|-
|NOV
|45,267
|28,372
|38,345
|''40,805''
|-
|DEC
|36,094
|21,116
|30,130
|''29,229''
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
|''Mean''
|''38,620''
|''33,094''
|''36,844''
|'''''35,537'''''
|}
<ref name="NATURAL CONDITIONS OF THE ORINOCO RIVER DELTA">{{cite book|url=https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/11603503_11.PDF|title=NATURAL CONDITIONS OF THE ORINOCO RIVER DELTA}}</ref>

Average discharge at [[Ciudad Bolívar]] (complete time series from 1926 to 2023):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!Year
!m3/s
!Year
!m3/s
!Year
!m3/s
|-
|1926
|23,376
|1959
|30,333
|1992
|28,571
|-
|1927
|37,476
|1960
|31,818
|1993
|35,204
|-
|1928
|32,838
|1961
|27,830
|1994
|35,110
|-
|1929
|32,653
|1962
|32,930
|1995
|29,360
|-
|1930
|30,610
|1963
|32,560
|1996
|35,992
|-
|1931
|33,766
|1964
|27,736
|1997
|28,757
|-
|1932
|33,302
|1965
|27,643
|1998
|35,000
|-
|1933
|32,792
|1966
|29,220
|1999
|34,925
|-
|1934
|34,137
|1967
|34,323
|2000
|33,415
|-
|1935
|31,168
|1968
|32,280
|2001
|25,695
|-
|1936
|31,260
|1969
|32,606
|2002
|34,002
|-
|1937
|29,962
|1970
|34,600
|2003
|34,728
|-
|1938
|37,383
|1971
|33,673
|2004
|35,717
|-
|1939
|28,292
|1972
|36,177
|2005
|31,980
|-
|1940
|25,232
|1973
|27,597
|2006
|35,901
|-
|1941
|28,200
|1974
|26,344
|2007
|34,477
|-
|1942
|31,540
|1975
|29,313
|2008
|32,378
|-
|1943
|38,403
|1976
|37,290
|2009
|26,041
|-
|1944
|34,878
|1977
|30,705
|2010
|35,286
|-
|1945
|33,395
|1978
|32,514
|2011
|37,957
|-
|1946
|36,363
|1979
|32,885
|2012
|38,685
|-
|1947
|30,426
|1980
|35,018
|2013
|32,041
|-
|1948
|31,818
|1981
|38,080
|2014
|31,632
|-
|1949
|32,745
|1982
|36,224
|2015
|29,476
|-
|1950
|32,096
|1983
|36,130
|2016
|35,474
|-
|1951
|38,220
|1984
|31,493
|2017
|34,302
|-
|1952
|33,858
|1985
|30,380
|2018
|36,467
|-
|1953
|36,177
|1986
|35,040
|2019
|32,017
|-
|1954
|38,310
|1987
|34,090
|2020
|28,915
|-
|1955
|31,076
|1988
|30,472
|2021
|39,378
|-
|1956
|36,734
|1989
|29,638
|2022
|39,094
|-
|1957
|29,128
|1990
|33,442
|2023
|32,523
|-
|1958
|28,108
|1991
|31,770
|2024
|
|}
<ref name="THE EXTRAORDINARY FLOOD OF THE ORINOCO RIVER IN 2018">{{cite web |last1=José L. |first1=López |last2=José R. |first2=Córdova |last3=Bartolo |first3=Castellanos |last4=Santiago |first4=Yépez |last5=Alain |first5=Laraque |title=THE EXTRAORDINARY FLOOD OF THE ORINOCO RIVER IN 2018 |url=https://hybam.obs-mip.fr/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/6_Lopez.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Actualidad Hidrometeorológica2">{{cite web |title=Actualidad Hidrometeorológica |url=https://hidromet-ucv.org.ve/category/actualidad-meteorolog/}}</ref><ref name="The Flood Observatory2">{{cite web |title=The Flood Observatory |url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/141.htm}}</ref>

== Ecology ==
The [[boto]] and the [[giant otter]] inhabit the Orinoco River system.<ref name=WWF>WWF: ''[http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/orinoco_river_basin/ Orinoco River Basin, South America.]'' Retrieved 24 May 2014</ref> The [[Orinoco crocodile]] is one of the rarest reptiles in the world. Its range in the wild is restricted to the middle and lower Orinoco River Basin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thorbjarnarson |first1=John B. |last2=Hernández |first2=Gustavo |year=1993 |title=Reproductive ecology of the Orinoco crocodile (''Crocodylus intermedius'') in Venezuela. I. Nesting ecology and egg and clutch relationships |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=363–370 |doi=10.2307/1564821 |jstor=1564821}}</ref>

More than 1000 fish species have been recorded in the river basin and about 15% are [[Endemism|endemic]].<ref name=Reis2016>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1111/jfb.13016|pmid = 27312713|title = Fish biodiversity and conservation in South America|journal = Journal of Fish Biology|volume = 89|issue = 1|pages = 12–47|year = 2016|last1 = Reis|first1 = R. E.|last2 = Albert|first2 = J. S.|last3 = Di Dario|first3 = F.|last4 = Mincarone|first4 = M. M.|last5 = Petry|first5 = P.|last6 = Rocha|first6 = L. A.|url = https://zenodo.org/record/896303|doi-access = free| bibcode=2016JFBio..89...12R }}</ref> Among the fish in the river are species found in [[brackish]] or salt water in the Orinoco [[estuary]], but also many restricted to fresh water. By far the largest orders are [[Characiformes]] and [[Siluriformes]], which together account for more than 80% of the fresh water species.<ref name=FEW>Hales, J., and P. Petry: ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/307 Orinoco Llanos]''. Orinoco Delta & Coastal Drainages. Retrieved 24 May 2014.</ref> Some of the more famous are the [[Pygocentrus cariba|black spot piranha]] and the [[cardinal tetra]]. The latter species, which is important in the aquarium industry, is also found in the [[Rio Negro (Amazon)|Rio Negro]], revealing the connection between this river and the Orinoco through the [[Casiquiare canal]].<ref>{{cite web|website=Seriously Fish|url=http://www.seriouslyfish.com/species/paracheirodon-axelrodi/|title=Paracheirodon axelrodi, Cardinal Tetra.|access-date=24 May 2014}}</ref> Because the Casiquiare includes both [[Blackwater river|blackwater]] and [[Clearwater river (river type)|clear-]] to [[Whitewater river (river type)|whitewater]] sections, only relatively adaptable species are able to pass through it between the two river systems.<ref name=Staeck2015>{{cite journal|last1=Staeck|first1=W.|last2=Schindler|first2=I.|title=Description of a new Heros species (Teleostei, Cichlidae) from the Rio Orinoco drainage and notes on Heros severus Heckel, 1840|year=2015|journal=Bulletin of Fish Biology|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=121–136|url=http://www.ichthyologie.de/images/stories/gfi/publikationen/Bulletin_of_Fish_Biology/Volume_15/BoFB_Vol15_121_136_Staeck_and_Schindler.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ichthyologie.de/images/stories/gfi/publikationen/Bulletin_of_Fish_Biology/Volume_15/BoFB_Vol15_121_136_Staeck_and_Schindler.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== Economic activity ==
The river is navigable for most of its length, and [[dredging]] enables ocean ships to go as far as [[Ciudad Bolívar]], at the confluence of the [[Caroní River]], {{convert|435|km|mi}} upstream. River steamers carry cargo as far as [[Puerto Ayacucho]] and the Atures Rapids.

=== El Florero iron mine ===
In 1926, a Venezuelan mining inspector found one of the richest [[iron ore]] deposits near the Orinoco delta, south of the city of San Felix on a mountain named ''El Florero''. Full-scale mining of the ore deposits began after [[World War II]], by a conglomerate of Venezuelan firms and US steel companies. At the start in the early 1950s, about 10,000 tons of ore-bearing soil was mined per day.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GtkDAAAAMBAJ&dq=popular+mechanics+July+1932+airplane&pg=PA142 "Venezuela's Magnetic Mountain"] ''Popular Mechanics'', July 1949</ref>

=== Tar sands ===
The Orinoco River deposits also contain extensive [[tar sands]] in the [[Orinoco Belt|Orinoco oil belt]], which may be a source of future oil production.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Forero |first=Juan |date=1 June 2006 |title=For Venezuela, A Treasure In Oil Sludge |newspaper=The New York Times |volume=155 |issue=53597 |pages=C1–C6 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/01/business/worldbusiness/01oil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220134004/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/01/business/worldbusiness/01oil.html |archive-date=20 December 2016 |url-status=live |df=dmy }}</ref>

== Eastern Venezuelan basin ==
[[File:Vista RioCaroni DesdeOrinoco.jpg|thumbnail|Union of the Orinoco with the [[Caroní River]]]]
Encompassing the states of [[Anzoategui]]-[[Guarico]] and [[Monagas]] states, the Interior Range forms the northern boundary and the [[Guayana Shield]] the southern boundary.<ref name=Prieto>Prieto, R., Valdes, G., 1992, El Furrial Oil Field, In Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1978–1988, AAPG Memoir 54, Halbouty, M.T., editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, {{ISBN|0891813330}}</ref>{{rp|155}} Maturin forms the eastern subbasin and Guarico forms the western subbasin.<ref name=Prieto/>{{rp|156}} The El Furrial oil field was discovered in 1978, producing from late [[Oligocene]] shallow marine [[sandstone]]s in an [[overthrust]]ed [[foreland basin]].<ref name=Prieto/>{{rp|155}}

== Recreation and sports ==

Since 1973, the Civil Association Nuestros Rios son Navegables organize the Internacional Rally ''Nuestros Rios son Navegables'', a motonautical round trip of over 1,200 kilometers through the Orinoco, Meta and Apure Rivers. Starting out from Ciudad Bolívar or San Fernando de Apure, is the longest fluvial rally in the world with the participation of worldwide competitors, more than 30 support boats, logistics teams, thousands of tourists and fans travel. The boats had an average speed of 120 miles per hour.

Since 1988, the local government of [[Ciudad Guayana]] has conducted a swim race in the rivers Orinoco and [[Caroni River (Venezuela)|Caroní]], with up to 1,000 competitors. Since 1991, the ''Paso a Nado Internacional de los Rios Orinoco–Caroní'' has been celebrated every year, on a Sunday close to 19 April. Worldwide, this swim-meet has grown in importance, and it has a large number of competitors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Antecedentes y Sumario Paso a Nado Internacional de Los Rios Orinoco/Caroni" ''Paso Nado Internacional de Los Rios Orinoco y Caroní'' |language=es |trans-title=Antecedents and Summary of the ''International Swim Meet of the Orinoco and Caroni Rivers'' |url=http://www.almacaronidireccion.com/imdecaroni/static.php?page=static070130-092723 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217065719/http://www.almacaronidireccion.com/imdecaroni/static.php?page=static070130-092723 |archive-date=17 December 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy}}</ref> The 26th meet was held in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|title=26 edición Paso a Nado de Ríos Orinoco y Caroní 2016 |publisher=Roberto Muñoz Natación Venezuela |url=http://1968.com.ve/26-edicion-paso-a-nado-de-rios-orinoco-y-caroni-2016/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109162140/http://1968.com.ve/26-edicion-paso-a-nado-de-rios-orinoco-y-caroni-2016/ |archive-date=9 November 2016 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref>

== In culture ==
The Irish singer and songwriter Enya wrote and sang the song "[[Orinoco Flow]]", which she released in 1988.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=Rick |date=2020-11-18 |title=Behind the Song: "Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)" by Enya |url=https://americansongwriter.com/sail-away-by-enya-behind-the-song/ |access-date=2023-12-27 |website=American Songwriter |language=en-US}}</ref>
Jules Verne's novel Superbe Orénoque has the river as its central theme.

== See also ==
* [[Adaheli]], the Sun in the [[mythology]] of the Orinoco region
* ''[[Fishes of the Orinoco in the Wild]]'' (2020) book
* "[[Orinoco Flow]]" – the song uses the Orinoco and its environs as a theme for its lyrics

{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* Stark, James H. 1897. ''Stark's Guide-Book and History of Trinidad including Tobago, Granada, and St. Vincent; also a trip up the Orinoco and a description of the great Venezuelan Pitch Lake''. Boston, James H. Stark, publisher; London, Sampson Low, Marston & Company. (This book has an excellent description of a trip up the Orinoco as far as [[Ciudad Bolívar]] and a detailed description of the Venezuelan [[Pitch Lake]] situated on the western side of the Gulf of Paria opposite.)
* MacKee, E.D., Nordin, C.F. and D. Perez-Hernandez (1998). "The Waters and Sediments of the Rio Orinoco and its major Tributaries, Venezuela and Colombia." United States Geological Survey water-supply paper, {{ISSN|0886-9308}} /A-B. Washington: United States Government Printing Office.
* Rawlins, C.B. (1999). ''The Orinoco River''. New York: Franklin Watts.
* Triana, S. Pérez. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/50506/50506-h/50506-h.htm Down the Orinoco in a Canoe]
* Weibezahn, F.H., Haymara, A. and M.W. Lewis (1990). ''The Orinoco River as an ecosystem''. Caracas: Universidad Simon Bolivar.

== External links ==
{{commons category|Orinoco River}}
*{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Orinoco |volume=20 |pages=275–276 |first=George Earl |last=Church |short=1}}
*{{Gutenberg|no=50506|name=Down the Orinoco in a Canoe}} (Transcription of book from 1902)
*[https://scioteca.caf.com/bitstream/handle/123456789/495/el_camino_de_los_r_os_w_2013.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y "Rios de Integracion ". Geurgescu, Paul. CAF. 2017]

{{Orinoco Tributaries}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Border rivers]]
[[Category:Colombia–Venezuela border]]
[[Category:Dredged rivers and waterways]]
[[Category:International rivers of South America]]
[[Category:Orinoco basin]]
[[Category:Rivers of Colombia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Venezuela]]

Orinoco

2024-10-18T15:17:40Z

NidabaM:

{{short description|River in Venezuela and Colombia}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox river
| name = Orinoco River
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| name_other = Río Orinoco
| name_etymology = [[Warao language|Warao]] for "a place to paddle"

| image = Orinoco Bridge.jpg
| image_size =
| image_caption = Orinoquia Bridge near [[Ciudad Guayana]], Venezuela
| map = Orinoco drainage basin map (plain)-es.svg
| map_size =
| map_caption = The Orinoco [[drainage basin]]
| pushpin_map = Venezuela
| pushpin_map_size =
| pushpin_map_caption= Mouth location in Venezuela

| subdivision_type1 = Countries
| subdivision_name1 = {{hlist|[[Colombia]]|[[Venezuela]]}}
| subdivision_type2 =
| subdivision_name2 =
| subdivision_type3 = Region
| subdivision_name3 = [[South America]]
| subdivision_type4 =
| subdivision_name4 =
| subdivision_type5 =
| subdivision_name5 =

| length = {{cvt|2,140|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref> {{cvt|2,150|km|mi|abbr=on}}<ref name="Orinoco River Basin, South America">{{cite web|url=https://files.worldwildlife.org/wwfcmsprod/files/Publication/file/5o1b74cnbo_English_Version_Orinoco_River_Report_Card_3_High_Res.pdf|title=Orinoco River Basin, South America|year=2016}}</ref>

| basin_size = {{cvt|981,446|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="Orinoco River Basin, South America">{{cite web|url=https://files.worldwildlife.org/wwfcmsprod/files/Publication/file/5o1b74cnbo_English_Version_Orinoco_River_Report_Card_3_High_Res.pdf|title=Orinoco River Basin, South America|year=2016}}</ref> to {{cvt|1,014,797|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>
| width_min =
| width_avg =
| width_max =
| depth_min =
| depth_avg =
| depth_max = {{cvt|100|m|abbr=on}}

| source1 = Hydrological source (main stem)
| source1_location = Cerro Delgado-Chalbaud, [[Parima Mountains]], [[Venezuela]]
| source1_coordinates= {{coord|2|19|05|N|63|21|42|W|display=inline}}
| source1_elevation = {{cvt|1,047|m|abbr=on}}

| source2 = Geographical source (Orinoco–Guaviare–Guayabero–Papamene–Sorrento)
| source2_location = [[Cordillera Oriental (Colombia)|Cordillera Oriental]], [[Colombia]]
| source2_coordinates= {{coord|3|31|36.5952|N|74|28|27.3684|W|}}
| source2_elevation = {{cvt|3,080|m|abbr=on}}

| mouth = [[Delta Amacuro]]
| mouth_location = [[Atlantic Ocean]], [[Venezuela]]
| mouth_coordinates = {{coord|8|37|N|62|15|W|display=inline,title}}<ref>{{GEOnet2|32FA87C3E20B3774E0440003BA962ED3|Orinoco River}}</ref>
| mouth_elevation = {{convert|0|m|abbr=on}}

| discharge1_location= [[Orinoco Delta]]
| discharge1_avg = (Period: 1983–2020){{cvt|39,000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>
| discharge1_min = {{cvt|8,000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>
| discharge1_max = {{cvt|85,000|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>

| discharge2_location= [[Ciudad Guayana]]
| discharge2_avg = (Period: 1926–2011){{cvt|37,740|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="La geografía del agua">{{cite web|url=https://bibliofep.fundacionempresaspolar.org/media/1378189/agua_ti_cap03.pdf|title=La geografía del agua|last1=José Rafael|first1=Córdova|last2=Marcelo González|first2=Sanabria}}</ref>

|discharge3_location= [[Ciudad Bolívar]], [[Venezuela]] (Basin size: {{cvt|836,000|km2|abbr=on}})
|discharge3_avg = (Period: 1926–2011){{cvt|32,760|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="La geografía del agua">{{cite web|url=https://bibliofep.fundacionempresaspolar.org/media/1378189/agua_ti_cap03.pdf|title=La geografía del agua|last1=José Rafael|first1=Córdova|last2=Marcelo González|first2=Sanabria}}</ref>

|discharge4_location= [[Puerto Ayacucho]], [[Venezuela]] ( Basin size: {{cvt|342,000|km2|abbr=on}})
|discharge4_avg = (Period: 1926–2011){{cvt|16,182|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}<ref name="La geografía del agua">{{cite web|url=https://bibliofep.fundacionempresaspolar.org/media/1378189/agua_ti_cap03.pdf|title=La geografía del agua|last1=José Rafael|first1=Córdova|last2=Marcelo González|first2=Sanabria}}</ref>

|discharge5_location= ''Masagua'', [[Colombia]] (Basin size: {{cvt|101,000|km2|abbr=on}})
|discharge5_avg = (Period: 1926–2011){{cvt|4,400|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}; ''Tama Tama'', [[Venezuela]] (Basin size: {{cvt|37,870|km2|abbr=on}} {{cvt|1,400|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}

| progression = [[Atlantic Ocean]]
| river_system = Orinoco River
| tributaries_left = [[Casiquiare River|Casiquiare]], [[Guaviare River|Guaviare]], [[Vichada River|Vichada]], [[Tomo River|Tomo]], [[Cinaruco River|Cinaruco]], [[Capanaparo River|Capanaparo]], [[Meta River|Meta]], [[Arauca River|Arauca]], [[Apure River|Apure]], [[Guárico River|Guárico]]
| tributaries_right = [[Mavaca River|Mavaca]], [[Sipapo River|Sipapo]], [[Ocamo River|Ocamo]], [[Ventuari River|Ventuari]], [[Suapure River|Suapure]], [[Parguaza River|Parguaza]], [[Caura River (Venezuela)|Caura]], [[Cuchivero River|Cuchivero]], [[Aro River|Aro]], [[Caroní River|Caroní]]

| custom_label =
| custom_data =
| extra = {{Infobox mapframe |wikidata=yes |zoom=5 |height=250 | stroke-width=1.5 |coord {{WikidataCoord|display=i}}}}
}}

The '''Orinoco''' ({{IPA|es|oɾiˈnoko}}) is one of the longest [[river]]s in [[South America]] at {{cvt|2,140|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref>

Its [[drainage basin]], sometimes known as the '''Orinoquia''',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Orinoquia, Orinoquía |encyclopedia=Diccionario panhispánico de dudas |year=2005 |publisher=Royal Spanish Academy |location= |id= |url=https://www.rae.es/dpd/Orinoquia |access-date=2023-01-07}}</ref> covers ca 1 million km2, with 65% of it in [[Venezuela]] and the 35% in [[Colombia]]. It is the [[List of rivers by discharge|fourth largest river]] in the world by [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] volume of water. The nevertheless high volume flow (39,000 m3/s at [[Orinoco Delta|delta]]) of the Orinoco can be explained by the high precipitation in almost the entire catchment area (ca 2,300 mm/a). The Orinoco River and its tributaries are the major transportation system for eastern and interior Venezuela and the [[Llanos]] of Colombia. The environment and wildlife in the Orinoco's basin are extremely diverse.<ref name="XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos">{{cite book|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/370581100|title=XXI. PECES DEL FONDO DEL RÍO ORINOCO Y AFLUENTES PRINCIPALES (COLOMBIA-VENEZUELA): diversidad y aspectos bioecológicos|last1=Carlos Andrés|first1=Lasso Alcalá|last2=Mónica Andrea|first2=Morales Betancourt|isbn=978-958-5183-65-0|doi=10.21068/eh9789585183629|year=2022}}</ref><ref>Supplement of {{cite journal|url=https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/35/2022/hess-26-35-2022-supplement.pdf|year=2021|access-date=21 February 2022|archive-date=4 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104103919/https://hess.copernicus.org/articles/26/35/2022/hess-26-35-2022-supplement.pdf|url-status=live|doi=10.5194/hess-26-35-2022|title=How well are we able to close the water budget at the global scale? |last1=Lehmann |first1=Fanny |last2=Vishwakarma |first2=Bramha Dutt |last3=Bamber |first3=Jonathan |journal=Hydrology and Earth System Sciences |volume=26 |pages=35–54 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Orinoco River Basin, South America–WWF">{{cite web|url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/knowledge_hub/where_we_work/orinoco_river_basin|title=Orinoco River Basin, South America–WWF}}</ref><ref name="Publications-
EcoHealth Report Cards">{{cite web|url=https://ecoreportcard.org/report-cards/orinoco-river/publications/|title=Publications-EcoHealth Report Cards}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
The river's name is derived from the [[Warao language|Warao]] term for "a place to paddle", itself derived from the terms ''güiri'' (paddle) and ''noko'' (place) i.e. a navigable place.<ref>{{cite web |title=Orinoco River |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Orinoco-River |website=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Orinoco |url=http://etimologias.dechile.net/?Orinoco |website=Diccionario Etimológico Español en Línea |access-date=11 April 2020}}</ref>

== History ==
{{More citations needed|section|date=December 2022}}
[[File:Map of Lower Orinoco pub. 1897.jpg|thumb|left|Map of the Lower Orinoco, 1897]]
The mouth of the Orinoco River at the [[Atlantic Ocean]] was documented by [[Christopher Columbus]] on 1 August 1498, during his [[Christopher Columbus#Third voyage and arrest|third voyage]]. Its source at the Cerro Delgado–Chalbaud, in the [[Parima Mountains|Parima range]], was not explored until 453 years later, in 1951. The source, near the Venezuelan–[[Brazil]]ian border, at {{convert|1047|m|ft}} above sea level ({{coord|2|19|05|N|63|21|42|W|}}), was explored in 1951 by a joint French-Venezuelan expedition.

The Orinoco, as well as its tributaries in the eastern [[llanos]] such as the [[Apure River|Apure]] and [[Meta River|Meta]], were explored in the 16th century by German expeditions under [[Ambrosius Ehinger]] and his successors. In 1531, starting at the principal outlet in the delta, the Boca de Navios, [[Diego de Ordaz]] sailed up the river to the Meta. [[Antonio de Berrio]] sailed down the [[Casanare River|Casanare]] to the Meta, and then down the Orinoco River and back to [[Santa Ana de Coro|Coro]]. In 1595, after capturing de Berrio to obtain information while conducting an expedition to find the fabled city of [[El Dorado]], the Englishman [[Sir Walter Raleigh]] sailed down the river, reaching the [[Llanos|savanna country]].

From April to May 1800, the Prussian-born [[Alexander von Humboldt]] explored stretchesof the Orinoco, guided by his interest to prove that South America's waterways formed an interconnected system from the Andes to the Amazon.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=68‒70 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> He reported on the [[Boto|pink river dolphins]] and later published extensively on the river's flora and fauna.<ref>Helferich, Gerard (2004) ''Humboldt's Cosmos: Alexander von Humboldt and the Latin American Journey that Changed the Way We See the World,'' Gotham Books, New York; {{ISBN|1-59240-052-3}}.</ref>

The sources of the Orinoco River, located at Cerro [[Carlos Delgado Chalbaud]] (2º19’05” N, 63º21’42” W), were discovered in 1951 by the French-Venezuelan expedition that went back and explored the Upper Orinoco course to the [[Parima Mountains|Sierra Parima]] near the border with Brazil, headed by Venezuelan army officer Frank Risquez Iribarren.<ref>Alberto Contramaestre Torres. Expedición a las fuentes del Orinoco. Caracas, 1954.</ref><ref>Pablo J. Anduce. ''Shailili-Ko. Descubrimiento de las fuentes del Orinoco''. Caracas: Talleres Gráficos Ilustraciones S.A., 1960.</ref>

The first bridge across the Orinoco River, the [[Angostura Bridge]] at [[Ciudad Bolívar]], Venezuela, was completed in 1967.<ref>{{cite book|title=In the Wake of Tacoma: Suspension Bridges and the Quest for Aerodynamic Stability|author=Scott, R.|date=2001|publisher=American Society of Civil Engineers|isbn=9780784470732|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dLOR_CjeiBMC|page=184|access-date=13 April 2015}}</ref>

In 1968, an expedition was set off by [[National Geographic]] and [[Hovercraft]] from [[Manaus]] ([[Brazil]]) to Port of Spain (Trinidad). Aboard a [[SR.N6]] hovercraft, the expedition members followed the Negro river upstream to where it is joined by the [[Casiquiare canal]], on the border between Colombia and Venezuela. After following the Casiquiare to the Orinoco River they hovered thru perilous rapids of the rivers Maipures and Atures. The Orinoco was then traversed down to its mouths in the Gulf of Paria and then to Port of Spain. The primary purpose of the expedition was filming for the [[BBC]] series ''[[The World About Us]]'' episode "The Last Great Journey on Earth from Amazon to Orinoco by Hovercraft", which aired in 1970, and demonstrated the abilities of a hovercraft, thereby promoting sales of this British invention.

The first powerline crossing of the Orinoco River was completed in 1981 for an 800{{nbsp}}kV{{nbsp}}TL single span of {{convert|1200|m|ft}} using two towers {{convert|110|m|ft}} tall.<ref name="SAE-Power">{{Cite web |title=Experience |publisher=SAE Power Lines |url=http://www.saepowerlines.com/eng/esperienze.htm |access-date=13 October 2015 |archive-date=2 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802012558/http://www.saepowerlines.com/eng/esperienze.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 1992, an overhead power line crossing for two 400{{nbsp}}kV-circuits was completed just west of Morocure (between the cities of [[Ciudad Bolívar]] and [[Ciudad Guayana]]), north of the confluence of Routes{{nbsp}}1 and 19. It had three towers, and the two spans measured {{convert|2161|m|ft}} and {{convert|2537|m|ft}}, respectively.<ref name="SAE-Power" /><ref>{{Cite magazine|title=Critical Path |date=June 2005 |magazine=[[PEI (magazine)|PEI]] |pages=105–111, page 107 |url=http://www.pbpower.net/inprint/articles/critical/critical.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923215840/http://www.pbpower.net/inprint/articles/critical/critical.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2006 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Pylons of the Orinoco High-Voltage Crossing |work=International Database for Civil and Structural Engineering |url=http://structurae.net/structures/pylons-of-the-orinoco-high-voltage-crossing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200554/http://structurae.net/structures/pylons-of-the-orinoco-high-voltage-crossing |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead |access-date=13 October 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Orinoco Powerline Crossing |publisher=Skyscraper Source Media Inc. |url=http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=58412 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305034956/http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=58412 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2006, a second bridge, known as the [[Orinoquia Bridge]], was completed near [[Ciudad Guayana]], Venezuela.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

== Geography ==

The course of the Orinoco forms a wide ellipsoidal arc, surrounding the [[Guiana Shield]]; it is divided in four stretches of unequal length that very roughly correspond to the longitudinal zonation of a typical large river:
* '''Upper Orinoco''' – {{convert|286|km|mi}} long, from its headwaters to the Raudales de Guaharibos rapids, flows through mountainous landscape in a northwesterly direction
* '''Middle Orinoco''' – {{convert|805|km|mi}} long, divided into two sectors, the first of which ca. {{convert|515|km|mi}} long has a general westward direction down to the confluence with the [[Atabapo River|Atabapo]] and [[Guaviare River|Guaviare]] rivers at [[San Fernando de Atabapo]]; the second flows northward, for about {{convert|290|km|mi}}, along the Venezuelan–Colombian border, flanked on both sides by the westernmost granitic upwellings of the Guiana Shield which impede the development of a flood plain, to the [[Raudales de Atures|Atures rapids]] near the confluence with the [[Meta River]] at [[Puerto Carreño]]
*'''Lower Orinoco''' – {{convert|959|km|mi}} long with a well-developed alluvial plain, flows in a northeast direction, from Atures rapids down to Piacoa in front of [[Barrancas del Orinoco|Barrancas]]
* '''Delta Amacuro''' – {{convert|200|km|mi}} long that empties into the [[Gulf of Paría]] and the Atlantic Ocean, a very large [[river delta|delta]], some {{convert|22500|km2|mi2|-2|abbr=on}} and {{convert|370|km|mi|-1}} at its widest.

[[File:Deltaorinoco.jpg|thumb|right|Orinoco in Mariusa National Park (Delta Amacuro)]]
[[File:Ciudad guyana.jpg|thumb|right|Orinoco at its confluence with the [[Caroní River]] (lower left)<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/IOTD/view.php?id=6215
| title=Ciudad Guayana, Venezuela : Image of the Day
| publisher=earthobservatory.nasa.gov | access-date=2009-10-31
| date=2006-01-23
}}</ref>]]
[[File:Orinoco-Landschaft.JPG|right|thumb|Rapids of the Orinoco, near Puerto Ayacucho airport, Venezuela]]
[[File:Orinoco 33. 2005.jpg|right|thumb|Orinoco in [[Amazonas (Venezuelan state)|Amazonas State]], Venezuela]]
[[File:Orinoco4.jpg|right|thumb|Orinoco in Amazonas State, Venezuela]]

At its mouth, the Orinoco River forms a wide delta that branches off into hundreds of rivers and waterways that flow through {{convert|41,000|km2|-3|abbr=on}} of swampy forests. In the rainy season, the Orinoco River can swell to a breadth of {{convert|22|km|0}} and a depth of {{convert|100|m|-1}}.

Most of the important Venezuelan rivers are tributaries of the Orinoco River, the largest being the [[Caroni River (Venezuela)|Caroní]], which joins it at [[Puerto Ordaz]], close to the [[Llovizna]] Falls. A peculiarity of the Orinoco river system is the [[Casiquiare canal]], which starts as an arm of the Orinoco, and finds its way to the [[Rio Negro (Amazon)|Rio Negro]], a tributary of the [[Amazon River|Amazon]], thus forming a 'natural canal' between Orinoco and Amazon.

The [[stream gradient]] of the entire river is 0.05% (1,047 m over 2,250 km). Downstream of Raudales de Guaharibos the gradient is 0.01% (183<ref name="gv">{{Cite web |title=Raudal de Guaharibos rapids, Estado Amazonas, Venezuela |url=https://ve.geoview.info/raudal_de_guaharibos,3640388 |access-date=2021-07-21 |website=ve.geoview.info}}</ref>/1,964), which is also the gradient from Ciudad Bolivar to the ocean (54/435).

=== Major rivers in the Orinoco Basin ===
* [[Apure River|Apure]]: from Venezuela through the east into the Orinoco
* [[Arauca River|Arauca]]: from Colombia to Venezuela east into the Orinoco
* [[Atabapo River|Atabapo]]: from the [[Guiana Shield|Guiana Highlands]] of Venezuela north into the Orinoco
* [[Caroní River|Caroní]]: from the Guiana Highlands of Venezuela north into the Orinoco
* [[Casiquiare canal]]: in SE Venezuela, a [[distributary]] from the Orinoco flowing west to the Negro River, a major affluent to the Amazon
* [[Caura River (Venezuela)|Caura]]: from eastern Venezuela (Guiana Highlands) north into the Orinoco
* [[Guaviare River|Guaviare]]: from Colombia east into the Orinoco
* [[Inírida River|Inírida]]: from Colombia southeast into the Guaviare.
* [[Meta River|Meta]]: from Colombia, border with Venezuela east into the Orinoco
* [[Ventuari River|Ventuari]]: from eastern Venezuela (the Guiana Highlands) southwest into the Orinoco
* [[Vichada River|Vichada]]: from Colombia east into the Orinoco
{{see also|Casiquiare canal-Orinoco River hydrographic divide}}

==Discharge==

Average, minimum and maximum discharge at [[Ciudad Bolívar]] and [[Ciudad Guayana]] (Lower Orinoco):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! rowspan="3" | Year
! colspan="6" |Discharge (m3/s)
|-
! colspan="3" | [[Ciudad Bolívar]]
! colspan="3" | [[Ciudad Guayana]]
|-
! Min
! ''Mean''
! Max
! Min
! ''Mean''
! Max
|-
|2000
|4,799
|''33,415''
|67,667
| colspan="2" rowspan="8" |
|71,080
|-
|2001
|3,438
|''25,695''
|59,527
|60,493
|-
|2002
|3,868
|''34,002''
|74,367
|66,561
|-
|2003
|3,287
|''34,728''
|74,367
|77,802
|-
|2004
|4,071
|''35,717''
|74,208
|66,367
|-
|2005
|5,439
|''31,980''
|64,800
|57,471
|-
|2006
|6,521
|''35,901''
|77,422
|71,446
|-
|2007
|3,949
|''34,477''
|71,527
|65,611
|-
|2008
|4,754
|''32,378''
|70,536
| colspan="3" |
|-
|2009
|7,419
|''26,041''
|59,671
| colspan="2" |
|67,992
|-
|2010
|3,067
|''35,286''
|75,807
| rowspan="7" |
|''40,101''
|86,581
|-
|2011
|6,368
|''37,957''
|74,367
|''40,189''
|92,258
|-
|2012
|7,805
|''38,685''
|77,909
|''44,049''
|74,566
|-
|2013
|5,581
|''32,041''
|65,850
|''36,484''
|62,151
|-
|2014
|4,364
|''31,632''
|71,214
|''36,018''
|66,050
|-
|2015
|5,725
|''29,476''
|71,136
|''33,742''
|65,903
|-
|2016
|3,514
|''35,474''
|78,398
|''39,841''
|83,098
|-
|2017
|7,520
|''34,302''
|77,315
|8,936
|''39,057''
|85,997
|-
|2018
|4,693
|''36,467''
|82,611
|6,637
|''40,870''
|87,303
|-
|2019
|4,846
|''32,017''
|72,203
|
|''34,620''
|70,248
|-
|2020
|4,570
|''28,915''
|63,638
|6,018
|''31,551''
|54,640
|-
|2021
|7,279
|''39,378''
|74,873
|9,199
|''42,786''
|79,487
|-
|2022
|6,463
|''39,094''
|75,912
|9,679
|''42,663''
|85,238
|-
|2023
|8,377
|''32,523''
|68,742
|8,774
|''36,380''
|81,831
|}
<ref name="Actualidad Hidrometeorológica">{{cite web|url=https://hidromet-ucv.org.ve/category/actualidad-meteorolog/|title=Actualidad Hidrometeorológica}}</ref><ref name="The Flood Observatory">{{cite web|url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/141.htm|title=The Flood Observatory}}</ref>

Monthly average discharge (m3/s) at [[Ciudad Bolívar]] (2018 to 2023):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!Month
! 2018
! 2019
! 2020
! 2021
! 2022
! 2023
! ''1926–2023''
|-
|JAN
|11,009
|8,955
|13,667
|19,108
|11,067
|14,528
|''11,637''
|-
|FEB
|7,593
|6,414
|7,142
|9,554
|6,463
|9,412
|''6,840''
|-
|MAR
|4,693
|4,846
|4,570
|7,279
|10,187
|8,377
|''5,521''
|-
|APR
|6,862
|5,634
|5,080
|16,378
|13,860
|10,036
|''7,347''
|-
|MAY
|27,262
|17,343
|11,688
|33,363
|28,156
|19,290
|''20,295''
|-
|JUN
|46,541
|36,447
|29,204
|63,086
|50,344
|41,963
|''39,205''
|-
|JUL
|73,295
|57,240
|42,542
|68,208
|68,499
|59,398
|''57,550''
|-
|AUG
|82,611
|72,203
|57,742
|74,873
|75,912
|68,742
|''69,207''
|-
|SEP
|70,591
|69,859
|63,638
|68,441
|73,589
|67,129
|''66,502''
|-
|OCT
|50,838
|48,298
|50,060
|53,294
|54,020
|52,622
|''51,206''
|-
|NOV
|34,852
|34,644
|36,926
|36,518
|45,509
|23,332
|''35,752''
|-
|DEC
|21,457
|22,317
|24,718
|22,437
|31,527
|15,450
|''22,974''
|-
| colspan="8" |
|-
|''Mean''
|''36,467''
|''32,017''
|''28,915''
|''39,378''
|''39,094''
|''32,523''
|'''''32,836'''''
|}
<ref name="Actualidad Hidrometeorológica">{{cite web|url=https://hidromet-ucv.org.ve/category/actualidad-meteorolog/|title=Actualidad Hidrometeorológica}}</ref>

Monthly average discharge (m3/s) at [[Ciudad Guayana]] (1996 to 1998):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!Month
! 1996
! 1997
! 1998
! '''''1943–1998'''''
|-
|JAN
|17,627
|24,386
|10,919
|''16,661''
|-
|FEB
|14,486
|17,144
|7,583
|''10,108''
|-
|MAR
|15,334
|15,767
|8,906
|''7,702''
|-
|APR
|12,514
|12,615
|12,411
|''10,609''
|-
|MAY
|23,670
|25,152
|32,751
|''26,317''
|-
|JUN
|45,781
|43,142
|49,062
|''45,179''
|-
|JUL
|61,177
|55,597
|63,659
|''58,412''
|-
|AUG
|67,639
|61,275
|67,756
|''64,975''
|-
|SEP
|65,933
|53,825
|66,416
|''63,244''
|-
|OCT
|57,912
|38,742
|54,189
|''53,201''
|-
|NOV
|45,267
|28,372
|38,345
|''40,805''
|-
|DEC
|36,094
|21,116
|30,130
|''29,229''
|-
| colspan="5" |
|-
|''Mean''
|''38,620''
|''33,094''
|''36,844''
|'''''35,537'''''
|}
<ref name="NATURAL CONDITIONS OF THE ORINOCO RIVER DELTA">{{cite book|url=https://openjicareport.jica.go.jp/pdf/11603503_11.PDF|title=NATURAL CONDITIONS OF THE ORINOCO RIVER DELTA}}</ref>

Average discharge at [[Ciudad Bolívar]] (complete time series from 1926 to 2023):
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
!Year
!m3/s
!Year
!m3/s
!Year
!m3/s
|-
|1926
|23,376
|1959
|30,333
|1992
|28,571
|-
|1927
|37,476
|1960
|31,818
|1993
|35,204
|-
|1928
|32,838
|1961
|27,830
|1994
|35,110
|-
|1929
|32,653
|1962
|32,930
|1995
|29,360
|-
|1930
|30,610
|1963
|32,560
|1996
|35,992
|-
|1931
|33,766
|1964
|27,736
|1997
|28,757
|-
|1932
|33,302
|1965
|27,643
|1998
|35,000
|-
|1933
|32,792
|1966
|29,220
|1999
|34,925
|-
|1934
|34,137
|1967
|34,323
|2000
|33,415
|-
|1935
|31,168
|1968
|32,280
|2001
|25,695
|-
|1936
|31,260
|1969
|32,606
|2002
|34,002
|-
|1937
|29,962
|1970
|34,600
|2003
|34,728
|-
|1938
|37,383
|1971
|33,673
|2004
|35,717
|-
|1939
|28,292
|1972
|36,177
|2005
|31,980
|-
|1940
|25,232
|1973
|27,597
|2006
|35,901
|-
|1941
|28,200
|1974
|26,344
|2007
|34,477
|-
|1942
|31,540
|1975
|29,313
|2008
|32,378
|-
|1943
|38,403
|1976
|37,290
|2009
|26,041
|-
|1944
|34,878
|1977
|30,705
|2010
|35,286
|-
|1945
|33,395
|1978
|32,514
|2011
|37,957
|-
|1946
|36,363
|1979
|32,885
|2012
|38,685
|-
|1947
|30,426
|1980
|35,018
|2013
|32,041
|-
|1948
|31,818
|1981
|38,080
|2014
|31,632
|-
|1949
|32,745
|1982
|36,224
|2015
|29,476
|-
|1950
|32,096
|1983
|36,130
|2016
|35,474
|-
|1951
|38,220
|1984
|31,493
|2017
|34,302
|-
|1952
|33,858
|1985
|30,380
|2018
|36,467
|-
|1953
|36,177
|1986
|35,040
|2019
|32,017
|-
|1954
|38,310
|1987
|34,090
|2020
|28,915
|-
|1955
|31,076
|1988
|30,472
|2021
|39,378
|-
|1956
|36,734
|1989
|29,638
|2022
|39,094
|-
|1957
|29,128
|1990
|33,442
|2023
|32,523
|-
|1958
|28,108
|1991
|31,770
|2024
|
|}
<ref name="THE EXTRAORDINARY FLOOD OF THE ORINOCO RIVER IN 2018">{{cite web |last1=José L. |first1=López |last2=José R. |first2=Córdova |last3=Bartolo |first3=Castellanos |last4=Santiago |first4=Yépez |last5=Alain |first5=Laraque |title=THE EXTRAORDINARY FLOOD OF THE ORINOCO RIVER IN 2018 |url=https://hybam.obs-mip.fr/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/6_Lopez.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Actualidad Hidrometeorológica2">{{cite web |title=Actualidad Hidrometeorológica |url=https://hidromet-ucv.org.ve/category/actualidad-meteorolog/}}</ref><ref name="The Flood Observatory2">{{cite web |title=The Flood Observatory |url=https://floodobservatory.colorado.edu/SiteDisplays/141.htm}}</ref>

== Ecology ==
The [[boto]] and the [[giant otter]] inhabit the Orinoco River system.<ref name=WWF>WWF: ''[http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we_work/orinoco_river_basin/ Orinoco River Basin, South America.]'' Retrieved 24 May 2014</ref> The [[Orinoco crocodile]] is one of the rarest reptiles in the world. Its range in the wild is restricted to the middle and lower Orinoco River Basin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Thorbjarnarson |first1=John B. |last2=Hernández |first2=Gustavo |year=1993 |title=Reproductive ecology of the Orinoco crocodile (''Crocodylus intermedius'') in Venezuela. I. Nesting ecology and egg and clutch relationships |journal=Journal of Herpetology |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=363–370 |doi=10.2307/1564821 |jstor=1564821}}</ref>

More than 1000 fish species have been recorded in the river basin and about 15% are [[Endemism|endemic]].<ref name=Reis2016>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1111/jfb.13016|pmid = 27312713|title = Fish biodiversity and conservation in South America|journal = Journal of Fish Biology|volume = 89|issue = 1|pages = 12–47|year = 2016|last1 = Reis|first1 = R. E.|last2 = Albert|first2 = J. S.|last3 = Di Dario|first3 = F.|last4 = Mincarone|first4 = M. M.|last5 = Petry|first5 = P.|last6 = Rocha|first6 = L. A.|url = https://zenodo.org/record/896303|doi-access = free| bibcode=2016JFBio..89...12R }}</ref> Among the fish in the river are species found in [[brackish]] or salt water in the Orinoco [[estuary]], but also many restricted to fresh water. By far the largest orders are [[Characiformes]] and [[Siluriformes]], which together account for more than 80% of the fresh water species.<ref name=FEW>Hales, J., and P. Petry: ''[http://www.feow.org/ecoregions/details/307 Orinoco Llanos]''. Orinoco Delta & Coastal Drainages. Retrieved 24 May 2014.</ref> Some of the more famous are the [[Pygocentrus cariba|black spot piranha]] and the [[cardinal tetra]]. The latter species, which is important in the aquarium industry, is also found in the [[Rio Negro (Amazon)|Rio Negro]], revealing the connection between this river and the Orinoco through the [[Casiquiare canal]].<ref>{{cite web|website=Seriously Fish|url=http://www.seriouslyfish.com/species/paracheirodon-axelrodi/|title=Paracheirodon axelrodi, Cardinal Tetra.|access-date=24 May 2014}}</ref> Because the Casiquiare includes both [[Blackwater river|blackwater]] and [[Clearwater river (river type)|clear-]] to [[Whitewater river (river type)|whitewater]] sections, only relatively adaptable species are able to pass through it between the two river systems.<ref name=Staeck2015>{{cite journal|last1=Staeck|first1=W.|last2=Schindler|first2=I.|title=Description of a new Heros species (Teleostei, Cichlidae) from the Rio Orinoco drainage and notes on Heros severus Heckel, 1840|year=2015|journal=Bulletin of Fish Biology|volume=15|issue=1–2|pages=121–136|url=http://www.ichthyologie.de/images/stories/gfi/publikationen/Bulletin_of_Fish_Biology/Volume_15/BoFB_Vol15_121_136_Staeck_and_Schindler.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ichthyologie.de/images/stories/gfi/publikationen/Bulletin_of_Fish_Biology/Volume_15/BoFB_Vol15_121_136_Staeck_and_Schindler.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}{{Dead link|date=April 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

== Economic activity ==
The river is navigable for most of its length, and [[dredging]] enables ocean ships to go as far as [[Ciudad Bolívar]], at the confluence of the [[Caroní River]], {{convert|435|km|mi}} upstream. River steamers carry cargo as far as [[Puerto Ayacucho]] and the Atures Rapids.

=== El Florero iron mine ===
In 1926, a Venezuelan mining inspector found one of the richest [[iron ore]] deposits near the Orinoco delta, south of the city of San Felix on a mountain named ''El Florero''. Full-scale mining of the ore deposits began after [[World War II]], by a conglomerate of Venezuelan firms and US steel companies. At the start in the early 1950s, about 10,000 tons of ore-bearing soil was mined per day.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GtkDAAAAMBAJ&dq=popular+mechanics+July+1932+airplane&pg=PA142 "Venezuela's Magnetic Mountain"] ''Popular Mechanics'', July 1949</ref>

=== Tar sands ===
The Orinoco River deposits also contain extensive [[tar sands]] in the [[Orinoco Belt|Orinoco oil belt]], which may be a source of future oil production.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Forero |first=Juan |date=1 June 2006 |title=For Venezuela, A Treasure In Oil Sludge |newspaper=The New York Times |volume=155 |issue=53597 |pages=C1–C6 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/01/business/worldbusiness/01oil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220134004/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/01/business/worldbusiness/01oil.html |archive-date=20 December 2016 |url-status=live |df=dmy }}</ref>

== Eastern Venezuelan basin ==
[[File:Vista RioCaroni DesdeOrinoco.jpg|thumbnail|Union of the Orinoco with the [[Caroní River]]]]
Encompassing the states of [[Anzoategui]]-[[Guarico]] and [[Monagas]] states, the Interior Range forms the northern boundary and the [[Guayana Shield]] the southern boundary.<ref name=Prieto>Prieto, R., Valdes, G., 1992, El Furrial Oil Field, In Giant Oil and Gas Fields of the Decade, 1978–1988, AAPG Memoir 54, Halbouty, M.T., editor, Tulsa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, {{ISBN|0891813330}}</ref>{{rp|155}} Maturin forms the eastern subbasin and Guarico forms the western subbasin.<ref name=Prieto/>{{rp|156}} The El Furrial oil field was discovered in 1978, producing from late [[Oligocene]] shallow marine [[sandstone]]s in an [[overthrust]]ed [[foreland basin]].<ref name=Prieto/>{{rp|155}}

== Recreation and sports ==

Since 1973, the Civil Association Nuestros Rios son Navegables organize the Internacional Rally ''Nuestros Rios son Navegables'', a motonautical round trip of over 1,200 kilometers through the Orinoco, Meta and Apure Rivers. Starting out from Ciudad Bolívar or San Fernando de Apure, is the longest fluvial rally in the world with the participation of worldwide competitors, more than 30 support boats, logistics teams, thousands of tourists and fans travel. The boats had an average speed of 120 miles per hour.

Since 1988, the local government of [[Ciudad Guayana]] has conducted a swim race in the rivers Orinoco and [[Caroni River (Venezuela)|Caroní]], with up to 1,000 competitors. Since 1991, the ''Paso a Nado Internacional de los Rios Orinoco–Caroní'' has been celebrated every year, on a Sunday close to 19 April. Worldwide, this swim-meet has grown in importance, and it has a large number of competitors.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Antecedentes y Sumario Paso a Nado Internacional de Los Rios Orinoco/Caroni" ''Paso Nado Internacional de Los Rios Orinoco y Caroní'' |language=es |trans-title=Antecedents and Summary of the ''International Swim Meet of the Orinoco and Caroni Rivers'' |url=http://www.almacaronidireccion.com/imdecaroni/static.php?page=static070130-092723 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217065719/http://www.almacaronidireccion.com/imdecaroni/static.php?page=static070130-092723 |archive-date=17 December 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy}}</ref> The 26th meet was held in 2016.<ref>{{Cite web|title=26 edición Paso a Nado de Ríos Orinoco y Caroní 2016 |publisher=Roberto Muñoz Natación Venezuela |url=http://1968.com.ve/26-edicion-paso-a-nado-de-rios-orinoco-y-caroni-2016/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109162140/http://1968.com.ve/26-edicion-paso-a-nado-de-rios-orinoco-y-caroni-2016/ |archive-date=9 November 2016 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref>

== In culture ==
The Irish singer and songwriter Enya wrote and sang the song "[[Orinoco Flow]]", which she released in 1988.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Moore |first=Rick |date=2020-11-18 |title=Behind the Song: "Orinoco Flow (Sail Away)" by Enya |url=https://americansongwriter.com/sail-away-by-enya-behind-the-song/ |access-date=2023-12-27 |website=American Songwriter |language=en-US}}</ref>
Jules Verne's novel Superbe Orénoque has the river as its central theme.

== See also ==
* [[Adaheli]], the Sun in the [[mythology]] of the Orinoco region
* ''[[Fishes of the Orinoco in the Wild]]'' (2020) book
* "[[Orinoco Flow]]" – the song uses the Orinoco and its environs as a theme for its lyrics

{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
* Stark, James H. 1897. ''Stark's Guide-Book and History of Trinidad including Tobago, Granada, and St. Vincent; also a trip up the Orinoco and a description of the great Venezuelan Pitch Lake''. Boston, James H. Stark, publisher; London, Sampson Low, Marston & Company. (This book has an excellent description of a trip up the Orinoco as far as [[Ciudad Bolívar]] and a detailed description of the Venezuelan [[Pitch Lake]] situated on the western side of the Gulf of Paria opposite.)
* MacKee, E.D., Nordin, C.F. and D. Perez-Hernandez (1998). "The Waters and Sediments of the Rio Orinoco and its major Tributaries, Venezuela and Colombia." United States Geological Survey water-supply paper, {{ISSN|0886-9308}} /A-B. Washington: United States Government Printing Office.
* Rawlins, C.B. (1999). ''The Orinoco River''. New York: Franklin Watts.
* Triana, S. Pérez. [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/50506/50506-h/50506-h.htm Down the Orinoco in a Canoe]
* Weibezahn, F.H., Haymara, A. and M.W. Lewis (1990). ''The Orinoco River as an ecosystem''. Caracas: Universidad Simon Bolivar.

== External links ==
{{commons category|Orinoco River}}
*{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Orinoco |volume=20 |pages=275–276 |first=George Earl |last=Church |short=1}}
*{{Gutenberg|no=50506|name=Down the Orinoco in a Canoe}} (Transcription of book from 1902)
*[https://scioteca.caf.com/bitstream/handle/123456789/495/el_camino_de_los_r_os_w_2013.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y "Rios de Integracion ". Geurgescu, Paul. CAF. 2017]

{{Orinoco Tributaries}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Border rivers]]
[[Category:Colombia–Venezuela border]]
[[Category:Dredged rivers and waterways]]
[[Category:International rivers of South America]]
[[Category:Orinoco basin]]
[[Category:Rivers of Colombia]]
[[Category:Rivers of Venezuela]]

Gottlob Johann Christian Kunth

2024-10-18T15:09:47Z

NidabaM: footnote

{{Short description|German politician and educator (1757–1829)}}
[[File:Gedenkstein Kunth Berlin Tegel.JPG|thumb|Memorial plaque for Gottlob Johann Christian Kunth at the entrance to Tegel Castle.]]
'''Gottlob Johann Christian Kunth''' (12 June 1757 in [[Baruth/Mark|Baruth]] – 22 November 1829 in [[Berlin]]) was a German politician and educator. Today he is known above all as the tutor and fatherly friend of the brothers [[Wilhelm von Humboldt|Wilhelm]] and [[Alexander von Humboldt]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=3 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref>

== Life ==

Kunth was the son of Johann Siegmund Kunth, a senior Protestant minister and hymn writer who died in Baruth in 1779. In 1772, he started attending the upper level of [[Gymnasium (Germany)|gymnasium]] in [[Halle (Saale)|Halle]]. He then began studying law in [[Leipzig]]. In 1776, however, his financial situation forced him to abandon his studies. He went to work as a private tutor at Tegel Castle, residence of the Humboldt family, in 1777. [[Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt]] (née Colomb) engaged him to tutor her sons Wilhelm and Alexander. Kunth, committed to the ideals of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], instructed the Humboldts in mathematics, German, Latin, Greek, French, and history. He had a lasting influence on their development and planned the future educational paths of both brothers. Kunth arranged private lectures by [[Marcus Herz]], for example, and participation in the literary salons of [[Henriette Herz]] at the famous couple's house.

Kunth was a close confidant of Alexander Georg von Humboldt, the head of the family. After Humboldt's early death in 1779, Kunth assumed the responsibility of advising his widow, [[Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt|Marie-Elisabeth]], and managing her estate. After her death, Kunth served as executor of her will and trustee for her two sons. In addition, he designed the grounds of Tegel Castle.

Wilhelm von Humboldt later advocated for Kunth's appointment to a position with the Prussian statesman and reformer [[Baron vom Stein]]. In 1796, Kunth became trade commissioner of the Prussian State Council. In this position, he became one of the politicians most involved in economic affairs. In 1810, he established the Technical Deputation for Trade and Industry in Berlin and became its director. That same year, he joined the [[Gesetzlose Gesellschaft zu Berlin]], an organization dedicated to the reform of Prussian government and society.

Kunth was buried, according to his wishes, near the tomb of the Humboldt family on the grounds of Tegel Castle. A plaque commemorating Kunth was placed at the entrance to Tegel Castle in 1993. Since January 2006, Kundtanger, a street in the [[Falkenberg (Berlin)|Falkenberg]] locality of Berlin's [[Lichtenberg]] borough, has been named for him.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://berlin.kauperts.de/Strassen/Kundtanger-13057-Berlin#Geschichte |title=Kundtanger |work=Straßennamenlexikon des Luisenstädtischen Bildungsvereins |publisher=Kaupert}} – the spelling ''Kundtanger'' is correct</ref> The street is located in the development Wohnen am Gehrensee, where several streets bear the names of friends and associates of the Humboldt family.

== Family ==

*Parents: Johann Sigismund Kunth (1700–1779) and Friederike Juliane Hausherr (1723–1804)
*Married in 1806: Margaretha Marawiakowska (in some sources: Malgorzata Mankwiatowska) (1783?–1863)
*Children: Adelheid Sigismunde Elisabeth Kunth (1808–1834), Bertha Kunth (1810–1879), Heinrich Kunth (1811–1850), Adalbert Sigismund Ernst Kunth (1814–1858)
*Nephew: [[Karl Sigismund Kunth]] (1788–1850), a botanist who devoted much of his career to evaluating the samples gathered by Alexander von Humboldt and [[Aimé Bonpland]] during their expedition to [[Latin America]].

== Further reading ==
* {{Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie|17|391|394|Kunth, Christian|Paul Goldschmidt|ADB:Kunth, Christian}}
* {{NDB|13|303|304|Kunth, Christian|Wolfhard Weber|116611839}} (New German Biography, Volume 13. Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1982. {{ISBN|3-428-00194-X}}. Footnote, page 303.)

== External links ==
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930184842/http://www.erfurt-web.de/KunthGottlobJohann/show&recommend_site=yep |date=September 30, 2007 |title=Biografie }} (Version dated 30 September 2007 in the Internet Archive) at erfurt-web.de (archived)

== References ==
<references />

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kunth, Gottlob Johann Christian}}
[[Category:German educational theorists]]
[[Category:German politicians]]
[[Category:Educators from the Kingdom of Prussia]]
[[Category:Age of Enlightenment]]
[[Category:Humboldt family]]
[[Category:18th-century German people]]
[[Category:19th-century German educators]]
[[Category:1757 births]]
[[Category:1829 deaths]]

Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt

2024-10-18T15:07:00Z

NidabaM:

{{Infobox person
| name = Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt
| birth_name = Marie-Elisabeth Colomb
| image = File:Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt.jpg
| birth_date = December 8, 1741
| birth_place = [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_date = November 19, 1796
| death_place = [[Schloss Tegel|Tegel Castle]]
| spouse = Friedrich Ernst von Holwede then Alexander Georg von Humboldt
| children = Heinrich Friedrich Ludwig Ferdinand von Holwede, [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], [[Alexander von Humboldt]]
}}

'''Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt''' was born on December 8, 1741 in [[Berlin]] and died on November 19, 1796 at [[Schloss Tegel|Tegel Castle]]. Born Colomb, widow von Holwede, she was the mother of [[Wilhelm von Humboldt|Wilhelm]] and [[Alexander von Humboldt]], born from the union with Alexander Georg von Humboldt her second husband.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=8-11 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref>

== Family ==
Von Humboldt came from a family of merchants and artisans, some of whom were of [[huguenots]] origin. Her grandfather, the parisian merchant Henri Colomb († 1719), first emigrated to [[Copenhagen]] after the lifting of the [[Edict of Nantes]] (1685), where he became a trimmer at the royal court. Around 1711, he settled in [[Neustadt (Dosse)|Neustadt an der Dosse]] in [[Brandenburg-Prussia]] and sat on the board of directors of the royal mirror factory. This move was caused by his father-in-law, the goldsmith Jean-Henri de Moor († 1722) from Wageningen in the province of Gelderland, himself director of the factory from 1696 to 1711. Jean-Henri de Moor was the founder from the French colony of Neustadt. His son Jean Henri de Moor (Johann Heinrich de Moor) continued to run the company with Henri Colomb as partner.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.von-humboldt.de/jean-henri-de-moor.html |title= Jean Henri de Moor (26) und N. N. Taher (27)|website=www.von-humboldt.de}}</ref>{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

Marie-Elisabeth's father, Johann Heinrich Colomb (1695–1759), was also director of the Neustadt mirror factory from 1733 to 1741. He then entered the Prussian civil service as director of the East Frisian Chamber. He moved to Berlin with his family as a landlord.{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

On her mother's side, Marie-Elisabeth came from the Durham de Grange family of Prussian civil servants of [[Scotland|Scottish]] origin. They moved from Scotland to [[Prussia]] in 1650. Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt's great-grandfather was Wilhelm Durham (1658–1735), Royal Prussian tax general, secret high court of appeal and church council, as well as dean and head of the Berlin parish. He and his family lived in the house at Jüdenhof 9 in Berlin. Her daughter Justine Susanne (1716–1762) was the mother of Marie-Elisabeth.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Der Deutsche Herold|volume=IX|date=1878|page=16}}</ref>{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

== Weddings ==
In 1760, Marie-Elisabeth Colomb married Friedrich Ernst von Holwede (March 12, 1723—† January 26, 1765), baron, hereditary and lord of Tegel, Ringenwalde and Crummecavel. Two children were born from this marriage, a daughter who died at an early age,<ref>Text der Sargtafel von Friedrich Ernst von Holwede: Ano 1756 seine Dimission, und ver // heÿrathete sich ano 1760 mit der // letzt hinterlassen Frau Wittwe // Frau MARJA ELJSABETH // gebohrne Colomb. mit welcher Er zweÿ // Kinder einen Sohn und eine Tochter ge // zeüget. Nachzulesen in: Hans-Joachim Beeskow: Führer durch die Evangelische Kirche in Berlin-Malchow, Falkenberg und Wartenberg. Herausgegeben vom Gemeindekirchenrat der evangelischen Kirche in Berlin-Malchow, Dorfstraße 38, 13051 Berlin. 1. Ausgabe, Lübben 2004, {{ISBN|3-929600-29-3}}.</ref> and a son, Heinrich Friedrich Ludwig Ferdinand von Holwede (1762-1817), who joined the Berlin cuirassier regiment, men-at-arms, like Rittmeister.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130118045956/http://www.bbaw.de/bbaw/Forschung/Forschungsprojekte/avh/de/Blanko.2004-12-14.3730549301 chronologie]</ref> Friedrich Ernst von Holwede was a canon of the St. Sebastian Monastery in [[Magdeburg]]. He died in 1765 and left his widow the hereditary lease of Tegel Castle near Berlin and the Ringenwalde estate with the Crummecavel farm in Neumark (district of Soldin, today [[Poland]]). In addition, she benefited from an inheritance from her parents, which included a library with around 300 book titles and especially the house at Jägerstraße 22 in Berlin. The Berlin House is today the headquarters of the [[Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities]]s.<ref>Kauperts. Straßenführer durch Berlin: Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften.</ref>{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

On October 19, 1766, Marie-Elisabeth von Holwede was married for the second time: on the Lancke estate near Berlin, to the royal chamberlain and sergeant-colonel (major) of the cavalry a. D. Alexander Georg von Humboldt (1720–1779). He came from a family of Pomeranian civil servants and officers who had served various Brandenburg-Prussian princes.

== Education of her children ==
[[File:Alexander von Humboldt and Mother.jpg|thumb|Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt with her son, Alexander von Humboldt as a boy, holding a barometer, c. 1780]]
The Humboldt brothers' mother is described as reserved and very serious by biographers. Marie-Elisabeth impresses with her intelligence and her character, according to the testimonies of Caroline von Briest and Caroline von Dacheroeden.

One of Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt's greatest achievements was the consistent planning and implementation of her sons' education from a spiritual and moral perspective.<ref>Kunth über Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt in Hanno Beck: Alexander von Humboldt, Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden 1959–1961</ref> At that time, [[homeschooling]] was a common practice by family members and having tutors was an option for the wealthy and [[nobility|nobles]].<ref>A. Distefano, K. E. Rudestam, R. J. Silverman (2005) [https://books.google.com/books?id=PwNPSlDHFxcC Encyclopedia of Distributed Learning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025239/https://books.google.com/books?id=PwNPSlDHFxcC&printsec=frontcover|date=2016-01-01}} (p221) {{ISBN|0-7619-2451-5}}</ref> She hired a very large number of teachers to do this. They included Administrator [[Gottlob Johann Christian Kunth]] (1757–1829), [[Johann Jakob Engel]], [[Ernst Gottfried Fischer]], [[David Friedländer]], [[Daniel Chodowiecki]].

== Benefactress of the parish of Falkenberg ==
In 1791, Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt bought the [[Falkenberg (Berlin)|Falkenberg estate]] (today part of the [[Berlin]] district of Lichtenberg) from Lieutenant Colonel von Lochau. In her will, she left a bequest to enable the maintenance of the church tower and the Humboldt cemetery in Falkenberg. This legacy was under the direct control of the royal government in Potsdam, then, from 1891, under the supervision of the Royal Consistory of the province of Brandenburg. The administration of the inheritance was then transferred from the parish priest to the parish church council of Falkenberg.

This foundation has benefited the parish of Falkenberg for around 130 years. In addition to the maintenance of the church tower, part of the interest on the endowment capital had to be spent for precisely defined charitable purposes: a bonus for the village teacher of Falkenberg and some small school bonuses for diligent students. This foundation ceased during the [[Great Depression|global economic crisis of 1929]].<ref>Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Acta betreffend milde Stiftungen und Vereine zu Falkenberg und zwar I. von Humboldtsches Legat zur Erhaltung des Kirchturms 1882–1915''. (46-4), Bl.106 ff.</ref><ref>Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Erneuerung der Humboldt-Gruft in der Kirche zu Falkenberg'' (5922), Bl.2.</ref><ref>Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Acta betreffend milde Stiftungen und Vereine zu Falkenberg und zwar I. von Humboldtsches Legat zur Erhaltung des Kirchturms 1882–1915''. (46-4), Bl.110</ref>

== Death ==
Elisabeth von Humboldt died on November 19, 1796 following a long battle with breast cancer.<ref>Ilse Jahn, Fritz G. Lange (Hrsg.): ''Die Jugendbriefe Alexander von Humboldts 1787–1799.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin (DDR) 1973 (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung. 2). Bf 352</ref> She was buried on the Falkenberg estate, in the family cemetery, alongside her husband and a daughter from her first marriage, who had died prematurely.<ref>Vgl.: Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Kirchenbuch Falkenberg, 1796.''</ref>

== See also ==
* [[History of women in Germany]]
* [[Women in Germany]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{Cite book|title=Mother of Alexander von Humboldt|author=Laura Carter Holloway|series=The Mothers of Great Men and Women, and Some Wives of Great Men|date=1883|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLWevQEACAAJ&pg=PA411|pages=411–419}}
* {{Cite book|author=Charles Minguet|title=Alexandre de Humboldt : Historien et géographe de l'Amérique espagnole (1799-1804)|location=Paris|publisher=Éditions de l’IHEAL|date=1969|url=https://books.openedition.org/iheal/3693?lang=fr|chapter=Introduction|series=Travaux et mémoires |pages=23–61 |isbn=978-2-37154-087-3 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{CI|date=May 2024}}
[[Category:Alexander von Humboldt]]
[[Category:Humboldt family]]
[[Category:People from Berlin]]
[[Category:1741 births]]
[[Category:1796 deaths]]

Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt

2024-10-18T15:05:37Z

NidabaM: /* Education of her children */

{{Infobox person
| name = Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt
| birth_name = Marie-Elisabeth Colomb
| image = File:Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt.jpg
| birth_date = December 8, 1741
| birth_place = [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_date = November 19, 1796
| death_place = [[Schloss Tegel|Tegel Castle]]
| spouse = Friedrich Ernst von Holwede then Alexander Georg von Humboldt
| children = Heinrich Friedrich Ludwig Ferdinand von Holwede, [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], [[Alexander von Humboldt]]
}}

'''Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt''' was born on December 8, 1741 in [[Berlin]] and died on November 19, 1796 at [[Schloss Tegel|Tegel Castle]]. Born Colomb, widow von Holwede, she was the mother of [[Wilhelm von Humboldt|Wilhelm]] and [[Alexander von Humboldt]], born from the union with Alexander Georg von Humboldt her second husband.

== Family ==
Von Humboldt came from a family of merchants and artisans, some of whom were of [[huguenots]] origin. Her grandfather, the parisian merchant Henri Colomb († 1719), first emigrated to [[Copenhagen]] after the lifting of the [[Edict of Nantes]] (1685), where he became a trimmer at the royal court. Around 1711, he settled in [[Neustadt (Dosse)|Neustadt an der Dosse]] in [[Brandenburg-Prussia]] and sat on the board of directors of the royal mirror factory. This move was caused by his father-in-law, the goldsmith Jean-Henri de Moor († 1722) from Wageningen in the province of Gelderland, himself director of the factory from 1696 to 1711. Jean-Henri de Moor was the founder from the French colony of Neustadt. His son Jean Henri de Moor (Johann Heinrich de Moor) continued to run the company with Henri Colomb as partner.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.von-humboldt.de/jean-henri-de-moor.html |title= Jean Henri de Moor (26) und N. N. Taher (27)|website=www.von-humboldt.de}}</ref>{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

Marie-Elisabeth's father, Johann Heinrich Colomb (1695–1759), was also director of the Neustadt mirror factory from 1733 to 1741. He then entered the Prussian civil service as director of the East Frisian Chamber. He moved to Berlin with his family as a landlord.{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

On her mother's side, Marie-Elisabeth came from the Durham de Grange family of Prussian civil servants of [[Scotland|Scottish]] origin. They moved from Scotland to [[Prussia]] in 1650. Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt's great-grandfather was Wilhelm Durham (1658–1735), Royal Prussian tax general, secret high court of appeal and church council, as well as dean and head of the Berlin parish. He and his family lived in the house at Jüdenhof 9 in Berlin. Her daughter Justine Susanne (1716–1762) was the mother of Marie-Elisabeth.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Der Deutsche Herold|volume=IX|date=1878|page=16}}</ref>{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

== Weddings ==
In 1760, Marie-Elisabeth Colomb married Friedrich Ernst von Holwede (March 12, 1723—† January 26, 1765), baron, hereditary and lord of Tegel, Ringenwalde and Crummecavel. Two children were born from this marriage, a daughter who died at an early age,<ref>Text der Sargtafel von Friedrich Ernst von Holwede: Ano 1756 seine Dimission, und ver // heÿrathete sich ano 1760 mit der // letzt hinterlassen Frau Wittwe // Frau MARJA ELJSABETH // gebohrne Colomb. mit welcher Er zweÿ // Kinder einen Sohn und eine Tochter ge // zeüget. Nachzulesen in: Hans-Joachim Beeskow: Führer durch die Evangelische Kirche in Berlin-Malchow, Falkenberg und Wartenberg. Herausgegeben vom Gemeindekirchenrat der evangelischen Kirche in Berlin-Malchow, Dorfstraße 38, 13051 Berlin. 1. Ausgabe, Lübben 2004, {{ISBN|3-929600-29-3}}.</ref> and a son, Heinrich Friedrich Ludwig Ferdinand von Holwede (1762-1817), who joined the Berlin cuirassier regiment, men-at-arms, like Rittmeister.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130118045956/http://www.bbaw.de/bbaw/Forschung/Forschungsprojekte/avh/de/Blanko.2004-12-14.3730549301 chronologie]</ref> Friedrich Ernst von Holwede was a canon of the St. Sebastian Monastery in [[Magdeburg]]. He died in 1765 and left his widow the hereditary lease of Tegel Castle near Berlin and the Ringenwalde estate with the Crummecavel farm in Neumark (district of Soldin, today [[Poland]]). In addition, she benefited from an inheritance from her parents, which included a library with around 300 book titles and especially the house at Jägerstraße 22 in Berlin. The Berlin House is today the headquarters of the [[Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities]]s.<ref>Kauperts. Straßenführer durch Berlin: Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften.</ref>{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

On October 19, 1766, Marie-Elisabeth von Holwede was married for the second time: on the Lancke estate near Berlin, to the royal chamberlain and sergeant-colonel (major) of the cavalry a. D. Alexander Georg von Humboldt (1720–1779). He came from a family of Pomeranian civil servants and officers who had served various Brandenburg-Prussian princes.

== Education of her children ==
[[File:Alexander von Humboldt and Mother.jpg|thumb|Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt with her son, Alexander von Humboldt as a boy, holding a barometer, c. 1780]]
The Humboldt brothers' mother is described as reserved and very serious by biographers. Marie-Elisabeth impresses with her intelligence and her character, according to the testimonies of Caroline von Briest and Caroline von Dacheroeden.

One of Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt's greatest achievements was the consistent planning and implementation of her sons' education from a spiritual and moral perspective.<ref>Kunth über Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt in Hanno Beck: Alexander von Humboldt, Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden 1959–1961</ref> At that time, [[homeschooling]] was a common practice by family members and having tutors was an option for the wealthy and [[nobility|nobles]].<ref>A. Distefano, K. E. Rudestam, R. J. Silverman (2005) [https://books.google.com/books?id=PwNPSlDHFxcC Encyclopedia of Distributed Learning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025239/https://books.google.com/books?id=PwNPSlDHFxcC&printsec=frontcover|date=2016-01-01}} (p221) {{ISBN|0-7619-2451-5}}</ref> She hired a very large number of teachers to do this. They included Administrator [[Gottlob Johann Christian Kunth]] (1757–1829), [[Johann Jakob Engel]], [[Ernst Gottfried Fischer]], [[David Friedländer]], [[Daniel Chodowiecki]].

== Benefactress of the parish of Falkenberg ==
In 1791, Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt bought the [[Falkenberg (Berlin)|Falkenberg estate]] (today part of the [[Berlin]] district of Lichtenberg) from Lieutenant Colonel von Lochau. In her will, she left a bequest to enable the maintenance of the church tower and the Humboldt cemetery in Falkenberg. This legacy was under the direct control of the royal government in Potsdam, then, from 1891, under the supervision of the Royal Consistory of the province of Brandenburg. The administration of the inheritance was then transferred from the parish priest to the parish church council of Falkenberg.

This foundation has benefited the parish of Falkenberg for around 130 years. In addition to the maintenance of the church tower, part of the interest on the endowment capital had to be spent for precisely defined charitable purposes: a bonus for the village teacher of Falkenberg and some small school bonuses for diligent students. This foundation ceased during the [[Great Depression|global economic crisis of 1929]].<ref>Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Acta betreffend milde Stiftungen und Vereine zu Falkenberg und zwar I. von Humboldtsches Legat zur Erhaltung des Kirchturms 1882–1915''. (46-4), Bl.106 ff.</ref><ref>Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Erneuerung der Humboldt-Gruft in der Kirche zu Falkenberg'' (5922), Bl.2.</ref><ref>Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Acta betreffend milde Stiftungen und Vereine zu Falkenberg und zwar I. von Humboldtsches Legat zur Erhaltung des Kirchturms 1882–1915''. (46-4), Bl.110</ref>

== Death ==
Elisabeth von Humboldt died on November 19, 1796 following a long battle with breast cancer.<ref>Ilse Jahn, Fritz G. Lange (Hrsg.): ''Die Jugendbriefe Alexander von Humboldts 1787–1799.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin (DDR) 1973 (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung. 2). Bf 352</ref> She was buried on the Falkenberg estate, in the family cemetery, alongside her husband and a daughter from her first marriage, who had died prematurely.<ref>Vgl.: Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Kirchenbuch Falkenberg, 1796.''</ref>

== See also ==
* [[History of women in Germany]]
* [[Women in Germany]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{Cite book|title=Mother of Alexander von Humboldt|author=Laura Carter Holloway|series=The Mothers of Great Men and Women, and Some Wives of Great Men|date=1883|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLWevQEACAAJ&pg=PA411|pages=411–419}}
* {{Cite book|author=Charles Minguet|title=Alexandre de Humboldt : Historien et géographe de l'Amérique espagnole (1799-1804)|location=Paris|publisher=Éditions de l’IHEAL|date=1969|url=https://books.openedition.org/iheal/3693?lang=fr|chapter=Introduction|series=Travaux et mémoires |pages=23–61 |isbn=978-2-37154-087-3 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{CI|date=May 2024}}
[[Category:Alexander von Humboldt]]
[[Category:Humboldt family]]
[[Category:People from Berlin]]
[[Category:1741 births]]
[[Category:1796 deaths]]

Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt

2024-10-18T15:04:49Z

NidabaM: corrected dashes

{{Infobox person
| name = Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt
| birth_name = Marie-Elisabeth Colomb
| image = File:Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt.jpg
| birth_date = December 8, 1741
| birth_place = [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_date = November 19, 1796
| death_place = [[Schloss Tegel|Tegel Castle]]
| spouse = Friedrich Ernst von Holwede then Alexander Georg von Humboldt
| children = Heinrich Friedrich Ludwig Ferdinand von Holwede, [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]], [[Alexander von Humboldt]]
}}

'''Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt''' was born on December 8, 1741 in [[Berlin]] and died on November 19, 1796 at [[Schloss Tegel|Tegel Castle]]. Born Colomb, widow von Holwede, she was the mother of [[Wilhelm von Humboldt|Wilhelm]] and [[Alexander von Humboldt]], born from the union with Alexander Georg von Humboldt her second husband.

== Family ==
Von Humboldt came from a family of merchants and artisans, some of whom were of [[huguenots]] origin. Her grandfather, the parisian merchant Henri Colomb († 1719), first emigrated to [[Copenhagen]] after the lifting of the [[Edict of Nantes]] (1685), where he became a trimmer at the royal court. Around 1711, he settled in [[Neustadt (Dosse)|Neustadt an der Dosse]] in [[Brandenburg-Prussia]] and sat on the board of directors of the royal mirror factory. This move was caused by his father-in-law, the goldsmith Jean-Henri de Moor († 1722) from Wageningen in the province of Gelderland, himself director of the factory from 1696 to 1711. Jean-Henri de Moor was the founder from the French colony of Neustadt. His son Jean Henri de Moor (Johann Heinrich de Moor) continued to run the company with Henri Colomb as partner.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.von-humboldt.de/jean-henri-de-moor.html |title= Jean Henri de Moor (26) und N. N. Taher (27)|website=www.von-humboldt.de}}</ref>{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

Marie-Elisabeth's father, Johann Heinrich Colomb (1695–1759), was also director of the Neustadt mirror factory from 1733 to 1741. He then entered the Prussian civil service as director of the East Frisian Chamber. He moved to Berlin with his family as a landlord.{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

On her mother's side, Marie-Elisabeth came from the Durham de Grange family of Prussian civil servants of [[Scotland|Scottish]] origin. They moved from Scotland to [[Prussia]] in 1650. Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt's great-grandfather was Wilhelm Durham (1658–1735), Royal Prussian tax general, secret high court of appeal and church council, as well as dean and head of the Berlin parish. He and his family lived in the house at Jüdenhof 9 in Berlin. Her daughter Justine Susanne (1716–1762) was the mother of Marie-Elisabeth.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Der Deutsche Herold|volume=IX|date=1878|page=16}}</ref>{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

== Weddings ==
In 1760, Marie-Elisabeth Colomb married Friedrich Ernst von Holwede (March 12, 1723—† January 26, 1765), baron, hereditary and lord of Tegel, Ringenwalde and Crummecavel. Two children were born from this marriage, a daughter who died at an early age,<ref>Text der Sargtafel von Friedrich Ernst von Holwede: Ano 1756 seine Dimission, und ver // heÿrathete sich ano 1760 mit der // letzt hinterlassen Frau Wittwe // Frau MARJA ELJSABETH // gebohrne Colomb. mit welcher Er zweÿ // Kinder einen Sohn und eine Tochter ge // zeüget. Nachzulesen in: Hans-Joachim Beeskow: Führer durch die Evangelische Kirche in Berlin-Malchow, Falkenberg und Wartenberg. Herausgegeben vom Gemeindekirchenrat der evangelischen Kirche in Berlin-Malchow, Dorfstraße 38, 13051 Berlin. 1. Ausgabe, Lübben 2004, {{ISBN|3-929600-29-3}}.</ref> and a son, Heinrich Friedrich Ludwig Ferdinand von Holwede (1762-1817), who joined the Berlin cuirassier regiment, men-at-arms, like Rittmeister.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20130118045956/http://www.bbaw.de/bbaw/Forschung/Forschungsprojekte/avh/de/Blanko.2004-12-14.3730549301 chronologie]</ref> Friedrich Ernst von Holwede was a canon of the St. Sebastian Monastery in [[Magdeburg]]. He died in 1765 and left his widow the hereditary lease of Tegel Castle near Berlin and the Ringenwalde estate with the Crummecavel farm in Neumark (district of Soldin, today [[Poland]]). In addition, she benefited from an inheritance from her parents, which included a library with around 300 book titles and especially the house at Jägerstraße 22 in Berlin. The Berlin House is today the headquarters of the [[Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities]]s.<ref>Kauperts. Straßenführer durch Berlin: Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften.</ref>{{sfn|Charles Minguet|1969}}

On October 19, 1766, Marie-Elisabeth von Holwede was married for the second time: on the Lancke estate near Berlin, to the royal chamberlain and sergeant-colonel (major) of the cavalry a. D. Alexander Georg von Humboldt (1720–1779). He came from a family of Pomeranian civil servants and officers who had served various Brandenburg-Prussian princes.

== Education of her children ==
[[File:Alexander von Humboldt and Mother.jpg|thumb|Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt with her son, Alexander von Humboldt as a boy, holding a barometer, c. 1780]]
The Humboldt brothers' mother is described as reserved and very serious by biographers. Marie-Elisabeth impresses with her intelligence and her character, according to the testimonies of Caroline von Briest and Caroline von Dacheroeden.

One of Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt's greatest achievements was the consistent planning and implementation of her sons' education from a spiritual and moral perspective.<ref>Kunth über Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt in Hanno Beck: Alexander von Humboldt, Franz Steiner Verlag, Wiesbaden 1959–1961</ref> At that time, [[homeschooling]] was a common practice by family members and having tutors was an option for the wealthy and [[nobility|nobles]].<ref>A. Distefano, K. E. Rudestam, R. J. Silverman (2005) [https://books.google.com/books?id=PwNPSlDHFxcC Encyclopedia of Distributed Learning] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101025239/https://books.google.com/books?id=PwNPSlDHFxcC&printsec=frontcover|date=2016-01-01}} (p221) {{ISBN|0-7619-2451-5}}</ref> She hired a very large number of teachers to do this. They included Administrator [[Gottlob Johann Christian Kunth]] (1757-1829), [[Johann Jakob Engel]], [[Ernst Gottfried Fischer]], [[David Friedländer]], [[Daniel Chodowiecki]].

== Benefactress of the parish of Falkenberg ==
In 1791, Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt bought the [[Falkenberg (Berlin)|Falkenberg estate]] (today part of the [[Berlin]] district of Lichtenberg) from Lieutenant Colonel von Lochau. In her will, she left a bequest to enable the maintenance of the church tower and the Humboldt cemetery in Falkenberg. This legacy was under the direct control of the royal government in Potsdam, then, from 1891, under the supervision of the Royal Consistory of the province of Brandenburg. The administration of the inheritance was then transferred from the parish priest to the parish church council of Falkenberg.

This foundation has benefited the parish of Falkenberg for around 130 years. In addition to the maintenance of the church tower, part of the interest on the endowment capital had to be spent for precisely defined charitable purposes: a bonus for the village teacher of Falkenberg and some small school bonuses for diligent students. This foundation ceased during the [[Great Depression|global economic crisis of 1929]].<ref>Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Acta betreffend milde Stiftungen und Vereine zu Falkenberg und zwar I. von Humboldtsches Legat zur Erhaltung des Kirchturms 1882–1915''. (46-4), Bl.106 ff.</ref><ref>Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Erneuerung der Humboldt-Gruft in der Kirche zu Falkenberg'' (5922), Bl.2.</ref><ref>Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Acta betreffend milde Stiftungen und Vereine zu Falkenberg und zwar I. von Humboldtsches Legat zur Erhaltung des Kirchturms 1882–1915''. (46-4), Bl.110</ref>

== Death ==
Elisabeth von Humboldt died on November 19, 1796 following a long battle with breast cancer.<ref>Ilse Jahn, Fritz G. Lange (Hrsg.): ''Die Jugendbriefe Alexander von Humboldts 1787–1799.'' Akademie-Verlag, Berlin (DDR) 1973 (Beiträge zur Alexander-von-Humboldt-Forschung. 2). Bf 352</ref> She was buried on the Falkenberg estate, in the family cemetery, alongside her husband and a daughter from her first marriage, who had died prematurely.<ref>Vgl.: Archiv des Evangelischen Pfarramtes Malchow: ''Kirchenbuch Falkenberg, 1796.''</ref>

== See also ==
* [[History of women in Germany]]
* [[Women in Germany]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{Cite book|title=Mother of Alexander von Humboldt|author=Laura Carter Holloway|series=The Mothers of Great Men and Women, and Some Wives of Great Men|date=1883|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLWevQEACAAJ&pg=PA411|pages=411–419}}
* {{Cite book|author=Charles Minguet|title=Alexandre de Humboldt : Historien et géographe de l'Amérique espagnole (1799-1804)|location=Paris|publisher=Éditions de l’IHEAL|date=1969|url=https://books.openedition.org/iheal/3693?lang=fr|chapter=Introduction|series=Travaux et mémoires |pages=23–61 |isbn=978-2-37154-087-3 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{CI|date=May 2024}}
[[Category:Alexander von Humboldt]]
[[Category:Humboldt family]]
[[Category:People from Berlin]]
[[Category:1741 births]]
[[Category:1796 deaths]]

Georg Ludwig Cancrin

2024-10-18T15:02:09Z

NidabaM: /* Legacy */ English edition

{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Georg Ludwig Cancrin
|image = File:Kankrin Egor Francevich.png
|caption =
|office = [[List of Finance Ministers of Russia|Minister of Finance]]
|monarch = [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]]
|term_start = April 22, 1823
|term_end = May 1, 1844 ([[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]])
|predecessor = [[Dmitry Guriev]]
|successor = Fyodor Vronchenko
|birth_date = November 16, 1774
|birth_place = [[Hanau]], County of [[Hesse-Hanau]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1845|09|10|1774|11|16}}
|death_place = [[Pavlovsk, Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire]]
}}
Count '''Georg Ludwig Cancrin''' ({{lang-ru|Егор Францевич Канкрин|tr=Egor Francevič Knkrin}}; 16 November 1774 – 10 September 1845) was a [[History of Germans in Russia, Ukraine and the Soviet Union|Russian German]] aristocrat and as a politician best known for spearheading reforms in the Russian financial system early in the 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Egor-Frantsevich-Graf-Kankrin|title = Egor Frantsevich, Count Kankrin | Russian finance minister | Britannica}}</ref>

==Biography==
Cancrin was born in [[Hanau]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Egor-Frantsevich-Graf-Kankrin|title = Egor Frantsevich, Count Kankrin | Russian finance minister | Britannica}}</ref>

In 1797, at the age of 23, Cancrin accompanied his father, the mineralogist [[Franz Ludwig von Cancrin]], to Russia, joining the imperial service and changing his name to Georg.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Egor-Frantsevich-Graf-Kankrin|title = Egor Frantsevich, Count Kankrin | Russian finance minister | Britannica}}</ref>

In 1823, at the age of 49, Cancrin was appointed [[Ministry of Finance (Russia)|Minister of Finance]] and held that office for 21 years. As a politician, Cancrin was a conservative who opposed the construction of [[railway]]s<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Egor-Frantsevich-Graf-Kankrin|title = Egor Frantsevich, Count Kankrin | Russian finance minister | Britannica}}</ref> and the [[emancipation of the serfs]].{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

Cancrin died in [[Pavlovsk, Saint Petersburg|Pavlovsk]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Egor-Frantsevich-Graf-Kankrin|title = Egor Frantsevich, Count Kankrin | Russian finance minister | Britannica}}</ref>

==Legacy==
In 1827, Cancrin wrote [[Alexander von Humboldt]], the famous Prussian scientist, asking if he would visit Russia at the monarchy's expense to identify areas where Russia could develop economically. Although Russia had played a major role in defeating the armies of [[Napoleon]], in the postwar period Russia's position in the world had not risen and potentially Humboldt's visit could identify mining areas to exploit. The Russian government had already invited experts in mining from Germany and France for this task,<ref>Helmut de Terra, ''Humboldt: The Life and Times of Alexander von Humboldt, 1769-1859''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf 1955, 284-85</ref> perhaps not surprising since Cancrin's father, a mining expert himself, had come to Russia for similar reasons. From April to December 1829, Humboldt traveled through Russia, reaching the Chinese border in the east and the [[Caspian Sea]] in the south, before returning to St Petersburg.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=119-126 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> Cancrin had taken pains to guarantee the success of Humboldt's trip, arranging for his expenses to be paid as well as assuring the cooperation of Russian officialdom. "I shall not fail to send instructions to all governors and mining officials, with orders to put you up. Customs will be instructed to facilitate your entry into Russia."<ref>letter to Humboldt quoted in De Terra, ''Humboldt'', p. 285.</ref> Humboldt accurately predicted that [[diamond]]s would be found in the [[Ural Mountains]]. Cancrin had initially contacted Humboldt to get his opinion about the feasibility of using Russian [[platinum]] in coinage. Humboldt recommended against it.<ref>M.A. Engel'gardt, ''A. Gumbol'dt: Ego zhizn', puteshestviia i nauchnaia d'iatel'nost''. S Petersburg: Tip: Tovarishchestva "Obshchestvennaia Pol'za 1900, pp. 59-62.</ref><ref>De Terra, ''Humboldt'', p. 283.</ref>

In 1839 [[cancrinite]], named after the Minister of Finance, was found in the Ural Mountains.<ref>http://www.mindat.org/min-880.html Cancrinite on Mindat.org</ref>

Among Cancrin's writings, ''The Military Economy'' (published in German) is the best regarded.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

Cancrin's policies often sought to maintain the status quo due to the limitations of the Russian government in carrying out large scale economic reform. His policies have been characterized as being aimed at reducing budget deficits through curtailment of government expenditure rather than attempts at stimulating the economy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Egor-Frantsevich-Graf-Kankrin|title = Egor Frantsevich, Count Kankrin | Russian finance minister | Britannica}}</ref> He advanced loans to the gentry class in order to preserve, in the words of historian Walter Pintner, "the social status quo". With a view toward limiting state [[expenditure]], he refused to credit the Russian industry, thus eliminating the [[budget deficit]]s that plagued the Russian economy for decades. Private banks were forbidden,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/biography/Egor-Frantsevich-Graf-Kankrin|title = Egor Frantsevich, Count Kankrin | Russian finance minister | Britannica}}</ref> and he took steps was to stymie the development of [[capitalism]].{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

===Financial reforms of 1839–1843===
Cancrin's major achievement was the [[monetary reform]] of 1839–43 which sanitized the Russian fiscal system. The reform started with the issue of a new silver ruble equal to 3.5 of the older [[Assignation ruble]]. Then, based on the silver rubles, new deposit notes were issued. Finally, the old Assignation rubles were removed from circulation in 1843, and replaced with the new banknotes. These reforms stabilized the Russian financial system considerably.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*{{cite web|url=http://www.goznak.ru/main.php?page=281 |title=Kankrin monetary reform |accessdate=February 26, 2006 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928165804/http://www.goznak.ru/main.php?page=281 |archivedate=September 28, 2007 }}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box
|before = [[Dmitry Guriev]]
|title = [[List of Finance Ministers of Imperial Russia|Finance Minister]]
|years = 1823–1844
|after = [[Fyodor Vronchenko]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cancrin}}
[[Category:1774 births]]
[[Category:1845 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Hanau]]
[[Category:Economists from the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:German economists]]
[[Category:Counts of the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Finance ministers of Russia]]
[[Category:Politicians from the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Members of the State Council (Russian Empire)]]

Sing-Akademie zu Berlin

2024-10-18T14:58:54Z

NidabaM: /* Later history */ Lectures 1827-28

{{more citations needed|date=February 2017}}
[[File:Gaertner2.jpg|thumb|250px|The Singakademie in 1843 (Designed by [[Carl Theodor Ottmer]]; painting by [[Eduard Gaertner]])]]

The '''Sing-Akademie zu Berlin''', also known as the '''Berliner Singakademie''', is a musical (originally [[choral]]) society founded in Berlin in 1791 by [[Carl Friedrich Christian Fasch]], [[harpsichord]]ist to the court of [[Prussia]], on the model of the 18th-century London [[Academy of Ancient Music]].

==Early history==
The origins of the Singakademie are difficult to discern because the group was initially intended as a private gathering of music lovers and only later became a public institution. The Singakademie grew out of a small circle of singers who met regularly in the garden house of the privy councillor Milow. Their weekly meetings seemed to have resembled those of the then popular ''Singethees.'' [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] describes them as rather informal meetings: "One gathered in the evening, drank tea, spoke, talked, in short entertained oneself; and the matter itself was only secondary."<ref>Carl Friedrich Zelter: Selbstdarstellungen. ed. by Willi Reich, Zurich 1955. p. 64.</ref> Singer and songwriter [[Charlotte Caroline Wilhelmine Bachmann]] was one of the original founding members.<ref>{{cite book |title=Carl Friedrich Zelter: Eine Lebensbeschreibung|first1=Carl Friedrich|last1=Zelter|first2=Wilhelm|last2=Rintel|date=1861}}</ref>

Until the early nineteenth century, most musical concert and opera performances consisted of the music of living composers. The Akademie was intended by Fasch to revive music of the past as well as to perform that of the present. In fact its first performance was a 16-part [[Mass (music)|Mass]] by Fasch himself, but it also regularly performed music by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]] and other earlier masters. Fasch had been a pupil of Johann Sebastian Bach's son [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C. P. E. Bach]] and instilled the devotion to Bach that has been a continuing feature of the Akademie. By the time of Fasch's death on 3 August 1800 the Akademie had about 100 members, and had received many notable visitors keen to experience its unique sound, including [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] who came in June 1796.

After Fasch's death, his pupil [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]] became leader of the Akademie, continuing Fasch's ambitions and objectives. In 1807 he began an [[orchestra]] to accompany the Akademie, and in 1808 he founded a men's choir ('Liedertafel'), which became a model for similar choirs flourishing in the early nineteenth century and dedicated to German national music.

The members of the Akademie were originally drawn from the wealthy bourgeois of Berlin. From early days they also included members of some of Berlin's wealthiest Jewish families, including the [[Itzig family]] and descendants of [[Moses Mendelssohn]]. These families were to have a significant influence on the history of the Akademie. Moses Mendelssohn's son, [[Abraham Mendelssohn|Abraham]] joined the Akademie in 1793 and Itzig's granddaughter, Lea Salomon, in 1796. They were later to marry and their children [[Felix Mendelssohn|Felix]] and [[Fanny Mendelssohn|Fanny]] were leading members of the Akademie in the 1820s.

==Library==
Itzig's daughter (and hence Felix's great-aunt) Sarah Levy (1761-1854), a fine keyboard player who had been taught by [[Wilhelm Friedemann Bach]], played concerti by Bach and others in many Akademie concerts and at Zelter's "Ripienschule" in the period 1806–1815. Her large collection of manuscripts of music of the Bach family, together with many others acquired by Abraham Mendelssohn from the widow of C. P. E. Bach, were left to the Akademie. Zelter also had a fine collection of Bach and Bach family manuscripts which he gave to the Akademie. By these means it acquired one of the finest collections of Bachiana in the world. The collection was looted by the [[Red Army]] in 1945 and hidden in the [[Kyiv Conservatory]], but was returned to Germany after its rediscovery in 2000.<ref>Michael O'Loghlin. [https://books.google.com/books?id=iS8rDwAAQBAJ "Frederick the Great and his Musicians: The Viola da Gamba Music of the Berlin School"], ''University of Queensland, Australia'', 2008. {{ISBN|9780754658856}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=iS8rDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 p. 60]</ref><ref>Patricia Kennedy Grimsted. [https://www.ucis.pitt.edu/nceeer/2003_816_03_Grimsted.pdf "Bach is Back in Berlin: The Return of the Sing-Akademie Archive from Ukraine in the Context of Displaced Cultural Treasures and Restitution Politics"], ''Harvard Ukrainian Research Institute'', 2003. pp. 24-26</ref> ([http://www.ucis.pitt.edu/nceeer/2003_816_03_Grimsted.pdf See link for the story]). Today, the collection is temporarily housed in the music section of the [[Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin|Berlin State Library]].

==Later history==
[[File:Sing-akademie-italien.JPG|thumb|160px|Program book for the concert held in [[Milan]], accompanied by [[Berlin Philharmonic]], 1913]]
The success of the Akademie encouraged the founding of a new and permanent home. This was established in 1827 at a plaza near [[Unter den Linden]] and became a major Berlin concert hall, at which many famous musicians were to give concerts, including [[Niccolò Paganini|Paganini]], [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]], and [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]]. On 11 March 1829, the 20-year-old Felix Mendelssohn, who was himself a pupil of Zelter, conducted here his famous revival of Bach's [[St Matthew Passion]], a major milestone in re-establishing its composer's reputation as a founding father of European musical traditions.

From November 1827 to April 1828, [[Alexander von Humboldt]], Prussia's most famous naturalist and scholar, gave sixteen public lectures about nature's 'cosmos' at the Singakademie and earned much praise across social classes for his performance.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=114-117 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref>

In 1832 on the death of Zelter, Mendelssohn had some hopes of succeeding him, but in the event the post went to the older, mediocre, but 'safe pair of hands' of [[Carl Friedrich Rungenhagen]] (1778–1851). Subsequent directors of the Akademie were:
*[[Eduard Grell|August Eduard Grell]] (1853–76)
*[[Martin Traugott Blumner]] (1876–1900)
*[[Georg Schumann (composer)|Georg Schumann]] (1900–50)
*[[Mathieu Lange]] (1950–73)
*[[Hans Hilsdorf]] (1973–99)
*[[Joshard Daus]] (2002–06)
*[[Kai-Uwe Jirka]] (2006–present)

After the separation between East and West Berlin, the [[Berliner Singakademie (East Berlin)|Berliner Singakademie]] was founded in 1963 in East Berlin. This other Berliner Singakademie is a leading oratory choir in the united Berlin today.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*''Die Sing-Akademie zu Berlin und ihre Direktoren''. ed. Gottfried Eberle and Michael Rautenberg. Berlin, 1998.
*''Die Sing-Akademie zu Berlin. Festschrift zum 175-jährigen Bestehen''. ed. Werner Bollert. Berlin, 1966

==External links==
{{Commons}}
*[http://www.sing-akademie.de Website of the original (1791) Sing-Akademie (in German)] Some of the above information is sourced from this site.

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Musical groups from Berlin]]
[[Category:German choirs]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1791]]
[[Category:Arts organizations established in the 1790s]]
[[Category:1791 establishments in Prussia]]

Martin Heinrich Klaproth

2024-10-16T22:13:16Z

NidabaM: link

{{Short description|German chemist (1743–1817)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Martin Klaproth
| image = Martin Heinrich Klaproth.jpg
| image_size = 150px
| caption = Engraving by [[Ambroise Tardieu]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1743|12|01}}
| birth_place = [[Wernigerode]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1817|01|01|1743|12|01}}
| death_place = [[Berlin]], Kingdom of Prussia
| citizenship = Wernigerode
| nationality = German
| ethnicity =
| field = [[Chemistry]]
| work_institutions =
| alma_mater =
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = Discovery of uranium, zirconium, and other elements
| author_abbrev_bot =
| author_abbrev_zoo =
| influences =
| influenced =
| prizes =
| religion =
| footnotes signature =
}}
'''Martin Heinrich Klaproth''' (1 December 1743 – 1 January 1817) was a German [[chemist]].<ref name="NNDB"/> He trained and worked for much of his life as an [[apothecary]], moving in later life to the university. His shop became the second-largest apothecary in Berlin, and the most productive artisanal chemical research center in Europe.<ref name="Klein"/>

Klaproth was a major systematizer of [[analytical chemistry]],<ref>{{cite journal | title=[The pharmacist Martin Klaproth (1743–1817), pioneer of modern analytical chemistry, discoverer of uranium. On the 150th anniversary of his death] | date=February 1967 | last=Rocchietta | first=S | journal=[[Minerva Med.]] | volume=58 | issue=13 | language=it | pages=229 | pmid=5336711}}</ref> and an independent inventor of [[gravimetric analysis]].<ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="Garrison">{{cite book |last1=Garrison |first1=Ervan |title=Techniques in Archaeological Geology|chapter=Instrumental Analytical Techniques for Archaeological Geology |series=Natural Science in Archaeology |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-05163-4 |pages=207–246 |doi=10.1007/978-3-662-05163-4_7 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-662-05163-4_7}}</ref> His attention to detail and refusal to ignore discrepancies in results led to improvements in the use of apparatus. He was a major figure in understanding the composition of minerals and characterizing the elements.<ref name="Marshall">{{cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=James L. Marshall |last2=Marshall |first2=Virginia R. Marshall |title=Rediscovery of the elements: Klaproth |journal=The Hexagon |date=2008 |pages=20–24 |url=http://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY%207-09-2018/Hexagon%20Articles/klaproth.pdf |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>
Klaproth discovered [[uranium]] (1789)<ref name="Dahlkamp">{{cite book |last1=Dahlkamp |first1=Franz J. |title=Uranium Ore Deposits |date=1991 |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |isbn=978-3-662-02892-6 |page=5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uczsCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>
and [[zirconium]] (1789).
He was also involved in the discovery or co-discovery of
[[titanium]] (1795),
[[strontium]] (1793),
[[cerium]] (1803), and
[[chromium]] (1797) and confirmed the previous discoveries of
[[tellurium]] (1798) and
[[beryllium]] (1798).<ref name="Record"/><ref name="Robison">{{cite book |last1=Robison |first1=Roger F. |title=Mining and selling radium and uranium |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319118291 |pages=59–60 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yNClBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA59 |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>

Klaproth was a member and director of the [[Berlin Academy of Sciences]].<ref name="Klein"/> He was recognized internationally as a member of the [[Royal Society]] in London,<ref name="Thomson"/> the [[Institut de France]], and the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]].<ref name="Today"/>

==Career==
Klaproth was born in [[Wernigerode]].<ref name="NNDB"/> He was the son of a [[tailor]], and attended the Latin school at Wernigerode for four years.<ref name="Klein"/>

For much of his life he followed the profession of [[apothecary]]. In 1759, when he was 16 years old, he apprenticed at Quedlinburg. In 1764, he became a journeyman. He trained in pharmacies at [[Quedlinburg]] (1759–1766); [[Hanover]] (1766–1768, with [[August Hermann Brande]]); Berlin (1768); and [[Danzig]] (1770).<ref name="Klein"/>

In 1771, Klaproth returned to Berlin to work for [[Valentin Rose the Elder]] as manager of his business. Following Rose's death, Klaproth passed the required examinations to become senior manager. Following his marriage in 1780, he was able to buy his own establishment, the Apotheke zum Baren. Between 1782 and 1800, Klaproth published 84 papers based on researches carried out in the Apotheke's laboratory. His shop was the most productive site of artisanal chemistry investigations in Europe at that time.<ref name="Klein">{{cite book |editor-last1=Principe |editor-first1=Lawrence M. |last=Klein |first=Ursula|chapter= Apothecary-Chemists in Eighteenth-Century Germany |title=New narratives in eighteenth-century chemistry : contributions from the First Francis Bacon Workshop, 21–23 April 2005, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California |date=2007 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9048175932 |pages=97–137 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aurJv9AZgFcC&pg=PA125 |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>

Beginning in 1782, he was the assessor of pharmacy for the examining board of the Ober-Collegium Medicum. In 1787 Klaproth was appointed lecturer in [[chemistry]] to the [[Prussia]]n Royal Artillery.<ref name="Partington">{{cite book |last1=Partington |first1=J. R. |title=History of Chemistry |date=1962 |publisher=Macmillan |location=London |pages=654–658|volume=3 |isbn=9781349003099 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n1JdDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA654 |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Record">{{cite web |title=KLAPROTH, Martin Heinrich. (1743 - 1817) |url=https://mineralogicalrecord.com/libdetail.asp?id=762 |website=The Mineralogical Record, Inc. |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Klein"/>

In 1788, Klaproth became an unsalaried member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. In 1800, he became the salaried director of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He sold the apothecary and moved to the academy, where he convinced the university to build a new laboratory. Upon completion in 1802, Klaproth moved the equipment from his apothecary laboratory into the new building.<ref name="Klein"/>
When the [[Humboldt University of Berlin|University of Berlin]] was founded in 1810 he was selected to be the professor of chemistry.<ref name="Partington"/>

He died in Berlin on New Year's Day in 1817.<ref name="NNDB">{{NDB|11|707|709|Klaproth, Martin Heinrich|Dann, Georg Edmund|118723367}}</ref>

==Contributions==
[[File:Klaproth-tomb.JPG|thumb|200px|Memorial plate on the Dorotheenstädtischer Friedhof in Berlin, by [[Ralf Sander]].]]

An exact and conscientious worker, Klaproth did much to improve and systematise the processes of [[analytical chemistry]] and [[mineralogy]]. His appreciation of the value of quantitative methods led him to become one of the earliest adherents of the [[Lavoisier]]ian doctrines outside France.<ref name="Partington"/><ref name="Marshall"/>

Klaproth was the first to discover [[uranium]], identifying it first in [[torbernite]] but doing the majority of his research on it with the mineral [[pitchblende]].<ref name="Marshall"/><ref name="Robison"/>
On 24 September 1789 he announced his discovery to the Royal Prussian Academy of sciences in Berlin.<ref name="Schuettmann">{{cite journal |last1=Schuettmann |first1=W. |title=The discovery of uranium by Martin Heinrich Klaproth 200 years ago |journal=Kernenergie |date=1989 |volume=32 |issue=10 |pages=416–420 |url=https://inis.iaea.org/search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:20077398}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Chemische Untersuchung des Uranits, einer neuentdeckten metallische Substanz | last=Klaproth | first=M. H. | journal=[[Chem. Ann. Freunde Naturl.]] | year=1789 | issue=2 | pages=387–403}}</ref> He also discovered [[zirconium]] in 1789,<ref name="Watt">{{cite book |last1=Watt |first1=Susan |title=The Elements: Zirconium |date=2008 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |location=New York |pages=8–9 |isbn=9780761426882 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBUFMgJNYTAC&pg=PA8}}</ref><ref name="Robison"/> separating it in the form of its “earth” zirconia, oxide ZrO{{sub|2}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=Zirconium |url=https://www.rsc.org/periodic-table/element/40/zirconium |website=Periodic Table – Royal Society of Chemistry |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref> Klaproth analyzed a brightly-colored form of the mineral called "hyacinth" from Ceylon. He gave the new element the name zirconium based on its Persian name "zargun", gold-colored.<ref name="Enghag">{{cite book |last1=Enghag |first1=Per |title=Encyclopedia of the elements : technical data, history, processing, applications |date=27 July 2004 |publisher=Wiley-VCH |isbn=9783527306664 |pages=515 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUmTX8yKU4gC&pg=PA515}}</ref>{{rp|515}}

Klaproth characterised uranium and zirconium as distinct [[Chemical element|elements]], though he was unable to isolate them.<ref name="Robison"/>

Klaproth independently discovered [[cerium]] (1803), a [[rare earth element]], around the same time as [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]] and [[Wilhelm Hisinger]], in the winter of 1803.<ref name="Ihde">{{cite book |last1=Ihde |first1=Aaron J. |title=The Development of Modern Chemistry |date=1970 |publisher=Harper and Row/Dover |location=New York |page=375 |isbn=9780486642352 |edition=Dover reprint of the 1970 3rd printing by Harper and Row |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89BIAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA375}}</ref>

[[William Gregor]] of Cornwall was the first to identify the element [[titanium]] in 1791, correctly concluding that he had found a new element in the ore [[ilmenite]] from the Menachan valley. He proposed the name "menachanite", but his discovery attracted little attention.<ref name="Enghag"/>{{rp|497}}
Klaproth verified the presence of an oxide of an unknown element in the ore [[rutile]] from Hungary in 1795. Klaproth suggested the name "titanium". It was later determined that menachanite and titanium were the same element, from two different minerals, and Klaproth's name was adopted.<ref name="Kishawy">{{cite book |last1=Kishawy |first1=Hossam A. |last2=Hosseini |first2=Sayyed Ali |title=Machining difficult-to-cut materials : basic principles and challenges |date=2019 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-95966-5 |pages=57–58 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vYtoDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA57}}</ref>

Klaproth clarified the composition of numerous substances until then imperfectly known, including compounds of then newly recognised elements [[tellurium]], [[strontium]] and [[chromium]].
<ref name="Klein"/>
[[Chromium]] was discovered in 1797 by [[Louis Nicolas Vauquelin]] and independently discovered in 1798 by Klaproth and by [[Tobias Lowitz]], in a mineral from the Ural mountains.<ref name="Enghag"/>{{rp|578–580}} Klaproth confirmed chromium's independent status as an element.<ref name="Robison"/><ref name="Weeks">{{cite book |last1=Weeks |first1=Mary Elvira |title=The discovery of the elements |date=1956 |publisher=Journal of Chemical Education |location=Easton, PA |url=https://archive.org/details/discoveryoftheel002045mbp |edition=6th }}</ref><ref name="chromium">{{cite journal |last1=Weeks |first1=Mary Elvira |title=The discovery of the elements. V. Chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and uranium |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |date=March 1932 |volume=9 |issue=3 |pages=459 |doi=10.1021/ed009p459|bibcode=1932JChEd...9..459W }}</ref><ref name="Klein"/>

The existence of [[tellurium]] was first suggested in 1783 by [[Franz-Joseph Mueller von Reichenstein]], an Austrian mining engineer who was examining Transylvanian gold samples. Tellurium was also discovered independently by Hungarian [[Pál Kitaibel]] in 1789. Mueller sent some of his mineral to Klaproth in 1796. Klaproth isolated the new substance and confirmed the identification of the new element [[tellurium]] in 1798. He credited Mueller as its discoverer, and suggested that the [[Heavy metals|heavy metal]] be named "tellus", Latin for 'earth'.<ref name="Emsley">{{cite book |last1=Emsley |first1=John |title=Nature's building blocks : an A-Z guide to the elements |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198503408 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/427 427] |url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl|url-access=registration }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Weeks |first1=Mary Elvira |title=The discovery of tellurium |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |date=September 1935 |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=403 |doi=10.1021/ed012p403|bibcode=1935JChEd..12..403W }}</ref><ref name="Robison"/><ref name="CI"/><ref name="Enghag"/>{{rp|1067}}<ref name="Fontani"/>{{rp|12–16}}

In 1790 [[Adair Crawford]] and [[William Cruickshank (chemist)|William Cruickshank]] determined that the mineral [[strontianite]], found near [[Strontian]] in Scotland, was different from barium-based minerals.<ref name="Doyle">{{cite web |last1=Doyle |first1=W.P. |title=Thomas Charles Hope, MD, FRSE, FRS (1766–1844) |url=http://www.chem.ed.ac.uk/about-us/history/professors/thomas-charles-hope |website=The University of Edinburgh |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>
Klaproth was one of several scientists involved in the characterization of [[strontium]] compounds and minerals.<ref name="strontium"/>
Klaproth, [[Thomas Charles Hope]], and
[[Richard Kirwan]] independently studied and reported on the properties of strontianite, the preparation of compounds of strontium, and their differentiation from those of barium. In September 1793, Klaproth published on the separation of strontium from [[barium]], and in 1794 on the preparation of strontium oxide and strontium hydroxide.<ref name="Robison"/><ref name="strontium">{{cite journal |last1=Partington |first1=J.R. |title=The early history of strontium |journal=Annals of Science |date=15 December 1942 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=157–166 |doi=10.1080/00033794200201411 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00033794200201411?journalCode=tasc20 |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>
In 1808, [[Humphry Davy]] became the first to successfully isolate the pure element.<ref name="Kenyon">{{cite journal|last1=Kenyon|first1=T. K.|title=Science and Celebrity: Humphry Davy's Rising Star |journal=Chemical Heritage Magazine |date=2008|volume=26 |issue=4|pages=30–35|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/science-and-celebrity-humphry-davys-rising-star|access-date=22 March 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Davy|first1=Humphry|title=Electrochemical Researches, on the Decomposition of the Earths; With Observations in the Metals Obtained from the Alkaline Earths, and on the Amalgam Procured from Ammonia|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society |date=1808|volume=98 |pages=339–340 |doi=10.1098/rstl.1808.0023|doi-access=free}}</ref>

[[Louis Nicolas Vauquelin]] reported the existence of a new element common to emerald and beryl in 1798, and suggested that it be named "glucine". Klaproth confirmed the presence of a new element, and became involved in a lengthy and ongoing debate over its name by suggesting "beryllia". The element was first isolated in 1828, independently by [[Friedrich Wöhler]] and [[Antoine Bussy]]. Only in 1949 did [[IUPAC]] rule exclusively in favor of the name [[beryllium]].<ref name="CI">{{cite web |title=A Periodic Table of Rejected Element Names |url=https://www.compoundchem.com/2016/01/30/rejectedelements/ |website=Compound Interest|date=30 January 2016 |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref><ref name="Robison"/><ref name="Enghag"/>{{rp|348–352}}<ref name="Fontani">{{cite book |last1=Fontani |first1=Marco |last2=Costa |first2=Mariagrazia |last3=Orna |first3=Mary Virginia |title=The lost elements : the periodic table's shadow side |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199383344 |pages=79–80 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck9jBAAAQBAJ}}</ref><ref name="Bingham">{{cite book |last1=Bingham |first1=Eula |last2=Cohrssen |first2=Barbara |title=Patty's toxicology |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-41081-3 |page=117 |edition=6th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1mk3lFVtBSQC&pg=PA117}}</ref>

Klaproth published extensively, collecting over 200 papers by himself in ''[[Beiträge zur chemischen Kenntnis der Mineralkörper]]'' (5 vols., 1795–1810) and ''[[Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts]]'' (1815). He also published a ''[[Chemisches Wörterbuch]]'' (1807–1810), and edited a revised edition of [[Friedrich Albrecht Carl Gren|F. A. C. Gren]]'s ''[[Handbuch der Chemie]]'' (1806).

Klaproth became a foreign member of the [[Royal Society]] of London<ref name="Thomson">{{cite book |last1=Thomson |first1=Thomas |title=History of the Royal Society: From Its Institution to the End of the Eighteenth Century |date=1812 |publisher=R. Baldwin |location=London |page=lxiv, 485 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqjjR4Qt9IgC&pg=PR64}}</ref> in 1795,<ref>{{cite web|title=Fellowship of the Royal Society 1660–2015 |url=https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1RVVZY00MZNrK2YCTTzVrbTFH2t3RxoAZah128gQR-NM/pubhtml |publisher=Royal Society |location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151015185820/https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1RVVZY00MZNrK2YCTTzVrbTFH2t3RxoAZah128gQR-NM/pubhtml |archive-date=15 October 2015 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and a foreign member of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] in 1804.<ref name="Today"/>
He also belonged to the [[Institut de France]].<ref name="Today">{{cite journal |title=Martin Klaproth |journal=Physics Today |date=1 December 2017 |doi=10.1063/PT.6.6.20171201a |url=https://physicstoday.scitation.org/do/10.1063/pt.6.6.20171201a/full/}}</ref>

The crater [[Klaproth (crater)|Klaproth]] on the [[Moon]] is named after him.<ref>{{cite web |title=Klaproth H (Moon) |url=http://wenamethestars.inkleby.com/feature/10367 |website=We name the stars |access-date=8 December 2019}}</ref>

In 1823, botanist [[Carl Sigismund Kunth]] published a genus of [[flowering plant]]s (belonging to the family [[Loasaceae]]), from Central America as ''[[Klaprothia]]'' in his honour.<ref>{{cite web |title=''Klaprothia'' Kunth {{!}} Plants of the World Online {{!}} Kew Science |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:24997-1 |website=Plants of the World Online |access-date=22 May 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

His son [[Julius Klaproth|Julius]] was a famous [[oriental studies|orientalist]].<ref name="Walravens">{{cite journal |last=Walravens |first=H |year=2006 |title=Julius Klaproth. His Life and Works with Special Emphasis on Japan |url = https://edoc.hu-berlin.de/bitstream/handle/18452/7404/walravens.pdf |journal=[[Japonica Humboldtiana]]
|volume=10 |pages=177–191 }}</ref>

==Works==
* ''Beiträge Zur Chemischen Kenntniss Der Mineralkörper'' . Vol. 1–5 . Rottmann, Berlin 1795–1810 [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-11600 Digital edition] by the [[University and State Library Düsseldorf]]
* ''Chemisches Wörterbuch'' . Vol. 1–9 . Voss, Berlin 1807–1819 [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-28821 Digital edition] by the [[University and State Library Düsseldorf]]
* ''Chemische Abhandlungen gemischten Inhalts'' . Nicolai, Berlin [u. a.] 1815 [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-9305 Digital edition] by the [[University and State Library Düsseldorf]]

==Bibliography==
* [http://bibliothek.bbaw.de/kataloge/literaturnachweise/klaproth/literatur.pdf Publication list of Klaproth]

==Additional resources==
*{{cite journal
|last=Hoppe |first=G
|author2=Damaschun F |author3=Wappler G
|date=April 1987
|title=[An appreciation of Martin Heinrich Klaproth as a mineral chemist]
|journal=[[Pharmazie]]
|volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=266–7
|pmid=3303064
}}
*{{cite journal
|last=Sepke |first=H
|author2=Sepke I
|date=August 1986
|title=[The history of physiologic chemistry in the first years of its existence at the Berlin University. Contributions of the chemist M. H. Klaproth and others]
|journal=[[Zeitschrift für die gesamte Hygiene und ihre Grenzgebiete]]
|volume=32 |issue=8 |pages=504–6
| pmid = 3535265
}}
*{{cite journal
|last=Rocchietta |first=S
|date=February 1967
|title=[The pharmacist Martin Klaproth (1743–1817), pioneer of modern analytical chemistry, discoverer of uranium. On the 150th anniversary of his death]
|journal=[[Minerva Med.]]
|volume=58 |issue=13 |pages=229
|pmid = 5336711
|language=it
}}
*{{cite journal
|last=Dann |first=G E
|date=July 1958
|title=[Scheele & Klaproth; a comparison.]
|journal=[[Svensk Farmaceutisk Tidskrift]]
|volume=62 |issue=19–20 |pages=433–7
|pmid = 13580811
}}
*{{cite journal
|last=Dann |first=G E
|date=September 1953
|title=[Contribution of Martin Heinrich Klaproth to the development of chemistry.]
|journal=[[Pharmazie]]
|volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=771–9
|pmid = 13120350
}}

== See also ==

* [[Philip Rashleigh (1729–1811)|Philip Ralshleigh]]
* [[John Hawkins (geologist)|John Hawkins]]
* [[William Gregor]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons|Martin Heinrich Klaproth|Martin Heinrich Klaproth}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Klaproth, Martin Heinrich}}
[[Category:18th-century German chemists]]
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements]]
[[Category:1743 births]]
[[Category:1817 deaths]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin]]
[[Category:People from Wernigerode]]
[[Category:19th-century German chemists]]
[[Category:Rare earth scientists]]

Mariano Luis de Urquijo

2024-10-16T22:11:42Z

NidabaM: /* Biography */ support for expedition, more precise plus footnote

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{family name hatnote|Urquijo|Muga|lang=Spanish}}
{{Expand language|langcode=es|otherarticle=Mariano Luis de Urquijo|topic=Bio}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|name = Mariano Luis de Urquijo
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|office = [[List of Prime Ministers of Spain|Prime Minister of Spain]]
|monarch = [[Charles IV of Spain|Charles IV]]
|term_start = 12 February 1799
|term_end = 13 December 1799
|succeeding = 
|predecessor = [[Francisco Saavedra de Sangronis]]
|successor = [[Pedro Cevallos]]
|birth_date = 8 September 1769
|birth_place = [[Bilbao]], Spain
|death_date = {{d-da|3 May 1817|8 September 1769}}
|death_place = [[Paris]], France
|restingplace = [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]]
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'''Mariano Luis de Urquijo y Muga''' (1769 in [[Bilbao, Spain]]<ref>Romero Peña, Aleix (2011). "Mariano Luis de Urquijo. Biografía de un ilustrado", ''Revista de Cultura e Investigación Vasca Sancho el Sabio'', nº 34, p. 56.</ref> – 1817 in Paris, France) was Secretary of State (Prime Minister) of Spain from 12 February 1799 to 13 December 1800, during the reign of King [[Carlos IV of Spain]], and between 7 July 1808 and 27 June 1813 under the King [[Joseph Bonaparte]].

==Biography==
Born to a noble Basque family, he studied law in [[Madrid]] and [[Salamanca]]. He spent some time living in [[Ireland]] before entering the Spanish foreign service under the protection of the [[Count of Aranda]] and the [[Count of Floridablanca]]. It was in 1792, under the Aranda ministry, that he was named High Officer of the Secretary of State (Secretary of the Cabinet). Of progressive ideas, he translated the ''Death of Caesar'' of [[Voltaire]], then forbidden by the [[Catholic Church]]. Due to it, he was prosecuted by the [[Holy Office]].<ref>Urquijo, Mariano Luis de. ''La muerte de César. Tragedia francesa de Mr. Voltaire: traducida en verso castellano y acompañada de un discurso del traductor sobre el estado actual de nuestros teatros y necesidad de su reforma''. Madrid: Blas Román, MDCCXCI.</ref>

Despite his French sympathies,<ref>Lópex CordónCortez, M. V. "Un voltarien espagnol à la fin du XVIIIe siècle: Mariano Luis de Urquijo", ''Actas du Congrès international Voltaire et ses combats'', Oxford, 1997, pp. 1251-1261.</ref> he was appointed First Secretary of State (Prime Minister) 12 February 1799, and remained in office till 13 December 1800. While in office, he did all he could to limit the power and influence of [[Spanish Inquisition|the Inquisition]], which brought upon him the enmity of the [[Holy See]].<ref>Seco Serrano, C. (1988). "La política exterior de Carlos IV", en ''Historia de España''. Madrid: Espasa Calpe, t. XXXI, pp. 616-617.</ref> Taking advantage of the Napoleonic invasion of the [[Papal States]], he attempted what came to be known as "Urquijo's Schism" (1799), in which he tried to recover for the Spanish church powers that had previously been assumed by the Pope, including matrimonial dispensations.<ref>[[Carlos Martínez Shaw|Martínez Shaw, Carlos]] (1996). ''El siglo de las luces. Las bases intelectuales del reformismo'', Madrid: Temas de Hoy, p. 69.</ref>

Even though he was supported by some [[jansenist]]-leaning clerics such as the bishop of [[Salamanca]], [[Antonio Tavira]], his religious policies caused his fall. [[Godoy]], the queen's favourite, had resented Urquijo as a rising star whose influence in court had started to eclipse his own. Palling along with [[Eusebio Bardají y Azara]], an influential rising star in his own right, and [[Napoleon]] himself, who feared Urquijo's policies opposing a French intervention in [[Portugal]], they forced Urquijo's dismissal from office.

His brief term also saw several scientific enterprises being initiated: for instance, he helped arrange an audience with King Charles IV for [[Alexander von Humboldt]], enabling Humboldt to gain support for for his [[United States|America]]n expedition.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=51 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> He was instrumental in sending [[Valentin de Foronda]] as General Consul of Spain in [[Philadelphia]], (1801–1807), and as Spanish Plenipotentiary Minister in the USA 'til the nomination by the "Junta" of [[Luis de Onis]] in 1809.

Resenting the conservative and ultra-catholic policies of the Spanish court, he embraced the pro-French government of [[Joseph Bonaparte|José I Bonaparte]] once [[Napoleon]] invaded Spain and replaced the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] dynasty with his own brother Joseph (José). After publicly acknowledging José I as lawful King of Spain, Urquijo was called back to court and became Prime Minister again. He remained in office during all of the reign of José I, from 7 July 1808 to 27 June 1813. However, the failed Napoleonic invasion resulted in Spain being in a state of war, and he was unable to carry out any policy apart from helping the French forces of José I, brother of Napoleon, undertake an ineffective war against the Spanish people.

Upon the French defeat, Urquijo fled, along with Joseph I, across the Pyrenees to France into exile, embracing the French nationality. Outlawed in Spain, he died in exile in Paris, in 1817.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Age of Enlightenment}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Urquijo, Mariano Luis}}
[[Category:1769 births]]
[[Category:1817 deaths]]
[[Category:Government of Spain]]
[[Category:Politics of Spain]]
[[Category:Afrancesados]]
[[Category:People from Bilbao]]
[[Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery]]
[[Category:University of Salamanca alumni]]

Carl Ludwig Willdenow

2024-10-16T22:07:41Z

NidabaM:

{{Short description|German botanist (1765–1812)}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Willd.|Wild (disambiguation){{!}}Wild}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Carl Ludwig Willdenow
|image = Karl Ludwig Willdenow.jpg
| birth_date = {{birth date|1765|08|22|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]], [[Holy Roman Empire]]
| death_date = {{death date and age |1812|07|10|1765|08|22|df=y}}
|death_place = [[Berlin]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]]
| nationality = German
| fields =[[botany]] [[pharmacy]] [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]]
| workplaces = [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Halle]]
| author_abbrev_bot = '''Willd.'''
}}

'''Carl Ludwig Willdenow''' (22 August 1765 – 10 July 1812) was a German [[botanist]], [[pharmacist]], and plant [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomist]]. He is considered one of the founders of [[phytogeography]], the study of the geographic distribution of plants. Willdenow was also a mentor of [[Alexander von Humboldt]], one of the earliest and best known phytogeographers.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=16, 56 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> He also influenced [[Christian Konrad Sprengel]], who pioneered the study of plant pollination and floral biology.

==Biography==
Willdenow was born in [[Berlin]] and studied [[medicine]] and [[botany]] at the [[University of Halle]]. After studying pharmaceutics at Wieglieb College, Langensalza and in medicine at Halle, he returned to Berlin to work at his father's pharmacy located in the [[Unter den Linden]]. His early interest in botany was kindled by his uncle [[Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch|J. G. Gleditsch]] and he started a herbarium collection in his teenage years. In 1794, he became a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He was a director of the [[Botanical garden]] of [[Berlin]] from 1801 until his death. In 1807, Alexander von Humboldt helped to expand the garden. There he studied many [[South America]]n plants, brought back by Humboldt. He was interested in the adaptation of plants to climate, showing that the same climate had plants having common characteristics. His [[herbarium]], containing more than 20,000 species, is still preserved in the [[Botanical Garden in Berlin]]. Some of the specimens include those collected by Humboldt.

Humboldt notes that as a young man, he was unable to identify plants using Willdenow's ''Flora Berolinensis''. He subsequently visited Willdenow without an appointment and found him to be a kindred soul only four years older and in three weeks he became an enthusiastic botanist.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1127/0006-8152/2006/0126-0509|title=Humboldt, his botanical mentor Willdenow, and the fate of the collections of Humboldt & Bonpland|journal=Botanische Jahrbücher|volume=126|issue=4|pages=509–516|year=2006|last1=Hiepko|first1=Paul}}</ref>

In his 1792 book, ''Grundriss der Kräuterkunde'' or ''Geschichte der Pflanzen'' Willdenow came up with an idea to explain restricted plant distributions. Willdenow suggested that it was based on past history with mountains surrounded by seas with different sets of plants initially restricted to the peaks which then spread downward and out with receding sea levels. This would fit with the Biblical notion of floods. This was contrary to earlier assertions by [[Eberhard August Wilhelm von Zimmermann]] that plants were distributed as they had been in the past and that there had been no changes.<ref>{{cite book|page=25|title=Evolutionary Biogeography: An Integrative Approach with Case Studies|first=Juan| last=Morrone| publisher=Columbia University Press| year=2009}}</ref>

{{botanist|Willd.|border=0}}

==Works==
*''[http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=3538 Florae Berolinensis prodromus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170807193504/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=3538 |date=2017-08-07 }}'' (1787)
*''Grundriß der Kräuterkunde'' (1792)
*''Linnaei species plantarum'' (1798–1826, 6 volumes) [http://www.botanicus.org/title/b1206998x Botanicus]
*''Anleitung zum Selbststudium der Botanik'' (1804)
*''[http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=5802 Historia Amaranthorum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108233857/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=5802 |date=2016-11-08 }}'' (1790)
*''[http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=6074 Phytographia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108234312/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=6074 |date=2016-11-08 }}'' (1794)
*''[http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=1684 Enumeratio plantarum horti regii botanici Berolinensis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161108225903/http://bibdigital.rjb.csic.es/ing/Libro.php?Libro=1684 |date=2016-11-08 }}'' (1809)
*''[http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id414237234 Berlinische Baumzucht]'' (1811)
*''Abbildung der deutschen Holzarten für Forstmänner und Liebhaber der Botanik'' (1815-1820, Band 1-2) [http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:2-16551 Digital edition] by the [[University and State Library Düsseldorf]]
*''[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/37657#/summary Hortus Berolinensis]'' (1816)

==See also==
*[[Willdenowia (plant)|''Willdenowia'' (plant)]], in the family Restionaceae
*''[[Selaginella willdenowii]]'', Willdenow's spikemoss
*[[Willdenowia (journal)|''Willdenowia'' (journal)]], Annals of the Botanic Garden and Botanical Museum Berlin, named to honour Willdenow

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikisource author}}
* [https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000554185 {{lang|de|Grundriss der Kräuterkunde zu Vorlesungen}} (1792)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120324093218/http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/xsfz69147.html {{lang|de|Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie}}]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Willdenow, Carl Ludwig}}
[[Category:1765 births]]
[[Category:1812 deaths]]
[[Category:German taxonomists]]
[[Category:German mycologists]]
[[Category:German phycologists]]
[[Category:German phytogeographers]]
[[Category:Pteridologists]]
[[Category:Botanists active in South America]]
[[Category:Botanists with author abbreviations]]
[[Category:18th-century German botanists]]
[[Category:19th-century German botanists]]
[[Category:18th-century German writers]]
[[Category:18th-century German male writers]]
[[Category:19th-century German writers]]
[[Category:19th-century German male writers]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Scientists from Berlin]]
[[Category:University of Halle alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin]]
[[Category:Biologists from the Kingdom of Prussia]]

Tegel

2024-10-16T21:55:52Z

NidabaM: footnote

{{About|the place|the airport|Berlin Tegel Airport|other uses}}
{{Infobox German location
|name = Tegel
|name_local =
|image_photo = Berlin Tegel Gorkistraße Weihnachtsbeleuchtung.jpg
|image_caption = Gorkistrasse in the old town
|type = Quarter
|City = Berlin
|image_coa =
|coordinates = {{coord|52|35|00|N|13|17|00|E|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
|state = Berlin
|district =
|borough = Reinickendorf
|divisions =
|elevation = 52
|area = 33.7
|pop_ref = <ref>{{Population Germany|key=11|datref=QUELLE}}</ref>
|population = {{Population Germany|key=111202}}
|population_as_of = {{Population Germany|key=11|datref=STAND}}
|postal_code = 13405, 13503, 13505, 13507, 13509
|area_code =
|licence = B
|year = 1558
|plantext = Location of Tegel in Reinickendorf district and Berlin
|image_plan = Berlin Reinickendorf Tegel.svg
|website =
}}
'''Tegel''' ({{IPA|de|ˈteːɡl̩|lang|De-Tegel.ogg}}) is a locality (''Ortsteil'') in the [[Berlin]] [[Boroughs of Berlin|borough]] of [[Reinickendorf]] on the shore of [[Lake Tegel]]. The Tegel locality, the second largest in area (after [[Köpenick]]) of the 96 Berlin districts, also includes the neighbourhood of ''Saatwinkel''.

==History==
The [[Schloss Tegel|Tegel Palace]] (or Humboldt Palace), originally a [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance]] manor house from 1558 and a [[Jagdschloss|hunting lodge]] of [[Prince-elector|Elector]] [[Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg|Frederick William]] of [[Margraviate of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]], was bequeathed to the Humboldt family in 1797. [[Alexander von Humboldt]] and [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] lived here for several years.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=7, 9-11, 14 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> In 1824 Wilhelm had the palace rebuilt in a [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] style by [[Karl Friedrich Schinkel]]. In the park is a [[tomb]], where Alexander, Wilhelm, and other members of the Humboldt family are buried. From 1927 until 1931 Tegel Palace was the site of a [[sanatorium]], founded by the [[psychoanalysis|psychoanalyst]] [[Ernst Simmel]] (1882–1947).

From 1898 on Tegel was the seat of the ''[[August Borsig|Borsig-Werke]]'' [[steam locomotive]] manufacturing company until it moved to [[Hennigsdorf]] in [[Province of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]] in 1931.

Between 1930 and 1934 an [[artillery]] [[firing range]] in the district was used by the ''[[Verein für Raumschiffahrt]]'' (Society for Space Travel) for experiments with liquid-fueled [[rocket]]s. The principal names involved were its leader [[Rudolf Nebel]] and other staff members [[Hermann Oberth]] and [[Wernher von Braun]].

During [[World War II]], Tegel was the location of a subcamp of the [[Sachsenhausen concentration camp]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Megargee|first=Geoffrey P.|year=2009|title=The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos 1933–1945. Volume I|publisher=Indiana University Press, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|page=1289|isbn=978-0-253-35328-3}}</ref> and a Nazi prison with several [[Forced labour under German rule during World War II|forced labour]] subcamps in the region.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bundesarchiv.de/zwangsarbeit/haftstaetten/index.php?action=2.2&tab=7&id=419|title=Strafgefängnis Berlin-Tegel|website=Bundesarchiv.de|access-date=9 January 2024|language=de}}</ref>

Tegel was the site of a [[medium wave]] [[Radio station|broadcasting station]] from 1933 to 1948. A wire hung in a wooden tower served as an [[antenna (radio)|antenna]]. This tower was demolished as part of the construction of Tegel International Airport at the end of 1948.

==Today==
Tegel is chiefly known for being the location of [[Tegel International Airport|Berlin-Tegel ''Otto Lilienthal'']], Berlin's former main [[airport]]. It has a population of 33,417 and houses the [[Tegel Prison]], one of Germany's largest [[Prisons in Germany|prisons]] with about 1,700 inmates as of 2007, known from [[Alfred Döblin]]'s 1929 novel [[Berlin Alexanderplatz]].

One of Berlin's largest [[shopping mall]]s ''Borsighallen'' is located in the former locomotive manufacturing halls of the ''[[Borsig Lokomotiv Werke (AEG)|Borsigwerke]]''. There is also the ''Villa Borsig'' at the shore of Lake Tegel, the former residence of the Borsig family. Today it is a school for future diplomats.

Besides this, Tegel is an extensive residential district with some industry. With the large Lake Tegel, set in woodlands, the locality is also a popular destination for daytrippers. It boasts Berlin's oldest tree, an [[Quercus robur|oak]] called ''Dicke Marie'' ("Fat Mary").

==Transportation==
Tegel is served by the [[Berlin S-Bahn]] line [[S25 (Berlin)|S25]] at the station ''[[Berlin-Tegel railway station|Berlin-Tegel]]''. [[Berlin U-Bahn|U-Bahn]] connection to the inner city is provided by the [[U6 (Berlin U-Bahn)|U6]] line with the stations ''[[Otisstraße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Otisstraße]]'', ''[[Holzhauser Straße (Berlin U-Bahn)|Holzhauser Straße]]'', ''[[Borsigwerke (Berlin U-Bahn)|Borsigwerke]]'' and ''[[Alt-Tegel (Berlin U-Bahn)|Alt-Tegel]]''.

==See also==
* [[Lake Tegel]]

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Schloss Tegel1.JPG|Tegel Palace
Tegel church Bernhard.jpg|Catholic church St Bernard
Berlin - Humboldtinsel - 2017.jpg|Humboldt island in Tegel
Dicke Marie.JPG|''Dicke Marie'' ("Fat Mary") is a registered natural monument, said to be the oldest tree in Berlin.
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category-inline|Berlin-Tegel|Tegel}}
*{{in lang|de}} [http://www.reinickendorf.de/index_5138_de.html Tegel page of Reinickendorfer site]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100102211141/http://astronautix.com/sites/rakplatz.htm Launch site of the Verein für Raumschiffahrt at Berlin-Tegel]

{{Boroughs of Berlin}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Localities of Berlin]]
[[Category:Reinickendorf|*]]

Abraham Gottlob Werner

2024-10-16T21:53:02Z

NidabaM: /* Legacy */ added Humboldt

{{Short description|German geologist (1749 – 1817)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2018}}
{{more footnotes|date=May 2012}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Abraham Gottlob Werner
| image = Abraham Gottlob Werner.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_date = 25 September 1749
| birth_place = Wehrau, [[Prussia]]n [[Silesia]] (now [[Osiecznica, Lower Silesian Voivodeship|Osiecznica]], Poland)
| death_date = {{d-da|30 June 1817|25 September 1749}}
| death_place = [[Dresden]], [[Kingdom of Saxony]]
| citizenship =
| ethnicity =
| nationality = German
| field = [[Geology]]
| work_institutions = [[Freiberg University of Mining and Technology|Freiberg Academy of Mining]]
| alma_mater = {{plainlist|
* [[Freiberg University of Mining and Technology|Freiberg Academy of Mining]]
* [[University of Leipzig]]
}}
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = {{hlist |list_style=line-height:1.3em | [[Stratigraphy|Stratification]] | [[Neptunism]] | [[Succession (geology)|Succession]]}}
| author_abbrev_bot =
| author_abbrev_zoo =
| influences =
| influenced =
| prizes =
| signature = WernerAG-signature.png
| doctoral_advisor = [[Johann Carl Gehler]]
| notable_students = [[Christian Samuel Weiss]] [[Christian Leopold von Buch]] [[Friedrich Mohs]] [[Henrik Steffens]] [[Gotthilf Heinrich von Schubert]] [[Franz von Baader]] [[Alexander von Humboldt]]
}}

'''Abraham Gottlob Werner''' ({{IPA|de|ˈaːbʁaham ˈɡɔtloːp ˈvɛʁnɐ|lang}}; 25 September 1749{{snd}}30 June 1817) was a German [[geologist]] who set out an early theory about the [[Stratigraphy|stratification]] of the [[Earth's crust]] and propounded a [[history of the Earth]] that came to be known as [[Neptunism]]. While most tenets of Neptunism were eventually set aside, Werner is remembered for his demonstration of [[Succession (geology)|chronological succession in rock]]s; for the zeal with which he infused his pupils; and for the impulse he thereby gave to the study of [[geology]]. He has been called the "father of German geology".<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Werner, Abraham Gottlob|short=1|volume=28|page=523}}</ref>

== Life ==

Werner was born in Wehrau (now [[Osiecznica, Lower Silesian Voivodeship]]), a village in [[Prussia]]n [[Silesia]]. His family had been involved in the mining industry for many years. His father, Abraham David Werner, was a foreman at a foundry in Wehrau.

Werner was educated at [[Freiberg, Saxony|Freiberg]] and [[Leipzig]], where he studied law and mining, and was then appointed as Inspector and Teacher of Mining and [[Mineralogy]] at the small, but influential, [[Freiberg University of Mining and Technology|Freiberg Mining Academy]] in 1775.

While in Leipzig, Werner became interested in the systematic identification and classification of minerals. Within a year he published the first modern textbook on descriptive mineralogy, ''Von den äusserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien'' (On the External Characters of Fossils [or of Minerals]; 1774).

During his career, Werner published very little, but his fame as a teacher spread throughout Europe, attracting students, who became virtual disciples, and spread his interpretations throughout their homelands, e.g. [[Robert Jameson]] who became professor at Edinburgh and [[Andrés Manuel del Río]] who discovered [[vanadium]]. Socratic in his lecturing style, Werner developed an appreciation for the broader implications and interrelations of [[geology]] within his students, who provided an enthusiastic and attentive audience. Werner's students [[Friedrich Mohs]] (who was in 1818 also successor to Werner's chair at the Freiberg Mining Academy), Robert Jameson and G. Mitchell even had plans to establish an institute analogous to Freiberg Mining Academy in Dublin, which were due to the death of some people involved never carried out.{{sfn|Authier|2013|p=350}} <ref name="mohs">{{cite web|title=Friedrich Mohs in Oesterreichisches Biographisches Lexikon|url=https://www.biographien.ac.at/oebl/oebl_M/Mohs_Friedrich_1773_1839.xml|website=Oesterreichisches Biographisches Lexikon, Austrian Academy of Sciences|access-date=12 February 2019}}</ref>

Werner was plagued by frail health his entire life, and passed a quiet existence in the immediate environs of Freiberg. An avid [[mineral collector]] in his youth, he abandoned field work altogether in his later life. There is no evidence that he had ever traveled beyond Saxony in his entire adult life. He died at [[Dresden]] from internal complications said to have been caused by his consternation over the misfortunes that had befallen [[Saxony]] during the Napoleonic Wars. He is buried in the Neuen Annenfriedhof in south-west Dresden. The grave is marked by a simple boulder inscribed with his name.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.stadtwikidd.de/wiki/Abraham_Gottlob_Werner|title=Abraham Gottlob Werner - Stadtwiki Dresden|website=www.stadtwikidd.de}}</ref>

He was elected a foreign member of the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] in 1810.

== Werner's theory ==


Starting from the pre-existing traditions of stratigraphy and [[cosmogony]] in Europe,<ref>Laudan, Rachel, 1987. ''From Mineralogy to Geology: The Foundations of a Science 1650-1830''. University of Chicago Press.</ref> Werner applied superposition in a classification similar to that of [[Johann Gottlob Lehmann (scientist)|Johann Gottlob Lehmann]]. He believed that the Earth could be divided into five formations:

# Primitive (''Urgebirge'') Series: intrusive [[igneous rock]]s and high rank metasediments considered to be the first precipitates from the ocean before the emergence of land.
# Transition (''Übergangsgebirge'') Series: more indurated [[limestone]]s, [[Dike (geology)|dike]]s, [[Sill (geology)|sill]]s, and thick sequences of [[greywacke]]s that were the first orderly deposits from the ocean. These were "universal" formations extending without interruption around the world.
# Secondary or Stratified (''Flötz'') Series: the remaining, stratified fossiliferous rocks and certain associated "trap" rocks. These were thought to represent the emergence of mountains from beneath the ocean and were formed from the resulting products of [[erosion]] deposited on their flanks.
# Alluvial or Tertiary (''Aufgeschwemmte'') Series: poorly consolidated [[sand]]s, [[gravel]]s, and [[clay]]s formed by the withdrawal of the oceans from the continents.
# Volcanic Series : younger [[lava]] flows demonstrably associated with [[Volcano|volcanic vent]]s. Werner believed that these rocks reflected the local effects of burning [[coal]] beds.

The basic concept of Wernerian geology was the belief in an all encompassing ocean that gradually receded to its present location while precipitating or depositing almost all the rocks and minerals in the Earth's crust. The emphasis on this initially universal ocean spawned the term "Neptunism" that became applied to the concept and it became virtually synonymous with Wernerian teaching, although [[Jean-Étienne Guettard]] in France actually originated the view. A universal ocean led directly to the idea of universal formations, which Werner believed could be recognized on the basis of [[Petrology|lithology]] and [[Law of superposition|superposition]]. {{anchor|Geognosy}} He coined the term "geognosy" (meaning "knowledge of the Earth") to define a science based on the recognition of the order, position, and relation of the layers forming the Earth. Werner believed that geognosy represented fact and not theory. His followers resisted speculation, and as a result Wernerian geognosy and Neptunism became dogma and ceased to contribute to further understanding of the history of the Earth.{{citation needed|date=December 2017}}

His former student [[Robert Jameson]], who later became [[Regius Professor]] at the [[University of Edinburgh]], founded the [[Wernerian Natural History Society]] in 1808 in honour of Werner, which, while debating many aspects of [[natural history]], was a bastion of the Wernerian view of the Earth.

== Criticism ==

A principal focus of Neptunism that provoked almost immediate controversy involved the origin of [[basalt]]. Basalts, particularly formed as sills, were differentiated from surface lava flows, and the two were not recognized as the same rock type by Werner and his students during this period. Lavas and volcanoes of igneous origin were treated as very recent phenomena unrelated to the universal ocean that formed the layers of the Earth. Werner believed that volcanoes only occurred in proximity to coal beds. Burning melted overlying basalts and wackes, producing basalts and lavas typically at low elevations. Basalt at higher elevations proved to Werner that they were chemical precipitates of the ocean.

A second controversy surrounding Neptunism involved the volumetric problems associated with the universal ocean. How could he account for the covering of the entire Earth and then the shrinking of the ocean volume as the primitive and transitional mountains emerged and the secondary and tertiary deposits were formed? The movement of a significant volume of water into the Earth's interior had been proposed by the classical Greek geographer [[Strabo]], but it was not embraced by Werner because it was associated with conjecture. Nevertheless, with his views on basalt, he did not believe that the interior of the Earth was molten. Werner appears to have dodged the question for the most part. He thought that some of the water could have been lost to space with the passing of some celestial body. That interpretation, however, raised the related question of explaining the return of the waters reflected in the secondary rocks.

== Legacy ==

Werner's ability as a lecturer attracted students from all over Europe. Applications of his ideas fomented debate, particularly over the origin of [[basalt]], in the so-called [[Neptunist-Plutonist controversy]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://historyofgeology.fieldofscience.com/2010/10/granite-controversy-neptunism-vs.html|title=The Granite Controversy: Neptunism VS Plutonism|last=Bressan|first=David|access-date=2019-08-14}}</ref> Among his most famous students was [[Alexander von Humboldt]], who stayed in in Freiberg in 1791-92, and initially subscribed to Werner's Neptunist ideas before departing from them in his later years.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=25 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref>

The variety of [[scapolite]] known as wernerite is named in his honour. Werner is credited with coining the term geognosy, for the geological study of the Earth's structure, specifically its exterior and interior construction.

In 1805, he described the mineral [[zoisite]] and named it after [[Sigmund Zois]], who sent him its specimens from [[Saualpe]] in [[Duchy of Carinthia|Carinthia]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J8wJAQAAIAAJ |first=Austin |last=Flint-Rogers |title=Introduction to the Study of Minerals |publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company |year=1937 |page=478}}</ref>

Werner’s major work, ''Von den äußerlichen Kennzeichen der Foßilien'' (1774), contained a comprehensive colour scheme he had devised for the description and classification of minerals. The work, incorporating this colour nomenclature with some modifications, was translated into French by [[Claudine Guyton de Morveau]] (née Picardet) in 1790 and into English by [[Thomas Weaver]] in 1805. [[Patrick Syme]] (1774–1845), painter to the Wernerian and Horticultural Societies of Edinburgh, published in 1814 a revised version, entitled ''[[Werner's Nomenclature of Colours, with Additions, arranged so as to render it useful to the Arts and Sciences]]''. In Germany, the scheme was favoured, for example, by the young polymath [[Novalis]] (Friedrich von Hardenberg) (1772–1801), who was impressed by its analytical character.<ref>William Jervis Jones (2013). ''German Colour Terms: A study in their historical evolution from earliest times to the present''. John Benjamins, Amsterdam & Philadelphia, {{ISBN|978-90-272-4610-3}}, pp. 63–64, 234–241 and 639–641.</ref>

The [[Werner Mountains]] in Antarctica and the [[Werner Range]] in Greenland were named after him.<ref name="cat">{{cite web | title = Catalogue of place names in northern East Greenland | publisher = Geological Survey of Denmark | url = http://www.geus.dk/DK/publications/geol-survey-dk-gl-bull/21/Documents/nr21_p001-016.pdf | access-date = 31 December 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161230231212/http://www.geus.dk/DK/publications/geol-survey-dk-gl-bull/21/Documents/nr21_p001-016.pdf | archive-date = 30 December 2016 | url-status = dead | df = dmy-all }}</ref>

== Works ==
* ''[http://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/werner1774 Von den äusserlichen Kennzeichen der Fossilien]'' (Leipzig, 1774; French translation by Mme. Guyton de Morveau, Paris, 1790; English translation, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=LGZYAAAAcAAJ|A Treatise on the External Characters of Fossils]'', by Weaver, Dublin, 1805; later reprinted with notes by the Wernerian Society, Edinburgh, 1849–50).
* ''[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DdhAAAAAcAAJ Kurze Klassifikation und Beschreibung der verschiedenen Gebirgsarten]'' (Dresden, 1787).
* ''Neue Theorie über Entstehung der Gänge'' (Freiberg, 1791; French translation by Daubuisson, Paris, 1803; English translation by Charles Anderson as "New Theory of the Formation of Veins, with its Application to the Art of Working Mines", Edinburgh, 1809).

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* "Abraham Gottlob Werner." ''Encyclopedia of World Biography'', 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.
* "Abraham Gottlob Werner." ''Science and Its Times'', Vol. 4: 1700–1799. Gale Group, 2001.
* ''Abraham Gottlob Werner. Gedenkschrift aus Anlaß der Wiederkehr seines Todestages nach 150 Jahren am 30. Juni 1967''. Deutscher Verlag für Grundstoffindustrie, Leipzig 1967, (''Freiberger Forschungshefte'' C 223).
* Bergakademie Freiberg (ed.): ''Internationales Symposium Abraham Gottlob Werner und seine Zeit: 19. bis 24. September 1999 in Freiberg (Sachsen)''. Tagungsband. Verlag der TU Bergakademie, Freiberg 1999.
* Samuel Gottlob Frisch: ''Lebensbeschreibung A. G. Werners – nebst zwei Abhandlungen über Werners Verdienste um Oryktognosie und Geognosie''. Brockhaus Verlag, Leipzig 1825, ([https://books.google.com/books?id=Tb6_AAAAIAAJ&dq=Abraham+Gottlob+Werner&pg=PR3 Digitalisat, pdf 6.5 MB])
* Martin Guntau: ''Abraham Gottlob Werner.'' Teubner-Verlag, Leipzig 1984, (''Biographien hervorragender Naturwissenschaftler, Techniker und Mediziner'' 75, {{ISSN|0232-3516}}).
* Dieter Slaby, Roland Ladwig: ''Abraham Gottlob Werner – seine Zeit und seine Bezüge zur Bergwirtschaft.'' Verlag der TU Bergakademie, Freiberg 1999, (''Freiberger Arbeitspapiere'' 1999, 26, {{ISSN|0949-9970}}).
* {{Meyers Online|16|538|spezialkapitel=Werner}}
* Johannes Uray, "Chemische Theorie und mineralogische Klassifikationssysteme von der chemischen Revolution bis zur Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts". In: Berhard Hubmann, Elmar Schübl, Johannes Seidl (eds.), ''Die Anfänge geologischer Forschung in Österreich''. Beiträge zur Tagung „10 Jahre Arbeitsgruppe Geschichte der Erdwissenschaften Österreichs" von 24. bis 26. April 2009 in Graz. Graz 2010, S 107-125.
* {{cite AmCyc |wstitle=Werner, Abraham Gottlob |short=x}}
* {{cite book |last=Authier |first=André |title=Early Days of X-ray Crystallography |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-965984-5}}

== External links ==
* Books by Abraham Gottlob Werner, in digital facsimile, from [[Linda Hall Library]]:
** (1791) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/earththeory/id/22942 ''Neue Theorie von der Entstehung der gänge'']
** (1814) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/11939 ''Werner's nomenclature of colours'']
** (1821) [http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/12024 ''Werner's nomenclature of colours'']

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Werner, Abraham Gottlob}}
[[Category:1749 births]]
[[Category:1817 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Bolesławiec County]]
[[Category:19th-century German geologists]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Honorary Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Scientists from Freiberg]]
[[Category:Freiberg University of Mining and Technology alumni]]
[[Category:Leipzig University alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Freiberg University of Mining and Technology]]
[[Category:18th-century German geologists]]
[[Category:Scientists from the Kingdom of Prussia]]

Aimé Bonpland

2024-10-16T21:48:09Z

NidabaM: English-language edition

{{short description|French explorer and botanist (1773-1858)}}
{{redirect|Bonpland}}
{{Infobox scientist
| image = Bonpland Aimé 1773-1858.jpg
| birth_date = 22 August 1773
| birth_place = [[La Rochelle]], [[France]]
| death_date = {{death-date and age|11 May 1858|August 1773}}
| death_place = [[Paso de los Libres]], [[Argentina]]
| nationality = [[French people|French]]
| fields = [[Physician]], [[biologist]], [[botanist]], [[natural history]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Paris]]
| notable_students =
| known_for = Travel with [[Alexander von Humboldt]]
| author_abbrev_bot = '''Bonpl.'''
| awards = [[French Academy of Sciences]]
| parents = Jacques-Simon Goujaud Marguerite-Olive de La Coste
}}
'''Aimé Jacques Alexandre Bonpland'''{{sfnp|Chisholm|1911}} ({{IPA|fr|ɛme bɔ̃plɑ̃|lang}}; 22 August 1773 – 11 May 1858) was a French [[List of explorers|explorer]] and [[botany|botanist]] who traveled with [[Alexander von Humboldt]] in [[Latin America]] from 1799 to 1804. He co-authored volumes of the scientific results of their expedition.

{{Botanist|Bonpl.|Bonpland, Aimé|inline=yes}}
[[File:Humboldt-Bonpland Chimborazo.jpg|thumb|Humboldt and Bonpland at the [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] base]]
[[File:Humboldt and Bonplant in the Jungle.jpg|thumb|Humboldt and Bonpland in the Amazon rainforest]]

==Biography==
Bonpland was born as '''Aimé Jacques Alexandre Goujaud'''{{sfnp|''ACAB''|1900}} in [[La Rochelle]], [[Kingdom of France|France]], on 22,{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}{{sfnp|Chisholm|1911}}{{sfnp|''ACAB''|1900}} 28,<ref name=cbs>{{citation |last=Smith |first=Charles |url=http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/chronob/homelist.htm |title=Some Biogeographers, Evolutionists, and Ecologists: Chrono-Biographical Sketches |contribution=Aimé Jacques Alexandre (Goujaud) Bonpland |contribution-url=http://people.wku.edu/charles.smith/chronob/BONP1773.htm |date=2007 }}.</ref><ref>Parish register. Paroisse Saint-Barthélémy, La Rochelle. Archives départementales, Charente-Maritime, Archives en ligne.</ref> or 29{{citation needed|date=December 2015}} August 1773. His father was a physician{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}} and, around 1790, he joined his brother Michael in [[Paris]], where they both studied medicine.<ref name=shadow>{{cite book |title= A Life in Shadow: Aimé Bonpland in Southern South America, 1817–1858 |author= Stephen Bell |edition= illustrated |publisher= Stanford University Press |year= 2010 |isbn= 9780804774277 |page= 3}}</ref> From 1791, they attended courses given at Paris's [[Muséum national d'histoire naturelle|Botanical Museum of Natural History]]. Their teachers included [[Jean-Baptiste Lamarck]], [[Antoine Laurent de Jussieu]], and [[René Louiche Desfontaines]];<ref name=shadow /> Aimé further studied under [[Jean-Nicolas Corvisart]]{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} and may have attended classes given by [[Pierre-Joseph Desault]] at the [[Hôtel-Dieu]]. During this period, Aimé also befriended his fellow student, [[Xavier Bichat]].{{citation needed|date=December 2015}}

Amid the turmoil of the [[French Revolution]] and [[French Revolutionary Wars|Revolutionary Wars]], Bonpland served as a [[surgeon]] in the [[French Revolutionary Army|French army]]{{sfnp|Chisholm|1911}} or [[French Navy#History|navy]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}}{{sfnp|''AC''|1879}}{{sfnp|''ACAB''|1900}}

Having befriended [[Alexander von Humboldt]] at Corvisart's house,{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}} he joined him on a five-year journey to Tenerife and the Spanish colonial empire in the Americas,<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=49, 51, 59, 61-72 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> traveling to what later became the independent states of Venezuela, Cuba, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Mexico, as well as the [[Orinoco]] and [[Amazon River|Amazon]] basins, with a last stop in the United States.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}<ref name="Rooks2019">{{cite web |author1=Timothy Rooks |title=How Alexander von Humboldt put South America on the map {{!}} DW {{!}} 12.07.2019 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/how-scientist-alexander-von-humboldt-put-spanish-south-america-on-the-global-map/a-46693502 |website=dw.com |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=3 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200303032534/https://www.dw.com/en/how-scientist-alexander-von-humboldt-put-spanish-south-america-on-the-global-map/a-46693502 |archive-date=3 March 2020 |date=12 December 2019}}</ref> During this trip, he collected and [[scientific classification|classified]] about 6,000 [[plant]]s that were mostly unknown in Europe up to that time.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} His account of these findings was published as a series of volumes from 1808 to 1816 entitled ''Equatorial Plants'' ({{lang-fr|Plantes equinoxiales}}).{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}

Upon his return to Paris, [[Napoleon]] granted him a pension of 3000 [[French franc#French Empire and Restoration|francs]] per year in return for the many specimens he bestowed upon the [[Paris Museum of Natural History|Museum of Natural History]].{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}} The [[Empress Josephine]] was very fond of him and installed him as superintendent over the gardens at [[Château de Malmaison|Malmaison]],{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}} where many seeds he had brought from the Americas were cultivated.{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}} In 1813, he published his ''Description of the Rare Plants Cultivated at Malmaison and in Navarre'' (''{{lang|fr|Description des plantes rares cultivées à Malmaison et à Navarre}}'').{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} During this period, he also became acquainted with [[Gay-Lussac]], [[François Arago|Arago]], and other eminent scientists and, after the [[abdication of Fontainebleau]], vainly pleaded with [[Napoleon]] to retire to [[Venezuela]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}} He was present at Josephine's deathbed.{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}}

In 1816, he took various European plants to [[Buenos Aires]], where he was elected professor of [[natural history]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} He soon left his post, however, to explore the interior of [[South America]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} In 1821, he established a colony at [[Santa Ana (Misiones)|Santa Ana]] near the [[Paraná River|Paraná]] for the specific object of harvesting and selling [[yerba mate]].<ref>{{cite book |title= A Life in Shadow: Aimé Bonpland in Southern South America, 1817–1858 |author= Stephen Bell |edition= illustrated |publisher= Stanford University Press |year= 2010 |isbn= 9780804774277 |page= 196}}</ref> The colony was located in territory claimed by both [[Paraguay]] and [[Argentina]]; further, [[José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia]], dictator of Paraguay, "feared that Bonpland's success in cultivating ''mate'' would interfere with his own attempt to monopolize that business."<ref>[[George Sarton]] (1943) "Aimé Bonpland (1773–1858)", [[Isis (journal)|Isis]] 34: 385–99, reprinted in ''George Sarton on the History of Science'' (1962), [[Dorothy Stimson]] editor, [[Harvard University Press]]</ref> The Paraguayans therefore destroyed the colony on December 8, 1821, and Bonpland was arrested as a spy and detained at [[Santa Maria, Paraguay]]<ref>[[Johann Rudolph Rengger|Rengger, Johan Rudolf]]: (1827) Ensayo Historico</ref> until 1829.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}<ref>{{citation |first=Julios Cesar |last=Chavez |date=1942 |title=El Supremo Dictador }}. {{in lang|es}}</ref> During his captivity, he married and had several children.<ref>Schinini, Aurelio (2013) Aimé Bonpland: Un naturalista francés en Corrientes.</ref> He was given freedom of movement and acted as a physician for the local poor{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} and the military garrison.{{sfnp|''AC''|1879}} At the same epoch, the Swiss naturalist [[Johann Rudolph Rengger]] also stayed in Paraguay: he was not allowed to cross the strictly guarded border, but was free to circulate pending the request of a special permit for each excursion.<ref name="Schumann1889_ADB">{{Cite ADB|28|220|222|Rengger, Johann Rudolf|Albert Schumann|ADB:Rengger, Johann Rudolf}}</ref>

Bonpland was freed in 1829{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}} and in 1831{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} returned to Argentina, where he settled at [[San Borja, Argentina|San Borja]] in [[Corrientes]].{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} There, aged 58, he married a local woman and made a living farming and trading in yerba mate.{{sfnp|''AC''|1879}}<ref>{{citation |last=Obregón |date=1999 |contribution=Los soportes histórico y científico de la pieza Humboldt & Bonpland, taxidermistas de Ibsen Martínez |title=Latin American Theatre Review }}. {{in lang|es}}</ref> In 1853, he returned to Santa Ana, where he cultivated the [[orange tree]]s he had introduced.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} He received a {{nowrap|10 000-}}[[piastre]] estate from the Corrientes government in gratitude for his work in the province.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}} The small town around it is now known as "[[Bonpland, Corrientes|Bonpland]]" in his honor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Muncipio de Bonpland |url=https://www.corrientes.gob.ar/home/bonpland/municipio |access-date=2021-05-01 |website=Government of Corrientes}}</ref> A different small town in Misiones province just south of [[Santa Ana (Misiones)]] is also named Bonpland.

He died at age 84, at San Borja,{{sfnp|''AJSA''|1858}} Santa Ana,{{sfnp|''ACAB''|1900}} or [[Restauracion, Argentina|Restauración]]<ref name=cbs/> on 4{{sfnp|Chisholm|1911}} or 11<ref name=cbs/> May 1858, before his planned return to Paris.{{sfnp|''EB''|1878}}

==Legacy==
His collection of plant specimens deposited in Paris at the [[National Museum of Natural History, France]] was curated by [[Alicia Lourteig]].<ref name="Sastre2003">{{cite journal |last1=Sastre |first1=C |title=Alicia Lourteig (1913-2003) |journal=Adansonia |series=Series 3 |date=2003 |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=149–150}}</ref>

Bonpland's biography was written by [[Adolphe Brunel]].<ref>{{OCLC|5184922}}</ref> A fictionalized account of his travels with Humboldt occurs in [[Daniel Kehlmann]]'s ''Die Vermessung der Welt'', translated by Carol Brown Janeway as ''[[Measuring the World]]: A Novel''.

Bonpland Street in the upscale [[Buenos Aires]] neighborhood of [[Palermo Hollywood]] lies among streets named after [[Charles Darwin]], [[Robert FitzRoy]], and [[Alexander von Humboldt]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-01-26 |title=Aimé Bonpland, un descubridor científico |url=https://espores.org/es/es-jardines/aime-bonpland-un-descubridor-cientifico/ |access-date=2021-05-01 |website=Espores: La veu del Botànic |language=es-ES |quote=Su nombre permanece en una calle de esta ciudad, en una de las cumbres más altas de Venezuela |archive-date=2021-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502032847/https://espores.org/es/es-jardines/aime-bonpland-un-descubridor-cientifico/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> There is also a Bonpland Street in the city of [[Bahía Blanca]], Argentina, in Caracas, Venezuela, and in Montevideo, Uruguay.

Many animals and plants are also named in his honor, including the plant genus ''[[Bonplandia]]'', the willow ''[[Salix bonplandiana]]'', the squid ''[[Grimalditeuthis bonplandi]]'', and the orchid ''[[Ornithocephalus bonplandi]]''.

The [[lunar crater]] [[Bonpland (crater)|Bonpland]] is named after him.<ref>{{gpn|817}}</ref> Also [[Pico Bonpland]] in the [[Sierra Nevada de Mérida|Venezuelan Andes]] is named to his honor, although he never visited the [[Sierra Nevada de Mérida|Venezuelan Andes]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=La travesía de Humboldt |url=https://www.arcgis.com/apps/Cascade/index.html?appid=c303a9a3e8744c9f94e49d815ff754b7 |access-date=2021-05-01 |website=ArcGIS |language=es}}</ref> A peak of over {{convert|2300|m|abbr=on}} in [[New Zealand]] also bears his name. The mountain is near the head of Lake Wakatipu in the South Island.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brockie |first=Bob |date=2016-07-04 |title=Adventurers proved how exciting life of a scientist can be |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/science/81627378/adventurers-proved-how-exciting-life-of-a-scientist-can-be |access-date=2021-05-01 |website=Stuff |language=en}}</ref>

The '''Bonpland Prize''' set up by the [[National Horticultural Society of France]] to promote the creation or restoration of pleasure gardens by amateur gardeners, was named after Aimé Bonpland.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.parcsetjardinspaca.com/prix/prix-bonpland/|title=Société Nationale d'Horticulture de France - Prix Bonpland|first=Laurence|last=BRY|date=November 30, 2016|website=Parcs et Jardins PACA}}</ref>

== Taxonomic descriptions ==
The following genera and species have been named or described by Aimé Bonpland.<ref>IPNI</ref>

=== Genera ===
{{columns-list | colwidth=9em |
# ''[[Abolboda]]''
# ''[[Aegopogon]]''
# ''[[Alchornea]]''
# ''[[Angelonia]]''
# ''[[Ceroxylon]]''
# ''[[Elionurus]]''
# ''[[Eriope]]''
# ''[[Espeletia]]''
# ''[[Eudema]]''
# ''[[Exostema]]''
# ''[[Fulcaldea]]''
# ''[[Guardiola (plant)|Guardiola]]''
# ''[[Hypocalyptus]]''
# ''[[Isertia]]''
# ''[[Leucophyllum]]''
# ''[[Limnocharis]]''
# ''[[Machaonia]]''
# ''[[Matisia]]''
# ''[[Menodora]]''
# ''[[Pleopeltis]]''
# ''[[Retiniphyllum]]''
# ''[[Triglochin]]''
# ''[[Vauquelinia]]''
}}

=== Species ===
{{columns-list | colwidth=18em |
# ''[[Acacia subulata]]''
# ''[[Alchornea castaneifolia]]''
# ''[[Arceuthobium vaginatum]]''
# ''[[Aristida divaricata]]''
# ''[[Arrabidaea chica]]''
# ''[[Astragalus geminiflorus]]''
# ''[[Banksia marginata]]''
# ''[[Brachyotum confertum]]''
# ''[[Bertholletia excelsa]]''
# ''[[Brugmansia suaveolens]]''
# ''[[Brunellia ovalifolia]]''
# ''[[Cavanillesia platanifolia]]''
# ''[[Centronia mutisii]]''
# ''[[Cephalanthus salicifolius]]''
# ''[[Ceroxylon alpinum]]''
# ''[[Chuquiraga jussieui]]''
# ''[[Claytonia perfoliata]]''
# ''[[Coriaria thymifolia]]''
# ''[[Dorstenia tenuis]]''
# ''[[Draba violacea]]''
# ''[[Eucalyptus diversifolia]]''
# ''[[Eudema nubigena]]''
# ''[[Eugenia albida]]''
# ''[[Huperzia crassa]]''
# ''[[Hydrocleys nymphoides]]''
# ''[[Iochroma fuchsioides]]''
# ''[[Ipomoea arborescens]]''
# ''[[Iresine diffusa]]''
# ''[[Jacksonia furcellata]]''
# ''[[Juniperus phoenicea]]''
# ''Lilaea scilloides'' (synonym of ''[[Triglochin scilloides]]'')
# ''[[Limnobium laevigatum]]''
# ''[[Limnocharis flava]]''
# ''[[Ludwigia helminthorrhiza]]''
# ''[[Ludwigia sedioides]]''
# ''[[Maurandya antirrhiniflora]]''
# ''[[Melaleuca pallida]]''
# ''[[Miconia caelata]]''
# ''[[Miconia guayaquilensis]]''
# ''[[Miconia lacera]]''
# ''[[Miconia minutiflora]]''
# ''[[Miconia theaezans]]''
# ''[[Mimosa somnians]]''
# ''[[Monochaetum multiflorum]]''
# ''[[Passiflora arborea]]''
# ''[[Pinguicula moranensis]]''
# ''[[Prosopis laevigata]]''
# ''[[Prosopis pallida]]''
# ''[[Prumnopitys montana]]''
# ''[[Quararibea cordata]]''
# ''[[Quercus crassifolia]]''
# ''[[Quercus crassipes]]''
# ''[[Quercus depressa]]''
# ''[[Quercus diversifolia]]''
# ''[[Quercus humboldtii]]''
# ''[[Quercus mexicana]]''
# ''[[Quercus obtusata]]''
# ''[[Quercus repanda]]''
# ''[[Quercus xalapensis]]''
# ''[[Smilax havanensis]]''
# ''[[Stanhopea grandiflora]]''
# ''[[Stanhopea jenischiana]]''
# ''[[Styrax tomentosus]]''
# ''[[Symphoricarpos microphyllus]]''
# ''[[Symplocos coccinea]]''
# ''[[Tagetes zypaquirensis]]''
# ''[[Theobroma bicolor]]''
# ''[[Trichilia acuminata]]''
# ''[[Viola cheiranthifolia]]''
# ''[[Vitis tiliifolia]]''
# ''[[Zieria laevigata]]''
}}

== Works ==
*1805: ''Essai sur la géographie des plantes.'' Written with Alexander von Humboldt.
**{{cite book|last1= von Humboldt|first1= Alexander|last2= Bonpland|first2= Aimé|others= Translated by Sylvie Romanowski, with an Introduction by Stephen T. Jackson|title= Essay on the geography of plants|publisher= University of Chicago Press|date= 2009|isbn= 9780226360669|oclc= 977369593}} English translation from 2009.
* 1811:'' A collection of observations on zoology and comparative anatomy'' written with Alexander von Humboldt, Printing JH Stone, Paris. [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k61302z Digital version] at the website Gallica.
* 1813:'' Description of rare plants grown at Malmaison and Navarre'' by Aimé Bonpland. Printing P. The elder Didot, Paris. By Aimé Bonpland dedicated to the Empress [[Joséphine de Beauharnais|Joséphine]]. [http://www.botanicus.org/title/b1198563x Digital version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727041327/http://www.botanicus.org/title/b1198563x |date=2020-07-27 }} at the website Botanicus, and [http://www.biusante.parisdescartes.fr/histoire/medica/resultats/index.php?cote=00708&do=pages Digital version of the illustrations] at the website of the ''[[Bibliothèque interuniversitaire de santé]]'' (Interuniversity Library of Health).
* 1815:'' Nova plantarum genera and species'' written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 1, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. [http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753000540382 Digital version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727012026/http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753000540382 |date=2020-07-27 }} at the website Botanicus.
* 1816:'' Monograph Melastomacées including all plants of this order including Rhexies'', Volume 1, Paris.
* 1817:'' Nova plantarum genera and species'' written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 2, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. [http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753000540390 Digital version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727020341/http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753000540390 |date=2020-07-27 }} at the website Botanicus.
* 1818:'' Nova plantarum genera and species'' written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 3, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. [http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753000540408 Digital version] at the website Botanicus.
* 1820:'' Nova plantarum genera and species'' written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 4, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. [http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753000540416 Digital version] at the website Botanicus.
* 1821:'' Nova plantarum genera and species'' written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 5, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. [http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753000540424 Digital version] at the website Botanicus.
* 1823:'' Nova plantarum genera and species'' written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 6, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. [http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753000540432 Digital version] at the website Botanicus.
* 1823:'' Monograph Melastomacées including all plants of this order including Rhexies'', Volume 2, Paris.
* 1825:'' Nova plantarum genera and species'' written with Alexander von Humboldt and Karl Sigismund Kunth, Volume 7, Lutetiae Parisiorum, Paris. [http://www.botanicus.org/item/31753000540440 Digital version] at the website Botanicus.

==See also==
* [[Johann Rudolph Rengger|Rengger, Johann Rudolph (1795–1832)]]
* [[Alexander von Humboldt|von Humboldt, Alexander (1769–1859)]]
* [[:Category:Taxa named by Aimé Bonpland]]

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===

* {{cite Appletons'|wstitle=Bonpland, Aimé|volume=I|location=New York |publisher=D. Appleton & Co.|year=1900|editor-last=Wilson |editor-first=James Grant |editor2-last=Fiske |editor2-first=John |display-editors=0 |ref={{harvid|''ACAB''|1900}} }}
* {{cite AmCyc|editor-last=Ripley |editor-first=George |editor2-last=Dana |editor2-first=Charles A. |volume=III|page=72 |wstitle=Bonpland, Aimé |publisher=D. Appleton & Co. |location=New York |ref={{harvid|''AC''|1879}} }}
* {{citation |contribution=Misc. Scientific Intelligence: Death of Bonpland |editor-last=Silliman |editor-first=B. |editor2-last=Silliman Jr. |editor2-first=B. |editor3-last=Dana |editor3-first=James D. |editor4-last=Gray |editor4-first=Asa |editor5-last=Agassiz |editor5-first=Louis |editor6-last=Gibbs |editor6-first=Wolcott |display-editors=0 |title=The American Journal of Science and Arts, ''2nd Series, Vol. XXVI, No. LXXVII'' |date=November 1858 |publisher=Hayes |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aBNFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA301 301 ff] |location=New Haven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aBNFAQAAMAAJ |ref={{harvid|''AJSA''|1858}} }}.
* {{Cite EB9|wstitle=Aimé Bonpland |volume=4 |editor-last=Baynes |editor-first=Thomas Spencer |display-editors=0 |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |location=New York |ref={{harvid|''EB''|1878}} |page=36 }}
* {{cite EB1911|wstitle=Bonpland, Aimé Jacques Alexandre|volume=4|page=213}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{BHL author}}
* {{Librivox author|id=11926}}
* {{OL author}}
* {{Gutenberg author|id=2408}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sopt=w}}
* [http://www.anbg.gov.au/biography/bonpland-aime-jacques.html View biographical information in ''Australian National Botanic Gardens'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061002121648/http://www.botanicus.org/creator.asp?creatorid=475 View biographical information on and digitized titles by Aimė Bonpland in ''Botanicus.org'']

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bonpland, Aime}}
[[Category:19th-century French explorers]]
[[Category:19th-century French botanists]]
[[Category:19th-century French physicians]]
[[Category:1773 births]]
[[Category:1858 deaths]]
[[Category:Alexander von Humboldt]]
[[Category:Botanists active in North America]]
[[Category:Botanists active in South America]]
[[Category:French emigrants to Argentina]]
[[Category:French phycologists]]
[[Category:People from La Rochelle]]
[[Category:Pteridologists]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]

Jena

2024-10-16T21:41:40Z

NidabaM: Footnote

{{Other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox German place
| type = City
| image_flag = Flag of Jena.svg
| image_coa = Wappen Jena.svg
| image_skyline = {{multiple image
| total_width = 280
| border = infobox
| perrow = 1/2/1
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Zentrum Jenas im Tal 2008-05-24.JPG
| caption1 = Jena skyline (2008)
| image2 = Luftaufnahme Stadtkirche St. Michael Jena.jpg
| caption2 = St. Michael
| image3 = Fuchsturm mit Wenigenjena und Jenzig.png
| caption3 = Fox tower on the Hausberg mountain
| image4 = ChristmasMarketJena.jpg
| caption4 = market place
}}
| coordinates = {{coord|50|55|38|N|11|35|10|E|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| image_plan = Thuringia J.svg
| plantext = Location of Jena within Thuringia
| state = Thüringen
| district = Kreisfreie Stadt
| elevation = 143
| area = 114.76
| postal_code = 07743–07751
| area_code = 03641, 036425
| licence = J
| Gemeindeschlüssel = 16 0 53 000
| website = [https://www.jena.de/ www.jena.de]
| mayor = [[Thomas Nitzsche]]<ref>[https://wahlen.thueringen.de/datenbank/wahl1/wahl.asp?wahlart=BM&wJahr=0000&zeigeErg=LAND&auswertung=2 Gewählte Bürgermeister - aktuelle Landesübersicht], Freistaat Thüringen. Retrieved 25 June 2024.</ref>
| leader_term = 2024–30
| Bürgermeistertitel = Oberbürgermeister
| party = FDP
}}

'''Jena''' ({{IPA|de|ˈjeːna|-|Jena.ogg}})<ref>{{cite book|last=Wells|first=John|author-link=John C. Wells|title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary|publisher=Pearson Longman|edition=3rd|date=3 April 2008|isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}</ref> is a [[List of cities and towns in Germany|city]] in [[Germany]] and the second largest city in [[Thuringia]]. Together with the nearby cities of [[Erfurt]] and [[Weimar]], it forms the central metropolitan area of Thuringia with approximately 500,000 inhabitants, while the city itself has a population of about 110,000. Jena is a centre of education and research; the [[University of Jena|university]] (now [[University of Jena|Friedrich Schiller University]]) was founded in 1558 and had 18,000 students in 2017<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.uni-jena.de/unijenamedia/unijena/kanzleramt/berichtswesen/Flyer%20Zahlen%20und%20Fakten/FSU_Zahlen_Fakten_Flyer_2017-p-29210.pdf |title=Facts and Figures 2017 |author=Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena |access-date=12 November 2018 |archive-date=12 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112181533/https://www.uni-jena.de/unijenamedia/unijena/kanzleramt/berichtswesen/Flyer%20Zahlen%20und%20Fakten/FSU_Zahlen_Fakten_Flyer_2017-p-29210.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the Ernst-Abbe-Fachhochschule Jena counts another 5,000 students. Furthermore, there are many institutes of the leading German research societies.

Jena was first mentioned in 1182 and stayed a small town until the 19th century, when industry developed. For most of the 20th century, Jena was a world centre of the optical industry around companies such as [[Carl Zeiss AG|Carl Zeiss]], [[Schott AG|Schott]] and [[Jenoptik]] (since 1990). As one of only a few medium-sized cities in Germany, it has some high-rise buildings in the city centre, such as the [[JenTower]]. These also have their origin in the former Carl Zeiss factory.

Between 1790 and 1850, Jena was a focal point of the German [[Vormärz]] as well as of the student liberal and [[Unification of Germany|unification]] movement and [[German Romanticism]]. Notable persons of this period in Jena were [[Friedrich Schiller]], [[Alexander von Humboldt]],<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=42‒46 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], [[Novalis]], and [[August Wilhelm Schlegel]].

Jena's economy is largely built upon its high-technology infrastructure and research. The precision optical instruments industry is its leading branch to date, although software engineering, other digital businesses, and biotechnology are of growing importance. Furthermore, Jena is also a service hub for its regional environs.

Jena lies in a hilly landscape in the east of Thuringia, within the wide valley of the [[Saale]] river. Due to its rocky landscape, varied substrate and mixed forests, Jena is known in Germany for the wide variety of wild [[orchids]] which can be found within walking distance of the town.<ref>"[https://www.thueringen-entdecken.de/blog/jena-und-orchideen-ein-paradies-fuer-liebhaber-und-wandersleute/ Jena und Orchideen – Ein Paradies für Liebhaber und Wandersleute] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924165236/https://www.thueringen-entdecken.de/blog/jena-und-orchideen-ein-paradies-fuer-liebhaber-und-wandersleute/ |date=24 September 2020 }}" {{in lang|de}}. ''Thüringen Entdecken''. thueringen-entdecken.de. Thüringer Tourismus (main tourist information office for the state of Thuringia). Retrieved 22 September 2019.</ref> Local nature reserves are maintained by volunteers and [[Naturschutzbund Deutschland|NABU]].

== History ==

=== Middle Ages ===
[[File:Lobdeburg near Jena by Night.jpg|thumb|Lobdeburg Castle above Lobeda district]]
Until the [[High Middle Ages]], the [[Saale]] was the border between [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] regions in the west and [[Slavs|Slavic]] regions in the east. Owing to its function as a river crossing, Jena was conveniently located. Nevertheless, there were also some more important Saale crossings such as the nearby cities of [[Naumburg (Saale)|Naumburg]] to the north and [[Saalfeld]] to the south, so that the relevance of Jena was more local during the Middle Ages. The first unequivocal mention of Jena was in an 1182 document. The first local rulers of the region were the Lords of [[Lobdeburg]] with their eponymous castle near [[Lobeda]], roughly {{convert|6|km|0|abbr=on}} south of the city centre on the eastern hillside of the Saale valley.

In the 13th century, the Lords of Lobdeburg founded two towns in the valley: Jena on the west bank and Lobeda – which is one of Jena's constituent communities today – {{convert|4|km|0|abbr=on}} to the south on the east bank. Around 1230, Jena received town rights and a regular city grid was established between today's Fürstengraben, Löbdergraben, Teichgraben and Leutragraben. The city got a marketplace, main church, town hall, council and city walls during the late 13th and early 14th centuries making it into a full-fledged town. In this time, the city's economy was based mainly on wine production on the warm and sunny hillsides of the Saale valley. The two monasteries of the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]] (1286) and the [[Cistercian]]s (1301) rounded out Jena's medieval appearance.

As the political circumstances in Thuringia changed in the middle of the 14th century, the weakened Lords of Lobdeburg sold Jena to the aspiring [[House of Wettin|Wettins]] in 1331. Jena obtained the [[Gotha]] municipal law and the citizens strengthened their rights and wealth during the 14th and 15th centuries. Moreover, the Wettins were more interested in their residence in the nearby city of [[Weimar]], and so Jena could develop itself relatively autonomously.

=== Early modern period ===
[[File:Jena (Merian).jpg|thumb|Jena in 1650]]
The [[Protestant Reformation]] was brought to the city in 1523. [[Martin Luther]] visited the town to reorganize the clerical relations and Jena became an early centre of his doctrine. In the following years, the Dominican and the [[Carmelites|Carmelite]] convents were attacked by the townsmen and abolished in 1525 (Carmelite) and 1548 (Dominican).

An important step in Jena's history was the foundation of the [[University of Jena|university]] in 1558. Ernestine Elector [[John Frederick, Elector of Saxony|John Frederick the Magnanimous]] founded it, because he had lost his old university in [[Wittenberg]] to the [[House of Wettin|Albertines]] after the [[Schmalkaldic War]]. During the [[Little Ice Age]], [[Viticulture|wine-growing]] declined in the 17th century, so that the new university became one of the most important sources of income for the city. The same century brought a boom in printing business caused by the rising importance of books (and the population's ability to read) in the Lutheran doctrine, and Jena was the second-largest printing location in Germany after [[Leipzig]].

The list of the so-called "[[Seven Wonders of Jena]]" was composed by students of the university at this time, supposedly as a test of local knowledge in order to confirm that a person who claimed to have studied in Jena was actually familiar with the city.

Beginning in the 16th century, the Ernestine dynasty saw many territorial partitions. Initially, Jena remained a part of [[Saxe-Weimar]], but in 1672 it became the capital of its own small duchy ([[Saxe-Jena]]). In 1692, after two dukes ([[Bernhard II, Duke of Saxe-Jena|Bernhard II]] and [[Johann Wilhelm, Duke of Saxe-Jena|Johann Wilhelm]]), the dukes of Saxe-Jena died out and the duchy became part of [[Saxe-Eisenach]] and, in 1741, of the [[Duchy of Saxe-Weimar]], to which it belonged until 1809. From 1809 to 1918, Jena was part of the Duchy (from 1815 Grand Duchy) of [[Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach|Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach]], which from 1871 was also part of the [[German Empire]].

=== 18th century ===
[[File:Napoleon.Jena.jpg|thumb|The battle of Jena in 1806]]
Around 1790, the university became the largest and most famous one among the German states and made Jena the centre of the self-centred, idealist philosophy of ‘Ich' (with professors such as [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], [[Friedrich Schiller]], and [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling]]). It was also home to the early [[German Romanticism|Romanticism]] (with poets such as Novalis, the brothers [[August Wilhelm Schlegel|August]] and [[Karl Wilhelm Friedrich Schlegel|Friedrich Schlegel]], and [[Ludwig Tieck]]).<ref>Wulf, Andrea, ''[https://aeon.co/essays/english-romanticism-was-born-from-a-serious-germanomania The First Romantics]'', [[Aeon]], December 20, 2022</ref>

In 1794, the poets [[Goethe]] and [[Schiller]] met at the university and established a long lasting friendship, based on their love of Shakespeare. Consequently, the reputation of the University and the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach as liberal and open-minded, but severely self-absorbed, was established and enhanced.

=== 19th century ===
On 14 October 1806, [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] fought and defeated the [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] army here in the [[Battle of Jena-Auerstedt]], near the district of Vierzehnheiligen. Resistance against the French occupation was strong, especially among the students. Many of the students fought in the [[Lützow Free Corps]] in 1813. Two years later, the [[Urburschenschaft]] fraternity was founded in the city.

During the later 19th century, the famous biologist [[Ernst Haeckel]] was professor at the university. The expansion of science and medicine faculties was closely linked to the industrial boom that Jena saw after 1871. The initial spark of industrialization in Jena was the (relatively late) connection to the railway. The [[Saal Railway]] (''Saalbahn'', opened in 1874) was the connection from [[Halle (Saale)|Halle]] and [[Leipzig]] along the Saale valley to [[Nuremberg]] and the [[Weimar–Gera railway]] (opened 1876) connected Jena with [[Frankfurt]] and [[Erfurt]] in the west as well as [[Dresden]] and [[Gera]] in the east. Famous pioneers of the Jenaer industry were [[Carl Zeiss]] and [[Ernst Abbe]] (with their [[Carl Zeiss AG]]) as well as [[Otto Schott]] ([[Schott AG]]).<ref>{{Cite book|last=Walter|first=Rolf|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqPstAEACAAJ|title=Carl Zeiss: Zeiss 1905-1945|date=1996|publisher=Böhlau Verlag|isbn=978-3-412-11096-3|pages=18|language=de}}</ref> Since that time, production of optical items, precision machinery and laboratory glassware have been the main branches of Jena's economy; [[Jena glass]] is even named after the city. Zeiss, Abbe and Schott worked also as social reformers who wanted to improve the living conditions of their workers and the local wealth in general. When Zeiss died in 1889, his company passed to the [[Carl-Zeiss-Stiftung]], which uses great amounts of the company's profits for social benefits such as research projects at universities etc. This model became an example for other German companies (e.g. the [[Robert Bosch Stiftung]]). In 1898 it was agreed on with several personalities from the Jenaer industrial sector that the city was in need of an electricity generator<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Walter|first=Rolf|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqPstAEACAAJ|title=Carl Zeiss: Zeiss 1905-1945|date=1996|publisher=Böhlau Verlag|isbn=978-3-412-11096-3|pages=25|language=de}}</ref> and in the first years of the 1900s an electrified tramway was founded in Jena.<ref name=":0" />

=== 20th century ===
[[File:Jena Zeiss Bau 15.jpg|thumb|Bau 15 of the Carl Zeiss factory, Germany's first high-rise building, established in 1915]]
Industrialization fundamentally changed the social structure of Jena. The former academic town became a working-class city; the population rose from 8,000 around 1870 up to 71,000 at the beginning of [[World War II]]. The city expanded along the Saale valley to the north and the south and its side valleys to the east and the west. In 1901, the [[tram]] system started its operation and the university got a new main building (established between 1906 and 1908 on the former castle's site). After the foundation of [[Thuringia]] in 1920, Jena was one of the three biggest cities (together with [[Weimar]] and [[Gera]], while [[Erfurt]] remained part of [[Free State of Prussia|Prussia]]) and became an [[independent city]] in 1922. The modern optical and glass industry kept booming and the city grew further during [[Weimar Republic|Weimar times]].

[[File:Jena 700 Jahre Stadt poster (1936).jpg|thumb|left|1936 poster marking the 700th anniversary of the city of Jena]]
During the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] period, conflicts deepened in Jena between the influential left-wing milieus (communists and social democrats) and the right-wing Nazi milieus. On the one hand, the university suffered from new restrictions against its independence, but on the other hand, it consolidated the Nazi ideology, for example with a professorship of social anthropology (which sought to scientifically legitimize the [[racial policy of Nazi Germany]]). [[Kristallnacht]] in 1938 led to more discrimination against [[Jew]]s in Jena, many of whom either emigrated or were arrested and murdered by the German government. This weakened the academic milieu, because many academics were Jews (especially in medicine). During [[World War II]], the Germans operated two [[List of subcamps of Buchenwald|subcamps]] of the [[Buchenwald concentration camp]] in the city,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tenhumbergreinhard.de/1933-1945-lager-1/1933-1945-lager-j/jena-leutrastrae-32.html|title=Jena Leutrastraße 32|access-date=21 February 2021|language=de}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tenhumbergreinhard.de/1933-1945-lager-1/1933-1945-lager-j/jena-loebstedter-strae-50.html|title=Jena Löbstedter Straße 50|access-date=21 February 2021|language=de}}</ref> and a subcamp of the prison in [[Sieradz]] in [[Occupation of Poland (1939–1945)|German-occupied Poland]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Studnicka-Mariańczyk|first=Karolina|year=2018|title=Zakład Karny w Sieradzu w okresie okupacji hitlerowskiej 1939–1945|journal=Zeszyty Historyczne|language=pl|volume=17|page=187}}</ref>

In 1945, toward the end of [[World War II]], Jena was repeatedly targeted by [[Strategic bombing during World War II|Allied bombing raids]]. 709 people were killed, 2,000 injured, and most of the medieval town centre was destroyed, but in parts restored after the end of the war. No other Thuringian city suffered worse damage, except [[Nordhausen, Thuringia|Nordhausen]], whose destruction was utter. Today most of the city consists of buildings from before World War II.<ref>https://zensus2011.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/DE/Publikationen/Aufsaetze_Archiv/2015_12_NI_GWZ_endgueltig.pdf?__blob=publicationFile&v=4 {{Bare URL inline|date=August 2024}}</ref> Jena was occupied by [[United States Armed Forces|American troops]] on 13 April 1945 and was left to the [[Red Army]] on 1 July 1945.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

Jena fell within the [[Occupation of Germany|Soviet zone of occupation]] in post-World War II Germany. In 1949, it became part of the new [[East Germany|German Democratic Republic]] (GDR). The Soviets dismantled great parts of the Zeiss and Schott factories and took them to the [[Soviet Union]]. On the other hand, the GDR government founded a new [[Pharmaceutical industry|pharmaceutical]] factory in 1950, [[Jenapharm]], which is part of [[Bayer]] today. In 1953, Jena was a centre of the [[Uprising of 1953 in East Germany|East German Uprising]] against GDR policy. The protests with 30,000 participants drew fire from Soviet [[tank]]s.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

[[File:Der_Holzmarkt_in_der_Jenaer_Innenstadt.jpg|thumb|Typical street scenery in Jena: The "Holzmarkt" in the city-centre]]
The following decades brought some radical shifts in city planning. During the 1960s, another part of the historic city centre was demolished to build the [[Jen Tower]]. The Eichplatz in front of the tower is still unbuilt and its future is still the subject of ongoing heated discussion. Big [[Plattenbau]] settlements were developed in the 1970s and 1980s, because the population was still rising and the housing shortage remained a perpetual problem. New districts established in the north (near Rautal) and in the south (around Winzerla and Lobeda). The opposition against the GDR government was reinforced during the late 1980s in Jena, fed by academic and clerical circles. In autumn 1989, the city saw the largest protests in its history before the GDR government was dissolved.

After 1990, Jena became part of the refounded state of [[Thuringia]]. Industry came into a heavy crisis during the 1990s, but finally it managed the transition to the [[market economy]] and today, it is one of the leading economic centres of eastern Germany. Furthermore, the university was enlarged and many new research institutes were founded.

Especially between 1995 and 1997 several far-right crimes were committed in Jena. The city's far-right scene of the 1990s gave rise to the [[National Socialist Underground]] (NSU) terror group. However, the city is no longer considered a far-right hotspot.

== Geography and demographics ==
{{Historical populations|1490|3,800|1784|4,366|1871|8,260|1900|20,677|1910|38,487|1919|48,847|1925|52,649|1933|58,357|1939|70,632|1950|80,309|1964|84,307|1970|88,130|1981|104,946|1991|100,967|2001|101,157|2011|105,463|2017|111,099|align=right|footnote=Population size may be affected by changes in administrative divisions.
source:<ref>[[:de:Einwohnerentwicklung von Jena|Link]]</ref>}}

=== Topography ===
[[File:Burgauer Brücke.jpg|thumb|left|The medieval bridge across the Saale in Burgau district]]
Jena is situated in a hilly landscape in eastern Thuringia at the [[Saale]] river, between the [[Harz]] mountains {{convert|85|km|0|abbr=on}} in the north, the [[Thuringian Forest]]/[[Thuringian Highland]] {{convert|50|km|0|abbr=on}} in the southwest and the [[Ore Mountains]], {{convert|75|km|0|abbr=on}} in the southeast. The municipal terrain is hilly with rugged slopes at the valley's edges. The city centre is situated at 160 m of elevation, whereas the mountains on both sides of Saale valley rise up to 400 m. On the eastern side those are (from north to south): the ''Gleisberg'' near Kunitz, the ''Jenzig'' near Wogau, the ''Hausberg'' near Wenigenjena, the ''Kernberge'' near Wöllnitz, the ''[[Johannisberg (Jena-Lobeda)|Johannisberg]]'' near Lobeda and the ''Einsiedlerberg'' near Drackendorf. On the western side, there are the ''Jägersberg'' near [[Zwätzen]], the ''Windknollen'' north of the city centre, the ''Tatzend'' west of the city centre, the ''Lichtenhainer Höhe'' near Lichtenhain, the ''Holzberg'' near Winzerla, the ''Jagdberg'' near Göschwitz and the Spitzenberg near Maua. The mountains belong to the geological formation of Ilm Saale Plate ([[Muschelkalk]]) and are relatively flat on their peaks but steep to the valleys in between. Due to its jagged surface, the municipal territory isn't very suitable for agriculture all the more since the most flat areas along the valley were built on during the 20th century. At the mountains is some forest of different leaf trees and pines.

=== Ecology ===
32 species of native [[orchids]] can be found in the Jena area.<ref>[Thüringen Entdecken - Jena und Orchideen – Ein Paradies für Liebhaber und Wandersleute]</ref> One of the best places to see them is [[Naturschutzgebiet Leutratal und Cospoth|Leutratal]], to the south of the town. Bee orchid ''([[Ophrys apifera]]'') even grows at a few locations within the town. On the ''Hausberg'' close to Ziegenhain a few specimens of the rare true service tree (''[[Cormus domestica]]'') can be found. [[Firefly]] can be seen in the meadows in Paradiespark as well as a variety of native wildflowers. Wildlife on the surrounding mountains includes [[Common raven|raven]], [[sand lizard]] and [[wood ants]]. [[Grey heron|Heron]], [[Eurasian beaver|beaver]] and [[muskrat]] have been seen on the Saale, within the town. [[Pine marten]]s sometimes come into the town at night, from the mountains, to raid bins. It is documented that the [[European wildcat]] occurs near Jena.<ref>{{cite web|access-date=2023-04-27|date=2019-11-05|language=de-DE|title=Schön und gefährdet: Den Wildkatzen bei Jena auf der Spur|url=https://www.thueringer-allgemeine.de/regionen/jena/schoen-und-gefaehrdet-den-wildkatzen-bei-jena-auf-der-spur-id227562183.html|website=Thüringer Allgemeine}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Cebulla |first=David |title=Die Rückkehr der Wildkatze |date=2020-04-17 |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt12117538/?ref_=nm_knf_t_3 |type=Documentary, Short |access-date=2023-05-16}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
Jena has an [[oceanic climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]]: ''Cfb''; [[Trewartha climate classification|Trewartha]]: ''Dobk'').<ref name = koppen>{{cite journal| last = Kottek | first = M.|author2=J. Grieser |author3=C. Beck |author4=B. Rudolf |author5=F. Rubel | title = World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated| journal = Meteorol. Z.| volume =15 | pages =259–263| url =http://www.schweizerbart.de/resources/downloads/paper_free/55034.pdf| doi =10.1127/0941-2948/2006/0130| access-date = 22 January 2013| year =2006| issue = 3| bibcode = 2006MetZe..15..259K}}</ref><ref name=Peel>{{cite journal | author=Peel, M. C. and Finlayson, B. L. and McMahon, T. A. | year=2007 | title= Updated world map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification | journal=Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. | volume=11 | issue=5 | pages=1633–1644 |doi=10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007 | bibcode=2007HESS...11.1633P | url=http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.html | issn = 1027-5606| doi-access=free }} ''(direct: [http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.pdf Final Revised Paper])''</ref> Summers are warm and sometimes humid; winters are relatively cold. The city's topography creates a microclimate caused through the basin position with sometimes [[Inversion (meteorology)|inversion]] in winter (quite cold nights under {{convert|-20|C|F}}) and heat and inadequate air circulation in summer. Annual precipitation is {{convert|585|mm|in|sp=us}} with moderate rainfall throughout the year. Light snowfall mainly occurs from December through February, but snow cover does not usually remain for long. During the Middle Ages, Jena was famous for growing wine on its slopes. Nowadays, the next commercial wine-growing areas are situated {{convert|20|km|0|abbr=on}} down Saale river. Due to its distance to coastal areas and position in the Saale valley, wind speeds tend to be very low; predominant direction is SW.

The Jena weather station has recorded the following extreme values:<ref name=sklima/>
* Its highest temperature was {{convert|39.1|C|F}} on [[2022_European_heatwaves#July_heatwave_2|20 July 2022]].
* Its lowest temperature was {{convert|-30.6|C|F}} on 22 January 1850 and 2 February 1830.
* Its greatest annual precipitation was {{convert|849.7|mm|in|abbr=on}} in 1882.
* Its least annual precipitation was {{convert|379.4|mm|in|abbr=on}} in 1911.
* The longest annual sunshine was 1928.8 hours in 2003.
* The shortest annual sunshine was 1108.6 hours in 1960.
{{Weather box
|location = Jena, 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1821–present
|metric first = Y
|single line = Y
|Jan record high C = 17.0
|Feb record high C = 23.1
|Mar record high C = 25.9
|Apr record high C = 32.5
|May record high C = 36.1
|Jun record high C = 38.8
|Jul record high C = 39.1
|Aug record high C = 38.7
|Sep record high C = 36.5
|Oct record high C = 29.0
|Nov record high C = 23.1
|Dec record high C = 17.7
|year record high C = 39.1
|Jan avg record high C = 12.5
|Feb avg record high C = 14.5
|Mar avg record high C = 19.7
|Apr avg record high C = 25.2
|May avg record high C = 29.5
|Jun avg record high C = 32.6
|Jul avg record high C = 34.0
|Aug avg record high C = 33.8
|Sep avg record high C = 28.5
|Oct avg record high C = 23.2
|Nov avg record high C = 16.4
|Dec avg record high C = 13.0
|year avg record high C = 35.8
|Jan high C = 4.6
|Feb high C = 6.2
|Mar high C = 10.6
|Apr high C = 16.2
|May high C = 20.4
|Jun high C = 23.7
|Jul high C = 26.0
|Aug high C = 25.7
|Sep high C = 20.7
|Oct high C = 15.0
|Nov high C = 8.9
|Dec high C = 5.3
|year high C = 15.3
|Jan mean C = 1.7
|Feb mean C = 2.5
|Mar mean C = 5.7
|Apr mean C = 10.1
|May mean C = 14.3
|Jun mean C = 17.7
|Jul mean C = 19.7
|Aug mean C = 19.1
|Sep mean C = 14.6
|Oct mean C = 10.1
|Nov mean C = 5.6
|Dec mean C = 2.6
|year mean C = 10.3
|Jan low C = -1.2
|Feb low C = -1.0
|Mar low C = 1.5
|Apr low C = 4.5
|May low C = 8.4
|Jun low C = 12.0
|Jul low C = 14.0
|Aug low C = 13.6
|Sep low C = 9.9
|Oct low C = 6.1
|Nov low C = 2.6
|Dec low C = -0.1
|year low C = 5.9
|Jan avg record low C = -10.9
|Feb avg record low C = -9.2
|Mar avg record low C = -5.0
|Apr avg record low C = -1.6
|May avg record low C = 2.2
|Jun avg record low C = 6.6
|Jul avg record low C = 9.1
|Aug avg record low C = 8.0
|Sep avg record low C = 4.2
|Oct avg record low C = -0.8
|Nov avg record low C = -3.9
|Dec avg record low C = -8.7
|year avg record low C = -13.3
|Jan record low C = -30.6
|Feb record low C = -30.6
|Mar record low C = -24.0
|Apr record low C = -12.4
|May record low C = -5.1
|Jun record low C = 0.6
|Jul record low C = 3.7
|Aug record low C = 3.4
|Sep record low C = -4.4
|Oct record low C = -10.9
|Nov record low C = -24.6
|Dec record low C = -28.8
|year record low C = -30.6
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 35.3
|Feb precipitation mm = 30.4
|Mar precipitation mm = 41.9
|Apr precipitation mm = 36.9
|May precipitation mm = 61.2
|Jun precipitation mm = 54.8
|Jul precipitation mm = 85.1
|Aug precipitation mm = 67.6
|Sep precipitation mm = 50.8
|Oct precipitation mm = 41.6
|Nov precipitation mm = 47.3
|Dec precipitation mm = 42.8
|year precipitation mm = 595.6
|unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm
|Jan precipitation days = 16.9
|Feb precipitation days = 14.7
|Mar precipitation days = 15.9
|Apr precipitation days = 12.5
|May precipitation days = 14.1
|Jun precipitation days = 13.9
|Jul precipitation days = 14.7
|Aug precipitation days = 13.6
|Sep precipitation days = 12.2
|Oct precipitation days = 14.1
|Nov precipitation days = 15.5
|Dec precipitation days = 17.4
|year precipitation days = 175.5
|Jan snow depth cm = 7.2
|Feb snow depth cm = 5.4
|Mar snow depth cm = 3.3
|Apr snow depth cm = 0.3
|May snow depth cm = 0
|Jun snow depth cm = 0
|Jul snow depth cm = 0
|Aug snow depth cm = 0
|Sep snow depth cm = 0
|Oct snow depth cm = 0.2
|Nov snow depth cm = 1.3
|Dec snow depth cm = 5.6
|year snow depth cm = 10.6
|humidity colour = green
|Jan humidity = 78.7
|Feb humidity = 75.2
|Mar humidity = 71.0
|Apr humidity = 66.0
|May humidity = 67.1
|Jun humidity = 67.2
|Jul humidity = 66.4
|Aug humidity = 68.4
|Sep humidity = 74.9
|Oct humidity = 79.3
|Nov humidity = 81.7
|Dec humidity = 80.6
|year humidity = 73.0
|Jan sun = 59.1
|Feb sun = 80.7
|Mar sun = 107.7
|Apr sun = 160.4
|May sun = 191.4
|Jun sun = 182.6
|Jul sun = 197.4
|Aug sun = 213.2
|Sep sun = 136.3
|Oct sun = 104.9
|Nov sun = 53.6
|Dec sun = 44.8
|year sun = 1532.1
|source 1 = [[Deutscher Wetterdienst]] / SKlima.de<ref name=sklima>{{cite web
|url = http://sklima.de/datenbank_auswertung.php?tab=2
|title = Monatsauswertung
|website = sklima.de
|publisher = SKlima
|language = de
|access-date = 11 October 2024}}</ref>
}}

=== Administrative division ===
Jena abuts the district of [[Saale-Holzland-Kreis|Saale-Holzland]] with the municipalities of [[Lehesten, Saale-Holzland|Lehesten]], [[Neuengönna]], and [[Golmsdorf]] in the north, [[Jenalöbnitz]], [[Großlöbichau]], and [[Schlöben]] in the east and [[Laasdorf]], [[Zöllnitz]], [[Sulza]], [[Rothenstein, Germany|Rothenstein]], [[Milda, Germany|Milda]], and [[Bucha, Saale-Holzland|Bucha]] in the south and the district of [[Weimarer Land]] with the municipalities of [[Döbritschen]], [[Großschwabhausen]], and [[Saaleplatte]] in the west.

The city is divided into 30 districts. The inner-city districts are Zentrum, Nord, West, Süd, Wenigenjena (east of Saale, incorporated in 1909), and Kernberge, other big districts are Lobeda (incorporated in 1946) and Winzerla (incorporated in 1922) in the south with large housing complexes.

The residual districts are from a more rural constitution:

{|
| valign="top" width="25%" |
* Ammerbach (incorporated 1922)
* Burgau (1922)
* Closewitz (1994)
* Cospeda (1994)
* Drackendorf (1994)
* Göschwitz (1969)
* Ilmnitz (1994)
| valign="top" width="25%" |
* Isserstedt (1994)
* Jenaprießnitz/Wogau (1994)
* Krippendorf (1994)
* Kunitz/Laasan (1994)
* Leutra (1994)
* Lichtenhain (1913)
* Löbstedt (1922)
| valign="top" width="25%" |
* Lützeroda (1994)
* Maua (1994)
* Münchenroda/Remderoda (1994)
* Vierzehnheiligen (1994)
* Wöllnitz (1946)
* Ziegenhain (1913)
* Zwätzen (1922)
|}

=== Demographics ===
[[File:Einwohnerentwicklung von Jena.svg|thumb|Population development until 2017]]
{{Bar chart
| title = Ten largest groups of foreign residents<ref>[http://www.jena.de/statistik/bericht/bericht.php Quartalsbericht IV/2014] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130427063229/http://www.jena.de/statistik/bericht/bericht.php |date=27 April 2013 }}</ref>
| label_type = Nationality
| data_type = Population (31 December 2017)
| float = right
| label1 = {{flag|Poland}}
| data1 = 800
| label2 = {{flag|Russia}}
| data2 = 585
| label3 = {{flag|India}}
| data3 = 540
| label4 = {{flag|Ukraine}}
| data4 = 500
}}
Over the centuries, Jena had mostly been a town of 4,000 to 5,000 inhabitants. The population growth began in the 19th century with an amount of 6,000 in 1840 and of 8,000 in 1870. Then, a demographic boom occurred with a population of 20,000 in 1900, 50,000 in 1920, 73,000 in 1940, 81,000 in 1960 and 104,000 in 1980. The peak was reached in 1988 with a population of 108,000. The bad economic situation in eastern Germany after the reunification resulted in a decline in population, which fell to 99,000 in 1998 before rising again to 107,000 in 2012.

The average population growth between 2009 and 2012 was approximately 0.47% p. a, whereas the population in bordering rural regions is shrinking with accelerating tendency. Suburbanization played only a small role in Jena. It occurred after the reunification for a short time in the 1990s, but most of the suburban areas were situated within the administrative city borders.

The birth surplus was 62 in 2012, or +0.6 per 1,000 inhabitants (Thuringian average: -4.5; national average: -2.4). The net migration rate was +4.0 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2012 (Thuringian average: -0.8; national average: +4.6).<ref>According to [http://www.tls.thueringen.de/startseite_hinweis.asp Thüringer Landesamt für Statistik]</ref> The most important regions of origin of Jena migrants are rural areas of Thuringia, [[Saxony-Anhalt]] and [[Saxony]] as well as foreign countries such as Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Hungary, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria.

Like many other eastern German cities, Jena has a small foreign-born population: circa 4.0% are non-Germans by citizenship and overall 6.2% are migrants (according to [[2011 EU census]]). Differing from the national average, the biggest groups of migrants in Jena are [[Russians in Germany|Russians]], [[Chinese people in Germany|Chinese]] and [[Ukrainians in Germany|Ukrainians]]. During recent years, the economic situation of the city has improved: the unemployment rate declined from 14% in 2005 to 7% in 2013. Due to the official policy of atheism in the former [[East Germany|GDR]], most of the population is non-religious. 15.9% are members of the [[Evangelical Church in Central Germany]] and 6.6% are Catholics (according to 2011 EU census).

== Culture, sights and cityscape ==
[[File:Am Eichplatz. Auf dem Bild sieht man die "Neue Mitte", dahinter ebenfalls ein Wolkenkratzer, das "b59"..jpg|thumb|The Eichplatz in the city centre]]

=== Museums ===
Jena has a great variety of museums:
* The ''[[Optical Museum Jena]]'' at Carl-Zeiß-Platz shows the history of optical instruments such as glasses, microscopes, cameras, and telescopes.
* The ''[[Jena Phyletic Museum|Phyletisches Museum]]'' at Neutor hosts a natural history exhibition with focus on evolution and fossils.
* The ''Stadtmuseum & Kunstsammlung'' at Markt square shows the city history of Jena and hosts furthermore an exhibition of modern and contemporary art.
* The ''Botanischer Garten'' (botanic garden) at Fürstengraben is one of the oldest botanic gardens in Germany (established in 1794) and hosts 12,000 plants from all over the world.
* The ''Romantikerhaus'' at Unterm Markt street hosts an exhibition about the epoque of [[Jena romantics]] in German literature.
* ''Schillers Gartenhaus'' at Schillergässchen is the former summer house of [[Friedrich Schiller]] and shows an exhibition of his life and his connection to Jena.
* The ''Goethe-Gedenkstätte'' at Fürstengraben shows an exhibition about the links between [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] and Jena (only in summer).
* The ''Ernst-Haeckel-Haus'' at Berggasse is the former house of biologist [[Ernst Haeckel]] and hosts an exhibition about his life.
* The ''Schott Glasmuseum'' at Otto-Schott-Straße shows the life of [[Otto Schott]] and the history of his glass factory, the [[Schott AG]].
* The ''Museum 1806'' at Cospeda district hosts an exhibition about the [[Battle of Jena–Auerstedt]] during the Napoleonic wars.
* The University of Jena hosts some important scientific collections, like [[The Collection of Pre- and Protohistoric Artifacts at the University of Jena|the collection of pre- and protohistoric artifacts]]. While the collections of antiques and minerals are public, the [[Oriental Coin Cabinet Jena|oriental coins]] are only accessed for research.

====Image gallery====
<gallery>
File:Optisches Museum Jena.jpg|Optisches Museum
File:Phyletisches Museum in July 2012.jpg|Phyletisches Museum
File:GöhreJena01.JPG|Stadtmuseum
File:Romantikerhaus Jena.jpg|Romantikerhaus
File:Schillers-Gartenhaus01.JPG|Schillers Gartenhaus
File:Jena - botanical garden 08 (aka).jpg|Botanischer Garten
File:Cospeda.jpg|Museum 1806 in Cospeda
</gallery>

=== Cityscape ===
Most of the city consists of buildings from before World War II. The historic city centre is located inside the former wall (which is the area between Fürstengraben in the north, Löbdergraben in the east, Teichgraben in the south and Leutragraben in the west). There are only a few historic buildings in this area (e.g. at Oberlauengasse), due to the destruction during World War II and modernization projects in the following decades. The Eichplatz, a big sub-used square covering a large amount of the centre, has not been built on since the 1960s and the discussion about its future is still in process. The wall's defortification took place relatively early in the 18th century – and the first suburbs developed in front of the former city gates. In these areas, some historic building structures from the 18th and early 19th century remained in western Bachstraße and Wagnergasse, in northern Zwätzengasse and in southern Neugasse.

The later 19th and early 20th centuries brought a construction boom to Jena, with the city enlarged to the north and south along the Saale valley, to the west along ''Mühltal'' and on the Saale's east side in former Wenigenjena. Compared with the city centre, later substantial losses were much slighter in this areas. During the interwar period, the construction of flats stayed on a high level but suitable ground got less, so that new housing complexes were set up relatively far away from the centre – a problem that remained until today with long journeys and high rents as consequences. Today's Jena is not as compact as other cities in the region, and urban planning is still a challenge.

A peculiarity of Jena is the presence of a second old town centre with a market square, town hall, and castle in the former town of Lobeda, which is a district since 1946, located approximately {{convert|4|km|0|abbr=on}} to the south of Jena's centre.

=== Sights and architectural heritage ===

==== Churches ====
* The main church, St. Michael's, is one of the biggest [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] monuments in Thuringia and was built between 1422 and 1557. It has a bronze slab of [[Martin Luther]]'s tomb.
* The St. John's Church was the church of the extinct village ''Leutra'' west of Jena and later used as the city's cemetery chapel. Since 1811, the Gothic building is the catholic church of Jena.
* The Peace Church was built between 1686 and 1693 as new cemetery chapel and is a [[Baroque]] evangelical church today.
* The Schiller Church east of Saale river is the evangelical parish church of the former village and today's quarter Wenigenjena. [[Friedrich Schiller]] married here in 1790.
* The St. Peter's Church is the former city church of Jena's southern district Lobeda. The Gothic church was built around 1480.
* The parish church of Vierzehnheiligen (dedicated to the [[Fourteen Holy Helpers]]) is a Gothic-style former pilgrimage church established during the 1460s.
* The St. Mary's Church in Ziegenhain is a former pilgrimage church in Gothic style, built in the 15th century.

<gallery>
File:Stadtkirche St. Michael in Jena 2008-05-24.jpg|Main church St. Michael
File:St. Johannes Baptist.JPG|St. John's Church
File:Friedenskirche, Jena.jpg|Peace Church
File:SchillerkircheJena01.JPG|Schiller Church
File:Kirche Lobeda.JPG|Church of Lobeda
File:Kirche Vierzehnheiligen.JPG|Church of Vierzehnheiligen
File:Jena - Ziegenhain 02.jpg|Church of Ziegenhain
</gallery>

==== Other sights ====
* The medieval city wall is preserved in parts (''Anatomieturm'' and ''Roter Turm''), the largest one is the complex around Johannistor and Pulverturm near Johannisplatz.
* The town hall at Markt square was built around 1412 and is one of only few Gothic town halls in Germany. It has an astronomical clock featuring the "Snatching Hans" ("''Schnapphans''").
* The [[Planetarium Jena|planetarium]] opened in 1926 and was the first large planetarium in the world, with [[Zeiss projector|technology developed by Carl Zeiss]].
* The University Main Building stands at the former castle's place and was established in 1908 in early-modern style ([[Theodor Fischer]]/[[Bruno Taut]]).
* The ''Abbeanum'' is a university building by [[Ernst Neufert]] in [[Bauhaus]] style, built in 1930.
* The [[Jen Tower]] is the city's highest skyscraper, built between 1969 and 1972, with a viewing platform and a sky restaurant.
* The ''Haus Auerbach'' is the former house of physicist [[Felix Auerbach]], built by [[Walter Gropius]] and [[Adolf Meyer (architect)|Adolf Meyer]] in [[Bauhaus]] style in 1924. Near is the ''Haus Zuckerkandl'', another mansion built by Gropius in 1929.
* The former Carl Zeiss Factory in the city centre hosts interesting technical architecture from the period between 1880 and 1965, including Germany's first high-rise building, the ''Bau 15'' from 1915.
* The monument to John Frederick the Magnanimous (built in 1858) at the Markt square is a landmark of Jena called "Hanfried".
* The monument to [[Ernst Abbe]] is a building of early-modern architecture by [[Henry van de Velde]] (1910).
* The Lobdeburg is a castle ruin above Lobeda district and the former seat of the lords of Lobdeburg, founders of Jena.
* [[Naturschutzgebiet Leutratal und Cospoth]] is an important nature reserve to the southwest.

<gallery>
File:Jena Johannistor.jpg|Johannistor, medieval city gate
File:Rathaus Jena.JPG|Town hall
File:Zeiss-Planetarium 1926 Ernst-Abbe-Stiftung - Jena Thüringen Foto Wolfgang Pehlemann Steinberg PICT0028.jpg|Planetarium
File:Universitäts Hauptgebäude. Jena.jpg|University Main Building
File:Ernst-Abbe Memorial 2.Jena.jpg|Ernst Abbe Monument
File:Pulverturm und Uniturm.jpg|Pulverturm at night
File:JenTower Jena.jpg|Jen Tower
</gallery>

=== Theatre and music ===
Jena has its own theatre and orchestra, the [[Jenaer Philharmonie]].

=== Sports ===
Jena is home to professional football club [[FC Carl Zeiss Jena]]. The club won the [[DDR-Oberliga]] three times, the [[FDGB Cup]] four times, and reached the final of the [[UEFA Cup Winners' Cup]] once. Post-unification the club have been less successful and they currently compete in [[Regionalliga Nordost]]. In women's football, [[FF USV Jena]] is a member of the [[2. Frauen-Bundesliga]]. Both clubs' home stadium is the [[Ernst-Abbe-Sportfeld]]. Also, the city's basketball team, [[Science City Jena]] played in [[Basketball Bundesliga]] in 2007–2008 season and returned to top level in 2015–16 season. In addition, since 2000, the university of Jena has a rugby team. Since 2012, the [[USV Rugby Jena]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usvjena.de/rugby.html|title=USV Jena: Rugby|first=USV Jena|last=e.V.|website=www.usvjena.de|access-date=8 June 2017|archive-date=9 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609182757/http://www.usvjena.de/rugby.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> team has been playing in the [[2. Rugby-Bundesliga]].

Current men's [[javelin throw]] world record (98.48) by [[Jan Železný]] was achieved in Jena.

== Economy and infrastructure ==

=== Agriculture, industry and services ===
[[File:Das höchste Bürogebäude Ostdeutschlands - der fast 160m hohe Jentower.jpg|thumb|The [[Jen Tower]] is a symbol of East Germany's economy]]
Agriculture plays a small role in Jena, only 40% of the municipal territory are in use for farming (compared to over 60% in [[Erfurt]] and nearly 50% in [[Weimar]]). Furthermore, the [[Muschelkalk]] soil is not very fertile and is often used as pasture for cattle. The only large agricultural area is situated around Isserstedt, Cospeda and Vierzehnheiligen district in the northwest. Wine-growing was discontinued during the [[Little Ice Age]] around 1800, but is now possible again due to [[global warming]]. Nevertheless, the commercial production of wine hasn't yet resumed.

Industry is a great tradition in Jena, reaching back to the mid-19th century. In 2012, there were 80 companies in industrial production with more than 20 workers employing 8,300 persons and generating a turnover of more than 1,5 billion Euro.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tls.thueringen.de/datenbank/TabAnzeige.asp?tabelle=gg000602|title=Thüringer Landesamt für Statistik|first=Thüringer Landesamt für|last=Statistik|website=www.tls.thueringen.de}}</ref> The most important branches are precision machinery, pharmaceuticals, optics, biotechnology and software engineering. Notable companies in Jena are the traditional [[Carl Zeiss AG]], [[Schott AG]], [[Jenoptik]] and [[Jenapharm]] as well as new companies such as [[Intershop Communications]], [[Analytik Jena]], and [[Carl Zeiss Meditec]]. Jena has the most market-listed companies and is one of the most important economic centres of east Germany.

With companies such as Intershop Communications, [[Salesforce.com]] (after the acquisition of [[Demandware]]) and [[ePages]] as well as several web agencies, Jena is a hub for [[E-commerce]] in Germany. Other IT players with regional offices include [[Accenture]] or [[ESET]]. [[Jena-Optronik]], a subsidiary of the [[Airbus Group]], develops components for spaceflight or satellites in Jena.

The city is among Germany's 50 fastest growing regions, with many internationally renowned research institutes and companies, a comparatively low unemployment and a young population structure. Jena was awarded the title "Stadt der Wissenschaft" (city of science) by the ''Stifterverband für die Deutsche Wissenschaft'', a German science association, in 2008.

Jena is also a hub of public and private services, specially in education, research and business services. Other important institutions are the High Court of Thuringia and Thuringia's solely university hospital. Furthermore, Jena is a regional centre in infrastructure and retail with many shopping centres.

Together with the photonics lab [https://www.uni-jena.de/Forschungsmeldungen/FM170324_Open_Innovation_Photonik.html Lichtwerkstatt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180204124033/https://www.uni-jena.de/Forschungsmeldungen/FM170324_Open_Innovation_Photonik.html |date=4 February 2018 }} and the Krautspace there are [[makerspace]]s and [[hackerspace]]s enabling start-ups to create their product ideas and realizing their first prototype and business models as well as networking.

=== Transport ===

==== By rail ====
[[File:13-05-03-jena-by-RalfR-93.jpg|thumb|Paradies station]]
Jena has no central railway station with connection to all the lines at one point. What is relatively common in many countries is quite unusual for a German city and caused on the one hand by the city's difficult topography and on the other hand by the history, because the two main lines were built by two different private companies. The connection in north–south direction is the [[Saal Railway]] with [[Intercity-Express|ICE]] trains running from [[Berlin]] in the north to [[Munich]] in the south once a day stopping at [[Jena Paradies station|Paradies station]] and local trains to [[Naumburg (Saale)|Naumburg]] and [[Saalfeld]] stopping at [[Jena-Zwätzen station|Zwätzen]], [[Jena Saale station|Saalbahnhof]], Paradies and [[Jena-Göschwitz station|Göschwitz]]. The connection in west–east direction is the [[Weimar–Gera railway]] with regional express trains to [[Göttingen]] (via [[Erfurt]] and [[Weimar]]) and [[Zwickau]], [[Glauchau]], [[Altenburg]] or [[Greiz]] (via [[Gera]]) and local trains between Weimar, Jena and Gera. The express trains stop at [[Jena West station|West station]] near the city centre and Göschwitz, the local trains furthermore at [[Neue Schenke]]. The junction between both lines is the [[Jena-Göschwitz station|Göschwitz station]], approx. {{convert|5|km|0|abbr=on}} south of the city centre.

When the [[Nuremberg–Erfurt high-speed railway]] opened in 2017, the city lost its connection to the long-distance train network. As compensation, there are new regional express train services to [[Halle (Saale)|Halle]] and [[Leipzig]] in the north, and to [[Nuremberg]] in the south.

==== By road ====
The two [[German autobahns|Autobahnen]] crossing each other nearby at ''Hermsdorf junction'' are the [[Bundesautobahn 4]] (Frankfurt–Dresden) and the [[Bundesautobahn 9]] (Berlin–Munich), which were both built during the 1930s. The A 4 runs quite next to the Lobeda housing complexes and the Leutra district. Therefore, it was rebuilt in the 2000s and got two tunnels to protect the residents and the environment against noise and air pollution. Furthermore, there are two [[Bundesstraße]]n crossing in Jena: the [[Bundesstraße 7]] is a connection to [[Weimar]] in the west and [[Gera]] in the east and the [[Bundesstraße 88]] is a connection along Saale valley to [[Naumburg (Saale)|Naumburg]] in the north and [[Rudolstadt]] in the south. Furthermore, there are some roads to [[Apolda]] via Isserstedt, [[Blankenhain]] via Ammerbach and [[Stadtroda]] via Lobeda. Most parts of city centre inside the former walls are pedestrian areas.

==== By aviation ====
The next local airports to Jena are the [[Erfurt–Weimar Airport]], approx. {{convert|50|km|0|abbr=on}} to the west and the [[Leipzig/Halle Airport]], approx. {{convert|80|km|0|abbr=on}} to the northeast, which both serve mostly for holiday flights to the Mediterranean and other touristic regions. The next major airports are [[Frankfurt Airport]], [[Berlin Brandenburg Airport]] and [[Munich Airport]].

==== By bike ====
Despite the hilly terrain in some parts, Jena is a cycling city, due to the many students. Cycling has become more popular in Jena since the 1990s when good quality bike paths began to be built. There are bike lanes along some main streets, though, in comparison to other cities in Germany, there are deficits.

For [[bicycle touring]] there is the "Saale track" ({{lang-de|Saale-Radweg}}) and the "Thuringian city string track" ({{lang-de|Radweg Thüringer Städtekette}}). Both of these connect points of tourist interest: the former along the [[Saale]] valley from [[Fichtel Mountains]] in Bavaria to the [[Elbe]] river near [[Magdeburg]], while the latter follows the medieval [[Via Regia]] closely and runs from [[Eisenach]] via [[Erfurt]], [[Weimar]] and Jena to [[Altenburg]] via [[Gera]].

==== Trams and buses ====
[[File:13-05-03-jena-by-RalfR-04.jpg|thumb|A tram near Jena Paradies Station]]
The [[Trams in Jena|Jena tramway network]] was established in 1901 and enlarged after the German reunification. It connects the major districts with the city centre; there are 5 ordinary lines served in different intervals between 7,5 and 20 minutes. Nevertheless, there are some old single-track segments interfering the services. Furthermore, there is an extensive network of buses, run (such as the trams) by the "Jenah" organization, a pun on Jena and the German {{lang|de|text= Nahverkehr}} lit. 'public transport'. Buses of the JES Verkehrsgesellschaft connect Jena with cities and villages in the region.

=== Education and research ===
[[File:Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Hauptgebäude, Jena.jpg|thumb|[[University of Jena]]]]
[[File:ThULB 2011.jpg|thumb|University Library]]
After reunification, the educational system was realigned. The [[University of Jena]], established in 1558, was largely extended. Today there are approximately 21,000 students at this university. Another college is the [[Ernst-Abbe-Hochschule Jena]], a [[Fachhochschule|University of Applied Sciences]] founded in 1991 which offers a combination of scientific training and its practical applications. There are also nearly 5,000 students.

Further there are six [[Gymnasium (Germany)|Gymnasium]]s, five state-owned and one Christian (ecumenical). One of the state-owned is a ''Sportgymnasium'', an elite boarding school for young talents in athletics or football. Another state-owned Gymnasium (the [[Carl-Zeiss-Gymnasium Jena]]) offers a focus in sciences also as an elite boarding school additionally to the common curriculum.

The various research institutes based in Jena include:
* The [[Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology]] is an important research center and offers a Ph.D. program
* The [[Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History]]
* The [[Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemistry]]
* The [[IPHT Jena|Institute of Photonic Technology]]
* The [[Fraunhofer Society|Fraunhofer Institute for Applied Optics and Precision Engineering (IOF)]]
* The [[Leibniz Institute for Age Research]], a research center with a Ph.D. program
* INNOVENT - a private research center
* The Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology
* Friedrich-Löffler-Institute of Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses
* Friedrich-Löffler-Institute of Molecular Pathogenesis
* The Jena Center for Bioinformatics

== Quality of life ==
In 2013, according to a study by Kieler Institut für Weltwirtschaft, Jena was ranked as the fifth-most livable city in Germany.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thueringer-allgemeine.de/leben/land-und-leute/studie-lebensqualitaet-in-jena-ist-deutlich-hoeher-als-in-erfurt-id219170179.html|title = Studie: Lebensqualität in Jena ist deutlich höher als in Erfurt|date = 15 March 2013}}</ref>

According to the 2019 study by Forschungsinstitut Prognos, Jena is one of the most dynamic regions in Germany. It ranks at number 29 of all 401 German regions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lvz.de/Region/Mitteldeutschland/Zukunftsatlas-Leipzig-ist-dynamischste-Region-Deutschlands|title=Zukunftsatlas: Leipzig ist dynamischste Region Deutschlands|date=5 July 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.handelsblatt.com/politik/deutschland/zukunftsatlas-2019-das-sind-die-deutschen-regionen-mit-den-besten-zukunftsaussichten/24521120.html?ticket=ST-3806664-5hfyslJCccFncxkiBERA-ap3|title = Zukunftsatlas 2019: Das sind die deutschen Regionen mit den besten Zukunftsaussichten}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://standort-sachsen.de/de/gruender/info-center/nachrichten/76377-zukunftsatlas-deutschland-2019-leipzig-ist-dynamiksieger|title="Zukunftsatlas" Deutschland 2019: Leipzig ist Dynamiksieger}}</ref>

== Politics ==

=== Mayor and city council ===
The first freely elected mayor after German reunification was [[Peter Röhlinger]] of the [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|Free Democratic Party]] (FDP), who served from 1990 to 2006. In 2006 he was succeeded by [[Albrecht Schröter]] of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD). Schröter was defeated seeking re-election in 2018 by [[Thomas Nitzsche]] of the FDP, who has since served as mayor. The most recent mayoral election was held on 26 May 2024, with a runoff held on 9 June, and the results were as follows:

{{election table}}
! rowspan=2 colspan=2| Candidate
! rowspan=2| Party
! colspan=2| First round
! colspan=2| Second round
|-
! Votes
! %
! Votes
! %
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Free Democratic Party (Germany)}}|
| align=left| [[Thomas Nitzsche]]
| align=left| [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|Free Democratic Party]]
| 13,185
| 25.3
| 30,835
| 61.8
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alliance 90/The Greens}}|
| align=left| Kathleen Lützkendorf
| align=left| [[Alliance 90/The Greens]]
| 8,012
| 15.4
| 19,028
| 38.2
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|The Left (Germany)}}|
| align=left| Jens Thomas
| align=left| [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]]
| 6,960
| 13.4
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alternative for Germany}}|
| align=left| Denny Jankowski
| align=left| [[Alternative for Germany]]
| 6,588
| 12.7
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Christian Democratic Union of Germany}}|
| align=left| Stephan Wydra
| align=left| [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|Christian Democratic Union]]
| 6,274
| 12.1
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Germany}}|
| align=left| Johannes Schleußner
| align=left| [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]]
| 6,110
| 11.7
|-
|
| align=left| Ulf Weißleder
| align=left| Citizens for Jena
| 3,913
| 7.5
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Independent politician}}|
| align=left| Peter Gutjahr
| align=left| [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| 982
| 1.9
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 52,024
! 99.3
! 49,863
! 95.8
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid votes
! 359
! 0.7
! 2,211
! 4.2
|-
! colspan=3| Total
! 52,383
! 100.0
! 52,074
! 100.0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 82,605
! 63.4
! 82,408
! 63.2
|-
| colspan=7| Source: [https://wahlen.jena.de/de/oberbuergermeisterwahlen Wahlen Jena]
|}

The most recent city council election was held on 26 May 2024, and the results were as follows:

{{election table}}
! colspan=2| Party
! Lead candidate
! Votes
! %
! +/-
! Seats
! +/-
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Christian Democratic Union of Germany}}|
| align=left| [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|Christian Democratic Union]] (CDU)
| align=left| Guntram Wothly
| 25,479
| 16.9
| {{increase}} 4.3
| 8
| {{increase}} 2
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|The Left (Germany)}}|
| align=left| [[The Left (Germany)|The Left]] (Die Linke)
| align=left| Jens Thomas
| 25,354
| 16.8
| {{decrease}} 3.6
| 8
| {{decrease}} 1
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alliance 90/The Greens}}|
| align=left| [[Alliance 90/The Greens]] (Grüne)
| align=left| Kathleen Lützkendorf
| 22,966
| 15.2
| {{decrease}} 4.2
| 7
| {{decrease}} 2
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Alternative for Germany}}|
| align=left| [[Alternative for Germany]] (AfD)
| align=left| Denny Jankowski
| 20,149
| 13.4
| {{increase}} 3.4
| 6
| {{increase}} 1
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Social Democratic Party of Germany}}|
| align=left| [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|Social Democratic Party]] (SPD)
| align=left| Johannes Schleußner
| 19,622
| 13.0
| {{increase}} 0.4
| 6
| {{steady}} 0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Free Democratic Party (Germany)}}|
| align=left| [[Free Democratic Party (Germany)|Free Democratic Party]] (FDP)
| align=left| Thomas Nitzsche
| 13,590
| 9.0
| {{decrease}} 3.8
| 4
| {{decrease}} 2
|-
|
| align=left| Citizens for Jena (BfJ)
| align=left| Jürgen Häkanson-Hall
| 10,456
| 6.9
| {{decrease}} 0.6
| 3
| {{steady}} 0
|-
| bgcolor={{party color|Volt Germany}}|
| align=left| [[Volt Germany]]
| align=left| Johanna Grenzer
| 7,843
| 5.2
| New
| 2
| New
|-
|
| align=left| Citizens for Thuringia/[[Grassroots Democratic Party of Germany|dieBasis]]
| align=left| Peter Faesel
| 2,823
| 1.9
| New
| 1
| New
|-
|
| align=left| Free Voters Jena
| align=left| Bertram Pelzer
| 2,452
| 1.6
| {{decrease}} 1.8
| 1
| {{steady}} 0
|-
! colspan=3| Valid votes
! 150,734
! 100.0
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=3| Invalid ballots
! 1,521
! 2.9
!
!
!
|-
! colspan=3| Total ballots
! 52,054
! 100.0
!
! 46
! ±0
|-
! colspan=3| Electorate/voter turnout
! 82,605
! 63.0
! {{decrease}} 0.1
!
!
|-
| colspan=8| Source: [https://wahlen.thueringen.de/datenbank/wahl1/wahl.asp?wahlart=KW&wJahr=2024&zeigeErg=WK&wknr=053 Wahlen in Thüringen]
|}

==Notable people==
[[File:Prince Bernhard 1942cr.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld]] in 1942]]
* [[Ernst Abbe]] (1840–1905), physicist, social reformer, partner of [[Carl Zeiss]] and [[Otto Schott]]
* [[Andreas Bauer Kanabas]], classical bass
* [[Johannes R. Becher]] (1891–1958), poet and politician
* [[Hans Berger]], discoverer of human EEG
* [[Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld]]
* [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]], naturalist, doctor, comparative anatomist, and physiologist
* [[Walter von Boetticher]] (1853–1945), historian, and physician, studied medicine at Jena
* [[Martin Dwars]] (born 1987), retired footballer (goalkeeper)
* [[Johann Gottfried Eichhorn]] (1752–1827), orientalist and Protestant theologian of the Enlightenment
* [[Robert Enke]] (1977–2009), footballer (goalkeeper)
* [[Walter Eucken]] (1891–1950), founder of neoliberal economic theory
* [[Rudolf Eucken]] (1846–1926), philosopher and winner of the 1908 [[Nobel Prize for Literature]]
* [[Johann Gottlieb Fichte]], philosopher and early German nationalist
* [[Gottlob Frege]] (1848–1925), mathematician, logician, and philosopher
* [[Friedrich Fröbel|Friedrich Wilhelm August Fröbel]], inventor of the kindergarten
{{Div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe]] (1749–1832), poet and writer
* [[John B. Goodenough]] (1922–2023), materials scientist, solid-state physicist, and Nobel laureate in chemistry
* [[Klara Griefahn]] (1897–1945), physician<ref>{{Cite web|title=Geburtshilfe nach jüdischer Ärztin benannt|url=https://www.jenaer-nachrichten.de/stadtleben/7543-geburtshilfe-nach-jüdischer-ärztin-benannt|last=Schleenvoigt|first=Anke|date=9 November 2017|website=Jenaer Nachrichten|access-date=21 May 2020}}</ref>
* [[Otto Günsche]] (1917–2003), commander in the Waffen-SS during the Second World War
* [[Ernst Haeckel]] (1834–1919), evolutionary biologist and zoologist
* [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|G. W. F. Hegel]] (1770–1831), philosopher
* [[Friedrich Hölderlin]] (1770–1843), poet
* [[Albert Woldemar Hollander]] (1796–1868), educator and pedagog
* [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (1646–1716), polymath and philosopher
* [[Martin Luther]] (1483–1546), professor of theology, priest, author, composer, Augustinian friar, and seminal figure in the Reformation
* [[August Eduard Martin]] (1847–1933), obstetrician and gynecologist <ref>[http://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd11925493X.html Martin, August Eduard] In: Neue Deutsche Biographie (NDB). Band 16, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1990, {{ISBN|3-428-00197-4}}, S. 284 f.</ref>
* [[Karl Marx]] (1818–1883), philosopher and economist
* [[Tilo Medek]] (1940–2006), composer
* [[Philipp Melanchthon]], theologian
* [[Johann Karl August Musäus]] (1735–1787), author
* [[Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche]] (1844–1900), philosopher
* [[Novalis]] (1772–1801), poet
* [[Max Reger]], composer, pianist, professor, and conductor
* [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Friedrich Schelling]], philosopher
* [[Friedrich Schiller]], poet and writer
* [[Karoline Schelling|Caroline Böhmer Schlegel Schelling]], Universitätsmamsell and Jena Romanticist intellectual
* [[Stefan Schuster]], professor of bioinformatics at the University of Jena
* [[August Wilhelm von Schlegel|Wilhelm Schlegel]], philosopher
* [[Sahra Wagenknecht]] (born 1969), German politician
* [[Bernd Schneider (footballer)|Bernd Schneider]] (born 1973), footballer
* [[Otto Schott]], inventor of fireproof glass, founder of the Schott glass works
* [[Reinhard Johannes Sorge]], poet, dramatist, and [[Roman Catholic]] convert
* [[Johann Gustav Stickel]], orientalist
* [[Kurt Tucholsky]], writer
* [[Tim Wuttke]], (born 1987), retired footballer
* [[Carl Zeiss]] (1816–1888), founder of the Zeiss company
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{Wikivoyage|Jena}}
* {{Official website}} {{in lang|de|en}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Jena |short=x}}

{{Geographic location
|Centre = Jena
|North = [[Sangerhausen]]
|Northeast = [[Halle (Saale)|Halle]] — [[Leipzig]] [[Naumburg (Saale)|Naumburg]]
|East = [[Gera]] — [[Chemnitz]] — [[Dresden]]
|Southeast = [[Plauen]]
|South = [[Hof, Bavaria|Hof]]
|Southwest = [[Rudolstadt]] [[Saalfeld]]
|West = [[Erfurt]] — [[Weimar]]
|Northwest = [[Nordhausen, Thuringia|Nordhausen]]
}}
{{Cities in Germany}}
{{Cities in Thuringia}}
{{Germany districts thuringia}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Jena| ]]
[[Category:Holocaust locations in Germany]]
[[Category:Urban districts of Thuringia]]

Goldkronach

2024-10-16T21:38:45Z

NidabaM: /* Notable people */

{{Infobox German location
|type = Stadt
|image_coa = Wappen von Goldkronach.svg
|image_photo = Goldkronach.jpg
|image_caption = Goldkronach
|coordinates = {{coord|50|0|41.40|N|11|41|14.33|E|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
|image_plan = Goldkronach in BT.svg
|state = Bayern
|region = Oberfranken
|district = Bayreuth
|elevation = 443
|area = 30.68
|postal_code = 95497
|area_code = 09273
|licence = BT
|Gemeindeschlüssel = 09 4 72 143
|divisions = 26 [[Ortsteil]]e
|website = [https://www.goldkronach.de/ www.goldkronach.de]
|mayor = Holger Bär<ref>[https://www.statistik.bayern.de/wahlen/kommunalwahlen/bgm/ Liste der ersten Bürgermeister/Oberbürgermeister in kreisangehörigen Gemeinden], [[Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik]], 15 July 2021.</ref>
|leader_term = 2020–26
|party =
}}

'''Goldkronach''' ([[East Franconian German|East Franconian]]: ''Gronich'') is a [[Town#Germany|town]] in the [[Bayreuth (district)|district of Bayreuth]], in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://translate.google.ca/translate?hl=en&sl=de&u=http://www.landkreis-bayreuth.de/orgdata.asp%3FNAVIID%3D%257B9F283DE2-EA2F-44DD-A798-112E8B81548E%257D&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=2&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3DBayreuth%2BGoldkronach%26hl%3Den%26rlz%3D1G1GGLQ_ENCA263%26sa%3DG |title=Translation of Goldkronach Info |accessdate=2008-05-29 |archive-date=2011-05-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519090934/http://translate.google.ca/translate?hl=en&sl=de&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.landkreis-bayreuth.de%2Forgdata.asp%3FNAVIID%3D%7B9F283DE2-EA2F-44DD-A798-112E8B81548E%7D&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=2&ct=result&prev=%2Fsearch%3Fq%3DBayreuth+Goldkronach&hl=en&rlz=1G1GGLQ_ENCA263&sa=G |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is situated near the [[Fichtel Mountains]], 12 km northeast of [[Bayreuth]].

[[File:Rathaus Goldkronach.JPG|left|thumb|150px|Town hall Goldkronach]]
[[File:Goldkronach, Bernecker Straße 4-002.jpg|left|thumb|170px|Goldkronach]]
[[File:Goldkronach, Marktplatz 16 bis 4-001.jpg|left|thumb|170px|Goldkronach Market place]]
==History==

On 25 June 1836, at 22:15, residents awoke to a man yelling "Fire! Fire!". In almost 2 hours, almost half of the eastern part of the town burned down, including the parish church, all two schools, the City Hall, 55 houses, and 16 other buildings. 127 families were rendered homeless. Three years later, on 18 June 1839 midnight, another fire broke out in the market. Within two hours, 29 houses and 17 buildings in the south side of town became the victims of the fire.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://translate.google.ca/translate?hl=en&sl=de&u=http://www.goldkronach.de/&sa=X&oi=translate&resnum=1&ct=result&prev=/search%3Fq%3DGoldkronach%26hl%3Den%26rlz%3D1G1GGLQ_ENCA263 |title=Translation of Goldkronach's History |accessdate=2008-05-29}}</ref>

==Population development==
* 1961: 2945
* 1970: 2935
* 1987: 2903
* 2000: 3598
* 2010: 3606

==Notable people==
* [[Sigismund von Reitzenstein]] (1766-1847), politician and diplomat of Baden

===Lived and worked in Goldkronach===
* [[Georgius Agricola]] (1494–1555), scholar of the [[Renaissance]] and the father of the [[mineralogy]]. For Goldkronach in his writings, Agricola called a weekly gold transfer of 1500 [[Goldgulden|Gulden]].{{clarify|date=February 2017|reason=This makes no sense}}{{cn|date=February 2017}}
* [[Alexander von Humboldt]] (1769–1859), natural scientist, from 1792 to 1796 Oberbergmeister and Oberbergrat in the Prussian Goldkronach. Humboldt revolutionized mining from a technical point of view, but also introduced measures for the education and social protection of miners.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=31‒33 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Cities and towns in Bayreuth (district)}}

{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Bayreuth (district)]]

Tenerife

2024-10-16T21:33:05Z

NidabaM: /* Emigration to the Americas */ Humboldt's visit

{{Short description|Largest and most populous Canary Island}}
{{redirect|Teneriffa|the genus of flies|Teneriffa spicata}}
{{Other uses|Tenerife (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox islands
| name = Tenerife
| native_name = 
| native_name_link =
| native_name_lang =
| sobriquet = 
| image_name = Tenerife sentinel 2.jpg
| image_caption = Satellite view (April 2023)
| image_alt =
| image_map = Spain Canary Islands location map Tenerife.svg
| map_alt =
| map_size =
| map_caption = Location of Tenerife in the Canary Islands
| pushpin_map = Spain Canary Islands#Spain with Canary Islands
| pushpin_label =
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
| pushpin_relief =
| pushpin_map_caption = Location in Spain
| coordinates = {{coord|28|16|7|N|16|36|20|W|region:ES-CN_type:isle_dim:50km|display=inline,title}}
| etymology =
| location = Atlantic Ocean
| archipelago = [[Canary Islands]]
| waterbody =
| area_km2 = 2034.38
| area_footnotes =<ref name="istac_territorio">{{cite web |url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/jaxi-istac/menu.do?uripub=urn:uuid:fbc0bdc8-cacb-43b8-a5cb-a93f745dcff6 |title=Estadística del Territorio |publisher=Instituto Canario de Estadística (ISTAC) |access-date=2019-07-17 |language=es |trans-title=Territory Statistics }}</ref>
| rank =
| length_km = 
| length_footnotes =
| width_km = 
| width_footnotes =
| coastline_km = 342
| coastline_footnotes =<ref name="istac_territorio" />
| elevation_m = 3715
| elevation_footnotes =<ref name="IGN_PhysicalMap_2012">{{cite web | url=http://centrodedescargas.cnig.es/CentroDescargas/busquedaRedirigida.do?ruta=PUBLICACION_CNIG_DATOS_VARIOS/MapasGenerales/Espana_Mapa-fisico-de-Espana-1-3.000.000_2012_mapa_11999_spa.jpg# | title=Mapa Físico de España (Physical Map of Spain) | work=Atlas Nacional de España (National Atlas of Spain) | publisher=[[Instituto Geográfico Nacional (Spain)]] | date=2012 | access-date=18 April 2023 }}</ref>
| highest_mount = [[Teide]]
| country = Spain
| country_admin_divisions_title = [[Autonomous communities of Spain|Autonomous Community]]
| country_admin_divisions = [[Canary Islands]]
| country_admin_divisions_title_1 = [[Provinces of Spain|Province]]
| country_admin_divisions_1 = [[Province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife|Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]
| country_admin_divisions_title_2 =
| country_admin_divisions_2 =
| country_capital_type =
| country_capital =
| country_largest_city_type =
| country_largest_city =
| country_capital_and_largest_city = [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]
| country_largest_city_population = 208,906
| country_leader_title = President of the ''[[cabildo insular]]''
| country_leader_name = Rosa Dávila Mamely (2023)
| country_area_km2 = 
| demonym = {{lang|es|tinerfeño/a}}; {{lang|es|chicharrero/a}}
| population = 948,815
| population_as_of = start of 2023
| population_footnotes =<ref>Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, Madrid, 2023.</ref>
| population_rank =
| population_rank_max =
| density_km2 = 466.39
| density_rank =
| density_footnotes =
| languages = Spanish, specifically [[Canarian Spanish]], formerly [[Guanche language|Guanche]]
| ethnic_groups = Spanish, other minority groups
| timezone1 = [[Western European Time|WET]]
|utc_offset1 = ±00:00
|timezone1_DST = [[Western European Summer Time|WEST]]
|utc_offset1_DST = +01:00
| website = {{URL|www.tenerife.es/}}
| additional_info =
| footnotes =
}}
[[File:Imagen sintética de Tenerife.jpg|thumb|400px|Altitude map of Tenerife, with the highest altitude (Mount [[Teide]]) in blue and the lowest (sea level) in black]]

'''Tenerife''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|ɛ|n|ə|ˈ|r|iː|f}} {{respell|TEN|ə|REEF}}; {{IPA|es|teneˈɾife|lang|Pronunciation of Tenerife in Spanish.ogg}}; formerly spelled ''Teneriffe'') is the largest and most populous island of the [[Canary Islands]].<ref name="ine.es">{{cite web |url=http://www.ine.es/jaxi/tabla.do |title=Instituto Nacional de Estadística. (National Statistics Institute) |publisher=Ine.es |access-date=19 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115204400/http://www.ine.es/jaxi/tabla.do |archive-date=15 January 2009 }}</ref> It is home to 42.9% of the total population of the [[archipelago]].<ref name="ine.es"/> With a land area of {{convert|2034.38|km2|mi2}} and a population of 948,815 inhabitants as of January 2023,<ref>Institito Nacional de Estadistica, Madrid, 2023.</ref><ref name="popdataboe">{{cite web |title=Real Decreto 1458/2018, de 14 de diciembre, por el que se declaran oficiales las cifras de población resultantes de la revisión del Padrón municipal referidas al 1 de enero de 2019 |language=es |trans-title=Royal Decree 1458/2018, of 14 December, by which the population numbers resulting from the review of the municipal register as of 01 January 2019 are declared official |url=https://boe.es/boe/dias/2018/12/29/pdfs/BOE-A-2018-18083.pdf |year=2019 |publisher=Ministerio de Economía y Empresa |access-date=2019-07-18 }}</ref> it is also the most populous island of [[Spain]]<ref name="ine.es"/> and of [[Macaronesia]].<ref name="catalogo.museosdetenerife.org">{{cite web |url=http://catalogo.museosdetenerife.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/MACAMONO/id/16/rec/1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117032309/http://catalogo.museosdetenerife.org/cdm/singleitem/collection/MACAMONO/id/16/rec/1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 November 2015 |title=La Macaronesia. Consideraciones geológicas, biogeográficas y paleoecológicas |trans-title=Macaronesia: geology, biogeography and palaeo-ecology |publisher=[[Museos de Tenerife]] }}</ref>

Approximately five million tourists visit Tenerife each year; it is the most visited island in the archipelago.<ref name="Terra Noticias">{{cite web |publisher=Terra Noticias |url=http://noticias.terra.es/local/2009/0812/actualidad/canarias-recibe-593604-turistas-extranjeros-durante-el-mes-de-julio-un-16-menos-que-los-registrados-en-2008.aspx |title=Canarias recibe 593.604 turistas extranjeros durante el mes de julio, un 16% menos que los registrados en 2008 |trans-title=The Canaries received 593,604 foreign tourists in the month of July, 16% less than in 2008 |date=12 August 2009 |access-date=19 September 2012 |archive-date=5 June 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120605025544/http://noticias.terra.es/local/2009/0812/actualidad/canarias-recibe-593604-turistas-extranjeros-durante-el-mes-de-julio-un-16-menos-que-los-registrados-en-2008.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> It is one of the most important tourist destinations in Spain<ref name="riull.ull.es">{{cite web |url=http://riull.ull.es/xmlui/bitstream/handle/915/165/Posicionamiento%20de%20Tenerife%20como%20destino%20turistico.%20Propuestas%20de%20mejora%20a%20traves%20de%20la%20estrategia%20de%20diferenciacion..pdf?sequence=1 |title=Posicionamiento turístico de Tenerife |trans-title=Tourism in Tenerife |work=ull.es |access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> and the world,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lanacion.com.ar/lifestyle/ranking-hecho-por-viajeros-los-mejores-destinos-del-mundo-en-2021-nid02042021/ |title=Ranking hecho por viajeros: los mejores destinos del mundo en 2021 |work=lanacion.com |date=5 April 2021 |access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref> hosting one of the world's largest [[carnival]]s, the [[Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife]].

The capital of the island, {{lang|es|[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]|italic=no}}, is also the seat of the island council ({{lang|es|cabildo insular}}). That city and {{lang|es|[[Las Palmas|Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]]|italic=no}} are the co-capitals of the [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community]] of the [[Canary Islands]]. The two cities are both home to governmental institutions, such as the offices of the presidency and the ministries. This has been the arrangement since 1927, when the Crown ordered it. (After the [[1833 territorial division of Spain]], until 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands).<ref name="es.wikisource.org">{{lang|es|[[:s:es:Real Decreto de 30 de noviembre de 1833|Real Decreto de 30 de noviembre de 1833]]}} on [[Wikisource]]</ref><ref name="gobiernodecanarias.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/tuestatuto/docs/1833-12-03%20Decreto%20de%20division%20provincial.pdf |title=Real Decreto de 30 de noviembre de 1833 |trans-title=Royal Decree of 30 November 1833 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120722105020/http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/tuestatuto/docs/1833-12-03%20Decreto%20de%20division%20provincial.pdf |archive-date=22 July 2012 |publisher=Government of the Canary Isles }}</ref> Santa Cruz contains the modern {{lang|es|[[Auditorio de Tenerife]]|italic=no}}, the architectural symbol of the Canary Islands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.treklens.com/gallery/Europe/Spain/Madrid/Madrid/Mostoles/photo370327.htm |title=Auditorio de Tenerife |publisher=Treklens |access-date=13 October 2009 |archive-date=10 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121210073021/http://www.treklens.com/gallery/Europe/Spain/Madrid/Madrid/Mostoles/photo370327.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.laregioninternacional.com/noticia/22376/Sellos/auditorio/Tenerife/ |title=Correos emite seis sellos con obras emblemáticas de la arquitectura española e incluye el Auditorio de Tenerife |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080411233325/http://www.laregioninternacional.com/noticia/22376/Sellos/auditorio/Tenerife/ |archive-date=11 April 2008 |publisher=La Region Internacional }}</ref>

The island is home to the [[University of La Laguna]]. Founded in 1792 in {{lang|es|[[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]]|italic=no}}, it is the oldest university in the Canaries. The city of La Laguna is a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]. It is the second most populous city on the island, and the third most populous in the archipelago. It was the capital of the Canary Islands before Santa Cruz replaced it in 1833.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arquitectuba.com.ar/diccionario-arquitectura-construccion/san-cristobal-de-la-laguna/ |title=San Cristóbal De La Laguna |work=Diccionario de Arquitectura y Construcción |publisher=Arquitectura Uba |access-date=19 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090105123250/http://www.arquitectuba.com.ar/diccionario-arquitectura-construccion/san-cristobal-de-la-laguna/ |archive-date=5 January 2009 }}</ref> Tenerife is served by two airports; [[Tenerife North Airport]] and [[Tenerife South Airport]].

[[Teide National Park]], located in the center of the island, is also a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]. It includes [[Mount Teide]], which has the highest elevation in Spain, and the highest elevation among all the islands in the Atlantic Ocean. It is also the third-largest volcano in the world, when measured from its base.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Home/Disfruta+sin+perderte+nada/Mas+sobre+Tenerife/Naturaleza/Espacios+naturales/Parque+Nacional+de+El+Teide/?Lang=es |title=Parque nacional del Teide |trans-title=Teide National Park |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826195531/http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Home/Disfruta+sin+perderte+nada/Mas+sobre+Tenerife/Naturaleza/Espacios+naturales/Parque+Nacional+de+El+Teide/?Lang=es |archive-date=26 August 2009 |publisher=Tenerife Tourism Authority }}</ref> Another geographical feature of the island, the {{lang|es|[[Macizo de Anaga]]|italic=no}} (massif), has been designated as a UNESCO [[Biosphere Reserve]] since 2015.<ref name="efeverde.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.efeverde.com/noticias/el-macizo-de-anaga-alberga-mayor-concentracion-de-endemismos-de-toda-europa/ |title=El macizo de Anaga alberga mayor concentración de endemismos de toda Europa |trans-title=The Macizo de Anago harbours the highest concentration of endemic species in Europe |work=Efeverde.com |date=9 June 2015 |access-date=18 April 2017 }}</ref> Tenerife also has the largest number of [[endemic]] species in Europe.<ref name="efeverde.com"/>

== Toponymy ==
The name 'Tenerife' likely comes from [[Amazigh language|Tamazight]], but there is no consensus on its correct interpretation.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://guanchismos.ulpgc.es/item/14416|title=Tenerife|author=Universidad de las Palmas de Gran Canaria|access-date=December 10, 2022}}</ref>

The island's [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous people]], the [[Guanches|Guanche]] [[Berbers]], referred to the island as {{lang|gnc|Achinet}} or {{lang|gnc|Chenet}} in [[Guanche language|their language]] (variant spellings are found in the literature). According to [[Pliny the Younger]], [[Berber people|Berber]] king [[Juba II]] sent an expedition to the Canary Islands and [[Madeira]]; he named the Canary Islands for the particularly ferocious dogs ({{lang|es|canaria}}) on the island.<ref>O'Brien, Sally and Sarah Andrews. (2004) ''Lonely Planet Canary Islands,'' "Lonely Planet". p. 59. {{ISBN|1-74059-374-X}}.</ref> Juba II and the [[Ancient Rome|ancient Romans]] called the island of Tenerife {{lang|la|Nivaria}}, from the [[Latin]] word {{wikt-lang|la|nix}} ([[nominative case|nsg.]]; [[genitive case|gsg.]] {{lang|la|nivis}}, [[plural|npl.]] {{lang|la|nives}}), meaning "snow", after the snow-covered peak of the Mount Teide volcano.<ref>Charles Knight, ''The English Cyclopaedia'', 1866, Bradbury, Evans</ref> Later maps dating to the 14th and 15th century, drawn by mapmakers such as Bontier and Le Verrier, called the island {{lang|es|Isla del Infierno}}, ("Hell Island"), due to Mount Teide's volcanic eruptions and other volcanic activity.

Although the name given to the island by the {{lang|es|[[Benahoare|Benahoaritas]]}} (the indigenous peoples of La Palma) was derived from the words {{lang|gnc|teni}} ("mountain") and {{lang|gnc|ife}} ("white"),{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} after the island was colonized by the Spanish the name was modified by Spanish phonology: the letter "r" was added to link the two words, producing the single word Tenerife.<ref name="Abreu">{{cite book |last=Abreu Galindo |first=FR. J. |title=Historia de la conquista de las siete islas de Canaria |year=1977 |publisher=Goya |isbn=978-84-400-3645-2 |language=es }}</ref><ref name="Bethencourt">{{cite book |last=Bethencourt Alfonso |first=Juan |title=Historia del pueblo guanche |publisher=Francisco Lemus Editor SL |year=1997 |isbn=978-84-87973-10-9 |language=es }}</ref>

However, throughout history, other explanations for the origin of island's name have been proposed. For example, the 17th-century historians {{lang|es|[[Juan Núñez de la Peña]]|italic=no}} and {{lang|es|[[Tomás Arias Marín de Cubas]]|italic=no}}, among others, suggested that the indigenous peoples might have named the island for the famous Guanche king, [[Tinerfe]], nicknamed "the Great", who ruled Tenerife before the [[conquest of the Canary Islands|Canary Islands]] were conquered by [[Castile (historical region)|Castile]].<ref>[https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5120305.pdf "El nombre de Tenerife." Joaquín Caridad Arias], Dial Net</ref>

{{Wide image|Panorama Teide BW.jpg|1536px|Panorama of [[Teide National Park]]}}

== Demonym ==

The formal [[demonym]] used to refer to the people of Tenerife is {{lang|es|Tinerfeño/a}}; also used colloquially is the term {{lang|es|[[chicharrero]]/a}}.<ref name="gentilicio">{{cite web|url=http://buscon.rae.es/draeI/SrvltGUIBusUsual?LEMA=chicharrero|title=Real Academia Española|work=rae.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> In modern society, the latter term is generally applied only to inhabitants of the capital, Santa Cruz. The term {{lang|es|chicharrero}} was once a [[derogatory]] term used by the people of [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna|La Laguna]] when it was the capital, to refer to the poorer inhabitants and fishermen of Santa Cruz. The fishermen typically caught [[mackerel]] and other residents ate [[potatoes]], assumed to be of low quality by the elite of La Laguna.<ref name="gentilicio"/> As Santa Cruz grew in commerce and status, it replaced La Laguna as capital of Tenerife in 1833 during the reign of [[Fernando VII]]. Then the inhabitants of Santa Cruz used the former insult to identify as residents of the new capital, at La Laguna's expense.<ref name="gentilicio"/>

== History ==
[[File:MNH - Mumie Mann 1.jpg|thumb|[[Guanche mummies|Guanche mummy]] in [[Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre]] of [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]]]
The earliest known human settlement in the islands, dating to around 200 [[BCE]], was established by [[Berbers]] known as the [[Guanches]].<ref name="Nido">{{cite web|url=http://www.nidolanguagetravel.com/destinations/tenerife/history-tenerife.aspx |title=g|publisher=Nido Language Travel|access-date=15 October 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061223092052/http://www.nidolanguagetravel.com/destinations/tenerife/history-tenerife.aspx |archive-date=23 December 2006}}</ref> However, the [[Cave of the Guanches]] in the northern municipality of [[Icod de los Vinos]] has provided the oldest chronologies of the Canary Islands, with dates around the sixth century BCE.<ref name="Arco Aguilar_1">{{cite journal |last1=Arco Aguilar |first1=Marcelino J. del |last2=Arco Aguilar |first2=María del Carmen del |last3=Arco Aguilar |first3=María Mercedes del |last4=Atiénzar Armas |first4=Emilio |last5=González Hernández |first5=Cecilia |last6=Rosario Adrián |first6=María Candelaria |year=2000 |title=El menceyato de Icod en el poblamiento de Tenerife. D. Gaspar, Las Palomas y Los Guanches. Sobre el poblamiento y las estrategias de alimentación vegetal entre los guanches |language=es |trans-title=The menceyato of Icod in the settlement of Tenerife. D. Gaspar, Las Palomas and Los Guanches. On the settlement and the plant feeding strategies among the Guanches |journal=Eres. Arqueología/Bioantropología |number=9 |pages=67–129 |location=Santa Cruz de Tenerife |publisher=Museo Arqueológico de Tenerife |issn=1130-6572 |url=http://www.museosdetenerife.org/assets/downloads/publication-c408de300b.pdf}}</ref>

In terms of technology, the Guanches can be placed among the peoples of the [[Stone Age]], although scholars often reject this classification because of its ambiguity. Guanche culture was more advanced culturally, possibly because of Berber cultural features imported from North Africa, but less technologically advanced due to the scarcity of raw materials, especially minerals that would have allowed for the extraction and working of metals. The main activity was gathering food from nature; though fishing and shellfish collection were supplemented with some agricultural practices.<ref>[http://www.gevic.net/info/contenidos/mostrar_contenidos.php?idcat=2&idcap=10&idcon=178 La población prehispánica: los guaches – Gran Enciclopedia Virtual de Canarias]</ref>

As for religion and [[cosmology]], the Guanches were [[polytheism|polytheistic]], with further widespread belief in an [[astral cult]]. They also had an [[animism|animistic]] religiosity that sacralized certain places, mainly rocks and mountains. Although the Guanches worshiped many gods and ancestral spirits, among the most important were [[Achamán]] (the god of the sky and supreme creator), [[Chaxiraxi]] (the mother goddess, identified later with the [[Virgin of Candelaria]]), [[Magec]] (the god of the sun), and [[Guayota]] (the demon who is the main cause of evil). Especially significant was the cult of the dead, which practiced the [[mummification]] of corpses. In addition, small [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] and [[Zoomorphism|zoomorphic]] stone and clay figurines of the kind typically associated with rituals have been found on the island. Scholars believe they were used as idols, the most prominent of which is the so-called [[Guatimac|Idol of Guatimac]], which is thought to represent a genius or protective spirit.

=== Territorial organisation before the conquest (The Guanches) ===
The title of ''[[mencey]]'' was given to the monarch or king of the Guanches of Tenerife, who governed a ''menceyato'' or kingdom. This role was later referred to as a "captainship" by the conquerors. [[Tinerfe|Tinerfe "the Great"]], son of the ''mencey'' Sunta, governed the island from Adeje in the south. However, upon his death, his nine children rebelled and argued bitterly about how to divide the island.

Two independent ''achimenceyatos'' were created on the island, and the island was divided into nine ''menceyatos''. The ''menceyes'' within them formed what would be similar to municipalities today.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.canariasacross.com/islas/tenerife/situacion_historia.htm|title=El Portal de las Islas Canarias|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090429072039/http://www.canariasacross.com/islas/tenerife/situacion_historia.htm|archive-date=29 April 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref> The ''menceyatos'' and their ''menceyes'' (ordered by the names of descendants of Tinerfe who ruled them) were the following:

[[File:Tenerife preconquista.png|thumb|Territorial map of Tenerife before the conquest]]

* [[Menceyato of Taoro|Taoro]]. ''Menceyes'': Bentinerfe, Inmobach, [[Bencomo]] and [[Bentor]]. Today it includes [[Puerto de la Cruz]], [[La Orotava]], [[La Victoria de Acentejo]], [[La Matanza de Acentejo]], [[Los Realejos]] and [[Santa Úrsula]].
* [[Menceyato of Güímar|Güímar]]. ''Menceyes'': Acaymo, [[Añaterve]] y Guetón. Today this territory is made up of [[El Rosario, Tenerife|El Rosario]], [[Candelaria, Tenerife|Candelaria]], [[Arafo]] and [[Güímar]]
* [[Menceyato of Abona|Abona]]. ''Menceyes'': Atguaxoña and Adxoña ([[Adjona]]). Today it includes [[Fasnia]], [[Arico]], [[Granadilla de Abona]], [[San Miguel de Abona]] and [[Arona, Tenerife|Arona]].
* [[Menceyato of Anaga|Anaga]]. ''Menceyes'': [[Beneharo]] and Beneharo II. Today this territory spans the municipalities of [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] and [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]].
* [[Menceyato of Tegueste|Tegueste]]. ''Menceyes'': Tegueste, [[Tegueste (mencey)|Tegueste II]] y Teguaco. Today this territory is made up of [[Tegueste]], part of the coastal zone of [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna|La Laguna]].
* [[Menceyato of Tacoronte|Tacoronte]]: ''Menceyes'': Rumén and [[Acaymo]]. Today this territory is made up of [[Tacoronte]] and [[El Sauzal]]
* [[Menceyato of Icode|Icode]]. ''Menceyes'': Chincanayro and [[Pelicar (mencey)|Pelicar]]. Today this territory is made up of [[San Juan de la Rambla]], [[La Guancha, Tenerife|La Guancha]], [[Garachico]] and [[Icod de los Vinos]].
* [[Menceyato of Daute|Daute]]. ''Menceyes'': Cocanaymo and [[Romen (mencey)|Romen]]. Today this territory is occupied by [[El Tanque]], [[Los Silos]], [[Buenavista del Norte]] and [[Santiago del Teide]].
* [[Menceyato of Adeje|Adeje]]. ''Menceyes''. Atbitocazpe, [[Pelinor]], and [[Ichasagua]]. It included what today are the municipalities of [[Guía de Isora]], [[Adeje]] and [[Vilaflor]]

The achimenceyato of [[Achimenceyato de Punta del Hidalgo|Punta del Hidalgo]] was governed by Aguahuco, a "poor noble" who was an illegitimate son of Tinerfe and Zebenzui.

=== Spanish conquest ===
[[File:AlonsoFernandezdeLugo2.JPG|thumb|left|[[Alonso Fernandez de Lugo]] presenting the native kings of Tenerife to Ferdinand and Isabella]]
Tenerife was the last island of the Canaries to be conquered and the one that took the longest time to submit to the Castilian troops. Although the traditional dates of the conquest of Tenerife are established between 1494 (landing of Alonso Fernández de Lugo) and 1496 (the complete conquest of the island), attempts to annex the island of Tenerife to the [[Crown of Castile]] date back at least to 1464.<ref name="Antonio">{{cite book|last=Rumeu de Armas|first=Antonio |title=La Conquista de Tenerife (1494–1496) |edition=1st |year=1975 |publisher=Aula de Cultura de Tenerife |isbn=84-500-7108-9 |chapter=VI-XIII-XV |pages= 155–171; 291–294; 350–354 }}</ref>

In 1464, [[Diego Garcia de Herrera]], Lord of the Canary Islands, took symbolic possession of the island in the ''Barranco del Bufadero'' (Ravine of the Bufadero),<ref name="Schwartz1994">{{cite book|author=Eduardo Aznar Vallejo|editor=Stuart B. Schwartz|title=Implicit Understandings: Observing, Reporting and Reflecting on the Encounters Between Europeans and Other Peoples in the Early Modern Era|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wtUGwJwEQ7UC&pg=PA144|year= 1994|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-45880-1|page=144|chapter=Conquests of the Canary Islands}}</ref> signing a peace treaty with the Guanche chiefs (''menceyes'') which allowed the ''mencey'' Anaga to build a fortified tower on Guanche land, where the Guanches and the Spanish held periodic treaty talks until the Guanches demolished it around 1472.<ref name="Armas197574">{{cite book|author=Antonio Rumeu de Armas|title=La conquista de Tenerife, 1494–1496|url=http://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/44128|year=1975|publisher=Aula de Cultura de Tenerife|language=es|pages=74, 76|chapter=Planes de Dominación Política|access-date=5 November 2016|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301154146/https://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/44128|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1492 the governor of Gran Canaria Francisco Maldonado organized a raid that ended in disaster for the Spaniards when they were defeated by Anaga's warriors. In December 1493, the Catholic monarchs, Queen Isabella I of Castile and King Ferdinand II of Aragon, granted [[Alonso Fernández de Lugo]] the right to conquer Tenerife. Coming from [[Gran Canaria]] in April 1494, the conqueror landed on the coast of present-day Santa Cruz de Tenerife in May, and disembarked with about 2,000 men on foot and 200 on horseback.<ref name="Armas1975177">{{cite book|author=Antonio Rumeu de Armas|title=La conquista de Tenerife, 1494–1496|url=http://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/44128|year=1975|publisher=Aula de Cultura de Tenerife|language=es|page=177|chapter=La Primera Entrada|access-date=5 November 2016|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301154146/https://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/44128|url-status=dead}}</ref> After taking the fort, the army prepared to move inland, later capturing the native kings of Tenerife and presenting them to [[Catholic Monarchs|Isabella and Ferdinand]].

The ''menceyes'' of Tenerife had differing responses to the conquest. They divided into the ''side of peace'' ({{lang-es|bando de paz|links=no}}) and the ''side of war'' ({{lang-es|bando de guerra|links=no}}). The first included the ''menceyatos'' of Anaga, Güímar, Abona and Adeje. The second group consisted of the people of Tegueste, Tacoronte, Taoro, Icoden and Daute. Those opposed to the conquest fought the invaders tenaciously, resisting their rule for two years. Castillian forces under the ''[[Adelantado]]'' ("military governor") de Lugo suffered a crushing defeat at the hands of the Guanches in the [[First Battle of Acentejo]] on 31 May 1494, but defeated them at the [[Second Battle of Acentejo]] on 25 December 1494. The Guanches were eventually overcome by superior technology and the arms of the invaders, and surrendered to the Crown of Castile in 1496.<ref name="Armas1975278">{{cite book|author=Antonio Rumeu de Armas|title=La conquista de Tenerife, 1494–1496|url=http://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/44128|year=1975|publisher=Aula de Cultura de Tenerife|language=es|page=278|chapter=La Victoria de Acentejo|access-date=5 November 2016|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301154146/https://mdc.ulpgc.es/cdm/ref/collection/MDC/id/44128|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Spanish rule ===
Many of the natives died from new infectious diseases, such as [[influenza]] and probably [[smallpox]], to which they lacked resistance or acquired [[immunity (medical)|immunity]]. The new colonists intermarried with the local native population. For a century after the conquest, many new colonists settled on the island, including immigrants from the diverse territories of the growing [[Iberian Union|Spanish Empire]], such as [[Flanders]], Italy, and Germany.

As the population grew, it cleared Tenerife's pine forests for fuel and to make fields for agriculture for crops both for local consumption and for export. [[Sugar cane]] was introduced in the 1520s as a commodity crop on major plantations; it was a labor-intensive crop in all phases of cultivation and processing. In the following centuries, planters cultivated wine grapes, [[cochineal]] for making dyes, and [[Plantain (cooking)|plantains]] for use and export.<ref name="naturaycultura">{{cite book |last=Hernández|first=Pedro|title=Natura y Cultura de las Islas Canarias|publisher= Tafor|year=2003|isbn=978-84-932758-0-8}}</ref>

=== Trade with the Americas ===
[[File:Amaro Pargo.jpg|thumb|[[Amaro Pargo]] (1678–1741), [[Privateer|corsair]] and merchant from Tenerife who participated in the [[Spanish treasure fleet]] (the Spanish-American trade route)]]
In the commerce of the Canary Islands with the Americas of the 18th century, Tenerife was the hegemonic island, since it exceeded 50% of the number of ships and 60% of the tonnage. In the islands of [[La Palma]] and [[Gran Canaria]], the percentage was around 19% for the first and 7% for the second.<ref name="canariascnnews.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.canariascnnews.com/index.php/mirador/canarias/item/1721-el-comercio-canario-americano-en-el-siglo-xviii-i-parte|title=El comercio canario-americano en el siglo XVIII (I parte)|website=canariascnnews.com|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180707091632/http://www.canariascnnews.com/index.php/mirador/canarias/item/1721-el-comercio-canario-americano-en-el-siglo-xviii-i-parte|archive-date=7 July 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> The volume of traffic between the Indies and the Canary Islands was unknown, but was very important and concentrated almost exclusively in Tenerife.<ref name="canariascnnews.com"/>

Among the products that are exported were [[cochineal]], [[rum]] and [[sugar cane]], which were landed mainly in the ports of the Americas such as [[La Guaira]], [[Havana]], [[Campeche]] and [[Veracruz]]. Many sailors from Tenerife joined this transcontinental maritime trade, among which the corsair [[Amaro Rodríguez Felipe]], more commonly known as ''Amaro Pargo'', Juan Pedro Dujardín and Bernardo de Espinosa, both companions of Amaro Pargo, among others.<ref name="DocsAmaro">{{Cite book| publisher = Archivo Histórico Provincial de Santa Cruz de Tenerife| isbn = 978-84-7947-637-3| last1 = De Paz Sánchez| first1 = Manuel| last2 = García Pulido| first2 = Daniel| others = Francisco Javier Macías Martín (ed.)| title = El corsario de Dios. Documentos sobre Amaro Rodríguez Felipe (1678–1747)| location = Canarias| series = Documentos para la Historia de Canarias| access-date = 8 June 2016| date = 2015| url = https://www.researchgate.net/publication/291148031}}</ref>

=== Emigration to the Americas ===

Tenerife, like the other islands, has maintained a close relationship with Latin America, as both were part of the Spanish Empire. From the start of the colonization of the [[New World]], many Spanish expeditions stopped at the island for supplies on their way to the Americas. They also recruited many ''tinerfeños'' for their crews, who formed an integral part of the conquest expeditions. Others joined ships in search of better prospects. It is also important to note the exchange in plant and animal species that made those voyages.<ref name="emigracion">{{in lang|es}} [http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/educacion/culturacanaria/emigracion/La_emigracion_canaria.htm "Emigration to the Americas throughout history"], Gobierno de Canarias</ref>

After a century and a half of relative growth, based on the [[Vitis|grape growing]] sector, numerous families emigrated, especially to [[Venezuela]] and [[Cuba]]. The [[Crown of Castile|Crown]] wanted to encourage population of underdeveloped zones in the Americas to pre-empt the occupation by foreign forces, as had happened with the English in [[Jamaica]] and the French in the [[French Guiana|Guianas]] and western [[Hispaniola]] (which the French renamed as Saint-Domingue). Canary Islanders, including many ''tinerfeños,'' left for the New World.

The success in cultivation of new crops of the Americas, such as [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]] in Venezuela and tobacco in Cuba, contributed to the population exodus from towns such as Buenavista del Norte, Vilaflor, or El Sauzal in the late 17th century. The village of [[San Carlos de Tenerife]] was founded in 1684 by Canary Islanders on [[Santo Domingo]]. The people from Tenerife were recruited for settlement to build up the town from encroachment by French colonists established in the western side of Hispaniola. Between 1720 and 1730, the Crown moved 176 families, including many ''tinerfeños,'' to the Caribbean island of [[Puerto Rico]]. In 1726, about 25 island families migrated to the Americas to collaborate on the foundation of [[Montevideo]]. Four years later, in 1730, another group left that founded [[San Antonio]] the following year in what became [[Texas]]. Between 1777 and 1783, more islanders emigrated from Santa Cruz de Tenerife to settle in what became [[St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana]], during the period when Spain ruled this former French territory west of the Mississippi River. Some groups went to Western or Spanish Florida.<ref name="emigracion"/>

Tenerife saw the arrival of the [[First Fleet]] to [[Botany Bay]] in June 1787, which consisted of 11 ships that departed from Portsmouth, England, on 13 May 1787 to found the penal colony that became the first European settlement in Australia. The Fleet consisted of two Royal Navy vessels, three store ships and six [[convict ship]]s carrying between 1,000 and 1,500 convicts, marines, seamen, civil officers and free people (accounts differ on the numbers), and a vast quantity of stores. On 3 June 1787, the fleet anchored at Santa Cruz at Tenerife. Here, fresh water, vegetables and meat were brought on board. Commander of the fleet, Capt. [[Arthur Phillip]] and the chief officers were entertained by the local governor, while one convict tried unsuccessfully to escape. On 10 June they set sail to cross the Atlantic to Rio de Janeiro, taking advantage of favourable trade winds and ocean currents.

In June 1799, the Prussian-born naturalist [[Alexander von Humboldt]] spent five full days on Tenerife on the first leg of his soon world-famous American journey (1799–1804) and climbed the Pico del Teide.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Daum |first=Andreas W. |title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 |location=Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J. |pages=61}}</ref>

Emigration to the Americas (mainly Cuba and Venezuela) continued during the 19th and early 20th century, due to the lack of economic opportunity and the relative isolation of the Canary Islands. Since the late 20th century, island protectionist economic laws and a strong development in the tourism industry have strengthened the economy and attracted new migrants. Tenerife has received numerous new residents, including the "return" of many descendants of some islanders who had departed five centuries before.<ref name="emigracion"/>

=== Military history ===
[[File:Sir Horatio Nelson when wounded at Teneriffe.jpg|thumb|right|Admiral Nelson wounded at Tenerife]]
The most notable conflict was the [[Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife (1797)|British invasion of Tenerife]] in 1797.<ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://www.ejercito.mde.es/ihycm/index-total.html?http://www.ejercito.mde.es/ihycm/chycm/canarias/museo.htm Instituto de Historia y Cultura Militar de Canarias] {{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> On 25 July 1797, Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]] launched an attack at Santa Cruz de Tenerife, now the capital of the island. After a ferocious fight which resulted in many casualties, General [[Antonio Gutiérrez de Otero y Santayana]] organized a defense to repel the invaders. Whilst leading a landing party, Nelson was seriously wounded in his right arm by grapeshot or a musket ball, necessitating amputation of most of the arm.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://aboutnelson.co.uk/health.htm|title=Nelson's Health|website=aboutnelson.co.uk|access-date=2017-03-14}}</ref> Legend tells that he was wounded by the Spanish cannon ''Tiger'' ({{lang-es|Tigre|links=no}}) as he was trying to disembark on the Paso Alto coast.<ref name="naturaycultura"/>

On 5 September 1797, the British attempted another attack in the Puerto Santiago region, which was repelled by the inhabitants of [[Santiago del Teide]]. Some threw rocks at the British from the heights of the cliffs of ''[[Los Gigantes]].''

The island was also attacked by British commanders [[Robert Blake (admiral)|Robert Blake]], [[Walter Raleigh]], [[John Hawkins (naval commander)|John Hawkins]] and [[Woodes Rogers]].<ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://www.vierayclavijo.org/html/paginas/cursos/cursos_2005/0505_masca/masca_05.htm Asociación canaria para la enseñanza de las ciencias- Viera y Clavijo]</ref>

=== Modern history ===
From 1833 to 1927, Santa Cruz de Tenerife was the sole capital of the Canary Islands. In 1927, the government ordered that the capital be shared with [[Las Palmas]], as it remains at present.<ref name="es.wikisource.org"/><ref name="gobiernodecanarias.org"/> This change in status has encouraged development in Las Palmas.

Tourists began visiting Tenerife from Spain, the United Kingdom, and northern Europe in large numbers in the 1890s. They especially were attracted to the destinations of the northern towns of [[Puerto de la Cruz, Santa Cruz de Tenerife|Puerto de la Cruz]] and Santa Cruz de Tenerife.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puertodelacruz.es/puerto/front_end/articulo.php?id_Art=123&idioma=1|title=Página web Ayuntamiento Puerto de la Cruz|work=puertodelacruz.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070303034305/http://www.puertodelacruz.es/puerto/front_end/articulo.php?id_Art=123|archive-date=3 March 2007}}</ref> Independent shipping business, such as the Yeoward Brothers Shipping Line, helped boost the tourist industry during this time, adding to ships that carried passengers.<ref>{{cite web|title=Linked with the island's|url=http://www.tenerifenews.org.es/2013/08/linked-with-the-islands/|work=[[Tenerife News]]|access-date=3 September 2016|date=24 August 2013}}</ref> The naturalist [[Alexander von Humboldt]] ascended the peak of Mount Teide and remarked on the beauty of the island.

Before his rise to power, [[Francisco Franco]] was posted to Tenerife in March 1936 by a Republican government wary of his influence and political leanings. However, Franco received information and in Gran Canaria agreed to collaborate in the military coup that would result in the [[Spanish Civil War]]; the Canaries fell to the Nationalists in July 1936. In the 1950s, the misery of the post-war years caused thousands of the island's inhabitants to emigrate to [[Cuba]] and other parts of Latin America.

Tenerife was the site of the deadliest accident ever in commercial aviation. The [[Tenerife airport disaster]] occurred on 27 March 1977 when two [[Boeing 747]]s, [[KLM]] Flight 4805 and [[Pan Am]] Flight 1736 collided on the runway at [[Tenerife North Airport|Los Rodeos Airport]] in heavy fog conditions, causing the deaths of 583 passengers and crew. A few years later, [[Dan Air Flight 1008]] crashed into a mountain while on approach to Tenerife North, killing 146 people. The plane was travelling too close to an Iberia Air turboprop plane and was asked to go into a holding pattern.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19800425-0&lang=en | title=ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 727-46 G-BDAN Esperanzo Forest }}</ref>

At the beginning of the 21st century, the so-called ''[[Riada de Tenerife of 2002]]'' took place on 31 March of that year. It was a phenomenon of cold drop characterized by the repeated fall of torrential rains accompanied by thunder and lightning, affecting the [[metropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] and extending in the NE direction towards the [[San Andrés, Santa Cruz de Tenerife|San Andrés]] area.<ref>[http://www.eldia.es/2002-04-01/actualidad/actualidad1.htm Noticia sobre las lluvias torrenciales], diario [[El Día (Canarias)|El Día]]</ref> The rains caused 8 dead, 12 missing and dozens of injured.<ref>[http://www.eldia.es/2002-04-09/actualidad/actualidad1.htm Ya son OCHO los muertos]. [[El Día (Canarias)|El Día]]. 9 April 2011</ref> In addition to the human losses, the flood caused considerable material damage, 70,000 people without light as well as the total or partial destruction of at least 400 homes. The losses were calculated at 90 million euros.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.atan.org/varios/31m/index.htm |title=ATAN Riada del 31 de marzo de 2002 |access-date=1 November 2018 |archive-date=11 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411165326/http://www.atan.org/varios/31m/index.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In November 2005, Tenerife was the Canary Island most affected by [[Tropical Storm Delta (2005)|Tropical Storm Delta]]. Winds of 140 km/h were recorded on the coast and almost 250 km/h on the [[Teide]], Tenerife's summit.

== Geography ==
[[File:Palm Tree Canyon.JPG|thumb|Palm tree canyon in inland Tenerife]]

The oldest mountain ranges in Tenerife rose from the Atlantic Ocean by volcanic eruption which gave birth to the island around twelve million years ago.<ref name="Origin about">{{cite web |title=Universities in Tenerife |url=https://www.donquijote.org/blog/top-10-spanish-university-cities/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206065909/https://www.donquijote.org/blog/top-10-spanish-university-cities/ |archive-date=6 February 2023 |access-date=6 February 2023 |website=don Quijote |publisher=Tyson}}</ref> The island as it is today was formed three million years ago by the fusion of three islands made up of the mountain ranges of [[Anaga]], [[Macizo de Teno|Teno]] and [[Valle de San Lorenzo]],<ref name="Origin about"/> due to volcanic activity from [[Teide]]. The volcano is visible from most parts of the island today, and the crater is {{convert|17|km|0|abbr=off}} long at some points. Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands and the [[Macaronesia]] region.<ref name="catalogo.museosdetenerife.org"/>

=== Climate ===

Tenerife is characterized by a generally dry, warm climate. The island has 2 main different climatic areas (as by [[Köppen climate classification]]) yet it actually has 5 different climatic areas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Valores climatológicos normales. Canarias|url=https://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos#tab2|access-date=2021-12-22|publisher=[[AEMET]]|language=es}}</ref>

Global climate change has had a major impact on the island, with diminishing rainfall and hot, dry winds affecting vegetation and contributing to an increasing propensity to being subject to forest fires. On August 15, 2023, a forest fire determined to be caused by arson necessitated the evacuation of 12,000 residents within a week.<ref>[https://apnews.com/article/spain-wildfire-tenerife-climate-canary-islands-heat-85f9b289e77a7d9f9e906c4176181295 Wildfire on Spain’s popular tourist island of Tenerife was started deliberately, official says], ''[[Associated Press]]'', Arturo Rodriguez and Ciaran Giles, August 21, 2023. Retrieved August 22, 2023.</ref>

The main climates are the hot semi-arid/arid climate (Köppen: ''BSh'' and ''BWh'') and the [[subtropical climate|subtropical]] [[Mediterranean Climate]] (Köppen: ''Csb'' and ''Csa'') inland or at higher altitudes. The low altitude/coastal areas of the island have average temperatures of {{convert|18|-|20|C|F|0}} in the winter months and {{convert|24|-|26|C|F|0}} in the summer months. There is a high annual total of days of sunshine and low precipitation in the coastal areas. The inland/high altitude areas, such as [[La Laguna]], receive much more precipitation and are generally cloudier, as well as the temperatures have a considerable difference, with an average of {{convert|13|-|14|C|F|0}} in the winter and {{convert|20|-|21|C|F|0}} in the summer. The moderate climate of Tenerife is controlled to a great extent by the [[trade winds]], whose [[humidity]] is condensed principally over the north and northeast of the island, creating cloud banks that range between {{convert|600|and|1,800|m|ft|abbr=off}} in height. The cold sea currents of the Canary Islands also have a cooling effect on the coasts and its beaches, while the topography of the landscape plays a role in climatic differences on the island with its many valleys. The moderating effect of the marine air makes extreme heat a rare occurrence and frost an impossibility at sea level. The lowest recorded temperature in central Santa Cruz is {{convert|8.1|C|F|1}}, the coldest month on record still had a relatively mild average temperature of {{convert|15.8|C|F|1}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aemet.es/en/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/efemerides_extremos*?w=0&k=coo&l=C449C&datos=det&x=C449C&m=13&v=TMB|title=Santa Cruz All Time Records|publisher=Aemet.es|access-date=10 December 2015}}</ref> Summer temperatures are highest in August, with an average high of {{convert|29|C|F}} in Santa Cruz, similar to those of places as far north as [[Barcelona]] and [[Majorca]], because of the greater maritime influence. At a higher elevation in [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]], the climate transitions to a [[Mediterranean climate]] with higher precipitation amounts and lower temperatures year round. The climate of Santa Cruz is very typical of the Canaries, albeit only slightly warmer than the [[Las Palmas#Climate|climate]] of Las Palmas.

Major climatic contrasts on the island are evident, especially during the winter months when it is possible to enjoy the warm sunshine on the coast and experience snow within kilometres, {{convert|3000|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]] on El [[Teide]].<ref name=islaaisla>{{cite book | last = González Morales | first = Alejandro | title = Canarias isla a isla (clima) | publisher = Centro de la Cultura Popular Canaria| year = 2000 | isbn = 84-7926-357-1}}</ref> There are also major contrasts at low altitude, where the climate ranges from [[arid climate|arid]] ([[Köppen climate classification|Köppen]] ''BWh'') on the southeastern side represented by Santa Cruz de Tenerife to [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean]] (''Csa''/''Csb'') on the northwestern side in Buena Vista del Norte and La Orotava.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Zonas/Santa%20Cruz%20Laguna/Mas%20sobre%20Tenerife/Geografia/Climatologia/Contraste%20norte-sur.htm?Lang=es&sig=true|title=Turismo Tenerife: Alojamiento, Carnaval, Actividades... – Tenerife|work=webtenerife.com|access-date=18 April 2017}} {{Dead link|date=January 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

The center of the island is characterized by forests because of the much higher precipitation, mostly [[Canary Island pine]] forests in the [[Teide National Park]] at altitudes from {{convert|1300|to|2100|m|ft}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://biogeografia.net/geobotanica73a.html|title=Bosques de gimnospermas de Canarias|work=Bio Geografía|publisher=biogeografia.net|access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref> [[Subtropical]] [[cloud forests]] characterised by [[laurisilva]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://viajes.nationalgeographic.com.es/a/tenerife-laurisilva-mucho-mas-que-sol-y-playa_14496|title=EL TENERIFE DE LA LAURISILVA, MUCHO MÁS QUE SOL Y PLAYA|work=[[National Geographic (magazine)|National Geographic]]|author=Travel by [[National Geographic]]|date=14 August 2019|access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref> are commonly found in the Anaga National Park and Monte de Agua in the Teno Rural Park, with altitudes from {{convert|600|to|1000|m|ft}} and annual averages from {{convert|15|to|19|C|F}} and {{convert|600|to|1200|m|ft}} in the latter.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://miviaje.com/descubre-bosques-laurisilva-tenerife/|title=Descubre los bosques de laurisilva de Tenerife|publisher=miviaje.com|author=David Díaz, historian at the [[University of Barcelona]]|date=5 February 2020|access-date=3 February 2022}}</ref>

The north and south of Tenerife similarly have different climatic characteristics because of the [[rain shadow]] effect. The windward northwestern side of the island receives 73 percent of all precipitation on the island, and the relative humidity of the air is superior and the insolation inferior. The pluviometric maximums are registered on the windward side at an average altitude of between {{convert|1000|and|1,200|m|ft|abbr=off}}, almost exclusively in the [[La Orotava]] mountain range.<ref name=islaaisla/> Although climatic differences in rainfall and sunshine on the island exist, overall annual [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] is low and the summer months from May to September are normally completely dry. Rainfall, similar to that of [[Southern California]], can also be extremely erratic from one year to another.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/docs/00/49/82/26/PDF/camberlin_CR_revised.pdf |title=More variable tropical climates have a slower demographic growth |publisher=Hal.archives-ouvertes.fr |access-date=2012-09-19}}</ref>{{Weather box
| location = [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] (1981–2010), Extremes (1920–present)
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| Jan record high C = 28.4
| Feb record high C = 31.2
| Mar record high C = 35.4
| Apr record high C = 35.2
| May record high C = 36.4
| Jun record high C = 37.1
| Jul record high C = 42.6
| Aug record high C = 40.4
| Sep record high C = 39.3
| Oct record high C = 38.1
| Nov record high C = 34.0
| Dec record high C = 28.2
| year record high C = 42.6
| Jan high C = 21.0
| Feb high C = 21.2
| Mar high C = 22.1
| Apr high C = 22.7
| May high C = 24.1
| Jun high C = 26.2
| Jul high C = 28.7
| Aug high C = 29.0
| Sep high C = 28.1
| Oct high C = 26.3
| Nov high C = 24.1
| Dec high C = 22.1
| year high C = 24.6
| Jan mean C = 18.2
| Feb mean C = 18.3
| Mar mean C = 19.0
| Apr mean C = 19.7
| May mean C = 21.0
| Jun mean C = 22.9
| Jul mean C = 25.0
| Aug mean C = 25.5
| Sep mean C = 24.9
| Oct mean C = 23.4
| Nov mean C = 21.3
| Dec mean C = 19.4
| year mean C = 21.5
| Jan low C = 15.4
| Feb low C = 15.3
| Mar low C = 15.9
| Apr low C = 16.5
| May low C = 17.8
| Jun low C = 19.5
| Jul low C = 21.2
| Aug low C = 21.9
| Sep low C = 21.7
| Oct low C = 20.3
| Nov low C = 18.4
| Dec low C = 16.6
| year low C = 18.4
| Jan record low C = 9.4
| Feb record low C = 8.1
| Mar record low C = 9.5
| Apr record low C = 9.4
| May record low C = 12.0
| Jun record low C = 13.4
| Jul record low C = 16.5
| Aug record low C = 14.6
| Sep record low C = 16.5
| Oct record low C = 14.6
| Nov record low C = 10.1
| Dec record low C = 10.0
| year record low C = 8.1
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 31.5
| Feb rain mm = 35.4
| Mar rain mm = 37.8
| Apr rain mm = 11.6
| May rain mm = 3.6
| Jun rain mm = 0.9
| Jul rain mm = 0.1
| Aug rain mm = 2.0
| Sep rain mm = 6.8
| Oct rain mm = 18.7
| Nov rain mm = 34.1
| Dec rain mm = 43.2
| Jan rain days = 8.0
| Feb rain days = 7.2
| Mar rain days = 6.9
| Apr rain days = 5.5
| May rain days = 2.9
| Jun rain days = 0.9
| Jul rain days = 0.2
| Aug rain days = 0.8
| Sep rain days = 2.7
| Oct rain days = 6.1
| Nov rain days = 8.8
| Dec rain days = 9.4
| unit rain days = 1.0 mm
| Jan humidity = 64
| Feb humidity = 65
| Mar humidity = 62
| Apr humidity = 61
| May humidity = 61
| Jun humidity = 61
| Jul humidity = 58
| Aug humidity = 60
| Sep humidity = 64
| Oct humidity = 66
| Nov humidity = 65
| Dec humidity = 66
| year humidity =
| Jan sun = 178
| Feb sun = 186
| Mar sun = 221
| Apr sun = 237
| May sun = 282
| Jun sun = 306
| Jul sun = 337
| Aug sun = 319
| Sep sun = 253
| Oct sun = 222
| Nov sun = 178
| Dec sun = 168
| source 1 = [[Agencia Estatal de Meteorología]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aemet.es/en/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l=C449C&k=coo|title=Valores Climatológicos Normales. Santa Cruz De Tenerife}}</ref>
| source 2 = [[Agencia Estatal de Meteorología]]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/efemerides_extremos?w=0&k=coo&l=C449C&datos=det
|title=Valores Climatológicos Extremos. Santa Cruz de Tenerife
}}</ref>
| date = February 2016
}}{{Weather box
| location = [[Tenerife South Airport]] (1981–2010), Extremes (1980–present)
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| Jan record high C = 29.3
| Feb record high C = 30.0
| Mar record high C = 34.0
| Apr record high C = 35.6
| May record high C = 37.7
| Jun record high C = 36.2
| Jul record high C = 42.9
| Aug record high C = 44.3
| Sep record high C = 41.8
| Oct record high C = 37.0
| Nov record high C = 35.2
| Dec record high C = 30.0
| year record high C = 44.3
| Jan high C = 21.7
| Feb high C = 22.0
| Mar high C = 23.1
| Apr high C = 23.1
| May high C = 23.9
| Jun high C = 25.4
| Jul high C = 27.7
| Aug high C = 28.4
| Sep high C = 27.9
| Oct high C = 26.8
| Nov high C = 24.8
| Dec high C = 22.8
| year high C = 24.8
| Jan mean C = 18.4
| Feb mean C = 18.5
| Mar mean C = 19.3
| Apr mean C = 19.5
| May mean C = 20.4
| Jun mean C = 22.1
| Jul mean C = 24.0
| Aug mean C = 24.7
| Sep mean C = 24.5
| Oct mean C = 23.4
| Nov mean C = 21.5
| Dec mean C = 19.7
| year mean C = 21.4
| Jan low C = 15.2
| Feb low C = 15.0
| Mar low C = 15.6
| Apr low C = 16.0
| May low C = 17.0
| Jun low C = 18.8
| Jul low C = 20.2
| Aug low C = 21.1
| Sep low C = 21.1
| Oct low C = 20.0
| Nov low C = 18.2
| Dec low C = 16.5
| year low C = 17.9
| Jan record low C = 9.0
| Feb record low C = 9.8
| Mar record low C = 9.6
| Apr record low C = 12.2
| May record low C = 13.0
| Jun record low C = 14.6
| Jul record low C = 16.8
| Aug record low C = 17.1
| Sep record low C = 16.6
| Oct record low C = 14.8
| Nov record low C = 12.0
| Dec record low C = 10.4
| year record low C = 9.0
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 16.6
| Feb rain mm = 19.9
| Mar rain mm = 14.7
| Apr rain mm = 7.4
| May rain mm = 1.1
| Jun rain mm = 0.1
| Jul rain mm = 0.1
| Aug rain mm = 1.3
| Sep rain mm = 3.6
| Oct rain mm = 11.9
| Nov rain mm = 26.3
| Dec rain mm = 30.3
| Jan rain days = 1.8
| Feb rain days = 2.2
| Mar rain days = 1.9
| Apr rain days = 1.1
| May rain days = 0.3
| Jun rain days = 0.0
| Jul rain days = 0.0
| Aug rain days = 0.2
| Sep rain days = 0.6
| Oct rain days = 1.6
| Nov rain days = 1.9
| Dec rain days = 3.5
| unit rain days = 1.0 mm
| Jan humidity = 62
| Feb humidity = 64
| Mar humidity = 63
| Apr humidity = 65
| May humidity = 66
| Jun humidity = 68
| Jul humidity = 65
| Aug humidity = 67
| Sep humidity = 68
| Oct humidity = 67
| Nov humidity = 64
| Dec humidity = 66
| year humidity =
| Jan sun = 193
| Feb sun = 195
| Mar sun = 226
| Apr sun = 219
| May sun = 246
| Jun sun = 259
| Jul sun = 295
| Aug sun = 277
| Sep sun = 213
| Oct sun = 214
| Nov sun = 193
| Dec sun = 195
| source 1 = [[Agencia Estatal de Meteorología]]<ref name="aemet.es">{{cite web|url=http://www.aemet.es/en/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l=C429I&k=coo|title=Standard Climate Values. Tenerife Sur Aeropuerto }}</ref>
| source 2 = [[Agencia Estatal de Meteorología]]<ref name="aemet">{{cite web
|url=http://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/efemerides_extremos?w=0&k=coo&l=C429I&datos=det
|title=Valores Climatológicos Extremos. Tenerife Sur Aeropuerto
}}</ref>
| date = February 2016
}}{{Weather box
| location = [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]] – [[Tenerife North Airport]] (altitude: {{convert|632|m|abbr=off}})
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| collapsed = yes
| Jan record high C = 25.6
| Feb record high C = 26.9
| Mar record high C = 33.2
| Apr record high C = 33.0
| May record high C = 37.6
| Jun record high C = 37.9
| Jul record high C = 41.4
| Aug record high C = 41.2
| Sep record high C = 38.0
| Oct record high C = 33.2
| Nov record high C = 31.0
| Dec record high C = 25.2
| year record high C = 41.4
| Jan high C = 16.0
| Feb high C = 16.7
| Mar high C = 18.2
| Apr high C = 18.5
| May high C = 20.1
| Jun high C = 22.2
| Jul high C = 24.7
| Aug high C = 25.7
| Sep high C = 24.9
| Oct high C = 22.5
| Nov high C = 19.7
| Dec high C = 17.1
| year high C = 20.5
| Jan mean C = 13.1
| Feb mean C = 13.4
| Mar mean C = 14.5
| Apr mean C = 14.7
| May mean C = 16.1
| Jun mean C = 18.1
| Jul mean C = 20.2
| Aug mean C = 21.2
| Sep mean C = 20.7
| Oct mean C = 18.9
| Nov mean C = 16.5
| Dec mean C = 14.3
| year mean C = 16.8
| Jan low C = 10.2
| Feb low C = 10.0
| Mar low C = 10.7
| Apr low C = 10.9
| May low C = 12.0
| Jun low C = 14.0
| Jul low C = 15.7
| Aug low C = 16.6
| Sep low C = 16.5
| Oct low C = 15.2
| Nov low C = 13.3
| Dec low C = 11.5
| year low C = 13.0
| Jan record low C = 3.2
| Feb record low C = 3.4
| Mar record low C = 2.0
| Apr record low C = 4.2
| May record low C = 6.0
| Jun record low C = 8.5
| Jul record low C = 8.5
| Aug record low C = 7.0
| Sep record low C = 9.2
| Oct record low C = 6.8
| Nov record low C = 6.2
| Dec record low C = 3.5
| year record low C = 2.0
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 80
| Feb rain mm = 70
| Mar rain mm = 61
| Apr rain mm = 39
| May rain mm = 19
| Jun rain mm = 11
| Jul rain mm = 6
| Aug rain mm = 5
| Sep rain mm = 16
| Oct rain mm = 47
| Nov rain mm = 81
| Dec rain mm = 82
| Jan humidity = 76
| Feb humidity = 75
| Mar humidity = 71
| Apr humidity = 74
| May humidity = 72
| Jun humidity = 73
| Jul humidity = 69
| Aug humidity = 69
| Sep humidity = 71
| Oct humidity = 74
| Nov humidity = 75
| Dec humidity = 79
| year humidity = 73
| Jan rain days = 11
| Feb rain days = 10
| Mar rain days = 10
| Apr rain days = 10
| May rain days = 7
| Jun rain days = 4
| Jul rain days = 3
| Aug rain days = 3
| Sep rain days = 5
| Oct rain days = 10
| Nov rain days = 10
| Dec rain days = 12
| unit rain days = 1.0 mm
| Jan sun = 150
| Feb sun = 168
| Mar sun = 188
| Apr sun = 203
| May sun = 234
| Jun sun = 237
| Jul sun = 262
| Aug sun = 269
| Sep sun = 213
| Oct sun = 194
| Nov sun = 155
| Dec sun = 137
| year sun = 2410
| source 1 = [[Agencia Estatal de Meteorología]]<ref name="aemet.es2">{{cite web|url=http://www.aemet.es/en/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l=C447A&k=coo|title=Standard Climate Values. Tenerife Norte Aeropuerto }}
</ref> (1981–2010)
| source 2 = [[Agencia Estatal de Meteorología]]<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.aemet.es/es/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/efemerides_extremos?w=0&k=coo&l=C447A&datos=det
|title=Valores Climatológicos Extremos. Tenerife Norte Aeropuerto
}}</ref>
| date = February 2016
}}{{Weather box
| location = Izaña [[Teide Observatory]] (altitude: {{convert|2371|m|abbr=off}})
| metric first = yes
| single line = yes
| collapsed = yes
| Jan high C = 7.5
| Feb high C = 8.0
| Mar high C = 10.2
| Apr high C = 11.8
| May high C = 14.5
| Jun high C = 18.9
| Jul high C = 23.0
| Aug high C = 22.6
| Sep high C = 18.6
| Oct high C = 14.3
| Nov high C = 11.1
| Dec high C = 8.8
| year high C =
| Jan mean C = 4.3
| Feb mean C = 4.7
| Mar mean C = 6.4
| Apr mean C = 7.6
| May mean C = 10.1
| Jun mean C = 14.4
| Jul mean C = 18.5
| Aug mean C = 18.2
| Sep mean C = 14.5
| Oct mean C = 10.6
| Nov mean C = 7.8
| Dec mean C = 5.6
| year mean C =
| Jan low C = 1.1
| Feb low C = 1.3
| Mar low C = 2.7
| Apr low C = 3.5
| May low C = 5.8
| Jun low C = 9.9
| Jul low C = 14.0
| Aug low C = 13.8
| Sep low C = 10.4
| Oct low C = 6.9
| Nov low C = 4.5
| Dec low C = 2.4
| year low C =
| rain colour = green
| Jan rain mm = 47
| Feb rain mm = 67
| Mar rain mm = 58
| Apr rain mm = 18
| May rain mm = 7
| Jun rain mm = 0
| Jul rain mm = 0
| Aug rain mm = 5
| Sep rain mm = 13
| Oct rain mm = 37
| Nov rain mm = 54
| Dec rain mm = 60
| Jan rain days = 4.5
| Feb rain days = 4.0
| Mar rain days = 4.1
| Apr rain days = 2.7
| May rain days = 1.1
| Jun rain days = 0.2
| Jul rain days = 0.1
| Aug rain days = 0.5
| Sep rain days = 1.6
| Oct rain days = 3.7
| Nov rain days = 4.4
| Dec rain days = 5.6
| unit rain days = 1.0 mm
| Jan humidity = 50
| Feb humidity = 54
| Mar humidity = 48
| Apr humidity = 45
| May humidity = 40
| Jun humidity = 32
| Jul humidity = 25
| Aug humidity = 30
| Sep humidity = 43
| Oct humidity = 55
| Nov humidity = 54
| Dec humidity = 52
| year humidity =
| Jan sun = 226
| Feb sun = 223
| Mar sun = 260
| Apr sun = 294
| May sun = 356
| Jun sun = 382
| Jul sun = 382
| Aug sun = 358
| Sep sun = 295
| Oct sun = 259
| Nov sun = 220
| Dec sun = 218
| year sun =
| source 1 = Agencia Estatal de Meteorología<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aemet.es/en/serviciosclimaticos/datosclimatologicos/valoresclimatologicos?l=C430E&k=coo|title=Standard Climate Values. Izaña }}</ref> (1981–2010)
| date = March 2018
}}{{Weather box
|location = Vilaflor (altitude: {{convert|1378|m|abbr=off}}
|metric first = yes
|single line = yes
|collapsed = yes
|Jan high C = 13.5
|Feb high C = 14.4
|Mar high C = 16.0
|Apr high C = 16.1
|May high C = 18.3
|Jun high C = 21.2
|Jul high C = 27.4
|Aug high C = 27.9
|Sep high C = 23.5
|Oct high C = 18.7
|Nov high C = 16.0
|Dec high C = 14.5
|year high C = 19.0
|Jan mean C= 9.4
|Feb mean C= 10.2
|Mar mean C= 11.7
|Apr mean C= 11.9
|May mean C= 13.8
|Jun mean C= 16.7
|Jul mean C= 22.7
|Aug mean C= 23.0
|Sep mean C= 19.2
|Oct mean C= 14.4
|Nov mean C= 11.4
|Dec mean C= 10.0
|year mean C= 14.7
|Jan low C = 5.4
|Feb low C = 6.0
|Mar low C = 7.3
|Apr low C = 7.2
|May low C = 9.5
|Jun low C = 12.2
|Jul low C = 18.0
|Aug low C = 18.5
|Sep low C = 14.8
|Oct low C = 10.4
|Nov low C = 8.2
|Dec low C = 7.0
|year low C = 10.2
|precipitation colour = green
|Jan precipitation mm = 49.4
|Feb precipitation mm = 51.2
|Mar precipitation mm = 34.1
|Apr precipitation mm = 24.4
|May precipitation mm = 2.7
|Jun precipitation mm = 0.4
|Jul precipitation mm = 0.0
|Aug precipitation mm = 0.8
|Sep precipitation mm = 7.5
|Oct precipitation mm = 33.8
|Nov precipitation mm = 70.6
|Dec precipitation mm = 56.2
|year precipitation mm = 366.1
|source 1 = Gobierno de Canarias<ref name="gobierno de canarias">{{cite web|url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/cmayot/espaciosnaturales/instrumentos/areadescarga/ifonche/aprobaciondefinitiva/informativo.pdf|title=Documento informativo del Plan Especial del paisaje protegido de Ifonche|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081057/http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/cmayot/espaciosnaturales/instrumentos/areadescarga/ifonche/aprobaciondefinitiva/informativo.pdf|archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref> (Temperatures:1983–1995; Precipitation:1945–1997)
| date= March 2016}}

{{climate chart
| [[Buenavista del Norte]]
| 12 | 17 | 167
| 11 | 17 | 95
| 12 | 17 | 70
| 12 | 17 | 18
| 13 | 19 | 12
| 14 | 20 | 9
| 17 | 22 | 1
| 18 | 23 | 3
| 17 | 23 | 4
| 16 | 21 | 90
| 15 | 19 | 207
| 13 | 17 | 122
| float = right
| clear = none
| source =<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ucm.es/info/cif/station/es-buena.htm|title=ESP S.C.TENERIFE – BUENAVISTA -TENERIFE-|work=ucm.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>}}

=== Water ===
The volcanic ground of Tenerife, which is of a [[porous]] and permeable character, is generally the reason why the soil is able to maximise the absorption of water on an island of low rainfall, with [[condensation]] in forested areas and frost deposition on the summit of the island also contributory causes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Area%20profesional/Area%20industria%20turistica/La%20isla/Climatologia/El%20Agua.htm|title=Turismo Tenerife: Alojamiento, Carnaval, Actividades... – Tenerife|work=webtenerife.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015010101/http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Area%2Bprofesional/Area%2Bindustria%2Bturistica/La%2Bisla/Climatologia/El%2BAgua.htm|archive-date=15 October 2008}}</ref>

Given the irregularity of precipitation and geological conditions on the island, dam construction has been avoided, so most of the water (90 percent) comes from [[Water well|well]]s and from water galleries (horizontal tunnels bored into the volcano) of which there are thousands on the island, important systems that serve to extract its hydrological resources.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aguastenerife.org/4_tfeyelagua/4_3_6.html|title=Información del Consejo Insular de Aguas de Tenerife|work=aguastenerife.org|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303170343/http://www.aguastenerife.org/4_tfeyelagua/4_3_6.html|archive-date=3 March 2016}}</ref> These tunnels are very hazardous, with pockets of volcanic gas or [[carbon dioxide]], causing rapid death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bayjournal.com/article.cfm?article=3315 |title=Chesapeake Bay Journal : Article |publisher=Bayjournal.com |access-date=2012-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223232921/http://www.bayjournal.com/article.cfm?article=3315 |archive-date=23 February 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Pollution and air quality ===
The Canary Islands have low levels of air pollution thanks to the lack of factories and industry and the trade winds which naturally move away contaminated air from the islands. According to official data offered by the Health and Industry Ministry in Spain, Tenerife is one of the cleanest places in the country with an air pollution index below the national average.<ref>{{
Cite web
| access-date=18 April 2017
| title=Troposfera.org – Portal de Calidad del Aire – 404 Error
| url=http://www.troposfera.org/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=781
| work=troposfera.org
}}{{
Dead link
| date=April 2017
| fix-attempted=yes
}}</ref> Despite this, there are still agents which affect pollution levels in the island, the main [[contamination|polluting agents]] being the [[Refinería de Santa Cruz de Tenerife|refinery at Santa Cruz]], the [[thermal power]] plants at [[Las Caletillas]] and [[Granadilla de Abona|Granadilla]], and road traffic, increased by the high level of tourism in the island. In addition on the island of Tenerife like on La Palma light pollution must be also controlled, to help the [[Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias|astrophysical observatories]] located in the island's summits.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://atan.org/contaminacion/index.htm|title=Página oficial de ATAN: Contaminación|work=atan.org|access-date=22 April 2017|archive-date=18 February 2001|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010218172753/http://www.atan.org/contaminacion/index.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Water is generally of a very high quality, and all the beaches of the island of Tenerife have been catalogued by the Ministry of Health and Consumption as waters suitable for bathing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nayade.msc.es/Splayas/html/ciudadano/documentos/Resumen_Aguas_Banio_2007.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081030133628/http://nayade.msc.es/Splayas/html/ciudadano/documentos/Resumen_Aguas_Banio_2007.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=30 October 2008|title=Información sobre la Calidad del agua de baño|work=msc.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

== Geology ==
{{See also|Geology of the Canary Islands}}
[[File:Topographic map of Tenerife-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|Map of Tenerife]]
Tenerife is a rugged volcanic island, sculpted by successive eruptions throughout its history. There are four historically recorded volcanic eruptions, none of which has led to casualties. The first occurred in 1704, when the Arafo, Fasnia and Siete Fuentes volcanoes erupted simultaneously. Two years later, in 1706, the greatest eruption occurred at Trevejo. This volcano produced great quantities of [[lava]] which buried the city and port of [[Garachico]]. The last eruption of the 18th century happened in 1798 at Cañadas de Teide, in [[Chahorra]]. The most recent eruption-in 1909-formed the Chinyero cinder cone in the municipality of [[Santiago del Teide]].<ref>{{in lang|es}} [http://www.fomento.es/NR/rdonlyres/C916903C-1153-46A3-ADDC-3B78D2AF9EC5/32675/Tablaerupciones_ampliada.pdf Instituto Geográfico Nacional] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081030133628/http://www.fomento.es/NR/rdonlyres/C916903C-1153-46A3-ADDC-3B78D2AF9EC5/32675/Tablaerupciones_ampliada.pdf |date=30 October 2008 }}</ref>

The island is located between 28° and 29° N and the 16° and 17° W meridian. It is situated north of the [[Tropic of Cancer]], occupying a central position between the other Canary Islands of [[Gran Canaria]], [[La Gomera]] and [[La Palma]]. The island is about {{convert|300|km|0|abbr=on}} from the African coast, and approximately {{convert|1000|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} from the [[Iberian Peninsula]].<ref name=atlas>{{cite book|author=García Rodríguez|title =Atlas interinsular de Canarias|publisher=Editorial interinsular canaria|year=1990|isbn=978-84-86733-09-4}}</ref> Tenerife is the largest island of the Canary Islands archipelago, with a surface area of {{convert|2034.38|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}<ref name=extension>
* {{Cite web |url=http://www2.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/estadisticas/php/saltarA.php?mid=%2Fistac%2Festadisticas%2Fterritorio_ambiente%2Farea_01_frame.html |title=Estadísticas de la Comunidad Autónoma de Canarias |access-date=3 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323155813/http://www2.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/estadisticas/php/saltarA.php?mid=%2Fistac%2Festadisticas%2Fterritorio_ambiente%2Farea_01_frame.html |archive-date=23 March 2010 |url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/estadisticas/php/saltarA.php?mid=%2Fistac%2Festadisticas%2Fterritorio_ambiente%2Farea_01_frame.html |title=Estadísticas de la Comunidad Autónoma de Canarias |access-date=3 September 2017 |archive-date=23 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323155813/http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/estadisticas/php/saltarA.php?mid=%2Fistac%2Festadisticas%2Fterritorio_ambiente%2Farea_01_frame.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> and has the longest coastline, amounting to {{convert|342|km|mi|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=costa>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/daco/daco42/territorio/1.1.2.xls|title=Instituto Nacional de Estadística|work=ine.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

In addition, the highest point, Mount Teide, with an elevation of {{convert|3715|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]] is the highest point in all of Spain,<ref name=teide>{{cite web|url=http://reddeparquesnacionales.mma.es/parques/teide/guia_info_mediofisico.htma|title=Red de Parques Nacionales (Ministerio de Medio Ambiente)|work=mma.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090114131713/http://reddeparquesnacionales.mma.es/parques/teide/guia_info_mediofisico.htma|archive-date=14 January 2009}}</ref> is also the third largest volcano in the world from its base in the bottom of the sea. For this reason, Tenerife is the [[List of islands by highest point|10th-highest island worldwide]]. It comprises about 200 small barren islets or large rocks including [[Roques de Anaga]], [[Roque de Garachico]], and [[Fasnia]] adding a further {{convert|213835|m2|sqft|0|abbr=on}} to the total area.<ref name="extension"/>

=== Origins and geological formation ===
[[File:Tenerife formation.png|thumb|upright|right|Tenerife formation]]
Tenerife is a volcanic island that has built up from the ocean floor during the last 20 million years.<ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Geology of the Canary Islands – 1st Edition|url=https://www.elsevier.com/books/the-geology-of-the-canary-islands/troll/978-0-12-809663-5|access-date=2021-06-28|website=elsevier.com}}</ref>

Underwater fissural eruptions produced [[pillow lava]], which are produced by the rapid cooling of the magma when it comes in contact with water, obtaining their peculiar shape. This pillow-lava accumulated, constructing the base of the island underneath the sea. As this accumulation approached the surface of the water, gases erupted from the magma due to the reduction of the surrounding pressure. The volcanic eruptions became more violent and had a more explosive character, and resulted in the forming of peculiar geological fragments.<ref name="enciclopedia"/>

After long-term accumulation of these fragments, the birth of the island occurred at the end of the [[Miocene|Miocene epoch]]. The zones on Tenerife known as [[Macizo de Teno]], [[Macizo de Anaga]] and [[Macizo de Adeje]] were formed seven million years ago; these formations are called the ''Ancient Basaltic Series'' or ''Series I''. These zones were actually three separate islands lying in what is now the extreme west, east, and south of Tenerife.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=2&lang=1&s=1&ID=160|title=Información del Cabildo de Tenerife|work=idecnet.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109002153/http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=2&lang=1&s=1&ID=160|archive-date=9 November 2007}}</ref>

A second volcanic cycle called the ''Post-Miocene Formations'' or ''Latest Series II, III, IV'' began three million years ago. This was a much more intense volcanic cycle, which united the Macizo de Teno, Macizo de Anaga and Macizo de Adeje into one island. This new structure, called the ''Pre-Cañadas Structure'' (''Edificio pre-Cañadas''), would be the foundation for what is called the ''Cañadas Structure I''. The Cañadas Structure I experienced various collapses and emitted explosive material that produced the area known as ''Bandas del sur'' (in the present-day south-southeast of Tenerife).<ref name=enciclopedia>{{cite web|url=http://www.gevic.net/info/contenidos/mostrar_contenidos.php?idcat=36&idcap=58&idcon=330 |title=Origen y formación – TENERIFE – (GEVIC) Gran Enciclopedia Virtual Islas Canarias |work=gevic.net|access-date=22 April 2017}}</ref>

Subsequently, upon the ruins of Cañadas Structure I emerged ''Cañadas Structure II'', which was {{convert|2500|m}} [[height above sea level|above sea level]] and emerged with intense explosive activity. About one million years ago, the Dorsal Range (''Cordillera Dorsal'') emerged by means of fissural volcanic activity occurring amidst the remains of the older Ancient Basaltic Series (Series I). This Dorsal Range emerged as the highest and the longest volcanic structure in the Canary Islands; it was {{convert|1600|m}} high and {{convert|25|km}} long.<ref name=enciclopedia/>

About 800,000 years ago, two gravitational [[volcanic landslide|landslides]] occurred, giving rise to the present-day valleys of La Orotava and Güímar.<ref name=enciclopedia/> Finally, around 200,000 years ago, the giant Icod landslide occurred followed by eruptions that raised the ''Pico Viejo-Teide''<ref>{{Cite book|date=1 January 2021|chapter=North-East Atlantic Islands: The Macaronesian Archipelagos|chapter-url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780081029084000278|language=en|pages=674–699|doi=10.1016/B978-0-08-102908-4.00027-8|title=Encyclopedia of Geology|last1=Carracedo|first1=Juan Carlos|last2=Troll|first2=Valentin R.|isbn=9780081029091|s2cid=226588940}}</ref> in the centre of the island, over the ''Las Cañadas caldera''.<ref name=enciclopedia/>

=== Orography and landscape ===
The uneven and steep [[orography]] of the island and its variety of climates has resulted in a diversity of landscapes and geographical and geological formations, from the Teide National Park with its extensive [[pine]] forests, juxtaposed against the volcanic landscape at the summit of Teide and [[Malpaís de Güímar]], to the Acantilados de Los Gigantes (Cliffs of the Giants) with its vertical precipices. Semidesert areas exist in the south with drought-resistant plants. Other areas range from those protected and enclosed in mountains such as Montaña Roja and Montaña Pelada, the valleys and forests with subtropical vegetation and climate, to those with deep gorges and precipices such as at Anaga and Teno.

==== Central heights ====
The principal structures in Tenerife, make the central highlands, with the Teide–[[Pico Viejo]] complex and the Las Cañadas areas as most prominent. It comprises a semi-[[caldera]] of about {{convert|130|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} in area, originated by several geological processes explained under the ''Origin and formation'' section. The area is partially occupied by the Teide-Pico Viejo strato-volcano and completed by the materials emitted in the different eruptions that took place. A known formation called ''Los Azulejos'', composed by green-tinted rocks were created by hydrothermal processes.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

South of La Caldera is [[Mount Guajara|Guajara Mountain]], which has an elevation of {{convert|2718|m|0|abbr=off}}, rising above Teide National Park. At the bottom, is an [[endorheic basin]] flanked with very fine sedimentary material which has been deposited from its volcanic processes, and is known as Llano de Ucanca.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

The peak of [[Teide]], at {{convert|3715|m|0|abbr=off}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]] and more than {{convert|7500|m|0|abbr=off}} above the ocean floor, is the highest point of the island, Spanish territory and in the Atlantic Ocean. The volcano is the third largest on the planet, and its central location,{{Clarify|reason=what does central mean? Central to what?|date=November 2018}} substantial size, looming silhouette in the distance and its snowy landscape in winter give it a unique nature.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csic.es/estudios_geol/archivo/vol5914/EGv59p015029dncwio.pdf|title=Estudio geológico sobre el Teide del CSIC|work=csic.es|access-date=18 April 2017}} {{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The original settlers considered Teide a god and Teide was a place of worship.

In 1954, the whole area around it was declared a [[national park]], with further expansion later on. In addition, in June 2007 it was recognised by [[UNESCO]] as a [[World Heritage sites|World Heritage site]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1258|title=Teide National Park|first=UNESCO World Heritage|last=Centre|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> To the west lies the volcano [[Pico Viejo]] (Old Peak). On one side of it, is the volcano Chahorra o Narices del Teide, where the last eruption occurred in the vicinity of Mount Teide in 1798.

The Teide is one of the 16 [[Decade Volcanoes]] identified by the International Association of Volcanology and Chemistry of the Earth's Interior (IAVCEI) as being worthy of particular study in light of their history of large, destructive eruptions and proximity to populated areas.

'''Tallest mountains on Tenerife:'''
{| class="wikitable"
!Peak
!Elevation (meters)
!Elevation (feet)
|-
|[[Teide|Mount Teide]]
|3,715
|12,198
|-
|[[Pico Viejo]]
|3,135
|10,285
|-
|[[Montaña Blanca]]
|2,748
|9,016
|-
|[[Mount Guajara|Guajara]]
|2,718
|8,917
|}

==== Massifs ====
[[File:Anaga 2006.jpg|thumb|left|The uneven contours of the Anaga massif]]
The Anaga massif (''[[Macizo de Anaga]]''), at the northeastern end of the island, has an irregular and rugged topographical profile where, despite its generally modest elevations, the Cruz de Taborno reaches a height of {{convert|1024|m|ft|abbr=off}}. Due to the age of its material (5.7 million years), its deep erosive processes, and the dense network of [[Dike (geology)|dikes]] piercing the massif, its surface exposes numerous outcroppings of both [[phonolite|phonolitic]] and [[trachyte|trachytic]] origin. A large number of steep-walled gorges are present, penetrating deeply into the terrain. Vertical cuts dominate the Anagan coast, with infrequent beaches of rocks or black sand between them; the few that exist generally coincide with the mouths of gorges.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name=enciclopedia/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

[[File:Punta teno.jpg|thumb|right|Teno massif—Cliffs of the Giants area]]

The Teno massif (''[[Macizo de Teno]]'') is located on the northwestern edge of the island. Like Anaga, it includes an area of outcroppings and deep gorges formed by erosion. However, the materials here are older (about 7.4 million years old). Mount Gala represents its highest elevation at {{convert|1342|m|ft|abbr=off}}. The most unusual landscape of this massif is found on its southern coast, where the [[Acantilados de Los Gigantes]] ("Cliffs of the Giants") present vertical walls reaching heights of {{convert|500|m|ft|abbr=off}} in some places.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

The Adeje massif (''Macizo de Adeje'') is situated on the southern tip of the island. Its main landmark is the Roque del Conde ("Count's Rock"), with an elevation of {{convert|1001|m|ft|abbr=off}}. This massif is not as impressive as the others due to its diminished initial structure, since in addition to with the site's greater geologic age it has experienced severe erosion of its material, thereby losing its original appearance and extent.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

==== Dorsals ====
The Dorsal mountain [[ridge]] or ''Dorsal of Pedro Gil'' covers the area from the start at Mount La Esperanza, at a height of about {{convert|750|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, to the center of the island, near the ''Caldera de Las Cañadas'', with Izaña, as its highest point at {{convert|2390|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} ([[Atmospheric pressure|MSLP]]). These mountains have been created due to basaltic fissural volcanism through one of the axis that gave birth to the vulcanism of this area.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

The Abeque Dorsal was formed by a chain of volcanoes that join the Teno with the central insular peak of Teide-Pico Viejo starting from another of the three axis of Tenerife's geological structures. On this dorsal we find the historic volcano of Chinyero whose last eruption happened in 1909.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

The South Dorsal or ''Dorsal of Adeje'' is part of the last of the structural axis. The remains of this massive rock show the primordial land, also showing the alignment of small volcanic cones and rocks around this are in Tenerife's South.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

==== Valleys and ravines ====
[[Valley]]s are another of the island's features. The most important are [[Valle de La Orotava]] and [[Valle de Güímar]], both formed by the mass sliding of great quantities of material towards the sea, creating a depression of the land. Other valleys tend to be between hills formed by deposits of sediments from nearby slopes, or simply wide ravines which in their evolution have become typical valleys.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

Tenerife has a large number of ravines, which are a characteristic element of the landscape, caused by erosion from [[surface runoff]] over a long period. Notable ravines include Ruiz, Fasnia and Güímar, [[Barranco del Infierno (Tenerife)|Infierno]], and Erques, all of which have been designated protected natural areas by Canarian institutions.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>
[[File:Panom-puerto.jpg|thumb|upright=2.5|center|Panorama of [[Valle de La Orotava]]]]

==== Coastline ====
The coasts of Tenerife are typically rugged and steep, particularly on the north of the island. However, the island has {{convert|67.14|km|2|abbr=off}} of beaches, such as the one at [[El Médano]], surpassed only in this respect by the island of [[Fuerteventura]].<ref>[http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/estadisticas/php/saltarA.php?mid=/istac/estadisticas/territorio_ambiente/area_01_frame.html Estadísticas del Gobierno de Canarias] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100323155813/http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/estadisticas/php/saltarA.php?mid=%2Fistac%2Festadisticas%2Fterritorio_ambiente%2Farea_01_frame.html |date=23 March 2010 }}</ref> There are many black sand pebble beaches on the northern coast, while on the south and south-west coast of the island, the beaches have typically much finer and clearer sand with lighter tones.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="enciclopedia"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

==== Volcanic tubes ====
[[Lava tubes]] are volcanic caves usually in the form of tunnels formed within lava flows more or less fluid reogenética duration of the activity. Among the many existing volcanic tubes on the island stands out the [[Cueva del Viento]], located in the northern town of [[Icod de los Vinos]], which is the largest volcanic tunnel in the [[European Union]] and one of the largest in the world, for a long time considered the largest in the world.

== Flora and fauna ==
[[Image:Chamorga, Macizo de Anaga, Tenerife, Spain 35.jpg|thumb|Chamorga, in the [[Macizo de Anaga]]]]
[[File:The butterflies and moths of Teneriffe (1894) (20484502286).jpg|thumb|''Lepidoptera'' illustrations in ''[[The butterflies and moths of Teneriffe]]'' (1894)]]
The island of Tenerife has a remarkable [[ecosystem diversity]] in spite of its small surface area, which is a consequence of the special environmental conditions on the island, where its distinct orography modifies the general climatic conditions at a local level, producing a significant variety of [[microclimate]]s. This diversity of microclimates allows some 1400 species of plants to exist on the island, with well over 100 of these endemic to Tenerife.<ref name=florayfauna>{{cite web|url=http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=3&lang=1&s=1&ID=164|title=Cabildo de Tenerife (Flora y Fauna: introducción)|work=idecnet.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080307145049/http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=3&lang=1&s=1&ID=164|archive-date=7 March 2008}}</ref> The fauna of Tenerife includes some 400 species of fish, 56 birds, five reptiles, two amphibians, 13 land mammals, thousands of invertebrates, and several species of sea turtles and cetaceans.

The vegetation of Tenerife can be divided into six major zones that are directly related to altitude and the direction in which they face.
[[File:Luftbild vom Vulkan Chinyero auf Teneriffa, Spanien (48225246682).jpg|thumb|Forested areas populated by ''[[Pinus]]'' in {{ill|El Chinyero Special Nature Reserve|es|Reserva natural especial del Chinyero}}]]
* Lower xerophytic zone: {{convert|0|-|700|m|ft|abbr=off}}. Xerophytic shrubs that are well adapted to long dry spells, intense sunshine and strong winds. Many endemic species: spurges, cactus spurge (''[[Euphorbia canariensis]]''), wax plants (''[[Ceropegia]]'' spp.), etc.
* Thermophile forest: {{convert|200|-|600|m|ft|abbr=off}}. Transition zone with moderate temperatures and rainfall, but the area has been deteriorated by human activity. Many endemic species: juniper (''[[Juniperus cedrus]]''), dragon trees (''[[Dracaena draco]]''), palm trees (''[[Phoenix canariensis]]''), etc.
* [[Laurel forest]]: {{convert|500|-|1,000|m|ft|abbr=off}}. Dense forest of large trees, descendants of [[tertiary]] age flora, situated in a zone of frequent rainfall and mists. A wide variety of species with abundant undergrowth of bushes, herbaceous plants, and ferns. Laurels, holly (''[[Ilex canariensis]]''), ebony (''[[Persea indica]]''), mahogany (''[[Apollonias barbujana]]''), etc.
* Wax myrtle: {{convert|1,000|-|1,500|m|ft|abbr=off}}. A dryer vegetation, poorer in species. It replaces the degraded laurel forest. Of great forestry importance. Wax myrtles (''[[Myrica faya]]''), tree heath (''[[Erica arborea]]''), holly, etc.
* Pine forest: {{convert|800|-|2,000|m|ft|abbr=off}}. Open pine forest, with thin and unvaried undergrowth. Canary Island pine (''[[Pinus canariensis]]''), broom (''[[Genista canariensis]]''), rock rose (''[[Cistus]]'' spp.), etc.
* High mountain: over {{convert|2,000|m|abbr=off}}. Dry climate, intense solar radiation and extreme temperatures. Flora well adapted to the conditions.<ref name=florayfauna/>
[[File:Eidechsen Teide.jpg|thumb|''[[Gallotia galloti]]'', a wall lizard species endemic to Tenerife.]]

=== Prehistoric fauna ===
Before the arrival of humans, the Canary Islands were inhabited by certain endemic animals, now mostly extinct. These animals reached [[megafauna|larger than usual sizes]], because of a phenomenon called [[island gigantism]]. Among these species, the best known in Tenerife were:
* The giant rat (''[[Canariomys bravoi]]''): Fossils mostly dating from the [[Pliocene]] and [[Pleistocene]]. Its skull reached up to 7 centimeters long, so it could have reached the size of a rabbit, which would make it quite large compared to European species of rats. Tenerife Giant Rat fossils usually occur in caves and volcanic tubes associated with ''Gallotia goliath''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/cmayot/medioambiente/lagartodelagomera/gatos.html|title=GOBIERNO DE CANARIAS|work=gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091228151643/http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/cmayot/medioambiente/lagartodelagomera/gatos.html|archive-date=28 December 2009}}</ref>
* The slender-billed greenfinch (''[[slender-billed greenfinch|Chloris aurelioi]]''), an extinct [[greenfinch]] from the [[Holocene]].<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Rando | first1 = J. C. | last2 = Alcover | first2 = J. A. | last3 = Illera | first3 = J. C. | editor1-last = Plaistow | editor1-first = Stewart | title = Disentangling Ancient Interactions: A New Extinct Passerine Provides Insights on Character Displacement among Extinct and Extant Island Finches | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0012956 | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 5 | issue = 9 | pages = e12956 | year = 2010 | pmid = 20886036| pmc =2944890 | bibcode = 2010PLoSO...512956R | doi-access = free }}</ref>
* The long-legged bunting (''[[long-legged bunting|Emberiza alcoveri]]''), a flightless bunting with long legs and short wings known from Pleistocene to [[Holocene]] cave deposits, and one of the few flightless passerines known to science, all of which are now extinct.<ref name="Rando1999">{{cite journal|last1= Rando|first1= J. C.|last2= Lopez | first2 =M. |last3=Segui |first3=B. |date=February 1999|title= A New Species of Extinct Flightless Passerine|journal= The Condor|volume= 101|issue= 1|pages= 1–13|url= http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/condor/v101n01/p0001-p0013.pdf|accessdate= 1 August 2008|doi= 10.2307/1370440|jstor= 1370440}}</ref>
* The giant lizard (''[[Gallotia goliath]]'') inhabited Tenerife from the Holocene until the fifteenth century AD. It was a specimen reaching a length of 120 to 125 centimeters (47.2 to 49.2 inches).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iehcan.com/wp-content/uploads/2006/01/3_Mart%C3%ADn_2006.pdf|title=Aportaciones de D. Telesforo Bravo al conocimiento de la fauna de vertebrados terrestres de las islas Canarias|work=iehcan.com|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>
* The giant tortoise (''[[Geochelone burchardi]]''): A large tortoise, similar to those currently found in some oceanic islands like the [[Galápagos Islands]] in the Pacific Ocean and the [[Seychelles]] in the Indian Ocean. Remains found date from the [[Miocene]]; this tortoise may have inhabited the island until the Upper [[Pleistocene]], apparently becoming extinct because of volcanic events long before the arrival of humans. Its shell measured approximately {{convert|65|to|94|cm|abbr=off}}.<ref>
[http://cubits.org/theextinctioncubit/db/extinctreptiles/view/18692/ The Recently Extinct Plants and Animals Database Extinct Reptiles: ''Geochelone burchardi''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160619232217/http://cubits.org/theextinctioncubit/db/extinctreptiles/view/18692/ |date=19 June 2016 }} Consultado el 17 de junio de 2016.
</ref>
[[File:Canariomys bravoi skull.JPG|thumb|Skull of ''Canariomys bravoi'']]

=== Protected natural areas ===
[[File:Espacios protegidos Tenerife-en.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Map showing the classification of protected areas in Tenerife]]
Nearly half of the island territory (48.6 percent),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/educacion/culturacanaria/espacios/espanat.htm#tenerife|title=LA PROTECCIÓN DE LOS ESPACIOS NATURALES EN CANARIAS|last=NTI|work=gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> is under protection from the [[Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos]] (Canary Islands Network for Protected Natural Areas). Of the 146 protected sites under control of network in the Canary Islands archipelago,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobcan.es/cmayot/espaciosnaturales/informacion/quees.html|title=Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos – Información|work=gobcan.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121081945/http://www.gobcan.es/cmayot/espaciosnaturales/informacion/quees.html|archive-date=21 November 2016}}</ref> a total of 43 are located in Tenerife, the most protected island in the group.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobcan.es/cmayot/espaciosnaturales/informacion/tf_todo.html|title=Red Canaria de Espacios Naturales Protegidos – Información|work=gobcan.es|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170521000208/http://www.gobcan.es/cmayot/espaciosnaturales/informacion/tf_todo.html|archive-date=21 May 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> The network has criteria which places areas under its observation under eight different categories of protection, all of them are represented in Tenerife. Aside from [[Teide National Park|Parque Nacional del Teide]], it counts the Parque Natural de Canarias (Crown Forest), two rural parks (Anaga and Teno), four integral natural reserves, six special natural reserves, a total of fourteen natural monuments, nine protected landscapes and up to six sites of scientific interest. Also located on the island [[Macizo de Anaga]] since 2015 is [[Biosphere Reserve]]<ref name="efeverde.com"/> and is the place that has the largest number of endemic species in Europe.<ref name="efeverde.com"/>

In contrast to the land-based protected areas, Tenerife also boasts significant marine protected natural areas. Among these is the Zona de Especial Conservación Teno-Rasca (Teno-Rasca Special Area of Conservation), a marine protected area established in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|last=González Vilbazo|first=K.|date=2024|title=Tenerife: Europe’s First Whale Sanctuary|website=AD Boat Rental|url=https://adboatrental.com/tenerife-europes-first-whale-sanctuary//}}</ref> This marine protected area off the coast of Tenerife is known for its ecological significance and biodiversity, including resident populations of cetaceans such as bottlenose dolphins and pilot whales.<ref>{{cite web |date= January 2021|title=Two new whale heritage sites awarded, a major step for wildlife protection|url=https://www.worldanimalprotection.org/latest/news/two-new-whale-heritage-sites-awarded-major-step-wildlife-protection/}}</ref> It is also known as the Tenerife-La Gomera Marine Area and became the first European designated Whale Heritage Area in January 2021.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tillett|first=M.|title=Tenerife-La Gomera|website=World Cetacean Alliance|url=https://worldcetaceanalliance.org/tenerife-la-gomera/}}</ref>

== Administration ==

=== Law and order ===
[[File:Santa Cruz Innenhof der Presidencia del gobierno de canarias fcm.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Building of the Presidency of the Canaries Autonomous Government in Santa Cruz]]
Tenerife island's government resides with the [[Cabildo de Tenerife|Cabildo Insular de Tenerife]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tenerife.es/wps/portal/!ut/p/c1/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3gPZxPfEG93QwMDCwsDAyNXN1PfEA9_A4NAI6B8JG55TwMCuv088nNT9QtyI8oBAzGQKg!!/dl2/d1/L2dJQSEvUUt3QS9ZQnB3LzZfSEk2TElLRzEwOE1RNzAySENTUDZSODFCTjQ!/|title=Cabildo de Tenerife|work=tenerife.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> located at the Plaza de España at the island's capital city ([[Palacio Insular de Tenerife]]). The political Canary organization does not have a provincial government body but instead each island has its own government at their own [[Cabildo (council)|Cabildo]]. Since its creation in March 1913 it has a series of capabilities and duties, stated in the Canary Autonomy Statutes ({{lang-es|Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias|links=no}}) and regulated by Law 14/1990, of 26 July 1990, of the ''Régimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas de Canarias''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/ic-l14-1990.t4.html|title=Ley 14/1990, de 26 de julio, de Régimen Jurídico de las Administraciones Públicas de Canarias. TITULO IV. Los Cabildos Insulares.|work=juridicas.com|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

The Cabildo is composed of the following administrative offices; Presidency, Legislative Body, Government Council, Informative Commissions, Spokesman's office.

=== Government ===
Tenerife is an autonomous territory of Spain. The island has a tiered-government system and a special status within the European Union in which it holds lower tax rates compared to other regions. Santa Cruz is the seat of half of the regional government departments and parliament and it is there that the governor is elected by the Canarian people. Afterwards, they are appointed by Madrid. There are fifteen members of parliament who work together in passing legislation, organising budgets and improving the economy.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.spain-tenerife.com/en/discover/facts/government.html|title=SpainTenerife|date=n.d.|website=spain-tenerife.com |publisher=SpainTenerife|access-date=1 December 2016}}</ref>

=== Municipalities ===
The island, itself part of a [[province (Spain)|Spanish province]] named [[Province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife|Santa Cruz de Tenerife]], is divided administratively into 31 municipalities.

Only three municipalities are landlocked: [[Tegueste]], [[El Tanque]] and [[Vilaflor]]. Vilaflor is the municipality with the highest altitude in the Canaries (its capital is {{convert|1400|m|ft|abbr=out}} high).

The largest municipality with an area of {{convert|207.31|km2|abbr=off}} is La Orotava, which covers much of the Teide National Park. The smallest town on the island and of the archipelago is [[Puerto de la Cruz]], with an area of just {{convert|8.73|km2|0|abbr=off}}.<ref name="extension"/>

It is also common to find internal division, in that some cities make up a metropolitan area within a municipality, notably the cities of Santa Cruz and La Laguna.

Below is an alphabetical list of all the municipalities on the island:
[[File:Municipios y zonas de Tenerife.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.25|Map of Municipalities in the island of Tenerife]]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! rowspan="2" | Name
! rowspan="2" | Area (km2)
! colspan="3" | Census Population
! rowspan="2" | Estimated Population (2023)<ref>Estimate of 1 January 2023: from Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Madrid.</ref>
|-
! 2001<ref>Census of 1 November 2001: from Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Madrid.</ref>
! 2011<ref>Census of 1 November 2011: from Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Madrid.</ref>
! 2021<ref>Census of 1 January 2021: from Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Madrid.</ref>
|-
|[[Adeje]]
| align="right" |105.95
| align="right" |20,255
| align="right" |42,886
| align="right" |48,822
| align="right" |50,523
|-
|[[Arafo]]
| align="right" |33.92
| align="right" |4,995
| align="right" |5,509
| align="right" |5,593
| align="right" |5,760
|-
|[[Arico]]
| align="right" |178.76
| align="right" |5,824
| align="right" |7,688
| align="right" |8,343
| align="right" |9,049
|-
|[[Arona,Tenerife|Arona]]
| align="right" |81.79
| align="right" |40,826
| align="right" |75,484
| align="right" |83,097
| align="right" |86,497
|-
|[[Buenavista del Norte]]
| align="right" |67.42
| align="right" |4,972
| align="right" |4,827
| align="right" |4,765
| align="right" |4,720
|-
|[[Candelaria, Tenerife|Candelaria]]
| align="right" |49.18
| align="right" |14,247
| align="right" |25,928
| align="right" |28,614
| align="right" |28,876
|-
|[[Fasnia]]
| align="right" |45.11
| align="right" |2,407
| align="right" |2,961
| align="right" |2,821
| align="right" |2,991
|-
|[[Garachico]]
| align="right" |29.28
| align="right" |5,307
| align="right" |5,035
| align="right" |4,921
| align="right" |4,975
|-
|[[Granadilla de Abona]]
| align="right" |162.40
| align="right" |21,135
| align="right" |41,209
| align="right" |52,401
| align="right" |55,505
|-
|[[La Guancha, Tenerife|La Guancha]]
| align="right" |23.77
| align="right" |5,193
| align="right" |5,422
| align="right" |5,528
| align="right" |5,562
|-
|[[Guía de Isora]]
| align="right" |143.40
| align="right" |14,982
| align="right" |19,734
| align="right" |21,871
| align="right" |22,478
|-
|[[Güímar]]
| align="right" |102.90
| align="right" |15,271
| align="right" |18,244
| align="right" |21,001
| align="right" |21,558
|-
|[[Icod de los Vinos]]
| align="right" |95.90
| align="right" |21,748
| align="right" |23,314
| align="right" |23,492
| align="right" |24,117
|-
|[[La Matanza de Acentejo]]
| align="right" |14.11
| align="right" |7,053
| align="right" |8,677
| align="right" |9,134
| align="right" |9,114
|-
|[[La Orotava]]
| align="right" |207.31
| align="right" |37,738
| align="right" |41,552
| align="right" |42,546
| align="right" |42,667
|-
|[[Puerto de la Cruz]]
| align="right" |8.73
| align="right" |26,441
| align="right" |31,349
| align="right" |30,326
| align="right" |31,396
|-
|[[Los Realejos]]
| align="right" |57.08
| align="right" |33,438
| align="right" |37,517
| align="right" |37,256
| align="right" |37,543
|-
|[[El Rosario,Tenerife|El Rosario]]
| align="right" |39.43
| align="right" |13,462
| align="right" |17,247
| align="right" |17,559
| align="right" |17,905
|-
|[[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]]
| align="right" |102.60
| align="right" |128,822
| align="right" |152,025
| align="right" |158,117
| align="right" |159,576
|-
|[[San Juan de la Rambla]]
| align="right" |20.67
| align="right" |4,782
| align="right" |5,042
| align="right" |4,892
| align="right" |4,939
|-
|[[San Miguel de Abona]]
| align="right" |42.04
| align="right" |8,398
| align="right" |16,465
| align="right" |22,057
| align="right" |23,007
|-
|[[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]
| align="right" |150.56
| align="right" |188,477
| align="right" |204,476
| align="right" |208,103
| align="right" |208,906
|-
|[[Santa Úrsula]]
| align="right" |22.59
| align="right" |10,803
| align="right" |14,079
| align="right" |15,043
| align="right" |15,282
|-
|[[Santiago del Teide]]
| align="right" |52.21
| align="right" |9,303
| align="right" |10,689
| align="right" |11,101
| align="right" |12,072
|-
|[[El Sauzal]]
| align="right" |18.31
| align="right" |7,689
| align="right" |8,988
| align="right" |8,938
| align="right" |9,161
|-
|[[Los Silos]]
| align="right" |24.23
| align="right" |5,150
| align="right" |4,909
| align="right" |4,694
| align="right" |4,677
|-
|[[Tacoronte]]
| align="right" |30.09
| align="right" |20,295
| align="right" |23,623
| align="right" |24,365
| align="right" |24,701
|-
|[[El Tanque]]
| align="right" |23.65
| align="right" |2,966
| align="right" |2,814
| align="right" |2,862
| align="right" |2,810
|-
|[[Tegueste]]
| align="right" |26.41
| align="right" |9,417
| align="right" |10,908
| align="right" |11,346
| align="right" |11,375
|-
|[[La Victoria de Acentejo]]
| align="right" |18.36
| align="right" |7,920
| align="right" |8,947
| align="right" |9,172
| align="right" |9,223
|-
|[[Vilaflor|Vilaflor de Chasna]]
| align="right" |56.26
| align="right" |1,718
| align="right" |1,785
| align="right" |1,790
| align="right" |1,850
|- style="background-color:#F6F6F6; font-weight:bold;"
|Totals
| align="right" |2,034.42
| align="right" |701,034
| align="right" |879,303
| align="right" |930,570
| align="right" |948,815
|}

=== Counties ===
The counties of Tenerife have no official recognition, but there is a consensus among geographers about them:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gevic.net/info/capitulos_cat.php?idcategoria=61|title=>> GEVIC << Gran Enciclopedia Virtual Islas Canarias|work=gevic.net|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>
{{div col |colwidth=11em}}
*Abona
*Acentejo
*Anaga
*Valle de Güímar
*Icod
*Isora
*Valle de La Orotava
*Teno
{{div col end}}

=== Flags and heraldry ===
[[File:Flag of Tenerife.svg|thumb|upright|Flag of Tenerife]]
[[File:Coat of Arms of Tenerife.svg|thumb|upright|Coat-of-arms of Tenerife]]
The [[Flag of Tenerife]] was originally adopted in 1845 by the navy at its base in the Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. Later, and at present, this flag represents all the island of Tenerife. It was approved by the [[Cabildo de Tenerife|Cabildo Insular de Tenerife]] and the Order of the Government of the Canary Islands on 9 May 1989 and published on 22 May in the government report of the Canary Islands and made official.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/boc/1989/070/007.html|title=BOC – 1989/070. Lunes 22 de Mayo de 1989 – 496|work=gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

The [[coat-of-arms]] of Tenerife was granted by royal decree on 23 March 1510 by [[Ferdinand II of Aragon|Ferdinand II]] at [[Madrid]] in the name of [[Joanna of Castile|Joan I]], Queen of Castile. The coat-of-arms has a field of gold, with an image of [[Saint Michael]] ([[patron saint]] of the island) above a mountain depicted in brownish, natural colors. Flames erupt from the mountain, symbolizing El Teide. Below this mountain is depicted the island itself in [[Vert (heraldry)|vert]] on top of blue and silver waves. To the right there is a castle in [[gules]], and to the left, a lion [[Attitude (heraldry)|rampant]] in gules. The shield that the Cabildo Insular, or Island Government, uses is slightly different from that used by the city government of La Laguna, which uses a motto in the arms' border and also includes some palm branches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=1&lang=1&s=1&ID=3559|title=Información del Cabildo de Tenerife|work=idecnet.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071108084117/http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=1&lang=1&s=1&ID=3559|archive-date=8 November 2007}}</ref>

== Natural symbols ==
{{Main|List of animal and plant symbols of the Canary Islands}}
The official natural symbols associated with Tenerife are the bird [[Tenerife blue chaffinch|blue chaffinch]] (''[[Fringilla teydea]]'') and the [[Dracaena draco|Canary Islands dragon tree]] (''Dracaena draco'') tree.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobcan.es/boc/1991/061/001.html|title=BOC – 1991/061. Viernes 10 de Mayo de 1991 – 577|work=gobcan.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

<gallery class="center" mode="packed">
File:Teidefink.jpg|''[[Fringilla teydea]]''
File:Dracaena draco.jpg|''[[Dracaena draco]]''
</gallery>

== Demographics ==
{| class="toc" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="30%" style="float: right; text-align: center; clear: all; margin-left: 20px; font-size: 90%;"
! bgcolor="#000000" colspan="8" style="color: white;"|Foreign nationalities (2018)<ref>[http://obiten.es/api/documents/file/43 Nuevas tendencias de la inmigración en Tenerife] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102162837/http://obiten.es/api/documents/file/43 |date=2 January 2020 }} — Sección de Estadística. Orígenes nacionales con más de dos mil efectivos en Tenerife en 2018 y su comparativa con 2001.</ref>
|- bgcolor="#efefef"
! width="3%" | Position
! width="89%" | Nationality
! width="8%" | Population
|-
|1||align="center" | [[Venezuela]] || align="right" |42,586
|-
|2||align="center" | [[Italy]] || align="right" |19,224
|-
|3||align="center" | [[Cuba]] || align="right" |17,745
|-
|4||align="center" | [[United Kingdom]] || align="right" |12,321
|-
|5||align="center" | [[Germany]] || align="right" |9,590
|-
|6||align="center" | [[Colombia]] || align="right" |8,188
|-
|7||align="center" | [[Argentina]] || align="right" |8,104
|-
|8||align="center" | [[Morocco]] || align="right" |5,656
|-
|9||align="center" | [[Uruguay]] || align="right" |4,773
|-
|10||align="center" | [[China]] || align="right" |3,832
|-
|11||align="center" | [[Romania]] || align="right" |3,761
|-
|12||align="center" | [[France]] || align="right" |3,490
|-
|13||align="center" | [[Belgium]] || align="right" |2,760
|-
|14||align="center" | [[India]] || align="right" |2,404
|-
|15||align="center" | [[Ecuador]] || align="right" |2,073
|-
|}

According to INE data as at 1 January 2023, Tenerife has the largest population of the seven Canary Islands and was the most populated island of Spain with 948,815 officially estimated inhabitants,<ref name="popdataboe" /> of whom about 22.0 percent (208,906) lived in the capital, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and 40 percent in the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz–La Laguna.<ref name="audes">Datos del proyecto AUDES5 {{cite web |url=http://alarcos.inf-cr.uclm.es/per/fruiz/pobesp/ |title=Población de España – datos y mapas (áreas urbanas) |access-date=2012-02-09 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209063130/http://alarcos.inf-cr.uclm.es/per/fruiz/pobesp/ |archive-date=9 February 2012 |language=es |trans-title=Population of Spain – data and maps (urban areas) }}</ref> Santa Cruz de Tenerife and the city of [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]] are physically one urban area, so that together (and including Tegueste) they have a population of 379,857 inhabitants.<ref>
{{Cite web |url=http://www.webtenerife.com/NR/rdonlyres/CF59C0DB-7872-42B4-9206-D61390728073/5750/SantaCruzyLaLagunadosciudadesyunmill%C3%B3ndeopciones.pdf |title=Dos ciudades, una Isla y un millón de opciones |access-date=15 October 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716063120/http://www.webtenerife.com/NR/rdonlyres/CF59C0DB-7872-42B4-9206-D61390728073/5750/SantaCruzyLaLagunadosciudadesyunmill%C3%B3ndeopciones.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Home/Disfruta%20sin%20perderte%20nada/Informacion%20practica/Antes%20de%20viajar/Zonas%20turisticas/SANTA%20CRUZ-LA%20LAGUNA.htm|title=Turismo Tenerife: Alojamiento, Carnaval, Actividades... – Tenerife|work=webtenerife.com|access-date=18 April 2017}} {{Dead link|date=January 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Tenerife has two other metropolitan areas recognized by the [[Ministry of Development (Spain)|Ministry of Development]]; the [[Tenerife South metropolitan area]] with 194,774 inhabitants (2019) and the [[La Orotava Valley metropolitan area]] with 108,721 inhabitants (2019).<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.mitma.gob.es/recursos_mfom/comodin/recursos/listado_2019.pdf |title=Ficha detallada con las GAU de España |access-date=4 January 2021 |archive-date=5 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201005015550/https://www.mitma.gob.es/recursos_mfom/comodin/recursos/listado_2019.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

After the city of Santa Cruz the major towns and municipalities as at the start of 2023 are [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]] (159,576), [[Arona, Tenerife|Arona]] (86,497), [[Granadilla de Abona]] (55,505), [[Adeje]] (50,523), [[La Orotava]] (42,667), [[Los Realejos]] (37,543), and [[Puerto de la Cruz]] (31,396). All other municipalities have fewer than 30,000 inhabitants, the smallest municipality being [[Vilaflor]] with a population of 1,850.

The island has high rates of resident population not registered in population censuses, primarily tourists. This has made several sources point out that more than one million inhabitants actually live on the island of Tenerife today.<ref>[https://diariodeavisos.elespanol.com/2017/07/un-millon-de-habitantes/ Un millón de habitantes]</ref> The island is also the most multicultural in the archipelago, with the highest number of registered foreigners (44.9% of registered in Canary Islands), which represent 14% of the total population of the island.<ref>[https://www.eldia.es/tenerife/2010-01-18/5-Tenerife-isla-extranjeros-empadronados.htm Tenerife, la isla con más extranjeros empadronados]</ref> Tenerife stands out in the context of the archipelago, by also concentrating the largest presence of non-EU foreign population.<ref>[https://www.canarias7.es/sociedad/el-11-83-de-los-empadronados-en-canarias-son-extranjeros-IK4518785 El 11,83 % de los empadronados en Canarias son extranjeros]</ref>

Tenerife has three large population areas that are very different and distributed: The Metropolitan Zone, the South Zone and the North Zone. With several protected natural parks — 48.6% of the territory — and an urban swarm around the island, in the last half century the insular coastal platform has become a highly urbanized metropolitan system. The high level of population in a relatively small territory — more than 900,000 inhabitants in just over {{Cvt|2000|km2}} — and the strong urbanization have turned the island of Tenerife, in the words of architect Federico García Barba; on an "island-city" or "island-ring".<ref>[http://www.garciabarba.com/islasterritorio/tenerife-isla-ciudad/ Tenerife, isla ciudad]</ref><ref>[https://elpais.com/sociedad/2019/05/20/actualidad/1558351241_121815.html El caos circulatorio en Tenerife atrapa a 200.000 personas al día]</ref>

[[File:Gráfico.png|thumb|Demographic evolution of Tenerife|left]]
Recently Tenerife has experienced population growth significantly higher than the national average. In 1990, there were 663,306 registered inhabitants, which increased to 709,365 in 2000, an increase of 46,059 or an annual growth of 0.69 percent. However, between 2000 and 2007, the population rose by 155,705 to 865,070, an annual increase of 3.14 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/estadisticas/php/saltarA.php?mid=/istac/estadisticas/poblacion/area_02_frame.html|title=Evolución histórica de la población de Tenerife (ISTAC)|work=gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113143515/http://www2.gobiernodecanarias.org/istac/estadisticas/php/saltarA.php?mid=%2Fistac%2Festadisticas%2Fpoblacion%2Farea_02_frame.html|archive-date=13 November 2010}}</ref>

These results reflect the general trend in Spain where, since 2000, immigration has reversed the general slowdown in population growth, following the collapse in the birth rate from 1976. However, since 2001 the overall growth rate in Spain has been around 1.7 percent per year, compared with 3.14 percent on Tenerife, one of the largest increases in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es|title=Instituto Nacional de Estadistica. (Spanish Statistical Office)|work=ine.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

== Economy ==
[[File:Tenerife-phil5.jpg|thumb|right|Harbour]]
Tenerife is the economic capital of the Canary Islands.<ref name="Datos corporativos de CajaCanarias">{{cite web|url=http://www.cajacanarias.es/s_dato_2.htm|title=Datos corporativos de CajaCanarias|work=cajacanarias.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720133822/http://www.cajacanarias.es/s_dato_2.htm|archive-date=20 July 2011}}</ref> At present, Tenerife is the island with the highest GDP in the Canary Islands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.es/espana/canarias/abci-tenerife-motor-turismo-canarias-201606141232_noticia.html|title=Tenerife, motor del turismo de Canarias|date=14 June 2016|work=ABC|location=Spain|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> Even though Tenerife's economy is highly specialized in the [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sector]], which makes 78% of its total production capacity, the importance of the rest of the economic sectors is key to its production development. In this sense, the primary sector, which only represents 1.98% of the total product, groups activities that are important to the sustainable development of the island's economy. The energy sector which contributes 2.85% has a primary role in the development of renewable energy sources. The industrial sector which shares in 5.80% is a growing activity in the island, vis-a-vis the new possibilities created by technological advances. Finally, the construction sector with 11.29% of the total production has a strategic priority, because it is a sector with relative stability which permits multiple possibilities of development and employment opportunities.<ref>{{in lang|es}} [https://canariasacross.com/pdf/Economia_de_Tenerife.pdf Informe elaborado por el Observatorio Económico de Tenerife (SOFITESA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240107102653/https://canariasacross.com/pdf/Economia_de_Tenerife.pdf|date=7 January 2024}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
[[File:Puertodelacruztf.JPG|thumb|[[Puerto de la Cruz]], in the North, during winter, featuring background snowy mountains]]
Tourism is the most prominent industry in the Canaries, which are one of the major tourist destinations in the world. Tenerife is the most visited island in the archipelago<ref name="Terra Noticias"/> and one of the most important tourist destinations in Spain.<ref name="riull.ull.es"/>

In 2014, 11,473,600 foreign tourists came to the Canary Islands. Tenerife had 4,171,384 arrivals that year, excluding the numbers for Spanish tourists which make up an additional 30% of total arrivals. According to last year's Canarian Statistics Centre's (ISTAC) Report on Tourism the greatest number of tourists from any one country come from the United Kingdom, with more than 3,980,000 tourists in 2014. In second place comes Germany followed by Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, France, Ireland, Belgium, Italy, Denmark, Finland, Switzerland, Poland, Russia and Austria.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}

Tourism is more prevalent in the south of the island, which is hotter and drier and has many well developed resorts such as [[Playa de las Americas]] and [[Los Cristianos]]. More recently coastal development has spread northwards from Playa de las Americas and now encompasses the former small enclave of La Caleta. According to the ''Moratoria'' act passed by the Canarian Parliament in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, no more hotels will be built on the island unless they are classified as 5 star-quality and comprise different services such as golf courses or convention facilities. This act was passed with the goal of improving the standard of tourism service and promoting environmentally conscious development.
[[File:Playa de las americas Tenerife.jpg|thumb|Sunset at the beach Playa De Las Americas, Tenerife]]
The area known as [[Costa Adeje]] has many facilities and leisure opportunities such as shopping centres, golf courses, restaurants, water parks (the most well-known being [[Siam Park (Tenerife)|Siam Park]]), animal parks, and a theatre suitable for musicals or a convention centre.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Asher |first=Michael |date=20 March 2022 |title=5 Things To Do In The Canary Islands – Travel |url=https://info1.net/5-things-to-do-in-the-canary-islands-202218401/ |access-date=2022-05-10 |language=en-US}}</ref> There are many boats offering whale watching tours from the harbour of Puerto Colon. The deep waters off the coast of Costa Adeje are home to several pods of [[pilot whale]]s.<ref>{{Cite web|date=11 March 2019|title=A complete guide to the whale and dolphin watching tours in Tenerife|url=https://talesfromthelens.com/ultimate-guide-whale-and-dolphin-watching-in-tenerife/|access-date=2022-02-11|website=Tales From The Lens|language=en-GB}}</ref>

In the more lush and green north of the island, the main focus of development for tourism has been in the town of [[Puerto de la Cruz]]. Puerto de la Cruz is home to the [[SeaWorld]]-owned zoo, [[Loro Parque]],<ref name="tripadvisor.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tripadvisor.com/TravelersChoice-Attractions-cZoos-g1|title=Best Zoos – the World – TripAdvisor Travelers' Choice Awards|website=tripadvisor.com|access-date=2018-06-20}}</ref> which has been accused of mistreatment of animals in its captivity, including [[orca]]s<ref name="Daily Express article - Water park accused of 'cruelty' as images emerge of killer whales covered in scars">{{Cite web|url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/nature/600445/British-tourists-Canary-Islands-Spanish-water-park-SeaWorld-orca-cruelty|title=Water park accused of 'cruelty' as images emerge of killer whales covered in scars|website=Daily Express|date=25 August 2015|language=en|access-date=2019-03-07}}</ref> and is currently boycotted by major travel agents including [[Thomas Cook Group|Thomas Cook]].<ref name="BBC article - Thomas Cook axes trips to SeaWorld over animal welfare concerns">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-44997389|title=Thomas Cook axes trips to SeaWorld over animal welfare concerns|work=BBC News|date=29 July 2018|language=en|access-date=2019-03-07}}</ref>

In the 19th century large numbers of foreign tourists came, especially British, showing interest in the agriculture of the islands. With the world wars, the tourism sector weakened, but the second half of the 20th century brought renewed interest. Initial emphasis was on Puerto de la Cruz, and for all the attractions that the Valle de la Orotava offered. By 1980, tourism was focused in south Tenerife. The emphasis was on cities like Arona or Adeje, shifting to tourist centres like Los Cristianos or Playa de Las Americas, which now house 65% of the hotels on the island. Tenerife receives more than 5 million tourists every year; of the Сanary islands Tenerife is the most popular.<ref name="naturaycultura"/>
<ref>[http://www.webtenerife.com/NR/rdonlyres/AC31568D-687A-4B60-9FC2-389A90B1A728/6179/webTurismoenCifras2007.xls#'Menú Principal'!A1 Estadísticas de Turismo de Tenerife] {{Dead link|date=February 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}
</ref>

Currently, the municipality of [[Adeje]] in the south of the island has the highest concentration of 5 star hotels in Europe<ref>[https://diariodeavisos.elespanol.com/2018/06/las-nuevas-catedrales-del-turismo-en-tenerife/ Las nuevas ‘catedrales’ del turismo en Tenerife]</ref> and also has what is considered the best luxury hotel in Spain according to ''World Travel Awards''.<ref>[http://www.eleconomista.es/evasion/noticias/9254628/07/18/Tenerife-tiene-el-mejor-hotel-de-lujo-de-Espana.html Tenerife tiene el mejor hotel de lujo de España]</ref>

=== Agriculture and fishing ===
[[File:Bananen von Teneriffa, Spanien (48225526077).jpg|thumb|right|[[Banana plantation]]s in the western coastline ([[Guía de Isora]])]]
Since tourism dominates the Tenerifan economy, the service sector is the largest. Industry and commerce contribute 40% of the non-tourist economy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=9&s=1&lang=1&ID=2755|title=Página oficial de Turusmo de Tenerife|work=idecnet.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071110000250/http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=9&lang=1&s=1&ID=2755|archive-date=10 November 2007}}</ref> Agriculture contributes less than 10% of the island's GDP, but its contribution is vital as it also generates indirect benefits by maintaining the rural appearance of the island and supporting Tenerifan cultural values.

Agriculture is centred on the northern slopes, and is affected by altitude as well as orientation: in the coastal zone, tomatoes and bananas are cultivated, these high yield products are for export to mainland Spain and the rest of Europe; in the drier intermediate zone, potatoes, tobacco and maize are grown, whilst in the south, onions are important.<ref name=naturaycultura/>

Bananas are a particularly important crop, as Tenerife grows more bananas than the other Canary Islands, with a current annual production of about 150,000 tons, down from the peak production of 200,000 tons in 1986. More than 90% of the total is destined for the international market, and banana growing occupies about 4200 hectares.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.platanodecanarias.net/esp/asprocan/asprocan.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194646/http://www.platanodecanarias.net/esp/asprocan/asprocan.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 March 2016|title=Estadísticas de la Asociación de Productores de Plátanos de Canarias (ASPROCAN)|work=platanodecanarias.net|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> After the banana the most important crops are, in order of importance, tomatoes, grapes, potatoes and flowers. Fishing is also a major contributor to the Tenerifan economy, as the Canaries are Spain's second most important fishing grounds.

===Energy===
As of 2009, Tenerife had 910 MW of electrical generation capacity, which is mostly powered from petroleum-derived fuels. The island had 37 MW of wind turbines and 79 MW of solar panels.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlastenerife.es/portalweb/en/isla-de-infraestructuras/power-generation-and-transportation |title=Power generation and transportation |work=Atlas Digital de Tenerife |access-date=23 July 2021 |archive-date=26 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226125342/http://atlastenerife.es/portalweb/en/isla-de-infraestructuras/power-generation-and-transportation |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Industry and commerce ===
Commerce in Tenerife plays a significant role in the economy, representing almost 20% of the GDP, with the commercial center Santa Cruz de Tenerife generating most of the earnings. Although there are a diversity of industrial estates that exist on the island, the most important industrial activity is petroleum, representing 10% of the island's GDP, again largely due to the capital Santa Cruz de Tenerife with its refinery. It provides petroleum products not only to the Canaries archipelago but is also an active in the markets of the Iberian Peninsula, Africa and South America.

== Main sights ==

=== Monuments ===
[[File:Castillo o Torre de San Andrés.jpg|thumb|[[Castle of San Andrés]], declared of National Tourist Interest Center.]]
Historical sights in the island, especially from the time after the conquest, include the [[Cathedral of La Laguna|Cathedral of San Cristóbal de La Laguna]], the [[Iglesia de la Concepción (San Cristóbal de La Laguna)|Church of the Conception of La Laguna]] and the [[Iglesia de la Concepción (Santa Cruz de Tenerife)|Church of the Conception]] in the capital. The [[Basilica of Candelaria|Basílica de Nuestra Senora de la Candelaria]] can be found on the island (Patron of Canary Islands). Also on the island are the defensive castles located in the village of [[San Andrés, Santa Cruz de Tenerife|San Andrés]], as well as many others throughout the island.

The [[Auditorio de Tenerife]], one of the most modern in Spain, can be found at the entry port to the capital (in the southern part of Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife). Near the Auditorio de Tenerife are El Castillo Negro and El Parque Marítimo. The [[Torres de Santa Cruz]] are two twin skyscrapers {{convert|120|m|ft|abbr=off}} high (the highest residential buildings in Spain and the tallest skyscrapers in the Canary Islands).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pgigrup.net/ingenieria_obras_ficha.asp?idioma_web=esp&id=286&tipo=&superficie=&pd=&cd=&po=&co=|title=phpMyAdmin|work=pgigrup.net|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-date=5 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305092737/http://pgigrup.net/ingenieria_obras_ficha.asp?cd=&co=&id=286&idioma_web=esp&pd=&po=&superficie=&tipo=|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Archeological sites ===
The island also has several [[archaeological site]]s of Guanche time (prior to the conquest), which generally are cave paintings that are scattered throughout the island, but most are found in the south of the island.

Archaeological sites on the island include the [[Cave of the Guanches]], where the oldest remains in the archipelago have been found,<ref name=A>{{cite web|url=http://turismo.opennemas.com/articulo/cultura/protohistoria-tenerife/20140816110120000286.html|title=Protohistoria de Tenerife|first=Turiscom CIT: turismo y|last=viajes|work=opennemas.com|date=16 August 2014 |access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> dating to the 6th century BC,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museosdetenerife.org/assets/downloads/publication-c408de300b.pdf|title=Palomas y Los Guanches. Sobre el poblamiento y las estrategias de alimentación vegetal entre los guanches|work=museosdetenerife.org|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> and the [[Caves of Don Gaspar]], where the finding of plant debris in the form of carbonized seeds indicates that the Guanches practiced agriculture on the island.<ref name="A"/> Both deposits are in the town of [[Icod de los Vinos]]. Also noteworthy on the island is the [[Estación solar de Masca]] (''Masca Solar Station''), which was an aboriginal sanctuary for the celebration of rites related to fertility and the request for rainwater. This is located in the municipality of
[[Buenavista del Norte]].

Other archaeological sites include that of Los Cambados and that of El Barranco del Rey both in [[Arona, Tenerife|Arona]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patrimonionacional.biz/provincia/45/tenerife|title=Monumentos y patrimonio de Tenerife|work=patrimonionacional.biz|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618063842/http://www.patrimonionacional.biz/provincia/45/tenerife/|archive-date=18 June 2017}}</ref> One could also highlight the [[Cueva de Achbinico]] (first shrine Marian of the Canary Islands, Guanche vintage-Spanish). In addition there are some buildings called [[Güímar Pyramids]], whose origin is uncertain.

There are also traces that reveal the [[Punic]] presence on the island, as in the wake commonly called "[[Stone of the Guanches]]" in the town of [[Taganana]]. This archaeological site consists of a structure formed by a stone block, large, outdoor, featuring rock carvings on its surface. Among these is the presence of a representation of the [[Ancient Carthage|Carthaginian]] goddess [[Tanit]],<ref name="Canarias Arqueológica">{{cite web|url=http://www.museosdetenerife.org/assets/downloads/publication-91c537fbbe.pdf|title=Canarias Arqueológica.|access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref> represented by a bottle-shaped symbol surrounded by cruciform motifs. It is thought that the monument was originally an altar of sacrifice linked to those found in the [[Ancient Semitic religion|Semitic]]<ref name="Canarias Arqueológica"/> field and then reused for [[Guanche mummies|Aboriginal ritual of mummification]].<ref name="Canarias Arqueológica"/>

== Culture and arts ==

=== Literature ===
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Antonio de Viana, a native of La Laguna, composed the epic poem ''Antigüedades de las Islas Afortunadas'' (''Antiquities of the Fortunate Isles''), a work of value to anthropologists, since it sheds light on Canarian life of the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mundoguanche.com/portada/articulo.php?id_articulo=110|title=Revista multimedia (Mundo Guanche)|work=mundoguanche.com|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> The Enlightenment reached Tenerife, and literary and artistic figures of this era include [[José Viera y Clavijo]], [[Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa]], Ángel Guimerá y Jorge, Mercedes Pinto and [[Domingo Pérez Minik]], amongst others.

=== Painting ===
[[File:Tomas de Iriarte Joaquin Inza.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Tomás de Iriarte y Oropesa]]]]
During the course of the 16th century, several painters flourished in La Laguna, as well as in other places on the island, including [[Garachico]], Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Orotava and [[Puerto de la Cruz]]. Cristóbal Hernández de Quintana and Gaspar de Quevedo, considered the best Canarian painters of the 17th century, were natives of La Orotava, and their art can be found in churches on Tenerife.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/educacion/culturacanaria/arte/arte.htm|title=ARTE EN CANARIAS|last=NTI|work=gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

The work of [[Luis de la Cruz y Ríos]] can be found in the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia, in Puerto de la Cruz. Born in 1775, he became court painter to [[Ferdinand VII of Spain]] and was also a miniaturist, and achieved a favorable position in the royal court. He was known there by the nickname of "El Canario."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puertodelacruz.es/puerto/front_end/articulo.php?id_Art=103&idioma=1|title=Página oficial del ayuntamiento de Puerto de la Cruz|work=puertodelacruz.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070302194554/http://www.puertodelacruz.es/puerto/front_end/articulo.php?id_Art=103|archive-date=2 March 2007}}</ref>

The landscape painter Valentín Sanz (born 1849) was a native of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and the ''Museo Municipal de Bellas Artes de Santa Cruz'' displays many of his works. This museum also contains the works of [[Juan Rodríguez Botas]] (1880–1917), considered the first Canarian [[impressionist]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Zonas/Tenerife%20Norte/Valle%20de%20La%20Orotava%20Puerto%20de%20La%20Cruz/Mas%20sobre%20Tenerife/Arte%20y%20cultura/Artes%20plasticas/Artistas/Juan%20Rodr%C3%ADguez%20Botas.htm|title=Turismo Tenerife: Alojamiento, Carnaval, Actividades... – Tenerife|work=webtenerife.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015010101/http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Zonas/Tenerife%2BNorte/Valle%2Bde%2BLa%2BOrotava%2BPuerto%2Bde%2BLa%2BCruz/Mas%2Bsobre%2BTenerife/Arte%2By%2Bcultura/Artes%2Bplasticas/Artistas/Juan%2BRodr%C3%ADguez%2BBotas.htm|archive-date=15 October 2008}}</ref>

Frescoes by the [[expressionist]] Mariano de Cossío can be found in the church of Santo Domingo, in La Laguna. The watercolorist Francisco Bonnín Guerín (born 1874) was a native of Santa Cruz, and founded a school to encourage the arts. [[Óscar Domínguez]] was born in La Laguna in 1906 and is famed for his versatility. He belonged to the [[surrealist]] school, and invented the technique known as ''[[decalcomania]]''.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/cultura/DOMINGUEZ/_oSCAR_/PINTOR/CANARIAS/CAAM/rescata/inexplicable/olvido/figura/oscar/Dominguez/elpepicul/19960124elpepicul_7/Tes/|title=El CAAM rescata del 'inexplicable olvido' la figura de Óscar Domínguez|date=24 January 1996|work=El País|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

=== Sculpture ===
The arrival from Seville of [[Martín de Andújar Cantos]], an architect and sculptor brought new sculpting techniques of the Seville school, which were passed down to his students, including [[Blas García Ravelo]], a native of Garachico. He had been trained by the master sculptor [[Juan Martínez Montañés]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cofradiadelnazareno.com/el_escultor.php|title=Cofradía del Nazareno (Los Realejos)|work=cofradiadelnazareno.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006070755/http://www.cofradiadelnazareno.com/el_escultor.php|archive-date=6 October 2008}}</ref>

Other notable sculptors from the 17th and 18th centuries include [[Sebastián Fernández Méndez]], [[Lázaro González de Ocampo]], [[José Rodríguez de la Oliva]], and most importantly, [[Fernando Estévez (sculptor)|Fernando Estévez]], a native of La Orotava and a student of Luján Pérez. Estévez contributed an extensive collection of religious images and woodcarvings, found in numerous churches of Tenerife, such as the Principal Parish of [[Saint James the Great]] (''Parroquia Matriz del Apóstol Santiago''), in [[Los Realejos]]; in the Cathedral of La Laguna; the ''Iglesia de la Concepción'' in La Laguna; the basilica of [[Candelaria, Tenerife|Candelaria]], and various churches in La Orotava.

=== Music ===
[[File:Timple Front.png|thumb|left|Canarian timple]]
An important musician from Tenerife is Teobaldo Power y Lugo Viña, a native of Santa Cruz and a pianist and composer, and author of the ''Cantos Canarios''.<ref name=teobaldopower>{{cite book | last=Alemán|first=Gilberto|title=Teobaldo Power|publisher=Idea|isbn=978-84-96161-15-3}}</ref> The Hymn of the Canary Islands takes its melody from the ''Arrorró'', or Lullaby, from Power y Lugo Viña's ''Cantos Canarios''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parcan.es/himno/|title=Himno de Canarias|work=parcan.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

Folkloric music has also flourished on the island, and, as in the rest of the islands, is characterized by the use of the [[Timple|Canarian Timple]], the guitar, [[bandurria]], [[laúd]], and various percussion instruments. Local folkloric groups such as Los Sabandeños work to save Tenerife's musical forms in the face of increasing cultural pressure from the mainland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eldia.es/2007-06-14/cultura/cultura10.htm|title=De asociación a marca|date=14 June 2007|work=eldia.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

Tenerife is the home to the types of songs called the ''isa'', ''folía'', ''tajaraste'', and ''malagueña'', which are a cross of ancient Guanche songs and those of [[Andalusia]] and Latin America.

=== Architecture ===
[[File:Güímar BW 2.JPG|thumb|[[Pyramids of Güímar]]]]
[[File:Tenerife2005 056.jpg|thumb|Architecture in Santa Cruz ([[Plaza de España (Santa Cruz de Tenerife)|Plaza de España]])]]
[[File:Auditorio de Tenerife 013.JPG|thumb|[[Auditorio de Tenerife]], icon of architecture in Canary Islands<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.treklens.com/gallery/Europe/Spain/Madrid/Madrid/Mostoles/photo370327.htm|title=TrekLens – Auditorio Tenerife Photo|work=treklens.com|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-date=10 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121210073021/http://www.treklens.com/gallery/Europe/Spain/Madrid/Madrid/Mostoles/photo370327.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]
Tenerife is characterized by an architecture whose best representatives are the local manor houses and also the most humble and common dwellings. This style, while influenced by those of Andalusia and Portugal, nevertheless had a very particular and native character.<ref name=islaaisla/>

Of the manor houses, the best examples can be found in La Orotava and in La Laguna, characterized by their balconies and by the existence of interior patios and the widespread use of the wood known as ''pino tea'' ("[[pitch pine]]"). These houses are characterized by simple façades and wooden lattices with little ornamentation.<ref name=islaaisla/> There are sash windows and it is customary for the chairs inside the house to rest back-to-back to the windows. The interior patios function like real gardens that serve to give extra light to the rooms, which are connected via the patio by galleries frequently crowned by wood and stone.

Gadgets like stills, water pumps, benches and counters, are elements that frequently form part of these patios.<ref name=islaaisla/>

Traditional houses generally have two storeys, with rough walls of variegated colours. Sometimes the continuity of these walls is interrupted by the presence of stone blocks that are used for ornamental purposes.<ref name=islaaisla/>

The government buildings and religious structures were built according to the changing styles of each century. The urban nuclei of La Orotava and La Laguna have been declared national historical-artistic monuments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcu.es/patrimonio/index.html|title=Áreas de Cultura: Patrimonio Cultural – Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte|work=mcu.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

In recent years, various governments have spearheaded the concept of developing architectural projects, sometimes ostentatious ones, designed by renowned architects–for example, the remodeling of the [[Plaza de España (Santa Cruz de Tenerife)|Plaza de España]] in Santa Cruz de Tenerife by the Swiss architects [[Herzog & de Meuron]]. Other examples include the Playa de Las Teresitas project by the Frenchman Dominique Perrault; the center known as Magma Arte & Congresos; the Torres de Santa Cruz; and the [[Auditorio de Tenerife]] ("Auditorium of Tenerife"). The latter, by the Spaniard [[Santiago Calatrava]], lies to the east of the Parque Marítimo ("Maritime Park"), in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, and is characterized by its sail-like structure, which evokes a boat, and has become a symbol for the city and island,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Area%20profesional/Tenerife%20Convention%20Bureau/Centros%20de%20congresos/AUDITORIO%20DE%20TENERIFE%20TCB.htm?Lang=es|title=Turismo Tenerife: Alojamiento, Carnaval, Actividades... – Tenerife|work=webtenerife.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015010101/http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Area%2Bprofesional/Tenerife%2BConvention%2BBureau/Centros%2Bde%2Bcongresos/AUDITORIO%2BDE%2BTENERIFE%2BTCB.htm?Lang=es|archive-date=15 October 2008}}</ref> which makes Santa Cruz de Tenerife one of the Spanish cities with the most futuristic buildings.

=== Crafts ===
[[File:Traje típico.JPG|thumb|left|Traditional costume]]
Distinctive representatives of craftsmanship on the island are [[Tenerife lace]] (''calado canario''), which is drawn work [[embroidery]], and the intricate [[doilies]] known as ''rosetas'', or [[Rosette (design)|rosette]] embroidery, particularly from [[Vilaflor]]. The lace, often made for table linen, is produced by the intricate and slow embroidering of a stretched piece of cloth, which is rigidly attached to a wooden frame and is finished with illustrations or patterns using threads that are crossed over and wound around the ''fijadores'', or pins stuck in a small support made of cloth.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.todotenerife.es/index.php?sectionID=7&lang=2&s=1&ID=730 |title=Todo Tenerife – Welcome to Tenerife |publisher=Todotenerife.es |access-date=2012-09-19}}</ref> These decorated, small pieces are afterwards joined, to produce distinct designs and pieces of cloth.<ref name=casabalcones>{{cite web|url=http://www.casa-balcones.com/esp/index.html|title=Museo Casa de Los Balcones|work=casa-balcones.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140405003954/http://www.casa-balcones.com/esp/index.html|archive-date=5 April 2014}}</ref>

Another Tenerife-based industry is cabinetwork. The north of the island produced various master craftsman who created distinctive balconies, celosias, doors, and windows, as well as furniture consisting of pieces made in fine wood. Basketmaking using palm-leaves was also an important industry. Other materials are chestnut tree branches stripped of their leaves and [[banana tree]] fibre (known locally as ''la badana'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Home/Disfruta%20sin%20perderte%20nada/Mas%20sobre%20Tenerife/Tradiciones/Artesania/CESTERIA.htm?WBCMODE=presentationunpublis&Lang=es|title=Turismo Tenerife: Alojamiento, Carnaval, Actividades... – Tenerife|work=webtenerife.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015010101/http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Home/Disfruta%2Bsin%2Bperderte%2Bnada/Mas%2Bsobre%2BTenerife/Tradiciones/Artesania/CESTERIA.htm?WBCMODE=presentationunpublis&Lang=es|archive-date=15 October 2008}}</ref>

Pottery has a long history harking back to the production of ceramics by the Guanches. The Guanches were unfamiliar with the [[potter's wheel]], and used hand-worked clay, which gave their pottery a distinctive look. Pottery was used to produce domestic objects such as pots and grills, or ornamental pieces such as bead collars or the objects known as ''pintaderas'', which were pieces of pottery used to decorate other vessels.<ref name=naturaycultura/>

=== Traditional celebrations ===
[[File:BajadaSocorro2006.jpg|thumb|upright|Annual performance to honour "Our Lady of Candelaria" at Socorro Beach, Güímar]]

==== Carnival of Santa Cruz ====
Perhaps the most important festival of Tenerife, popular both on a national and international level, is the [[Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife]], which has been declared a Festival of International Tourist Interest (''Fiesta de Interés Turístico Internacional'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carnavaltenerife.es/staticpages/index.php?page=1.presentacion|title=Página oficial del Carnaval de Santa Cruz de Tenerife|work=carnavaltenerife.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930195304/http://www.carnavaltenerife.es/staticpages/index.php?page=1.presentacion|archive-date=30 September 2008}}</ref> The carnival is celebrated in many locations in the north and south of the island, but is largest in scope in the city of Santa Cruz.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?ID=4758&s=6&sectionID=45&lang=1&hilite=carnaval|archive-url=https://archive.today/20090115183809/http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?ID=4758&s=6&sectionID=45&lang=1&hilite=carnaval|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 January 2009|title=Información del Cabildo Insular acerca de todos los carnavales de Tenerife|work=idecnet.com|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> Contests are celebrated, and the carnival includes bands of street musicians (''murgas''), groups of minstrels (''rondallas de Tenerife''), masquerades (''comparsas''), and various associations (''agrupaciones''). Once the Queen of the festival is elected, the first part of the carnival ends, and thereafter begins the actual street carnival, in which large numbers of people gather in the centre of Santa Cruz, with the carnival lasting ten days.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sctfe.es/index.php?id=627|title=Apartado de Fiestas de la página web del Ayuntamiento de Santa Cruz de Tenerife|work=sctfe.es|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-date=28 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100928031328/https://www.sctfe.es/index.php?id=627|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Pilgrimages (''Romerías'') ====
The most traditional and widespread religious festivals on the islands are the pilgrimages or ''romerías''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Home/Disfruta%20sin%20perderte%20nada/Mas%20sobre%20Tenerife/Tradiciones/Fiestas/ROMERIAS.htm?wbc_purpose=Basi&Lang=es|title=Turismo Tenerife: Alojamiento, Carnaval, Actividades... – Tenerife|work=webtenerife.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015010101/http://www.webtenerife.com/PortalTenerife/Home/Disfruta%2Bsin%2Bperderte%2Bnada/Mas%2Bsobre%2BTenerife/Tradiciones/Fiestas/ROMERIAS.htm?wbc_purpose=Basi&Lang=es|archive-date=15 October 2008}}</ref> These events, which incorporate Christian and non-Christian elements, are celebrated by various means: with wagons and [[Float (parade)|floats]], plowing teams and livestock, in honor of the [[patron saint]] of a particular place. The processions are accompanied by local dances, local dishes, folkloric activities, local arts and crafts, local sports, and the wearing of traditional dress of Tenerife (''trajes de mago'').

The origins of these events can be attributed to the parties and celebrations held by the richest classes of the island, who would gather to venerate their patron saints, to which they attributed good harvests, fertile lands, plentiful rainfall, the curing of sicknesses and ending of epidemics, etc. They would thus give homage to these saints by consuming and sharing the fruits of their harvest, which included the locally cultivated wines. These have developed into processions to mark festivals dedicated to [[Saint Mark]] in [[Tegueste]], where the wagons are decorated with the fruits of the earth (seeds, cereals, flowers, etc.); to [[Saint Isidore the Laborer]] in Los Realejos; to Saint Isidore the Laborer and [[Maria Torribia]] (''Saint Mary of the Head'') in La Orotava; the [[Romería Regional de San Benito Abad]] in La Laguna; [[Virgin of Candelaria]] in Candelaria; [[Saint Roch]] in Garachico; [[Saint Augustine]] in [[Arafo]]; and the [[Romería del Socorro]] in Güímar.

==== Holiday of the Virgin of Candelaria ====
The [[Virgin of Candelaria]] is the patron of the Canary Islands; a feast is held in her honor two times a year, in February and August. The [[Romeria]]-Offering to the Virgin of Candelaria is celebrated every 15 August in this event is a tradition that representations of all municipalities of the island and also of all the Canary archipelago come to make offerings to their patron. Another significant act of the feast of the Virgin of Candelaria is called "''Walk to Candelaria''" held on the night of 14 to 15 August in which the [[Pilgrimage to Candelaria|faithful make pilgrimage on foot from various parts of the island]], even coming from other islands to arrive at [[Candelaria, Tenerife|Villa Mariana de Candelaria]].

On 2 February we celebrate the feast of the Candelaria. Also on this day come to town many devotees of the Virgin. During the February festivities, the so-called "Procesión de Las Candelas" (''Candlelight Procession'') stands out, in which the faithful accompany the Virgin in the dark of the night lit only by candles and praying the rosary.

==== Holiday of the Cristo de La Laguna ====
It is celebrated every 14 September in honor of a much venerated image of Christ in the Archipelago, the [[Cristo de La Laguna]], is held in the city of [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]]. Every 9 September, the venerated image of Christ is lowered in public from the main altar of its Royal Sanctuary, after which, the faithful kiss the feet of the image. The image is solemnly transferred in procession to the Cathedral of La Laguna on the afternoon of that day, where it remains for several days, until 14 September, which is the main day, when it is transferred back to its Sanctuary.

==== Corpus Christi ====
[[File:Plaza-centro.jpg|thumb|Soil Tapestry in the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (Town Square) in [[La Orotava]]]]
The religious festival of [[Corpus Christi (feast)|Corpus Christi]] is particularly important, and is traditionally celebrated with floral carpets laid in the streets. Particularly noteworthy are the celebrations in La Orotava where a very large carpet, or tapestry, of different coloured volcanic soils, covers the Plaza del Ayuntamiento (town square). These soils are taken from the [[Parque Nacional del Teide]], and after the celebration, are returned, to preserve the National Park. The celebration of Corpus Christi in Orotava has been declared of Important Cultural Interest among the official Traditional Activities of the Island.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.villadelaorotava.org/fiestas.php?op2=19|title=Página del ayuntamiento de la Villa de La Orotava|work=villadelaorotava.org|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080604184007/http://www.villadelaorotava.org/fiestas.php?op2=19|archive-date=4 June 2008}}</ref>

==== Easter ====
Among the numerous other celebrations that define Tenerifan culture, Easter remains the most important. This is celebrated across the island, but is particularly notable in the municipalities of La Laguna, La Orotava and Los Realejos, where elaborate processions take place on Maundy Thursday, Good Friday and Easter Sunday, or "Resurrection Sunday". Holy Week in the city of San Cristobal de la Laguna is the largest of the Canary Islands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://sobrecanarias.com/2010/02/22/semana-santa-lagunera-2010/|title=Semana Santa en La Laguna 2010|date=22 February 2010|work=sobrecanarias.com|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

== Religion ==
[[File:La Laguna 2022 - main facade.jpg|thumb|[[Cathedral of La Laguna]], seat of the local Catholic diocese]]
As with the rest of Spain, Tenerife is largely [[Catholic Church|Catholic]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.spain.info/TourSpain/Informacion+practica/Consejos+Practicos/Idiomas+y+religion/0/Que+religion+se+practica+en+Espana.htm?Language=ES|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051205011713/http://www.spain.info/TourSpain/Informacion+practica/Consejos+Practicos/Idiomas+y+religion/0/Que+religion+se+practica+en+Espana.htm?Language=ES|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 December 2005|title=Información turística de España|work=spain.info|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> However, the practice of other religions and denominations has increasingly expanded on the island due to tourism and immigration, as [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Evangelicalism]], [[Judaism]] and [[Afro-American religion]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.observatorioreligion.es/upload/80/39/Pdfd_interactivo_Canarias.pdf|title=Religiones entre continentes. Minorías religiosas en Canarias.|access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref> Minority religions are stationed in the island: [[Chinese Religions]],<ref name="laopinion.es">{{cite web|url=http://www.laopinion.es/sociedad/2008/10/03/sociedad-canarios-profesa-religion-minoritaria/173826.html|title=Un 5% de canarios profesa una religión minoritaria – La Opinión de Tenerife|first=La Opinión de|last=Tenerife|work=laopinion.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼí]]<ref name="laopinion.es"/> and the neopaganism native form, the [[Church of the Guanche People]],<ref name="laopinion.es"/> among others. Christianity and Judaism arrived in the island with the Spanish conquest.

[[File:Tenerife.candelaria.exterior.basilica.jpg|thumb|left|[[Basilica of Candelaria]], sanctuary of the [[Virgin of Candelaria]], patron saint of the Canary Islands]]
An important Catholic festival is the celebration of the [[feast day]] associated with the [[Virgin of Candelaria]], [[patron saint]] of the Canary Islands, who represents the union of the Guanche and Spanish cultures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laopinion.es/secciones/noticia.jsp?pRef=3033_2_126517__Tenerife-Viva-Virgen-Candelaria|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103205256/http://www.laopinion.es/secciones/noticia.jsp?pRef=3033_2_126517__Tenerife-Viva-Virgen-Candelaria|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 November 2012|title=Tenerife – La Opinión de Tenerife – Hemeroteca 03-02-2008|first=La Opinión de|last=Tenerife|work=laopinion.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> The Guanches became devoted to a [[Black Madonna]] that Christian missionaries from [[Lanzarote]] and [[Fuerteventura]] left on a beach near the present-day Villa Mariana de Candelaria, which gave rise to the legends and stories associated with the Virgin. These legends fueled the cult of the Virgin and the [[Pilgrimage to Candelaria|pilgrimages to Candelaria]] that have existed to this day on the island. Another cult to the Virgin Mary exists in the form of [[Our Lady of Los Remedios]] (''la Virgen de Los Remedios''), who is patron of the island and Catholic diocese of Tenerife (''Diócesis Nivariense'').
[[File:Hermano Pedro.jpg|thumb|right|[[Peter of Saint Joseph de Betancur]], [[franciscan]] missionary in [[Guatemala]] born in Tenerife. He was the first Canarian to be canonized by the [[Catholic Church]]. This saint is very venerated in Tenerife]]

In Tenerife were born two [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[saint]]s who were of the greatest missionaries in the Americas: [[Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur]] and [[José de Anchieta]]. The first was a missionary in [[Guatemala]] and founder of [[Bethlehemites|Order of Our Lady of Bethlehem]] (the first religious order of the Americas), the second was a missionary in Brazil, and was one of the founders of [[São Paulo]] and of [[Rio de Janeiro]]. It also highlights the figure of the mystic [[Mary of Jesus de León y Delgado]]. This nun died with a reputation for holiness and is highly revered throughout the Canary Islands. Her body is intact in the Convent of Santa Catalina de Siena in [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]].

Principal Catholic places of worship on the island include:

* ''The [[Basilica of Candelaria]]'' (in [[Candelaria, Tenerife|Candelaria]]): The place where the image of the Virgin of Candelaria can be found, this sanctuary is built in [[neoclassical architecture|neoclassical]] style, and is visited daily by the parishioners, who visit the Villa Mariana out of devotion to the Virgin.
* The ''[[Cathedral of La Laguna]]'' (in [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]]): The seat of the Diocese of Tenerife (known as the Diócesis Nivariense, or Nivarian Diocese), the cathedral is dedicated to Our Lady of Remedies (''la Virgen de Los Remedios''). A combination of [[neo-Gothic]] and neoclassical architectural elements.
* ''[[Real Santuario del Cristo de La Laguna]]'' (in San Cristóbal de La Laguna): One of the most important churches in the Canary Islands, it contains the venerated image of the [[Cristo de La Laguna]], and is a symbol of the city of San Cristóbal de La Laguna.
*''* [[Mother Parish of the Apostle Santiago (Los Realejos)]]'' (''Parroquia Matriz del Apóstol Santiago''): Situated in [[Los Realejos|Villa de Los Realejos]], this parish church was the first Christian church built on the island after its conquest by [[Kingdom of Castile|Castilian]] forces. It is dedicated to [[Saint James the Great]], as the ''conquista'' was completed on the saint's [[feast day]] on 25 July 1496. It was, along with the Parish of the Conception of La Laguna, one of the first parishes of the island.
* ''[[Iglesia de la Concepción (San Cristóbal de La Laguna)|The Church of the Conception of La Laguna]]'' (''Iglesia de la Concepción de La Laguna''): One of the most ancient buildings on Tenerife, its construction was ordered by [[Alonso Fernández de Lugo]]. It has been declared a National Historic Monument. Around this church were built the dwellings and infrastructure that formed the nucleus of the city of San Cristóbal de La Laguna.

Other important churches include the Church of the Conception in La Orotava (Iglesia de la Concepción); the churches of San Agustín and Santo Domingo in La Orotava; the church of Nuestra Señora de la Peña de Francia in Puerto de la Cruz; the church of San Marcos in Icod de los Vinos; the church of Santa Ana in Garachico; and the [[Iglesia de la Concepción (Santa Cruz de Tenerife)|Church of the Conception (Iglesia de la Concepción) in Santa Cruz de Tenerife]].

The first saint of Tenerife<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/homilies/2002/documents/hf_jp-ii_hom_20020730_canonization-guatemala_sp.html|title=Viaje Apostólico a la Ciudad de Guatemala: Santa misa de canonización del beato hermano Pedro de San José Betancurt en el Hipódromo del Sur, Ciudad de Guatemala (30 de julio de 2002) – Juan Pablo II|work=vatican.va|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> and Canary Islands<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museosdetenerife.org/cedocam-centro-de-documentacion-de-canarias-y-america/evento/2558|title=Museos de Tenerife – Intemporales: "Hermano Pedro, primer santo de las Islas Canarias"|work=museosdetenerife.org|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-date=17 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517190934/http://www.museosdetenerife.org/cedocam-centro-de-documentacion-de-canarias-y-america/evento/2558|url-status=dead}}</ref> was [[Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur|Saint Peter of Saint Joseph Betancur]], born in the town of [[Vilaflor]], Tenerife. His main shrine is the [[Cave of Santo Hermano Pedro]] in [[Granadilla de Abona]], near the coast, where he lived in his youth. This cave is considered one of the most important pilgrimage spots of the Canary Islands.

Another notable building on the island is the [[Masonic Temple of Santa Cruz de Tenerife]], generally considered the finest example of Masonic temple architecture in Spain;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.masoneria.org/temploTF.php|title=Masonería en Canarias – Masoneria Regular|work=masoneria.org|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> it was the Masonic center of the country until the military occupation of the island by the [[Franco regime]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eldia.es/2002-10-17/SANTACRUZ/0-templo-masonico-bien-interes-cultural.htm#4|title=El templo masónico, bien de interés cultural|date=17 October 2002|work=eldia.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

The headquarters of the [[Islamic Federation of the Canary Islands]] is in Tenerife; the organization was founded to unite the Muslim communities of the Canary Islands in a common association.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laopinion.es/tenerife/2015/04/16/musulmanes-isla-constituyen-primera-federacion/601084.html|title=Los musulmanes de la Isla constituyen la primera Federación Islámica de Canarias|first=La Opinión de|last=Tenerife|work=laopinion.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> For its part, the headquarters of the Evangelical Council of the Canary Islands is also on the island.<ref>[https://consejoevangelicodecanarias.com/contacto/ Consejo Evangélico de Canarias. Contacto]</ref>

== Education ==
[[Formal education]] in Tenerife began with the [[religious order]]s. In 1530, the [[Dominican Order]] established a chair of philosophy at the convent of [[Iglesia de la Concepción (San Cristóbal de La Laguna)|La Concepción de La Laguna]]. Still, until well into the 18th century Tenerife was largely without institutions of education.
[[File:UniversityLaLaguna.JPG|thumb|left|[[University of La Laguna]], the oldest and largest university in the Canary Islands]]
Such institutions finally began to develop thanks to the work of the Real Sociedad Económica de Amigos del País ("Royal Economic Society of Friends of the Country"), which established several schools in San Cristóbal de La Laguna. The first of these was an institute of secondary education established in 1846 to fill the gap left by the closure of the Universidad de San Fernando (''see [[University of La Laguna]]'').<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ull.es/portal/viewcategory.aspx?code=16|title=Universidad de La Laguna|work=ull.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111211540/http://www.ull.es/portal/viewcategory.aspx?code=16|archive-date=11 January 2010}}</ref>

An 1850 annex to this building was the Escuela Normal Elemental, the archipelago's first teachers' college or normal school, which became the Escuela Normal Superior de Magisterio from 1866 onward. These were the only institutions of higher education until the dictator [[Miguel Primo de Rivera]] created several institutions. A turning point came around the time of the rise of the [[Second Spanish Republic]]. From 1929 to 1933 the number of schools nearly doubled.

Shortly after this, though, the start of the [[Spanish Civil War]] and the following dictatorship of [[Francisco Franco]] constituted a considerable reversal. Education in the hands of religious orders had a certain importance on the island until the 1970 Ley General de Educación ("General Law of Education") shifted the balance from religiously based education to public education. Public schools continued their advance during and after the post-Franco [[Spanish transition to democracy]]. Tenerife today has 301 centers of childhood education ([[preschool]]s), 297 primary schools, 140 secondary schools and 86 [[post-secondary education|post-secondary]] schools.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobcan.es/educacion/DGC/DirCentros/scripts/default.asp?categoria=37|title=Buscador de centros educativos y oferta educativa – Consejería de Educación y Universidades – Gobierno de Canarias|work=gobcan.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> There are also five universities or [[post-graduate education|post-graduate]] schools, the [[University of La Laguna]], the [[Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia]] (National University of Distance Learning), the [[Universidad Internacional Menéndez Pelayo]] (Menéndez Pelayo International University), the [[Universidad Alfonso X el Sabio]] (University of Alfonso X the Wise) and the [[Universidad de Vic]] (Escuela Universitaria de Turismo de Santa Cruz de Tenerife, "University School of Tourism of Santa Cruz de Tenerife"). The largest of these is the University of La Laguna.

The [[Universidad Europea de Canarias]] (European University of the Canary Islands) is located in La Orotava and is the first private university in the Canary Islands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.villadelaorotava.org/educacion.php?op2=py&id=32|title=Universidad Europea de Canarias en La Orotava|work=villadelaorotava.org|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407071317/http://www.villadelaorotava.org/educacion.php?op2=py&id=32|archive-date=7 April 2014}}</ref>

=== Science and research ===
[[File:Obs 2.jpg|thumb|left|[[Teide Observatory]], part of the [[Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias]] ([[Astrophysics]] Institute of the Canaries)]]
While Tenerife is not prominent in the history of scientific and academic research, it is the home of the [[Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias]] (Astrophysical Institute of the Canaries). There is also an Instituto de Bio-Orgánica [[Antonio González González|Antonio González]] (Antonio González Bio-Organic Institute) at the University of La Laguna. Also at that university are the Instituto de Lingüística Andrés Bello (Andrés Bello Institute of Linguistics), the Centro de Estudios Medievales y Renacentistas (Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies), the Instituto Universitario de la Empresa (University Institute of Business), the Instituto de Derecho Regional (Regional Institute of Law), the Instituto Universitario de Ciencias Políticas y Sociales (University Institute of Political and Social Sciences) and the Instituto de Enfermedades Tropicales (Institute of Tropical Diseases). This last is one of the seven institutions of the Red de Investigación de Centros de Enfermedades Tropicales ([[RICET]], "Network of Research of Centers of Tropical Diseases"), located in various parts of Spain.

Puerto de la Cruz has the Instituto de Estudos Hispánicos de Canarias (Institute of Hispanic Studies of the Canaries), attached to Madrid's Instituto de Cultura Hispánica. In La Laguna is the Canarian delegation of the [[Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas]] (CSIC, Superior Council of Scientific Investigations), the Instituto Canario de Investigaciones Agrarias (Canarian Institute of Agrarian Investigation), the Instituto de Estudios Canarios (Canarian Institute of Studies) and the [[Centro Internacional para la Conservación del Patrimonio]] (the International Center of the Conservation of Patrimony).

Other research facilities in Tenerife are the Instituto Tecnológico de Canarias, the Instituto Vulcanológico de Canarias, the Asociación Industrial de Canarias, the Instituto Tecnológico de Energías Renovables (Technological Institute of Renewable Energy) and the Instituto Oceanográfico de Canarias in Santa Cruz de Tenerife.

=== Museums ===
[[File:Momia guanche museo santa cruz 27-07.JPG|thumb|right|[[Guanche mummies|Guanche mummy]] in the [[Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre]]]]
[[File:Pueblo Chico Guanchen2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Guanches|Guanche]] figures at Pueblo Chico in [[La Oratava]]]]
The island boasts a variety of museums of different natures, under dominion of a variety of institutions. Perhaps the most developed are those belonging to the [[Organismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museosdetenerife.org/index.php?al_id_mus=6|title=Museos de Tenerife – Museos de Tenerife|work=museosdetenerife.org|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> which include the following:
* [[Museo de la Naturaleza y el Hombre|Museum of Nature and Man]]: located in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, this museum exhibits the natural riches of the Canary Islands and of the pre-Hispanic people who inhabited these. The Museum of Nature and Man is a world reference in regard to preservation of [[mummies]]. The complex is composed of three museums:
** The Museum of Natural Sciences
** The Architectural Museum of Tenerife
** The Canarian Institute of Bioanthropology
* [[Museum of the History of Tenerife]]: located in the city of [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna|La Laguna]], the history of museum presents an overview of the institutional, social, economic and cultural development of the Island in from the 15th to 20th centuries.
* The [[Museum of Science and the Cosmos]], also located in La Laguna adjacent to the property of the Instituto de Astrofísica as a museum about the laws and principles of nature, from those of the cosmos to those of the human body.
* The [[Museum of Anthropology of Tenerife]], in La Laguna as well, more specifically in [[Valle de Guerra]] is a public institution for the investigation, conservation and spread of popular culture
* The [[Centro de Documentación Canario-Americano]] (CEDOCAM, Center for Canarian-American Documentation), located in La Laguna has a mission of strengthening cultural relations and elements of common identity between the Canaries and the Americas, through such means as conservation, information and diffusion of their shared documentary patrimony.
* The [[Centro de Fotografía Isla de Tenerife]] ("Island of Tenerife Photographic Center") located in Santa Cruz de Tenerife offers an annual program of expositions that allows contact with tendencies and works of various renowned and emergent photographers of the Canaries. In the future, this center will share a headquarters with the Instituto Óscar Domínguez de Arte y Cultura Contemporánea ([[Óscar Domínguez Institute of Art and Culture]]).
* The [[Tenerife Espacio de las Artes]] (TEA, "Tenerife Arts Space") also in Santa Cruz de Tenerife was founded to promote knowledge of the many contemporary tendencies in art and culture among the local population and visitors, by organizing cultural, scientific, educational and technical activities.

Independent of the Organismo Autónomo de Museos y Centros are:

* The [[Casa del Carnaval (Santa Cruz de Tenerife)|Casa del Carnaval]] or ''Carnival House'', located in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, is a museum dedicated to the history of the [[Carnival of Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]. The enclosure has two exhibition areas; one for temporary exhibitions and also used as an assembly hall, and another for permanent exhibitions in which the costumes of the queen of the carnival of each year stand out, the original posters of the carnival, thematic videos of the history of the party, touch screens and virtual reality glasses, etc.
* The [[Convento de San Francisco (Santa Cruz de Tenerife)|Municipal Museum of Fine Arts]] in the Tenerifan capital has a permanent exhibit of the paintings and sculptures of [[José de Ribera]], [[Federico Madrazo]], [[Joaquín Sorolla]] and such Canarian artists as [[Manolo Millares]] and [[Óscar Domínguez]].
* The Casa del Vino-La Baranda ("House of Wine-La Baranda"), a member of the ''[[Asociación de Museos del Vino de España]]'' (Association of Wine Museums of Spain),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.museosdelvino.es/listaSocios.htm|title=Socios de la Asociación de Museos del Vino de España|work=museosdelvino.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016044535/http://www.museosdelvino.es/listaSocios.htm|archive-date=16 October 2008}}</ref> is located in the municipality of [[El Sauzal]]. Its facilities include a rustic, historic ''hacienda'', a museum of the history of [[viticulture]] in Tenerife, a restaurant serving typical Tenerifan food, a wine store, an audiovisual hall, and a tasting room.
* The Casa de la Miel ("House of Honey") is an annex to the Casa del Vino-La Baranda, and was established by the ''Cabildo Insular'' to support and develop the [[apiculture|apicultural]] (bee-keeping) sector on Tenerife. The visitor's center of the Casa de la Miel offers exhibits about the history of this industry on the island and how apiculture is conducted, as well as information services and opportunities to taste Tenerifan ''[[denominación de origen]]'' honeys.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.casadelamiel.org/miel.html|title=Página de la Casa de la Miel de Tenerife|work=casadelamiel.org|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915183811/http://www.casadelamiel.org/miel.html|archive-date=15 September 2008}}</ref>
* The Museum of Iberoamerican Artisanship is located in the old convent of San Benito Abad, in La Orotava. ''El centro se encuadra dentro del programa de divulgación que ejecuta el'' Center for Documentation of Artisanship in Spain and the Americas,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://es.geocities.com/cdiaea/museo/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080128160126/http://es.geocities.com/cdiaea/museo/|url-status=dead|archive-date=28 January 2008|title=Museo de Artesanía Iberoamericana|date=28 January 2008|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> The Foundation is financed by the Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Tourism; the [[Agencia Española de Cooperación Internacional]] (Spanish Agency of International Cooperation), the Comisión Nacional "Quinto Centeneario" ("Fifth Centenary" National Commission), the Consejería de Industria y Comercio del [[Gobierno de Canarias]] (Council of Industry and Commerce of the Government of the Canaries), and the [[Cabildo Insular de Tenerife]]. It has five galleries, specialized in popular musical instruments, textiles / new designs in artisanship, ceramics, fibers, and popular art.
* The [[Archaeological Museum of Puerto de la Cruz]] in the city of the same name is located in a traditional ''casona'' (a type of house dating from the 18th–19th century), offers an archival collection comprising more than 2,600 specimens of items from the Guanche culture, and a document collection named after researcher Luis Diego Cuscoy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arqueopc.museum/nuevo/pagina.asp?id=3|title=Fondo museográfico del espacio|work=arqueopc.museum|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111223949/http://www.arqueopc.museum/nuevo/pagina.asp?id=3|archive-date=11 January 2009}}</ref>
* The [[Regional Military Museum of the Canaries]], is located in Santa Cruz de Tenerife, more specifically in the [[Fuerte de Almeyda]] district. Its galleries present all of the military history of the de Canaries, including the repelling of the attack by British Admiral [[Horatio Nelson]], as well as other events and battles waged in the islands. Separate from the Regional Military Museum are files providing the Intermediate Military Archive of the Canaries and the Military Library of the Canary Islands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ejercito.mde.es/ihycm/chycm/index.html|title=Official site of the Centro de Historia y Cultura Militar de Canarias|work=mde.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080926115831/http://www.ejercito.mde.es/ihycm/chycm/index.html|archive-date=26 September 2008}}</ref>

== Media ==
{{Globalize|section|date=November 2019}}
Along with many Spanish-language radio and TV stations, Tenerife has two official English-language radio stations. [[Coast FM (Tenerife)|Coast FM]] broadcasts a mix of adult contemporary music and is the only local news service to broadcast in English.
As the larger of the two stations, Coast FM can be heard across Tenerife and much of the Canary Islands from its transmitters on 106.6, 92.2 and 89.4. Energy FM is a non-stop music station that also broadcasts local news and information on the hour.

== Transport and communications ==
[[File:SantaCruzHarbour.jpg|thumb|Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]
The island of Tenerife is served by [[Tenerife North Airport]] (GCXO) and [[Tenerife South Airport]] (GCTS).

Tenerife North Airport, the smaller of the two, is located near the metropolitan area Santa Cruz-La Laguna (423,000 inhabitants). It serves inter-insular flights as well as national and European flights. Tenerife South Airport (south) is the busiest Airport in Tenerife, ranking 7th in Spain. It typically serves the mass of regular and vacation charter flights constantly arriving from most of Europe.

The other way to arrive on Tenerife is by ferry, either to Santa Cruz de Tenerife or Los Cristianos, near Playa de Las Américas.

A network consisting of two fast, toll-free motorways (TF1 and TF5) encircles nearly the entire island, linking all the main towns and resorts with the metropolitan area. The exception is in the West, from Adeje to Icod de los Vinos, which is traversed by a smaller winding mountain road. However, plans are in progress to complete the motorway, which caused a heavy debate between the environmentalists and the local businessmen.

Away from the major motorways, there is a network of secondary and communal roads, varying from wide to steep, winding narrow roads, mainly unlit and often with drops on either side of the main carriageway surface.
[[File:Teno Cape.JPG|thumb|right|Teno, the westernmost point in the island]]
Public transport on the island is provided by an extensive network of buses and run by [[TITSA]], who operate a fleet of modern, air-conditioned buses.<ref>"Tenerife's main bus service, TITSA, is efficient and covers the island well. Most of the vehicles are new, air conditioned, clean and painted white and green." Barrett, Pam (2000) ''Insight Guide Tenerife and Western Canary Islands'' (4th ed.) Insight Guides, APA Publications, Singapore, p. 280, {{ISBN|1-58573-060-2}}</ref> TITSA buses cover most of the island and they are fairly frequent. For more than one journey, customers can purchase a TenMas [[contactless smart card]] for €2, which can be topped up with up to €100 travel credit. Using the TenMas card provides a discount over cash fares, and, for Tenerife residents, a card allowing unlimited travel for a monthly fee is also available.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.europapress.es/islas-canarias/noticia-bono-residente-canario-viajar-manera-ilimitada-guagua-tranvia-tenerife-47-euros-mes-20180919132656.html|title=Bono Residente Canario: viajar de manera ilimitada en guagua y tranvía en Tenerife por 47 euros al mes|date=19 September 2018|publisher=Europa Press|access-date=2020-01-02}}</ref> The card can be purchased and topped up at bus stations and many newsagents. It is also valid on the tram in the capital, Santa Cruz (See Below).

A hire car is sometimes a good option for discovering the remote wilderness regions, although TITSA operate reliable bus services in the remotest spots, such as the Teno Massif via Masca (355), and up the Anaga mountains (247). TITSA operate two daily services up Mount Teide – from Puerto de la Cruz (348) and from Los Christianos/Las Americas (342) up to the Teide Parador, Teleferico cable car, Montana Blanca and El Portillo. Car rental companies that have offices in the airports are: Autoreisen, Avis, Cicar, Europcar, Goldcar (only south airport), Hertz, [[Sixt]] and TopCar.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aena-aeropuertos.es/csee/Satellite/Aeropuerto-Tenerife-Norte/en/Page/1237553552391/|title=Car Rental Companies in Tenerife North Airport|work=aena-aeropuertos.es|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517074950/http://www.aena-aeropuertos.es/csee/Satellite/Aeropuerto-Tenerife-Norte/en/Page/1237553552391/|archive-date=17 May 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aena-aeropuertos.es/csee/Satellite/Aeropuerto-Tenerife-Sur/en/Page/1237553556933//Rent-a-car-desks.html|title=Car Rental Companies in Tenerife South Airport|work=aena-aeropuertos.es|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-date=23 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223064102/http://www.aena-aeropuertos.es/csee/Satellite/Aeropuerto-Tenerife-Sur/en/Page/1237553556933/Rent-a-car-desks.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.autoreisen.com/alquiler-coches/alquiler-de-coches.php|title=Alquiler de coches en Tenerife|first=Car Hire Tenerife – Autoreisen – Car Hire|last=Lanzarote|work=www.autoreisen.com|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=TopCar car rental in Tenerife|url=https://top-car-hire.com/en/car-hire/tenerife|access-date=18 January 2022|website=top-car-hire.com}}</ref>

The metropolitan Area formed by Santa Cruz and La Laguna is served by the ''Tranvía de Tenerife'' (''Tenerife Tram'') which opened in early 2007, after 3 years of intensive works. The fairly lengthy line from Santa Cruz up the hill to La Laguna serves almost 20 stops. A second line within La Laguna was added in 2009.

=== Roads ===
[[File:AutopistaTF5.jpg|thumb|TF5 motorway approaching Santa Cruz]]
The main means of transportation in Tenerife is by highways. The most important of these are the [[Autopista TF-1|Autopista del Sur]] and the [[Autopista TF-5|Autopista del Norte]] (the North and South Motorways), which run from the metropolitan zone to the south and north, respectively. These two motorways are connected by means of the [[Autovía Interconexión Norte-Sur|Autovía de Interconexión Norte-Sur]] in the outskirts of the metropolitan zone. Within the network of roads on the island of Tenerife there are other minor roads that used to include the highway from San Andres and Santa Cruz (Holy Cross in English).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tenerife.es/wps/portal/!ut/p/c1/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3gPTzMfT293QwMLA0MLAyOPUAsvdyc_I0NjQ6B8JFDe2cQ3BCRvYGFhYGDk6mbqG-Lhb2DgaUBAt59Hfm6qfkFuRDkAMf0HJA!!/dl2/d1/L0lDU0NTSUpKZ2tLQ2xFS0NsRUEhL29Kb1FBQUlRSkFBTVl4aWxNUVp3WEJNNUpVbE1rQSEhL1lCSkp3NDU0NTAtNUY0a3N0eWowc3J5bndBISEvN19ISTZMSUtHMTBPUDU5MDJIUDk0MUhLQlMwNC9LX19fXzIvaWRDb250ZW50L2NvbS5pYm0ud29ya3BsYWNlLndjbS5hcGkuV0NNX0NvbnRlbnQlMExpc3RhZG8gZGUgQ2FycmV0ZXJhcyUwZDEzMWUwODA0NGFmYjNhZGI2OGZmZThiOTdjNTg0NDUlMFBVQkxJU0hFRC9jbGlja051bUl0ZW0vMg!!/#7_HI6LIKG10OP5902HP941HKBS04|title=Red de carreteras de Tenerife|work=tenerife.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

Also planned is the construction of a bypass road north of the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, La Laguna. This aims to provide dual cores to [[Guamasa]] and [[Acorán]], by way of [[Los Baldíos (Tenerife)|Los Baldíos]], [[Centenero (Tenerife)|Centenero]], [[Llano del Moro]], [[El Sobradillo]], [[El Tablero]], and [[El Chorrillo (Tenerife)|El Chorrillo]], among other neighbourhoods. The route will be approximately {{convert|20|km|mi}} long and will cost an estimated 190 million euros (270 million in American dollars).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tenerife.es/piot/|title=Plan Insular de Ordenación de Tenerife|work=tenerife.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

=== Airports ===
[[File:Rodeos verde.JPG|thumb|Tenerife North Airport]]
Tenerife is most easily reached by air. There are two airports: [[Tenerife South Airport]], in the south, and [[Tenerife North Airport]], near Santa Cruz. Overall, Tenerife has the highest annual passenger count and the greatest number of arrivals in Canary Islands, made more popular by the frequency of cheap flights from many European destinations. Tenerife North Airport and Tenerife South Airport together account for the highest passenger numbers in the Islands with some 14 million passengers annually (AENA report<ref>{{cite web |title=dead link |url=http://www.aena.es/csee/ccurl/Anual_2007.pdf |access-date=30 March 2010}} {{dead link|date=May 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>). Of the two airports on the island, Tenerife South is the most popular tourist destination.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aena.es/csee/ccurl/Anual_2007.pdf|title=Informe estadístico anual (2007) de Aena|work=aena.es|access-date=18 April 2017}} {{dead link|date=September 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.logitravel.com/vuelos/vuelos-tenerife-1573995.html|title=Vuelos Tenerife desde 20 €. Ofertas de vuelos directos a Tenerife TCI - Logitravel.com|work=logitravel.com|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

=== Ports ===
Besides air transport, Tenerife has two principal maritime ports: the [[Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] (''Puerto de Santa Cruz''), which serves the various capitals of the Canary Islands, especially those in the west; and the [[Port of Los Cristianos]] (''Puerto de Los Cristianos''), which serves the various island capitals of the province of Santa Cruz de Tenerife. The first port also has passenger services, which connect with the mainland port of [[Cádiz]] (and vice versa). In 2017, a large important port was opened in the south of the island, the [[Port of Granadilla]], and another one is planned in the west, in [[Port of Fonsalía|Fonsalía]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puertosdetenerife.org/|title=Inicio – Autoridad Portuaria de Santa Cruz de Tenerife|work=puertosdetenerife.org|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> The Port of Santa Cruz de Tenerife is the first fishing port in the Canary Islands with approximately 7,500 tons of fish caught, according to the Statistical Yearbook of the State Ports 2006 (the latest of which is changing). Following this report is the largest port number of passengers recorded. Similarly, the second port of Spain moving ship and loaded into cars, only surpassed by the [[Port of Algeciras]] Bay.<ref name="puertos.es">
{{Cite web |url=http://www.puertos.es/export/download/anuarios_estadisticos/04-CAPITULO_4-2006.pdf |title=Anuario estadístico de Puertos del Estado |access-date=30 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100331101428/http://www.puertos.es/export/download/anuarios_estadisticos/04-CAPITULO_4-2006.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2010 |url-status=dead }}
</ref> In the port's facilities include a border inspection post (BIP) approved by the European Union, which is responsible for inspecting all types of imports from third countries or exports to countries outside the European Economic Area.

=== Buses (''guaguas'') ===
Tenerife has an extensive system of buses, which are called ''guaguas'' in the Canary Islands. The bus system is used both within the cities and also connects most of the towns and cities of the island. There are bus stations in all of the major towns, such as the [[Intercambiador|Intercambiador de Transportes de Santa Cruz de Tenerife]].

=== Taxis ===
There is a well-regulated taxi service on the island.{{Citation needed|date=November 2017}}

=== Tramway ===
[[File:Tranvía de Tenerife1.jpg|thumb|right|Tramway servicing between Santa Cruz and La Laguna]]
Since 2007, the [[Tenerife Tram]] connects [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] and [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna|La Laguna]] through the suburb of Taco. There are 20 stops and it covers a distance of {{convert|12.5|km|mi|abbr=on}} in 37 minutes. It calls at some points of interest including Tenerife's two major hospitals, the university complex of Guajara, and a number of museums and theatres. Concerning its power supply, it will support development of further wind farms to provide it with 100 percent clean energy.<ref>[http://www.metrotenerife.com/ webpage]</ref>

==== Railway plans ====
{{Main|Tren del Sur}}

By 2005, plans for a light-rail network linking the capital with the South had been approved by both the [[Cabildo Canaries|Tenerife Council]] and the Canary Islands Government, though the discussion with the central Spanish Government stalled on budget issues.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061213211221/http://www.cabtfe.es/areasgc/presidencia/corporacion/presidente/apuestatransporte.html Navarro, Ricardo Melchior (23 October 2005) "Apuesta por el transporte público" ''El Dia''] (''Odds for Public Transportation'')</ref> The original intent was to establish two railway systems that would serve the northern and southern sides of the island connecting these with the capital.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metrotenerife.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=68&Itemid=99|title=Inicio MetroTenerife|website=metrotenerife.com|access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref>
By March 2011, these intentions had been replaced by advanced plans for a single {{convert|80|km|0|abbr=on}} [[high-speed rail]] line, the "[[Tren del Sur|South Train]]" which would connect [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] with [[Adeje]] via Santa Maria de Añaza, [[Candelaria, Tenerife|Candelaria]], San Isidro, [[Tenerife South Airport]], and a main stopover station at [[Adeje]] which would be designed to service up to 25,000 passengers per day. Trains would run every 15 minutes during rush hours, and would achieve speeds up to {{convert|220|km/h|0|abbr=on}}. The project, which involves 9 tunnels, 12 false tunnels (together 22.1 km) and 33 viaducts (8.3 km) has been budgeted at EUR 1.7 bn. It has met staunch opposition from local environmentalists.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tenerifenews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=16154 |title=Turning the south train into a reality |access-date=6 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716210336/http://www.tenerifenews.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=16154 |archive-date=16 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> An alternate plan for a high-speed [[Transrapid#Tenerife|Transrapid maglev]] has also been put forward.<ref>{{cite news|journal=Der Spiegel|title=Transrapid Revival on the Canary Islands? Berlin Pushes Industry on High-Speed Maglev Rail|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/business/transrapid-revival-on-the-canary-islands-berlin-pushes-industry-on-high-speed-maglev-rail-a-758348.html|date=22 April 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Maglev System on the Island of Tenerife |url=http://magnetbahnforum.de/phpBB2/download.php?id=108 |date=10–13 October 2011 |access-date=6 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623165309/http://magnetbahnforum.de/phpBB2/download.php?id=108 |archive-date=23 June 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Tourist train===
A [[trackless train|tourist train]] (Tren Turístico) serves Costa Adeje to Los Cristianos with several stops including in Playa de las Americas.

===Cableway===
[[File:Cabina Teleférico.jpg|thumb|alt=Teide cableway|Teide cableway]]
{{further|Teide Cableway}}

== Sports ==
{{Main|Sport in Tenerife}}
On the island of Tenerife, a large number of sports are practised, both outdoors and indoors in the various facilities available throughout the island. The sports are numerous – Diving, Rock Climbing, Walking, Cycling, Sailing, Golf, Surfing, Go-Karting, Paragliding<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.tenerife.paraglidingistheway.com/|title=Paragliding, fly with the experts}}</ref> – the all year round weather makes it ideal for a wide variety of outdoor sports.
There are also many indoor sporting facilities including fully equipped including 'Tenerife Top Training' centre in Adeje on the South of the Island. Its most well-known sports team is [[Association football|football]] club [[CD Tenerife]] based in Santa Cruz. The club has spent time in the Spanish top flight, but have in recent decades primarily played in the second division of Spanish football. Also worth mentioning is the [[ultramarathon]] [[CajaMar Tenerife Bluetrail]], the highest race in Spain and second in Europe,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.es/deportes/abci-tenerife-bluetrail-carrera-mas-alta-espana-201610060829_noticia.html|title=Tenerife Bluetrail, la carrera más alta de España|date=6 October 2016 |access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref> with the participation of several countries and great international repercussions.

== Healthcare ==
[[File:Hospital Universitario de Canarias.png|thumb|right|[[Hospital Universitario de Canarias]]]]

The main hospitals on the island are the [[Hospital Universitario de Canarias]] and the [[Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria]]. Both are third-level hospitals, with specialist facilities that serve all of the Canary Islands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/sanidad/scs/6/6_2/at_hosp.jsp|title=Información del Gobierno de Canarias sobre hospitales y servicios de referencia|work=gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081016043302/http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/sanidad/scs/6/6_2/at_hosp.jsp|archive-date=16 October 2008}}</ref> They are both affiliated with the education and research network of the [[Universidad de La Laguna]]. However, they belong to different bodies, since the first one is under the directives of the [[Servicio Canario de la Salud]] (Canarian Health Service).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www3.gobiernodecanarias.org/sanidad/scs/organica.jsp?idCarpeta=3da5f513-541b-11de-9665-998e1388f7ed|title=Hospital Universitario de Canarias|website=Servicio Canario de la Salud|publisher=Gobierno de Canarias|language=es|access-date=2018-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hospitaldelacandelaria.com/|title=Pagina Principal Servicio Canario de la Salud|last=SCS|website=hospitaldelacandelaria.com|access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref> The Hospital Universitario Nuestra Señora de Candelaria it is the largest hospital complex in the Canary Islands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laopinion.es/sociedad/2016/03/31/hospital-candelaria-cumple-50-anos/665445.html|title=El Hospital de La Candelaria cumple 50 años de servicio|first=La Opinión de|last=Tenerife|work=laopinion.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

In addition, two large new hospitals have recently been built in the north and south areas of the island, located in the municipalities of [[Icod de los Vinos]] and [[Arona, Tenerife|Arona]] respectively. The [[Hospital del Norte de Tenerife]] (''Tenerife North Hospital'') opened in 2012 and the [[Hospital del Sur de Tenerife]] (''Tenerife South Hospital'') opened in 2015.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.gobiernodecanarias.org/sanidad/scs/contenidoGenerico.jsp?idDocument=98d1ae16-1339-11e5-9e16-d107cd1682ec&idCarpeta=10b3ea46-541b-11de-9665-998e1388f7ed|title=Hospital del Sur|last=SCS|work=gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> These centers will function, according to their classification, as second level hospitals, with services of hospitalization, advanced diagnosis, ambulances and emergencies, and rehabilitation, etc. There are also a total of 39 centers of primary care and specialized clinics which complete the sanitary infrastructure of Tenerife.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/sanidad/scs/tfe/17/centros/centros.htm|title=Información del Gobierno de Canarias sobre los centros de atención primaria y especializada de Tenerife|work=gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080426014514/http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/sanidad/scs/tfe/17/centros/centros.htm|archive-date=26 April 2008}}</ref>

== Gastronomy ==

=== Fish ===
Due to the geographic situation of Tenerife, the island enjoys an abundance of fish of various kinds. The species that are consumed the most are the [[Combtooth blennies]] (''viejas''), as well as [[sea bream]] (''sama''), [[red porgy]] (''bocinegro''), [[Sarpa salpa|gold lined bream]] (''salema''), [[grouper]] (''mero''), and various and abundant types of ''[[Thunnus]]''. The [[Atlantic mackerel]] (''caballa''), [[sardine]] (''sardine''), and [[Jack mackerels]] (''chicharros'') are also consumed frequently. [[Moray eels]] (''morenas'') are also eaten, usually fried. Most seafood is cooked simply, usually boiled, or prepared "a la espalda" (cut into two equally shaped pieces along the spine) or "a la sal" (baked in salt). These dishes are usually accompanied by ''mojo'' (a local sauce) and wrinkly potatoes.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

=== Meat ===
The typical festive meat dish of marinated pork [[taco]]s is a very popular dish prepared for town festivities in ''ventorrillos'', bars and private homes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turismodecanarias.com/canary-islands-spain/canarian-info/typical-cuisine-gastronomy/index.html|title=Fiesta Meat-Carne de fiesta de Tenerife(Official Canary Islands Tourism)|work=turismodecanarias.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629010824/http://www.turismodecanarias.com/canary-islands-spain/canarian-info/typical-cuisine-gastronomy/index.html|archive-date=29 June 2010}}</ref> Rabbit in [[salmorejo]], goat, beef, pork and poultry are regularly consumed.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

=== Canarian wrinkly potatoes ===
[[File:Papasarrugadas.jpg|thumb|right|Canarian wrinkly potatoes, with red mojo]]
The fish dishes along with the meats are often accompanied by [[Canarian wrinkly potatoes|wrinkly potatoes]] (''papas arrugadas''). This is a typical Canarian dish which simply refers to the way the cooked potatoes look. They are boiled in their skins, in water with much salt, and the water is allowed to evaporate, leaving a salty crust.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

=== Mojos ===
[[Mojo (sauce)|Mojo]], a word probably of Portuguese origin, describes a typical Canarian sauce, served as an accompaniment to food. The sauces come in a variety of colours, flavours and textures, and are usually served cold, often in separate dishes, for the diner to choose how much to apply. Green mojo usually includes coriander, parsley, and garlic; whilst red mojo is piquant, and made from a mix of hot and sweet peppers. A wide variety of other ingredients are also used, including; almonds, cheese, saffron and fried bread.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="islaaisla"/> Mojos are served with most meat, and some fish, dishes, and are often used on potatoes, or bread is dipped into them.

=== Cheeses ===
Tenerife exports about 3,400 tons of cheese per year, representing about 50 percent of the output of the island, and about 25 percent of the entire Canary Islands.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

After the conquest of the Canary Islands, one of the first commercial activities to be started was cheese production. The sale of cheese provided the inhabitants with an income and cheese was even used as a form of currency for exchange and sale, becoming a crucial product in agricultural areas of the island.

Cheese grew to become one of the most commonly produced and consumed products on the island and is regularly served as part of a starter course or as a snack. Farms at Arico, La Orotava and Teno produced a variety of cheeses, including soft cheeses, cured, smoked and were mostly handmade. Today the main product is [[goat cheese]], although certain amounts are made from sheep's or cow's milk, and according to the ''Registro General Sanitario de Alimentos'', the general health registry, around 75 different [[cottage cheese]]s are produced.<ref name="Web Oficial del Cabildo de Tenerife">{{cite web|url=http://www.tenerife.es/wps/portal/!ut/p/c1/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3gPZxPfEG93QwMDCwsDAyNXN1PfEA9_AwNPM30_j_zcVP2CbEdFACrQRzo!/dl2/d1/L2dJQSEvUUt3QS9ZQnB3LzZfSEk2TElLRzEwMFUxRDAySDk2QzhTNEdQMjE!/|title=Web Oficial del Cabildo de Tenerife|work=tenerife.es|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref> The cheeses of the Canaries have generally received good international reviews, noted for their sweetness which differentiates them from certain other European cheeses.<ref name=naturaycultura/><ref name=islaaisla/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turismodecanarias.com/canary-islands-spain/canarian-info/typical-cuisine-gastronomy/index.html|title=Cheeses of Tenerife-El queso tinerfeño (Official Canary Islands Tourism)|work=turismodecanarias.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629010824/http://www.turismodecanarias.com/canary-islands-spain/canarian-info/typical-cuisine-gastronomy/index.html|archive-date=29 June 2010}}</ref> In particular, Tenerifan cured goats cheese was awarded best cheese in the world final of the 2008 [[World Cheese Awards]] held in [[Dublin]], Ireland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://canarias24horas.com/index.php/2008092955917/sociedad/el-queso-de-pimenton-de-arico-gana-el-premio-al-mejor-queso-del-mundo.html|title=Artículo recogido en el periódico digital canarias24horas.com|work=canarias24horas.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081121183237/http://canarias24horas.com/index.php/2008092955917/sociedad/el-queso-de-pimenton-de-arico-gana-el-premio-al-mejor-queso-del-mundo.html|archive-date=21 November 2008}}</ref>

Cheeses from Tenerife now have a quality mark promoted by the [[Fundación Tenerife Rural]], to standardize their quality in an attempt to publicize the qualities of the cheese and improve its marketing.<ref name="Web Oficial del Cabildo de Tenerife"/>

=== Gofio ===
[[File:Gofioescaldado.jpg|thumb|right|Gofio escaldado]]
[[Gofio]] is one of the more traditional elements of cooking on the island, It is made with [[cereal grain]]s that are roasted and then ground. Increasingly used to make a gofio on the island is wheat although there are other types, and they are often made with [[chickpea]]s. Relatively common is a mixed-type with wheat. It was served as main food to the ''guanches'' even before the Spanish conquest. In later times of scarcity or famine it was a staple of the popular Canarian diet. Today it is eaten as a main dish (gofio escaldado) or an accompaniment to different dishes, meats, fishes, soups, desserts. Some famous cooks have even made gofio ice cream, receiving good comments from the critics.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

=== Confectionery ===
Confectionery in Tenerife is represented and strongly influenced by La Palma, with confections like ''bienmesabe'', ''leche asada'', ''Príncipe Alberto'', ''[[frangollo]]'', ''huevos moles'', and ''quesillo''.<ref name="naturaycultura"/><ref name="islaaisla"/>

=== Wines ===
[[Viticulture]] in the archipelago, and especially in Tenerife dates back to the conquest, when the settlers brought a variety of vines to plant. In the 16th and 17th centuries, wine production played an important role in the economy, and many families were dedicated to the culture and business. Of special mention is ''malvasía canary'', considered the best wine of Tenerife and at the time one of the most desired wines in the world, being shipped across to the major warehouses of Europe and America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/agricultura/icca/jornadas/comercializacion/juanmiguel.pdf|title=Información de las Jornadas de comercialización y marketing vitivinícola desarrolladas por HECANSA|work=gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326233915/http://www.gobiernodecanarias.org/agricultura/icca/jornadas/comercializacion/juanmiguel.pdf|archive-date=26 March 2009}}</ref> Writers such as [[William Shakespeare]] and [[Walter Scott]] make reference to the wine in some of their works.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=8&lang=1&s=1&ID=3167|title=Información del Cabildo de Tenerife en relación con los vinos de Tenerife|work=idecnet.com|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071109082301/http://www.puntoinfo.idecnet.com/index.php?sectionID=8&lang=1&s=1&ID=3167|archive-date=9 November 2007}}</ref> Tenerife has 5 main wine growing regions. These include [[Abona (DO)|Abona]], [[Valle de Güímar]], [[Valle de La Orotava]], [[Tacoronte-Acentejo]] and [[Ycoden-Daute-Isora]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cabtfe.es/casa-vino/inicio.htm#|title=Denominaciones de origen (Casa del vino-La Baranda)|work=cabtfe.es|access-date=18 April 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110802203655/http://www.cabtfe.es/Casa-vino/inicio.htm|archive-date=2 August 2011}}</ref>

This typical gastronomy is served in popular establishments known as ''[[guachinche]]s'', opening day is the day of ''San Andrés'', 30 November, also known as the young wine festival ''Festival de Vino Joven''. The wine of the new harvest is traditionally served with roasted chestnuts, maturing at the same time, and grilled sardines, thus the season normally lasts from late autumn until early spring.

== Tenerife in popular culture ==
{{in popular culture|section|date=January 2023}}

=== Cities ===
The city of [[Brisbane]] in Queensland, Australia, has a historical inner suburb named [[Teneriffe, Queensland|Teneriffe]], named by one of the first European landowners in the area, James Gibbon, because it reminded him of [[Teide|Mount Teide]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Tides of Teneriffe |last=Bridgstock |first=Vicki |year=2009 |publisher=New Farm & Districts Historical Society |location=New Farm, Queensland |isbn=978-0-9805868-1-7 |pages=4–20}}</ref>

Other cities in the world whose name has its origins in the island are: [[Tenerife, Magdalena]], a town and municipality in Colombia; [[San Carlos de Tenerife]], a city in the Dominican Republic.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thedominicans.org/tag/san-carlos-de-tenerife/|title = San Carlos de Tenerife}}</ref>

=== Cinema ===
Over the last few years,{{clarify|date=January 2023}} Tenerife has become a popular filming location, being featured in several Hollywood blockbusters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laopinion.es/cultura/2017/06/16/canarias-tierra-prometida-hollywood/785312.html|title=Canarias, la tierra prometida de Hollywood|access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref> Some of the most important films made on the island are:
* ''[[One Million Years B.C.]]'': British film of 1966 directed by [[Don Chaffey]] and shot in Teide National Park.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0060782/locations|title=One Million Years B.C. (1966)|access-date=30 November 2017|publisher=IMDb}}</ref>
* ''[[Clash of the Titans (2010 film)|Clash of the Titans]]'': American film of 2010, directed by [[Louis Leterrier]]. It is mainly located in different locations in Tenerife, such as [[Teide National Park]], [[Icod de los Vinos]] and [[Buenavista del Norte]], and [[Chío]] pine forests in the municipality of [[Guía de Isora]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.europapress.es/islas-canarias/noticia-tenerife-acoge-estreno-furia-titanes-20100329171133.html |title=Tenerife acoge el estreno de 'Furia de Titanes' |access-date=2 April 2010 }}</ref>
* ''[[Breaking Bad]]'': In the American television series Season 3, episode 1 ''[[No Más (Breaking Bad)]]'' of 2010, Walter White refers to the air crash of Tenerife while speaking at the school program.<ref>[[No Más (Breaking Bad)]]</ref>{{Circular reference|date=June 2023}}
* ''[[Wrath of the Titans]]'': American film 2012, directed by [[Jonathan Liebesman]]. Shot largely in the Teide National Park.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.guiarepsol.com/es/turismo/destinos/vuelta-al-mundo-por-espana/tenerife/ruta-furia-de-titanes/|title=Ruta Furia de Titanes|website=Guía Repsol|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201041254/https://www.guiarepsol.com/es/turismo/destinos/vuelta-al-mundo-por-espana/tenerife/ruta-furia-de-titanes/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* ''[[1898, Our Last Men in the Philippines]]'': Spanish film of 2012 directed by [[Salvador Calvo]], with some scenes shot in Tenerife.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ocio.laopinion.es/cine/noticias/nws-529327-los-ultimos-filipinas-rodada-tenerife-gran-canaria-estrena-trailer.html|title='Los últimos de Filipinas', rodada en Tenerife y Gran Canaria, estrena tráiler|first=La Opinión de|last=Tenerife|access-date=30 November 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201042410/http://ocio.laopinion.es/cine/noticias/nws-529327-los-ultimos-filipinas-rodada-tenerife-gran-canaria-estrena-trailer.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* ''[[Fast & Furious 6]]'': 2013 American film directed by [[Justin Lin]]. In the beginning of the movie, Dom along with Brian, Mia, and their son, live in Tenerife after their heist in Brazil in Fast Five. Also, the tank chase scene was filmed on part of the [[Autopista TF-1]].{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}
* ''[[Jason Bourne (film)|Jason Bourne]]'': American film of 2015, directed by [[Paul Greengrass]] and shot in [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]. For this, the city was specially set to simulate the Greek cities of [[Athens]] and [[Piraeus]]. The [[Plaza de España (Santa Cruz de Tenerife)|Plaza de España]], which is the main square in the capital of Tenerife, was decorated to represent the [[Syntagma Square]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.20minutos.es/noticia/2551344/0/rodaje-bourne-5/matt-damon/santa-cruz-tenerife-atenas/|title=El rodaje de 'Bourne 5' convierte a la ciudad de Santa Cruz de Tenerife en Atenas|last=20Minutos|date=8 September 2015 |access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref>
* ''[[Rambo: Last Blood]]'': American film of 2019, directed by [[Adrian Grunberg]] and with the performances of [[Sylvester Stallone]], [[Matt Cirulnick]] and [[Paz Vega]], among others. It was shot in different locations on the island, such as: different neighborhoods of Santa Cruz de Tenerife and [[San Cristóbal de La Laguna]], areas of [[Puerto de la Cruz]], [[Santa Úrsula]], [[Arico]] and the roads around the Teide National Park, among others places.<ref>[https://www.europapress.es/islas-canarias/noticia-rambo-dejara-tenerife-mas-ocho-millones-euros-20181113140555.html 'Rambo V' dejará en Tenerife más de ocho millones de euros]</ref>
* ''[[Den of Thieves 2: Pantera]]'': American film of 2025, directed by [[Christian Gudegast]], was largely shot in Santa Cruz de Tenerife.<ref>[https://www.atlanticohoy.com/cultura/trailer-pelicula-hollywood-juego-de-ladrones-tenerife-gerard-butler_1536591_102.html Sale el tráiler de la película Hollywood que Tenerife esperaba: Santa Cruz, protagonista]</ref>

=== Music ===
Likewise, the island has been home to several musical recordings and as a scenic setting for music videos:

* "[[Tie Your Mother Down]]": song of the English musician [[Brian May]], who studied different astronomical phenomena from [[Izaña]] in the Cañadas del Teide and wrote this song in this national park.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laopinion.es/cultura/2011/03/30/guitarrista-brian-may-estaran-starmus/337066.html|title=El guitarrista Brian May estará en ´Starmus´ – La Opinión de Tenerife|first=La Opinión de|last=Tenerife|website=laopinion.es|access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref>
* [[Mike Oldfield]] included in his compilation ''The Complete fel'' of 1985, the song ''Mount Teide'' dedicated to this volcano from Tenerife.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}
* The music video of song "[[If I Let You Go]]", filmed on location in Tenerife, depicts Irish boyband [[Westlife]] walking along a beach and singing by a hillside surrounded by red and yellow flags.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}}
* "The Island – Pt. 1 Dawn": video clip of the Australian group [[Pendulum]] which was recorded entirely in Teide National Park and published in 2010. In this video you can distinguish at the beginning of the video the silhouette of the Teide volcano and the characteristic landscapes of the Park During the entire filming.
* Songwriter and singer [[Ed Sheeran]] wrote a song, "Tenerife Sea", for his [[X (Ed Sheeran album)|second studio album]] ''X'', that mentions the island entitled [[Tenerife Sea]]. The title is a reference to a line wherein Sheeran compares the color of his love interest's eyes to that of the sea surrounding the island.
* The video clip of the song "[[Do It for Your Lover]]", with which the Spanish singer [[Manel Navarro]] [[Spain in the Eurovision Song Contest|represented Spain]] in the [[Eurovision Song Contest|Eurovision Song Contest 2017]], was recorded in different locations of Tenerife, especially in the [[Macizo de Anaga]] and in El Porís ([[Arico]]).<ref>[http://www.laopinion.es/cultura/2017/03/09/tenerife-estara-eurovision/756229.html Tenerife estará en Eurovisión]</ref><ref>[http://www.rtve.es/rtve/20170222/manel-navarro-graba-tenerife-videoclip-do-it-for-your-lover/1493781.shtml Manel Navarro graba en Tenerife el videoclip de 'Do it for your lover']</ref>
* Singer [[Blas Cantó]] (representative of Spain at the [[Eurovision Song Contest 2020]]) recorded in Tenerife and [[Lanzarote]] the video clip of the song [[Universo (song)|"Universo"]], with which he represents Spain.<ref>[https://www.canarias7.es/multimedia/videos/primeras-imagenes-del-universo-de-blas-canto-CC8589884 Primeras imágenes del ‘Universo’ de Blas Cantó]</ref>

=== Video games ===
*'' [[Asphalt 8: Airborne]]'' features four race tracks on Tenerife.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.tusitiowindowsphone.es/2015/06/asphalt-8-airborne-anade-la-ubicacion.html |title=Asphalt 8: Airborne añade la ubicación de Tenerife y más |access-date=26 August 2018 |archive-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826113539/http://www.tusitiowindowsphone.es/2015/06/asphalt-8-airborne-anade-la-ubicacion.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* ''[[Operation Flashpoint: Cold War Crisis]]'' houses that fictional Kolgujev island, based on Tenerife.
* In '' [[My Summer Car]]'' the main character's parents go to Tenerife on vacation.

=== In literature ===
Literary works featuring Tenerife include ''[[The Companion (short story)|The Companion]]'' and ''[[The Man from the Sea (short story)|The Man from the Sea]]'', both by [[Agatha Christie]]; ''La cueva de las mil momias'' by [[Alberto Vázquez-Figueroa|Alberto Vazquez-Figueroa]]; ''[[Thieves' Picnic]]'' by [[Leslie Charteris]]; ''El Sarcófago de las tres llaves'' by Pompeyo Reina Moreno;<ref>{{cite web |title=Doce libros ambientados en Canarias |url=http://www.laopinion.es/cultura/2016/02/12/doce-libros-ambientados-canarias/655706.html |access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref> and ''Atentado'' by Mariano Gambín.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laopinion.es/tenerife/2015/11/21/atentado-templo-masonico/640791.html|title='Atentado' en el Templo Masónico|access-date=30 November 2017}}</ref>

== International relations ==
{{see also|List of twin towns and sister cities in Spain}}

Tenerife is [[Twin towns and sister cities|twinned]] with:
*{{flagicon|USA}} [[Miami Dade]], United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europapress.es/economia/noticia-ocupacion-primer-mes-vuelo-tenerife-miami-air-europa-alcanza-ya-70-ciento-20090525142415.html|title=La ocupación para el primer mes del vuelo Tenerife-Miami de Air Europa alcanza ya el 70 por ciento|date=25 May 2009|publisher=Europa Press|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>
*{{flagicon|Dominican Republic}} [[Santo Domingo]], Dominican Republic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.diariodeavisos.com/2013/03/acto-hermanamiento-entre-tenerife-santo-domingo-en-octubre/|title=El acto de hermanamiento entre Tenerife y Santo Domingo, en octubre|work=diariodeavisos.com|access-date=18 April 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Orotavatal.jpg|Panorama of the La Orotava Valley with Teide in the background.|thumb]]
[[File:Teide2007.jpg|[[Teide]] and [[Roque Cinchado]].|thumb]]

== See also ==
{{Portal|Spain|Islands}}
* [[Bichon Tenerife]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Spain]]
* [[Observatorio del Teide]]
* [[List of free economic zones#Spain|Zona franca de Tenerife]]
* [[María del Carmen Betancourt y Molina]]

== References ==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons and category|Tenerife}}
{{Wikivoyage|Tenerife}}
* [http://www.cabtfe.es/ Island Government of Tenerife]
*{{wikiatlas|the Canary Islands}}
*{{curlie|Regional/Europe/Spain/Autonomous_Communities/Canary_Islands/Tenerife}}
*{{cite gvp|name=Tenerife|vn=383030|access-date=2021-06-26}}

{{Tenerife}}
{{Islands and provinces of the Canary Islands}}
{{Outlying territories of European countries}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}

[[Category:Tenerife| ]]
[[Category:Islands of the Canary Islands]]
[[Category:Islands of Macaronesia|Tenerife]]
[[Category:Miocene volcanism]]
[[Category:Pliocene volcanism]]
[[Category:Pleistocene volcanism]]
[[Category:Former monarchies]]

Tungurahua

2024-10-16T21:23:12Z

NidabaM: English-language edition

{{Short description|Volcano in Ecuador}}
{{for|the Ecuadorian province|Tungurahua Province}}
{{Update|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Tungurahua
| photo = Volcán Tungurahua Riobamba - Ecuador.jpg
| photo_caption = View from [[Riobamba]] (September 2011)
| elevation_m = 5023
| elevation_ref = <ref>Several elevation data between 5,016 and 5,029 m are used, 5,023 m is the one used on IGM maps. Used extremes are: 5,087 m (Stübel 1897) and 5,005 m (Neate 1994).</ref>
| prominence_m = 1554
| prominence_ref =
| listing = [[Ultra prominent peak|Ultra]]
| language = [[Quechua languages|Quechua]]
| translation = Throat of fire
| location = [[Ecuador]]
| range = [[Cordillera Oriental (Ecuador)|Cordillera Oriental]], [[Andes]]
| coordinates = {{coord|1.4700|S|78.4447|W|display=inline, title}}
| coordinates_ref = <ref name=gvp>{{cite gvp| vn = 352080| name = Tungurahua| access-date = 2009-01-01 }}</ref>
| topo = IGM, CT-ÑIV-D1<ref name=IGM89>{{cite web |last=IGM (Instituto Geografico Militar, Ecuador) |title=Baños Ecuador, CT-ÑIV-D1 |year=1989 |url=http://www.igm.gov.ec/cms/files/cartabase/enie/imagenes/ENIEIV_D1_ALTA.jpg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081219153428/http://www.igm.gov.ec/cms/files/cartabase/enie/imagenes/ENIEIV_D1_ALTA.jpg |archive-date=2008-12-19 |access-date=2008-01-26}}</ref>
| type = [[Stratovolcano]] (active)
| age = [[Holocene]] (Gomez 1994)
| volcanic_arc/belt = [[Northern Volcanic Zone]]
| last_eruption = 2000 to 2017<ref name="Tungurahua volcano on Volcano Discovery">{{Cite news|title=Tungurahua volcano|url=https://www.volcanodiscovery.com/tungurahua.html|date=19 Feb 2018|language=en}}</ref>
| first_ascent = 1873 by [[Alphons Stübel]] and [[Wilhelm Reiss]]
| easiest_route = Scrambling/Snow/Ice [[Grade (climbing)#French numerical grades|PD]]
}}
[[File:ChimborazoTungurahua ETM 20010916.jpg|thumb|False-color satellite image of Tungurahua (center right, with plume of ash emanating from it) and its neighbor [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] (center left)]]
'''Tungurahua''' ({{IPAc-en|t|ʊ|ŋ|ɡ|ʊ|ˈ|r|ɑː|w|ə}}; from [[Quechua languages|Quichua]] ''tunguri'' (throat) and ''rahua'' (fire), "Throat of Fire")<ref name=BBC2006sep07>{{cite news|title=In the shadow of the Tungurahua volcano |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/5319818.stm|work=BBC News|date=7 September 2006}})</ref> is an active [[stratovolcano]] located in the [[Cordillera Real (Ecuador)|Cordillera Oriental]] of [[Ecuador]]. The volcano gives its name to the province of [[Tungurahua Province|Tungurahua]]. Volcanic activity restarted on August 19, 1999,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://photoblog.nbcnews.com/_news/2012/08/19/13366108-tungurahua-volcano-erupts-in-ecuador?lite|date=19 Aug 2012|title=Tungurahua volcano erupts in Ecuador|publisher=NBC News}}</ref> and is ongoing {{As of|2023|lc=on}}, with several eruptive episodes since then, the most recent lasting from February 26 to March 16, 2016.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Volcanism Program |url=https://volcano.si.edu/volcano.cfm?vn=352080 |access-date=2023-11-25 |website=National Museum of Natural History |publisher=Smithsonian Institution}}</ref>

== Etymology ==
According to one theory the name ''Tungurahua'' is a combination of the [[Quechua languages|Quichua]] ''tunguri'' (throat) and ''rahua'' (fire) meaning "Throat of Fire".<ref name=BBC2006sep07/> According to another theory it is based on the Quichua ''uraua'' for crater.<ref name=Schmudlach01/> Tungurahua is also known as "The Black Giant" (''Gigante Negro'' in spanish)<ref>{{Cite web |title=El Tungurahua, el "Gigante Negro" del Ecuador |url=https://www.ecuador.com/blog/el-tungurahua-el-gigante-negro-del-ecuador/ |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=Ecuador.com |language=en-US}}</ref>, and in local indigenous mythology it is referred to as ''Mama Tungurahua'' ("Mother Tungurahua").<ref>{{Cite web |last=Admin |first=User |date= |title=Los volcanes también cuentan historias de amor |url=https://www.elcomercio.com/actualidad/ecuador/volcanes-cuentan-historias-amor.html |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=El Comercio |language=es}}</ref>

== Geography and geology ==
{{Volcanoes in Ecuador|right}}

=== Location ===
Tungurahua {{convert|5023|m|ft}} is located in the [[Cordillera Oriental (Ecuador)|Cordillera Oriental]] of the [[Andes]] of central Ecuador, {{convert|140|km}} south of the capital [[Quito]]. Nearby notable mountains are [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] ({{convert|6263|m|ft}}) and [[El Altar]] ({{convert|5319|m|ft}}). It rises above the small thermal springs town of [[Baños de Agua Santa]] ({{convert|1800|m|ft}}) which is located at its foot {{convert|8|km|mi}} to the north. Other nearby towns are [[Ambato, Ecuador|Ambato]] ({{convert|30|km|mi}} to the northwest), [[Baños, Ecuador|Baños]] and [[Riobamba]] ({{convert|30|km|mi}} to the southwest). Tungurahua is part of the [[Sangay National Park]].

=== Glacier ===
With its elevation of {{convert|5023|m|ft}}, Tungurahua just over tops the [[snow line]] (about {{convert|4900|m|ft}}). Tungurahua's top is snow-covered and did feature a small summit glacier which melted away after the increase of volcanic activity in 1999.

=== Volcanism ===
Today's volcanic edifice (Tungurahua III) is constructed inside its predecessor's (Tungurahua II) caldera which collapsed about 3000 (±90) years ago. The original edifice (Tungurahua I) collapsed at the end of the [[Late Pleistocene]].<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060116060752/http://www.igepn.edu.ec/vulcanologia/tungurahua/geologia.htm|url=http://www.igepn.edu.ec/vulcanologia/tungurahua/geologia.htm|archive-date=2006-01-16|title=Geología|work=Volcán Tungurahua|publisher=IGEPN}}</ref>

==== Historical volcanic activity ====
Tungurahua's eruptions are [[Strombolian eruption|Strombolian]]. They produce [[andesite]] and [[dacite]]. All historical eruptions originated from the summit crater and have been accompanied by strong explosions, pyroclastic flows and sometimes lava flows. In the last 1,300 years Tungurahua entered every 80 to 100 years into an activity phase of which the major have been the ones of 1773, 1886 and 1916–1918.<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051216090909/http://www.igepn.edu.ec/vulcanologia/tungurahua/historia.htm|url=http://www.igepn.edu.ec/vulcanologia/tungurahua/historia.htm|archive-date=2005-12-16|title=Historia|work=Volcán Tungurahua|publisher=IGEPN}}</ref>

Study of volcanic ash layers deposited in the lakes of [[El Cajas National Park]] show that there were major eruptions 3,034±621, 2,027±41, 1,557±177, 733±112 years ago (cal BP).<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Late Holocene tephrostratigraphy from Cajas National Park, southern Ecuador|journal=[[Andean Geology]]|url=http://www.andeangeology.cl/index.php/revista1/article/view/V47n3-3301/html|last1=Arcusa|first1=Stéphanie H.|volume=47|pages=508–528|last2=Schneider|first2=Tobias|issue=3|doi=10.5027/andgeoV47n3-3301|last3=Mosquera|first3=Pablo V.|last4=Vogel|first4=Hendrik|last5=Kaufman|first5=Darrell|last6=Szidat|first6=Sönke|last7=Grosjean|first7=Martin|year=2020|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Recent volcanic activity ====
In 2000, after a long period of quiescence, the volcano entered an eruptive phase that continued until 2017. The renewed activity in October 1999 produced major ashfall and led to the temporary evacuation of more than 25,000 inhabitants from Baños and the surrounding area<ref name=Nytimes99>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/11/28/world/ecuadoreans-wait-uneasily-on-volcanoes.html|title=Ecuadoreans Wait Uneasily On Volcanoes|date=1999-11-28|newspaper=New York Times}}</ref> Activity continued at a medium level until May 2006, when activity increased dramatically, culminating in violent eruptions on 14 July 2006 and 16 August 2006. The 16 August 2006 eruption has been the most violent since activity commenced in 1999. This eruption was accompanied by a {{convert|10|km|mi}} high ash plume which spread over an area of {{convert|740|by|180|km|mi}},<ref>{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050907120441/http://www.igepn.edu.ec/vulcanologia/tungurahua/actividad/ijueves.htm|url=http://www.igepn.edu.ec/vulcanologia/tungurahua/actividad/ijueves.htm|archive-date=2005-09-07|title=Volcán Tungurahua - Ecuador|publisher=IGEPN}}</ref> depositing ash and tephra to the southwest of the volcano. Several [[pyroclastic flow]]s were generated that killed at least five people, and destroyed a number of hamlets and roads on the eastern and northwestern slopes of the volcano.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nationalledger.com/news-tech/tungurahua-volcano-erupts-241928.shtml|title=Volcano Erupts|first=Jack|last=Kramer|newspaper=National Ledger|date=2006-08-16}}</ref>

A further eruption and evacuation occurred on 4 December 2010. Ecuador's National Agency of Risk Control issued a "red alert", later downgraded to orange.<ref name=cnn20101204>{{cite news|author=CNN Wire Staff|publisher=CNN Wire |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2010/WORLD/americas/12/04/ecuador.volcano/ |title=Volcano known as the 'Throat of Fire' erupts in Ecuador|date=5 December 2010|access-date=5 December 2010}}</ref> The Ecuadorean Institute for Geophysics reported a rapid increase in seismic activity, a number of explosions and an ash cloud reaching {{convert|2|km|mi}} in height.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-11920406 | work=BBC News | title=Tungurahua volcano prompts evacuation in Ecuador | date=4 December 2010}}</ref> Another eruption occurred on 18 December 2012 forcing evacuation of those living on the volcano's slopes.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-20765920 | work=BBC News | title=Ecuador's Tungurahua volcano threatens local villages | date=18 December 2012}}</ref> The volcano erupted again in July 2013,<ref name="July 13 eruption">{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/southamerica/ecuador/10179234/Tungurahua-volcano-in-Ecuador-spews-huge-ash-plume-forcing-hundreds-from-their-homes.html |title=Tungurahua volcano in Ecuador spews huge ash plume forcing hundreds from their homes |newspaper=Daily Telegraph |date= 15 July 2013 |access-date=15 July 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://cimss.ssec.wisc.edu/goes/blog/archives/13426 | work=CIMSS Satellite Blog | title=Eruption of the Tungurahua volcano in Ecuador | date=14 July 2013}}</ref> and again on 1 February 2014.

{|
|<gallery mode=packed heights=180px>
File:Tungurahua Volcano Eruption 1 February 2014.jpg|Tungurahua eruption February 1, 2014
File:Volcán Tungurahua 2011.jpg|Tungurahua at night 2011
File:19991102 Tung large.jpg|Tungurahua spews hot lava and ash at night, 1999
</gallery>
|}

== First ascent ==
In June 1802, the Prussian-born explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]] tried without success to reach the summit.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas W.|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=73‒75 | isbn=978-0-691-24737-3 }}</ref> During their seven-year-long South America expedition (1868 to 1876), the German [[volcanologist]]s [[Alphons Stübel]] and [[Wilhelm Reiss]] climbed [[Cotopaxi]] (Reiss with Angel Escobar; 28 November 1872) and Tungurahua (Stübel with Eusebio Rodríguez; 9 February 1873).<ref name=Schmudlach01>{{cite book |last=Schmudlach |first=Günter |title=Bergführer Ecuador |publisher=Panico Alpinverlag |year=2001 |isbn=3-926807-82-2}}</ref>

{{wide image|Panorama Tungurahua - 1 week before eruption - from Baños, Ecuador.jpg|1200px|align-cap=center|Panorama of Tungurahua from Baños, one week before the 2012 eruptions}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Geography|Ecuador|Mountains|Volcanoes|Andes}}
* [[Lists of volcanoes]]
** [[List of volcanoes in Ecuador]]
** [[List of stratovolcanoes]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |last=Gómez |first=Nelson |title=Atlas del Ecuador |publisher=Editorial Ediguias |year=1994 |isbn=9978-89-009-2 }}
* {{cite web |last=IG-EPN (Instituto Geofisico Escuela Politecnica Nacional, Ecuador) |title=Tungurahua |url=http://www.igepn.edu.ec/vulcanologia/tungurahua/tungurahua.htm |access-date=2006-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824060911/http://www.igepn.edu.ec/vulcanologia/tungurahua/tungurahua.htm |archive-date=2006-08-24}}
* {{cite book |last=Neate |first=Jill |title=Mountaineering in the Andes |publisher=Expedition Advisory Centre |year=1994 |isbn=0-907649-64-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ruiz |first=M |title=Source constraints of Tungurahua volcano explosion events |publisher=[[Springer-Verlag]] |year=2006 |journal=[[Bulletin of Volcanology]] |volume=68 |issue=5 |pages=480–490 |doi=10.1007/s00445-005-0023-8 |bibcode=2006BVol...68..480R |s2cid=129877389 |display-authors=etal}}

== External links ==
*{{Commons category-inline|Tungurahua}}
* {{in lang|es}} [http://www.igepn.edu.ec/ Instituto Geofisico del Ecuador]
* [http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/152901/tungurahua.html Climbing information for Tungurahua on summitpost.org]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111229151251/http://banosecuador.com/welcome-to-banos-city-in-ecuador/banos-todays-weather/ Banos Ecuador Weather | Daily Report]

{{Andean volcanoes}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Geography of Tungurahua Province]]
[[Category:Active volcanoes]]
[[Category:Andean Volcanic Belt]]
[[Category:Subduction volcanoes]]
[[Category:Five-thousanders of the Andes]]

Antisana

2024-10-16T21:19:50Z

NidabaM: English-language edition

{{Infobox mountain
| name = Antisana
| photo = Volcan Nevado antisana camilogaleano(com).jpg
| photo_caption = Northwest face of Antisana volcano at sunrise
| elevation_m = 5753
| elevation_ref = <ref name="peaklist">[http://peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/ecuador.html#8 "Ecuador" Ultra-Prominence page. Peaklist.org.] This peak is sometimes listed at 5,758 m or 5,753 m, though these figures are incompatible with [[SRTM]] data which suggests an estimated elevation closer to 5,704 m. Retrieved 2012-01-11.</ref><ref name=gvp>{{cite gvp|vn=352030|title=Antisana|access-date=2010-11-05}}</ref>
| prominence_m = 1678
| prominence_ref = <ref name="peaklist"/>
| listing = [[Ultra prominent peak|Ultra]]
| location = [[Ecuador]]
| range = [[Cordillera Real (Ecuador)|Cordillera Real]] (Andes)
| map = Ecuador
| map_caption =
| map_size = 220
| label_position = left
| coordinates = {{coord|00|28|53|S|78|08|27|W|type:mountain_region:EC_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates =
| coordinates_ref = <ref name=gvp/>
| topo =
| type = [[Stratovolcano]]
| age =
| volcanic_arc/belt = [[North Volcanic Zone]]
| last_eruption = 1801 to 1802<ref name=gvp/>
| first_ascent =
| easiest_route = snow/ice climb [?]
}}

'''Antisana''' is a [[stratovolcano]] of the northern [[Andes]], in [[Ecuador]]. It is the fourth highest volcano in Ecuador, at {{convert|5753|m|ft|0}}, and is located {{convert|50|km|mi|0}} SE of the capital city of [[Quito]].

Antisana presents one of the most challenging technical climbs in the Ecuadorian [[Andes]].{{citation needed|date=November 2010}} Next to the [[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]], [[Cotopaxi]], [[Tungurahua]] and [[Chimborazo]], the Antisana belongs to the five volcanic mountains that the Prussian-born explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]] tried to climb in 1802 during his American journey.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas|authorlink=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=73‒75 | isbn=978-0-691-24737-3 }}</ref>

{{Volcanoes in Ecuador|left}}

{{Clear|left}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Geography|South America|Ecuador|Mountains|Volcanoes|Andes}}
*[[Mikakucha]]
*[[Lists of volcanoes]]
**[[List of volcanoes in Ecuador]]
*[[List of mountains in the Andes]]
*[[List of Ultras of South America]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Antisana}}
* [http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=8408 "Volcán Antisana, Ecuador" Peakbagger.com.]

{{andean volcanoes}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Andean Volcanic Belt]]
[[Category:Glaciers of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Five-thousanders of the Andes]]

{{Ecuador-geo-stub}}

Gustav von Schlabrendorf

2024-10-15T22:58:10Z

NidabaM: /* Afterlife */

{{infobox person
| name = Gustav von Schlabrendorf
| image = GustavSchlabrendorf.jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = Richard Gustav von Schlabrendorf(f)
| birth_date = {{birth date|1750|3|22|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Szczecin|Stettin]] (since [[Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II|1945]] known as [[Szczecin]]), [[Province of Pomerania (1653–1815)|Pomerania]] [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1824|8|21|1750|3|22|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Batignolles]] ([[Paris]]), [[Bourbon Restoration in France|France]]
| occupation = Enlightment philosopher Writer Critic-commentator
| education =
| alma_mater = Halle
| employer =
| party =
| notable_works = "Napoleon Buonaparte and the French People under his Consulate" (''"Napoleon Bonaparte und das französische Volk unter seinem Konsulate"'')
| spouse = none
| parents = [[Ernst Wilhelm von Schlabrendorf]] (1719 – 1769) Anna Carolina von Otterstaedt (1727 – 1784)
| children =
| website =
}}

'''Gustav, Count of Schlabrendorf''' (22 March 1750 – 21 August 1824), described in various sources as a "citizen of the world" (''"Weltbürger"''), was a political author and an [[Lumières|enlightenment thinker]]. During or shortly before the first part of 1789 he relocated to [[Paris]] from where he enjoyed a ringside seat for the unfolding phases of the [[French Revolution]], which, initially, he enthusiastically supported. He backed the revolutionary precepts of [[Liberté, égalité, fraternité|"Liberty, Equality and Brotherhood"]]. He soon had reason to become mistrustful of [[Committee of Public Safety|the revolution's radicalisation]], however, and during the [[Reign of Terror|"Terror" (''"Terreur"'')]] period spent more than 17 months in prison, avoiding a terminal rendezvous with the [[guillotine]] only through an administrative oversight. He subsequently wrote several critical works about [[Napoleon|Napoléon Bonaparte]]. It was a reflection of his increasingly idiosyncratic lifestyle that by the 1820s he was becoming known as "The Hermit of Paris" (or, in certain more scholarly contemporary sources, ''"Eremita Parisiensis"''): he was happy to endorse the soubriquet, on occasion using it to describe himself.<ref name=GvSlautADB>{{cite web|url=https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00008389/images/index.html?seite=322 |title=Schlabrendorf: Gustav Graf v. S., philanthropischer Sonderling, 1750 bis 1824|author=[[Colmar Grünhagen]] |work=[[Allgemeine deutsche Biographie]]|publisher=[[:de:Historische Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften|Historische Kommission bei der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften]], München |volume=31 |date=1890 |pages=320–323|accessdate=17 October 2019}}</ref><ref name= GvSlautHGH>{{cite web|title=Betrogene Liebe |work=Der "Anti-Napoleon": Hans Magnus Enzensbergers schlampige Edition (book review) |author=Hellmut G. Haasis|date=10 April 1992 |publisher= [[Die Zeit]] (online) |url= https://www.zeit.de/1992/16/betrogene-liebe/komplettansicht |accessdate=17 October 2019}}</ref><ref name=GvSlautPH>{{cite web |url= http://litteraria-pragensia.ff.cuni.cz/storage/document/lp57-hunnekuhl.pdf| author=Philipp Hunnekuhl |pages=47–59 |work= Litteraria Pragensia: Studies in Literature and Culture |issn=0862-8424 |publisher= Charles University, Faculty of Arts Press, Prague |title=Literary transmission, exile and oblivion: Gustav von Schlabrendorf and Henry Crabb Robinson|accessdate=17 October 2019}}</ref><ref name=GvSlautHH/>

==Life==
===Provenance and early years===
'''{{not a typo|Richard Gustav von Schlabrendorf(f)}}''' was born in [[Stettin]], at that time a recovering [[Great Northern War|war-ravaged]] port city in the [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussian]] [[Province of Pomerania (1653–1815)|Province of Pomerania]] (and since [[Flight and expulsion of Germans from Poland during and after World War II|1945]] a [[Polish–Soviet border agreement of August 1945|Polish city]] known internationally by its [[Polish-language]] name as [[Szczecin]]). He was the third son of [[Ernst Wilhelm von Schlabrendorf]] by his marriage to Anna Carolina von Otterstaedt, from the aristocratic [[:de:Dallwitz (Adelsgeschlecht)|Dahlwitz family]]. The two families had been close for a number of generations. Soon after Gustav's birth, his father was appointed First Minister of [[Silesia]]. As a result of the promotion the family moved, in 1755, to the Silesian capital, [[Wrocław|Breslau (as Wrocław was known at that time)]]. The job of integrating the prosperous and [[Second Silesian War|recently annexed]] Silesian territories into the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] was a major challenge, but it was one for which [[Ernst Wilhelm von Schlabrendorf]] was apparently well rewarded in various ways. On 20 March 1763 [[Frederick the Great|the king]] made him a special gift of 50,000 [[Thaler]]s. By the time he died in 1769 his family was, by the standards of the time and place, conspicuously wealthy. Gustav von Schlabrendorf spent most of his childhood in [[History of Silesia|Silesia]]. He received a thorough and comprehensive schooling from [[:de:Hofmeister|tutors]] and then, in 1767, moved on to [[Hochschule |Hochschule (university) level education]] in [[Frankfurt am Oder]] where he remained till 1769. Between 1769 and 1772 he continued his studies at [[Halle (Saale)|Halle]]. He had enrolled to study [[Jurisprudence|Law]], which would have provided a conventional preparation for a career in public administration. Gustav von Schlabrendorf, however, interpreted his curricular opportunities more widely, studying [[Ancient language|ancient]] and [[Modern Languages]] along with [[Philosophy]] and [[the Arts]].<ref name=GvSlautADB/> He was also drawn to [[Freemasonry in Germany|Freemasonry]] which had arrived in Prussia from England and Scotland earlier that century. In 1777 he was accepted into the [[:de:Minerva zu den drei Palmen|"Minerva zu den drei Palmen" (''"Minerva of the three palm trees"'')]] lodge in [[Leipzig]].<ref name=GvSlautAS>{{cite web |title=Richard Gustav Graf von Schlabrendorf (1750-1824): Kosmopolit - Publizist - Exzentrike |url= https://mzddpblog.files.wordpress.com/2016/08/2011_11_15_suess_alexander_gustav_graf_von_schlabrendorf.pdf |author= Alexander Süß |date=November 2011 |publisher=Minerva zu den drei Palmen e.V., Leipzig |accessdate=17 October 2019}}</ref>

===Travels===
His father's death at the end of 1769 left Gustav von Schlabrendorf well provided for. Since 1766 he had also been receiving income from a [[benefice]] in [[Magdeburg]] which his father had set up for him back in 1753. He could therefore afford to broaden his education with a succession of lengthy trips across [[Holy Roman Empire|the German lands]], [[Old Swiss Confederacy|the Swiss Confederacy]], [[France]] and [[England]]. In the end he based himself in [[England]] for six years. He was, in particular, intrigued and impressed by the uniqueness of the country, by its constitutional structure, its highly developed industries and, not least by its philanthropic institutions based around its [[Church of England|national church]] For some of his time in England he was accompanied by the distinguished anglophile aristocrat, [[Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein|Baron vom Stein]]. During this period he also established what would become a long-lasting friendships with the [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]] philosopher, [[Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi]].<ref name=GvSlautADB/><ref name=GvSlautAS/> and the radical [[Eton College|old-Etonian]] polemicist [[John Horne Tooke|Horne Tooke]].<ref name=GvSlautPH/>

===Paris===
Shortly before the outbreak of the [[French Revolution]], von Schlabrendorf relocated to [[Paris]]. He took a room in the "Hôtel des Deux Siciles" to which his carriage driver had delivered him. As matters turned out this hotel would become his home for the next thirty years.<ref name=GvSlautAS/> Several high-profile French intellectuals associated with the enlightenment ideals underpinning the unfolding revolution which von Schlabrendorf anticipated with enthusiasm became personal friends. These included the [[Marquis de Condorcet]], [[Louis-Sébastien Mercier]] and [[Jacques Pierre Brissot]].<ref name=GvSlautAS/> (Two of these three would be dead by the end of 1795.) In addition, he quickly became a part of the network of politically aware German expatriates living in the city. Among these exiled [[democracy|democrats]] and revolutionaries were the writer-polymath [[Georg Forster]], the Schwabian physician and commentator [[Johann Georg Kerner]], the political journalist from Silesia, [[:de:Konrad Engelbert Oelsner|Konrad Engelbert Oelsner]] and more briefly, the youthful revolutionary [[Adam Lux]]. Von Schlabrendorf was older and richer than most of the others: he tended to take a lead in offering advice and looking after the material needs of his German radical friends in Paris.<ref name=GvSlautADB/><ref name=GvSlautHH>{{cite web|url=https://www.spiegel.de/spiegel/spiegelgeschichte/d-68812753.html|date=26 January 2010|title=Der Salon des Grafen|work=Ein Adliger aus altem märkischem Geschlecht diente als Pariser Nachrichtenbörse für revolutionsbegeisterte Deutsche. Viele kamen nach Frankreich, um zu lernen, wie sie die Heimat befreien könnten. |author=Hans Hoyng |publisher=[[Der Spiegel]] online (SPIEGEL GESCHICHTE 1/2010)|accessdate=18 October 2019}}</ref>

===Victim of the revolution===
Gustav von Schlabrendorf greeted the outbreak of the French Revolution as "die Erlöserin des rein Menschlichen" (''loosely "the salvation of all humanity"'').<ref name=GvSlautKN/> His circle greeted the [[Storming of the Bastille]] with enthusiasm. [[Ancien Régime|Government]], especially in [[Early modern France|Bourbon]] [[France]], was out of touch with the increasingly prevalent [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]] precepts in which they believed. However, as the revolution unfolded on the streets of Paris the "moderate" revolutionaries found themselves marginalised after the [[Girondins]] were replaced by better organised [[Jacobin]] hardliners. Gustav von Schlabrendorf and his circle found themselves under intensifying suspicion. In the summer of 1793 von Schlabrendorf was arrested. At about the same time he broke off his brief but passionate engagement with Jane, the sister of the Scots-born reformist [[Thomas Christie]].<ref name=GvSlautADB/><ref name="Hewitt2017">{{cite book|author=Rachel Hewitt|title= Neck or nothing |work=A Revolution of Feeling: The Decade that Forged the Modern Mind|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=rvA0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT125|date=5 October 2017|publisher=Granta Publications |isbn= 978-1-84708-575-7 |pages=125}}</ref> In prison he found that the inmates divided into "two classes of men: men of rank and foreigners". Determined to keep a low profile, he "shunned the former and associated wholly with the latter", attempting to be identified as a sort of transnational member of the [[Sans-culottes|revolutionary "Sans-culottes" faction]].<ref name=GvSlautPH/> He continued to be a generous benefactor to needy friends and fellow inmates.<ref name=GvSlautPH/> He was able to entrust his wealth to [[:de:Konrad Engelbert Oelsner|Oelsner]], who had been able to avoid imprisonment and probable execution by escaping to [[Switzerland]] Oelsner was now able to conserve von Schlabrendorf's property and, later, to return it despite his own financial difficulties. Meanwhile von Schlabrendorf awaited his execution with evident equanimity. Various reports later surfaced as to how he managed to avoid death at this stage: the most colourful contends that on the morning when his name appeared on the list of prisoners to be placed on the cart for transportation to the guillotine he was unable to find his shoes.<ref name=GvSlautPH/><ref name= "Ense1847">{{cite book |author=Karl August Varnhagen von Ense|title=Footnote: Gustavus Count von Schlabrendorf .... |work=Sketches of German Life, and Scenes from the War of Liberation in Germany|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PA8FAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA194 |year=1847|publisher=J. Murray|pages=193–194}}</ref> According to the anecdote that later emerged, on account of this difficulty his jailor agreed that it was unreasonable that he should be executed without his boots on his feet, and he was accordingly left off that day's cart, in order to be taken with the next day's batch for execution instead.<ref name=GvSlautPH/> However, on the next day, as he awaited the call, duly prepared and booted, his name was not called.<ref name=GvSlautPH/> His execution had evidently been forgotten, and although he feared being summoned for death each day thereafter, in the end he was able to leave the prison alive.<ref name= "Ense1847"/> That happened only after the fall of [[Maximilien Robespierre|Robespierre]], at which point a large number of surviving detainees were released. Gustav von Schlabrendorf, who by this time had been imprisoned for almost eighteen months, now returned to his room at the "Hôtel des Deux Siciles" in the fashionable [[Rue de Richelieu]], where he would live out the rest of his life.<ref name=GvSlautADB/><ref name=GvSlautAS/>

===A Paris Diogenes===
Even though from now on he showed a growing reluctance ever to leave his hotel, von Schlabrendorf quickly resumed his role as a support and focus of intellectual ideas, both through face to face discussion and through his habit of making generous financial provision to those who turned to him whether they deserved it or (in the view of at least one biographer) not.<ref name=GvSlautADB/> In his city-centre hotel room he himself led an existence of bizarre austerity. His increasingly eccentric lifestyle led to him being described by friends and admirers as a "Parisian [[Diogenes]]" (''"Diogenes von Paris"''),<ref name=GvSlautAS/> a soubriquet which according to some observers he rather liked. He was also a regular letter writer. Letters survived, which is one of several reasons that he made a major contribution to the detailed knowledge and understanding of the French Revolution across [[German Confederation|Germany]] as the nineteenth century progressed towards a more democratic future. That was important because German reformers and revolutionaries who set forth their proposals in [[German revolutions of 1848–1849|1848]], not just in 1848 but also during the decades that followed, drew much of their understanding of the French Revolution from the writings of Gustav von Schlabrendorf.<ref name= GvSlautHGH/><ref name=GvSlautHH/>

===Women===
Unusually for those times, but significantly in the context of twentieth century developments, many of his interlocutors and correspondents were women. One who has left a particularly large footprint in history for English-language readers was [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] (1759–1797), like him an enthusiastic backer, at the outset, of the French Revolution who at the end of 1792 came to [[Paris]] in order better to understand what was happening.<ref name="Todd2014">{{cite book|author=Janet Todd|title=How silent is now Versailles! | work=Mary Wollstonecraft: A Revolutionary Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=08HGAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT225|date=30 July 2014|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4482-1346-7|accessdate=19 October 2019|pages=225–226}}</ref> She quickly came into contact with von Schlabrendorf's circle of mainly foreign-born intellectuals during the period of more than two years that she spent in [[Paris]].<ref name=GvSuMWlautGM>{{cite web|url=http://www.ligelue.de/rosenstrauch_humboldt-1.3.2011-1.pdf|title=Gelebte Gleichberechtigung vor 200 Jahren? Caroline und Wilhelm von Humboldt nach Hazel Rosenstrauch, Wahlverwandt und ebenbürtig |author=Gisela Müller|publisher=Literarische Gesellschaft Lüneburg e.V.|date=1 March 2011|page=19|accessdate=19 October 2019}}</ref> According to one of Wollstonecraft's biographers "the rich Silesian Count von Schlabrendorff ... was living 'on almost nothing' in order to avoid adverse comment on his wealth".<ref name="Todd2014"/> Subsequently von Schlabrendorf would recall her "charming grace ... [and face] ... full of expression.... There was enchantment in her glance, her voice and her movement.... [She was] the noblest, purest and most intelligent woman I ever met".<ref name="Todd2014"/> A [female] biographer quoting von Schlabrendorf's reaction also points out that he was "a susceptible man and was [at the time]... engaged to Jane Christie".<ref name="Todd2014"/> Indeed there were famously plenty of men who were charmed by [[Mary Wollstonecraft]], and no doubt there will have been other woman to whom von Schlabrendorf was attracted. But there is no record that large numbers of women visited him during his eighteen months in prison awaiting the guillotine: according to an entry in [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]'s diaries, Mary Wollstonecraft often did.<ref name=GvSlautKN/><ref name=MWuGvSlautWvH>{{cite book|title=Kleists Geheimnisse: Unbekannte Seiten einer Biographie|author=Dirk Grathoff |work=... Wilhelm von Humboldt und Schlabrendorf wahrend ... Zeitraum in Paris war und dort unter anderem mit Gustav von Schlabrendorf zusammen- ...... wohingegen Mary Wollstonecraft ihn oft im Gefängnis besuchte...|publisher=Springer Nature Switzerland AG, Cham}}</ref>

===Long war===
He was constantly troubled by the erosion of his hopes, and those of his friends, in the positive power of the [[French Revolution|revolution]], and devoted much energy and resource to charitable and humanitarian ventures. A devout protestant, he backed a [[bible society]] and the protestant minority more generally, committing resources to the education and welfare of the poor.<ref name=MWuGvSlautWvH/> Meanwhile he took a lively interest in events back in his homeland. Prussia was under [[French Revolutionary Wars|sustained attack]] from the French revolutionary armies. After [[Coup of 18 Brumaire|Napoleon's successful power grab]] in 1799 the French military machine became increasingly effective. In [[Battle of Jena–Auerstedt|1806]] the Prussian government would be forced to [[Fall of Berlin (1806)|abandon Berlin]]. [[Frederick William III of Prussia|The king]] took refuge in [[East Prussia]]. Meanwhile, in Paris von Schlabrendorf spent generously to improve the conditions of compatriots who had been taken [[prisoners of war]] by [[French Revolutionary Army|French troops]]. In 1803 he received an "invitation" from the Prussian government to return "home" to [[Silesia]], since he was Silesian vassal [of the King of Prussia]. When he failed to comply he was threatened with confiscation of his substantial Silesian landholdings. The confiscation was then formally enacted, on 7 September 1803, by means of a confiscation decree enacted by the Silesian authorities, based at this stage in [[Głogów|Glogau]] on account of the disruption caused by [[War of the Fourth Coalition|the war]].<ref name=GvSlautADB/> [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]]'s diaries report that throughout this time he paid close attention to current issues and developments, engaging constantly in intense political discussions, providing inspiration, and endlessly displaying to friends and visitors alike a singular flair for finding unexpected counter-arguments.<ref name=GvSlautPH/><ref name=MWuGvSlautWvH/>

===Confiscations===
In Silesia, despite the order to confiscate von Schlabrendorf's lands having come into effect, there are signs that at least some in the government were keen to minimise unpleasantness. A letter dated 3 November 1803, from [[:de:Karl Georg von Hoym|Count Hoym]], the Prussian Minister for Silesia,<ref name="Vehse1851">{{cite book|author=Carl Eduard Vehse|title=Geschichte der deutschen Höfe seit der Reformation|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wHINAAAAIAAJ|year=1851|publisher=Hoffmann und Campe|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wHINAAAAIAAJ/page/n262 245]–246}}</ref> urged von Schlabrendorf to lose no time in visiting his homeland, even if he would only stay for four weeks, in order to demonstrate his respect for [[Frederick William III of Prussia|The king's]] wishes.{{efn|"...auf eine ganz kurze Zeit, wenn auch nur auf 4 Wochen, sein Vaterland zu besuchen, um dadurch seine Achtung gegen den Willen des Königs an den Tag zu legen."<ref name=GvSlautADB/>}} The letter concludes with a personal postscript: "I repeat my very simple request. Take care for your own interests and make then small sacrifice of a brief change in your usual lifestyle."<ref name=GvSlautADB/>{{efn |"Ich wiederhole meine ganz einfache Bitte“, schließt der Minister, „das Wohl der Ihrigen zu beherzigen und diesem das kleine Opfer einer kurzen Veränderung Ihrer gewohnten Lebensweise zu bringen."<ref name=GvSlautADB/>}} But Schlabrendorf remained unmoved, pleading ill-health. Nevertheless, following intercessions made on his behalf, the authorities decided to substitute a temporary sequestration of his property. The Prussian ambassador in Paris, [[Girolamo Lucchesini]], was mandated to visit von Schlabrendorf to plead with him to accede to the request that he return, if only briefly, to Silesia. A meeting took place in February 1804, but von Schlabrendorf had by now, he indicated, become convinced that the entire matter resulted from family intrigues orchestrated by his relatives, and again refused to leave Paris. Later that year, during the summer, von Schlabrendorf persuaded the Prussian authorities that he really was keen to return home, but he made a plea that he might be granted a further brief deferral. The king was reportedly persuaded, and on 26 August 1804 granted a six week extension. Somehow at the end of the six week period Gustav von Schlabrendorf was still in [[Paris]], however. One source, possibly having regard to something von Schlabrendorf himself subsequently asserted, indicates that he wanted to return to his homeland and take part in the wars of liberation in his homeland but did not receive the necessary exit documentation from the French authorities.<ref name=GvSlautAS/> In 1805 matters became more serious, when the Prussian authorities deprived him of the [[benefice]] income he had been receiving from [[Magdeburg]] since 1766. He had, in fairness, not been diligent in fulfilling his benefice commitments. By a cabinet decree of 24 September 1805, the lifting of the sequestration of his Silesian land was made expressly conditional upon his returning "home". Still von Schlabrendorf was unmoved, his own lifestyle being frugal, but he was nevertheless concerned that he was no longer able to be as generous as before to others.<ref name=GvSlautADB/>

Following a succession of crushing military defeats the [[Treaties of Tilsit]] in July 1807 left [[Prussia]] much diminished territorially. A massive monetary "tribute" was also levied. French armies had [[Fall of Berlin (1806)|captured Berlin]] the previous year, forcing the [[Frederick William III of Prussia|Prussian king]] to move the court to [[Königsberg]]. Nevertheless, Prussia still had an army which enforced a measure of respect among the great powers, and towards the end of 1807 the king's younger brother, the soldier-diplomat [[Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1783–1851)|Prince William]] arrived in [[Paris]] on a mission to try and persuade [[Napoleon|the emperor]] to ameliorate the terms imposed at [[Treaties of Tilsit|Tilsit]]. The size of the "tribute" levied on Prussia was indeed reduced in 1808, though opinions differ over how far this represented a personal achievement by Prince William. For Gustav von Schlabrendorf [[Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1783–1851)|Prince William's]] time in Paris was certainly not wasted. The prince was accompanied to Paris by the celebrity-polymath [[Alexander von Humboldt]] who had recently returned from a five year trip through "the Americas". Von Humboldt was, like von Schlabrendorf, a committed letter writer, and the two were friends. It was arranged that Gustav von Schlabrendorf, who was evidently incentivised by the prospect of meeting the king's brother to leave his hotel room, should be presented to [[Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1783–1851)|the prince]]. The prince was greatly entertained and charmed by this erudite Prussian: during his stay in Paris, von Schlabrendorf became a frequent guest at the prince's table. Von Schlabrendorf was able to use his new friendship with [[Frederick William III of Prussia|the king's]] [[Prince Wilhelm of Prussia (1783–1851)|younger brother]] to have the confiscation of his Silesian states revoked.<ref name=GvSlautADB/>

===On Napoleonic France and Europe===
Gustav von Schlabrendorf's best known work, which appeared - initially without attribution - in 1804 was entitled "Napoleon Buonaparte and the French People under his Consulate" (''"Napoleon Bonaparte und das französische Volk unter seinem Konsulate"''). Longer than a political pamphlet but shorter than many books of the period, for a long time the powerfully written criticism was widely, if incorrectly, attributed to the musician [[Johann Friedrich Reichardt]], another disillusioned former backer of the French Revolution who by this stage was making no secret of his hostility to the Bonapartist régime. It was indeed von Schlabrendorf's friend, [[Johann Friedrich Reichardt|Reichardt]] who smuggled the manuscript out of France and saw to its publication.<ref name=GvSlautPH/>

Gustav von Schlabrendorf, who once had so admired the French Revolution seemed to have become an uncompromising francophobe during the intervening fifteen years, leading one biographer to puzzle over his reluctance to return to Silesia. Taking some of the observations in this publication at face value, one can be driven to conclude that there was nothing to keep him in Paris apart from inertia driven by a powerful disinclination to submit to changes in his routine.<ref name=GvSlautADB/> The French, he wrote, were a fundamentally rotten nation (''...eine "grundausverdorbene" Nation'') characterised by a complete return to "the great all-consuming tyranny of sensuality and egotism in the heart of every individual [which] renders all laws powerless and ineffective".<ref name=GvSlautADB/>{{efn |"...die große Alles verschlingende Tyrannei der Sinnlichkeit und des Egoismus in dem Herzen jedes Einzelnen alle Gesetze entkräftet und vernichtet".<ref name=GvSlautADB/>}}

There were good reasons why von Schlabrendorf might have been hesitant about acknowledging authorship of the work. According to several commentators, von Schlabrendorf's "open criticism of Napoleon" triggered no adverse consequences [in Paris] because the authorities did not regard this quirky eccentric as a serious opponent.<ref name=GvSlautAS/> The failure of the French censors to take him seriously may very well have saved his life. The fact that Schlabrendorf wrote and voiced his opinions chiefly For German expatriates and readers, using the German language, while censors based in Paris and the public opinion for which they cared tended to be affected primarily by what was uttered and written in [[French language|French]], was no doubt also a factor. On the far side of the [[Rhine]] his published views on Napoleon's actions drew plenty of attention. The book's German readers, including [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]],{{efn |Goethe indeed reviewed "Napoleon Bonaparte und das französische Volk unter seinem Konsulate" for the [[:de:Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung|Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung]]. He identified a "certain tendentiousness" in it. Other readers were evidently more easily persuaded, especially as the [[First French empire|French empire]] [[Treaties of Tilsit|expanded and]] [[Confederation of the Rhine|consolidated]].<ref name=GvSlautPH/>}} [[Karl Böttiger]] and [[Johannes von Müller]]<ref name=RevolutionsemigrantenlautFP>{{cite book|pages=142–257|author=Friedemann Pestel |work=Erfahrungsräume französischer Revolutionsemigranten 1792–1803|publisher=Leipziger Universitätsverlag (Deutsch-Französische Kulturbibliothek) |date=2009|isbn=978-3-86583-423-2 |url= https://freidok.uni-freiburg.de/fedora/objects/freidok:149364/datastreams/FILE1/content|title=Kulturtransfer. Die Emigranten und das Ereignis Weimar-Jena |accessdate=21 October 2019}}</ref><ref name=UmNBlautSB>{{cite web |url=https://d-nb.info/1043957715/34|work=Weiblichkeit, weibliche Autorschaft und Nationalcharakter.Die frühe Wahrnehmung Mme de Staëls in Deutschland (1788–1818) |author=Sylvia Böning |publisher= Philosophische Fakultät der Friedrich-Schiller-Universität Jena|date=6 May 2013 |pages= 112–153 |title= Erste Deutschlandreise 1803/1804 |accessdate= 21 October 2019}}</ref> were confronted — in many cases for the first time — with a book written in Paris, at the heart of the Napoleonic project, that uncompromisingly insisted that far from promoting the democratic development of Europe, Napoleon was in the process becoming a major threat. Several further editions quickly appeared in both German and English.<ref name=GvSlautPH/> The book was a sensation with readers because of the way in which, as early as 1804, it exposed the brutality of the authoritarian Napoleonic tyranny, even before the relaunch of his régime as [[First French Empire|the French Empire]] in May 1804. Between the book's appearance during 1804 and Napoleon's fall ten years later, von Schlabrendorf's warnings proved prescient. In the characteristic phraseology of von Schlabrendorf's biographer, [[Karl August Varnhagen von Ense]], von Schlabrendorf's trenchant opinions were "like a shining meteor in a politically gloomy sky of that time".{{efn |"...zu seiner Zeit am trüben politischen Himmel wie ein Lichtmeteor erschien".<ref name=GvSlautKAVvE/>}}<ref name=GvSlautKAVvE>Karl August Varnhagen von Ense: Graf Schlabrendorf, amtlos Staatsmann, heimathfremd Bürger, begütert arm. Züge zu seinem Bilde. In: Historisches Taschenbuch (Friedrich von Raumer, Hrsg.). Dritter Jahrgang, Leipzig 1832, pp. 247–308.</ref>

It was also in 1804 that he produced his "Letter to Bonaparte". The tone was even more shrill, though the text was again in [[German language|German]]. The 65 page unattributed "letter" was sent, it said, from "one of [the emperor's] formerly most ardent supporters in Germany". On the title page, where normally the author, printer and/or publisher would have been identified, was written simply "Deutschland, Anfangs Juny, 1804" (''"Germany, early June 1804"''). In it von Schlabrendorf condemned Napoleon's hypocrisy and murderous cruelty:

* "Are you so delusional as to think that Europe and France do not see through your 'love of justice', whereby you seek to deceive but also to save your own skin? The raw butchery of the [[Bankes's Horse|Maroccan]] power broker, at his personal whim hacking the heads off his subjects, each of whom has so much more honour than a wretchedly hypocritical European government, which has already condemned them with the slime of its quasi-judicial outpourings. ... Hey, just get on with your killing! It will serve your perverted ends better than all this intolerable hypocrisy".<ref name=Sendschreiben>Sendschreiben an Bonaparte. Von einem seiner ehemaligen eifrigsten Anhänger in Deutschland. June 1804.</ref><ref name= "Schlabrendorf1804"/>{{efn | ''"Wähnst Du, Europa und Frankreich durchschauen nicht Deine pfiffige Gerechtigkeitsliebe, womit Du zu täuschen, im Grunde aber auch nur Dich und Deinen Leib zu sichern suchst? Die rohen platten Metzeleien des maroccanischen Machthabers, der nach Lust und laune seinen Unterthanen selbst die Köpfe abhakt, ist in der That viel achtbarer, als die elende Heuchelei einer europäischen Regierung, die den schon voraus Verurtheilten, noch mit ihrem juristischen Schleim einspinnt. (...) Ei, so morde kurzweg! Es wird Dir besser frommen, als das unerträgliche Heucheln."''<ref name=Sendschreiben/><ref name="Schlabrendorf1804">{{cite book|author=Gustav von Schlabrendorf|title=Sendschreiben an Bonaparte |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9EE2LNlJVg4C&pg=PA52|year=1804 |publisher=publisher not identified|pages=51–52}}</ref>}}

===More eccentric yet===
{{Quote box|bgcolor=#FFDEAD|align=right|width=46%|
* "There was also the famous Paris expatriate, Count Schlabrendorf, in whose sepulchral room the great social earthquake was left to unfold in a vast global tragedy; uncontested, contemplated, evaluated and not infrequently tweaked. Intellectually he stood so high above everyone else that he could at any time clearly see through the significance and direction of the intellectual battle, without being touched by all their muddying noise. This magisterial prophet arrived on the wider stage when he was still a young man, and the catastrophe had barely played out by the time his raddled beard had reached down to his belt."
* ''"So auch der berühmte Pariser Einsiedler Graf Schlabrendorf, der in seiner Klause die ganze soziale Umwälzung wie eine große Welttragödie unangefochten, betrachtend, richtend und häufig lenkend, an sich vorübergehen ließ. Denn er stand so hoch über allen Parteien, daß er Sinn und Gang der Geisterschlacht jederzeit klar überschauen konnte, ohne von ihrem wirren Lärm erreicht zu werden. Dieser prophetische Magier trat noch jugendlich vor die große Bühne, und als kaum die Katastrophe abgelaufen, war ihm der greise Bart bis an den Gürtel gewachsen."''<ref name=Erlebtes>{{cite book|title= Deutsches Adelsleben am Schlusse des achtzehnten Jahrhunderts .... Erlebtes |work=Deutsche National Litteratur: historisch kritische Ausgabe: Part 2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjLopOOfX4IC&pg=RA1-PA19|year=1857|author1=[[Joseph von Eichendorff]]|author2=[[Joseph Kürschner]] (series editor-compiler)|publisher=[[:de:Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft|Union Deutsche Verlagsgesellschaft]], Stuttgart (publisher) & [[:de:B. G. Teubner Verlag|B.G.Teubner (printer)]], [[Leipzig]]|author3=[[Max Koch (academic)|Max Koch (producer-editor)]]|volume=146|pages=19, 5–27}}</ref>{{right |''[[Joseph von Eichendorff]] – in his (primarily autobiographical) work, "Erlebtes"''<ref name=Erlebtes/>}}
}}
Following the publication of his attacks on Napoleon, von Schlabrendorf's behaviour became, year by year, more idiosyncratic than ever. Several more German-language passionate diatribes against Napoleon were published, and it may reflect von Schlabrendorf's growing awareness of the threat of arrest that he took greater care than before to conceal his authorship. In his 1806 offering "Napoleon Buonaparte wie er leibt und lebt und das französische Volk unter ihm" (''loosely, "Napoleon Buonaparte: how he lives and how the French people live under him"'') - ostensibly published in "Petersburg" by an unidentified publisher and, again, scripted by an unidentified author - he used the Corsican spelling of the emperor's name which might have been a quiet device for emphasizing Napoleon's non-French provenance and may also have been an attempt to distance the publication from others that he had recently had published.<ref name=GvSlautPH/> In a further subterfuge the book was described as a "translation from the English" though in fact, when the English version did appear, it was a translation from the German original text undertaken by von Schlabrendorf's [[East Anglia]]n friend, the lawyer diarist [[Henry Crabb Robinson]].<ref name=GvSlautPH/> In any event, the French authorities had already concluded that von Schlabrendorf was "more mysterious than alarming" and the French censors still failed to pounce.<ref name=GvSlautPH/>

His hotel room continued to be a focus for German and French intellectuals, artists and diplomats, but the occupant's quirky habits and absence of personal hygiene began to feature in letters and reports from some of his visitors, along with speculation as to whether or not he ever bothered to wear any appropriate undergarments.<ref name=GvSlautADB/><ref name=GvSlautPH/><ref name=GvSlautAS/> His beard simply grew and grew. [[Alexander von Humboldt]] would recall, in a letter to his brother, that during his later years Gustav von Schlabrendorf would eat nothing except fruit.<ref name=GvSlautAS/> Nor, it would appear, did he waste money on heating his room. "That overcoat is undoubtedly still the one that we knew in the last century", confided [[Wilhelm von Humboldt]] after a visit to the "Hôtel des Deux Siciles" in 1813.<ref>Dagmar von Gersdorff: Caroline von Humboldt. Eine Biographie. Berlin 2013, p. 75.</ref> Von Humboldt's relationship with von Schlabrendorf may have been affected by the fact that [[Caroline von Humboldt]], his wife was (and is) widely believed to have been Gustav von Schlabrendorf's mistress since as early as 1804.<ref name= CcHlautCM>{{cite web |title=Berlin-Women: Caroline von Humboldt (23.02.1766-26.03.1829) Networkerin und Kunstmäzenin |date=15 April 2016|url=http://berlin-woman.de/index.php/2016/04/15/berlin-women-caroline-von-humboldt/|author=Carola Muysers|publisher=Bees & Butterflies. Agentur für kreative Unternehmen|work=Berlin-Woman|accessdate=21 October 2019}}</ref> (Wilhelm and Caroline von Humboldt operated what was, even by the standards of those times, a famously "open" marriage.<ref name=CcHlautCM/>)

===Fame===
By the time allied armies [[Battle of Paris (1814)|took Paris]] in March 1814 Gustav Schlabrendorf's authorship from Paris of a series of German-language polemical yet scholarly anti-Napoleon books and tracts was no secret. In [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] and the westerly [[Confederation of the Rhine|German speaking lands]] that had been part of the [[First French Empire|French empire]] till [[Battle of Leipzig|1813]] he was something of a celebrity. The advancing Prussian forces greeted him with enthusiasm and the invitation to return "home" to Prussia was renewed. (However, somehow he was unable to obtain the necessary travel documents.) After the [[War of the Sixth Coalition|coalition armies]] entered Paris, it is reported that the assistance he rendered the military was so important that [[Frederick William III of Prussia|The king]] awarded him the (recently inaugurated) [[Iron Cross]].<ref name=GvSlautADB/>

===Later years===
After the [[Napoleonic Wars]] ended, Gustav con Schlabrendorf lived on for nearly ten years, as far as visitors could tell under ever more reduced circumstances, any available funds being spent on scholarship or charity. He nevertheless remained in the city-centre "hermitage" he had created for himself over the previous twenty years. Paris had become an international city: there were more visiting foreign diplomats and politicians, writers and artists, Germans and Frenchmen. His pungent book-lined hotel room was busier than ever. Many sought advice. Some sought and received "financial support". According to a recollection attributed to his friend [[:de:Konrad Engelbert Oelsner|Konrad Engelbert Oelsner]], at one point, surrounded by his books and manuscripts, he remained in his hotel room without a break for nine years.{{efn |"Einen Umstand [habe ich] außer Acht gelassen, nämlich den, daß Graf Schlabrendorff neun Jahre lang nicht von seinem Zimmer gekommen ist. Schon zu Ende 1814 fing er an einzusitzen.<ref>An unattributed report in: Preußische Jahrbücher vol. 1, 1858, p. 85.</ref>"}} He frequently renewed his assurances that he intended to come "home" to [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], but that never happened. Inertia prevailed.<ref name=GvSlautADB/> His recurring mistress, [[Caroline von Humboldt]], had named one of the von Humboldts' eight recorded children after him back in 1806{{efn |Sadly, Gustav von Humboldt (7 Januar 1806 – 12 November 1807) died in early infancy.}} and remained a regular visitor and companion ten years later. She would later describe Gustav von Humboldt as "simply the most human human being I ever knew"{{efn |"...den menschlichsten Menschen, den ich je kannte."<ref name=GvSlautCvH/>}}<ref name=GvSlautCvH>Dagmar von Gersdorff: Caroline von Humboldt. Eine Biographie. Berlin 2013, pp. 75, 116–118.</ref>

In the aftermath of the war, with his Silesian estates restored to him, von Schlabrendorf was able to resume his generous giving to friends in need, prisoners of war rendered destitute and other good causes, but it is not clear that his fortune held out for as long as he did. During his final few years he set out to try and crystallise his ideas on paper: the focus was increasingly on his writing. He engaged intensively on creating a "general languages" teaching theory and on [[Etymology|etymological studies]] more broadly.<ref name=GvSlautKN/> This never led to any published conclusions, but traces of his theories and conclusions found their way into the public realm via papers and books produced subsequently by his friends.<ref name= GvSlautADB/><ref name=GvSlautKN>{{cite web|title=Gustav Graf von Schlabrendorf|url=https://www.knerger.de/html/schriftsteller_144.html |work=Omnibus salutem! |publisher= Klaus Nerger (Schriftsteller CXLV), Wiesbaden|accessdate=21 October 2019}}</ref>

During the summer of 1824 Gustav von Schlabrendorf fell seriously ill. With great difficulty his doctor succeeded in prising him away from his hotel room and he moved to [[Batignolles]], which at that time was a country village to the north of the city. The purpose of the move was to enable his health to benefit from the clean country air. However, the move came late in the day, and on 21 August 1824 he died at [[Batignolles]]. His final big project had involved collating his writings concerning the French Revolution. He intended to bequeath this to a Prussian university. A will setting forth his intentions had been prepared but, not for the first time in the life of Gustav von Schlabrendorf, stated intentions had not been followed through: the legal requirements for validation of the document had not been completed. When he died his most recent valid will dated from 1785, and his death was followed by disputatious exchanges between his relatives even though, apart from his books and papers, he had managed to die bereft of worldly assets. The Prussian embassy had to pay most of the costs associated with his funeral.<ref name=GvSlautADB/><ref name=GvSlautKN/> His papers were sold off: the whereabouts of most of them is unknown.

===Afterlife===
His body was buried at the "[[Père Lachaise Cemetery]]" (as Paris's largest cemetery has subsequently become known). Some time later the remains were moved to the "Chemin Bohm" cemetery and reinterred close to the tomb of the Prussian soldier-ambassador [[:de:Heinrich von der Goltz (Generalleutnant)|Heinrich von der Goltz (1775 – 1822)]]. There (in 2019) they remain. The main tombstone was removed sometime around 1900 but parts of the grave's stone surround can still be seen and the grave plot has not yet been recycled.<ref name=GvSlautKN/>



==Notes==
{{Notelist|65em}}
{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:von Schlabrendorf, Gustav}}
[[Category:Writers from Szczecin]]
[[Category:People from Silesia]]
[[Category:Writers from Paris]]
[[Category:German male essayists]]
[[Category:18th-century German writers]]
[[Category:18th-century German male writers]]
[[Category:19th-century German writers]]
[[Category:19th-century German male writers]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers]]
[[Category:German Freemasons]]
[[Category:French Freemasons]]
[[Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery]]
[[Category:1750 births]]
[[Category:1824 deaths]]
[[Category:Emigrants from the Holy Roman Empire to France]]

Gustav von Schlabrendorf

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Gustav von Schlabrendorf

2024-10-15T22:56:38Z

NidabaM: /* Later years */ corrected spaces

Jakob Lorber

2024-10-15T22:54:27Z

NidabaM: /* Bibliography */

{{short description|Austrian musician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
[[File:Lorber1.jpg|thumb|Jakob Lorber.]]
'''Jakob Lorber''' (22 July 1800 – 23 August 1864) was a [[Christian mystic]] and self-professed [[visionary]]{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} from the [[Duchy of Styria]] who promoted liberal [[Universalism]], and whom referred to himself as "God's scribe". He wrote that, on 15 March 1840, he began hearing an "[[interior locution|inner voice]]" from the "region" of his heart, thereafter transcribing what it said. By the time of his death, 24 years later, he had written over 10,000 pages of detailed manuscripts.

Primarily, his writings were published posthumously, amounting to a "New Revelation" and the contemporary "Lorber movement". This formed one of the major European [[neo-revelationist]] sects, mostly active in [[German-speaking Europe]], although parts of Lorber's writings have been translated into over 20 languages (according to the website of the Lorber Publisher). Followers and adherents have not formed a sect or cult, but rather continue in their own denominations.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

==Biography==
Jakob Lorber was born in Kanischa, a small village in the [[Jarenina|Jahring]] parish, Duchy of Styria (now [[Kaniža, Šentilj|Kaniža]] pri [[Jareninski Dol|Jarenini]] in [[Lower Styria]], [[Slovenia]]), to peasants Michael Lorber and his wife, Maria (née Tautscher). He trained as a village schoolteacher. A brief biography, by his friend [[Karl Gottfried Ritter von Leitner]], indicates that Lorber was an "uncomplicated" person.<ref>[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.l/l456666.htm Leitner, Karl Gottfried Ritter von]</ref>

Lorber was observed, while writing, by several well-to-do men in the Styrian capital city of [[Graz]], including Dr. [[Carl-Friedrich Zimpel]], the mayor of Graz (Anton Hüttenbrenner) and his composer brother ([[Anselm Hüttenbrenner]]), poet and Secretary to the Estates [[Karl Gottfried von Leitner]], a Dr. Anton Kammerhuber and Leopold Cantily (pharmacist of Graz), among others. Likewise, these men verified his simplistic way of life.<ref>[http://www.j-lorber.de/jl/lorber/prophet.htm Ist Lorber ein echter Prophet Gottes?]</ref> Lorber was open and friendly, regarding his transcriptions, yet found himself involved in petty investigations designed to prove that he was a staging a hoax. For instance, the wife of one of his friends was certain that Lorber had studied the material he was pretending to hear from the inner voice, yet she never found the scientific books she had suggested he was hiding, eventually finding his sole research material to be a copy of the [[Bible]].<ref>[http://j-lorber.de/kee/1/b-person.htm Kurt Eggenstein: 'The Prophet J. Lorber Predicts Coming Catastrophies and the True Christianity']</ref>

Lorber had musical talents, and learned the violin, taking lessons from the famed virtuoso [[Niccolò Paganini|Paganini]], and once giving a concert at [[La Scala|La Scala Opera House]], [[Milan]]. In 1840, the same year that he claimed to begin hearing the inner voice, Lorber was offered the position of assistant musical director at the theatre in [[Trieste]]. He claimed that the inner voice, however, directed him to decline the position and follow a quiet life of solitude, instead.<ref>Youens, Susan. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Usc8dwvmbAC&dq=paganini%20jakob%20lorber&pg=PA208 Schubert's Late Lieder: Beyond the Song-Cycles]. [[Cambridge University Press]], 2006. 208.</ref> Lorber's writings reveal that the inner voice spoke freely in first person as the voice of [[Jesus Christ]].<ref name="j-lorber.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.j-lorber.com/English/Text/GEJ1.html |title=Explanation of the |accessdate=2006-01-27 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041222051335/http://j-lorber.com/English/Text/GEJ1.html |archivedate=22 December 2004}}</ref>

== Prose style ==
Lorber's prose has been described as compelling, moving some readers {{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} to compare it with writings by other mystics such as [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], [[Jakob Boehme]] and [[Rudolf Steiner]]. Lorber himself makes reference to Swedenborg, in his book ''From Hell to Heaven'' (book 2 chapter 104 verse 4) and in ''The Spiritual Sun'' (vol. 1, chap. 16).

==The Great Gospel of John==
{{Main|Great Gospel of John}}
In the ''Great Gospel of John'', the narrator, Jesus, explains that he is the creator of the material universe, which was designed both as a confinement of Satan, and so he could take upon himself the condition of a man. He says he did this to inspire his children who could otherwise not perceive him in his primordial form as a spirit. He gives descriptions of the eons of time involved in creating the Earth. He does so in a manner similar to the modern theory of [[evolution]] all the way up to the point several thousand years ago when Jesus placed [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]] upon the Earth, which at the time contained man-like creatures who did not have free will, being simply the most clever of the animals.<ref>[http://j-lorber.de/kee/1/j-premen.htm Kurt Eggenstein: 'The Prophet J. Lorber Predicts Coming Catastrophies and the True Christianity']</ref>

In a comprehensive manner the ''Great Gospel of John'' continually emphasizes the importance of [[free will]]. In this book, [[heaven]] and [[hell]] are presented as conditions already within us, expressed according to whether we live in harmony or contrary to God's divine order. The ''Great Gospel of John'' also states that the [[gospels]] of [[Gospel of John|John]] and [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] were written at the time of the events they chronicle; for instance, Lorber writes that Jesus specifically told Matthew to take notes during the [[Sermon on the Mount]].<ref name="j-lorber.com"/> Such an account seems at first contrary to the current consensus of biblical scholarship which typically places the authorship of Matthew some years after the resurrection of Jesus Christ and that of John even later. However, in the ''Great Gospel of John'' the narrator explains how this happened. He claims that there were many writers who described him, including several authors named Matthew, who all wrote similarly over a period of many years.

==Paul's epistle to the Laodiceans==
{{further|Epistle to the Laodiceans}}
Lorber claimed to have heard by the inner voice, in 1844, the "lost" letter Paul wrote to the assembly of the Laodiceans, as referred to in [[Colossians]] 4:16. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090221155049/http://www.merkurpublishing.com/letter_of_saint_paul_to_the_laodiceans.htm]

Several texts purporting to be the "lost" letter survive, notably one brief text preserved in medieval [[Vulgate]] manuscripts, attested from the 6th century. Another candidate is attributed to [[Marcion]], listed in the [[Muratorian fragment]]. Marcion's text is lost, and the Vulgate text is widely recognized as [[pseudepigraphical]], and was decreed uncanonical by the [[Council of Florence]] of 1439–43.<ref>[http://reluctant-messenger.com/epistle-laodiceans.htm The reluctant messenger: The Epistle to the Laodiceans]</ref> There is no resemblance between the letters produced by Lorber via the inner voice and the original manuscripts that survived. Publisher of this Lorber manuscript claims that the letter's being lost reflects the falling away of the Church from true Christianity.<ref>[http://www.nuweopenbaring.co.za/lorber.php?action=show&id=68 Publisher's introduction to Lorber's Epistle to the Laodiceans]</ref>

== Reception ==

===Publication===
Lorber posthumously attracted a following, and his writings were published and frequently reprinted, mostly with ''Lorber & Turm'', a dedicated publisher based in [[Bietigheim-Bissingen]], Germany.
The original manuscripts and copies of some of the manuscripts by close friends of Lorber are still preserved in the archives of the ''Lorber & Turm'' publisher.

The German philosopher [[E.F. Schumacher]] refers to the New Revelation (NR) in his book "A Guide for the Perplexed" as follows: "They (the books of the NR) contain many strange things which are unacceptable to modern mentality, but at the same time contain such plethora of high wisdom and insight that it would be difficult to find anything more impressive in the whole of world literature. Lorber's books, at the same time, are full of statements on scientific matters which flatly contradicted the sciences of his time and anticipated a great deal of modern physics and astronomy... There is no rational explanation for the range, profundity and precision of their contents."<ref>''A Guide for the Perplexed'', Schumacher, 1977, pg. 107</ref>

Lorber's work is divided into several books which, in aggregate, are called the ''New Revelation''.

His ''Great Gospel of John'' was published in ten volumes and frequently reprinted, the 8th edition dating to 1996.
The ''Gospel of Jacob'' appeared in a 12th edition in 2006.

Lorber's works have partially been translated into English, appearing with ''Merkur Publishing''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merkurpublishing.com/jakob_lorber_main_book_page.htm |title=Alternative healing jakob (Jacob) lorber the New Revelation FRANZ BARDON BOOKS hermetic science magic spiritual growth books initiation into hermetics key to the true kabbalah |accessdate=2009-08-29 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527013318/http://www.merkurpublishing.com/jakob_lorber_main_book_page.htm |archivedate=27 May 2009}}</ref>

===Adherents===

Lorber and his friends were members of the Roman Catholic Church, and Lorber's revelations asked them not to leave the church, but to convince it of the genuinely divine nature of the "New Revelation" by leading exemplary lives. [[Occultist]] [[Leopold Engel]] was one of Lorber's followers, and also wrote an 11th volume, claiming to be a follow-up to Lorber's [[The Great Gospel of John]] close to 30 years after Lorber's death. {{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

There is a movement of adherents of Lorber's writings (''Lorber-Bewegung, Lorberianer, Lorber-Gesellschaften''), mostly active in [[German-speaking Europe]]. There is no organizational structure beyond small regional circles, While there is no accurate estimate of the total number of adherents, it likely exceeds 100,000 worldwide.<ref>Horst Reller, Hans Krech & Matthias Kleiminger (eds.): ''Lorber-Bewegung – Lorber-Gesellschaft – Lorberianer''. In: Handbuch Religiöse Gemeinschaften und Weltanschauungen. 6th ed., Gütersloh 2006, 214–226.</ref>

===Status in the Church of Christ with the Elijah Message===
In one of the sacred books of all the three factions of the [[Church of Christ with the Elijah Message]], [[Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel]], Lorber is named as one of the servants of God from the German speaking area.<ref>http://johnthebaptist.info/WOL_BOOK_v1.3.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

===Criticism===
One main point of criticism of Lorber's works was the use of the first person as if the writings were dictated by Jesus Christ himself.<ref name="ReferenceA">Himmelsgaben Band 2, 8. Februar 1844</ref><ref name="Weltanschauungsfragen, p. 21">Evangelische Zentralstelle für Weltanschauungsfragen, ''Ich habe euch noch viel zu sagen …”, p. 21</ref><ref name="Reinhard Rinnerthaler p. 82">Dr. Reinhard Rinnerthaler: ''Zur Kommunikationsstruktur religiöser Sondergemeinschaften am Beispiel der Jakob-Lorber-Bewegung''. p. 82</ref>
Some statements can be considered anti-semitic,<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="Weltanschauungsfragen, p. 21"/><ref name="Reinhard Rinnerthaler p. 82"/><ref>Andreas Fincke, ''Jesus Christus im Werk Jakob Lorbers: Untersuchungen zum Jesusbild und zur Christologie einer "Neuoffenbarung"'', 162ff.</ref> and Lorber was in fact noted by the anti-semitic proponents of "[[Ariosophy]]" racial mysticism during the 1920, e.g. by [[Lanz von Liebenfels]], who in 1926 published on Jakob Lorber as "the greatest ariosophic medium of the modern era" (''das grösste ariosophische Medium der Neuzeit'')<ref>published in ''Zeitschrift für Menschenkenntnis und Schiksalsforschung''; noted in [[Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke]], ''[[The Occult Roots of Nazism]]'' (1985), p. 256.</ref> Then again it is said in the books of Lorber, that salvation comes to all men from the Jews, and that one should in all truth return to Judaism<ref>Lorber: [http://www.jakob-lorber.cc/index.php?s=GEJ1.187.10&l=en ''Great Gospel of John'', Volume 1, Chapter 187, Paragraph 10]</ref> and that the God of the Jews is the only true, eternal God.<ref>Lorber: [http://www.jakob-lorber.cc/index.php?s=GEJ1.210.13&l=en ''Great Gospel of John'', Volume 1, Chapter 210, Paragraph 13]</ref>{{Synthesis inline|date=January 2012|reason=must have secondary source for these statements}} It is also said to be the will of God or Jesus that all men should be friends, whether they are Jews or gentiles.<ref>Lorber: [http://www.jakob-lorber.cc/index.php?s=GEJ10.38.5&l=en ''Great Gospel of John'', Volume 10, Chapter 38, Paragraph 5]</ref>{{Synthesis inline|date=January 2012|reason=must have secondary source for these statements}}

Kurt Hutten, former chairman of the ''Evangelische Zentralstelle für Weltanschauungsfragen'' (EZW, an [[Christian apologetics|apologetic]] institution of the [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]) has identified Swedenborg and Lorber as recipients of equally valid [[private revelation]].<ref>Kurt Hutten, ''Seher – Grübler – Enthusiasten. Das Buch der traditionellen Sekten und religiösen Sonderbewegungen.'' Quell Verlag, Stuttgart 1997, {{ISBN|3-7918-2130-X}}.</ref> Official statements of the EZW are more skeptical, assuming psychological explanations for Lorber's revelations. EZW points to a 1966 [[University of Berne|Berne]] dissertation by Antoinette Stettler-Schär which diagnosed Lorber with [[paranoid schizophrenia]]. This diagnosis has been dismissed by Bernhard Grom, who diagnoses self-induced [[hallucination]].<ref>EZW, ed. Pöhlmann (2003), p. 10.</ref> Andreas Finke, vice-chairman of the EZW, concludes that the content of Lorber's revelations reflect both the period during which they were written down and the knowledge of their author, identifying them as "pious poetry in the best sense of the term, but not divine dictation."<ref>''Jakob Lorbers "Neuoffenbarungen" spiegeln nicht nur die Zeit des 19. Jahrhunderts wider, sondern auch den Kenntnisstand und die geistige Welt ihres Verfassers. (…) Lorbers Texte sind – im besten Sinne des Wortes – fromme Dichtung, aber sie sind kein Diktat Gottes.'' EZW, ed. Pöhlmann (2003), p. 44</ref>

==Bibliography==
*''Das grosse Evangelium Johannis'' (''[[The Great Gospel of John]]''), first edition 1871, 10 volumes, Lorber-Verlag, 1996 reprint: {{ISBN|978-3-87495-213-2}} ff.
**"condensed version" in English, Zluhan Verlag (1985), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-305-4}}.
*''Die Haushaltung Gottes '' (''The Household of God''), 3 vols., Lorber-Verlag, 5th ed. (1981), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-200-2}}.
** English translation: Zluhan Verlag (1995) {{ISBN|978-3-87495-314-6}}.
*''Die geistige Sonne'', 2 vols., Lorber-Verlag, 9th ed. (1996), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-206-4}}.
*''Die natürliche Sonne'' Bietigheim Württemberg, Neu-Salems-Verlag (1928)
*''Die Heilkraft des Sonnenlichtes'', Lorber-Verlag, 2006 reprint: {{ISBN|978-3-87495-175-3}}.
*''Jenseits der Schwelle: Sterbeszenen'', Lorber-Verlag, 2004 reprint (9th ed.): {{ISBN|978-3-87495-163-0}}.
*''Die Jugend Jesu. Das [[Gospel of James|Jakobus-Evangelium]]'', 12th ed. (1996), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-164-7}}.
*''Die Fliege: Einblicke in die Wunder der Schöpfung '', Zluhan Verlag, 7th ed. (2000), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-168-5}}.
*''Bischof Martin: Die Entwicklung einer Seele im Jenseits '', 3rd ed. (2003), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-009-1}}.
*''Die drei Tage im Tempel '', Zluhan Verlag, 10th ed. (1995), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-014-5}}.
*''Naturgeheimnisse: Das Naturgeschehen und sein geistiger Hintergrund '', Lorber-Verlag, 3rd ed. (1994), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-045-9}}.
*''Die Wiederkunft Christi: Ein Entwicklungsbild der Menschheit '', Zluhan Verlag, 5th ed. (2000), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-109-8}}.
*''[[Epistle to the Laodiceans|Paulus' Brief an die Gemeinde in Laodizea]]'', Zluhan Verlag; 6th ed. (1993), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-124-1}}.
*''Briefwechsel Jesu mit [[Abgar V of Edessa|Abgarus Ukkama von Edessa]]'', {{ISBN|978-3-87495-011-4}}.
*''Der Saturn: Darstellung dieses Planeten samt Ring und Monden und seiner Lebewesen'', Lorber-Verlag, 4th ed. (2009), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-048-0}}.
*''Erde und Mond'', Zluhan Verlag, 2000 reprint of 4th ed. (1953), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-165-4}}.
*''Der Großglockner: Ein Evangelium der Berge'', Zluhan Verlag, 7th ed. (2009), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-111-1}}.
* Ritter von Leitner: ''Jakob Lorber, der Steiermärkische Theosoph''
* Junge Michael: ''Dokumentation um Jakob Lorber''. Books on Demand GmbH, 2004, {{ISBN|3-8334-1562-2}}
* Hutten Kurt: ''Seher – Grübler – Enthusiasten. Das Buch der traditionellen Sekten und religiösen Sonderbewegungen''. Quell Verlag, Stuttgart 1997, {{ISBN|3-7918-2130-X}}
* Pöhlmann Matthias (ed.):'' "Ich habe euch noch viel zu sagen ...": Gottesboten – Propheten – Neuoffenbarer''. EZW-Texte 169. Evangelische Zentralstelle für Weltanschauungsfragen, Berlin 2003, ISSN 0085-0357
* Obst Helmut:''Apostel und Propheten der Neuzeit''. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2000, {{ISBN|3-525-55438-9}}, {{ISBN|3-525-55439-7}}, 233–264
* Gassmann Lothar: ''Kleines Sekten-Handbuch''Mago-Bucher, 2005, {{ISBN|3-9810275-0-7}}, 92–95
* Stettler Antoinette-Schär: ''Jakob Lorber: Sektenstifters eines Psychopathologie zur''. Dissertation an der Medizinischen Fakultät der Universität Bern, 1966
* [http://www.jakoblorber.de/ Johanna Böhm: ''Eine kritische Durchsicht''.]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Jakob Lorber}}
* [https://archive.org/details/BeyondTheThreshold Lorber's works in English] at the Internet Archive
*[https://www.new-bible.net/page/en/servant/Gods_Scribe God's Scribe], includes web versions and e-books of Lorber's work.
*[http://www.the-new-revelation.weebly.com/ The New Revelation of Jesus Christ through Jakob Lorber and Gottfried Mayerhofer]
*[https://the-new-revelation.weebly.com/new-revelation-on-the-internet.html/ The New Revelation on the Internet – in English, German and other languages]
*[http://www.jakob-lorber.cc/ Jakob Lorber Online Search Database]
*[http://www.jakob-lorber.at/links.htm Lorber-weblinks]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090221155049/http://www.merkurpublishing.com/letter_of_saint_paul_to_the_laodiceans.htm Jakob Lorber: ''Letter of St. Paul to the Assembly of the Laodiceans'']
*[http://www.zyworld.com/lorber/JL_English.htm The Great Gospel of John Vol. 1–10 in English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100814133722/http://www.zyworld.com/lorber/JL_English.htm |date=14 August 2010 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lorber, Jakob}}
[[Category:1800 births]]
[[Category:1864 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Christian mystics]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic mystics]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers]]
[[Category:Austrian Christians]]

Jakob Lorber

2024-10-15T22:53:55Z

NidabaM: /* Bibliography */ inserted spaces

{{short description|Austrian musician}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}
[[File:Lorber1.jpg|thumb|Jakob Lorber.]]
'''Jakob Lorber''' (22 July 1800 – 23 August 1864) was a [[Christian mystic]] and self-professed [[visionary]]{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} from the [[Duchy of Styria]] who promoted liberal [[Universalism]], and whom referred to himself as "God's scribe". He wrote that, on 15 March 1840, he began hearing an "[[interior locution|inner voice]]" from the "region" of his heart, thereafter transcribing what it said. By the time of his death, 24 years later, he had written over 10,000 pages of detailed manuscripts.

Primarily, his writings were published posthumously, amounting to a "New Revelation" and the contemporary "Lorber movement". This formed one of the major European [[neo-revelationist]] sects, mostly active in [[German-speaking Europe]], although parts of Lorber's writings have been translated into over 20 languages (according to the website of the Lorber Publisher). Followers and adherents have not formed a sect or cult, but rather continue in their own denominations.{{Citation needed|date=April 2022}}

==Biography==
Jakob Lorber was born in Kanischa, a small village in the [[Jarenina|Jahring]] parish, Duchy of Styria (now [[Kaniža, Šentilj|Kaniža]] pri [[Jareninski Dol|Jarenini]] in [[Lower Styria]], [[Slovenia]]), to peasants Michael Lorber and his wife, Maria (née Tautscher). He trained as a village schoolteacher. A brief biography, by his friend [[Karl Gottfried Ritter von Leitner]], indicates that Lorber was an "uncomplicated" person.<ref>[http://www.aeiou.at/aeiou.encyclop.l/l456666.htm Leitner, Karl Gottfried Ritter von]</ref>

Lorber was observed, while writing, by several well-to-do men in the Styrian capital city of [[Graz]], including Dr. [[Carl-Friedrich Zimpel]], the mayor of Graz (Anton Hüttenbrenner) and his composer brother ([[Anselm Hüttenbrenner]]), poet and Secretary to the Estates [[Karl Gottfried von Leitner]], a Dr. Anton Kammerhuber and Leopold Cantily (pharmacist of Graz), among others. Likewise, these men verified his simplistic way of life.<ref>[http://www.j-lorber.de/jl/lorber/prophet.htm Ist Lorber ein echter Prophet Gottes?]</ref> Lorber was open and friendly, regarding his transcriptions, yet found himself involved in petty investigations designed to prove that he was a staging a hoax. For instance, the wife of one of his friends was certain that Lorber had studied the material he was pretending to hear from the inner voice, yet she never found the scientific books she had suggested he was hiding, eventually finding his sole research material to be a copy of the [[Bible]].<ref>[http://j-lorber.de/kee/1/b-person.htm Kurt Eggenstein: 'The Prophet J. Lorber Predicts Coming Catastrophies and the True Christianity']</ref>

Lorber had musical talents, and learned the violin, taking lessons from the famed virtuoso [[Niccolò Paganini|Paganini]], and once giving a concert at [[La Scala|La Scala Opera House]], [[Milan]]. In 1840, the same year that he claimed to begin hearing the inner voice, Lorber was offered the position of assistant musical director at the theatre in [[Trieste]]. He claimed that the inner voice, however, directed him to decline the position and follow a quiet life of solitude, instead.<ref>Youens, Susan. [https://books.google.com/books?id=9Usc8dwvmbAC&dq=paganini%20jakob%20lorber&pg=PA208 Schubert's Late Lieder: Beyond the Song-Cycles]. [[Cambridge University Press]], 2006. 208.</ref> Lorber's writings reveal that the inner voice spoke freely in first person as the voice of [[Jesus Christ]].<ref name="j-lorber.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.j-lorber.com/English/Text/GEJ1.html |title=Explanation of the |accessdate=2006-01-27 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20041222051335/http://j-lorber.com/English/Text/GEJ1.html |archivedate=22 December 2004}}</ref>

== Prose style ==
Lorber's prose has been described as compelling, moving some readers {{Citation needed|date=April 2022}} to compare it with writings by other mystics such as [[Emanuel Swedenborg]], [[Jakob Boehme]] and [[Rudolf Steiner]]. Lorber himself makes reference to Swedenborg, in his book ''From Hell to Heaven'' (book 2 chapter 104 verse 4) and in ''The Spiritual Sun'' (vol. 1, chap. 16).

==The Great Gospel of John==
{{Main|Great Gospel of John}}
In the ''Great Gospel of John'', the narrator, Jesus, explains that he is the creator of the material universe, which was designed both as a confinement of Satan, and so he could take upon himself the condition of a man. He says he did this to inspire his children who could otherwise not perceive him in his primordial form as a spirit. He gives descriptions of the eons of time involved in creating the Earth. He does so in a manner similar to the modern theory of [[evolution]] all the way up to the point several thousand years ago when Jesus placed [[Adam (Bible)|Adam]] upon the Earth, which at the time contained man-like creatures who did not have free will, being simply the most clever of the animals.<ref>[http://j-lorber.de/kee/1/j-premen.htm Kurt Eggenstein: 'The Prophet J. Lorber Predicts Coming Catastrophies and the True Christianity']</ref>

In a comprehensive manner the ''Great Gospel of John'' continually emphasizes the importance of [[free will]]. In this book, [[heaven]] and [[hell]] are presented as conditions already within us, expressed according to whether we live in harmony or contrary to God's divine order. The ''Great Gospel of John'' also states that the [[gospels]] of [[Gospel of John|John]] and [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] were written at the time of the events they chronicle; for instance, Lorber writes that Jesus specifically told Matthew to take notes during the [[Sermon on the Mount]].<ref name="j-lorber.com"/> Such an account seems at first contrary to the current consensus of biblical scholarship which typically places the authorship of Matthew some years after the resurrection of Jesus Christ and that of John even later. However, in the ''Great Gospel of John'' the narrator explains how this happened. He claims that there were many writers who described him, including several authors named Matthew, who all wrote similarly over a period of many years.

==Paul's epistle to the Laodiceans==
{{further|Epistle to the Laodiceans}}
Lorber claimed to have heard by the inner voice, in 1844, the "lost" letter Paul wrote to the assembly of the Laodiceans, as referred to in [[Colossians]] 4:16. [https://web.archive.org/web/20090221155049/http://www.merkurpublishing.com/letter_of_saint_paul_to_the_laodiceans.htm]

Several texts purporting to be the "lost" letter survive, notably one brief text preserved in medieval [[Vulgate]] manuscripts, attested from the 6th century. Another candidate is attributed to [[Marcion]], listed in the [[Muratorian fragment]]. Marcion's text is lost, and the Vulgate text is widely recognized as [[pseudepigraphical]], and was decreed uncanonical by the [[Council of Florence]] of 1439–43.<ref>[http://reluctant-messenger.com/epistle-laodiceans.htm The reluctant messenger: The Epistle to the Laodiceans]</ref> There is no resemblance between the letters produced by Lorber via the inner voice and the original manuscripts that survived. Publisher of this Lorber manuscript claims that the letter's being lost reflects the falling away of the Church from true Christianity.<ref>[http://www.nuweopenbaring.co.za/lorber.php?action=show&id=68 Publisher's introduction to Lorber's Epistle to the Laodiceans]</ref>

== Reception ==

===Publication===
Lorber posthumously attracted a following, and his writings were published and frequently reprinted, mostly with ''Lorber & Turm'', a dedicated publisher based in [[Bietigheim-Bissingen]], Germany.
The original manuscripts and copies of some of the manuscripts by close friends of Lorber are still preserved in the archives of the ''Lorber & Turm'' publisher.

The German philosopher [[E.F. Schumacher]] refers to the New Revelation (NR) in his book "A Guide for the Perplexed" as follows: "They (the books of the NR) contain many strange things which are unacceptable to modern mentality, but at the same time contain such plethora of high wisdom and insight that it would be difficult to find anything more impressive in the whole of world literature. Lorber's books, at the same time, are full of statements on scientific matters which flatly contradicted the sciences of his time and anticipated a great deal of modern physics and astronomy... There is no rational explanation for the range, profundity and precision of their contents."<ref>''A Guide for the Perplexed'', Schumacher, 1977, pg. 107</ref>

Lorber's work is divided into several books which, in aggregate, are called the ''New Revelation''.

His ''Great Gospel of John'' was published in ten volumes and frequently reprinted, the 8th edition dating to 1996.
The ''Gospel of Jacob'' appeared in a 12th edition in 2006.

Lorber's works have partially been translated into English, appearing with ''Merkur Publishing''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merkurpublishing.com/jakob_lorber_main_book_page.htm |title=Alternative healing jakob (Jacob) lorber the New Revelation FRANZ BARDON BOOKS hermetic science magic spiritual growth books initiation into hermetics key to the true kabbalah |accessdate=2009-08-29 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527013318/http://www.merkurpublishing.com/jakob_lorber_main_book_page.htm |archivedate=27 May 2009}}</ref>

===Adherents===

Lorber and his friends were members of the Roman Catholic Church, and Lorber's revelations asked them not to leave the church, but to convince it of the genuinely divine nature of the "New Revelation" by leading exemplary lives. [[Occultist]] [[Leopold Engel]] was one of Lorber's followers, and also wrote an 11th volume, claiming to be a follow-up to Lorber's [[The Great Gospel of John]] close to 30 years after Lorber's death. {{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

There is a movement of adherents of Lorber's writings (''Lorber-Bewegung, Lorberianer, Lorber-Gesellschaften''), mostly active in [[German-speaking Europe]]. There is no organizational structure beyond small regional circles, While there is no accurate estimate of the total number of adherents, it likely exceeds 100,000 worldwide.<ref>Horst Reller, Hans Krech & Matthias Kleiminger (eds.): ''Lorber-Bewegung – Lorber-Gesellschaft – Lorberianer''. In: Handbuch Religiöse Gemeinschaften und Weltanschauungen. 6th ed., Gütersloh 2006, 214–226.</ref>

===Status in the Church of Christ with the Elijah Message===
In one of the sacred books of all the three factions of the [[Church of Christ with the Elijah Message]], [[Word of the Lord Brought to Mankind by an Angel]], Lorber is named as one of the servants of God from the German speaking area.<ref>http://johnthebaptist.info/WOL_BOOK_v1.3.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

===Criticism===
One main point of criticism of Lorber's works was the use of the first person as if the writings were dictated by Jesus Christ himself.<ref name="ReferenceA">Himmelsgaben Band 2, 8. Februar 1844</ref><ref name="Weltanschauungsfragen, p. 21">Evangelische Zentralstelle für Weltanschauungsfragen, ''Ich habe euch noch viel zu sagen …”, p. 21</ref><ref name="Reinhard Rinnerthaler p. 82">Dr. Reinhard Rinnerthaler: ''Zur Kommunikationsstruktur religiöser Sondergemeinschaften am Beispiel der Jakob-Lorber-Bewegung''. p. 82</ref>
Some statements can be considered anti-semitic,<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref name="Weltanschauungsfragen, p. 21"/><ref name="Reinhard Rinnerthaler p. 82"/><ref>Andreas Fincke, ''Jesus Christus im Werk Jakob Lorbers: Untersuchungen zum Jesusbild und zur Christologie einer "Neuoffenbarung"'', 162ff.</ref> and Lorber was in fact noted by the anti-semitic proponents of "[[Ariosophy]]" racial mysticism during the 1920, e.g. by [[Lanz von Liebenfels]], who in 1926 published on Jakob Lorber as "the greatest ariosophic medium of the modern era" (''das grösste ariosophische Medium der Neuzeit'')<ref>published in ''Zeitschrift für Menschenkenntnis und Schiksalsforschung''; noted in [[Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke]], ''[[The Occult Roots of Nazism]]'' (1985), p. 256.</ref> Then again it is said in the books of Lorber, that salvation comes to all men from the Jews, and that one should in all truth return to Judaism<ref>Lorber: [http://www.jakob-lorber.cc/index.php?s=GEJ1.187.10&l=en ''Great Gospel of John'', Volume 1, Chapter 187, Paragraph 10]</ref> and that the God of the Jews is the only true, eternal God.<ref>Lorber: [http://www.jakob-lorber.cc/index.php?s=GEJ1.210.13&l=en ''Great Gospel of John'', Volume 1, Chapter 210, Paragraph 13]</ref>{{Synthesis inline|date=January 2012|reason=must have secondary source for these statements}} It is also said to be the will of God or Jesus that all men should be friends, whether they are Jews or gentiles.<ref>Lorber: [http://www.jakob-lorber.cc/index.php?s=GEJ10.38.5&l=en ''Great Gospel of John'', Volume 10, Chapter 38, Paragraph 5]</ref>{{Synthesis inline|date=January 2012|reason=must have secondary source for these statements}}

Kurt Hutten, former chairman of the ''Evangelische Zentralstelle für Weltanschauungsfragen'' (EZW, an [[Christian apologetics|apologetic]] institution of the [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]) has identified Swedenborg and Lorber as recipients of equally valid [[private revelation]].<ref>Kurt Hutten, ''Seher – Grübler – Enthusiasten. Das Buch der traditionellen Sekten und religiösen Sonderbewegungen.'' Quell Verlag, Stuttgart 1997, {{ISBN|3-7918-2130-X}}.</ref> Official statements of the EZW are more skeptical, assuming psychological explanations for Lorber's revelations. EZW points to a 1966 [[University of Berne|Berne]] dissertation by Antoinette Stettler-Schär which diagnosed Lorber with [[paranoid schizophrenia]]. This diagnosis has been dismissed by Bernhard Grom, who diagnoses self-induced [[hallucination]].<ref>EZW, ed. Pöhlmann (2003), p. 10.</ref> Andreas Finke, vice-chairman of the EZW, concludes that the content of Lorber's revelations reflect both the period during which they were written down and the knowledge of their author, identifying them as "pious poetry in the best sense of the term, but not divine dictation."<ref>''Jakob Lorbers "Neuoffenbarungen" spiegeln nicht nur die Zeit des 19. Jahrhunderts wider, sondern auch den Kenntnisstand und die geistige Welt ihres Verfassers. (…) Lorbers Texte sind – im besten Sinne des Wortes – fromme Dichtung, aber sie sind kein Diktat Gottes.'' EZW, ed. Pöhlmann (2003), p. 44</ref>

==Bibliography==
*''Das grosse Evangelium Johannis'' (''[[The Great Gospel of John]]''), first edition 1871, 10 volumes, Lorber-Verlag, 1996 reprint: {{ISBN|978-3-87495-213-2}} ff.
**"condensed version" in English, Zluhan Verlag (1985), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-305-4}}.
*''Die Haushaltung Gottes '' (''The Household of God''), 3 vols., Lorber-Verlag, 5th ed. (1981), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-200-2}}.
** English translation: Zluhan Verlag (1995) {{ISBN|978-3-87495-314-6}}.
*''Die geistige Sonne'', 2 vols., Lorber-Verlag, 9th ed. (1996), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-206-4}}.
*''Die natürliche Sonne'' Bietigheim Württemberg, Neu-Salems-Verlag (1928)
*''Die Heilkraft des Sonnenlichtes'', Lorber-Verlag, 2006 reprint: {{ISBN|978-3-87495-175-3}}.
*''Jenseits der Schwelle: Sterbeszenen'', Lorber-Verlag, 2004 reprint (9th ed.): {{ISBN|978-3-87495-163-0}}.
*''Die Jugend Jesu. Das [[Gospel of James|Jakobus-Evangelium]]'', 12th ed. (1996), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-164-7}}.
*''Die Fliege: Einblicke in die Wunder der Schöpfung '', Zluhan Verlag, 7th ed. (2000), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-168-5}}.
*''Bischof Martin: Die Entwicklung einer Seele im Jenseits '', 3rd ed. (2003), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-009-1}}.
*''Die drei Tage im Tempel '', Zluhan Verlag, 10th ed. (1995), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-014-5}}.
*''Naturgeheimnisse: Das Naturgeschehen und sein geistiger Hintergrund '', Lorber-Verlag, 3rd ed. (1994), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-045-9}}.
*''Die Wiederkunft Christi: Ein Entwicklungsbild der Menschheit '', Zluhan Verlag, 5th ed. (2000), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-109-8}}.
*''[[Epistle to the Laodiceans|Paulus' Brief an die Gemeinde in Laodizea]]'', Zluhan Verlag; 6th ed. (1993), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-124-1}}.
*''Briefwechsel Jesu mit [[Abgar V of Edessa|Abgarus Ukkama von Edessa]]'', {{ISBN|978-3-87495-011-4}}.
*''Der Saturn: Darstellung dieses Planeten samt Ring und Monden und seiner Lebewesen'', Lorber-Verlag, 4th ed. (2009), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-048-0}}.
*''Erde und Mond'', Zluhan Verlag, 2000 reprint of 4th ed. (1953), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-165-4}}.
*''Der Großglockner: Ein Evangelium der Berge'', Zluhan Verlag, 7th ed. (2009), {{ISBN|978-3-87495-111-1}}.
* Ritter von Leitner: ''Jakob Lorber, der Steiermärkische Theosoph''
* Junge Michael: ''Dokumentation um Jakob Lorber''. Books on Demand GmbH, 2004, {{ISBN|3-8334-1562-2}}
* Hutten Kurt:''Seher – Grübler – Enthusiasten. Das Buch der traditionellen Sekten und religiösen Sonderbewegungen''. Quell Verlag, Stuttgart 1997, {{ISBN|3-7918-2130-X}}
* Pöhlmann Matthias (ed.):'' "Ich habe euch noch viel zu sagen ...": Gottesboten – Propheten – Neuoffenbarer''. EZW-Texte 169. Evangelische Zentralstelle für Weltanschauungsfragen, Berlin 2003, ISSN 0085-0357
* Obst Helmut:''Apostel und Propheten der Neuzeit''. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2000, {{ISBN|3-525-55438-9}}, {{ISBN|3-525-55439-7}}, 233–264
* Gassmann Lothar:''Kleines Sekten-Handbuch''Mago-Bucher, 2005, {{ISBN|3-9810275-0-7}}, 92–95
* Stettler Antoinette-Schär:''Jakob Lorber: Sektenstifters eines Psychopathologie zur''. Dissertation an der Medizinischen Fakultät der Universität Bern, 1966
* [http://www.jakoblorber.de/ Johanna Böhm: ''Eine kritische Durchsicht''.]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Jakob Lorber}}
* [https://archive.org/details/BeyondTheThreshold Lorber's works in English] at the Internet Archive
*[https://www.new-bible.net/page/en/servant/Gods_Scribe God's Scribe], includes web versions and e-books of Lorber's work.
*[http://www.the-new-revelation.weebly.com/ The New Revelation of Jesus Christ through Jakob Lorber and Gottfried Mayerhofer]
*[https://the-new-revelation.weebly.com/new-revelation-on-the-internet.html/ The New Revelation on the Internet – in English, German and other languages]
*[http://www.jakob-lorber.cc/ Jakob Lorber Online Search Database]
*[http://www.jakob-lorber.at/links.htm Lorber-weblinks]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090221155049/http://www.merkurpublishing.com/letter_of_saint_paul_to_the_laodiceans.htm Jakob Lorber: ''Letter of St. Paul to the Assembly of the Laodiceans'']
*[http://www.zyworld.com/lorber/JL_English.htm The Great Gospel of John Vol. 1–10 in English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100814133722/http://www.zyworld.com/lorber/JL_English.htm |date=14 August 2010 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lorber, Jakob}}
[[Category:1800 births]]
[[Category:1864 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Christian mystics]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic mystics]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers]]
[[Category:Austrian Christians]]

Johann Gotthelf Lindner

2024-10-15T22:53:09Z

NidabaM: /* Publications */

{{Infobox person
| name =Johann Gotthelf Lindner
| image =
| caption =
| other names =
| birth_date = 11 September 1729
| birth_place = [[Smołdzino, Słupsk County|Schmolsin]], [[Farther Pomerania|East Pomerania]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]
| death_date = 29 March 1776
| death_place = [[Königsberg]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]
| occupation = Teacher Theologian Philosopher
| nationality =
| spouse =
| children =
| parents = Georg Friedrich Lindner
| movement =
| signature =
| website =
}}

'''Johann Gotthelf Lindner''' (11 September 1729 – 29 March 1776) was a German university teacher and writer at the time of the eighteenth century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]].<ref name=ADBJohGotLin>{{cite book|author=I.u. (author unknown) |chapter-url=https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/ADB:Lindner,_Johann_Gotthelf| title=Lindner: Johann Gotthelf L., geb....|chapter=Lindner, Johann Gotthelf |work=[[Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie|Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie (ADB)]]|series=Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie |volume= 18|publisher= Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig & [[Wikisource]]|date=1883|accessdate=22 September 2015|pages=704–705}}</ref>

Johann Gotthelf Lindner was the elder brother to [[:de:Ehregott Friedrich Lindner|Ehregott Friedrich Lindner]], also born in [[Smołdzino, Słupsk County|Schmolsin]], and to Gottlob Immanuel Lindner (1734–1818), born in the city of Königsberg. He was therefore also an uncle to the journalist-doctor [[Friedrich Ludwig Lindner]] (1772–1845).

== Life ==
Lindner was born in the village of [[Smołdzino, Słupsk County|Schmolsin]] a short distance inland from the north coast of [[Farther Pomerania|East Pomerania]]. His father, Georg Friedrich Lindner, was the local protestant minister.<ref name=ADBJohGotLin/>

He attended the [[University of Königsberg|Albertus University of Königsberg]], where he studied [[protestant theology]] and [[philosophy]], becoming a [[Master of Philosophy]] ''"Magister der Philosophie"'' in 1749 or 1750. He was soon giving lessons himself: subjects included the French language, oratory, history, philosophy and mathematics.<ref name=ReckeuNapiersky/> He also took to exercising his skills as a preacher.<ref name=ReckeuNapiersky>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MqMIAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA81|title=Lindner (Johann Gotthelf)|author1=[[Johann Friedrich von Recke]] (editor and compiler)|author2=[[Karl Eduard von Napiersky]] (editor and compiler)|work=Allgemeines Gelehrten- und Schriftsteller-Lexikon der Provinzen Livland, Estland und Kurland|date=1831|volume=(Vol.III: L-R)|pages=81–86}}</ref> He obtained a position as a teacher at the Cathedral School in [[Riga]] in 1753, becoming Rector and Inspector at the school in 1755.<ref name=ADBJohGotLin/> In 1765 he became a full professor of Poetry (''"Dichtkunst"'') at Königsberg, and in 1766 he became director of the newly re-established [[:de:Königliche Deutsche Gesellschaft (Königsberg)|German Society (Königsberg)]].<ref name=ReckeuNapiersky/>

Lindner received a doctorate of theology in 1773 for a 47-page dissertation concerned with poetry in Holy Scripture.<ref name=PoeticuminSacraScriptura>{{cite book|title=De eo, quod est poeticum in Sacra Scriptura|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_QMrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PP3|date=21 October 1773|author1=Johann Gotthelf Lindner}}</ref> In 1775 he became a church and school inspector as well as a protestant minister in the [[Löbenicht Church|Löbenicht]] parish of Königsberg.<ref name=ReckeuNapiersky/>

As director of the German Society Lindner became an important member of Königsberg's close circle of [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] philosophers. Other members included [[Johann Georg Hamann]], [[Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel the Elder|Theodor Gottlieb von Hippel]] and [[Immanuel Kant]].<ref name=ADBJohGotLin/> Lindner was also a member of the "Three Crowns Lodge" (''"Freimaurerloge Zu den drei Kronen"'') of the city's [[Masonic Lodge|Freemasons]].

Lindner published his poetic writings in various journals including the weekly [[:de:Deutschbaltische Zeitungen in Estland|''Rigische Anzeiger'']] and Königsberg's ''Gelehrte und Politische Zeitung''. He also produced school dramas.

==Publications==
* ''Lehrbuch der schönen Wissenschaften, insbesondere der Prosa und Poesie'', in 2 volumes<ref name=Lehrbuch>{{cite book|author= Johann Gotthelf Lindner, ord. Prof. der Poesie zu Königsberg|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tWkHAAAAQAAJ&pg=PP5 |title=Lehrbuch der schönen Wissenschaften, insbesondere der Prosa und Poesie in 2 volumes |date=1767 |volume=1|publisher=Johann Jacob Kantor, Königsberg & Leipzig}}</ref>
* ''Kurzer Inbegriff der Ästhetik , Redekunst und Dichtkunst''. 2 volumes, 1771/1772.
* De eo, quod est poeticum in Sacra Scriptura. [[Dissertation]] 1773, 47 pages.
* Abhandlung von der Sprache überhaupt, und insbesondre eines Landes, nebst einer Sammlung einiger Liefländischen Provinzialwörter und Ausdrücke. In: Beitrag zu Schulhandlungen. Königsberg 1762, pp. 207–256.

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

==Further reading==
* ''[[Deutsche Biographische Enzyklopädie]]''. 2nd edition ([[Rudolf Vierhaus]], Saur, Munich 2006, {{pp.|466–467}}.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lindner, Johann Gotthelf}}
[[Category:1729 births]]
[[Category:1776 deaths]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Königsberg]]
[[Category:Enlightenment philosophers]]
[[Category:German Freemasons]]
[[Category:Writers from the Kingdom of Prussia]]

Wilhelm von Humboldt

2024-10-15T22:51:49Z

NidabaM: /* Further reading */

{{Short description|Prussian philosopher, government official, diplomat, and educator (1767–1835)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| era = [[19th-century philosophy]]
| image = Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) - Charles William, Baron von Humboldt (1767-1835) - RCIN 404936 - Royal Collection.jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Thomas Lawrence]]
| name = Wilhelm von Humboldt
| spouse = [[Caroline von Humboldt|Caroline von Dacheröden]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1767|6|22|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Potsdam]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1835|4|8|1767|6|22|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Tegel]], Prussia
| education = [[Viadrina European University|University of Frankfurt (Oder)]] [[University of Göttingen]]
| institutions= [[University of Berlin]]
| school_tradition = [[Berlin Romanticism]]<ref>Helmut Thielicke, ''Modern Faith and Thought'', William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1990, p. 174.</ref> [[Romantic linguistics]]<ref>Philip A. Luelsdorff, Jarmila Panevová, Petr Sgall (eds.), ''Praguiana, 1945–1990'', John Benjamins Publishing, 1994, p. 150: "Humboldt himself (Humboldt was one of the leading spirits of romantic linguistics; he died in 1834) emphasized that speaking was permanent creation."</ref> [[Classical liberalism]]
| main_interests = [[Philosophy of language]]
| notable_ideas = Language as a rule-governed system ("the inner form of language") [[Humboldtian model of higher education]]
| signature = Signatur Wilhelm von Humboldt.PNG
}}

'''Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand von Humboldt'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʌ|m|b|oʊ|l|t}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/humboldt|title=Humboldt|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=11 July 2019}}</ref> also {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|h|ʊ|m|b|oʊ|l|t}},<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Humboldt|access-date=11 July 2019}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|h|ʌ|m|b|ɒ|l|t}};<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Humboldt,+Alexander+von |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512144325/https://www.lexico.com/definition/humboldt,_alexander_von |url-status=dead |archive-date=2021-05-12 |title=Humboldt, Alexander von |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ˈvɪlhɛlm fɔn ˈhʊmbɔlt|lang}}}} (22 June 1767 – 8 April 1835) was a German philosopher, [[linguist]], [[government functionary]], diplomat, and founder of the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]. In 1949, the university was named after him and his younger brother, [[Alexander von Humboldt]], a [[Natural history|naturalist]].

He was a [[linguist]] who made contributions to the [[philosophy of language]], [[ethnolinguistics]], and to the [[Learning theory (education)|theory and practice of education]]. He made a major contribution to the development of liberalism by envisioning education as a means of [[potential|realizing individual possibility]] rather than a way of [[indoctrination|drilling traditional ideas into youth]] to suit them for an already established occupation or social role.<ref>Edmund Fawcett, ''Liberalism: The Life of an Idea'' (2nd ed. 2018) pp. 33–48</ref> In particular, he was the architect of the [[Humboldtian education ideal]], which was used from the beginning in [[Prussian education system|Prussia]] as a model for its system of [[public education]], as well as in the United States and Japan. He was elected as a member of the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1822.<ref>{{Cite web|title=APS Member History|url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=1822&year-max=1822&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced|access-date=2021-04-05|website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Humboldt was born in [[Potsdam]], [[Margraviate of Brandenburg]], and died in [[Tegel]], [[Province of Brandenburg]].

His father, Alexander Georg von Humboldt (1720-1779), belonged to a prominent [[German nobility|German noble family]] from [[Pomerania]]. Although not one of the titled gentry, he was a major in the [[Prussian Army]], who had served with the [[Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick|Duke of Brunswick]].{{sfn|de Terra|1955|pp=4–5}} At age 42, Alexander Georg was rewarded for his services in the [[Seven Years' War]] with the post of royal [[Chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]].<ref name="EB1911">{{cite EB1911| wstitle=Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von |volume=13 |pages= 873–875 |first=Agnes Mary |last=Clerke |author-link=Agnes Mary Clerke}}</ref> He profited from the contract to lease state lotteries and tobacco sales.{{sfn|de Terra|1955|p=5}}

Wilhelm's grandfather was Johann Paul von Humboldt (1684-1740), who married Sophia Dorothea von Schweder (1688-1749), daughter of Prussian General Adjutant Michael von Schweder (1663-1729).<ref name="Klencke-1853">{{cite book |first1=Hermann |last1=Klencke |first2=Gustav |last2=Schlesier |title=Lives of the brothers Humboldt, Alexander and William |location=New York | publisher = Harper and Brothers |year=1853 |page=13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.von-humboldt.de/michael-von-schweder.html | title=Michael von Schweder (10) und Elisabeth Blomenfelt, gen. Persdotter (11) - von-Humboldt_de }}</ref> In 1766, his father, Alexander Georg married [[Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt|Maria Elisabeth Colomb]], a well-educated woman and widow of Baron Friedrich Ernst von Holwede (1723-1765), with whom she had a son Heinrich Friedrich Ludwig Ferdinand (1762-1817). Alexander Georg and Maria Elisabeth had four children: two daughters, Karoline and Gabriele, who died young, and then two sons, Wilhelm and Alexander. Her first-born son Heinrich, Wilhelm and Alexander's half-brother, [[Rittmaster]] in the [[Gendarme (historical)|Gendarme regiment]] was something of a ne'er do well, not often mentioned in the family history.{{sfn|de Terra|1955|pp=6–7}}

In June 1791, Humboldt married [[Caroline von Humboldt|Caroline von Dacheröden]]. They had eight children, of whom five (amongst them [[Gabriele von Bülow|Gabriele von Humboldt]]) survived to adulthood.<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-humboldt/ Kurt Mueller-Vollmer "Wilhelm von Humboldt", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'']</ref>

== Philosopher ==
{{Liberalism sidebar}}
Humboldt was a philosopher; he wrote ''[[The Limits of State Action]]'' in 1791–1792 (though it was not published until 1850, after Humboldt's death), one of the boldest defences of the liberties of [[The Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]]. It influenced [[John Stuart Mill]]'s essay ''[[On Liberty]]'' through which von Humboldt's ideas became known in the [[English-speaking world]]. Humboldt outlined an early version of what Mill would later call the "[[harm principle]]". His house in Rome became a cultural hub, run by [[Caroline von Humboldt]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Mueller-Vollmer |first1=Kurt |title=Wilhelm von Humboldt |date=2023 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/wilhelm-humboldt/ |access-date=2024-06-28 |edition=Winter 2023 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |last2=Messling |first2=Markus |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref>

The section dealing with education was published in the December 1792 issue of the ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'' under the title "On public state education". With this publication, Humboldt took part in the philosophical debate regarding the direction of national education that was in progress in Germany, as elsewhere, after the [[French Revolution]].{{cn|date=November 2023}}

== Educational reforms ==
[[File:Thorvaldsen, Wilhelm von Humboldt, 1808.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Wilhelm von Humboldt by [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]], 1808]]

Humboldt had been home schooled and never finished his comparatively short university studies at the universities of [[Viadrina European University|Frankfurt (Oder)]] and [[University of Göttingen|Göttingen]]. Nevertheless, he became one of the most influential officials in German education. Actually, Humboldt had intended to become Minister of education, but failed to attain that position. The Prussian King asked him to leave Rome in 1809 and to lead the directorate of education under [[Friedrich Ferdinand Alexander zu Dohna-Schlobitten]]. Humboldt did not reply to the appointment for several weeks and would have preferred to stay on at the embassy in Rome. His wife did not return with him to Prussia; the couple met again when Humboldt stepped down from the educational post and was appointed head of the Embassy in Vienna.<ref>Manfred Geier: ''Die Brüder Humboldt''. Reinbek bei Hamburg 2009, pp. 261 ff.</ref>

Humboldt installed a standardized system of public instruction, from basic schools till secondary education, and founded [[Berlin University]]. He imposed a standardization of state examinations and inspections and created a special department within the ministry to oversee and design curricula, textbooks and learning aids.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clark|first1=Christopher|title=Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia|date=2006|publisher=Penguin Group|location=United States of America|page=332}}</ref>

Humboldt's educational model went beyond [[vocational training]]. In a letter to the Prussian king, he wrote: "There are undeniably certain kinds of knowledge that must be of a general nature and, more importantly, a certain cultivation of the [[mind]] and [[Moral character|character]] that nobody can afford to be without. People obviously cannot be good craftworkers, merchants, soldiers or businessmen unless, regardless of their occupation, they are good, upstanding and – according to their condition – well-informed human beings and citizens. If this basis is laid through schooling, vocational skills are easily acquired later on, and a person is always free to move from one occupation to another, as so often happens in life."<ref>As quoted in Profiles of educators: Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) by Karl-Heinz Günther (1988), {{doi|10.1007/BF02192965}}</ref> The philosopher [[Julian Nida-Rümelin]] has criticized discrepancies between Humboldt's ideals and modern European education policy, which narrowly understands education as a preparation for the labor market, and argued that we need to decide between [[McKinsey & Company|McKinsey]] and Humboldt.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeit.de/2009/45/Bachelor-Kritik|title=Bologna-Prozess: Die Chance zum Kompromiss ist da|last=Nida-Rümelin|first=Julian|date=29 October 2009|work=[[Die Zeit]]|language=de|access-date=29 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/humbolde.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122051250/http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/humbolde.PDF|archive-date=2019-11-22| title=WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT}}</ref>

== Diplomat ==
As a successful diplomat between 1802 and 1819, Humboldt was [[plenipotentiary]] Prussian minister at Rome from 1802, ambassador at Vienna from 1812 during the closing struggles of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], at the congress of Prague (1813) where he was instrumental in drawing Austria to ally with Prussia and Russia against Napoleon; a signer of the peace treaty at Paris and the treaty between Prussia and defeated Saxony (1815), and at the congress at Aachen in 1818. However, the increasingly reactionary policy of the Prussian government made him give up political life in 1819; and from that time forward he devoted himself solely to literature and study.<ref>Gordon Craig, "Wilhelm von Humboldt as a diplomat", in Craig, ''Studies in International History'' (1967).</ref>

== Linguist ==
[[File:Wilhelm von Humboldt Denkmal - Humboldt Universität zu Berlin.jpg|thumb|[[Statue of Wilhelm von Humboldt]] outside [[Humboldt University]], Unter den Linden, Berlin]]
Wilhelm von Humboldt was an adept [[linguistics|linguist]] and studied the [[Basque language]]. He translated [[Pindar]] and [[Aeschylus]] into German.

Humboldt's work as a [[philology|philologist]] in [[Basque language|Basque]] has had more extensive impact than his other work. His two visits to the [[Basque Country (historical territory)|Basque country]] resulted in ''Researches into the Early Inhabitants of Spain by the help of the Basque language'' (1821).<ref>{{cite book |last=Daum |first=Andreas|authorlink=Andreas Daum |editor-last=Fahrmeir |editor-first=Andreas | title=Deutschland. Globalgeschichte einer Nation |publisher=C. H. Beck |date=2020 |pages=303‒307 |chapter=Alexander und Wilhelm von Humboldt: Vom Orinoco nach Java}}</ref> In this work, Humboldt endeavored to show by examining geographical placenames that at one time a race or races speaking dialects allied to modern [[Basque language|Basque]] extended throughout Spain, southern France and the [[Balearic Islands]]; he identified these people with the ''[[Iberians]]'' of classical writers, and further surmised that they had been allied with the [[Berber people|Berbers]] of northern Africa. Humboldt's pioneering work has been superseded in its details by modern [[linguistics]] and [[archaeology]], but is sometimes still uncritically followed even today. He was elected a member of the [[American Antiquarian Society]] in 1820,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.americanantiquarian.org/memberlisth |title=American Antiquarian Society Members Directory}} Elected 23 October 1816, Residence Paris, France.</ref> and a Foreign Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1822.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter H|url= http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterH.pdf |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=7 August 2014}}</ref>

Humboldt died while preparing his greatest work, on the ancient [[Kawi language]] of [[Java (island)|Java]], but its introduction was published in 1836 as ''The Heterogeneity of Language and its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind''.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1999|title=Wilhelm von Humboldt's Study of the Kawi Language: The Proof of the Existence of the Malayan-Polynesian Language Culture|url=http://www.schillerinstitute.org/fid_97-01/991_humboldt_kawi.html|url-status=dead|journal=[[Fidelio Magazine]]|volume=VIII|author1=Muriel Mirak Weissbach|number=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712080831/http://www.schillerinstitute.org/fid_97-01/991_humboldt_kawi.html|archive-date=12 July 2014}}</ref> His 1836 book on the philosophy of speech introduces the concept of "the inner form of language" (according to Encyclopædia Britannica 1911):

<blockquote>[F]irst clearly laid down that the character and structure of a language expresses the inner life and knowledge of its speakers, and that languages must differ from one another in the same way and to the same degree as those who use them. Sounds do not become words until a meaning has been put into them, and this meaning embodies the thought of a community. What Humboldt terms the inner form of a language is just that mode of denoting the relations between the parts of a sentence which reflects the manner in which a particular body of men regards the world about them. It is the task of the morphology of speech to distinguish the various ways in which languages differ from each other as regards their inner form, and to classify and arrange them accordingly.<ref>[[:s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm von|1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref></blockquote>

[[Noam Chomsky]] frequently quotes Humboldt's description of language as a rule-governed system which "[[Recursion|makes infinite use of finite means]]", meaning that an infinite number of sentences can be created using a finite number of grammatical rules. Humboldt scholar Tilman Borsche notes profound differences between von Humboldt's view of language and that of Chomsky.<ref>see Tilman Borsche: ''Sprachansichten. Der Begriff der menschlichen Rede in der Sprachphilosophie Wilhelm von Humboldts'', Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1981.</ref>

More recently, Humboldt has also been credited as an originator of the [[linguistic relativity]] hypothesis (more commonly known as the [[Sapir–Whorf hypothesis]]), developed by linguists [[Edward Sapir]] or [[Benjamin Whorf]] a century later.<ref>Deutscher, Guy (2010) ''Through the Language Glass''. New York: Picador, ch. 6 {{ISBN?}}</ref>

The reception of Humboldt's work remains problematic in English-speaking countries, despite the work of Langham Brown, Manchester and James W. Underhill (''Humboldt, Worldview and Language'', 2009), on account of his concept of what he called ''Weltansicht'', the linguistic worldview, with ''Weltanschauung'' being translated simply as 'worldview', a term associated with ideologies and cultural mindsets in both German and English. The centrality of distinction in understanding Humboldt's work was set out by one of the leading contemporary German Humboldt scholars, Jürgen Trabant, in his works in both German and French. Polish linguists at the Lublin School (see [[Jerzy Bartmiński]]), in their research of Humboldt, also stress this distinction between the worldviews of a personal or political kind and the worldview that is implicit in language as a conceptual system.

However, little rigorous research in English has gone into exploring the relationship between the linguistic worldview and the transformation and maintenance of this worldview by individual speakers. One notable exception is the work of Underhill, who explores comparative linguistic studies in both ''Creating Worldviews: Language'', ''Ideology & Metaphor'' (2011) and in ''Ethnolinguistics and Cultural Concepts: Truth, Love, Hate & War'' (2012). In Underhill's work, a distinction is made between five forms of worldview: world-perceiving, world-conceiving, cultural mindset, personal world and perspective, in order to convey the distinctions Humboldt was concerned with preserving in his ethnolinguistics. Probably the best-known linguist working with a truly Humboldtian perspective writing in English today is [[Anna Wierzbicka]], who has published a number of comparative works on semantic universals and conceptual distinctions in language.

The Rouen Ethnolinguistics Project, in France, published online a 7-hour series of lectures on Humboldt's thought on language, with the Berlin specialist Professor Trabant.<ref>[https://webtv.univ-rouen.fr/permalink/c1253a18f7e5ecnge8dp/ The Jurgen Trabant Wilhelm von Humboldt Lectures], launched by the Rouen University Ethnolinguistics Project.</ref>

In [[Charles Taylor (philosopher)|Charles Taylor]]'s important summative work, ''The Language Animal: The Full Shape of the Human Linguistic Capacity'' (2016),<ref>Taylor, Charles (2016) ''The Language Animal: The Full Shape of the Human Linguistic Capacity''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref> von Humboldt is given credit, along with [[Johann Georg Hamann]] and [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], for inspiring Taylor's "HHH" approach to the philosophy of language, emphasizing the creative power and cultural specificity of language.

== Bibliography ==
* ''Socrates and Plato on the Divine'' (orig. ''Sokrates und Platon über die Gottheit''). 1787–1790
* <cite id="Trewendt">Humboldt. ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=589&Itemid=99999999 On the Limits of State Action]'', first seen in 1792. ''[https://archive.org/details/ideenzueinemver00humbgoog Ideen zu einem Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staates zu bestimmen]'', p. ii. Published by E. Trewendt, 1851 (German)</cite>
* ''Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied''. 1794
* ''Ueber männliche und weibliche Form''. 1795
* ''Outline of a Comparative Anthropology'' (orig. ''Plan einer vergleichenden Anthropologie''). 1797.
* ''The Eighteenth Century'' (orig. ''Das achtzehnte Jahrhundert''). = 1797.
* ''Ästhetische Versuche I. – Ueber Göthes Herrmann und Dorothea''. 1799.
* ''Latium und Hellas'' (1806)
* ''Geschichte des Verfalls und Untergangs der griechischen Freistaaten''. 1807–1808.
* ''Pindars "Olympische Oden"''. Translation from Greek, 1816.
* ''Aischylos' "Agamemnon"''. Translation from Greek, 1816.
* ''Ueber das vergleichende Sprachstudium in Beziehung auf die verschiedenen Epochen der Sprachentwicklung''. 1820.
* ''Ueber die Aufgabe des Geschichtsschreibers''. 1821.
* ''Researches into the Early Inhabitants of Spain with the help of the Basque language'' (orig. ''Prüfung der Untersuchungen über die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der vaskischen Sprache''). 1821.
* ''Ueber die Entstehung der grammatischen Formen und ihren Einfluss auf die Ideenentwicklung''. 1822.
* ''Upon Writing and its Relation to Speech'' (orig. ''Ueber die Buchstabenschrift und ihren Zusammenhang mit dem Sprachbau''). 1824.
* ''Notice sur la grammaire japonaise du P. Oyanguren'' (1826), a review of [[Melchor Oyanguren de Santa Inés]]'s Japanese grammar, [https://web.archive.org/web/20160426030206/http://ionas-editions.com/en/2016/04/18/1826-w-de-humboldt-notice-sur-la-grammaire-japonaise-2/ read online].
* ''Ueber die unter dem Namen Bhagavad-Gítá bekannte Episode des Mahá-Bhárata''. 1826.
* ''Ueber den Dualis''. 1827.
* ''On the languages of the South Seas'' (orig. ''Über die Sprache der Südseeinseln''). 1828.
* ''On [[Schiller]] and the Path of Spiritual Development'' (orig. ''Ueber Schiller und den Gang seiner Geistesentwicklung''). 1830.
* ''Rezension von Goethes Zweitem römischem Aufenthalt''. 1830.
* ''The Heterogeneity of Language and its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind'' (orig. ''Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaus und ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwicklung des Menschengeschlechts''). 1836. New edition: On Language. On the Diversity of Human Language Construction and Its Influence on the Mental Development of the Human Species, Cambridge University Press, 2nd rev. edition 1999

=== Collected writings ===
* Humboldt, Wilhelm von. ''Gesammelte Schriften. Ausgabe der preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.'' Vols. I–XVII, Berlin 1903–36. (Cited as ''GS''; the Roman numeral indicates the volume and the Arabic figure the page; the original German spelling has been modernized.)

== See also ==
* [[Contributions to liberal theory]]
* [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{ cite book | last=de Terra | first=Helmut | author-link = Helmut de Terra |year=1955 | title=Humboldt: The Life and Times of Alexander von Humboldt, 1769–1859 | url=https://archive.org/details/humboldtthelifea000889mbp | location=New York | publisher=Alfred A. Knopf | oclc=902143803 }}

== Further reading ==
* Craig, Gordon. "Wilhelm von Humboldt as a diplomat", in Craig, ''Studies in International History'' (1967).
* Forster, Michael N. ''German Philosophy of Language: From Schlegel to Hegel and Beyond'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0199604814}}.
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Doerig |first= Detmar | editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |title= Humboldt, Wilhelm von (1767–1835) |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n141 |pages= 229–230 |isbn= 978-1412965804 }}
* Mueller-Vollmer, Kurt, and Markus Messling. "Wilhelm von Humboldt." ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (2016). [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-humboldt/ online]
* [https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/30499 Östling, Johan, ''Humboldt and the Modern German University: An Intellectual History'' (Lund: Lund University Press/Manchester University Press, 2018)]
* Roberts, John. ''German Liberalism and Wilhelm von Humboldt: A Reassessment'', Mosaic Press, 2002 {{ISBN?}}
* Sorkin, David. "Wilhelm Von Humboldt: The Theory and Practice of Self-Formation (Bildung), 1791–1810" ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', 44#1 (1983), pp. 55–73. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709304 online]
* Stubb, Elsina. ''Wilhelm Von Humboldt's Philosophy of Language, Its Sources and Influence'', Edwin Mellen Press, 2002. {{ISBN?}}
* {{Citation |last=Sweet |first=Paul R. |title=Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835): His Legacy to the Historian |journal=Centennial Review |volume=15 |number=1 |year=1971 |pages=23–37 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23737762 |jstor=23737762}}
* Sweet, Paul S. ''Wilhelm von Humboldt A Biography'' (2 vols., 1978–80, Ohio University Press).
* Underhill, James W. ''Humboldt, Worldview and Language'', (Edinburgh University Press, 2009). {{ISBN?}}
* Underhill, James W. ''Ethnolinguistics and Cultural Concepts: truth, love, hate & war'' (Cambridge University Press, 2012).{{ISBN?}}

===In other languages===
* [[Joxe Azurmendi|Azurmendi, Joxe]]. ''Humboldt. Hizkuntza eta pentsamendua'', Bilbo, UEU, 2007. {{ISBN|978-8484380993}}.
* Azurmendi, Joxe: "Ein Denkmal der Achtung und Liebe. Humboldt über die baskische Landschaft", ''RIEV'', 48–1: 125–142, Eusko Ikaskuntza, 2003 {{ISSN|0212-7016}}
* [[Antoine Berman|Berman, Antoine]]. ''[[L'épreuve de l'étranger. Culture et traduction dans l'Allemagne romantique: Herder, Goethe, Schlegel, Novalis, Humboldt, Schleiermacher, Hölderlin]]'', Paris, Gallimard, Essais, 1984. {{ISBN|978-2070700769}}.
* Borsche, Tilman. ''Wilhelm von Humboldt'', München, Beck, 1990. {{ISBN|3406332188}}.
* [[Andreas Daum|Daum, Andreas W]]. "Alexander und Wilhelm von Humboldt: Vom Orinoco nach Java". In ''Deutschland. Globalgeschichte einer Nation''. Munich, C. H. Beck: 2020, pp. 303‒307.
* Lalatta Costerbosa, Marina. ''Ragione e tradizione: il pensiero giuridico ed etico-politico di Wilhelm von Humboldt'', Milano, Giuffrè, 2000. {{ISBN|8814082197}}.
* Marra, Realino. ''La ragione e il caso. Il processo costituente nel realismo storico di Wilhelm von Humboldt'', "Materiali per una storia della cultura giuridica", XXXII–2, 2002, pp. 453–464.
* Pajević, Marko/David Nowell Smith (eds.). "Thinking Language: Wilhelm von Humboldt Now" Special Issue of Forum for Modern Language Studies 53/1, 2017
* Schultheis, Franz. ''Le cauchemar de Humboldt: les réformes de l'enseignement supérieur européen'', Paris, Raisons d'agir éditions, 2008. {{ISBN|978-2912107404}}.
* Trabant, Jürgen. "Humboldt ou le sens du language", Mardaga, 1995.
* Trabant, Jürgen. " Sprachsinn: le sens du langage, de la linguistique et de la philosophie du langage " in ''La pensée dans la langue. Humboldt et après,'' P.U.V., 1995.
* Trabant, Jürgen. "Traditions de Humboldt, Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l'homme", Paris, 1999. {{ISBN?}}
* Trabant, Jürgen. "Quand l'Europe oublie Herder: Humboldt et les langues", ''Revue Germanique Internationale'', 2003, 20, 153–165 (mise à jour avril 2005)
* Valentin, Jean-Marie. ''Alexander von Humboldt: 150e anniversaire de sa mort'', Paris, Didier Érudition. 2011. {{ISBN|978-2252037560}}.

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Wikiquote|Wilhelm von Humboldt}}
* [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderVonHumboldt "Lives of the Brothers Humboldt"], an extensive biography available from the Million Book Project
* {{cite SEP |url-id=wilhelm-humboldt |title=Wilhelm von Humboldt |last=Mueller-Vollmer |first=Kurt}}
* [http://www.hu-berlin.de/hu/geschichte/wilh_e.html Humboldt University site]: Brief eulogy
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050406010258/http://www.acton.org/publicat/randl/liberal.php?id=12 Wilhelm v. Humboldt] – Brief information page from the Acton Institute
* {{Gutenberg author | id=Humboldt,+Wilhelm+von }}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Wilhelm von Humboldt}}
* {{Librivox author |id=667}}
* {{in lang|de}} [http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Humboldt,+Wilhelm+von Works by Wilhelm von Humboldt] – Partial list from Zeno.org
* [https://archive.org/stream/germanclassicsof04franuoft#page/38/mode/2up ''The German classics of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries''] (two sections by Humboldt)
* [http://www.panarchy.org/humboldt/government.html Wilhelm von Humboldt, The Sphere and Duties of Government – passages] (1792)
* [http://german.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/german/thinking-language-humboldt-now/symposium-videos/ Thinking Language: Wilhelm von Humboldt Now Event Videos], Conference Papers recorded at Queen Mary University of London, April 2016, organiser Marko Pajević. Papers on Humboldt's "thinking language" by Marko Pajevic, John Joseph, Jürgen Trabant, Ute Tintemann, Barbara Cassin (presented by David Nowell Smith), James W. Underhill, John Walker.
* [https://bibnum.obspm.fr/exhibits/show/humboldt Virtual exhibition on Paris Observatory digital library]

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{{s-bef|before = Count [[Friedrich von Schuckmann]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Interior Minister of Prussia]]|years = 1819}}
{{s-aft|after = Count [[Friedrich von Schuckmann]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Interior Ministers of Prussia}}
{{philosophy of language}}
{{philosophy of education}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Humboldt, Wilhelm Von}}
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Wilhelm von Humboldt

2024-10-15T22:50:57Z

NidabaM: /* In other languages */ corrected spaces

{{Short description|Prussian philosopher, government official, diplomat, and educator (1767–1835)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| era = [[19th-century philosophy]]
| image = Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) - Charles William, Baron von Humboldt (1767-1835) - RCIN 404936 - Royal Collection.jpg
| caption = Portrait by [[Thomas Lawrence]]
| name = Wilhelm von Humboldt
| spouse = [[Caroline von Humboldt|Caroline von Dacheröden]]
| birth_date = {{birth date|1767|6|22|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Potsdam]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1835|4|8|1767|6|22|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Tegel]], Prussia
| education = [[Viadrina European University|University of Frankfurt (Oder)]] [[University of Göttingen]]
| institutions= [[University of Berlin]]
| school_tradition = [[Berlin Romanticism]]<ref>Helmut Thielicke, ''Modern Faith and Thought'', William B. Eerdmans Publishing, 1990, p. 174.</ref> [[Romantic linguistics]]<ref>Philip A. Luelsdorff, Jarmila Panevová, Petr Sgall (eds.), ''Praguiana, 1945–1990'', John Benjamins Publishing, 1994, p. 150: "Humboldt himself (Humboldt was one of the leading spirits of romantic linguistics; he died in 1834) emphasized that speaking was permanent creation."</ref> [[Classical liberalism]]
| main_interests = [[Philosophy of language]]
| notable_ideas = Language as a rule-governed system ("the inner form of language") [[Humboldtian model of higher education]]
| signature = Signatur Wilhelm von Humboldt.PNG
}}

'''Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand von Humboldt'''{{efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ʌ|m|b|oʊ|l|t}},<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/humboldt|title=Humboldt|work=[[Collins English Dictionary]]|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|access-date=11 July 2019}}</ref> also {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|h|ʊ|m|b|oʊ|l|t}},<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|Humboldt|access-date=11 July 2019}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|h|ʌ|m|b|ɒ|l|t}};<ref>{{Cite dictionary |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Humboldt,+Alexander+von |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210512144325/https://www.lexico.com/definition/humboldt,_alexander_von |url-status=dead |archive-date=2021-05-12 |title=Humboldt, Alexander von |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> {{IPA|de|ˈvɪlhɛlm fɔn ˈhʊmbɔlt|lang}}}} (22 June 1767 – 8 April 1835) was a German philosopher, [[linguist]], [[government functionary]], diplomat, and founder of the [[Humboldt University of Berlin]]. In 1949, the university was named after him and his younger brother, [[Alexander von Humboldt]], a [[Natural history|naturalist]].

He was a [[linguist]] who made contributions to the [[philosophy of language]], [[ethnolinguistics]], and to the [[Learning theory (education)|theory and practice of education]]. He made a major contribution to the development of liberalism by envisioning education as a means of [[potential|realizing individual possibility]] rather than a way of [[indoctrination|drilling traditional ideas into youth]] to suit them for an already established occupation or social role.<ref>Edmund Fawcett, ''Liberalism: The Life of an Idea'' (2nd ed. 2018) pp. 33–48</ref> In particular, he was the architect of the [[Humboldtian education ideal]], which was used from the beginning in [[Prussian education system|Prussia]] as a model for its system of [[public education]], as well as in the United States and Japan. He was elected as a member of the [[American Philosophical Society]] in 1822.<ref>{{Cite web|title=APS Member History|url=https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=1822&year-max=1822&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced|access-date=2021-04-05|website=search.amphilsoc.org}}</ref>

== Biography ==
Humboldt was born in [[Potsdam]], [[Margraviate of Brandenburg]], and died in [[Tegel]], [[Province of Brandenburg]].

His father, Alexander Georg von Humboldt (1720-1779), belonged to a prominent [[German nobility|German noble family]] from [[Pomerania]]. Although not one of the titled gentry, he was a major in the [[Prussian Army]], who had served with the [[Charles William Ferdinand, Duke of Brunswick|Duke of Brunswick]].{{sfn|de Terra|1955|pp=4–5}} At age 42, Alexander Georg was rewarded for his services in the [[Seven Years' War]] with the post of royal [[Chamberlain (office)|chamberlain]].<ref name="EB1911">{{cite EB1911| wstitle=Humboldt, Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von |volume=13 |pages= 873–875 |first=Agnes Mary |last=Clerke |author-link=Agnes Mary Clerke}}</ref> He profited from the contract to lease state lotteries and tobacco sales.{{sfn|de Terra|1955|p=5}}

Wilhelm's grandfather was Johann Paul von Humboldt (1684-1740), who married Sophia Dorothea von Schweder (1688-1749), daughter of Prussian General Adjutant Michael von Schweder (1663-1729).<ref name="Klencke-1853">{{cite book |first1=Hermann |last1=Klencke |first2=Gustav |last2=Schlesier |title=Lives of the brothers Humboldt, Alexander and William |location=New York | publisher = Harper and Brothers |year=1853 |page=13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.von-humboldt.de/michael-von-schweder.html | title=Michael von Schweder (10) und Elisabeth Blomenfelt, gen. Persdotter (11) - von-Humboldt_de }}</ref> In 1766, his father, Alexander Georg married [[Marie-Elisabeth von Humboldt|Maria Elisabeth Colomb]], a well-educated woman and widow of Baron Friedrich Ernst von Holwede (1723-1765), with whom she had a son Heinrich Friedrich Ludwig Ferdinand (1762-1817). Alexander Georg and Maria Elisabeth had four children: two daughters, Karoline and Gabriele, who died young, and then two sons, Wilhelm and Alexander. Her first-born son Heinrich, Wilhelm and Alexander's half-brother, [[Rittmaster]] in the [[Gendarme (historical)|Gendarme regiment]] was something of a ne'er do well, not often mentioned in the family history.{{sfn|de Terra|1955|pp=6–7}}

In June 1791, Humboldt married [[Caroline von Humboldt|Caroline von Dacheröden]]. They had eight children, of whom five (amongst them [[Gabriele von Bülow|Gabriele von Humboldt]]) survived to adulthood.<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-humboldt/ Kurt Mueller-Vollmer "Wilhelm von Humboldt", ''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'']</ref>

== Philosopher ==
{{Liberalism sidebar}}
Humboldt was a philosopher; he wrote ''[[The Limits of State Action]]'' in 1791–1792 (though it was not published until 1850, after Humboldt's death), one of the boldest defences of the liberties of [[The Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]]. It influenced [[John Stuart Mill]]'s essay ''[[On Liberty]]'' through which von Humboldt's ideas became known in the [[English-speaking world]]. Humboldt outlined an early version of what Mill would later call the "[[harm principle]]". His house in Rome became a cultural hub, run by [[Caroline von Humboldt]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Mueller-Vollmer |first1=Kurt |title=Wilhelm von Humboldt |date=2023 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/wilhelm-humboldt/ |access-date=2024-06-28 |edition=Winter 2023 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |last2=Messling |first2=Markus |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref>

The section dealing with education was published in the December 1792 issue of the ''Berlinische Monatsschrift'' under the title "On public state education". With this publication, Humboldt took part in the philosophical debate regarding the direction of national education that was in progress in Germany, as elsewhere, after the [[French Revolution]].{{cn|date=November 2023}}

== Educational reforms ==
[[File:Thorvaldsen, Wilhelm von Humboldt, 1808.jpg|thumb|right|Bust of Wilhelm von Humboldt by [[Bertel Thorvaldsen]], 1808]]

Humboldt had been home schooled and never finished his comparatively short university studies at the universities of [[Viadrina European University|Frankfurt (Oder)]] and [[University of Göttingen|Göttingen]]. Nevertheless, he became one of the most influential officials in German education. Actually, Humboldt had intended to become Minister of education, but failed to attain that position. The Prussian King asked him to leave Rome in 1809 and to lead the directorate of education under [[Friedrich Ferdinand Alexander zu Dohna-Schlobitten]]. Humboldt did not reply to the appointment for several weeks and would have preferred to stay on at the embassy in Rome. His wife did not return with him to Prussia; the couple met again when Humboldt stepped down from the educational post and was appointed head of the Embassy in Vienna.<ref>Manfred Geier: ''Die Brüder Humboldt''. Reinbek bei Hamburg 2009, pp. 261 ff.</ref>

Humboldt installed a standardized system of public instruction, from basic schools till secondary education, and founded [[Berlin University]]. He imposed a standardization of state examinations and inspections and created a special department within the ministry to oversee and design curricula, textbooks and learning aids.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Clark|first1=Christopher|title=Iron Kingdom: The Rise and Downfall of Prussia|date=2006|publisher=Penguin Group|location=United States of America|page=332}}</ref>

Humboldt's educational model went beyond [[vocational training]]. In a letter to the Prussian king, he wrote: "There are undeniably certain kinds of knowledge that must be of a general nature and, more importantly, a certain cultivation of the [[mind]] and [[Moral character|character]] that nobody can afford to be without. People obviously cannot be good craftworkers, merchants, soldiers or businessmen unless, regardless of their occupation, they are good, upstanding and – according to their condition – well-informed human beings and citizens. If this basis is laid through schooling, vocational skills are easily acquired later on, and a person is always free to move from one occupation to another, as so often happens in life."<ref>As quoted in Profiles of educators: Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) by Karl-Heinz Günther (1988), {{doi|10.1007/BF02192965}}</ref> The philosopher [[Julian Nida-Rümelin]] has criticized discrepancies between Humboldt's ideals and modern European education policy, which narrowly understands education as a preparation for the labor market, and argued that we need to decide between [[McKinsey & Company|McKinsey]] and Humboldt.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zeit.de/2009/45/Bachelor-Kritik|title=Bologna-Prozess: Die Chance zum Kompromiss ist da|last=Nida-Rümelin|first=Julian|date=29 October 2009|work=[[Die Zeit]]|language=de|access-date=29 November 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/humbolde.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191122051250/http://www.ibe.unesco.org/sites/default/files/humbolde.PDF|archive-date=2019-11-22| title=WILHELM VON HUMBOLDT}}</ref>

== Diplomat ==
As a successful diplomat between 1802 and 1819, Humboldt was [[plenipotentiary]] Prussian minister at Rome from 1802, ambassador at Vienna from 1812 during the closing struggles of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], at the congress of Prague (1813) where he was instrumental in drawing Austria to ally with Prussia and Russia against Napoleon; a signer of the peace treaty at Paris and the treaty between Prussia and defeated Saxony (1815), and at the congress at Aachen in 1818. However, the increasingly reactionary policy of the Prussian government made him give up political life in 1819; and from that time forward he devoted himself solely to literature and study.<ref>Gordon Craig, "Wilhelm von Humboldt as a diplomat", in Craig, ''Studies in International History'' (1967).</ref>

== Linguist ==
[[File:Wilhelm von Humboldt Denkmal - Humboldt Universität zu Berlin.jpg|thumb|[[Statue of Wilhelm von Humboldt]] outside [[Humboldt University]], Unter den Linden, Berlin]]
Wilhelm von Humboldt was an adept [[linguistics|linguist]] and studied the [[Basque language]]. He translated [[Pindar]] and [[Aeschylus]] into German.

Humboldt's work as a [[philology|philologist]] in [[Basque language|Basque]] has had more extensive impact than his other work. His two visits to the [[Basque Country (historical territory)|Basque country]] resulted in ''Researches into the Early Inhabitants of Spain by the help of the Basque language'' (1821).<ref>{{cite book |last=Daum |first=Andreas|authorlink=Andreas Daum |editor-last=Fahrmeir |editor-first=Andreas | title=Deutschland. Globalgeschichte einer Nation |publisher=C. H. Beck |date=2020 |pages=303‒307 |chapter=Alexander und Wilhelm von Humboldt: Vom Orinoco nach Java}}</ref> In this work, Humboldt endeavored to show by examining geographical placenames that at one time a race or races speaking dialects allied to modern [[Basque language|Basque]] extended throughout Spain, southern France and the [[Balearic Islands]]; he identified these people with the ''[[Iberians]]'' of classical writers, and further surmised that they had been allied with the [[Berber people|Berbers]] of northern Africa. Humboldt's pioneering work has been superseded in its details by modern [[linguistics]] and [[archaeology]], but is sometimes still uncritically followed even today. He was elected a member of the [[American Antiquarian Society]] in 1820,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.americanantiquarian.org/memberlisth |title=American Antiquarian Society Members Directory}} Elected 23 October 1816, Residence Paris, France.</ref> and a Foreign Honorary Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1822.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter H|url= http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterH.pdf |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=7 August 2014}}</ref>

Humboldt died while preparing his greatest work, on the ancient [[Kawi language]] of [[Java (island)|Java]], but its introduction was published in 1836 as ''The Heterogeneity of Language and its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind''.<ref>{{cite journal|date=1999|title=Wilhelm von Humboldt's Study of the Kawi Language: The Proof of the Existence of the Malayan-Polynesian Language Culture|url=http://www.schillerinstitute.org/fid_97-01/991_humboldt_kawi.html|url-status=dead|journal=[[Fidelio Magazine]]|volume=VIII|author1=Muriel Mirak Weissbach|number=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712080831/http://www.schillerinstitute.org/fid_97-01/991_humboldt_kawi.html|archive-date=12 July 2014}}</ref> His 1836 book on the philosophy of speech introduces the concept of "the inner form of language" (according to Encyclopædia Britannica 1911):

<blockquote>[F]irst clearly laid down that the character and structure of a language expresses the inner life and knowledge of its speakers, and that languages must differ from one another in the same way and to the same degree as those who use them. Sounds do not become words until a meaning has been put into them, and this meaning embodies the thought of a community. What Humboldt terms the inner form of a language is just that mode of denoting the relations between the parts of a sentence which reflects the manner in which a particular body of men regards the world about them. It is the task of the morphology of speech to distinguish the various ways in which languages differ from each other as regards their inner form, and to classify and arrange them accordingly.<ref>[[:s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Humboldt, Karl Wilhelm von|1911 Encyclopædia Britannica]]</ref></blockquote>

[[Noam Chomsky]] frequently quotes Humboldt's description of language as a rule-governed system which "[[Recursion|makes infinite use of finite means]]", meaning that an infinite number of sentences can be created using a finite number of grammatical rules. Humboldt scholar Tilman Borsche notes profound differences between von Humboldt's view of language and that of Chomsky.<ref>see Tilman Borsche: ''Sprachansichten. Der Begriff der menschlichen Rede in der Sprachphilosophie Wilhelm von Humboldts'', Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1981.</ref>

More recently, Humboldt has also been credited as an originator of the [[linguistic relativity]] hypothesis (more commonly known as the [[Sapir–Whorf hypothesis]]), developed by linguists [[Edward Sapir]] or [[Benjamin Whorf]] a century later.<ref>Deutscher, Guy (2010) ''Through the Language Glass''. New York: Picador, ch. 6 {{ISBN?}}</ref>

The reception of Humboldt's work remains problematic in English-speaking countries, despite the work of Langham Brown, Manchester and James W. Underhill (''Humboldt, Worldview and Language'', 2009), on account of his concept of what he called ''Weltansicht'', the linguistic worldview, with ''Weltanschauung'' being translated simply as 'worldview', a term associated with ideologies and cultural mindsets in both German and English. The centrality of distinction in understanding Humboldt's work was set out by one of the leading contemporary German Humboldt scholars, Jürgen Trabant, in his works in both German and French. Polish linguists at the Lublin School (see [[Jerzy Bartmiński]]), in their research of Humboldt, also stress this distinction between the worldviews of a personal or political kind and the worldview that is implicit in language as a conceptual system.

However, little rigorous research in English has gone into exploring the relationship between the linguistic worldview and the transformation and maintenance of this worldview by individual speakers. One notable exception is the work of Underhill, who explores comparative linguistic studies in both ''Creating Worldviews: Language'', ''Ideology & Metaphor'' (2011) and in ''Ethnolinguistics and Cultural Concepts: Truth, Love, Hate & War'' (2012). In Underhill's work, a distinction is made between five forms of worldview: world-perceiving, world-conceiving, cultural mindset, personal world and perspective, in order to convey the distinctions Humboldt was concerned with preserving in his ethnolinguistics. Probably the best-known linguist working with a truly Humboldtian perspective writing in English today is [[Anna Wierzbicka]], who has published a number of comparative works on semantic universals and conceptual distinctions in language.

The Rouen Ethnolinguistics Project, in France, published online a 7-hour series of lectures on Humboldt's thought on language, with the Berlin specialist Professor Trabant.<ref>[https://webtv.univ-rouen.fr/permalink/c1253a18f7e5ecnge8dp/ The Jurgen Trabant Wilhelm von Humboldt Lectures], launched by the Rouen University Ethnolinguistics Project.</ref>

In [[Charles Taylor (philosopher)|Charles Taylor]]'s important summative work, ''The Language Animal: The Full Shape of the Human Linguistic Capacity'' (2016),<ref>Taylor, Charles (2016) ''The Language Animal: The Full Shape of the Human Linguistic Capacity''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</ref> von Humboldt is given credit, along with [[Johann Georg Hamann]] and [[Johann Gottfried Herder]], for inspiring Taylor's "HHH" approach to the philosophy of language, emphasizing the creative power and cultural specificity of language.

== Bibliography ==
* ''Socrates and Plato on the Divine'' (orig. ''Sokrates und Platon über die Gottheit''). 1787–1790
* <cite id="Trewendt">Humboldt. ''[http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=589&Itemid=99999999 On the Limits of State Action]'', first seen in 1792. ''[https://archive.org/details/ideenzueinemver00humbgoog Ideen zu einem Versuch, die Grenzen der Wirksamkeit des Staates zu bestimmen]'', p. ii. Published by E. Trewendt, 1851 (German)</cite>
* ''Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied''. 1794
* ''Ueber männliche und weibliche Form''. 1795
* ''Outline of a Comparative Anthropology'' (orig. ''Plan einer vergleichenden Anthropologie''). 1797.
* ''The Eighteenth Century'' (orig. ''Das achtzehnte Jahrhundert''). = 1797.
* ''Ästhetische Versuche I. – Ueber Göthes Herrmann und Dorothea''. 1799.
* ''Latium und Hellas'' (1806)
* ''Geschichte des Verfalls und Untergangs der griechischen Freistaaten''. 1807–1808.
* ''Pindars "Olympische Oden"''. Translation from Greek, 1816.
* ''Aischylos' "Agamemnon"''. Translation from Greek, 1816.
* ''Ueber das vergleichende Sprachstudium in Beziehung auf die verschiedenen Epochen der Sprachentwicklung''. 1820.
* ''Ueber die Aufgabe des Geschichtsschreibers''. 1821.
* ''Researches into the Early Inhabitants of Spain with the help of the Basque language'' (orig. ''Prüfung der Untersuchungen über die Urbewohner Hispaniens vermittelst der vaskischen Sprache''). 1821.
* ''Ueber die Entstehung der grammatischen Formen und ihren Einfluss auf die Ideenentwicklung''. 1822.
* ''Upon Writing and its Relation to Speech'' (orig. ''Ueber die Buchstabenschrift und ihren Zusammenhang mit dem Sprachbau''). 1824.
* ''Notice sur la grammaire japonaise du P. Oyanguren'' (1826), a review of [[Melchor Oyanguren de Santa Inés]]'s Japanese grammar, [https://web.archive.org/web/20160426030206/http://ionas-editions.com/en/2016/04/18/1826-w-de-humboldt-notice-sur-la-grammaire-japonaise-2/ read online].
* ''Ueber die unter dem Namen Bhagavad-Gítá bekannte Episode des Mahá-Bhárata''. 1826.
* ''Ueber den Dualis''. 1827.
* ''On the languages of the South Seas'' (orig. ''Über die Sprache der Südseeinseln''). 1828.
* ''On [[Schiller]] and the Path of Spiritual Development'' (orig. ''Ueber Schiller und den Gang seiner Geistesentwicklung''). 1830.
* ''Rezension von Goethes Zweitem römischem Aufenthalt''. 1830.
* ''The Heterogeneity of Language and its Influence on the Intellectual Development of Mankind'' (orig. ''Ueber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaus und ihren Einfluss auf die geistige Entwicklung des Menschengeschlechts''). 1836. New edition: On Language. On the Diversity of Human Language Construction and Its Influence on the Mental Development of the Human Species, Cambridge University Press, 2nd rev. edition 1999

=== Collected writings ===
* Humboldt, Wilhelm von. ''Gesammelte Schriften. Ausgabe der preussischen Akademie der Wissenschaften.'' Vols. I–XVII, Berlin 1903–36. (Cited as ''GS''; the Roman numeral indicates the volume and the Arabic figure the page; the original German spelling has been modernized.)

== See also ==
* [[Contributions to liberal theory]]
* [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{ cite book | last=de Terra | first=Helmut | author-link = Helmut de Terra |year=1955 | title=Humboldt: The Life and Times of Alexander von Humboldt, 1769–1859 | url=https://archive.org/details/humboldtthelifea000889mbp | location=New York | publisher=Alfred A. Knopf | oclc=902143803 }}

== Further reading ==
* Craig, Gordon. "Wilhelm von Humboldt as a diplomat", in Craig, ''Studies in International History'' (1967).
* Forster, Michael N. ''German Philosophy of Language: From Schlegel to Hegel and Beyond'', Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2011. {{ISBN|978-0199604814}}.
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Doerig |first= Detmar | editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |title= Humboldt, Wilhelm von (1767–1835) |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |year=2008 |publisher= [[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]] |location= Thousand Oaks, CA |doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n141 |pages= 229–230 |isbn= 978-1412965804 }}
* Mueller-Vollmer, Kurt, and Markus Messling. "Wilhelm von Humboldt." ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (2016). [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wilhelm-humboldt/ online]
* [https://library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/30499 Östling, Johan, ''Humboldt and the Modern German University: An Intellectual History'' (Lund: Lund University Press/Manchester University Press, 2018)]
* Roberts, John. ''German Liberalism and Wilhelm Von Humboldt: A Reassessment'', Mosaic Press, 2002 {{ISBN?}}
* Sorkin, David. "Wilhelm Von Humboldt: The Theory and Practice of Self-Formation (Bildung), 1791–1810" ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', 44#1 (1983), pp. 55–73. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2709304 online]
* Stubb, Elsina. ''Wilhelm Von Humboldt's Philosophy of Language, Its Sources and Influence'', Edwin Mellen Press, 2002. {{ISBN?}}
* {{Citation |last=Sweet |first=Paul R. |title=Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835): His Legacy to the Historian |journal=Centennial Review |volume=15 |number=1 |year=1971 |pages=23–37 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23737762 |jstor=23737762}}
* Sweet, Paul S. ''Wilhelm von Humboldt A Biography'' (2 vols., 1978–80, Ohio University Press).
* Underhill, James W. ''Humboldt, Worldview and Language'', (Edinburgh University Press, 2009). {{ISBN?}}
* Underhill, James W. ''Ethnolinguistics and Cultural Concepts: truth, love, hate & war'' (Cambridge University Press, 2012).{{ISBN?}}

===In other languages===
* [[Joxe Azurmendi|Azurmendi, Joxe]]. ''Humboldt. Hizkuntza eta pentsamendua'', Bilbo, UEU, 2007. {{ISBN|978-8484380993}}.
* Azurmendi, Joxe: "Ein Denkmal der Achtung und Liebe. Humboldt über die baskische Landschaft", ''RIEV'', 48–1: 125–142, Eusko Ikaskuntza, 2003 {{ISSN|0212-7016}}
* [[Antoine Berman|Berman, Antoine]]. ''[[L'épreuve de l'étranger. Culture et traduction dans l'Allemagne romantique: Herder, Goethe, Schlegel, Novalis, Humboldt, Schleiermacher, Hölderlin]]'', Paris, Gallimard, Essais, 1984. {{ISBN|978-2070700769}}.
* Borsche, Tilman. ''Wilhelm von Humboldt'', München, Beck, 1990. {{ISBN|3406332188}}.
* [[Andreas Daum|Daum, Andreas W]]. "Alexander und Wilhelm von Humboldt: Vom Orinoco nach Java". In ''Deutschland. Globalgeschichte einer Nation''. Munich, C. H. Beck: 2020, pp. 303‒307.
* Lalatta Costerbosa, Marina. ''Ragione e tradizione: il pensiero giuridico ed etico-politico di Wilhelm von Humboldt'', Milano, Giuffrè, 2000. {{ISBN|8814082197}}.
* Marra, Realino. ''La ragione e il caso. Il processo costituente nel realismo storico di Wilhelm von Humboldt'', "Materiali per una storia della cultura giuridica", XXXII–2, 2002, pp. 453–464.
* Pajević, Marko/David Nowell Smith (eds.). "Thinking Language: Wilhelm von Humboldt Now" Special Issue of Forum for Modern Language Studies 53/1, 2017
* Schultheis, Franz. ''Le cauchemar de Humboldt: les réformes de l'enseignement supérieur européen'', Paris, Raisons d'agir éditions, 2008. {{ISBN|978-2912107404}}.
* Trabant, Jürgen. " Humboldt ou le sens du language ", Mardaga, 1995.
* Trabant, Jürgen. " Sprachsinn: le sens du langage, de la linguistique et de la philosophie du langage " in ''La pensée dans la langue. Humboldt et après,'' P.U.V., 1995.
* Trabant, Jürgen. "Traditions de Humboldt, Éditions de la Maison des Sciences de l'homme", Paris, 1999. {{ISBN?}}
* Trabant, Jürgen. "Quand l'Europe oublie Herder: Humboldt et les langues", ''Revue Germanique Internationale'', 2003, 20, 153–165 (mise à jour avril 2005)
* Valentin, Jean-Marie. ''Alexander von Humboldt: 150e anniversaire de sa mort'', Paris, Didier Érudition. 2011. {{ISBN|978-2252037560}}.

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Wikiquote|Wilhelm von Humboldt}}
* [https://archive.org/details/AlexanderVonHumboldt "Lives of the Brothers Humboldt"], an extensive biography available from the Million Book Project
* {{cite SEP |url-id=wilhelm-humboldt |title=Wilhelm von Humboldt |last=Mueller-Vollmer |first=Kurt}}
* [http://www.hu-berlin.de/hu/geschichte/wilh_e.html Humboldt University site]: Brief eulogy
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050406010258/http://www.acton.org/publicat/randl/liberal.php?id=12 Wilhelm v. Humboldt] – Brief information page from the Acton Institute
* {{Gutenberg author | id=Humboldt,+Wilhelm+von }}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Wilhelm von Humboldt}}
* {{Librivox author |id=667}}
* {{in lang|de}} [http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Humboldt,+Wilhelm+von Works by Wilhelm von Humboldt] – Partial list from Zeno.org
* [https://archive.org/stream/germanclassicsof04franuoft#page/38/mode/2up ''The German classics of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries''] (two sections by Humboldt)
* [http://www.panarchy.org/humboldt/government.html Wilhelm von Humboldt, The Sphere and Duties of Government – passages] (1792)
* [http://german.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/german/thinking-language-humboldt-now/symposium-videos/ Thinking Language: Wilhelm von Humboldt Now Event Videos], Conference Papers recorded at Queen Mary University of London, April 2016, organiser Marko Pajević. Papers on Humboldt's "thinking language" by Marko Pajevic, John Joseph, Jürgen Trabant, Ute Tintemann, Barbara Cassin (presented by David Nowell Smith), James W. Underhill, John Walker.
* [https://bibnum.obspm.fr/exhibits/show/humboldt Virtual exhibition on Paris Observatory digital library]

{{S-start}}
{{s-bef|before = Count [[Friedrich von Schuckmann]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Interior Minister of Prussia]]|years = 1819}}
{{s-aft|after = Count [[Friedrich von Schuckmann]]}}
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Chimborazo

2024-10-15T22:46:29Z

NidabaM: English-language edition

{{short description|Volcano and highest mountain in Ecuador}}
{{about|the volcano|the Ecuadorian province|Chimborazo Province|other uses}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Chimborazo
| photo = File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo" (cropped).jpg
| photo_caption = The [[summit]] of Chimborazo, the point on the Earth's surface that is farthest from the Earth's center
| photo_size = 300
| elevation_m = 6263.47
| elevation_ref = <ref group="note" name="elev" />
| prominence_m = 4118
| prominence_ref = <ref name="peaklist"/> [[List of peaks by prominence|Ranked 18th]]
| listing = [[List of countries by highest point|Country high point]] [[Ultra prominent peak|Ultra]]
| range = [[Andes]], [[Cordillera Occidental, Ecuador|Cordillera Occidental]]
| topo = IGM, CT-ÑIV-C1<ref name="map"/>
| type = [[Stratovolcano]]
| age = [[Paleogene]]<ref name=Gomez/>
| country = [[Ecuador]]
| state = [[Chimborazo Province|Chimborazo]]
| state_type = [[Provinces of Ecuador|Province]]
| map = Ecuador
| map_caption =
| label_position = right
| coordinates = {{coord|01|28|09|S|78|49|03|W|type:mountain_region:EC_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref =
| last_eruption = 550 AD ± 150 years<ref name="gvp"/>
| easiest_route = Glacier/snow climb [[Grade (climbing)#French 2|PD]]
| map_size =
|fetchwikidata=ALL
}}

'''Chimborazo''' ({{IPA|es|tʃimboˈɾaso|-|ES-pe - Chimborazo.ogg}}) is a [[stratovolcano]] situated in Ecuador in the [[Cordillera Occidental (Ecuador)|Cordillera Occidental]] range of the [[Andes]]. Its last known [[Types of volcanic eruptions|eruption]] is believed to have occurred around 550 A.D.<ref name="gvp" /> Although not the tallest mountain in the Andes or on Earth relative to [[sea level]], its summit is the farthest point on Earth's surface from the Earth's center due to its location along the planet's [[equatorial bulge]].<ref>{{cite web |title=What is the highest point on Earth as measured from Earth's center? |url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/highestpoint.html |access-date=18 November 2022 |publisher=National Ocean Service}}</ref> Chimborazo's height from sea level is 6,263 m (20,548 ft), well below that of [[Mount Everest]] at 8,849 m (29,031 ft).

Chimborazo is the highest mountain in [[Ecuador]] and the 39th-highest peak in the entire Andes. It is a popular destination for [[mountaineering]] due to its challenging climbing routes, which involve traversing snow, ice, and rocky terrain.

==Etymology==
Several theories regarding the origin of the name Chimborazo exist. In many dialects of [[Quechuan languages|Quechua]], "chimba" means "on the other side" as in "on the other side of the river" or "on the opposite bank". Other dialects pronounce this word "chimpa". Also, "razu" means "ice" or "snow". Local Quichua speakers say that Chimborazo is a Hispanicized pronunciation of "chimbarazu", meaning "the snow on the other side".<ref>http://www.philip-jacobs.de/runasimi/runasimi.txt {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108135923/http://www.philip-jacobs.de/runasimi/runasimi.txt |date=2011-11-08 }}</ref> Another theory suggests it is a combination of the Cayapa ''Schingbu'' for ''Women'' and the Colorado/[[Quichua]] ''Razo'' for ''Ice/Snow'' resulting in ''Women of Ice''. According to another, ''Chimbo'' is [[Jíbaro language|Jívaro]] for ''Throne of Master/God'' resulting in ''Icethrone of God''. The locals also used to call the mountain ''Urcurazu'', with the Quichua ''Urcu'' for ''Mountain'' resulting in ''Mountain of Ice''.<ref name="schmud"/> In local indigenous mysticism, Chimborazo represents ''Taita'' (Father) whereas neighbouring [[Tungurahua]] is seen as ''Mama'', and ''Guagua'' (Child) for [[Pichincha (volcano)|Pichincha]] hence ''Taita Chimborazo, Mama Tungurahua and Guagua Pichincha''.

==Geography==

===Location===
[[File:Vista_del_Volcán_Chimborazo_desde_Riobamba.jpg|thumb|upright=1.42|Chimborazo seen from [[Riobamba]] in [[Ecuador]]]]
Chimborazo is in the [[Chimborazo Province]] of Ecuador, {{cvt|150.|km}} south-southwest of the city of [[Quito]], Ecuador. It is a neighbor to {{cvt|5,018|m}} high [[Carihuairazo]], another inactive stratovolcano. Chimborazo's summit rises {{cvt|2,500.|m}} above the surrounding highlands (~{{cvt|3,500.|to|4,000.|m}}) with a ≈{{cvt|20.|km}} wide base.

Under clear conditions, the summit of Chimborazo can be seen from the coastal city [[Guayaquil]], nearly {{cvt|140.|km}} away. The nearest cities are [[Riobamba]] (~30 km to the southeast), [[Ambato, Ecuador|Ambato]] (~30 km to the northeast) and [[Guaranda]] (~25 km to the southwest). Chimborazo is surrounded by the ''Reserva de Producción Faunistica Chimborazo'', which forms a protected ecosystem to preserve the habitat for the Andes native [[camelids]] of [[vicuña]], [[llama]] and [[alpaca]].

Chimborazo is at the main end of the Ecuadorian Volcanic Arc, northwest of the town of [[Riobamba]]. Chimborazo is in la Avenida de los Volcanes (the Avenue of Volcanoes) west of the Sanancajas mountain chain. [[Carihuairazo]], [[Tungurahua]], [[Tulabug]], and [[El Altar]] are all mountains that neighbor Chimborazo. The closest mountain peak, Carihuairazo, is {{convert|5.8|mi|abbr=on}} from Chimborazo.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}} There are many microclimates near Chimborazo, varying from desert in the Arenal to the humid mountains in the Abraspungo valley.<ref name=terranova/>

===Glaciers===
[[File:Chimborazo 2022-12-05.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of Chimborazo's glacier-covered summits casting a shadow over the Gran Arenal, the alpine desert to Chimborazo's west.]]
The top of Chimborazo is completely covered by [[glaciers]], with some northeastern glacier arms flowing down to 4,600 m. Its glacier is the source of water for the population of the [[Bolívar Province (Ecuador)|Bolivar]] and [[Chimborazo Province|Chimborazo]] provinces of Ecuador. Chimborazo glacier's ice mass has [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|decreased]] over the past decades, which is thought to be in large part due to [[climate change]], as well as ash cover from recent volcanic activity{{#tag:ref|[[Tungurahua]]'s recent activity period started in 1999 with the most significant eruptions between October and December 1999 and May and July 2006.<ref>{{cite web | title=Actinstituto Geofísico, EPN Ecuador | url=http://www.igepn.edu.ec/INFORMES/volcanicos.asp?volcan=55&tipo=Anual | access-date=2007-04-28 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613170242/http://www.igepn.edu.ec/INFORMES/volcanicos.asp?volcan=55&tipo=Anual | archive-date=2007-06-13 }}</ref>|group="note"}} at [[Tungurahua]], and the [[El Niño-Southern Oscillation|El Niño]] phenomenon.<ref>{{cite web | last=Chaffaut | first=Isabelle |author2=Marie Guillaume | title=El Niño and glacier melt in the tropical Andes | publisher=innovations report | url=http://www.innovations-report.com/html/reports/earth_sciences/report-35174.html |year=2004 | access-date=2006-08-08 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last=Schoterer | first=Ulrich | title=Glaciers and Climate in the Andes between the Equator and 30° S: What is Recorded under Extreme Environmental Conditions? | journal=Climatic Change | volume=59 | year=2003 | doi=10.1023/A:1024423719288 | pages=157–175 | author2=Grosjean M. | author3=Stichler W | author4=Ginot P | display-authors=3 | last5=Kull | first5=C. | last6=Bonnaveira | first6=H. | last7=Francou | first7=B. | last8=Gäggeler | first8=H. W. | last9=Gallaire | first9=R. | s2cid=129350422 | url=https://www.dora.lib4ri.ch/psi/islandora/object/psi%3A23587 }}</ref>

As on other glaciated Ecuadorian mountains, Chimborazo's glacial ice is mined by locals (the so-called ''Hieleros'' from Spanish ''Hielo'' for Ice) to be sold in the markets of [[Guaranda]] and [[Riobamba]]. In earlier days, the people transported ice for cooling uses down to coastal towns such as [[Babahoyo]] or [[Vinces]].<ref>{{cite journal | last=Borja | first=Carmen | title=Hieleros del Chimborazo. Entrevista a Igor Guayasamín | journal=Ecuador Terra Incognita | volume=29 |year=2004 }}</ref>

===Elevation===
With an elevation of {{Convert|6263|m|ft|0|abbr=on}},{{#tag:ref|The elevation given here was established by a [[GPS]] survey in February 2016. The survey was carried out by a team from the [[Institut de recherche pour le développement|French Research Institute for Development]], working in cooperation with the [[Ecuador]]ian Military Geographic Institute.<ref>
{{cite web
| title = Chimborazo, el volcán de Ecuador más alto que el Everest (si se mide desde el centro de la Tierra)
| publisher = [[BBC Mundo]]
| date=7 April 2016
| url = http://www.bbc.com/mundo/noticias/2016/04/160407_por_que_chimborazo_ecuador_mas_lejos_centro_tierra_que_el_everest_dgm
| access-date = 2016-04-08 }}</ref>|name="elev"|group="note"}} Chimborazo is the highest mountain in Ecuador and the Andes north of Peru; it is higher than any more northerly summit in the Americas.

===Farthest point from Earth's center===
{{comparison_of_Earth_farthest_points.svg}}
The summit of [[Mount Everest]] is higher [[above sea level]], but the summit of Chimborazo is widely reported to be the farthest point on the surface from [[Earth's center]],<ref>Audrey Salkeld, ed., ''World Mountaineering'', Bulfinch Press, 1998, {{ISBN|0-8212-2502-2}}, p. 140.</ref><ref name=npr_2007/><ref group="note">A diagram that compares the height of Chimborazo and [[Mount Everest]] could be found in {{cite web|title=What is the highest point on Earth as measured from Earth's center?|publisher=U.S. [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]]|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/highestpoint.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528130315/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/highestpoint.html|archive-date=2016-05-28}}</ref> with [[Huascarán]] in Peru a very close second.

The summit of Chimborazo is the fixed point on Earth that has the utmost distance from the center – because of the oblate spheroid shape of the planet Earth, which is thicker at the [[Equator]] than it is from pole to pole.<ref group="note">It has been difficult to resolve this issue definitively because of error margins in summit elevations and [[geoid]] data. Application of the formula at [[Earth radius#Radius at a given geodetic latitude]] shows that the Earth's radius is {{convert|520|m}} greater at Chimborazo than at Huascaran, with most recent data showing another {{convert|5|m}} due to local variations in gravity, for a total of {{convert|525|m}}. Two heights are given for Huascarán - {{Convert|6746|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} from the Peruvian National Geographic Institute (IGN) map, and {{Convert|6768|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} from the [[Austrian Alpine Club|Austrian Alpine Club (OeAV)]] survey map. Chimbaro is now {{Convert|6263|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. Thus Chimborazo's summit is roughly either {{convert|20|m}} or {{convert|40|m}} further from the Earth's center than that of Huascaran.</ref> Chimborazo is one degree south of the Equator and the [[Earth]]'s [[equatorial bulge|diameter at the Equator]] is greater than at the latitude of Everest ({{Convert|8848|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} above sea level), nearly 28° north, with sea level also elevated. Despite being {{Convert|2585|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} lower in elevation above sea level, it is {{Convert|6384.4|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from the Earth's center, {{Convert|2163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} farther than the summit of Everest ({{Convert|6382.3|km|mi|1|abbr=on}} from the Earth's center).<ref group="note">In this ranking, several other Andean peaks as well as Africa's highest mountain, [[Kilimanjaro]], exceed Everest.</ref> However, by height above sea level, Chimborazo is not the highest peak of the [[Andes]].

Centrifugal force from the Earth's rotation, and distance from the center of the Earth, cause the force of [[gravity]] to be slightly reduced near the equator. The summit of Chimborazo has about one percent less gravity than the point with the highest gravitational force. Yet, due to its height above the surrounding terrain and local [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]], the summit of Huascarán is the place on Earth with the smallest gravitational force.<ref>{{cite web |date=September 4, 2013 |title=Gravity Variations Over Earth Much Bigger Than Previously Thought |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/09/130904105345.htm |access-date=2014-01-01 |publisher=Science Daily}}</ref>

==Geology==
Chimborazo is an ice-capped inactive volcano. It is a double volcano composed of one volcanic edifice on top of another.<ref name="Alcaraz 2005">Alcaraz et al. (2005) "The debris avalanche of Chimborazo, Ecuador", 6th International Symposium on Andean Geodynamics (ISAG 2005, Barcelona), Extended Abstracts: 29-32</ref> Chimborazo shows four summits; Whymper, Veintimilla, Politecnica, and Nicolas Martínez. The Whymper peak is the highest point on the mountain at 6,263 meters. The Veintimilla peak is about {{convert|6234|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} high. The Politecnica peak is {{convert|5820|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} high. The last peak, Nicolas Martínez, is {{convert|5570|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} high and was named after the father of Ecuadorian mountaineering. The volcano is categorized as a [[stratovolcano]].<ref name="Alcaraz 2005" /> This type of volcano is characterized as having low slopes at the bottom that gradually get steeper the higher up the mountain.<ref name=sdsugeo_strato/> Chimborazo has a circumference of {{convert|78|mi|km}} and a diameter of {{convert|30|mi|km}}. Chimborazo's upper elevations are covered in glaciers that are decreasing in size due to climate change and falling ash from the nearby volcano, [[Tungurahua]]. In addition to the glaciers, the volcano is covered with craters. The volcano is dominantly [[andesitic]] to [[Dacite|dacitic]]. This means that the lava is blocky, or flowing down the sides of the volcano, or somewhere in between.<ref name=sdsugeo_lava/>

Chimborazo is 73.5 meters  higher than the highest mountain in North America. Chimborazo is often associated with the nearby volcano [[Cotopaxi]], although the two volcanoes have completely different structures.

==Volcanism==
[[File:Tephra Layers at Chimborazo Volcano in Ecuador.jpg|thumb|Layers of [[pyroclastic rock]] deposited during eruptions of Chimborazo]]
Chimborazo is a dominantly [[Andesite|andesitic]]-[[Dacite|dacitic]] [[stratovolcano]]. About 35,000 years ago a collapse of Chimborazo produced a [[debris avalanche]] with an average thickness of forty meters, which underlies the city of [[Riobamba]]. It temporarily dammed the [[Chambo River|Río Chambo]], causing an [[ephemeral lake]].<ref name="Alcaraz 2005"/>

Chimborazo then erupted several times during the [[Holocene]], the last time around 550 AD ± 150 years.<ref name="gvp" /> The eruptions after the collapse were primarily [[andesitic]], or blocky, coagulated lava flow. These eruptions produced [[pyroclastic surge]]s that went down as far as 3800 meters altitude.<ref name="Alcaraz 2005" />

==Surveys and expeditions==
[[File:Humboldt-Bonpland Chimborazo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Alexander von Humboldt]] and his fellow scientist [[Aimé Bonpland]] at the foot of the Chimborazo volcano, painting by [[Friedrich Georg Weitsch]] (1810)]]
[[File:1839 Black - Hall Map of the Mountains & Plants of America - Geographicus - AmericaMts2-black-1839.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Map from 1839 of the distribution of plants according to elevation in the Americas]]
[[File:Chimborazo Volcano by Frederic Edwin Church 1884.jpeg|thumb|upright=1.3|Chimborazo volcano in 1884 by [[Frederic Edwin Church]]]]

Until the beginning of the 19th century, it was thought that Chimborazo was the [[List of past presumed highest mountains|highest mountain on Earth]] (measured from sea level), and such reputation led to many attempts on its summit during the 17th and 18th centuries.

In 1746, the volcano was explored by French [[academician]]s from the [[French Geodesic Mission]]. Their mission was to determine the sphericity of the Earth. Their work along with another team in [[Lapland (region)|Lapland]] established that the Earth was an [[oblate spheroid]] rather than a true sphere. They did not reach the summit of Chimborazo.

In June 1802, during his expedition to [[South America]], the Prussian-born traveler [[Alexander von Humboldt]], accompanied by the French botanist [[Aimé Bonpland]] and the Ecuadorian [[Carlos Montúfar]], tried to reach the summit.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Daum | first=Andreas|author-link=Andreas Daum | year=2024 | title=Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography | location=Princeton, N.J. | publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=74‒76 | isbn=978-0-691-24736-6 }}</ref> From his description of the mountain, it seems that before he and his companions had to return suffering from [[altitude sickness]] they reached a point at 5,875 m, higher than previously attained by any European in recorded history ([[Incans]] had reached much higher altitudes previously; see [[Llullaillaco]]). In 1831, [[Jean-Baptiste Boussingault]] and Colonel Hall reached a new "highest point", estimated to be 6,006 m.<ref>{{cite newspaper The Times | title = Greatest Ascents in the Atmosphere | date = September 7, 1836 | page = 2 | issue = 16202 | column = E }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = McCosh | first = Frederick William James | year = 1984
| title = Boussingault: Chemist and Agriculturist | publisher = D. Reidel | location = Dordrecht | isbn = 90-277-1682-X}}</ref> Other failed attempts to reach the summit followed.

On 4 January 1880, the English climber [[Edward Whymper]] reached the summit of Chimborazo.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ascent Of Chimborazo|work=The Cornishman|issue=92|date=15 April 1880|page=3}}</ref> The route that Whymper took up the mountain is now known as the Whymper route. Edward Whymper, and his Italian guides [[Louis Carrel (mountaineer)|Louis Carrel]] and [[Jean-Antoine Carrel]], were the first Europeans to summit a mountain higher than {{Convert|20000|feet}}.<ref name=about_ff/> As there were many critics who doubted that Whymper had reached the summit, later in the same year he climbed to the summit again, choosing a different route (Pogyos) with the Ecuadorians David Beltrán and Francisco Campaña.<ref name=Whymper_1892/>

===SAETA Flight 232===
In August 1976, [[SAETA Flight 232]] carrying 55 passengers and four crew members aboard a [[Vickers Viscount]] from Quito to Cuenca disappeared en route. In February 2003, after almost 27 years,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/02/19/1045330648931.html|title=Plane crash's frozen victims found 27 years later|date=February 19, 2003|publisher=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=2014-04-23}}</ref> the aircraft was found with the bodies of its 59 occupants at an elevation of {{convert|5310|m|ft|sp=us}} on Chimborazo by Ecuadorian climbers, on the rarely used eastern route ''Integral''.<ref>{{cite news | author = El Comercio | title = Different Saeta Chimborazo accident articles | language = es | publisher = El Comercio, Quito |date=February–May 2003 }}</ref>

==Mountaineering==
[[File:Chimborazo+sketch.png|thumb|Sketch of Chimborazo huts, main summits, and routes]]
As Ecuador's highest mountain, Chimborazo is a very popular climb and can be climbed year round with the best seasons being December–January and July–August.

=== Routes ===
The easiest (IFAS Grade: [[Grade (climbing)#International French adjectival system (IFAS)|PD]]) and most climbed routes are the Normal and the Whymper route. Both are western ridge routes starting at the Whymper hut and leading via the Ventemilla summit to the main (Whymper) summit.
There are several other less used and more challenging routes on the mountain's other faces and ridges leading to one of Chimborazo's summits: Main (Whymper, Ecuador), Politecnico (Central), N. Martinez (Eastern). The mountain is contained on the IGM (''Instituto Geografico Militar'') 1:50000 Map ''Chimborazo (CT-ÑIV-C1)''.<ref name="map" />

===Huts===
There are two functioning huts, the Carrel Hut (4,850 m) and the nearby Whymper Hut (5,000 m). The Carrel Hut can be reached by car from Riobamba, Ambato or Guaranda. On the northwest side there is the now defunct Zurita hut (4,900 m), which served as base for the Pogyos route.<ref name="schmud" />

===Climbing===
El Castillo is the most popular route up the volcano. This route is usually climbed December to February and June to September. This route involves climbing the west side of the volcano. The route starts at Whymper hut to a saddle above El Castillo. From the saddle, there is a glacier ridge. Then climbers go to the Veintemilla summit. Veintemilla summit is often the turnaround point for climbers. There is a 30-minute snow-filled basin between Veintemilla summit and Whymper summit. Whymper summit is the highest point of the mountain. The El Castillo route takes around eight to twelve hours to ascend and about three to five hours to descend. Climbing Chimborazo is dangerous due to the risk of [[avalanche]]s, the severe weather conditions, and the fact that it is covered in glaciers. Climbing begins at night in order to reach the summit before sunrise when the snow melts, which increases the chance of avalanche and rockfall.

The climb itself demands skill. The climb is often on black ice, so crampons and other technical climbing equipment are required. On November 10, 1993 three parties of climbers, one ascending and two descending, were caught in an avalanche on the steep slopes below the Veintimilla summit. This avalanche buried ten climbers in a [[crevasse]] at {{convert|18,700|ft|m}}. These climbers comprised six French, two Ecuadorians, one Swiss, and one Chilean. After the ten climbers were buried in snow, it took twenty people and ten days to find their bodies. This was considered the worst climbing accident in Ecuador.<ref name=about_ff/><ref name="latimes_1993"/>

==Cultural references==
* Chimborazo is featured on the [[Coat of arms of Ecuador|Ecuadorian coat of arms]], to represent the beauty and richness of the Ecuadorian Sierra (Highlands).
* [[Simón Bolívar]]'s poem, "Mi delirio sobre el Chimborazo", was inspired by the mountain.
* In his central essay "[[The Poet (essay)|The Poet]]", [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]] uses the Chimborazo as metaphor for the poet (and the creative genius in general), who "must stand out of our low limitations".
* [[Walter J. Turner]]'s poem "Romance" contains the couplet "Chimborazo, Cotopaxi/They had stolen my soul away!"<ref name=Marsh/>
* The American landscape painter [[Frederick Edwin Church]] features the Chimborazo in the background of his famous work ''[[The Heart of the Andes]]'' (1859) as well as in his painting ''Chimborazo'' (1864).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.huntington.org/chimborazo |title=Chimborazo |website=[[Huntington Library|The Huntington]] |access-date=2020-06-08}}</ref>
* [[Miguel Ángel León]] wrote a poem entitled "Canto al Chimborazo" (Song to Chimborazo).<ref>[http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/obra-visor/poetas-parnasianos-y-modernistas--0/html/000965c6-82b2-11df-acc7-002185ce6064_11.html#I_150_ Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes - Sección Poetas Parnasianos y Modernistas "Canto al Chimborazo (Miguel Ángel León)"]</ref>
* [[David Weber]]'s novel ''[[The Armageddon Inheritance]]'' mentions Mount Chimborazo as the site for a massive planetary defense installation.

==See also==
{{portal|Geography|South America|Ecuador|Mountains|Volcanoes|Andes}}
*[[Lists of volcanoes]]
**[[List of volcanoes in Ecuador]]
*[[List of mountains in the Andes]]
*[[List of Ultras of South America]]
*[[List of mountains in Ecuador]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="note"}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name=about_ff>{{cite web
| url=http://climbing.about.com/od/mountainclimbing/a/Fast-Facts-About-Chimborazo.htm
| title=Fast Facts About Chimborazo
| publisher=About.com
| access-date=2014-04-23
| archive-date=2017-02-15
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215062339/http://climbing.about.com/od/mountainclimbing/a/Fast-Facts-About-Chimborazo.htm
| url-status=dead
}}</ref>
<ref name=Gomez>
{{cite book | title = Atlas del Ecuador
| last = Gomez | first = Nelson
| publisher = Editorial Ediguias | year = 1994 | isbn = 9978-89-009-2}}</ref>
<ref name="gvp">
{{cite gvp | vn = 352071 | name = Chimborazo | access-date = 2009-01-01}}</ref>
<ref name="latimes_1993">
{{cite news | title = 10 Climbers on Ecuador’s Highest Peak Feared Dead
| url = https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1993-11-12-mn-55990-story.html
| date = November 12, 1993 | publisher = Los Angeles Times | work = LA Times Archives
| access-date=2022-02-22}}</ref>
<ref name="map">
{{cite web | url = http://www.igm.gob.ec/cms/files/cartabase/enie/imagenes/ENIEIV_C1_ALTA.jpg
| publisher = IGM (Instituto Geografico Militar, Ecuador)
| title = Chimborazo Ecuador, CT-ÑIV-C1 | year = 1991
|access-date = 2008-01-26 |url-status = dead
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120425230357/http://www.igm.gob.ec/cms/files/cartabase/enie/imagenes/ENIEIV_C1_ALTA.jpg
|archive-date = 2012-04-25}}</ref>
<ref name=Marsh>
{{cite book | title = Georgian Poetry, 1916–1917
| last = Marsh | first = Edward Howard, Sir
| publisher = The Poetry Bookshop
| url = http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8gp0310.txt
| year=1917 | access-date = 2008-06-23}}</ref>
<ref name=npr_2007>
{{cite web | url = https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163 | url-status = live
| title = The 'Highest' Spot on Earth? | author = Krulwich, Robert | date = April 7, 2007
| publisher = [[NPR]] | access-date = 2014-04-23
| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070409004733/https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=9428163
| archive-date= 2007-04-09}}</ref>
<ref name="peaklist">
{{cite web | url = http://peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/ecuador.html
| title = "Ecuador" Ultras | publisher = Peaklist.org | access-date = 2012-11-06}}</ref>
<ref name="schmud">
{{cite book | title = Bergführer Ecuador
| last = Schmudlach | first = Günter
| publisher = Panico Alpinverlag | year=2001 | isbn = 3-926807-82-2 }}</ref>
<ref name=sdsugeo_lava>
{{cite web | url = http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/andesiterhyolite_lava.html
| title = How Volcanoes Work - Andesitic to Rhyolitic Lava
| publisher = San Diego State University | work = Department of Geological Sciences
| access-date = 2014-04-24}}</ref>
<ref name=sdsugeo_strato>
{{cite web | url = http://www.geology.sdsu.edu/how_volcanoes_work/stratovolc_page.html
| title = How Volcanoes Work - Stratovolcanoes
| publisher = San Diego State University | work = Department of Geological Sciences
| access-date = 2014-04-24}}</ref>
<ref name=terranova>
{{cite web | url=http://www.terranovatrek.com/ecuador-tourism/chimborazo_volcano.html
| title=Volcano of Ecuador Chimborazo volcano climbing route Chimborazo mountain Ecuador|author=hleduc
| work=terranovatrek.com|url-status=dead
| archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130307171418/http://www.terranovatrek.com/ecuador-tourism/chimborazo_volcano.html
| archive-date=2013-03-07}}</ref>
<ref name=Whymper_1892>
{{cite book | title = Travels Amongst the Great Andes of the Equator
| url = https://archive.org/details/travelsamongstgr02whym
| last = Whymper | first = Edward
| publisher = [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]]
| year=1892 | isbn = 1-904466-24-9}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.peakbagger.com/peak.aspx?pid=8400
| title = Volcán Chimborazo, Ecuador
| publisher = Peakbagger.com
| access-date = 2012-11-06 }}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.summitpost.org/mountain/rock/150349/chimborazo.html
| title = Climbing information for Chimborazo
| publisher = Summitpost.org | access-date = 2011-10-25 }}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.jordibusque.com/index.php?lang=en&current=stories&subcurrent=ultimo_hielero&subsubcurrent=CF0134-DSC_5492.jpg
| title = The last iceman of Chimborazo | access-date = 2011-10-25 }}

{{Andean volcanoes}}

{{Authority control}}{{Highest points of South America}}{{DEFAULTSORT:Chimborazo (Volcano)}}
[[Category:Mountains of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Stratovolcanoes of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Geography of Chimborazo Province]]
[[Category:Andean Volcanic Belt]]
[[Category:Extreme points of Earth]]
[[Category:Glaciers of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Pleistocene stratovolcanoes]]
[[Category:Quaternary South America]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Chimborazo Province]]
[[Category:Highest points of countries]]
[[Category:Six-thousanders of the Andes]]
[[Category:Climbing areas of Ecuador]]
[[Category:Holocene stratovolcanoes]]

Humboldt Research Award

2024-10-15T22:33:50Z

NidabaM:

{{Short description|German research award}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}

The '''Humboldt Research Award''' ({{lang-de|Humboldt-Forschungspreis}}), also known informally as the '''Humboldt Prize''', is an award given by the [[Alexander von Humboldt Foundation]] of Germany to internationally renowned scientists and scholars who work outside of Germany in recognition of their lifetime's research achievements. Recipients are "academics whose fundamental discoveries, new theories or insights have had a significant impact on their own discipline and who are expected to continue producing cutting-edge academic achievements in the future".<ref name="Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung 2017_2">{{cite web | title=Förderprogramme | website=Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung | date=10 December 2017 | url=https://www.humboldt-foundation.de/bewerben/foerderprogramme | language=de | access-date=22 February 2022}}</ref> The prize is currently valued at €60,000 with the possibility of further support during the prize winner's life.<ref name="Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung 2017">{{cite web | title=Humboldt Research Award | website=Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung | date=10 December 2017 | url=https://www.humboldt-foundation.de/en/apply/sponsorship-programmes/humboldt-research-award | access-date=22 February 2022}}</ref> Up to one hundred such awards are granted each year. Nominations must be submitted by established academics in Germany. As of 2023, over 2,000 awards have been granted.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Explore the Humboldt Network |url=https://www.humboldt-foundation.de/en/connect/explore-the-humboldt-network |access-date=2023-10-11 |website=www.humboldt-foundation.de |language=en}}</ref>

The award is named after the [[Prussia]]n [[natural scientist|naturalist]] and explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]].<ref>[[Andreas Daum|Andreas W. Daum]], ''Alexander von Humboldt: A Concise Biography''. Trans. Robert Savage. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2024</ref> The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation also awards other prices and scholarships, notably the most valuable research prize in Germany, the [[Alexander von Humboldt Professorship]].

== See also ==
* [[Alexander von Humboldt Foundation]]
* [[:Category:Humboldt Research Award recipients|Humboldt Research Award recipients]]
* [[List of general science and technology awards]]
* [[List of physics awards]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commonscat}}
* [http://www.humboldt-foundation.de/web/home.html Alexander von Humboldt Foundation]
* [https://www.humboldt-foundation.de/en/connect/explore-the-humboldt-network?tx_solr%5Bq%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5Belectionprogram_stringS_3%5D=electionprogram_stringS%3AHumboldt+Research+Award&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B3%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B4%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B5%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B6%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B7%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B8%5D= Database of Humboldt prize recipients]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Humboldt Prize}}
[[Category:Humboldt Research Award recipients| ]]
[[Category:Science and technology awards]]
[[Category:International awards]]
[[Category:German awards]]
[[Category:Alexander von Humboldt]]

Humboldt Research Award

2024-10-15T22:23:30Z

NidabaM: inserted space

{{Short description|German research award}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}

The '''Humboldt Research Award''' ({{lang-de|Humboldt-Forschungspreis}}), also known informally as the '''Humboldt Prize''', is an award given by the [[Alexander von Humboldt Foundation]] of Germany to internationally renowned scientists and scholars who work outside of Germany in recognition of their lifetime's research achievements. Recipients are "academics whose fundamental discoveries, new theories or insights have had a significant impact on their own discipline and who are expected to continue producing cutting-edge academic achievements in the future".<ref name="Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung 2017_2">{{cite web | title=Förderprogramme | website=Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung | date=10 December 2017 | url=https://www.humboldt-foundation.de/bewerben/foerderprogramme | language=de | access-date=22 February 2022}}</ref> The prize is currently valued at €60,000 with the possibility of further support during the prize winner's life.<ref name="Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung 2017">{{cite web | title=Humboldt Research Award | website=Alexander von Humboldt-Stiftung | date=10 December 2017 | url=https://www.humboldt-foundation.de/en/apply/sponsorship-programmes/humboldt-research-award | access-date=22 February 2022}}</ref> Up to one hundred such awards are granted each year. Nominations must be submitted by established academics in Germany. As of 2023, over 2,000 awards have been granted.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Explore the Humboldt Network |url=https://www.humboldt-foundation.de/en/connect/explore-the-humboldt-network |access-date=2023-10-11 |website=www.humboldt-foundation.de |language=en}}</ref>

The award is named after the [[Prussia]]n [[natural scientist|naturalist]] and explorer [[Alexander von Humboldt]]. The Alexander von Humboldt Foundation also awards other prices and scholarships, notably the most valuable research prize in Germany, the [[Alexander von Humboldt Professorship]].

== See also ==
* [[Alexander von Humboldt Foundation]]
* [[:Category:Humboldt Research Award recipients|Humboldt Research Award recipients]]
* [[List of general science and technology awards]]
* [[List of physics awards]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commonscat}}
* [http://www.humboldt-foundation.de/web/home.html Alexander von Humboldt Foundation]
* [https://www.humboldt-foundation.de/en/connect/explore-the-humboldt-network?tx_solr%5Bq%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5Belectionprogram_stringS_3%5D=electionprogram_stringS%3AHumboldt+Research+Award&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B3%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B4%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B5%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B6%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B7%5D=&tx_solr%5Bfilter%5D%5B8%5D= Database of Humboldt prize recipients]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Humboldt Prize}}
[[Category:Humboldt Research Award recipients| ]]
[[Category:Science and technology awards]]
[[Category:International awards]]
[[Category:German awards]]
[[Category:Alexander von Humboldt]]

Hans Rosenthal

2024-10-14T21:42:42Z

NidabaM: /* Sources */

{{Short description|German radio and television host}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Expand German|topic=bio|Hans Rosenthal|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| birth_name = Hans Günter Rosenthal
| image = Hans Rosenthal Autogrammbild.jpg
| caption = Rosenthal around 1970
| birth_date = 2 April 1925
| birth_place = [[Berlin]], [[Weimar Republic|Germany]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1987|2|10|1925|4|2}}
| death_place = [[West Berlin]], [[West Germany]]
| resting_place =
| occupation = {{hlist|Television host|director}}
| years_active = 1945–1986
| spouse = {{Marriage|Traudl Schallon |1947}}
}}

'''Hans Rosenthal''' (2 April 1925 – 10 February 1987) was a [[Germany|German]] radio editor, director, and one of the most popular German radio and television hosts of the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="Brenner Harshav 1999 p. 183">{{cite book
| last1 = Brenner
| first1 = M.
| last2 = Harshav
| first2 = B.
| title = After the Holocaust: Rebuilding Jewish Lives in Postwar Germany
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| year = 1999
| isbn = 978-0-691-00679-6
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GoV-8uZJiBsC&pg=PA183
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 183
| quote = Hans Rosenthal (1925–1987), perhaps the best-known Jew in postwar Germany, was one of the most popular German television masters-of-ceremony. Rosenthal, who had survived the war in hiding in Berlin, was actively engaged in Jewish ...
}}</ref>

== Life ==
Rosenthal grew up in a [[History of the Jews in Germany|Jewish]] family on Winsstraße No. 63, in the [[Prenzlauer Berg]] district of [[Berlin]]. His childhood was marked by an aggressive [[Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany|antisemitic]] atmosphere, the result of rising German [[Nazism]]. His father died of kidney failure in 1937 after he had lost his job at [[Deutsche Bank]] AG. When his mother died of [[colorectal cancer]] in 1941, Hans and his younger brother Gert (born 1932) found themselves in the orphanage. Starting in 1940, Hans was forced to participate in [[unfree labour]], while his brother was deported and like many other relatives murdered in the [[Holocaust]]. After Hans escaped the last major roundup of Berlin Jews (the ''[[Fabrikaktion]]'') in early 1943, he went into hiding and until 1945 was able to stay at a [[safe house]] in a small garden allotment in Berlin-[[Lichtenberg (locality)|Lichtenberg]], where three German women helped him to survive.<ref name="Meyer Simon Schütz 2009 p. 302">{{cite book
| last1 = Meyer
| first1 = B.
| last2 = Simon
| first2 = H.
| last3 = Schütz
| first3 = C.
| title = Jews in Nazi Berlin: From Kristallnacht to Liberation
| publisher = University of Chicago Press
| series = Studies in German-Jewish Cultural History and Literature, Franz Rosenzweig Minerva Research Center, Hebrew University of Jerusalem
| year = 2009
| isbn = 978-0-226-52159-6
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JhYb73CHmt8C&pg=PA302
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 302
}}</ref>

After the war, Rosenthal began an apprenticeship as an assistant director at [[Berliner Rundfunk]], a public broadcaster. However, he soon came into conflict with the supervisors of the [[Soviet Military Administration in Germany|Soviet Military Administration]] and from 1948 onwards worked for the ''[[Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor]]'' (RIAS), a broadcaster controlled by the [[US Army|American]] occupying forces. He became chief entertainment editor and soon began hosting his own radio quiz shows: ''{{ill|Allein gegen alle|de}}'', ''{{ill|Wer fragt, gewinnt|de || fr}}'', ''{{ill|Das klingende Sonntagsrätsel|de|Sonntagsrätsel|fr|Sonntagsrätsel}}'', ''{{ill|Spaß muß sein|de}}'' (broadcast from London's [[Paris Theatre]] during the [[1966 FIFA World Cup]]), ''{{ill|Opas Schlagerfestival|de}}'', ''Da ist man sprachlos'', ''{{ill|Die Rückblende|de}}'' and ''{{ill|Die Insulaner|de || fr}}''. Later on the German [[ZDF]] public television channel, he presented shows like ''{{ill|Gut gefragt ist halb gewonnen|de}}'', ''{{ill|Rate mal mit Rosenthal|de || nds}}'', ''{{ill|KO OK|de}}'', ''Das Schlagerfestival der 20er Jahre'', and ''{{ill|Dalli Dalli|de || nds}}'', a co-production with [[ORF (broadcaster)|ORF]], an Austrian broadcaster.
[[File:Hans Rosenthal und Monika Sundermann Dalli-Dalli.jpg|thumb|Rosenthal with assistant Monika Sundermann on ''Dalli Dalli'', mid-1970s]]
The most popular of these, the TV show ''Dalli, Dalli'' (derived from {{lang-csb|dali, dali!}} or {{lang-pl|dalej!}}, "Hurry Up!"), aired 153 times from 1971 to 1986. Celebrities had to compete in several fast-paced quiz rounds and games of skill, critiqued by a panel of judges. Even today, Rosenthal is known in Germany for his catchphrase ''Sie sind der Meinung, das war ... ?'' ("So you all think that was... ?") when he thought something impressive had been done. The TV audience then answered ''Spitze!'' ("Great!"), at which point Rosenthal would jump into the air. Because he was not tall, he was often referred to affectionately as ''Hänschen'' Rosenthal (literally "Little Hans").

He was a member of the [[Central Council of Jews in Germany]] from the 1960s onwards.<ref name="Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein 2001 p. 218" /> He often took his vacation in [[Utersum]] on the island of [[Föhr]], of which he was eventually made an honorary citizen. From 1965 until 1973 Rosenthal was chairman of the [[Tennis Borussia Berlin]] football club. Rosenthal started a foundation called ''Schnelle Hilfe in Akuter Not'' (which roughly translates as "Fast Help in Dire Need").

In 1980, Rosenthal published his autobiography ''Zwei Leben in Deutschland'' ("Two Lives in Germany").<ref name="Johann 2003 p. 531">{{cite book
| last = Johann
| first = K.
| title = Grenze und Halt: der Einzelne im "Haus der Regeln" : zur deutschsprachigen Internatsliteratur
| publisher = Winter
| series = Beiträge zur neueren Literaturgeschichte
| year = 2003
| isbn = 978-3-8253-1599-3
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ofBYAAAAMAAJ
| language = de
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 531
| quote = ... Deutschland beschreiben und in denen Internate und Waisenhäuser ebenfalls eine Rolle spielen. So beschreibt der spätere Fernsehmoderator Hans Rosenthal in seiner Autobiographie "Zwei Leben in Deutschland" (1980), wie er 1941 ...
}}</ref> In 1986, along with [[Paul Spiegel]], he started an international media agency, which promoted actors, TV presenters and artists. In the same year Rosenthal fell ill with [[stomach cancer]] and was no longer able to work as a TV host. He died in 1987 in Berlin, aged 61.

== Awards ==
* 1972 – Federal Cross of Merit ([[Bundesverdienstkreuz]])<ref name="Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein 2001 p. 218">{{cite book
| author = Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein
| title = Berlinische Monatsschrift
| publisher = Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein e. V.
| issue = vb. 10
| year = 2001
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HJgjAQAAIAAJ
| language = de
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 218
| quote = Direktoriumsmitglied des Zentralrates der Juden in Deutschland. Er erhielt 1972 das Bundesverdienstkreuz. Der Platz vor dem RIAS – Gebäude erhielt den Namen Hans-Rosenthal-Platz.
}}</ref>
* 1973 – [[Bambi (prize)|Bambi]]
* 1974 – [[Goldene Kamera]]
* 1979 – Goldene Kamera
* 1984 – Goldene Kamera
* 1985 – [[Goldene Europa]]
* 1986 – [[Telestar]]

== Other honours ==
* 1993 – The square in front of the RIAS building (now the home of [[Deutschlandradio Kultur]]) in Berlin-[[Schöneberg]] was named Hans-Rosenthal-Platz<ref name="Adler Szold American Jewish Committee Jewish Publication Society of America 1995 p. 323">{{cite book
| last1 = Adler
| first1 = C.
| last2 = Szold
| first2 = H.
| author3 = American Jewish Committee
| author4 = Jewish Publication Society of America
| title = American Jewish Year Book
| publisher = American Jewish Committee
| issue = vb. 95
| year = 1995
| isbn = 978-0-87495-108-0
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FP8yJHbonxkC
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 323
| quote = In Berlin the square in front of RIAS ( Radio in the American Sector ) was renamed for Hans Rosenthal , a popular Jewish television personality who died in 1987.
}}</ref>
* 2007 – A sports center in Berlin-[[Westend (Berlin)|Westend]] was named ''Hans-Rosenthal-Sportanlage''

== Bibliography ==
* ''Zwei Leben in Deutschland'', Bergisch Gladbach 1980, {{ISBN|3-7857-0265-5}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* Leonard Gross, T''he Last Jews in Berlin'', Simon & Schuster, USA 1982, {{ISBN|0-283-99004-X}}
* Thomas Henschke, ''Hans Rosenthal:'' ''Ein Leben für die Unterhaltung. Schwarzkopf u. Schwarzkopf'', Berlin 1999, {{ISBN|3-89602-307-1}}
* Michael Schäbitz, [[Paul Spiegel]], [[Curth Flatow]], ''Hans Rosenthal. Deutschlands unvergessener Quizmaster; bewusster, stolzer Jude. Jüdische Miniaturen'', Band 19. Stiftung Neue Synagoge Berlin – Centrum Iudaicum / Hentrich and Hentrich, Teetz 2004, {{ISBN|3-933471-73-7}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|0742759}}
* [http://dispatch.opac.d-nb.de/DB=4.1/REL?PPN=118602764 Literature by and about Hans Rosenthal] in [[German National Library]]
* [http://www.hans-rosenthal-stiftung.de/ Hans Rosenthal Foundation] (in German)

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rosenthal, Hans}}
[[Category:1925 births]]
[[Category:1987 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from stomach cancer in Germany]]
[[Category:German game show hosts]]
[[Category:20th-century German Jews]]
[[Category:German radio personalities]]
[[Category:German television personalities]]
[[Category:Jewish entertainers]]
[[Category:Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany]]
[[Category:People from Pankow]]
[[Category:Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor people]]
[[Category:ZDF people]]
[[Category:German World War II forced labourers]]
[[Category:Mass media people from Berlin]]

Hans Rosenthal

2024-10-14T21:42:23Z

NidabaM: /* Sources */

{{Short description|German radio and television host}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Expand German|topic=bio|Hans Rosenthal|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| birth_name = Hans Günter Rosenthal
| image = Hans Rosenthal Autogrammbild.jpg
| caption = Rosenthal around 1970
| birth_date = 2 April 1925
| birth_place = [[Berlin]], [[Weimar Republic|Germany]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1987|2|10|1925|4|2}}
| death_place = [[West Berlin]], [[West Germany]]
| resting_place =
| occupation = {{hlist|Television host|director}}
| years_active = 1945–1986
| spouse = {{Marriage|Traudl Schallon |1947}}
}}

'''Hans Rosenthal''' (2 April 1925 – 10 February 1987) was a [[Germany|German]] radio editor, director, and one of the most popular German radio and television hosts of the 1970s and 1980s.<ref name="Brenner Harshav 1999 p. 183">{{cite book
| last1 = Brenner
| first1 = M.
| last2 = Harshav
| first2 = B.
| title = After the Holocaust: Rebuilding Jewish Lives in Postwar Germany
| publisher = Princeton University Press
| year = 1999
| isbn = 978-0-691-00679-6
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GoV-8uZJiBsC&pg=PA183
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 183
| quote = Hans Rosenthal (1925–1987), perhaps the best-known Jew in postwar Germany, was one of the most popular German television masters-of-ceremony. Rosenthal, who had survived the war in hiding in Berlin, was actively engaged in Jewish ...
}}</ref>

== Life ==
Rosenthal grew up in a [[History of the Jews in Germany|Jewish]] family on Winsstraße No. 63, in the [[Prenzlauer Berg]] district of [[Berlin]]. His childhood was marked by an aggressive [[Anti-Jewish legislation in prewar Nazi Germany|antisemitic]] atmosphere, the result of rising German [[Nazism]]. His father died of kidney failure in 1937 after he had lost his job at [[Deutsche Bank]] AG. When his mother died of [[colorectal cancer]] in 1941, Hans and his younger brother Gert (born 1932) found themselves in the orphanage. Starting in 1940, Hans was forced to participate in [[unfree labour]], while his brother was deported and like many other relatives murdered in the [[Holocaust]]. After Hans escaped the last major roundup of Berlin Jews (the ''[[Fabrikaktion]]'') in early 1943, he went into hiding and until 1945 was able to stay at a [[safe house]] in a small garden allotment in Berlin-[[Lichtenberg (locality)|Lichtenberg]], where three German women helped him to survive.<ref name="Meyer Simon Schütz 2009 p. 302">{{cite book
| last1 = Meyer
| first1 = B.
| last2 = Simon
| first2 = H.
| last3 = Schütz
| first3 = C.
| title = Jews in Nazi Berlin: From Kristallnacht to Liberation
| publisher = University of Chicago Press
| series = Studies in German-Jewish Cultural History and Literature, Franz Rosenzweig Minerva Research Center, Hebrew University of Jerusalem
| year = 2009
| isbn = 978-0-226-52159-6
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JhYb73CHmt8C&pg=PA302
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 302
}}</ref>

After the war, Rosenthal began an apprenticeship as an assistant director at [[Berliner Rundfunk]], a public broadcaster. However, he soon came into conflict with the supervisors of the [[Soviet Military Administration in Germany|Soviet Military Administration]] and from 1948 onwards worked for the ''[[Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor]]'' (RIAS), a broadcaster controlled by the [[US Army|American]] occupying forces. He became chief entertainment editor and soon began hosting his own radio quiz shows: ''{{ill|Allein gegen alle|de}}'', ''{{ill|Wer fragt, gewinnt|de || fr}}'', ''{{ill|Das klingende Sonntagsrätsel|de|Sonntagsrätsel|fr|Sonntagsrätsel}}'', ''{{ill|Spaß muß sein|de}}'' (broadcast from London's [[Paris Theatre]] during the [[1966 FIFA World Cup]]), ''{{ill|Opas Schlagerfestival|de}}'', ''Da ist man sprachlos'', ''{{ill|Die Rückblende|de}}'' and ''{{ill|Die Insulaner|de || fr}}''. Later on the German [[ZDF]] public television channel, he presented shows like ''{{ill|Gut gefragt ist halb gewonnen|de}}'', ''{{ill|Rate mal mit Rosenthal|de || nds}}'', ''{{ill|KO OK|de}}'', ''Das Schlagerfestival der 20er Jahre'', and ''{{ill|Dalli Dalli|de || nds}}'', a co-production with [[ORF (broadcaster)|ORF]], an Austrian broadcaster.
[[File:Hans Rosenthal und Monika Sundermann Dalli-Dalli.jpg|thumb|Rosenthal with assistant Monika Sundermann on ''Dalli Dalli'', mid-1970s]]
The most popular of these, the TV show ''Dalli, Dalli'' (derived from {{lang-csb|dali, dali!}} or {{lang-pl|dalej!}}, "Hurry Up!"), aired 153 times from 1971 to 1986. Celebrities had to compete in several fast-paced quiz rounds and games of skill, critiqued by a panel of judges. Even today, Rosenthal is known in Germany for his catchphrase ''Sie sind der Meinung, das war ... ?'' ("So you all think that was... ?") when he thought something impressive had been done. The TV audience then answered ''Spitze!'' ("Great!"), at which point Rosenthal would jump into the air. Because he was not tall, he was often referred to affectionately as ''Hänschen'' Rosenthal (literally "Little Hans").

He was a member of the [[Central Council of Jews in Germany]] from the 1960s onwards.<ref name="Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein 2001 p. 218" /> He often took his vacation in [[Utersum]] on the island of [[Föhr]], of which he was eventually made an honorary citizen. From 1965 until 1973 Rosenthal was chairman of the [[Tennis Borussia Berlin]] football club. Rosenthal started a foundation called ''Schnelle Hilfe in Akuter Not'' (which roughly translates as "Fast Help in Dire Need").

In 1980, Rosenthal published his autobiography ''Zwei Leben in Deutschland'' ("Two Lives in Germany").<ref name="Johann 2003 p. 531">{{cite book
| last = Johann
| first = K.
| title = Grenze und Halt: der Einzelne im "Haus der Regeln" : zur deutschsprachigen Internatsliteratur
| publisher = Winter
| series = Beiträge zur neueren Literaturgeschichte
| year = 2003
| isbn = 978-3-8253-1599-3
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ofBYAAAAMAAJ
| language = de
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 531
| quote = ... Deutschland beschreiben und in denen Internate und Waisenhäuser ebenfalls eine Rolle spielen. So beschreibt der spätere Fernsehmoderator Hans Rosenthal in seiner Autobiographie "Zwei Leben in Deutschland" (1980), wie er 1941 ...
}}</ref> In 1986, along with [[Paul Spiegel]], he started an international media agency, which promoted actors, TV presenters and artists. In the same year Rosenthal fell ill with [[stomach cancer]] and was no longer able to work as a TV host. He died in 1987 in Berlin, aged 61.

== Awards ==
* 1972 – Federal Cross of Merit ([[Bundesverdienstkreuz]])<ref name="Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein 2001 p. 218">{{cite book
| author = Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein
| title = Berlinische Monatsschrift
| publisher = Luisenstädtischer Bildungsverein e. V.
| issue = vb. 10
| year = 2001
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=HJgjAQAAIAAJ
| language = de
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 218
| quote = Direktoriumsmitglied des Zentralrates der Juden in Deutschland. Er erhielt 1972 das Bundesverdienstkreuz. Der Platz vor dem RIAS – Gebäude erhielt den Namen Hans-Rosenthal-Platz.
}}</ref>
* 1973 – [[Bambi (prize)|Bambi]]
* 1974 – [[Goldene Kamera]]
* 1979 – Goldene Kamera
* 1984 – Goldene Kamera
* 1985 – [[Goldene Europa]]
* 1986 – [[Telestar]]

== Other honours ==
* 1993 – The square in front of the RIAS building (now the home of [[Deutschlandradio Kultur]]) in Berlin-[[Schöneberg]] was named Hans-Rosenthal-Platz<ref name="Adler Szold American Jewish Committee Jewish Publication Society of America 1995 p. 323">{{cite book
| last1 = Adler
| first1 = C.
| last2 = Szold
| first2 = H.
| author3 = American Jewish Committee
| author4 = Jewish Publication Society of America
| title = American Jewish Year Book
| publisher = American Jewish Committee
| issue = vb. 95
| year = 1995
| isbn = 978-0-87495-108-0
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FP8yJHbonxkC
| access-date = 11 January 2021
| page = 323
| quote = In Berlin the square in front of RIAS ( Radio in the American Sector ) was renamed for Hans Rosenthal , a popular Jewish television personality who died in 1987.
}}</ref>
* 2007 – A sports center in Berlin-[[Westend (Berlin)|Westend]] was named ''Hans-Rosenthal-Sportanlage''

== Bibliography ==
* ''Zwei Leben in Deutschland'', Bergisch Gladbach 1980, {{ISBN|3-7857-0265-5}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* Leonard Gross, T''he Last Jews in Berlin'', Simon & Schuster, USA 1982, {{ISBN|0-283-99004-X}}
* Thomas Henschke, ''Hans Rosenthal.'' ''Ein Leben für die Unterhaltung. Schwarzkopf u. Schwarzkopf'', Berlin 1999, {{ISBN|3-89602-307-1}}
* Michael Schäbitz, [[Paul Spiegel]], [[Curth Flatow]]: ''Hans Rosenthal. Deutschlands unvergessener Quizmaster; bewusster, stolzer Jude. Jüdische Miniaturen'', Band 19. Stiftung Neue Synagoge Berlin – Centrum Iudaicum / Hentrich and Hentrich, Teetz 2004, {{ISBN|3-933471-73-7}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|0742759}}
* [http://dispatch.opac.d-nb.de/DB=4.1/REL?PPN=118602764 Literature by and about Hans Rosenthal] in [[German National Library]]
* [http://www.hans-rosenthal-stiftung.de/ Hans Rosenthal Foundation] (in German)

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rosenthal, Hans}}
[[Category:1925 births]]
[[Category:1987 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from stomach cancer in Germany]]
[[Category:German game show hosts]]
[[Category:20th-century German Jews]]
[[Category:German radio personalities]]
[[Category:German television personalities]]
[[Category:Jewish entertainers]]
[[Category:Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany]]
[[Category:People from Pankow]]
[[Category:Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor people]]
[[Category:ZDF people]]
[[Category:German World War II forced labourers]]
[[Category:Mass media people from Berlin]]

Frank L. Howley

2024-10-14T20:32:49Z

NidabaM: /* Early life */

{{short description|United States Army general}}

{{Infobox military person
|name=Frank L. Howley
|birth_date= {{birth date|1903|02|03}}
|death_date= {{death date and age|1993|7|30|1903|02|03}}
|birth_place= [[Hampton, New Jersey|Hampton]], [[New Jersey]]
|death_place= [[Warrenton, Virginia|Warrenton]], [[Virginia]]
|image=Brigadier General Frank Leo Howley, U.S. Army, 1949.jpg
|image_size=200
|caption= Frank L. Howley
|allegiance=[[United States of America]]
|branch=[[File:United States Department of the Army Seal.svg|25px]] [[United States Army]]
|serviceyears=1932–1949
|rank=[[File:US-O7 insignia.svg|30px]] [[Brigadier General (United States)|Brigadier General]]
|commands=
{{plainlist|
* Civil Affairs Detachment, A1A1
* Director, OMG Berlin Sector
* [[List of Commandants of Berlin Sectors|Commandant, Berlin]]
}}
|laterwork=Vice Chancellor of [[New York University|NYU]], New York, New York
}}

'''Frank Leo "Howlin'" Howley''' (February 3, 1903 – July 30, 1993) was a [[United States Army]] [[Brigadier General (United States)|brigadier general]] and subsequently an administrator at [[New York University]]. Howley served as commandant of the [[List of Commandants of Berlin Sectors|American sector]] of [[Berlin]] after [[World War II]], when [[Allied occupation of Berlin#The divided city|the city]] was broken and in dire need of being restored.<ref>[[Andreas Daum]], ''Kennedy in Berlin'', New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2008, pp. 41, 48, 158.</ref> He became known as ''Howlin' Howley'' because of his interminable and intractable interactions with the [[Soviet]]s.<ref>Daring Young Men: The Heroism and Triumph of The Berlin Airlift, Richard Reeves, 2010, page 76</ref><ref>The Berlin Airlift: Breaking the Soviet Blockade,
Michael Burgan, 2008, page 32</ref>

==Early life==
He was born in [[Hampton, New Jersey|Hampton]], [[New Jersey]], and was educated at the [[Parsons The New School for Design|Parsons School of Fine and Applied Arts]] in [[New York City]]. Howley also attended classes in business and art at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] in [[Paris]], and graduated with a B.S. degree in economics from [[New York University]] (NYU).<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 19 and back cover</ref>

At NYU he played football for the Violets at the positions of left end and placekicker. Although the team was then mediocre at best (1922–1924), Howley gained notoriety for his kicking expertise, and a nickname to match, ''Golden Toe''. During his senior year, in a 41-3 loss to [[Rutgers]], Howley's field goal accounted for their only score. He was also a baseball and track and field athlete.<ref>[http://sports.nyhistory.org/frank-howley/ Bill Shannon Biographical Dictionary of New York Sports—Frank Howley]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

In the 1930s Howley formed his own advertising agency based in [[Philadelphia]] called Frank L. Howley & Associates, and gained business nationwide despite the ongoing economic [[Great Depression|depression]].<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0004.pdf A Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 5]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

==Military career==
Howley entered the [[United States Army Reserve|Officers Reserve Corps]] in 1932 and was called to active duty in 1940. His first assignment was commanding officer of an [[United States Army Air Corps|Air Corps]] ground school, and he was promoted to [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]]. In 1941 Howley chose to pursue the cavalry and was made operations officer of the [[United States Army Cavalry School|Cavalry School]] at [[Fort Riley]], [[Kansas]]. Sometime later he was made executive officer of the Third Cavalry Mechanized at [[Fort Gordon|Camp Gordon]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and was promoted to the rank of [[Lieutenant Colonel (United States)|lieutenant colonel]]. In the summer of 1943, whilst in Georgia, Howley suffered a motorcycle accident and broke his back and pelvis. He was hospitalized more than five months and was eventually forced to transfer from the cavalry. He was told he could go home or move to [[Military occupation|Military Government]], or more precisely, to [[Civil Affairs#US military civil affairs|Civil Affairs]]. He chose the latter.<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0004.pdf Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 5]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref><ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 17</ref>

===World War II===
Howley was assigned to schools in the U.S. and then in [[England]]. He was made director of the Military Government Officers' Division based in [[Shrivenham]]. Only upon his insistence in taking part in [[Operation Overlord|Normandy]] was he not left behind. For the invasion Howley was designated commander of the Civil Affairs Detachment, with the "mystifying" code name of A1A1. In Normandy he landed on [[Omaha Beach]] on D plus 4 with a mixed American-British unit, along with French liaison officers. While the [[9th Infantry Division (United States)|9th Infantry Division]] worked to push the Germans out of [[Cherbourg]], but with most of the street fighting over, Howley's A1A1 detachment exercised its mission authority. He augmented and reconstituted the local government, and got the city back on its feet. "The Cherbourg Civil Affairs operation was subsequently described by Allied observers as efficient beyond all expectations."<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0004.pdf A Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 5]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref><ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 17</ref>

After an initial mix up of orders, Howley's follow-on assignment became [[Paris]]. There he commanded a combined delegation of 150 officers and 200 enlisted men, and entered [[Paris]] along with the first troops. This job was much bigger than [[Cherbourg]], and was to provide relief to the beleaguered French capital and its citizens. While in Paris, Howley was selected by [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower's]] military government chief, [[Lieutenant General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant General]] [[Arthur Edward Grassett|A.E. Grassett]], to lead a military government detachment to [[Berlin]]. The British troops assigned to his unit received initial orders to return to England for their own preliminary preparations.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, pages 17-18</ref>

In December 1944, Howley set up his headquarters in [[Barbizon]], France, preparing for Berlin. Around [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|SHAEF]] Barbizon was called "Howley's mystery town." There, he states, they girded themselves "for virtually all eventualities, except, of course, the curious behavior of our Russian ''allies.''" Governing Berlin would not be an easy proposition in any case, as it was to be on a unanimous four-power basis. They would have to agree on every point, from food distribution to education.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, pages 19-20</ref>

=== Commandant of the U.S. Sector of Berlin ===
[[File:Kommandatura Commandants.jpg|thumb|300px|Allied Commandants of Berlin, 1949. From left, Gen. Bourne (Brit.), Gen. Howley (U.S.) Gen. Kotikov (USSR), Gen. Ganeval (Fr.).]]

Colonel Howley reached [[Berlin]] on July 1, 1945, after substantial haranguing by the [[Soviets]]. He had about 500 officers and men, and 120 vehicles as he began his expedition through the [[Soviet Occupation Zone|Soviet Zone]]. As soon as he arrived at the demarcation line he was told he was limited to 37-50-175, as per the ''Berlin Agreement''. This stipulated, so they said, that he could pass with no more than 37 officers, 50 vehicles, and 175 men.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 30</ref> There is no documented evidence of any such agreement. Howley "felt the hairs rising on the back of his neck," as he experienced the first of his many personal disagreements with the Soviets. He ended up serving over four years in Berlin, first as deputy, and then as Commandant of the U.S. sector, and was relieved in 1949.

The city of Berlin was in absolute shambles, having been devastated by thousands of tons of bombs by mostly British and American bombers. This was followed by brutal, close quarter combat in the streets. On top of that, the city was stripped by the Soviets of vital industrial infrastructure, especially in the western sectors.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 44-45</ref> The citizenry was starving, physically sick, mentally exhausted, and almost completely demoralized. To make any of this right was the herculean task that awaited the prospective U.S. military governor, and Howley brought to bear a broad background of leadership, experience, and pragmatism.<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0004.pdf A Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 5]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

As director of [[Office of Military Government, United States|OMG]] Berlin Sector, he served as Deputy Commandant and [[Staff (military)#Continental Staff System|G5]] to several commanders of the [[Berlin Brigade|U.S. Berlin garrison]]. These were generals [[Floyd L. Parks]], [[James M. Gavin]], [[Ray W. Barker]], [[Frank A. Keating]], [[Cornelius E. Ryan]] (no relation to the renowned Irish journalist and author), and [[William Hesketh]]. But it was Howley's presence during these first two years that imbued stability in the U.S. sector despite the constant rotation of U.S. commander. The reasons for this were two-fold: first, Howley's expertise was in Military Government. His several superiors, however, were combat soldiers, who often lacked the experience and vision in dealing with civil affairs or in governing Berlin. And secondly, except for Keating, all of his predecessors averaged a stay of less than three and a half months in Berlin. [[General (United States)|General]] [[Lucius D. Clay]] promoted Howley to Commandant on December 1, 1947, and he succeeded Hesketh.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 155</ref> Howley finally had free hand in dealing with the Soviets, but not before the city had suffered significantly, including some of its brightest citizens.

There were a myriad duties to attend in trying to resurrect a very large city of millions that had been left to itself and abandoned by its former [[Nazi]] leaders. In trying to accomplish this he ran into many walls, not the least of which was Howley's greatest antagonist—and there were plenty to choose from—[[List of Commandants of Berlin Sectors#Soviet|Soviet Commandant]] [[Major General]] [[A. G. Kotikov]].<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 14</ref> Howley's interminable squabbles and face-offs with Kotikov are well documented.

[[File:Brig. Gen. Frank L. Howley getting star from Gen. Lucius D. Clay.jpg|thumb|300px|Lucius D. Clay pinning star on Brigadier General Howley, April, 1949.]]

As commandant of the U.S. Sector of Berlin, Howley was finally promoted to [[Brigadier General (United States)|brigadier general]] in March, 1949. In this he was decorated personally by his superior, General Clay, [[Office of Military Government, United States|U.S. Military Governor for Germany]] and commander-in-chief of the [[United States European Command|European Command]].<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/omg1949n159/reference/history.omg1949n159.i0009.pdf Information Bulletin, 19APR49, page 12: Frank Howley promotion to Brig. General]. Retrieved 15APR13</ref><ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 245</ref>

[[G.P. Putnam's Sons]], publisher of ''Berlin Command'', put it best, "Frank Howley was a hard-hitting Philadelphia advertising man before he went on active duty with the Army. Tough-minded, brilliant, never giving an inch, he was magnificently suited to face the Russians day after day during the four years he served as deputy and commander of the U.S. forces in besieged Berlin."<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, front flap</ref>

In the end, Howley conferred more than 2,000 hours with his Russian, British, and French counterparts.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 14</ref> On August 31, 1949, he was relieved of his command and departed Berlin a week later. It was time to go home. He was succeeded by [[Major General (United States)|Major General]] [[Maxwell D. Taylor]], but only as Commandant. Military rule was out, and civil rule was in.

===Soviet Walkout from the Kommandatura===
{{main|Allied Kommandatura}}
On the night of June 16, 1948, the [[Soviet]] delegation unexpectedly withdrew from quadripartite meetings. The commandants and their respective staffs had been quibbling most of the day, having only reached one minor agreement. Towards midnight, Colonel Howley indicated he was tired, asked to be excused, and left his deputy to carry on.

Even though Howley's actions complied with protocol completely, after briefly consulting with their ever present political commissar, the Soviets took offense at Howley's gesture. They declared that unless Howley returned and apologized for his "early" retreat, they would depart and not return. Indeed, they all arose and walked out.
Unbeknownst to the western [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] at the time, the [[Soviet]]s planned to instigate a [[Berlin Blockade|blockade]] of western Berlin within days. Howley's departure that night had served them well. Some Kommandatura committees continued to function for several weeks with all four powers represented, even though the Soviet delegation did not attend all scheduled meetings. On August 1, 1948, the Soviet flag was lowered, they left for good, and the four-power Kommandatura ceased to exist.

After that time the three western allied [[List of Commandants of Berlin Sectors|commandants]] continued to hold unofficial meetings at their own HQ offices. Instead of issuing Kommandatura orders, they basically issued unilateral orders, each man to his own sector, Howley included. However, these were issued in a manner of familial or neighborly cooperation.<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0007.pdf A Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 26]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

==Later career==
Frank Howley was named [[Chancellor (education)#United States 3|Vice Chancellor]] of [[New York University]], and served in that capacity between 1950 and 1969.<ref>[http://sports.nyhistory.org/frank-howley/ Bill Shannon Biographical Dictionary of New York Sports—Frank Howley]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

He also appeared before the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]] in 1955, regarding the topic of ''Strategy and Tactics of World Communism''. Howley gave sworn testimony regarding his experience in Europe during World War II, and afterwards with the Soviets in Berlin.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/strategytacticso195513unit/strategytacticso195513unit_djvu.txt Full text of Senate Committee hearings, April 28, 1955]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

He wrote several publications and books, including ''The Frank L. Howley Papers, 1944–1950'' (1950), ''Berlin Command'' (1950), ''Your War for Peace'' (1953), and ''Peoples and Policies: A World Travelogue'' (1959). The ''Frank L. Howley Papers, 1944–1950'' is an official [[U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center|U.S. Army]] collection of documents during his time as military governor in Europe, including France and Berlin. ''Berlin Command'' is Howley's personal story of his four years in Berlin. It describes in great detail the day to day effort in getting Berlin back on its feet and surviving the [[Soviet]]s and the [[Berlin Blockade]]. This book is consulted, heavily at times, in many works regarding the [[Berlin Blockade]] and the resulting [[Berlin Airlift|Airlift]]. ''Your War for Peace'' was the general's effort at describing various political and military hot spots around the world after the war and during the 1950s.

==Personal life==
[[File:Edith Howley.jpg|thumb|200px|Howely's wife and children, Berlin, 1945.]]

He was married to Edith Howley, and has four children: three sons, Dennis, Peter, William, and daughter Frances. After the war he moved to a farm in [[West Grove, Pennsylvania|West Grove]], [[Pennsylvania]].<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, back cover</ref> Howley died in 1993, in [[Warrenton, Virginia|Warrenton]], [[Virginia]], at age ninety.<ref>[http://sports.nyhistory.org/frank-howley/ Bill Shannon Biographical Dictionary of New York Sports—Frank Howley]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

==Acknowledgements==
General Howley was awarded the [[Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)|Distinguished Service Medal]] September 6, 1949. [[John J. McCloy]], the new [[Allied High Commission|High Commissioner]] of Germany at the time, bestowed the honor on behalf of President Truman.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 4</ref>

The city of [[Berlin]] named a street after Howley in recognition of his leadership and passion in getting Berlin's citizens back on their respective feet after the war. '''Frank-L.-Howely-Weg''' is in the district of [[Lichterfelde (Berlin)|Lichterfelde]], and runs parallel to two other streets of recognition, Harry-S.-Truman-Allee and William-H.-Tunner-Strasse.<ref>[http://www.berliner-stadtplan.com/Frank-L-Howley-Weg-14167-Berlin-/Lichterfelde_a13117 Berlin City Map shows Frank-L.-Howley-Weg]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref> All are within the confines of the former [[McNair Barracks]], an American army post during post-war Berlin.

== See also ==
* [[Allied Control Council]]
* [[Allied-occupied Germany]]
* [[European Advisory Commission]]
* [[Georgy Zhukov]]
* [[Military occupation]]
* [[Vasily Sokolovsky]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* An interview with General Howley, ''The Longines Chronoscope'': https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4LwFPhjxNNU
* {{PM20|FID=pe/008246}}

{{Commandants of Berlin Sectors}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Howley, Frank L.}}
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:1993 deaths]]
[[Category:United States Army generals]]
[[Category:United States Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:People from Hampton, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Chester County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Military personnel from New Jersey]]

Frank L. Howley

2024-10-14T20:32:09Z

NidabaM: corrected typographical detail

{{short description|United States Army general}}

{{Infobox military person
|name=Frank L. Howley
|birth_date= {{birth date|1903|02|03}}
|death_date= {{death date and age|1993|7|30|1903|02|03}}
|birth_place= [[Hampton, New Jersey|Hampton]], [[New Jersey]]
|death_place= [[Warrenton, Virginia|Warrenton]], [[Virginia]]
|image=Brigadier General Frank Leo Howley, U.S. Army, 1949.jpg
|image_size=200
|caption= Frank L. Howley
|allegiance=[[United States of America]]
|branch=[[File:United States Department of the Army Seal.svg|25px]] [[United States Army]]
|serviceyears=1932–1949
|rank=[[File:US-O7 insignia.svg|30px]] [[Brigadier General (United States)|Brigadier General]]
|commands=
{{plainlist|
* Civil Affairs Detachment, A1A1
* Director, OMG Berlin Sector
* [[List of Commandants of Berlin Sectors|Commandant, Berlin]]
}}
|laterwork=Vice Chancellor of [[New York University|NYU]], New York, New York
}}

'''Frank Leo "Howlin'" Howley''' (February 3, 1903 – July 30, 1993) was a [[United States Army]] [[Brigadier General (United States)|brigadier general]] and subsequently an administrator at [[New York University]]. Howley served as commandant of the [[List of Commandants of Berlin Sectors|American sector]] of [[Berlin]] after [[World War II]], when [[Allied occupation of Berlin#The divided city|the city]] was broken and in dire need of being restored.<ref>[[Andreas Daum]], ''Kennedy in Berlin'', New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2008, pp. 41, 48, 158.</ref> He became known as ''Howlin' Howley'' because of his interminable and intractable interactions with the [[Soviet]]s.<ref>Daring Young Men: The Heroism and Triumph of The Berlin Airlift, Richard Reeves, 2010, page 76</ref><ref>The Berlin Airlift: Breaking the Soviet Blockade,
Michael Burgan, 2008, page 32</ref>

==Early life==
He was born in [[Hampton, New Jersey|Hampton]], [[New Jersey]], and was educated at the [[Parsons The New School for Design|Parsons School of Fine and Applied Arts]] in [[New York City]]. Howley also attended classes in business and art at the [[University of Paris|Sorbonne]] in [[Paris]], and graduated with a B.S. degree in economics from [[New York University]] (NYU).<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 19 and back cover</ref>

At NYU he played football for the Violets at the positions of left end and placekicker. Although the team was then mediocre at best (1922-1924), Howley gained notoriety for his kicking expertise, and a nickname to match, ''Golden Toe''. During his senior year, in a 41-3 loss to [[Rutgers]], Howley's field goal accounted for their only score. He was also a baseball and track and field athlete.<ref>[http://sports.nyhistory.org/frank-howley/ Bill Shannon Biographical Dictionary of New York Sports—Frank Howley]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

In the 1930s Howley formed his own advertising agency based in [[Philadelphia]] called Frank L. Howley & Associates, and gained business nationwide despite the ongoing economic [[Great Depression|depression]].<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0004.pdf A Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 5]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

==Military career==
Howley entered the [[United States Army Reserve|Officers Reserve Corps]] in 1932 and was called to active duty in 1940. His first assignment was commanding officer of an [[United States Army Air Corps|Air Corps]] ground school, and he was promoted to [[Captain (United States O-3)|captain]]. In 1941 Howley chose to pursue the cavalry and was made operations officer of the [[United States Army Cavalry School|Cavalry School]] at [[Fort Riley]], [[Kansas]]. Sometime later he was made executive officer of the Third Cavalry Mechanized at [[Fort Gordon|Camp Gordon]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and was promoted to the rank of [[Lieutenant Colonel (United States)|lieutenant colonel]]. In the summer of 1943, whilst in Georgia, Howley suffered a motorcycle accident and broke his back and pelvis. He was hospitalized more than five months and was eventually forced to transfer from the cavalry. He was told he could go home or move to [[Military occupation|Military Government]], or more precisely, to [[Civil Affairs#US military civil affairs|Civil Affairs]]. He chose the latter.<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0004.pdf Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 5]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref><ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 17</ref>

===World War II===
Howley was assigned to schools in the U.S. and then in [[England]]. He was made director of the Military Government Officers' Division based in [[Shrivenham]]. Only upon his insistence in taking part in [[Operation Overlord|Normandy]] was he not left behind. For the invasion Howley was designated commander of the Civil Affairs Detachment, with the "mystifying" code name of A1A1. In Normandy he landed on [[Omaha Beach]] on D plus 4 with a mixed American-British unit, along with French liaison officers. While the [[9th Infantry Division (United States)|9th Infantry Division]] worked to push the Germans out of [[Cherbourg]], but with most of the street fighting over, Howley's A1A1 detachment exercised its mission authority. He augmented and reconstituted the local government, and got the city back on its feet. "The Cherbourg Civil Affairs operation was subsequently described by Allied observers as efficient beyond all expectations."<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0004.pdf A Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 5]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref><ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 17</ref>

After an initial mix up of orders, Howley's follow-on assignment became [[Paris]]. There he commanded a combined delegation of 150 officers and 200 enlisted men, and entered [[Paris]] along with the first troops. This job was much bigger than [[Cherbourg]], and was to provide relief to the beleaguered French capital and its citizens. While in Paris, Howley was selected by [[Dwight D. Eisenhower|Eisenhower's]] military government chief, [[Lieutenant General (United Kingdom)|Lieutenant General]] [[Arthur Edward Grassett|A.E. Grassett]], to lead a military government detachment to [[Berlin]]. The British troops assigned to his unit received initial orders to return to England for their own preliminary preparations.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, pages 17-18</ref>

In December 1944, Howley set up his headquarters in [[Barbizon]], France, preparing for Berlin. Around [[Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force|SHAEF]] Barbizon was called "Howley's mystery town." There, he states, they girded themselves "for virtually all eventualities, except, of course, the curious behavior of our Russian ''allies.''" Governing Berlin would not be an easy proposition in any case, as it was to be on a unanimous four-power basis. They would have to agree on every point, from food distribution to education.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, pages 19-20</ref>

=== Commandant of the U.S. Sector of Berlin ===
[[File:Kommandatura Commandants.jpg|thumb|300px|Allied Commandants of Berlin, 1949. From left, Gen. Bourne (Brit.), Gen. Howley (U.S.) Gen. Kotikov (USSR), Gen. Ganeval (Fr.).]]

Colonel Howley reached [[Berlin]] on July 1, 1945, after substantial haranguing by the [[Soviets]]. He had about 500 officers and men, and 120 vehicles as he began his expedition through the [[Soviet Occupation Zone|Soviet Zone]]. As soon as he arrived at the demarcation line he was told he was limited to 37-50-175, as per the ''Berlin Agreement''. This stipulated, so they said, that he could pass with no more than 37 officers, 50 vehicles, and 175 men.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 30</ref> There is no documented evidence of any such agreement. Howley "felt the hairs rising on the back of his neck," as he experienced the first of his many personal disagreements with the Soviets. He ended up serving over four years in Berlin, first as deputy, and then as Commandant of the U.S. sector, and was relieved in 1949.

The city of Berlin was in absolute shambles, having been devastated by thousands of tons of bombs by mostly British and American bombers. This was followed by brutal, close quarter combat in the streets. On top of that, the city was stripped by the Soviets of vital industrial infrastructure, especially in the western sectors.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 44-45</ref> The citizenry was starving, physically sick, mentally exhausted, and almost completely demoralized. To make any of this right was the herculean task that awaited the prospective U.S. military governor, and Howley brought to bear a broad background of leadership, experience, and pragmatism.<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0004.pdf A Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 5]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

As director of [[Office of Military Government, United States|OMG]] Berlin Sector, he served as Deputy Commandant and [[Staff (military)#Continental Staff System|G5]] to several commanders of the [[Berlin Brigade|U.S. Berlin garrison]]. These were generals [[Floyd L. Parks]], [[James M. Gavin]], [[Ray W. Barker]], [[Frank A. Keating]], [[Cornelius E. Ryan]] (no relation to the renowned Irish journalist and author), and [[William Hesketh]]. But it was Howley's presence during these first two years that imbued stability in the U.S. sector despite the constant rotation of U.S. commander. The reasons for this were two-fold: first, Howley's expertise was in Military Government. His several superiors, however, were combat soldiers, who often lacked the experience and vision in dealing with civil affairs or in governing Berlin. And secondly, except for Keating, all of his predecessors averaged a stay of less than three and a half months in Berlin. [[General (United States)|General]] [[Lucius D. Clay]] promoted Howley to Commandant on December 1, 1947, and he succeeded Hesketh.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 155</ref> Howley finally had free hand in dealing with the Soviets, but not before the city had suffered significantly, including some of its brightest citizens.

There were a myriad duties to attend in trying to resurrect a very large city of millions that had been left to itself and abandoned by its former [[Nazi]] leaders. In trying to accomplish this he ran into many walls, not the least of which was Howley's greatest antagonist—and there were plenty to choose from—[[List of Commandants of Berlin Sectors#Soviet|Soviet Commandant]] [[Major General]] [[A. G. Kotikov]].<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 14</ref> Howley's interminable squabbles and face-offs with Kotikov are well documented.

[[File:Brig. Gen. Frank L. Howley getting star from Gen. Lucius D. Clay.jpg|thumb|300px|Lucius D. Clay pinning star on Brigadier General Howley, April, 1949.]]

As commandant of the U.S. Sector of Berlin, Howley was finally promoted to [[Brigadier General (United States)|brigadier general]] in March, 1949. In this he was decorated personally by his superior, General Clay, [[Office of Military Government, United States|U.S. Military Governor for Germany]] and commander-in-chief of the [[United States European Command|European Command]].<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/omg1949n159/reference/history.omg1949n159.i0009.pdf Information Bulletin, 19APR49, page 12: Frank Howley promotion to Brig. General]. Retrieved 15APR13</ref><ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 245</ref>

[[G.P. Putnam's Sons]], publisher of ''Berlin Command'', put it best, "Frank Howley was a hard-hitting Philadelphia advertising man before he went on active duty with the Army. Tough-minded, brilliant, never giving an inch, he was magnificently suited to face the Russians day after day during the four years he served as deputy and commander of the U.S. forces in besieged Berlin."<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, front flap</ref>

In the end, Howley conferred more than 2,000 hours with his Russian, British, and French counterparts.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 14</ref> On August 31, 1949, he was relieved of his command and departed Berlin a week later. It was time to go home. He was succeeded by [[Major General (United States)|Major General]] [[Maxwell D. Taylor]], but only as Commandant. Military rule was out, and civil rule was in.

===Soviet Walkout from the Kommandatura===
{{main|Allied Kommandatura}}
On the night of June 16, 1948, the [[Soviet]] delegation unexpectedly withdrew from quadripartite meetings. The commandants and their respective staffs had been quibbling most of the day, having only reached one minor agreement. Towards midnight, Colonel Howley indicated he was tired, asked to be excused, and left his deputy to carry on.

Even though Howley's actions complied with protocol completely, after briefly consulting with their ever present political commissar, the Soviets took offense at Howley's gesture. They declared that unless Howley returned and apologized for his "early" retreat, they would depart and not return. Indeed, they all arose and walked out.
Unbeknownst to the western [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] at the time, the [[Soviet]]s planned to instigate a [[Berlin Blockade|blockade]] of western Berlin within days. Howley's departure that night had served them well. Some Kommandatura committees continued to function for several weeks with all four powers represented, even though the Soviet delegation did not attend all scheduled meetings. On August 1, 1948, the Soviet flag was lowered, they left for good, and the four-power Kommandatura ceased to exist.

After that time the three western allied [[List of Commandants of Berlin Sectors|commandants]] continued to hold unofficial meetings at their own HQ offices. Instead of issuing Kommandatura orders, they basically issued unilateral orders, each man to his own sector, Howley included. However, these were issued in a manner of familial or neighborly cooperation.<ref>[http://images.library.wisc.edu/History/EFacs/GerRecon/FourYrReport/reference/history.fouryrreport.i0007.pdf A Four Year Report, Office of Military Government U.S. Sector, Berlin, 01JUL45-01SEP49, page 26]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

==Later career==
Frank Howley was named [[Chancellor (education)#United States 3|Vice Chancellor]] of [[New York University]], and served in that capacity between 1950 and 1969.<ref>[http://sports.nyhistory.org/frank-howley/ Bill Shannon Biographical Dictionary of New York Sports—Frank Howley]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

He also appeared before the [[United States Senate Committee on the Judiciary|Senate Judiciary Committee]] in 1955, regarding the topic of ''Strategy and Tactics of World Communism''. Howley gave sworn testimony regarding his experience in Europe during World War II, and afterwards with the Soviets in Berlin.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/strategytacticso195513unit/strategytacticso195513unit_djvu.txt Full text of Senate Committee hearings, April 28, 1955]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

He wrote several publications and books, including ''The Frank L. Howley Papers, 1944–1950'' (1950), ''Berlin Command'' (1950), ''Your War for Peace'' (1953), and ''Peoples and Policies: A World Travelogue'' (1959). The ''Frank L. Howley Papers, 1944–1950'' is an official [[U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center|U.S. Army]] collection of documents during his time as military governor in Europe, including France and Berlin. ''Berlin Command'' is Howley's personal story of his four years in Berlin. It describes in great detail the day to day effort in getting Berlin back on its feet and surviving the [[Soviet]]s and the [[Berlin Blockade]]. This book is consulted, heavily at times, in many works regarding the [[Berlin Blockade]] and the resulting [[Berlin Airlift|Airlift]]. ''Your War for Peace'' was the general's effort at describing various political and military hot spots around the world after the war and during the 1950s.

==Personal life==
[[File:Edith Howley.jpg|thumb|200px|Howely's wife and children, Berlin, 1945.]]

He was married to Edith Howley, and has four children: three sons, Dennis, Peter, William, and daughter Frances. After the war he moved to a farm in [[West Grove, Pennsylvania|West Grove]], [[Pennsylvania]].<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, back cover</ref> Howley died in 1993, in [[Warrenton, Virginia|Warrenton]], [[Virginia]], at age ninety.<ref>[http://sports.nyhistory.org/frank-howley/ Bill Shannon Biographical Dictionary of New York Sports—Frank Howley]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref>

==Acknowledgements==
General Howley was awarded the [[Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)|Distinguished Service Medal]] September 6, 1949. [[John J. McCloy]], the new [[Allied High Commission|High Commissioner]] of Germany at the time, bestowed the honor on behalf of President Truman.<ref>Berlin Command, Brig. General Frank Howley, 1950, page 4</ref>

The city of [[Berlin]] named a street after Howley in recognition of his leadership and passion in getting Berlin's citizens back on their respective feet after the war. '''Frank-L.-Howely-Weg''' is in the district of [[Lichterfelde (Berlin)|Lichterfelde]], and runs parallel to two other streets of recognition, Harry-S.-Truman-Allee and William-H.-Tunner-Strasse.<ref>[http://www.berliner-stadtplan.com/Frank-L-Howley-Weg-14167-Berlin-/Lichterfelde_a13117 Berlin City Map shows Frank-L.-Howley-Weg]. Retrieved: 15APR13</ref> All are within the confines of the former [[McNair Barracks]], an American army post during post-war Berlin.

== See also ==
* [[Allied Control Council]]
* [[Allied-occupied Germany]]
* [[European Advisory Commission]]
* [[Georgy Zhukov]]
* [[Military occupation]]
* [[Vasily Sokolovsky]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* An interview with General Howley, ''The Longines Chronoscope'': https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4LwFPhjxNNU
* {{PM20|FID=pe/008246}}

{{Commandants of Berlin Sectors}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Howley, Frank L.}}
[[Category:1903 births]]
[[Category:1993 deaths]]
[[Category:United States Army generals]]
[[Category:United States Army personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:People from Hampton, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Chester County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Military personnel from New Jersey]]

Friedrich Luft

2024-10-14T20:07:02Z

NidabaM: correct parenthesis

{{short description|German theatre critic}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
[[File:Friedrich Luft.jpg|thumb|upright|Friedrich Luft, end of the 1980s]]

'''Friedrich Luft''' (24 August 1911 – 24 December 1990) was a German [[feuilleton]]ist and [[theater critic]].

== Life ==
[[File:Wohnhaus.Friedrich.Luft.jpg|thumb|Residence of Friedrich Luft in Maienstraße- 4 in [[Schöneberg]] ({{coord|52.500679|13.352016|region:DE-BE_type:landmark|name=Wohnhaus}})]]
[[File:Gedenktafel Hans-Rosenthal-Platz (Schöb) Friedrich Luft.jpg|thumb|[[Berlin memorial plaque]] at the former {{Ill|Funkhaus am Hans-Rosenthal-Platz|de}} in Schöneberg]]
[[File:Gedenktafel.Friedrich.Luft.jpg|thumb|upright|Commemorative plaque at the residence of Friedrich Luft, with [[signature]] of [[Friedrich Dürrenmatt]]]]
[[File:Friedrich Luft 1985.png|thumb|Friedrich Luft in his flat at [[Nollendorfplatz]], 1985]]
[[File:Waldfriedhof dahlem ehrengrab Luft, Friedrich1.jpg|thumb|upright|Friedrich Luft's grave]]

Born in [[Berlin-Friedenau|Friedenau]], Luft was the son of a German student councilor and a Scottish mother. His older brother was the German-American [[physiologist]] and [[university teacher]] {{Ill|Ulrich Cameron Luft|de}}. Luft grew up in the Friedenauer ''Kaiserallee 74'' and attended the nearby {{Ill|Friedrich-Bergius-Schule|de}} at Maybachplatz (today: {{Ill|Perelsplatz|de}}). He studied German, English and History in Berlin and at the [[University of Königsberg]]. He listened with great interest to [[Max Herrmann (theatrologist)|Max Herrmann]] lectures on theatre history. From 1936, he was a freelance writer. He wrote [[feuilleton]]s for the ''[[Berliner Tageblatt]]'' and the ''[[Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung]]''. For the [[Oberkommando des Heeres]], he wrote numerous [[screenplay]]s, for example for the films ''Die Brieftaube im Einsatz'' and ''Das Pferd und die Gasmaske für das Pferd''. He also produced texts for the cabaret artist [[Werner Finck]]. In 1940, he married the draughtswoman Heide Thilo.

Immediately after the Second World War, he initially worked for ''[[Der Tagesspiegel]]'', which was founded in 1945. He had a column entitled ''Urbanus'' with everyday sketches from the Berlin [[History of Germany (1945-1990)|post-war period]] that are still worth reading today. These were published in 1948 by [[Suhrkamp Verlag]] under the title ''Tagesblätter von Urbanus''. ''[[Die Neue Zeitung]]'', founded in 1947 by the American occupying power, took him into service as head of the feature section of its Berlin edition, as a theatre and [[film critic]], until it ceased publication in 1955.

In 1959, he wrote the subtle 27-page preface to the autobiography ''Spiel im Dasein'' by [[Max Ophüls]], the theatre and film director ''([[Lola Montez]]'', ''[[Letter from an Unknown Woman (1948 film)|Letters from an Unknown]]'') from [[Saarbrücken]].

Above all, however, he was the "voice of criticism" at the radio station [[Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor|RIAS]].<ref>''[http://www.dradio.de/dkultur/sendungen/thema/1537250/ Die Stimme der Kritik]'' at ''[[Deutschlandradio]]''</ref> Every Sunday at noon, from the first broadcast on 9 February 1946 – at that time still on ''DIAS'' (wire radio in the American sector) – until 28 October 1990 shortly before his death, he spoke in this capacity about Berlin theatre premieres of the previous week. As [[rhetoric]] peculiarities were his quick and sometimes breathlessly choppy speech, a sometimes drastic mode of expression combined with [[baroque]] squiggles as well as the same recurring farewell formula from the listeners:
<blockquote>We'll talk again in a week. As always - same time, same place, same wave. Yours, Friedrich Luft.<ref>Werner Schwipps: [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927121458/http://www.medienrezeption.de/zeitschriften/rundfunk/archiv/1998/kohse.html ''Gleiche Stelle, gleiche Welle. Friedrich Luft und seine Zeit.''], Mitteilungen des Studienkreises Rundfunk und Geschichte – Informationen aus dem Deutschen Rundfunkarchiv, 1998</ref></blockquote>

In addition to this, he later wrote articles for the ''[[Süddeutsche Zeitung]]'' and ''[[Die Welt]]''. Luft also wrote the German dialogue book on the [[David Lean]]'s classic ''[[The Bridge on the River Kwai]]'' from 1957.

Luft spoke fluent English. He lived and worked for 50 years until his death near the [[Nollendorfplatz]] in the [[Schöneberg]] Maienstraße 4, where a plaque commemorates the critic, who was very popular in Berlin at the time. Luft was buried at the [[Waldfriedhof Dahlem]] together with his wife Heide, who worked as a graphic artist and illustrator. His grave is dedicated as a grave of honour to the city of Berlin.

In 1991, the "Friedrich-Luft-Archive" was established in the [[Academy of Arts, Berlin]]. It contains manuscripts of the reviews of his radio programme ''Stimme der Kritik'' as well as a collection of Lufts newspaper reviews and [[Gloss (annotation)|glosse]]s from 1945 to 1990, his library and a tape archive with recordings of his radio programmes from the RIAS.<ref>Akademie der Künste: [http://www.adk.de/de/archiv/archivbestand/darstellende-kunst/index.htm?hg=darstell&we_objectID=1099 Friedrich Luft Archiv], Archiv Darstellende Kunst</ref>

== Publications ==
* ''Luftballons''. 1939
* ''Tagesblätter''.<ref>[https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/614921908 ''Tagesblätter''] n WorldCat</ref> by Urbanus. 1948
* ''Puella auf der Insel'' (Kinderbuch). 1949
* ''[http://www.rhetorik-netz.de/rhetorik/quatsch.htm Quatsch in schöner Gestalt… – Vom Tiefsinn unserer Redner und Schreiber.]'' In ''[[Die Welt]]'', 4. Mai 1957
* ''[[Gustaf Gründgens]]''. Rembrandt-Verlag, Berlin 1958 (2nd edition 1960)
* ''Vom großen, schönen Schweigen'' ([[Charlie Chaplin]] Biography). 1958
* ''Berliner Theater 1945–1961''. Erhard Friedrich Verlag Velber bei Hannover 1961 (2nd edition 1962)
* ''Luftsprünge''. 1962
* ''Stimme der Kritik''. Velber bei Hannover 1965 (erste und zweite Auflage 1961 unter dem Titel ''Berliner Theater 1945–1961'')
* ''Stimme der Kritik. Theaterereignisse seit 1965'', Stuttgart 1979.
* ''Die Stimme der Kritik. Conversation with {{Ill|Hans-Christoph Knebusch|de}}.'' In the series "Zeugen des Jahrhunderts", 1991.

== Radio plays ==
* 1953: [[Karl Farkas]]: ''Bei Kerzenlicht'' – Editing (text): [[Curth Flatow]], composition: {{Ill|Robert Katscher|de}}, Bearbeitung (music): {{Ill|Heinrich Riethmüller|de}}, [[mise en scène]]: {{Ill|Rolf Kutschera|de}} (Theatermitschnitt – [[Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor|RIAS]] Berlin)
* 1953: {{Ill|Franz von Schönthan|de}} and {{Ill|Paul von Schönthan|de}}: ''[[Der Raub der Sabinerinnen (Komödie)|Der Raub der Sabinerinnen]]'' (Moderator) – editing (text): Friedrich Luft, mise en scène: Willi Sämann; {{Ill|Hanns Korngiebel|de}} (Theatermitschnitt – RIAS Berlin)

== Trivia ==
The ''[[Berliner Morgenpost]]'' has been awarding the "{{Ill|Friedrich-Luft-Preis|de}}" since 1992. This currently endowed with 7500 Euro- prize annually honours the best theatre performance in Berlin.<ref>[https://www.theaterderzeit.de/index.php/blog/meldungen/auszeichnung/friedrich-luft-preis_2018_geht_ans_deutsche_theater_berlin/ ''Friedrich-Luft-Preis 2018 geht ans Deutsche Theater Berlin''], Theater der Zeit</ref>

== Further reading ==
* Petra Kohse: ''Gleiche Stelle, gleiche Welle – Friedrich Luft und seine Zeit.'' Aufbau-Verlag, Berlin 1998, {{ISBN|978-3-351-02482-6}}.
* {{Ill|Hans-Jörg von Jena|de}}: [http://www.jf-archiv.de/archiv99/079aa31.htm ''Der Kritiker Friedrich Luft. Ein vertrauter Zeitgenosse'']. In ''[[Junge Freiheit]]'' dated 12 February 1999, mit Bezug auf die erschienene Biografie von Petra Kohse
* {{Ill|Ulrich Weinzierl|de}}: ''[https://www.welt.de/kultur/article11803551/Eine-Theaterlegende-namens-Friedrich-Luft.html Eine Theaterlegende namens Friedrich Luft.]'' In ''[[Die Welt]]'', 24 December 2010.
* {{Ill|Wilfried F. Schoeller|de}} (ed.): ''Friedrich Luft: "Über die Berliner Luft. Feuilletons."''<ref>[[Deutschlandfunk]].de, ''Büchermarkt'' 16 December 2018, {{Ill|Tobias Lehmkuhl|de}}: [https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/friedrich-luft-ueber-die-berliner-luft-ironischer.700.de.html?dram:article_id=435834 ''Ironischer Kulturkritiker der Großstadt''] (16 December 2018)</ref> {{Ill|Die Andere Bibliothek|de}}, Berlin, {{ISBN|978-3-847-70405-8}}.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commonscat}}
* {{DNB portal|119008394}}
* {{IMDb name|nm0525175}}
* [https://archiv.adk.de/bigobjekt/2187 Friedrich-Luft-Archiv] im Archiv der [[Academy of Arts, Berlin]]

{{Portal bar|Literature|Theatre|Film|Journalism|Germany}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Luft, Friedrich}}
[[Category:German radio journalists]]
[[Category:German male writers]]
[[Category:German film critics]]
[[Category:German people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:German theatre critics]]
[[Category:Rundfunk im amerikanischen Sektor people]]
[[Category:1911 births]]
[[Category:1990 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Tempelhof-Schöneberg]]

Der Tagesspiegel

2024-10-14T19:58:15Z

NidabaM: wrong link removed

{{Short description|German newspaper}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
{{Infobox newspaper
| name = {{Lang|de|Der Tagesspiegel}}
| logo = Tagesspiegel (2022-11-29).svg
| image = [[File:Der Tagesspiegel front page.jpg|240px|border]]
| caption = The 17 September 2010 front page of {{Lang|de|Der Tagesspiegel}}
| type = [[Daily newspaper]]
| format = [[Broadsheet]]
| owners = Verlag Der Tagesspiegel GmbH ([[Dieter von Holtzbrinck]] Media)
| editor = {{ubl|Stephan-Andreas Casdorff|Lorenz Maroldt}}
| publisher =
| foundation = {{start date and age|1945|9|27|df=yes}}
| language = German
| headquarters = [[Berlin]], Germany
| circulation =
| ISSN = 1865-2263
| OCLC =
| website = {{URL|tagesspiegel.de}}
}}
'''{{Lang|de|Der Tagesspiegel}}''' (meaning '''''The Daily Mirror''''') is a German daily [[newspaper]]. It has regional correspondent offices in [[Washington D.C.|Washington, D.C.]], and [[Potsdam]]. It is the only major newspaper in the capital to have increased its circulation, now 148,000, since [[German reunification|reunification]].{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} {{Lang|de|Der Tagesspiegel}} is a [[Liberalism in Germany|liberal]] newspaper<ref name="LCCC">{{Cite book |author1=Annikki Koskensalo |author2=John Smeds |author3=Angel Huguet |author4=Rudolf De Cillia |title=Language: Competence-Change-Contact |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |year=2012 |page=90}}</ref> that is classified as [[Centrism|centrist]] media in the context of German politics.<ref>{{cite book |editor=Craig R. Eisendrath |editor2=Melvin Allan Goodman |editor3=Melvin A. Goodman |title=The Phantom Defense: America's Pursuit of the Star Wars Illusion |date=2001 |page=136 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=Glen Segell |title=Disarming Iraq |date=2004 |page=352 |publisher=Glen Segell Publishers}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|editor=W. Pojmann |title=Migration and Activism in Europe since 1945 |quote= This qualitative analysis was complemented by a quantitative media analysis of coverage of the two case studies in two major Berlin dailies; the leftist Berliner Zeitung and the more centrist Tagesspiegel. |date=2004 |page=2008 |publisher=Springer}}</ref>

== History and profile ==
Founded on 27 September 1945 by Erik Reger, Walther Karsch and Edwin Redslob, {{Lang|de|Der Tagesspiegel}}{{'s}} main office is based in Berlin<ref>{{cite web|title=Der Tagesspiegel|url=http://www.voxeurop.eu/en/content/source-information/34121-der-tagesspiegel|work=VoxEurop|access-date=28 April 2015}}</ref> at Askanischer Platz in the locality of [[Kreuzberg]], about {{convert|600|m}} from [[Potsdamer Platz]] and the former location of the [[Berlin Wall]].

For more than 45 years, {{Lang|de|Der Tagesspiegel}} was owned by an independent [[Financial endowment|trust]]. In 1993, in response to an increasingly competitive publishing environment, and to attract investments required for technical modernisation, such as commission of a new printing plant, and improved distribution, it was bought by the [[Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group]]. Its current publisher is Dieter von Holtzbrinck with [[editors in chief]] Stephan-Andreas Casdorff and {{Interlanguage link multi|Lorenz Maroldt|de}}. Pierre Gerckens, Giovanni di Lorenzo and Hermann Rudolph are editors of the newspaper. Some of the notable writers include [[Bas Kast]] and [[Harald Martenstein]].

The paper's main readership is in the western half of the city, due to the 1948 blockade having stopped its circulation in [[East Berlin]] and [[Brandenburg]]. The paper has recently been redesigned, introducing more colour and a clearer [[typeface]]. In 2005 it was awarded the ''World's Best-Designed Newspapers'' Award by the ''[[Society for News Design]]'' in New York. It is owned by Verlag Der Tagesspiegel [[Gesellschaft mit beschränkter Haftung|GmbH]], a member of the [[Georg von Holtzbrinck Publishing Group]], and associated with the ''[[The Wall Street Journal Special Editions|Wall Street Journal]]''. In 2009, [[Dieter von Holtzbrinck]] bought {{Lang|de|Der Tagesspiegel}} and ''[[Handelsblatt]]'' from Holtzbrinck.<ref>{{cite web|title=Der Tagesspiegel|url=http://www.eurotopics.net/en/home/medienindex/media_articles/?frommedia=549|work=Eurotopics|access-date=21 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224092409/http://www.eurotopics.net/en/home/medienindex/media_articles/?frommedia=549|archive-date=24 December 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref>

From 2005 to 2008, American journalist Michael Scaturro edited the English-language version of {{Lang|de|Der Tagesspiegel}}, which was known as ''[[The Berlin Paper]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-11-15 |title=Medien: Mit Steingart auf dem Sofa |url=https://www.welt.de/print-wams/article142250/Medien-Mit-Steingart-auf-dem-Sofa.html |first1=Christian |last1=Meier |website=WELT |language=de}}</ref>

In 2007 and 2008 {{Lang|de|Der Tagesspiegel}}'s [[Washington D.C.|Washington, D.C.]], correspondent, [[Christoph von Marschall]], was noted in both Germany and the United States for his coverage of [[Barack Obama]]'s presidential campaign. He wrote a book entitled ''[[Barack Obama – Der schwarze Kennedy]]''. The literal translation of its German title is "Barack Obama – the Black [[John F. Kennedy|Kennedy]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://my.barackobama.com/page/community/post/RheinMain/CGBZ4|title=Barack Obama – The Black Kennedy?!|publisher=Rhein-Main for Obama Blog |first1=Dennis |last1=Phillips |date=Jan 30, 2008 |access-date=14 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603182505/https://my.barackobama.com/page/community/post/RheinMain/CGBZ4|archive-date=3 June 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> His book was a bestseller in Germany, where other commentators had also compared the two Americans.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/06/germanys-got-a-crush-on-obama/ |title=Germany's Got a Crush on Obama |work=The Caucus |publisher=New York Times |date=6 January 2008 |first1= Nicholas |last1=Kulish |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111054727/https://archive.nytimes.com/thecaucus.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/01/06/germanys-got-a-crush-on-obama/ |archive-date= Nov 11, 2022 }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.tagesspiegel.de/ Official website] {{in lang|de}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070831195752/http://www.snd.org/competitions/contests.lasso?contest=26&ID=36853 Society for News Design Tagesspiegel World's Best-Designed Detail Page]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tagesspiegel}}
[[Category:Der Tagesspiegel| ]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Germany]]
[[Category:Centrist newspapers]]
[[Category:Daily newspapers published in Germany]]
[[Category:German-language newspapers]]
[[Category:German news websites]]
[[Category:Liberal media in Germany]]
[[Category:Liberalism in Germany]]
[[Category:Newspapers published in Berlin]]
[[Category:Newspapers established in 1945]]

AFN Berlin

2024-10-14T19:56:09Z

NidabaM:

{{short description|American military radio and television station in West Berlin}}
{{mi|{{no footnotes|date=March 2015}}
{{Copy edit|date=August 2024}}
{{More citations needed|date=August 2024}}}}
[[File:AfnBerlinLogo.jpg|thumb|180px|Station logo of AFN Berlin]]
[[File:AFN-Berlin-transmitter.jpg|thumb|180px|This transmitter at ''Clayallee'' was also used to broadcast AFN TV Berlin, 1986.]]
'''AFN Berlin''' was a US military broadcast station located at Podbielskiallee 28 in [[Dahlem (Berlin)|Berlin-Dahlem]]. It started broadcasting at noon on August 4, 1945, with the ''[[Rhapsody in Blue]]'' by [[George Gershwin]]. The TV studio was located on Saargemünder Strasse, across from the Berlin Brigade Headquarters compound.

During the [[Berlin Blockade]] AFN Berlin started broadcasting around the clock. After the building of the [[Berlin Wall]] AFN Berlin radio then stayed on the air 24 hours until July 1994. TV programming was normally from 15:00 to 01:00 weekdays and 12:00 to 01:00 on weekends during the mid 1970s.

AFN Berlin had three stations:
* a [[medium-wave]] AM station at 1107 kHz
* an FM station at 87.85 MHz (adjusted to 87.9 MHz at a later stage, called 88FM)
* a TV station on UHF channel E29 (US channel 25) broadcasting in [[NTSC]] (thus requiring a multistandard set for German viewers) with a low-power transmitter limited to southwestern Berlin

Until November 23, 1978, the AM frequency was 935 kHz. Due to the agreements in the [[Geneva Frequency Plan of 1975|Geneva Frequency Plan]] the frequency was changed to 1107 kHz.

On July 15, 1994, AFN Berlin broadcast a 3-hour special broadcast on both radio frequencies, which was transmitted live into 54 countries. Afterwards, seconds before 14:00, AFN Berlin ceased transmitting after playing a rendition of "[[The Star-Spangled Banner]]" performed by [[William Rivelli]].

==History==
On July 17, 1945, several GIs reached Berlin with their jeep and the order to set up a radio station within 17 days. They were followed by two trucks with a mobile transmitter, which were stationed not far from the future location of the transmitter. A 250-watt transmitter served listeners within a radius of just two miles.<ref>AFN Europe: 60 Years and counting. In: R & R AFN, Cable Satellite TV. Vol 35 July 2003 No. 7 P. 12</ref> Stationary broadcasting began on August 4, 1945 at 12 p.m. with George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue from a confiscated villa at Podbielskiallee 28. The Rhapsody was immediately followed by a song mocking Adolf Hitler (Right in the Fuehrer’s Face). The first announcer and program director at the new station was Sergeant Mel Gelliart, who brought radio experience from the station WLS in Chicago.<ref>The OMGUS Observer Vol. 11. No. 23 from June 7, 1946</ref> One of the events of the beginning of the year was that AFN's jeep was stolen on October 13, 1945 from the door of the studios on Podbielskiallee.<ref>The Berlin Sentinel Vol 1 No. 4 from October 20, 1945</ref>

== Productions ==

=== Radio (88FM) ===
Musical programs:
*An early morning show, host unknown, in late 1950s, (Mon–Fri - 7 am–8 am); theme song: an abbreviated version of: "s'Wonderful" by Ray Conniff.
*Before noon show, hosted by Mark Marcus, in late 1950s, (Mon–Fri 11am-noon), popular music
*Early afternoon: host unknown, weekdays 1 pm–2 pm, country & western music.
*''Frolic at Five'', host Georg Hudak early to mid 1950s and later unknown host, mid 1950s, (Mon-Fri - 5 pm–6 pm); theme song: "9:20 Special" recorded May 30, 1945 by Harry James.
*''Music in the Air'', host unknown, late 1950s, (weekdays 7 pm–8 pm), light music.
*''Frolic at Jazz'', host unknown, (Saturdays 6 pm–7 pm); Theme tune: "Skinned & Skinned Again" by Woody Herman.
*''The Juice''
* Disco
* Special live broadcasts from the German-American [[Volksfest]] at the Hüttenweg in [[Berlin-Dahlem]] and from the Day of Open House at the [[Tempelhof Airport|Tempelhof Central Airport]] (TCA)
*''An Afternoon Show'' (Mon-Fri)

=== Television ===
[[File:AFN Berlin TV News Set.jpg|thumb|The evening TV news set at AFN Berlin in 1982 with (L-R) David Sullivan (sports), Loretta Nosworthy (weather), Cambria Pendleton (co-anchor) and Kyle King (main anchor). Photo slides from the AP and UPI news agencies were keyed electronically on the blue background.]]
*''Berlin Tonight'' (daily news)
*''Berlin PM'' (interview show)
*''Berlin Tonight Late Edition'' (late news)
*''Discover Berlin'' (trailers of Berlin sights)
*''The Berlin Ramblers'' (30-minute live country music show, 1968 one Saturday afternoon monthly)
*''Berlin Midday''
*''Snowball Satellite'' (Christmas)
*''P.L.P.'s Workshop'' (children's show Saturday mornings)
*''Forum'' (news magazine)
*''Get it Together'' (TV quiz show)
*. Berlin Sports Roundup (Weekly Sports program hosted by SP4 Jim Rose 73–75)

== People of AFN Berlin ==

=== Radio ===
{{columns-list|colwidth=12em|1=
* Maj. Phillip R. Pierce OIC AFN Berlin 1986–1989
* David MacDonald
* Jacques Bannamon
* Jay Juliano
* Fred Cochran
* Rik DeLisle
* Jo Eager
* [https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1299212/?ref_=ttfc_fc_cl_t6 Eric Engbretson]
* Rebecca Easley
* Lee Heft
* Maj. Jack Maloney (station commander 1960 -1963)
* Mark White (programming)
* Dick Rosse (news)
* George Hudak (''Frolic At Five'')
* Bob Lewis
* Mitch Farrell
* Ken McGyver
* Jim Stutzman "(American Music Hall)", "(Weekend World)"
* Ralph Stinson
* Jean Vavrin (cooking show "What's Cooking")
* Joey Welzant (engineer)
* Mike Marshall
* Howie Schwartz
* Jan Wood
* Ted Shrady
* Steve Kostelac
* Magnificent Magoo (Jim McCauley)
* Bob Selleck
* Dan Simmons
* Tom Tucker
* Hank Minitrez
* Bill Gaylord
* Paul Dandridge (until Sept. 1968)
* Terence Rousseau
* Bob Woodley
* Paul Ramirez
* Brian Hart (news)
* Patrick McGuire
* Vicki Washington
* Keya Newman
* Christina Leaird
* Gage Mace
* Jim Cyr
* Danette Rodesky
* Jerry Cormier
* Jeanine Kabrich
* Mike Niederer
* Larry Sem
* Joel O'Brien
* Jay Brady
* Mike Piper (news)
* Denis Sloan
* Rick Himot
* John Proffitt
* Ed Tooma
* Jim Kane
* Ed Poston (news)
* Edward Theodore Faircloth
* Gail Anderson
* Art Mehring
* Henry Michael (Ogrodzinski)
* Paul Markey (intern)
}}

=== TV ===
{{columns-list|colwidth=12em|1=
* David MacDonald
* Jacques Bannamon
* Rebecca Easley
* Hank Minitrez
* Dan Quakkelaar
* Bob Selleck
* Bill Gaylord
* Terence Rousseau
* Brian Hart
* Patrick McGuire
* Vicki Washington
* Keya Newman
* Christina Leaird
* Jim Cyr
* Bob Woodley
* Paul Ramirez
* Peter Dolle
* Kyle King
* Danette Rodesky
* Jerry Cormier
* Dave Shepard
* Jeanine Kabrich
* Dave Sullivan
* Tom Hoban
* Bill Bright
* Vince Turella
* Debbie Frantz
* Joel O'Brien
* Susan Ward
* Mike Nussbaumer
* Dave Dudding
* Dave Jimanez
* Mike Pernatozzi
* John Rees
* Bruce Dortin
* Rick Saltzman
* Ron Grabert
* Jim Mauzy
* Jim Wright
* Kip Rummel
* Capt John Orton (OIC July 1973 - July 1976)
* John O'Conner
* Dennis Hannon
* Don Browers
* Wayne Boyles
* Danny Gates
* Al Scully
* Mike Niederer
* Peggy Foster
* Barry Cantor
* Gail Anderson
* Barbara Beimly
* Eldee McGill Jr
* Paul Markey (Intern)
* Chris Dancey (Intern)
* Al Cunningham (NCOIC Studio Operation)
* Russell Reed
* Larry Wilson
* Ralph Bremer
* Jack Arnold
* Linda Arnold
* Lionel Cantu
* Will Pratt
* Rick Mack
* Jinny Peek
* Douglas Mitchell
* Helga Lehmann
* Rodney Copfer
* Dexter Marquez
* Raymond Cooley
* Willie Green
* Russ Clark
* Fernando DeCosta
* Antonio Zollicoffer
* Jim Rose (Sports Director/Anchor 1973–75)
}}

== See also ==
* [[American Forces Network]]
* [[AFN Bremerhaven]]
* [[AFN Frankfurt]]
* [[AFN Munich]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|AFN Berlin}}
* [http://www.geocities.ws/Eureka/Plaza/5246/afn_berlin/afn_berlin.html unofficial website about AFN Berlin] (mirror site)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110105122205/http://6941st-gdbn.com/bbde/afnberlin/index.html Page of the 6941st Gd Bn Kameradschaftsbund about AFN Berlin] (de)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140819155215/http://www.afn-berlin.com/ AFN Berlin.com private website about AFN Berlin]

{{Coord|52.450|N|13.275|E|type:landmark_region:DE|display=inline,title}} Last location of AFN Berlin

[[Category:American Forces Network]]
[[Category:English-language radio stations]]
[[Category:Defunct radio stations in Germany]]
[[Category:Radio stations in Berlin]]
[[Category:1945 establishments in Germany]]
[[Category:1994 disestablishments in Germany]]
[[Category:Radio stations established in 1945]]
[[Category:Radio stations disestablished in 1994]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations established in 1967]]
[[Category:Television channels and stations disestablished in 1994]]