Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Grosses Fiescherhorn

2024-08-20T10:04:58Z

PatriceNeff: Fixed Valais double

{{short description|Mountain in Switzerland}}

{{Infobox mountain
| name= Grosses Fiescherhorn
| native_name_lang= de
| translation= Grand Horn of Fiesch
| language= [[Swiss Standard German|German]]
| photo= Gross Fiescherhorn.jpg
| photo_size= 285
| photo_caption= The north face (Fiescherwand) of the Fiescherhorn (Grosses (right) and Kleines Fiescherhorn (middle), and [[Finsteraarhorn]] in the back (left))
| elevation_m= 4049
| elevation_ref=
| prominence_m= 396
| prominence_ref=<ref>Retrieved from the [[swisstopo]] topographic maps. The key col lies on the Fieschergrat at 3,651 metres.</ref>
| isolation_km= 4.7
| isolation_ref=<ref>Retrieved from [[Google Earth]]. The nearest point of higher elevation is east of the [[Mönch]].</ref>
| parent_peak= [[Finsteraarhorn]]
| map= Switzerland
| map_caption= Location in Switzerland
| subdivision2_type= Canton
| subdivision2= {{enum|[[Canton of Bern|Bern]]|[[Canton of Valais|Valais]]}}
| country= [[Switzerland]]
| parent= [[Bernese Alps]]
| coordinates= {{coord|46|33|05|N|8|03|40|E|type:mountain_region:CH_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| range_coordinates=
| coordinates_ref=
| topo_map= [[swisstopo]]
| mountain_type= glaciated peak
| age=
| first_ascent= 23 July 1862
| easiest_route= Basic rock/snow/ice climb
}}

'''Grosses Fiescherhorn''' is a [[mountain peak]] of the [[Bernese Alps]], located on the border between the cantons of [[Canton of Bern|Bern]] and [[Canton of Valais|Valais]], halfway between the [[Mönch]] and the [[Finsteraarhorn]]. At {{convert|4049|m}} above sea level, its summit culminates over the whole Fiescherhorn massif ({{lang-de|'''Fiescherhörner'''}}), which is also composed of the slightly lower [[Hinteres Fiescherhorn]] ({{convert|4025|m|abbr=on}}) to the south and [[Kleines Fiescherhorn]] (also called ''Ochs'' aka ox, {{convert|3895|m|abbr=on}}) to the east. From the north both are well hidden behind other mountain peaks and can only been seen from ''Isch'' in [[Grindelwald]] (1,095 m). The mountain is shared between the municipalities of Grindelwald and [[Fieschertal]].

Ascents are usually made from one of these three popular routes: one starts from the [[Mönchsjoch Hut]], one from the [[Konkordia Hut]], and the third from the [[Finsteraarhorn Hut]].

== Climbing history ==
[[File:GrossesFiescherhorn.JPG|thumb|left|The Fiescherwand from Bäregg]]
The summit was first reached on 23 July 1862 by H. B. George and [[Adolphus Warburton Moore]], with guides [[Christian Almer]] and Ulrich Kaufmann. They used what is now the normal route, the south-west ridge.<ref name = Dumler>Helmut Dumler,Willi P. Burkhardt, ''Les 4000 des Alpes'', {{ISBN|2-7003-1305-4}}</ref>

The north side of the mountain was first climbed in 1926. On 13 August, W. Amstutz and P. von Schumacher reached the summit after a 15-hour ascent via the north ridge, which is the northern boundary of the Fiescherwand.<ref name=Dumler/>

The first direct ascent on the Fiescherwand was made by W. Welzenbach and H. Tillmann in 1930. Welzenbach was an expert climber, who disputed the common idea of his time that an ascent of the Fiescherwand was impossible. The previous year, in 1929, Welzenbach and Tillmann climbed the north ridge in only 8.5 hours.<ref name=Dumler/> The following year they started the ascent of the Fiescherwand on the morning of 5 September 1930, taking a line that ran directly to the summit. They reached the top that evening, after a 12-hour ascent.<ref name=Dumler/>

==See also==
{{Portal|Alps | left = | break = }}
*[[List of 4000 metre peaks of the Alps]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.summitpost.org/trip-report/432732/gross-fiescherhorn-4049m.html Grosses Fiescherhorn on SummitPost]
* [http://www.4000er.de/gipfel.php?vid=12 Grosses Fiescherhorn (Die Viertausender der Alpen)]

{{Jungfrau-Aletsch Protected Area|state=collapsed}}
{{Mountains of Switzerland|state=collapsed}}
{{Portal bar|Mountains|Switzerland}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Alpine four-thousanders]]
[[Category:Bernese Alps]]
[[Category:Mountains of the Alps]]
[[Category:Mountains of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Mountains of Valais]]
[[Category:Mountains of the canton of Bern]]
[[Category:Bern–Valais border]]
[[Category:Four-thousanders of Switzerland]]

[[pt:Fiescherhorn]]

Grand Slam of Ultrarunning

2024-04-19T08:05:14Z

PatriceNeff: /* Controversy */ - Use archive.org link for expired ultrarunnerpodcast.com

{{other uses|Grand Slam (disambiguation)}}
{{Cleanup bare URLs|date=August 2022}}
The '''Grand Slam of Ultrarunning''' is a set of four of the five most prestigious and oldest 100-mile races contested in the [[United States]], comprising the [[Old Dominion 100 Mile Endurance Run]] in Virginia, the [[Western States 100]] in [[California]], the [[Vermont 100 Mile Endurance Run]] in [[Vermont]], the [[Leadville Trail 100]] in [[Colorado]], and the [[Wasatch Front 100 Mile Endurance Run]] in [[Utah]]. A small number of people manage to complete four in one calendar year.

==History==
The first runner to complete the Grand Slam was [[Tom Green (runner)|Tom Green]], 35, of Maryland in 1986 in a combined time of 96 hours, 26 minutes, and 28 seconds. At the time, there were only 4 100-mile races in North America. These were the Old Dominion 100 in Virginia, Western States, Leadville, and Wasatch. Two runners completed the series in 1987 and three in 1988. In 1989, the Vermont 100 was added to the series, and runners could choose between it and Old Dominion. Starting in 2003, Old Dominion was removed from the series. In 2008, Western States was cancelled due to forest fires and the Arkansas Traveller 100 was run in its place.<ref>Stan Jensen, http://www.run100s.com/slammers.htm retrieved Sept. 5, 2013</ref> Starting in 2017, Old Dominion was once again added to the series and runners have to complete the [[Wasatch Front 100 Mile Endurance Run]] and three of the other four races to achieve the award.<ref>Stan Jensen, http://www.run100s.com/gs.htm retrieved Nov. 23, 2017</ref>

Today about a dozen runners complete the Grand Slam each year. Entry is limited by lotteries at Vermont, Western States, Leadville, and Wasatch. From 1986 through 2017 there have been 345 official finishers. The fastest time as of 2017 was 69:49:38 by [[Ian Sharman]], 33 of Oregon in 2013. [http://www.run100s.com/slammers.htm Complete list of finishers]. [http://www.run100s.com/gs13.htm 2013 finishers]. In 2015, [[Junko Kazukawa]] completed the Grand Slam and the [[Leadville Trail 100#Leadville Race Series|Leadwoman series]], becoming the first woman to complete both events in a single year.<ref name="Fields-Denver Post">{{cite news|last1=Fields|first1=Jenn|title=Denver woman completes Grand Slam of Ultrarunning and Leadwoman|url=http://www.denverpost.com/2015/12/25/denver-woman-completes-grand-slam-of-ultrarunning-and-leadwoman/|accessdate=4 June 2017|newspaper=[[The Denver Post]]|date=December 25, 2015|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170604154435/http://www.denverpost.com/2015/12/25/denver-woman-completes-grand-slam-of-ultrarunning-and-leadwoman/|archivedate=4 June 2017|location=Denver, Colorado}}</ref><ref name="UltraRunning" >{{cite journal|last1=Smith|first1=Tonia|title=Junko Kazukawa: Grand Slammer, Leadwoman, 2x Cancer Survivor|journal=UltraRunning Magazine|date=January 28, 2016|url=https://ultrarunning.com/featured/junko-kazukawa-grand-slammer-leadwoman-2x-cancer-survivor/|accessdate=4 June 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518015746/https://ultrarunning.com/featured/junko-kazukawa-grand-slammer-leadwoman-2x-cancer-survivor/|archivedate=18 May 2017|location=Bend, Oregon}}</ref> In 2019, [[Dion Leonard]] completed the Grand Slam and the [https://www.leadvilleraceseries.com/leadmanleadwoman/ Leadman series], becoming the first man to complete both events in a single year.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.findinggobi.com/|title=Finding Gobi Dion Leonard {{!}} Dion Leonard {{!}} Gobi the Dog{{!}} Finding Gobi Book|website=www.findinggobi.com|language=en|access-date=2019-09-08}}</ref>

==Controversy==
Entry into the Grand Slam is administered by the race committee for the Wasatch 100, which is also the last race in the series, normally held in early September. In 2017 entry costs $80 and must be received before the start of the first race (Western States) in late June.<ref>http://www.wasatch100.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=13&Itemid=13</ref> Entered runners who complete the first three races are guaranteed entry into Wasatch without having to go through the lottery. Runners who complete all four races but who do not enter the series are not officially recognized. A list of these so-called "stealth" runners was maintained at https://web.archive.org/web/20120715180450/http://run100s.com/stealth.htm <ref>Retrieved from Google cache on Sept. 4, 2013</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year !! Name !! Old Dominion !! Western States !! Vermont !! Leadville !! Wasatch !! Total time
|-
| 2002 || Sam Voltaggio, 51, TX || 25:19:00 || 28:59:24 || 26:08:21 || 29:00:46 || 34:27:21 || 117:46:31
|-
| 2004 || Rob Apple, 43, TN || || 29:11:37 || 28:46:07 || 29:07:32 || 35:08:24 || 122:13:40
|-
| 2005 || Rob Apple, 44, TN || || 28:48:32 || 27:43:32 || 29:42:28 || 35:15:46 || 121:30:18
|-
| 2010 || Pete Stevenson, 37, CO || || 18:58:42 || 21:48:28 || 24:36:46 || 32:56:19 || 98:20:15
|-
| 2013 || Nick Clark, 39, CO || || 16:56:23 || 15:54:32 || 17:06:29 || 20:24:26 || 70:21:50
|}

On August 30, 2013, this page was removed, possibly out of concern that Nick Clark might set a course record without being officially recognized when Wasatch was to be held on Sept. 6-7, 2013.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Schranz|first=Eric|date=2013-09-03|title=Grand Slam of Ultrarunning Drama|url=https://ultrarunnerpodcast.com/grand-slam-of-ultrarunning-drama/|access-date=2024-04-19|website=Ultrarunnerpodcast.com|language=en-US| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004230829/https://ultrarunnerpodcast.com/grand-slam-of-ultrarunning-drama/ |archive-date=2023-10-04}}</ref> In addition, the following text was added to http://www.run100s.com/gs.htm

:MESSAGE FROM THE GRAND SLAM OF ULTRARUNNING™ COMMITTEE AND THE WASATCH 100 RACE COMMITTEE
:
:The Grand Slam of Ultrarunning™ Committee and the Wasatch Front 100 Mile Endurance Run Committee do not endorse, recognize, or ratify anyone or their times involved in the so-called “unofficial” grand slam of ultrarunning. Likewise we do not support, encourage, or sustain anyone involved in this pursuit.
:
:We continue to recognize, applaud, and award the runners who are legitimately registered in and officially complete The Grand Slam of Ultrarunning™.
:
:We also remind all who are observing or otherwise involved that the term “Grand Slam of Ultrarunning™” is a trademark of The Grand Slam of Ultrarunning™ entity, and only those who are official entrants and finishers of The Grand Slam of Ultrarunning™ are entitled to use the term “Grand Slam of Ultrarunning™” in whatever form (including in any form that might cause trademark confusion) in connection with their running endeavors.

Kieren McCarthy questioned the legality of the Wasatch committee taking ownership of the trademark rights, noting that the other races in the series are open to anyone and that the trademark is not registered.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mccarthy|first=Kieran|date=2013-09-03|title=Bonus Miles: The Grand Slam and the Basics of Trademark Law|url=http://gnarlyirishmountainrunner.blogspot.com/2013/09/the-grand-slam-and-basics-of-trademark.html|access-date=2021-07-04|website=Bonus Miles}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.run100s.com/gs.htm Grand Slam page on run100s.com site]
* [http://www.ultramarathonrunning.com/ ULTRAmarathonRunning.com] Global Ultramarathon Races & Events Calendar

[[Category:Ultramarathons in the United States]]

OPEC

2023-06-29T11:13:28Z

PatriceNeff: Fix broken link

{{Short description|International petroleum cartel}}
{{Distinguish|Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
| image_flag = Flag of OPEC.svg
| image_map = Opec-Opec+Map.png
| image_map_caption = OPEC and OPEC+ members
| org_type = {{nowrap|[[Cartel]]<ref name=cartel>{{cite web |url= http://www.oecd.org/regreform/sectors/2376087.pdf |title= Glossary of Industrial Organization Economics and Competition Law |publisher=[[OECD]] |year=1993 |page=19 |access-date=22 December 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160304094916/http://www.oecd.org/regreform/sectors/2376087.pdf |archive-date= 4 March 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| membership_type = Membership
| membership = {{unbulleted list|OPEC: [[#Current member countries|13 members]]|OPEC+: [[#OPEC+|10 further members]]}}
| admin_center_type = Headquarters
| admin_center = [[Vienna]], Austria
| languages_type = Official language
| languages = English
| leader_title1 = [[List of Secretaries General of OPEC|Secretary General]]
| leader_name1 = [[Haitham al-Ghais]]
| established = [[Baghdad]], Iraq
| established_event1 = Statute
| established_date1 = {{Start date and age|September 1960|df= y|p=y}}
| established_event2 = In effect
| established_date2 = {{Start date and age|January 1961|df=y|p=y}}
| official_website = {{URL|https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en|opec.org}}
| demonym =
| area_km2 =
| area_rank =
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| HDI =
| HDI_year =
| today =
}}

The '''Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries''' ('''OPEC''', {{IPAc-en|ˈ|oʊ|p|ɛ|k}} {{respell|OH|pek}}) is an organisation enabling the co-operation of leading oil-producing countries in order to collectively influence the global oil market and maximise profit. It was founded on 14 September 1960 in Baghdad by the first five members ([[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Kuwait]], [[Saudi Arabia]], and [[Venezuela]]). The 13 member countries account for an estimated 30 percent of [[List of countries by oil production |global oil production]] <ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-05-03 |title=Opec: What is it and what is happening to oil prices? |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-61188579}}</ref> and 80 percent of [[List of countries by proven oil reserves |the world's proven oil reserves]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023|reason="80% of proven reserves" is not stated in the BBC article}}

In a series of steps in the 1960s and 1970s, OPEC restructured the global system of oil production in favour of oil-producing states and away from an oligopoly of dominant Anglo-American oil firms (the [[Seven Sisters (oil companies)|"Seven Sisters]]").<ref name=":2" /> In the 1970s,[[1970s energy crisis| restrictions in oil production]] led to a dramatic rise in oil prices with long-lasting and far-reaching consequences for the global economy. Since the 1980s, OPEC has had a limited impact on world oil-supply and oil-price stability, as there is frequent cheating by members on their commitments to one another, and as member commitments reflect what they would do even in the absence of OPEC.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Colgan |first=Jeff D. |title=Partial Hegemony: Oil Politics and International Order |date=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-754637-6 |pages=94–118 |chapter=The Stagnation of OPEC |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197546376.001.0001 |chapter-url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780197546376.001.0001/oso-9780197546376-chapter-4}}</ref>

The formation of OPEC marked a turning point toward[[Nationalization of oil supplies| national sovereignty over natural resources]]. OPEC decisions have come to play a prominent role in the global oil-market and in[[Petroleum politics| international relations]]. Economists have characterised OPEC as a textbook example of a [[cartel]]<ref>
{{cite book
|last1 = LeClair
|first1 = Mark S.
|date = 8 July 2016
|orig-date = 2000
|chapter = The History and Evlauation of Significant commodity Cartels
|title = International Commodity Markets and the Role of Cartels
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hW6lDAAAQBAJ
|edition = reprint
|publication-place = Abingdon
|publisher = Routledge
|page = 81
|isbn = 9781315500881
|access-date = 11 June 2023
|quote = OPEC, the most notorious of the modern cartels, functioned effectively for only thirteen years.
}}
</ref>
(a group whose members cooperate to reduce [[Competition (economics) |market competition]]) but one whose consultations may be protected by the doctrine of [[State immunity |state immunity under international law]].<ref>
{{cite book
|last1 = Terhechte
|first1 = Jörg Philipp
|author-link1 = Jörg Philipp Terhechte
|editor-last1 = Herrmann
|editor-first1 = Christoph
|editor-last2 = Terhechte
|editor-first2 = Jörg Philipp
|editor-link2 = Jörg Philipp Terhechte
|date = 1 December 2009
|chapter = Applying European Competition Law to International Organizations: The Case of OPEC
|title = European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2010
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ugnfC6oFH2YC
|series = European Yearbook of International Economic Law
|publication-place = Heidelberg
|publisher = Springer Science & Business Media
|page = 195
|isbn = 9783540788836
|access-date = 11 June 2023
|quote = [...] the question whether OPEC's activities, those of its member states and those of the state-owned enterprises are protected by the principle of State Immunity is to be answered in accordance with the preconditions set by the UN Convention as an expression of common principles of International law. [...] The crucial question [...] in terms of International law is: 'Is OPEC engaged in commercial activities or not?'
}}
</ref>

{{As of|2018|June|alt=Current OPEC members are |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/25.htm|post=}} Algeria, Angola, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, the Republic of the Congo, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela. Meanwhile, Ecuador, Indonesia and Qatar are former OPEC members.<ref>{{cite web |title=OPEC: Member Countries |url= https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/25.htm |website=opec.org |access-date= 22 April 2020}}</ref> A larger group called '''OPEC+''', consisting of OPEC members plus other oil-producing countries, formed in late 2016 to exert more control on the global crude-oil market.<ref name="ope2">{{Cite magazine|last= Cohen |first= Ariel|author-link=Ariel Cohen|title=OPEC Is Dead, Long Live OPEC+ |url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/arielcohen/2018/06/29/opec-is-dead-long-live-opec/ |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190802092849/https://www.forbes.com/sites/arielcohen/2018/06/29/opec-is-dead-long-live-opec/ |archive-date=2 August 2019 |access-date=2 August 2019 |magazine=[[Forbes]] | quote = The deal represents the latest successful policy effort by the 24 member supercartel, informally referred to as the 'Vienna Group' or 'OPEC+,' to put their thumb on the scale of global oil markets. And it's a huge thumb indeed. [...] OPEC's 14 members control 35 percent of global oil supplies and 82 percent of proven reserves. With the addition of the 10 Non-OPEC nations, notable among them Russia, Mexico and Kazakhstan, those shares increase to 55 percent and 90 percent respectively. This affords OPEC+ a level of influence over the world economy never seen before.}}
</ref>

==Organisation and structure==
In a series of steps in the 1960s and 1970s, OPEC restructured the global system of oil production in favour of oil-producing states and away from an oligopoly of dominant Anglo-American oil firms (the Seven Sisters).<ref name=":2">{{harvc|in=Colgan|chapter=The Rise of OPEC|year=2021|chapter-url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780197546376.001.0001/oso-9780197546376-chapter-3|pages=59–93}}</ref> Coordination among oil-producing states within OPEC made it easier for them to nationalise oil production and structure oil prices in their favour without incurring punishment by Western governments and firms.<ref name=":2" /> Prior to the creation of OPEC, individual oil-producing states were punished for taking steps to alter the governing arrangements of oil production within their borders.<ref name=":2" /> States were coerced militarily (e.g. in 1953, the US-UK-sponsored a [[1953 Iranian coup d'état|coup against Mohammad Mosaddegh]] after he nationalised Iran's oil production) or economically (e.g. the Seven Sisters slowed down oil production in one non-compliant state and ramped up oil production elsewhere) when acted contrary to the interests of the Seven Sisters and their governments.<ref name=":2" />

The organisational logic that underpins OPEC is that it is in the collective interest of its members to limit the world oil supply in order to reap higher prices.<ref name=":1" /> However, the main problem within OPEC is that it is individually rational for members to cheat on commitments and produce as much oil as possible.<ref name=":1" />

Political scientist Jeff Colgan has argued that OPEC has since the 1980s largely failed to achieve its goals (limits on world oil supply, stabilized prices, and raising of long-term average revenues).<ref name=":1" /> He finds that members have cheated on 96% of their commitments.<ref name=":1" /> To the extent that member states comply with their commitments, it is because the commitments reflect what they would do even if OPEC did not exist. One large reason for the frequent cheating is that OPEC does not punish members for non-compliance with commitments.<ref name=":1" />

=== Leadership and decision-making ===
{{See also|List of Secretaries General of OPEC}}
[[File:158ava Reunión de países miembros de la OPEP (5251965558).jpg|thumb|alt=refer to caption|OPEC Conference delegates at [[Swissotel]], [[Quito]], [[Ecuador]], December 2010]]
The OPEC Conference is the supreme authority of the organisation, and consists of delegations normally headed by the oil ministers of member countries. The chief executive of the organisation is the [[List of Secretaries General of OPEC|OPEC secretary general]]. The conference ordinarily meets at the Vienna headquarters, at least twice a year and in additional extraordinary sessions when necessary. It generally operates on the principles of unanimity and "one member, one vote", with each country paying an equal membership fee into the annual budget.<ref name="statute">{{cite web |year=2012 |title=Statute |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/static_files_project/media/downloads/publications/OPEC_Statute.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021084736/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/static_files_project/media/downloads/publications/OPEC_Statute.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2014 |access-date=12 December 2014 |work=OPEC}}</ref> However, since Saudi Arabia is by far the largest and most-profitable oil exporter in the world, with enough capacity to function as the traditional [[swing producer]] to balance the global market, it serves as "OPEC's ''de facto'' leader".<ref name="FT2015" />

=== International cartel ===
At various times, OPEC members have displayed apparent anti-competitive [[cartel]] behavior through the organisation's agreements about oil production and price levels.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gülen |first=S. Gürcan |year=1996 |title=Is OPEC a Cartel? Evidence from Cointegration and Causality Tests |url=http://fmwww.bc.edu/EC-P/WP318.pdf |url-status=unfit |journal=[[The Energy Journal]]|volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=43–57 |citeseerx=10.1.1.133.9886 |doi=10.5547/issn0195-6574-ej-vol17-no2-3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000916172154/http://fmwww.bc.edu/EC-P/WP318.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2000}}</ref> Economists often cite OPEC as a textbook example of a cartel that cooperates to reduce market competition, as in this definition from [[OECD]]'s ''Glossary of Industrial Organisation Economics and Competition Law'':<ref name="cartel" />

{{blockquote|International commodity agreements covering products such as coffee, sugar, tin and more recently oil (OPEC: Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries) are examples of ''international cartels'' which have publicly entailed agreements between different national governments.}}

OPEC members strongly prefer to describe their organisation as a modest force for market stabilisation, rather than a powerful anti-competitive cartel. In its defence, the organisation was founded as a counterweight against the previous "[[Seven Sisters (oil companies)|Seven Sisters]]" cartel of multinational oil companies, and non-OPEC energy suppliers have maintained enough market share for a substantial degree of worldwide competition.<ref>{{cite journal |date=June–July 2012 |title=The Global Energy Scene |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/static_files_project/media/downloads/publications/OB06_072012.pdf |url-status=live |journal=OPEC Bulletin |volume=43 |pages=24–41 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909221208/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/static_files_project/media/downloads/publications/OB06_072012.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2016 |access-date=9 April 2016 |number=5}}</ref> Moreover, because of an economic "[[prisoner's dilemma]]" that encourages each member nation individually to discount its price and exceed its production quota,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Browning |first1=Edgar K. |url=http://www.wiley.com/college/browning/0471389161/pdf/ |title=Microeconomics: Theory & Applications |last2=Zupan |first2=Mark A. |date=2004 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0471678717 |edition=8th |pages=394–396 |chapter=The Prisoner's Dilemma and Cheating by Cartel Members |access-date=5 September 2016 |chapter-url=http://www.wiley.com/college/browning/0471389161/pdf/ch14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160915032256/http://www.wiley.com/college/browning/0471389161/pdf/ |archive-date=15 September 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref> widespread cheating within OPEC often erodes its ability to influence global oil prices through [[Collective action problem|collective action]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Colgan |first=Jeff |date=16 June 2014 |title=OPEC, the Phantom Menace |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/06/16/opec-the-phantom-menace/ |url-status=live |access-date=9 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161110043953/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/06/16/opec-the-phantom-menace/ |archive-date=10 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Van de Graaf |first=Thijs |year=2016 |title=Is OPEC dead? Oil exporters, the Paris agreement and the transition to a post-carbon world |url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8137111/file/8137112.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Energy Research & Social Science |volume=23 |pages=182–188 |doi=10.1016/j.erss.2016.10.005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925074356/https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8137111/file/8137112.pdf |archive-date=25 September 2019 |access-date=25 September 2019 |hdl-access=free |hdl=1854/LU-8137111}}</ref> Political scientist Jeff Colgan has challenged that OPEC is a cartel, pointing to endemic cheating in the organization: "A cartel needs to set tough goals and meet them; OPEC sets easy goals and fails to meet even those."<ref name=":1" />

OPEC has not been involved in any disputes related to the competition rules of the [[World Trade Organization]], even though the objectives, actions, and principles of the two organisations diverge considerably.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Farah |first1=Paolo Davide |last2=Cima |first2=Elena |date=September 2013 |title=Energy Trade and the WTO: Implications for Renewable Energy and the OPEC Cartel |journal=Journal of International Economic Law |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=707–740 |doi=10.1093/jiel/jgt024 |ssrn=2330416}}</ref> A key US District Court decision held that OPEC consultations are protected as "governmental" acts of state by the [[Foreign Sovereign Immunities Act]], and are therefore beyond the legal reach of US [[competition law]] governing "commercial" acts.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Joelson |first1=Mark R. |last2=Griffin |first2=Joseph P. |year=1975 |title=The Legal Status of Nation-State Cartels Under United States Antitrust and Public International Law |journal=The International Lawyer |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=617–645 |jstor=40704964}}</ref> Despite popular sentiment against OPEC, legislative proposals to limit the organisation's sovereign immunity, such as the [[NOPEC]] Act, have so far been unsuccessful.<ref>{{cite news |last=Learsy |first=Raymond J. |date=10 September 2012 |title=NOPEC ('No Oil Producing and Exporting Cartels Act'): A Presidential Issue and a Test of Political Integrity |work=HuffPost |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/raymond-j-learsy/nopec-no-oil-producing-an_b_1869803.html |url-status=live |access-date=6 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603111612/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/raymond-j-learsy/nopec-no-oil-producing-an_b_1869803.html |archive-date=3 June 2017 |quote=Varied forms of a NOPEC bill have been introduced some 16 times since 1999, only to be vehemently resisted by the oil industry.}}</ref>

===Conflicts===
OPEC often has difficulty agreeing on policy decisions because its member countries differ widely in their oil export capacities, production costs, reserves, geological features, population, economic development, budgetary situations, and political circumstances.<ref name="MEES" /><ref name="discordant" /> Indeed, over the course of market cycles, oil reserves can themselves become a source of serious conflict, instability and imbalances, in what economists call the "[[Resource curse#Political effects|natural resource curse]]".<ref>{{cite journal |last=Palley |first=Thomas I. |date=December 2003 |title=Lifting the Natural Resource Curse |url=https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/198/40112.html |url-status=live |journal=[[Foreign Service Journal]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520023419/https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/198/40112.html |archive-date=20 May 2016 |access-date=26 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Ross |first=Michael L. |date=May 2015 |title=What Have We Learned about the Resource Curse? |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt8tp5x1hb/qt8tp5x1hb.pdf?t=qay04b |journal=[[Annual Review of Political Science]] |volume=18 |pages=239–259 |doi=10.1146/annurev-polisci-052213-040359 |doi-access=free}}</ref> A further complication is that [[Religious war|religion-linked]] [[List of conflicts in the Middle East|conflicts in the Middle East]] are recurring features of the geopolitical landscape for this oil-rich region.<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Kessler|first=Oren|author-link=Oren Kessler|date=13 February 2016|title=The Middle East's Conflicts Are About Religion|magazine=[[The National Interest]]|url=http://nationalinterest.org/feature/the-middle-easts-conflicts-are-about-religion-15205?page=show|url-status=live|access-date=17 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326124531/http://nationalinterest.org/feature/the-middle-easts-conflicts-are-about-religion-15205?page=show|archive-date=26 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Motadel |first=David |date=24 May 2015 |title='Defending the Faith' in the Middle East |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/24/opinion/sunday/defending-the-faith-in-the-middle-east.html |url-status=live |access-date=17 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908005002/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/05/24/opinion/sunday/defending-the-faith-in-the-middle-east.html |archive-date=8 September 2015}}</ref> Internationally important conflicts in OPEC's history have included the [[Six-Day War]] (1967), [[Yom Kippur War]] (1973), a [[OPEC siege|hostage siege directed by Palestinian militants]] (1975), the [[Iranian Revolution]] (1979), [[Iran–Iraq War]] (1980–1988), [[Gulf War|Iraqi occupation of Kuwait]] (1990–1991), [[September 11 attacks]] (2001), [[History of Iraq (2003–2011)|American occupation of Iraq]] (2003–2011), [[Conflict in the Niger Delta]] (2004–present), [[Arab Spring]] (2010–2012), [[Libyan Crisis]] (2011–present), and international [[Embargo against Iran]] (2012–2016). Although events such as these can temporarily disrupt oil supplies and elevate prices, the frequent disputes and instabilities tend to limit OPEC's long-term cohesion and effectiveness.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |year=2004 |title=Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa |publisher=Gale / Macmillan Reference USA |location=Detroit |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/OPEC.aspx |access-date=10 April 2016 |editor-last=Mattar |editor-first=Philip |editor-link=Philip Mattar |edition=2nd |volume=3 |isbn=978-0028657691 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409042033/http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/OPEC.aspx |archive-date=9 April 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==History and impact==

===Post-WWII situation===
In 1949, [[United States of Venezuela|Venezuela]] and [[Pahlavi Iran|Iran]] took the earliest steps in the direction of OPEC, by inviting Iraq, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to improve communication among petroleum-exporting nations as the world recovered from [[World War II]].<ref name="open">{{Cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/static_files_project/media/downloads/publications/GenInfo.pdf |title=General Information |date=May 2012 |work=OPEC |access-date=13 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413233306/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/static_files_project/media/downloads/publications/GenInfo.pdf |archive-date=13 April 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> At the time, some of the world's largest [[List of oil fields|oil fields]] were just entering production in the Middle East. The United States had established the [[Interstate Oil Compact Commission]] to join the [[Texas Railroad Commission]] in limiting overproduction. The US was simultaneously the world's largest producer and consumer of oil; and the world market was dominated by a group of [[multinational companies]] known as the "[[Seven Sisters (oil companies)|Seven Sisters]]", five of which were headquartered in the US following the breakup of [[John D. Rockefeller]]'s original [[Standard Oil]] monopoly. Oil-exporting countries were eventually motivated to form OPEC as a counterweight to this concentration of political and [[economic power]].<ref name="prize" />

===1959–1960: anger from exporting countries===
In February 1959, as new supplies were becoming available, the multinational oil companies (MOCs) unilaterally reduced their posted prices for Venezuelan and Middle Eastern crude oil by 10 percent. Weeks later, the [[Arab League]]'s first [[Arab Petroleum Congress]] convened in Cairo, Egypt, where the influential journalist [[Wanda Jablonski]] introduced Saudi Arabia's [[Abdullah Tariki]] to Venezuela's observer [[Juan Pablo Pérez Alfonzo]], representing the two then-largest oil-producing nations outside the United States and the Soviet Union. Both oil ministers were angered by the price cuts, and the two led their fellow delegates to establish the Maadi Pact or [[Gentlemen's agreement|Gentlemen's Agreement]], calling for an "Oil Consultation Commission" of exporting countries, to which MOCs should present price-change plans. Jablonski reported a marked hostility toward the West and a growing outcry against "[[absentee landlord]]ism" of the MOCs, which at the time controlled all oil operations within the exporting countries and wielded enormous political influence. In August 1960, ignoring the warnings, and with the US favoring Canadian and Mexican oil for strategic reasons, the MOCs again unilaterally announced significant cuts in their posted prices for Middle Eastern crude oil.<ref name="open"/><ref name="prize">{{cite book |first=Daniel |last=Yergin |author-link=Daniel Yergin |title=The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power |location=New York |publisher=Simon & Schuster |year=1991 |isbn=978-0671502485 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/prize00dani/page/499 499–503] |title-link=The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Painter |first=David S. |year=2012 |title=Oil and the American Century |journal=[[The Journal of American History]] |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=24–39 |doi=10.1093/jahist/jas073 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bBvz_YxlB-AC&pg=PA7 |title=Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry |first=M.S. |last=Vassiliou |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0810862883 |page=7}}</ref>

===1960–1975: founding and expansion===
[[File:Wien - OPEC-Zentrale (b).JPG|thumb|alt=refer to caption|OPEC headquarters in Vienna (2009 building)]]
The following month, during 10–14 September 1960, the Baghdad Conference was held at the initiative of Tariki, Pérez Alfonzo, and Iraqi prime minister [[Abd al-Karim Qasim]], whose country had skipped the 1959 congress.<ref name=":0">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8U_sWfvgToQC&pg=PA74 |last=Styan |first=David |title=France and Iraq: Oil, Arms and French Policy Making in the Middle East |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2006 |page=74 |isbn=978-1845110451}}</ref> Government representatives from Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela met in [[Baghdad]] to discuss ways to increase the price of crude oil produced by their countries, and ways to respond to unilateral actions by the MOCs. Despite strong US opposition: "Together with Arab and non-Arab producers, Saudi Arabia formed the Organization of Petroleum Export Countries (OPEC) to secure the best price available from the major oil corporations."<ref>{{cite book |last=Citino |first= Nathan J. |year=2002 |title=From Arab Nationalism to OPEC: Eisenhower, King Sa'ud, and the Making of US-Saudi Relations |url=https://archive.org/details/fromarabnational00nath |url-access=limited |location=Bloomington |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |isbn=978-0-253-34095-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/fromarabnational00nath/page/n20 4]}}</ref> The Middle Eastern members originally called for OPEC headquarters to be in Baghdad or Beirut, but Venezuela argued for a neutral location, and so the organization chose [[Geneva]], Switzerland. On 1 September 1965, OPEC moved to [[Vienna]], Austria, after Switzerland declined to extend [[diplomatic privileges]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Skeet |first=Ian |title=OPEC: Twenty-Five Years of Prices and Politics |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988 |page=24 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jg80AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA24 |isbn=9780521405720 |access-date=17 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617124502/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jg80AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA24 |archive-date=17 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> At the time, Switzerland was trying to reduce her foreign population and the OPEC was the first intergovernmental body to leave the country because of restrictions on foreigners.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=2209&dat=19650629&id=zhpbAAAAIBAJ&sjid=404NAAAAIBAJ&pg=7157,5955607|title=Switzerland Reduces Her Foreign Population|language=en|work=The Telegraph|date=1965-06-29}}</ref> Austria was keen to attract international organizations and offered attractive terms to the OPEC.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OPEC : Thank you Austria – thank you Vienna! |url=https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/3157.htm |access-date=2023-06-02 |website=www.opec.org}}</ref>

During the early years of OPEC, the oil-producing countries had a 50/50 profit agreement with the oil companies.<ref name=":122">{{harvc|in=Colgan|chapter=The Rise of OPEC|year=2021|pages=73–78}}</ref> OPEC bargained with the dominant oil companies (the Seven Sisters), but OPEC faced coordination problems among its members.<ref name=":122" /> If one OPEC member demanded too much from the oil companies, then the oil companies could slow down production in that country and ramp up production elsewhere.<ref name=":122" /> The 50/50 agreements were still in place until 1970 when Libya negotiated a 58/42 agreement with the oil company Occidental, which prompted other OPEC members to request better agreements with oil companies.<ref name=":122" /> In 1971, an accord was signed between major oil companies and members of OPEC doing business in the [[Mediterranean Sea]] region, called the ''Tripoli Agreement''. The agreement, signed on 2 April 1971, raised oil prices and increased producing countries' profit shares.<ref name="OPEC_1971_Tripoli_Agreement">[[Marius Vassiliou]] (2009). Historical Dictionary of the Petroleum Industry. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. {{ISBN|0-8108-5993-9}}.</ref>

During 1961–1975, the five founding nations were joined by [[Qatar]] (1961), [[Indonesia]] (1962–2008, rejoined 2014–2016), [[Libya]] (1962), [[United Arab Emirates]] (originally just the [[Emirate of Abu Dhabi]], 1967), [[Algeria]] (1969), [[Nigeria]] (1971), [[Ecuador]] (1973–1992, 2007–2020), and [[Gabon]] (1975–1994, rejoined 2016).<ref name="OPEC Member">{{cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/25.htm |title=Member Countries |access-date=7 January 2020 |work=OPEC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107050155/https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/25.htm |archive-date=7 January 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref> By the early 1970s, OPEC's membership accounted for more than half of worldwide oil production.<ref name=MarketShare/> Indicating that OPEC is not averse to further expansion, [[Mohammed Barkindo]], OPEC's acting secretary general in 2006, urged his African neighbors Angola and Sudan to join,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/business/energy/4374140.html |title=Angola, Sudan to ask for OPEC membership |agency=Associated Press |date=3 December 2006 |access-date=4 December 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604205524/http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/business/energy/4374140.html |archive-date=4 June 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Angola]] did in 2007, followed by [[Equatorial Guinea]] in 2017.<ref name=May2017Vienna>{{cite press release |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/4305.htm |title=OPEC 172nd Meeting concludes |publisher=OPEC |date=11 March 2019 |access-date=26 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527214657/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/4305.htm |archive-date=27 May 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Since the 1980s, representatives from Egypt, Mexico, Norway, Oman, Russia, and other oil-exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers, as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies.<ref name=observers>{{cite news |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2010/09/opec-fifty-years-regulating-oil-market-roller-coaster/ |title=OPEC: Fifty Years Regulating Oil Market Roller Coaster |agency=Inter Press Service |date=14 September 2010 |access-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224104031/http://www.ipsnews.net/2010/09/opec-fifty-years-regulating-oil-market-roller-coaster/ |archive-date=24 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===1973–1974: oil embargo===
{{Main|1973 oil crisis}}
[[File:GASOLINE SHORTAGE HIT THE STATE OF OREGON IN THE FALL OF 1973 BY MIDDAY GASOLINE WAS BECOMING UNAVAILABLE ALONG... - NARA - 555405.jpg|thumb|alt=refer to caption|An undersupplied US gasoline station, closed during the oil embargo in 1973]]
The oil market was tight in the early 1970s, which reduced the risks for OPEC members in nationalising their oil production.<ref name=":1223">{{harvc|in=Colgan|chapter=The Rise of OPEC|year=2021|pages=79–85}}</ref> One of the major fears for OPEC members was that nationalisation would cause a steep decline in the price of oil.<ref name=":1223" /> This prompted a wave of nationalisations in countries such as Libya, Algeria, Iraq, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela.<ref name=":1223" /> With greater control over oil production decisions and amid high oil prices, OPEC members unilaterally raised oil prices in 1973, prompting the 1973 oil crisis.<ref name=":1223" />

In October 1973, the [[Organisation of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OAPEC, consisting of the Arab majority of OPEC plus Egypt and Syria) declared significant production cuts and an oil [[embargo]] against the United States and other industrialised nations that supported Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kumins|first=Lawrence|date=1975|title=Oil and the Economy|journal=Energy Shock|pages=189}}</ref><ref name="Maugeri2006" /> A [[1967 Oil Embargo|previous embargo attempt]] was largely ineffective in response to the [[Six-Day War]] in 1967.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v34/d266 |publisher=US Department of State |title=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1964–1968, Vol. XXXIV: Energy Diplomacy and Global Issues, Document 266 |date=1999 |access-date=28 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604103018/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1964-68v34/d266 |archive-date=4 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, in 1973, the result was a sharp rise in oil prices and OPEC revenues, from US$3/bbl to US$12/bbl, and an emergency period of energy [[rationing]], intensified by panic reactions, a declining trend in US oil production, currency devaluations,<ref name="Maugeri2006">{{cite book |first=Leonardo |last=Maugeri |title=The Age of Oil: The Mythology, History, and Future of the World's Most Controversial Resource |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JWmx5uKA6gIC |date=2006 |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-275-99008-4 |pages=112–116 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160501230353/https://books.google.com/books?id=JWmx5uKA6gIC&printsec=frontcover |archive-date=1 May 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and a lengthy UK coal-miners dispute. For a time, the UK imposed an emergency [[Three-Day Week|three-day workweek]].<ref>{{cite web |title=British Economics and Trade Union politics 1973–1974 |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/releases/2005/nyo/politics.htm |publisher=The National Archives (UK) |date=January 2005 |access-date=29 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609060809/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/releases/2005/nyo/politics.htm |archive-date=9 June 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> Seven European nations banned non-essential Sunday driving.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1973/11/26/page/7/article/europe-car-ban-becoming-a-real-traffic-stopper |title=Europe car ban becoming a real traffic stopper |newspaper=Chicago Tribune |date=26 November 1973 |access-date=6 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160219093149/http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1973/11/26/page/7/article/europe-car-ban-becoming-a-real-traffic-stopper/ |archive-date=19 February 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> US gas stations limited the amount of petrol that could be dispensed, closed on Sundays, and restricted the days when petrol could be purchased, based on number plate numbers.<ref>{{cite book |title=How We Got Here: The '70s |last=Frum |first=David |author-link=David Frum |year=2000 |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=978-0-465-04195-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/313 313–318] |url=https://archive.org/details/howwegothere70sd00frum/page/313 }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,942763,00.html |title=Gas Fever: Happiness Is a Full Tank |magazine=Time |date=18 February 1974 |access-date=30 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922191457/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,942763,00.html |archive-date=22 September 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Even after the embargo ended in March 1974, following intense diplomatic activity, prices continued to rise. The world experienced a [[1973–1975 recession|global economic recession]], with [[stagflation|unemployment and inflation surging simultaneously]], steep declines in stock and bond prices, major shifts in [[trade balance]]s and [[petrodollar recycling|petrodollar flows]], and a dramatic end to the [[Post–World War II economic expansion|post-WWII economic boom]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Skidelsky |title=Keynes: The Return of the Master |year=2009 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/keynesreturnofma0000skid/page/116 116–126] |isbn=978-1-84614-258-1 |publisher=Allen Lane |title-link=Keynes: The Return of the Master }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Masouros |first=Pavlos E. |title=Corporate Law and Economic Stagnation: How Shareholder Value and Short-Termism Contribute to the Decline of the Western Economies |publisher=Eleven International Publishing |year=2013 |pages=60–62}}</ref>

[[File:Women Uses Her Home Fireplace for Heat. A Newspaper Headline before Her Tells of the Community's Lack of Heating Oil 10-1973 (4271701391).jpg|thumb|alt=refer to caption|A woman uses wood in a fireplace for heat. A newspaper headline in the foreground shows a story regarding a lack of heating oil in the community.]]
The 1973–1974, oil embargo had lasting effects on the United States and other industrialised nations, which established the [[International Energy Agency]] in response, as well as national [[Global strategic petroleum reserves|emergency stockpiles]] designed to withstand months of future supply disruptions. Oil [[Energy conservation|conservation]] efforts included lower speed limits on highways, smaller and more [[Efficient energy use|energy-efficient]] cars and appliances, year-round [[daylight saving time]], reduced usage of [[HVAC|heating and air-conditioning]], better [[building insulation]], increased support of [[mass transit]], and greater emphasis on [[coal]], [[natural gas]], [[ethanol fuel|ethanol]], [[nuclear power|nuclear]] and other [[alternative energy]] sources. These long-term efforts became effective enough that US oil consumption rose only 11 percent during 1980–2014, while [[real GDP]] rose 150 percent. But in the 1970s, OPEC nations demonstrated convincingly that their oil could be used as both a political and economic weapon against other nations, at least in the short term.<ref name="Maugeri2006"/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.com/topics/energy-crisis |title=Energy Crisis (1970s) |publisher=[[The History Channel]] |year=2010 |access-date=25 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624152753/http://www.history.com/topics/energy-crisis |archive-date=24 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.envirothonpa.org/documents/The1973OilCrisis.pdf |title=The 1973 Oil Crisis |publisher=Pennsylvania Envirothon |first=Sarah |last=Horton |date=October 2000 |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120711030710/http://www.envirothonpa.org/documents/The1973OilCrisis.pdf |archive-date=11 July 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.socialismtoday.org/51/opec.html |title=Oil Shock: The role of OPEC |journal=Socialism Today |issue=51 |date=October 2000 |access-date=30 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216024014/http://www.socialismtoday.org/51/opec.html |archive-date=16 February 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://nationalinterest.org/feature/twilight-the-petrostate-16235?page=show |title=Twilight of the Petrostate |first1=Petr |last1=Aven |first2=Vladimir |last2=Nazarov |first3=Samvel |last3=Lazaryan |journal=The National Interest |date=17 May 2016 |access-date=2 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160522201053/http://nationalinterest.org/feature/twilight-the-petrostate-16235?page=show |archive-date=22 May 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The embargo also meant that a section of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] saw power as a source of hope for their [[developing countries]]. The Algerian president [[Houari Boumédiène]] expressed this hope in a speech at the UN's sixth Special Session, in April 1974:

{{blockquote|The OPEC action is really the first illustration and at the same time the most concrete and most spectacular illustration of the importance of raw material prices for our countries, the vital need for the producing countries to operate the levers of price control, and lastly, the great possibilities of a union of raw material producing countries. This action should be viewed by the developing countries as an example and a source of hope.<ref>Tony Smith, Configurations of Power in North-South Relations since 1945. ''Industrial Organisation'' 31:1 (Winter 1977) p. 4</ref>}}

===1975–1980: Special Fund, now the OPEC Fund for International Development===
{{Main|OPEC Fund for International Development}}
OPEC's [[international aid]] activities date from well before the 1973–1974 oil price surge. For example, the [[Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development]] has operated since 1961.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kuwait-fund.org/timeLine/?lang=en |title=Timeline |publisher=Kuwait Fund |access-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224104007/https://www.kuwait-fund.org/timeLine/?lang=en |archive-date=24 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the years after 1973, as an example of so-called "[[checkbook diplomacy]]", certain Arab nations have been among the world's largest providers of foreign aid,<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://faculty.georgetown.edu/imo3/petrod/petro2.htm |chapter=Economics of Petrodollars |title=The Economic Dimensions of Middle Eastern History |pages=179–199 |author-link=Ibrahim Oweiss |first=Ibrahim M. |last=Oweiss |editor-first1=Haleh |editor-last1=Esfandiari |editor-first2=A.L. |editor-last2=Udovitch |publisher=Darwin Press |date=1990 |access-date=19 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/21/world/middleeast/cables-released-by-wikileaks-reveal-saudis-checkbook-diplomacy.html |title=Cables Released by WikiLeaks Reveal Saudis' Checkbook Diplomacy |first=Ben |last=Hubbard |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=21 June 2015 |access-date=19 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221173312/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/06/21/world/middleeast/cables-released-by-wikileaks-reveal-saudis-checkbook-diplomacy.html |archive-date=21 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and OPEC added to its goals the selling of oil for the socio-economic growth of poorer nations. The OPEC Special Fund was conceived in [[Algiers, Algeria]], in March 1975, and was formally established the following January. "A Solemn Declaration 'reaffirmed the natural solidarity which unites OPEC countries with other developing countries in their struggle to overcome underdevelopment,' and called for measures to strengthen cooperation between these countries... [The OPEC Special Fund's] resources are additional to those already made available by OPEC states through a number of bilateral and multilateral channels."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ofid.org/ABOUT-US |title=About Us |work=OFID |access-date=13 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160103213950/http://www.ofid.org/ABOUT-US |archive-date=3 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Fund became an official international development agency in May 1980 and was renamed the [[OPEC Fund for International Development]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ofid.org/Portals/0/Publications/Special%20Publications/AE-engl.pdf |title=The Agreement Establishing the OPEC Fund for International Development |work=OPEC |date=27 May 1980 |access-date=12 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424183934/http://www.ofid.org/Portals/0/Publications/Special%20Publications/AE-engl.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> with Permanent Observer status at the United Nations.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/intergovernmental-organizations/ |title=Intergovernmental Organizations |newspaper=United Nations |access-date=28 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806153518/http://www.un.org/en/sections/member-states/intergovernmental-organizations/ |archive-date=6 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2020, the institution ceased using the abbreviation OFID.

===1975: hostage siege===

{{Main|OPEC siege}}
On 21 December 1975, Saudi Arabia's [[Ahmed Zaki Yamani]], Iran's [[Jamshid Amuzegar]], and the other OPEC oil ministers were taken hostage at their semi-annual conference in [[Vienna, Austria]]. The attack, which killed three non-ministers, was orchestrated by a six-person team led by Venezuelan terrorist "[[Carlos the Jackal]]", and which included [[Gabriele Kröcher-Tiedemann]] and [[Hans-Joachim Klein]]. The self-named "Arm of the Arab Revolution" group declared its goal to be the liberation of [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. Carlos planned to take over the conference by force and hold for ransom all eleven attending oil ministers, except for Yamani and Amuzegar who were to be executed.<ref name=jackal/>

Carlos arranged bus and plane travel for his team and 42 of the original 63 hostages, with stops in [[Algiers]] and [[Tripoli, Libya|Tripoli]], planning to fly eventually to [[Baghdad]], where Yamani and Amuzegar were to be killed. All 30 non-Arab hostages were released in Algiers, excluding Amuzegar. Additional hostages were released at another stop in Tripoli before returning to Algiers. With only 10 hostages remaining, Carlos held a phone conversation with Algerian president [[Houari Boumédienne|Houari Boumédiène]], who informed Carlos that the oil ministers' deaths would result in an attack on the plane. Boumédienne must also have offered Carlos asylum at this time and possibly financial compensation for failing to complete his assignment. Carlos expressed his regret at not being able to murder Yamani and Amuzegar, then he and his comrades left the plane. All the hostages and terrorists walked away from the situation, two days after it began.<ref name=jackal/>

Some time after the attack, Carlos's accomplices revealed that the operation was commanded by [[Wadie Haddad]], a founder of the [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]]. They also claimed that the idea and funding came from an Arab president, widely thought to be [[Muammar Gaddafi]] of Libya, itself an OPEC member. Fellow militants [[Bassam Abu Sharif]] and Klein claimed that Carlos received and kept a ransom between 20 million and US$50 million from "an Arab president". Carlos claimed that Saudi Arabia paid ransom on behalf of Iran, but that the money was "diverted en route and lost by the Revolution".<ref name=jackal>{{cite web |url=http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/jackal/12.html |title=Carlos the Jackal: Trail of Terror |publisher=truTV |first=Patrick |last=Bellamy |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120107125703/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/terrorists/jackal/12.html |archive-date=7 January 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3t5jtM2faD8C&pg=PA102 |title=Jackal: The Complete Story of the Legendary Terrorist, Carlos the Jackal |first=John |last=Follain |publisher=Arcade Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=978-1559704663 |page=102 |access-date=13 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503194550/https://books.google.com/books?id=3t5jtM2faD8C&pg=PA102 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> He was finally captured in 1994 and is serving life sentences for at least 16 other murders.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.sky.com/story/carlos-the-jackal-jailed-over-1974-paris-grenade-attack-10816476 |title='Carlos the Jackal' jailed over 1974 Paris grenade attack |first=Gary |last=Anderson |publisher=Sky News |date=28 March 2017 |access-date=22 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328141244/http://news.sky.com/story/carlos-the-jackal-jailed-over-1974-paris-grenade-attack-10816476 |archive-date=28 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===1979–1980: oil crisis and 1980s oil glut===
{{Main|1979 oil crisis|1980s oil glut}}
[[File:Opecrev.gif|thumb|alt=refer to caption|Fluctuations of OPEC net oil export revenues since 1972<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/OPEC_Revenues/OPEC.html |title=OPEC Revenues Fact Sheet |publisher=US Energy Information Administration |date=10 January 2006 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080107014809/http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/OPEC_Revenues/OPEC.html |archive-date=7 January 2008 }}</ref><ref name=EIA2015/>]]
In response to a wave of [[oil nationalization]]s and the high prices of the 1970s, industrial nations took steps to reduce their dependence on OPEC oil, especially after prices reached new peaks approaching US$40/bbl in 1979–1980<ref>{{cite news |title=Oil Prices Pass Record Set in '80s, but Then Recede |date=3 March 2008 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/03/business/worldbusiness/03cnd-oil.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|first=Jad |last=Mouawad |access-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307021046/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/03/business/worldbusiness/03cnd-oil.html |archive-date=7 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/gadfly/articles/2016-05-18/saudi-aramco-ipo-big-oil-s-world-is-changing |title=It's Saudi Arabia's World. Big Oil Just Lives in It |first=Liam |last=Denning |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=18 May 2016 |access-date=10 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203211205/https://www.bloomberg.com/gadfly/articles/2016-05-18/saudi-aramco-ipo-big-oil-s-world-is-changing |archive-date=3 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> when the [[Iranian Revolution]] and [[Iran–Iraq War]] disrupted regional stability and oil supplies. Electric utilities worldwide switched from oil to coal, natural gas, or nuclear power;<ref>{{cite journal |title=Oil and nuclear power: Past, present, and future |first1=Ferenc L. |last1=Toth |first2=Hans-Holger |last2=Rogner |journal=Energy Economics |volume=28 |issue=1 |date=January 2006 |pages=1–25 |url=http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/ST/NE/Pess/assets/oil+np_toth+rogner0106.pdf |doi=10.1016/j.eneco.2005.03.004 |access-date=30 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071203152254/http://www.iaea.org/OurWork/ST/NE/Pess/assets/oil%2Bnp_toth%2Brogner0106.pdf |archive-date=3 December 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> national governments initiated multibillion-dollar research programs to develop alternatives to oil;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/renewable_factsheet.pdf |title=Renewables in Global Energy Supply: An IEA Fact Sheet |publisher=International Energy Agency |date=January 2007 |access-date=30 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303220128/https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/renewable_factsheet.pdf |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=2718&ArticleID=9542 |title=Renewable Energy: World Invests $244 billion in 2012, Geographic Shift to Developing Countries |publisher=United Nations Environment Programme |date=12 June 2013 |access-date=30 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304110442/http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=2718&ArticleID=9542 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> and commercial exploration developed major non-OPEC oilfields in Siberia, Alaska, the North Sea, and the Gulf of Mexico.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cJhK-Sd8QgC&pg=PT95 |title=American Power and the Prospects for International Order |first=Simon |last=Bromley |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2013 |isbn=9780745658414 |page=95 |access-date=30 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617111649/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cJhK-Sd8QgC&pg=PT95 |archive-date=17 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> By 1986, daily worldwide demand for oil dropped by 5 million barrels, non-OPEC production rose by an even-larger amount,<ref name=Robert/> and OPEC's market share sank from approximately 50 percent in 1979 to less than 30 percent in 1985.<ref name=MarketShare>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/gadfly/interactives/2016-how-opec-won-the-battle-and-lost-the-war/ |title=How OPEC Won the Battle and Lost the War |first=Liam |last=Denning |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=1 June 2016 |access-date=22 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222193958/https://www.bloomberg.com/gadfly/interactives/2016-how-opec-won-the-battle-and-lost-the-war/ |archive-date=22 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Illustrating the volatile multi-year timeframes of typical market cycles for natural resources, the result was a six-year decline in the price of oil, which culminated by plunging more than half in 1986 alone.<ref>{{cite news |title=Worrying Anew Over Oil Imports |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=30 December 1989 |first=Robert D. Jr. |last=Hershey |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/30/business/worrying-anew-over-oil-imports.html?pagewanted=all |access-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170612035248/http://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/30/business/worrying-anew-over-oil-imports.html?pagewanted=all |archive-date=12 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> As one oil analyst summarized succinctly: "When the price of something as essential as oil spikes, humanity does two things: finds more of it and finds ways to use less of it."<ref name=MarketShare/>

To combat falling revenue from oil sales, in 1982 Saudi Arabia pressed OPEC for audited national [[production quota]]s in an attempt to limit output and boost prices. When other OPEC nations failed to comply, Saudi Arabia first slashed its own production from 10 million barrels daily in 1979–1981 to just one-third of that level in 1985. When even this proved ineffective, Saudi Arabia reversed course and flooded the market with cheap oil, causing prices to fall below US$10/bbl and higher-cost producers to become unprofitable.<ref name=Robert/><ref name=Ali/>{{rp|127–128,136–137}} Faced with increasing economic hardship (which ultimately contributed to the collapse of the [[Soviet bloc]] in 1989),<ref>{{cite web |title=The Soviet Collapse: Grain and Oil |author-link=Yegor Gaidar |first=Yegor |last=Gaidar |publisher=[[American Enterprise Institute]] |date=April 2007 |access-date=12 January 2016 |url=https://www.aei.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/20070419_Gaidar.pdf |quote=Oil production in Saudi Arabia increased fourfold, while oil prices collapsed by approximately the same amount in real terms. As a result, the Soviet Union lost approximately $20 billion per year, money without which the country simply could not survive. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304021426/https://www.aei.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/10/20070419_Gaidar.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=The Economics Behind the Fall of the Berlin Wall |first=Ryan |last=McMaken |publisher=[[Mises Institute]] |date=7 November 2014 |access-date=12 January 2016 |url=https://mises.org/library/economics-behind-fall-berlin-wall |quote=High oil prices in the 1970s propped up the regime so well, that had it not been for Soviet oil sales, it's quite possible the regime would have collapsed a decade earlier. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306150734/https://mises.org/library/economics-behind-fall-berlin-wall |archive-date=6 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> the "[[Free rider problem|free-riding]]" oil exporters that had previously failed to comply with OPEC agreements finally began to limit production to shore up prices, based on painstakingly negotiated national quotas that sought to balance oil-related and economic criteria since 1986.<ref name=Robert>{{cite book |last=Robert |first=Paul |year=2004 |title=The End of Oil: The Decline of the Petroleum Economy and the Rise of a New Energy Order |location=New York |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Company]] |isbn=978-0-618-23977-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/endofoilonedgeof00robe_0/page/103 103–104] |url=https://archive.org/details/endofoilonedgeof00robe_0/page/103 }}</ref><ref name="Brief History">{{cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm |title=Brief History |work=OPEC |access-date=16 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228051108/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm |archive-date=28 February 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> (Within their sovereign-controlled territories, the national governments of OPEC members are able to impose production limits on both government-owned and private oil companies.)<ref name=limit>{{cite news |url=http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_wires/2008Dec30/0,4675,MLMideastLibyaOPECCompliance,00.html |title=Libya orders oil cuts of 270K bpd |agency=Associated Press |date=30 December 2008 |quote=Libya has asked oil companies to slash production by 270,000 barrels per day. Abu Dhabi National Oil Co. told customers in letters dated Dec. 25 that it was cutting ... 10 to 15 percent of all types of ADNOC crude in February. Ecuadorean President Rafael Correa said the South American nation would suspend crude production by Italy's Agip and reduce quotas for other companies to comply with new OPEC cuts. |access-date=8 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211182333/http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_wires/2008Dec30/0,4675,MLMideastLibyaOPECCompliance,00.html |archive-date=11 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Generally when OPEC production targets are reduced, oil prices increase.<ref name="EIA_2014">{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/finance/markets/supply-opec.cfm |publisher=US Energy Information Administration |year=2014 |title=Energy & Financial Markets: What Drives Crude Oil Prices? |access-date=12 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213031101/http://www.eia.gov/finance/markets/supply-opec.cfm |archive-date=13 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===1990–2003: ample supply and modest disruptions===
{{See also|1990 oil price shock}}
[[File:Kuwait burn oilfield.png|thumb|left|upright=1.4|alt=refer to caption|One of the hundreds of [[Kuwaiti oil fires]] set by retreating Iraqi troops in 1991<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/20014FNJ.txt?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&Index=1991%20Thru%201994&File=D%3A%5CZYFILES%5CINDEX%20DATA%5C91THRU94%5CTXT%5C00000017%5C20014FNJ.txt&User=ANONYMOUS&Password=anonymous&Display=p%7Cf&DefSeekPage=x&SearchBack=ZyActionL&Back=ZyActionS&BackDesc=Results%20page&MaximumPages=1&ZyEntry=1 |title=Report to Congress: United States Gulf Environmental Technical Assistance |publisher=US Environmental Protection Agency |page=14 |date=1991 |access-date=11 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424001604/http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyNET.exe/20014FNJ.txt?ZyActionD=ZyDocument&Client=EPA&Index=1991%20Thru%201994&File=D%3A%5CZYFILES%5CINDEX%20DATA%5C91THRU94%5CTXT%5C00000017%5C20014FNJ.txt&User=ANONYMOUS&Password=anonymous&Display=p%7Cf&DefSeekPage=x&SearchBack=ZyActionL&Back=ZyActionS&BackDesc=Results%20page&MaximumPages=1&ZyEntry=1 |archive-date=24 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[File:Brent crude oil price 1988-2015.svg|thumb|upright=2.15|alt=refer to caption|Fluctuations of Brent crude oil price, 1988–2015<ref name=Brent/>]]
{{clear}}
Leading up to his August 1990 [[Invasion of Kuwait]], Iraqi President [[Saddam Hussein]] was pushing OPEC to end overproduction and to send oil prices higher, in order to help OPEC members financially and to accelerate rebuilding from the 1980–1988 [[Iran–Iraq War]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/18/business/iraq-threatens-emirates-and-kuwait-on-oil-glut.html |title=Iraq Threatens Emirates and Kuwait on Oil Glut |first=Youssef M. |last=Ibrahim |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=18 July 1990 |access-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630060909/http://www.nytimes.com/1990/07/18/business/iraq-threatens-emirates-and-kuwait-on-oil-glut.html |archive-date=30 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> But these two Iraqi wars against fellow OPEC founders marked a low point in the cohesion of the organization, and oil prices subsided quickly after the short-term supply disruptions. The September 2001 [[September 11 attacks|Al Qaeda attacks on the US]] and the March 2003 [[US invasion of Iraq]] had even milder short-term impacts on oil prices, as Saudi Arabia and other exporters again cooperated to keep the world adequately supplied.<ref name=Brent>{{cite web |url=https://www.quandl.com/DOE/RBRTE |title=Europe Brent Crude Oil Spot Price FOB (DOE) |publisher=Quandl |access-date=1 January 2016 }} {{dead link|date=February 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In the 1990s, OPEC lost its two newest members, who had joined in the mid-1970s. Ecuador withdrew in December 1992, because it was unwilling to pay the annual US$2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under the OPEC quota,<ref name=Ecuador>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/18/business/ecuador-set-to-leave-opec.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|title=Ecuador Set to Leave OPEC|agency=[[Associated Press]]|date=18 September 1992 |access-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314210526/http://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/18/business/ecuador-set-to-leave-opec.html |archive-date=14 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> although it rejoined in October 2007. Similar concerns prompted Gabon to suspend membership in January 1995;<ref name=Gabon>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/09/business/gabon-plans-to-quit-opec.html |title=Gabon Plans To Quit OPEC |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|agency=[[Bloomberg News]]|date=9 January 1995 |access-date=8 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314132000/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/01/09/business/gabon-plans-to-quit-opec.html |archive-date=14 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> it rejoined in July 2016.<ref name="OPEC Member"/> Iraq has remained a member of OPEC since the organization's founding, but Iraqi production was not a part of OPEC quota agreements from 1998 to 2016, due to the country's daunting political difficulties.<ref name=ASB/><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Energy-Industry/2010/02/05/Iraq-heads-for-OPEC-clash-over-quota/14451265409498/ |title=Iraq heads for OPEC clash over quota |work=United Press International |date=5 February 2010 |quote=Iraq, a founding member of OPEC, has not had a production quota since 1998, when it was pegged at 1.3 million bpd to allow Saddam Hussein's regime to sell oil for food during U.N. sanctions imposed in 1990... Despite the success of the 2009 auctions, problems remain – mounting violence in the run-up to March 7 parliamentary elections, uncertainty over their outcome, and, probably more importantly, the absence of a long-delayed oil law that will define revenue-sharing and regulation of the industry. |access-date=6 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417085129/http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Energy-Industry/2010/02/05/Iraq-heads-for-OPEC-clash-over-quota/14451265409498/ |archive-date=17 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Lower demand triggered by the 1997–1998 [[Asian financial crisis]] saw the price of oil fall back to 1986 levels. After oil slumped to around US$10/bbl, joint diplomacy achieved a gradual slowing of oil production by OPEC, Mexico and Norway.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.energycharter.org/fileadmin/DocumentsMedia/Thematic/Oil_and_Gas_Pricing_2007_en.pdf |title=Putting a Price on Energy |publisher=Energy Charter Secretariat |year=2007 |isbn=978-9059480469 |page=90 |access-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413155028/http://www.energycharter.org/fileadmin/DocumentsMedia/Thematic/Oil_and_Gas_Pricing_2007_en.pdf |archive-date=13 April 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> After prices slumped again in Nov. 2001, OPEC, Norway, Mexico, Russia, Oman and Angola agreed to cut production on 1 January 2002 for 6 months. OPEC contributed 1.5 million barrels a day (mbpd) to the approximately 2 mbpd of cuts announced.<ref name="Ali">{{cite book |last1=Al-Naimi |first1=Ali |title=Out of the Desert |date=2016 |publisher=Portfolio Penguin |location=Great Britain |isbn=9780241279250 |pages=201–210, 239}}</ref>

In June 2003, the [[International Energy Agency]] (IEA) and OPEC held their first joint workshop on energy issues. They have continued to meet regularly since then, "to collectively better understand trends, analysis and viewpoints and advance market transparency and predictability."<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.iea.org/media/ieajournal/Issue7_WEB.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502040956/http://www.iea.org/media/ieajournal/Issue7_WEB.pdf |url-status=dead |date=November 2014 |title=Dialogue replaces OPEC–IEA Mistrust |journal=IEA Energy |issue=7 |page=7 |archive-date=2 May 2016}}</ref>

===2003–2011: volatility===
{{See also|2000s energy crisis}}
[[File:OPEC members' net oil export revenues in 2000 through 2020 (50562182543).png|thumb|upright=1.2|OPEC members' net oil export revenues, 2000–2020]]
Widespread insurgency and sabotage occurred during the 2003–2008 height of the [[History of Iraq (2003–2011)#Sabotage|American occupation of Iraq]], coinciding with rapidly increasing oil demand from China and [[Commodity market|commodity]]-hungry investors, recurring [[Conflict in the Niger Delta|violence against the Nigerian oil industry]], and dwindling spare capacity as a cushion against [[Peak oil|potential shortages]]. This combination of forces prompted a sharp rise in oil prices to levels far higher than those previously targeted by OPEC.<ref>{{cite news |last=Simmons |first=Greg |url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2005/12/07/dems-doubt-iraq-progress.html |title=Dems Doubt Iraq Progress |publisher=Fox News |date=7 December 2005 |access-date=14 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105070747/http://www.foxnews.com/story/2005/12/07/dems-doubt-iraq-progress.html |archive-date=5 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7387203.stm |title=Oil price 'may hit $200 a barrel' |work=BBC News |date=7 May 2008 |access-date=2 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090411231928/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7387203.stm |archive-date=11 April 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Michael W. |last=Masters |title=Testimony |url=http://hsgac.senate.gov/public/_files/052008Masters.pdf |work=[[U.S. Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs]] |date=20 May 2008 |access-date=2 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528200858/http://hsgac.senate.gov/public/_files/052008Masters.pdf |archive-date=28 May 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> Price volatility reached an extreme in 2008, as WTI crude oil surged to a record US$147/bbl in July and then plunged back to US$32/bbl in December, during the [[Great Recession|worst global recession since World War II]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-05-09/saudi-arabian-algerian-oil-ministers-see-consumption-increasing-this-year |first1=Robert |last1=Tuttle |first2=Ola |last2=Galal |title=Oil Ministers See Demand Rising |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=10 May 2010 |access-date=14 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206233533/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2010-05-09/saudi-arabian-algerian-oil-ministers-see-consumption-increasing-this-year |archive-date=6 February 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> OPEC's annual oil export revenue also set a new record in 2008, estimated around US$1 trillion, and reached similar annual rates in 2011–2014 (along with extensive [[petrodollar recycling]] activity) before plunging again.<ref name=EIA2015>{{cite web |url=http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/regions-topics.cfm?RegionTopicID=OPEC |title=OPEC Revenues Fact Sheet |publisher=US Energy Information Administration |date=15 May 2017 |access-date=28 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222161556/http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/regions-topics.cfm?RegionTopicID=OPEC |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> By the time of the [[2011 Libyan Civil War]] and [[Arab Spring]], OPEC started issuing explicit statements to counter "excessive speculation" in oil [[futures markets]], blaming financial speculators for increasing volatility beyond market fundamentals.<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/2071.htm |title=Opening address to the 159th Meeting of the OPEC Conference |work=OPEC |date=8 June 2011 |access-date=12 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141213085839/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/2071.htm |archive-date=13 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In May 2008, Indonesia announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year, having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota.<ref name=Indonesia>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7423008.stm |title=Indonesia to withdraw from OPEC |publisher=BBC |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=27 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203090307/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7423008.stm |archive-date=3 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> A statement released by OPEC on 10 September 2008 confirmed Indonesia's withdrawal, noting that OPEC "regretfully accepted the wish of Indonesia to suspend its full membership in the organization, and recorded its hope that the country would be in a position to rejoin the organization in the not-too-distant future."<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/951.htm |title=149th Meeting of the OPEC Conference |work=OPEC |date=10 September 2008 |access-date=16 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222090010/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/951.htm |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===2008: production dispute===
[[File:Oil Balance.png|thumb|alt=refer to caption|Countries by net oil exports (2008)]]
The differing economic needs of OPEC member states often affect the internal debates behind OPEC production quotas. Poorer members have pushed for production cuts from fellow members, to increase the price of oil and thus their own revenues.<ref name=owen032010>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.enpol.2010.02.026 |first1=Nick A. |last1=Owen |first2=Oliver R. |last2=Inderwildi |first3=David A. |last3=King |title=The status of conventional world oil reserves: Hype or cause for concern? |date=August 2010 |journal=Energy Policy |volume=38 |issue=8 |pages=4743–4749}}</ref> These proposals conflict with Saudi Arabia's stated long-term strategy of being a partner with the world's economic powers to ensure a steady flow of oil that would support economic expansion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiembassy.net/1999News/Statements/SpeechDetail.asp?cIndex=327 |first=Ali |last=Al-Naimi |title=Saudi oil policy: stability with strength |publisher=Saudi Embassy |date=20 October 1999 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426011929/http://www.saudiembassy.net/1999News/Statements/SpeechDetail.asp?cIndex=327 |archive-date=26 April 2009 }}</ref> Part of the basis for this policy is the Saudi concern that overly expensive oil or unreliable supply will drive industrial nations to conserve energy and develop alternative fuels, curtailing the worldwide demand for oil and eventually leaving unneeded barrels in the ground.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-04-12/saudi-arabia-s-plan-to-extend-the-age-of-oil |publisher=Bloomberg News |first=Peter |last=Waldman |title=Saudi Arabia's Plan to Extend the Age of Oil |date=12 April 2015 |access-date=10 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224083439/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-04-12/saudi-arabia-s-plan-to-extend-the-age-of-oil |archive-date=24 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> To this point, Saudi Oil Minister Yamani famously remarked in 1973: "The Stone Age didn't end because we ran out of stones."<ref>{{cite news |first=Matt |last=Frei |date=3 July 2008 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7486705.stm |title=Washington diary: Oil addiction |publisher=BBC |access-date=27 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031103610/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/7486705.stm |archive-date=31 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 10 September 2008, with oil prices still near US$100/bbl, a production dispute occurred when the Saudis reportedly walked out of a negotiating session where rival members voted to reduce OPEC output. Although Saudi delegates officially endorsed the new quotas, they stated anonymously that they would not observe them. ''[[The New York Times]]'' quoted one such delegate as saying: "Saudi Arabia will meet the market's demand. We will see what the market requires and we will not leave a customer without oil. The policy has not changed."<ref name=discordant>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/11/business/worldbusiness/11oil.html|author=Jad Mouawad|title=Saudis Vow to Ignore OPEC Decision to Cut Production |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=11 September 2008 |access-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170904202313/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/11/business/worldbusiness/11oil.html |archive-date=4 September 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> Over the next few months, oil prices plummeted into the $30s, and did not return to $100 until the Libyan Civil War in 2011.<ref name=basketprice/>

===2014–2017: oil glut===
{{See also|2010s oil glut}}
[[File:Countries by Oil Production in 2013.svg|thumb|alt=refer to caption|Countries by oil production (2013)]]
{{image frame
|content={{Graph:Chart
|type=line
|legend=Legend
|width=300
|height=128
|xAxisTitle=Year
|xAxisFormat=%Y
|xType=date
|x=1973,1975,1980,1985,1990,1995,1996,1997,1998,1999,2000,2001,2002,2003,2004,2005,2006,2007,2008,2009,2010,2011,2012,2013,2014,2015,2016
|xAxisAngle=-45
|yType=integer
|yAxisMin=0
|yAxisTitle=Thousand Barrels per Day
|y1Title=Russia
|y1=,,,,,5995,5850,5920,5854,6079,6479,6917,7408,8132,8805,9043,9247,9437,9357,9495,9694,9774,9922,10054,10107,10253,10551
|y2Title=Saudi Arabia
|y2=7596,7075,9900,3388,6410,8231,8218,8362,8389,7833,8404,8031,7634,8775,9101,9550,9152,8722,9261,8250,8900,9458,9832,9693,9735,10168,10461
|y3Title=United States
|y3=9208,8375,8597,8971,7355,6560,6465,6452,6252,5881,5822,5801,5744,5649,5441,5184,5086,5077,5000,5353,5475,5646,6487,7468,8764,9415,8875
|y4Title=Iran
|y4=5861,5350,1662,2250,3088,3643,3686,3664,3634,3557,3696,3724,3444,3743,4001,4139,4028,3912,4050,4037,4080,4054,3387,3113,3239,3300,4068
|y5Title=China
|y5=1090,1490,2114,2505,2774,2990,3131,3200,3198,3195,3249,3300,3390,3409,3485,3609,3673,3736,3790,3796,4078,4052,4074,4164,4208,4278,3981

}}
|align=left
|width=
|caption=Top oil-producing countries,<ref>{{cite web |date=25 May 2017 |title=Monthly Energy Review |at=Figure 11.1a |url=https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/archive/00351705.pdf |publisher=US Energy Information Administration |access-date=28 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817203235/https://www.eia.gov/totalenergy/data/monthly/archive/00351705.pdf |archive-date=17 August 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> thousand barrels per day, 1973–2016
}}{{clear}}
[[File:Dammam No. 7 on March 4, 1938.jpg|thumb|alt=refer to caption|Gusher well in Saudi Arabia: conventional source of OPEC production]]
[[File:Frac job in process.JPG|thumb|alt=refer to caption|Shale "fracking" in the US: important new challenge to OPEC market share]]
During 2014–2015, OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling, and China experienced a slowdown in economic growth. At the same time, US oil production nearly doubled from 2008 levels and approached the world-leading "[[swing producer]]" volumes of Saudi Arabia and Russia, due to the substantial long-term improvement and spread of [[tight oil|shale]] "[[fracking]]" technology in response to the years of record oil prices. These developments led in turn to a plunge in US oil import requirements (moving closer to [[U.S. energy independence|energy independence]]), a record volume of worldwide oil inventories, and a collapse in oil prices that continued into early 2016.<ref name=basketprice/><ref>{{cite news |title=US Oil Prices Fall Below $80 a Barrel |first=Clifford |last=Krassnov |date=3 November 2014 |access-date=13 December 2014 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/04/business/energy-environment/us-oil-prices-fall-below-80-a-barrel.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216205651/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/04/business/energy-environment/us-oil-prices-fall-below-80-a-barrel.html |archive-date=16 December 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=glut/>

In spite of global oversupply, on 27 November 2014 in Vienna, Saudi oil minister [[Ali Al-Naimi]] blocked appeals from poorer OPEC members for production cuts to support prices. Naimi argued that the oil market should be left to rebalance itself competitively at lower price levels, strategically rebuilding OPEC's long-term market share by ending the profitability of high-cost US shale oil production.<ref name=PriceWar>{{cite news |title=Inside OPEC room, Naimi declares price war on US shale oil |work=Reuters |date=28 November 2014 |access-date=13 January 2016 |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-opec-meeting-idUKKCN0JB0M420141128 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160211162226/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-opec-meeting-idUKKCN0JB0M420141128 |archive-date=11 February 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> As he explained in an interview:<ref name=MEES>{{cite journal |url=http://oilpro.com/post/9223/mees-interview-saudi-oil-minister-ali-naimi |title=Interview With Saudi Oil Minister Ali Naimi |journal=[[Middle East Economic Survey]] |volume=57 |issue=51/52 |date=22 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151221021005/http://oilpro.com/post/9223/mees-interview-saudi-oil-minister-ali-naimi |archive-date=21 December 2015 }}</ref>

<blockquote>Is it reasonable for a highly efficient producer to reduce output, while the producer of poor efficiency continues to produce? That is crooked logic. If I reduce, what happens to my market share? The price will go up and the Russians, the Brazilians, US shale oil producers will take my share... We want to tell the world that high-efficiency producing countries are the ones that deserve market share. That is the operative principle in all capitalist countries... One thing is for sure: Current prices [roughly US$60/bbl] do not support all producers.</blockquote>

A year later, when OPEC met in Vienna on 4 December 2015, the organization had exceeded its production ceiling for 18 consecutive months, US oil production had declined only slightly from its peak, world markets appeared to be oversupplied by at least 2 million barrels per day despite [[Libyan Civil War (2014–present)|war-torn Libya]] pumping 1 million barrels below capacity, oil producers were making major adjustments to withstand prices as low as $40, Indonesia was rejoining the export organization, Iraqi production had surged after years of disorder, Iranian output was poised to rebound with the lifting of [[Sanctions against Iran|international sanctions]], hundreds of world leaders at the [[Paris Climate Agreement]] were committing to limit carbon emissions from fossil fuels, and [[Solar power#Economics|solar technologies]] were becoming steadily more competitive and prevalent. In light of all these market pressures, OPEC decided to set aside its ineffective production ceiling until the next ministerial conference in June 2016.<ref name=FT2015>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/1f84e444-9ceb-11e5-8ce1-f6219b685d74.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/1f84e444-9ceb-11e5-8ce1-f6219b685d74.html |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=OPEC discord fuels further oil price drop |newspaper=Financial Times |date=7 December 2015}}</ref><ref name=glut>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-04/opec-maintains-crude-production-as-group-defers-output-target-ihryzilb |title=OPEC Won't Cut Production to Stop Oil's Slump |first1=Grant |last1=Smith |first2=Angelina |last2=Rascouet |first3=Wael |last3=Mahdi |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=4 December 2015 |access-date=10 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328111428/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-12-04/opec-maintains-crude-production-as-group-defers-output-target-ihryzilb |archive-date=28 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis_includes/countries_long/Libya/libya.pdf |title=Country Analysis Brief: Libya |publisher=US Energy Information Administration |date=19 November 2015 |access-date=22 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151223160212/http://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis_includes/countries_long/Libya/libya.pdf |archive-date=23 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/05/business/energy-environment/opec-meeting-oil-production-price.html |title=Despite Climate Concerns, OPEC Plans to Keep Pumping Oil While It Can|author1=Stanley Reed|author2=Sara Hamdan|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=5 December 2015 |access-date=11 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128123133/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/12/05/business/energy-environment/opec-meeting-oil-production-price.html |archive-date=28 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.argusmedia.com/pages/NewsBody.aspx?id=1148950&menu=yes |title=OPEC ceiling falls in |publisher=Argus Media |date=7 December 2015 |access-date=7 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208105422/http://www.argusmedia.com/pages/NewsBody.aspx?id=1148950&menu=yes |archive-date=8 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-02/iran-says-post-sanctions-crude-output-boost-won-t-hurt-prices |title=Iran Says Post-Sanctions Crude Output Boost Won't Hurt Prices |first1=Hashem |last1=Kalantari |first2=Mohammed |last2=Sergie |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=2 January 2016 |access-date=18 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115230602/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-02/iran-says-post-sanctions-crude-output-boost-won-t-hurt-prices |archive-date=15 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> By 20 January 2016, the OPEC Reference Basket was down to US$22.48/bbl – less than one-fourth of its high from June 2014 ($110.48), less than one-sixth of its record from July 2008 ($140.73), and back below the April 2003 starting point ($23.27) of its historic run-up.<ref name=basketprice>{{cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/basket/basketDayArchives.xml |title=OPEC Basket Daily Archives |work=OPEC |access-date=21 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160121231540/http://www.opec.org/basket/basketDayArchives.xml |archive-date=21 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

As 2016 continued, the oil glut was partially trimmed with significant production offline in the US, Canada, Libya, Nigeria and China, and the basket price gradually rose back into the $40s. OPEC regained a modest percentage of market share, saw the cancellation of many competing drilling projects, maintained the status quo at its June conference, and endorsed "prices at levels that are suitable for both producers and consumers", although many producers were still experiencing serious economic difficulties.<ref name=June2016>{{cite press release |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/3487.htm |title=OPEC 169th Meeting concludes |work=OPEC |date=2 June 2016 |access-date=2 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605025220/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/3487.htm |archive-date=5 June 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/04/opec-is-very-much-alive-as-saudis-learn-to-tread-softly/ |title=OPEC is very much alive as Saudis learn to tread softly |first=Liam |last=Halligan |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=4 June 2016 |access-date=4 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170208231802/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/04/opec-is-very-much-alive-as-saudis-learn-to-tread-softly/ |archive-date=8 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-06-13/china-cuts-oil-output-by-most-in-15-years-coal-production-slows |title=OPEC Has Its Way as China Oil Output Cut by Most in 15 Years |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=13 June 2016 |access-date=10 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118212601/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-06-13/china-cuts-oil-output-by-most-in-15-years-coal-production-slows |archive-date=18 January 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=79687&p=irol-reportsother |title=North America Rig Count |publisher=Baker Hughes |access-date=21 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302194417/http://phx.corporate-ir.net/phoenix.zhtml?c=79687&p=irol-reportsother |archive-date=2 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===2017–2020: production cut and OPEC+===
As OPEC members grew weary of a multi-year supply-contest with [[diminishing returns]] and shrinking financial reserves, the organization finally attempted its first production cut since 2008. Despite many political obstacles, a September 2016 decision to trim approximately 1 million barrels per day was codified by a new quota-agreement at the November 2016 OPEC conference. The agreement (which exempted disruption-ridden members Libya and Nigeria) covered the first half of 2017 – alongside promised reductions from Russia and ten other non-members, offset by expected increases in the US shale-sector, Libya, Nigeria, [[#Spare capacity|spare capacity]], and surging late-2016 OPEC production before the cuts took effect. Indonesia announced another "temporary suspension" of its OPEC membership rather than accepting the organization's requested 5-percent production-cut. Prices fluctuated around US$50/bbl, and in May 2017 OPEC decided to extend the new quotas through March 2018, with the world waiting to see if and how the oil-inventory glut might be fully siphoned-off by then.<ref name=LeavingAgain/><ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-11-30/opec-decision-day-as-ministers-meet-to-salvage-deal-on-oil-cuts | title= OPEC Agrees to Cut Production in Drive to End Record Glut | publisher= Bloomberg News | date= 30 November 2016 |access-date= 30 November 2016 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161201020159/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-11-30/opec-decision-day-as-ministers-meet-to-salvage-deal-on-oil-cuts |archive-date= 1 December 2016 |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite press release |url= http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/3912.htm |title= OPEC 171st Meeting concludes |work=OPEC |date=30 November 2016 |access-date=30 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201015438/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/3912.htm |archive-date=1 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-10-20/the-world-s-biggest-oil-kingdom-reverses-course |title=The World's Biggest Oil Kingdom Reverses Course |first=Javier |last=Blas |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=20 October 2016 |access-date=10 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170406180755/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-10-20/the-world-s-biggest-oil-kingdom-reverses-course |archive-date=6 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.ft.com/content/01ab26c7-3af5-3c54-96fd-8237d66e17c6 |title=OPEC agrees on need for output cut |first=Neil |last=Hume |newspaper=Financial Times |date=28 September 2016 |access-date=28 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160928201057/https://www.ft.com/content/01ab26c7-3af5-3c54-96fd-8237d66e17c6 |archive-date=28 September 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-12-11/russian-energy-minister-says-oil-output-cuts-to-start-in-january |title=Russian Energy Minister Says Oil Cuts to Start in January |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=11 December 2016 |access-date=12 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213115632/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-12-11/russian-energy-minister-says-oil-output-cuts-to-start-in-january |archive-date=13 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=May2017Vienna/> Longtime oil analyst [[Daniel Yergin]] "described the relationship between OPEC and shale as 'mutual coexistence', with both sides learning to live with prices that are lower than they would like."<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-07/opec-said-to-break-bread-with-shale-in-rare-show-of-detente |title=OPEC Said to Break Bread With Shale in Rare Show of Detente |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=7 March 2017 |access-date=8 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307220233/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-07/opec-said-to-break-bread-with-shale-in-rare-show-of-detente |archive-date=7 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> These production cut deals with non-OPEC countries are generally referred to as ''OPEC+''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Where OPEC+ Oil Production Stands Now – Bloomberg |website=[[Bloomberg News]] |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/graphics/opec-production-targets/ |access-date=19 March 2020|last1=Wingfield |first1=Brian |last2=Dodge |first2=Samuel |last3=Pogkas |first3=Demetrios |last4=Sam |first4=Cedric }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=OPEC Is Dead, Long Live OPEC+ |website=[[Forbes]] |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/arielcohen/2018/06/29/opec-is-dead-long-live-opec/#5abfd30b2217 |access-date=19 March 2020}}</ref>

In December 2017, Russia and OPEC agreed to extend the production cut of 1.8 mbpd until the end of 2018.<ref>{{Cite news| title = Russia backs gradual, managed exit from oil cuts with OPEC| work = Reuters| access-date = 25 December 2017| date = 22 December 2017| url = https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-oil-opec/russia-backs-gradual-managed-exit-from-oil-cuts-with-opec-idUSKBN1EG11V| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171226073926/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-oil-opec/russia-backs-gradual-managed-exit-from-oil-cuts-with-opec-idUSKBN1EG11V| archive-date = 26 December 2017| url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sharptrader.com/feature/opec-extend-production-cuts-throughout-2018/ |title=OPEC to extend production cuts throughout 2018 |date=30 November 2017 |access-date=23 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224074148/https://www.sharptrader.com/feature/opec-extend-production-cuts-throughout-2018/ |archive-date=24 December 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Qatar announced it would withdraw from OPEC effective 1 January 2019.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/12/qatar-withdraw-opec-january-2019-181203061900372.html|title=Qatar to withdraw from OPEC in January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203091543/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2018/12/qatar-withdraw-opec-january-2019-181203061900372.html|archive-date=3 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the ''[[New York Times]]'', this was a strategic response to the [[Qatar diplomatic crisis]] which Qatar was involved with Saudi Arabia, [[United Arab Emirates]], [[Bahrain]], and [[Egypt]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/10/opinion/qatar-leaving-opec-saudi-arabia-blockade-failure.html|title=Why is Qatar leaving OPEC?|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=10 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216040018/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/10/opinion/qatar-leaving-opec-saudi-arabia-blockade-failure.html|archive-date=16 December 2018|url-status=live|last=Ulrichsen|first=Kristian Coates }}</ref>

On 29 June 2019, Russia again agreed with Saudi Arabia to extend by six to nine months the original production cuts of 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-g20-summit-putin-opec-idUSKCN1TU0AF|title=Russia agrees with Saudi Arabia to extend OPEC+ oil output deal|date=29 June 2019|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=1 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190701211015/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-g20-summit-putin-opec-idUSKCN1TU0AF|archive-date=1 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In October 2019, Ecuador announced it would withdraw from OPEC on 1 January 2020 due to financial problems facing the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.euronews.com/2019/10/01/ecuador-to-leave-opec-in-2020-due-to-fiscal-problems-ministry|title=Ecuador to leave OPEC in 2020 due to fiscal problems – ministry|date=1 October 2019|publisher=[[Euronews]]|access-date=1 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001210325/https://www.euronews.com/2019/10/01/ecuador-to-leave-opec-in-2020-due-to-fiscal-problems-ministry|archive-date=1 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

In December 2019, OPEC and Russia agreed one of the deepest output cuts so far to prevent oversupply in a deal that will last for the first three months of 2020.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-oil-opec-idUSKBN1Y90UK|title=OPEC, allies agree to deepen oil output cuts|date=5 December 2019|work=[[Reuters]]|access-date=5 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191205195453/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-oil-opec-idUSKBN1Y90UK|archive-date=5 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

===2020: Saudi-Russian price war===
{{main|2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war}}
In early March 2020, OPEC officials presented an ultimatum to Russia to cut production by 1.5% of world supply. Russia, which foresaw continuing cuts as American [[shale oil]] production increased, rejected the demand, ending the three-year partnership between OPEC and major non-OPEC providers.<ref name=NYT_9March2020>{{cite news|last=Reed |first=Stanley|title=How a Saudi-Russian Standoff Sent Oil Markets into a Frenzy |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/09/business/energy-environment/oil-opec-saudi-russia.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309181006/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/03/09/business/energy-environment/oil-opec-saudi-russia.html |archive-date=9 March 2020 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=9 March 2020 |date=9 March 2020}}</ref> Another factor was [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic|weakening global demand]] resulting from the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mufson |first1=Steven |last2=Englund |first2=Will|author2-link=Will Englund|title=Oil price war threatens widespread collateral damage |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/oil-price-war-threatens-widespread-collateral-damage/2020/03/09/3e42c9e2-6207-11ea-acca-80c22bbee96f_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|access-date=9 March 2020}}</ref> This also resulted in 'OPEC plus' failing to extend the agreement cutting 2.1 million barrels per day that was set to expire at the end of March. Saudi Arabia, which has absorbed a disproportionate amount of the cuts to convince Russia to stay in the agreement, notified its buyers on 7 March that they would raise output and discount their oil in April. This prompted a Brent crude price crash of more than 30% before a slight recovery and [[Black Monday (2020)|widespread turmoil in financial markets]].<ref name=NYT_9March2020/>

Several pundits saw this as a [[2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war|Saudi-Russian price war]], or [[game of chicken]] which cause the "other side to blink first".<ref name="ergm">{{cite news |last1=Reguly |first1=Eric |title=Who will win the Saudi-Russia game of chicken in the new oil war? Russia's chances look good |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/business/commentary/article-who-will-win-the-saudi-russia-game-of-chicken-in-the-new-oil-war/ |publisher=The Globe and Mail Inc |date=10 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="trdt">{{cite news |last1=Rees |first1=Tom |title=Russia and Saudi Arabia wait for the other side to blink first in the oil price war |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2020/03/10/russia-saudi-arabia-wait-side-blink-first-oil-price-war/?li_source=LI&li_medium=li-recommendation-widget |agency=The Daily Telegraph |publisher=Telegraph Media Group Limited |date=10 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="ptfp">{{cite news |last1=Tertzakian |first1=Peter |title=This crude war is about a lot more than oil prices and market share |url=https://business.financialpost.com/commodities/energy/peter-tertzakian-this-crude-war-is-about-a-lot-more-than-oil-prices-and-market-share |agency=Postmedia |work=Financial Post|date=9 March 2020}}</ref><ref name="npfp">{{cite news |last1=Powell |first1=Naomi |title='Game of chicken': Saudis, Russians can wage an oil war for a long time – but at huge political cost |url=https://business.financialpost.com/commodities/game-of-chicken-the-saudis-and-russians-can-wage-an-oil-war-for-a-long-time-but-at-a-huge-political-cost?video_autoplay=true |agency=Postmedia |work=Financial Post|date=9 March 2020}}</ref> Saudi Arabia had in March 2020 $500 billion of foreign exchange reserves, while at that time Russia's reserves were $580 billion. The [[debt-to-GDP ratio]] of the Saudis was 25%, while the Russian ratio was 15%.<ref name=ergm/> Another remarked that the Saudis can produce oil at as low a price as $3 per barrel, whereas Russia needs $30 per barrel to cover production costs.<ref name=npfp/> Another analyst claims that "it’s about assaulting the Western economy, especially America’s."<ref name=ptfp/> In order to ward of from the oil exporters price war which can make shale oil production uneconomical, US may protect its crude oil market share by passing the [[NOPEC]] bill.<ref>{{cite news |title=Trump's Ultimate Weapon To End The Oil War |url=https://oilprice.com/Energy/Crude-Oil/Trumps-Ultimate-Weapon-To-End-The-Oil-War.html|access-date=23 March 2020}}</ref>

In April 2020, OPEC and a group of other oil producers, including Russia, agreed to extend production cuts until the end of July. The cartel and its allies agreed to cut oil production in May and June by 9.7 million barrels a day, equal to around 10% of global output, in an effort to prop up prices, which had previously [[2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war|fallen to record lows]].<ref>{{cite news |title=From The Economist Espresso: Minneapolis to disband its police force; New Zealand eliminates covid-19|url=https://espresso.economist.com/48e61db7215cd565c9976a40b7d3d1d5}}</ref>

===2021: Saudi-Emirati dispute===
In July 2021, OPEC+ member United Arab Emirates rejected a Saudi proposed eight-month extension to oil output curbs which was in place due to [[COVID-19]] and lower oil consumption.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/opec-resumes-oil-policy-talks-amid-saudi-uae-standoff-2021-07-05/|title=OPEC+ abandons oil policy meeting after Saudi-UAE clash|publisher=Reuters|date=5 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/thebakersinstitute/2021/07/16/the-saudi-uae-bust-up-is-a-return-to-the-persian-gulf-status-quo/?sh=20a6db657428 |title=The Saudi-UAE Bust-Up Is A Return To The Persian Gulf Status Quo |website=Forbes |date=16 July 2021 }}</ref> The previous year, OPEC+ cut the equivalent of about 10% of demand at the time. The UAE asked for the maximum amount of oil the group would recognize the country of producing to be raised to 3.8 million barrels a day compared to its previous 3.2 million barrels. A compromise deal allowed UAE to increase its maximum oil output to 3.65 million barrels a day.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/opec-reaches-compromise-with-u-a-e-over-oil-production-standoff-11626264218|title=OPEC Reaches Compromise With U.A.E. Over Oil Production|publisher=Wall Street Journal|date=14 July 2021}}</ref> Per the terms of the agreement, Russia would increase its production from 11 million barrels to 11.5 million by May 2022 as well. All members would increase output by 400,000 barrels per day each month starting in August to gradually offset the previous cuts made due to the COVID pandemic.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/opec-agreement-oil-output/31364977.html |title=OPEC+ Reaches Agreement On Oil Output Increase; Russia To Boost Production |website=RFEL |date=18 July 2021 }}</ref>

===2021–present global energy crisis===
{{main|2021–present global energy crisis}}
The record-high energy prices were driven by a global surge in demand as the world quit the economic recession caused by COVID-19, particularly due to strong energy demand in Asia.<ref>{{cite news |title=Covid is at the center of world's energy crunch, but a cascade of problems is fueling it |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/covid-center-world-energy-crunch-cascade-problems-fuel-rcna2688 |work=NBC News |date=8 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Don't Expect OPEC to Keep You Warm This Winter |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2021-10-17/energy-crisis-don-t-expect-opec-to-keep-you-warm-this-winter |work=Bloomberg |date=17 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Energy crisis is wake up call for more investment, forum hears |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/energy-crisis-wake-up-call-more-investment-adnoc-ceo-says-2021-10-20/ |work=Reuters |date=20 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Oil prices could hit an 'off the charts spike,' says strategist |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/06/strategist-on-oil-prices-in-winter-china-and-europe-energy-crisis.html |work=CNBC |date=5 October 2021}}</ref> In August 2021, U.S. President [[Joe Biden]]'s national security adviser [[Jake Sullivan]] released a statement calling on OPEC+ to boost [[List of countries by oil production|oil production]] to "offset previous production cuts that OPEC+ imposed during the pandemic until well into 2022."<ref>{{cite news |title=Turning to foreign leaders to fix our energy crisis is a shameful solution |url=https://thehill.com/opinion/energy-environment/567988-turning-to-foreign-leaders-to-fix-our-energy-crisis-is-a-shameful |work=The Hill |date=16 August 2021}}</ref> On 28 September 2021, Sullivan met in [[Saudi Arabia]] with Saudi Crown Prince [[Mohammed bin Salman]] to discuss the [[Price of oil|high oil prices]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Top White House aide discussed oil prices with Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/white-house-said-top-aide-planned-discuss-oil-prices-with-saudi-arabia-2021-09-30/ |work=Reuters |date=1 October 2021}}</ref> The price of oil was about US$80 by October 2021,<ref>{{cite news |title=Global energy crunch, US burnout, and OPEC's no 1 call |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/10/1/global-energy-crunch-us-burnout-and-opecs-no-1-call |work=Al-Jazeera |date=1 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Oil analysts predict a prolonged rally as OPEC resists calls to ramp up supply |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/05/oil-prices-analysts-see-a-prolonged-rally-as-opec-sticks-to-its-plan.html |work=CNBC |date=5 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=OPEC-Plus in Driver's Seat As Global Energy Crisis Intensifies |url=https://www.naturalgasintel.com/opec-plus-in-drivers-seat-as-global-energy-crisis-intensifies/ |work=Natural Gas Intelligence |date=6 October 2021}}</ref> the highest since 2014.<ref>{{cite news |title=U.S. crude oil price tops $80 a barrel, the highest since 2014 |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/08/us-crude-oil-price-tops-80-a-barrel-the-highest-since-2014.html |work=CNBC |date=8 October 2021}}</ref> President Joe Biden and U.S. Energy Secretary [[Jennifer Granholm]] blamed the OPEC+ for rising oil and gas prices.<ref>{{cite news |title=US energy secretary blames Opec 'cartel' for high petrol prices |url=https://www.ft.com/content/cecf912d-705e-47b0-9ceb-911e7c517fd8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/cecf912d-705e-47b0-9ceb-911e7c517fd8 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=Financial Times |date=31 October 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Biden blames higher oil and gas prices on OPEC |url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/biden-blames-higher-oil-gas-prices-opec-2021-11-02/ |work=Reuters |date=2 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Energy secretary says she hopes gas prices won't reach $4 |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/sunday-talk-shows/580434-energy-secretary-says-she-hopes-gas-prices-wont-reach-4 |work=The Hill |date=7 November 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=OPEC+ warns of response as Biden readies to tap strategic reserve |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2021/11/22/opec-warn-of-response-as-biden-mulls-tapping-strategic-reserves |work=Al Jazeera |date=22 November 2021}}</ref>

Russia's invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 has altered the global oil trade. EU leaders tried to ban the majority of Russian crude imports, but even prior to the official action imports to Northwest Europe were down. More Russian oil is now heading to nations including India and China.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stevens |first=Pippa |date=31 May 2022 |title=These charts show how Russia's invasion of Ukraine has changed global oil flows |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/05/31/these-charts-show-russias-invasion-of-ukraine-has-changed-global-oil.html#:~:text=Russia's%20invasion%20of%20Ukraine%20has%20altered%20the%20global%20oil%20trade,nations%20including%20India%20and%20China. |access-date=5 September 2022 |website=CNBC}}</ref>

In October 2022, key OPEC+ ministers agreed to oil production cuts of 2 million barrels per day, the first production cut since 2020.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 October 2022 |title=OPEC+ JMMC agrees oil output cuts of 2 mln bpd – sources|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/energy/opec-jmmc-agrees-oil-output-cuts-2-mln-bpd-sources-2022-10-05/ |access-date=5 October 2022}}</ref> This led to renewed interest in the passage of NOPEC.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/energy/why-nopec-keeps-arising-as-a-us-answer-to-opec/2022/10/07/5f36eede-465d-11ed-be17-89cbe6b8c0a5_story.html|title=Why 'NOPEC' Keeps Arising as a U.S. Answer to OPEC |date=10 October 2022|access-date=12 March 2023|author=Ari Natter|agency=[[Bloomberg News]]|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref>

===2022: oil production cut===
[[File:Al Nahyan-Putin meeting (2022-10-11) 3.jpg|thumb|[[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]'s President [[Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan]] with Russian president [[Vladimir Putin]], days after OPEC+ cut oil production, 11 October 2022<ref>{{cite news |title=Putin hosts United Arab Emirates leader for economic talks |url=https://apnews.com/article/russia-ukraine-putin-business-abu-dhabi-a51f254dc2a8c8d068d9ca1e6ec0afb1 |work=Associated Press |date=11 October 2022}}</ref>]]
In October 2022, OPEC+ led by Saudi Arabia announced a large cut to its oil output target which will anger the USA and aid Russia.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.ft.com/content/70853af8-b7a4-4a28-bdfe-b4f3e375a1f0 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/70853af8-b7a4-4a28-bdfe-b4f3e375a1f0 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription | title=The new oil war: Opec moves against the US | newspaper=Financial Times | date=7 October 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.ft.com/content/476d8174-1ad5-4dbe-8092-37853b2a7673 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/https://www.ft.com/content/476d8174-1ad5-4dbe-8092-37853b2a7673 |archive-date=10 December 2022 |url-access=subscription | title=Saudi Arabia and Russia plan deep oil cuts in defiance of US | newspaper=Financial Times | date=5 October 2022 }}</ref> In response, US President [[Joe Biden]] vowed "consequences" and said the US government would "re-evaluate" the longstanding [[Saudi Arabia–United States relations|U.S. relationship with Saudi Arabia]].<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/world/us-president-biden-re-evaluating-relationship-with-saudi-after-opec-decision-2022-10-11/ | title=Biden vows consequences for Saudi Arabia after OPEC+ decision | newspaper=Reuters | date=13 October 2022 | last1=Holland | first1=Steve }}</ref> [[Robert Menendez]], the Democratic chairman of the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee, called for a freeze on cooperation with and arms sales to Saudi Arabia, accusing the kingdom of helping Russia underwrite its war with Ukraine.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/oct/12/us-democrats-threaten-saudi-arabia-with-arms-freeze-over-oil-output | title=Democrats issue fresh ultimatum to Saudi Arabia over oil production | website=[[TheGuardian.com]] | date=13 October 2022 }}</ref>

Saudi Arabia's foreign ministry stated that the OPEC+ decision was "purely economic" and taken unanimously by all members of the conglomerate, pushing back on pressure to change its stance on the Russo-Ukrainian War at the UN.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.foxbusiness.com/politics/saudi-arabia-defends-opec-oil-cut-decision-purely-economic | title=Saudi Arabia defends OPEC+ oil cut decision as 'purely economic' | website=[[Fox Business]] | date=13 October 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dw.com/en/saudi-arabia-opec-decision-to-reduce-oil-production-purely-economic/a-63421428 | title=Saudi Arabia: OPEC+ oil production cut 'purely economic' – DW – 10/13/2022 | website=[[Deutsche Welle]] }}</ref> In response, the White House accused Saudi Arabia of pressuring other OPEC nations into agreeing with the production cut, some of which felt coerced, saying the United States had presented the Saudi government with an analysis showing there was no market basis for the cut. United States National Security Council spokesman [[John Kirby (admiral)|John Kirby]] said the Saudi government knew the decision will "increase Russian revenues and blunt the effectiveness of sanctions" against Moscow, rejecting the Saudi claim that the move was "purely economic".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/white-house-pushes-back-saudi-claim-oil-cut-was-purely-economic-2022-10-13/ | title=Saudi Arabia pushed other OPEC nations into oil cut, White House claims | newspaper=Reuters | date=14 October 2022 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/13/1128523146/saudi-arabia-russia-opec-oil-cut-biden-congress-washington | title=The White House accuses Saudi Arabia of aiding Russia and coercing OPEC oil producers | website=NPR.org }}</ref> According to a report in ''The Intercept'', sources and experts said that Saudi Arabia had sought even deeper cuts than Russia, saying Saudi Crown Prince [[Mohammed bin Salman]] wants to sway the [[2022 United States elections]] in favour of the [[Republican Party (United States)|GOP]] and the [[2024 United States presidential election]] in favour of [[Donald Trump]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://theintercept.com/2022/10/20/saudi-oil-production-cut/ | title=Saudis Sought Oil Production Cut So Deep It Surprised Even Russia }}</ref>

==Membership==
{{clear left}}

===Current member countries===
As of January 2020, OPEC has 13 member countries: five in the [[Middle East]] ([[Western Asia]]), seven in [[Africa]], and one in South America. According to the U.S. [[Energy Information Administration]] (EIA), OPEC's combined rate of oil production (including [[natural-gas condensate|gas condensate]]) represented 44% of the world's total in 2016,<ref name="EIA Production"/> and OPEC accounted for 81.5% of the world's "proven" oil reserves.

Approval of a new member country requires agreement by three-quarters of OPEC's existing members, including all five of the founders.<ref name=statute/> In October 2015, [[Sudan]] formally submitted an application to join,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article56814 |title=Sudan awaiting decision on its OPEC membership application: minister |work=Sudan Tribune |date=22 October 2015 |access-date=19 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120071426/http://www.sudantribune.com/spip.php?article56814 |archive-date=20 November 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> but it is not yet a member.

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Country
! scope="col" | Region
! scope="col" | Duration of membership<ref name="OPEC Member"/><ref name=May2017Vienna/>
! scope="col" | Population ({{UN_Population|Year}} est.){{UN_Population|ref}}
! scope="col" | Area (km2)<ref name="CIA Area">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |title=Field Listing: Area |access-date=4 January 2009 |work=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140131115000/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2147.html |archive-date=31 January 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number"| [[List of countries by oil production|Oil production]] (bbl/day, 2021){{efn-ua|name=bbl}}<ref name="EIA Production">{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/data/browser/#/?pa=00000000000000000000000000000000002&c=ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1vrvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvvvvuvo&ct=0&tl_id=5-A&vs=INTL.57-1-AFG-TBPD.A&vo=0&v=H&start=2014&end=2016 |title=Production of Crude Oil including Lease Condensate 2016 |publisher=US Energy Information Administration |format=CVS download |access-date=28 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427031435/https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/data/browser/#/?pa=00000000000000000000000000000000002&c=ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1vrvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvvvvuvo&ct=0&tl_id=5-A&vs=INTL.57-1-AFG-TBPD.A&vo=0&v=H&start=2014&end=2016 |archive-date=27 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
! scope="col" data-sort-type="number"| [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|Proven reserves]] ([[barrel (unit)|bbl]], 2016){{efn-ua|name=bbl}}<ref name="EIA Reserves">{{cite web |url=https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/data/browser/#/?pa=0000000000000000000008&c=ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1urvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvnvvuvo&ct=0&tl_id=5-A&vs=INTL.57-6-AFG-BB.A&cy=2016&vo=0&v=H&start=2014&end=2016 |title=Crude Oil Proved Reserves 2016 |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration |format=CVS download |access-date=28 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427031435/https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/data/browser/#/?pa=0000000000000000000008&c=ruvvvvvfvtvnvv1urvvvvfvvvvvvfvvvou20evvvvvvvvvnvvuvo&ct=0&tl_id=5-A&vs=INTL.57-6-AFG-BB.A&cy=2016&vo=0&v=H&start=2014&end=2016 |archive-date=27 April 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Algeria]]
| North Africa
| data-sort-value="1969" | Since 1969
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Algeria}}
| align=right | 2,381,740
| align=right | 1,133,123
| align=right | 12,200,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Angola]]
| Southern Africa
| data-sort-value="2007" | Since 2007
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Angola}}
| align=right | 1,246,700
| align=right | 1,127,449
| align=right | 8,423,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Republic of the Congo]]
| Central Africa
| data-sort-value="2018" | Since 2018<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/congorepublic-opec/congo-republic-becomes-opec-oil-cartels-newest-member-idUKL8N1TO3R2|title=Congo Republic becomes OPEC oil cartel's newest member|type=editorial|agency=[[Reuters]]|work=U.K.|access-date=22 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622220328/https://uk.reuters.com/article/congorepublic-opec/congo-republic-becomes-opec-oil-cartels-newest-member-idUKL8N1TO3R2|archive-date=22 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>
| align=right | 5,125,821
| align=right | 342,000
| align=right | 265,871
| align=right | 1,600,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Equatorial Guinea]]
| Central Africa
| data-sort-value="2017" | Since 2017
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Equatorial Guinea}}
| align=right | 28,050
| align=right | 132,562
| align=right | ...
|-
! scope="row" | [[Gabon]]
| Central Africa
| data-sort-value="1975" | {{ubl|1975–1995,|Since 2016}}
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Gabon}}
| align=right | 267,667
| align=right | 175,041
| align=right | 2,000,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Iran]]
| [[Middle East]]
| data-sort-value="1960" | Since 1960{{efn-ua|name=Founder}}
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Iran (Islamic Republic of)}}
| align=right | 1,648,000
| align=right | 2,546,336
| align=right | 157,530,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Iraq]]
| Middle East
| data-sort-value="1960" | Since 1960{{efn-ua|name=Founder}}
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Iraq}}
| align=right | 437,072
| align=right | 4,084,822
| align=right | 143,069,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Kuwait]]
| Middle East
| data-sort-value="1960" | Since 1960{{efn-ua|name=Founder}}
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Kuwait}}
| align=right | 17,820
| align=right | 2,527,106
| align=right | 101,500,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Libya]]
| North Africa
| data-sort-value="1962" | Since 1962
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Libya}}
| align=right | 1,759,540
| align=right | 1,237,808
| align=right | 48,363,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Nigeria]]
| West Africa
| data-sort-value="1971" | Since 1971
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Nigeria}}
| align=right | 923,768
| align=right | 1,540,991
| align=right | 37,070,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Saudi Arabia]]
| Middle East
| data-sort-value="1960" | Since 1960{{efn-ua|name=Founder}}
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Saudi Arabia}}
| align=right | 2,149,690
| align=right | 9,313,145
| align=right | 266,578,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[United Arab Emirates]]
| Middle East
| data-sort-value="1967" | Since 1967{{efn-ua|name=UAE}}
| align=right | {{UN_Population|United Arab Emirates}}
| align=right | 83,600
| align=right | 3,091,481
| align=right | 97,800,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Venezuela]]
| {{nowrap|South America}}
| data-sort-value="1960" | Since 1960{{efn-ua|name=Founder}}
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of)}}
| align=right | 912,050
| align=right | 594,808
| align=right | 299,953,000,000
|- class="sortbottom"
! colspan="3" | OPEC total
! 483,630,000
! 12,492,695
! 27,770,543
! 1,210,703,000,000
|-
! colspan=3| World total
! {{formatnum:{{worldpop}} }}
! 510,072,000
! 77,043,680
! 1,650,585,000,000
|-
! colspan=3| OPEC percent
! 6.3%
! 2.4%
! 36%
! 73%
|}
{{notelist-ua|refs=
{{efn-ua|name=bbl|One petroleum barrel ([[barrel (unit)|bbl]]) is approximately 42 U.S. gallons, or 159 liters, or 0.159 m3, varying slightly with temperature. To put the production numbers in context, a [[Oil tanker#Size categories|supertanker]] typically holds 2,000,000 barrels (320,000 m3),<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hayler |first1=William B. |last2=Keever |first2=John M. |title=American Merchant Seaman's Manual |year=2003 |publisher= Cornell Maritime Press |isbn= 978-0-87033-549-5 |page=14.3}}</ref> and the world's current production rate would take approximately 56 years to exhaust the world's current proven reserves.}}
{{efn-ua|name=Founder|The five founding members attended the first OPEC conference in September 1960.}}
{{efn-ua|name=UAE|The UAE was founded in December 1971. Its OPEC membership originated with the [[Emirate of Abu Dhabi]].}}
}}

=== OPEC+ ===
A number of non-OPEC member countries also participate in the organisation's initiatives such as voluntary supply cuts in order to further bind policy objectives between OPEC and non-OPEC members.<ref name="ope2"/> This loose grouping of countries, known as OPEC+, includes [[Azerbaijan]], [[Bahrain]], [[Brunei]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Malaysia]], [[Mexico]], [[Oman]], [[Russia]], [[South Sudan]] and [[Sudan]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Prashanth Perumal J. |date=5 June 2022 |title=Opec Plus The cartel and its allies that keep oil on the boil |work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/opec-plus-the-cartel-and-its-allies-that-keep-oil-on-the-boil/article65493511.ece}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=OPEC: OPEC makes history in Vienna |url=https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/4052.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802092851/https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/press_room/4052.htm |archive-date=2 August 2019 |access-date=2 August 2019 |website=opec.org}}</ref>

=== Observers ===
Since the 1980s, representatives from Egypt, Mexico, Norway, [[Oman]], Russia, and other oil-exporting nations have attended many OPEC meetings as observers. This arrangement serves as an informal mechanism for coordinating policies.<ref name="observers3">{{cite news |date=14 September 2010 |title=OPEC: Fifty Years Regulating Oil Market Roller Coaster |agency=Inter Press Service |url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2010/09/opec-fifty-years-regulating-oil-market-roller-coaster/ |url-status=live |access-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224104031/http://www.ipsnews.net/2010/09/opec-fifty-years-regulating-oil-market-roller-coaster/ |archive-date=24 December 2015}}</ref>

===Lapsed members===

{| class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
! scope="col" | Country
! scope="col" | Region
! scope="col" | Membership years<ref name="OPEC Member"/>
! scope="col" | Population ({{UN_Population|Year}} est.){{UN_Population|ref}}
! scope="col" | Area (km2)<ref name="CIA Area"/>
! scope="col" | [[List of countries by oil production|Oil production]] ([[Barrel (unit)|bbl]]/day, 2016)<ref name="EIA Production"/>
! scope="col" | [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|Proven reserves]] (bbl, 2016)<ref name="EIA Reserves"/>
|-
! scope="row" | [[Ecuador]]
| South America
| data-sort-value="1973" | {{ubl|1973–1992,|2007–2020<ref name="EcuadorExitStatement20200102">{{cite press release |author= |date=2 January 2020 |title=Comunicado Oficial |trans-title=Official Statement |language=es |url=https://www.recursosyenergia.gob.ec/comunicado-oficial-7/ |url-status=live |location=Metropolitan District of Quito, Ecuador |publisher=Ministry of Energy and Non-Renewable Natural Resources |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107043240/https://www.recursosyenergia.gob.ec/comunicado-oficial-7/ |archive-date=7 January 2020 |access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref>}}
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Ecuador}}
| align=right | 283,560
| align=right | 548,421
| align=right | 8,273,000,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Indonesia]]
| Southeast Asia
| data-sort-value="1962" | {{ubl|1962–2008,|Jan–Nov 2016}}
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Indonesia}}
| align=right | 1,904,569
| align=right | 833,667
| align=right | 3,692,500,000
|-
! scope="row" | [[Qatar]]
| Middle East
| data-sort-value="1961" | 1961–2019<ref name="qtrleave"/>
| align=right | {{UN_Population|Qatar}}
| align=right | 11,437
| align=right | 1,522,902
| align=right | 25,244,000,000
|-
|}

For countries that export petroleum at relatively low volume, their limited negotiating power as OPEC members would not necessarily justify the burdens imposed by OPEC [[production quota]]s and membership costs. [[Ecuador]] withdrew from OPEC in December 1992, because it was unwilling to pay the annual US$2 million membership fee and felt that it needed to produce more oil than it was allowed under its OPEC quota at the time.<ref name=Ecuador/> Ecuador then rejoined in October 2007 before leaving again in January 2020.<ref name="eqrleave">{{cite web
| url=https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/ecuador-to-leave-opec-in-january-amid-efforts-to-boost-income-1.1324853
| title=Ecuador to Leave OPEC in January Amid Efforts to Boost Income
| first=Kueffner
| last=Stephan
| date=1 October 2019
| website=bnnbloomberg.ca
| access-date=6 October 2019
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191006225119/https://www.bnnbloomberg.ca/ecuador-to-leave-opec-in-january-amid-efforts-to-boost-income-1.1324853
| archive-date=6 October 2019| url-status=live}}</ref> Ecuador's Ministry of Energy and Non-Renewable Natural Resources released an official statement on 2 January 2020 which confirmed that Ecuador had left OPEC.<ref name="EcuadorExitStatement20200102"/> Similar concerns prompted [[Gabon]] to suspend membership in January 1995;<ref name=Gabon/> it rejoined in July 2016.

In May 2008, [[Indonesia]] announced that it would leave OPEC when its membership expired at the end of that year, having become a net importer of oil and being unable to meet its production quota.<ref name=Indonesia/> It rejoined the organization in January 2016,<ref name="OPEC Member"/> but announced another "temporary suspension" of its membership at year-end when OPEC requested a 5% production cut.<ref name=LeavingAgain>{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-opec-meeting-indonesia-idUSKBN13Q3M7 |title=Net oil importer Indonesia leaves producer club OPEC, again |first1=Fergus |last1=Jensen |first2=Wilda |last2=Asmarini |work=Reuters |date=1 December 2016 |access-date=1 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161201141227/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-opec-meeting-indonesia-idUSKBN13Q3M7 |archive-date=1 December 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Qatar left OPEC on 1 January 2019, after joining the organization in 1961, to focus on [[natural gas]] production, of which it is the world's largest exporter in the form of [[Liquefied natural gas|liquified natural gas]] (LNG).<ref name="qtrleave">{{cite web
| url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/03/business/qatar-opec-withdrawal/index.html
| title=Qatar is pulling out of OPEC to focus on gas
| first=Zahraa
| last=Alkhalisi
| date=3 December 2018
| publisher=CNN
| access-date=3 December 2018
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203142630/https://www.cnn.com/2018/12/03/business/qatar-opec-withdrawal/index.html
| archive-date=3 December 2018| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news
|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2018/12/08/qatar-quit-opec-because-of-politics-not-oil
|title=Qatar quit OPEC because of politics, not oil
|date=6 December 2018|newspaper=[[The Economist]]
|access-date=25 January 2019
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126000855/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2018/12/08/qatar-quit-opec-because-of-politics-not-oil|archive-date=26 January 2019
|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Market information==
As one area in which OPEC members have been able to cooperate productively over the decades, the organisation has significantly improved the quality and quantity of information available about the international oil market. This is especially helpful for a natural-resource industry whose smooth functioning requires months and years of careful planning.

===Publications and research===
[[File:Jodi-circle-logo.png|thumb|alt=refer to caption|Logo for [[Joint Organisations Data Initiative|JODI]], in which OPEC is a founding member]]
In April 2001, OPEC collaborated with five other international organizations ([[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation|APEC]], [[Eurostat]], [[International Energy Agency|IEA]], {{interlanguage link|Latin American Energy Organisation|es|Organización Latinoamericana de Energía|lt=OLADE}}, [[United Nations Statistics Division|UNSD]]) to improve the availability and reliability of oil data. They launched the Joint Oil Data Exercise, which in 2005 was joined by [[International Energy Forum|IEF]] and renamed the [[Joint Organisations Data Initiative]] (JODI), covering more than 90% of the global oil market. [[Gas Exporting Countries Forum|GECF]] joined as an eighth partner in 2014, enabling JODI also to cover nearly 90% of the global market for natural gas.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.jodidata.org/about-jodi/history.aspx |title=History of the Joint Organisations Data Initiative |work=JODI |access-date=23 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151012051500/https://www.jodidata.org/about-jodi/history.aspx |archive-date=12 October 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since 2007, OPEC has published the "World Oil Outlook" (WOO) annually, in which it presents a comprehensive analysis of the global oil industry including medium- and long-term projections for supply and demand.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/publications/340.htm |title=World Oil Outlook |work=OPEC |access-date=31 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151224154110/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/publications/340.htm |archive-date=24 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> OPEC also produces an "Annual Statistical Bulletin" (ASB),<ref name=ASB>{{cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/publications/202.htm |title=Annual Statistical Bulletin |work=OPEC |access-date=31 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180821113032/https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/publications/202.htm |archive-date=21 August 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref> and publishes more-frequent updates in its "Monthly Oil Market Report" (MOMR)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/publications/338.htm |title=Monthly Oil Market Report |work=OPEC |access-date=31 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151227170559/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/publications/338.htm |archive-date=27 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> and "OPEC Bulletin".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/76.htm |title=OPEC Bulletin |work=OPEC |access-date=31 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105070452/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/76.htm |archive-date=5 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Crude oil benchmarks===
{{See also|Benchmark (crude oil)}}
[[File:Crudes.PNG|thumb|alt=refer to caption|[[Sulfur]] content and [[API gravity]] of different types of crude oil.{{citation needed|date=March 2020|reason=Brent shown as sweeter than WTI, yet most sources claim the opposite. That and other claims in image probably need checking and sourcing. Example: http://www.petroleum.co.uk/benchmarks}}]]
A "crude oil benchmark" is a standardised [[Petroleum#Classification|petroleum]] product that serves as a convenient reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil, including standardised contracts in major [[futures markets]] since 1983. Benchmarks are used because oil prices differ (usually by a few dollars per barrel) based on variety, grade, delivery date and location, and other legal requirements.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/904748.stm |title=Oil markets explained |work=BBC News |date=18 October 2007 |access-date=6 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180913114404/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/904748.stm |archive-date=13 September 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/603911468739482147/pdf/multi-page.pdf |title=The new era of petroleum trading: spot-oil, spot-related contracts, and futures markets |first=Hossein |last=Razavi |publisher=The World Bank |date=April 1989 |isbn=978-0-8213-1199-8 |pages=65–69 |access-date=4 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205095734/http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/603911468739482147/pdf/multi-page.pdf |archive-date=5 February 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The [[OPEC Reference Basket|OPEC Reference Basket of Crudes]] has been an important benchmark for oil prices since 2000. It is calculated as a [[weighted average]] of prices for petroleum blends from the OPEC member countries: Saharan Blend (Algeria), Girassol (Angola), Djeno (Republic of the Congo) Rabi Light (Gabon), Iran Heavy (Islamic Republic of Iran), Basra Light (Iraq), Kuwait Export (Kuwait), Es Sider (Libya), Bonny Light (Nigeria), Arab Light (Saudi Arabia), Murban (UAE), and Merey (Venezuela).<ref name=basket>{{cite web |url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/data_graphs/40.htm |title=OPEC Basket Price |work=OPEC |access-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501131417/https://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/data_graphs/40.htm |archive-date=1 May 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Brent Crude|North Sea Brent Crude Oil]] is the leading [[Benchmark (crude oil)|benchmark]] for Atlantic basin crude oils, and is used to price approximately two-thirds of the world's traded crude oil. Other well-known benchmarks are [[West Texas Intermediate]] (WTI), [[Dubai Crude]], [[DME Oman Crude Oil Futures Contract|Oman Crude]], and [[Urals oil]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/oilandgas/8429184/Brent-crude-and-other-oil-price-benchmarks.html |title=Brent crude and other oil price benchmarks |agency=Reuters |date=5 April 2011 |access-date=4 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925075958/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/oilandgas/8429184/Brent-crude-and-other-oil-price-benchmarks.html |archive-date=25 September 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Oil price benchmarks.webp|thumb|300px|
{{legend-line|#929292 solid 3px|[[West Texas Intermediate]]}}
{{legend-line|#000000 solid 3px|[[Brent Crude]]}}
{{legend-line|#EE220C solid 3px|[[Urals oil]] (Russian export mix)}}
{{legend-line|#00A2FF solid 3px|[[Dubai Crude]]}}
{{legend-line|#A21726 solid 3px|OPEC Basket Price}}
]]

===Spare capacity===
The US Energy Information Administration, the statistical arm of the [[US Department of Energy]], defines spare capacity for crude oil market management "as the volume of production that can be brought on within 30 days and sustained for at least 90 days ... OPEC spare capacity provides an indicator of the world oil market's ability to respond to potential crises that reduce oil supplies."<ref name="EIA_2014" />

In November 2014, the International Energy Agency (IEA) estimated that OPEC's "effective" spare capacity, adjusted for ongoing disruptions in countries like Libya and Nigeria, was {{convert|3.5|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}} and that this number would increase to a peak in 2017 of {{convert|4.6|Moilbbl/d|m3/d}}.<ref>{{cite journal |title='Effective' OPEC Spare Capacity: Reality-Based Data |url=http://www.iea.org/media/ieajournal/Issue7_WEB.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160502040956/http://www.iea.org/media/ieajournal/Issue7_WEB.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=IEA Energy |issue=7 |page=13 |date=November 2014 |archive-date=2 May 2016}}</ref> By November 2015, the IEA changed its assessment{{how much|date=March 2020}} "with OPEC's spare production buffer stretched thin, as Saudi Arabia – which holds the lion's share of excess capacity – and its [Persian] Gulf neighbours pump at near-record rates."<ref>{{cite journal |title=3 billion barrel cushion |journal=Oil Market Report |url=https://www.iea.org/oilmarketreport/reports/2015/1115/ |date=13 November 2015 |access-date=15 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222164633/https://www.iea.org/oilmarketreport/reports/2015/1115/ |archive-date=22 December 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Energy}}
* [[Energy diplomacy]]
* [[List of country groupings]]
* [[List of intergovernmental organizations]]
* [[Oligopoly]]
* [[World oil market chronology from 2003]]
* [[Gasoline]]
* [[Peak oil]]
* [[Peak gas]]
* [[Arun gas field|Arun-gas-field depleted year 2014]]

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* Ansari, Dawud. (2017) "OPEC, Saudi Arabia, and the shale revolution: Insights from equilibrium modelling and oil politics." ''Energy Policy'' 111 (2017): 166–178. [https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/82613/1/MPRA_paper_82613.pdf online]
* Claes, Dag Harald, and Giuliano Garavini eds. (2019) ''Handbook of OPEC and the Global Energy Order: Past, Present and Future Challenges'' (Routledge 2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Handbook-OPEC-Global-Energy-Order/dp/0367195658/ excerpt]
* Colgan, Jeff D. (2014) "The emperor has no clothes: The limits of OPEC in the global oil market." ''International Organization'' 68.3 (2014): 599–632. [http://www.ourenergypolicy.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/08/OPEC-Colgan.2013Mar.Copyedit-IO.pdf online]
*Dudley, Bob. (2019) "BP energy outlook." ''Report–BP Energy Economics–London: UK'' 9 (2019) [https://vcmstudy.ir/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/bp-energy-outlook-2017-presentation-slides.pdf online].
* Economou, Andreas, and Bassam Fattouh. (2021) "OPEC at 60: the world with and without OPEC." OPEC ''Energy Review'' 45.1 (2021): 3-28. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/opec.12205 online], a historical perspective from 1990 to 2018.
* Evans, John (1986). ''OPEC, Its Member States and the World Energy Market''. {{ISBN|978-0810321489}}.
* Fesharaki, Fereidun (1983). ''OPEC, the Gulf, and the World Petroleum Market: A Study in Government Policy and Downstream Operations''. {{ISBN|9780367281939}}.
* Garavini, Giuliano. (2019). ''[https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-rise-and-fall-of-opec-in-the-twentieth-century-9780198832836?cc=us&lang=en& The Rise and Fall of OPEC in the Twentieth Century]''. Oxford University Press.
* Gately, Dermot. (1984) "A ten-year retrospective: OPEC and the world oil market." ''Journal of Economic Literature'' 22.3 (1984): 1100–1114. summary of scholarly literature [http://www-personal.umich.edu/~twod/oil-ns/articles/research-oil/dermot_gatley_opec_10-yr_pricing_oil_sep84.pdf online]
*{{Cite journal|title=The Power of Oil: The Arab Oil Weapon and the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Canada, Japan, and the United States |first=Roy |last=Licklider |journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]]|volume=32 |issue=2 |year=1988 |pages=205–226 |doi=10.2307/2600627 |jstor=2600627 |s2cid=155591645 |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/92db/ddba23893560a127a5ec353346b5af1feeb6.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218111805/https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/92db/ddba23893560a127a5ec353346b5af1feeb6.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2020|ref=none}}
* {{cite news|last=Monbiot|first=George|author-link=George Monbiot|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2019/jun/26/shell-not-green-saviour-death-machine-greenwash-oil-gas|title=Shell is not a green saviour. It's a planetary death machine|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=26 June 2019|access-date=12 March 2023|ref=none}}{{Relevance inline|date=March 2023|reason=Does the article say anything about OPEC?}}
* Painter, David S (2014). [https://www.ssoar.info/ssoar/bitstream/handle/document/40394/ssoar-hsr-2014-4-painter-Oil_and_geopolitics_the_oil.pdf?sequence=1 "Oil and geopolitics: The oil crises of the 1970s and the cold war"]. ''Historical Social Research/Historische Sozialforschung''. 186–208.
* Pickl, Matthias J. (2019) "The renewable energy strategies of oil majors–From oil to energy?." ''Energy Strategy Reviews'' 26 (2019): 100370. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211467X19300574 online]
* Ratti, Ronald A., and Joaquin L. Vespignani. (2015) "OPEC and non-OPEC oil production and the global economy." ''Energy Economics'' 50 (2015): 364–378. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140988314003053 online]
* Skeet, Ian (1988). ''OPEC: Twenty-five Years of Prices and Politics''. Cambridge UP. {{ISBN|978-0521405720}} [https://archive.org/details/opectwentyfiveye00skee online]
* Van de Graaf, Thijs. (2020) "Is OPEC dead? Oil exporters, the Paris agreement and the transition to a post-carbon world." in ''Beyond market assumptions: Oil price as a global institution'' (Springer, Cham, 2020) pp. 63–77. [https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8137111/file/8137112.pdf online]
* Wight, David M. ''Oil Money: Middle East Petrodollars and the Transformation of US Empire, 1967-1988'' (Cornell University Press, 20210 [https://issforum.org/to/jrt14-23 | Website: rjissf.org online reviews]

* Woolfson, Charles, and Matthias Beck. (2019) "Corporate social responsibility in the international oil industry." in ''Corporate social responsibility failures in the oil industry. '' (Routledge, 2019) pp. 1–14. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Charles-Woolfson/publication/333570020_Corporate_Social_Responsibility_in_the_International_Oil_Industry/links/5d922415a6fdcc2554a95f81/Corporate-Social-Responsibility-in-the-International-Oil-Industry.pdf online]
* Yergin, Daniel (1991). ''The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power''. {{ISBN|978-1439110126}} [https://archive.org/details/prizeepicquestfo0000yerg_g3v1 online]
* Yergin, Daniel (2011). ''The quest : energy, security and the remaking of the modern world'' (2011) [https://archive.org/details/questenergysecur0000yerg online]
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{Official website|http://www.opec.org}}
* [http://www.opecfund.org/ The OPEC Fund for International Development official website]

{{OPEC|state=expanded}}
{{Heads of state of OPEC member states}}
{{Energy in Russia}}
{{Petroleum industry|collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Opec}}
[[Category:OPEC| ]]
[[Category:Cartels]]
[[Category:History of the petroleum industry]]
[[Category:Intergovernmental commodity organizations|Petroleum]]
[[Category:International energy organizations]]
[[Category:Petroleum economics]]
[[Category:Petroleum organizations]]
[[Category:Petroleum politics]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Vienna]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1960]]
[[Category:20th century in Baghdad]]

Tripartite Treaty

2023-06-28T15:03:14Z

PatriceNeff: Fix cite of my last edit

The '''Tripartite Treaty''' may refer to:

* The [[Hewett Treaty]] between Ethiopia, Egypt, and the United Kingdom concerning ownership of Eritrea and the evacuation of Egyptian troops from Mahdist Sudan
* The [[Tripartite Treaty (1906)]] between France, Italy, and the United Kingdom concerning Ethiopian sovereignty and railroad construction
* The [[Tripartite Agreement of 1915]] between China, Russia and Mongolia wherein the latter was recognised as an autonomous part of China
* The [[Tripartite Pact]] between Germany, Italy, and Japan, establishing the Axis alliance

* The Tripartite Treaty Alliance of Iran, Britain, and the Soviet Union<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frankopan |first1=Peter |title=The Silk Roads: A New History of the World |date=August 27, 2015 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-1-101-91237-9 |page=399}}</ref>, see [[Anglo-Soviet Agreement#Effect]]

{{disambiguation}}

Tripartite Treaty

2023-06-28T15:02:46Z

PatriceNeff: Adding the Tripartite Treaty Alliance with Iran, Britain, Soviet Union

The '''Tripartite Treaty''' may refer to:

* The [[Hewett Treaty]] between Ethiopia, Egypt, and the United Kingdom concerning ownership of Eritrea and the evacuation of Egyptian troops from Mahdist Sudan
* The [[Tripartite Treaty (1906)]] between France, Italy, and the United Kingdom concerning Ethiopian sovereignty and railroad construction
* The [[Tripartite Agreement of 1915]] between China, Russia and Mongolia wherein the latter was recognised as an autonomous part of China
* The [[Tripartite Pact]] between Germany, Italy, and Japan, establishing the Axis alliance

* The Tripartite Treaty Alliance of Iran, Britain, and the Soviet Union<ref>{{cite book |last1=Frankopan |first1=Peter |title=The Silk Roads: A New History of the World |date=August 27, 2015 |publisher=Vintage Books |isbn=978-1-101-91237-9 |page=399 |access-date=28 June 2023}}</ref>, see [[Anglo-Soviet Agreement#Effect]]

{{disambiguation}}

Ivan I of Moscow

2023-06-05T06:55:22Z

PatriceNeff: Further deduplication that I missed

{{short description|Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of Vladimir}}
{{Redirect|Ivan Kalita|the Russian horse rider|Ivan Kalita (equestrian)}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ivan I
| image = Ivan Kalita.jpg
| caption = Miniature from the ''Tsarskiy titulyarnik'' ("Tsar's Book of Titles", 1672)
| reign = 21 November 1325 – 31 March 1340 or 1341
| succession = [[List of Russian rulers#Grand Princes of Moscow|Prince of Moscow]]
| predecessor = [[Yury of Moscow|Yury]]
| successor = [[Simeon of Moscow|Simeon I]]
| spouse = 1.[[:ru:Елена (жена Ивана Калиты)|Elena Aleksandra]]; 2.[[:ru:Ульяна (жена Ивана Калиты)|Ulyana]]
| spouse-type = [[List of Russian consorts|Consort]] 
| issue = [[Simeon of Moscow|Simeon Ivanovich]] [[Ivan II of Moscow|Ivan Ivanovich]]
|issue-link = #Children
|issue-pipe = more...
| house = [[Rurikids|Rurik]]
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = [[Daniel of Moscow]]
| mother = Maria
| birth_date = 1 November 1288
| birth_place = [[Moscow]], [[Duchy of Moscow]]
| death_date = {{Death date|1340|3|31|df=y}} or 1341 (aged 51–52)
| death_place = [[Moscow]], [[Duchy of Moscow]]
| date of burial =
| place of burial= [[Cathedral of the Archangel]]
| religion = [[Russian Orthodox Church]]
}}

'''Iván I Danilovich Kalitá''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Ива́н I Данилович Калита́; 1 November 1288 – 31 March 1340 or 1341<ref name="Dmytryshyn1">Basil Dmytryshyn, ''Medieval Russia:A source book, 850-1700'', (Academic International Press, 2000), 194.</ref>) was [[Prince of Moscow|Grand Prince of Moscow]]<ref name=Frankopan2015>{{cite book | vauthors=((Frankopan, P.)) | date=27 August 2015 | title=The Silk Roads: A New History of the World | publisher=Vintage Books | isbn=978-1-101-91237-9 | page=179}}</ref> from 1325 to at least 1340, and [[Grand Duke of Vladimir]] from 1332 until at least 1340.<ref name="Dmytryshyn2">Basil Dmytryshyn, ''Medieval Russia:A source book, 850-1700'', 190.</ref>

==Biography==
Ivan was the son of the Prince of Moscow [[Daniil Aleksandrovich]].{{cn|date=February 2023}}

After the death of his elder brother [[Yury of Moscow|Yury]], Ivan inherited the [[Principality of Moscow]]. Ivan participated in the struggle to get the title of Grand Duke of [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]] which could be obtained with the approval of a [[Khan (title)|khan]] of the [[Golden Horde]]. The main rivals of the princes of Moscow in this struggle were the princes of [[Tver]] – [[Mikhail of Tver|Mikhail]], [[Dmitry of Tver|Dmitry the Terrible Eyes]], and [[Alexander of Tver|Alexander II]], all of whom obtained the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir and were deprived of it. All of them were murdered in the [[Golden Horde]]. In 1328 Ivan Kalita received the approval of khan [[Uzbeg Khan|Muhammad Ozbeg]] to become the Grand Duke of Vladimir with the right to collect taxes from all Rus' lands.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

According to the Imperial Russian historian [[Vasily Klyuchevsky]], the rise of Moscow under Ivan I Kalita was determined by three factors. The first one was that the Moscow principality was situated in the middle of other Rus' principalities; thus, it was protected from any invasions from the East and from the West. Compared to its neighbors, [[Ryazan]] principality and [[Tver]] principality, Moscow was less often devastated. The relative safety of the Moscow region resulted in the second factor of the rise of Moscow – an influx of working and tax-paying people who were tired of constant raids and who actively relocated to Moscow from other Rus' regions. The third factor was a trade route from [[Novgorod]] to the [[Volga]] river.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

According to Baumer<ref>Christoph Baumer, History of Central Asia, 2016, v3, p268</ref> [[Öz Beg Khan]] took a fateful decision when he abandoned the former policy of divide and rule by making the new grand prince responsible for collecting and passing on all the tribute and taxes from all Rus' cities. Ivan delivered these exactions punctually, so further strengthening his position of privilege. In this way he laid the foundations for Moscow's future as a regional great power.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

Ivan Kalita intentionally pursued the policy of relocation of people to his principality by an invitation of people from other places and by purchase of Rus' people captured by [[Mongol]]s during their raids. He managed to eliminate all the thieves in his lands, thus ensuring the safety of traveling merchants. Internal peace and order together with the absence of Mongolian raids to the Moscow principality was mentioned in Rus' chronicles as “great peace, silence, and relief of Rus' land.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

Ivan made Moscow very wealthy by maintaining his loyalty to the Horde (hence, the nickname ''Kalita'', or the [[Moneybag]]<ref>Basil Dmytryshyn, ''Medieval Russia:A source book, 850-1700'', 195.</ref>). He used this wealth to give loans to neighbouring Rus' principalities. These cities gradually fell deeper and deeper into debt, a condition that would eventually allow Ivan's successors to annex them. He bought lands around Moscow, and very often the poor owners sold their lands willingly. Some of them kept the right to rule in their lands on behalf of Ivan Kalita. In one way or another a number of cities and villages joined the Moscow principality – [[Uglich]] in 1323, the principality of [[Belozero]] in 1328–1338, and the principality of [[Galich, Russia|Galich]] in 1340. Ivan's greatest success, however, was convincing the Khan in [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]] that his son, [[Simeon of Russia|Simeon The Proud]], should succeed him as the Grand Duke of Vladimir and from then on this position almost always belonged to the ruling house of Moscow. The Head of the Russian Church – [[Metropolitan Peter]], whose authority was extremely high, moved from Vladimir to Moscow to Prince Ivan Kalita.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

Following a [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuanian]] raid on the town of [[Torzhok]] in 1335 (as part of the [[Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars]]), Ivan retaliated by burning the towns of Osechen and Riasna.<ref>S. C. Rowell, ''Lithuania Ascending:A Pagan Empire within East Central Europe, 1295-1345'', (Cambridge University Press, 1994), 250.</ref>

Ivan died in Moscow, 31 March 1340 or 1341.<ref name="Dmytryshyn1" /> He was buried 1 April in the [[Cathedral of the Archangel|Church of the Archangel Michael]].<ref name="Dmytryshyn1" /> Ivan had built the church and was also the first person to be buried there.<ref>Cherniavsky, M. (1975). Ivan the terrible and the iconography of the kremlin cathedral of archangel michael. Russian History, 2(1), 3-28. doi:10.1163/187633175X00018</ref>

==Family==
Ivan Kalita was married twice. His first wife was called [[:ru:Елена_(жена_Ивана_Калиты)|Elena]], and nothing is known exactly about her origin. There is a hypothesis that she was the daughter of the [[prince of Smolensk]], [[:ru:Александр_Глебович|Alexander Glebovich]].<ref>''Averyanov K.'' Principality of Moscow under Ivan Kalita (Accession of Koloman. Acquisition of Mozhaisk). - <abbr>M.</abbr>, p. 36, 1994.</ref>

From marriage were born:
*[[Simeon of Moscow|Simeon Ivanovich]] (7 November 1316 – 27 April 1353), future ''[[Grand Duke of Moscow]];''
*Daniel Ivanovich (11 December 1319/20–1328);
*Fefinia Ivanovna (died young);
*Maria Ivanovna (died 2 June 1365), married to ''Prince Konstantin of [[Rostov]]'' in 1328.;
*[[Ivan II of Moscow|Ivan Ivanovich]] (30 March 1326 – 13 November 1359), future ''[[Grand Duke of Moscow]];''
*Andrei Ivanovich (4 August 1327 – 6 June 1353), ''Prince of [[Veliky Novgorod|Novgorod]];''
*Evdokia Ivanovna (1314 – 1342), married to ''Vasili Mikhailovich, [[Principality of Yaroslavl|Prince of Iaroslavl.]]'' They were the ancestors of the [[Shakhovskoy|Princes of Shakhovskoy]], possibly the most senior remaining branch of the [[Rurik dynasty|Rurikids]];
*Feodosia Ivanovna (died 1389), married to ''Fyodor Romanovich, [[Prince of Beloozero|Prince of Belozersky]]'' .
Princess Elena died on 1 March, 1331. A year later, Ivan married again, although only the given name of his second wife is known - ''Ulyana'' . There is a hypothesis that she was a daughter of Fyodor Davydovich Galitsky, who received half of her father's principality as a dowry. According to A. V. Eksemplyarsky, this second marriage produced one daughter; while V.A. Kuchkin suggested there were two daughters: Maria and Theodosia, who appear in the prince's will as "young children". One of them was alive in 1359; nothing more is known about the other. Ulyana survived her husband and died between 1366 and 1372.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

==Legacy==

Under Ivan Kalita, Moscow was actively growing, and his residence on the [[Kremlin Hill|Borovitsky hill]] became the main part of the city. Erection of either wooden or white-stone constructions was started in the Kremlin. A number of churches were built: in 1326–1327 the [[Dormition Cathedral, Moscow|Assumption Cathedral]], in 1329 the [[Ivan the Great Bell Tower|Church of Ivan of the Ladder]] ([[John Climacus]]), in 1330 the Cathedral of the Saviour on the Bor (Forest), and in 1333 the [[Cathedral of the Archangel|Cathedral of Archangel Michael]], where Ivan Kalita and his descendants were buried. Between 1339 and 1340, Ivan Kalita erected a new, bigger oaken fortress on the Borovitsky hill.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

In Ivan’s will “the golden cap” was mentioned for the first time; this cap is identified with the well-known [[Monomakh's Cap|Monomakh’s crown]], the main crown of Russian sovereigns.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

In an oration written in the 1470s (about 135 years after his death) praising the life of Ivan I's grandson [[Dmitry Donskoy]] ({{Reign|1359|1389}}), Ivan Kalita was retroactively referred to as the ‘gatherer of the Rus' land'.{{sfn|Plokhy|2006|p=136}} This was part of a wider effort by Muscovite writers in the late 15th century to claim that the authority of the Grand Princes of [[Kievan Rus']] had been transferred from [[Kyiv]] to [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir on the Klyazma]], and then to Moscow, thus arguing (against other princely claimants from Kyiv, Lithuania, and elsewhere) that the Muscovite rulers were the only true legitimate heirs to the Rurikid dynasty, and the Rus' land.{{sfn|Plokhy|2006|p=136–138}}

==See also==
*[[Family tree of Russian monarchs]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{See also|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)}}
*V. O. Kluchevsky. ''The course of Russian history''. Lecture #21
*Janet Martin, ''Medieval Russia 980–1584''
* {{cite book |title=The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |authorlink=Serhii Plokhy |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-86403-9 |pages=378 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCdUmCWxwJ8C}}

==External links==
* [http://www.kreml.ru/en/main/history/kremlin/XIII-XIV/ The Moscow Kremlin]
* [http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/RUSSIA,%20Rurik.htm#IvanDaniilovichVladimirdied1340B His listing in "Medieval lands" by Charles Cawley.]
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Ivan | volume= 15 |last= Bain |first= Robert Nisbet |author-link= Robert Nisbet Bain| pages = 87–91 |short= 1 }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Yury of Moscow|Yuri]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prince of Moscow]]|years=1325–1340}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Simeon of Moscow|Simeon]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Alexander of Tver|Alexander]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Grand Prince of Vladimir]]|years=1325–1340}}
{{s-end}}
{{Russian sovereigns}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ivan 01 of Moscow}}
[[Category:1288 births]]
[[Category:1340s deaths]]

[[Category:Year of death uncertain]]
[[Category:13th-century princes from Kievan Rus']]
[[Category:14th-century Grand Princes of Moscow]]
[[Category:Grand Princes of Vladimir]]
[[Category:Daniilovichi family]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox monarchs]]

Ivan I of Moscow

2023-06-05T06:54:22Z

PatriceNeff: Fix double "Grand Duke" in introduction. Based on the cited reference and the linked pages I also changed it to Grand Prince.

{{short description|Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of Vladimir}}
{{Redirect|Ivan Kalita|the Russian horse rider|Ivan Kalita (equestrian)}}
{{refimprove|date=February 2023}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Ivan I
| image = Ivan Kalita.jpg
| caption = Miniature from the ''Tsarskiy titulyarnik'' ("Tsar's Book of Titles", 1672)
| reign = 21 November 1325 – 31 March 1340 or 1341
| succession = [[List of Russian rulers#Grand Princes of Moscow|Prince of Moscow]]
| predecessor = [[Yury of Moscow|Yury]]
| successor = [[Simeon of Moscow|Simeon I]]
| spouse = 1.[[:ru:Елена (жена Ивана Калиты)|Elena Aleksandra]]; 2.[[:ru:Ульяна (жена Ивана Калиты)|Ulyana]]
| spouse-type = [[List of Russian consorts|Consort]] 
| issue = [[Simeon of Moscow|Simeon Ivanovich]] [[Ivan II of Moscow|Ivan Ivanovich]]
|issue-link = #Children
|issue-pipe = more...
| house = [[Rurikids|Rurik]]
| house-type = Dynasty
| father = [[Daniel of Moscow]]
| mother = Maria
| birth_date = 1 November 1288
| birth_place = [[Moscow]], [[Duchy of Moscow]]
| death_date = {{Death date|1340|3|31|df=y}} or 1341 (aged 51–52)
| death_place = [[Moscow]], [[Duchy of Moscow]]
| date of burial =
| place of burial= [[Cathedral of the Archangel]]
| religion = [[Russian Orthodox Church]]
}}

'''Iván I Danilovich Kalitá''' ([[Russian language|Russian]]: Ива́н I Данилович Калита́; 1 November 1288 – 31 March 1340 or 1341<ref name="Dmytryshyn1">Basil Dmytryshyn, ''Medieval Russia:A source book, 850-1700'', (Academic International Press, 2000), 194.</ref>) was [[Prince of Moscow|Grand Prince of Moscow]]<ref name=Frankopan2015>{{cite book | vauthors=((Frankopan, P.)) | date=27 August 2015 | title=The Silk Roads: A New History of the World | publisher=Vintage Books | isbn=978-1-101-91237-9 | page=179}}</ref> of [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Moscow]] from 1325 to at least 1340, and [[Grand Duke of Vladimir]] from 1332 until at least 1340.<ref name="Dmytryshyn2">Basil Dmytryshyn, ''Medieval Russia:A source book, 850-1700'', 190.</ref>==Biography==

Ivan was the son of the Prince of Moscow [[Daniil Aleksandrovich]].{{cn|date=February 2023}}

After the death of his elder brother [[Yury of Moscow|Yury]], Ivan inherited the [[Principality of Moscow]]. Ivan participated in the struggle to get the title of Grand Duke of [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]] which could be obtained with the approval of a [[Khan (title)|khan]] of the [[Golden Horde]]. The main rivals of the princes of Moscow in this struggle were the princes of [[Tver]] – [[Mikhail of Tver|Mikhail]], [[Dmitry of Tver|Dmitry the Terrible Eyes]], and [[Alexander of Tver|Alexander II]], all of whom obtained the title of Grand Duke of Vladimir and were deprived of it. All of them were murdered in the [[Golden Horde]]. In 1328 Ivan Kalita received the approval of khan [[Uzbeg Khan|Muhammad Ozbeg]] to become the Grand Duke of Vladimir with the right to collect taxes from all Rus' lands.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

According to the Imperial Russian historian [[Vasily Klyuchevsky]], the rise of Moscow under Ivan I Kalita was determined by three factors. The first one was that the Moscow principality was situated in the middle of other Rus' principalities; thus, it was protected from any invasions from the East and from the West. Compared to its neighbors, [[Ryazan]] principality and [[Tver]] principality, Moscow was less often devastated. The relative safety of the Moscow region resulted in the second factor of the rise of Moscow – an influx of working and tax-paying people who were tired of constant raids and who actively relocated to Moscow from other Rus' regions. The third factor was a trade route from [[Novgorod]] to the [[Volga]] river.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

According to Baumer<ref>Christoph Baumer, History of Central Asia, 2016, v3, p268</ref> [[Öz Beg Khan]] took a fateful decision when he abandoned the former policy of divide and rule by making the new grand prince responsible for collecting and passing on all the tribute and taxes from all Rus' cities. Ivan delivered these exactions punctually, so further strengthening his position of privilege. In this way he laid the foundations for Moscow's future as a regional great power.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

Ivan Kalita intentionally pursued the policy of relocation of people to his principality by an invitation of people from other places and by purchase of Rus' people captured by [[Mongol]]s during their raids. He managed to eliminate all the thieves in his lands, thus ensuring the safety of traveling merchants. Internal peace and order together with the absence of Mongolian raids to the Moscow principality was mentioned in Rus' chronicles as “great peace, silence, and relief of Rus' land.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

Ivan made Moscow very wealthy by maintaining his loyalty to the Horde (hence, the nickname ''Kalita'', or the [[Moneybag]]<ref>Basil Dmytryshyn, ''Medieval Russia:A source book, 850-1700'', 195.</ref>). He used this wealth to give loans to neighbouring Rus' principalities. These cities gradually fell deeper and deeper into debt, a condition that would eventually allow Ivan's successors to annex them. He bought lands around Moscow, and very often the poor owners sold their lands willingly. Some of them kept the right to rule in their lands on behalf of Ivan Kalita. In one way or another a number of cities and villages joined the Moscow principality – [[Uglich]] in 1323, the principality of [[Belozero]] in 1328–1338, and the principality of [[Galich, Russia|Galich]] in 1340. Ivan's greatest success, however, was convincing the Khan in [[Sarai (city)|Sarai]] that his son, [[Simeon of Russia|Simeon The Proud]], should succeed him as the Grand Duke of Vladimir and from then on this position almost always belonged to the ruling house of Moscow. The Head of the Russian Church – [[Metropolitan Peter]], whose authority was extremely high, moved from Vladimir to Moscow to Prince Ivan Kalita.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

Following a [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania|Lithuanian]] raid on the town of [[Torzhok]] in 1335 (as part of the [[Muscovite–Lithuanian Wars]]), Ivan retaliated by burning the towns of Osechen and Riasna.<ref>S. C. Rowell, ''Lithuania Ascending:A Pagan Empire within East Central Europe, 1295-1345'', (Cambridge University Press, 1994), 250.</ref>

Ivan died in Moscow, 31 March 1340 or 1341.<ref name="Dmytryshyn1" /> He was buried 1 April in the [[Cathedral of the Archangel|Church of the Archangel Michael]].<ref name="Dmytryshyn1" /> Ivan had built the church and was also the first person to be buried there.<ref>Cherniavsky, M. (1975). Ivan the terrible and the iconography of the kremlin cathedral of archangel michael. Russian History, 2(1), 3-28. doi:10.1163/187633175X00018</ref>

==Family==
Ivan Kalita was married twice. His first wife was called [[:ru:Елена_(жена_Ивана_Калиты)|Elena]], and nothing is known exactly about her origin. There is a hypothesis that she was the daughter of the [[prince of Smolensk]], [[:ru:Александр_Глебович|Alexander Glebovich]].<ref>''Averyanov K.'' Principality of Moscow under Ivan Kalita (Accession of Koloman. Acquisition of Mozhaisk). - <abbr>M.</abbr>, p. 36, 1994.</ref>

From marriage were born:
*[[Simeon of Moscow|Simeon Ivanovich]] (7 November 1316 – 27 April 1353), future ''[[Grand Duke of Moscow]];''
*Daniel Ivanovich (11 December 1319/20–1328);
*Fefinia Ivanovna (died young);
*Maria Ivanovna (died 2 June 1365), married to ''Prince Konstantin of [[Rostov]]'' in 1328.;
*[[Ivan II of Moscow|Ivan Ivanovich]] (30 March 1326 – 13 November 1359), future ''[[Grand Duke of Moscow]];''
*Andrei Ivanovich (4 August 1327 – 6 June 1353), ''Prince of [[Veliky Novgorod|Novgorod]];''
*Evdokia Ivanovna (1314 – 1342), married to ''Vasili Mikhailovich, [[Principality of Yaroslavl|Prince of Iaroslavl.]]'' They were the ancestors of the [[Shakhovskoy|Princes of Shakhovskoy]], possibly the most senior remaining branch of the [[Rurik dynasty|Rurikids]];
*Feodosia Ivanovna (died 1389), married to ''Fyodor Romanovich, [[Prince of Beloozero|Prince of Belozersky]]'' .
Princess Elena died on 1 March, 1331. A year later, Ivan married again, although only the given name of his second wife is known - ''Ulyana'' . There is a hypothesis that she was a daughter of Fyodor Davydovich Galitsky, who received half of her father's principality as a dowry. According to A. V. Eksemplyarsky, this second marriage produced one daughter; while V.A. Kuchkin suggested there were two daughters: Maria and Theodosia, who appear in the prince's will as "young children". One of them was alive in 1359; nothing more is known about the other. Ulyana survived her husband and died between 1366 and 1372.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

==Legacy==

Under Ivan Kalita, Moscow was actively growing, and his residence on the [[Kremlin Hill|Borovitsky hill]] became the main part of the city. Erection of either wooden or white-stone constructions was started in the Kremlin. A number of churches were built: in 1326–1327 the [[Dormition Cathedral, Moscow|Assumption Cathedral]], in 1329 the [[Ivan the Great Bell Tower|Church of Ivan of the Ladder]] ([[John Climacus]]), in 1330 the Cathedral of the Saviour on the Bor (Forest), and in 1333 the [[Cathedral of the Archangel|Cathedral of Archangel Michael]], where Ivan Kalita and his descendants were buried. Between 1339 and 1340, Ivan Kalita erected a new, bigger oaken fortress on the Borovitsky hill.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

In Ivan’s will “the golden cap” was mentioned for the first time; this cap is identified with the well-known [[Monomakh's Cap|Monomakh’s crown]], the main crown of Russian sovereigns.{{cn|date=February 2023}}

In an oration written in the 1470s (about 135 years after his death) praising the life of Ivan I's grandson [[Dmitry Donskoy]] ({{Reign|1359|1389}}), Ivan Kalita was retroactively referred to as the ‘gatherer of the Rus' land'.{{sfn|Plokhy|2006|p=136}} This was part of a wider effort by Muscovite writers in the late 15th century to claim that the authority of the Grand Princes of [[Kievan Rus']] had been transferred from [[Kyiv]] to [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir on the Klyazma]], and then to Moscow, thus arguing (against other princely claimants from Kyiv, Lithuania, and elsewhere) that the Muscovite rulers were the only true legitimate heirs to the Rurikid dynasty, and the Rus' land.{{sfn|Plokhy|2006|p=136–138}}

==See also==
*[[Family tree of Russian monarchs]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{See also|Bibliography of Russian history (1223–1613)}}
*V. O. Kluchevsky. ''The course of Russian history''. Lecture #21
*Janet Martin, ''Medieval Russia 980–1584''
* {{cite book |title=The Origins of the Slavic Nations: Premodern Identities in Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus |last=Plokhy |first=Serhii |authorlink=Serhii Plokhy |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-521-86403-9 |pages=378 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCdUmCWxwJ8C}}

==External links==
* [http://www.kreml.ru/en/main/history/kremlin/XIII-XIV/ The Moscow Kremlin]
* [http://fmg.ac/Projects/MedLands/RUSSIA,%20Rurik.htm#IvanDaniilovichVladimirdied1340B His listing in "Medieval lands" by Charles Cawley.]
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Ivan | volume= 15 |last= Bain |first= Robert Nisbet |author-link= Robert Nisbet Bain| pages = 87–91 |short= 1 }}

{{s-start}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Yury of Moscow|Yuri]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prince of Moscow]]|years=1325–1340}}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Simeon of Moscow|Simeon]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Alexander of Tver|Alexander]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Grand Prince of Vladimir]]|years=1325–1340}}
{{s-end}}
{{Russian sovereigns}}

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Ivan 01 of Moscow}}
[[Category:1288 births]]
[[Category:1340s deaths]]

[[Category:Year of death uncertain]]
[[Category:13th-century princes from Kievan Rus']]
[[Category:14th-century Grand Princes of Moscow]]
[[Category:Grand Princes of Vladimir]]
[[Category:Daniilovichi family]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox monarchs]]

GPT

2023-02-09T09:27:01Z

PatriceNeff: /* Computing */

{{TOC right}}

'''GPT''' may refer to:

==Computing==
* [[GUID Partition Table]], a disk partitioning standard
* [[Generative pre-trained transformer]], a language model, an artificial intelligence tool by OpenAI
* [[Get paid to surf]], an on line business model
* Google Publisher Tag, a JavaScript tag embedded in HTML pages to display ads served with [[DoubleClick for Publishers]]

==Biology==
* [[Alanine transaminase]] or glutamate pyruvate transaminase
* [[Goniopora toxin]]
* [[UDP-N-acetylglucosamine—undecaprenyl-phosphate N-acetylglucosaminephosphotransferase]]

==Companies==
* [[GEC Plessey Telecommunications]], a defunct British telecommunications manufacturer
* [[GPT Group]], an Australian property investment company

==Other uses==
* [[Gulfport–Biloxi International Airport]], in Mississippi
* [[General purpose technology]], in economics
* [[Generalized probabilistic theory]], a general framework to describe the operational features of physical theories.
* [[Grounded practical theory]], a social science theory

{{Disambiguation}}

Jonathan Rosenberg (technologist)

2020-08-11T13:14:49Z

PatriceNeff: Citation needed for popular culture claim

{{Other people|Jonathan Rosenberg|Jonathan Rosenberg (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jonathan Rosenberg
| image = Jonathan Rosenberg (technologist).jpg
| alt =
| caption =
| birth_name = 
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1961|07|20}}
| birth_place =
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| nationality = American
| alma_mater = [[University of Chicago]]; [[Claremont McKenna College]]
| other_names =
| occupation =
| known_for =
}}
'''Jonathan Rosenberg''' is the former Senior Vice President of Products at [[Google]] and current advisor to [[Alphabet Inc.]] management team and board.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_17858135 |title=Mercury News interview: Jonathan Rosenberg, Google's SVP of product management - San Jose Mercury News |publisher=Mercurynews.com |accessdate=2014-08-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913211143/http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_17858135|url-status=live|archivedate=13 September 2014}}</ref>

==Biography==
Jonathan Rosenberg was born to a Jewish family on July 20, 1961.<ref>{{cite web|title=Jonathan Rosenberg|url=https://plus.google.com/+JonathanRosenberg/about|accessdate=2014-09-19}}</ref> Rosenberg received a Masters of Business Administration degree from the [[University of Chicago]] as well as a Bachelor of Arts degree with honors in economics from [[Claremont McKenna College]].<ref>https://www.forbes.com/profile/jonathan-j-rosenberg/</ref>

==Career==
Previous to joining Google, Rosenberg was Vice President of Software for [[palmOne]], a provider of handheld computer and communications solutions.<ref>https://www.forbes.com/profile/jonathan-j-rosenberg/</ref> He joined Google in 2002 and oversaw the design and development of the company’s consumer, advertiser, and partner products, including Search, Ads, Gmail, Android, Apps, and Chrome.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://firstround.com/article/42-rules-to-lead-by-from-the-man-who-defined-googles-product-strategy |title=42 Rules to Lead by from the Man Who Defined Google's Product Strategy |publisher=Firstround.com |accessdate=2014-08-12 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809213925/http://firstround.com/article/42-Rules-to-Lead-by-from-the-Man-Who-Defined-Googles-Product-Strategy |archivedate=2014-08-09 }}</ref> While at Google, Rosenberg managed many noteworthy employees, including [[Marissa Mayer]].<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/01/business/01marissa.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0</ref> He resigned from his position as SVP in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|last=Womack |first=Brian |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-04-04/google-product-chief-jonathan-rosenberg-to-resign-from-company.html |title=Google Product Chief Jonathan Rosenberg Resigns After Page Takes CEO Job |publisher=Bloomberg |date=2011-04-04 |accessdate=2014-08-12|archivedate=11 August 2013|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811221156/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-04-04/google-product-chief-jonathan-rosenberg-to-resign-from-company.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
Prior to joining at Google, Rosenberg worked at [[@Home Network|@Home]], where he was a founding member of the product group and senior vice president of online products and services after @Home merged with [[Excite]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/exclusive-jonathan-rosenberg-resigns-from-google-2011-4 |title=EXCLUSIVE: Product Boss Jonathan Rosenberg Resigns From Google |publisher=Business Insider |date=2011-04-04 |accessdate=2014-08-12|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130430134322/http://www.businessinsider.com/exclusive-jonathan-rosenberg-resigns-from-google-2011-4|url-status=live|archivedate=30 April 2013}}</ref> Rosenberg was appointed as the COO of Motorola Mobility, replacing former COO [[Dennis Woodside]], on February 12, 2014.<ref>{{cite web|title=https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/13/us-dropbox-coo-google-idUSBREA1C09E20140213}}</ref>

He is the coauthor, along with Google Executive Chairman [[Eric Schmidt]] and Director of Executive Communications Alan Eagle, of a New York Times best-selling book<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/best-sellers-books/advice-how-to-and-miscellaneous/list.html?pagewanted=print</ref> titled ''[[How Google Works]]'', which was published in September, 2014.<ref>{{cite web|author=How Google Works |url=http://www.hachettebookgroup.com/titles/eric-schmidt/how-google-works/9781455582341/ |title=How Google Works |publisher=Hachette Book Group |date= |accessdate=2014-08-12}}</ref>He also published a book called ''Trillion Dollar Coach'' that reached number 1 on Wall Street journal bestseller list and was also “New York Times” bestseller.

==Popular Culture==
Jonathan Rosenberg is featured in an Academy Award-winning documentary about espionage in the digital age.{{Citation needed|date=August 2020}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.techmed.sk/kniha-how-google-works/ How Google Works (The best ideas, by TECHmED)]
* {{C-SPAN|jonathanrosenberg}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rosenberg, Jonathan}}
[[Category:1961 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Claremont McKenna College alumni]]
[[Category:University of Chicago alumni]]
[[Category:Google people]]
[[Category:American Jews]]

History of IBM

2020-06-21T16:10:40Z

PatriceNeff: /* Key events */ - Link to Computerworld article

{{short description|Aspect of history}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2012}}
'''[[IBM|International Business Machines]]''' ('''IBM'''), nicknamed "Big Blue", is a multinational computer technology and IT consulting corporation headquartered in [[Armonk, New York]], United States. IBM originated from the bringing together of several companies that worked to automate routine business transactions, including the first companies to build [[punched card]] based [[unit record equipment|data tabulating machines]] and to build [[time clock]]s. In 1911, these companies were amalgamated into the [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company]] (CTR).

[[Thomas J. Watson]] (1874-1956) joined the company in 1914 as General Manager and became its President in 1915. In 1924 the company changed its name to "International Business Machines." IBM expanded into electric typewriters and other office machines. Watson was a salesman and concentrated on building a highly motivated, very well paid sales force that could craft solutions for clients unfamiliar with the latest technology. His motto was "[[Think (IBM)|THINK]]". Customers were advised to not "fold, spindle, or mutilate" the cardboard cards. IBM's first experiments with computers in the 1940s and 1950s were modest advances on the card-based system. Its great breakthrough came in the 1960s with its [[IBM System/360|System/360]] family of [[mainframe computer]]s. IBM offered a full range of hardware, software, and service agreements, so that users, as their needs grew, would stay with "Big Blue." Since most software was custom-written by in-house programmers and would run on only one brand of computers, it was too expensive to switch brands. Brushing off clone makers, and facing down a federal anti-trust suit, the giant sold reputation and security as well as hardware and was the most admired American corporation of the 1970s and 1980s.

The late 1980s and early 1990s were difficult for IBM—losses in 1993 exceeded $8 billion—as the mainframe giant failed to adjust quickly enough to the personal computer revolution.<ref>Jim Spohrer, "IBM's service journey: A summary sketch." ''Industrial Marketing Management'' 60 (2017): 167-172.</ref> Desktop machines had the power needed and were vastly easier for both users and managers than multi-million-dollar mainframes. IBM did introduce a popular line of microcomputers—but it was too popular. Clone makers undersold IBM, while the profits went to chip makers like [[Intel]] or software houses like [[Microsoft]].

After a series of reorganizations, IBM remains one of the world's largest computer companies and systems integrators.<ref>[[CNET Networks]], "[http://news.cnet.com/8301-1001_3-10228455-92.html IBM challenges partner Cisco]".</ref> With over 400,000 employees worldwide as of 2014,<ref>{{cite web |title=IBM, Fortune 500, 2015 |url=http://fortune.com/fortune500/ibm-24/ |work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |accessdate=2015-09-26}}</ref> IBM holds more patents than any other U.S. based technology company and has twelve research laboratories worldwide.<ref name="patents">{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/news/us/en/2006/01/2006_01_10.html|title=IBM maintains patent lead, moves to increase patent quality|publisher=[[IBM]] |date=January 10, 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.research.ibm.com/worldwide/|title=Worldwide IBM Research Locations|publisher=[[IBM]]|accessdate=2014-09-26}}</ref> The company has scientists, engineers, consultants, and sales professionals in over 175 countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=2014 IBM Annual Report |url=http://www.ibm.com/investor/att/pdf/IBM_Annual_Report_2014.pdf |publisher=[[IBM]] |accessdate=2015-09-26 }}</ref> IBM employees have earned five [[Nobel Prizes]], four [[Turing Award]]s, five [[National Medal of Technology|National Medals of Technology]], and five [[National Medal of Science|National Medals of Science]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.research.ibm.com/resources/awards.shtml |title=Awards & Achievements |accessdate=August 13, 2009 |publisher=IBM}}</ref>

{{TOC limit |3}}

==Chronology==

===1880s–1924: The origin of IBM===
{{main|Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! Year || Gross income (in $m) || Employees
|-
| 1890 || ||
|-
| 1895 || ||
|-
| 1900 || ||
|-
| 1905 || ||
|-
| 1910 || ||
|-
| 1915 || 4 || 1,672
|-
| 1920 || 14 || 2,731
|-
| 1925 || 13 || 3,698
|}
[[File:Tabulating Machine Co. plant.jpg|thumb|Hollerith's plant in 1893.]]
The roots of IBM date back to the 1880s, tracing from four predecessor companies:<ref>{{cite book |last1= Bennett|first1= Frank P. |author2=Company |title= United States Investor |volume= 22, Part 2 |date=17 June 1911 |page=1298 (26) | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BQkhAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA4-PA26}}</ref><ref>Belden, Martin; Belden, Marva (1961). ''The Life of Thomas J. Watson'', Little, Brown; p.92</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/logo/logo_4.html| title=IBM Archives: Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (1911–1924)}}</ref><ref>Maney, Kevin; Hamm, Steve; O'Brien, Jeffrey M. (2011). ''Making the World Work Better - The ideas that shaped a century and a company'', IBM Press; p.19</ref>
* The [[Bundy Manufacturing Company]] was the first manufacturer of [[time clock]]s. The company was founded in 1889 by Harlow Bundy in [[Binghamton, New York]].
* The [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company#Tabulating Machine Company|Tabulating Machine Company]] was the first manufacturer of [[punch card]] based [[unit record equipment|data processing machines]]. [[Herman Hollerith]] started building the machines as early as 1884, and founded the Tabulating Machine Company in 1896 in [[Washington, D.C.]]
* The [[International Time Recording Company]] was founded in 1900 by [[George Winthrop Fairchild]] in [[Jersey City, New Jersey]], and reincorporated in 1901 in Binghamton. The company relocated in 1906 to nearby [[Endicott, New York]].
* The [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company#Computing Scale Company of America|Computing Scale Company of America]] was founded in 1901 in [[Dayton, Ohio]].

On June 16, 1911, these four companies were [[consolidation (business)|amalgamated]] into a new [[holding company]] named the [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company]] (CTR), based in Endicott.<ref>{{Citation |contribution = Certificate of Incorporation of Computing-Tabulating-Recording-Co |title = Appendix to Hearings Before the Committee on Patents, House of Representatives, Seventy-Fourth Congress, on H. R. 4523, Part III |publisher = United States Government Printing Office |date = 1935 |orig-year = Incorporation paperwork filed 16 June 1911 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_8tFAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA3428}}</ref><ref>Martin Campbell-Kelly and William Aspray, ''Computer a History of the Information Machine – Second Edition'', Westview Press, pages 37–39 2004</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/decade_1880.html|title=IBM Archives: Chronological History of IBM 1880s|publisher=IBM|accessdate=September 27, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Rodgers |first= Williams |title= THINK |publisher= Stein and Day |year= 1969 |page=83}}</ref> The amalgamation was engineered by noted financier [[Charles Ranlett Flint|Charles Flint]]. Flint remained a member of the board of CTR until his retirement in 1930.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/builders/builders_flint.html| title=IBM Archives: Charles R. Flint}}</ref>
At the time of the amalgamation, CTR had 1,300 employees and offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York; Dayton, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; Washington, D.C.; and Toronto, Ontario.

After amalgamation, the individual companies continued to operate using their established names, as subsidiaries of CTR, until the holding company was eliminated in 1933.<ref>The last page of this ref shows continued use of established names. The 2nd ref shows the consolidation into IBM in 1933 [http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/Knuth_Don_X4100/PDF_index/k-9-pdf/k-9-u2669-IBM-Inventory-Simplified.pdf The Inventory Simplified] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004230834/http://archive.computerhistory.org/resources/text/Knuth_Don_X4100/PDF_index/k-9-pdf/k-9-u2669-IBM-Inventory-Simplified.pdf |date=October 4, 2013 }}, published in 1923, states: "The Tabulating Machine Company - Division of - International Business Machines Corporation".</ref> The divisions manufactured a wide range of products, including employee time-keeping systems, [[weighing scale]]s, automatic meat slicers, coffee grinders, and [[history of computing hardware|punched card equipment]]. The product lines were very different; Flint stated that the "allied" consolidation:

<blockquote> ... instead of being dependent for earnings upon a single industry, would own three separate and distinct lines of business, so that in normal times the interest and sinking funds on its bonds could be earned by any one of these independent lines, while in abnormal times the consolidation would have three chances instead of one to meet its obligations and pay dividends.<ref>{{cite book |last= Flint |first= Charles R. |title = Memories of an Active Life: Men, and Ships, and Sealing Wax |publisher = G.P. Putnam's Sons |year = 1923 |page = 312}}</ref></blockquote>

Of the companies amalgamated to form CTR, the most technologically significant was [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company#The Tabulating Machine Company|The Tabulating Machine Company]], founded by [[Herman Hollerith]], and specialized in the development of [[punched card]] data processing equipment. Hollerith's series of patents on tabulating machine technology, first applied for in 1884, drew on his work at the [[U.S. Census Bureau]] from 1879–82. Hollerith was initially trying to reduce the time and complexity needed to tabulate the [[1890 United States Census|1890 Census]]. His development of punched cards in 1886 set the industry standard for the next 80 years of tabulating and computing data input.<ref>[http://www.officemuseum.com/data_processing_machines.htm Officemuseum.com] – early Hollerith history, with good photographs of period equipment</ref>

In 1896, The Tabulating Machine Company leased some machines to a railway company<ref>{{cite book |last=Austrian |first= Geoffrey D. |title= Herman Hollerith: Forgotten Giant of Information Processing |publisher= Columbia University Press |year= 1982 |isbn= 0-231-05146-8 |page= 138}}</ref> but quickly focused on the challenges of the largest statistical endeavor of its day – the [[1900 US Census]]. After winning the government contract, and completing the project, Hollerith was faced with the challenge of sustaining the company in non-Census years. He returned to targeting private businesses in the United States and abroad, attempting to identify industry applications for his automatic punching, tabulating and sorting machines. In 1911, Hollerith, now 51 and in failing health sold the business to [[Charles Ranlett Flint|Flint]] for $2.3 million (of which Hollerith got $1.2 million), who then founded CTR.
When the diversified businesses of CTR proved difficult to manage, Flint turned for help to the former No. 2 executive at the [[National Cash Register Company]] (NCR), [[Thomas J. Watson|Thomas J. Watson, Sr.]]. Watson became General Manager of CTR in 1914 and President in 1915. By drawing upon his managerial experience at NCR, Watson quickly implemented a series of effective business tactics: generous sales incentives, a focus on customer service, an insistence on well-groomed, dark-suited salesmen, and an evangelical fervor for instilling company pride and loyalty in every worker. As the sales force grew into a highly professional and knowledgeable arm of the company, Watson focused their attention on providing large-scale tabulating solutions for businesses, leaving the market for small office products to others. He also stressed the importance of the customer, a lasting IBM tenet. The strategy proved successful, as, during Watson's first four years, revenues doubled to $2 million, and company operations expanded to Europe, South America, Asia, and Australia.

At the helm during this period, Watson played a central role in establishing what would become the IBM organization and culture. He launched a number of initiatives that demonstrated an unwavering faith in his workers. He hired the company's first disabled worker in 1914, he formed the company's first employee education department in 1916 and in 1915 he introduced his favorite slogan, "[[Think (IBM)|THINK]]", which quickly became the corporate mantra. Watson boosted company spirit by encouraging any employee with a complaint to approach him or any other company executive – his famed Open Door policy. He also sponsored employee sports teams, family outings, and a company band, believing that employees were most productive when they were supported by healthy and supportive families and communities. These initiatives – each deeply rooted in Watson's personal values system – became core aspects of IBM culture for the remainder of the century.

"Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of the CTR" and chose to replace it with the more expansive title "International Business Machines".<ref name="Belden 1962 p.125">Belden (1962) p.125</ref> First as a name for a 1917 Canadian subsidiary, then as a line in advertisements. Finally, on February 14, 1924, the name was used for CTR itself.

====Key events====

*'''1890-1895: Hollerith's punched cards used for 1890 Census'''. The [[U.S. Census Bureau]] contracts to use [[Herman Hollerith]]'s [[Unit record equipment|punched card tabulating technology]] on the [[1890 United States Census]]. That census was completed in 6-years and estimated to have saved the government $5 million.<ref>Report of the Commissioner of Labor In Charge of The Eleventh Census to the Secretary of the Interior for the Fiscal Year Ending June 30, 1895. Washington, D.C., July 29, 1895. Page 9: {{You may confidently look for the rapid reduction of the force of this office after the 1st of October, and the entire cessation of clerical work during the present calendar year. ... The condition of the work of the Census Division and the condition of the final reports show clearly that the work of the Eleventh Census will be completed at least two years earlier than was the work of the Tenth Census.}} Carroll D. Wright Commissioner of Labor in Charge</ref> The prior, 1880, census had required 8-years. The years required are not directly comparable; the two differed in: population size, data collected, resources (census bureau headcount, machines, ...), and reports prepared. The total population of 62,947,714, the family, or ''rough'', count, was announced after only six weeks of processing (punched cards were not used for this tabulation).<ref>Truesdell, Leon E. (1965) The Development of Punch Card Tabulation in the Bureau of the Census 1890-1940, US GPO, p.61</ref><ref>(Austrian, 1982, p.69)</ref> Hollerith's punched cards become the tabulating industry standard for input for the next 70 years. Hollerith's ''The Tabulating Machine Company'' is later consolidated into what becomes IBM.

*'''1906: Hollerith Type I Tabulator'''. The first tabulator with an automatic card feed and control panel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/#early |title=Computing at Columbia: Timeline – Early |publisher=Columbia.edu |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

*'''1911: Formation'''. [[Charles Ranlett Flint|Charles Flint]], a noted trust organizer, engineers the amalgamation of four companies: [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company#The Tabulating Machine Company|The Tabulating Machine Company]], the [[International Time Recording Company]], the [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company#Computing Scale Company of America|Computing Scale Company of America]], and the [[Bundy Manufacturing Company]]. The amalgamated companies manufacture and sell or lease machinery such as commercial scales, industrial time recorders, meat and cheese slicers, tabulators, and punched cards. The new holding company, [[Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company]], is based in Endicott. Including the amalgamated subsidiaries, CTR had 1,300 employees with offices and plants in Endicott and Binghamton, New York; Dayton, Ohio; Detroit, Michigan; and Washington, D.C.<ref>Certificate of Incorporation of Computing-Tabulating-Recording-Co, 14th day of June 1911</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Pugh |first= Emerson W. |title= Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology |publisher= MIT Press |year= 1995 |isbn= 978-0-262-16147-3 |pages= 24–27}}</ref>

*'''1914: [[Thomas J. Watson]] arrives'''. Thomas J. Watson Sr., a one-year jail sentence pending – see [[NCR Corporation#Expansion|NCR]] – is made general manager of CTR. Less than a year later the court verdict was set aside. A consent decree was drawn up which Watson refused to sign, gambling that there would not be a retrial. He becomes president of the firm Monday, March 15, 1915.<ref>Maney (2003) p.57</ref>

*'''1914: First disabled employee'''. CTR companies hire their first disabled employee.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.workforce.com/2004/06/01/hiring-without-limits/ |title=Mullich, Joe; ''Hiring Without Limits'' Workforce Management June 2004, pp. 53–58 |publisher=Workforce.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

*'''1915: [[Think (IBM)|"THINK"]] signs'''. "THINK" signs, based on the slogan coined by [[Thomas J. Watson, Sr.]] while at NCR and promoted by [[John Henry Patterson (NCR owner)]] are used in the companies for the first time.<ref>Rodgers, William; ''THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM'' Stein and Day, NY NY, p. 52.</ref>

*'''1916: Employee education'''. CTR invests in its subsidiary's employees, creating an education program. Over the next two decades, the program would expand to include management education, volunteer study clubs, and the construction of the IBM Schoolhouse in 1933.<ref>Pugh (1995) p.57</ref>

*'''1917: CTR in Brazil'''. Premiered in Brazil in 1917, invited by the Brazilian Government to conduct the census, CTR opened an office in Brazil<ref>{{cite web |title = IBM Archives: FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS, page 15|publisher= IBM |url= http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/documents/pdf/faq.pdf}}</ref>


*'''1920: First Tabulating Machine Co. printing tabulator.''' With prior tabulators the results were displayed and had to be copied by hand.<ref>{{cite web |title = IBM Archives: 1920 |publisher= IBM |url= http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1920.html|date= January 23, 2003 }}</ref>

*'''1923: CTR Germany'''. CTR acquires majority ownership of the German tabulating firm Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen Groupe ([[Dehomag]]).

*'''1924: International Business Machines Corporation'''. "Watson had never liked the clumsy hyphenated title of Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company" and chose the new name both for its aspirations and to escape the confines of "office appliance". The new name was first used for the company's Canadian subsidiary in 1917. On February 14, 1924, CTR's name was formally changed to International Business Machines Corporation (IBM).<ref name="Belden 1962 p.125"/> The subsidiaries' names did not change; there would be no IBM labeled products until 1933 (below) when the subsidiaries are merged into IBM.

===1925–1929: IBM's early growth===
{{quote|Our products are known in every zone. Our reputation sparkles like a gem. We've fought our way through and new fields we're sure to conquer too. For the ever-onward IBM|"Ever Onward", IBM employee songbook{{r|greenwald19830711}}}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! Year || Gross income (in $m) || Employees
|-
| 1925 || 13 || 3,698
|}

Watson mandated strict rules for employees, including a dress code of dark suits, white shirts and striped ties, and no alcohol, whether working or not. He led the singing at meetings of songs such as "Ever Onward" from the official IBM songbook.{{r|greenwald19830711}} The company launched an employee newspaper, Business Machines, which unified coverage of all of IBM's businesses under one publication.<ref name=IBM1924>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1924.html |title=IBM Archives: 1924 |publisher=IBM |accessdate=May 29, 2011|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref> IBM introduced the Quarter Century Club,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2051.html |title= First quarter Century Club|publisher= IBM|accessdate=May 29, 2011|date= January 23, 2003}}</ref> to honor employees with 25 years of service to the company, and launched the Hundred Percent Club, to reward sales personnel who met their annual quotas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2054.html |title= Hundred Percent Club "main tent"|publisher=IBM |accessdate=May 29, 2011|date= January 23, 2003}}</ref> In 1928, the Suggestion Plan program – which granted cash rewards to employees who contributed viable ideas on how to improve IBM products and procedures – made its debut.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1988.html |title=IBM Archives: 1988 |publisher=IBM |accessdate=May 29, 2011|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref>

[[File:IBM time clock.jpg|thumb|right|''IBM International Daily Dial Attendance Recorder''. 1930s time clock made by IBM's International Time Recording division. The face shows employee numbers which would be dialed up by employees entering and leaving the factory. The day and time of entry and exit was punched onto cards inside the box.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/attic3/attic3_028.html |title=IBM Archives: IBM International Daily Dial Attendance Recorder |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref>]]
IBM and its predecessor companies made clocks and other time recording products for 70  years, culminating in the 1958 sale of the IBM Time Equipment Division to [[SimplexGrinnell|Simplex Time Recorder Company]],<ref name = "IBM 1958">[http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/cc/pdf/cc_2407PR02.pdf IBM Archives: Text of IBM's October 24, 1958 press release] announcing the sale of its time equipment (clocks, et al.) business to Simplex Time Recorder Company.</ref> IBM manufactured and sold such equipment as dial recorders, job recorders, recording door locks, time stamps and traffic recorders.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/attic3/attic3_0153.html |title=IBM Archives: IBM Time Device |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/swingera/swingera_1.html |title=IBM's swing era oldies (vol. 1) |publisher=IBM |accessdate=May 29, 2011|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref>

The company also expanded its product line through innovative engineering. Behind a core group of inventors – [[James W. Bryce]], Clair Lake,<ref>{{cite book |last=Bashe |first=Charles J. |author2=Pugh, Emerson W. |author3=Johnson, Lyle R. |author4=Palmer, John H. |title=IBM's Early Computers |publisher=MIT Press |year=1986 |isbn=0-262-02225-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ibmsearlycompute00bash/page/8 8–34] |url=https://archive.org/details/ibmsearlycompute00bash/page/8 }}</ref> Fred Carroll,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/builders/builders_carroll.html |title=IBM Archives/Business Machines: Fred M. Carroll |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref> and Royden Pierce<ref>Bashe (1986) pp.9–14</ref> – IBM produced a series of significant product innovations. In the optimistic years following World War I, CTR's engineering and research staff developed new and improved mechanisms to meet the broadening needs of its customers. In 1920, the company introduced the first complete school time control system,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/decade_1920.html|title=IBM Archives: 1920s |publisher=IBM |accessdate=May 29, 2011|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref> and launched its first printing tabulator.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1920.html |title=IBM Archives: 1920 |publisher=IBM |accessdate=May 29, 2011|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref> Three years later the company introduced the first electric keypunch,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1923.html |title=IBM Archive: 1923 |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref> and 1924's Carroll Rotary Press produced punched cards at previously unheard of speeds.<ref name=IBM1924/> In 1928, the company held its first customer engineering education class, demonstrating an early recognition of the importance of tailoring solutions to fit customer needs.<ref name=IBM1928>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1928.html |title=IBM Archives: 1928 |publisher=IBM |accessdate=May 29, 2011|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref> It also introduced the 80-column [[punched card]] in 1928, which doubled its information capacity.<ref name=IBM1928/> This new format, soon dubbed the "IBM Card", became and remained an industry standard until the 1970s.

====Key events====

*'''1925: First tabulator sold to Japan'''. In May 1925, Morimura-Brothers entered into a sole agency agreement with IBM to import Hollerith tabulators into Japan. The first Hollerith tabulator in Japan was installed at Nippon Pottery (now [[Noritake]]) in September 1925, making it IBM customer #1 in Japan.<ref name="morimura_history">
{{cite web|url=http://www.morimura.co.jp/english/history/|title=History|work=morimura.co.jp|publisher=Morimura Brothers, Inc.|accessdate=2014-02-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204031632/http://www.morimura.co.jp/english/history/|archive-date=February 4, 2014|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="ibm.com">{{cite web|url=http://www-06.ibm.com/ibm/jp/75th/index2.shtml|title=History of Innovation on the 75th anniversary of founding IBM Japan|work=ibm.com|publisher=[[IBM]]|accessdate=2014-02-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/documents/pdf/1885-1969.pdf|title=IBM Highlights, 1885–1969|work=ibm.com|publisher=[[IBM]]|accessdate=2014-02-01}}</ref>

*'''1927: IBM Italy''''. IBM opens its first office in Italy in Milan, and starts selling and operating with National Insurance and Banks.
*'''1928: A Tabulator that can subtract, Columbia University, 80-column card'''. The first Hollerith tabulator that could subtract, the Hollerith Type IV tabulator.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/attic2/attic2_122.html |title=IBM 301 Accounting Machine (the Type IV) |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref> IBM begins its collaboration with Benjamin Wood, [[Wallace John Eckert]] and the Statistical Bureau at Columbia University.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/benwood.html |title=Columbia University Professor Ben Wood |publisher=Columbia.edu |date=December 2, 1954 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Pugh |first = Emerson W. |title= Building IBM: Shaping an Industry and Its Technology |publisher = MIT |year =1995 |isbn= 0-262-16147-8 |page = 67}}</ref> The [[Punched card#IBM 80 column punched card format|Hollerith 80-column punched card]] is introduced. Its rectangular holes are patented, ending vendor compatibility (of the prior 45 column card; Remington Rand would soon introduce a 90 column card).<ref name="Pugh 1995 p.50">Pugh (1995) p.50</ref>

===1930–1938: The Great Depression===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! Year || Gross income (in $m) || Employees
|-
| 1930 || 19 || 6,346
|-
| 1935 || 21 || 8,654
|}

The [[Great Depression]] of the 1930s presented an unprecedented economic challenge, and Watson met the challenge head-on, continuing to invest in people, manufacturing, and technological innovation despite the difficult economic times. Rather than reduce staff, he hired additional employees in support of President Franklin Roosevelt's National Recovery Administration plan – not just salesmen, which he joked that he had a lifelong weakness for, but engineers too. Watson not only kept his workforce employed, but he also increased their benefits. IBM was among the first corporations to provide group life insurance (1934), survivor benefits (1935), and paid vacations (1936). He upped his ante on his workforce by opening the IBM Schoolhouse in Endicott to provide education and training for IBM employees. And he greatly increased IBM's research capabilities by building a modern research laboratory on the Endicott manufacturing site.

With all this internal investment, Watson was, in essence, gambling on the future. It was IBM's first ‘Bet the Company’ gamble, but the risk paid off handsomely. Watson's factories, running full tilt for six years with no market to sell to, created a huge inventory of unused tabulating equipment, straining IBM's resources. To reduce the cash drain, the struggling Dayton Scale Division (the food services equipment business) was sold in 1933  to Hobart Manufacturing for stock.<ref>{{cite book |last= Rogers |year= 1969 |page= 108|first= William |title= THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM |publisher = Stein and Day}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last =Maney |year= 2003 |page= [https://archive.org/details/maverickhismachi00mane/page/154 154] |first= Kevin |title= The Maverick and His Machine |url =https://archive.org/details/maverickhismachi00mane |url-access =registration |publisher= Wiley |isbn= 0-471-41463-8 }}</ref> When the [[Social Security Act of 1935]] – labeled as "the biggest accounting operation of all time"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/decade_1930.html |title=IBM Archives: 1930s |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref> – came up for bid, IBM was the only bidder that could quickly provide the necessary equipment. Watson's gamble brought the company a landmark government contract to maintain employment records for 26 million people. IBM's successful performance on the contract soon led to other government orders, and by the end of the decade, IBM had not only safely negotiated the Depression but risen to the forefront of the industry. Watson's Depression-era decision to invest heavily in technical development and sales capabilities, education to expand the breadth of those capabilities, and his commitment to the data processing product line laid the foundation for 50 years of IBM growth and successes.

His avowed focus on international expansion proved an equally key component of the company's 20th-century growth and success. Watson, having witnessed the havoc the First World War wrought on society and business, envisioned commerce as an obstacle to war. He saw business interests and peace as being mutually compatible. In fact, he felt so strongly about the connection between the two that he had his slogan "World Peace Through World Trade" carved into the exterior of IBM's new World Headquarters (1938) in New York City.<ref name="world hq">{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2045.html |title=IBM Archives: World Headquarters, N.Y. City |publisher=IBM Archives |accessdate=April 24, 2012|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref> The slogan became an IBM business mantra, and Watson campaigned tirelessly for the concept with global business and government leaders. He served as an informal, unofficial government host for world leaders when they visited New York, and received numerous awards from foreign governments for his efforts to improve international relations through the formation of business ties.

====Key events====

* '''1931: The first Hollerith punched card machine that could multiply, the first Hollerith alphabetical accounting machine'''. The Hollerith 600 Multiplying Punch.<ref>{{cite book |title=IBM's Early Computers |last=Bashe |first=Charles J. |author2=Johnson, Lyle R |author3=Palmer, John H. |author4=Pugh, Emerson W. |year=1986 |publisher=MIT |isbn=0-262-02225-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ibmsearlycompute00bash/page/14 14] |url=https://archive.org/details/ibmsearlycompute00bash/page/14 }}</ref> The first Hollerith alphabetical accounting machine – although not a complete alphabet, the Alphabetic Tabulator Model B was quickly followed by the full alphabet ATC.<ref name="Pugh 1995 p.50"/>

* '''1931: Super Computing Machine'''. The term ''Super Computing Machine'' is used by the [[New York World]] newspaper to describe the ''Columbia Difference Tabulator'', a one-of-a-kind special purpose tabulator-based machine made for the Columbia Statistical Bureau, a machine so massive it was nicknamed ''Packard''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eames |first=Charles |author2=Eames, Ray |title=A Computer Perspective |year=1973 |publisher=Harvard University Press |location= Cambridge, Mass |page = 95 }} The date given, 1920, should be 1931 (see the Columbia Difference Tabulator web site)</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/packard.html |title=Columbia Difference Tabulator |publisher=Columbia.edu |date=March 1, 1920 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref> The ''Packard'' attracted users from across the country: "the Carnegie Foundation, Yale, Pittsburgh, Chicago, Ohio State, Harvard, California and Princeton."<ref>''Columbia Alumni News'', Vol.XXIII, No.11, December 11, 1931, p.1</ref>

* '''1933: Subsidiary companies are merged into IBM'''. The Tabulating Machine Company name, and others, disappear as subsidiary companies are merged into IBM.<ref>New York Times, July 15, 1933, All subsidiaries of the International Business Machines Corporation in this county have been merged with the parent company to obtain efficient operation.</ref><ref>{{cite book | author = William Rodgers | year = 1969 | title = THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM | url = https://archive.org/details/thinkbiographyof00rodg | url-access = registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/thinkbiographyof00rodg/page/83 83]}}</ref>

* '''1933: Removable control panels'''. IBM introduces removable control panels.<ref name=jeanbellec>{{cite web|url=https://jeanbellec.pagesperso-orange.fr/information_technology_1.htm|title=Date|website=jeanbellec.pagesperso-orange.fr}}</ref>

* '''1933: 40-hour week'''. IBM introduces the 40-hour week for both manufacturing and office locations.

* '''1933: [[IBM Electromatic typewriter|Electromatic Typewriter Co.]] purchased'''. Purchased ''primarily to get important patents safely into IBM hands'', electric typewriters would become one of IBM's most widely known products.<ref>Rogers (1969) p.108</ref> By 1958 IBM was deriving 8% of its revenue from the sale of electric typewriters.<ref>[[Typewriter#Early electric models]]</ref>

* '''1934 – Group life insurance'''. IBM creates a group [[life insurance]] plan for all employees with at least one year of service.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/documents/pdf/1885-1969.pdf |title=Word Pro - 1406HA02.lwp |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1934: Elimination of [[piece work]]'''. Watson, Sr., places IBM's factory employees on salary, eliminating piece work and providing employees and their families with an added degree of economic stability.<ref>{{cite book |last= Watson, Jr. |first= Thomas J. |author2= Petre, Peter |title= Father, Son & Co.: my life at IBM and beyond |publisher= Bantam |year= 1990 |isbn= 0-553-07011-8 |page= [https://archive.org/details/fathersoncomylif00wats_0/page/73 73] |url= https://archive.org/details/fathersoncomylif00wats_0/page/73 }}</ref>

* '''1934: IBM 801'''. The IBM 801 Bank Proof machine to clear bank checks is introduced. A new type of proof machine, the 801 lists and separates checks, endorses them, and records totals. It dramatically improves the efficiency of the check clearing process.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.industryplayer.com/licenceinfo.php?li |title=Industry Player Business Simulation Game |publisher=Industryplayer.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220115407/http://www.industryplayer.com/licenceinfo.php?licid=014000 |archivedate=February 20, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''1935: Social Security Administration'''. During the Great Depression, IBM keeps its factories producing new machines even while demand is slack. When Congress passes the Social Security Act in 1935, IBM – with its overstocked inventory – is consequently positioned to win the landmark government contract, which is called "the biggest accounting operation of all time."<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ssa.gov/history/ibm.html |title= Social Security Online, Research Note #6}}</ref>

* '''1936: Supreme Court rules IBM can only set punched card specifications'''. IBM initially required that its customers use only IBM manufactured cards with IBM machines, which were leased, not sold. IBM viewed its business as providing a service and that the cards were part of the machine. In 1932 the government took IBM to court on this issue. IBM fought all the way to the Supreme Court and lost in 1936; the court ruling that IBM could only set card specifications.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Business Machines Corp. v. United States, 298 U.S. 131 (1936)|url=http://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/298/131/case.html|publisher=Justia}}</ref>

* '''1937: Scientific computing'''. The tabulating machine data center established at Columbia University, dedicated to scientific research, is named the ''Thomas J. Watson Astronomical Computing Bureau''.<ref>Pugh (1995) p.72</ref>

* '''1937: The first collator, the IBM 077 Collator'''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV4004.html |title=IBM 077 Collator |publisher=03.ibm.com |date=November 27, 1957 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1937: IBM produces 5 to 10 million punched cards every day'''. By 1937... IBM had 32 presses at work in Endicott, N.Y., printing, cutting and stacking five to 10 million punched cards every day.<ref name="Endicott">{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2159.html |title=IBM Archive: Endicott card manufacturing |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref>

* '''1937: IBM 805 test scoring machine'''. IBM's [[Rey Johnson]] designs the [[IBM 805 Test Scoring Machine]] to greatly speed the process of test scoring. The 805's innovative [[Mark sense|pencil-mark sensing]] technology gives rise to the ubiquitous phrase, "Please completely fill in the oval".<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.70–71</ref>

* '''1937: Berlin conference'''. As president of the [[International Chamber of Commerce]], Watson Sr., presides over the [[International Chamber of Commerce|ICC]]'s 9th Congress in Berlin. While there he accepts a [[Order of the German Eagle|Merit Cross of the German Eagle with Star]] medal from the Nazi government honoring his activities on behalf of world peace and international trade (he later returned it).<ref>{{cite book |last=Maney |first=Kevin |title=The Maverick and His Machine: Thomas Watson, Sr., and the Making of IBM |url=https://archive.org/details/maverickhismachi00mane |url-access=registration |publisher=Wiley |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-471-41463-6 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/maverickhismachi00mane/page/207 207–210]}}</ref><ref>[[IBM and the Holocaust]], [[Edwin Black]], 2001 Crown / Random House. see index.</ref>

* '''1937: Paid holidays, paid vacation'''. IBM announces a policy of paying employees for six annual holidays and becomes one of the first U.S. companies to grant holiday pay. Paid vacations also begin."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1937.html |title=IBM Archives: 1937 |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref>

* '''1937: IBM Japan'''. Japan Wattoson Statistics Accounting Machinery Co., Ltd. (日本ワットソン統計会計機械株式会社, now IBM Japan) was established.<ref name="ibm.com"/>

* '''1938: New headquarters'''. When IBM dedicates its new World Headquarters on 590 Madison Avenue, New York, New York, in January 1938, the company has operations in 79 countries.<ref name="world hq"/>

===1939–1945: World War II===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! Year || Gross income (in $m) || Employees
|-
| 1940 || 45 || 12,656
|-
| 1945 || 138 || 18,257
|}

[[File:Machine gun BAR 1.jpg|thumb|175px|right|[[M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle|Browning Automatic Rifle]]]]
[[File:M1 Carbine.jpg|thumb|175px|right|[[M1 carbine|M1 Carbine]]]]

{{Main|IBM during World War II}}

In the decades leading up to the onset of WW2 IBM had operations in many countries that would be involved in the war, on both the side of the Allies and the Axis. IBM had a lucrative subsidiary in Germany, which was the majority owner of, as well as operations in Poland, Switzerland, and other countries in Europe. As with most other enemy-owned businesses in Axis countries, these subsidiaries were taken over by the Nazis and other Axis governments early on in the war. The headquarters in New York meanwhile worked to help the American war effort.

==== IBM in America ====

IBM's product line<ref>{{cite web |url=http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/ibm/productDescriptions/A-4060_IBM_Products_1940.pdf |title=IBM 1940 product brochure |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140404125840/http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/pdf/ibm/productDescriptions/A-4060_IBM_Products_1940.pdf |archivedate=2014-04-04 |url-status=live}}</ref> shifted from tabulating equipment and time recording devices to [[Sperry Corporation|Sperry]] and [[Norden bombsight]]s, [[M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle|Browning Automatic Rifle]] and the [[M1 carbine|M1 Carbine]], and engine parts – in all, more than three dozen major ordnance items and 70 products overall. Watson set a nominal one percent profit on those products and used the profits to establish a fund for widows and orphans of IBM war casualties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/decade_1940.html |title=IBM Archives: 1940s |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

Allied military forces widely utilized IBM's tabulating equipment for mobile records units, ballistics, accounting and logistics, and other war-related purposes. There was extensive use of IBM punched-card machines for calculations made at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory|Los Alamos]] during the [[Manhattan Project]] for developing the first [[nuclear weapon|atomic bombs]].<ref name="Feynman1997">{{cite book | last = Feynman | first = Richard P. | authorlink = Richard P. Feynman |author2=Ralph Leighton | title = Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! (Adventures of a Curious Character) | publisher = W.W. Norton & Co. | date = April 17, 1997 | location = New York, New York | url = | id = | isbn = 978-0-393-31604-9 | author2-link = Ralph Leighton }}</ref> During the War, IBM also built the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator, also known as the [[Harvard Mark I]] for the U.S. Navy – the first large-scale electromechanical calculator in the U.S..

In 1933 IBM had acquired the rights to Radiotype, an IBM Electric typewriter attached to a radio transmitter.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/specialprod1/specialprod1_3.html |title=IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref> "In 1935 Admiral Richard E. Byrd successfully sent a test Radiotype message 11,000 miles from Antarctica to an IBM receiving station in Ridgewood, New Jersey"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/specialprod1/specialprod1_4.html |title=IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype (continued) |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref> Selected by the Signal Corps for use during the war, Radiotype installations handled up to 50,000,000 words a day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/specialprod1/specialprod1_5.html |title=IBM Archives: IBM Radiotype Installations |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

To meet wartime product demands, IBM greatly expanded its manufacturing capacity. IBM added new buildings at its [[Endicott, New York|Endicott]], New York plant (1941), and opened new facilities in Poughkeepsie, New York (1941), Washington, D.C. (1942),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/supplies/supplies_5404PH04.html |title=IBM Archives: Washington Card Plant |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref> and San Jose, California (1943).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/supplies/supplies_5404PH06.html |title=IBM Archives: San Jose Card Plant |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref> IBM's decision to establish a presence on the West Coast took advantage of the growing base of electronics research and other high technology innovation in the southern part of the San Francisco Bay Area, an area that came to be known many decades later as [[Silicon Valley]].

IBM was, at the request of the government, the subcontractor for the [[Internment of Japanese Americans|Japanese internment camps']] punched card project.<ref>{{cite journal
|title=Accounting for interned Japanese-American civilians during World War II: Creating incentives and establishing controls for captive workers
|journal= Accounting Historians Journal |volume= 33 |number= 1 |page= 167 |date= June 2006
|publisher= Thomson Gale
|last= Tyson |first= Thomas N |author2=Fleischman, Richard K.|author2-link= Fleischman, Richard K |doi= 10.2308/0148-4184.33.1.167 }}</ref>

IBM equipment was used for cryptography by US Army and Navy organizations, [[Arlington Hall]] and [[OP-20-G]] and similar Allied organizations using ''Hollerith'' punched cards ([[Central Bureau]] and the [[Far East Combined Bureau]]).

==== IBM in Germany and Nazi Occupied Europe ====

The Nazis made extensive use of Hollerith equipment and IBM's majority-owned German subsidiary, Deutsche Hollerith Maschinen GmbH (Dehomag), supplied this equipment from the early 1930s. This equipment was critical to Nazi efforts to categorize citizens of both Germany and other nations that fell under Nazi control through ongoing censuses. This census data was used to facilitate the round-up of Jews and other targeted groups, and to catalog their movements through the machinery of the [[Holocaust]], including internment in the concentration camps.

As with hundreds of foreign-owned companies that did business in Germany at that time, Dehomag came under the control of Nazi authorities prior to and during World War II. A Nazi, Hermann Fellinger, was appointed by the Germans as an enemy-property custodian and placed at the head of the Dehomag subsidiary.

Historian and author [[Edwin Black]], in his best selling book on the topic, maintains that the seizure of the German subsidiary was a ruse. He writes: "The company was not looted, its leased machines were not seized, and [IBM] continued to receive money funneled through its subsidiary in Geneva."<ref name=afilreis-black>{{cite web|url=http://www.writing.upenn.edu/~afilreis/Holocaust/black.html |title=Edwin Black on IBM and the Holocaust |publisher=Writing.upenn.edu |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref> In his book he argues that IBM was an active and enthusiastic supplier to the Nazi regime long after they should have stopped dealing with them. Even after the [[invasion of Poland]], IBM continued to service and expand services to the [[Third Reich]] in Poland and Germany.<ref name=afilreis-black/> The seizure of IBM came after Pearl Harbor and the US Declaration of War, in 1941.

IBM responded that the book was based upon "well-known" facts and documents that it had previously made publicly available and that there were no new facts or findings.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/1388.wss |title=IBM Press room - 2001-02-14. "IBM Statement on Nazi-era Book and Lawsuit" |publisher=03.ibm.com |date=2001-02-14 |accessdate=2011-06-16}}</ref> IBM also denied withholding any relevant documents.<ref name="pr addendum">{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/828.wss|title=Addendum to IBM Statement on Nazi-era Book and Lawsuit|author=IBM Press Room|date=March 29, 2002|location=Armonk, New York|work=Press Release|publisher=[[ibm.com]] |accessdate=2011-06-16}}</ref> Writing in the New York Times, Richard Bernstein argued that Black overstates IBM's culpability.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/07/arts/07BERN.html?pagewanted=all |title='I.B.M. and the Holocaust': Assessing the Culpability |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=2001-03-07 |accessdate=2011-06-16}}</ref>

====Key events====

* '''1942: Training for the disabled'''. IBM launches a program to train and employ disabled people in [[Topeka, Kansas|Topeka]], Kansas. The next year classes begin in New York City, and soon the company is asked to join the President's Committee for Employment of the Handicapped.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esight.org/View.cfm?x=1308 |title=Hawthorne, Nan; ''IBM Makes Inclusion a Global Priority'' eSight Careers Network |publisher=Esight.org |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1943: First female vice president'''. IBM appoints its first female vice president.<ref>Amonette, Ruth Leach; ''Among Equals, A Memoir: The Rise of IBM's First Woman Vice President'' Creative Arts Book {{ISBN|978-0-88739-219-1}}, pp. 86–89, 97.</ref>

* '''1944: ASCC'''. IBM introduces the world's first large-scale calculating computer, the Automatic Sequence Control Calculator ([[Harvard Mark I|ASCC]]). Designed in collaboration with Harvard University, the ASCC, also known as the Mark I, uses electromechanical relays to solve addition problems in less than a second, multiplication in six seconds, and division in 12 seconds.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.72–76</ref>

* '''1944: United Negro College Fund'''. IBM President Thomas J. Watson, Sr., joins the Advisory Committee of the [[United Negro College Fund]] (UNCF), and IBM contributes to the UNCF's fund-raising efforts.<ref>''Encyclopaedia of Information Technology'' Atlantic Publishers & Distributors 2007, p. 590.</ref>

* '''1945: IBM's first research lab'''. IBM's first research facility, the Watson Scientific Computing Laboratory, opens in a renovated fraternity house near Columbia University in Manhattan. In 1961, IBM moves its research headquarters to the T.J. Watson Research Center in Yorktown Heights, New York.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.127–129</ref>

===1946–1959: Postwar recovery, rise of business computing, space exploration, the Cold War===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! Year || Gross income (in $m) || Employees
|-
| 1950 || 266 || 30,261
|-
| 1955 || 696 || 56,297
|-
| 1960 || 1,810 || 104,241
|}

IBM had expanded so much by the end of the War that the company faced a potentially difficult situation – what would happen if military spending dropped sharply? One way IBM addressed that concern was to accelerate its international growth in the years after the war, culminating with the formation of the World Trade Corporation in 1949 to manage and grow its foreign operations. Under the leadership of Watson's youngest son, Arthur K. ‘Dick’ Watson, the WTC would eventually produce half of IBM's bottom line by the 1970s.

Despite introducing its first computer a year after [[Remington Rand]]'s [[UNIVAC]] in 1951, within five years IBM had 85% of the market. A UNIVAC executive complained that "It doesn't do much good to build a better mousetrap if the other guy selling mousetraps has five times as many salesmen".<ref name="greenwald19830711">{{Cite magazine |last=Greenwald |first=John |date=1983-07-11 |title=The Colossus That Works |url=http://content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949693-2,00.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |magazine=TIME |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080514004334/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,949693-2,00.html |archive-date=May 14, 2008 |access-date=2019-05-18 }}</ref> With the death of Founding Father Thomas J. Watson, Sr. on June 19, 1956 at age 82, IBM experienced its first leadership change in more than four decades. The mantle of chief executive fell to his eldest son, [[Thomas J. Watson, Jr]]., IBM's president since 1952.

The new chief executive faced a daunting task. The company was in the midst of a period of rapid technological change, with nascent computer technologies – electronic computers, magnetic tape storage, disk drives, programming – creating new competitors and market uncertainties. Internally, the company was growing by leaps and bounds, creating organizational pressures and significant management challenges. Lacking the force of personality that Watson Sr. had long used to bind IBM together, Watson Jr. and his senior executives privately wondered if the new generation of leadership was up to challenge of managing a company through this tumultuous period.<ref>Watson, Jr. (1990) p.284</ref> "We are," wrote one longtime IBM executive in 1956, "in grave danger of losing our "eternal" values that are as valid in electronic days as in mechanical counter days."

Watson Jr. responded by drastically restructuring the organization mere months after his father died, creating a modern management structure that enabled him to more effectively oversee the fast-moving company.<ref>Watson, Jr. (1990) p.285</ref> He codified well known but unwritten IBM practices and philosophy into formal corporate policies and programs – such as IBM's Three Basic Beliefs, and Open Door and Speak Up! Perhaps the most significant of which was his shepherding of the company's first equal opportunity policy letter into existence in 1953, one year before the U.S. Supreme Court decision in ''Brown vs. Board of Education'' and 11 years before the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].<ref name="Watson, Jr. 1990 306">Watson, Jr. (1990) p.306</ref>
He continued to expand the company's physical capabilities – in 1952 IBM San Jose launched a storage development laboratory that pioneered disk drives. Major facilities would later follow in Rochester, Minnesota; Greencastle, Indiana; Kingston, New York; and Lexington, Kentucky. Concerned that IBM was too slow in adapting transistor technology Watson requested a corporate policy regarding their use, resulting in this unambiguous 1957 product development policy statement: "It shall be the policy of IBM to use solid-state circuitry in all machine developments. Furthermore, no new commercial machines or devices shall be announced which make primary use of tube circuitry."<ref>Pugh (1995) p.230</ref>

Watson Jr. also continued to partner with the United States government to drive computational innovation. The emergence of the Cold War accelerated the government's growing awareness of the significance of digital computing and drove major Department of Defense supported computer development projects in the 1950s. Of these, none was more important than the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] [[interceptor aircraft|interceptor]] early detection air defense system.

[[File:IBM 7090 computer.jpg|right|thumb|IBM 7090 installation]]
In 1952, IBM began working with MIT's [[Lincoln Laboratory]] to finalize the design of an air defense computer. The merger of academic and business engineering cultures proved troublesome, but the two organizations finally hammered out a design by the summer of 1953, and IBM was awarded the contract to build two prototypes in September.<ref>Pugh (1995) p.210</ref> In 1954, IBM was named as the primary computer hardware contractor for developing SAGE for the United States Air Force. Working on this massive computing and communications system, IBM gained access to pioneering research being done at [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] on the first real-time, digital computer. This included working on many other computer technology advancements such as [[magnetic core memory]], a large real-time operating system, an integrated [[video display]], [[light gun]]s, the first effective algebraic computer language, analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversion techniques, [[modem|digital data transmission over telephone lines]], [[duplexing]], [[multiprocessing]], and geographically distributed [[computer network|networks]]. IBM built fifty-six SAGE computers at the price of US$30 million each, and at the peak of the project devoted more than 7,000 employees (20% of its then workforce) to the project. SAGE had the largest computer footprint ever and continued in service until 1984.<ref>Pugh (1995) p.216ff</ref>

More valuable to IBM in the long run than the profits from governmental projects, however, was the access to cutting-edge research into digital computers being done under military auspices. IBM neglected, however, to gain an even more dominant role in the nascent industry by allowing the [[RAND|RAND Corporation]] to take over the job of programming the new computers, because, according to one project participant, Robert P. Crago, "we couldn't imagine where we could absorb two thousand programmers at IBM when this job would be over someday, which shows how well we were understanding the future at that time."<ref>{{cite book| last = Wendover | first = Robert | title = High Performance Hiring | year = 2003 | isbn = 1-56052-666-1 | publisher = Thomson Crisp Learning | page = 179 }}</ref> IBM would use its experience designing massive, integrated real-time networks with SAGE to design its [[SABRE reservation system|SABRE]] airline reservation system, which met with much success.

These government partnerships, combined with pioneering computer technology research and a series of commercially successful products (IBM's 700 series of computer systems, the IBM 650, the [[IBM 305 RAMAC]] (with disk drive memory), and the IBM 1401) enabled IBM to emerge from the 1950s as the world's leading technology firm. Watson Jr. had answered his self-doubt. In the five years since the passing of Watson Sr., IBM was two and a half times bigger, its stock had quintupled, and of the 6000 computers in operation in the United States, more than 4000 were IBM machines.<ref>Watson, Jr. (1990) p.342</ref>

====Key events====

* '''1946: [[IBM 603]]'''. IBM announces the IBM 603 Electronic Multiplier, the first commercial product to incorporate electronic arithmetic circuits. The 603 used vacuum tubes to perform multiplication far more rapidly than earlier electromechanical devices. It had begun its development as part of a program to make a "super calculator" that would perform faster than 1944's [[IBM ASCC]] by using electronics.<ref>Pugh (1995) p.124</ref>

* '''1946: Chinese character typewriter'''. IBM introduces an electric Chinese ideographic character typewriter, which allowed an experienced user to type at a rate of 40 to 45 Chinese words a minute. The machine utilizes a cylinder on which 5,400 ideographic type faces are engraved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1946.html |title=IBM Archives: 1946 |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1946: First black salesman'''. IBM hires its first black salesman, 18 years before the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/employment/us/diverse/heritage_ibm_1940.shtml |title=IBM Heritage |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120518030618/http://www-03.ibm.com/employment/us/diverse/heritage_ibm_1940.shtml |archivedate=May 18, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''1948: [[IBM SSEC]]'''. IBM's first large-scale digital calculating machine, the Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator, is announced. The SSEC is the first computer that can modify a stored program and featured 12,000 [[vacuum tube]]s and 21,000 electromechanical relays.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.124–127</ref>

* '''1950s: Space exploration'''. From developing ballistics tables during World War II to the design and development of intercontinental missiles to the launching and tracking of satellites to manned lunar and shuttle space flights, IBM has been a contractor to NASA and the aerospace industry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/space/space_chronology.html |title=IBM Archives: Space Flight Chronology |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1952: [[IBM 701]]'''. IBM throws its hat into the computer business ring by introducing the 701, its first large-scale electronic computer to be manufactured in quantity. The 701, IBM President Thomas J. Watson, Jr., later recalled, is "the machine that carried us into the electronics business."<ref name="Pugh 1995 223–224">Pugh (1995) pp.223–224</ref>

* '''1952: Magnetic tape vacuum column'''. IBM introduces the magnetic tape drive [[Vacuum column (tape drive)|vacuum column]], making it possible for fragile magnetic tape to become a viable data storage medium. The use of the vacuum column in the IBM 701 system signals the beginning of the era of magnetic storage, as the technology becomes widely adopted throughout the industry.<ref>Pugh (1995) p.222</ref>

* '''1952: First California research lab'''. IBM opens its first West Coast lab in San Jose, California: the area that decades later will come to be known as "[[Silicon Valley]]." Within four years, the lab begins to make its mark by inventing the [[hard disk drive]].<ref name="Pugh 1995 223–224"/>

* '''1953: Equal opportunity policy letter'''. Thomas J. Watson, Jr., publishes the company's first written equal opportunity policy letter: one year before the U.S. Supreme Court decision in [[Brown vs. Board of Education]] and 11 years before the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]].<ref name="Watson, Jr. 1990 306"/>

* '''1953: [[IBM 650]]'''. IBM announces the IBM 650 Magnetic Drum Data-Processing Machine, an intermediate size electronic computer, to handle both business and scientific computations. A hit with both universities and businesses, it was the most popular computer of the 1950s. Nearly 2,000 IBM 650s were marketed by 1962.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.178–182</ref>

* '''1954: [[IBM NORC|NORC]]'''. IBM develops and builds the fastest, most powerful electronic computer of its time: the Naval Ordnance Research Computer (NORC): for the U.S. Navy [[Bureau of Ordnance]].<ref>Pugh (1995) p.161</ref>

* '''1956: First magnetic [[Hard disk drive]]'''. IBM introduces the world's first magnetic hard disk for data storage. The [[IBM 305 RAMAC]] (Random Access Method of Accounting and Control) offers an unprecedented performance by permitting random access to any of the million characters distributed over both sides of 50 two-foot-diameter disks. Produced in California, IBM's first hard disk stored about 2,000 bits of data per square inch and cost about $10,000 per megabyte. By 1997, the cost of storing a megabyte had dropped to around ten cents.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.224–228</ref>

* '''1956: Consent decree'''. The United States Justice Department enters a consent decree against IBM in 1956 to prevent the company from becoming a monopoly in the market for punched-card tabulating and, later, electronic data-processing machines. The decree requires IBM to sell its computers as well as lease them and to service and sell parts for computers that IBM no longer owned.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.cnet.com/40-year-old-IBM-antitrust-case-ends/2100-1023_3-216447.html |title=CNET |publisher=News.cnet.com |date=July 2, 1996 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1956: Corporate design'''. In the mid-1950s, Thomas J. Watson, Jr., was struck by how poorly IBM was handling corporate design. He hired design consultant [[Eliot Noyes]] to oversee the creation of a formal Corporate Design Program and charged Noyes with creating a consistent, world-class look and feel at IBM. Over the next two decades, Noyes hired a host of influential architects, designers, and artists to design IBM products, structures, exhibits, and graphics. The list of Noyes contacts includes such iconic figures as [[Eero Saarinen]], [[Marcel Breuer]], [[Mies van der Rohe]], [[John Savage Bolles|John Bolles]], [[Paul Rand]], [[Isamu Noguchi]] and [[Alexander Calder]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.businessweek.com/innovate/content/jan2007/id20070129_164109.htm| title= The Forgotten Pioneer of Corporate Design|work=Business Week| author= Jessie Scanlon| date= January 29, 2007}}</ref>

* '''1956: First European research lab'''. IBM opens its first research lab outside the United States, in the Swiss city of [[Zurich]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zurich.ibm.com/news/06/anniversary.html |title=ZRL 50th Anniversary |publisher=Zurich.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1956: Changing hands'''. Watson Sr. retires and hands IBM to his son, Watson Jr. Senior dies soon after.<ref>Watson, Jr. (1990) pp.271, 274–278</ref>

* '''1956: Williamsburg conference'''. Watson Jr. gathered some 100 senior IBM executives together for a special three-day meeting in Williamsburg, Virginia. The meeting resulted in a new organizational structure that featured a six-member corporate management committee and delegated more authority to business unit leadership. It was the first major meeting IBM had ever held without Thomas J. Watson Sr., and it marked the emergence of the second generation of IBM leadership.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.263–265</ref>

* '''1956: [[Artificial intelligence]]'''. [[Arthur Samuel|Arthur L. Samuel]] of IBM's Poughkeepsie, New York, laboratory programs an [[IBM 704]] to play [[checkers]] (English draughts) using a method in which the machine can "learn" from its own experience. It is believed to be the first "self-learning" program, a demonstration of the concept of artificial intelligence.<ref>McCarthy, John/Feigenbaum, Ed; [http://www.aaai.org/ojs/index.php/aimagazine/article/viewFile/840/758 ''In Memoriam: Arthur Samuel: Pioneer in Machine Learning''] AI Magazine, Vol. 11, No. 3 1990</ref>

* '''1957: FORTRA'''. IBM revolutionizes programming with the introduction of [[FORTRAN]] (Formula Translator), which soon becomes the most widely used computer programming language for technical work. FORTRAN is still the basis for many important numerical analysis programs.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.194–197</ref>

* '''1958: [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] [[AN/FSQ-7]]'''. The SAGE (Semi-Automatic Ground Environment) AN/FSQ-7 computer is built under contract to MIT's [[Lincoln Laboratory]] for the North American Air Defense System.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.207–219</ref>

* '''1958: IBM domestic Time Equipment Division sold to Simplex'''. IBM announces the sale of the domestic Time Equipment Division (clocks et al.) business to Simplex Time Recorder Company. The IBM time equipment service force will be transferred to the Electric Typewriter Division.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/cc/pdf/cc_2407PR02.pdf|title=IBM 1958 press release announcing the sale of the domestic time equipment business to Simplex Time Recorder Company|publisher=}}</ref>

* '''1958: Open Door program'''. First implemented by Watson, Sr., in the 1910s, the Open Door was a traditional company practice that granted employees with complaints hearings with senior executives, up to and including Watson Sr. IBM formalized this practice into policy in 1958 with the creation of the Open Door Program.<ref>Mills, Daniel Quinn/ Friesen, G. Bruce; ''Broken Promises: An Unconventional View of What Went Wrong at IBM'', Harvard Business Press, 1996, {{ISBN|978-0-87584-654-5}}, pp. 69–70.</ref>

* '''1959: Speak up!''' A further example of IBM's willingness to solicit and act upon employee feedback, the Speak Up! Program was first created in San Jose.<ref>Thelen, Ed; [http://ed-thelen.org/1401Project/Highlights-of-IBM-History.html ''Highlights of IBM History 1967''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100105203223/http://ed-thelen.org/1401Project/Highlights-of-IBM-History.html |date=January 5, 2010 }}</ref>

* '''1959: [[IBM 1401]]'''. IBM introduces 1401, the first high-volume, stored-program, core-memory, transistorized computer. Its versatility in running enterprise applications of all kinds helped it become the most popular computer model in the world in the early 1960s.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.265–268</ref>

* '''1959: [[IBM 1403]]'''. IBM introduces the 1403 chain printer, which launches the era of high-speed, high-volume impact printing. The 1403 will not be surpassed for print quality until the advent of laser printing in the 1970s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/1403.html |title=Columbia University Computing History |publisher=Columbia.edu |date=September 26, 2002 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

===1960–1969: The System/360 era, Unbundling software and services===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! Year || Gross income (in $m) || Employees
|-
| 1955 || 696 || 56,297
|-
| 1960 || 1,810 || 104,241
|-
| 1965 || 3,750 || 172,445
|-
| 1970 || 7,500 || 269,291
|}

On April 7, 1964, IBM introduced the revolutionary [[IBM System/360|System/360]], the first large "family" of computers to use interchangeable software and peripheral equipment, a departure from IBM's existing product line of incompatible machines, each of which was designed to solve specific customer requirements.<ref name=Pugh>* E.W. Pugh, L.R. Johnson, and John H. Palmer, ''IBM's 360 and early 370 systems,'' MIT Press, Cambridge MA and London, {{ISBN|0-262-16123-0}} – extensive (819 pp.) treatment of IBM's offerings during this period</ref> The idea of a general-purpose machine was considered a gamble at the time.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wise |first1=T.A. |year= 1966 |title= I.B.M.'s $5,000,000,000 Gamble |journal=Fortune |volume=LXXIV |issue=4 |pages=118–123, 224–228 |publisher=Time Inc.}}</ref> {{See also|History of CP/CMS}} Within two years, the System/360 became the dominant mainframe computer in the marketplace and its architecture became a de facto industry standard. During this time, IBM transformed from a medium-sized maker of tabulating equipment and typewriters into the world's largest computer company.<ref name=IBM-SD-00>The other companies were sometimes referred to as "the [[BUNCH]]" ([[Burroughs Corporation|Burroughs]], [[UNIVAC]], [[NCR Corporation|NCR]], [[Control Data Corporation|CDC]], and [[Honeywell]], plus [[General Electric|GE]] and [[RCA]]) {{cite web|url=http://www.dvorak.org/blog/ibm-and-the-seven-dwarfs-dwarf-one-burroughs/ |title=ibm-and-the-seven-dwarfs |publisher=Dvorak.org |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

In 1969 IBM "unbundled" software and services from hardware sales. Until this time customers did not pay for software or services separately from the very high price for the hardware. Software was provided at no additional charge, generally in source code form. Services (systems engineering, education and training, system installation) were provided free of charge at the discretion of the IBM Branch office. This practice existed throughout the industry. IBM's unbundling is widely credited with leading to the growth of the software industry.<ref>Burton Grad, ''A Personal Recollection: IBM's Unbundling of Software and Services,'' ''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'', Vol. 24, No. 1 (Jan–Mar 2002), pp. 64–71.</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/decade_1960.html
| title=IBM Archives: 1960s |publisher=[[IBM]]
| quote=''Rather than offer hardware, services and software exclusively in packages, marketers "unbundled" the components and offered them for sale individually. Unbundling gave birth to the multibillion-dollar software and services industries, of which IBM is today a world leader''
| accessdate=November 12, 2010}}</ref><ref>Pugh, Emerson W. ''Origins of Software Bundling.'' ''IEEE Annals of the History of Computing'', Vol. 24, No. 1 (Jan–Mar 2002): pp. 57–58.</ref><ref>Hamilton, Thomas W., ''IBM's unbundling decision: Consequences for users and the industry'', Programming Sciences Corporation, 1969.</ref> After the unbundling, IBM software was divided into two main categories: System Control Programming (SCP), which remained free to customers, and Program Products (PP), which were charged for. This transformed the customer's [[value proposition]] for computer solutions, giving a significant monetary value to something that had hitherto essentially been free. This helped enable the creation of the software industry. Similarly, IBM services were divided into two categories: general information, which remained free and provided at the discretion of IBM, and on-the-job assistance and training of customer personnel, which were subject to a separate charge and were open to non-IBM customers. This decision vastly expanded the market for independent computing services companies.

The company began four decades of Olympic sponsorship with the 1960 Winter Games in Squaw Valley, California. It became a recognized leader in corporate social responsibility, joining federal equal opportunity programs in 1962, opening an inner-city manufacturing plant in 1968, and creating a minority supplier program. It led efforts to improve data security and protect privacy. It set environmental air/water emissions standards that exceeded those dictated by law and brought all its facilities into compliance with those standards. It opened one of the world's most advanced research centers in Yorktown, New York. Its international operations grew rapidly, producing more than half of IBM's revenues by the early 1970s and through technology transfer shaping the way governments and businesses operated around the world. Its personnel and technology played an integral role in the space program and landing the first men on the moon in 1969. In that same year, it changed the way it marketed its technology to customers, unbundling hardware from software and services, effectively launching today's multibillion-dollar software and services industry. See [[History of IBM#1969: Antitrust, the Unbundling of software and services|unbundling of software and services]], below. It was massively profitable, with a nearly fivefold increase in revenues and earnings during the 1960s.

In 1967 [[Thomas John Watson, Jr.]], who had succeeded his father as chairman, announced that IBM would open a large-scale manufacturing plant at Boca Raton to produce its System/360 Model 20 midsized computer. On March 16, 1967, a headline in the ''Boca Raton News''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thecoastalstar.com/profiles/blogs/boca-raton-exhibit-chronicles-1|title=Boca Raton: Exhibit chronicles computer giant’s big footprint|last=Posted by Deborah Hartz-Seeley on June 29|first=2011 at 1:00pm|last2=Blog|first2=View|website=thecoastalstar.com|language=en|access-date=2020-02-18}}</ref> announced “IBM to hire 400 by year’s end.” The plan was for IBM to lease facilities to start making computers until the new site could be developed. A few months later, hiring began for assembly and production control trainees. IBM's Juan Rianda moved from Poughkeepsie, New York, to become the first plant manager at IBM's new Boca operations. To design its new campus, IBM commissioned internationally renowned architect [[Marcel Breuer]] (1902–1981), who worked closely with American architect [[Robert Gatje]] (1927-2018). In September 1967, the Boca team celebrated a milestone, shipping its first [[IBM System/360 Model 20|IBM System/360]] Model 20 to the City of Clearwater – the first computer in its production run. A year later, [[IBM 1130]] Computing Systems were being produced and shipped from the 203 building. By 1969, IBM's Boca workforce had reached 1,000. That employment number grew to around 1,300 in the next year as a Systems Development Engineering Laboratory was added to the division's operations.

====Key events====

* '''1961: [[IBM 7030 Stretch]]'''. IBM delivers its first 7030 Stretch supercomputer. Stretch falls short of its original design objectives, and is not a commercial success. But it is a visionary product that pioneers numerous revolutionary computing technologies which are soon widely adopted by the computer industry.<ref>Watson, Jr. (1990) pp.382–383</ref><ref name="SimmonsElsberry1988p160">{{Harvnb|Simmons|Elsberry|1988|p=160}}.</ref>

* '''1961: [[Thomas J. Watson Research Center]]'''. IBM moves its research headquarters from Poughkeepsie, NY to Westchester County, NY, opening the Thomas J. Watson Research Center which remains IBM's largest research facility, centering on semiconductors, computer science, physical science, and mathematics. The lab which IBM established at Columbia University in 1945 was closed and moved to the Yorktown Heights laboratory in 1970.<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.240–242</ref>

* '''1961: [[IBM Selectric typewriter]]'''. IBM introduces the Selectric typewriter product line. Later Selectric models feature memory, giving rise to the concepts of word processing and desktop publishing. The machine won numerous awards for its design and functionality. Selectrics and their descendants eventually captured 75 percent of the United States market for electric typewriters used in business.<ref name="Foyes">{{cite web | title=Eliot Fette Noyes, FIDSA | work=Industrial Design Society of America—About ID | url=http://www.idsa.org/absolutenm/templates/default.aspx?a=264&template=print-article.htm | accessdate=November 18, 2009}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> IBM replaced the Selectric line with the [[IBM Wheelwriter]] in 1984 and transferred its typewriter business to the newly formed [[Lexmark]] in 1991.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone2.html |title=IBM typewriter milestones |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1961: [[Report Program Generator]]'''. IBM offers its Report Program Generator, an application that allows IBM 1401 users to produce reports. This capability was widely adopted throughout the industry, becoming a feature offered in subsequent generations of computers. It played an important role in the successful introduction of computers into small businesses.<ref>[[IBM RPG]]</ref>

* '''1962: Basic beliefs'''. Drawing on established IBM policies, [[Thomas J. Watson, Jr]]., codifies three IBM basic beliefs: respect for the individual, customer service, and excellence.<ref>Watson, Jr. (1990) p.302</ref>

* '''1962: [[Sabre (computer system)|SABRE]]'''. Two [[IBM 7090]] mainframes formed the backbone of the SABRE reservation system for American Airlines. As the first airline reservation system to work live over phone lines, SABRE linked high-speed computers and data communications to handle seat inventory and passenger records.<ref>Watson, Jr. (1990) p.347</ref>

* '''1964: [[IBM System/360]]'''. In the most important product announcement in company history to date, IBM introduces the IBM System/360: a new concept in computers which creates a "family" of small to large computers, incorporating [[IBM Solid Logic Technology]] (SLT) microelectronics and using the same programming instructions. The concept of a compatible "family" of computers transforms the industry.<ref>Watson, Jr. (1990) pp.346–360</ref>

* '''1964: Word processing'''. IBM introduces the IBM Magnetic Tape [[IBM Selectric typewriter|Selectric Typewriter]], a product that pioneered the application of magnetic recording devices to typewriting, and gave rise to desktop word processing. Referred to then as "power typing," the feature of revising stored text improved office efficiency by allowing typists to type at "rough draft" speed without the pressure of worrying about mistakes.<ref>Dullea, Georgia; ''Is It a Boon for Secretaries—Or Just an Automated Ghetto?'' The New York Times, February 5, 1971, p. 32.</ref>

* '''1964: New corporate headquarters'''. IBM moves its corporate headquarters from New York City to Armonk, New York.<ref>Fuchs, Marek; [https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/24/nyregion/county-lines-onward-in-armonk.html ''County Lines: Onward in Armonk''], New York Times, February 24, 2002</ref>

* '''1965: Gemini space flights'''. A 59-pound onboard IBM guidance computer is used on all Gemini space flights, including the first spaceship rendezvous. IBM scientists complete the most precise computation of the Moon's orbit and develop a fabrication technique to connect hundreds of circuits on a silicon wafer.<ref>IBM Gemini Guidance Computer, Fact Sheet at Johnson Space Center History Office, February 17, 1966.</ref>

* '''1965: [[1964 New York World's Fair|New York World's Fair]]'''. The IBM Pavilion at the New York World's Fair closes, having hosted more than 10 million visitors during its two-year existence.<ref>Stanton, Jeffrey; [http://www.westland.net/ny64fair/map-docs/ibm.htm IBM Pavilion]</ref>

* '''1966: [[DRAM|Dynamic Random-Access Memory]] (DRAM)'''. IBM invents one-transistor DRAM cells which permit major increases in memory capacity. DRAM chips become the mainstay of modern computer memory systems: the "crude oil" of the information age is born.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/dennard.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030415041608/http://web.mit.edu/invent/iow/Dennard.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=April 15, 2003 |title=MIT Inventor of the Week: Dennard |publisher=Web.mit.edu |date=September 5, 1932 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1966: [[IBM System/4 Pi]]'''. IBM ships its first System/4Pi computer, designed to meet U.S. [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] and NASA requirements. More than 9000 units of the 4Pi systems are delivered by the 1980s for use in the air, sea, and space.<ref>[[IBM System/4 Pi]]</ref>

* '''1966: [[IBM Information Management System]] (IMS)'''. IBM designed the Information Management System (IMS) with [[North American Rockwell|Rockwell]] and [[Caterpillar Tractor Company|Caterpillar]] starting in 1966 for the [[Apollo program]], where it was used to inventory the very large [[bill of materials]] (BOM) for the [[Saturn V]] moon rocket and Apollo space vehicle.

* '''1967: [[Fractal geometry]]'''. IBM researcher [[Benoit Mandelbrot]] conceives fractal geometry – the concept that seemingly irregular shapes can have identical structure at all scales. This new geometry makes it possible to mathematically describe the kinds of irregularities existing in nature. The concept greatly impacts the fields of engineering, economics, metallurgy, art, health sciences, and computer graphics and animation.<ref>[[Benoît Mandelbrot]]</ref>

* '''1968: [[CICS|IBM Customer Information Control System]] (CICS)'''. IBM introduces the CICS transaction monitor. CICS remains to this day the industry's most popular transactions monitor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cicswiki.org/cicswiki1/index.php?title=History |title=Cicswiki |publisher=Cicswiki |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1969: Antitrust'''. The United States government launches what would become a 13-year-long [[antitrust]] suit against IBM. The suit becomes a draining war of attrition, and is eventually dropped in 1982,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hagley.lib.de.us/library/collections/manuscripts/findingaids/ibmantitrustpart1.ACC1912.htm |title=IBM Antitrust Suit Records, Hagley Museum and Library |publisher=Hagley.lib.de.us |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217141826/http://www.hagley.lib.de.us/library/collections/manuscripts/findingaids/ibmantitrustpart1.ACC1912.htm |archivedate=February 17, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> after IBM's share of the mainframe market declined from 70% to 62%.{{r|salmans19820109}}

* '''1969: Unbundling'''. IBM adopts a new marketing policy that charges separately for most systems engineering activities, future computer programs, and customer education courses. This "unbundling" gives rise to a multibillion-dollar software and services industry.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibson |first1=Stanley |title=Software industry born with IBM's unbundling |journal=Computerworld |date=June 19, 1989 |volume=23 |issue=25 |page=6 |url=https://archive.org/details/computerworld2312unse24/page/n5/mode/1up |accessdate=21 June 2020}}</ref>

* '''1969: Magnetic stripe cards'''. The [[American National Standards Institute]] makes the IBM-developed [[magnetic stripe]] technology a national standard, jump starting the credit card industry. Two years later, the [[International Organization for Standardization]] adopts the IBM design, making it a world standard.<ref>Schoenherr, Steven; [http://history.sandiego.edu/GEN/recording/magnetic4.html ''The History of Magnetic Recording''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080821140025/http://history.sandiego.edu/gen/recording/magnetic4.html |date=August 21, 2008 }}, University of San Diego, November 5, 2002</ref>

* '''1969: First moon landing'''. IBM personnel and computers help NASA land the first men on the Moon.

===1970–1974: The challenges of success===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! Year || Gross income (in $m) || Employees
|-
| 1965 || 3,750 || 172,445
|-
| 1970 || 7,500 || 269,291
|-
| 1975 || 14,430 || 288,647
|}

The Golden Decade of the 1960s was a hard act to follow, and the 1970s got off to a troubling start when CEO Thomas J. Watson Jr. suffered a heart attack and retired in 1971. For the first time since 1914 – nearly six decades – IBM would not have a Watson at the helm. Moreover, after just one leadership change over those nearly 60 years, IBM would endure two in two years. T. Vincent Learson succeeded Watson as CEO, then quickly retired upon reaching the mandatory retirement age of 60 in 1973. Following Learson in the CEO office was Frank T. Cary, a 25-year IBMer<ref>Joined 1948, became CEO in 1973 according to [https://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/chairmen/chairmen_6.html Frank T. Cary] at IBM Archive site.</ref> who had run the very successful data processing division in the 1960s.

''[[Datamation]]'' in 1971 stated that "the perpetual, ominous force called IBM rolls on".{{r|forest19711215}} The company's dominance let it keep prices high and rarely update products,{{r|pollack19850120}} all built with only IBM components.{{r|cooper20010810}} During Cary's tenure as CEO, the [[IBM System/370]] was introduced in 1970 as IBM's new mainframe. The S/370 did not prove as technologically revolutionary as its predecessor, the System/360. From a revenue perspective, it more than sustained the cash cow status of the 360.<ref>Pugh (1995) p.304</ref> A less successful effort to replicate the 360 mainframe revolution was the [[IBM Future Systems project|Future Systems project]]. Between 1971 and 1975, IBM investigated the feasibility of a new revolutionary line of products designed to make obsolete all existing products in order to re-establish its technical supremacy. This effort was terminated by IBM's top management in 1975. But by then it had consumed most of the high-level technical planning and design resources, thus jeopardizing progress of the existing product lines (although some elements of FS were later incorporated into actual products).<ref>Pugh (1995) pp.307–309</ref> Other IBM innovations during the early 1970s included the IBM 3340 disk unit – introduced in 1973 and known as "Winchester" after IBM's internal project name — was an advanced storage technology which more than doubled the information density on disk surfaces. Winchester technology was adopted by the industry and used for the next two decades.

Some 1970s-era IBM technologies emerged to become familiar facets of everyday life. IBM developed magnetic stripe technology in the 1960s, and it became a credit card industry standard in 1971. The IBM-invented [[floppy disk]], also introduced in 1971, became the standard for storing personal computer data during the first decades of the PC era. IBM Research scientist Edgar 'Ted' Codd wrote a seminal paper describing the [[relational database]], an invention that ''Forbes'' magazine described as one of the most important innovations of the 20th century. The [[IBM 5100]], 50 lbs. and $9000 of personal mobility, was introduced in 1975 and presaged – at least in function if not size or price or units sold – the Personal Computer of the 1980s. IBM's 3660 supermarket checkout station, introduced in 1973, used holographic technology to scan product prices from the now-ubiquitous UPC bar code, which itself was based a 1952 IBM patent that became a grocery industry standard. Also in 1973, bank customers began making withdrawals, transfers and other account inquiries via the IBM 3614 Consumer Transaction Facility, an early form of today's [[Automatic Teller Machine]]s.

IBM had an innovator's role in pervasive technologies that were less visible as well. In 1974, IBM announced [[Systems Network Architecture]] (SNA), a networking protocol for computing systems. SNA is a uniform set of rules and procedures for computer communications to free computer users from the technical complexities of communicating through local, national, and international computer networks. SNA became the most widely used system for data processing until more [[open architecture]] standards were approved in the 1990s. In 1975, IBM researcher Benoit Mandelbrot conceived fractal geometry—a new geometrical concept that made it possible to describe mathematically the kinds of irregularities existing in nature. Fractals had a great impact on engineering, economics, metallurgy, art and health sciences, and are integral to the field of computer graphics and animation.

A less successful business endeavor for IBM was its entry into the office copier market in the 1970s, after turning down the opportunity to purchase the [[xerography]] technology.{{r|greenwald19830711}} The company was immediately sued by [[Xerox Corporation]] for patent infringement. Although Xerox held the patents for the use of [[selenium]] as a photoconductor, IBM researchers perfected the use of organic photoconductors which avoided the Xerox patents. The litigation lasted until the late 1970s and was ultimately settled. Despite this victory, IBM never gained traction in the copier market and withdrew from the marketplace in the 1980s. Organic photoconductors are now widely used in copiers.

Throughout this period, IBM was litigating the antitrust suit filed by the Justice Department in 1969. But in a related bit of case law, the landmark [[Honeywell v. Sperry Rand]] U.S. federal court case was concluded in April 1973. The 1964 patent for the [[ENIAC]], the world's first general-purpose electronic digital computer, was found both invalid and unenforceable for a variety of reasons thus putting the invention of the electronic digital computer into the public domain. Further, IBM was ruled to have created a monopoly via its 1956 patent-sharing agreement with Sperry-Rand.

American antitrust laws did not affect IBM in Europe, where {{asof|1971|lc=y}} it had fewer competitors and more than 50% market share in almost every country. Customers preferred IBM because it was, ''Datamation'' said, "the ''only'' truly international computer company", able to serve clients almost anywhere. Rivals such as [[International Computers Limited|ICL]], [[Compagnie internationale pour l'informatique|CII]], and [[Siemens]] began to cooperate to preserve a European computer industry.<ref name="forest19711215">{{Cite magazine |last=Forest |first=Robert B. |date=1971-12-15 |title=Close Cooperation: Europe's Best Hope |url=https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_datamation_14170580/page/n27 |magazine=Datamation |pages=26–33 |access-date=2019-12-03}}</ref>

====Key events====

* '''1970: [[IBM System/370|System/370]]'''. IBM announces [[IBM System/370|System/370]] as successor to System/360.

* '''1970: Relational databases'''. IBM introduces [[relational database]]s which call for information stored within a computer to be arranged in easy-to-interpret tables to access and manage large amounts of data. Today, nearly all database structures are based on the IBM concept of relational databases.

* '''1970: Office copiers'''. IBM introduces its first of three models of xerographic copiers. These machines mark the first commercial use of organic [[photoconductors]] which since grew to become the dominant technology.

* '''1971: Speech recognition'''. IBM achieves its first operational application of [[speech recognition]], which enables engineers servicing equipment to talk to and receive spoken answers from a computer that can recognize about 5,000 words. Today, IBM's [[ViaVoice]] recognition technology has a vocabulary of 64,000 words and a 260,000-word back-up dictionary.<ref>B.H. Juang & Lawrence R. Rabiner; [http://www.ece.ucsb.edu/Faculty/Rabiner/ece259/Reprints/354_LALI-ASRHistory-final-10-8.pdf ''Automatic Speech Recognition: A Brief History of the Technology Development''], Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta Rutgers University and the University of California, Santa Barbara</ref>

* '''1971: Floppy disk'''. IBM introduces the [[floppy disk]]. Convenient and highly portable, the floppy becomes a personal computer industry standard for storing data.<ref>Mary Bellis, [http://inventors.about.com/od/computersandinternet/a/FloppyDisk.htm About.com: The Invention of the Floppy Disk Drive]</ref>

* '''1973: Winchester storage technology'''. The [[Winchester disk#IBM 3340|IBM 3340]] disk unit—known as "Winchester" after IBM's internal project name—is introduced, an advanced technology which more than doubled the information density on disk surfaces. It featured a smaller, lighter read/write head that was designed to ride on an air film only 18 millionths of an inch thick. Winchester technology was adopted by the industry and used for the next two decades.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computerhistory.org/collections/accession/102657933 |title=Computer History Museum: Collections: Disk Drive Oral History Panel |publisher=Computerhistory.org |date=April 6, 2004 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1973: Nobel Prize'''. Dr. [[Leo Esaki]], an IBM Fellow who joined the company in 1960, shares the 1973 Nobel Prize in physics for his 1958 discovery of the phenomenon of electron tunneling. His discovery of the semiconductor junction called the Esaki diode finds wide use in electronics applications. More importantly, his work in the field of semiconductors lays a foundation for further exploration in the electronic transport of solids.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1973/esaki-bio.html |title=Esaki |publisher=NobelPrize.org |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1974: SNA'''. IBM announces [[Systems Network Architecture]] (SNA), a networking protocol for computing systems. SNA is a uniform set of rules and procedures for computer communications to free computer users from the technical complexities of communicating through local, national, and international computer networks. SNA becomes the most widely used system for data processing until more open architecture standards were approved in the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://publib.boulder.ibm.com/infocenter/zos/basics/index.jsp?topic=/com.ibm.zos.znetwork/znetwork_151.htm |title=What is Systems Network Architecture (SNA)? |publisher=Publib.boulder.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

===1975–1992: Information revolution, rise of software and PC industries===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! Year || Gross income (in $m) || Employees
|-
| 1975 || 14,430 || 288,647
|-
| 1980 || 26,210 || 341,279
|-
| 1985 || 50,050 || 405,535
|-
| 1990 || 69,010 || 373,816
|-
| 1995 || 71,940 || 225,347
|}

President of IBM [[John R. Opel]] became CEO in 1981.<ref name="ibm">{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/chairmen/chairmen_7.html|title=John R. Opel|publisher=IBM|accessdate=23 April 2011}}</ref> His company was one of the world's largest and had a 62% share of the mainframe computer market that year.{{r|salmans19820109}} While frequently relocated employees and families still joked that IBM stood for "I've Been Moved", and employees of acquisitions feared that hordes of formal IBM employees would invade their more casual offices,<ref name="sanger19850707">{{Cite news |last=Sanger |first=David E. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/07/07/magazine/the-changing-image-of-ibm.html |title=The Changing Image of I.B.M. |date=1985-07-07 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-03-11 |page=Section 6, Page 13 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> IBM no longer required white shirts for male employees, who still wore conservative suits when meeting customers. Former employees such as [[Gene Amdahl]] used their training to found and lead many competitors{{r|greenwald19830711}} and suppliers.{{r|sanger19840422}}

Expecting Japanese competition, IBM in the late 1970s began investing in manufacturing to lower costs, offering volume discounts and lower prices to large customers, and introducing new products more frequently.{{r|pollack19850120}} The company also sometimes used non-IBM components in products,<ref name="cooper20010810">{{Cite web |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/ibms-dirty-dozen-remembers/ |title=IBM's 'Dirty Dozen' remembers |last=Cooper |first=Charles |date=2001-08-10 |website=ZDNet |language=en |access-date=2020-03-11}}</ref> and sometimes resold others' products as its own.<ref name="pollack19810813">{{Cite news |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/08/13/business/big-ibm-s-little-computer.html |title=Big I.B.M.'s Little Computer |date=1981-08-13 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-03-16 |page=D1 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> In 1980 it introduced its first [[computer terminal]] compatible with non-IBM equipment,{{r|libes198112}} and [[Displaywriter]] was the first new product less expensive than the competition.{{r|salmans19820109}} IBM's share of the overall computer market, however, declined from 60% in 1970 to 32% in 1980.<ref name="burton198302">{{cite news | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7wCiNAUEuAMC&lpg=PA360&pg=PA317#v=onepage&q&f=true | title=Anatomy of a Colossus, Part II | work=PC Magazine | date=February 1983 | accessdate=21 October 2013 | author=Burton, Kathleen | page=316}}</ref> Perhaps distracted by the long-running antitrust lawsuit,{{r|greenwald19830711}} the "Colossus of [[Armonk, New York|Armonk]]" completely missed the fast-growing [[minicomputer]] market during the 1970s,{{r|pollack19810813}}<ref name="nyt19831102">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/11/02/business/ibm-s-speedy-redirection.html | title=I.B.M.'S Speedy Redirection | accessdate=2011-02-25 | date=1983-11-02 | work=The New York Times}}</ref><ref name="camenker198311">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-11/1983_11_BYTE_08-11_Inside_the_IBM_PC#page/n255/mode/2up | title=The Making of the IBM PC | work=BYTE | date=Nov 1983 | accessdate=19 March 2016 | author=Camenker, Brian | pages=254, 256}}</ref>{{r|sandler198411}} and was behind rivals such as [[Wang Laboratories|Wang]], [[Hewlett-Packard]] (HP), and [[Control Data Corporation|Control Data]] in other areas.{{r|burton198302}}

In 1979 ''[[BusinessWeek]]'' asked, "Is IBM just another stodgy, mature company?" By 1981 its stock price had declined by 22%.{{r|burton198302}} IBM's earnings for the first half the year grew by 5.3%—one third of the [[inflation rate]]—while those of minicomputer maker [[Digital Equipment Corporation]] (DEC) grew by more than 35%.<ref name="libes198112">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1981-12/1981_12_BYTE_06-12_Computer_Games#page/n315/mode/2up | title=Bytelines | work=BYTE | date=December 1981 | accessdate=29 January 2015 | author=Libes, Sol | pages=314–318}}</ref> The company began selling minicomputers,<ref name="jeffery19850930">{{cite news | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MmR2XHzI9yoC&lpg=RA1-PA47&ots=o-UtBe3V63&pg=RA1-PA46#v=onepage&f=true | title=IBM's high-end micros encroaching on mini territory | work=Computerworld | date=1985-09-30 | accessdate=2 January 2015 | author=Jeffery, Brian | pages=SR/20–21}}</ref> but in January 1982 the Justice Department ended the antitrust suit because, ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported, the government "recognized what computer experts and [[sell-side analyst|securities analysts]] had long since concluded: I.B.M. no longer dominates the computer business".<ref name="salmans19820109">{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1982/01/09/business/dominance-ended-ibm-fights-back.html | title=Dominance Ended, I.B.M. Fights Back | work=The New York Times | date=1982-01-09 | accessdate=2 January 2015 | author=Salmans, Sandra}}</ref>

[[File:IBM PC 5150.jpg|thumb|left|The original [[IBM PC]] (ca. 1981)]]

IBM wished to avoid the same outcome with the new [[personal computer]] industry.<ref name="sandler198411">{{cite news | url=http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/298_IBM_colossus_of_Armonk.php | title=IBM: Colossus of Armonk | work=Creative Computing | date=November 1984 | accessdate=February 26, 2013 | author=Sandler, Corey | page=298}}</ref> The company studied the market for years and, as with UNIVAC, others like [[Apple Computer]] entered it first;{{r|greenwald19830711}} IBM did not want a product with a rival's logo on corporate customers' desks.{{r|pollack19830327}} The company opened its first retail store in November 1980,<ref name="kleinfield19811031">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1981/10/31/business/ibm-s-venture-into-retailing.html |title=I.B.M.'S VENTURE INTO RETAILING |last=Kleinfield |first=N. R. |date=1981-10-31 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2018-09-03 |language=en}}</ref> and a team in the [[Boca Raton, Florida]] office built the [[IBM PC]] using [[commercial off-the-shelf]] components. The new computer debuted on August 12, 1981{{r|cooper20010810}} from the Entry Systems Division led by [[Don Estridge]]. IBM immediately became more of a presence in the consumer marketplace, thanks to the memorable Little Tramp advertising campaign. Though not a spectacular machine by technological standards of the day, the IBM PC brought together all of the most desirable features of a computer into one small machine. It had 128 kilobytes of memory (expandable to 256 kilobytes), one or two floppy disks and an optional color monitor. And it had the prestige of the IBM brand. It was not cheap, but with a base price of US$1,565 it was affordable for businesses – and many businesses purchased PCs. Reassured by the IBM name, they began buying microcomputers on their own budgets aimed at numerous applications that corporate computer departments did not, and in many cases could not, accommodate. Typically, these purchases were not by corporate computer departments, as the PC was not seen as a "proper" computer. Purchases were often instigated by middle managers and senior staff who saw the potential – once the revolutionary [[VisiCalc]] spreadsheet, the [[killer application|killer app]], had been surpassed by a far more powerful and stable product, [[Lotus 1-2-3]].

[[File:T-Rex Technology Center Fountain.JPG|thumb|right|Boca Corporate Center & Campus was originally one of IBM's research labs where the [[IBM PC]] was created.]]

IBM's dominance of the mainframe market in Europe and the US encouraged existing customers to buy the PC,{{r|pollack19830327}}<ref name="schrage19850217">{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1985/02/17/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8/ |title=IBM Wins Dominance in European Computer Market |last=Schrage |first=Michael |date=1985-02-17 |work=Washington Post |access-date=2018-08-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180829110208/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1985/02/17/ibm-wins-dominance-in-european-computer-market/bdcb9e21-8107-4dad-88d7-713f2709a8d8/ |archive-date=August 29, 2018 |url-status=live |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and vice versa; as sales of what had been an experiment in a new market became a substantial part of IBM's financials, the company found that customers also bought larger IBM computers.<ref name="yankee198311">{{cite news | url=https://archive.org/stream/byte-magazine-1983-11/1983_11_BYTE_08-11_Inside_the_IBM_PC#page/n135/mode/2up | title=Could 1,000,000 IBM PC Users Be Wrong? | work=BYTE | date=November 1983 | accessdate=19 March 2016 |author1=Gens, Frank |author2=Christiansen, Chris | page=135}}</ref>{{r|nyt19831102}}{{r|sanger19850707}} Unlike the [[BUNCH]] and other rivals IBM quickly adjusted to the retail market,{{r|pollack19830327}}<ref name="sanger19840205">{{Cite news |last=Sanger |first=David E. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/02/05/business/bailing-out-of-the-mainframe-industry.html |title=Bailing Out of the Mainframe Industry |date=1984-02-05 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-03-02 |page=Section 3, Page 1 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> with its own sales force competing with outside retailers for the first time.{{r|sanger19850707}} By 1985 IBM was the world's most profitable industrial company,{{r|sanger19850707}} and its sales of personal computers were larger than that of minicomputers despite having been in the latter market since the early 1970s.{{r|jeffery19850930}}

By 1983 industry analyst [[Gideon Gartner]] warned that IBM "is creating a dangerous situation for competitors in the marketplace".{{r|greenwald19830711}} The company helped others by defining technical standards and creating large new software markets,{{r|yankee198311}}{{r|economist19831126}}{{r|pollack19850120}} but the new aggressiveness that began in the late 1970s helped it dominate areas like computer leasing and [[computer-aided design]].{{r|pollack19850120}} Free from the antitrust case, IBM was present in every computer market other than supercomputers, and entered communications<ref name="economist19831126">{{Cite magazine |date=1983-11-26 |title=Can Anybody Tackle IBM? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UCIvSU6Y2GAC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA125#v=onepage&q&f=true |magazine=The Economist}}</ref> by purchasing [[Rolm]]—the first acquisition in 18 years—and 18% of [[MCI Communications|MCI]].{{r|sanger19850707}} The company was so important to component suppliers that it urged them to diversify. When IBM (61% of revenue) abruptly reduced orders from [[Miniscribe]] shares of not only Miniscribe but that of uninvolved companies that sold to IBM fell, as investors feared their vulnerability.<ref name="sanger19840422">{{Cite news |last=Sanger |first=David E. |url=http://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/22/business/the-heady-world-of-ibm-suppliers.html |title=The Heady World of I.B.M. Suppliers |date=1984-04-22 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-07-02 |page=Section 3, Page 1 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |author-link=David E. Sanger}}</ref> IBM was also vulnerable when suppliers could not fulfill orders;<ref name="sanger19850118">{{cite news | url=http://www.nytimes.com/1985/01/18/business/computer-giant-finds-problems-in-success.html?pagewanted=all | title=Computer Giant Finds Problems in Success | accessdate=2011-02-25 | author=Sanger, David E. | date=1985-01-18 | work=The New York Times}}</ref> customers and dealers also feared becoming overdependent.<ref name="pollack19830327">{{Cite news |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/03/27/business/big-ibm-has-done-it-again.html |title=Big I.B.M. Has Done It Again |date=1983-03-27 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2020-03-16 |page=Section 3, Page 1 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>{{r|pollack19850120}}

The [[IBM PC AT]]'s 1984 debut startled the industry. Rivals admitted that they did not expect the low price of the sophisticated product. IBM's attack on every area of the computer industry and entry into communications caused competitors, analysts, and the press to speculate that it would again be sued for antitrust.<ref name="sanger19841119">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/11/19/business/ibm-entry-unchallenged-at-show.html |title=I.B.M. Entry Unchallenged at Show |last=Sanger |first=David E. |date=1984-11-19 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-07-03 |page=D1 |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name="rosenberg19850106">{{Cite news |title=When the Chips Are Down, Industry Elite Take Over; IBM, AT & T, Digital See Robust 1985, While Small Guys Still Shaking Out |last=Rosenberg |first=Ronald |date=1985-01-06 |work=The Boston Globe |page=49}}</ref>{{r|sanger19850707}} ''Datamation'' and others said that the company's continued growth might hurt the United States, by suppressing [[startup]]s with new technology.{{r|pollack19850120}} [[Gartner Group]] estimated in 1985 that of the 100 largest data-processing companies, IBM had 41% of all revenue and 69% of profit. Its computer revenue was about nine times that of second-place DEC, and larger than that of IBM's six largest Japanese competitors combined. The 22% profit margin was three times the 6.7% average for the other 99 companies. Competitors complained to Congress, [[ADAPSO]] discussed the company with the Justice Department, and European governments worried about IBM's influence but feared affecting its more than 100,000 employees there at 19 facilities.<ref name="pollack19850120">{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1985/01/20/business/the-daunting-power-of-ibm.html |title=The Daunting Power of I.B.M. |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |date=1985-01-20 |work=The New York Times |access-date=2017-07-03 |language=en-US |page=Section 3, Page 1 | issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

However, the company soon lost its lead in both PC hardware and software, thanks in part to its unprecedented (for IBM) decision to contract PC components to outside companies like Microsoft and Intel. Up to this point in its history, IBM relied on a vertically integrated strategy, building most key components of its systems itself, including processors, operating systems, peripherals, databases and the like. In an attempt to accelerate the time-to-market for the PC, IBM chose not to build a proprietary operating system and microprocessor. Instead, it sourced these vital components from [[Microsoft]] and [[Intel]] respectively. Ironically, in a decade which marked the end of IBM's monopoly, it was this fateful decision by IBM that passed the sources of its monopolistic power (operating system and processor architecture) to Microsoft and Intel, paving the way for rise of [[PC compatibles]] and the creation of hundreds of billions of dollars of market value outside of IBM.

[[John Akers]] became IBM's CEO in 1985. During the 1980s, IBM's significant investment in building a world class research organization produced four Nobel Prize winners in physics, achieved breakthroughs in mathematics, memory storage and telecommunications, and made great strides in expanding computing capabilities. In 1980, IBM Research legend John Cocke introduced Reduced Instruction Set Technology (RISC). Cocke received both the National Medal of Technology and the National Medal of Science for his innovation, but IBM itself failed to recognize the importance of RISC, and lost the lead in RISC technology to [[Sun Microsystems]]. In 1984 the company partnered with Sears to develop a pioneering online home banking and shopping service for home PCs that launched in 1988 as Prodigy. Despite a strong reputation and anticipating many of the features, functions, and technology that characterize the online experience of today, the venture was plagued by extremely conservative management decisions, and was eventually sold in the mid-1990s. The IBM token-ring local area network, introduced in 1985, permitted personal computer users to exchange information and share printers and files within a building or complex. In 1988, IBM partnered with the University of Michigan and MCI Communications to create the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNet), an important step in the creation of the Internet. But within five years the company backed away from this early lead in Internet protocols and router technologies in order to support its existing SNA cash cow, thereby missing a boom market of the 1990s. Still, IBM investments and advances in microprocessors, disk drives, network technologies, software applications, and online commerce in the 1980s set the stage for the emergence of the connected world in the 1990s.

But by the end of the decade, IBM was clearly in trouble. It was a bloated organization of some 400,000 employees that was heavily invested in low margin, transactional, commodity businesses. Technologies IBM invented and or commercialized – DRAM, hard disk drives, the PC, electric typewriters – were starting to erode. The company had a massive international organization characterized by redundant processes and functions – its cost structure couldn't compete with smaller, less diversified competitors. And then the back-to-back revolutions – the PC and the client-server – did the unthinkable. They combined to dramatically undermine IBM's core mainframe business. The PC revolution placed computers directly in the hands of millions of people. It was followed by the client/server revolution, which sought to link all of those PCs (the "clients") with larger computers that labored in the background (the "servers" that served data and applications to client machines). Both revolutions transformed the way customers viewed, used and bought technology. And both fundamentally rocked IBM. Businesses' purchasing decisions were put in the hands of individuals and departments – not the places where IBM had long-standing customer relationships. Piece-part technologies took precedence over integrated solutions. The focus was on the desktop and personal productivity, not on business applications across the enterprise. As a result, earnings – which had been at or above US$5 billion since the early 1980s, dropped by more than a third to US$3 billion in 1989. A brief spike in earnings in 1990 proved illusory as corporate spending continued to shift from high-profit margin mainframes to lower margin microprocessor-based systems. In addition, corporate downsizing was in full swing.

Akers tried to stop the bleeding – desperate moves and radical changes were considered and implemented. As IBM assessed the situation, it was clear that competition and innovation in the computer industry were now taking place along segmented, versus vertically integrated lines, where leaders emerged in their respective domains. Examples included Intel in microprocessors, Microsoft in desktop software, [[Novell]] in networking, [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]] in printers, [[Seagate Technology|Seagate]] in disk drives and [[Oracle Corporation]] in database software. IBM's dominance in personal computers was challenged by the likes of [[Compaq]] and later [[Dell]]. Recognizing this trend, management, with the support of the Board of Directors, began to implement a plan to split IBM into increasingly autonomous business units (e.g. processors, storage, software, services, printers, etc.) to compete more effectively with competitors that were more focused and nimble and had lower cost structures.

IBM also began shedding businesses that it felt were no longer core. It sold its typewriter, keyboard, and printer business – the organization that created the popular "Selectric" typewriter with its floating "golf ball" type element in the 1960s – to the investment firm of Clayton, Dubilier & Rice Inc. and became an independent company, Lexmark Inc.

These efforts failed to halt the slide. A decade of steady acceptance and widening corporate growth of [[local area network]]ing technology, a trend headed by [[Novell]] Inc. and other vendors, and its logical counterpart, the ensuing decline of mainframe sales, brought about a [[Wake-up call (service)|wake-up call]] for IBM. After two consecutive years of reporting losses in excess of $1 billion, on January 19, 1993, IBM announced a US$8.10 billion loss for the 1992 financial year, which was then the largest single-year corporate loss in U.S. history.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1993.html| title= IBM Archives: 1993}}</ref> All told, between 1991 and 1993, the company posted net losses of nearly $16 billion. IBM's three-decade-long Golden Age, triggered by Watson Jr. in the 1950s, was over. The computer industry now viewed IBM as no longer relevant, an organizational dinosaur. And hundreds of thousands of IBMers lost their jobs, including CEO John Akers.

====Key events====

* '''mid-1970s: [[IBM VNET]]'''. VNET was an international computer networking system deployed in the mid-1970s, providing email and file-transfer for IBM. By September 1979, the network had grown to include 285 mainframe nodes in Europe, Asia, and North America.

* '''1975: [[Fractal]]s'''. IBM researcher [[Benoit Mandelbrot]] conceives fractal geometry—the concept that seemingly irregular shapes can have identical structure at all scales. This new geometry makes it possible to describe mathematically the kinds of irregularities existing in nature. Fractals later make a great impact on engineering, economics, metallurgy, art, and health sciences, and are also applied in the field of computer graphics and animation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofscience.com/G2I/timeline/index.php?id=1151 |title=History of Science.com |publisher=History of Science.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1975: [[IBM 5100]] Portable computer'''. IBM introduces the 5100 Portable Computer, a 50 lb. desktop machine that put computer capabilities at the fingertips of engineers, analysts, statisticians, and other problem-solvers. More "luggable" than portable, the 5100 can serve as a terminal for the System/370 and costs from $9000 to $20,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://oldcomputers.net/ibm5100.html |title=Obsolete Technology Website |publisher=Oldcomputers.net |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1976: [[Space Shuttle]]'''. The Enterprise, the first vehicle in the U.S. Space Shuttle program, makes its debut at Palmdale, California, carrying [[IBM AP-101]] flight computers and special hardware built by IBM.

* '''1976: [[Laser printer]]'''. The first [[Laser printer#History|IBM 3800 printer]] is installed. The 3800 is the first commercial printer to combine laser technology and electrophotography. The technology speeds the printing of bank statements, premium notices, and other high-volume documents, and remains a workhorse for billing and accounts receivable departments.<ref>Mary Bellis, [http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blcomputer_printers.htm About.com: History of Computer Printers]</ref>

* '''1977: [[Data Encryption Standard]]'''. IBM-developed Data Encryption Standard (DES), a cryptographic algorithm, is adopted by the U.S. National Bureau of Standards as a national standard.<ref>Boone, J.V.; [https://books.google.com/books?id=6M6iiaR1TLoC&pg=PA97 ''A Brief History of Cryptography''], Naval Institute Press, {{ISBN|978-1-59114-084-9}}, p.97</ref>

* '''1979: [[Point of sale|Retail checkout]]'''. IBM develops the [[Universal Product Code]] (UPC) in the 1970s as a method for embedding pricing and identification information on individual retail items. In 1979, IBM applies holographic scanner technology in IBM's supermarket checkout station to read the UPC stripes on merchandise, one of the first major commercial uses of holography. IBM's support of the UPC concept helps lead to its widespread acceptance by retail and other industries around the world.<ref>{{cite web|author=Barcoding, Inc |url=http://www.barcoding.com/information/barcode_history.shtml |title=Barcoding, Inc.: Barcode History |publisher=Barcoding.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1979: [[Disk read-and-write head#Metal in Gap (MIG)|Thin film recording heads]]'''. Instead of using hand-wound wire structures as coils for inductive elements, IBM researchers substitute thin film "wires" patterned by optical lithography. This leads to higher performance recording heads at a reduced cost and establishes IBM's leadership in "areal density": storing the most data in the least space. The result is higher-capacity and higher-performance disk drives.<ref>Daniel/Mee/Clark, [https://books.google.com/books?id=7WrCSCqMk5gC&pg=PA290&lpg=PA290&dq=thin+film+heads+history&source=bl&ots=F1oYYmvfvc&sig=S-fMX42CWso2VDvwgPNIEGqScEc&hl=en&ei=aaVwSt__A5XjlAeD_sS9BQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10 ''Magnetic Recording: The First 100 Years''], p. 270</ref>

* '''1979: Overcoming barriers to technology use'''. Since 1946, with its announcement of Chinese and Arabic ideographic character typewriters, IBM has worked to overcome cultural and physical barriers to the use of technology. As part of these ongoing efforts, IBM introduces the [[IBM Kanji System|3270 Kanji Display Terminal]]; the [[IBM Kanji System|System/34 Kanji System]] with an ideographic feature, which processes more than 11,000 Japanese and Chinese characters; and the Audio Typing Unit for sight-impaired typists.

* '''1979: [[System 6 (word processor)|First multi-function copier/printer]]'''. A communication-enabled laser printer and photocopier combination was introduced, the IBM 6670 Information Distributor. This was the first multi-function (copier/printer) device for the office market.

* '''1980: Thermal conduction modules'''. IBM introduces the [[IBM 3081|3081]] processor, the company's most powerful to date, which features Thermal Conduction Modules. In 1990, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., awards its 1990 Corporate Innovation Recognition to IBM for the development of the Multilayer Ceramic Thermal Conduction Module for high performance computers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2137.html |title=IBM Archives: Thermal Conduction Module |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1980: [[Reduced instruction set computing]] (RISC) architecture'''. IBM successfully builds the first prototype computer employing IBM Fellow [[John Cocke]]'s RISC architecture. RISC simplified the instructions given to computers, making them faster and more powerful. Today, RISC architecture is the basis of most workstations and widely viewed as the dominant computing architecture.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.watson.ibm.com/comm/pr.nsf/pages/bio.cocke.html |title=John Cocke Biography |publisher=Domino.watson.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1981: [[IBM Personal Computer|IBM PC]]'''. The IBM Personal Computer goes mass market and helps revolutionize the way the world does business. A year later, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time Magazine]]'' gives its "[[Time Magazine Person of the Year|Person of the Year]]" award to the Personal Computer.<ref>Mary Bellis, [http://inventors.about.com/library/weekly/aa031599.htm About.com: The History of the IBM PC]</ref>

* '''1981: [[LASIK]] surgery'''. Three IBM scientists invent the [[excimer laser]] surgical procedure that later forms the basis of LASIK and [[Photorefractive keratectomy|PRK]] corrective eye surgeries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lasereyesurgeryonline.org/information/history-of-lasik-surgery/ |title=History of Laser Surgery Online |publisher=Lasereyesurgeryonline.org |date=August 22, 2010 |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227032423/http://lasereyesurgeryonline.org/information/history-of-lasik-surgery/ |archivedate=February 27, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''1982: Antitrust suit'''. The United States antitrust suit against IBM, filed in 1969, is dismissed as being "without merit."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hagley.lib.de.us/library/collections/manuscripts/findingaids/ibmantitrustpart2.ACC1980.htm#bioghist |title=Hagley Museum and Library, IBM Antitrust Suit Records: Background |publisher=Hagley.lib.de.us |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100408174629/http://www.hagley.lib.de.us/library/collections/manuscripts/findingaids/ibmantitrustpart2.ACC1980.htm |archivedate=April 8, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''1982: [[Trellis modulation|Trellis-coded modulation]]'''. Trellis-coded modulation (TCM) is first used in voice-band modems to send data at higher rates over telephone channels. Today, TCM is applied in a large variety of terrestrial and satellite-based transmission systems as a key technique for achieving faster and more reliable digital transmission.<ref>Bastian, Boisseau, et al; [http://www2.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/ComputingNow/computingthen/2009/02/IBM%20France%20La%20Gaude--Part%20II.pdf ''IBM France La Gaude Laboratory Contributions to Telecommunications''], IEEE Annals of the History of Computing, April/June 2009, p.25.</ref>

* '''1983: [[IBM PCjr]]'''. IBM announces the widely anticipated PCjr., IBM's attempt to enter the home computing marketplace. The product, however, fails to capture the fancy of consumers due to its lack of compatibility with IBM PC software, its higher price point, and its unfortunate ‘chiclet’ keyboard design. IBM terminates the product after 18 months of disappointing sales.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/04/20/business/pcjr-sales-less-than-expected.html | work=The New York Times | title=PCjr Sales Less Than Expected | date=April 20, 1984 | accessdate=May 4, 2010}}</ref>

* '''1984: [[IBM 3480 Family|IBM 3480 magnetic tape system]]'''. The industry's most advanced magnetic tape system, the IBM 3480, introduces a new generation of tape drives that replace the familiar reel of tape with an easy-to-handle cartridge. The 3480 was the industry's first tape system to use "thin-film" recording head technology.

* '''1984: Sexual discrimination'''. IBM adds sexual orientation to the company's non-discrimination policy. IBM becomes one of the first major companies to make this change.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://home.earthlink.net/~eagleibm/Images/glbtflyer.pdf |title=Meeting the Needs of the GLBT Business Community |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303155415/http://home.earthlink.net/~eagleibm/Images/glbtflyer.pdf |archive-date=March 3, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

* '''1984: [[ROLM]] partnership/acquisition'''. IBM acquires ROLM Corporation for $1.25 billion.{{r|sanger19850707}} Based in Santa Clara, CA (subsequent to an existing partnership),<ref name=ROLM1983>[http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1983.html IBM Archives: 1983]. IBM. Retrieved June 10, 2012.</ref> IBM intended to develop digital telephone switches to compete directly with Northern Telecom and AT&T.<ref name=ROLM1984>[http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1984.html IBM Archives: 1984]. IBM. Retrieved June 10, 2012.</ref> Two of the most popular systems were the large scale [[PABX]] coined ROLM CBX and the smaller PABX coined ROLM Redwood. ROLM is later acquired by [[Siemens AG]] in 1989–1992.<ref name=ROLM1989>[http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1989.html IBM Archives: 1989]. IBM. Retrieved June 10, 2012.</ref><ref name=ROLM1992>[http://www.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1992.html IBM Archives: 1992]. IBM. Retrieved June 10, 2012.</ref>

* '''1985: MCI'''. IBM acquires 18% of [[MCI Communications]], the United States's second-largest [[long-distance carrier]], in June 1985.{{r|sanger19850707}}

* '''1985: RP3'''. Sparked in part by national concerns over losing its technology leadership crown in the early 1980s, IBM re-enters the supercomputing field with the RP3 (IBM Research Parallel Processor Prototype). IBM researchers worked with scientists from the New York University's Courant Institute of Mathematical Science to design RP3, an experimental computer consisting of up to 512 processors, linked in parallel and connected to as many as two billion characters of main memory. Over the next five years, IBM provides more than $30 million in products and support to a supercomputer facility established at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV1005.html |title=IBM Archives: RP3 |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1985: [[Token Ring]] Network'''. IBM's Token Ring technology brings a new level of control to local area networks and quickly becomes an industry standard for networks that connect printers, workstations and servers.<ref>Miller, Philip/ Cummins, Michael; ''LAN Technologies Explained'', Digital Press, 2000 {{ISBN|978-1-55558-234-0}}, p. 283.</ref>

* '''1986: [[IBM Almaden Research Center]]'''. IBM Research dedicates the Almaden Research Center in California. Today, Almaden is IBM's second-largest laboratory focused on storage systems, technology and computer science.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.almaden.ibm.com/almaden20/history.shtml |title=ARC History |publisher=Almaden.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524085058/http://www.almaden.ibm.com/almaden20/history.shtml |archivedate=May 24, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''1986: Nobel Prize: [[Scanning tunneling microscope|Scanning tunneling microscopy]]'''. [[IBM Fellow]]s [[Gerd Binnig|Gerd K. Binnig]] and [[Heinrich Rohrer]] of the [[IBM Zurich Research Laboratory]] win the 1986 Nobel Prize in physics for their work in scanning tunneling microscopy. Drs. Binnig and Rohrer are recognized for developing a powerful microscopy technique which permits scientists to make images of surfaces so detailed that individual atoms may be seen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1986/ |title=Nobel Prize 1986 |publisher=Nobelprize.org |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1987: Nobel Prize: [[High-temperature superconductivity|High-Temperature Superconductivity]]'''. [[Georg Bednorz|J. Georg Bednorz]] and [[IBM Fellow]] [[K. Alex Müller|Alex Müller]] of the [[IBM Zurich Research Laboratory]] receive the 1987 Nobel Prize for physics for their breakthrough discovery of high-temperature superconductivity in a new class of materials. They discover superconductivity in ceramic oxides that carry electricity without loss of energy at much higher temperatures than any other superconductor.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1987/press.html |title=Nobel Prize 1987 |publisher=Nobelprize.org |date=October 14, 1987 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1987: [[Antivirus software|Antivirus tools]]'''. As personal computers become vulnerable to attack from viruses, a small research group at IBM develops, practically overnight, a suite of antivirus tools. The effort leads to the establishment of the High Integrity Computing Laboratory (HICL) at IBM. HICL goes on to pioneer the science of theoretical and observational computer virus epidemiology.<ref>O’Regan, Gerard; ''A Brief History of Computing'' Springer, 2008 {{ISBN|978-1-84800-083-4}}, p. 213.</ref>

* '''1987: Special needs access'''. IBM Researchers demonstrate the feasibility for blind computer users to read information directly from computer screens with the aid of an experimental mouse. And in 1988 the IBM Personal System/2 Screen Reader is announced, permitting blind or visually impaired people to hear the text as it is displayed on the screen in the same way a sighted person would see it. This is the first in the IBM Independence Series of products for computer users with special needs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/pc25/pc25_tenyears.html |title=IBM PC - The first 10 years |accessdate=October 29, 2013}}</ref>

* '''1988: [[IBM System i|IBM AS/400]]'''. IBM introduces the IBM Application System/400 (AS/400), a new family of easy-to-use computers designed for small and intermediate-sized companies. As part of the introduction, IBM and IBM Business Partners worldwide announce more than 1,000 software packages in the biggest simultaneous applications announcement in computer history. The AS/400 quickly becomes one of the world's most popular business computing systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://search400.techtarget.com/sDefinition/0,,sid3_gci901105,00.html# |title=Search400.com Quiz: iSeries |publisher=Search400.techtarget.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1988: [[National Science Foundation Network]] (NSFNET)'''. IBM collaborates with the [[Merit Network]], [[MCI Communications]], the [[State of Michigan]], and the [[National Science Foundation]] to upgrade and expand the 56K bit per second NSFNET to 1.5M bps ([[Digital Signal 1|T1]]) and later 45M bps ([[Digital Signal 3|T3]]). This partnership provides the network infrastructure and lays the groundwork for the explosive growth of the Internet in the 1990s. The NSFNET upgrade boosts network capacity, not only making it faster, but also allowing more intensive forms of data, such as the graphics now common on the World Wide Web, to travel across the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livinginternet.com/doc/merit.edu/together.html |title=NSFNet: A Partnership for High Speed Networking |publisher=Livinginternet.com |date=June 15, 1987 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1989: [[Silicon-germanium|Silicon germanium transistors]]'''. The replacing of expensive and exotic materials like gallium arsenide with silicon germanium (known as SiGe), championed by [[IBM Fellow]] Bernie Meyerson, creates faster chips at lower costs. Introducing germanium into the base layer of an otherwise all-silicon bipolar transistor allows for significant improvements in operating frequency, current, noise and power capabilities.<ref>{{cite news|author=Arik Hesseldahl, 06.27.01, 11:30 am ET |url=https://www.forbes.com/2001/06/27/0627ibm.html |title=Hesseldahl, Arik; ''IBM Pushes The Silicon Edge'' Forbes.com 06.27.01, 11:30 am ET |work=Forbes |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |date=June 27, 2001}}</ref>

* '''1990: [[System/390]]'''. IBM makes its most comprehensive product announcement in 25 years by introducing the System/390 family. IBM incorporates [[CMOS|complementary metal oxide silicon]] (CMOS) based processors into System/390 Parallel Enterprise Server in 1995, and in 1998 the System/390 G5 Parallel Enterprise Server 10-way Turbo model smashed the 1,000 MIPS barrier, making it the world's most powerful mainframe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/mainframe/mainframe_PR390.html |title=IBM System/390 Announcement |publisher=03.ibm.com |date=September 5, 1990 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1990: [[IBM System p|RISC System/6000]]'''. IBM announces the RISC System/6000, a family of nine workstations that are among the fastest and most powerful in the industry. The RISC System/6000 uses [[Reduced instruction set computing]] technology, an innovative computer design pioneered by IBM that simplifies processing steps to speed the execution of commands.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computinghistory.org.uk/det/4805/IBM-RS-6000-Model-550L/ |title=The Centre for Computing History: IBM RS/6000 |publisher=Computinghistory.org.uk |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1990: [[Donald Eigler|Moving individual atoms]]'''. [[Donald Eigler|Donald M. Eigler]], a physicist and [[IBM Fellow]] at the [[IBM Almaden Research Center]] demonstrated the ability to manipulate individual atoms using a [[scanning tunneling microscope]], writing I-B-M using 35 individual xenon atoms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ieeeghn.org/wiki/index.php/Don_Eigler |title=IEEE Global History Network: Eigler |publisher=Ieeeghn.org |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1990: Environmental programs''''. IBM joins 14 other leading U.S. corporations in April to establish a worldwide program designed to achieve environmental, health and safety goals by continuously improving environmental management practices and performance. IBM has invested more than $1 billion since 1973 to provide environmental protection for the communities in which IBM facilities are located.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://mitsloan.mit.edu/MSTIR/sustainability/EnvironmentalManagementIBMA/Documents/09-089.Environmental%20Management%20at%20IBM.A.Henderson.pdf |title=09-089 – Making Sustainability Sustainable: Passion and Process in Environmental Management at IBM |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218235114/https://mitsloan.mit.edu/MSTIR/sustainability/EnvironmentalManagementIBMA/Documents/09-089.Environmental%20Management%20at%20IBM.A.Henderson.pdf |archivedate=February 18, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''1991: [[IBM Global Services|Services business]]'''. IBM reenters the computer services business through the formation of the Integrated Systems Solution Corporation. Still in compliance with the provisions of the 1956 Consent Decree, in just four ISSC becomes the second largest provider of computer services. The new business becomes one of IBM's primary revenue streams.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usdoj.gov/atr/cases/f0800/0816.htm |title=United States' Memorandum in Support of Partial Judgment Termination, United States District Court: Southern District of New York, September 11, 1995 |publisher=Usdoj.gov |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1992: [[Thinkpad]]'''. IBM introduces a new line of notebook computers. Housed in a distinctive black case and featuring the innovative TrackPoint device nestled in the middle of the keyboard, the ThinkPad is an immediate hit and goes on to collect more than 300 awards for design and quality.<ref>Dell, Deborah/Purdy, J. Gerry; ''ThinkPad: A Different Shade of Blue'' Sams {{ISBN|978-0-672-31756-9}}</ref>

===1993–present: IBM's near disaster and rebirth===
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right;"
|-
! Year || Gross income (in $m) || Employees
|-
| 1985 || 50,050 || 405,535
|-
| 1990 || 69,010 || 373,816
|-
| 1995 || 71,940 || 225,347
|-
| 2000 || 85,090 || 316,303
|-
| 2005 || 91,400 || 329,373
|-
| 2010 || 99,870 || 426,751
|}

In April 1993, IBM hired [[Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.]] as its new CEO. For the first time since 1914 IBM had recruited a leader from outside its ranks. Gerstner had been chairman and CEO of [[RJR Nabisco]] for four years, and had previously spent 11 years as a top executive at American Express. Gerstner brought with him a customer-oriented sensibility and the strategic-thinking expertise that he had honed through years as a management consultant at McKinsey & Co. Recognizing that his first priority was to stabilize the company, he adopted a triage mindset and took quick, dramatic action. His early decisions included recommitting to the mainframe, selling the Federal Systems Division to Loral in order to replenish the company's cash coffers, continuing to shrink the workforce (reaching a low of 220,000 employees in 1994), and driving significant cost reductions within the company. Most importantly, Gerstner decided to reverse the move to spin off IBM business units into separate companies. He recognized that one of IBM's enduring strengths was its ability to provide integrated solutions for customers – someone who could represent more than piece parts or components. Splitting the company would have destroyed that unique IBM advantage.<ref>{{cite book | last = Gerstner, Jr. | first = Louis V. | authorlink = Louis V. Gerstner, Jr. | title = Who Says Elephants Can't Dance?: Inside IBM's Historic Turnaround | publisher = Harper Business | year = 2002 | location = New York, New York | page = [https://archive.org/details/whosayselephants00gers/page/372 372] | isbn = 0-06-052379-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/whosayselephants00gers/page/372 }}</ref>

These initial steps worked. IBM was in the black by 1994, turning a profit of $3 billion. Stabilization was not Gerstner's endgame – the restoration of IBM's once great reputation was. To do that, he needed to devise a winning business strategy.<ref>Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.104</ref> Over the next decade, Gerstner crafted a business model that shed commodity businesses and focused on high-margin opportunities. IBM divested itself of low margin industries (DRAM, IBM Network, personal printers, and hard drives). The company regained the business initiative by building upon the decision to keep the company whole – it unleashed a global services business that rapidly rose to become a leading technology integrator. Crucial to this success was the decision to become brand agnostic – IBM integrated whatever technologies the client required, even if they were from an IBM competitor.<ref>Gerstner, Jr. (2002) pp.108,130</ref> IBM augmented this services business with the 2002 acquisition of the consultancy division of [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] for $3.5 billion US.<ref name="CNetPWCAquisition">{{cite news|url=http://news.cnet.com/2100-1001-947283.html|title=IBM grabs consulting giant for $3.5 billion|last=Shankland|first=Stephen|date=July 30, 2002|publisher=[[cnet.com]]|accessdate=April 24, 2010}}</ref>

Another high margin opportunity IBM invested heavily in was software, a strategic move that proved equally visionary. Starting in 1995 with its acquisition of [[Lotus Development]] Corp., IBM built up its software portfolio from one brand, [[IBM DB2|DB2]], to five: DB2, Lotus, [[WebSphere]], [[IBM Tivoli Framework|Tivoli]], and [[Rational Software|Rational]]. Content to leave the consumer applications business to other firms, IBM's software strategy focused on middleware – the vital software that connects operating systems to applications. The middleware business played to IBM's strengths, and its higher margins improved the company's bottom line significantly as the century came to an end.<ref>Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.145</ref>

Not all software that IBM developed was successful. While [[OS/2]] was arguably technically superior to Microsoft [[Windows 95]], OS/2 sales were largely concentrated in networked computing used by corporate professionals. OS/2 failed to develop much penetration in the consumer and stand-alone desktop PC segments. There were reports that it could not be installed properly on IBM's own [[IBM Aptiva|Aptiva]] series of home PCs.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/08/science/personal-computers-os-2-no-longer-at-home-at-home.html?src=pm | work=The New York Times | first=Peter H. | last=Lewis | title=PERSONAL COMPUTERS; OS/2 No Longer at Home at Home | date=August 8, 1995}}</ref> Microsoft made an offer in 1994 where if IBM ended development of OS/2 completely, then it would receive the same terms as [[Compaq]] for a license of [[Windows 95]]. IBM refused and instead went with an "IBM First" strategy of promoting OS/2 Warp and disparaging Windows, as IBM aimed to drive sales of its own software and hardware. By 1995, Windows 95 negotiations between IBM and Microsoft, which were difficult, stalled when IBM purchased [[Lotus Development]] whose [[Lotus SmartSuite]] would have directly competed with [[Microsoft Office]]. As a result, IBM received their license later than their competitors which hurt sales of IBM PCs. IBM officials later conceded that OS/2 would not have been a viable operating system to keep them in the PC business.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/11275/microsoft_urged_ibm_to_yank_smart_suite.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910113531/http://www.pcworld.com/article/11275/microsoft_urged_ibm_to_yank_smart_suite.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 10, 2012 |title=Microsoft Urged IBM to Yank Smart Suite |publisher=PCWorld |date=June 7, 1999 |accessdate=April 24, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.albion.com/microsoft/findings-23.html |title=C. The Similar Experiences of Other Firms in Dealing with Microsoft |publisher=Albion.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

While IBM hardware and technologies were relatively de-emphasized in Gerstner's three-legged business model, they were not relegated to secondary status. The company brought its world-class research organization to bear more closely on its existing product lines and development processes. While Internet applications and deep computing overtook client servers as key business technology priorities, mainframes returned to relevance. IBM reinvigorated their mainframe line with CMOS technologies, which made them among the most powerful and cost-efficient in the marketplace.<ref>Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.44ff</ref> Investments in microelectronics research and manufacturing made IBM a world leader in specialized, high margin chip production – it developed 200 mm wafer processes in 1992, and 300 mm wafers within the decade.<ref>Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.151</ref> IBM-designed chips are currently used in PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, and Wii game consoles. IBM also regained the lead in supercomputing with high-end machines based upon scalable parallel processor technology.

Equally significant in IBM's revival was its successful reentry into the popular mindset. Part of this revival was based on IBM technology. On October 5, 1992, at the [[COMDEX]] [[computer expo]], IBM announced the first [[ThinkPad]] laptop computer, the 700c. The [[ThinkPad]], a premium machine which then cost US$4350, included a 25 MHz [[Intel 80486SL]] processor, a 10.4-inch active matrix display, removable 120 MB hard drive, 4 MB RAM (expandable to 16 MB) and a [[TrackPoint]] II pointing device.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-960927.html| title= IBM's ThinkPad turns 10| publisher= CNET News.com| author= Joe Wilcox| date= October 6, 2002| url-status= dead| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20060701104222/http://news.zdnet.com/2100-9584_22-960927.html| archivedate= July 1, 2006| df= mdy-all}}</ref> The striking black design by noted designer [[Richard Sapper]] made the ThinkPad an immediate hit with the [[digerati]], and the cool factor of the ThinkPad brought back some of the cachet to the IBM brand that was lost in the PC wars of the 1980s. Instrumental to this popular resurgence was the 1997 chess match between IBM's chess-playing computer system [[Deep Blue (chess computer)|Deep Blue]] and reigning world chess champion [[Garry Kasparov]]. Deep Blue's victory was a historic first for a computer over a reigning world champion. Also helping the company reclaim its position as a technology leader was its annual domination of supercomputer rankings<ref>{{cite web|author=Hans Meuer, Supercomputer 97 Conference in Mannheim |url=http://www.top500.org/ |title=Top500.org |publisher=Top500.org |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref> and patent leadership statistics.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research.nsf/pages/d.compsci.ibm.patents.2008.html |title=IBM.com |publisher=Domino.research.ibm.com |date=January 20, 2009 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref> Ironically, a serendipitous contributor in reviving the company's reputation was the [[Dot-com bubble]] collapse in 2000, where many of the edgy technology high flyers of the 1990s failed to survive the downturn. These collapses discredited some of the more fashionable Internet-driven business models that stodgy IBM was previously compared against.

Another part of the successful reentry into the popular mindset was the company's revival of the IBM brand. The company's marketing during the economic downturn was chaotic, presenting many different, sometimes discordant voices in the marketplace. This brand chaos was attributable in part to the company having 70 different advertising agencies in its employ. In 1994, IBM eliminated this chaos by consolidating its advertising in one agency. The result was a coherent, consistent message to the marketplace.<ref>Gerstner, Jr. (2002) p.88ff</ref>

As IBM recovered its financial footing and its industry leadership position, the company remained aggressive in preaching to the industry that it was not the Old IBM, that it had learned from its near-death experiences, and that it had been fundamentally changed by them. It sought to redefine the Internet age in ways that played to traditional IBM strengths, couching the discussion in business-centric manners with initiatives like e-commerce and On Demand.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://www.aspnews.com/analysis/analyst_cols/article.php/1494791| title= Big Blue's Vision is Self-Centered| publisher= ASPNews.com| author= Phil Wainewright| date= November 4, 2002}}</ref> And it supported open source initiatives, forming collaborative ventures with partners and competitors alike.<ref>{{cite web| url= http://news.cnet.com/Commentary-IBMs-open-source-stance/2009-1069_3-981484.html| title= Forrester Report: IBM's Open Source Stance| publisher= CNET.com| author= Ted Schadler| date= January 21, 2003}}</ref>

Change was manifested in IBM in other ways as well. The company revamped its varied philanthropic practices to bring a sharp focus on improving K-12 education. It ended its 40-year technology partnership with the International Olympic Committee after a successful engagement at the 2000 Olympic Games in Sydney, Australia. On the human resources front, IBM's adoption and integration of diversity principles and practices was cutting edge. It added sexual orientation to its non-discrimination practices in 1984, in 1995 created executive diversity task forces, and in 1996 offered domestic partner benefits to its employees. The company is routinely listed as among the best places for employees, employees of color, and women to work.<ref name="www-03.ibm.com">{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/employment/us/diverse/heritage_ibm_1990.shtml |title=IBM.com |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825004850/http://www-03.ibm.com/employment/us/diverse/heritage_ibm_1990.shtml |archivedate=August 25, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> And in 1996, the Women in Technology International Hall of Fame inducted three IBMers as part of its inaugural class of 10 women: Ruth Leach Amonette, the first woman to hold an executive position at IBM; Barbara Grant, PhD, first woman to be named an IBM site general manager; and Linda Sanford, the highest – placed technical woman in IBM. Fran Allen – an early software pioneer and another IBM hero for her innovative work in compilers over the decades – was inducted in 1997.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.witi.com/center/witimuseum/halloffame/ |title=Witi.com |publisher=Witi.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

Gerstner retired at the end of 2002, and was replaced by long-time IBMer [[Samuel J. Palmisano]].

====Key events====

* '''1993: Billion-dollar losses'''. IBM misreads two significant trends in the computer industry: personal computers and [[Client–server model|client-server computing]]: and as a result loses more than $8 billion in 1993, its third straight year of billion-dollar losses. Since 1991, the company has lost $16 billion, and many feel IBM is no longer a viable player in the industry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tech.mit.edu/V112/N66/ibm.66w.html |title=Burgess, John; ''IBM's $5 Billion Loss Highest in American Corporate History'' The Washington Post |publisher=Tech.mit.edu |date=January 20, 1993 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1993: [[Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.]]'''. Gerstner arrives as IBM's chairman and CEO on April 1, 1993. For the first time since the arrival of Thomas J. Watson, Sr., in 1914, IBM has a leader pulled from outside its ranks. Gerstner had been chairman and CEO of RJR Nabisco for four years and had previously spent 11 years as a top executive at American Express.<ref>[http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1P2-8220681.html Mashberg, Tom; ''Gerstner Takes Charge at IBM Becomes 1st Outsider to Lead Firm'' The Boston Globe March 27, 1993] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

* '''1993: [[IBM Scalable POWERparallel]] system'''. IBM introduces the Scalable POWERparallel System, the first in a family of microprocessor-based supercomputers using [[RS/6000|RISC System/6000]] technology. IBM pioneers the breakthrough scalable parallel system technology of joining smaller, mass-produced computer processors rather than relying on one larger, custom-designed processor. Complex queries could then be broken down into a series of smaller jobs that are run concurrently ("in parallel") to speed their completion.<ref>Snir, M.; ''Scalable parallel systems: past, present and future (from an IBM perspective)'' mppoi, pp.33, 3rd Massively Parallel Processing Using Optical Interconnections (MPPOI '96), 1996</ref>

* '''1994: Turnaround'''. IBM reports a profit for the year, its first since 1990. Over the next few years, the company successfully charts a new business course, one that focuses less on its traditional strengths in hardware, and more on services, software, and its ability to craft technology solutions.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2005/BUSINESS/12/08/go.ibmgerstner/index.html |title=''History's Greatest Corporate Turnaround? The Man Who Rescued IBM From the Edge of Oblivion'' CNN.com Thursday, December 8, 2005 |publisher=CNN |date=December 8, 2005 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1994: IBM RAMAC Array Storage Family'''. The IBM RAMAC Array Family is announced. With features like highly parallel processing, multi-level cache, RAID 5, and redundant components, RAMAC represents a major advance in information storage technology. Consisting of the RAMAC Array Direct Access Storage Device (DASD) and the RAMAC Array Subsystem, the products become one of IBM's most successful storage product launches ever, with almost 2,000 systems shipped to customers in its first three months of availability.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/IBM+ships+1,000th+RAMAC+Array+disk+storage%3B+Citicorp+Data+Systems+to...-a015956165 |title=''IBM Ships 1000th RAMAC Array Disk Storage'' The Free Library |publisher=Thefreelibrary.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1994: Speech recognition'''. IBM releases the IBM Personal Dictation System (IPDS), the first wave of speech recognition products for the personal computer. It is later renamed VoiceType, and its capabilities are expanded to include control of computer applications and desktops simply by talking to them, without touching a keyboard. In 1997 IBM announces ViaVoice Gold, software that gives people a hands-free way to dictate text and navigate the desktop with the power of natural, continuous speech.<ref>Corcoran, Cate; ''Dictation Package Takes Down 70 Words Per Minute'' InfoWorld November 8, 1993</ref>

* '''1995: [[Lotus Development Corporation]] acquisition'''. IBM acquires all of the outstanding shares of the Lotus Development Corporation, whose pioneering [[IBM Lotus Notes|Notes]] software enables greater collaboration across an enterprise and whose acquisition makes IBM the world's largest software company.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allbusiness.com/technology/computer-software/528281-1.html |title=IBM Buys Lotus To Get Notes |website=AllBusiness.com |date=June 19, 1995 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090331021720/http://www.allbusiness.com/technology/computer-software/528281-1.html |archivedate=2009-03-31}}</ref>

* '''1995: [[Glueball]] calculation'''. IBM scientists complete a two-year calculation – the largest single numerical calculation in the history of computing – to pin down the properties of an elusive elementary particle called a "glueball." The calculation was carried out on GF11, a massively parallel computer at the [[IBM Thomas J. Watson Research Center]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/12/19/science/448-computers-identify-particle-called-glueball.html |title=Browne, Malcolm; ''448 Computers Identify Particle Called Glueball'' New York Times December 19, 1995 |work=The New York Times |date=December 19, 1995 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1996: IBM Austin Research Laboratory opens'''. Based in Austin, Texas, the lab is focused on advanced circuit design as well as new design techniques and tools for very high performance microprocessors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.research.ibm.com/about/arl.shtml |title=ARL History |publisher=Research.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1996: [[1996 Summer Olympics|Atlanta Olympics]]'''. IBM suffers a highly public embarrassment when its IT support of the Olympic Games in Atlanta experiences technical difficulties.<ref>{{cite web|author=Thomas Wailgum |url=http://www.cio.com/article/107705/IT_Disaster_at_the_Atlanta_Olympics |title=Wailgum, Thomas; ''IT Disaster at the Atlanta Olympics'' CIO.com March 15, 2000 |publisher=Cio.com |date=March 15, 2000 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1996: Domestic partner benefits'''. IBM announces Domestic Partner Benefits for gay and lesbian employees.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/employment/us/diverse/heritage_ibm_1990.shtml |title=IBM Archives: Valuing Diversity – Heritage |publisher=03.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825004850/http://www-03.ibm.com/employment/us/diverse/heritage_ibm_1990.shtml |archivedate=August 25, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''1997: [[Deep Blue (chess computer)|Deep Blue]]'''. The 32-node [[RS/6000|IBM RS/6000 SP]] supercomputer, Deep Blue, defeats World Chess Champion [[Garry Kasparov]] in the first known instance of a computer vanquishing a reigning world champion chess player in a tournament-style competition.<ref>''Endgame: It's All Work Now for Deep Blue, Chess Champ'' New York Times September 24, 1997</ref>

* '''1997: [[Electronic business|eBusiness]]'''. IBM coins the term and defined an enormous new industry by using the Internet as a medium for real business and institutional transformation. e-business becomes synonymous with doing business in the Internet age.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://ecommerce.hostip.info/pages/561/IBM-Corp-SHIFT-E-BUSINESS-SERVICES.html |title=IBM Corp – Shift To E-business Services |publisher=Ecommerce.hostip.info |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216144751/http://ecommerce.hostip.info/pages/561/IBM-Corp-SHIFT-E-BUSINESS-SERVICES.html |archivedate=February 16, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''1998: CMOS Gigaprocessor'''. IBM unveils the first microprocessor that runs at 1 billion cycles per second. IBM scientists develop new [[Silicon on insulator]] chips to be used in the construction of a mainstream processor. The breakthrough ushers in new circuit designs and product groups.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/2800.wss |title=IBM demonstrates world's first 1000 MHz microprocessor |publisher=03.ibm.com |date=February 5, 1998 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''1999: [[Blue Gene]]'''. IBM Research starts a computer architecture cooperative project with the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, the United States Department of Energy (which is partially funding the project), and academia to build new supercomputers (4) capable of more than one quadrillion operations per second (one petaflop). Nicknamed "Blue Gene," the new supercomputers perform 500 times faster than other powerful supercomputers and can simulate folding complex proteins.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research_projects.nsf/pages/bluegene.index.html|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20091223041644/http://domino.research.ibm.com/comm/research_projects.nsf/pages/bluegene.index.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 23, 2009|title=IBM Research - IBM Research - Blue Gene|website=arquivo.pt|access-date=June 6, 2011}}</ref>

* '''2000: [[Quantum mirage]] nanotechnology'''. IBM scientists discover a way to transport information on the atomic scale that uses electrons instead of conventional wiring. This new phenomenon, called the ''Quantum mirage'' effect, enables data transfer within future nanoscale electronic circuits too small to use wires. The quantum mirage technique is a unique way of sending information through solid forms and could do away with wiring that connects nanocircuit components.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.almaden.ibm.com/almaden/media/mirage.html |title=IBM Scientists Discover Nanotech Communication Method |publisher=Almaden.ibm.com |date=February 3, 2000 |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414235656/http://www.almaden.ibm.com/almaden/media/mirage.html |archivedate=April 14, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''2000: IBM [[ASCI White]] – Fastest supercomputer'''. IBM delivers the world's most powerful computer to the [[US Department of Energy]], powerful enough to process an Internet transaction for every person on Earth in less than a minute. IBM built the supercomputer to accurately test the safety and effectiveness of the nation's aging nuclear weapons stockpile. This computer is 1,000 times more powerful than Deep Blue, the supercomputer that beat [[Garry Kasparov]] in chess in 1997.<ref>{{cite news|author=Leander Kahney |url=https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2000/06/37285 |title=Kahney, Leander; ''IBM's Got a Big, Bad Computer'' |work=Wired |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |date=June 29, 2000}}</ref>

* '''2000: [[Transistor|Flexible transistors]]'''. IBM created flexible transistors, combining organic and inorganic materials as a medium for semiconductors. This technology enables things like an "electronic newspaper", so lightweight and inexpensive that leaving one behind on the airplane or in a hotel lobby is no big deal. By eliminating the limitations of etching computer circuits in silicon, flexible transistors make it possible to create a new generation of inexpensive computer displays that can be embedded into curved plastic or other materials.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/computing/12259/ |title=Fairley, Peter; Flexible Transistors Technology Review February 1, 2001 |publisher=Technologyreview.com |date=February 1, 2001 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2000: [[2000 Summer Olympics|Sydney Olympics]]'''. After a successful engagement at the 2000 Olympic games in Sydney, IBM ends its 40-year technology partnership with the International Olympic Committee.<ref>{{cite news|author=Lisa DiCarlo, 08.23.00, 12:00 am ET |url=https://www.forbes.com/2000/08/23/feat.html |title=DiCarlo, Lisa; ''IBM, Olympics Part Ways After 40 Years'' Forbes. com August 23, 2000 |work=Forbes |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |date=August 23, 2000}}</ref>

* '''2001: [[IBM during World War II|Holocaust controversy]]'''. A controversial book, ''IBM and the Holocaust: The Strategic Alliance Between Nazi Germany and America's Most Powerful Corporation'' by Edwin Black, accuses IBM of having knowingly assisted Nazi authorities in the perpetuation of the [[Holocaust]] through the provision of tabulating products and services. Several lawsuits are filed against IBM by Holocaust victims seeking restitution for their suffering and losses. All lawsuits related to this issue were eventually dropped without recovery.<ref>[http://www.jordanmaxwell.com/articles/bits/CNN.com%20-%20IBM%20faces%20lawsuit%20over%20Nazi%20claim%20-%20February%2012,%202001.pdf ''IBM Faces Lawsuit Over Nazi Claim'' February 12, 2001 CNN.com] {{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>

* '''2001: [[Carbon nanotube]] transistors'''. IBM researchers build the world's first transistors out of carbon nanotubes – tiny cylinders of carbon atoms that are 500 times smaller than silicon-based transistors and 1,000 times stronger than steel. The breakthrough is an important step in finding materials that can be used to build computer chips when silicon-based chips can't be made any smaller.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/1289.wss |title=IBM Scientists Develop Breakthrough Carbon Nanotube Transistor Technology |publisher=03.ibm.com |date=April 27, 2001 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2001: Low power initiative'''. IBM launches its low-power initiative to improve the energy efficiency of IT and accelerates the development of ultra-low power components and power-efficient servers, storage systems, personal computers and ThinkPad notebook computers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/1085.wss |title=IBM Launches ''High-Powered'' Initiative for ''Low-Power'' Products and Services |publisher=03.ibm.com |date=October 1, 2001 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2001: Greater density & chip speeds'''. IBM is first to mass-produce computer hard disk drives using a revolutionary new type of magnetic coating – "pixie dust" – that eventually quadruples data density of current hard disk drive products. IBM also unveils "[[strained silicon]]," a breakthrough that alters silicon to boost chip speeds by up to 35 percent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/1254.wss |title=IBM'S 'Pixie Dust' Breakthrough To Quadruple Disk Drive Density |publisher=03.ibm.com |date=May 21, 2001 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.research.ibm.com/resources/press/strainedsilicon/ |title=IBM's Strained Silicon Breakthrough Image Page |publisher=Research.ibm.com |date=June 8, 2001 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2002: [[History of IBM magnetic disk drives|The Hard disk drive business]] is sold to [[Hitachi]]'''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pcmag.com/article2/0,2817,5915,00.asp |title=Hitachi to Buy IBM's Hard Drive Business |publisher=https://www.pcmag.com/ |date=June 5, 2002 |accessdate=March 8, 2014}}</ref>

* '''2003: [[Blue Gene]]/L'''. The BLUE GENE team unveils a proto-type of its Blue Gene/L computer roughly the size of a standard dishwasher that ranks as the 73rd most powerful supercomputer in the world. This cubic meter machine is a small scale model of the full Blue Gene/L built for the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory in California, which will be 128 times larger when it's unveiled two years later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.research.ibm.com/bluegene/press_release.html |title=IBM and Department of Energy's NNSA Partner to Expand IBM's Blue Gene Research Project |publisher=Research.ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2005: Crusade Against Cancer'''. IBM joins forces with [[Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center]] (MSKCC), the Molecular Profiling Institute and the CHU Sainte-Justine Research Center to collaborate on cancer research by building state-of-the-art integrated information management systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bio-medicine.org/medicine-news/Crusade-Against-Cancer-3A-Collaborations-On-The-Anvil-5618-1/ |title=Crusade Against Cancer 3A: Collaborations On The Anvil |publisher=Bio-medicine.org |date=April 20, 2012 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2005: The PC division is sold'''. The PC division (including [[Thinkpad]]s) is sold to Chinese manufacturer, [[Lenovo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.cnet.com/IBM-sells-PC-group-to-Lenovo/2100-1042_3-5482284.html |title=CNET.com |publisher=News.cnet.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2006: Translation software'''. IBM delivers an advanced speech-to-speech translation system to U.S. forces in Iraq using bidirectional English to Arabic translation software that improves communication between military personnel and Iraqi forces and citizens. The breakthrough software offsets the current shortage of military linguists.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cio.com/article/27096/IBM_Real_Time_Voice_Translation_Software_Heads_to_Iraq |title=''IBM Real Time Voice Translation Software Heads to Iraq'' |publisher=Cio.com |date=December 1, 2006 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2007: Renewable energy'''. IBM is recognized by the US EPA for its leading green power purchases in the US and for its support and participation in EPA's Fortune 500 Green Power Challenge. IBM ranked 12th on the EPA's list of Green Power Partners for 2007. IBM purchased enough renewable energy in 2007 to meet 4% of its US electricity use and 9% of its global electricity purchases. IBM's commitment to green power helps cut greenhouse gas emissions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm/environment/news/greenpower_2007.shtml |title=IBM ranks 12th on the U.S. EPA's Fortune 500 List of Green Power Partners for 2007 |publisher=Ibm.com |date=February 12, 2008 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2007: River watch using [[Stream processing|IBM Stream Computing]]'''. In a unique collaboration, The Beacon Institute and IBM created the first technology-based river monitoring network. The River and Estuary Observatory Network (REON) allows for minute-to-minute monitoring of New York's Hudson River via an integrated network of sensors, robotics and computational technology. This first-of-its-kind project is made possible by IBM's "Stream Computing," a fundamentally new computer architecture that can examine thousands of information sources to help scientists better understand what is happening as it happens.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bire.org/institute/innovation.php |title=The Beacon Institute |publisher=Bire.org |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120227032448/http://www.bire.org/institute/innovation.php |archivedate=February 27, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm/ideasfromibm/us/streamcomputing/20090722/index.shtml |title=IBM Stream computing |publisher=Ibm.com |date=December 1, 2008 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2007: Patent power'''. IBM has been granted more US patents than any other company. From 1993 to 2007, IBM was awarded over 38,000 US patents and has invested about $5 billion a year in research, development, and engineering since 1996. IBM's current active portfolio is about 26,000 patents in the US and over 40,000 patents worldwide is a direct result of that investment.<ref>{{cite web|author=Business Standard |url=http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/ibm-tops-patent-leadership-in-2008-too/00/30/346180/ |title=IBM tops patent leadership in 2008 too |publisher=Business-standard.com |date=January 15, 2009 |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''2008: [[IBM Roadrunner]] No.1 Supercomputer'''. For a record-setting ninth consecutive time, IBM takes the No.1 spot in the ranking of the world's most powerful supercomputers with the IBM computer built for the ''Roadrunner project'' at [[Los Alamos National Laboratory]]. It is the first in the world to operate at speeds faster than one quadrillion calculations per second and remains the world speed champion for over a year. The Los Alamos system is twice as energy-efficient as the No. 2 computer at the time, using about half the electricity to maintain the same level of computing power.<ref>{{cite web |author=Hans Meuer, Supercomputer 97 Conference in Mannheim |url=http://www.top500.org/lists/2009/06/press-release |title=''Top Two Slots on Newest TOP 500 List of Supercomputers Unchanged, but New Systems in Germany, Saudi Arabia are Shaking Things Up'' Top 500 Supercomputer Sites |publisher=Top500.org |date=June 19, 2009 |accessdate=April 24, 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120805210839/http://www.top500.org/lists/2009/06/press-release |archivedate=August 5, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

* '''2008: Green power'''. IBM opens its "greenest" data center in Boulder, Colorado. The energy-efficient facility is part of a $350 million investment by IBM in Boulder to help meet customer demand for reducing energy costs. The new data center features leading-edge technologies and services, including high-density computing systems with virtualization technology. Green Power centers allow IBM and its customers to cut their carbon footprint.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/jun/17/ibm-opens-350m-green-data-center |last=Wallace |first=Alicia |title=IBM Opens $350M Green Data Center |publisher=Daily Camera |date=June 17, 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080618230212/http://www.dailycamera.com/news/2008/jun/17/ibm-opens-350m-green-data-center/ |archivedate=2008-06-18}}</ref>

* '''2011: [[Watson (computer)|Watson]]'''. IBM's supercomputer ''Watson'' competed on the TV show ''[[Jeopardy!]]'' against [[Ken Jennings]] and [[Brad Rutter]] and won convincingly. The competition was presented by [[PBS]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibm.com/ibm100/us/en/icons/watson/ |title=A Computer Called Watson |publisher=Ibm.com |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

* '''June 16, 2011: IBM founded 100 years ago'''. Mark Krantz and Jon Swartz in ''USA Today'' state ''It has remained at the forefront through the decades... the fifth-most-valuable U.S. company [today] ... demonstrated a strength shared by most 100-year-old companies: the ability to change. ... survived not only the Depression and several recessions, but technological shifts and intense competition as well.''<ref>Krantz, Mark; Swartz, Jon. ''IBM Shows secret to corporate longevity''. USA Today. June 16, 2011. p.1B-3B</ref>

* '''October 28, 2018 Red Hat acquisition for $34 billion''' On October 28, 2018, [[IBM]] announced its intent to acquire Red Hat for US$34 billion, in one of its largest-ever acquisitions. The company will operate out of IBM's Hybrid Cloud division.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/28/18035086/ibm-red-hat-acquisition-open-source-cloud-software-company|title=IBM will acquire open-source cloud software company Red Hat|work=The Verge|access-date=2018-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/10/28/ibm-is-reportedly-nearing-deal-to-acquire-red-hat.html|title=IBM to acquire Red Hat in deal valued at $34 billion|last=Kolodny|first=Lora|date=2018-10-28|work=CNBC|access-date=2018-10-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/10/28/tech/ibm-red-hat/index.html|date=2018-10-28|first=Jackie|last=Wattles |title=IBM to acquire cloud computing firm Red Hat for $34 billion|website=CNN}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-red-hat-m-a-ibm/ibm-to-acquire-software-company-red-hat-for-34-billion-idUSKCN1N20N3|title=IBM to acquire software company Red Hat for $34 billion|date=2018-10-28|newspaper=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-10-28/ibm-is-said-to-near-deal-to-acquire-software-maker-red-hat|title=IBM to Acquire Linux Distributor Red Hat for $33.4 Billion|last=|first=|date=|website=bloomberg.com|access-date=2018-10-28}}</ref>

==Twentieth-century market power and antitrust==
[[IBM]] dominated the [[electronic data processing]] market for most of the 20th century, initially controlling over 70 percent of the punch card and tabulating machine market and then achieving a similar share in the computer market.<ref name="Cortada">{{cite journal
|title=Change and Continuity at IBM: Key Themes in Histories of IBM |last=Cortada |first=James W. |date=Spring 2018
|journal=Business History Review |volume=92 |issue=1 |pages=117–148 |publisher=Harvard College |doi=10.1017/S0007680518000041 |doi-access=free }}</ref> IBM asserted that its successes in achieving and maintaining such market share were due to its skill, industry and foresight; governments and competitors asserted that the maintenance of such large shares was at least in part due to anti-competitive acts such as unfair prices, terms and conditions, tying, product manipulations and creating [[Fear, uncertainty, and doubt#Definition|FUD]] (Fear, Uncertainty and Doubt) in the marketplace.<ref>{{cite book
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uNM9ybnZxj8C&pg=PA229#v=onepage&q&f=false
|title=Corporate Crime |last=Yeager |first=Peter |page=229 |date=2006 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |access-date= |quote=IBM’s skill, industry, and foresight, the judge pointed out, resulted in “a sophisticated, refined, highly organized, and methodologically processed” campaign to restrict the operations of many competitors.|isbn=9781412804936 }}</ref> IBM was thus the defendant in more than twenty government and private antitrust actions during the 20th century. IBM lost only one of these matters but did settle others in ways that profoundly shaped the industry as summarized below. By the end of the 20th century, IBM was no longer so dominant in the computer industry. Some observers suggest management's attention to the many antitrust lawsuits of the 1970s was at least in part responsible for its decline.<ref name="Cortada"/>

===1936 Consent Decree===
In 1932 U.S. Government prosecutors asserted as anti-competition tying IBM's practice of requiring customers who leased its tabulating equipment to purchase punched cards used on such equipment. IBM lost<ref>{{cite web |url=https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/298/131/
|title=International Business Machines Corp. v. United States, 298 U.S. 131 (1936) |date=April 27, 1936
|publisher=U.S. Supreme Court |access-date=July 6, 2019}}</ref> and in the resulting 1936 consent decree, IBM agreed to no longer require only IBM cards and agreed to assist alternative suppliers of cards in starting production facilities that would compete with IBM's; thereby create a separate market for the punched cards and in effect for subsequent computer supplies such as tapes and disk packs.<ref name="TLR">{{cite journal
|title=Elhauge on Tying: Vindicated by History |date= Spring 2014 |last1=Barak |first1=Richman |last2=Usselman |first2=Steven
|journal=Tulsa Law Review |volume=49 |issue=3 |pages=111–125 |ssrn = 2775311}}</ref>

===1956 Consent Decree===
On January 21, 1952 the U.S. Government filed a lawsuit which resulted in a consent decree entered as a final judgment on January 25, 1956.<ref name="56CD">{{cite web
|url=http://www.cptech.org/at/ibm/ibm1956cd.html
|title=IBM 1956 CONSENT DECREE |date=January 25, 1956 |publisher= U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York |access-date=July 7, 2019}}</ref> The government's goal to increase competition in the data processing industry was effected through several provisions in the decree:<ref name="NYT56">{{cite web
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/09/business/ibm-and-the-limits-of-a-consent-decree.html
|title=I.B.M. and the Limits of a Consent Decree |date=June 9, 1994 |last=Passell |first=Peter |publisher=NY Times |access-date=July 8, 2019}}</ref>
*IBM was required to sell equipment on terms that would place purchasers at a disadvantage with respect to customers leasing the same equipment from IBM. Prior to this decree, IBM had only rented its equipment. This created markets both for used IBM equipment<ref name="NYT56" /> and enabled lease financing of IBM equipment by third parties (leasing companies).<ref name="NYT56" />
*IBM was required to provide parts and information to independent maintainers of purchased IBM equipment,<ref name="NYT56" /> enabling and creating a demand for such hardware maintenance services.
*IBM was required to sell data processing services through a subsidiary that could be treated no differently than any company independent of IBM, enabling competition in the data processing services business.
*IBM was required to grant non-exclusive, non-transferable, worldwide licenses for any and all patents at reasonable royalty rates to anyone, provided the licensee cross-licensed its patents to IBM on similar terms.<ref name="56CD" /> This removed IBM patents as a barrier to competition in the data processing industry and enabled the emergence of manufacturers of equipment [[plug compatible]] to IBM equipment.

While the decree did little to limit IBM's future dominance of the then-nascent computer industry, it did enable competition in segments such as leasing, services, maintenance, and equipment attachable to IBM systems and reduced barriers to entry through mandatory reasonable patent cross-licensing.

The decree's terms remained in effect until 1996; they were phased out over the next five years.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.1cbronline.com/news/judge_schwartz_pleases_all_in_ibm_consent_decree_case/
|title=JUDGE SCHWARTZ PLEASES ALL IN IBM CONSENT DECREE CASE |date=July 9, 1996 |publisher=Computer Business Review |access-date=July 7, 2019}}</ref>

===1968-1984 Multiple Government and Private Antitrust Complaints===
In 1968 the first of a series of antitrust suits against IBM was filed by [[Control Data|'''Control Data Corp''' (CDC)]]. It was followed in 1969 by the US government's antitrust complaint, then by 19 private US antitrust complaints and one European complaint. In the end IBM settled a few of these matters but mainly won. The US government's case sustained by four US Presidents and their Attorneys General was dropped as “without merit” in 1982 by William Baxter, US President Reagans’ Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice.<ref name="JSTOR">{{cite journal
|title=ANTITRUST LAWS: the IBM and AT&T cases |journal = Revue Française d'Études Américaines|issue = 35|date=February 1988
|last=Kerjan |first=Lilliane |publisher= Editions Belin |pages=89–102
|jstor = 20871797}}</ref>

====1968-1973 Control Data Corp. v. IBM====
CDC filed an antitrust lawsuit against IBM in Minnesota's federal court alleging that IBM had monopolized the market for computers in violation of section 2 of the Sherman Act by among other things announcing products it could not deliver.<ref name="Krohnke">{{cite web
|url= https://dwkcommentaries.com/2011/07/30/the-ibm-antitrust-litigation/
|title= The IBM Antitrust Litigation |date= July 30, 2011
|last =Krohnke |first= Duane |access-date= May 26, 2019}}</ref> A 1965 internal IBM memo by an IBM attorney noted that Control Data had publicly blamed its declining earnings on IBM, "and its frequent model and price changes. There was some sentiment that the charges were true." <ref name="WaPo">{{cite web
|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/business/1981/06/02/ibm-justice-rests-cases-in-historic-antitrust-trial/5cc16db0-8e7f-4763-a17d-fdfb6fef0464/
|title=IBM, Justice Rests Cases In Historic Antitrust Trial |date=June 2, 1981
|last=Behr |first=Peter |publisher=Washington Post
|access-date=May 26, 2019}}</ref> In 1973 IBM settled the CDC case for about $80 million in cash and the transfer of assets including the IBM Service Bureau Corp to CDC.<ref name="Krohnke" />

====1969-1982 U.S. v. IBM====
On January 17, 1969, the United States of America filed a complaint in the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, alleging that IBM violated the Section 2 of the Sherman Act by monopolizing or attempting to monopolize the general-purpose electronic digital computer system market, specifically computers designed primarily for business. Subsequently, the US government alleged IBM violated the antitrust laws in IBM's actions directed against leasing companies and plug-compatible peripheral manufacturers.

In June 1969 IBM unbundled its software and services in what many observers believed was in anticipation of and a direct result of the 1969 US Antitrust lawsuit. Overnight a competitive software market was created.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/mainframe-computers/7/172
|title=Software Becomes a Product |publisher=Computer History Museum |access-date=July 28, 2019 |quote=With software either custom made or given away free, there was a limited commercial market for it. At least, not until a lawsuit against IBM changed the game.}}
</ref>

Among the major violations asserted<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.justice.gov/atr/case-document/united-states-memorandum-1969-case
|title=UNITED STATES' MEMORANDUM ON THE 1969 CASE |date=October 5, 1995 |publisher=United States Department Of Justice |access-date=July 28, 2019}}</ref> were:
*Anticompetitive price discrimination such as giving away software services.
*Bundling of software with "related computer hardware equipment" for a single price.
*Predatorily priced and preannounced specific hardware "fighting machines".
*Developed and announced specific hardware products primarily for the purpose of discouraging customers from acquiring competing products.
*Announced certain future products knowing that it was unlikely to be able to ship such products within the announced time frame.
*Engaged in below cost and discount conduct in selected markets in order to injure peripheral manufacturers and leasing companies.

It was in some ways one of the great single firm monopoly cases of all times. IBM produced 30 million pages of materials during discovery; it submitted its executives to a series of pretrial depositions. Trial began six years after the complaint was filed and then it battled in court for another six years. The trial transcript contains over 104,400 pages with thousands of documents placed in the record. It ended on January 8, 1982 when William Baxter, the then Assistant Attorney General in charge of the Antitrust Division of the Department of Justice dropped the case as “without merit.” .<ref name="JSTOR" />

====1969-1981 Private antitrust lawsuits====
The U.S.'s 1969 antitrust lawsuit was followed by about 18 private antitrust complaints all but one of which IBM ultimately won. Some notable lawsuits include:

=====Greyhound Computer Corp.=====
Greyhound a leasing company filed a case under Illinois’ state antitrust law in Illinois state court.<ref>Datamation, April 15, 1971, p.51</ref> This case went to trial in federal court in 1972 in Arizona with a directed verdict for IBM on the antitrust claims; however, the court of appeals in 1977 reversed the decision. Just before the retrial was to start in January 1981, IBM and Greyhound settled the case for $17.7 million.<ref name="Krohnke" />

=====Telex Corp.=====
Telex, a peripherals equipment manufacturer filed suit on January 21, 1972, charging that IBM had monopolized and had attempted to monopolize the worldwide manufacture, distribution, sales, and leasing of electronic data processing equipment including the relevant submarket of plug-compatible peripheral devices. After a non-jury trial in 1973, IBM was found guilty “possessing and exercising monopoly power” over the “plug-compatible peripheral equipment market,” and ordered to pay triple damages of $352.5‐million and other relief including disclosure of peripheral interface specifications. Separately Telex was found guilty of misappropriated IBM trade secrets.<ref>{{cite web
|url= https://www.nytimes.com/1973/09/18/archives/ibm-is-found-guilty-in-antitrust-suit-and-told-to-pay-telex.html
|title= I.B.M. Is Found Guilty in Antitrust Suit And Told to Pay Telex $352.5‐Million
|date=September 18, 1973 |publisher=NY Times |last=Smith |first=William D.
|access-date= May 26, 2019}}</ref> The judgment against IBM was overturned on appeal and on October 4, 1975, both parties announced they were terminating their actions against each other.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/10/04/archives/ibm-and-telex-halt-litigation-no-payment-will-be-made-possible.html
|title= I.B.M. and Telex Halt Litigation |date=October 4, 1975
|publisher=NY Times |last=Smith f|first=William D |access-date= May 26, 2019}}</ref>

=====Other private lawsuits=====
Other private lawsuits ultimately won by IBM include [[Calcomp|California Computer Products Inc.]],<ref>Datamation, March 1977, pp. 162-4, Directed verdict against CalComp on February 11, 1977.</ref> [[Memorex|Memorex Corp.]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/07/06/archives/memorex-and-ibm-in-mistrial-settlement-bid-termed-futile.html
|title=Memorex And I.B.M. In Mistrial |date=July 6, 1978 |work=New York Times |access-date=July 28, 2019 |quote=The jury was deadlocked 9 to 2 in favor of Memorex.}}</ref> [[Marshall Industries]], Hudson General Corp., [[Transamerica Corporation]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://casetext.com/case/in-re-ibm-peripheral-edp-devices-etc-2
|title=Transamerica Computer Co. v. International Business Machines Corp., 481 F. Supp. 965 (N.D. Cal. 1979) |date=Dec 20, 1979 |access-date=July 9, 2019}}. Directed verdict after hung jury.</ref> and Forro Precision, Inc.

====1980-1984 European Union====
The European Economic Communities Commission on Monopolies initiated proceedings against IBM under article 86 of the Treaty of Rome for exploiting its domination of the continent's computer business and abusing its dominant market position by engaging in business practices designed to protect its position against plug-compatible manufacturers. The case was settled in 1984 with IBM agreeing to change its business practices with regard to disclosure of device interface information.<ref>{{cite web
|url=https://elibrary.law.psu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1026&context=psilr
|title=The Multinational's Dilemma: The IBM Proceeding in Europe |date=1985
|publisher=Penn State International Law Review: Vol.3: No. 2, Article 6.
|access-date=May 26, 2019}}</ref>

==Products and technologies==

::See [[List of IBM products]]

===Evolution of IBM's computer hardware===
The story of IBM's hardware is intertwined with the story of the computer industry – from vacuum tubes, to transistors, to integrated circuits, to microprocessors and beyond. The following systems and series represent key steps:
* [[IBM mainframe]] - overview
* [[IBM SSEC]] – 1948, the first operational machine able to treat its instructions as data
* [[IBM CPC|IBM Card Programmed Calculator]] – 1949
* [[IBM 700/7000 series|IBM 700 series]] – 1952–1958
* [[IBM NORC]] – 1954, the first [[supercomputer]]<ref>{{cite web
|last= da Cruz |first= Frank |title= The IBM Naval Ordnance Research Calculator
|publisher= Columbia University Computing History |date= October 18, 2004
|url= http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/norc.html |accessdate=October 20, 2006}}</ref>
* [[IBM 650]] – 1954, the world's first mass-produced computer
* SAGE [[AN/FSQ-7]] – 1958, half an acre of floor space, 275 tons, up to three megawatts, ... the largest computers ever built
* [[IBM 700/7000 series|IBM 7000 series]] – 1959–1964, transistorized evolution of IBM 700 series
* [[IBM 1400 series]] – 1959, "... by the mid-1960s nearly half of all computer systems in the world were 1401-type systems."<ref name=chm>{{cite web |url=http://www.computerhistory.org/core/pdf/ibm_1401.pdf |title=Back to Life: The story behind CHM's IBM 1401 Restoration |author=Spicer, Dag |publisher=Computer History Museum |accessdate=May 27, 2011 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105110749/http://www.computerhistory.org/core/pdf/ibm_1401.pdf |archivedate=November 5, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
* [[IBM System/360]] – 1964, the first family of computers designed to cover the complete range of applications, small to large, commercial and scientific
* [[IBM System/3]]
* [[IBM System/370]]
* [[IBM System/38]]
* [[IBM Series/1]]
* [[IBM 801]] [[RISC]] processor
* [[IBM PC]]
* [[PowerPC]]
* [[IBM System i]] was earlier [[IBM AS/400]] then [[IBM eServer iSeries]]
* [[IBM RS/6000]]
* [[IBM zSeries]] was earlier [[IBM System/390]]
* [[Cell processor]]
* [[IBM Watson]] (computer)

====Components====

* [[History of IBM magnetic disk drives]]
* [[Magnetic tape data storage#IBM formats]]

===Evolution of IBM's operating systems===
{{main|History of IBM mainframe operating systems}}

IBM operating systems have paralleled hardware development. On early systems, operating systems represented a relatively modest level of investment, and were essentially viewed as an adjunct to the hardware. By the time of the [[System/360]], however, operating systems had assumed a much larger role, in terms of cost, complexity, importance, and risk.

Mainframe operating systems include:

* OS family, including: [[OS/360]], [[OS/MFT]], [[OS/MVT]], [[OS/VS1]], [[OS/VS2 (SVS)|OS/VS2]], [[MVS]], [[OS/390]], [[z/OS]]
* DOS family, including: [[DOS/360]], [[DOS/VS]], [[DOS/VSE]], [[z/VSE]]
* VM family, including: [[CP/CMS]] (See: [[History of CP/CMS]]), [[VM (operating system)|VM/370]], VM/XA, [[VM/ESA]], [[z/VM]]
* Special purpose systems, including: [[Transaction Processing Facility|TPF]], [[z/TPF]]

Other platforms with important operating systems include:

* AIX family, including: [[IBM AIX|AIX]]
* Linux family, including: Linux for [[IBM System p|pSeries]]
* OS/400 family, including: [[IBM OS/400|OS/400]], [[IBM i5/OS]] and [[IBM i]]

===High-level languages===
Early IBM computer systems, like those from many other vendors, were programmed using [[assembly language]]. Computer science efforts through the 1950s and early 1960s led to the development of many new [[High-level programming language|high-level languages (HLL)]] for programming. IBM played a complicated role in this process. Hardware vendors were naturally concerned about the implications of portable languages that would allow customers to pick and choose among vendors without compatibility problems. IBM, in particular, helped create barriers that tended to lock customers into a single platform.

IBM had a significant role in the following major computer languages:
* [[FORTRAN]] – for years, the dominant language for mathematics and scientific programming
* [[PL/I]] – an attempt to create a "be all and end all" language
* [[COBOL]] – eventually the ubiquitous, standard language for business applications
* [[APL (programming language)|APL]] – an early interactive language with a mathematical notation
* [[IBM PL/S|PL/S]] – an internal systems programming language proprietary to IBM
* [[IBM RPG|RPG]] – an acronym for 'Report Program Generator', developed on the [[IBM 1401]] to produce reports from data files. General Systems Division enhanced the language to [[High-level programming language|HLL]] status on its midrange systems to rival with COBOL.
* [[SQL]] – a relational query language developed for IBM's [[IBM System R|System R]]; now the standard [[RDBMS]] query language
* [[Rexx]] – a macro and scripting language based on PL/I syntax originally developed for Conversational Monitor System (CMS) and authored by IBM Fellow Mike Cowlishaw

===IBM and AIX/UNIX/Linux/SCO===
IBM developed a schizophrenic relationship with the [[UNIX]] and [[Linux]] worlds. The importance of IBM's large computer business placed strange pressures on all of IBM's attempts to develop other lines of business. All IBM projects faced the risk of being seen as competing against company priorities. This was because, if a customer decided to build an application on an [[RS/6000]] platform, this also meant that a decision had been made ''against'' a mainframe platform. So despite having some excellent technology, IBM often placed itself in a compromised position.

A case in point is IBM's [[GFIS]] products for infrastructure management and [[Geographic Information Systems|GIS applications]]. Despite long having a dominant position in such industries as electric, gas, and water utilities, IBM stumbled badly in the 1990s trying to build workstation-based solutions to replace its old mainframe-based products. Customers were forced to move on to new technologies from other vendors; many felt betrayed by IBM.

IBM embraced [[Open-source model|open source]] technologies in the 1990s. It later became embroiled [[SCO v. IBM|in a complex litigation]] with [[SCO group]] over intellectual property rights related to the [[UNIX]] and [[Linux]] platforms.

===BICARSA (Billing, Inventory Control, Accounts Receivable, & Sales Analysis)===
1983 saw the announcement of the [[System/36]], the replacement for the System/34. And in 1988, IBM announced the [[AS/400]], intended to represent a point of convergence for both System/36 customers and System/38 customers. The 1970s had seen IBM develop a range of Billing, Inventory Control, Accounts Receivable, & Sales Analysis (BICARSA ) applications for specific industries: construction (CMAS), distribution (DMAS), and manufacturing (MMAS), all written in the RPG II language. By the end of the 1980s, IBM had almost completely withdrawn from the BICARSA applications marketplace. Because of developments in the antitrust cases against IBM brought by the US government and European Union, IBM sales representatives were now able to work openly with application software houses as partners. (For a period in the early 1980s, a 'rule of three' operated, which obliged IBM sales representatives, if they were to propose a third-party application to a customer, to also list at least two other third-party vendors in the IBM proposal. This caused some amusement to the customer, who would typically have engaged in intense negotiations with one of the third parties and probably not have heard of the other two vendors.)

===Non-computer lines of business===
IBM has largely been known for its overtaking [[UNIVAC]]'s early 1950s public fame, then leading in the computer industry for much of the latter part of the century. However, it has also had roles, some significant, in other industries, including:
* IBM was the largest supplier of [[unit record equipment]] ([[punched card]]s, [[keypunch]]es, [[Tabulating machine|accounting machines]], ...) in the first part of the 20th century.
* Food services (meat and coffee grinders, computing cheese slicers, computing scales) – founding to 1934, sold to Hobart Manufacturing Co.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/vintage/vintage_4506VV2153.html |title=Dayton scale factory |publisher=IBM |accessdate=May 29, 2011|date=January 23, 2003 }}</ref>
* Time recorders (punch clocks, school, and factory clocks) – founding to 1958, sold to Simplex Time Recorder Company.<ref name = "IBM 1958"/> See [http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/cc/pdf/cc_2407TED1.pdf IBM: History of the Time Equipment Division and its Products] and this 1935 catalog - [http://www.quissettshipclock.com/info/itrc.pdf International Time Recording Catalog]
* [[Typewriter]]s, personal printers. See [[IBM Electric typewriter]], [[IBM Selectric typewriter]]. IBM divested in 1991, now part of [[Lexmark]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/modelb/modelb_milestone.html |title= IBM typewriter milestones |publisher=IBM |accessdate=May 29, 2011|date= January 23, 2003 }}</ref>
* [[List of IBM products#Copier/Duplicators|Copiers]] - 1970 to 1988. Sold to [[Kodak|Eastman Kodak]] in [http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/year_1988.html 1988].
* Other office products such as dictation machines, word processors.
* Military products ([[M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle|Browning Automatic Rifle]], bombsights) – [[History of IBM#1939–1945: World War II|IBM's World War II production]]
* Digital telephone switches – partnership (1983), acquisition (1984), and sale (1989–1992) of [[ROLM]] to [[Siemens AG]]<ref name=ROLM1983/><ref name=ROLM1984/><ref name=ROLM1989/><ref name=ROLM1992/>
* Stadium scoreboards
* Real estate (at one time owning vast tracts of undeveloped land on the U.S. east coast)
* Medical instruments: heart-lung machine, prostheses, [[IBM 2991]] Blood Cell Washer, [[IBM 2997]] Blood Cell Separator, [[IBM 5880]] Electrocardiograph System

==Organization==

===CEOs, Notable IBMers===

*[[List of IBM CEOs]]
*[[IBM Fellow]]

For IBM's corporate biographies of former CEOs and many others see: [http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ IBM Archives] [http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/biographies/former.wss Biographies] [http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/builders/builders_reference.html Builders reference room]

===IBM Global Services===
{{Main|IBM Global Services}}

===IBM Research===
{{Main|IBM Research}} See also [[History of IBM research in Israel]]

===IBM Federal Systems Division (FSD)===
A significant part of IBM's operations were [[IBM Federal Systems|FSD]]'s contracts with the U.S. Federal Government for a wide range of projects ranging from the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] to the [[National Security Agency]]. These projects spanned mundane administrative processing to top-secret supercomputing. In [[NASA]]'s [[Apollo Program]], the "brains" of each [[Saturn (rocket family)|Saturn rocket]] was the [[Saturn V Instrument Unit|Instrument Unit]] built by the IBM Space Systems Center in Huntsville, Alabama. Founded in 1957, FSD was sold to [[Loral Corporation|Loral]] in 1994.

===International subsidiaries growth===
{{Main|International subsidiaries of IBM}}

IBM had subsidiaries and operations in 70 countries in its early years. They included Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Romania, the Soviet Union, Sweden, Switzerland, Yugoslavia, and others.

===IBM service organizations===
IBM's early dominance of the computer industry was in part due to its strong professional services activities. IBM's advantage in building software for its own computers eventually was seen as monopolistic, leading to antitrust proceedings. As a result, a complex, artificial "arms-length" relationship was created separating IBM's computer business from its service organizations. This situation persisted for decades. An example was [[IBM Global Services]], a huge services firm that competed with the likes of [[Electronic Data Systems]] or [[Computer Sciences Corporation]].

==See also==

* [[:Category:IBM|Category IBM articles]]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
}}

==Further reading==

;Commentary, General Histories

::For more recent IBM subject books see: [[IBM#Further reading]]

* {{cite book | author = Henry Bakis | year = 1977 | title = IBM. Une multinationale régionale | publisher = Presses Universitaires de Grenoble | language = French | author-link = Henry Bakis }}
*Boyett, Joseph H.; Schwartz, Stephen; Osterwise, Laurence; Bauer, Roy (1993) ''The Quality Journey: How winning the Baldrige sparked the remaking of IBM'', Dutton
* {{cite book | author = James W. Cortada | year = 2019 | title = IBM: The Rise and Fall and Reinvention of a Global Icon | publisher= MIT Press | isbn = 9780262039444 }}
* {{cite book | author = Richard Thomas DeLamarter | year = 1986 | title = Big Blue: IBM's Use and Abuse of Power | isbn = 0-396-08515-6 | url = https://archive.org/details/bigblueibmsuseab00dela }}
*Engelbourg, Saul (1954) ''International Business Machines: A Business History'', 385pp (doctoral dissertation). Reprinted by Arno, 1976
*{{cite book |last= [[Franklin M. Fisher|Fisher, Franklin M.]] |author2= McGowan, John J. |author3= Greenwood, Joen E. |title= Folded, Spindled, and Mutilated: Economic Analysis and U.S. v. IBM |publisher= MIT |year= 1983 |isbn= 0-262-06086-8 |url= https://archive.org/details/foldedspindledmu00fish }}
*{{cite book |last= [[Franklin M. Fisher|Fisher, Franklin M.]] |author2=McKie, James W. |author3=Mancke, Richard B. |title= IBM and the US Data Processing Industry: An Economic History |publisher= Praeger |year = 1983 |isbn= 0-03-063059-2}}
*Foy, Nancy (1975) ''The Sun Never Sets on IBM'', William Morrow, 218pp (published in UK as ''The IBM World'')
*IBM (1936) [http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/MachineMethodsAccounting.html ''Machine Methods of Accounting''] This book is constructed from 18 pamphlets, the first of which (AM-01) is ''Development of International Business Machines Corporation'' - a 12-page 1936 IBM-written history of IBM.
*Malik, R. (1975) ''And Tomorrow the World: Inside IBM'', Millington, 496pp
*Mills, D. Quinn (1988) ''The IBM Lesson: the profitable art of full employment'', Times Books, 216pp
*Richardson, F.L.W. Jr.; Walker, Charles R. (1948). ''Human Relations in an Expanding Company''. Labor and Management Center Yale University. Reprinted by Arno, 1977.
* {{cite book | author = Buck Rodgers | year = 1986 | title = The IBM Way | url = https://archive.org/details/ibmwayinsightsin00rodg | url-access = registration | publisher = Harper & Row }}
* {{cite book | author = William Rodgers | year = 1969 | title = THINK: A Biography of the Watsons and IBM | isbn = 0-8128-1226-3 }}
* {{cite book | author=Robert Sobel | year = 1981 | title = IBM: Colossus in Transition | isbn = 0-8129-1000-1 | author-link = Robert Sobel }}
* {{cite book | author = Robert Sobel | year = 2000 |origyear=1981| title = Thomas Watson, Sr.: IBM and the Computer Revolution | isbn = 1-893122-82-4 }} *** A paperback reprint of ''IBM: Colossus in Transition''.
* {{cite book | author = Robert Sobel | year = 1986 | title = IBM vs. Japan: The Struggle for the Future | isbn = 0-8128-3071-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/ibmvsjapanstrug00sobe }}

;Technology

::For Punched card history, technology, see: [[Unit record equipment#Further reading]]
::For Herman Hollerith see: [[Herman Hollerith#Further reading]]

*Baker, Stephen (2012) ''Final Jeopardy: The Story of Watson, the Computer That Will Transform Our World'', Mariner Books
*Baldwin, Carliss Y; Clark, Kim B. (2000) ''Design Rules: The Power of Modularity, vol.1'', MIT. ''unique perspective on the 360'' (Tedlow p. 305)
*Bashe, Charles J.; Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R./Palmer, John H. (1986). ''IBM's Early Computers''. MIT Press. {{ISBN|0-262-02225-7}}.
*Chposky, James; Leonsis, Ted (1988). ''Blue Magic: The People, Power, and Politics Behind The IBM Personal Computer''. Facts on File.
*Dell, Deborah; Purdy, J. Gerry. ''ThinkPad: A Different Shade of Blue''. Sams. {{ISBN|978-0-672-31756-9}}.
*[[Feng-hsiung Hsu|Hsu, Feng-hsiung]] (2002). ''Behind [[Deep Blue (chess computer)|Deep Blue]]: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion''. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-09065-8}}.
*Kelly, Brian W. (2004) ''Can the AS/400 Survive IBM?'', Lets Go
*Killen, Michael (1988) ''IBM: The Making of the Common View'', Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
*Mills, H.D., O’Neill, D., Linger, R.C., Dyer, M., Quinnan, R.E. (1980) ''The Management of Software Engineering'', IBM Systems Journal (SJ), Volume 19, Number 4, 1980, pages 414-477 http://www.research.ibm.com/journal/sj/
*Pugh, Emerson W. (1995). ''Building IBM: Shaping and Industry and Its Technology''. MIT Press. {{ISBN|978-0-262-16147-3}}.
*Pugh, Emerson W.; Johnson, Lyle R.; Palmer, John H. (1991). ''IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems''. MIT Press. {{ISBN|0-262-16123-0}}.
*{{cite book |last= Pugh |first= Emerson W. |title = Memories That Shaped an Industry: Decisions Leading to IBM System/360 |publisher= MIT |year= 1984 |page= 323 |isbn= 0-262-16094-3}}
*Soltis, Frank G. (2002) ''Fortress Rochester: The Inside Story of the IBM iSeries'', 29th Street Press
*Yost, Jeffrey R. (2011) ''The IBM Century: Creating the IT Revolution'', IEEE Computer Society

;Locations – Plants, Labs, Divisions, Countries

*{{cite book |last = Brennan |first= Jean Ford |title= The IBM Watson Laboratory at Columbia University: A History |publisher= IBM |year= 1971 |page= 68}}
*DeLoca, Cornelius E.; Kalow, Samuel J. (1991) ''The Romance Division ... a different side of IBM '', D & K Book, 223pp (history, strategy, key people in Electric Typewriter and successor Office Products Div)
*France, Boyd (1961) ''IBM in France'', Washington National Planning Assoc
*Harvey, John (2008) ''Transition The IBM Story'', Switzer (IBM IT services in Australia)
*Heide, Lars (2002) [https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194200/http://www.feb-patrimoine.com/projet/frbull/heide_bull.pdf ''National Capital in the Emergence of a Challenger to IBM in France'']
*Jardine, Diane (ed) (2002) ''IBM @ 70: Blue Beneath the Southern Cross. Celebrating 70 Years of IBM in Australia'', Focus
*Joseph, Allan (2010) ''Masked Intentions: Navigating a Computer Embargo on China'', Trafford, 384pp
*Meredith, Suzanne; Aswad, Ed (2005) ''IBM in Endicott'', Arcadia, 128pp
*Norberg, Arthur L.; Yost, Jeffrey R. (2006) [http://www.cbi.umn.edu/hostedpublications/pdf/IBMRochesterHistory.pdf ''IBM Rochester: A Half Century of Innovation''], IBM
*Robinson, William Louis (2008) ''IBM's Shadow Force: The Untold Story of Federal Systems, The Secretive Giant that Safeguarded America'', Thomas Max, 224pp

;Biographies, Memoirs

::For IBM's corporate biographies of former CEOs and many others see: [http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ IBM Archives] [http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/biographies/former.wss Biographies] [http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/builders/builders_reference.html Builders reference room]

*[[Ruth Leach Amonette|Amonette, Ruth Leach]] (1999). ''Among Equals, A Memoir: The Rise of IBM's First Woman Vice President''. Creative Arts Book Company. {{ISBN|0-88739-219-9}}.
*Beardsley, Max (2001) ''International Business Marionettes: An IBM Executive Struggles to Regain His Sanity after a Brutal Firing'', Lucky Press
*Birkenstock, James W. (1999). ''Pioneering: On the Frontier of Electronic Data Processing, A Personal Memoir'', self-published, 72pp
*[[Lewis M. Branscomb#Books by Lewis Branscomb]]
*Drandell, Milton (1990) ''IBM: The Other Side, 101 Former Employees Look Back'', Quail
*[[Charles Ranlett Flint#Bibliography]]
*[[Louis V. Gerstner, Jr.#References]]
*Gould, Heywood (1971). ''Corporation Freak'', Tower, 174pp ("...hired as an audio-visual consultant by the Advanced Systems Development Division ...")
*[[Herman Hollerith#Further reading]]
*Lamassonne, Luis A. (2001). ''My Life With IBM''. Protea. {{ISBN|1-883707-65-X}}.
*[[Jacques Maisonrouge|Maisonrouge, Jacques]] (1985). ''Inside IBM: A Personal Story''. McGraw Hill. {{ISBN|0-07-039737-6}}.
*[[William W. Simmons (executive)#Selected publications|William W. Simmons#Selected publications]]
*[[Ulrich Steinhilper#IBM and later life]]
*Thomas, Charles (1993) ''Black and Blue: Profiles of Blacks in IBM'', Atlanta Aaron, 181pp
*[[Thomas J. Watson#Further reading]]
*[[Thomas Watson, Jr.#Further reading]]
*Williamson, Gordon R. (2009) ''Memoirs of My Years with IBM: 1951-1986'', Xlibris, 768pp{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}

==External links==
* [http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/ IBM Archives], [http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/history/history_intro.html History of IBM]
* [http://www.ibm.com/ibm100/us/en/ IBM at 100] – IBM reviews and reflects on its first 100 years
* [http://www-05.ibm.com/uk/ibm/history/interactive/ibm_history_2.pdf THINK: Our History of Progress; 1890s to 2001. IBM]
* [http://purl.umn.edu/107118 Oral History with James W. Birkenstock], [[Charles Babbage Institute]], University of Minnesota. Birkenstock was an adviser to the president and subsequently as Director of Product Planning and Market Analysis at IBM. In this oral history, Birkenstock discusses the metamorphosis of the company from leader of the tabulating machine industry to leader of the data processing industry. He describes his involvement with magnetic tape development in 1947, the involvement of IBM in the Korean War, the development of the [[IBM 701]] computer (known internally as the ''Defense Calculator''), and the emergence of [[magnetic core memory]] from the [[Semi Automatic Ground Environment|SAGE]] project. He then recounts the entry of IBM into the commercial computer market with the [[IBM 702]]. The end of the interview concerns IBM's relationship with other early entrants in the international computer industry, including litigation with [[Sperry Rand]], its cross-licensing agreements, and cooperation with Japanese electronics firms.

{{IBM}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ibm}}
[[Category:IBM|History]]
[[Category:History of computer companies]]
[[Category:History of computing hardware]]
[[Category:History of companies of the United States]]

Mitchell Baker

2020-02-26T12:21:52Z

PatriceNeff: Interim CEO of Mozilla

{{short description|Chairwoman; former CEO}}
{{Infobox person
|name=Mitchell Baker
|image=Mitchell Baker.jpg
|caption=Mitchell Baker at [[O'Reilly Open Source Convention|OSCON]] 2005
|birth_name = Winifred Mitchell Baker
|birth_date={{Birth year and age|1959}}<ref name=nndb>{{cite web|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/082/000125704/|title=NNDB: Mitchell Baker|year=2008|publisher=Soylent Communications|accessdate=2008-12-15}}</ref>
|birth_place=[[Berkeley, California]], U.S.
|occupation= Executive Chairwoman, [[Mozilla Foundation]] and [[Mozilla Corporation]]
|alma_mater = [[University of California, Berkeley]], ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]]) ([[Juris Doctor|JD]])
|spouse=Casey Dunn
|children=1
|signature=Signature of Mitchell Baker.jpg
}}

'''Winifred Mitchell Baker''' (born 1959) is the Executive Chairwoman and interim [[CEO]] of the [[Mozilla Foundation]] and of [[Mozilla Corporation]], a [[subsidiary]] of the Mozilla Foundation that coordinates development of the [[Open-source model|open source]] [[Mozilla]] [[Internet]] applications, including the [[Firefox|Mozilla Firefox]] [[web browser]].

Baker was trained as a [[lawyer]]. She coordinates business and policy issues and sits on both the Mozilla Foundation [[Board of directors|Board of Directors]] and the Mozilla Corporation Board of Directors. In 2005, ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine included her in its annual list of the 100 most influential people in the world and she has been affectionately given the title of "Chief Lizard Wrangler" at the Mozilla Corporation.<ref name="time100">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/subscriber/2005/time100/scientists/100baker.html|title=100 Most Influential People in the World: Scientists & Thinkers|last=Andreessen|first=Marc|work=Time Magazine|accessdate=2009-02-11 | date=2005-04-18}}</ref><ref name="businessweek25">{{cite web|url=http://images.businessweek.com/ss/08/09/0929_most_influential/3.htm|title=The 25 Most Influential People on the Web|work=Business Week|accessdate=2009-02-11}}</ref>

==Education and early employment==
Baker received a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] in [[Chinese studies]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.littlepinkbook.com/mitchell-baker-chairperson-former-ceo-mozilla-corporation-creator-of-mozilla-firefox/ |title=Mitchell Baker - Chairperson & Former CEO, Mozilla Corporation & Creator of Mozilla Firefox |first=Taylor |last=Mallory |date=May 20, 2013 |work=Little Pink Book |accessdate=September 10, 2015}}</ref> at the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in 1979, achieving a Certificate of Distinction. She received her [[Juris Doctor|JD]] from the [[Boalt Hall School of Law]], [[University of California, Berkeley]] in 1987 and was admitted to the [[State Bar of California]] in the same year.<ref name="web20expo">{{cite web|url=http://www.web2expo.com/webexsf2008/public/schedule/speaker/16515|title=Web 2.0 Expo: Mitchell Baker|date=2008-04-24|publisher=Web 2.0 Expo|accessdate=2009-02-11}}</ref><ref name=7things>{{cite web|url=http://blog.lizardwrangler.com/2009/01/21/7-things-you-probably-didnt-know-about-me/|title=7 Things You Probably Didn't Know About Me|last=Baker|first=Mitchell|date=2009-01-21|accessdate=2009-02-11}}</ref> From January 1990 until October 1993, she worked as a Corporate and Intellectual Property Associate at [[Fenwick & West]] LLP, a law practice that specialises in providing legal services to high technology companies. She then worked for [[Sun Microsystems]] as an Associate [[General Counsel]] from November 1993 until October 1994.<ref name="squidhoo">{{cite web|url=www.squidoo.com/mitchellbaker |title=The funky Chief Lizard Wrangler of Mozilla Corporation |website=Squidhoo.com |accessdate=2009-02-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080719212912/www.squidoo.com/mitchellbaker |archivedate=July 19, 2008 }}</ref>

==Netscape Communications Corporation and mozilla.org==
In November 1994, Baker was hired as one of the first employees of the legal department of [[Netscape Communications Corporation]].<ref name="staffmembers">{{cite web|url=https://www.mozilla.org/about/staff |title=mozilla.org Staff Members |accessdate=2009-02-11 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090129170918/http://www.mozilla.org/about/staff |archivedate=January 29, 2009 }}</ref> Reporting directly to [[CEO]] [[James L. Barksdale|Jim Barksdale]], she jointly set up the initial department. She was responsible for [[intellectual property]] protection and legal issues relating to product development, reporting to the General Counsel. She also created and managed the Technology Group of the Legal Department. She was involved with the Mozilla project from the outset, writing both the [[Netscape Public License]] and the [[Mozilla Public License]]. In February 1999, Baker became the Chief Lizard Wrangler (general manager) of [[Mozilla Organization|mozilla.org]], the division of Netscape that coordinated the Mozilla open source project. In 2001, she was fired during a round of layoffs at [[America Online]], by then the parent of Netscape.<ref name="guardianschofield">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2008/feb/28/interviews.opensource|title=Wrangling the web into an open future|last=Schofield|first=Jack|date=2008-02-28|work=The Guardian|accessdate=2009-02-11 | location=London}}</ref> Despite this, she continued to serve as the Chief Lizard Wrangler of mozilla.org on a volunteer basis.<ref name="Mitchell Baker: The Mozilla Foundation">{{cite web|last=Severance|first=Charles|title=Mitchell Baker: The Mozilla Foundation|url=https://www.coursera.org/learn/internet-history/lecture/XGYk9/mitchell-baker-the-mozilla-foundation|publisher=Coursera|accessdate=26 February 2014}}</ref>

==Open Source Applications Foundation==
In November 2002, Baker was employed by the [[Open Source Applications Foundation]], helping to guide the group's community relations and taking a seat on OSAF's Board of Directors.<ref name="mozillazineosaf">{{cite web|url=http://www.mozillazine.org/talkback.html?article=2678|title=Mitchell Baker Joins OSAF Staff|date=2002-11-18|publisher=mozillaZine|accessdate=2009-02-11}}</ref> From the outset, she also had part of her time assigned to working on mozilla.org issues. However, the division of her hours gradually became more and more weighted towards her Mozilla work at the expense of her OSAF duties, leading to her decision to return to Mozilla full-time in January 2005. She retained her seat on OSAF's board.

==Mozilla Foundation and Mozilla Corporation==
[[Image:Mitchell Baker-20081018.jpg|thumb|Baker in 2008]]
Baker was instrumental in the creation of the [[Mozilla Foundation]], an independent [[non-profit]] that was launched on July 15, 2003 as America Online shut down the Netscape browser division and drastically scaled back its involvement with the Mozilla project. Baker became the President of the Mozilla Foundation and was appointed to the five-person Board of Directors.<ref name="time100"/>

When the [[Mozilla Corporation]] was launched as a [[tax]]able subsidiary of the Mozilla Foundation on August 3, 2005, Baker was named the CEO of the new entity. In addition, she joined the Mozilla Corporation's Board of Directors, though she also kept her seat on the Mozilla Foundation's board, as well as her role as Chairperson.

On January 8, 2008, Mozilla announced that Baker, while retaining her role as Chairperson of the Mozilla Foundation, would no longer serve as CEO of the Corporation, and that MoCo's Chief Operating Officer [[John Lilly (Mozilla)|John Lilly]] would take over this role.<ref name="schofieldinterview">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/blog/2008/apr/07/firefoxsmitchellbakerthean|title=Firefox's Mitchell Baker -- the anniversary interview in full|last=Schofield|first=Jack|date=2008-04-08|accessdate=2009-02-11 | work=The Guardian | location=London}}</ref> The reasons cited for this change was Mozilla's rapid growth, which made it difficult for executives to continue to wear many hats.<ref name="thomsonitunes">{{cite web|url=http://www.itnews.com.au/News/67706,mitchell-baker-steps-down-as-mozilla-appoints-new-boss.aspx|title=Mitchell Baker steps down as Mozilla appoints new boss|last=Thomson|first=Iain|date=2008-01-08|work=IT News|accessdate=2009-02-11}}</ref>

In 2017 she received a total of $2,346,026 in compensation from Mozilla.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://assets.mozilla.net/annualreport/2017/mozilla-2017-form-990.pdf|title=Disclosure : Return of Organization Exempt From Incom Tax|website=assets.mozilla.net|access-date=28 November 2018}}</ref>

==Awards and recognition==
Mitchell Baker was listed among the 2005 Top 100 by [[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]], in the "Scientists & Thinkers" section.<ref name="timetop100">{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,1972656_1972712_1974235,00.html|title=Scientists and Thinkers: Mitchell Baker|last=Andreessen|first=Marc|date=2005-04-18|work=TIME|accessdate=2011-06-27}}</ref>

In 2009, Mitchell Baker received the [[Anita Borg Institute Women of Vision Awards|Anita Borg Institute Women of Vision Award]] for [[Leadership]].<ref name="womenofvision">{{cite web|url=http://www.valleyzen.com/2009/05/08/top-women-in-tech-anita-borg-institute-vision-awards/|title=Top Women in Tech – Backstage at Anita Borg Institute Vision Awards|date=2009-05-08|publisher=ValleyZen|accessdate=2011-06-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://anitaborg.org/profiles/abie-award-winners/leadership/winifred-mitchell-baker/|title=Winifred Mitchell Baker - Anita Borg Institute|date=1 October 2009|website=Anitaborg.org|accessdate=17 September 2017}}</ref>

In 2012, Baker was inducted into the [[Internet Hall of Fame]] by the [[Internet Society]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.internethalloffame.org/inductees/year/2012 |title=2012 Inductees |work=Internet Hall of Fame |accessdate=April 24, 2012}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Baker's husband is Casey Dunn<ref name="7things"/> and she has one son.<ref name="nndb"/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mitchell Baker}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://edcorner.stanford.edu/authorMaterialInfo.html?author=244 Firefox, Community and Lizard Wrangling], Mitchell Baker speaks at Stanford University
* [http://blog.lizardwrangler.com/ Mitchell Baker's weblog]
* [https://www.mozilla.org/foundation/about.html About the Mozilla Foundation] (includes information about Baker's role at the [[Mozilla Foundation]])
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060507075832/http://osafoundation.org/Archive_pages/Mitchell_Baker_bio.htm OSAF Mitchell Baker biography]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7762144.stm BBC Profile of Mitchell Baker for series ''Valley Girls'']

{{s-start}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|title=CEO of [[Mozilla Corporation]]
|years=3 August 2005 – 2008}}
{{s-aft|after=[[John Lilly (computer scientist)|John Lilly]]}}
{{s-break}}

{{s-bef|before=[[Chris Beard (executive)|Chris Beard]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Interim CEO of [[Mozilla Corporation]]
December 2019 – present}}
{{s-inc}}
{{s-end}}

{{Netscape}}
{{Mozilla}}
{{Internet Hall of Fame}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Baker, Mitchell}}
[[Category:Netscape people]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Oakland, California]]
[[Category:Mozilla people]]
[[Category:Lawyers from Oakland, California]]
[[Category:American chairmen of corporations]]
[[Category:American technology chief executives]]
[[Category:American women chief executives]]
[[Category:Women Internet pioneers]]
[[Category:UC Berkeley School of Law alumni]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley alumni]]

Chris Beard (executive)

2020-02-26T12:14:25Z

PatriceNeff: Chris Beard has left Mozilla, succeeded by Mitchell Baker as interim CEO

{{Infobox person
| name = Chris Beard
| image = Chris Beard, CEO of Mozilla.jpg
| occupation = Software executive
| title = CEO of the [[Mozilla Corporation]]
| alma mater = [[University of Ottawa]] [[University of Edinburgh]]
| signature = Chris_Beard_signature.png
| signature_size = 120px
}}

'''Chris Beard''' is a [[Canadians|Canadian]] business leader, and former [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] of the [[Mozilla Corporation]].

In January 1998, he co-founded The Puffin Group in Ottawa, Canada, which was acquired by [[Linuxcare]] less than two years later.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.linuxtoday.com/developer/1999121602904PS|title=Linux Today - National Post: California firm buys Ottawa Linux developer the Puffin Group|work=linuxtoday.com}}</ref> Since then, Beard has mostly worked in senior product and marketing roles in a range of companies, including [[Hewlett-Packard|HP]], [[Cluster File Systems|Cluster File Systems, Inc.]] (acquired by [[Sun Microsystems]]) and [[Mozilla Corporation|Mozilla]]. He joined Mozilla in 2004,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.lizardwrangler.com/2004/11/05/people-on-the-move/|title=People on the Move|work=lizardwrangler.com}}</ref> specifically to launch the [[Firefox]] browser but also having responsibilities for other areas of the organisation, including product, marketing, innovation, communications, community and user engagement at different times during his nine years there.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.lizardwrangler.com/2014/07/28/chris-beard-named-ceo-of-mozilla/|title=Chris Beard Named CEO of Mozilla|work=lizardwrangler.com}}</ref> Prior to his appointment as CEO he most recently served as [[Chief marketing officer|Chief Marketing Officer]].

In July 2013 he joined [[Greylock Partners]] as an [[Entrepreneur in residence|executive in residence]],<ref>[http://lilly.tumblr.com/post/54930217539/announcing-chris-beard-as-greylock John's Tumblr - Announcing Chris Beard as Greylock Executive-in-Residence]. Lilly.tumblr.com (2013-07-08). Retrieved on 2014-02-20.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.greylock.com/teams/64-Chris-Beard|title=Team|work=Greylock Partners|access-date=2014-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140415101340/http://www.greylock.com/teams/64-Chris-Beard|archive-date=2014-04-15|url-status=dead}}</ref> though remaining an advisor to [[Mitchell Baker]], Mozilla's Chair.

Beard was appointed in April 2014 as the [[interim]] [[Chief executive officer|CEO]] at [[Mozilla Corporation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2014/04/14/mozilla-moving-forward/|title=Mozilla Moving Forward|work=The Mozilla Blog}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.siliconbeat.com/2014/04/14/mozilla-names-interim-ceo/|title=Mozilla names interim CEO|work=SiliconBeat}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnet.com/uk/news/mozilla-names-insider-chris-beard-interim-ceo-after-eich-flap/|title=Mozilla names insider Chris Beard as interim CEO|date=14 April 2014|publisher=CBS Interactive|work=CNET}}</ref> On July 28, Beard was confirmed in the position.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2014/07/28/chris-beard-named-ceo-of-mozilla/|title=Chris Beard Named CEO of Mozilla|work=The Mozilla Blog}}</ref>

He is a runner, his first half-marathon being the 2010 Walt Disney World Half Marathon<ref>{{cite web|url=http://results.active.com/events/2010-walt-disney-world-reg-marathon/half-marathon/chris-beard|title=CHRIS BEARD's results for 2010 Walt Disney World &reg Marathon|website=Active.com}}</ref> and his first full marathon being the 2013 Rock 'n' Roll San Diego Marathon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://running.competitor.com/rnrresults?eId=38&eiId=132&seId=&pId=5910|title=2013 Rock 'n' Roll San Diego Marathon - Individual Results}}</ref>

In 2014, he was appointed to the national board of the [[Make-a-Wish Foundation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wish.org/about-us/media-blogger-center/news-releases/2014/barrios-beard-moon-new-to-board|title=Make-A-Wish® America: George Barrios, Chris Beard and Susan Moon Appointed to Make-A-Wish® National Board|publisher=}}</ref>

He has an [[MBA]] in International Business from the [[University of Edinburgh Business School]] (2002–04), where he was also awarded the [[John McFarlane|John McFarlane Prize for Leadership]]. He previously read economics and biochemistry at the [[University of Ottawa]] (1994–96).

On August 29, 2019, Mozilla and Beard jointly announced that 2019 will be his last year as CEO of Mozilla.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2019/08/29/my-next-chapter|title=My Next Chapter|last=Beard|first=Chris|website=The Mozilla Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-29}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blog.mozilla.org/blog/2019/08/29/thank-you-chris|title=Thank you, Chris|last=Baker|first=Mitchell|website=The Mozilla Blog|language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-29}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140415101340/http://www.greylock.com/teams/64-Chris-Beard Entry at Greylock Partners]
*{{Twitter|cbeard}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-bef|rows=2|before=[[Brendan Eich]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Interim CEO of Mozilla Corporation
|years=14 April 2014 – 28 July 2014 }}
{{s-aft|rows=2|after=[[Mitchell Baker]] }}
{{s-break}}
{{s-ttl|title=CEO of [[Mozilla Corporation]]
|years=28 July 2014 – December 2019}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beard, Chris}}
[[Category:Mozilla people]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Open source people]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Canadian businesspeople]]
[[Category:Biography with signature]]

Marcel Hug

2018-04-17T19:11:14Z

PatriceNeff: 2018 Boston Marathon

{{Infobox sportsperson
| name = Marcel Hug
| image = Marcel Hug - Paris 2014, cropped.jpg
| caption = Hug preparing himself before the 2014 Paris Marathon
| birth_name = Marcel Eric Hug
| nickname = The Silver Bullet
| native_name =
| native_lang =
| other_names =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1986|01|16|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Pfyn]], Switzerland
| residence =
| height =
| weight =
| turnedpro = 2010
| disability = Spinal cord injuries
| disability_class = [[T54 (classification)|T54]]
| club = RC Zentralschweiz RC Thurgau
| coach = Paul Odermatt
| years_active = 2005–present
| paralympics = [[2004 Summer Paralympics|2004]] [[2008 Summer Paralympics|2008]] [[2012 Summer Paralympics|2012]] [[2016 Summer Paralympics|2016]]
| education =
| website = {{URL|marcelhug.com}}
| pb =
| medaltemplates =
{{MedalCount
| [[Summer Paralympic Games|Paralympic Games]] | 2|4|2
| [[IPC Athletics World Championships|World Championships]] | 9|9|1
| [[IPC Athletics European Championships|European Championships]] | 3|1|0
}}
{{MedalSport | Men's [[paralympic athletics]] }}
{{MedalCountry | {{SUI}} }}
{{MedalCompetition | [[Paralympic Games]] }}
{{MedalGold |[[2016 Summer Paralympics|2016 Rio]] | [[Athletics at the 2016 Summer Paralympics – Men's marathon|Marathon T54]] }}
{{MedalGold |[[2016 Summer Paralympics|2016 Rio]] | [[Athletics at the 2016 Summer Paralympics – Men's 800 metres T54|800 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver |[[2016 Summer Paralympics|2016 Rio]] | [[Athletics at the 2016 Summer Paralympics – Men's 1500 metres T54|1500 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver |[[2016 Summer Paralympics|2016 Rio]] | [[Athletics at the 2016 Summer Paralympics – Men's 1500 metres T54|5000 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver | [[2012 Summer Paralympics|2012 London]] | [[Athletics at the 2012 Summer Paralympics – Men's 800 metres T54|800 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver | [[2012 Summer Paralympics|2012 London]] | [[Athletics at the 2012 Summer Paralympics – Men's marathon T54|Marathon T54]] }}
{{MedalBronze | [[2004 Summer Paralympics|2004 Athens]] | [[Athletics at the 2004 Summer Paralympics – Men's 800 metres T54|800 m T54]] }}
{{MedalBronze | [[2004 Summer Paralympics|2004 Athens]] | [[Athletics at the 2004 Summer Paralympics – Men's 1500 metres T54|1500 m T54]] }}
{{MedalCompetition | [[IPC Athletics World Championships|World Championships]] }}
{{MedalGold | {{nowrap|[[2006 IPC Athletics World Championships|2006 Assen]]}} | 10000 m T54 }}
{{MedalGold | {{nowrap|[[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships|2011 Christchurch]]}} | {{nowrap|[[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 10000 metres|10000 m T54]]}} }}
{{MedalGold | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships|2013 Lyon]] | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 400 metres|400 m T54]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships|2013 Lyon]] | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 1,500 metres|1500 m T54]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships|2013 Lyon]] | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 5,000 metres|5000 m T54]] }}
{{MedalGold | {{nowrap|[[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships|2013 Lyon]]}} | {{nowrap|[[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 10,000 metres|10000 m T54]]}} }}
{{MedalGold | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships|2013 Lyon]] | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's marathon|Marathon T54]] }}
{{MedalGold|[[2017 World Para Athletics Championships|2017 London]]|[[2017 World Para Athletics Championships – Men's 800 metres|800 m T54]]}}
{{MedalGold|[[2017 World Para Athletics Championships|2017 London]]|[[2017 World Para Athletics Championships – Men's 1500 metres|1500 m T54]]}}
{{MedalSilver | {{nowrap|[[2006 IPC Athletics World Championships|2006 Assen]]}} | 400 m T54 }}
{{MedalSilver | {{nowrap|[[2006 IPC Athletics World Championships|2006 Assen]]}} | 800 m T54 }}
{{MedalSilver | {{nowrap|[[2006 IPC Athletics World Championships|2006 Assen]]}} | 5000 m T54 }}
{{MedalSilver | [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships|2011 Christchurch]] | [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 400 metres|400 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver | [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships|2011 Christchurch]] | [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 800 metres|800 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver | [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships|2011 Christchurch]] | [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 1500 metres|1500 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver | [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships|2011 Christchurch]] | [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 5000 metres|5000 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships|2013 Lyon]] | [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 800 metres|800 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver | [[2015 IPC Athletics World Championships|2015 Doha]] | [[2015 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 5,000 metres|5000 m T54]] }}
{{MedalBronze | [[2015 IPC Athletics World Championships|2015 Doha]] | [[2015 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 800 metres|800 m T54]] }}
{{MedalCompetition | [[IPC Athletics European Championships|IPC European Championships]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[2014 IPC Athletics European Championships|2014 Swansea]] | [[2014 IPC Athletics European Championships – Men's 800 metres|800 m T54]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[2014 IPC Athletics European Championships|2014 Swansea]] | [[2014 IPC Athletics European Championships – Men's 1500 metres|1500 m T54]] }}
{{MedalGold | [[2014 IPC Athletics European Championships|2014 Swansea]] | [[2014 IPC Athletics European Championships – Men's 5000 metres|5000 m T54]] }}
{{MedalSilver | [[2014 IPC Athletics European Championships|2014 Swansea]] | [[2014 IPC Athletics European Championships – Men's 400 metres|400 m T54]] }}
}}

[[File:Marcel Hug Boston Marathon.jpg|thumb|Marcel Hug near halfway point of Boston Marathon 2018 in which he got first place.]]

'''Marcel Eric Hug''' (born 18 January 1986) is a [[Paralympian]] [[Track and field|athlete]] from Switzerland competing in category [[T54 (classification)|T54]] wheelchair racing events. Hug, nicknamed 'The Silver Bullet', has competed in four [[Summer Paralympic Games]] for Switzerland, winning two bronze medals in his first Games in Athens in 2004. In 2010 he set four world records in four days, and at the 2011 World Championships he won a gold in the 10,000 metres and four silver medals, losing the gold in three events to long term rival [[David Weir (athlete)|David Weir]]. This rivalry continued into the [[2012 Summer Paralympics]] in London, where Hug won two silvers, in the 800m and the marathon. In the [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships|2013 World Championships]] Hug dominated the field, winning five golds and a silver. During the [[2016 Summer Paralympics]] in Rio, Hug was one of the most consistent competitors in the T54 class, winning two golds, in the 800 m and marathon, and two silvers medals, in the 1500m and 500m.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nzz.ch/sport/paralympics-marcel-hug-champion-von-rio-ld.117435|title=Marcel Hug, Champion von Rio|last=Wey|first=Alexandra|work=nzz.ch|access-date=18 September 2016|via=NZZ}}</ref>

As well as numerous World and European track medals, Hug is also a world class marathon athlete, winning the men's elite wheelchair event at the [[Berlin Marathon|Berlin]], ([[2011 Berlin Marathon|2011]], [[2012 Berlin Marathon|2012]]), [[New York City Marathon|New York City]] ([[2013 New York City Marathon|2013]], [[2016 New York City Marathon|2016]], [[2017 New York City Marathon|2017]]), [[London Marathon|London]] ([[2014 London Marathon|2014]], [[2016 London Marathon|2016]]), [[Chicago]] ([[2016 Chicago Marathon|2016]]), and [[Boston Marathon]]s ([[2015 Boston Marathon|2015]], [[2016 Boston Marathon|2016]], [[2017 Boston Marathon|2017]], [[2018 Boston Marathon|2018]]).

==Career history==

===Early career===
Hug was born in the municipality of [[Pfyn]] in Switzerland in 1986.<ref name="Scheuringer">{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+Swiss+silver+bullet.-a0302595333 |title=The Swiss silver bullet |accessdate=13 April 2014 |date=1 September 2012 |publisher=thefreelibrary.com |work=Swiss News |first=Carina |last=Scheuringer}}</ref> Born with [[spina bifida]], Hug grew up on a farm, the youngest of four brothers.<ref name="marcelhug">{{cite web |url=http://www.marcelhug.com/d/biografie/ |title=Biography |publisher=marcelhug.com |accessdate=13 April 2014}}</ref> As a young child, he met Swiss wheelchair racer, and Hug's sporting idol, [[Franz Nietlispach]], beginning Hug's desire to take up athletics.<ref name="Scheuringer" /> The ten-year-old Hug was introduced to racing when a sports teacher brought in an old racing wheelchair.<ref name="Scheuringer" /> This led to Hug competing in his first wheelchair race that year, the 3 km youth race which was part of the Schenkon Marathon.<ref name="Scheuringer" /> Winning this event inspired him to take up wheelchair athletics and he joined the Swiss Paraplegic Centre in [[Nottwil]] where he teamed up with trainer Paul Odermatt.<ref name="Scheuringer" /><ref name="marcelhug" />

The following years saw Hug develop from a junior athlete into an elite racer and he began competing in both Switzerland and abroad.<ref name="marcelhug" /> In 2001 he made the athletics team for Wheelchair Sport Switzerland (''Rollstuhlsport Schweiz''), and the same year he was accepted into the sports school at Kreuzlingen. Hug described the fact that he was the only wheelchair athlete at the school as being "immensely important for my personal development."<ref name="Scheuringer" /> In 2002 Hug accepted a place at the Schule fur Beruf und Weiterbildung (School for Employment and Further Education) in [[Romanshorn]], believing that an education outside sport would be vital in his later life.<ref name="Scheuringer" />

===Elite career===
Hug competed in his first world class international when he was selected to represent Switzerland at the [[2004 Summer Paralympics]] in Athens despite not being part of the national team setup. He took part in both men's wheelchair relay races the [[Athletics at the 2004 Summer Paralympics – Men's 4 × 100 metre relay T53–T54|4 × 100m T53–T54]] and [[Athletics at the 2004 Summer Paralympics – Men's 4 × 400 metre relay T53–T54|4 × 400m T53–T54]], although Switzerland failed to progress through to the finals in either events. As an individual he competed in four races, reaching the finals in each.<ref name="IPC bio">{{cite web |url=http://www.paralympic.org/athlete/marcel-hug |title=IPC Athletics: Marcel Hug |publisher=paralympic.org |accessdate=13 April 2014}}</ref> He failed to medal in the 400m and 5000m but finishing third in both the 800m (1:32.66) and 1500m (3:05.48) where he won his two bronze medals.<ref name="IPC bio" /> On returning from the Games he was named Newcomer of the Year 2004 by Credit Suisse Sports Award and the following year he graduated to the Swiss national team.<ref name="Scheuringer" /><ref name="marcelhug" />

In 2006 Hug competed for Switzerland at the [[2006 IPC Athletics World Championships|IPC Athletics World Championships]] in Assen in the Netherlands. There he took his first major international gold medal when he won the men's 10,000m in the T54 (23:06.71). He collected a further three medals at the games, silvers in the 400m (48.97), 800m (1:39.10) and 5,000m (11:20.68).<ref name="Infostrada bio">{{cite web |url=http://ipc.infostradasports.com/asp/lib/theasp.asp?pageid=8937&sportid=513&personid=688389&refreshauto=1 |title=Hug, Marcel |accessdate=13 April 2014 |publisher=ipc.infostradasports.com}}</ref> In the 400m he lost the gold to British racer [[David Weir (athlete)|David Weir]], beginning a rivalry between the two athletes that would define many of their races on the track and in marathons over the following years.<ref name="Scheuringer" /><ref name="IPC bio" />

In 2008 Hug travelled to Beijing with the Swiss team to compete in the [[2008 Summer Paralympics|Summer Paralympics]]. There he competed in four tracks events: the [[Athletics at the 2008 Summer Paralympics – Men's 400 metres T54|400m]], [[Athletics at the 2008 Summer Paralympics – Men's 800 metres T54|800m]], [[Athletics at the 2008 Summer Paralympics – Men's 1500 metres T54|1,500m]] and [[Athletics at the 2008 Summer Paralympics – Men's 5000 metres T54|5,000m]]; and the [[Athletics at the 2008 Summer Paralympics – Men's marathon T54|marathon]]. By his own admission the games were a disappointment, as he failed to record a single podium finish, crashing out in both the 1,500m and the marathon.<ref name="Scheuringer" /><ref name="IPC bio" /> His fortunes changed over the next two years and this was highlighted by his results in the 2010 season. Between the 24 and 27 June 2010 Hug competed at a race meet in Switzerland. There he set new world records in four events in the T54 category: the 800m (1:31.12), 1,500m (2:54.51), 5,000m (9:53.05) and 10,000m (19:50.04).<ref name="IPC bio" />

The next major competition for Hug was the [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championship]] held in Christchurch, New Zealand. Despite going into the Championship as the new world champion, David Weir, whose records Hug had broken in 2010, was also hitting form as he eyed the Paralympic finals in his home capital of London in 2012. Hug ambitiously entered all eight events available to him. He was disqualified from his less favoured sprint events, the [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 100 metres|100m]] and [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 200 metres|200m]], but in the mid distance [[2011 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 400 metres|400m]], he took the silver, finishing second to China's [[Liu Chengming]]. In the 800m, 1,500m and 5,000m Hug faced Weir in the finals, and was unable to beat his British rival, taking silver behind Weir in all three events. Hug was still able to leave the Championship with a gold when he took the 10,000m, but failed to complete the marathon.<ref name="Scheuringer" /><ref name="IPC bio" /> It was during these championships that Hug gained the nickname 'The Silver Bullet', given to him in reference to his trademark silver helmet that he wears when racing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.lyon-2013.com/call-him-king-hug/ |title=Call him King Hug ! |first=Renaud |last=Goude |accessdate=13 April 2014 |date=28 July 2013 |publisher=lyon-2013.com |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225020504/http://en.lyon-2013.com/call-him-king-hug/ |archivedate=25 February 2014 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paralympic.org/feature/weir-i-d-put-money-marcel-hug-win-gold |title=Weir: I’d put money on Marcel Hug to win gold |accessdate=13 April 2014 |date=5 July 2013 |publisher=paralympic.org}}</ref>

2011 also saw Hug win his first major city marathon event when he came first in the [[2011 Berlin Marathon]].<ref name="nyrr">{{cite web |url=http://www.nyrr.org/newsroom/press-release/world-champions-marcel-hug-and-manuela-sch%C3%A4r-join-new-york-city-marathon-wheelchair-field |title=World Champions Marcel Hug and Manuela Schär Join New York City Marathon Wheelchair Field |date=22 October 2013 |accessdate=13 April 2014 |publisher=nyrr.org}}</ref>
[[File:London Marathon 2013 Men's Wheelchair.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Hug, in his trademark silver helmet challenges David Weir at the [[2013 London Marathon]]]]
The 2011 World Championships set the scene for the build-up to the [[2012 Summer Paralympics]], held in London. Hug entered five events, reaching the finals in all of them. In the [[Athletics at the 2012 Summer Paralympics – Men's 400 metres T54|400m]] he qualified in second place in his heat, but finished fifth in the final. In the [[Athletics at the 2012 Summer Paralympics – Men's 800 metres T54|800m]] he came through his heat in second place to David Weir, and the result was repeated in the final, Hug taking silver to Weir's gold. In both the [[Athletics at the 2012 Summer Paralympics – Men's 1500 metres|1,500m]] and [[Athletics at the 2012 Summer Paralympics – Men's 5000 metres|5,000m]] he finished just outside the medals in fourth place.<ref name="Infostrada bio" /> In the [[Athletics at the 2012 Summer Paralympics – Men's marathon|marathon]], the final race of the Athletics program of the Paralympics, only a second separated Weir in gold, Hug in silver and Australia's [[Kurt Fearnley]] in bronze. Hug completed 2012 by retaining his marathon crown in German by winning the [[2012 Berlin Marathon]].<ref name="nyrr" />

Weir's decision not to compete at the [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships]] in Lyon, opened up the field. Hug took full opportunity of the situation and dominated the T54 track events. He entered six events winning gold in five of them: [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 400 metres|400 metres]], [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 1,500 metres|1,500 metres]], [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 5,000 metres|5,000 metres]], [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 10,000 metres|10,000 metres]] and [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's marathon|Marathon]]. The only person to best him at the Championship was [[Kim Gyu-Dae]] of South Korea who pushed Hug into silver medal position in the [[2013 IPC Athletics World Championships – Men's 800 metres|800 metres]]. In November 2013 Hug entered his fourth [[New York Marathon]], and in a close race edged out South Africa's [[Ernst Van Dyk]] to take the title.<ref name="nyrr" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newsday.com/sports/swiss-marcel-hug-ekes-out-nyc-marathon-wheelchair-win-by-less-than-a-second-1.6371909 |title=Marathon wheelchair win by less than a second |first=John |last=Jeansonne |date=3 November 2013 |accessdate=13 April 2014 |publisher=newsday.com}}</ref>

On 13 April 2014, a week after winning the [[Paris Marathon]], Hug entered the [[2014 London Marathon|London Marathon]], beating his long-time rival Weir into second place to take the men's wheelchair title.<ref name="BBC-London" /> This was Hug's first London Marathon win after finishing second in 2010, 2012 and 2013.<ref name="BBC-London">{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/wales/26979804 |publisher=BBC Sport |title=London Marathon 2014: David Weir loses out to Marcel Hug |date=13 April 2014 |accessdate=13 April 2014}}</ref>

After finishing fourth in the last two attempts, on 20 April 2015 Hug finished first in the [[2015 Boston Marathon|Boston Marathon]], beating ten-times winner [[Ernst Van Dyk]] into second place by over six minutes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bostonglobe.com/sports/2015/04/20/marcel-hug-wins-boston-marathon-men-wheelchair-race/OomSBwMCsOGUOUx9OX3hwJ/story.html |title=Marcel Hug wins men’s wheelchair race |accessdate=11 June 2015 |date=20 April 2014 |author=Gulizia, Anthony |work=The Boston Globe}}</ref> Later that year Hug competed in the [[2015 IPC Athletics World Championships]] in Doha, with commentators believing the major medals would be contested between Hug and Weir.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/disability-sport/34500080 |publisher=BBC Sport |title=IPC World Athletics: What are the major rivalries in Doha? |date=20 October 2015 |accessdate=17 December 2015 |author=Hudson, Elizabeth}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paralympic.org/news/doha-2015-prediction-panel-which-event-will-be-most-competitive |publisher=paralympic.org |title=Doha 2015 Prediction Panel: which event will be most competitive? |date=17 October 2015 |accessdate=17 December 2015}}</ref> Instead the longer events were dominated by Thailand's [[Rawat Tana]], who took gold in both the 1500m and 5000m. Hug finished fifth in the 1500m but managed to win a silver in the 5000m.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paralympic.org/static/info/doha-2015/eng/at/ATR173A_QA2015ATM595101ENG.htm |title=Results – Men's Shot Put F54 Final |accessdate=17 December 2015 |date=22 October 2015 |work=[[International Paralympic Committee|IPC]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paralympic.org/static/info/doha-2015/eng/at/ATR173A_QA2015ATM525101ENG.htm |title=Results – Men's 5000m T54 Final |accessdate=17 December 2015 |date=26 October 2015 |work=[[International Paralympic Committee|IPC]]}}</ref> Hug also entered the 800m, where he finished third to collect his second medal of the games.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paralympic.org/static/info/doha-2015/eng/at/ATR173A_QA2015ATM854101ENG.htm |title=Results – Men's 800m T54 Final |accessdate=17 December 2015 |date=29 October 2015 |work=[[International Paralympic Committee|IPC]]}}</ref> In 2016 Hug won two elite city marathon events in the space of a week. On 18 April Hug won his [[2016 Boston Marathon|second Boston Marathon]] with a time of 1:24.01, and followed this six days later with his [[2016 London Marathon|second London Marathon]] victory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://boston.cbslocal.com/2016/04/18/marcel-hug-wins-2016-boston-marathon-mens-wheelchair-race-in-tight-finish/ |title=Marcel Hug, Tatyana McFadden Repeat As Boston Marathon Wheelchair Champions |accessdate=18 April 2016 |date=18 April 2016 |work=CBS Boston}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/athletics/36123229 |title=London Marathon: David Weir beaten by Marcel Hug in men's wheelchair race |accessdate=24 April 2016 |date=24 April 2016 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

In 2016 Hug qualified for his fourth consecutive Paralympics, travelling to Rio de Janeiro where he took part in four events at the [[2016 Summer Paralympics]]. He won medals in all four events, two silvers in the 1500m and 5000m races and his first Paralympic gold medals, one in the 800m and then on the last day he also won the men's T54 marathon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aol.co.uk/sport/2016/09/15/rio-recap-gold-at-last-for-hug-brazil-into-football-final/|title=Rio Recap: Gold at last for Hug, Brazil into football final|work=aol.co.uk|date=16 September 2016|accessdate=9 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/live/disability-sport/37163734|title=Rio Paralympics: Weir out of marathon - as it happened|work=BBC Sport|date=18 September 2016|accessdate=9 October 2016}}</ref> After Rio, Hug continued to compete on the World Marathon circuit, and in October he won his first [[Chicago Marathon]], beating [[Kurt Fearnley]] in a photo finish.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcchicago.com/news/local/mens-wheelchair-race-winner-2016-chicago-marathon-396448211.html|title=Marcel Hug Ruled Winner of 2016 Chicago Marathon Men's Wheelchair Race After Stunning Photo Finish|work=nbcchicago.com|date=9 October 2016|accessdate=9 October 2016}}</ref> In November, in a repeat of a photo finish against Kurt Fearnley, he won his second New York City Marathon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nbcnewyork.com/news/local/Tatyana-McFadden-wins-Fourth-straight-wheelchair-New-York-City-Marathon-400169561.html|title=Tatyana McFadden Wins Fourth Straight Wheelchair New York City Marathon|work=nbcnewyork.com|date=6 November 2016|accessdate=6 November 2016|first=Larry|last=Fleisher}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* {{IPC profile|surname=Hug|givenname=Marcel}}

{{Laureus World Sportsperson of the Year with a Disability}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hug, Marcel}}
[[Category:1986 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Frauenfeld District]]
[[Category:Swiss male wheelchair racers]]
[[Category:People with spina bifida]]
[[Category:Paralympic athletes of Switzerland]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2004 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2012 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Athletes (track and field) at the 2016 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Paralympic bronze medalists for Switzerland]]
[[Category:Paralympic silver medalists for Switzerland]]
[[Category:Paralympic gold medalists for Switzerland]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2004 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2012 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:Medalists at the 2016 Summer Paralympics]]
[[Category:New York City Marathon male winners]]
[[Category:London Marathon winners]]
[[Category:Boston Marathon winners]]
[[Category:Chicago Marathon winners]]
[[Category:Berlin Marathon winners]]
[[Category:World record holders in Paralympic athletics]]
[[Category:Laureus World Sports Awards winners]]

Satellite navigation

2016-12-18T10:23:38Z

PatriceNeff: Fix link to Galileo

A '''satellite navigation''' or '''satnav''' system is a system that uses [[satellite]]s to provide autonomous geo-spatial positioning. It allows small [[electronics|electronic]] receivers to determine their location ([[longitude]], [[latitude]], and [[altitude]]/[[elevation]]) to high precision (within a few metres) using [[time signal]]s transmitted along a [[Line-of-sight propagation|line of sight]] by [[radio]] from satellites. The system can be used for navigation or for tracking the position of something fitted with a receiver (satellite tracking). The signals also allow the electronic receiver to calculate the current local time to high precision, which allows time synchronisation. Satnav systems operate independently of any telephonic or internet reception, though these technologies can enhance the usefulness of the positioning information generated.

A satellite navigation system with global coverage may be termed a '''global navigation satellite system''' ('''GNSS'''). {{As of|2016|12}} only the [[United States]] NAVSTAR [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS), the [[Russia]]n [[GLONASS]] and the [[EU]]s [[Galileo (satellite navigation)|Galileo]] are global operational GNSSs. [[China]] is in the process of expanding its regional [[BeiDou Navigation Satellite System]] into the global [[Compass navigation system]] by 2020.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite web|url=http://eng.chinamil.com.cn/news-channels/china-military-news/2010-05/20/content_4222569.htm |title=Beidou satellite navigation system to cover whole world in 2020 |publisher=Eng.chinamil.com.cn |date= |accessdate=2011-12-30}}</ref> The [[European Union|European Union's]] [[Galileo (satellite navigation)|Galileo]] is a global GNSS scheduled to be fully operational by 2020.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite web|url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-16-4366_en.htm |title=Galileo goes live! |publisher=europa.eu |date=2016-12-14 }}</ref> India currently has [[satellite-based augmentation system]], [[GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation]] (GAGAN), which enhances the accuracy of NAVSTAR GPS and GLONASS positions. India has already launched the [[Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System|IRNSS]], with an operational name NAVIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation), a constellation of satellites for navigation in and around the [[Indian Subcontinent]]. It is expected to be fully operational by June 2016. [[France]] and [[Japan]] are in the process of developing regional navigation systems as well.

Global coverage for each system is generally achieved by a [[satellite constellation]] of 20–30 [[medium Earth orbit]] (MEO) satellites spread between several [[orbital planes]]. The actual systems vary, but use [[orbital inclination]]s of >50° and [[orbital period]]s of roughly twelve hours (at an altitude of about {{convert|20000|km|mi|disp=or}}).

==Classification==
Satellite navigation systems that provide enhanced accuracy and integrity monitoring usable for civil navigation are classified as follows:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ifatca.org/system/files/public_docs/gnss.pdf |publisher=IFATCA |title=A Beginner's Guide to GNSS in Europe |format=PDF |accessdate=20 May 2015 }}</ref>

* '''GNSS-1'''{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} is the first generation system and is the combination of existing satellite navigation systems (GPS and GLONASS), with [[Satellite Based Augmentation System]]s (SBAS) or [[Ground Based Augmentation System]]s (GBAS). In the United States, the satellite based component is the [[Wide Area Augmentation System]] (WAAS), in Europe it is the [[European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service]] (EGNOS), and in Japan it is the [[Multi-Functional Transport Satellite|Multi-Functional Satellite Augmentation System]] (MSAS). Ground based augmentation is provided by systems like the [[Local Area Augmentation System]] (LAAS).{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}
* '''GNSS-2'''{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} is the second generation of systems that independently provides a full civilian satellite navigation system, exemplified by the European Galileo positioning system. These systems will provide the accuracy and integrity monitoring necessary for civil navigation; including aircraft. This system consists of L1 and L2 frequencies (in the [[L band]] of the radio spectrum) for civil use and L5 for system integrity. Development is also in progress to provide GPS with civil use L2 and L5 frequencies, making it a GNSS-2 system.[[Global Positioning System#Navigation signals|¹]]{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}}
* Core Satellite navigation systems, currently GPS (United States), GLONASS (Russian Federation), Galileo (European Union) and Compass (China).
* Global Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) such as Omnistar and [[StarFire (navigation system)|StarFire]].
* Regional SBAS including WAAS (US), EGNOS (EU), MSAS (Japan) and [[GPS-aided geo-augmented navigation|GAGAN]] (India).
* Regional Satellite Navigation Systems such as China's [[Beidou navigation system|Beidou]], India's [[Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System|NAVIC]], and Japan's proposed [[QZSS]].
* Continental scale Ground Based Augmentation Systems (GBAS) for example the Australian GRAS and the US Department of Transportation National [[Differential GPS]] (DGPS) service.
* Regional scale GBAS such as CORS networks.
* Local GBAS typified by a single GPS reference station operating [[Real Time Kinematic]] (RTK) corrections.

==History and theory==
[[File:Accuracy of Navigation Systems.svg|thumb]]
Early predecessors were the ground based [[Decca Navigator System|DECCA]], [[LORAN]], [[GEE]] and [[Omega Navigation System|Omega]] [[radio navigation]] systems, which used terrestrial [[longwave]] radio [[transmitter]]s instead of satellites. These [[positioning system]]s broadcast a radio pulse from a known "master" location, followed by a pulse repeated from a number of "slave" stations. The delay between the reception of the master signal and the slave signals allowed the receiver to deduce the distance to each of the slaves, providing a [[fix (position)|fix]].

The first satellite navigation system was [[Transit (satellite)|Transit]], a system deployed by the US military in the 1960s. Transit's operation was based on the [[Doppler effect]]: the satellites travelled on well-known paths and broadcast their signals on a well-known [[frequency]]. The received frequency will differ slightly from the broadcast frequency because of the movement of the satellite with respect to the receiver. By monitoring this frequency shift over a short time interval, the receiver can determine its location to one side or the other of the satellite, and several such measurements combined with a precise knowledge of the satellite's orbit can fix a particular position.

Part of an orbiting satellite's broadcast included its precise orbital data. In order to ensure accuracy, the [[US Naval Observatory|US Naval Observatory (USNO)]] continuously observed the precise orbits of these satellites. As a satellite's orbit deviated, the USNO would send the updated information to the satellite. Subsequent broadcasts from an updated satellite would contain the most recent accurate information about its orbit.

Modern systems are more direct. The satellite broadcasts a signal that contains orbital data (from which the position of the satellite can be calculated) and the precise time the signal was transmitted. The orbital data is transmitted in a data message that is superimposed on a code that serves as a timing reference. The satellite uses an [[atomic clock]] to maintain synchronization of all the satellites in the constellation. The receiver compares the time of broadcast encoded in the transmission of three (at sea level) or four different satellites, thereby measuring the time-of-flight to each satellite. Several such measurements can be made at the same time to different satellites, allowing a continual fix to be generated in real time using an adapted version of [[trilateration]]: see [[GNSS positioning calculation]] for details.

Each distance measurement, regardless of the system being used, places the receiver on a spherical shell at the measured distance from the broadcaster. By taking several such measurements and then looking for a point where they meet, a fix is generated. However, in the case of fast-moving receivers, the position of the signal moves as signals are received from several satellites. In addition, the radio signals slow slightly as they pass through the ionosphere, and this slowing varies with the receiver's angle to the satellite, because that changes the distance through the ionosphere. The basic computation thus attempts to find the shortest directed line tangent to four oblate spherical shells centred on four satellites. Satellite navigation receivers reduce errors by using combinations of signals from multiple satellites and multiple correlators, and then using techniques such as [[Kalman filter]]ing to combine the noisy, partial, and constantly changing data into a single estimate for position, time, and velocity.

==Civil and military uses==
{{Main article|GNSS applications}}
[[File:Satellite-navigation.jpg|thumb|Satellite navigation using a [[laptop]] and a [[GPS]] receiver]]
The original motivation for satellite navigation was for military applications. Satellite navigation allows the precision in the delivery of weapons to targets, greatly increasing their lethality whilst reducing inadvertent casualties from mis-directed weapons. (See [[Guided bomb]]). Satellite navigation also allows forces to be directed and to locate themselves more easily, reducing the [[fog of war]].

The ability to supply satellite navigation signals is also the ability to deny their availability. The operator of a satellite navigation system potentially has the ability to degrade or eliminate satellite navigation services over any territory it desires.

==Global satellite navigation systems==
{{Comparison satellite navigation orbits}}
[[File:Launched GNSS 2014.jpg|thumb|launched GNSS satellites 1978 to 2014]]

===Operational===

====GPS====
{{Main article|Global Positioning System}}

The United States' Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of up to 32 [[medium Earth orbit]] satellites in six different [[orbital plane (astronomy)|orbital plane]]s, with the exact number of satellites varying as older satellites are retired and replaced. Operational since 1978 and globally available since 1994, GPS is currently the world's most utilized satellite navigation system.

====GLONASS====
{{Main article|GLONASS}}
The formerly [[Soviet Union|Soviet]], and now [[Russia]]n, '''''Glo'''bal'naya '''Na'''vigatsionnaya '''S'''putnikovaya '''S'''istema'' ({{lang-ru|ГЛОбальная НАвигационная Спутниковая Система}}, GLObal NAvigation Satellite System), or GLONASS, is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides a civilian radionavigation-satellite service and is also used by the Russian Aerospace Defence Forces. The full orbital constellation of 24 GLONASS satellites enables full global coverage.

====Galileo====
{{Main article|Galileo (satellite navigation)}}
The [[European Union]] and [[European Space Agency]] agreed in March 2002 to introduce their own alternative to GPS, called the [[Galileo positioning system]]. Galileo became operational on 15 December 2016 <ref>{{cite news |publisher=europa.eu |url=http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-16-4366_en.htm|date=14 December 2016}}</ref> At an estimated cost of EUR 3.0 billion,<ref>{{cite news |publisher=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/5286200.stm |title=Boost to Galileo sat-nav system |date=25 August 2006 |accessdate=2008-06-10}}</ref> the system of 30 [[Medium Earth orbit|MEO]] satellites was originally scheduled to be operational in 2010. The original year to become operational was 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=IP/10/7&language=en |title= Commission awards major contracts to make Galileo operational early 2014 |date=2010-01-07 |accessdate=2010-04-19}}</ref> The first experimental satellite was launched on 28 December 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Navigation/The_future_-_Galileo/First_Galileo_Launch/GIOVE-A_launch_news|title=GIOVE-A launch News|date=2005-12-28|accessdate=2015-01-16}}</ref> Galileo is expected to be compatible with the [[GPS modernization|modernized GPS]] system. The receivers will be able to combine the signals from both Galileo and GPS satellites to greatly increase the accuracy. Galileo is expected to be in full service in 2020 and at a substantially higher cost.<ref name=autogenerated2 />
The main modulation used in Galileo Open Service signal is the [[Composite Binary Offset Carrier]] (CBOC) modulation.

===In Development===

====BeiDou====
{{Main article|BeiDou Navigation Satellite System}}
[[China]] has indicated they plan to complete the entire second generation Beidou Navigation Satellite System (BDS or BeiDou-2, formerly known as COMPASS), by expanding current regional (Asia-Pacific) service into global coverage by 2020.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> The BeiDou-2 system is proposed to consist of 30 [[Medium Earth orbit|MEO]] satellites and five geostationary satellites. A 16-satellite regional version (covering Asia and Pacific area) was completed by December 2012.

===Comparison of systems===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! System
! [[GPS]]
! [[GLONASS]]
! [[Beidou Navigation Satellite System|BeiDou]]
! [[Galileo (satellite navigation)|Galileo]]
! [[Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System|'''NAVIC''']]
|-
! Owner
| [[United States]]
| [[Russian Federation]]
| [[China]]
| [[European Union]]
| [[India]]
|-
! [[Channel access method|Coding]]
| [[CDMA]]
| [[FDMA]]
| [[CDMA]]
| [[CDMA]]
|[[CDMA]]
|-
! Orbital altitude
| {{convert|20,180|km|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|19,130|km|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|21,150|km|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|23,222|km|abbr=on}}
| {{convert|36,000|km|abbr=on}}
|-
! Period
| 11.97 h (11 h 58 min)
| 11.26 h (11 h 16 min)
| 12.63 h (12 h 38 min)
| 14.08 h (14 h 5 min)
|
|-
! Revolutions per [[sidereal day]]
| 2
| 17/8
| 17/9
| 17/10
|
|-
! Number of satellites
| '''32''' (at least 24 by design)<ref>{{cite web|title=GPS Space Segment|url=http://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/space/#generations|accessdate=2015-07-24}}</ref>
| '''28''' (at least 24 by design) including:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glonass-ianc.rsa.ru/en/GLONASS/|title=GLONASS status|accessdate=2015-07-24}}</ref> 24 operational 2 under check by the satellite prime contractor 2 in flight tests phase
| 5 geostationary orbit (GEO) satellites, 30 medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellites
| 18 full operation capable satellites in orbit 30 operational satellites budgeted
|Total : 7
In Orbit : 7
|-
! Frequency
| 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) 1.2276 GHz (L2 signal)
| Around 1.602 GHz (SP) Around 1.246 GHz (SP)
| 1.561098 GHz (B1) 1.589742 GHz (B1-2) 1.20714 GHz (B2) 1.26852 GHz (B3)
| 1.164–1.215 GHz (E5a and E5b) 1.260–1.300 GHz (E6) 1.559–1.592 GHz (E2-L1-E11)
|[[L band|L5-band]]

1164.45–1188.45 MHz

[[S-band]]
2483.5-2500 MHz)
|-
! Status
| Operational
| Operational
| 22 satellites operational, 40 additional satellites 2016-2020
| 18 satellites operational, 12 additional satellites 2016-2020
|Operational

|}

==Regional satellite navigation systems==

===BeiDou-1===
{{Main article|Beidou Navigation Satellite System}}
Chinese regional (Asia-Pacific, 16 satellites) network to be expanded into the whole global system which consists of all 35 satellites by 2020.

===NAVIC===
{{Main article|NAVIC}}
The '''NAVIC''' or '''NAVigation with Indian Constellation''' is an autonomous regional satellite navigation system developed by [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) which would be under the total control of [[Indian government]]. The government approved the project in May 2006, with the intention of the system completed and implemented on 28 April 2016. It will consist of a constellation of 7 navigational satellites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/sep/27gps.htm |title=India to develop its own version of GPS |publisher=Rediff.com |date= |accessdate=2011-12-30}}</ref> 3 of the satellites will be placed in the [[Geostationary orbit|Geostationary orbit (GEO)]] and the remaining 4 in the [[Geosynchronous orbit|Geosynchronous orbit(GSO)]] to have a larger signal footprint and lower number of satellites to map the region. It is intended to provide an all-weather absolute position accuracy of better than 7.6 meters throughout [[India]] and within a region extending approximately 1,500 km around it.<ref>{{cite web|author=S. Anandan |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/article393892.ece |title=Launch of first satellite for Indian Regional Navigation Satellite system next year |publisher=Beta.thehindu.com |date=2010-04-10 |accessdate=2011-12-30}}</ref> A goal of complete Indian control has been stated, with the [[Satellite space segment|space segment]], [[ground segment]] and user receivers all being built in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/2007/09/05002237/India-to-build-a-constellation.html |title=India to build a constellation of 7 navigation satellites by 2012 |publisher=Livemint.com |date=2007-09-05 |accessdate=2011-12-30}}</ref> All seven satellites, [[IRNSS-1A]], [[IRNSS-1B]], [[IRNSS-1C]], [[IRNSS-1D]], [[IRNSS-1E]], [[IRNSS-1F]], and [[IRNSS-1G]], of the proposed constellation were precisely launched on 1 July 2013, 4 April 2014, 16 October 2014, 28 March 2015, 20 January 2016, 10 March 2016 and 28 April 2016 respectively from [[Satish Dhawan Space Centre]].<ref>The first satellite IRNSS-1A of the proposed constellation, developed at a cost of 16 billion (US$280 million),[3] was[4] launched on 1 July 2013 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://gpsworld.com/isro-all-7-irnss-satellites-in-orbit-by-march|title=ISRO: All 7 IRNSS Satellites in Orbit by March |publisher=gpsworld.com | date=2015-10-08 | accessdate=2015-11-12}}</ref> The system is expected to be fully operational by August 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/karnataka/navic-could-be-operationalised-during-julyaugust-this-year/article8639174.ece}}</ref>

===QZSS===
{{Main article|Quasi-Zenith Satellite System}}
The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), is a proposed three-satellite regional [[time transfer]] system and enhancement for [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] covering [[Japan]]. The first demonstration satellite was launched in September 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://qzss.jaxa.jp/is-qzss/qzss_e.html |title=JAXA Quasi-Zenith Satellite System |accessdate=2009-02-22 |publisher=JAXA}}</ref>

==Augmentation==
[[GNSS augmentation]] is a method of improving a navigation system's attributes, such as accuracy, reliability, and availability, through the integration of external information into the calculation process, for example, the [[Wide Area Augmentation System]], the [[European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service]], the [[Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System]], [[Differential GPS]], and [[inertial navigation system]]s.

===DORIS===
{{Main article|DORIS (geodesy)}}
Doppler Orbitography and Radio-positioning Integrated by Satellite (DORIS) is a [[France|French]] precision navigation system. Unlike other GNSS systems, it is based on static emitting stations around the world, the receivers being on satellites, in order to precisely determine their orbital position. The system may be used also for mobile receivers on land with more limited usage and coverage. Used with traditional GNSS systems, it pushes the accuracy of positions to centimetric precision (and to millimetric precision for altimetric application and also allows monitoring very tiny seasonal changes of Earth rotation and deformations), in order to build a much more precise geodesic reference system.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aviso.altimetry.fr/en/doris.html |title=DORIS information page |publisher=Jason.oceanobs.com |date= |accessdate=2011-12-30}}</ref>

==Low Earth orbit satellite phone networks==
The two current operational low Earth orbit [[satellite phone]] networks are able to track transceiver units with accuracy of a few kilometers using doppler shift calculations from the satellite. The coordinates are sent back to the transceiver unit where they can be read using [[AT command]]s or a [[graphical user interface]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://common.globalstar.com/doc/common/en/products/gsp1700_usermanual.pdf |title=Globalstar GSP-1700 manual |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-12-30}}</ref><ref>[http://www.skyhelp.net/acrobat/jan_05/Iridium%20SBD-FAQ%201-05.pdf ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109014357/http://www.skyhelp.net/acrobat/jan_05/Iridium%20SBD-FAQ%201-05.pdf |date=November 9, 2005 }}</ref> This can also be used by the gateway to enforce restrictions on geographically bound calling plans.

==Positioning calculation==
{{Main article|GNSS positioning calculation}}


==See also==
{{Portal|Spaceflight}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
*[[Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics]]
*[[Geoinformatics]]
*[[GNSS reflectometry]]
*[[GPS-aided geo-augmented navigation]]
*[[GPS spoofing]]
*[[List of emerging technologies]]
*[[Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring]]
*[[Software GNSS Receiver]]
*[[Space Integrated GPS/INS]] (SIGI)
*[[Pseudolite]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Office for Outer Space Affairs of the United Nations (2010), ''Report on Current and Planned Global and Regional Navigation Satellite Systems and Satellite-based Augmentation Systems''. [http://www.oosa.unvienna.org/pdf/publications/icg_ebook.pdf]

==External links==









===Information on specific GNSS systems===
* [http://www.esa.int/esaNA/GGG63950NDC_egnos_0.html ESA information on EGNOS]
* [http://www.astronautix.com/craft/beidou.htm Information on the Beidou system]

===Organizations related to GNSS===
* [http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SAP/gnss/icg.html United Nations International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems (ICG)]
* [http://www.ion.org/meetings/#gnss Institute of Navigation (ION) GNSS Meetings]
* [http://igscb.jpl.nasa.gov/ The International GNSS Service (IGS), formerly the International GPS Service]
* [http://www.ignss.org/ International Global Navigation Satellite Systems Society Inc (IGNSS)]
* [http://www.iers.org/MainDisp.csl?pid=84-63 International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS) International GNSS Service (IGS)]
* [http://www.pnt.gov/ US National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing]
* [http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/orbits/ US National Geodetic Survey] Orbits for the Global Positioning System satellites in the Global Navigation Satellite System
* [http://facility.unavco.org/science_tech/gnss_modernization.html UNAVCO GNSS Modernization]
* [http://www.apecgit.org/ Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) GNSS Implementation Team]

===Supportive or illustrative sites===
* [http://rhp.detmich.com/gps.html GPS and GLONASS Simulation] ([[Java applet]]) Simulation and graphical depiction of the motion of space vehicles, including [[Dilution of precision (GPS)|DOP]] computation.
* [http://northsurveying.com/index.php/soporte/gnss-and-geodesy-concepts GPS, GNSS, Geodesy and Navigation Concepts in depth]

{{TimeSig}}
{{Satellite navigation systems}}
{{Spaceflight}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Satellite Navigation}}
[[Category:American inventions]]
[[Category:Aircraft instruments]]
[[Category:Avionics]]
[[Category:Geodesy]]
[[Category:Maritime communication]]
[[Category:Navigation]]
[[Category:Satellite navigation systems| ]]

Talk:Incremental reading

2015-12-22T05:19:35Z

PatriceNeff: Accept archive of Anki addon link

{{WikiProject Psychology|class=start}}

== External links modified ==

Hello fellow Wikipedians,

I have just added archive links to {{plural:1|one external link|1 external links}} on [[Incremental reading]]. Please take a moment to review [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?diff=prev&oldid=685942388 my edit]. If necessary, add {{tlx|cbignore}} after the link to keep me from modifying it. Alternatively, you can add {{tlx|nobots|deny{{=}}InternetArchiveBot}} to keep me off the page altogether. I made the following changes:
*Added archive https://web.archive.org/20131031170459/https://ankiweb.net/shared/info/2880922486 to https://ankiweb.net/shared/info/2880922486

When you have finished reviewing my changes, please set the ''checked'' parameter below to '''true''' to let others know.

{{sourcecheck|checked=true}}

Cheers. —[[User:Cyberbot II|cyberbot II]][[User talk:Cyberbot II|Talk to my owner]]:Online 23:54, 15 October 2015 (UTC)

Incremental reading

2015-12-22T05:15:57Z

PatriceNeff: /* External links */ Remove broken links

'''Incremental reading''' is a method for learning and retaining information from reading that might otherwise be forgotten. It is particularly targeted to people who are trying to learn a large amount of information at once, particularly if that information is varied.

Incremental reading works by breaking up key points of articles, often dozens or thousands of articles, into flashcards, which are then learned and reviewed over an extended period. Concretely, when reading an article (in a web browser), the reader selects extracts (similar to underlining or highlighting a paper article), which are then converted to question-answer format, often by [[cloze deletion]], and then scheduled for learning and review by the learning software. This flashcard creation process is semi-automated – the reader chooses which material to learn and edits the precise wording of the questions, while the software assists in making the flashcards and does the scheduling.

Incremental reading is based on psychological principles of [[long-term memory]] storage and retrieval, in particular the [[spacing effect]].

Information is broken into chunks, and an algorithm (usually computer software) organises the user's reading and calculates the ideal time for the reader to review each chunk. The method itself is often credited to the Polish software developer [[Piotr Woźniak (researcher)|Piotr Wozniak]].

Until recently, Wozniak's [[SuperMemo]] was the only implementation of incremental reading (as opposed to simply spaced repetition of questions and [[cloze deletion]]s etc.). [[Anki (software)|Anki]] has an implementation available as an add-on.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ankiweb.net/shared/info/355348508|title=Incremental Reading Extension and View Size Adjust|publisher=AnkiWeb|accessdate=2015-10-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ankiweb.net/shared/info/2880922486 |title=Incremental Reading Extension |publisher=ankiweb.net |date= |accessdate=2013-10-28 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/20131031170459/https://ankiweb.net/shared/info/2880922486 |archivedate=October 31, 2013 }}</ref>

There is also incremental reading support for the text editors [[Emacs]]<ref>{{cite web|author=Last edited 2007-03-06 07:09 UTC by ChrisForno (diff) |url=http://www.emacswiki.org/emacs/IncrementalReading |title=Incremental Reading |publisher=EmacsWiki |date=2007-03-06 |accessdate=2011-01-24}}</ref> and [[Yi (editor)|Yi]].<ref>http://code.haskell.org/yi/src/Yi/Mode/IReader.hs</ref>

==Method==
With incremental reading, a load of material is subdivided into articles and its extracts. All articles and extracts are processed according to the rules of [[spaced repetition]]. This means that all processed pieces of information are presented at increasing intervals. Individual articles are read in portions proportional to the attention span, which depends on the user, their mood, the article, etc.

The name "incremental" comes from "reading in portions". Without the use of spaced repetition, the reader would quickly get lost in the glut of information when studying dozens of subjects at the same time. However, spaced repetition makes it possible to retain traces of the processed material in memory. Incremental reading makes it possible to read hundreds of articles at the same time with a substantial gain to [[attention]].

For incremental reading to leave a permanent mark in [[long-term memory]], the processed material must be gradually converted into material based on [[active recall]]. This means that extracts such as "[[George Washington]] was the first U.S. President" must be changed to questions such as "Who was the first U.S. President?", "Who was George Washington?", etc.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.banaban.net/supermemo/incremental-reading.html banaban.net]
* [http://supermemo.com/help/faq/read.htm supermemo.com]

[[Category:Learning]]
[[Category:Reading (process)]]

Daily Show with Trevor Noah

2015-08-07T14:09:40Z

PatriceNeff: Update redirect

#REDIRECT [[The Daily Show with Trevor Noah]]

List of ice and snow sculpture events

2014-09-16T12:29:54Z

PatriceNeff: Reverting last two edits by 2607:FC30:1:4:0:0:50F1:40F6 (talk)

[[File:Pajareros ala 3.jpg|thumb|Mexican sculptor [[Abel Ramírez Águilar]] working on an entry for an ice sculpture competition]]
'''Ice Festival''', '''Ice and Snow Festival''', or '''Snow and Ice Festival''' may refer to one of the following events.<ref>[http://www.snowsculpture.com/int_ice.htm INTERNATIONAL ICE SCULPTURE EVENTS 2003-2004]</ref>

*[[Harbin International Ice and Snow Sculpture Festival]]
* [[Ice Festival, Mongolia]]
*[[Sapporo Snow Festival]]
*[[World Ice Art Championships]]
*[[International Snow and Ice Sculpture Festival]]
*[[Snowking Winter Festival]]
* LONDON ICE SCULPTING FESTIVAL - Canary Wharf, London - 10 x International teams - January 2014

*International Ice Sculpture Contest "Polar Rhapsody", [[Salekhard]], [[Russia]]
*Italian Ice Carving Championship
*International Snow and Ice Sculpture Championships "Europe - Asia", [[Ekaterinburg]], Russia
*Concours International de Sculpture sur Glace, [[Valloire]], France
*International Ice Sculpture Contest "Ice Fantasy", [[Khabarovsk]], Russia
*International Ice Sculpture Contest, Korkeasaari, Helsinki, Finland
*International Ice Sculpture Festival, [[Jelgava]], [[Latvia]]
*[[Karuizawa Winter Festival]] - Ice Sculpting International Exhibition, [[Karuizawa]], [[Japan]]
*Crystal Garden International Ice Carving Competition, [[Ottawa]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
*2004 World Ice Sculpture Competition, Asahikawa, Japan
*International Ice Sculpture Contest, [[St.Petersburg]], Russia
*Blue Ice Art Cup 2004, [[Pello]], [[Lapland (Finland)|Lapland]], [[Finland]]
*International Ice Sculpture Competition, [[Vaasa]], Finland
*International Ice Sculpture Competition, ICE ART 2004, [[Fairbanks]], [[Alaska]], [[USA]]
*[[Michigan Technological University's Winter Carnival]], [[Houghton, Michigan|Houghton]], [[Michigan]], [[USA]]
*Ice on Whyte, [[Edmonton]], [[Alberta]], [[Canada]]
*[[International Ice Sculpture Festival]], [[Poznań]], [[Poland]]

:''See also'': [[Winter carnival]], [[List of winter festivals]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Winter festivals|Ice and snow]]

Security Assertion Markup Language

2014-03-19T15:35:18Z

PatriceNeff: /* External links */ Online Community for SAML OASIS Standard is outdated

{{Refimprove|date=March 2014}}
'''Security Assertion Markup Language''' ('''SAML''', pronounced "sam-el"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/S/SAML.html |title=What is SAML? - A Word Definition From the Webopedia Computer Dictionary |publisher=Webopedia.com |date= |accessdate=2013-09-21}}</ref>) is an [[XML]]-based [[open standard]] data format for exchanging [[authentication]] and [[authorization]] data between parties, in particular, between an [[identity provider]] and a [[service provider]]. SAML is a product of the [[OASIS (organization)|OASIS]] Security Services Technical Committee. SAML dates from 2001; the most recent update of SAML is from 2005.

The single most important requirement that SAML addresses is [[web browser]] [[single sign-on]] (SSO). Single sign-on solutions are common at the [[intranet]] level (using [[HTTP cookie|cookies]], for example) but extending these solutions beyond the intranet has been problematic and has led to the proliferation of non-interoperable proprietary technologies. (Another more recent approach to addressing the browser SSO problem is the [[OpenID]] protocol.)

The SAML specification defines three roles: the principal (typically a user), the identity provider (IdP), and the service provider (SP). In the use case addressed by SAML, the principal requests a service from the service provider. The service provider requests and obtains an identity assertion from the identity provider. On the basis of this assertion, the service provider can make an [[access control]] decision – in other words it can decide whether to perform some service for the connected principal.

Before delivering the identity assertion to the SP, the IdP may request some information from the principal – such as a user name and password – in order to authenticate the principal. SAML specifies the assertions between the three parties: in particular, the messages that assert identity that are passed from the IdP to the SP. In SAML, one identity provider may provide SAML assertions to many service providers. Similarly, one SP may rely on and trust assertions from many independent IdPs.

SAML does not specify the method of authentication at the identity provider; it may use a username and password, or other form of authentication, including [[multi-factor authentication]]. A directory service, which allows users to login with a user name and password, is a typical source of authentication tokens (e.g. passwords) at an identity provider. The popular internet social networking services also provide identity services that in theory could be used to support SAML exchanges.

==History of SAML==
The [[OASIS (organization)|OASIS]] Security Services Technical Committee (SSTC), which met for the first time in January 2001, was chartered "to define an XML framework for exchanging authentication and authorization information."<ref>{{Cite mailing list
| last = Maler
| first = Eve
| mailinglist = security-services at oasis-open
| title = Minutes of 9 January 2001 Security Services TC telecon
| date: Tue, 09 Jan 2001 19:22:38 -0500
| url = http://lists.oasis-open.org/archives/security-services/200101/msg00014.html
| accessdate = 7 April 2011}}</ref> To this end, the following intellectual property was contributed to the SSTC during the first two months of that year:

* ''Security Services Markup Language'' (S2ML) from Netegrity
* ''AuthXML'' from Securant
* ''XML Trust Assertion Service Specification'' (X-TASS) from VeriSign
* ''Information Technology Markup Language'' (ITML) from Jamcracker

Building on this work, in November 2002 OASIS announced the Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) V1.0 specification as an OASIS Standard.

Meanwhile, the [[Liberty Alliance]], a large consortium of companies and non-profit and government organizations, proposed an extension to the SAML standard called the Liberty Identity Federation Framework (ID-FF). Like its SAML predecessor, Liberty ID-FF proposed a standardized, cross-domain, web-based, single sign-on framework. In addition, Liberty described a ''circle of trust'', where each participating domain is trusted to accurately document the processes used to identify a user, the type of authentication system used, and any policies associated with the resulting authentication credentials. Other members of the circle of trust may examine these policies to determine whether to trust such information.

While Liberty was developing ID-FF, the SSTC began work on a minor upgrade to the SAML standard. The resulting SAML V1.1 specification, ratified by the SSTC in September 2003, was widely implemented and deployed, and is still in use today. Then, in the same month, Liberty contributed ID-FF to OASIS, thereby sowing the seeds for the next major version of SAML. Thus in March 2005, SAML V2.0 was announced as an OASIS Standard. SAML V2.0 represents the convergence of Liberty ID-FF and other proprietary extensions, as well as early versions of SAML itself. Most SAML implementations now support V2.0 while many still support V1.1 for backward compatibility. Deployments of SAML V2.0 are common in government, higher education, and commercial enterprises worldwide.

==Versions of SAML==
SAML has undergone one minor and one major revision since V1.0.

* SAML 1.0 was adopted as an OASIS Standard in November 2002
* [[SAML 1.1]] was ratified as an OASIS Standard in September 2003
* [[SAML 2.0]] became an OASIS Standard in March 2005

The Liberty Alliance contributed its Identity Federation Framework (ID-FF) to the OASIS SSTC in September 2003:

* ID-FF 1.1 was released in April 2003
* ID-FF 1.2 was finalized in November 2003

===Differences between V1.1 and V1.0===

Versions 1.0 and 1.1 of SAML are similar even though small differences exist.<ref>{{Citation
| author-link = P. Mishra et al.
| publisher = OASIS
| id = sstc-saml-diff-1.1-draft-01
| contribution = Differences between OASIS Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML) V1.1 and V1.0
| contribution-url = http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/download.php/3412/sstc-saml-diff-1.1-draft-01.pdf
| date = May 2003
| accessdate = 7 April 2011}}</ref>

===Differences between V2.0 and V1.1===

The [https://wiki.shibboleth.net/confluence/display/SHIB/SAMLDiffs differences between SAML 2.0 and SAML 1.1] are substantial. Although the two standards address the same use case, SAML 2.0 is incompatible (on the wire) with its predecessor.

===Differences between V2.0 and ID-FF 1.2===

Although ID-FF 1.2 was contributed to OASIS as the basis of SAML 2.0, there are some important [https://wiki.shibboleth.net/confluence/display/SHIB/SAMLLibertyDiffs differences between SAML 2.0 and ID-FF 1.2]. In particular, the two specifications, despite their common roots, are incompatible (on the wire).

==SAML building blocks==
SAML is built upon a number of existing standards:


; Extensible Markup Language (XML): Most SAML exchanges are expressed in a standardized dialect of [[XML]], which is the root for the name SAML (Security Assertion Markup Language).
; XML Schema: SAML assertions and protocols are specified (in part) using [[XML Schema (W3C)|XML Schema]].
; XML Signature: Both [[SAML 1.1]] and [[SAML 2.0]] use digital signatures (based on the [[XML Signature]] standard) for authentication and message integrity.
; XML Encryption: Using [[XML Encryption]], [[SAML 2.0]] provides elements for encrypted name identifiers, encrypted attributes, and encrypted assertions (SAML 1.1 does not have encryption capabilities).
; Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): SAML relies heavily on [[HTTP]] as its communications protocol.
; SOAP: SAML specifies the use of [[SOAP (protocol)|SOAP]], specifically [http://www.w3.org/TR/2000/NOTE-SOAP-20000508/ SOAP 1.1].

==The Anatomy of SAML==


SAML defines XML-based assertions and protocols, bindings, and profiles. The term ''SAML Core'' refers to the general syntax and semantics of SAML assertions as well as the protocol used to request and transmit those assertions from one system entity to another. ''SAML protocol'' refers to '''what''' is transmitted, not '''how''' (the latter is determined by the choice of binding). So SAML Core defines "bare" SAML assertions along with SAML request and response elements.

A ''SAML binding'' determines how SAML requests and responses map onto standard messaging or communications protocols. An important (synchronous) binding is the SAML SOAP binding.

A ''SAML profile'' is a concrete manifestation of a defined use case using a particular combination of assertions, protocols and bindings.

===SAML Assertions===

A SAML ''assertion'' contains a packet of security information:

<'''saml:Assertion''' ...>
..
<'''/saml:Assertion'''>

Loosely speaking, a relying party interprets an assertion as follows:

<blockquote>Assertion ''A'' was issued at time ''t'' by issuer ''R'' regarding subject ''S'' provided conditions ''C'' are valid.</blockquote>

SAML assertions are usually transferred from identity providers to service providers. Assertions contain ''statements'' that service providers use to make access-control decisions. Three types of statements are provided by SAML:

# '''Authentication statements'''
# '''Attribute statements'''
# '''Authorization decision statements'''

''Authentication statements'' assert to the service provider that the principal did indeed authenticate with the identity provider at a particular time using a particular method of authentication. Other information about the authenticated principal (called the ''authentication context'') may be disclosed in an authentication statement.

An ''attribute statement'' asserts that a subject is associated with certain attributes. An ''attribute'' is simply a name-value pair. Relying parties use attributes to make access-control decisions.

An ''authorization decision statement'' asserts that a subject is permitted to perform action ''A'' on resource ''R'' given evidence ''E''. The expressiveness of authorization decision statements in SAML is intentionally limited. More-advanced use cases are encouraged to use [[XACML]] instead.

===SAML protocols===

[[Image:Saml-protocol-response.svg|right|200px|SAML Protocol Response]]

A SAML ''protocol'' describes how certain SAML elements (including assertions) are packaged within SAML request and response elements, and gives the processing rules that SAML entities must follow when producing or consuming these elements. For the most part, a SAML protocol is a simple request-response protocol.

The most important type of SAML protocol request is called a ''query''. A service provider makes a query directly to an identity provider over a secure back channel. Thus query messages are typically bound to SOAP.

Corresponding to the three types of statements, there are three types of SAML queries:

# '''Authentication query'''
# '''Attribute query'''
# '''Authorization decision query'''

Of these, the ''attribute query'' is perhaps most important (and still the object of much research{{Citation needed|date=October 2013}}). The result of an attribute query is a SAML response containing an assertion, which itself contains an attribute statement. See the SAML 2.0 topic for [[SAML 2.0#SAML Attribute Query|an example of attribute query/response]].

====SAML 1.1 protocols====
Beyond queries, SAML 1.1 specifies no other protocols.

====SAML 2.0 protocols====
SAML 2.0 expands the notion of ''protocol'' considerably. The following protocols are described in detail in SAML 2.0 Core:

* Assertion Query and Request Protocol
* Authentication Request Protocol
* Artifact Resolution Protocol
* Name Identifier Management Protocol
* Single Logout Protocol
* Name Identifier Mapping Protocol

Most of these protocols are completely new in [[SAML 2.0]].

===SAML bindings===

[[Image:Saml-over-soap-over-http.svg|right|200px|SAML over SOAP over HTTP]]

A SAML ''binding'' is a mapping of a SAML protocol message onto standard messaging formats and/or communications protocols. For example, the SAML SOAP binding specifies how a SAML message is encapsulated in a SOAP envelope, which itself is bound to an HTTP message.

====SAML 1.1 bindings====
SAML 1.1 specifies just one binding, the SAML SOAP Binding. In addition to SOAP, implicit in SAML 1.1 Web Browser SSO are the precursors of the HTTP POST Binding, the HTTP Redirect Binding, and the HTTP Artifact Binding. These are not defined explicitly, however, and are only used in conjunction with SAML 1.1 Web Browser SSO. The notion of binding is not fully developed until SAML 2.0.

====SAML 2.0 bindings====
SAML 2.0 completely separates the binding concept from the underlying profile. In fact, there is a brand [[SAML 2.0#SAML 2.0 Bindings|new binding specification in SAML 2.0]] that defines the following standalone bindings:

* SAML SOAP Binding (based on SOAP 1.1)
* Reverse SOAP (PAOS) Binding
* HTTP Redirect (GET) Binding
* HTTP POST Binding
* HTTP Artifact Binding
* SAML URI Binding

This reorganization provides tremendous flexibility: taking just Web Browser SSO alone as an example, a service provider can choose from four bindings (HTTP Redirect, HTTP POST and two flavors of HTTP Artifact), while the identity provider has three binding options (HTTP POST plus two forms of HTTP Artifact), for a total of twelve (12) possible deployments of the SAML 2.0 Web Browser SSO Profile.

===SAML profiles===

A SAML ''profile'' describes in detail how SAML assertions, protocols, and bindings combine to support a defined use case. The most important SAML profile is the Web Browser SSO Profile.

====SAML 1.1 profiles====
SAML 1.1 specifies two forms of Web Browser SSO, the Browser/Artifact Profile and the Browser/POST Profile. The latter passes assertions ''by value'' whereas Browser/Artifact passes assertions ''by reference''. As a consequence, Browser/Artifact requires a back-channel SAML exchange over SOAP.

In SAML 1.1, all flows begin with a request at the identity provider for simplicity. Proprietary extensions to the basic IdP-initiated flow have been proposed (by [[Shibboleth (Internet2)|Shibboleth]], e.g.).

====SAML 2.0 profiles====
The Web Browser SSO Profile has been completely refactored for SAML 2.0. Conceptually, SAML 1.1 Browser/Artifact and Browser/POST are special cases of SAML 2.0 Web Browser SSO. The latter is considerably more flexible than its SAML 1.1 counterpart due to the new "plug-and-play" binding design of V2

Unlike previous versions, SAML 2.0 browser flows begin with a request at the service provider. This provides greater flexibility, but SP-initiated flows naturally give rise to the so-called ''Identity Provider Discovery'' problem, the focus of much research today.

In addition to Web Browser SSO, SAML 2.0 introduces numerous new profiles:

* SSO Profiles
** Web Browser SSO Profile
** Enhanced Client or Proxy (ECP) Profile
** Identity Provider Discovery Profile
** Single Logout Profile
** Name Identifier Management Profile
* Artifact Resolution Profile
* Assertion Query/Request Profile
* Name Identifier Mapping Profile
* SAML Attribute Profiles

A number of these profiles are discussed in more detail in the [[SAML 2.0]] topic.

==The SAML Use Case==

The primary SAML use case is called ''Web Browser Single Sign-On (SSO)''. A user wielding a ''user agent'' (usually a web browser) requests a web resource protected by a SAML ''service provider''. The service provider, wishing to know the identity of the requesting user, issues an authentication request to a SAML ''identity provider'' through the user agent. The resulting protocol flow is depicted in the following diagram.

[[Image:Saml2-browser-sso-redirect-post.png|thumb|center|800px|SAML Web Browser SSO]]

'''1. Request the target resource at the SP''' (SAML 2.0 only)

The principal (via an HTTP user agent) requests a target resource at the service provider:

<nowiki>https://sp.example.com/myresource</nowiki>

The service provider performs a security check on behalf of the target resource. If a valid security context at the service provider already exists, skip steps 2–7.

'''2. Redirect to the SSO Service at the IdP''' (SAML 2.0 only)

The service provider determines the user's preferred identity provider (by unspecified means) and redirects the user agent to the SSO Service at the identity provider:

<nowiki>https://idp.example.org/SAML2/SSO/Redirect?SAMLRequest=request</nowiki>

The value of the <code>SAMLRequest</code> parameter is the [[Base64]] encoding of a deflated <code><samlp:AuthnRequest></code> element.

'''3. Request the SSO Service at the IdP''' (SAML 2.0 only)

The user agent issues a GET request to the SSO service at the identity provider where the value of the <code>SAMLRequest</code> parameter is taken from the URL query string at step 2. The SSO service processes the <code>AuthnRequest</code> and performs a security check. If the user does not have a valid security context, the identity provider identifies the user (details omitted).

'''4. Respond with an XHTML form'''

The SSO service validates the request and responds with a document containing an XHTML form:

<source lang="html4strict">
<form method="post" action="https://sp.example.com/SAML2/SSO/POST" ...>
<input type="hidden" name="SAMLResponse" value="response" />
...
<input type="submit" value="Submit" />
</form>
</source>

The value of the <code>SAMLResponse</code> parameter is the base64 encoding of a <code><samlp:Response></code> element.

'''5. Request the Assertion Consumer Service at the SP'''

The user agent issues a POST request to the assertion consumer service at the service provider. The value of the <code>SAMLResponse</code> parameter is taken from the XHTML form at step 4.

'''6. Redirect to the target resource'''

The assertion consumer service processes the response, creates a security context at the service provider and redirects the user agent to the target resource.

'''7. Request the target resource at the SP again'''

The user agent requests the target resource at the service provider (again):

<nowiki>https://sp.example.com/myresource</nowiki>

'''8. Respond with requested resource'''

Since a security context exists, the service provider returns the resource to the user agent.

Note: In SAML 1.1, the flow begins with a request to the identity provider's inter-site transfer service at step 3.

==The use of SOAP==
In the example flow above, all depicted exchanges are ''front-channel exchanges'', that is, an HTTP user agent (browser) communicates with a SAML entity at each step. In particular, there are no ''back-channel exchanges'' or direct communications between the service provider and the identity provider. Front-channel exchanges lead to simple protocol flows where all messages are passed ''by value'' using a simple HTTP binding (GET or POST). Indeed, the flow outlined in the previous section is sometimes called the ''Lightweight Web Browser SSO Profile''.

Alternatively, for increased security or privacy, messages may be passed ''by reference''. For example, an identity provider may supply a reference to a SAML assertion (called an ''artifact'') instead of transmitting the assertion directly through the user agent. Subsequently, the service provider requests the actual assertion via a back channel. Such a back-channel exchange is specified as a [[SOAP]] message exchange (SAML over SOAP over HTTP). In general, any SAML exchange over a secure back channel is conducted as a SOAP message exchange.

On the back channel, SAML specifies the use of SOAP 1.1. The use of SOAP as a binding mechanism is optional, however. Any given SAML deployment will choose whatever bindings are appropriate.

==SAML security==
The SAML specifications recommend, and in some cases mandate, a variety of security mechanisms:

* SSL 3.0 or [[Transport Layer Security|TLS]] 1.0 for transport-level security
* [[XML Signature]] and [[XML Encryption]] for message-level security

Requirements are often phrased in terms of (mutual) authentication, integrity, and confidentiality, leaving the choice of security mechanism to implementers and deployers.

==Profiles of SAML==
Aside from the SAML Web Browser SSO Profile, some important third-party profiles of SAML include:

* [[OASIS (organization)|OASIS]] [http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/tc_home.php?wg_abbrev=wss Web Services Security (WSS) Technical Committee]
** [http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/download.php/16768/wss-v1.1-spec-os-SAMLTokenProfile.pdf OASIS WS-Security SAML Token Profile]
* [[Liberty Alliance]]
** [http://www.projectliberty.org/resource_center/specifications/liberty_alliance_id_ff_1_2_specifications Liberty Identity Federation Framework (ID-FF)]
** [http://www.projectliberty.org/resource_center/specifications/liberty_alliance_id_wsf_2_0_specifications Liberty Identity Web Services Framework (ID-WSF)]
* [[OASIS (organization)|OASIS]] [http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/tc_home.php?wg_abbrev=xacml eXtensible Access Control Markup Language (XACML) Technical Committee]
** [http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/tc_home.php?wg_abbrev=xacml#XACML20 SAML 2.0 Profile of XACML v2.0]

==See also==
* [[SAML 1.1]]
* [[SAML 2.0]]
* [[SAML-based products and services]]
* [[Identity management]]
* [[Identity management systems]]
* [[Access control]]
* [[Authentication]]
* [[Single sign on|Single sign-on]]
* [[Authorization]]
* [[OpenID]]
* [[Information Card]]s
* [[WS-Federation]]
* [[OASIS (organization)|OASIS]]
* [[OAuth]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==

* [http://www.oasis-open.org/committees/tc_home.php?wg_abbrev=security OASIS Security Services Technical Committee]
* [http://xml.coverpages.org/saml.html Cover Pages: Security Assertion Markup Language (SAML)]
* [http://www.pingidentity.com/information-library/what-is-saml.cfm Tutorial Video: Ten Things You Need To Know About SAML]
* [http://identitymeme.org/doc/draft-hodges-learning-saml-00.html How to Study and Learn SAML]
* [http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/articles/entarch/saml-084342.html Demystifying SAML]
* [http://ssocircle.com First public SAML 2.0 identity provider]
* [http://developers.sun.com/identity/reference/techart/federated.html Federated Identity: Single Sign-On Among Enterprises (SUN)]
* [http://books.google.com/books?id=tBkEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PT42&lpg=PT42&dq=early+adopters+SAML&source=bl&ots=hcZRVwzzQr&sig=0p6hCL9Q4T7U1iKVkcq1wWkk6eo&hl=en&ei=-G5-TLLvFoyInAeSpdjvAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=7&ved=0CDoQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=early%20adopters%20SAML&f=false Federated ID gains momentum ]
* [https://www.pingidentity.com/resource-center/Introduction-to-SAML-Video.cfm SAML 101]

{{OASIS Standards}}

[[Category:XML-based standards]]
[[Category:Computer access control]]
[[Category:Identity management]]
[[Category:Federated identity| ]]
[[Category:Identity management systems]]

Portal:Current events/2014 March 8

2014-03-10T14:35:42Z

PatriceNeff: Link to Malaysia Airlines Flight 370

{{Current events header|2014|03|08}}

;Disasters and accidents
* [[Malaysia Airlines Flight 370]]
**[[Malaysia Airlines]] [[Malaysia Airlines Flight 370|loses contact]] with a [[Boeing 777]]-200ER passenger plane carrying 239 people from [[Kuala Lumpur]] to [[Beijing]], [[China]]. [http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-26492748 (BBC)]
;Politics and elections
*[[United States Senator]] from [[Kentucky]] [[Rand Paul]] wins the annual [[Conservative Political Action Conference|CPAC]] presidential straw poll with 31% of the vote. [http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2014/03/08/rand_paul_easily_wins_cpac_straw_poll_121857.html (Real Clear Politics)]
|}

Portal:Current events/2014 February 24

2014-02-25T20:17:46Z

PatriceNeff: Undid revision 597112228 by 50.202.176.115 (talk)

{{Current events header|2014|02|24}}


;Armed conflict and attacks
*[[2014 Ukrainian Revolution]]
**The [[European Commission]] recognizes [[Oleksandr Turchynov]] as [[Ukraine]]‘s legitimate interim president. [http://en.europeonline-magazine.eu/extra-eu-recognizes-turchynov-as-interim-president_322130.html (DPA via Europe Online)]
**Ukrainian economist and banker Stepan Kubiv, who worked as one of the commandants for the EuroMaidan demonstrations, is selected as governor of the [[National Bank of Ukraine]]. [http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/02/24/ukraine-crisis-cbank-idUKL6N0LT3JV20140224 (Reuters)]
**An arrest warrant is issued for the former [[President of Ukraine|President]] [[Viktor Yanukovych]] and other officials for their alleged role in killing protesters. [http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/02/24/ukraine-new-leaders-order-arrest-president-yanukovych/ (AP via Fox News)]
*[[War in Afghanistan]]
**Senior [[Taliban]] commander Asmatullah Shaheen Bhittani is killed in [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]. [http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/south-asia/senior-taliban-commander-shot-dead-in-northwest-pakistan/article5722035.ece (''The Hindu'')]
*[[South China Sea dispute]]
**[[China|Chinese]] vessels reportedly harassed [[Filipino people|Filipino]] fishermen off the coast of the [[Philippines]] last January 27, according to the Philippine military. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-26320383 (BBC News)]

;Arts and culture
*[[Uganda]]n President [[Yoweri Museveni]] signs a bill discriminating against the [[LGBT]] community. [http://world.time.com/2014/02/24/ugandan-president-signs-anti-gay-bill/ (''Time'')]

;Business and economy
*[[CNN]] cancels ''[[Piers Morgan Live]]'', starring British presenter [[Piers Morgan]], due to low ratings. [http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/24/piers-morgans-us-talkshow-axe-cnn (''The Guardian'')]
*[[Pope Francis]], in the most significant reform of the Roman Curia in 25 years, creates a second Secretariat, for Economic Affairs, headed by a Cardinal (which will work with the Vatican Secretariat of State, the reformed Vatican bank, or IOR, and the other economic departments of the [[Roman Curia]]), which will have an office with the power to audit any Vatican agency at any time. [http://news.msn.com/world/pope-makes-first-overhaul-of-vatican-in-25-years (AP via MSN News)]

;Disasters and accidents
*The death toll in the [[Papua (province)|Papua]] province of [[Indonesia]] reaches 11 people as torrential rain continues to form floods and landslides, occurring since Saturday. [http://www.news.com.au/world/breaking-news/landslides-kill-11-in-indon-papua-province/story-e6frfkui-1226836239336 (News Corp Australia)]
*At least seven mourners are killed and 37 are injured as a bridge collapses as they are transporting a coffin in [[Vietnam]]'s [[Lai Chau Province]]. [http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/580333/bridge-collapse-kills-7-in-northern-vietnam (AP via ''Philippine Daily Inquirer'')]

;Politics and elections
*[[2013–14 Thai political crisis]]
**[[Thailand|Thai]] Prime Minister [[Yingluck Shinawatra]] says she will not resign. [http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/se-asia/story/thai-pm-yingluck-rules-out-resigning-bombs-gunfire-punctuate-unrest-2014 (''Straits Times'')]
*The government of [[Egypt]] resign ''en masse'', allowing [[Abdel Fattah al-Sisi]] to run for President. [http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/24/us-egypt-politics-idUSBREA1N0KO20140224 (Reuters)]
*[[United States Department of Defense|The Pentagon]] announces plans to reduce the size of the [[United States Army]] to pre-[[World War II]] levels. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-26326969 (BBC News)]
* In [[Russia]], police arrested over 400 people in [[Manege Square]] hours after picking up some 200 people outside the court where the [[Bolotnaya square case]] defendants were being tried. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26337693 (BBC)] [http://www.rferl.org/content/a-specter-is-haunting-russia/25275752.html (RFE/RL)] [http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/bolotnoye-suspects-get-prison-time/495164.html (The Moscow Times)]

;Science and technology
*Public health officials in the U.S. state of [[California]] are preparing a report of a [[polio]]-like disease whose cause is unknown. [http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-polio-like-paralysis-california-20140223,0,4064386.story (''Los Angeles Times'')]
*Two species of [[goblin spider]] are discovered by the [[Queensland Museum]] in [[Australia]]'s [[Darling Downs]] region. [http://au.news.yahoo.com/technology/a/21668129/new-jellybean-spider-species-found-on-queenslands-darling-downs/ (ABC via Yahoo!7 News)]
* [[Nokia]] unveils [[Nokia X]], an [[Android (operating system)|Android]]-based [[smartphone]], at the [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona. [http://gadgets.ndtv.com/mobiles/news/nokia-x-nokia-x-and-nokia-xl-dual-sim-android-based-smartphones-launched-487448 (NDTV)]
* A 4.4-billion-year-old crystal from [[Western Australia]] has been confirmed as the oldest fragment of Earth's crust. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26324968 (BBC News)]
|}

Portal:Current events/2014 February 25

2014-02-25T08:14:04Z

PatriceNeff: Fix header typo

{{Current events header|2014|02|25}}


;Armed conflict and attacks
*[[2013–14 Thai political crisis]]
**Explosions and gun fire is heard near the protesters camp in [[Bangkok]]. [http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/25/us-thailand-protest-idUSBREA1M02H20140225?feedType=RSS&feedName=topNews (Reuters)]

;Disasters and accidents
*[[People's Republic of China|China's]] [[National Meteorological Center of CMA]] warns of heavy [[smog]] in northern and central [[China]] over the next two days. [http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/china/2014-02/25/c_133141508.htm (Xinhua)]
|}

Portal:Current events/2014 February 24

2014-02-24T22:08:41Z

PatriceNeff: Remove duplicate Pentagon story

{{Current events header|2014|02|24}}


;Armed conflict and attacks
*[[2014 Ukrainian Revolution]]
**The [[European Commission]] recognizes [[Oleksandr Turchynov]] as [[Ukraine]]‘s legitimate interim president. [http://en.europeonline-magazine.eu/extra-eu-recognizes-turchynov-as-interim-president_322130.html (DPA via Europe Online)]
**An arrest warrant is issued for the former [[President of Ukraine|President]] [[Viktor Yanukovych]] and other officials for their alleged role in killing protesters. [http://www.foxnews.com/world/2014/02/24/ukraine-new-leaders-order-arrest-president-yanukovych/ (Fox News and AP)]
*[[War in Afghanistan]]
**Senior [[Taliban]] commander Asmatullah Shaheen Bhittani is killed in [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]]. [http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/south-asia/senior-taliban-commander-shot-dead-in-northwest-pakistan/article5722035.ece (''The Hindu'')]
*[[South China Sea dispute]]
**[[China|Chinese]] vessels reportedly harassed [[Filipino people|Filipino]] fishermen off the coast of the [[Philippines]] last January 27, according to the Philippine military. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-26320383 (BBC)]

;Arts and culture
*[[Uganda]]n President [[Yoweri Museveni]] signs a bill discriminating against the [[LGBT]] community. [http://world.time.com/2014/02/24/ugandan-president-signs-anti-gay-bill/ (''TIME'' magazine)]

;Business and economy
*[[CNN]] cancels ''[[Piers Morgan Live]]'', starring British presenter [[Piers Morgan]], due to low ratings. [http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/24/piers-morgans-us-talkshow-axe-cnn (The Guardian)]
*[[Pope Francis]], in the most significant reform of the Roman Curia in 25 years, creates a second Secretariat, for Economic Affairs, headed by a Cardinal (which will work with the Vatican Secretariat of State, the reformed Vatican bank, or IOR, and the other economic departments of the [[Roman Curia]]), which will have an office with the power to audit any Vatican agency at any time. [http://news.msn.com/world/pope-makes-first-overhaul-of-vatican-in-25-years (MSN)]

;Disasters and accidents
*The death toll in the [[Papua (province)|Papua]] province of [[Indonesia]] reaches 11 people as torrential rain continues to form floods and landslides, occurring since Saturday. [http://www.news.com.au/world/breaking-news/landslides-kill-11-in-indon-papua-province/story-e6frfkui-1226836239336 (News Limited)]
*At least seven mourners are killed and 37 are injured as a bridge collapses as they are transporting a coffin in [[Vietnam]]'s [[Lai Chau Province]]. [http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/580333/bridge-collapse-kills-7-in-northern-vietnam (AP via Inquirer)]

;Politics and elections
*[[2013–14 Thai political crisis]]
**[[Thailand|Thai]] Prime Minister [[Yingluck Shinawatra|Yingluck]] says she will not resign. [http://www.straitstimes.com/breaking-news/se-asia/story/thai-pm-yingluck-rules-out-resigning-bombs-gunfire-punctuate-unrest-2014 (''Straits Times'')]
*The government of [[Egypt]] resign ''en masse'', allowing [[Abdel Fattah al-Sisi]] to run for President. [http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/02/24/us-egypt-politics-idUSBREA1N0KO20140224 (Reuters)]
*[[The Pentagon]] announces plans to reduce the size of the [[United States Army]] to pre-[[World War II]] levels. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-26326969#" (BBC)]

;Science and technology
*A new [[polio]]-like strain of virus spreads in the U.S. state of [[California]]. [http://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-polio-like-paralysis-california-20140223,0,4064386.story#axzz2uEcGga4v (''Los Angeles Times'')]
*Two species of [[goblin spider]] are discovered by the [[Queensland Museum]] in [[Australia]]'s [[Darling Downs]] region. [http://au.news.yahoo.com/technology/a/21668129/new-jellybean-spider-species-found-on-queenslands-darling-downs/ (Yahoo!7)]
* [[Nokia]] unveils [[Nokia X]] running on [[Android]] at the [[Mobile World Congress]] in Barcelona. [http://gadgets.ndtv.com/mobiles/news/nokia-x-nokia-x-and-nokia-xl-dual-sim-android-based-smartphones-launched-487448 (NDTV)]
* A 4.4-billion-year-old crystal from [[Western Australia]] has been confirmed as the oldest fragment of Earth's crust. [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-26324968 (BBC)]
|}

NorNed

2013-12-09T12:06:51Z

PatriceNeff: Revenue is not profit, so it doesn't go directly to "recovering" the investment.

{{Infobox power transmission line
| name = NorNed
| photo =
| caption =
| map = Blank map europe Nordned cable.svg
| map_caption = Location of NorNed
| country = [[Norway]], [[Netherlands]]
| state =
| province =
| coordinates = {{Coord|53|26|4|N|6|51|57|E|type:landmark|name=NorNed - Eemshaven Static Inverter Plant}} {{coord|58|16|58|N|6|51|55|E|type:landmark|name=NorNed - Feda Static Inverter Plant}}
| lat =
| long =
| direction = north–south
| start = [[Feda]], [[Norway]]
| through = [[North Sea]]
| finish = [[Eemshaven]], [[Netherlands]]
| par =
| owner =
| partners = [[Statnett]], [[TenneT]]
| operator =
| cable_manufacturer =
| cable_installer =
| cable_layer =
| substation_manufacturer=
| substation_installer=
| contractors =
| construction = 2006
| expected =
| est = 2008
| decom =
| type = submarine cable
| current_type = [[HVDC]]
| length_km = 580
| capacity = 700 MW
| AC_voltage = 300 kV (Feda), 400 kV (Eemshaven)
| DC_voltage = ±450 kV
| poles_no = 1<ref>[http://www.abb.com/cawp/gad02181/8c5558c304d0eb13c1256f77003a33a1.aspx?]>The NorNed Project (ABB website)</ref>
| circuits_no =
}}

'''NorNed''' is a {{convert|580|km|mi|sing=on}} long [[HVDC]] [[submarine power cable]] between [[Feda]] in [[Norway]] and the seaport of [[Eemshaven]] in the [[Netherlands]], which interconnects both countries' [[electricity grid]]s. It is the longest submarine power cable in the world.<ref>Skog, J.E., van Asten, H., Worzyk, T., Andersrød, T., Norned – World’s longest power cable, [[International Council on Large Electric Systems|CIGRÉ]] session, Paris, 2010, paper reference B1-106.</ref> Budgeted at €550 million, and completed at a cost of €600m,<ref name="norned1">[http://www.norned-auction.org/news/newsitems/The_longest_electricity_cable_in_the_world_is_operational.aspx NorNed operational] ''NorNed'', 6 May 2008. Retrieved: 23 August 2010.</ref> the NorNed cable is a [[HVDC#Bipolar|bipolar HVDC]] link with a voltage of ±450 kV and a capacity of 700 MW. NorNed is a joint project of the Norwegian [[transmission system operator]] [[Statnett]] and its Dutch counterpart [[TenneT]].

Although classed as a "bipolar" HVDC scheme, the NorNed scheme is unusual for a Line-Commutated ([[thyristor]]-based) HVDC scheme since there is just one 12-pulse converter at each end of the scheme, midpoint-grounded at Eemshaven. With voltage-source converter-based HVDC systems, this arrangement with the two high voltage cables at equal and opposite voltages but only a single converter at each end is referred to as a ''Symmetrical monopole''.

Consequently, with a DC voltage of ±450 kV, the converter for the NorNed project has a terminal to terminal DC voltage rating of 900 kV, making it (as of 2012) the highest voltage rating of any HVDC converter in the world.

Installation of the first sections was started in early 2006; the final section was laid by the end of 2007. On the Dutch shore, TenneT has connected the cable to the 380 kV Dutch high‑voltage grid. In Feda, Statnett has done the same for the 300 kV Norwegian transmission grid. Commercial operation started on 5 May 2008 with a capacity auction. The first commercial power transfer took place on 6 May 2008.<ref>
{{cite press release
|title=NorNed auction expected to start Monday May 5
|publisher=[[TenneT]]
|date=2008-04-28
|url=http://www.tennet.org/english/tennet/news/NorNed_Verwachte_start_NorNed_Auction_maandag_5_mei.aspx
|accessdate=2008-05-05}}
</ref>

After two months of operation, the cable generated revenues of approximately €50 million. In the business case drawn up for the NorNed cable, annual revenues were estimated at €64 million.<ref>
{{cite press release
|title=NorNed cable off to a promising start
|publisher=[[TenneT]]
|date=2008-07-09
|url=http://www.tennet.org/english/tennet/news/veelbelovende_start_voor_nornedkabel.aspx
|accessdate=2008-07-21}}
</ref>

NorNed has been included in [[European Market Coupling Company]] operations as of 12 January 2011.<ref>
{{cite press release
|title=Marketcoupling on NorNed-cable
|publisher=[[TenneT]]
|date=2011-01-12
|url=http://www.tennet.org/english/projects/news/marktkoppelinguitgebreidmetnornedkabel.aspx
|accessdate=2011-01-15}}
</ref>

== Sites ==
{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
! Site || Coordinates
|-
| Eemshaven Converter Station|| {{Coord|53|26|4|N|6|51|57|E|type:landmark|name=NorNed - Eemshaven Converter Station}}
|-
| Feda Converter Station|| {{coord|58|16|58|N|6|51|55|E|type:landmark|name=NorNed - Feda Converter Station}}
|}

== See also ==
* [[Baltic Cable]]
* [[BritNed]]
* [[Cross-Skagerak]]
* [[Kontek]]
* [[NORD.LINK]]
* [[NorGer]]
* [[HVDC Norway–UK]]
* [[Scotland-Norway interconnector]]
* [[Basslink]] - second longest submarine power cable.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{GeoGroupTemplate}}
* [http://www.statnett.no/default.aspx?ChannelID=1408 The NorNed Project (Statnett website)]
* [http://www.tennet.nl/english/tennet/publications/corporate_brochures/norned.aspx The NorNed Project (TenneT website)]
* [http://www.abb.com/global/gad/gad02181.nsf/0/8c5558c304d0eb13c1256f77003a33a1?OpenDocument The NorNed Project (ABB website)]

[[Category:Energy infrastructure completed in 2008]]
[[Category:Submarine power cables]]
[[Category:Electric power infrastructure in Norway]]
[[Category:Electric power infrastructure in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:North Sea energy]]
[[Category:HVDC transmission lines]]
[[Category:Netherlands–Norway relations]]

World Bank

2013-10-30T14:35:36Z

PatriceNeff: Remove unsubstantiated claim about membership in the World Cocoa Foundation. Could not find this on any of their web sites. And a press release from 2011 talking about a partnership doesn't mention membership.

{{Distinguish|World Bank Group}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2011}}

{{Infobox organization
|name = World Bank
|image = World Bank Logo.svg
|image_border =
|size = 200px
|caption = World Bank logo
|map =
|msize =
|mcaption =
|abbreviation =
|motto = ''Working for a World Free of Poverty''
|established = July 1944
|extinction =
|type = {{Nowrap|International organization}}
|status = Treaty
|purpose = Crediting
|headquarters =
|location = Washington, D.C., U.S.
|region_served =
|membership = 188 countries<ref>[http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/ORGANIZATION/BODEXT/0,,contentMDK:22427666~pagePK:64020054~piPK:64020408~theSitePK:278036,00.html Boards of Executive Directors - Member Countries]. Web.worldbank.org. Retrieved on 2013-07-29.</ref> (IBRD)
172 countries (IDA)
|leader_title = President
|leader_name = [[Jim Yong Kim]]
|main_organ = Board of Directors<ref>{{cite web|url=http://go.worldbank.org/11PWB3RTM0|title=Board of Directors |publisher=World Bank |accessdate=14 August 2011}}</ref>
|parent_organization = [[World Bank Group]]
|affiliations =
|num_staff =
|num_volunteers =
|budget =
|website = [http://www.worldbank.org/ worldbank.org]
|remarks =
}}

The '''World Bank''' is an [[international financial institution]] that provides [[loan]]s<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |publisher=World Bank |date=14 October 2008 |url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,pagePK:50004410~piPK:36602~theSitePK:29708,00.html |accessdate=9 November 2008}}</ref> to [[developing country|developing countries]] for [[infrastructure|capital programs]].

The World Bank's official goal is the [[poverty alleviation|reduction of poverty]]. According to its Articles of Agreement (as amended effective 16 February 1989), all its decisions must be guided by a commitment to the promotion of [[foreign investment]] and [[international trade]] and to the facilitation of [[Capital (economics)|capital]] investment.<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |publisher=World Bank |date=29 June 2011|url=http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/0,,contentMDK:20049563~pagePK:43912~menuPK:58863~piPK:36602,00.html#I1 |accessdate=14 August 2011}}</ref>

The World Bank comprises two institutions: the [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD) and the [[International Development Association]] (IDA).

The World Bank should not be confused with the [[World Bank Group]], which comprises the World Bank, the [[International Finance Corporation]] (IFC), the [[Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency]] (MIGA), and the [[International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes]] (ICSID).<ref name="WBFAQ">{{cite web |title=About The World Bank (FAQs) |publisher=World Bank |month=April |year=2011 |url=http://go.worldbank.org/1M3PFQQMD0 |accessdate=14 August 2011}}</ref>{{TOC limit|3}}

==History==
[[File:WhiteandKeynes.jpg|thumb|right| [[John Maynard Keynes|Lord Keynes]] (right) and [[Harry Dexter White]], the "founding fathers" of both the World Bank and the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF).<ref name="Bretton Woods Founding Fathers 2004">{{cite web | title = The Founding Fathers | publisher = International Monetary Fund | url = http://jolis.worldbankimflib.org/Bwf/60panel3.htm | accessdate = 2012-08-11}}</ref>]]

The World Bank was created at the 1944 [[Bretton Woods Conference]], along with three other institutions, including the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF). The World Bank and the IMF are both based in Washington DC, and work closely with each other.

Although many countries were represented at the Bretton Woods Conference, the United States and United Kingdom were the most powerful in attendance and dominated the negotiations.<ref name="Goldman 2005">{{Cite book | title = Imperial Nature: The World Bank and Struggles for Social Justice in the Age of Globalization | author = Goldman, Michael | year = 2005 | publisher = Yale University Press | location = New Haven, CT | isbn = 978-0-30-011974-9}}</ref>{{rp|52–54}}

Traditionally, the World Bank has been headed by a citizen of the United States, while the IMF has been led by a European citizen.

===1944–1968===
Before 1968, the reconstruction and development loans provided by the World Bank were relatively small. The Bank's staff was aware of the need to instill confidence in the bank. [[Fiscal conservatism]] ruled, and loan applications had to meet strict criteria.<ref name="Goldman 2005" />{{rp|56–60}}

The first country to receive a World Bank loan was France. The Bank's president at the time, [[John J. McCloy|John McCloy]], chose France over two other applicants, Poland and Chile. The loan was for US$250 million, half the amount requested, and it came with strict conditions. France had to agree to produce a balanced budget and give priority of debt repayment to the World Bank over other governments. World Bank staff closely monitored the use of the funds to ensure that the French government met the conditions. In addition, before the loan was approved, the [[United States State Department]] told the French government that its members associated with the Communist Party would first have to be removed. The French government complied with this [[diktat]] and removed the [[Communist Party of France|Communist]] [[coalition government]]. Within hours, the loan to France was approved.<ref name="Bird 1992">{{Cite book | title = The Chairman: John J. McCloy, the Making of the American Establishment | author = Bird, Kai | year = 1992 | publisher = Simon & Schuster | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-67-145415-9}}</ref>{{rp|288, 290–291}}

When the [[Marshall Plan]] went into effect in 1947, many European countries began receiving aid from other sources. Faced with this competition, the World Bank shifted its focus to non-European countries. Until 1968, its loans were [[Earmark (finance)|earmark]]ed for the construction of income-producing infrastructure, such as seaports, highway systems, and power plants, that would generate enough income to enable a borrower country to repay the loan.

===1968–1980===
From 1968 to 1980, the bank concentrated on meeting the basic needs of people in the developing world. The size and number of loans to borrowers was greatly increased as loan targets expanded from infrastructure into social services and other sectors.<ref name="World Bank Historical Chronology 1970-1979">{{cite web | title = World Bank Historical Chronology: 1970-1979 | publisher = World Bank Group | author = World Bank | url = http://go.worldbank.org/847R4CBE80 | accessdate = 2012-05-31}}</ref>

These changes can be attributed to [[Robert McNamara]] who was appointed to the presidency in 1968 by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]].<ref name="Goldman 2005" />{{rp|60–63}} McNamara imported a technocratic managerial style to the Bank that he had used as United States [[Secretary of Defense]] and President of the [[Ford Motor Company]].<ref name="Goldman 2005" />{{rp|62}} McNamara shifted bank policy toward measures such as building schools and hospitals, improving [[literacy]] and agricultural reform. McNamara created a new system of gathering information from potential borrower nations that enabled the bank to process loan applications much faster. To finance more loans, McNamara told bank treasurer [[Eugene Rotberg]] to seek out new sources of capital outside of the northern banks that had been the primary sources of bank funding. Rotberg used the global bond market to increase the capital available to the bank.<ref name="Rotberg 1994">{{Cite encyclopedia | title = Financial Operations of the World Bank | author = Rotberg, Eugene | encyclopedia = Bretton Woods: looking to the future: commission report, staff review, background papers | year = 1994 | publisher = Bretton Woods Commission | location = Washington, D.C. | url = http://external.worldbankimflib.org/uhtbin/cgisirsi/x/0/0/5/?searchdata1=219610%7Bckey%7D#_}}</ref> One consequence of the period of poverty alleviation lending was the rapid rise of [[developing countries' debt|third world debt]]. From 1976 to 1980 developing world debt rose at an average annual rate of 20%.<ref name="Mosley et al. 1995">{{Cite book | title = Aid and Power: The World Bank and Policy Based Lending, 2nd Edition | author = Mosley, Paul | author2 = Harrigan, Jane | author3 = Toye, John | year = 1995 | volume = 1 | publisher = Routledge | location = Abington, UK | isbn = 978-0-415-13209-1}}</ref><ref name="Toussaint 1999">{{Cite book | title = Your Money or Your Life!: The Tyranny of Global Finance | author = Toussaint, Eric | year = 1999 | publisher = Pluto Press | location = London, UK | isbn = 978-0-74-531412-9}}</ref>

In 1980, the World Bank Administrative Tribunal was established to decide on disputes between the World Bank Group and its staff where allegation of non-observance of contracts of employment or terms of appointment had not been honored.<ref name="World Bank Admin Tribunal 2012">{{cite web | title = World Bank Administrative Tribunal | publisher = World Bank Group | author = World Bank | url = http://lnweb90.worldbank.org/crn/wbt/wbtwebsite.nsf/%28resultsweb%29/about?opendocument | accessdate = 2011-08-14}}</ref>

===1980–1989===

In 1980, McNamara was succeeded by US President [[Jimmy Carter]]'s nominee, [[A.W. Clausen]]. Clausen replaced many members of McNamara's staff and instituted a new ideological focus. His 1982 decision to replace the bank's Chief Economist, [[Hollis B. Chenery]], with [[Anne Krueger]] was an indication of this new focus. Krueger was known for her criticism of development funding and for describing [[Third World]] governments as "[[rent-seeking]] states."

During the 1980s, the bank emphasized lending to service Third-World debt, and [[structural adjustment]] policies designed to streamline the economies of developing nations. [[UNICEF]] reported in the late 1980s that the structural adjustment programs of the World Bank had been responsible for "reduced health, nutritional and educational levels for tens of millions of children in Asia, Latin America, and Africa".<ref name="Cornia et al. 1987">{{Cite book | title = Adjustment with a Human Face: Protecting the Vulnerable and Promoting Growth | editor = Cornia, Giovanni Andrea | editor2 = Jolly, Richard | editor3 = Stewart, Frances | year = 1987 | publisher = Oxford University Press USA | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-19-828609-0}}</ref>

===1989–present===
Beginning in 1989, in response to harsh criticism from many groups, the bank began including environmental groups and NGOs in its loans to mitigate the past effects of its development policies that had prompted the criticism.<ref name="Goldman 2005" />{{rp|93–97}} It also formed an implementing agency, in accordance with the Montreal Protocols, to stop ozone-depletion damage to the Earth's atmosphere by phasing out the use of 95% of ozone-depleting chemicals, with a target date of 2015. Since then, in accordance with its so-called "Six Strategic Themes," the bank has put various additional policies into effect to preserve the environment while promoting development. For example, in 1991, the bank announced that to protect against deforestation, especially in the Amazon, it would not finance any commercial logging or infrastructure projects that harm the environment.

In order to promote global public goods, the World Bank tries to control communicable disease such as malaria, delivering vaccines to several parts of the world and joining combat forces. In 2000, the bank announced a "war on AIDS", and in 2011, the Bank joined the Stop Tuberculosis Partnership.<ref name="World Bank Results 2012">{{cite web | title = Results | publisher = World Bank Group | author = World Bank | url = http://www.worldbank.org/results/ | accessdate = 2012-05-31}}</ref>

Traditionally, based on a tacit understanding between the United States and Europe, the [[World Bank presidential election, 2012|president of the World Bank]] has always been selected from candidates nominated by the United States. In 2012, for the first time, two non-US citizens were nominated.

On 23 March 2012, U.S. President [[Barack Obama]] announced that the United States would nominate [[Jim Yong Kim]] as the next president of the Bank.<ref name="Office of the Press Secretary 2012">{{Cite news | title = President Obama Announces U.S. Nomination of Dr. Jim Yong Kim to Lead World Bank | author = Office of the Press Secretary | date = 2012-03-23 | publisher = The White House | url = http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2012/03/23/president-obama-announces-us-nomination-dr-jim-yong-kim-lead-world-bank | accessdate = 2012-03-23}}</ref> Jim Yong Kim was elected on 27 April 2012.

[[File:World Bank building at Washington.jpg|thumb|The World Bank headquarters in Washington, DC]]

==== Criteria ====

Many achievements have brought the [[Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs) targets for 2015 within reach in some cases. For the goals to be realized, six criteria must be met: stronger and more inclusive growth in Africa and fragile states, more effort in health and education, integration of the development and environment agendas, more and better aid, movement on trade negotiations, and stronger and more focused support from multilateral institutions like the World Bank.<ref name="World Bank MDGs 2012">{{cite web | title = Millennium Development Goals | publisher = World Bank Group | author = World Bank | url = http://www.worldbank.org/mdgs/ | accessdate = 2012-05-31}}</ref>

# '''Eradicate Extreme Poverty and Hunger''': From 1990 through 2004, the proportion of people living in extreme poverty fell from almost a third to less than a fifth. Although results vary widely within regions and countries, the trend indicates that the world as a whole can meet the goal of halving the percentage of people living in poverty. Africa's poverty, however, is expected to rise, and most of the 36 countries where 90% of the world's undernourished children live are in Africa. Less than a quarter of countries are on track for achieving the goal of halving under-nutrition.
# '''Achieve Universal Primary Education''': The percentage of children in school in developing countries increased from 80% in 1991 to 88% in 2005. Still, about 72 million children of primary school age, 57% of them girls, were not being educated {{as of|2005|lc=y}}.
# '''Promote Gender Equality''': The tide is turning slowly for women in the labor market, yet far more women than men- worldwide more than 60% – are contributing but unpaid family workers. The World Bank Group Gender Action Plan was created to advance women's economic empowerment and promote shared growth.
# '''Reduce Child Mortality''': There is some what improvement in survival rates globally; accelerated improvements are needed most urgently in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. An estimated 10 million-plus children under five died in 2005; most of their deaths were from preventable causes.
# '''Improve Maternal Health''': Almost all of the half million women who die during pregnancy or childbirth every year live in Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. There are numerous causes of maternal death that require a variety of health care interventions to be made widely accessible.
# '''Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria, and Other Diseases''': Annual numbers of new HIV infections and AIDS deaths have fallen, but the number of people living with HIV continues to grow. In the eight worst-hit southern African countries, prevalence is above 15 percent. Treatment has increased globally, but still meets only 30 percent of needs (with wide variations across countries). AIDS remains the leading cause of death in Sub-Saharan Africa (1.6 million deaths in 2007). There are 300 to 500 million cases of malaria each year, leading to more than 1 million deaths. Nearly all the cases and more than 95 percent of the deaths occur in Sub-Saharan Africa.
# '''Ensure Environmental Sustainability''': Deforestation remains a critical problem, particularly in regions of biological diversity, which continues to decline. Greenhouse gas emissions are increasing faster than energy technology advancement.
# '''Develop a Global Partnership for Development''': Donor countries have renewed their commitment. Donors have to fulfill their pledges to match the current rate of core program development. Emphasis is being placed on the Bank Group's collaboration with multilateral and local partners to quicken progress toward the MDGs' realization.

To make sure that World Bank-financed operations do not compromise these goals but instead add to their realisation, environmental, social and legal Safeguards were defined. However these Safeguards have not been implemented entirely yet. At the World Bank's annual meeting in Tokyo 2012 a review of these Safeguards has been initiated which was welcomed by several civil society organisations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Most relevant review |author=Korinna Horta |publisher=dandc.eu |date=February 2013 |url=http://www.dandc.eu/en/article/world-bank-reviewing-its-social-and-environmental-safeguards-and-civil-society-organisations}}</ref>

==Leadership==
[[File:Jim Yong Kim (cropped).jpg|200px|thumbnail|Jim Yong Kim, the current President of the World Bank Group]]

The President of the Bank is the president of the entire [[World Bank Group]]. The president, currently [[Jim Yong Kim]], is responsible for chairing the meetings of the Boards of Directors and for overall management of the Bank. Traditionally, the Bank President has always been a US citizen nominated by the United States, the largest shareholder in the bank. The nominee is subject to confirmation by the Board of Executive Directors, to serve for a five-year, renewable term. While most World Bank presidents have had banking experience, some have not.<ref name="Hurlburt 2012">{{Cite news | title = Why Jim Yong Kim would make a great World Bank president | author = Hurlburt, Heather | date = 2012-03-23 | publisher = The Guardian | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/cifamerica/2012/mar/23/jim-yong-kim-world-bank-president | accessdate = 2012-03-23}}</ref><ref name="World Bank Leadership 2012">{{cite web | title = Leadership | publisher = World Bank Group | author = World Bank | url = http://go.worldbank.org/HWEWI4KIO0 | accessdate = 2012-07-17}}</ref>

The vice presidents of the Bank are its principal managers, in charge of regions, sectors, networks and functions. There are two Executive Vice Presidents, three Senior Vice Presidents, and 24 Vice Presidents.<ref name="World Bank Senior Management 2012">{{cite web | title = Senior Management | publisher = World Bank Group | author = World Bank | url = http://go.worldbank.org/DHWEE5LGQ0 | accessdate = 2012-08-12}}</ref>

The Boards of Directors consist of the World Bank Group President and 25 Executive Directors. The President is the presiding officer, and ordinarily has no vote except a deciding vote in case of an equal division. The Executive Directors as individuals cannot exercise any power nor commit or represent the Bank unless specifically authorized by the Boards to do so. With the term beginning 1 November 2010, the number of Executive Directors increased by one, to 25.<ref name="World Bank Boards of Directors 2012">{{cite web | title = Boards of Directors | publisher = World Bank Group | author = World Bank | url = http://go.worldbank.org/LHHOT1LSW0 | accessdate = 2012-08-12}}</ref>

===List of Presidents===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name
! Dates
! Nationality
! Background
|-
| [[Eugene Meyer]]
| 1946–1946
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| Newspaper publisher
|-
| [[John J. McCloy]]
| 1947–1949
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| Lawyer and US Assistant Secretary of War
|-
| [[Eugene R. Black, Sr.]]
| 1949–1963
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| Bank executive with [[Chase Manhattan Bank|Chase]] and executive director with the World Bank
|-
| [[George David Woods|George Woods]]
| 1963–1968
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| Bank executive with [[First Boston Corporation]]
|-
| [[Robert McNamara]]
| 1968–1981
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| US Defense Secretary, business executive with [[Ford Motor Company]]
|-
| [[Alden W. Clausen]]
| 1981–1986
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| Lawyer, bank executive with [[Bank of America]]
|-
| [[Barber Conable]]
| 1986–1991
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| New York State Senator and US Congressman
|-
| [[Lewis Thompson Preston|Lewis T. Preston]]
| 1991–1995
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| Bank executive with [[J.P. Morgan]]
|-
| Sir [[James Wolfensohn]]
| 1995–2005
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| Wolfensohn was a naturalised American citizen before taking office. Corporate lawyer and banker
|-
| [[Paul Wolfowitz]]
| 2005–2007
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| Various cabinet and government positions; US Ambassador to Indonesia, US Deputy Secretary of Defense
|-
| [[Robert Zoellick]]
| 2007–2012
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| Bank executive with [[Goldman Sachs]], Deputy Secretary of State and US Trade Representative
|-
| [[Jim Yong Kim]]
| 2012–present
| {{Flagu|United States}}
| A naturalised American citizen before taking office. Physician and anthropologist, co-founder of [[Partners in Health]] and 17th President of [[Dartmouth College]].<ref name="Reuters 2012">{{Cite news | title = Jim Yong Kim chosen to head World Bank | author = Reuters | date = 2012-04-16 | publisher = CNN IBN | url = http://ibnlive.in.com/news/jim-yong-kim-chosen-to-head-world-bank/249266-2.html | accessdate = 2012-04-16}}</ref> [[World Bank election, 2012|Elected]] on 16 April 2012.
|}

[[José Antonio Ocampo]], [[Ngozi Okonjo-Iweala]], and [[Jim Yong Kim]] were candidates for the [[World Bank election, 2012|2012 election]]. It was announced on 16 April 2012, that [[Jim Yong Kim]] will succeed [[Robert Zoellick]] as president, continuing the chain of successive World Bank president nominees from the United States.<ref name="BBC 2012">{{Cite news | title = US choice Jim Yong Kim is new World Bank chief | date = 2012-04-16 | publisher = BBC | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-17735368 | accessdate = 2012-04-16}}</ref>

==List of chief economists==
{{Main|World Bank Chief Economist}}

*[[Hollis B. Chenery]] (1972–1982)
*[[Anne Osborn Krueger]] (1982–1986)
*[[Stanley Fischer]] (1988–1990)
*[[Lawrence Summers]] (1991–1993)
*[[Michael Bruno]] (1993–1996)
*[[Joseph Stiglitz|Joseph E. Stiglitz]] (1997–2000)
*[[Nicholas Stern, Baron Stern of Brentford|Nicholas Stern]] (2000–2003)
*[[François Bourguignon]] (2003–2007)
*[[Justin Yifu Lin]] (June 2008 – 2012 )
*[[Kaushik Basu]] (September 2012-)

==Members==
{{Main|List of World Bank members}}

The [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] (IBRD) has 188 member countries, while the [[International Development Association]] (IDA) has 172 members. Each member state of IBRD should be also a member of the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) and only members of IBRD are allowed to join other institutions within the Bank (such as IDA).<ref name="WBG Member Countries 2012">{{cite web | title = Member Countries | publisher = World Bank Group | author = World Bank Group | url = http://go.worldbank.org/SGCDPJKLX0 | accessdate = 2012-07-14}}</ref>

===Voting power===
In 2010, voting powers at the World Bank were revised to increase the voice of developing countries, notably China. The countries with most voting power are now the United States (15.85%), Japan (6.84%), [[People's Republic of China|China]] (4.42%), Germany (4.00%), the United Kingdom (3.75%), France (3.75%), [[India]] (2.91%), Russia (2.77%), Saudi Arabia (2.77%) and [[Italy]] (2.64%). Under the changes, known as 'Voice Reform – Phase 2', countries other than China that saw significant gains included [[South Korea]], Turkey, [[Mexico]], Singapore, [[Greece]], Brazil, [[India]], and Spain. Most developed countries' voting power was reduced, along with a few poor countries such as [[Nigeria]]. The voting powers of the United States, Russia and [[Saudi Arabia]] were unchanged.<ref name="IBRD Voting Power Realignment 2010">{{Cite report | title = IBRD 2010 Voting Power Realignment | publisher = World Bank Group | date = 2010 | author = International Bank for Reconstruction and Development | url = http://siteresources.worldbank.org/NEWS/Resources/IBRD2010VotingPowerRealignmentFINAL.pdf | accessdate = 2011-08-14}}</ref><ref name="Veloo 2010">{{Cite news | title = China given more influence in World Bank | author = Veloo, Betsy May | date = 2010-04-26 | publisher = RTHK | url = http://www.rthk.org.hk/rthk/news/englishnews/news.htm?main&20100426&56&663699 | accessdate = 2010-04-26}}</ref>

The changes were brought about with the goal of making voting more universal in regards to standards, rule-based with objective indicators, and transparent among other things. Now, developing countries have an increased voice in the "Pool Model," backed especially by Europe. Additionally, voting power is based on economic size in addition to International Development Association contributions.<ref name="Stumm 2011">{{Cite news | title = World Bank: More responsibility for developing countries | author = Stumm, Mario | date = 2011-03 | publisher = D+C | url = http://www.dandc.eu/articles/193054/index.en.shtml | accessdate = 2011-08-12}}</ref>

==Poverty reduction strategies==
For the poorest [[Developing country|developing countries]] in the world, the bank's assistance plans are based on [[Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper|poverty reduction strategies]]; by combining a cross-section of local groups with an extensive analysis of the country's financial and economic situation the World Bank develops a strategy pertaining uniquely to the country in question. The government then identifies the country's priorities and targets for the reduction of poverty, and the World Bank aligns its aid efforts correspondingly.

Forty-five countries pledged US$25.1 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]] in "aid for the world's poorest countries", aid that goes to the World Bank [[International Development Association]] (IDA) which distributes the loans to eighty poorer countries. While wealthier nations sometimes fund their own aid projects, including those for diseases, and although IDA is the recipient of criticism, Robert B. Zoellick, the former president of the World Bank, said when the loans were announced on 15 December 2007, that IDA money "is the core funding that the poorest developing countries rely on".<ref name="Landler 2007">{{Cite news | title = Britain Overtakes U.S. as Top World Bank Donor | author = Landler, Mark | date = 2007-12-15 | publisher = The New York Times | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/15/world/15worldbank.html | accessdate = 2011-08-14}}</ref>

World Bank organizes [[World Bank Development Marketplace Award|Development Marketplace Awards]] which is a competitive grant program that surfaces and funds innovative, development projects with high potential for development impact that are scalable and/or replicable. The grant beneficiaries are social enterprises with projects that aim to deliver a range of social and public services to the most underserved low-income groups.

==Global Partnerships and Initiatives==
The World Bank has been assigned temporary management responsibility of the [[Clean Technology Fund]] (CTF), focused on making [[renewable energy]] cost-competitive with coal-fired power as quickly as possible, but this may not continue after UN's Copenhagen climate change conference in December, 2009, because of the Bank's continued investment in [[coal-fired power plant]]s.<ref name="Wheeler 2008">{{Cite news | title = Climate Change in Nashville: A Gathering Storm for the World Bank? | author = Wheeler, David | date = 2008-05-20 | publisher = Center for Global Development | url = http://blogs.cgdev.org/globaldevelopment/2008/05/climate-change-in-nashville-a.php | accessdate = 2008-11-09}}</ref>

Together with the [[WHO]], the World Bank administers the [[International Health Partnership]] (IHP+). [http://www.internationalhealthpartnership.net/en/ IHP+] is a group of partners committed to improving the health of citizens in developing countries. Partners work together to put international principles for [[aid effectiveness]] and development cooperation into practice in the health sector. IHP+ mobilizes national governments, development agencies, civil society and others to support a single, country-led national health strategy in a well-coordinated way.

=== Climate change===
World Bank President [[Jim Yong Kim]] said in 2012 that:
:“A 4 degree warmer world can, and must be, avoided – we need to hold warming below 2 degrees .... Lack of action on climate change threatens to make the world our children inherit a completely different world than we are living in today. Climate change is one of the single biggest challenges facing development, and we need to assume the moral responsibility to take action on behalf of future generations, especially the poorest.”<ref>{{cite web|title=New Report Examines Risks of 4 Degree Hotter World by End of Century|url=http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2012/11/18/new-report-examines-risks-of-degree-hotter-world-by-end-of-century|work=worldbank.org|publisher=World Bank|accessdate=12 October 2013|date=18 November 2012}}</ref>
A World Bank report into [[Climate change]] in 2012 noted that (p. xiii): "Even with the current mitigation commitments and pledges fully implemented, there is roughly a 20 percent likelihood of exceeding 4°C by 2100." This is despite the fact that the "global community has committed itself to holding warming below 2°C to prevent 'dangerous' climate change"". Furthermore: "A series of recent extreme events worldwide highlight the vulnerability of all countries. ... No nation will be immune to the impacts of climate change." <ref name= "Turn down the heat">[http://climatechange.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/Turn_Down_the_heat_Why_a_4_degree_centrigrade_warmer_world_must_be_avoided.pdf Why a 4 degree centrigrade warmer world must be avoided] November 2012 World Bank</ref>

Report 2013: The World Bank doubled its aid for [[climate change]] adaptation from $2.3bn (£1.47bn) in 2011 to $4.6bn in 2012. The planet is now 0.8 ºC warmer than in pre-industrial times. 2ºC warming is reached in 20 to 30 years. <ref>[http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2013/06/19/what-climate-change-means-africa-asia-coastal-poor What Climate Change Means for Africa, Asia and the Coastal Poor] [[WorldBank]] 19.6.2012</ref><ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2013/jun/19/climate-change-developing-countries-world-bank World's poorest will feel brunt of climate change, warns World Bank] [[The Guardian]] 19.6.2012</ref>

===Food security===
Main article: [[Food security]]
# Global Food Security Program: Launched in April 2010, six countries alongside the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation have pledged $925 mn for food security. Till date the program has helped 8 countries, promoting agriculture, research, trade in agriculture, etc.
# Launched Global Food Crisis Response Program: Given grants to approximately 40 nations for seeds, etc. for improving productivity.
# In process of increasing its yearly spending for agriculture to $6 billion–$8 billion from earlier $4 billion.
# Runs several nutrition program across the world, e.g., vitamin A doses for children, school meals, etc.{{citation needed |date=October 2013}}

==Training wings==
===World Bank Institute===
The World Bank Institute (WBI) creates learning opportunities for countries, World Bank staff and clients, and people committed to poverty reduction and sustainable development. WBI's work program includes training, policy consultations, and the creation and support of knowledge networks related to international economic and social development.

The World Bank Institute (WBI) can be defined as a "global connector of knowledge, learning and innovation for poverty reduction". It aims to inspire change agents and prepare them with essential tools that can help achieve development results.
WBI has four major strategies to approach development problems: innovation for development, knowledge exchange, leadership and coalition building, and structured learning.
World Bank Institute(WBI) was formerly known as Economic Development Institute (EDI), established on March 11, 1955 with the support of the Rockefeller and Ford Foundations. The purpose of the institute was to serve as provide an open place where senior officials from developing countries could discuss development policies and programs. Over the years, EDI grew significantly and in 2000, the Institute was renamed as the World Bank Institute.
Currently Sanjay Pradhan is the Vice President of the World Bank Institute.<ref name="World Bank Institute About 2012">{{cite web | title = About WBI | publisher = World Bank Group | author = World Bank Institute | url = http://wbi.worldbank.org/wbi/about | accessdate = 2012-05-31}}</ref>

===Global Development Learning Network===
The [http://www.gdln.org Global Development Learning Network] (GDLN) is a partnership of over 120 learning centers (GDLN Affiliates) in nearly 80 countries around the world. GDLN Affiliates collaborate in holding events that connect people across countries and regions for learning and dialogue on development issues.

GDLN clients are typically NGOs, government, private sector and development agencies who find that they work better together on subregional, regional or global development issues using the facilities and tools offered by GDLN Affiliates. Clients also benefit from the ability of Affiliates to help them choose and apply these tools effectively, and to tap development practitioners and experts worldwide. GDLN Affiliates facilitate around 1000 videoconference-based activities a year on behalf of their clients, reaching some 90,000 people worldwide. Most of these activities bring together participants in two or more countries over a series of sessions. A majority of GDLN activities are organized by small government agencies and NGOs.

====GDLN Asia Pacific====
The [http://www.gdlnap.org/ GDLN in the East Asia and Pacific] region has experienced rapid growth and Distance Learning Centers now operate, or are planned in 20 countries: Australia, Mongolia, Cambodia, China, Indonesia, Singapore, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Japan, Papua New Guinea, South Korea, Thailand, Laos, Timor Leste, Fiji, Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Nepal and New Zealand. With over 180 Distance Learning Centers, it is the largest development learning network in the Asia and Pacific region. The Secretariat Office of GDLN Asia Pacific is located in the Center of Academic Resources of Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.

GDLN Asia Pacific was launched at the GDLN's East Asia and Pacific regional meeting held in Bangkok from 22 to 24 May 2006. Its vision is to become "the premier network exchanging ideas, experience and know-how across the Asia Pacific Region". GDLN Asia Pacific is a separate entity to The World Bank. It has endorsed its own Charter and Business Plan and, in accordance with the Charter, a GDLN Asia Pacific Governing Committee has been appointed.

The committee comprises China (2), Australia (1), Thailand (1), The World Bank (1) and finally, a nominee of the Government of Japan (1). The organization is currently hosted by Chulalongkorn University in Bangkok, Thailand, founding member of the GDLN Asia Pacific.

The Governing Committee has determined that the most appropriate legal status for the GDLN AP in Thailand is a "Foundation". The World Bank is currently engaging a solicitor in Thailand to process all documentation in order to obtain this legal status.

GDLN Asia Pacific is built on the principle of shared resources among partners engaged in a common task, and this is visible in the organizational structures that exist, as the network evolves. Physical space for its headquarters is provided by the host of the GDLN Centre in Thailand – Chulalongkorn University; Technical expertise and some infrastructure is provided by the Tokyo Development Learning Centre (TDLC); Fiduciary services are provided by Australian National University (ANU) Until the GDLN Asia Pacific is established as a legal entity tin Thailand, ANU, has offered to assist the governing committee, by providing a means of managing the inflow and outflow of funds and of reporting on them. This admittedly results in some complexity in contracting arrangements, which need to be worked out on a case by case basis and depends to some extent on the legal requirements of the countries involved.

===The JUSTPAL Network===
A Justice Sector Peer-Assisted Learning (JUSTPAL) Network was launched in April 2011 by the Poverty Reduction and Economic Management (PREM) Department of the World Bank’s Europe and Central Asia (ECA) Region. The JUSTPAL objective is to provide an online and offline platform for justice professionals to exchange knowledge, good practices and peer-driven improvements to justice systems and thereby support countries to improve their justice sector performance, quality of justice and service delivery to citizens and businesses.

The JUSTPAL Network includes representatives of judiciaries, ministries of justice, prosecutors, anti-corruption agencies and other justice-related entities from across the globe. The Network currently has active members from more than 50 countries.

To facilitate fruitful exchange of reform experiences and sharing of applicable good practices, the JUSTPAL Network has organized its activities under (currently) five Communities of Practice (COPs): (i) Budgeting for the Justice Sector; (ii) Information Systems for Justice Services; (iii) Justice Sector Physical Infrastructure; (iv) Court Management and Administration; and (v) Prosecution and Anti-Corruption Agencies.

==Country assistance strategies==
As a guideline to the World Bank's operations in any particular country, a Country Assistance Strategy is produced, in cooperation with the local government and any interested stakeholders and may rely on analytical work performed by the Bank or other parties.

== Clean Air Initiative ==
Clean Air Initiative (CAI) is a World Bank initiative to advance innovative ways to improve air quality in cities through partnerships in selected regions of the world by sharing knowledge and experiences. It includes [[electric vehicle]]s.<ref name="Clean Air Initiative 2012">{{cite web | title = About Us | publisher = Clean Air Initiative-Asia Center | author = Clean Air Initiative | url = http://cleanairinitiative.org/portal/aboutus | accessdate = 2010-05-31}}</ref>

==United Nations Development Business==
Based on an agreement between the United Nations and the World Bank in 1981, ''[[Development Business]]'' became the official source for World Bank Procurement Notices, Contract Awards, and Project Approvals.<ref name="Development Business 2012">{{cite web | title = About Us | publisher = United Nations | author = Development Business | url = http://www.devbusiness.com/DevBusinessViewer.aspx?Content=AboutUNDBPage | accessdate = 2012-08-19}}</ref>

In 1998, the agreement was re-negotiated, and included in this agreement was a joint venture to create an electronic version of the publication via the World Wide Web. Today, ''Development Business'' is the primary publication for all major multilateral development banks, United Nations agencies, and several national governments, many of whom have made the publication of their tenders and contracts in ''Development Business'' a mandatory requirement.<ref name="Development Business 2012" />

The World Bank or the [[World Bank Group]] is also a sitting observer in the [[United Nations Development Group]].<ref name="UN Development Group 2012">{{cite web | title = UNDG Members | publisher = United Nations | author = United Nations Development Group | url = http://www.undg.org/index.cfm?P=13 | accessdate = 2012-08-19}}</ref>

== Open Data initiative ==
The World Bank collects and processes large amounts of data and generates them on the basis of economic models. These data and models have gradually been made available to the public in a way that encourages reuse,<ref name="Strom 2011">{{Cite news | title = World Bank Is Opening Its Treasure Chest of Data | author = Strom, Stephanie | date = 2011-07-02 | publisher = The New York Times | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2011/07/03/business/global/03world.html?_r=1 | accessdate = 2012-08-20}}</ref> whereas the recent publications describing them are available as [[open access]] under a [[Creative Commons Licenses|Creative Commons Attribution License]], for which the bank received the SPARC Innovator 2012 award.<ref name="SPARC 2012">{{cite web | title = SPARC Innovator: The World Bank | publisher = Association of Research Libraries | author = SPARC | url = http://www.arl.org/sparc/media/World_Bank_SPARC_Innovator.shtml | accessdate = 2012-07-12}}</ref> The World Bank hosts the Open Knowledge Repository (OKR) <ref>{{cite web | url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org | title=Open Knowledge Repository (OKR) | publisher=World Bank | accessdate=22 October 2013}}</ref> as an official open access repository for its research outputs and knowledge products.

==Criticisms==
The World Bank has long been criticized by non-governmental organizations, such as the indigenous rights group [[Survival International]], and academics, including its former Chief Economist [[Joseph Stiglitz]], [[Henry Hazlitt]] and [[Ludwig Von Mises]].<ref name="Stiglitz 2003a">{{Cite book | title = The Roaring Nineties: A New History of the World's Most Prosperous Decade | author = Stiglitz, Joseph E. | year = 2003 | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-39-305852-9}}</ref><ref name="Stiglitz 2003b">{{Cite book | title = Globalization and Its Discontents | author = Stiglitz, Joseph E. | year = 2003 | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-39-332439-6}}</ref><ref name="Stiglitz 2007">{{Cite book | title = Making Globalization Work | author = Stiglitz, Joseph E. | year = 2007 | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-39-333028-1}}</ref> Henry Hazlitt argued that the World Bank along with the monetary system it was designed within would promote world inflation and "a world in which international trade is State-dominated" when they were being advocated.<ref name="Hazlitt 1984">{{Cite book | title = From Bretton Woods to World Inflation: A Study of the Causes and Consequences | author = Hazlitt, Henry | year = 1984 | publisher = Regnery Publishing | location = Washington, D.C. | isbn = 978-0-89-526617-0}}</ref> Stiglitz argued that the so-called [[free market]] reform policies which the Bank advocates are often harmful to [[economic development]] if implemented badly, too quickly ("[[shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]]"), in the wrong sequence or in weak, uncompetitive economies.<ref name="Stiglitz 2003b" /><ref name="Schneider 2002">{{Cite encyclopedia | title = World Markets: Anthropological Perspectives | author = Schneider, Jane | encyclopedia = Exotic No More: Anthropology on the Front Lines | editor = MacClancy, Jeremy | year = 2002 | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago, IL | isbn = 978-0-22-650013-3}}</ref>

One of the strongest criticisms of the World Bank has been the way in which it is governed. While the World Bank represents 188 countries, it is run by a small number of economically powerful countries. These countries (which also provide most of the institution's funding) choose the leadership and senior management of the World Bank, and so their interests dominate the bank.<ref name="Woods 2007">{{Cite book | title = The Globalizers: The IMF, the World Bank, and Their Borrowers | author = Woods, Ngaire | year = 2007 | publisher = Cornell University Press | location = Ithica, NY | isbn = 978-0-80-147420-0}}</ref>{{rp|190}} Titus Alexander argues that the unequal voting power of western countries and the World Bank's role in developing countries makes it similar to the South African Development Bank under apartheid, and therefore a pillar of global apartheid.<ref name="Alexander 1996">{{Cite book | title = Unravelling Global Apartheid: An Overview of World Politics | author = Alexander, Titus | year = 1996 | publisher = Polity | location = Cambridge, UK | isbn = 978-0-74-561352-9}}</ref>{{rp|133–141}}

In the 1990s, the World Bank and the IMF forged the [[Washington Consensus]], policies which included [[deregulation]] and liberalization of markets, [[privatization]] and the [[civil service reform in developing countries|downscaling of government]]. Though the Washington Consensus was conceived as a policy that would best promote development, it was criticized for ignoring equity, employment and how reforms like privatization were carried out. Joseph Stiglitz argued that the Washington Consensus placed too much emphasis on the growth of GDP, and not enough on the permanence of growth or on whether growth contributed to better living standards.<ref name="Stiglitz 2007" />{{rp|17}}

The [[United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations]] report criticized the World Bank and other international financial institutions for focusing too much "on issuing loans rather than on achieving concrete development results within a finite period of time" and called on the institution to "strengthen anti-corruption efforts".<ref name="Committee on Foreign Relations 2010">{{Cite report | title = The International Financial Institutions: A Call For Change | publisher = U.S. Government Printing Office | date = 2010 | author = Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 111th Congress | url = http://www.foreign.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/55285.pdf | accessdate = 2012-08-20}}</ref>

Criticism of the World Bank often takes the form of [[protesting]] as seen in recent events such as the [[World Bank Oslo 2002 Protests]],<ref name="Gibbs 2002">{{Cite news | title = Europe: Norway: Protests As World Bank Meets | author = Gibbs, Walter | date = 2002-06-25 | publisher = The New York Times | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2002/06/25/world/world-briefing-europe-norway-protests-as-world-bank-meets.html?n=Top/Reference/Times%20Topics/Subjects/F/Foreign%20Aid | accessdate = 2012-08-20}}</ref> the [[October Rebellion]],<ref name="Williams & Ruane 2007">{{Cite news | title = Violence Erupts at Protest in Georgetown | author = Williams, Clarence | author2 = Ruane, Michael E. | date = 2007-10-20 | publisher = The Washington Post | url = http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/10/19/AR2007101901728.html | accessdate = 2008-05-30}}</ref> and the [[World Trade Organization Ministerial Conference of 1999 protest activity|Battle of Seattle]].<ref name="Wilson 1999">{{Cite news | title = Embattled police chief resigns | author = Wilson, Kimberly A.C. | date = 1999-12-07 | publisher = Seattle Post-Intelligencer | url = http://www.iatp.org/news/embattled-police-chief-resigns | accessdate = 2008-05-19}}</ref> Such demonstrations have occurred all over the world, even amongst the [[Brazil]]ian [[Kayapo people]].<ref name="Clendenning 2008">{{Cite news | title = Amazon Indians Attack Official Over Dam Project | author = Clendenning, Alan | date = 2008-05-21 | agency = Associated Press | publisher = National Geographic | url = http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2008/05/080521-AP-indians-dam.html | accessdate = 2008-05-21}}</ref>

Another source of criticism has been the tradition of having an American head the bank, implemented because the United States provides the majority of World Bank funding. "When economists from the World Bank visit poor countries to dispense cash and advice," observed ''The Economist'', as [[Jim Yong Kim]] said in 2012, "they routinely tell governments to reject [[cronyism]] and fill each important job with the best candidate available. It is good advice. The World Bank should take it."<ref name="The Economist 2012">{{Cite news | title = Hats off to Ngozi | date = 2012-03-31 | publisher = The Economist | url = http://www.economist.com/node/21551490 | accessdate = 2012-04-02}}</ref> Jim Yong Kim is the most recently appointed president of the World Bank.<ref name="Rushe et al. 2012">{{Cite news | title = World Bank names US-nominated Jim Yong Kim as president | author = Rushe, Dominic | author2 = Stewart, Heather | author3 = Mark, Monica | date = 2012-04-16 | publisher = The Guardian | url = http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2012/apr/16/world-bank-president-jim-yong-kim | accessdate = 2012-04-17}}</ref>

===Structural adjustment===
The effect of [[structural adjustment]] policies on poor countries has been one of the most significant criticisms of the World Bank.<ref>{{cite book|last=Graeber|first=David|authorlink=David Graeber|title=Direct Action: An Ethnography|publisher=[[AK Press]]|pages=442–443|ISBN=9781904859796}}</ref> The [[1979 energy crisis]] plunged many countries into economic crisis.<ref name="deVries 1996">{{Cite encyclopedia | title = The World Bank's Focus on Poverty | author = deVries, Barend A. | encyclopedia = The World Bank: Lending on a Global Scale | editor = Griesgraber, Jo Marie | editor2 = Gunter, Bernhard G. | year = 1996 | publisher = Pluto Press | location = London, UK | isbn = 978-0-74-531049-7}}</ref>{{rp|68}} The World Bank responded with structural adjustment loans which distributed aid to struggling countries while enforcing policy changes in order to reduce inflation and fiscal imbalance. Some of these policies included encouraging [[production (economics)|production]], investment and labour-intensive manufacturing, changing real [[exchange rates]] and altering the distribution of government resources. Structural adjustment policies were most effective in countries with an institutional framework that allowed these policies to be implemented easily. For some countries, particularly in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], economic growth regressed and inflation worsened. The alleviation of poverty was not a goal of structural adjustment loans, and the circumstances of the poor often worsened, due to a reduction in social spending and an increase in the price of food, as subsidies were lifted.<ref name="deVries 1996" />{{rp|69}}

By the late 1980s, international organizations began to admit that structural adjustment policies were worsening life for the world's poor. The World Bank changed structural adjustment loans, allowing for social spending to be maintained, and encouraging a slower change to policies such as transfer of subsidies and price rises.<ref name="deVries 1996" />{{rp|70}} In 1999, the World Bank and the IMF introduced the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach to replace structural adjustment loans.<ref name="Tan 2007">{{Cite encyclopedia | title = The poverty of amnesia: PRSPs in the legacy of structural adjustment | author = Tan, Celine | encyclopedia = The World Bank and Governance: A Decade of Reform and Reaction | editor = Stone, Diane | editor2 = Wright, Christopher | year = 2007 | publisher = Routledge | location = New York, NY | isbn = 978-0-41-541282-7}}</ref>{{rp|147}} The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper approach has been interpreted as an extension of structural adjustment policies as it continues to reinforce and legitimize global inequities. Neither approach has addressed the inherent flaws within the global economy that contribute to economic and social inequities within developing countries.<ref name="Tan 2007" />{{rp|152}} By reinforcing the relationship between lending and client states, many believe that the World Bank has usurped indebted countries' power to determine their own economic policy.<ref name="Chossudovsky 1997">{{Cite book | title = The Globalisation of Poverty: Impacts of IMF and World Bank Reforms | author = Chossudovsky, Michel | year = 1997 | publisher = Zed Books | location = London, UK | isbn = 978-1-85-659401-4}}</ref>

===Fairness of assistance conditions===
Some critics,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.wdm.org.uk/sites/default/files/treacherousconditions07052003.pdf | title=Treacherous conditions: How IMF and World Bank policies tied to debt relief are undermining developmen | publisher=World Development Movement | year=2003 | accessdate=2013-05-12 | author=Hardstaff, Peter}}</ref> most prominently the author [[Naomi Klein]], are of the opinion that the World Bank Group's loans and aid have unfair conditions attached to them that reflect the interests, financial power and political doctrines (notably the [[Washington Consensus]]) of the Bank and, by extension, the countries that are most influential within it. Amongst other allegations, Klein says the Group's credibility was damaged "when it forced school fees on students in Ghana in exchange for a loan; when it demanded that Tanzania privatise its water system; when it made telecom privatisation a condition of aid for Hurricane Mitch; when it demanded labour "flexibility" in Sri Lanka in the aftermath of the Asian tsunami; when it pushed for eliminating food subsidies in post-invasion Iraq."<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2007/apr/27/comment.business | title=The World Bank has the perfect standard bearer | newspaper=The Guardian | date=2007-04-27 | accessdate=2013-05-12 | author=Klein, Naomi}}</ref>

===Sovereign immunity===
The World Bank requires [[sovereign immunity]] from countries it deals with.<ref name="IFI Watch 2004">{{Cite journal | title = The World Bank and the Question of Immunity | journal = IFI Watch - Bangladesh | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | year = 2004 | pages = 1–10 | author = IFI Watch | url = http://www.unnayan.org/Other/IFI_Watch_Bangladesh_Vol_1%20No_1.pdf | accessdate = 2004-09-04}}</ref><ref name="World Bank Sovereign Immunity 2007">{{Cite report | title = Sovereign Immunity | publisher = World Bank Group | date = 2007 | author = World Bank | url = http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTINFANDLAW/Resources/sovereignimmunity.pdf | accessdate = 2012-08-20}}</ref><ref name="Hasson 2002">{{Cite journal | title = Extraterritorial Jurisdiction and Sovereign Immunity on Trial: Noriega, Pinochet, and Milosevic - Trends in Political Accountability and Transnational Criminal Law | journal = Boston College International and Comparative Law Review | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | year = 2002 | pages = 125–158 | author = Hasson, Adam Isaac | url = http://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/iclr/vol25/iss1/6/ | accessdate = 2012-04-25}}</ref> Sovereign immunity waives a holder from all legal liability for their actions. It is proposed that this immunity from responsibility is a "shield which [The World Bank] wants to resort to, for escaping accountability and security by the people."<ref name="IFI Watch 2004" /> As the United States has veto power, it can prevent the World Bank from taking action against its interests.<ref name="IFI Watch 2004" />

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|World Bank}}
* [http://www.worldbank.org/ Official website]
* [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTABOUTUS/EXTIBRD/0,,menuPK:3046081~pagePK:64168427~piPK:64168435~theSitePK:3046012,00.html IBRD main page]
* [http://www.worldbank.org/ida/ IDA main page]

{{Central banks}}
{{World Bank}}

[[Category:Banks]]
[[Category:Carbon finance]]
[[Category:Economics organizations]]
[[Category:International development]]
[[Category:United Nations Development Group]]
[[Category:World Bank| ]]

{{Link GA|ru}}

Mazda RX-7

2013-09-17T13:26:13Z

PatriceNeff: Revert vandalism by 62.220.162.177

{{Refimprove|date=February 2012}}
{{Infobox automobile
|name=Mazda RX-7
|image=Mazda-RX-7-FD.jpg
|manufacturer=[[Mazda]]
|class=[[Sports car]]
|production=1978–2002 811,634 produced<ref name="Long">{{cite book |title=RX-7 |last=Long |first=Brian |year=2004 |publisher=Veloce Publishing |location=Dorchester |isbn=1-904788-03-3|page=206 }}</ref>
|body_style=2-door [[coupe]]
|layout=[[FMR layout]]
|assembly=[[Hiroshima]], [[Japan]]
|predecessor=[[Mazda RX-3]]
|successor=[[Mazda RX-8]]
|related = [[Mazda MX-5]]
}}
The '''Mazda RX-7''' is a [[sports car]] produced by the Japanese automaker [[Mazda]] from 1978 to 2002. The original RX-7 featured a 1146 cc twin-rotor [[Wankel engine|Wankel rotary engine]] and a [[FMR layout|front-midship]], [[rear-wheel drive]] layout. The RX-7 replaced the [[Mazda RX-3|RX-3]] (both were sold in Japan as the Savanna) and later replaced all other Mazda rotary-engine cars except the [[Mazda Cosmo|Cosmo]].

The original RX-7 was a sports car with [[Hidden headlamps|pop-up headlamps]]. The compact and lightweight [[Wankel engine]] ([[Pistonless rotary engine|rotary engine]]) is situated slightly behind the front axle, a configuration marketed by Mazda as "front mid-engine". It was offered as a two-seat coupé, with optional "occasional" rear seats in Japan, Australia, the United States, and other parts of the world. These rear seats were initially marketed as a dealer-installed option for the North American markets.

The RX-7 made ''[[Car and Driver]]'' magazine's [[Car and Driver Ten Best|Ten Best list]] five times. 811,634 RX-7s were produced.<ref name="Long">{{cite book |title=RX-7 |last=Long |first=Brian |year=2004 |publisher=Veloce Publishing |location=Dorchester |isbn=1-904788-03-3|pages= }}</ref>

==First generation (SA22C)==
{{Infobox automobile
|name=SA/FB
|aka=Savanna RX-7
|image=Mazda-rx7-1st-generation01.jpg
|production=1978–1985 471,018 produced<ref name="Long"/>
|engine=1,146 cc ''[[Mazda Wankel engine#12A|12A]]'' 1,146 cc ''[[Mazda Wankel engine#Turbo|12A]]'' [[Turbocharger|turbo]] 1,308 cc [[Mazda Wankel engine#13B|13B RE-EGI]]
|transmission=3-speed [[automatic transmission|automatic]] 4-speed [[automatic transmission|automatic]] 5-speed [[manual transmission|manual]] 4-speed [[manual transmission|manual]]
| length= {{convert|4285|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}
| width= {{convert|1675|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}
| height= {{convert|1260|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}
| wheelbase= {{convert|2420|mm|in|0|abbr=on}}
|weight= {{convert|2300|lb|kg||abbr=on}} - {{convert|2500|lb|kg||abbr=on}}
}}

Series 1 (1978–1980) is commonly referred to as the "SA22C" from the first alphanumerics of the [[vehicle identification number]]. This series of RX-7 had exposed steel bumpers and a high-mounted indentation-located license plate, called by Werner Buhrer of ''[[Road & Track]]'' magazine a "Baroque depression." In Japan it was introduced in March 1978, replacing the [[Mazda RX-3|Savanna RX-3]]. The lead designer at Mazda was Matasaburo Maeda, whose son Ikuo would go on to design the [[Mazda2]] and [[Mazda RX-8]].<ref>{{cite journal|coauthors=Nik Berg (ed), Elliot Lewis-George|title=Mazda Heroes #1 - Ikuo Maeda|journal=Zoom-Zoom Magazine|year=2013|issue=16|page=6|url=http://www.zoomzoommag.com.au/issue16_2013|accessdate=15 May 2013}}</ref>

In May 1980, Mazda released 2,500 special North American models known as the LS (Leather Sport). This package was essentially an uprated GS model with added LS badges on each B-pillar, special striping, and LS-only gold anodized wheels (with polished outer face and wheel rim). All LS editions came equipped with special LS-only full brown leather upholstery, leather wrapped steering wheel, leather wrapped shift knob, removable sunroof, LS-specific four-speaker AM/FM stereo radio with power antenna (though listed as a six speaker stereo, as the two rear dual voice coil speakers were counted as four speakers in total), remote power door side mirrors, and other standard GS equipment. Two primary options were also available; a three-speed JATCO 3N71B automatic transmission and air conditioning. Other GS options such as cassette tape deck, splash guards, padded center console arm rest and others could be added by the dealer. The LS model was only ever available in three different exterior colors: Aurora White (1,000 made), Brilliant Black (1,000 made) and Solar Gold (500 made). Production estimates in parenthesis are widely accepted estimations per color, though no official production records are known to exist or to have been released, aside from the total combined production figure of 2,500 units.

[[File:1st Mazda RX-7 -- 04-11-2012 2.JPG|thumb|left|Mazda RX-7 Series 2 (US)]]

The Series 2 (1981–1983) had integrated plastic-covered bumpers, wide black rubber body side moldings, wraparound taillights and updated engine control components. The GSL package provided optional four-wheel disc brakes, front ventilated (Australian model) and clutch-type rear [[limited slip differential]] (LSD). Known as the "FB" in North America after the [[United States Department of Transportation|US Department of Transportation]] mandated 17 digit Vehicle Identification Number changeover. For various other markets worldwide, the 1981–1985 RX-7 retained the 'SA22C' VIN prefix. In the UK, the 1978–1980 series 1 cars carried the SA code on the vehicle VIN but all later cars (1981–1983 series 2 & 1984–1985 series 3) carried the FB code and these first generation RX7's are known as the "FB". The license-plate surround looks much like Buhrer's "Styling Impressions."{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}

In Europe, the FB was mainly noticed for having received a power increase from the {{convert|105|PS|kW|abbr=on}} of the SA22; the 1981 RX-7 now had {{convert|115|PS|kW|0|abbr=on}} on tap. European market cars also received four-wheel disc brakes as standard.<ref name="AR83">{{cite journal | title = Automobil Revue '83 | ref = AR83 | editor-last = Büschi | editor-first = Hans-Ulrich | publisher = Hallwag, AG | language = German/French | page = 363 | location = Berne, Switzerland | volume = 78 | date = March 10, 1983 | isbn = 3-444-06065-3 }}</ref>

[[File:1984-1985 Mazda RX-7 (Series 3) coupe 01.jpg|thumb|left|1984–1985 Mazda RX-7 (Series 3; Australia)]]

The Series 3 (1984–1985) featured an updated lower front fascia. North American models received a different instrument cluster. GSL package was continued into this series, but Mazda introduced the GSL-SE sub-model. The GSL-SE had a [[Fuel injection|fuel-injected]] 1.3 L [[Mazda Wankel engine#13B|13B RE-EGI]] engine producing 135 hp (101 kW) and {{convert|135|lbft|Nm|0|abbr=on}}. GSL-SEs had much the same options as the GSL (clutch-type rear LSD and rear disc brakes), but the brake rotors were larger, allowing Mazda to use the more common lug nuts (versus bolts), and a new bolt pattern of 4x114.3 (4x4.5"). Also, they had upgraded suspension with stiffer springs and shocks. The external [[oil cooler]] was reintroduced, after being dropped in the 1983 model-year for the controversial "beehive" water-oil heat exchanger.

The 1984 RX-7 GSL has an estimated 29 highway miles per gallon (8.11 litres per 100 km) /19 estimated city miles per gallon (12.37 l/100 km). According to Mazda, its rotary engine, licensed by NSU-Wankel allowed the RX-7 GSL to accelerate from 0 to 50 (80 km/h) in 6.3 seconds. [[Kelley Blue Book]], in its January–February 1984 issue, noted that a 1981 RX-7 GSL retained 93.4% of its original sticker price.

In 1985 Mazda released the RX7 Finale in Australia. This was the last of the series and brought out in limited numbers. The Finale featured power options and a brass plaque mentioning the number the car was as well as "Last of a legend" on the plaque. The finale had special stickers and a blacked out section between the window & rear hatch.

The handling and [[acceleration]] of the car were noted to be of a high caliber for its day. This generation RX-7 had "live axle" [[Multi-link suspension|4-link]] rear [[Car suspension|suspension]] with [[Watt's linkage]], a [[Car handling#Center of gravity forward or back|50/50 weight ratio]], and weighed under 2,500 lb (1,100 kg). It was the lightest generation of RX-7 ever produced. [[Mazda Wankel engine#12A|12A]]-powered models accelerated from 0–60 mph in 9.2 s, and turned 0.779 ''g'' (7.64 m/s²) laterally on a skidpad. The [[Mazda Wankel engine#12A|12A]] engine produced 100 hp (75 kW) at 6,000 rpm, allowing the car to reach speeds of over {{convert|120|mph|km/h}}. Because of the smoothness inherent in the [[Wankel engine|Wankel rotary engine]], little vibration or harshness was experienced at high engine speeds, so a buzzer was fitted to the [[tachometer]] to warn the driver when the 7,000 rpm redline was approaching.

The 12A engine has a long thin shaped combustion chamber, having a large surface area in relation to its volume. Therefore, combustion is cool, giving few oxides of nitrogen. However, the combustion is also incomplete, so there are large amounts of partly burned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. The exhaust is hot enough for combustion of these to continue into the exhaust. An engine driven pump supplies air into the exhaust to complete the burn of these chemicals. This is done in the "thermal reactor" chamber where the exhaust manifold would normally be on a conventional engine. Under certain conditions the pump injects air into the thermal reactor and at other times air is pumped through injectors into the exhaust ports. This fresh air is needed for more efficient and cleaner burning of the air/fuel mixture.<ref>”[http://www.mazda.com/mazdaspirit/rotary/story/p4.html Development of Low-Emission Rotary Engines]”, [[Mazda Motor Corporation]]</ref>

Options and models varied from country to country. The gauge layout and interior styling in the Series 3 was only changed for North American versions. Additionally, North America was the only market to have offered the first generation RX-7 with the fuel-injected [[Mazda Wankel engine#13B-RESI|13B]], model GSL-SE. Sales of the first generation RX-7 were strong, with a total of 474,565 first generation cars produced; 377,878 (nearly eighty percent) were sold in the United States alone. In 2004, ''[[Sports Car International]]'' named this car seventh on their list of [[Sports Car International Top Sports Cars|Top Sports Cars of the 1970s]]. In 1983, the RX-7 would appear on ''Car and Driver'' magazine's Ten Best list for the first time in 20 years.

===Savanna RX-7 Turbo===
Following the introduction of the first [[turbocharged]] rotary engine in the [[Mazda Luce|Luce]]/[[Mazda Cosmo|Cosmo]], a similar, also fuel injected and non-[[Intercooler|intercooled]] [[Mazda Wankel engine#Turbo|12A turbo]] engine was made available for the top-end model of the series 3 in Japan. It was introduced in September 1983.<ref name=Moniteur>{{cite journal | ref = Ballade | journal = Le Moniteur de l'Automobile | page = 40 | title = Ballade Japonaise: à la découverte des Mazda Turbo | trans_title = Japanese ballad: Discovering the Mazda Turbos | last = Dieudonne | first = Pierre | location = Brussels, Belgium | language = French | volume = 34 | number = 784 | date = 1983-12-15 | publisher = Editions Auto-Magazine }}</ref> Power is {{convert|165|PS|kW|0|abbr=on}} JIS at 6,500 rpm. While the peak power figures were only somewhat higher than those of the engine used in the Luce/Cosmo, the new "Impact Turbo" was developed specifically to deal with the different exhaust gas characteristics of a rotary engine. Both rotor vanes of the turbine were remodelled and made smaller, and the turbine had a twenty percent higher speed than a turbo intended for a conventional engine.<ref>[[#Ballade|Dieudonne]], pp. 43-44</ref> The Savanna Turbo was short-lived, as the next generation RX-7 was just around the corner.

==Second generation (FC)==

{{Infobox automobile
|name=FC
|image=1990_Mazda_RX7_FC3S_Modified.jpg
|production= S4 (1986 - 1988) – S5(1989 - 1991) 272,027 produced<ref name="Long"/>
|aka= [[Mazda Savanna]]
|engine=
1.3L {{Convert|146|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} S4 Naturally aspirated [[Mazda Wankel engine#13B|13B]]

1.3L {{Convert|182|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} S4 Turbocharged [[Mazda Wankel engine#13B|13B]]

1.3L {{Convert|160|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} S5 Naturally aspirated [[Mazda Wankel engine#13B|13B]]
1.3L {{Convert|202
|hp|kW|0|abbr=on}} S5 Turbocharged [[Mazda Wankel engine#13B|13B]]
|wheelbase= {{convert|95.7|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|length=1986-88: {{convert|168.9|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} 1989–1991: {{convert|169.9|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|width= {{convert|66.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|height= {{convert|49.8|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|weight={{convert|1191|kg|lb}} - {{convert|3071|lb|kg||abbr=on}}
}}
The Series 4 (1986–1988) was available with a naturally aspirated, fuel-injected [[Mazda Wankel engine#13B|13B-VDEI]] producing 146 hp (108 kW). An optional [[turbocharger|turbocharged]] model, (1987–1988) known as the Turbo II in the American market, had 182 hp / 185 ps (135 kW). The Series 5 (1989–1992) featured updated styling and better engine management, as well as lighter rotors and a higher [[compression ratio]], 9.7:1 for the naturally aspirated model, and 9.0:1 for the turbo model. The naturally aspirated Series 5 FC made 160 [[Horsepower|hp]] (119 [[Watt|kW]]), while the Series 5 Turbo made 200 hp / 205 ps (147 kW).

The second generation RX-7 ("FC", VIN begins JM1FC3 or JMZFC1), still known as the '''Savanna RX-7''' in Japan, featured a complete restyling reminiscent of the [[Porsche 944]] or [[Porsche 924]]. Mazda's stylists, led by Chief Project Engineer Akio Uchiyama, focused on the Porsche 944 for their inspiration in designing the FC because the new car was being styled primarily for the American market, where the majority of first generation RX-7's had been sold. This strategy was chosen after Uchiyama and others on the design team spent time in the United States studying owners of earlier RX-7's and other sports cars popular in the American market. The Porsche 944 was selling particularly well at the time and provided clues as to what sports-car enthusiasts might find compelling in future RX-7 styling and equipment. While the SA22/FB was a purer sports car, the FC tended toward the softer sport-tourer trends of its day. Handling was much improved, with less of the [[oversteer]] tendencies of the FB. The rear end design was vastly improved from the FB's live rear axle to a more modern, Independent Rear Suspension (rear axle). Steering was more precise, with [[rack and pinion]] [[steering]] replacing the old [[recirculating ball]] steering of the FB. [[Disc brake]]s also became standard, with some models (S4: Sport, GXL, GTU, Turbo II, Convertible; S5: GXL, GTUs, Turbo, Convertible) offering four-piston front brakes. The rear seats were optional in some models of the FC RX-7, but are not commonly found in the American Market. Mazda also introduced Dynamic Tracking Suspension System (DTSS) in the 2nd generation RX-7. The revised independent rear suspension incorporated special toe control hubs which were capable of introducing a limited degree of passive rear steering under cornering loads. The DTSS worked by allowing a slight amount of toe-out under normal driving conditions but induced slight toe-in under heavier cornering loads at around 0.5 G's or more; toe-out in the rear allows for a more responsive rotation of the rear, but toe-in allowed for a more stable rear under heavier cornering. Mazda also introduced Auto Adjusting Suspension (AAS) in the 2nd generation RX-7. The system changed damping characteristics according to the road and driving conditions. The system compensated for camber changes and provided anti-dive and anti-squat effects.
The Turbo 2 uses a turbo charger with a twin scroll design. The smaller primary chamber is engineered to cancel the turbo lag at low engine speeds. At higher revolutions the secondary chamber is opened, pumping out 33% more power than the naturally aspirated counterpart. The Turbo 2 also has an air-to-air intercooler which has a dedicated intake on the hood. The intake is slightly offset toward the left side of the hood.

Though about {{convert|800|lb|kg|0|abbr=on}} heavier and more isolated than its predecessor, the FC continued to win accolades from the press. The FC RX-7 was ''[[Motor Trend]]'''s [[Motor Trend Car of the Year|Import Car of the Year]] for 1986, and the Turbo II was on ''Car and Driver'' magazine's Ten Best list for a second time in 1987.

In the Japanese market, only the turbo engine was available; the naturally aspirated version was allowed only as an export. This can be attributed to insurance companies penalizing turbo cars (thus restricting potential sales). This emphasis on containing horsepower and placating insurance companies to make RX-7's more affordable seems ironic in retrospect. Shortly after the discontinuance of the second generation RX-7's in 1992, an outright horsepower "arms race" broke out between sports car manufacturers, with higher and higher levels of power required to meet buyer demands. This rising horsepower phenomena arose from the US [[CAFE standards]] remaining stable while engine technologies marched forward rapidly.

Mazda sold 86,000 RX-7's in the US alone in 1986, its first model year, with sales peaking in 1988.

Australian Motors Mazda released a limited run of 250 'Sports' model Series 4 RX-7's; each with no power steering, power windows or rear wiper as an attempt to reduce the weight of the car.
In Japan, there was a special limited release of the FC called Infini with only 600 made for each year. Some special noted features for all Infini series are: infini logo on the back, upgraded suspension, upgraded ECU, higher horsepower, lightened weight, 15-inch BBS aluminum alloy wheels, Infini logo steering wheel, aero bumper kits, bronze colored window glass, floor bar on the passenger side, aluminum bonnet with scoop, flare and holder. The car was thought as the pinnacle of the RX-7 series (until the FD came out). The Infini IV came with other special items such as black bucket seats, 16-inch BBS wheels, Knee pads, and all the other items mentioned before. There are differing years for the Infini, which noted the series. Series I was introduced in 1987, Series II was introduced in 1988, Series III was introduced in 1990, and Series IV was introduced in 1991. Series I and II came in White or Black, Series III came in Forest Green only, and Series IV came in Forest Green or Noble Green.
There are only minor differences between the series, the biggest change which was from the Series II being an S4 (1986–1988) and the Series III and IV being an S5 (1989–1991).

===Convertible===
Mazda introduced a convertible version of the RX-7 in 1988 with a normally aspirated engine — introduced to the US market with ads featuring Hollywood actor [[James Garner]], at the time featured in many of Mazda's television advertisements.

The convertible featured a removable rigid section over the passengers and a folding textile rear section with heatable rear glass window. Power operated, lowering the top required unlatching two header catches, power lowering the top, exiting the car (or reaching over to the right side latch), and folding down the rigid section manually. Mazda introduced with the convertible the first integral windblocker, a rigid panel that folded up from behind the passenger seats to block unwanted drafts from reaching the passengers — thereby extending the driving season for the car in open mode. The convertible also featured optional headrest mounted audio speakers and a folding leather snap-fastened [[tonneau cover]]. The convertible assembly was precisely engineered and manufactured, and dropped into the ready body assembly as a complete unit — a first in convertible production.

Several leading car magazines at the time also selected the convertible as one of the best rag-tops available on the market (see Automobile Magazine/January 1988, Performance Car Magazine/January 1989). Mazda exported approximately five thousand convertibles to the United States in 1988 and fewer in each of the next three model years, although it is difficult to confirm these figures, as Mazda USA did not keep RX-7 import records by model type. Production ceasing in 1991 after Mazda marketed a limited run of 500 example for 1992 for the domestic market only. In Japan, the United Kingdom, and other regions outside the US, a turbocharged version of the convertible was available.

===10th Anniversary RX-7===
Mazda introduced the 10th Anniversary RX-7 in 1988 as a limited production run based on the RX-7 Turbo II. Production was limited to 1,500 models. The 10th Anniversary RX-7 features a Crystal White (paint code UC) monochromatic paint scheme with matching white body side mouldings, taillight housings, mirrors and 16-inch alloy 7-spoke wheels. There were two "series" of 10th Anniversary models, with essentially a VIN-split running production change between the two. The most notable difference between the series can be found on the exterior- the earlier "Series I" cars had a black "Mazda" logo decal on the front bumper cover, whereas most if not all "Series II" cars did not have the decal. Series II cars also received the lower seat cushion height/tilt feature that Series I cars lacked. Another distinctive exterior feature is the bright gold rotor-shaped 10th Anniversary Edition badge on the front fenders (yellow-gold on the Series II cars). A distinctive 10th Anniversary package feature is the all black leather interior (code D7), which included not just the seats, but the door panel inserts as well and a leather-wrapped MOMO steering wheel (with 10th Anniversary Edition embossed horn button) and MOMO leather shift knob with integrated boot. All exterior glass is bronze tinted (specific in North America to only the 10th Anniversary), and the windshield was equipped with the embedded secondary antenna also found on some other select models with the upgraded stereo packages. Other 10th Anniversary Edition specific items were headlight washers (the only RX-7 in the US market that got this feature), glass breakage detectors added to the factory alarm system, 10th Anniversary Edition logoed floormats, 10th Anniversary Edition embroidered front hood protector and accompanying front end mask (or "bra"), and an aluminum under pan.

===GTUs (1989-1990)===
In 1989, with the introduction of a face-lifted FC RX-7, and to commemorate the RX-7's IMSA domination, Mazda introduced a limited model labeled the GTUs. Starting with the lightweight base model GTU, which came with manual windows, no rear wiper, no sunroof, and A/C was dealer optioned, the GTUs added items found on the Turbo model such as four piston front brakes, rear ventilated brake rotors, vehicle speed sensing power steering, 1 piece front chin spoiler, cloth covered Turbo model seats, leather wrapped steering wheel, 16 inch wheels, 205/55VR tires, and a GTUs only 4.300 Viscous-type limited slip differential (all other FC LSD's where 4.100). This allowed quicker acceleration from the non-turbo powered 13B. Although the GTU and GTUs did not come with a sunroof, many dealers offered an aftermarket glass sunroof to help with sales. Mazda built 1100 GTUs's in 1989, with the last 100 re-stamped as 1990 models.

==Third generation (FD)==
{{advert|date=March 2010}}
{{Infobox automobile
|name=FD
|aka=[[Ẽfini|Ẽfini RX-7]]
|image=Mazda-rx7-3rd-generation01.jpg
|production=1992–2002 68,589 produced<ref name="Long"/>
|engine=1.3L {{Convert|255|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}} [[Mazda Wankel engine#13B-REW|13B-REW]] 
1.3L {{Convert|265|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}} 13B-REW 
1.3L {{Convert|280|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}} 13B-REW
|wheelbase= {{convert|95.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|length= {{convert|168.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|width= {{convert|68.9|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|height= {{convert|48.4|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|weight={{convert|1288|kg|lb}}
|transmission=4-speed [[automatic transmission|automatic]] 5-speed [[manual transmission|manual]]
}}
The third generation of the RX-7, '''FD''' (with FD3S for the JDM and JM1FD for the USA VIN), featured an updated body design. The 13B-REW was the first-ever mass-produced [[twin-turbo#Sequential twin-turbo|sequential twin-turbocharger]] system to export from Japan, boosting power to {{Convert|255|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}} in 1993 and finally {{Convert|280|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}} by the time production ended in Japan in 2002.

The FD RX-7 was ''[[Motor Trend]]'s'' [[Motor Trend Car of the Year#Import Car of the Year|Import Car of the Year]]. When ''[[Playboy]]'' first reviewed the FD RX-7 in 1993, they tested it in the same issue as the [then] new [[Dodge Viper]]. In that issue, ''Playboy'' declared the RX-7 to be the better of the two cars. It went on to win ''Playboy's'' Car of the Year for 1993. The FD RX-7 also made ''[[Car and Driver]]'s'' Ten Best list for 1993 through 1995, for every year in which it was sold state-side. June, 2007 ''[[Road & Track]]'' proclaimed "The ace in Mazda's sleeve is the RX-7, a car once touted as the purest, most exhilarating sports car in the world."{{Citation needed|date=February 2012}}

The sequential twin turbocharged system was a very complex piece of engineering, developed with the aid of [[Hitachi, Ltd.|Hitachi]] and previously used on the domestic [[Mazda Cosmo|Cosmo]] series (JC Cosmo=90–95). The system was composed of two small turbochargers, one to provide boost at low RPM. The 2nd unit was on standby until the upper half of the rpm range during full throttle acceleration. The first turbocharger provided {{Convert|10|psi|bar|1|abbr=on}} of boost from 1800 rpm, and the 2nd turbocharger was activated at 4000 rpm and also provided {{convert|10|psi|bar|1|abbr=on}}. The changeover process occurred at 4500 rpm, {{Convert|8|psi|bar|1|abbr=on}}, was smooth, and provided linear acceleration and a wide torque curve throughout the entire rev range.

Handling in the FD was regarded as world-class, and it is still regarded as being one of the finest handling and the best balanced cars of all time.{{cn|date=July 2013}} The continued use of the front-midship engine and drivetrain layout, combined with an 50:50 front-rear weight distribution ratio and low center of gravity made the FD a very competent car at the limits.

Australia had a special high-performance version of the RX-7 in 1995, dubbed the '''RX-7 SP'''. This model was developed as a [[homologation|homologated]] road-going version of the factory race cars used in the 12hr endurance races held at [[Bathurst, New South Wales]], beginning in 1991 for the 1995 event held at Eastern Creek, Sydney, New South Wales. An initial run of 25 were made, and later an extra 10 were built by Mazda due to demand. The RX-7 SP produced {{Convert|204|kW|hp|0|abbr=on}} and {{Convert|357|Nm|lb·ft|0|abbr=on}} of torque, compared to the {{Convert|176|kW|hp|0|abbr=on}} and {{Convert|294|Nm|lb·ft|0|abbr=on}} of the standard version. Other changes included a race developed carbon fibre nose cone and rear spoiler, a carbon fibre 120 L fuel tank (as opposed to the 76 L tank in the standard car), a 4.3:1-ratio rear differential, 17-inch wheels, larger brake rotors and calipers. An improved intercooler, exhaust, and modified [[Engine Control Unit|ECU]] were also included. Weight was reduced significantly with the aid of further carbon fibre usage including lightweight vented bonnet and Recaro seats to reduce weight to just 1050 kg (from 1150 kg). It was a serious road going race car that matched their rival [[Porsche 911]] RS CS for the final year Mazda officially entered. The formula paid off when the RX-7 SP won the title, giving Mazda the winning 12hr trophy for a fourth straight year. The winning car also gained a podium finish at the international tarmac rally Targa Tasmania months later. A later special version, the '''Bathurst R''', was released in 2001 to commemorate this, in Japan only.

In the United Kingdom, for 1992, customers were offered only one version of the FD which was based on a combination of the US touring and the base model. For the following year, in a bid to speed up sales, Mazda reduced the price of the RX-7 to £25,000, down from £32,000 and refunded the difference to those who bought the car before that was announced. The FD continued to be imported to the UK until 1996. In 1998, for a car that had suffered from slow sales when it was officially sold, with a surge of interest and the benefit of a newly introduced [[Single Vehicle Approval|SVA]] scheme, the FD would become so popular that there were more parallel and grey imported models brought into the country than Mazda UK had ever imported.

*Series 6 (1992–1995) was exported throughout the world and had the highest sales. In Japan, Mazda sold the RX-7 through its [[Efini]] brand as the '''Efini RX-7.''' Models in Japan included the Type R, the top-of-the-range Type RZ, the Type RB, the A-spec and the Touring X, which came with a 4-speed automatic reducing power to {{convert|255|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}}. The others ran on the standard {{convert|265|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}} engine with a 5-speed manual gearbox. Only the 1993–1995 model years were sold in the U.S. and Canada. Series 6 came with {{Convert|255|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}} and {{Convert|294|Nm|lb·ft|0|abbr=on}}. In the UK only 124 examples of this model were sold through the official Mazda network. Only one spec. was available and this included twin oil-coolers, electric sunroof, cruise control and the rear storage bins in place of the back seats.

*In 1993, three North American models were offered; the "base", the touring, and the R models. The touring FD included a sunroof, fog lights, [[leather seats]], a rear window wiper and a complex [[Bose Corporation|Bose]] Acoustic Wave system. The R (R1 in 1993 and R2 in 1994–95) models featured stiffer suspensions, an [[aerodynamics]] package, purple-hued microfiber seats (which are sometimes erroneously considered to be suede), and Z-rated tires. In 1994 a PEG (performance equipment group) model was offered. This model featured leather seats and a sunroof. It did not include the fog lights or Bose stereo of the touring package. In 1995 the touring package was replaced by the PEP (popular equipment package). The PEP package contained leather seats, sunroof and fog lights, but didn't have the Bose Stereo nor the rear window wiper.

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%; text-align:center;"
|-
| colspan=6 style="background:Silver;"|'''Series 6 (1992–1995)'''
|-
! Model || Power || Torque || Gearbox || Weight
|-
| Type R
| 195 kW (261 hp; 265 PS) || 294 N·m (217 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,150 kg (2,500 lb)
|-
| Type RZ
|-
| Type RB
|-
| A-Spec
|-
| Touring X
| 188 kW (252 hp; 255 PS) || 294 N·m (217 lb·ft) || 4-speed automatic
|-
| SP *
| 204 kW (274 hp; 278 PS) || 357 N·m (263 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,050 kg (2,500 lb)
|}
''*Australia only, 1995 build''
*Series 7 (1996–1998) included minor changes to the car. Updates included a simplified vacuum routing manifold and a 16-bit ECU allowing for increased boost which netted an extra {{Convert|10|PS|kW|0|abbr=on}}. In Japan, the Series 7 RX-7 was marketed under the Mazda and Efini brand name. The Series 7 was also sold in Australia, New Zealand and the UK. Series 7 RX-7s were produced only in right-hand-drive configuration.
*Series 8 (January 1999– August 2002) was the final series, and was only available in the Japanese market. More efficient turbochargers were installed, while improved intercooling and radiator cooling was made possible by a revised frontal area. The seats, steering wheel, and front and rear lights were all changed. The rear spoiler was modified and gained adjustability. The top-of-the-line "'''Type RS'''" came equipped with Bilstein suspension and 17-inch wheels as standard equipment, and reduced weight to {{convert|1120|kg|lb|0|abbr=on}}. Power was increased with the addition of a 16 bit ecu and upgraded (high flow) turbos, {{Convert|280|PS|kW hp|0|abbr=on}} with {{Convert|313.8|Nm|lb·ft|0|abbr=on}} of torque as per the maximum Japanese limit. The Type RS had a brake upgrade by increasing rotor diameter front and rear to {{convert|314|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} and front rotor thickness from {{convert|22|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} to {{convert|32|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. The Type RS version also sported a higher ratio differential, providing a significant reduction in its 0–100 km/hr time. The gearbox was also modified, 5th gear was made longer to reduce cruising rpm and improve fuel efficiency. The very limited edition '''Type RZ''' version included all the features of the Type RS, but at a lighter weight (at 1100 kg). It also featured custom gun-metal colored BBS wheels and a custom red racing themed interior. Further upgrades included a new 16-bit ECU and ABS system upgrades. The improved [[Anti-lock braking system|ABS]] system worked by braking differently on each wheel, allowing the car better turning during braking. The effective result made for safer driving for the average buyer. Easily the most collectible of all the RX-7s was the last 1,500 run-out specials. Dubbed the "'''Spirit R'''", they combined all the "extra" features Mazda had used on previous limited-run specials plus new exclusive features. They still command amazing prices on the Japanese used car scene years later. Sticker prices when new were 3,998,000 yen for Type-A and B and 3,398,000 yen for Type-C. Mazda's press release said "''The Type-A Spirit R model is the ultimate RX-7, boasting the most outstanding driving performance in its history.''"
- There are three kinds of "Spirit R": the "Type A", "Type B", and "Type C". The "Type A" is a two-seater with a 5-speed manual transmission. It features lightweight red trim Recaro front seats as seen in the earlier RZ models. The "Type B" has a 2+2 seat configuration and also sports a 5-speed manual transmission. The "Type C" is also a 2+2, but has a 4-speed automatic transmission. Of the 1500 Spirit R's made, over 1000 were Type A's. An exclusive Spirit R paint color, Titanium Grey, adorned over 700 of the 1500 cars sold.
[[Image:C11+FD3S spR.jpg|thumb|right|210px|RX-7 Spirit R Type A and Japanese [[Steam locomotive]] "C11".]]

{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:97%; text-align:center;"
|-
| colspan="9" style="background:Silver;"|'''Series 8 (1999–2002)'''
|-
! Model || Power || Torque || Gearbox || Weight || Seating || Brakes || Wheels || Tyres
|-
| Type RB
| 195 kW (261 hp; 265 PS) || 294 N·m (217 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,310 kg (2,888 lb) || 2+2 || {{convert|294|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 16x8.0JJ (front) 16x8.0JJ (rear) || 225/50ZR16 (front) 225/50ZR16 (rear)
|-
| Type RB-S
| 195 kW (261 hp; 265 PS) || 294 N·m (217 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,320 kg (2,888 lb) || 2+2 || {{convert|294|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 16x8.0JJ (front) 16x8.0JJ (rear) || 225/50ZR16 (front) 225/50ZR16 (rear)
|-
| Type R
| 206 kW (276 hp; 280 PS) || 314 N·m (231 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,150 kg (2,500 lb) || 2+2 || {{convert|294|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 16x8.0JJ (front) 16x8.0JJ (rear) || 205/50ZR16 (front) 225/50ZR16 (rear)
|-
| Type R Bathurst
| 206 kW (276 hp; 280 PS) || 314 N·m (231 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,050 kg (2,200 lb) || 2+2 || {{convert|294|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 16x8.0JJ (front) 16x8.0JJ (rear) || 225/50ZR16 (front) 225/50ZR16 (rear)
|-
| Type R Bathurst R
| 206 kW (276 hp; 280 PS) || 314 N·m (231 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,050 kg (2,200 lb) || 2+2 || {{convert|294|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 16x8.0JJ (front) 16x8.0JJ (rear) || 225/50ZR16 (front) 225/50ZR16 (rear)
|-
| Type RS
| 206 kW (276 hp; 280 PS) || 314 N·m (231 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,150 kg (2,500 lb) || 2+2 || {{convert|314|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 17x8.0JJ (front) 17x8.5JJ (rear) || 235/45R17 (front) 255/40R17 (rear)
|-
| Type RZ
| 206 kW (276 hp; 280 PS) || 314 N·m (231 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,150 kg (2,500 lb) || 2 || {{convert|314|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 17x8.0JJ (front) 17x8.5JJ (rear) || 235/45R17 (front) 255/40R17 (rear)
|-
| Spirit R (Type A)
| 206 kW (276 hp; 280 PS) || 314 N·m (231 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,120 kg (2,469 lb) || 2 || {{convert|314|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 17x8.0JJ (front) 17x8.5JJ (rear) || 235/45R17 (front) 255/40R17 (rear)
|-
| Spirit R (Type B)
| 206 kW (276 hp; 280 PS) || 314 N·m (231 lb·ft) || 5-speed manual || 1,120 kg (2,469 lb) || 2+2 || {{convert|314|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 17x8.0JJ (front) 17x8.5JJ (rear) || 235/45R17 (front) 255/40R17 (rear)
|-
| Spirit R (Type C)
|188 kW (252 hp; 255 PS) || 314 N·m (231 lb·ft) || 4-speed automatic || 1,280 kg (2,822 lb) || 2+2 || {{convert|294|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} || 17x8.0JJ (front) 17x8.5JJ (rear) || 235/45R17 (front) 255/40R17 (rear)
|}

==Motorsport==
[[File:GT32010SCCARunoffsWinner78Robert Warkocki.jpg|thumb|right|Winning RX-7 in the GT3 class at the 2010 [[SCCA National Championship Runoffs]].]]
Racing versions of the first-generation RX-7 were entered at the prestigious [[24 hours of Le Mans]] endurance race. The first outing for the car, equipped with a ''[[Mazda Wankel engine#13B|13B]]'' engine, failed by less than one second to qualify in 1979. The next year, a ''12A''-equipped RX-7 not only qualified, it placed 21st overall. That same car did not finish in 1981, along with two more 13B cars. Those two cars were back for 1982, with one 14th place finish and another DNF. The RX-7 Le Mans effort was replaced by the [[Mazda 717|717C]] prototype for 1983. In 1991, Mazda made racing history becoming the first Japanese [[automobile]] manufacturer to win the 24 hours of Le Mans. The car was a 4-rotor prototype, the [[Mazda 787B|787B]]. To this day, Mazda is still the only Japanese manufacturer to have ever won the prestigious 24 hour Le Mans race outright. Mazda is also the only manufacturer to win the 24 hours of Le Mans race using something other than a reciprocating piston engine.

Mazda began racing RX-7s in the [[International Motor Sports Association|IMSA]] [[IMSA GT Championship|GTU]] series in 1979. In its first year, RX-7s placed first and second at the [[24 Hours of Daytona]], and claimed the GTU series championship. The car continued winning, claiming the GTU championship seven years in a row. The RX-7 took the [[IMSA GT Championship|GTO]] championship ten years in a row from 1982. The RX-7 has won more IMSA races than any other car model. In the USA SCCA competition RX-7s were raced with great success by Don Kearney in the NE Division and John Finger in the SE Division. Pettit Racing won the GT2 Road Racing Championship in 1998. The car was a 93 Mazda RX-7 street car with only bolt-on accessories. At season end Pettit had 140 points—63 points more than the 2nd place team. This same car finished the Daytona Rolex 24-hour race 4 times.

The RX-7 also fared well at the [[Spa 24 Hours]] race. Three Savanna/RX-7s were entered in 1981 by [[Tom Walkinshaw Racing]]. After hours of battling with several [[BMW 5 Series|BMW 530i]] and [[Ford Capri]], the RX-7 driven by [[Pierre Dieudonné]] and [[Tom Walkinshaw]] won the event. Mazda had turned the tables on [[BMW]], who had beaten Mazda's [[Mazda R100|Familia Rotary]] to the podium eleven years earlier at the same event. TWR's prepared RX-7s also won the [[British Touring Car Championship]] in 1980 and 1981, driven by [[Win Percy]].

Canadian/Australian touring car driver [[Allan Moffat]] was instrumental in bringing Mazda into the Australian touring car scene. Over a four year span beginning in 1981, Moffat took the Mazda RX-7 to victory in the 1983 [[Australian Touring Car Championship]], as well as a trio of [[Bathurst 1000]] podiums, in 1981 (3rd with [[Derek Bell (auto racer)|Derek Bell]]), 1983 (second with [[Yoshimi Katayama]]) and 1984 (third with former motorcycle champion [[Gregg Hansford]]). Australia's adoption of international [[Group A]] regulations, combined with Mazda's reluctance to homologate a Group A RX-7, ended Mazda's active participation in the touring car series at the end of the 1984 season.

The RX-7 even made an appearance in the [[World Rally Championship]]. The car finished 11th on its debut at the [[RAC Rally]] in [[Wales]] in 1981. [[Group B]] received much of the focus for the first part of the 1980s, but Mazda did manage to place third at the 1985 [[Acropolis Rally]], and when the Group B was folded, it's [[Group A]]-based replacement, the [[Mazda Familia|Familia 4WD]] claimed the victory at [[Swedish Rally]] in both 1987 and 1989.

==Revivals==
Mazda has made several references to a revival of the RX-7 in various forms over the years since the RX-7 was discontinued.

===2012===
In November 2012, MX-5 program manager Nobuhiro Yamamoto indicated that Mazda was working on a 16X based RX-7, with 300 horsepower.<ref>http://www.leftlanenews.com/new-mazda-rx-7-to-launch-by-2017.html</ref><ref>http://www.carbuzz.com/news/2012/11/4/Mazda-RX-7-to-Return-in-2017-7711438/</ref>

==References==
<references/>
*{{cite book | author=Mauck, Scott and Haynes, John H.| title=Mazda RX-7 Automotive Repair Manual | publisher=Haynes North America, Inc. | year=1986 | isbn=1-85010-050-0}}
*{{cite book | author = Yamaguchi, Jack K.| title=The New Mazda RX-7 and Mazda Rotary Engine Sports Cars | publisher=St. Martin's Press, New York | year=1985 | isbn=0-312-69456-3}}
*{{cite book | author=Heimann, Jim (editor) | title=70s Cars | publisher=TASCHEN GmbH | year=2006 | isbn=3-8228-4800-X}}
*{{cite web | url=http://www.turborx7.com/Media/import_numbers.pdf|format=PDF| title= Number of Imported RX-7s | work=Turborx7.com | accessdate=May 20, 2008 }}
*{{cite web | url=http://rotarynews.com/node/view/89 | title=Last Limited Edition RX-7 Unleashed in Japan | work=rotarynews.com | accessdate=May 5, 2009 }}

==External links==

* {{dmoz|Recreation/Autos/Makes_and_Models/Mazda/RX-7/}}

{{Mazda RX}}
{{Mazda}}
{{North American Mazda vehicles}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mazda Rx-7}}
[[Category:Mazda vehicles|RX-7]]
[[Category:Sports cars]]
[[Category:Automobiles powered by Wankel engines]]
[[Category:Rear-wheel-drive vehicles]]
[[Category:Vehicles with four-wheel steering]]
[[Category:Rally cars]]
[[Category:Group B cars]]
[[Category:Vehicles introduced in 1978]]
[[Category:24 Hours of Le Mans race cars]]
[[Category:1970s automobiles]]
[[Category:1980s automobiles]]
[[Category:1990s automobiles]]
[[Category:2000s automobiles]]
[[Category:Liftbacks]]

Justin Timberlake

2013-09-03T21:47:52Z

PatriceNeff: /* Business ventures */ - Fix misplaced Walmart reference

{{Infobox person
| name = Justin Timberlake
| image = Justin Timberlake Cannes 2013.jpg
| image_size = 220px
| caption = Timberlake at the [[2013 Cannes Film Festival|Cannes Film Festival]], May 2013
| alias = JT, Tennman
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|mf=yes|1981|01|31}}
| birth_place = [[Memphis, Tennessee]], U.S.
| occupation = Actor, businessman, singer-songwriter
| net_worth = {{increase}} [[United States dollar|US$]]80 million (2012)<ref>http://popwatch.ew.com/2012/05/19/facebook-ipo-mark-zuckerberg-net-worth</ref>
| years_active = 1992–present
| spouse = {{Marriage|[[Jessica Biel]]|October 19, 2012}}
| partner = [[Cameron Diaz]] (2003–06)
| website = {{URL|http://justintimberlake.com|justintimberlake.com}}
| module = {{Infobox musical artist|embed=yes
| background = solo_singer 
| instrument = [[Beatboxing]], guitar, keyboards, vocals
| genre = [[Pop music|Pop]], [[contemporary R&B|R&B]]
| label = [[Jive Records|Jive]], [[RCA Records|RCA]], [[Zomba Group of Companies|Zomba]]
| associated_acts = [[Christina Aguilera]], [[Jay-Z]], [['N Sync]], [[Timbaland]]
}}
}}

'''Justin Randall Timberlake''' (born January 31, 1981) is an American actor, businessman and singer-songwriter. Born in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], he appeared on the television shows ''[[Star Search]]'' and ''[[The New Mickey Mouse Club#1990s revival (MMC)|The New Mickey Mouse Club]]'' as a child. In the late 1990s, Timberlake rose to prominence as the lead singer and youngest member of the [[boy band]] [['N Sync]], whose launch was financed by [[Lou Pearlman]].

During the group's hiatus, Timberlake released his solo studio albums ''[[Justified (album)|Justified]]'' (2002) and ''[[FutureSex/LoveSounds]]'' (2006); the former spawned hits "[[Cry Me a River (Justin Timberlake song)|Cry Me a River]]" and "[[Rock Your Body]]", while the latter debuted atop the U.S. ''[[Billboard magazine|Billboard]]'' [[Billboard 200|200]] and produced the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] number-one singles "[[SexyBack]]", "[[My Love (Justin Timberlake song)|My Love]]", and "[[What Goes Around... Comes Around]]". With each album exceeding sales of seven million copies worldwide, he was established as one of the most commercially successful singers. From 2007 through 2012, Timberlake focused on his acting career, effectively putting his music career on hiatus; he held starring roles in the films ''[[The Social Network]]'', ''[[Bad Teacher]]'', ''[[In Time]]'' and ''[[Friends with Benefits (film)|Friends with Benefits]]''.

In 2013, Timberlake resumed his music career with his third and fourth albums ''[[The 20/20 Experience]]'' and ''[[The 20/20 Experience: 2 of 2]]''. The former became one of the best-selling records of the year and spawned hits "[[Suit & Tie]]" and "[[Mirrors (Justin Timberlake song)|Mirrors]]", while the latter is preceded by [[lead single]] "[[Take Back the Night (song)|Take Back the Night]]". Timberlake's work has earned him six [[Grammy Award]]s and four [[Emmy Award]]s. His other ventures include record label [[Tennman Records]], fashion label [[William Rast]], and the restaurants Destino and Southern Hospitality.

==Early life==
Timberlake was born on January 31, 1981 in [[Memphis, Tennessee]], to parents Lynn Harless (née Bomar) and Randall Timberlake.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~celebrities/timberlake.html|title=Ancestry of Justin Timberlake (1981–)|publisher=Ancestry.com|accessdate=March 19, 2013}}</ref> He grew up in [[Shelby Forest, Tennessee|Shelby Forest]], a small community between Memphis and [[Millington, Tennessee|Millington]].<ref name="AskMen">{{cite web|url=http://www.askmen.com/men/entertainment_60/98_justin_timberlake.html|title=Justin Timberlake|publisher=[[AskMen]]|accessdate=March 19, 2013}}</ref> His paternal grandfather, Charles L. Timberlake, was a [[Baptist]] minister, and Timberlake was raised Baptist, though now considers himself more "spiritual than religious".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/people/pt/Justin_Timberlake.html|title=The Religious Affiliation of Singer Justin Timberlake|publisher=Adherents|accessdate=March 19, 2013}}</ref> Timberlake's parents divorced when he was three; his mother remarried when he was five.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hollywoodlife.com/2011/07/29/justin-timberlake-parents-divorce-jessica-biel/|title=Justin Timberlake Still Scarred From His Parents Divorce: 'I Have A Lot Of Issues'|publisher=Hollywood Life|date=July 29, 2011|accessdate=March 19, 2013}}</ref> Timberlake's father has two children from his second marriage to Lisa Perry, Jonathan (born 1993) and Steven Robert (born August 14, 1998). His half-sister Laura Katherine died shortly after birth on May 14, 1997, and is mentioned in his acknowledgments in the album ''[[*NSYNC (album)|*NSYNC]]'' as "My Angel in Heaven."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wc.rootsweb.ancestry.com/cgi-bin/igm.cgi?op=GET&db=celebrities&id=I2450 |title=RootsWeb's WorldConnect Project: Celebrity Genealogy!|publisher=Ancestry.com|accessdate=March 19, 2013}}</ref> At the age of 11, Timberlake appeared on the television show ''[[Star Search]]'', performing [[country music]] songs as "Justin Randall."<ref name="AskMen"/> In 1993 and 1994, he was a cast member in ''[[The Mickey Mouse Club]]'', where his castmates included future girlfriend and pop superstar [[Britney Spears]], future tourmate [[Christina Aguilera]], future bandmate [[JC Chasez]], and future movie actor [[Ryan Gosling]].<ref name="amg">{{cite web|url=http://www.allmusic.com/artist/justin-timberlake-mn0000312890|title=Justin Timberlake – Biography|author=Stephen Thomas Erlewine|publisher=AllMusic|accessdate=March 19, 2013}}</ref> In 1995, Timberlake recruited Chasez to be in an all-male singing group, organized by boy band manager [[Lou Pearlman]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://movies.yahoo.com/movie/contributor/1804365231/bio|title=J.C. Chasez Biography|publisher=Yahoo!|accessdate=March 19, 2013}}</ref> that eventually became [['N Sync]].

==Career==

===1995–2004: 'N Sync, ''Justified'' and the Super Bowl===
The [[boy band]] [['N Sync]] formed in 1995, and began their career in 1996 in Europe; Timberlake and Chasez served as its two lead singers.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://abcnews.go.com/Entertainment/Story?id=4143898&page=3|title= Ex-Mouseketeers: Where Are They Now?|publisher=ABC News}}</ref> In 1998, the group rose to prominence in the United States with the release of their debut studio album ''[[*NSYNC (album)|*NSYNC]]'', which sold 11 million copies and included hit single "[[Tearin' Up My Heart]]". Their second album ''[[No Strings Attached ('N Sync album)|No Strings Attached]]'' (2000) sold 2.4 million copies in the first week,<ref>{{cite web|last=Ankeny|first=Jason|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&searchlink=NSYNC&sql=11:3jftxqlhldhe~T1|title=*NSYNC – Biography|work=Allmusic}}</ref> and included a #1 single, "[[It's Gonna Be Me ('N Sync song)|It's Gonna Be Me]]". 'N Sync's third album ''[[Celebrity (album)|Celebrity]]'' (2001) was also financially successful. Upon the completion of the ''Celebrity Tour'', the group went into hiatus in 2002. In its lifetime, 'N Sync was internationally famous and performed at the [[Academy Awards]],<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/Theater/6696/00oscar.htm|title=72nd Annual Academy Awards|publisher=GeoCities|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090803122036/http://geocities.com/Hollywood/Theater/6696/00oscar.htm|archivedate=August 3, 2009}}</ref> the [[Olympic Games|Olympics]],<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1451549/20011218/creed.jhtml|title=Creed, 'NSYNC, Dave Matthews Band, More Set For Olympic Concert Series|publisher=MTV}}</ref> and the [[Super Bowl]],<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,92497,00.html|title=Clearasil Sets|publisher=Entertainment Weekly|first=Lori|last=Reese|date=December 20, 2000}}</ref> as well as selling more than 50 million copies worldwide,<ref>{{cite web|accessdate= April 22, 2008|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/local/orange/orl-mpearlman2807jan28,0,7354100.story?coll=orl-news-headlines-orange|title=Pearlman's money woes follow him downtown|publisher=Orlando Sentinel|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080417081106/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/local/orange/orl-mpearlman2807jan28,0,7354100.story?coll=orl-news-headlines-orange |archivedate=April 17, 2008}}</ref> becoming the [[boy band#top|third-best selling boy band]] in history.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/local/orange/orl-mpearlman2807jan28,0,7354100.story?coll=orl-news-headlines-orange|title=Pearlman's money woes follow him downtown|accessdate=April 22, 2008|publisher=The Orlando Sentinel|author= Gutierrez, Pedro Ruz|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080417081106/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/local/orange/orl-mpearlman2807jan28,0,7354100.story?coll=orl-news-headlines-orange|archivedate=April 17, 2008}}</ref>

In late 1999, Timberlake made his acting debut in the [[Disney Channel]] movie ''[[Model Behavior]]''. He played Jason Sharpe, a model who falls in love with a waitress after mistaking her for another model. It was released on March 12, 2000.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,275632,00.html|title=...And Justin For All |publisher=Entertainment Weekly|first=Dave|last=Karger|date=March 10, 2000}}</ref> The rise of his own stardom and the general decline in the popularity of boy bands led to the dissolution of 'N Sync. Band member [[Lance Bass]] was openly critical of Timberlake's actions in his memoir ''[[Out of Sync]]''.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=August 22, 2008|url=http://www.orlandosentinel.com/entertainment/orl-bass2307oct23,0,2291743,print.story?coll=orl_mezz|title=Lance Bass book comes out|publisher=Orlando Sentinel|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080915134447/http://www.orlandosentinel.com/entertainment/orl-bass2307oct23,0,2291743,print.story?coll=orl_mezz|archivedate=September 15, 2008}}</ref> Chasez also stated several times that the reunion will probably never happen,<ref>{{cite web|last=Vena|first=Jocelyn|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1622667/20090930/chasez_jc.jhtml|title=JC Chasez Says There Will Never Be An 'NSYNC Reunion|publisher=MTV.com|date=September 30, 2009|accessdate=October 19, 2012}}</ref> and he went on to repeat this statement in 2011 and 2012.<ref>[http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/11/28/jc-chasez-no-nsync-reunion_n_1116926.html JC Chasez: 'NSYNC Reunion Not Happening]</ref><ref>[http://www.tmz.com/2011/11/28/jz-chasez-nsync-reunion/#.T2zne3kS6Bp JC Chasez Sorry, No NSYNC Reunion ... EVER!]</ref><ref>[http://www.accesshollywood.com/jc-chasez-an-nsync-reunion-is-just-not-in-the-cards_article_64249? JC Chasez: An *NSYNC Reunion Is ‘Just Not In The Cards’]</ref> Chris Kirkpatrick and Joey Fatone, however, have said that a reunion is possible, with both saying that anything could happen in the future.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bartolomeo |first=Joey |url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20313678,00.html |title=*NSYNC Reunion Could Still Happen – 'N Sync, Music News, Chris Kirkpatrick, Justin Timberlake |publisher=People.com |date=October 19, 2009 |accessdate=October 24, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Scordo |first=Lizbeth |url=http://omg.yahoo.com/blogs/jam/joey-fatone-nsync-reunion-never-know-205440306.html?_esi=1 |title=Joey Fatone on an *NSYNC Reunion: ‘You Never Know’ | OMG Jam – Yahoo! omg! |publisher=Omg.yahoo.com |date=May 16, 2012 |accessdate=October 24, 2012}}</ref>

In August 2002, Timberlake performed at the 2002 [[MTV Video Music Awards]], where he premiered his debut solo single "[[Like I Love You]]";<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/2002-08-29-mtv-video-music-awards_x.htm|title=MTV Video Music Awards to mix irreverence, 9/11 remembrance|publisher=USA Today|date=August 29, 2002}}</ref> it peaked at number 11 on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]].<ref name="timberlake billboard"/> His debut solo studio album ''[[Justified (album)|Justified]]'' was released in November<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/Music/10/30/ew.review.mus.justified/|title=Review: Timberlake's 'Justified' strangely anonymous|publisher=CNN|date=October 30, 2002}}</ref> and debuted at number 2 on the [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]] with first-week sales of 439,000 copies, fewer than previous 'N Sync releases. It went on to sell over three million copies in the U.S. and more than seven million copies worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=The Daily Record|title=The {{sic|nolink=y|Comiebackkid}}|url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/tm_objectid=17004206&method=full&siteid=66633&headline=the-comiebackkid--name_page.html|accessdate=April 22, 2008|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080216162134/http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/tm_objectid=17004206&method=full&siteid=66633&headline=the-comiebackkid--name_page.html |archivedate=February 16, 2008}}</ref> Its [[contemporary R&B|R&B]] influence, provided by [[hip hop music|hip-hop]] producers [[The Neptunes]] and [[Timbaland]],<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,384410,00.html|title=Justified (2002) |publisher=Entertainment Weekly|date=October 28, 2002}}</ref> was complimented by music critics. The album spawned the top 10 singles "[[Cry Me a River (Justin Timberlake song)|Cry Me a River]]" and "[[Rock Your Body]]".<ref name="timberlake billboard">{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url={{BillboardURLbyName|artist=justin timberlake|chart=all}}|title= Justin Timberlake |publisher=Billboard}}</ref> In summer 2003, Timberlake and [[Christina Aguilera]] headlined the [[Justified/Stripped Tour]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1472259/20030603/timberlake_justin.jhtml|title=Justified And Stripped Preview: Timberlake Talks Tour|publisher=MTV}}</ref> Later that year he recorded a song "[[I'm Lovin' It (song)|I'm Lovin' It]]", used by [[McDonald's]] as the theme to its "I'm Lovin' It" campaign. The deal with McDonald's earned Timberlake an estimated $6 million. A tour titled [[Justified and Lovin' It Live]] was included with the deal.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://advertising.about.com/b/a/023379.htm|title=Justin Timberlake the New Ronald McDonald|publisher=About.com}}</ref> Timberlake was featured on [[Nelly]]'s song, "[[Work It (Nelly song)|Work It]]", which was [[remix]]ed and included on Nelly's 2003 remix album.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-98408266.html|title=Singles and Albums Reviews; Nelly feat Justin Timberlake Work It ****.(192) |publisher=Daily Record}}</ref>

In February 2004, during the halftime show of the [[Super Bowl XXXVIII]] broadcast on the [[CBS]] television network, Timberlake performed with [[Janet Jackson]] before a television audience of more than 140 million viewers. At the end of the performance, as the song drew to a close, Timberlake tore off a part of Jackson's black leather costume in a "costume reveal" meant to accompany a portion of the song lyrics. According to CBS, "both Jackson and Timberlake had confirmed they planned it 'independently and clandestinely' without informing anyone."<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=August 25, 2009|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN1142486520070911|title=CBS warns of censorship if bare breast edict stays|publisher=Reuters.com|date=September 11, 2007}}</ref> Part of the costume detached, and Jackson's breast was briefly exposed.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/02/02/superbowl.jackson|title=Apologetic Jackson says 'costume reveal' went awry|publisher=CNN|date=February 2, 2004}}</ref> Timberlake apologized for the incident, stating he was "sorry that anyone was offended by the wardrobe malfunction during the halftime performance of the Super Bowl...."<ref>{{cite news|publisher=CNN|title=Apologetic Jackson says costume reveal went awry|url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/02/02/superbowl.jackson|accessdate=April 22, 2008|date=February 2, 2004}}</ref> The phrase "[[wardrobe malfunction]]" has since been used by the media to refer to the incident and has entered [[popular culture|pop culture]].<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2004-02-03-wardrobe-malfunction-main_x.htm|title=Will 'wardrobe malfunction' live on?|publisher=USA Today|first1=Maria|last1=Puente|date=February 4, 2004}}</ref> Timberlake and Jackson were threatened with exclusion from the [[2004 Grammy Awards]] unless they agreed to apologize on screen at the event. Timberlake attended and issued a scripted apology when accepting the first of two [[Grammy Award]]s he received that night ([[Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album|Best Pop Vocal Album]] for ''Justified'' and [[Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance|Best Male Pop Vocal Performance]] for "Cry Me a River").<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article1015147.ece|title=Clinton outdoes wife to win Grammy with Gorbachev|work=The Times|location=London|first=Chris|last=Ayres|date=February 9, 2004}}</ref> He had also been nominated for [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year|Album of the Year]] for ''Justified'', [[Grammy Award for Record of the Year|Record of the Year]] for "Cry Me a River", and [[Grammy Award for Best Rap/Sung Collaboration|Best Rap/Sung Collaboration]] for "[[Where Is the Love?]]" with [[The Black Eyed Peas]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2004-02/04/content_303125.htm|title=CBS to use tape delay for Grammy telecast|publisher=China Daily }}</ref>

===2004–07: Acting debut and ''FutureSex/LoveSounds''===
After the Super Bowl controversy, Timberlake put his recording career on hold to act in several films, having starred in a few feature films earlier in his career.<ref name="amg"/> The first role he took during this time was as a journalist in ''[[Edison Force]]'', filmed in 2004 and received a direct-to-video release on July 18, 2006.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,589493,00.html|title=Consolidated 'Edison' |publisher=Entertainment Weekly|first=Gary|last=Susman|date=February 10, 2004}}</ref> He also appeared in the films ''[[Alpha Dog]]'', ''[[Black Snake Moan (film)|Black Snake Moan]]'', [[Richard Kelly (director)|Richard Kelly]]'s ''[[Southland Tales]]'', and voiced [[King Arthur|Prince Artie Pendragon]] in the animated film ''[[Shrek the Third]]'', released on May 18, 2007.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.mania.com/voice-cast-announced-for-shrek-third_article_51701.html|title=Voice cast announced for SHREK THE THIRD|publisher=Mania}}</ref> He also appeared as a young [[Elton John]], in the video for John's song "[[This Train Don't Stop There Anymore]]".<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/music/2002/2002-01-11-this-train.htm|title=Timberlake does justice to Elton John |publisher=USA Today | date=January 11, 2002}}</ref> Timberlake was considered to play the role of Roger Davis in the [[Rent (film)|film version]] of the rock musical ''[[Rent (musical)|Rent]]'', but director [[Chris Columbus (filmmaker)|Chris Columbus]] had insisted that only the original [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] members could convey the true meaning of ''Rent''.<ref>{{cite news|url= http://broadwayworld.com/viewcolumn.cfm?colid=6090|title=Rent Film Success Bodes Well for Future Movie Musicals|publisher=Broadway World|date=November 28, 2007|accessdate=February 6, 2008}}</ref>

He continued to record with other artists. After "Where Is the Love?", he again collaborated with the Black Eyed Peas on the 2005 track "My Style" from their album ''[[Monkey Business (album)|Monkey Business]]''.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.rte.ie/arts/2005/0413/timberlakej.html|title=Black Eyed Peas turn to Timberlake|publisher=Radio Telefís Éireann|date=April 13, 2005}}</ref> When recording the 2005 single "[[Signs (Snoop Dogg song)|Signs]]" with [[Snoop Dogg]], Timberlake discovered a throat condition.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IE420050505093010&Page=4&Title=Features+-+People+%26+Lifestyle&Topic=0|title=Throat operation for Timberlake|publisher=Newindpress}}</ref> [[Nodule (medicine)|Nodules]] were subsequently removed from his throat in an operation that took place on May 5, 2005.<ref name="sofeminine">{{cite web|publisher=So Feminine|title=Justin Timberlake's Sexy New Album|url=http://www.sofeminine.co.uk/w/star/n138561/news/Justin-Timberlake-s-Sexy-New-Album.html|accessdate=June 21, 2006}}</ref>
He was advised not to sing or speak loudly for at least a few months.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-145045066.html|title=THE COMIEBACKKID; Exclusive the BIG razz interview A boyband, solo hits, awards, Hollywood ... now Justin Timberlake is back for more.(Features)|publisher=Daily Record}}</ref> In 2005, he began his own record company, [[JayTee records|JayTee Records]].<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/oct/02/arts.usa|title=Justin bids for Elvis's kingdom|publisher=The Guardian|location=London|first=Joanna|last=Walters|date=October 2, 2005}}</ref>

[[File:Jtstpaul.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Timberlake performing at a concert in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|St. Paul]] in January 2007 during the [[FutureSex/LoveShow]]]]

Timberlake released his second studio album, ''[[FutureSex/LoveSounds]]'', on September 12, 2006. The album, which Timberlake created from 2005 to 2006, debuted at number one on the [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]] album chart, selling 684,000 copies its first week.<ref>{{cite news|publisher=USA Today|title=Timberlake, roommate Trace talk shop|url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-10-12-timberlake-side_x.htm|accessdate=April 22, 2008|first=Donna|last=Freydkin|date=October 13, 2006}}</ref> It is the biggest album for pre-orders on [[iTunes Store|iTunes]], and beat [[Coldplay]]'s record for the biggest one-week sales of a digital album.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/09/21/AR2006092101136_pf.html|title=Justin Timberlake Album Hits Number One|publisher=The Washington Post}}</ref> The album was produced by Timbaland and [[Danja (record producer)|Danja]] (who produced a bulk of the album), [[will.i.am]], [[Rick Rubin]] and Timberlake himself, and features guest vocals by [[Snoop Dogg]], [[Three 6 Mafia]], [[T.I.]] and [[will.i.am]].<ref>{{cite news|publisher=ShowBuzz|title=Timberlake To Release His Lovesounds|url=http://www.showbuzz.cbsnews.com/stories/2006/06/20/music/main1734879.shtml|accessdate=June 21, 2006|date=June 20, 2006}}</ref> A studio representative described it as being "all about sexiness" and aiming for "an adult feel".<ref name="sofeminine"/>

The album's lead single, "[[SexyBack]]", was performed by Timberlake at the opening of the [[2006 MTV Video Music Awards]] and reached number one on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100, where it remained for seven consecutive weeks.<ref name="1013break">{{cite web|publisher=News – Music, movie, Entertainment|title=Timberlake: "I Will Never Take a Break from Music"|url=http://www.pr-inside.com/timberlake-i-will-never-take-a-break-from-music-r22138.htm|accessdate=April 22, 2008}}</ref> "[[My Love (Justin Timberlake song)|My Love]]", the album's second single, also produced by Timbaland and featuring rapper [[T.I.]], reached number one on the Hot 100, as did third single "[[What Goes Around... Comes Around]]". The song is reported to have been inspired by the break-up of his childhood friend and business partner, Trace Ayala, with actress [[Elisha Cuthbert]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.popdirt.com/article55777.html|title='Alpha Dog' Director Explains The Story Behind Justin's New Single |publisher=Popdirt}}</ref> In October 2006, Timberlake said that he would focus on his music career rather than his film roles, specifying that leaving the music industry would be a "dumb thing to do at this point".<ref name="1013break" /> He was the special guest performer at the 2006 [[Victoria's Secret]] Fashion Show for being where he sang SexyBack. In January 2007, Timberlake embarked on the [[FutureSex/LoveShow]] tour. "[[Summer Love (Justin Timberlake song)|Summer Love/Set the Mood Prelude]]" was the fourth U.S. single off the album, and the next single in the UK was "[[LoveStoned/I Think She Knows Interlude]]". The song "[[Give It to Me (Timbaland song)|Give It to Me]]", a Timbaland single on which Timberlake guests with Nelly Furtado, reached the Hot 100 number-one spot.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/1052866/timbaland-soars-to-no-1-after-sales-explosion|title=Timbaland Soars To No. 1 After Sales Explosion |publisher=Billboard}}</ref>

In February 2008, Timberlake was awarded two Grammy Awards. At the 50th Grammy Awards ceremony, he won the ''Male Pop Performance'' Award for "What Goes Around...Comes Around", and the ''Dance Recording'' Award for "LoveStoned/I Think She Knows".<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.instyle.com/instyle/package/grammys/photos/0,,20163406_20167375_20383021,00.html|title=Grammy-Honored Fashion Designers|publisher=InStyle }}</ref>

===2007–12: Musical hiatus and focus on acting===
The song "[[4 Minutes (Madonna song)|4 Minutes]]", was first played by [[Timbaland]] at Philadelphia's Jingle Ball on December 17, 2007.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.nme.com/news/madonna/33243|title=Madonna, Justin Timberlake, Timbaland collaboration leaked |publisher=NME }}</ref> When released on March 17, 2008, "4 Minutes" was revealed to be a duet between Timberlake and Madonna, with backing vocals by Timbaland. It was lead single from Madonna's eleventh studio album ''[[Hard Candy (Madonna album)|Hard Candy]]'', which featured four other song-writing collaborations with Timberlake. The single was an international hit, topping the charts in over 21 countries worldwide.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/music/madonnas-sweet-success-continues/story-e6frfn09-1111116313301|title=Madonna's sweet success continues|last=Bull|first=Sarah|date=May 12, 2008|accessdate=August 10, 2010|work=[[News Limited]]|publisher=[[News Corporation]]}}</ref> Timberlake also appears in the music video, which was directed by Jonas & François. On March 30, 2008, Timberlake performed the song at Madonna's [[Hard Candy Promo Tour|Hard Candy Promo Show]] at Roseland Ballroom in [[New York City]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Harris|first=Chris|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1586631/20080501/madonna.jhtml|title=MTV review of the Roseland Ballroom Promo Concert|publisher=Mtv.com|date=May 1, 2008|accessdate=May 11, 2010}}</ref> On November 6, 2008, Timberlake performed the song with [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] on the Los Angeles stop of her [[Sticky & Sweet Tour]].<ref>[http://www.tvguide.com/News/Britney-Spears-Justin-35432.aspx Britney and Justin Back Up Madonna – Separately]" ''TV Guide''. November 7, 2008. Retrieved on November 7, 2008.</ref>

In June 2007 Timberlake co-wrote, produced and provided vocals for the songs "Nite Runner" and "[[Falling Down (Duran Duran song)|Falling Down]]" for [[Duran Duran]]'s album ''[[Red Carpet Massacre]]'', released on November 13, 2007. "Falling Down" had been released as a single in the UK on the previous day.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.ew.com/ew/article/0,,20038840_20038841_20047913,00.html|title=Jams Packed |publisher=Entertainment Weekly }}</ref> Also in 2007, Timberlake made an appearance on [[50 Cent]]'s third album, ''[[Curtis (50 Cent album)|Curtis]]''. Timberlake, along with Timbaland, is featured on a track called "[[Ayo Technology]]", which was the album's fourth single. Also, another possible collaboration was to occur with [[Lil Wayne]] for his album ''[[Tha Carter III]]'' with [[Nelly Furtado]] and Timbaland.<ref>{{cite news|title=Lil Wayne Plans His Own Leak|author=Shaheem Reid, Jayson Rodriguez|publisher=MTV|date=June 11, 2007|url=http://www.mtv.com/bands/m/mixtape_monday/061107/|accessdate=April 22, 2008}}</ref> With the wrapping up of the FutureSex/LoveSounds tour of Australasia and the Middle East in November 2007, Timberlake resumed his film career. Projects underway early in 2008 were starring roles in [[Mike Myers]]' comedy ''[[The Love Guru]]'' (released June 20, 2008) and Mike Meredith's drama ''[[The Open Road]]'' (released August 28, 2009). In March 2008 it was announced that he was to be an executive producer in an American adaptation of the hit [[Peru]]vian comedy ''My Problem with Women'' for [[NBC]].<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/TV/03/10/timberlake.show.ap/index.html|title= Justin Timberlake working on 'Problem with Women' |publisher=CNN |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080410135821/http://www.cnn.com/2008/SHOWBIZ/TV/03/10/timberlake.show.ap/index.html |archivedate = April 10, 2008}}</ref> On November 20, 2008, ''[[TV Guide]]'' reported that Timberlake’s next single, "Follow My Lead", which also featured vocals by Timberlake’s protégée, former YouTube star [[Esmée Denters]], would be available for exclusive download through [[Myspace]]. All proceeds would go to [[Shriners Hospitals for Children]], a charity dedicated to improving pediatric care for sick children.<ref>[http://www.tvguide.com/News/Justin-Timberlakes-New-1000015.aspx Justin Timberlake's New Single Lends a Hand to Charity]" ''TV Guide''. November 20, 2008. Retrieved on November 21, 2008.</ref>

[[File:Justin Timberlake - Andrew Garfield - La red social - Madrid.jpg|thumb|upright|right|Timberlake with [[Andrew Garfield]] at an event for ''[[The Social Network]]'', October 2010]]

In 2008, a collaboration between Timberlake and [[T.I.]], "[[Dead and Gone]]" featured on T.I.'s sixth studio album, ''[[Paper Trail]]'', and was released as its fourth single late in 2009. In November 2008, it was confirmed that Timberlake would make a guest appearance and produce some tracks on [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]]/[[pop music|pop]] singer [[Ciara]]'s upcoming album ''[[Fantasy Ride]]'' due out May 5, 2009. Timberlake featured on Ciara's second single "[[Love Sex Magic]]", the video being shot on February 20, 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rap-up.com/2009/02/19/ciara-and-justin-timberlake-make-magic/ |title=Ciara and Justin Timberlake Make ‘Magic’ |publisher=Rap-Up.com |date=February 19, 2009 |accessdate=January 2, 2010}}</ref> The single became a worldwide hit, reaching the top ten in numerous countries and peaking at number one in several countries including Taiwan, India, and Turkey. The single was nominated for ''Best Pop Collaboration with Vocals'' at the [[2010 Grammy Awards|52nd Grammy Awards]]. Timberlake and his production team [[The Y's]], along with [[Mike Elizondo]], produced and co-wrote the song "Don't Let Me Down" for [[Leona Lewis]]'s second studio album, ''[[Echo (Leona Lewis album)|Echo]]'', released (in the US) on November 17, 2009. Timberlake also co-wrote and performed on "[[Carry Out]]", the third single from Timbaland's album ''[[Shock Value II]]'', released on December 1, 2009.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 20, 2009|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1627854/20091208/timbaland.jhtml|title=Justin Timberlake is featured on a track called "Carry Out" on Timbaland's new LP, Timbaland Presents Shock Value II|publisher=MTV.com}}</ref>

Timberlake was given Sexiest Man titles by ''[[People (magazine)|Teen People]]'' and ''[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]]'' magazines.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.people.com/people/package/gallery/0,,20154290_20159879_14,00.html|title=The Sexiest Men Alive |publisher=People magazine }}</ref> On February 17, 2009, Timberlake was named the "Most Stylish Man in America" by ''GQ'' magazine.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=February 17, 2009|url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20090217/en_nm/us_timberlake_3|title=Justin Timberlake named most stylish man in America |publisher=Reuters }} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> In 2011, he ranked No. 46 on ''[[AskMen]]''{{'}}s annual rundown of the 49 Most Influential Men.<ref>{{cite web|title=Justin Timberlake No. 46 on AskMen's Top 49 Influential Men List|url=http://www.zimbio.com/Justin+Timberlake/articles/Xby7RxIE-or/Justin+Timberlake+No+46+AskMen+Top+49+Influential|publisher=Zimbio|accessdate=October 23, 2011|author=Darrick|date=October 20, 2011}}</ref> From 2010, Timberlake increased his acting work. He played [[Sean Parker]], the founder of [[Napster]], in the acclaimed film ''[[The Social Network]]'' (2010). He also appeared at the 2010 MTV VMAs on Sep 12, 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.tvguide.com/celebrities/justin-timberlake/198385 |title= Justin Timberlake|date=September 9, 2010|publisher=TVGuide.com }}</ref> In 2011, he starred alongside [[Cameron Diaz]] in ''[[Bad Teacher]]'' and then alongside [[Mila Kunis]] in [[Friends with Benefits (film)|''Friends with Benefits'']], and played Will Salas, the protagonist of ''[[In Time]]'', a science fiction film by [[Andrew Niccol]].<ref>Schillaci, S. (July 22, 2011)"[http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/justin-timberlakes-time-trailer-5-214524 Justin Timberlake's 'In Time' Trailer: 5 Things We Learned]" ''[[The Hollywood Reporter]]''. Retrieved September 16, 2011.</ref> He provided a feature and appeared in the music video for the song [[Motherlover]] from [[The Lonely Island]]'s second album [[Turtleneck & Chain]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hulu.com/watch/72434/saturday-night-live-motherlover|title=Hulu.com – Mother Lover|date=May 11, 2009|accessdate=November 5, 2009}}</ref> and directed and made a cameo in the [[FreeSol]] music video "Hoodies On, Hats Low" which was released in August 2011.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kaufman|first=Gil|title=Justin Timberlake Makes New Music Video ... For FreeSol|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1668845/justin-timberlake-freesol-hoodies-on-music-video.jhtml|publisher=MTV|accessdate=August 29, 2011|date=August 11, 2011}}</ref> In July 2011 [[United States Marine]] Kelsey De Santis uploaded a [[YouTube]] video asking Timberlake to be her date to the [[United States Marine Corps birthday ball]]; they attended the event on November 13, 2011 in [[Richmond, Virginia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://b96.radio.com/2011/11/14/entertainment-report-justin-timberlake-attends-marine-corp-ball/|title=Justin Timberlake Attends Marine Corps Ball|date=November 14, 2011|publisher=B96 Chicago}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=November 14, 2011 |url=http://www.justintimberlake.com/news/my_night_at_the_marine_corps_ball |title=My Night At The Marine Corps Ball |author=Justin Timberlake}}</ref>

===2013: ''The 20/20 Experience''===
Timberlake began work on his third studio album ''[[The 20/20 Experience]]'' in June 2012, with "no rules and/or end goal in mind".<ref>{{cite news| url= http://www.3news.co.nz/Justin-Timberlake-unveils-Jay-Z-song/tabid/418/articleID/283043/Default.aspx|work=3 News NZ|title=Justin Timberlake unveils Jay-Z song|date=January 15, 2013}}</ref> He publicly announced his return to the music industry in January 2013,<ref>{{cite web|last=O'Donnell|first=Kevin|title=Justin Timberlake: 'I'm Ready' to Release New Music|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20663389,00.html|work=[[People (magazine)|People]]|accessdate=January 10, 2013|date=January 10, 2013}}</ref> releasing the album's lead single "[[Suit & Tie]]" featuring [[Jay-Z]] later that month. After four years not performing in concert, Timberlake appeared the night before the [[Super Bowl XLVII|2013 Super Bowl]] and performed during the "[[DirecTV]] Super Saturday Night", on February 2 in [[New Orleans]].<ref>{{cite news|title=TIMBERLAKE TO PERFORM AT PRE-SUPER BOWL PARTY|url=http://bigstory.ap.org/article/timberlake-perform-pre-super-bowl-party|work=Associated Press|accessdate=January 23, 2013}}</ref> On February 10, he performed "Suit & Tie" with sepia-toned lighting at the [[2013 Grammy Awards|55th Grammy Awards]], with Jay-Z joining him from the audience. ''The 20/20 Experience'' was released on March 19<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalspy.com/music/news/a453822/justin-timberlake-sets-release-date-for-new-album-the-2020-experience.html|title=Justin Timberlake sets release date for new album 'The 20/20 Experience'|publisher=Hearst Magazines UK|date=January 25, 2013|deadurl=no|accessdate=January 25, 2013}}</ref> through [[RCA Records]] due to the disbandment of [[Jive Records]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/industry/record-labels/rca-s-new-executive-team-named-under-ceo-1005324782.story |title=RCA's New Executive Team Named Under CEO Peter Edge Amid Layoffs (Update)|publisher=Billboard.biz|date=August 23, 2011 |accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fmqb.com/article.asp?id=2268707|title=Radio Industry News, Music Industry Updates, Arbitron Ratings, Music News and more!|publisher=FMQB|accessdate=April 4, 2012}}</ref> The album debuted at number one on the charts by moving just over 980,000 copies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hitsdailydouble.com/news/newsPage.cgi?news09335m01 |title=News |publisher=HITS Daily Double |date=March 26, 2013 |accessdate=March 31, 2013}}</ref> Timberlake also appeared on Jay-Z' twelfth studio album ''[[Magna Carta... Holy Grail]]'' on three songs including: "Holy Grail", "BBC" (along with [[Nas]], [[Swizz Beatz]], Timbaland, [[Pharrell Williams]] and [[Beyoncé Knowles]]) and "Heaven".<ref>[http://www.timberlake-justin.com/jay-z-released-magna-carta-holy-grail/ Justin Timberlake | Jay-Z released Magna Carta Holy Grail]. Timberlake-justin.com. Retrieved on July 13, 2013.</ref> Timberlake's fourth studio album ''[[The 20/20 Experience: 2 of 2]]'' will be released on September 30, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hotnewhiphop.com/news.5552.html|title=Justin Timberlake Announces "The 20/20 Experience" Sequel Release Date|author=Nicolas James|publisher=[[HotNewHipHop (webpage)|HotNewHipHop.com]]|date=May 5, 2013|accessdate=May 5, 2013}}</ref> Its lead single "[[Take Back the Night (song)|Take Back the Night]]" was released on July 12, 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/music/posts/la-et-ms-listen-to-justin-timberlakes-new-single-take-back-the-night-20130713,0,4643671.story|title=Listen to Justin Timberlake's new single 'Take Back the Night'|author=Mikael Wood|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|publisher=[[Tribune Company]]|date=July 12, 2013|accessdate=July 13, 2013}}</ref>

==Personal life==
In early 1999, Timberlake began dating fellow former ''[[The Mickey Mouse Club|The New Mickey Mouse Club]]'' cast member and recording artist [[Britney Spears]]. Their high-profile relationship ended abruptly in March 2002; the breakup influenced the lyrics and theme of Timberlake's hit "[[Cry Me a River (Justin Timberlake song)|Cry Me a River]]".<ref>{{cite book|title=Justin: The Unauthorized Biography|author=Smith, Sean|publisher=[[Pocket Books]]|date=October 4, 2005|isbn=1-4165-0773-6}}</ref>
In April 2003, he began dating actress [[Cameron Diaz]] soon after they met at the [[Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards]]. After much speculation of breakups throughout their relationship,<ref>{{cite web | publisher=National Ledger | title=Justin Timberlake & Cameron Diaz Pal Addresses Rumors of Demise | url=http://www.nationalledger.com/artman/publish/article_27266598.shtml | accessdate=April 22, 2008 | archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080327082005/http://www.nationalledger.com/artman/publish/article_27266598.shtml  | archivedate=March 27, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | publisher=People Magazine | title=Justin and Cameron: Still Going Strong | url=http://people.aol.com/people/articles/0,19736,1207418,00.html | accessdate=April 22, 2008}}</ref> the couple split in December 2006, shortly after Diaz introduced Timberlake as the evening's musical guest on ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''. In January 2007, they denied allegations of an alleged affair between Timberlake and [[Scarlett Johansson]], with whom he had shot the music video for his song "[[What Goes Around... Comes Around]]".<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.usmagazine.com/node/5442/|title=Justin Splits with Cameron Over Scarlett Johansson |publisher=US Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,1142562,00.html|title=Justin Timberlake and Cameron Diaz Break Up|publisher=People magazine}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008 | url = http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2007-01-11-timberlake-diaz_x.htm?csp=34 | title = Timberlake, Diaz announce split | work = [[USA Today]] | date = January 11, 2007}}</ref>

In January 2007, Timberlake began dating actress [[Jessica Biel]], with whom he had been photographed on multiple occasions;<ref>{{cite web |accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.tmz.com/2007/05/16/justin-sneaks-in-with-jessica-biel/|title=Justin Sneaks in with Jessica Biel|publisher=TMZ.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |accessdate=April 22, 2008 |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/pages/live/articles/showbiz/showbiznews.html?in_article_id=455197&in_page_id=1773|title=Justin gets affectionate with his love Jessica |work=[[Daily Mail]] | location=London | date=May 16, 2007}}</ref> the couple initially refrained from publicizing their relationship.<ref>{{cite web |accessdate=August 23, 2008 |url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20205881,00.html |title=Justin Timberlake Tells Leno He's Not Engaged – or Pregnant |work=[[People (magazine)|People]]}}</ref> Timberlake and Biel separated in March 2011;<ref>{{cite web |accessdate=March 11, 2011 |url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20473192,00.html |title=Justin Timberlake & Jessica Biel 'Wanted Different |work=[[People (magazine)|People]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |accessdate=March 11, 2011 |url=http://www.usmagazine.com/healthylifestyle/news/justin-timberlake-and-jessica-biel-split-2011103 |title=Justin Timberlake, Jessica Biel Break Up |work=[[Us Weekly]]}}</ref> he later proposed to her in the mountains of [[Jackson, Wyoming]] in December.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://b96.radio.com/2012/01/04/its-official-justin-timberlake-and-jessica-biel-are-finally-engaged/|title=It’s Official: Justin Timberlake And Jessica Biel Are Finally Engaged |date=January 4, 2012 |publisher=B96 Chicago}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20558288,00.html|title=Justin Timberlake and Jessica Biel Engaged|work=[[People (magazine)|People]]|accessdate=January 9, 2012|date=January 5, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/justin-timberlakes-grandma-yes-hes-engaged-to-jessica-biel-201251 |title=Justin Timberlake's Grandma: Yes, He's Engaged to Jessica Biel! |work=[[People (magazine)|People]] |accessdate=January 9, 2012|date=January 5, 2012}}</ref> The couple married on October 19, 2012 at the [[The Leading Hotels of the World|Borgo Egnazia]] resort in [[Fasano]], [[Italy]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/gossip/la-et-mg-justin-timberlake-married-jessica-biel-italy,0,6727139.story |title=Justin Timberlake-Jessica Biel wedding: 'It's great to be married' |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |accessdate=October 19, 2012|date=October 19, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://ca.eonline.com/news/353832/jessica-biel-and-justin-timberlake-are-married|title=Jessica Biel and Justin Timberlake Are Married! | publisher =[[E!|E! Online]] | accessdate = October 19, 2012 | date = October 19, 2012}}</ref> He has said he has [[obsessive–compulsive disorder]] (OCD) mixed with [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADD).<ref>{{cite web|title=Justin Timberlake Interview – THE LOVE GURU|url=http://collider.com/entertainment/article.asp/aid/8221/cid/13/tcid/1|publisher=Collider.com|accessdate=July 27, 2013|date=June 16, 2008}}</ref>

==Artistry==
{{listen|filename=SexyBackSample.ogg|title="SexyBack" excerpt
|description=A 23-second sample of Justin Timberlake's "SexyBack" song where the song is built around a pounding bass beat, electronic chords, and beat box sounds.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

During the production of ''FutureSex/LoveSounds'', Timberlake was interested in [[rock music]].{{sfn|Scaggs|2006|p=4}} This inspiration was used in his approach in recording the songs, rather than in composing them. Timberlake reveals, "I wanted to sing the song like a rock and roll singer, not an R&B singer."<ref>{{cite web|last=Vineyard|first=Jennifer|title='Back' In Style: Justin Timberlake Mixes Funk, Rock On New Single|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1535791/justin-back-style-on-new-single.jhtml|accessdate=September 11, 2011|publisher=MTV News. Viacom|date=July 6, 2006}}</ref> On the influences he drew from, he said that if ''Justified'' was "characterized" by [[Michael Jackson]] and [[Stevie Wonder]], ''FutureSex/LoveSounds'' is more like [[David Bowie]] and [[Prince (musician)|Prince]].<ref name="LongObserverSexy">{{cite news|last=Long|first=Camilla|title='I'm bringing back sexy'|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2006/jul/16/popandrock.justintimberlake?INTCMP=SRCH|work=The Observer|publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited|accessdate=September 15, 2011|date=July 16, 2006|location=London}}</ref> Other influences include late [[INXS]]-frontman [[Michael Hutchence]],{{sfn|Moss||p=2}} [[Arcade Fire]], [[David Byrne]], [[The Killers]], [[The Strokes]], and [[Radiohead]].{{sfn|Scaggs|2006|p=4}}

Unlike his previous record that was intended to focus on [[contemporary R&B|R&B]] and [[pop music|pop]] [[genre]]s,{{sfn|Vineyard|2007}} ''FutureSex/LoveSounds'' is less concentrated on one particular sound, thus representing a wider range. Timberlake explains, "It's more broad as far as the styles I wanted to mix in to my own type of thing."<ref>{{cite web|last=Moss |first=Corey |title=Don't Expect Justified 2: Timberlake Enlists Rick Rubin For New LP |url=http://www.mtv.com/news/articles/1519771/20060105/timberlake_justin.jhtml |publisher=MTV News. Viacom |date=January 5, 2006 |accessdate=January 8, 2013}}</ref> A musically "complex" album, ''FutureSex/LoveSounds'' is a fusion of [[rap (music)|rap]], rock, [[funk]], [[soul music|soul]], [[gospel music|gospel]], [[new wave music|new wave]], [[opera]], and [[world music]].<ref name="LongObserverSexy"/> ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]'' noted that the album's sound is a "sonic departure" from both 'N Sync and ''Justified''.{{sfn|Collis|2007|p=1}} Although "What Goes Around" sounds similar to ''Justified'', Timberlake admitted that it is the only song in the new album to have such similarity.{{sfn|Vineyard|2007}}

==Other ventures==
[[File:JustinTimberlake.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Timberlake golfing in 2006]]

===Television work===
Near the end of 2002, Timberlake was the first celebrity to appear on ''[[Punk'd]]'', a "candid camera" type show created by [[Ashton Kutcher]] to trick celebrities.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.cnn.com/2004/SHOWBIZ/TV/01/16/tv.punkd.out.ap/|title=Kutcher: Done with 'Punk'd' – really |publisher=CNN |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070910050836/http://www.cnn.com/2004/SHOWBIZ/TV/01/16/tv.punkd.out.ap/ |archivedate = September 10, 2007}}</ref> Timberlake, who cried during the episode, later admitted to being under the influence of [[marijuana]] when he was pranked. Three episodes later, he set up [[Kelly Osbourne]] to be "punk'd", thus making him the first celebrity to appear on the show more than once.<ref>{{cite news|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/latimes/access/350834731.html?dids=350834731:350834731&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&date=Jun+24%2C+2003&author=&pub=Los+Angeles+Times&desc=QUICK+TAKES%3B+MTV+plans+to+air+more+%27Punk%27d%27&pqatl=google|title=QUICK TAKES; MTV plans to air more 'Punk'd' |publisher=Los Angeles Times | date=June 24, 2003}}</ref> Timberlake later spoofed [[Ashton Kutcher]] and ''Punk'd'' in a 2003 episode of NBC's ''[[Saturday Night Live]]''.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.teenhollywood.com/d.asp?r=50314&cat=1027|title=Timberlake Punks Ashton on SNL |publisher=Teen Hollywood }}</ref> Timberlake hosted many music events, including the [[MTV Europe Music Awards|European MTV Music Awards]] in 2006. On December 16, 2006, Timberlake hosted ''[[Saturday Night Live]]'', doing double duty as both host and musical guest for the second time. During this appearance, he and [[Andy Samberg]] performed an R&B song for a skit titled "[[Dick in a Box]]", which some radio stations have aired as an unofficial single from Timberlake and has become one of the most viewed videos on YouTube. The song was later featured on [[The Lonely Island]]'s debut album [[Incredibad]]. Timberlake appeared on [[Jimmy Fallon]]'s debut as host of ''[[Late Night with Jimmy Fallon]]'' on March 2, 2009.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=March 3, 2009|url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29469658/|title=Jimmy Fallon Debuts As 'Late Night' Host}}</ref>
Timberlake is the executive producer on the [[MTV]] reality series ''[[The Phone (U.S. TV series)|The Phone]]'', which premiered on April 21, 2009. According to ''[[People (magazine)|People Magazine]]'', the series "thrusts contestants into a heart-stopping action adventure worthy of a summer blockbuster. In six hour-long episodes, a mysterious stranger on the phone invites four strangers into the dangerous game. If they accept, they're paired into two teams and dared to perform physical and mental challenges reminiscent of [[Matt Damon]]'s ''[[The Bourne Identity (2002 film)|The Bourne Identity]]'' or [[Shia LaBeouf]]'s ''[[Eagle Eye]]''."<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 1, 2009|url=http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20269313,00.html|title=Watch Trailer for Justin Timberlake's New Action Reality Show}}</ref>

===Business ventures===
Timberlake has co-owned or provided celebrity endorsement for three restaurants in the United States: "Chi" opened in [[West Hollywood, California]] in 2003,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tripadvisor.com/Restaurant_Review-g33252-d350495-Reviews-Chi_Restaurant-West_Hollywood_California.html |title=West Hollywood Restaurants: Read West Hollywood Restaurant Reviews |publisher=TripAdvisor |date= |accessdate=January 2, 2010}}</ref> and "Destino" and "Southern Hospitalty" in New York opened in 2006 and 2007, respectively.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Recipes/story?id=3393149|title=Pecan Pie Recipe From Justin Timberlake's Granny Sadie |publisher=ABC News }}</ref> He also has his own brand of [[tequila]] called 901; the name comes in part from the area code of his hometown of [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]].<ref>[http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20266493,00.html Justin Timberlake to Launc Own Brand of Tequila] March 19, 2009</ref>
In 2005, Timberlake launched the [[William Rast]] clothing line with childhood friend Juan ("Trace") Ayala. The 2007 line contained cord jackets, cashmere sweaters, jeans and polo shirts.<ref>{{cite news | publisher=USA Today | title=Timberlake's gear on racks, runway | url=http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-10-12-timberlake-main_x.htm?POE=LIFISVA | accessdate=April 22, 2008 | first=Donna | last=Freydkin | date=October 13, 2006}}</ref> The pair reports inspiration from fellow Memphis native [[Elvis Presley]]: "Elvis is the perfect mixture of Justin and I," Ayala says. "You can go back and see pictures of him in cowboy boots and a cowboy hat and a nice button-down shirt, but then again you can see him in a tux and a collared shirt with rhinestones on it and slacks. We like to think 'If he was alive today, what would he be wearing?'"<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/27806771/ Chessman, Kristin. (November 10, 2008). “Not Just a Pretty Face,” MSNBC.]{{dead link|date=September 2010}}</ref> Target has announced that a William Rast collection, including denim, outerwear and sportswear for men and women, would launch in December and be available for a month.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/957145/justin-timberlakes-fashion-line-coming-to-target |title=Justin Timberlake's Fashion Line Coming to Target |publisher=Billboard.com |date=September 14, 2009 |accessdate=September 6, 2010}}</ref> An avid amateur golfer, in 2007 Timberlake purchased the run-down Big Creek Golf Course in his home town of Millington, Tennessee, which he redeveloped as the [[environmentally friendly|eco-friendly]] Mirimichi Golf Course at a cost of some $US16 million. It was reopened on July 25, 2009 but closed again on January 15, 2010 for further improvements expected to take six months.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 20, 2009|url=http://mirimichi.com/news|title=Mirimichi Accelerating Improvements in Time for One Year Anniversary}}</ref> In October 2011, Timberlake received the Futures Award at the [[Environmental Media Awards]] for his green-conscious golf course.<ref>{{cite web|last=Miller|first=Gerri|title=Environmental Media Awards honor Justin Timberlake|url=http://www.mnn.com/lifestyle/arts-culture/stories/environmental-media-awards-honor-justin-timberlake|publisher=MNM|accessdate=October 23, 2011|date=October 19, 2011}}</ref> Timberlake and [[Jessica Biel]] are minority owners of the [[Memphis Grizzlies]].<ref>[http://www.nba.com/games/20121123/LALMEM/gameinfo.html LA Lakers at Memphie Grizzlies recap]</ref>

Timberlake provides celebrity endorsement for many commercial products, this aspect of his business being managed by [[IMG (company)|IMG]] since April 2008.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 19, 2009|url=http://www.theredpages.co.uk/public/news.aspx?id=1699|title=Justin Timberlake signs with IMG for endorsement representation}}</ref> Major endorsements in 2009 included [[Sony]] electronic products,<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 21, 2009|url=http://www.sonyinsider.com/2009/09/18/peyton-manning-justin-timberlake-and-others-in-new-sony-commercial|title=Peyton Manning, Justin Timberlake And Others In New Sony Commercial/ |publisher=Sonyinsider.com}}</ref> [[Givenchy]]'s men's fragrance "''[[Parfums_Givenchy#Fragrances_for_men|Play]]''",<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 19, 2009|url=http://www.elle.com/Fashion/Fashion-Spotlight/Justin-Timberlake-for-Givenchy-Fragrance|title=Justin Timberlake for Givenchy Fragrance}}</ref> the [[Audi A1]]",<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 19, 2009|url=http://www.motorauthority.com/blog/1040269_audi-picks-justin-timberlake-as-new-brand-ambassador|title=Audi Picks Justin Timberlake As New Brand Ambassador}}</ref> [[Callaway Golf Company]] products,<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 19, 2009|url=http://www.callawaygolf.com/Global/en-US/Articles/TimberlakejoinsCallawayGolf.html|title=TIMBERLAKE JOINS CALLAWAY GOLF}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/articles/news/957145/justin-timberlakes-fashion-line-coming-to-target |title=Justin Timberlake's Fashion Line Coming to Target |publisher=Billboard.com |date=September 14, 2009 |accessdate=September 30, 2010}}</ref> and in 2011, [[Myspace]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=June 30, 2011|url= http://finance.yahoo.com/news/Justin-Timberlake-part-of-apf-2481363894.html?x=0&sec=topStories&pos=6&asset=&ccode=|title= Justin Timberlake part of group buying MySpace}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|accessdate=June 30, 2011|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/mediatechnologyandtelecoms/8607207/MySpace-sold-to-Justin-Timberlake-backed-ad-agency-by-News-Corp.html|title= MySpace sold to Justin Timberlake-backed ad agency by News Corp | location=London|work=The Daily Telegraph|first=Richard|last=Blackden|date=June 30, 2011
}}</ref> In 2012, he hosted [[Walmart]]'s annual shareholders meeting<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/justin-timberlake-dons-hawaiian-skirt-lei-at-walmart-shareholders-meeting-201216|title=Justin Timberlake Dons Hawaiian Skirt, Lei at Walmart Shareholders' Meeting|date=June 1, 2012}}</ref> saying, "I buy a lot at Walmart."<ref>Intelligencer/Posts, ''New York'' magazine, June 11–18, 2012, p. 20</ref>.

===Philanthropy===
Timberlake has been active in several charitable pursuits, initially through 'N Sync's "Challenge for the Children" aimed at a range of charities, and since 2001 through his "Justin Timberlake Foundation," which initially funded music education programs in schools, but now has a much broader agenda.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.looktothestars.org/celebrity/99-justin-timberlake |title=Justin Timberlake's Charity Work, Events and Causes |publisher=Looktothestars.org |date= |accessdate=January 2, 2010}}</ref> In October 2005, the Grammy Association presented Timberlake with an award for his humanitarian efforts in Tennessee, alongside writer/director [[Craig Brewer]], also a Memphis native.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://ca.askmen.com/specials/2007_top_49/justin-timberlake-5.html|title=Justin Timberlake |publisher=Askmen.com }}</ref>

In November 2007, he donated A$100,000 from takings from his Australian tour to [[Wildlife Warriors]] founded by [[Steve Irwin]].<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=August 22, 2008|url=http://www.starpulse.com/news/index.php/2007/10/29/justin_timberlake_pays_tribute_to_the_la|title=Justin Timberlake Pays Tribute To The Late Steve Irwin}}</ref> On March 23, 2008, he donated $100,000 to the [[Memphis Rock N' Soul Museum]] and another $100,000 to the Memphis Music Foundation.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=April 22, 2008|url=http://www.myeyewitnessnews.com/news/local/story.aspx?content_id=67a4064a-54e6-43ce-85f5-7f78f41639c2|title=Justin Timberlake Donates $100,000 to Memphis Rock 'n' Soul Museum |publisher=WLMT }} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

On November 12, 2007, the [[PGA Tour]] announced that Timberlake, an avid golfer who plays to a 6 [[handicap (golf)|handicap]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://sports.espn.go.com/golf/news/story?id=3106683 |title=Timberlake to host PGA Tour's Las Vegas event in '08 |publisher=ESPN |date=November 12, 2007 |accessdate=November 13, 2007}}</ref> would become the host of the tour's [[Las Vegas]] tournament starting in 2008. With Timberlake's agreement to host the tournament, its name was changed to the [[Justin Timberlake Shriners Hospitals for Children Open]]. He played in the celebrity pro-am on the day before the competitive tournament and hosted a charity concert during the week of the tournament.<ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.pgatour.com/2007/tournaments/r047/11/12/timberlake/index.html |title=Justin Timberlake to host Las Vegas PGA TOUR event in 2008 |publisher=[[PGA Tour]] |date=November 12, 2007 |accessdate=November 13, 2007}}</ref> The activity was a success, and was repeated in 2009. A review of the value of celebrities to fundraising concluded that Timberlake's contribution to Shriners Hospitals for Children was the single most valuable celebrity endorsement in the US during 2009, and worth over $US9 million.<ref>{{cite web|accessdate=December 18, 2009|url=http://celebritygoss.com.au/gossip/index.php/2009/12/justin-timberlake-is-named-most-high-impact-celebrity-for-charity/|title=Justin Timberlake is named most high-impact celebrity for charity |publisher=Celebrity Goss.com}}</ref>

==Filmography==
{{Main|Justin Timberlake videography}}
A selection of theatrical release and feature films.<ref>{{cite web|title=Justin Timberlake|url=http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0005493/?ref_=sr_5|publisher=Imdb|accessdate=July 14, 2013}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! Year
! class="unsortable" | Film
! class="unsortable" | Character
! class="unsortable" | Notes
|-
| 2005
| ''[[Edison (film)|Edison]]''
| Joshua Pollack
| Released [[direct-to-video]] in the U.S., as ''Edison Force'' in 2006.
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Alpha Dog]]''
| Frankie "Nuts" Ballenbacher
| Story based on the [[Murder of Nicholas Markowitz]]
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Southland Tales]]''
| Private Pilot Abilene
| Also served as Narrator
|-
| 2006
| ''[[Black Snake Moan (film)|Black Snake Moan]]''
| Ronnie Morgan
|
|-
| 2007
| ''[[Shrek The Third]]''
| [[King Arthur (Shrek series)#King Artie|King Arthur 'Artie' Pendragon]]
| Voice role
|-
| 2008
| ''[[The Love Guru]]''
| Jacques "Le Coq" Grandé
|
|-
| 2009
| ''[[The Open Road]]''
| Carlton Garrett
| Limited Release
|-
| 2010
| ''[[The Social Network]]''
| [[Sean Parker]]
| - Won 3 [[83rd Academy Awards|Academy Awards]] out of 8 nominations - [[2011 Teen Choice Awards]] - Choice Movie: Scene Stealer Male (nominated)
|-
| 2010
| ''[[Yogi Bear (film)|Yogi Bear]]''
| [[Boo-Boo Bear]]
| Voice role 2011 Teen Choice Awards - Choice Movie: Animated Voice (nominated)
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Bad Teacher]]''
| Scott Delacorte
|2011 Teen Choice Awards - Choice Movie: Actor Comedy - (Won)
|-
| 2011
| ''[[Friends With Benefits (film)|Friends With Benefits]]''
| Dylan Harper
| [[2011 Teen Choice Awards]] - Summer: Summer Movie Star — Male (nominated)
|-
| 2011
| ''[[In Time]]''
| William "Will" Salas
|
|-
| 2012
| ''[[Trouble with the Curve]]''
| Johnny Flanagan
|
|-
| 2013
| ''[[Runner, Runner (film)|Runner, Runner]]''
| Richie Furst
| (completed) Scheduled release date: Sept. 27, 2013
|}

==Discography==
{{Main|Justin Timberlake discography}}
;Studio albums
* ''[[Justified (album)|Justified]]'' (2002)
* ''[[FutureSex/LoveSounds]]'' (2006)
* ''[[The 20/20 Experience]]'' (2013)
* ''[[The 20/20 Experience 2 of 2]]'' (2013)

==Tours==
{{Div col|cols=2}}
;Headlining
* [[Justified World Tour]] (2003–04)
* [[FutureSex/LoveShow]] (2007)
* [[The 20/20 Experience World Tour]] (2013–14)
 
;Co-headlining
* [[Justified and Stripped Tour]] (2003)
* [[Legends of the Summer Stadium Tour]] (2013)
{{Div col end}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Music}}
*[[Honorific nicknames in popular music]]
*[[List of Billboard Social 50 number-one artists]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons}}
* {{Official website|1=http://www.justintimberlake.com}}
* {{Allmusicguide|id=p373055}}
* {{IMDb name|0005493}}

{{Justin Timberlake}}
{{'N Sync}}
{{ESPYs}}
{{EmmyAward ComedyGuestActor 2001-2025}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2013}}{{pp-semi-blp|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}

{{good article}}

{{Authority control|PND=128885718|LCCN=n/00/63134|VIAF=85512447}}

{{Persondata
|NAME = Timberlake, Justin Randall
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = American singer, occasional actor
|DATE OF BIRTH = January 31, 1981
|PLACE OF BIRTH = Millington, Tennessee, United States
|DATE OF DEATH =
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Timberlake, Justin}}
[[Category:Justin Timberlake| ]]
[[Category:1981 births]]
[[Category:20th-century American actors]]
[[Category:20th-century American singers]]
[[Category:21st-century American actors]]
[[Category:21st-century American singers]]
[[Category:Actors from Tennessee]]
[[Category:American beatboxers]]
[[Category:American businesspeople]]
[[Category:American male child actors]]
[[Category:American child singers]]
[[Category:American Christians]]
[[Category:American dance musicians]]
[[Category:American tenors]]
[[Category:American male dancers]]
[[Category:American male film actors]]
[[Category:American male singers]]
[[Category:American people of English descent]]
[[Category:American pop singers]]
[[Category:American rhythm and blues singers]]
[[Category:Baptists from the United States]]
[[Category:Blue-eyed soul musicians]]
[[Category:Blue-eyed soul singers]]
[[Category:Brit Award winners]]
[[Category:Grammy Award-winning artists]]
[[Category:American hip hop singers]]
[[Category:Jive Records artists]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Mouseketeers]]
[[Category:Musicians from Tennessee]]
[[Category:'N Sync members]]
[[Category:People from Memphis, Tennessee]]
[[Category:Primetime Emmy Award winners]]
[[Category:RCA Records artists]]
[[Category:Sony BMG artists]]
[[Category:World Music Awards winners]]

[[nds:Justin Timberlake]]

Flask (web framework)

2013-07-03T16:21:19Z

PatriceNeff: Remove external un-referenced links

{{context|date=April 2012}}
{{Infobox software
| name = Flask
| logo = [[File:Flask logo.svg|250px]]
| released = {{Start date|2010|04|01}}
| latest release version = 0.10
| latest release date = {{release date|2013|06|13}}<ref>http://flask.pocoo.org/docs/changelog/#version-0-10</ref>
| genre = [[Web application framework]]
| license = [[BSD licenses|BSD]]
| programming language = [[Python (programming language)|Python]]
| operating system = [[Cross-platform]]
| developer = Armin Ronacher
| website = {{URL|http://flask.pocoo.org/}}
}}
'''Flask''' is a lightweight [[web application framework]] written in [[Python (programming language)|Python]] and based on the Werkzeug [[Web Server Gateway Interface|WSGI]] toolkit and Jinja2 template engine. It is [[BSD licenses|BSD licensed]].

Flask is called a [[microframework]] because it keeps the core simple but extensible. There is no database abstraction layer, form validation, or any other components where third-party libraries already exist to provide common functionality. However, Flask supports extensions, which can add such functionality into an application as if it was implemented in Flask itself. There are extensions for object-relational mappers, form validation, upload handling, various open authentication technologies, and more.

== History ==
Flask was created by Armin Ronacher. "It came out of an April Fool's joke but proved popular enough to make into a serious application in its own right.".<ref name="openingflask">{{cite web|url=http://dev.pocoo.org/~mitsuhiko/flask-pycon-2011.pdf |title=Opening the Flask |first=Armin |last=Ronacher |accessdate=September 30, 2011}}</ref><ref name="aprilfoolspage">{{cite web | title=Denied: the next generation python micro-web-framework (April Fools page) | url=http://denied.immersedcode.org/ | accessdate=September 30, 2011}}</ref>

Flask is inspired by [[Sinatra (software)|Sinatra]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2012}}

== Features ==
* Contains development server and debugger
* Integrated support for unit testing
* RESTful request dispatching
* Uses [[Jinja (template engine)|Jinja2]] templating
* Support for secure cookies (client side sessions)
* 100% WSGI 1.0 compliant
* Unicode-based
* Extensive documentation
* [[Google App Engine]] Compatibility
* Extensions available to enhance features desired.

== Example ==
Following code shows a simple web application that prints "[[Hello World]]!":
<syntaxhighlight lang="python">
from flask import Flask
app = Flask(__name__)

@app.route("/")
def hello():
return "Hello World!"

if __name__ == "__main__":
app.run()
</syntaxhighlight>

==Web applications built on Flask==
* [[Disqus]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Armin Ronacher|url=https://twitter.com/mitsuhiko/status/161578399343714304|accessdate=23 January 2012}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Free software}}
* [[Comparison of web application frameworks]]
* [[Django (web framework)|Django]]
* [[Pylons project|Pylons]]
* [[TurboGears]]
* [http://bottle.paws.de/ Bottle]

== External links ==
* [http://flask.pocoo.org/ Flask website]
* [http://flask.pocoo.org/docs/ Flask documentation]
* [http://github.com/mitsuhiko/flask Project source code on Github]
* [http://pypi.python.org/pypi/Flask Flask on PyPI]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Python (programming language)}}
{{Python Web Application Frameworks}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Flask (Programming)}}
[[Category:Free software programmed in Python]]
[[Category:Python web application frameworks]]

Enrico Letta

2013-04-28T17:29:58Z

PatriceNeff: He is prime minister now (http://www.governo.it/)

{{about|the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]] member|the [[People of Freedom]] member|Gianni Letta}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2013}}
{{Infobox officeholder
|honorific-prefix =
|name = Enrico Letta
|native_name =
|native_name_lang =
|honorific-suffix =
|image = Enrico Letta 2013.jpg
|caption = Enrico Letta in 2013
|order = [[List of Prime Ministers of Italy|55th]] [[Prime Minister of Italy]]
|office =
|term_start = 28 April 2013
|term_end =
|deputy = [[Angelino Alfano]]
|president = [[Giorgio Napolitano]]
|constituency =
|majority =
|predecessor = [[Mario Monti]]
|successor =
|prior_term =
|order1 = [[Italian Minister of Economic Development|Minister of Industry, Commerce and Craftsmanship]]
|office1 = 
|term_start1 = 22 December 1999
|term_end1 = 11 June 2001
|primeminister1 = [[Massimo D'Alema]] [[Giuliano Amato]]
|predecessor1 = [[Pier Luigi Bersani]]
|successor1 = Antonio Marzano
|order2 = Minister of European Affairs
|office2 = 
|term_start2 = 21 October 1998
|term_end2 = 22 December 1999
|primeminister2 = [[Massimo D'Alema]]
|predecessor2 = [[Lamberto Dini]]
|successor2 = [[Patrizia Toia]]
|office3 = Member of the [[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]]
|constituency3= 2013 - : [[Marche]] 2008–2013: [[Lombardy]] 2 2006–2008: [[Lombardy]] 1 2001–2004: [[Piedmont]] 1
|term_start3 = 30 May 2001
|term_end3 =
|predecessor3 =
|successor3 =
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1966|08|20|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Pisa]], [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]]
|death_date = 
|death_place =
|restingplace =
|restingplacecoordinates =
|birthname =
|citizenship = Italy
|nationality =
|party = [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]] (2007–present) 
|otherparty = [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] (until 1994) [[Italian People's Party (1994)|Italian People's Party]] (1994–2002) [[Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy|Democracy is Freedom]] (2002–2007)
|spouse = Gianna Fregonara
|relations =
|children = Three
|residence = [[Palazzo Chigi]], [[Rome]] (official)
|alma_mater = [[University of Pisa]] [[Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies]]
|occupation =
|profession =
|cabinet =
|committees =
|portfolio =
|religion = [[Roman Catholic]]
|signature =
|signature_alt =
|website = [http://www.enricoletta.it/ www.enricoletta.it]
|footnotes =
}}
'''Enrico Letta''' ({{IPA-it|enˌriːko ˈlɛtːa|pron}}; born 20 August 1966) is the current [[Prime Minister of Italy]]. He is also deputy secretary of the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]], and member of the [[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]].<ref> Italian Parliament Website [http://nuovo.camera.it/29?shadow_deputato=300127 LETTA Enrico - PD] Retrieved 24 April 2013 </ref> He served in the government as Minister of European Affairs from 1998 to 1999 and as [[Italian Minister of Economic Development|Minister of Industry]] from 1999 to 2001; he also served as Secretary to the Council of Ministers from 2006 to 2008.

==Early life and education==
Enrico Letta was born in [[Pisa]], in [[Tuscany]], to Anna Banchi, from [[Sassari]], [[Sardinia]] and Giorgio Letta, from [[Abruzzo]]. His father Giorgio was a professor of [[probability]] at the [[University of Pisa]], member of the [[Accademia dei Lincei]] and of the [[Accademia nazionale delle scienze]]. His uncle, [[Gianni Letta]], is one of [[Silvio Berlusconi]]'s senior aides.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22278038 |title=Enrico Letta set to become Italy's new prime minister |date=April 24, 2013 |publisher=''[[BBC News]]'' |accessdate=April 24, 2013}}</ref>

==Political career==
As a young member of the [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] (DC), Letta was the president of the [[Youth of the European People's Party]] (YEPP) between 1991 and 1995. Having joined the [[Italian People's Party (1994)|Italian People's Party]] in 1994, he became the party's deputy secretary in 1997 and, at 32, he was appointed minister of European Affairs in [[D'Alema I Cabinet]] in 1998. He was first elected to the [[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]] in the [[Italian general election, 2001|2001 general election]] for [[Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy|The Daisy]] (DL).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilgiornale.it/news/interni/enrico-letta-giovane-dc-che-deve-fare-paciere-pd-e-pdl-911253.html |title=Enrico Letta, il giovane Dc che deve far da paciere tra Pd e Pdl |last1=Sacchelli |first1=
Orlando |language=Italian |date=April 24, 2013 |publisher=''[[il Giornale]]'' |accessdate=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.liberoquotidiano.it/news/personaggi/1230362/Pisano--milanista--baby-ministro--Ecco-chi-e-Enrico-Letta--l-eterno--giovane--del-Pd.html |title=Pisano, milanista, baby-ministro. Ecco chi è Enrico Letta, l'eterno "giovane" del Pd |author= |language=Italian |date=April 24, 2013 |publisher=''[[Libero (newspaper)|Libero]]'' |accessdate=}}</ref> From 2001 to 2004 Letta was his party's shadow minister for economic policy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ilfattoquotidiano.it/2013/04/24/chi-e-enrico-letta-luomo-scelto-da-napolitano-per-governo/573948/ |title=Chi è Enrico Letta, l’uomo scelto da Napolitano per il governo |author= |date=April 24, 2013 |language=Italian |publisher=''[[Il Fatto Quotidiano]]'' |accessdate=}}</ref>

Between 2004 and 2006 he was a [[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]] for the [[European Parliament Election, 2004 (Italy)#Seats|North-East]] constituency; in the [[European Parliament]] he sat in the Group of the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] (ALDE) and was a member of the [[Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs]].<ref>[http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/28413/ENRICO_LETTA_home.html;jsessionid=49148AE893CAFACF3A7051A6F0DE5844.node2 European Parliament Website]</ref> In 2006, he was appointed secretary of the council of ministers to the [[Prodi II Cabinet|Prodi government]], succeeding his uncle [[Gianni Letta]], leaving the European Parliament for a job in Rome.

A founding member of the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]] (PD), in the [[Democratic Party (Italy) leadership election, 2007|2007 leadership election]] Letta came third with 11% of the vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.repubblica.it/2007/10/sezioni/politica/partito-democratico-12/veltroni-segretario/veltroni-segretario.html |title=Veltroni stravince con il 76% ma è la festa dei cittadini elettori |author= |language=Italian |publisher=''[[la Repubblica]]'' |date=October 14, 2007}}</ref>

On 8 May 2008 Letta returned the position of secretary to the presidency of the council his uncle [[Gianni Letta]] due to the fall of the Prodi II cabinet and the subsequent election as president of the council of [[Silvio Berlusconi]]. Letta was elected to the [[Chamber of Deputies (Italy)|Chamber of Deputies]] in the ranks of the [[Democratic Party (Italy)|Democratic Party]]. Among the main proposals of law presented by him in the XVI legislature (2008-2013), was the abolition of annuities of MPs. <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.enricoletta.it/proposte/abolizione-vitalizi-parlamentari-la-proposta-di-legge/ |title=La nostra battaglia per l’abolizione dei vitalizi |publisher=Enrico Letta |accessdate=April 26, 2013}}</ref>

During the [[Democratic Party (Italy) leadership election, 2009|2009 PD leadership election]], he supported the final winner, [[Pier Luigi Bersani]] and on 7 November 2009, Letta was elected deputy secretary of the party.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://qn.quotidiano.net//politica/2009/11/07/258030-iniziata_bersani.shtml |title=Pd, Bersani indica la rotta "Noi, partito dell'alternativa" |publisher=''[[Quotidiano.net]]'' |language=Italian |date=September 9, 2009 |accessdate=April 26, 2013}}</ref> On 08 January 2013, the Democratic Party fielded Letta as a candidate MP for the chamber of deputies in the constituencies of [[Marche]] and [[Campania|Campania II]] in view of the [[Italian general election, 2013|2013 election]].<ref>[http://www.partitodemocratico.it/Allegati/liste-candidati-camera.pdf ]{{dead link|date=April 2013}}</ref> On 20 April 2013, owing to the failure of the candidates for president of the Republic, [[Franco Marini]] and then [[Romano Prodi]], to secure election, the whole leadership of the Democratic Party, and therefore also the deputy secretary Letta, resigned from their positions in the party.{{Fact|date=April 2013}}

==Prime Minister of Italy==
Letta received from the president [[Giorgio Napolitano]] on 24 April 2013 the task of forming a new government, after weeks of deadlock following the 2013 general election.<ref>{{cite news|last=Frye |first=Andrew |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-04-24/letta-named-italian-prime-minister-as-political-impasse-ends.html |title=Letta Named Italian Prime Minister as Impasse Ends |publisher=''[[Bloomberg L.P.|Bloomberg]]'' |date=April 24, 2013 |accessdate=April 26, 2013}}</ref> On 27 April 2013, Letta formally accepted the task of heading a new [[grand coalition]] government (with support from his party, right-wing [[People of Freedom]] and the centrist [[Civic Choice]]) and presented the list of members of [[Letta Cabinet|his cabinet]].
During the swearing ceremony, a man shot outside [[Palazzo Chigi]] and wounded two [[Carabinieri]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-22327445 |title=New Italian 'grand coalition' government sworn in |author= |date=April 28, 2013 |publisher=''[[BBC News]]'' |accessdate=April 28, 2013}}</ref>

== Other appointments ==
Letta is the secretary general of Agenzia di Ricerche e Legislazione (AREL), think tank founded by [[Beniamino Andreatta]]; he himself founded the associations ''Trecentosessanta'' and '' VeDrò''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.360mag.it/noi/|title=Noi|publisher=Associazione Trecento Sessanta|accessdate=10 March 2010}}</ref> He is a member of the European committee of the [[Trilateral Commission]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trilateral.org/go.cfm?do=Page.View&pid=6|title=Trilateral|accessdate=23 September 2011}}</ref> and of the executive committee of the [[Aspen Institute]] Italia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aspeninstitute.it/istituto/comunita-aspen/comitato-esecutivo|title=Comitato Esecutivo |publisher=Aspen Institute Italia|accessdate=26 April 2013}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|33em}}

==External links==
* {{EP MEP info/6th term|28413|of Enrico Letta}}
* {{Declaration of financial interests of the 6th term|28413_13-07-2004.PDF|it}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-par|it-lwr}}
{{s-bef|before=Title jointly held}}
{{s-ttl|title=Deputy for Constituency I – [[Piedmont]] I|years=2001–2004}}
{{s-aft|after=Title jointly held}}
{{s-bef|before=Title jointly held}}
{{s-ttl|title=Deputy for Constituency III – [[Lombardia]] II|years=2008 –}}
{{s-inc}}
{{s-par|eu}}
{{s-bef|before=Title jointly held}}
{{s-ttl|title=Member of Parliament for [[Italy]]|years=2004–2008}}
{{s-aft|after=Title jointly held}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|title=Italian Minister of European Affairs|years=1998–1999}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Patrizia Toia]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Pier Luigi Bersani]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Italian Minister of Industry]]|years=1999–2001}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Antonio Marzano]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Gianni Letta]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Secretary to the Italian Council of Ministers|years=2006–2008}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Gianni Letta]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Mario Monti]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Italy]]|years=2013–}}
{{s-aft|after=Incumbent}}
{{s-prec|italy}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Laura Boldrini]]|as=[[List of Presidents of the Italian Chamber of Deputies|President of the Chamber of Deputies]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Italian order of precedence|Order of Precedence of Italy]] ''as President of the Council of Ministers''|years=}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Franco Gallo]] ''{{nowrap|as [[Constitutional Court of Italy|President of the Constitutional Court]]}}''}}
{{s-ppo}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Democratic Party (Italy)|Coordinator of the Democratic Party for Welfare]]|years=2007–2009}}
{{s-non|reason=Title abolished}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Shadow Cabinet of Italy (2008)|Italian Shadow Minister of Welfare]]|years=2008–2009}}
{{s-non|reason=Title abolished}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Democratic Party (Italy)|Head of Welfare Department of the Democratic Party]]|years=since 2009}}
{{s-inc}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Dario Franceschini]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Democratic Party (Italy)|Deputy Secretary of the Democratic Party]]|years=since 2009}}
{{s-inc}}
{{s-end}}

{{Democratic Party (Italy) leaders}}
{{D'Alema I Cabinet}}
{{D'Alema II Cabinet}}
{{Amato II Cabinet}}
{{Letta Cabinet}}

{{Authority control|VIAF=90217751}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME = Letta, Enrico
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 20 August 1966
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Letta, Enrico}}
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Pisa]]
[[Category:University of Pisa alumni]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (Italy) politicians]]
[[Category:Democratic Party (Italy) MEPs]]
[[Category:MEPs for Italy 2004–2009]]
[[Category:Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy politicians]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Italy]]

{{Italy-MEP-stub}}

Kazakhstan

2013-01-18T21:10:26Z

PatriceNeff: Fix link to unitary (government inside the infobox)

{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Republic of Kazakhstan
|native_name = {{unbulleted list |<hr/>Қазақстан Республикасы ''Qazaqstan Respublïkası'' |<hr/>Республика Казахстан ''Respublika Kazakhstan''}}
|common_name = Kazakhstan
|image_flag = Flag of Kazakhstan.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Kazakhstan.svg
|symbol_type = Emblem
|image_map = Kazakhstan (orthographic projection).svg
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = Менің Қазақстаным {{transl|kz|''[[Meniñ Qazaqstanım]]''}} {{small|''My Kazakhstan''}} <center>[[File:Kazakhstan National Anthem 2012.ogg]]</center>
|official_languages = {{unbulleted list |[[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] {{small|(national)}} |[[Russian language|Russian]]}}
|ethnic_groups =
{{unbulleted list
| 63.1% [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]]
| 23.7% [[Russians|Russian]]
| 2.9% [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]]
| 2.1% [[Ukrainians|Ukrainian]]
| 1.4% [[Uyghurs|Uyghur]]
| 1.3% [[Tatars|Tatar]]
| 1.1% [[Germans|German]]
| 4.5% others
}}
|ethnic_groups_year = 2009<ref name="Census2009"/>
|capital = [[Astana]]
|latd=51 |latm=10 |latNS=N |longd=71 |longm=25 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Almaty]]
|demonym = [[Kazakhstani]]<ref name="CIA"/>
|government_type = {{nowrap|[[Dominant-party system|Dominant-party]] [[Unitary_state|unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential state]]}}
|leader_title1 = [[President of Kazakhstan|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Kazakhstan|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Serik Akhmetov]]
|legislature = [[Parliament of Kazakhstan|Parliament]]
|upper_house = [[Senate of Kazakhstan|Senate]]
|lower_house = ''[[Mazhilis]]''
|area_rank = 9th
|area_magnitude = 1 E12
|area_km2 = 2,724,900
|area_sq_mi = 1,052,085 
|percent_water = 1.7
|population_estimate = 16,200,000
|population_estimate_year = 2011
|population_estimate_rank = 62nd
|population_census = 16,004,800
|population_census_year = 2009<ref name="Census2009"/>
|population_density_km2 = 5.94
|population_density_sq_mi = 15.39 
|population_density_rank = 224th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2012
|GDP_PPP = $232.349 billion<ref name=IMF>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=28&pr.y=19&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=916&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Kazakhstan |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=2012-04-18}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_rank =
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $13,921<ref name=IMF/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_nominal_rank =
|GDP_nominal = $200.6 billion<ref name=IMF/>
|GDP_nominal_year = 2012
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $12,021<ref name=IMF/>
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]] {{nobold|from the [[Soviet Union]]}}
|established_event3 = [[Kazakh Khanate]]
|established_date3 = 1465
|established_event4 = [[Alash Autonomy]]
|established_date4 = December 13, 1917
|established_event5 = [[Kazakh SSR]]
|established_date5 = December 5, 1936
|established_event6 = [[History of Kazakhstan#Sovereignty and independence|Declared]]
|established_date6 = December 16, 1991
|established_event7 = Finalized
|established_date7 = December 25, 1991
|Gini_year = 2008
|Gini_change = 
|Gini = 28.8 
|Gini_ref = <ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html ''CIA World Factbook: Field listing''], Distribution of family income – Gini index</ref>
|HDI_year = 2011
|HDI_change = increase 
|HDI = 0.745 
|HDI_ref = <ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2011 |year=2011 |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=15 November 2011}}</ref>
|HDI_rank = 68th
|currency = [[Kazakhstani tenge|Tenge]] ({{Unicode|₸}})
|currency_code = KZT
|country_code = KAZ
|time_zone = [[Time in Kazakhstan|West{{\}}East]]
|utc_offset = [[UTC+05:00|+5]]{{\}}[[UTC+06:00|+6]]
|time_zone_DST = |utc_offset_DST =
|drives_on = right
|calling_code = +7-6xx, +7-7xx
|cctld = {{unbulleted list |[[.kz]] |[[.қаз]]}}
}}

'''Kazakhstan''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Kazakhstan.ogg|ˌ|k|ɑː|z|ə|k|ˈ|s|t|ɑː|n}} or {{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|æ|z|ə|k|ˈ|s|t|æ|n}}; {{lang-kk| Қазақстан}} ''Qazaqstan'', pronounced {{IPA-kk|qɑzɑqstɑ́n|}}; {{lang-ru|Казахстан}} {{IPA-ru|kəzɐxˈstan|}}), officially the '''Republic of Kazakhstan''', is a country in [[Central Asia]], with a small portion west of the Ural (Zhayyq) River in easternmost [[Europe]].<ref name="CIA"/> The [[List of countries and outlying territories by land area|ninth largest]] country in the world by land area, it is also the world's largest [[landlocked country]]; its territory of {{convert|2,727,300|km²}} is larger than [[Western Europe]].<ref name="CIA"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.kz |title=Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan (ASRK). 2005. Main Demographic Indicators |publisher=Stat.kz|accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> Moreover, lying on both sides of the [[Ural River]] makes Kazakhstan one of only two landlocked countries in the world lying on two continents. It is neighbored clockwise from the north by [[Russia]], [[China]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Uzbekistan]], and [[Turkmenistan]], and also borders on a large part of the [[Caspian Sea]]. The terrain of Kazakhstan includes flatlands, [[steppe]], [[taiga]], [[Canyon|rock canyon]]s, hills, deltas, snow-capped mountains, and deserts. With 16.6 million people (2011 estimate)<ref>{{cite web|author=  |url=http://www.eng.stat.kz/news/Pages/n1_12_11_10.aspx |title=Census2010 |publisher=Stat.kz|accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> Kazakhstan has the [[List of countries by population|62nd largest]] population in the world, though its [[List of countries by population density|population density]] is less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.). The capital was moved in 1998 from [[Almaty]], Kazakhstan's largest city, to [[Astana]].

Kazakhstan is one of the active members of the [[Turkic Council]] and the [[TÜRKSOY]] community. The national language, [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], is closely related to the other [[Turkic languages]], with which it shares strong cultural and [[Turkic peoples|historical ties]].

For most of its history, the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan has been inhabited by [[nomads|nomadic tribes]]. By the 16th century, the [[Kazakhs]] emerged as a distinct group, divided into three ''[[jüz]]''. The [[Russians]] began advancing into the [[Kazakh steppe]] in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century all of Kazakhstan was part of the [[Russian Empire]]. Following the [[1917 Russian Revolution]], and subsequent [[Russian Civil War|civil war]], the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganized several times before becoming the [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic]] in 1936, a part of the [[Soviet Union]].

Kazakhstan declared itself an independent country on December 16, 1991, the last Soviet republic to do so. Its communist-era leader, [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]], became the country's first supreme chancellor, a position he has retained for more than two decades. Supreme Chancellor Nazarbayev maintains strict control over the country's [[Politics of Kazakhstan|politics]]. Since independence, Kazakhstan has pursued a balanced [[Foreign relations of Kazakhstan|foreign policy]] and worked to develop its [[Economy of Kazakhstan|economy]], especially its [[hydrocarbon]] industry.<ref>Zarakhovich, Yuri (2006-09-27). [http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1539999,00.html "Kazakhstan Comes on Strong"], Time Magazine.</ref> The post-Soviet era has also been characterized by increased involvement with many international organizations, including the [[United Nations]], the [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council]], the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], and the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]]. Kazakhstan is also one of six post-Soviet states who have implemented an [[Individual Partnership Action Plan]] with NATO.

Kazakhstan is ethnically and culturally diverse, in part due to [[Forced settlements in the Soviet Union|mass deportations]] of many ethnic groups to the country during [[Joseph Stalin]]'s rule. Kazakhstan has a population of 16.6 million, with 131 ethnicities, including [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]], [[Russians|Russian]], [[Ukrainian people|Ukrainian]], [[Germans|German]], [[Uzbek people|Uzbek]], [[Tatar]], and [[Uyghur people|Uyghur]]. Around 63% of the population are Kazakhs.<ref name="Census2009">{{cite web|title=Перепись населения Республики Казахстан 2009 года. Краткие итоги. (Census for the Republic of Kazakhstan 2009. Short Summary)|url=http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Documents/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%20%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81.pdf|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110723084204/http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Documents/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%20%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81.pdf|archivedate=2011-07-23|publisher=Republic of Kazakhstan Statistical Agency|accessdate=10 December 2010|language=Russian}}</ref> Kazakhstan allows [[Freedom of religion in Kazakhstan|freedom of religion]], and many different beliefs are represented in the country. It is a very tolerant country to religions like Islam, Christianity, Judaism and Buddhism. [[Islam]] is the religion of about 70.2% while [[Christianity]] is practiced by 26.2% of the population.<ref name="2009 Census">{{cite web |url=http://www.eng.stat.kz/news/Pages/n1_12_11_10.aspx|title=The results of the national population census in 2009|date=12 November 2010|publisher=Agency of Statistics of the Republic of Kazakhstan|accessdate=21 January 2010}}</ref> The Kazakh language is the [[state language]], while Russian is also officially used as an equal language to Kazakh in Kazakhstan's public institutions.<ref>[http://www.kazakhstan.orexca.com/kazakhstan_constitution.shtml The constitution of Kazakhstan], [http://www.constcouncil.kz/eng/norpb/constrk/ CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF KAZAKHSTAN], The constitution of Kazakhstan: 1. The state language of the Republic of Kazakhstan shall be the Kazakh language. 2. In state institutions and local self-administrative bodies the Russian language shall be officially used on equal grounds along with the Kazakh language.</ref><ref name="CIA"/>

== Etymology == 

While the word "Kazakh" is generally used to refer to [[Kazakhs|people of ethnic Kazakh descent]], including those living in China, Afghanistan, Turkey, Uzbekistan and other neighbouring countries, the term "Kazakhstani" ({{lang-kz|қазақтар ''Qazaqtar''}} ; {{lang-ru|Казахстанец ''kazakhstanyets''}}) was coined to describe all citizens of Kazakhstan, including non-Kazakhs.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Surucu |first=Cengiz |title=Modernity, Nationalism, Resistance: Identity Politics in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan |journal=[[Central Asian Survey]] |month=December |year=2002 |pages=385–402 |doi=10.1080/0263493032000053208 |volume=21 |issue=4}}</ref> The [[ethnonym]] "Kazakh" is derived from an [[Old Turkic language|ancient Turkic]] word meaning "independent; a free spirit", reflecting the Kazakhs' [[Eurasian nomads|nomadic horseback]] culture. The [[Persian language|Persian]] suffix "''[[-stan]]''" (see [[Indo-Iranian languages]]) means "land" or "place of", so ''Kazakhstan'' means "land of the Kazakhs".

== History ==
{{main|History of Kazakhstan}}

===Kazakh Khanate===
Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the [[Neolithic Age]]: the region's climate and terrain are best suited for nomads practicing [[pastoralism]]. Archaeologists believe that humans first [[domestication of the horse|domesticated the horse]] in the region's vast steppes.

Central Asia proper was originally inhabited by [[Indo-Iranians]]. The best known of those groups was the nomadic [[Scythians]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Scythian |encyclopedia=The New [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], Micropædia |volume=Volume 10 |edition=15th |page=576 |quote=member of a nomadic people originally of [[Eastern Iranian languages|Iranian stock]] who migrated from Central Asia to southern Russia in the 8th and 7th centuries BC}}</ref> The [[Turkic people]] began encroaching on the Iranians starting at least in the 5th century AD, possibly before. They became the dominant ethnic component of Central Asia. While ancient cities [[Taraz]] (Aulie-Ata) and [[Hazrat-e Turkestan]] had long served as important way-stations along the [[Silk Road]] connecting East and West, real political consolidation only began with the Mongol invasion of the early 13th century. Under the [[Mongol Empire]], administrative districts were established, and these eventually came under the emergent [[Kazakh Khanate]] (Kazakhstan).

[[File:Ancient Taraz Kazakhstan.jpg|thumb|left|Artistic depiction of medieval [[Taraz]] situated along the Silk Road.]]
Throughout this period, traditionally [[nomadic]] life and a [[livestock]]-based economy continued to dominate the [[steppe]]. In the 15th century, a distinct [[Kazakhs|Kazakh]] identity began to emerge among the [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes, a process which was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of the [[Kazakh language]], culture, and economy.

Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh [[emir]]s and the neighbouring [[Persian-speaking peoples]] to the south. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which had effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) [[Jüz|Hordes]] (''jüz''). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between East and West weakened the Kazakh Khanate. [[Khiva Khanate]] used this opportunity and annexed [[Mangyshlak Peninsula]]. Uzbek rule there lasted two centuries until the Russian arrival.
[[File:SB - Inside a Kazakh yurt.jpg|thumb|Inside a Kazakh [[yurt]]]]
During the 17th century Kazakhs fought [[Oirats]], a federation of western [[Mongol]] tribes, including [[Dzungars]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-73648 |title=Kazakhstan to c. AD 1700 |publisher=Britannica.com |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 war against the Dzungars, following their "Great Disaster" [[invasion]] of Kazakh territories. The Dzungars seized the pastures of the defeated Kazakhs, taking many captives, and slaughtering entire clans.<ref>Ahmad Hasan Dani, Chahryar Adle, Irfan Habib, Karl M. Baipakov (2003). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=AzG5llo3YCMC&pg=PA97 History of Civilizations of Central Asia: Development in contrast : from the sixteenth to the mid-nineteenth century]''". UNESCO. p. 97. ISBN 92-3-103876-1</ref> Under the leadership of [[Abul Khair Khan]], the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/countries/Kazakhstan/profile.cfm?folder=History%20in%20brief |title=Country Briefings: Kazakhstan |publisher=Economist.com |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> [[Ablai Khan]] participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungars from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a "batyr" ("hero") by the people. Kazakhs were also victims of constant raids carried out by the Volga [[Kalmyk people|Kalmyks]]. [[Kokand Khanate]] used weakness of Kazakh jüzs after Dzungar and Kalmyk raids and conquered present Southeastern Kazakhstan included [[Almaty]], formal capital at first quarter of 19th century. Also, [[Emirate of Bukhara]] ruled [[Chimkent]] before Russian arrival.

===Kazakhstan under Russian Empire rule===
In the 19th century, the [[Russian Empire]] began to expand into [[Central Asia]]. The "[[Great Game]]" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the [[Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907]]. The [[tsar]]s effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.

[[File:SB - Kazakh woman on horse.jpg|thumb|left|Traditional Kazakh wedding dress.]]
The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in [[Central Asia]] in the so-called "Great Game" between it and the [[British Empire]]. The first Russian outpost, [[Orsk]], was built in 1735. Russia enforced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organizations. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the resentment by the [[Kazakh people]], and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the influence it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and the associated hunger that was rapidly wiping out some Kazakh tribes. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 19th century, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle them.

[[File:Prokudin-Gorskii Russians in Central Asia.jpg|thumb|Russian settlers near [[Petropavl]]ovsk.]]
From the 1890s onwards, ever-larger numbers of settlers from the Russian Empire began [[colonization|colonizing]] the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular the province of [[Semirechye]]. The number of settlers rose still further once the [[Trans-Aral Railway]] from [[Orenburg]] to [[Tashkent]] was completed in 1906, and the movement was overseen and encouraged by a specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in [[St. Petersburg]]. During the 19th century about 400,000 Russians immigrated to Kazakhstan, and about one million Slavs, Germans, Jews, and others immigrated to the region during the first third of the 20th century.<ref>"[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/313790/Kazakhstan Kazakhstan]". ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' Online.</ref> Vasile Balabanov was the administrator responsible for the resettlement during much of this time.

The competition for land and water that ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of [[Tsarist Russia]], with the most serious uprising, the [[Central Asian Revolt]], occurring in 1916. The Kazakhs attacked [[Russians|Russian]] and [[Cossack]] settlers and military garrisons. The revolt resulted in a series of clashes and in brutal massacres committed by both sides.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20090412064258/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761566451_8/Kazakhstan.html Kazakhstan]. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. [http://www.webcitation.org/5kwsD4G2l Archived] 2009-10-31.</ref> Both sides resisted the communist government until late 1919.

===Kazakhstan under Soviet Rule===
{{main|Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic}}
Although there was a brief period of [[Autonomous entity|autonomy]] ([[Alash Autonomy]]) during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, many uprisings were brutally suppressed, and the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an [[Kazakh Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic|autonomous republic]] within the Soviet Union.

[[File:Young Pioneers in Kazakh SSR.jpg|thumb|[[Young Pioneer organization of the Soviet Union|Young Pioneers]] at a Young Pioneer camp in Kazakh SSR.]]

Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced [[collectivization]] in the late 1920s–1930s, brought [[famine|mass hunger]] and led to unrest (see also: [[Soviet famine of 1932–1933]]).<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2.pdf |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090304004800/http://zhe.stanford.edu/spring05/Kazakhstan2.pdf |archivedate=2009-03-04 |title=The Kazakh Catastrophe and Stalin’s Order of Priorities, 1929–1933: Evidence from the Soviet Secret Archives |format=PDF|author=Simon Ertz |date=Spring 2005|journal=Stanford's Student Journal of Russian, East European, and Eurasian Studies|volume=1|pages=1–12 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Pianciola, Niccolò|url=http://monderusse.revues.org/index2623.html?file=1 |title=Famine in the Steppe. The collectivization of agriculture and the Kazak herdsmen, 1928–1934|journal=Cahiers du monde russe|year=2004 |volume=45|pages= 137–192}}</ref> Between 1926 and 1939, the Kazakh population declined by 22% due to starvation and mass emigration. Estimates today suggest that the population of Kazakhstan would be closer to 20 million if there had been no starvation or migration of Kazakhs. During the 1930s, many renowned Kazakh writers, thinkers, poets, politicians and historians were slaughtered on Stalin's orders, both as part of the repression and as a methodical pattern of suppressing Kazakh identity and culture. Soviet rule took hold, and a [[Communism|Communist]] apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. In 1936 Kazakhstan became a [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republic]]. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of millions [[exile]]d from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s; many of the [[deportation]] victims were deported to [[Siberia]] or Kazakhstan merely due to their ethnic heritage or beliefs, and were in many cases interned in some of the biggest [[Gulag|Soviet labour camps]], including ALZHIR camp outside Astana, which was reserved for the wives of men considered "enemies of the people" <ref>[http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2007/01/01/2003342918 Children of the gulag live with amnesia], Taipei Times, January 1, 2007</ref> (see also: [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union]], [[Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union]]). The [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic]] contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort. In 1947, two years after the end of the war, the [[Semipalatinsk Test Site]], the USSR's main [[nuclear weapon]] [[Nuclear testing|test site]], was founded near the city of [[Semey]].

World War II marked an increase in [[industrialisation]] and increased [[mineral extraction]] in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader [[Joseph Stalin]]'s death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agriculturally based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader [[Nikita Khrushchev]] initiated the ambitious "[[Virgin Lands]]" program to turn the traditional pasture lands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader [[Leonid Brezhnev]], it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector, which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. By 1959, [[Kazakhs]] made up 30% of the population. Ethnic [[Russians]] accounted for 43%.<ref>Moya Flynn. (1994). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YLeAxHLmgR8C&pg=PA15 Migrant resettlement in the Russian federation: reconstructing 'homes' and 'homelands']''". p. 15. ISBN 1-84331-117-8</ref>

Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. A factor that contributed to this immensely was [[Lavrentii Beria]]'s decision to test a nuclear bomb on the territory of Kazakh SSR in [[Semey]] in 1949. This had a catastrophic ecological and biological effect that was felt generations later, and Kazakh anger toward the Soviet system escalated.

In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called [[Jeltoqsan]] riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the [[General Secretary|First Secretary]] of the [[Communist Party]] of the Kazakh SSR [[Dinmukhamed Konayev]] with [[Gennady Kolbin]] from the [[Russian SFSR]]. Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed and many demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]'s policy of ''[[glasnost]]''.

===Independence===
Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its [[sovereignty]] as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in October 1990. Following the August 1991 aborted [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|coup]] attempt in Moscow and the subsequent [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], Kazakhstan declared [[independence]] on December 16, 1991. It was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence.

The years following independence have been marked by significant reforms to the Soviet-style economy and political [[monopoly]] on power. Under [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]], who initially came to power in 1989 as the head of the [[Communist Party of Kazakhstan]] and was eventually elected President in 1991, Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing a [[market economy]].

== Politics ==
{{main|Government of Kazakhstan|Politics of Kazakhstan}}

===Political system===
Officially, Kazakhstan is a [[unitary republic]]. The first and only supreme chancellor is [[Nursultan Nazarbayev]]. The supreme chancellor is also the [[commander in chief]] of the armed forces and may [[veto]] legislation that has been passed by the [[Parliament]]. The prime minister chairs the Cabinet of Ministers and serves as Kazakhstan's head of government. There are three deputy prime ministers and 16 ministers in the Cabinet. [[Serik Akhmetov]] has served as the Prime Minister since September 24, 2012.

Kazakhstan has a bicameral Parliament composed of the [[lower house]] (the ''[[Majilis]]'') and [[upper house]] (the [[Senate of Kazakhstan|Senate]]). Although there are two houses, Kazakhstan is officially a unicameral federal republic. Single mandate districts popularly elect 107 seats in the Majilis; there also are 10 members elected by party-list vote rather than by single mandate districts. The Senate has 47 members. Two senators are selected by each of the elected assemblies (Maslikhats) of Kazakhstan's 16 principal administrative divisions (14 provinces, plus the cities of Astana and Almaty). The president appoints the remaining 7 senators. Majilis deputies and the government both have the right of legislative initiative, though the government proposes most legislation considered by the Parliament.

===Elections===
{{main|Elections in Kazakhstan}}
Elections to the Majilis in September 2004 yielded a lower house dominated by the pro-government [[Nur-Otan|Otan Party]], headed by President Nazarbayev. Two other parties considered sympathetic to the president, including the agrarian-industrial bloc AIST and the [[Asar Party]], founded by President Nazarbayev's daughter, won most of the remaining seats. Opposition parties, which were officially registered and competed in the elections, won a single seat during elections that the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe said fell short of international standards.

In 1999, Kazakhstan applied for observer status at the [[Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly]]. The official response of the Assembly was that Kazakhstan could apply for full membership, because it is partially located in Europe, but that they would not be granted any status whatsoever at the Council until their [[democracy]] and [[human rights]] records improved.

On December 4, 2005, Nursultan Nazarbayev was reelected in a landslide victory. The electoral commission announced that he had won over 90% of the vote. The Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) concluded the election did not meet international standards despite some improvements in the administration of the election. [[Xinhua News Agency]] reported that observers from China, responsible in overseeing 25 polling stations in Astana, found that voting in those polls was conducted in a "transparent and fair" manner.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000087&sid=a2ml5vt5j2_M&refer=top_world_news |title=Kazakhstan's Nazarbayev Wins Re-election With 91% of Vote |publisher=Bloomberg.com |date=2005-12-05 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref>

On August 17, 2007, elections to the lower house of parliament were held and a coalition led by the ruling [[Nur-Otan]] Party, which included [[Asar Party]], Civil Party of Kazakhstan and [[Agrarian Party of Kazakhstan|Agrarian Party]], won every seat with 88% of the vote. None of the opposition parties have reached the benchmark 7% level of the seats. This has led some in the local media to question the competence and charisma of the opposition party leaders. Opposition parties made accusations of serious irregularities in the election.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6952452.stm |title=World|Asia-Pacific|Kazakh poll fairness questioned |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-08-19 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/6949764.stm |title=World|Asia-Pacific|Q&A: Kazakhstan parliamentary election Kazakh poll fairness questioned |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-08-17 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref>

In 2010, President Nazarbayev rejected a call from constituents to hold a referendum to keep him in office until 2020 and instead insisted on presidential elections for a five-year term. In a vote held on April 3, 2011, President Nazarbayev received 95.54% of the vote with 89.9% of registered voters participating.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/daniel-witt/kazakhstans-presidential-_b_847612.html |title=Daniel Witt: Kazakhstan's Presidential Election Shows Progress |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |date=2011-11-04 |accessdate=2012-08-04}}</ref> Nazarbayev outlined the progress made by Kazakhstan in March 2011.<ref>Nazarbayev, Nursultan (2011-03-28). [http://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/kazakhstans-steady-progress-toward-democracy/2011/03/28/AF1XPKCC_story.html Kazakhstan’s steady progress toward democracy]. Washington Post</ref> However Kazakhstan was reported on [[the Economist]]'s [[Democracy Index]] for 2010, as an [[authoritarian regime]].

===Foreign relations===
{{main|Foreign relations of Kazakhstan}}
[[File:Dmitry Medvedev in South Korea, March 2012-15.jpeg|thumb|Nazarbayev with [[Barack Obama]] and [[Dmitry Medvedev]], 2012.]]
Kazakhstan has stable relationships with all of its neighbors. Kazakhstan is also a member of the [[United Nations]], [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]], [[Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council]] and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] (OIC). It is an active participant in the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|North Atlantic Treaty Organisation]] [[Partnership for Peace]] program.

On April 11, 2010, Presidents Nazarbayev and Obama met at the Nuclear Security Summit in Washington, D.C., and discussed strengthening the strategic partnership between the United States and Kazakhstan and pledged to intensify bilateral cooperation to promote nuclear safety and non-proliferation, regional stability in Central Asia, economic prosperity, and universal values.<ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/joint-statement-meeting-between-president-obama-and-kazakhstan-president-nazarbayev Joint Statement on the meeting between President Obama and Kazakhstan President Nazarbayev | The White House]. Whitehouse.gov (2010-04-11). Retrieved on 2013-01-14.</ref>

In April 2011, President Obama called President Nazarbayev and discussed many cooperative efforts regarding nuclear security, including securing nuclear material from the BN-350 reactor, and reviewed progress on meeting goals that the two presidents established during their bilateral meeting at the Nuclear Security Summit in 2010.<ref>[http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2011/04/30/readout-presidents-call-president-nazarbayev-kazakhstan Readout of the President's Call to President Nazarbayev of Kazakhstan | The White House]. Whitehouse.gov (2011-04-30). Retrieved on 2013-01-14.</ref> President Obama also thanked President Nazarbayev for his support to foster security and prosperity in Afghanistan. In a letter to President Nazarbayev dated August 16, 2011, President Obama praised Kazakhstan as "a longtime world leader in nuclear security".{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

Kazakhstan is also a member of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]], the [[Economic Cooperation Organization]] and the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organization]]. The nations of Kazakhstan, Russia, [[Belarus]], Kyrgyzstan and [[Tajikistan]] established the [[Eurasian Economic Community]] in 2000 to re-energize earlier efforts at harmonizing trade tariffs and the creation of a free trade zone under a customs union. On December 1, 2007, it was revealed that Kazakhstan had been chosen to chair [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] for the year 2010. Kazakhstan was elected a member of the [[UN Human Rights Council]] for the first time on November 12, 2012.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://en.tengrinews.kz/politics_sub/Kazakhstan-became-member-of-UN-Human-Rights-Council--14431/|title=Kazakhstan became member of UN Human Rights Council|work=Tengrinews.kz English|date=2012-11-13}}</ref>

Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan has pursued what is known as the "multivector foreign policy" ({{lang-kz|көпвекторлы сыртқы саясат}}; ''mnogovektornaya vneshnyaya politika''), seeking equally good relations with two large neighbors, Russia and China, and the United States and the West in general.<ref>{{cite news |last=Blank |first=Stephen |title=Kazakhstan's Foreign Policy in a Time of Turmoil |publisher=EurasiaNet |date=April 27, 2005 |url=http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav042705.shtml}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Cohen |first=Ariel |title=Kazakh foreign minister insists balanced foreign policy remains intact |publisher=[[Business News Europe]] |date=October 7, 2008 |url=http://www.businessneweurope.eu/story1291}}</ref> The policy has yielded results in the oil and gas sector, where companies from the U.S., Russia, China, and Europe are present at all major fields, and in the multidimensional directions of oil export pipelines out of Kazakhstan. Kazakhstan also enjoys strong, and rapidly developing, political and economic ties with Turkey. Kazakhstan formed a customs union with Russia and Belarus which will be transformed into a common economic space soon.{{citation needed|date=August 2011}}

Russia currently leases approximately 6,000 km² (2,300 mi²) of territory enclosing the [[Baikonur Cosmodrome]] space launch site in south central Kazakhstan, where the first man was launched into space as well as Soviet space shuttle [[Buran (spacecraft)|Buran]] and the well known space station [[Mir]].

===Military===
{{main|Military of Kazakhstan}}
[[File:Kazakhstan Republican Guard.JPEG|right|thumb|Kazakhstani Republican Guard.]]
Most of Kazakhstan's military was inherited from the [[Soviet Armed Forces]]' [[Turkestan Military District]]. These units became the core of Kazakhstan's new military which acquired all the units of the [[40th Army (Soviet Union)|40th Army]] (the former 32nd Army) and part of the 17th Army Corps, including 6 land force divisions, storage bases, the 14th and 35th air-landing brigades, 2 rocket brigades, 2 artillery regiments and a large amount of equipment which had been withdrawn from over the Urals after the signing of the [[Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe]]. The largest expansion of the Kazakhstan Army has been focused on armored units in recent years. Since 1990, armored units have expanded from 500 to 1,613 in 2005.

The Kazakh air force is composed mostly of Soviet-era planes, including 41 [[MiG-29]]s, 44 [[MiG-31]]s, 37 [[Su-24]]s and 60 [[Su-27]]s. A small naval force is also maintained on the Caspian Sea.

Kazakhstan sent 49 military engineers to [[Iraq]] to assist the [[Post-invasion Iraq, 2003–present|US post-invasion mission in Iraq]].

Kazakhstan's [[National Security Committee]] (KNB) was established on June 13, 1992. It includes the Service of Internal Security, Military Counterintelligence, Border Guard, several Commando units, and Foreign Intelligence (Barlau). The latter is considered as the most important part of KNB. Its director is [[Nurtai Abykayev]].

August 2011 marked the ninth year of the joint tactical-peacekeeping exercise "Steppe Eagle" hosted by the Kazakhstan government. Steppe Eagle focuses on building coalitions and gives participating nations the opportunity to work together.

== Geography ==
{{main|Geography of Kazakhstan|List of cities in Kazakhstan}}
[[File:Kazakhstan-CIA WFB Map.png|300px|left|thumb|Map of Kazakhstan.]]
[[File:Kazakhs.jpg|thumb|[[Markakol]] reserve in the [[Altai Mountains]], eastern Kazakhstan.]]
With an area of {{convert|2,700,000|km2}}, Kazakhstan is the ninth largest country and the largest [[landlocked country]] in the world, equivalent in size to [[Western Europe]]. While part of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan lost some of its territory to China's [[Xinjiang]]{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} and some to Uzbekistan's [[Karakalpakstan]]. It shares borders of {{convert|6846|km}} with Russia, {{convert|2203|km}} with [[Uzbekistan]], {{convert|1533|km}} with China, {{convert|1051|km}} with [[Kyrgyzstan]], and {{convert|379|km}} with [[Turkmenistan]]. Major cities include Astana, Almaty, [[Karagandy]], [[Shymkent]], [[Atyrau]] and [[Oskemen]]. It lies between latitudes [[40th parallel north|40°]] and [[56th parallel north|56° N]], and longitudes [[46th meridian east|46°]] and [[88th meridian east|88° E]]. While located primarily in Asia, a small portion of Kazakhstan is also located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Kazakhstan – MSN Encarta|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761566451|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwsCUfGH|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

[[File:IMG 7431-Sharyn canyon.jpg|thumb|[[Charyn Canyon]] in northern Tian Shan.]]
[[File:Astana-steppe-7748.jpg|thumb|[[Aqmola Province]] in the Kazakhstan [[steppe]]s.]]

The terrain extends west to east from the [[Caspian Sea]] to the [[Altay Mountains]] and north to south from the plains of [[Siberia|Western Siberia]] to the oases and deserts of [[Central Asia]]. The [[Kazakh Steppe]] (plain), with an area of around {{convert|804,500|km2}}, occupies one-third of the country and is the world's largest dry [[steppe]] region. The steppe is characterized by large areas of [[grassland]]s and sandy regions. Important rivers and lakes include: the [[Aral Sea]], [[Ili River]], [[Irtysh River]], [[Ishim River]], [[Ural River]], [[Syr Darya]], Charyn River and gorge, [[Lake Balkhash]] and [[Lake Zaysan]].

The climate is [[continental climate|continental]], with warm summers and colder winters. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] varies between arid and semi-arid conditions.

The [[Charyn Canyon]] is 150–300 metres deep and {{convert|80|km}} long, cutting through the red [[sandstone]] plateau and stretching along the Charyn River gorge in northern [[Tian Shan]] ("Heavenly Mountains", 200 km east of Almaty) at {{Coord|43|21|1.16|N|79|4|49.28|E|}}. The steep canyon slopes, [[column]]s and [[arch]]es rise to heights of 150–300 metres. The inaccessibility of the canyon provided a safe haven for a rare [[ash tree]] that survived the [[Ice Age]] and is now also grown in some other areas. [[Bigach crater]] is a [[Pliocene]] or [[Miocene]] [[asteroid]] [[impact crater]], 8 km in diameter and estimated at 5±3 million years old at {{Coord|48|30|N|82|00|E|}}.

===Administrative divisions===
{{main|Provinces of Kazakhstan|Districts of Kazakhstan}}
Kazakhstan is divided into 14 [[Provinces of Kazakhstan|provinces]] ({{lang-kz|облыстар, ''oblıstar''}}). The provinces are subdivided into [[Districts of Kazakhstan|districts]] ({{lang-kz|аудандар, ''awdandar''}}).

Almaty and Astana cities have the status of State importance and do not relate to any province. [[Baikonur]] city has a special status because it is currently being leased to Russia with [[Baikonur cosmodrome]] until 2050.<ref name="CIA">''[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kz.html Kazakhstan]''. CIA World Factbook.</ref>

Each province is headed by an Akim (provincial governor) appointed by the president. Municipal Akims are appointed by province Akims. The Government of Kazakhstan transferred its capital from Almaty to Astana on December 10, 1997.

{{Provinces of Kazakhstan Image Map}}

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Kazakhstan}}
[[File:Soyuz TMA-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Baikonur Cosmodrome]] is the world's oldest and largest operational [[Spaceport|space launch facility]].]]

Buoyed by high world [[crude oil]] prices, GDP growth figures were comprised between 8.9% and 13.5% from 2000 to 2007 before decreasing to 1–3% in 2008 and 2009, and then rising again from 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://datafinder.worldbank.org/gdp-growth-annual |title=The World Bank |publisher=Datafinder.worldbank.org|accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> Other major exports of Kazakhstan include wheat, textiles, and livestock. Kazakhstan predicted that it would become a leading exporter of uranium by 2010, which has indeed come true.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kazatomprom.kz/en/news/2/%E2%84%96_1_in_the_world |title=The Atomic Company Kazatomprom web-site |publisher=Kazatomprom.kz |date=2009-12-30 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf89.html |title=Uranium and Nuclear Power in Kazakhstan |publisher=world-nuclear.org |date=2011-02-17 |accessdate=2011-03-05}}</ref>

The inflation figures are high: 2005, 7.6%; 2006, 8.6%; 2007, 18.8%; 2008, 9.5%; 2009, 6.2%.

Since 2002, Kazakhstan has sought to manage strong inflows of foreign currency without sparking [[inflation]]. Inflation has not been under strict control, however, registering 6.6% in 2002, 6.8% in 2003, and 6.4% in 2004.

In 2000, Kazakhstan became the first former Soviet republic to repay all of its debt to the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF), seven years ahead of schedule. In March 2002, the [[U.S. Department of Commerce]] granted Kazakhstan [[market economy]] status under [[Trade Act of 2002|U.S. trade law]]. This change in status recognized substantive market economy reforms in the areas of currency convertibility, wage rate determination, openness to foreign investment, and government control over the means of production and allocation of resources.

In September 2002, Kazakhstan became the first country in the [[Commonwealth of Independent States|CIS]] to receive an investment grade [[credit rating]] from a major international [[credit rating agency]]. As of late December 2003, Kazakhstan's gross foreign debt was about $22.9 billion. Total governmental debt was $4.2 billion, 14% of GDP. There has been a noticeable reduction in the ratio of debt to GDP. The ratio of total governmental debt to GDP in 2000 was 21.7%; in 2001, it was 17.5%, and in 2002, it was 15.4%.

[[Economic growth]], combined with earlier [[tax reform|tax]] and financial sector reforms, has dramatically improved government finance from the 1999 [[budget deficit]] level of 3.5% of GDP to a deficit of 1.2% of GDP in 2003. Government revenues grew from 19.8% of GDP in 1999 to 22.6% of GDP in 2001, but decreased to 16.2% of GDP in 2003. In 2000, Kazakhstan adopted a new [[tax code]] in an effort to consolidate these gains.

[[File:Central Downtown Astana 2.jpg|thumb|left|Kazakhstan's capital, [[Astana]].]]
[[File:Almaty-mountains.jpg|thumb|left|[[Almaty]], Kazakhstan's largest city.]]

On November 29, 2003, the Law on Changes to Tax Code which reduced [[Tax rates around the world|tax rates]] was adopted. The [[value added tax]] fell from 16% to 15%, the social tax, from 21% to 20%, and the personal [[income tax]], from 30% to 20%. On July 7, 2006, the personal income tax was reduced even further to a flat rate of 5% for personal income in the form of dividends and 10% for other personal income. Kazakhstan furthered its reforms by adopting a new land code on June 20, 2003, and a new customs code on April 5, 2003.

[[Energy]] is the leading economic sector. Production of crude oil and [[natural gas condensate]] from the [[oil and gas basins of Kazakhstan]] amounted to 51.2 million [[ton]]s in 2003, up 8.6% from the production in 2002. Kazakhstan raised oil and gas condensate exports to 44.3 million tons in 2003, 13% higher than in 2002. Gas production in Kazakhstan in 2003 amounted to 13.9 billion cubic meters (491 billion cu. ft), up 22.7% compared to 2002, including [[natural gas]] production of 7.3 billion cubic meters (258 billion cu. ft).

Kazakhstan holds about 4 billion tons of proven recoverable oil reserves and 2,000 cubic kilometers (480 cu mi) of gas. According to industry analysts, expansion of oil production and the development of new [[oil field|fields]] will enable the country to produce as much as {{convert|3|Moilbbl|m3}} per day by 2015, and Kazakhstan would be among the top 10 oil-producing nations in the world. Kazakhstan's oil exports in 2003 were valued at more than $7 billion, representing 65% of overall exports and 24% of the GDP. Major oil and gas fields and recoverable [[oil reserves]] are [[Tengiz Field|Tengiz]] with {{convert|7|Goilbbl|m3}}; [[Karachaganak Field|Karachaganak]] with {{convert|8|Goilbbl|m3}} and 1,350 km³ of natural gas); and [[Kashagan Field|Kashagan]] with 7 to {{convert|9|Goilbbl|m3}}.

Kazakhstan instituted an ambitious [[pension]] reform program in 1998. As of January 1, 2005, the pension assets were about $4.1 billion. There are 16 saving pension funds in the country. The State Accumulating Pension Fund, the only state-owned fund, was [[Privatization|privatized]] in 2006. The country's unified financial regulatory agency oversees and regulates the pension funds. The growing demand of the pension funds for quality investment outlets triggered rapid development of the debt [[securities]] market. Pension fund capital is being invested almost exclusively in corporate and government [[Bond (finance)|bonds]], including government of Kazakhstan Eurobonds.

The banking system of Kazakhstan is developing rapidly and the system's capitalization now exceeds $1 billion. The [[National Bank of Kazakhstan|National Bank]] has introduced deposit insurance in its campaign to strengthen the banking sector. Due to troubling and non-performing bad assets the bank sector yet is at risk to lose stability. Several major foreign banks have branches in Kazakhstan, including [[Royal Bank of Scotland|RBS]], [[Citibank]], and [[HSBC]]. [[Kookmin]] and [[UniCredit]] have both recently entered the Kazakhstan's financial services market through acquisitions and [[Equity (finance)|stake]]-building.

Despite the strength of Kazakhstan's economy for most of the first decade of the 21st century, the global financial crisis of 2008–2009 has exposed some central weaknesses in the country's economy. The year on year growth of Kazakhstan's GDP dropped 19.81% in 2008. Four of the major banks were rescued by the government at the end of 2008 and real estate prices have sharply dropped.

According to the 2010–2011 World Economic Forum in Global Competitiveness Report Kazakhstan is ranked 72nd in the world in economic competitiveness.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011 |format=PDF|accessdate=2011-07-24}}</ref>

===Agriculture===
{{main|Agriculture in Kazakhstan}}
[[Agriculture in Kazakhstan|Agriculture]] accounted for 10.3% of Kazakhstan's GDP in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5487.htm |title=Background Note: Kazakhstan |publisher=State.gov |date=2009-04-20 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> [[Grain]] and [[livestock]] are the most important agricultural commodities. Agricultural land occupies more than {{convert|846000|km2|sqmi}}. The available agricultural land consists of {{convert|205000|km2|sqmi}} of arable land and {{convert|611000|km2|sqmi}} of [[pasture]] and hay land.

Chief livestock products are [[dairy product]]s, [[leather]], [[meat]], and [[wool]]. The country's major crops include [[wheat]], [[barley]], [[cotton]], and [[rice]]. Wheat [[export]]s, a major source of [[hard currency]], rank among the leading commodities in Kazakhstan's export trade. In 2003 Kazakhstan harvested 17.6 million tons of grain in gross, 2.8% higher compared to 2002. Kazakh agriculture still has many environmental problems from mismanagement during its years in the Soviet Union. Some [[Kazakh wine]] is produced in the mountains to the east of Almaty.

Kazakhstan is thought to be one of the places that the [[apple]] originated, particularly the wild [[ancestor]] of ''Malus domestica'', ''[[Malus sieversii]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/thebotanyofdesire/apple-sweetness.php |title=Apple sweetness |first=Michael |last=Pollan |authorlink=Michael Pollan |year=2009 |work=[[The Botany of Desire]] |publisher=[[KQED (TV)|KQED]] |location=San Francisco |accessdate=2010-11-29 }}</ref> It has no common name in English, but is known in its native Kazakhstan as ''alma''. The region where it is thought to originate is called ''Almaty'': "rich with apple".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.almaty.kz/page.php?page_id=166&lang=3 |title=The official site of Almaty city: History |publisher=Almaty.kz |date=2010-01-12 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> This tree is still found wild in the mountains of [[Central Asia]], in southern Kazakhstan, [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]] and [[Xinjiang]] in China.

===Natural resources===
{{see also|Energy policy of Kazakhstan}}
[[File:KazMunayGaz.JPG|thumb|right|Headquarters of [[KazMunayGaz]], Kazakhstan's national oil and gas company.]]
Kazakhstan has an abundant supply of accessible mineral and fossil fuel resources. Development of [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], and mineral extraction has attracted most of the over $40 billion in foreign investment in Kazakhstan since 1993 and accounts for some 57% of the nation's industrial output (or approximately 13% of gross domestic product). According to some estimates,<ref name="Homestead" >[http://www.homestead.com/prosites-kazakhembus/MineralWealth.html Mineral Wealth]. homestead.com</ref> Kazakhstan has the second largest [[uranium]], [[chromium]], [[lead]], and [[zinc]] reserves, the third largest [[manganese]] reserves, the fifth largest [[copper]] reserves, and ranks in the top ten for [[coal]], [[iron]], and [[gold]]. It is also an exporter of [[diamond]]s. Perhaps most significant for economic development, Kazakhstan also currently has the 11th largest proven reserves of both petroleum and natural gas.<ref>International Crisis Group. 2007. Central Asia's Energy Risks, Asia Report No. 133. May. Available on-line at http://www.crisisgroup.org/</ref>

In total, there are 160 deposits with over 2.7 billion tons of petroleum. Oil explorations have shown that the deposits on the [[Caspian sea|Caspian shore]] are only a small part of a much larger deposit. It is said that 3.5 billion tons of oil and 2.5 trillion cubic meters of gas could be found in that area. Overall the estimate of Kazakhstan's oil deposits is 6.1 billion tons. However, there are only 3 [[Oil refinery|refineries]] within the country, situated in [[Atirau|Atyrau]], [[Pavlodar]], and [[Shymkent]]. These are not capable of processing the total crude output so much of it is exported to Russia. According to the U.S. [[Energy Information Administration]] Kazakhstan was producing approximately {{convert|1540000|oilbbl}} of oil per day in 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/cfapps/STEO_Query/steotables.cfm?periodType=Annual&startYear=2005&startMonth=1&endYear=2009&endMonth=12&tableNumber=29 |title=U.S. Energy Information Administration. Independent Statistics and Analysis. Database on-line |publisher=Tonto.eia.doe.gov |date=2010-05-11 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref>

As Kazakhstan positions itself to take a place in the top 10 global oil producers, in 2011 the KAZENERGY Association will host the VI KAZENERGY Eurasian Forum in Astana, October 4–5. 2011. The Forum is an influential dialogue platform that unites the entire energy industry, bringing oil and gas companies together. The KAZENERGY Eurasian Forum is an annual event in the petroleum and energy industry of Kazakhstan and the Caspian Sea region.

Kazakhstan also possesses large deposits of phosphorite. One of the largest known being the Chilisai deposit located in north western Kazakhstan, with a resource of 800 million tonnes of ore.

===Transport===
{{main|Transport in Kazakhstan}}
A new highway between Almaty and the border with China will reduce transit times from around six to three hours.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} Most cities are connected by railroad; high-speed trains go from [[Almaty]] (the southernmost city) to [[Petropavl]] ([[Petropavlovsk]], the northernmost city) in about 18 hours.

===Banking===
The banking industry of the Republic of Kazakhstan has experienced a pronounced boom and bust cycle over 2000s decade. After several years of rapid expansion in the mid-2000s, the banking industry collapsed in 2008. Several large banking groups, including [[BTA Bank]] J.S.C. and Alliance Bank, defaulted soon after. Since then, the industry has shrunk and been restructured, with system-wide loans dropping to 39% of GDP in 2011 from 59% in 2007. Although the Russian and Kazakh banking systems share several common features, there are also some fundamental differences. Banks in Kazakhstan have experienced a lengthy period of political stability and economic growth. Together with a rational approach to banking and finance policy, this has helped push Kazakhstan’s banking system to a higher level of development. Banking technology and personnel qualifications alike are stronger in Kazakhstan than in Russia. On the negative side, past stability in Kazakhstan arose from the concentration of virtually all political power in the hands of a single individual – the key factor in any assessment of system or country risk. The potential is there for serious disturbances if and when authority passes into new hands.<ref>{{cite news|title=S&P Maintains Kazakhstan BICRA at Group "8"|url=http://www.satrapia.com/news/article/sp-maintains-kazakhstan-bicra-at-group-8/|accessdate=4 August 2012|newspaper=The Gazette of Central Asia|date=30 March 2012|publisher=Satrapia}}</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{main|Demographics of Kazakhstan}}
[[File:Pyramide Kazakhstan.PNG|thumb|left|[[Population pyramid]], 2005.]]
[[File:Central Asia Ethnic en.svg|thumb|[[Central Asia]]n ethnolinguistic patchwork, 1992.]]
[[File:Dzhasybay beach.jpg|thumb|Kazakhstanis on the Lake Dzhasybay beach, [[Pavlodar Province]].]]
[[File:SB - Kazakh man on horse with golden eagle.jpg|thumb|Kazakh man on a horse with golden eagle. (Photo taken [[Circa|c.]] 1911–1914.)]]
The [[US Census Bureau]] International Database list the current population of Kazakhstan as 15,460,484, while [[United Nations]] sources such as the UN Population Division give an estimate of 15,753,460. Official estimates put the population of Kazakhstan at 16.455 million as of February 2011, of which 46% is rural and 54% is urban.<ref>{{cite web |author=  |url=http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Pages/n_04_02_10.aspx |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100628101359/http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Pages/n_04_02_10.aspx |archivedate=2010-06-28 |title=Итоги переписи населения Республики Казахстан 2009 года |publisher=Stat.kz |date=2010-02-04 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}{{dead link|date=December 2010}}</ref>

The 2009 population estimate is 6.8% higher than the population reported in the last census from January 1999. The decline in population that began after 1989 has been arrested and possibly reversed. Men and women make up 48.3% and 51.7% of the population, respectively.

The ethnic [[Kazakhs]] represent 63.1% of the population and ethnic [[Russians in Kazakhstan|Russians]] 23.7%,<ref name="Census2009"/> with a rich array of other groups represented, including [[Tatars]] (1.3%), [[Ukrainians]] (2.1%), [[Uzbeks]] (2.8%), [[Belarusians]], [[Uyghur people|Uyghurs]] (1.4%), [[Azerbaijanis]], [[Poles in the former Soviet Union|Poles]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cdi.org/russia/johnson/7002-15.cfm |title=Kazakhstan's `forgotten Poles' long to return |publisher=Cdi.org |date=2003-01-02 |accessdate=2010-06-01}}</ref> and [[Lithuanians]]. Some minorities such as Germans (1.1%) ([[History of Germans in Russia and the Soviet Union|Germans who had previously settled in Russia]], especially [[Volga Germans]]), Ukrainians, Koreans, [[Chechens]],<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509933.stm Remembering Stalin's deportations], BBC News, February 23, 2004</ref> [[Meskhetian Turks]], and Russian political opponents of the regime had been [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|deported]] to Kazakhstan in the 1930s and 1940s by Stalin; some of the bigger Soviet [[labour camp]]s ([[Gulag]]) existed in the country.<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/01/01/news/kazakh.php Politics, economics and time bury memories of the Kazakh gulag], International Herald Tribune, January 1, 2007</ref>

Significant Russian immigration also connected with [[Virgin Lands Campaign]] and [[Soviet space program]] during [[Nikita Khrushchev|Khrushchev]] era.<ref>Robert Greenall, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm Russians left behind in Central Asia], [[BBC]], November 23, 2005</ref> In 1989, Kazakhs held a majority in only 7 of the 20 regions of the country. There is also a small but active [[Jewish]] community. Before 1991 there were one million [[Germans of Kazakhstan|Germans in Kazakhstan]]; most of them emigrated to Germany following the breakup of the Soviet Union.<ref>[http://www.irinnews.org/report.aspx?reportid=28051 Kazakhstan: Special report on ethnic Germans], IRIN Asia, February 1, 2005</ref> Most members of the smaller [[Pontian Greek]] minority have emigrated to Greece. In the late 1930s thousands of [[Koreans]] in the Soviet Union were [[Deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union|deported]] to Central Asia. These people are now known as [[Koryo-saram]].

Kazakhstan is a bilingual country: the [[Kazakh language]], spoken by 64.4% of the population, has the status of the "state" language, while Russian, which is spoken by almost all Kazakhstanis, is declared the "official" language, and is used routinely in business. English gained its popularity among the youth since the collapse of USSR.

The 1990s were marked by the emigration of many of the country's [[Russians]] and [[Volga Germans]], a process that began in the 1970s. This has made indigenous Kazakhs the largest ethnic group. Additional factors in the increase in the Kazakh population are higher birthrates and [[Oralman|immigration of ethnic Kazakhs]] from China, [[Mongolia]], and Russia.

In the early 21st century, Kazakhstan has become one of the leading nations in [[international adoption]]s. This has recently sparked some criticism in the Parliament of Kazakhstan, due to the concerns about safety and treatment of the children abroad and the questions regarding the low level of population in Kazakhstan.

===Religion===
{{main|Religion in Kazakhstan|Islam in Kazakhstan|Christianity in Kazakhstan|Judaism in Kazakhstan|Hinduism in Kazakhstan|Bahá'í Faith in Kazakhstan}}
{{bar box |width=280px |float=right
|titlebar =
|title = Religion in Kazakhstan
|left1 = religion
|right1 = percent
|bars =
{{bar percent|Islam|LimeGreen|70.2}}
{{bar percent|Christian|DodgerBlue|26.2}}
{{bar percent|Others|OrangeRed|3.6}}
}}
According to the 2009 Census, 70.2% of the population is [[Muslim]], 26.6% [[Christian]], 0.1% [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], 0.2% others (mostly [[Judaism|Jews]]), and 2.8% non-believers, while 0.5% chose not to answer.<ref name="2009 Census"/> According to its Constitution, Kazakhstan is a secular state.

Religious freedoms were guaranteed by Article 39 of Kazakhstan’s Constitution. Article 39 clearly states: “Human rights and freedoms shall not be restricted in any way.” Article 14 prohibits “discrimination on religious basis” and Article 19 insures that everyone has the “right to determine and indicate or not to indicate his/her ethnic, party and religious affiliation.” The Constitutional Council recently affirmed these rights by ruling that a proposed law limiting the rights of certain individuals to practice their religion was declared unconstitutional.

[[Islam]] is the largest religion in Kazakhstan, followed by [[Russian Orthodox]] [[Christianity]]. After decades of [[Religion in the Soviet Union|religious suppression by the Soviet Union]], the coming of independence witnessed a surge in expression of ethnic identity, partly through religion. The free practice of [[Religion|religious beliefs]] and the establishment of full freedom of religion led to an increase of religious activity. Hundreds of [[mosque]]s, [[church (building)|churches]], [[synagogue]]s, and other religious structures were built in the span of a few years, with the number of religious associations rising from 670 in 1990 to 4,170 today.<ref name=kazakhrel/>

The majority of Muslims are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] following the [[Hanafi]] school, including ethnic Kazakhs, who constitute about 60% the population, as well as by ethnic Uzbeks, Uighurs, and Tatars.<ref name=usstate >[http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2008/108501.htm Kazakhstan – International Religious Freedom Report 2008] U.S. Department of State. Retrieved on 2009-09-07.</ref> Less than 1% are part of the Sunni [[Shafi`i]] school (primarily [[Chechens]]). There are a total of 2,300 mosques,<ref name=kazakhrel >[http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/151/35/lang,english/ Religious Situation Review in Kazakhstan] Congress of World Religions. Retrieved on 2009-09-07.</ref> all of them are affiliated with the "Spiritual Association of Muslims of Kazakhstan", headed by a supreme [[mufti]].<ref>[http://www.religions-congress.org/content/view/121/35/lang,english/ Islam in Kazakhstan] Retrieved on 2009-09-07.</ref> The [[Eid al-Adha]] is recognized as a national holiday.<ref name=kazakhrel/>

One fourth of the population is Russian Orthodox, including ethnic Russians, Ukrainians and Belarusians.<ref name="USCOIRFk2009">{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127366.htm |title=Kazakhstan |work=[[United States Commission on International Religious Freedom]] |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |date=2009-10-26 |accessdate=2010-06-03}}</ref> Other Christian groups include [[Roman Catholics]] and [[Protestants]].<ref name=usstate/> There are a total of 258 Orthodox churches, 93 Catholic churches, and over 500 Protestant churches and prayer houses. The Russian Orthodox [[Christmas]] is recognized as a national holiday in Kazakhstan.<ref name=kazakhrel/> Other religious groups include Judaism, the [[Bahá'í Faith]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], and [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].<ref name=usstate/>

[[File:Nur-Astana Mosque.jpg|thumb|The front of the [[Nur-Astana Mosque]] in [[Astana]] during the morning hours. Islam is the major religion of Kazakhstan and Nur-Astana the country's largest mosque.]]
[[File:Almaty-kazakhstan 3.jpg|thumb|Russian Orthodox [[Christianity]] is the second largest religion in Kazakhstan.]]

According to the 2009 Census data, there are very few Christians outside the Slavic and Germanic ethic groups:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2.rar |title=Нац состав.rar |accessdate=2011-07-24}}</ref>

{|class="wikitable collapsible collapsed"
|-
!Ethnicity !!Islam !!Christianity!!Judaism !!Buddhism !!Other !!Atheism !!n/a
|-
|'''TOTALS''' || 70.20% || 26.32% || 0.03% || 0.09% || 0.02% || 2.82% || 0.51% </tr>
|'''Kazakh''' || 98.34% || 0.39% || 0.02% || 0.01% || 0.02% || 0.98% || 0.26% </tr>
|'''Russian''' || 1.43% || 91.64% || 0.04% || 0.02% || 0.03% || 6.09% || 0.75% </tr>
|'''Uzbek''' || 99.05% || 0.39% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.02% || 0.37% || 0.16% </tr>
|'''Ukrainian''' ||0.94% || 90.74% || 0.03% || 0.01% || 0.02% || 7.31% || 0.94% </tr>
|'''Uyghur''' || 98.35% || 0.51% || 0.02% || 0.01% || 0.03% || 0.61% || 0.47% </tr>
|'''Tatar''' || 79.57% || 10.24% || 0.02% || 0.03% || 0.06% || 8.11% || 1.97% </tr>
|'''German''' || 1.58% || 81.59% || 0.05% || 0.04% || 0.11% || 13.96% || 2.68% </tr>
|'''Korean''' || 5.24% || 49.35% || 0.21% || 11.40% || 0.14% || 28.51% || 5.16% </tr>
|'''Turkish''' || 99.13% || 0.30% || 0.01% || 0.01% || 0.02% || 0.33% || 0.21% </tr>
|'''Azeri''' || 94.81% || 2.51% || 0.02% || 0.02% || 0.03% || 1.86% || 0.76% </tr>
|'''Belorussian''' ||0.79%|| 90.16% || 0.04% || 0.01% || 0.03% || 7.82% || 1.15% </tr>
|'''Dungan''' || 98.93% || 0.37% || 0.01% || 0.03% || 0.04% || 0.34% || 0.28% </tr>
|'''Kurdish''' || 98.28% || 0.53% || 0.03% || 0.02% || 0.02% || 0.74% || 0.38% </tr>
|'''Tajik''' || 97.78% || 0.91% || 0.01% || 0.02% || 0.08% || 0.85% || 0.35% </tr>
|'''Polish''' || 0.69% || 90.07% || 0.04% || 0.01% || 0.13% || 7.30% || 1.76% </tr>
|'''Chechen''' || 93.69% || 2.99% || 0.02% || 0.01% || 0.05% || 2.08% || 1.16% </tr>
|'''Kyrgyz''' || 96.67% || 0.89% || 0.03% || 0.03% || 0.02% || 1.51% || 0.86% </tr>
|'''''Others''''' ||34.69%|| 52.32% || 0.82% || 0.91% || 0.13% || 8.44% || 2.69% </tr>
|}

===Education===
[[File:kimep.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[KIMEP University]], Almaty, one of Kazakhstan's top universities.]]
Education is universal and mandatory through to the [[Secondary education|secondary level]] and the [[List of countries by literacy rate|adult literacy rate]] is 99.5%. Education consists of three main phases: [[primary education]] (forms 1–4), basic general education (forms 5–9) and senior level education (forms 10–11 or 12) divided into continued general education and professional education. (Primary education is preceded by one year of pre-school education.) These levels can be followed in one institution or in different ones (e.g., primary school, then secondary school). Recently, several secondary schools, specialized schools, [[magnet school]]s, [[Gymnasium (school)|gymnasiums]], [[Lyceum#Lyceums in today's education|lyceums]], linguistic and technical gymnasiums, have been founded. Secondary professional education is offered in special professional or [[technical school]]s, [[lyceum]]s or [[college]]s and vocational schools.

At present, there are [[List of universities in Kazakhstan|universities]], [[Academy|academies]] and [[institute]]s, [[College or university school of music|conservatories]], higher schools and higher colleges. There are three main levels: basic [[higher education]] that provides the fundamentals of the chosen field of study and leads to the award of the [[Bachelor's degree]]; specialized higher education after which students are awarded the Specialist's Diploma; and scientific-pedagogical higher education which leads to the [[Master's Degree]]. [[Postgraduate]] education leads to the [[Kandidat nauk]] (Candidate of Sciences) and the Doctor of Sciences or Ph.D. With the adoption of the Laws on Education and on Higher Education, a private sector has been established and several private institutions have been licensed.

[[File:Graduation Day of a Bolashak Scholar from Kazakhstan.jpg|thumb|right|Graduation day of a ''[[Bolashak]]'' scholar.]]
The Ministry of Education of Kazakhstan runs a highly successful ''[[Bolashak]]'' [[scholarship]], which is annually awarded to about 5,000 Kazakhstan citizen applicants. The scholarship funds their education and all living expenses abroad as well as transportation expenses once in a year from home to a university and back home. The choice of an institution of higher education and research as well as any corporation that provides both undergraduate and postgraduate education has no restrictions, if an applicant complies with the eligibility requirements of an institution abroad. Awarded students can study at any educational institutions such as prestigious [[University of Cambridge]], [[Harvard University]], [[King's College London]], [[University of Toronto]], [[University of Oxford]], [[University College London]], [[Purdue University]], [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]], [[Technical University Munich]], [[Imperial College London]], [[University of Tokyo]], [[University of Warwick]] and others. The terms of the program include mandatory return to Kazakhstan for at least five years of employment.

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Kazakhstan|Kazakh cuisine|Music of Kazakhstan|Sport in Kazakhstan|Kazakh wedding ceremony}}
[[File:Catchthegirl.JPG|thumb|Riders in traditional dress demonstrate Kazakhstan's [[Equestrianism|equestrian]] culture by playing a [[kiss]]ing game, ''[[Kyz kuu]]'' ("Chase the Girl"), one of a number of traditional games played on horseback.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.internationalspecialreports.com/ciscentralasia/99/kazakhstan/9.html |title=The Customs and Traditions of the Kazakh By Betsy Wagenhauser |publisher=Internationalspecialreports.com |accessdate=2011-07-24}}{{dead link|date=August 2012}}</ref>]]
{{Refimprove section|date=June 2011}}

Before the Russian colonization, the Kazakhs had a highly developed culture based on their nomadic pastoral economy. Although Islam was introduced to most of the Kazakhs in the 15th century, the religion was not fully assimilated until much later. As a result, it coexisted with earlier elements of [[Tengriism]].

Traditional Kazakh belief held that separate spirits inhabited and animated the earth, sky, water and fire, as well as domestic animals. To this day, particularly honored guests in rural settings are treated to a feast of freshly killed lamb. Such guests are sometimes asked to bless the lamb and to ask its spirit for permission to partake of its flesh. Besides lamb, many other traditional foods retain symbolic value in Kazakh culture.

[[File:AbaiPainting.jpg|thumb|left|190px|[[Abay Qunanbayuli]], Kazakh poet, composer and philosopher.]]
In the national cuisine, livestock meat can be cooked in a variety of ways and is usually served with a wide assortment of traditional bread products. Refreshments often include black tea and traditional milk-derived drinks such as [[ayran]], shubat and [[kymyz]]. A traditional Kazakh dinner involves a multitude of appetisers on the table, followed by a soup and one or two main courses such as [[pilaf]] and [[beshbarmak]]. They also drink their national beverage, which consists of fermented mare's milk.

Because livestock was central to the Kazakhs' traditional lifestyle, most of their nomadic practices and customs relate in some way to livestock. Kazakhs have historically been very passionate about horse-riding. Traditional curses and blessings invoked disease or fecundity among animals, and good manners required that a person ask first about the health of a man's livestock when greeting him and only afterward inquire about the human aspects of his life. Even today, many Kazakhs express interest in equestrianism and horse-racing.

Kazakhstan is home to a large number of prominent contributors to literature, science and philosophy: [[Abay Qunanbayuli]], [[Mukhtar Auezov]], [[Gabit Musirepov]], [[Kanysh Satpayev]], [[Mukhtar Shakhanov]], [[Saken Seyfullin]], [[Jambyl Jabayev]], among many others.

Kazakhstan features a lively music culture, evident in massive popularity of ''[[SuperStar KZ]]'', a local offspring of Simon Fuller's ''[[Pop Idol]]''. Almaty is considered to be the musical capital of the Central Asia, recently enjoying concerts by well known artists such as [[Deep Purple]], [[Tokio Hotel]], [[Atomic Kitten]], [[Dima Bilan]], [[Loon]], [[Craig David]], [[The Black Eyed Peas]], [[Eros Ramazzotti]], [[José Carreras]], [[Ace of Base]], [[Scorpions (band)]], [[Timati]], [[Tiësto]], among others.
Tourism is becoming fasting growing industry in Kazakhstan and its is joining international tourism networking. In year 2010, Kazakhstan joined The Region Initiative (TRI) which is a Tri-regional Umbrella of Tourism related organisations. TRI is functioning as a link between three regions: South Asia, Central Asia and Eastern Europe. Armenia, Bangladesh, India, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Pakistan, Nepal, Tajikistan, Russia, Sri Lanka, Turkey and Ukraine are now Partners and Kazakhstan is linked with other South Asian, Eastern European and Central Asian countries in tourism market.

===National anthem===
{{main|My Kazakhstan (anthem)}}
{{Expand section|date=December 2012}}

===Sports===
{{main|Sport in Kazakhstan}}
[[File:Assan Bazayev.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[Assan Bazayev]], {{ct|AST|2009}} rider.]]
[[File:Yaroslava Shvedova.JPG|thumb|upright|right|[[Yaroslava Shvedova]], [[Wimbledon Championships|Wimbledon]] women's [[Types of tennis match#Standard types of match|doubles]] winner in 2010.]]
[[File:Nik Antropov Jets 2012-02-11.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Nikolai Antropov]], a professional ice hockey player from Kazakhstan.]]
[[File:Bandy in Medeu Kazakhstan.JPG|thumb|upright|right|The [[Kazakhstan national bandy team|Kazakhstan national team]] winning the final of [[Bandy at the 2011 Asian Winter Games|the bandy tournament at the 2011 Asian Winter Games]] in [[Medeo]].]]

Kazakhstan has developed itself as a formidable sports-force on the world arena in the following fields: boxing, chess, kickboxing, skiing, gymnastics, water polo, cycling, martial arts, heavy athletics, horse-riding, triathlon, track hurdles, sambo, Greco-Roman wrestling and billiards. The following are all well-known Kazakhstani athletes and world-championship medalists: [[Bekzat Sattarkhanov]], [[Vassiliy Jirov]], [[Alexander Vinokourov]], [[Bulat Jumadilov]], [[Mukhtarkhan Dildabekov]], [[Olga Shishigina]], [[Andrey Kashechkin]], [[Aliya Yussupova]], [[Dmitriy Karpov]], [[Darmen Sadvakasov]], [[Yeldos Ikhsangaliyev]], [[Askhat Zhitkeyev]], [[Maxim Rakov]], [[Aidar Kabimollayev]], [[Yermakhan Ibraimov]], [[Vladimir Smirnov (skier)|Vladimir Smirnov]].

; [[2011 Asian Winter Games]] : Hosted by Kazakhstan.

; [[Association football|Football]] : The most popular sport in Kazakhstan. The [[Football Federation of Kazakhstan]] (FFK; {{lang-kz|Қазақстанның Футбол Федерациясы ''Qazaqstannıñ fwtbol federacïyası''}}) is the sport's national governing body. The FFK organises the [[Kazakhstan national football team|men's]], [[Kazakhstan women's national football team|women's]] and [[Futsal]] national teams.

; [[Ice hockey]] : The [[Kazakhstan men's national ice hockey team|Kazakhstani national ice hockey team]] has competed in ice hockey in the 1998 and 2006 Winter Olympics as well as in the 2006 Men's World Ice Hockey Championships. Kazakhstan has 7 teams. The teams are [[Kaztsink-Torpedo Ust-Kamenogorsk]], Kazakhmys Satpayev, Gornyak Rudnyi, [[Barys Astana]], Irtysh Pavlodar, Yenbek Almaty and Sary-Arka Qaragandy.
: Top Kazakhstani ice hockey players include [[Nikolai Antropov]] and [[Evgeni Nabokov]].
: [[Barys Astana]] is a major professional ice hockey team playing in the [[Kontinental Hockey League]].

; [[Athletics (sport)|Athletics]] : [[Olga Rypakova]] won the [[long jump]] and [[triple jump]] at the 2010 Asian Indoor Games. In 2011, she won the triple jump at the World Indoor Championships with an Asian indoor record of 15.14 m. Outdoors, she finished second in the IAAF Diamond League and, when winning the [[IAAF Continental Cup|Continental Cup]], improved her Asian outdoor triple jump record to 15.25 m. She also won the triple jump at the [[2012 London Olympics]], giving Kazakhstan its first gold medal in athletics since 2000 and first ever gold in a [[Track and field|field event]].

; [[Cycling]] : Cycling is a popular activity throughout the country. Kazakhstan's most famous cyclist is [[Alexander Vinokourov]], who established an impressive record while riding for the [[Team Columbia-HTC|Telekom/T-Mobile]] teams early in his career. He won the gold medal in road cycling in the [[2012 London Olympics]], the silver medal in road cycling in the [[2000 Sydney Olympics]] and finished third overall in the [[2003 Tour de France]]. After moving to the [[ONCE|Liberty Seguros]] team, Vinokourov finished fifth in the [[2005 Tour de France]], while two other young Kazakhstanis, Andrej Kashechkin and Maksim Iglinskiy, finished 19th and 37th, respectively.
: In 2006, Vinokourov's team became known as {{ct|ONC|2006d}} after a drug doping scandal forced his team Liberty Seguros out of the [[2006 Tour de France]]. Vinokourov then helped form a new team, [[Astana (cycling team)|Astana]], named for Kazakhstan's capital, sporting the color of the Kazakhstan flag on its uniforms and funded by a conglomeration of Kazakhstan businesses. LAter that year, Vinokourov and Kashechkin took, respectively, the first and third general-classification places in the [[2006 Vuelta a España]].
: In July 2007, while leading the [[2007 Tour de France]], Vinokourov tested positive for [[blood doping]] and was disqualified from the race. He was banned for a year by the Kazakhstan cycling federation, but this was increased to the internationally mandated two years by the [[Union Cycliste Internationale|International Cycling Federation (UCI)]]. In addition, Kashechkin was also found guilty of blood doping and suspended for two years, while Astana was subsequently banned from the [[2008 Tour de France]]. At that time, Vinokourov announced his retirement. The Astana team continued under new management, with Kazakhstani riders amongst its members, but race leadership of the team passed to the Spaniard [[Alberto Contador]] and the Americans [[Lance Armstrong]] and [[Levi Leipheimer]]. In September 2008, however, Vinokourov announced his intention to return to competitive cycling in 2009, rejoining Astana in 2010.

; [[Boxing]] : Since independence in 1991, Kazakhstan's boxers have won many medals, quickly moving up the all-time Olympic boxing medal table from last to a current 11th place. Three Kazakh boxers, [[Bakhtiyar Artayev]], [[Vassiliy Jirov]] and [[Serik Sapiyev]], have won the [[Val Barker Trophy]], leaving Kazakhstan second (after the United States) in total number of victories.
: World [[International Boxing Federation|IBF]], [[World Boxing Organization|WBO]] and [[International Boxing Organization|IBO]] heavyweight champion [[Vladimir Klitschko]] was born in Kazakhstan in 1976.

; [[Equestrianism]] : Equestrian sports are also popular in Kazakhstan. Since 1993, the Equestrian Federation of the Republic of Kazakhstan has been organizing national and international events in [[show jumping]], [[dressage]], [[eventing]] and endurance.{{citation needed|date=June 2009}}

*; [[Bandy]] : The [[Kazakhstan national bandy team]] is among the best in the world and has twice won the bronze medal at the [[Bandy World Championships]]. In the [[Bandy World Championship 2011|2011 Bandy World Championship]], the team reached extra time in the semifinal before their defeat [by..?]. The 2012 Championship will be hosted by Kazakhstan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://worldbandy-2011.com/en/news/2011/01/29/138/ |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110718113904/http://worldbandy-2011.com/en/news/2011/01/29/138/ |archivedate=2011-07-18 |title=2012 Bandy World Championship will be staged in Kazakhstan – News |publisher=Worldbandy-2011.com |date=2011-01-29 |accessdate=2011-07-24}}</ref> In 2011, the team won the first [[Bandy at the 2011 Asian Winter Games|bandy tournament at the Asian Winter Games]].
: Dynamo Alma-Ata won the national championships in 1977 and 1990.

; [[Judo]] : Kazakh Askhat Zhitkeyev won silver at the 2008 Olympics and Yeldos Smetov won the 2010 Junior World Championships in the 55 kg category.

; [[Olympic weightlifting]] : Kazakh Zulfiya Chinshanlo won a gold medal at the 2012 London Olympics, lifting a world-record 131 kilograms in the women's 53-kilogram [[clean and jerk]]. Her overall gold medal-winning lift was 226 kilograms.

{{clear}}
===Public holidays===
Source: {{lower|0.4em|<ref>[http://www.worldtravelguide.net/kazakhstan/public-holidays Kazakhstan Public Holidays]. Worldtravelguide.net. Retrieved on 2013-01-14.</ref>}}

{|class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
|- style="background:#efefef;"
! style="width:80px;"|Date !! style="width:170px;"|English name
! Local name/s
! Notes
|-
|January 1–2||[[New Year's Day]]
|Жаңа жыл (''Jaña jıl'') Новый Год (''Novy God'')
|style="font-size:95%;"|
|-
|January 7||Eastern Orthodox [[Christmas]]
|Рождество Христово (''Rojdestvo Xrïstovo'' / ''Rozhdestvo Khristovo'')
|rowspan="2" style="font-size:95%;"|from 2007 official holiday
|-
|style="font-size:95%;"|Last day of [[Hajj]]||[[Eid al-Adha|Qurban Ayt]]a
|Құрбан айт (''Qurban ayt'') Курбан айт (''Kurban ayt'')
|-
|March 8||[[International Women's Day]]
|style="font-size:95%;"|Халықаралық әйелдер күні (''Xalıqaralıq äyälder küni'') Международный женский день (''Mezhdunarodny zhensky den'')
|style="font-size:95%;"|
|-
|March 21–23||[[Nowruz|Nauryz Meyramy]]
|Наурыз мейрамы (''Nawrız meyramı'')
|style="font-size:95%;"| Originally the [[Nowruz|Persian new year]], is traditionally a springtime holiday marking the beginning of a new year sometimes as late as April 21.
|-
|May 1||Kazakhstan People's [[May Day|Unity Day]]
|Қазақстан халқының бірлігі мерекесі (''Qazaqstan xalqınıñ birligi merekesi'')
|style="font-size:95%;"|
|-
|May 9||[[Victory Day (Eastern Europe)|Great Patriotic War Against Fascism Victory Day]]
|Жеңіс күні (''Jeñis küni'') День Победы (''Den Pobedy'')
|style="font-size:95%;"|A holiday in the former Soviet Union carried over
to present-day Kazakhstan and other former republics (Except Baltic countries).
|-
|July 6||Capital City Day
|Астана күні (''Astana küni'') День столицы (''Den stolitsy'')
|style="font-size:95%;"|Birthday of the First President
|-
|August 30||[[Constitution Day]]
|Қазақстан Республикасының Конституциясы күні (''Qazaqstan Respublikasınıñ Konstïtucïyası küni'') День Конституции Республики Казахстан (''Den Konstitutsiy Respubliki Kazakhstan'')
|style="font-size:95%;"|
|-
|December 16||[[Independence Day]]
|Тәуелсіздік күні (''Täwelsizdik küni'') День независимости (''Den nezavisimosti'')
|style="font-size:95%;"|
|}
{{smaller|a [[Eid al-Adha]], the Islamic "Feast of the Sacrifice".}}

== See also ==
{{portal|Geography||Asia|Central Asia|Kazakhstan}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Outline of Kazakhstan]]
* [[Index of Kazakhstan-related articles]]
* [[Demography of Central Asia]]
* [[Julie Finley]], United States ambassador
* [[LGBT rights in Kazakhstan]] (Gay rights)
* [[Kaznet]] – Internet in Kazakhstan
* [[Kazpost]] – Postal & Forwarding services
* [[Media of Kazakhstan]]
* [[Railway stations in Kazakhstan]]
* [[Telecommunications in Kazakhstan]]
* [[Transport in Kazakhstan]]
{{div col end}}

{{clear}}
== Notes ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
*{{Cite book|title=Uneasy Alliance: Relations Between Russia and Kazakhstan in the Post-Soviet Era, 1992–1997 |first=Mikhail |last=Alexandrov |location=Westport, CT |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=1999 |isbn=0-313-30965-5 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Lonely Planet Guide: Central Asia |first=Paul |last=Clammer |first2=Michael |last2=Kohn |lastauthoramp=yes |first3=Bradley |last3=Mayhew |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=Lonely Planet |year=2004 |isbn=1-86450-296-7 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Kazakhstan: Power and the Elite |first=Sally |last=Cummings |location=London |publisher=Tauris |year=2002 |isbn=1-86064-854-1 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=The Russian Colonization of Kazakhstan |first=George |last=Demko |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |year=1997 |isbn=0-7007-0380-2 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Kazakhstan: Coming of Age |first=Michael |last=Fergus |lastauthoramp=yes |first2=Janar |last2=Jandosova |location=London |publisher=Stacey International |year=2003 |isbn=1-900988-61-5 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Journey into Kazakhstan: The True Face of the Nazarbayev Regime |first=Alexandra |last=George |location=Lanham |publisher=University Press of America |year=2001 |isbn=0-7618-1964-9 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Law and Custom in the Steppe |first=Virginia |last=Martin |location=Richmond |publisher=Curzon |year=2000 |isbn=0-7007-1405-7 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Epicenter of Peace |first=Nursultan |last=Nazarbayev |location=Hollis, NH |publisher=Puritan Press |year=2001 |isbn=1-884186-13-0 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Post-Soviet Chaos: Violence and Dispossession in Kazakhstan |first=Joma |last=Nazpary |location=London |publisher=Pluto Press |year=2002 |isbn=0-7453-1503-8 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Kazakhstan: Unfulfilled Promise |first=Martha Brill |last=Olcott |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Brookings Institution Press |year=2002 |isbn=0-87003-189-9 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Silk Road to Ruin: Is Central Asia the New Middle East? |first=Ted |last=Rall |location=New York |publisher=NBM |year=2006 |isbn=1-56163-454-9 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=In Search of Kazakhstan: The Land That Disappeared |first=Christopher |last=Robbins |location=London |publisher=Profile Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-86197-868-4 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=Once in Kazakhstan: The Snow Leopard Emerges |first=Keith |last=Rosten |location=New York |publisher=iUniverse |year=2005 |isbn=0-595-32782-6 |postscript= }}.
*{{Cite book|title=The Lost Heart of Asia |first=Colin |last=Thubron |location=New York |publisher=HarperCollins |year=1994 |isbn=0-06-018226-1 |postscript= }}.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Kazakhstan}}

* [http://northkazakhstan.com Kazakhstan national tour operator, Official website of KAZAKHSTAN-REISEN]
*[http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552643 Caspian Pipeline Controversy] from the [http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552494 Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1298071.stm Country Profile] from [[BBC News]].
* {{CIA World Factbook link|kz|Kazakhstan}}
* [http://www.state.gov/p/sca/ci/kz/ Kazakhstan] information from the [[United States Department of State]]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/international/amed/kazakhstan/kazakhstan.html Portals to the World] from the United States [[Library of Congress]].
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/kazakhstan.htm Kazakhstan] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''.
* [http://mfa.kz/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan]
* [http://www.worldbank.org.kz/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/ECAEXT/KAZAKHSTANEXTN/0,,contentMDK:20212143~menuPK:361895~pagePK:1497618~piPK:217854~theSitePK:361869,00.html World Bank Data & Statistics for Kazakhstan]
* [http://en.encyclopedia.kz/ Kazakhstan Internet Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.economist.com/node/21541853 Kazakhstan at 20 years of independence, The Economist, Dec 17th 2011]
* [http://www.economist.com/blogs/banyan/2011/12/unrest-kazakhstan "Blowing the lid off" – Unrest in Kazakhstan, The Economist, Dec 20th 2011]
* [http://www.jw-media.org/kaz/20111101.htm New Religion Law restricts religious freedom in Kazakhstan]
* [http://www.theregionaltourism.org The Region Initiative (TRI)]
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Kazakhstan}}
*{{Wikiatlas|Kazakhstan}}
*{{osmrelation-inline|214665}}
*{{Wikivoyage-inline}}
*[http://www.kazakhstandiscovery.com/kazakhstan-facts.html Country Facts] from [http://www.kazakhstandiscovery.com/ Kazakhstan Discovery]
* [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2008/sca/119135.htm 2008 Human Rights Report: Kazakhstan. Department of State; Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=KZ Key Development Forecasts for Kazakhstan] from [[International Futures]].

; Government
* [http://www.mfa.kz/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Kazakhstan]
* [http://e.gov.kz/wps/portal?lang=en E-Government of the Republic of Kazakhstan]
* [http://en.government.kz/ Government of Kazakhstan]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-k/kazakhstan.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]

{{Navboxes
|title=Articles and topics related to Kazakhstan
|state=collapsed
|list1=
{{Kazakhstan topics}}
{{Navboxes
|title=Geographic locale
|list=
{{Sovereign states of Europe}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Countries of Central Asia}}
{{Countries bordering the Caspian Sea}}
}}
{{Navboxes
|title=International organizations
|list=
{{OSCE}}
{{Economic Cooperation Organization}}
{{Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)}}
{{Eurasian Economic Community (EURASEC)}}
{{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation |collapsed}}
{{Shanghai Cooperation Organisation}}
{{TURKSOY}}
{{Turkic Council}}
}}
{{Navboxes
|title=Other associations
|list=
{{Turkic-speaking}}
}}
}}

{{Geographic Location
| Centre = Kazakhstan
| North = [[Russian Federation]]
| Northeast = [[Russian Federation]]
| East = [[Peoples Republic of China]], [[Russian Federation]]
| Southeast = [[Peoples Republic of China]]
| South = [[Aral Sea]], [[Republic of Uzbekistan]], [[Turkmenistan]], [[Kyrgyz Republic]]
| Southwest = [[Caspian Sea]]
| West = [[Caspian Sea]]
| Northwest = [[Russian Federation]]
}}

{{coord|48|N|68|E|scale:20000000_source:GNS|display=title}}

[[Category:Kazakhstan| ]]
[[Category:Central Asian countries]]
[[Category:Eurasia]]
[[Category:Eurasian Steppe]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Independent States]]
[[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]
[[Category:Modern Turkic states]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:Russian-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1991]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Bicontinental countries]]



[[ace:Kazakhstan]]
[[kbd:Къазахъстэн]]
[[af:Kasakstan]]
[[als:Kasachstan]]
[[am:ካዛክስታን]]
[[ang:Casahstan]]
[[ab:Ҟазаҟсҭан]]
[[ar:كازاخستان]]
[[an:Cazaquistán]]
[[arc:ܩܙܩܣܛܐܢ]]
[[roa-rup:Kazahstan]]
[[frp:Kazacstan]]
[[ast:Kazakstán]]
[[gn:Kazajistán]]
[[av:Хъазахъистан]]
[[az:Qazaxıstan]]
[[bn:কাজাখস্তান]]
[[zh-min-nan:Kazakhstan]]
[[ba:Ҡаҙағстан]]
[[be:Казахстан]]
[[be-x-old:Казахстан]]
[[bcl:Kasahistan]]
[[bi:Kazakhstan]]
[[bg:Казахстан]]
[[bar:Kasachstan]]
[[bo:ཀཛ་ཀིསུ་གཏན།]]
[[bs:Kazahstan]]
[[br:Kazakstan]]
[[bxr:Казахстан]]
[[ca:Kazakhstan]]
[[cv:Казахстан]]
[[ceb:Kazakhstan]]
[[cs:Kazachstán]]
[[cy:Kazakstan]]
[[da:Kasakhstan]]
[[de:Kasachstan]]
[[dv:ކަޒަކިސްތާން]]
[[nv:Kʼazah Bikéyah]]
[[dsb:Kazachstan]]
[[et:Kasahstan]]
[[el:Καζακστάν]]
[[es:Kazajistán]]
[[eo:Kazaĥio]]
[[ext:Cazastán]]
[[eu:Kazakhstan]]
[[ee:Kazakhstan]]
[[fa:قزاقستان]]
[[hif:Kazakhstan]]
[[fo:Kasakstan]]
[[fr:Kazakhstan]]
[[fy:Kazakstan]]
[[ga:An Chasacstáin]]
[[gv:Yn Chassaghstaan]]
[[gag:Kazahstan]]
[[gd:Casachstàn]]
[[gl:Casaquistán - Қазақстан]]
[[gu:કઝાકિસ્તાન]]
[[hak:Hâ-sat-khiet-sṳ̂-thán]]
[[xal:Хасгудин Орн]]
[[ko:카자흐스탄]]
[[haw:Kasakana]]
[[hy:Ղազախստան]]
[[hi:कज़ाख़िस्तान]]
[[hsb:Kazachstan]]
[[hr:Kazahstan]]
[[io:Kazakstan]]
[[ilo:Kazakstan]]
[[bpy:কাজাখস্তান]]
[[id:Kazakhstan]]
[[ia:Kazakhstan]]
[[ie:Kazakstan]]
[[os:Хъазахстан]]
[[is:Kasakstan]]
[[it:Kazakistan]]
[[he:קזחסטן]]
[[jv:Kazakhstan]]
[[kl:Kasakhstani]]
[[kn:ಕಜಾಕಸ್ಥಾನ್]]
[[pam:Kazastan]]
[[krc:Къазакъстан]]
[[ka:ყაზახეთი]]
[[csb:Kazachstan]]
[[kk:Қазақстан]]
[[kw:Pow Kazagh]]
[[rw:Kazakisitani]]
[[sw:Kazakhstan]]
[[kv:Казахстан]]
[[kg:Kazakhstan]]
[[ht:Kazakstan]]
[[ku:Qazaxistan]]
[[ky:Казакстан Республикасы]]
[[lad:Kazakistan]]
[[lez:Къазакъстан]]
[[ltg:Kazaheja]]
[[la:Kazachstania]]
[[lv:Kazahstāna]]
[[lb:Kasachstan]]
[[lt:Kazachstanas]]
[[lij:Kazakistan]]
[[li:Kazachstan]]
[[ln:Kazakstáni]]
[[jbo:kazaksTAN]]
[[lmo:Kazakistan]]
[[hu:Kazahsztán]]
[[mk:Казахстан]]
[[ml:ഖസാഖ്‌സ്ഥാൻ]]
[[mt:Każakistan]]
[[mi:Katatānga]]
[[mr:कझाकस्तान]]
[[xmf:ყაზახეთი]]
[[arz:كازاخستان]]
[[mzn:قزاقئون]]
[[ms:Kazakhstan]]
[[mdf:Казахстан]]
[[mn:Казахстан]]
[[my:ကာဇက်စတန်နိုင်ငံ]]
[[nah:Cazactlālpan]]
[[na:Kadaketan]]
[[nl:Kazachstan]]
[[nds-nl:Kazakstan]]
[[ja:カザフスタン]]
[[ce:Казахийн Пачхьалкх]]
[[frr:Kasachstan]]
[[pih:Kazakstaan]]
[[no:Kasakhstan]]
[[nn:Kasakhstan]]
[[nov:Kasakstan]]
[[oc:Cazacstan]]
[[mhr:Казахстан]]
[[or:କାଜାକିସ୍ତାନ]]
[[uz:Qozogʻiston]]
[[pa:ਕਜ਼ਾਖ਼ਸਤਾਨ]]
[[pnb:قازقستان]]
[[pap:Kazachstan]]
[[ps:قزاقستان]]
[[koi:Казахстан]]
[[km:សាធារណរដ្ឋកាហ្សាក់ស្ថាន]]
[[pms:Kazakistan]]
[[nds:Kasachstan]]
[[pl:Kazachstan]]
[[pt:Cazaquistão]]
[[kaa:Qazaqstan]]
[[crh:Qazahistan]]
[[ro:Kazahstan]]
[[rm:Kasachstan]]
[[qu:Qasaqsuyu]]
[[rue:Казахстан]]
[[ru:Казахстан]]
[[sah:Казахстаан]]
[[se:Kazakstána]]
[[sa:कजाकस्थान]]
[[sco:Kazakhstan]]
[[stq:Kasachstan]]
[[sq:Kazakistani]]
[[scn:Kazakistan]]
[[si:කසක්ස්තානය]]
[[simple:Kazakhstan]]
[[ss:IKhazakhi]]
[[sk:Kazachstan]]
[[sl:Kazahstan]]
[[cu:Каꙁахстанъ]]
[[szl:Kazachstůn]]
[[so:Kasakhstan]]
[[ckb:کازاخستان]]
[[srn:Kazachstan]]
[[sr:Казахстан]]
[[sh:Kazahstan]]
[[su:Kazastan]]
[[fi:Kazakstan]]
[[sv:Kazakstan]]
[[tl:Kasakistan]]
[[ta:கசக்ஸ்தான்]]
[[roa-tara:Kazakistan]]
[[tt:Казакъстан]]
[[te:కజకస్తాన్]]
[[th:ประเทศคาซัคสถาน]]
[[tg:Қазоқистон]]
[[chr:ᎧᏌᎩᏍᏔᏂ]]
[[tr:Kazakistan]]
[[tk:Gazagystan]]
[[udm:Казахстан]]
[[bug:Kazakhstan]]
[[uk:Казахстан]]
[[ur:قازقستان]]
[[ug:قازاقىستان]]
[[za:Hahsazgwswhdanj]]
[[vec:Kazakistan]]
[[vep:Kazahstan]]
[[vi:Kazakhstan]]
[[vo:Kazakistän]]
[[fiu-vro:Kasastan]]
[[zh-classical:哈薩克]]
[[war:Kasahistan]]
[[wo:Kasakistaan]]
[[wuu:哈萨克斯坦]]
[[yi:קאזאכסטאן]]
[[yo:Kàsàkstán]]
[[zh-yue:哈薩克]]
[[diq:Qazaxıstan]]
[[bat-smg:Kazakstans]]
[[zh:哈萨克斯坦]]

Jordan

2013-01-18T21:08:42Z

PatriceNeff: Show Amman as the largest city in the infobox

{{about|the country}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}

{{Infobox country
|conventional_long_name = Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan
|native_name = {{lower|0.1em|{{lang|ar|<big>اَلمَمْلَكَة اَلأُرْدُنِيَّة اَلهَاشِمِيَّة</big>}}}} ''{{transl|ar|din|al-Mamlakah al-ʾUrdunniyyah al-Hāšimiyyah}}''
|common_name = Jordan
|image_flag = Flag of Jordan.svg
|image_coat = Coat of Arms of Jordan.svg
|image_map = LocationJordan.svg
|map_caption = Location and extent of Jordan (red) in the [[Middle East]].
|national_motto = {{native phrase|ar|{{lower|0.1em|<big>الله، الوطن، الملك</big>}}|italics=off}} ''{{transl|ar|din|Allāh, al-Waṭan, al-Malik}}'' {{small|"God, Country, The King"}}
|national_anthem = {{lang|ar|<big>السلام الملكي الأردني</big>}} {{lower|0.1em|''{{transl|ar|din|as-Salām al-Malakī al-ʾUrdunnī}}''}} {{small|''[[The Royal Anthem of Jordan|Long Live the King]]''}}
|official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=jordan |title=Ethnologue report for Jordan |publisher=Ethnologue.com |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>
|languages_type = [[Spoken language]]s
|languages =
{{Collapsible list
|titlestyle = background:transparent;text-align:left;font-weight:normal;
|title = 8 languages
| [[English language|English]]
| [[French language|French]]
| [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Circassian]]a
| [[Chechen language|Chechen]]
| [[Armenian language|Armenian]]
| [[Persian language|Persian]]
| [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]]
| [[Turkish language|Turkish]]
}}
|demonym = Jordanian
|ethnic_groups =
{{unbulleted list
| 98% [[Arab people|Arab]]
| 1% [[Adyghe people|Circassian {{small|(Adyghe)}}]]
| 1% [[Armenians|Armenian]]
}}
|capital = [[Amman]]
|largest_city = capital
|latd=31 |latm=57 |latNS=N |longd=35 |longm=56 |longEW=E
|government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/government.html |title=Government |publisher=kinghussein.gov.jo |accessdate=15 July 2011}}</ref>
|leader_title1 = [[List of Kings of Jordan|King]]
|leader_name1 = [[Abdullah II of Jordan|Abdullah II]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Jordan|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Abdullah Ensour]]
|legislature = [[Parliament of Jordan|Parliament]]
|upper_house = [[Parliament of Jordan|Senate]]
|lower_house = [[Parliament of Jordan|Chamber of Deputies]]
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_event1 = [[League of Nations mandate]] ended
|established_date1 = 25 May 1946
|area_km2 = 89,342
|area_sq_mi = 35,637 
|area_rank = 112th
|area_magnitude =
|area_highest_point = Mount Um Dami (1,855 m)
|area_lowest_point = Dead Sea (−446 m)
|percent_water = 0.8
|population_estimate = 6,508,271<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jo.html |title=Population: Jordan |publisher=The World Factbook, cia.gov}}</ref>
|population_estimate_year = July 2011
|population_estimate_rank = 106th
|population_census = 5,611,202
|population_census_year = July 2004
|population_density_km2 = 68.4
|population_density_sq_mi = 138.8 
|population_density_sq_mi_w/o_water = 175
|population_density_rank = 133st
|GDP_PPP_year = 2011
|GDP_PPP = $36.893 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=32&pr.y=11&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=439&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a= |title=Jordan |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=19 April 2012}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_rank = 98th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5,899<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 108th
|GDP_nominal_rank = 90th
|GDP_nominal = $29.233 billion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_year = 2011
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 96th
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,674<ref name=imf2/>
|HDI_year = 2011
|HDI = {{nowrap|{{increase}} 0.698<ref name="HDI">{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Table1.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2010 |year=2010 |format=PDF |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=10 November 2010}}</ref>}}
|HDI_rank = 95th
|HDI_category = medium
|Gini = 35.4 
|Gini_ref = <ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI/ |title=Gini index |publisher=World Bank |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>
|Gini_year = 2010
|currency = [[Jordanian dinar]]
|currency_code = JOD
|time_zone = [[UTC]]+3<ref>{{cite web |url=http://jordantimes.com/govt-rescinds-decision-to-switch-to-winter-time |title=Gov't rescinds decision to switch to winter time |publisher=The Jordan Times |date= |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref>
|utc_offset = +3
|drives_on = right
|cctld = {{unbulleted list |[[.jo]] |[[الاردن.]]}}
|calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Jordan|+962]]
|ISO_3166-1_alpha2 = JO
|ISO_3166-1_alpha3 = JOR
|ISO_3166-1_numeric = 400
|sport_code = JOR
|vehicle_code = JOR
|footnote_a = [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]] and [[Kabardian language|Kabardey]].
}}

'''Jordan''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˈ|dʒ|ɔr|d|ə|n}}; {{lang-ar|اَلأُرْدُنّ}}, {{transl|ar|DIN|Al-ʾUrdunn}}), officially the '''Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan''' ({{lang-ar|اَلمَمْلَكَة اَلأُرْدُنِيَّة اَلهَاشِمِيَّة}}, ''{{transl|ar|DIN|al-Mamlakah al-ʾUrdunniyyah al-Hāšimiyyah}}''), is an [[Arab]] kingdom in [[Asia]], on the East Bank of the [[River Jordan]], consisting roughly of the historic region of [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]. Jordan borders [[Saudi Arabia]] to the south and east, [[Iraq]] to the north-east, [[Syria]] to the north and [[Israel]] to the west, sharing control of the [[Dead Sea]] with the latter two.

The desert kingdom emerged out of the post-World War I division of the Middle East by Britain and France. In 1946, Jordan became an independent sovereign state officially known as the Hashemite Kingdom of Transjordan. After capturing the West Bank area of [[Cisjordan]] during the [[1948 Arab-Israeli War|1948–49 war]] with Israel, Abdullah I took the title [[King of Jordan]] and Palestine, and he officially changed the country's name to the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan in April 1949.

Modern Jordan is classified as a country of "medium human development"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/data/trends/ |title=Regional and National Trends in the Human Development Index 1980–2011 |publisher=United Nations Development Programme |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> by the 2011 [[Human Development Report]], and an [[emerging market]] with the third freest economy in West Asia and North Africa (32nd freest worldwide).<ref name="heritage.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/ranking |title=Country Rankings: World & Global Economy Rankings on Economic Freedom |publisher=Heritage.org |date=2012-10-31 |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref> Jordan has an "upper middle income" economy.<ref name="data.worldbank.org">{{cite web|url=http://data.worldbank.org/about/country-classifications/country-and-lending-groups |title=Country and Lending Groups | Data |publisher=Data.worldbank.org |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> Jordan has enjoyed "advanced status" with the [[European Union]] since December 2010,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordantimes.com/?news=31315 |title=Jordan obtains 'advanced status' with EU |publisher=Jordan Times |date=27 October 2010 |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref> and it is also a member of the Euro-Mediterranean free trade area. Jordan is a founding member of the [[Arab League]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arableagueonline.org/las/arabic/categoryList.jsp?level_id=61 |title=League of Arab States |publisher=Arableagueonline.org |accessdate=15 June 2010}}{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref> and the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation ([[OIC]]).

==History==
{{Main |History of Jordan |Timeline of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan}}

===Ancient history===
[[File:Jerash16-Forum(js).jpg|thumb|left|200px|The [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] Oval Piazza in the ancient city of [[Jerash]]]]
In antiquity, the present day Jordan became a home for several ancient kingdoms including: the kingdom of Edom, the kingdom of [[Moab]] and the kingdom of [[Ammon]]. Throughout different eras of history, parts of the country were laid under the control of some regional powers including [[Pharaonic Egypt]] during their wars with the [[Babylonian]]s and the [[Hittites|Hittite]]s; and for discrete periods of times by [[Israelites]]. The [[Mesha Stele]] recorded the glory of the [[King of Edom]] and the victories over the Israelites and other nations. The Ammon and Moab kingdoms are mentioned in ancient maps, Near Eastern documents, ancient [[Greco-Roman]] artifacts, and Christian and Jewish religious scriptures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bibleplaces.com/edom.htm |title=Edom |publisher=BiblePlaces.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

===Classical period===
Due to its strategic location in the middle of the ancient world, Transjordan came to be controlled by the ancient empires of [[Achaemenid Empire|Persians]] and later the [[Hellenistic|Macedonian Greeks]], who became the dominant force in the region, following the conquests of Alexander the Great. It later fell under the changing influence of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire from the North and the Parthians from the East.

The [[Nabataean kingdom|Nabatean kingdom]] was one of the most prominent states in the region through the middle classic period, since the decline of the Seleucid control of the region in 168 BC. The Nabateans were most probably people of Arabian ancestry, who fell under the early influence of the Hellenistic and Parthian cultures, creating a unique civilized society, which roamed the roads of the deserts. They controlled the regional and international trade routes of the ancient world by dominating a large area southwest of the [[fertile crescent]], which included the whole of modern Jordan in addition to the southern part of [[Syria]] in the north and the northern part of [[Arabian Peninsula]] in the south. The Nabataeans developed the [[Arabic Script]], with their language as an intermediary between [[Aramaean]] and the ancient [[Classical Arabic]], which evolved into [[Modern Standard Arabic|Modern Arabic]].

The Nabateans were largely conquered by the Hasmonean rulers of Judea and many of them forced to convert to Judaism in the late second century BC. However, the [[Nabataean]]s managed to maintain a sort of semi-independent kingdom, which covered most parts of modern Jordan and beyond, before it was taken by the Herodians and finally annexed by the still expanding [[Roman empire]] in 106 AD. However, apart from Petra, the Romans maintained the prosperity of most of the ancient cities in Transjordan which enjoyed a sort of city-state autonomy under the umbrella of the alliance of the [[Decapolis]]. Nabataean civilization left many magnificent [[archaeological]] sites at [[Petra]], which is considered one of the [[New Seven Wonders of the World]] as well as recognized by the UNESCO as a [[world Heritage]] site.

Following the establishment of Roman Empire at [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]], the country was incorporated into the [[Herodian Kingdom|client Judaean Kingdom of Herod]], and later the Iudaea Province. With the suppression of [[Jewish Revolts]], the eastern bank of Transjordan was incorporated into the [[Syria Palaestina]] province, while the eastern deserts fell under [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] and later [[Sassanid Empire|Persian Sassanid]] control. During the Greco-Roman period, a number of semi-independent city-states also developed in the region of Transjordan under the umbrella of the Decapolis including: [[Gerasa]] ([[Jerash]]), Philadelphia ([[Amman]]), [[Raphana]] ([[Abila (Decapolis)|Abila]]), [[Dion, Jordan|Dion]] ([[Capitolias]]), [[Gadara]] (Umm Qays), and [[Pella, Jordan|Pella]] ([[Irbid]]).

With the decline of the Eastern Roman Empire, Transjordan came to be controlled by the Christian [[Ghassanid]] Arab kingdom, which allied with Byzantium. The [[Byzantine]] site of [[Um er-Rasas]] is a UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]].

===Middle Ages to World War I===
In the seventh century, and due to its proximity to [[Damascus]], Transjordan became a heartland for the [[Caliphate|Arabic Islamic Empire]] and therefore secured several centuries of stability and prosperity,{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} which allowed the coining of its current Arabic Islamic identity. Different Caliphates' stages, including the [[Rashidun Empire]], [[Umayyad Empire]] and [[Abbasid Empire]] controlled the region. Several resources pointed that the Abbasid movement, was started in region of Transjordan before it took over the Umayyad empire. After the decline of the [[Abbasid]], It was ruled by several conflicting powers including the [[Mongol]]s, the [[Crusaders]], the [[Ayyubid]]s and the [[Mamluk]]s until it became part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1516.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/his_ottoman.html |title=Jordan – History – The Ottoman Empire |publisher=The Royal Hashemite Court |accessdate=9 November 2009}}</ref>

The Arabic Islamic Empire has left desert palaces such as [[Qasr Mshatta]], [[Qasr al Hallabat]] and [[Qasr Amra]]; and the castles of [[Ajloun]] and [[Al Karak]] which were used in the Crusader, Ayyubid and Mamluk eras.

In the 11th century, Transjordan witnessed a phase of instability, as it became a battlefield for the Crusades which ended with defeat by the Ayyubids. Jordan suffered also from the Mongol attacks which were blocked by Mamluks.

{{anchor|Ottoman Jordan}}
In 1516, Transjordan became part of the [[Ottoman Empire]] and it remained so until 1918, when the Hashemite Army of the [[Arab Revolt|Great Arab Revolt]] took over, and secured the present day Jordan with the help and support of Transjordanian local tribes.

[[File:Arab Revolt.jpg|thumb|right|Arab Revolt Tribal Cavalry – Tribes of Jordan and Arabia, c. 1918.]]
[[File:Circassian horsemanship during Sir Herbert Samuel's second visit to Transjordan.jpg|thumb|right|[[Adyghe people|Adyghe]] ([[Circassians|Circassian]]) [[horsemanship]] in [[Transjordan]], April 1921.]]
During [[World War I]], the Transjordanian tribes fought, along with other tribes of the [[Hijaz]] and [[Levant]] regions, as part of the Arab Army of the [[Arab Revolt|Great Arab Revolt]]. The revolt was launched by the [[Hashemite]]s and led by [[Sherif Hussein]] of [[Mecca]] against the Ottoman Empire. It was supported by the [[Allies of World War I]]. The chronicle of the revolt was written by [[T. E. Lawrence]] who, as a young [[British Army]] officer, played a liaison role during the revolt. He published the chronicle in London, 1922 under the title "[[Seven Pillars of Wisdom]]",<ref>{{cite book|title=Seven Pillars of Wisdom |author=T. E. Lawrence |year=1922 |place= United Kingdom }}</ref> which was the basis for the iconic movie "[[Lawrence of Arabia]]".

The Great Arab Revolt was successful in gaining independence for most of the territories of Hijaz and the Levant, including the region of east of Jordan. However, it failed to gain international recognition of the region as an independent state, due mainly to the secret [[Sykes–Picot Agreement|Sykes–Picot Agreement of 1916]] and the [[Balfour Declaration of 1917]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} This was seen by the Hashemites and the Arabs as betrayal of the previous agreements with the British, including the [[McMahon–Hussein Correspondence]] in 1915, in which the British stated their willingness to recognize the independence of the Arab state in Hijaz and the Levant. However, a compromise was eventually reached and the Emirate of Transjordan was created under the reign of the Hashemites.

===British mandate on Transjordan===
{{main|Transjordan}}
In September 1922 the Council of the [[League of Nations]] recognized [[Transjordan]] as a state under the [[British Mandate for Palestine (legal instrument)|British Mandate]] and [[Transjordan memorandum]] excluded the territories east of the [[River Jordan]] from all of the provisions of the mandate dealing with Jewish settlement.<ref>''League of Nations Official Journal'', Nov. 1922, pp. 1188–1189, 1390–1391.</ref> The Permanent Court of International Justice and an International Court of Arbitration established by the Council of the League of Nations handed down rulings in 1925 which determined that both a Jewish and an Arab state in the Mandatory regions of Palestine and Transjordan were to be newly created successor states of the [[Ottoman Empire]] as defined by international law.<ref>Marjorie M. Whiteman, Digest of International Law, vol. 1, U.S. State Department (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963) pp 650–652</ref> The country remained under British supervision until 1946.

The Hashemite leadership met multiple difficulties upon assuming power in the region. The most serious threats to [[Abdullah I of Jordan|emir Abdullah]]'s position in Transjordan were repeated [[Ikhwan raids on Transjordan|Wahhabi incursions]] from Najd into southern parts of his territory.<ref name=modernjordan104>Salibi, Kamal S. ''The modern history of Jordan''. p. 104</ref> The emir was powerless to repel those raids by himself, thus the British maintained a military base, with a small [[RAF|air force]], at Marka, close to [[Amman]].<ref name=modernjordan104/> The British military force was the primary obstacle against the Ikhwan, and was also used to help [[Abdullah I of Jordan|emir Abdullah]] with the suppression of local rebellions at [[Kura Rebellion|Kura]] and later by [[Adwan Rebellion|Sultan Adwan]], in 1921 and 1923 respectively.<ref name=modernjordan104/>

[[File:Arar.jpg|90px|thumb|right|[[Arar]] (1897–1949), poet of Jordan]]

===Under King Abdullah I===
On 25 May 1946 the United Nations approved the end of the [[British Mandate for Palestine (legal instrument)|British Mandate]] and recognized Transjordan as an independent sovereign kingdom. The Parliament of Transjordan proclaimed [[Abdullah I of Jordan|King Abdullah]] as the first King. The country's name was later changed from Transjordan to Jordan.

On 24 April 1950, Jordan formally annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem, an act that was regarded as illegal and void by the [[Arab League]]. The move formed part of Jordan’s "Greater Syria Plan" expansionist policy,<ref name="Aruri1972">{{cite book|author=Naseer Hasan Aruri|title=Jordan: a study in political development (1921–1965).|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GVaG4WGKj9MC&pg=PA90|accessdate=22 December 2010|year=1972|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-247-1217-5|page=90|quote=For Abdullah, the annexation of Palestine was the first step in the implementation of his Greater Syria Plan. His expansionist policy placed him at odds with Egypt and Saudi Arabic. Syria and Lebanon, which would be included in the Plan were uneasy. The annexation of Palestine was, therefore, condemned by the Arab League’s Political Committee on May 15, 1950.}}</ref> and in response, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and Syria joined Egypt in demanding Jordan’s expulsion from the Arab League.<ref name="CommitteeAmerica1951">{{cite book|author1=American Jewish Committee|author2=Jewish Publication Society of America|title=American Jewish year book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=MbYSAAAAIAAJ|accessdate=21 December 2010|year=1951|publisher=American Jewish Committee|pages=405–6|quote=On April 13, 1950, the council of the League resolved that "Jordan's annexation of Arab Palestine was illegal", and at a meeting of the League's political committee on May 15, 1950, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon and Syria joined Egypt in demanding Jordan’s expulsion from the Arab League.}}</ref><ref name="Affairs1950">{{cite book|author=Council for Middle Eastern Affairs|title=Middle Eastern affairs|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=E1PVAAAAMAAJ|accessdate=21 December 2010|year=1950|publisher=Council for Middle Eastern Affairs|page=206|quote= May 12: Jordan's Foreign Minister walks out of the Political Committee during the discussion of Jordan's annexation of Arab Palestine. May 15: The Political Committee agrees that Jordan's annexation of Arab Palestine was illegal and violated the Arab League resolution of Apr. 12, 1948. A meeting is called for June 12 to decide whether to expel Jordan or take punitive action against her.}}</ref> A motion to expel Jordan from the League was prevented by the dissenting votes of Yemen and Iraq.<ref name=autogenerated2>{{cite book|author=Naseer Hasan Aruri|title=Jordan: a study in political development (1921–1965).|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=GVaG4WGKj9MC&pg=PA90|accessdate=22 December 2010|year=1972|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-247-1217-5|page=90|quote=The annexation of Palestine was, therefore, condemned by the Arab League's Political Committee on May 15, 1950. A motion to expel Jordan from the League was prevented by the dissenting votes of Yemen and Iraq}}</ref> On 12 June 1950, the Arab League declared the annexation was a temporary, practical measure and that Jordan was holding the territory as a “trustee” pending a future settlement.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gHfw0Mv_uFUC&pg=PA187 |title=The Middle East in the twentieth century |page=187 |first=Martin |last=Sicker |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=CjuzDY-WBr8C&pg=PA64 |title=Is the Two-State Solution Already Dead? |page=64 |author=Hasan Afif El-Hasan |publisher=Books.google.co.uk |date=2010-09-15 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> On 27 July 1953, [[King Hussein of Jordan]] announced that [[East Jerusalem]] was "the alternative capital of the Hashemite Kingdom" and would form an "integral and inseparable part" of Jordan.<ref name="Gilbert1996">{{cite book|author=Martin Gilbert|title=Jerusalem in the twentieth century|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=hOYUAQAAIAAJ|accessdate=22 December 2010|date=12 September 1996|publisher=J. Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-471-16308-4|page=254}}</ref>

Abdullah I was assassinated in 1951 by a Palestinian militant Mustafa Ashu, of the jihad al-muqaddas, as he was leaving the [[al-Aqsa Mosque]] in [[Jerusalem]]. The reason for his murder was allegedly the power rivalry of the al-Husseinis over control of Palestine, which was declared a part of the Hashemite Kingdom by Abdullah I. Though [[Amin al-Husseini]], former mufti of Jerusalem, was not directly charged in the plot, Musa al-Husseini was among the 6 executed by Jordanian authorities, following the assassination.

===Under King Hussein===
Jordan is a founding member of the [[Arab League]] in 1945 and gained independence in 1946, joined the United Nations in 1955. In 1957 it terminated the Anglo-Jordan treaty, one year after the king sacked the British personnel serving in the Jordanian Army. This act of [[Arabization]] ensured the complete sovereignty of Jordan as a fully independent nation.

[[File:HabisAlMajali&WasfiAlTall.jpg|thumb|left|Field marshal [[Habis Al-Majali]] and former prime minister [[Wasfi Al-Tal]]]]
In May 1967, Jordan signed a military pact with Egypt. In June 1967, it joined Egypt, Syria and Iraq in the [[Six Day War]] against [[Israel]], which however ended in an Israeli victory and the capture of the West Bank and East [[Jerusalem]]. The period following the war saw an upsurge in the activity and numbers of Arab Palestinian paramilitary elements (''[[fedayeen]]'') within the state of Jordan. These distinct, armed militias were becoming a "state within a state", threatening Jordan's rule of law. King Hussein's armed forces targeted the ''fedayeen'', and open fighting erupted in June 1970. The battle in which Palestinian fighters from various [[Palestine Liberation Organization]] (PLO) groups were expelled from Jordan is commonly known as [[Black September in Jordan|Black September]].

The heaviest fighting occurred in northern Jordan and Amman. In the ensuing heavy fighting, a Syrian tank force invaded northern Jordan to back the ''fedayeen'' fighters, but subsequently retreated. [[Hussein of Jordan|King Hussein]] urgently asked the United States and Great Britain to intervene against Syria. Consequently, Israel performed mock air strikes on the Syrian column at the Americans' request. Soon after, Syrian President [[Nureddin al-Atassi]], ordered a hasty retreat from Jordanian soil.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/11/28/nixon.papers/index.html|work=CNN|accessdate=31 March 2010|title=Jordan asked Nixon to attack Syria, declassified papers show |date=28 November 2007}}</ref><ref name = "HistoryCentral">{{cite web|url=http://www.historycentral.com/mideast/BlkSept.html |title=Black September |publisher=History Central |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> By 22 September, Arab foreign ministers meeting in Cairo arranged a cease-fire beginning the following day. However, sporadic violence continued until Jordanian forces, led by [[Habis Al-Majali]], with the help of Iraqi forces,<ref name = "Jazeera">{{cite web|url=http://www.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/F8CB417C-1AB0-47B7-9F7D-7EBCFB6D2FC5 |title=القيادة العامة الفلسطينية كما يراها أحمد جبريل ح8 |language=Arabic |publisher=Aljazeera.net |date=2004-05-23 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> won a decisive victory over the ''fedayeen'' on July 1971, expelling them, and ultimately the PLO's [[Yasser Arafat]] of Jordan.

In 1973, allied Arab League forces attacked Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]], and fighting occurred along the 1967 [[Jordan River]] cease-fire line. Jordan sent a brigade to Syria to attack Israeli units on Syrian territory but did not engage Israeli forces from Jordanian territory. At the [[Rabat summit conference]] in 1974, Jordan was now in a more secure position to agree, along with the rest of the Arab League, that the PLO was the "sole legitimate representative of the [Arab] Palestinian people", thereby relinquishing to that organization its role as representative of the West Bank.

The Amman Agreement of 11 February 1985, declared that the PLO and Jordan would pursue a proposed confederation between the state of Jordan and a Palestinian state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/4746#fn1 |title=An Interview with Yasser Arafat, Volume 34, Number 10, 11 June 1987 |publisher=New York Review of Books |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> In 1988, King Hussein dissolved the Jordanian parliament and renounced Jordanian claims to the West Bank. The PLO assumed responsibility as the Provisional Government of Palestine and an independent state was declared.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/306128/Jordan/ |title=» Renouncing claims to the West Bank |publisher=Britannica.com |date=1978-06-15 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>

[[File:Hussein Clinton Rabin.jpg|thumb|right|A handshake between [[Hussein I of Jordan]] and [[Yitzhak Rabin]], accompanied by [[Bill Clinton]], after signing the [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace]], 26 October 1994.]]
In 1991 Jordan agreed to participate in direct peace negotiations with Israel at the [[Madrid Conference]], sponsored by the US and the Soviet Union. It negotiated an end to hostilities with Israel and signed a declaration to that effect on 25 July 1994. As a result, an [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|Israeli-Jordanian peace treaty]] was concluded on 26 October 1994. King Hussein was later honored when his picture appeared on an Israeli postage stamp in recognition of the good relations he established with his neighbor. Since the signing of the peace treaty, the United States not only contributes hundreds of millions of dollars in an annual foreign aid stipend to Jordan, but also has allowed it to establish a free trade zone in which to manufacture goods that will enter the US without paying the usual import taxes as long as a percentage of the material used in them is purchased in Israel.

The last major strain in Jordan's relations with Israel occurred in September 1997, when Israeli agents allegedly entered Jordan using Canadian passports and poisoned [[Khaled Meshal]], a senior leader of Hamas. Israel provided an antidote to the poison and released dozens of political prisoners, including [[Sheikh Ahmed Yassin]].

===Under King Abdullah II===
{{further|Abdullah II of Jordan}}
[[File:King Abdullah II & Queen Rania of Jordan in WashingtonDC, 2007March06.jpg|thumb|Visiting Washington, D.C., with Queen Rania, 6 March 2007.]]
Abdullah became king on 7 February 1999, upon the death of his father King Hussein. Hussein had recently named him [[Crown Prince]] on 24 January, replacing Hussein's brother [[Prince Hassan of Jordan|Hassan]], who had served many years in the position. He is the namesake of King Abdullah I, his great grandfather who founded modern Jordan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kingabdullah.jo/index.php/en_US/pages/view/id/148.html |title=King Abdullah II Official Website | Profile |publisher=Kingabdullah.jo |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>

Jordan's economy has improved greatly since Abdullah ascended to the throne in 1999, and he has been credited with increasing foreign investment, improving public-private partnerships, and providing the foundation for [[Aqaba]]'s free trade zone and Jordan's flourishing [[information and communication technology]] (ICT) sector. He also set up five other special economic zones: [[Irbid]], [[Ajloun]], [[Mafraq]], [[Ma'an]], and the [[Dead Sea]]. As a result of these reforms, Jordan's economic growth has doubled to 6% annually under King Abdullah's rule compared to the latter half of the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/np/ms/2006/112806.htm |title=Jordan—Concluding Statement for the 2006 Article IV Consultation and Fourth Post-Program Monitoring Discussions |publisher=International Monetary Fund |date=2006-11-28 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Foreign direct investment from the West as well as the countries of the [[Persian Gulf]] has continued to increase.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mop.gov.jo/pages.php?menu_id=241&local_type=0&local_id=0&local_details=0&local_details1=0 |title=Trade and Investment |publisher=Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation |date=2006-09-11 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> He also negotiated a free trade agreement with the United States, which was the third free trade agreement for the U.S. and the first with an Arab country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2001/09/20010928-12.html |title=Overview: U.S.-Jordan Free Trade Agreement |publisher=White House Office of the Press Secretary |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>

In 2005 King Abdullah expressed his intentions of making Jordan a democratic country.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4213699.stm |title=Jordan edging towards democracy |publisher=BBC News |date=2005-01-27 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Thus far, however, democratic development has been limited, with the monarchy maintaining most power and its allies dominating parliament. Elections were held in November 2010, and following the [[Arab Spring]] which started in 2011, a new prime minister was appointed. In June 2011 the King has announced a move to a British style of [[Westminster System|Cabinet Government]].

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Jordan}}
[[File:Sakebrajeb.jpg|thumb|The mountains of [[Jerash Governorate]]]]
[[File:AqabaVueDeLaMer.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Gulf of Aqaba]] is named after the historic port of [[Aqaba]]]]
Jordan lies between latitudes [[29th parallel north|29°]] and [[34th parallel north|34° N]], and longitudes [[35th meridian east|35°]] and [[40th meridian east|40° E]] (a small area lies west of 35°). It consists of an arid plateau in the east, irrigated by oasis and seasonal water streams, with highland area in the west of arable land and Mediterranean evergreen forestry.

The [[Jordan Rift Valley]] of the [[Jordan River]] separates Jordan from Palestine and Israel. The highest point in the country is [[Jabal Umm al Dami]], at {{convert|1854|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} above sea level, its top is also covered with snow, while the lowest is the [[Dead Sea]] {{convert|-420|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. Jordan is part of a region considered to be "the [[Civilization|cradle of civilization]]", the [[Levant]] region of the [[Fertile Crescent]].
Major cities include the capital [[Amman]] and [[as-Salt]] in the west, [[Irbid]], [[Jerash]] and [[Zarqa]], in the northwest and [[Madaba]], [[Al Karak|Karak]] and [[Aqaba]] in the southwest. Major towns in the eastern part of the of the country are the oasis town of [[Azraq]] and [[Ruwaished]].

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Jordan}}
The climate in Jordan is semi-dry in summer with average temperature in the mid {{convert|30|°C|0|abbr=on}} and relatively cold in winter averaging around {{convert|13|°C|°F|0|abbr=on}}. The western part of the country receives greater precipitation during the winter season from November to March and snowfall in Amman ({{convert|756|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} ~ {{convert|1280|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} above sea-level) and Western Heights of {{convert|500|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. Excluding the rift valley the rest of the country is entirely above {{convert|300|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}(SL).<ref name = "Jordan weather guide">{{cite web|url=http://www.vibramfive-fingers.com/vibram-five-fingers-classic-man-shoes |title=BBC World Weather – Country Guide:Jordan |publisher=Vibramfive-fingers.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>{{Spam link|date=January 2013}} The weather is humid from November to March and semi dry for the rest of the year. With hot, dry summers and cool winters during which practically all of the [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]] occurs, the country has a [[Mediterranean climate|Mediterranean-style climate]]. In general, the farther inland from the Mediterranean a given part of the country lies, the greater are the seasonal contrasts in temperature and the less rainfall.

==Politics and government==
{{main|Politics of Jordan|Government of Jordan}}
[[File:Abdullah II of Jordan, 2007March07 (cropped).jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Abdullah II of Jordan|King Abdullah II]], Jordanian Head of State.]]
[[File:Queenraniacopy8452.jpg|thumb|[[Queen Rania of Jordan]]]]
The [[Hashemite]] Kingdom of Jordan is a constitutional monarchy with an appointed government. The reigning monarch is the chief executive and the commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The king exercises his executive authority through the prime ministers and the Council of Ministers, or cabinet. The cabinet, meanwhile, is responsible before the democratically elected [[Chamber of Deputies of Jordan|House of Deputies]] which, along with the [[Senate of Jordan|House of Notables (Senate)]], constitutes the legislative branch of the government. The judicial branch is an independent branch of the government.

[[Abdullah II of Jordan|King Abdullah II]] succeeded his father Hussein following the latter's death in February 1999. Abdullah moved quickly to reaffirm Jordan's [[Israel-Jordan Treaty of Peace|peace treaty]] with [[Israel]] and its relations with the United States. Abdullah, during the first year in power, refocused the government's agenda on economic reform.

The [[Parliament of Jordan]] consists of two Chambers: The Chamber of Deputies (‘Majlis al-Nuwaab’) and the Senate (‘Majlis al-Aayan’; literally, ‘Assembly of Notables’). The Senate has 60 Senators, all of whom are directly appointed by the King,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.infoplease.com/country/profiles/jordan.html |title=US Department of State Background Note: Jordan |publisher=Infoplease.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-11}}</ref> while the Chamber of Deputies/House of Representatives has 120 elected members representing 12 constituencies.

During the suspension of Parliament between 2001 and 2003, the scope of King Abdullah II's power was demonstrated with the passing of 110 temporary laws. Two of these laws dealt with elections and were criticized as having the effect of reducing the power of Parliament.<ref>p.148 Parker, C. 2004 ‘Transformation without transition: electoral politics, network ties, and the persistence of the shadow state in Jordan’ in Elections in the Middle East: what do they mean’ Cairo Papers in Social Sciences Vol. 25 Numbers ½, Spring Summer 2002 Cairo</ref><ref>World Bank 2003 p.44 ‘Better governance for development in the Middle East(Country of the Camels) and North Africa: Enhancing inclusiveness and accountability’ Washington.</ref>

Senators have terms of four years and are appointed by the King and can be reappointed. Prospective Senators must be at least forty years old and have held senior positions in either the government or military. Appointed Senators have included former Prime Ministers and Members of the Chamber of Deputies. Deputies are elected to also serve a four-year term. Candidates must be older than thirty-five, cannot have blood ties to the King, and must not have any financial interests in government contracts.<ref>[http://www.lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+jo0103)] {{Dead link|date=January 2011}}</ref>

===Law===
{{main|Law of Jordan}}
[[File:Female police officer in Amman.JPG|thumb|A female police officer in [[Amman]]]]
Jordan's legal system is based on French code law system via the Egyptian civil laws while Islamic law is limited to civic status legislation for Muslims. Religious minority civic status is regulated by respective religious courts. Judicial review of legislative acts occurs in a special High Tribunal. It has not accepted [[International Court of Justice]] jurisdiction. The [[Constitution of Jordan]] was adopted on January 11, 1952 and has been amended many times.

Jordan has multi-party politics. There are over 30 political parties in Jordan from extreme left ([[Jordanian Communist Party]]) to extreme right ([[Islamic Action Front]]). Article 97 of Jordan's constitution guarantees the independence of the judicial branch, clearly stating that judges are 'subject to no authority but that of the law.' While the king must approve the appointment and dismissal of judges, in practice these are supervised by the Higher Judicial Council.

The Jordanian legal system draws upon civil traditions as well as Islamic law and custom. Article 99 of the Constitution divides the courts into three categories: civil, religious and special. The civil courts deal with civil and criminal matters in accordance with the law, and they have jurisdiction over all persons in all matters, civil and criminal, including cases brought against the government. The civil courts include Magistrate Courts, Courts of First Instance, Courts of Appeal, High Administrative Courts and the Supreme Court. The religious courts include shari’a (Islamic law) courts and the tribunals of other religious communities, namely those of the Christian minority. Religious courts have primary and appellate courts and deal only with matters involving personal law such as marriage, divorce, inheritance and child custody. Shari’a courts also have jurisdiction over matters pertaining to the Islamic waqfs. In cases involving parties of different religions, regular courts have jurisdiction.<ref name="kinghussein.gov.jo">{{cite web|author=Business Optimization Consultants B.O.C. |url=http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/government4.html#The%20Judicial%20Branch |title=Jordan – Government – The Judicial Branch |publisher=Kinghussein.gov.jo |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

Despite traditional male domination, the number of women lawyers has been increasing. As of mid-2006 Jordan had 1,284 female lawyers, out of a total number of 6,915, and 35 female judges from a total of 630.

[[Law enforcement in Jordan|Jordan's law enforcement]] ranked 24th in the world, 4th in the Middle East, in terms of police services' reliability in the Global Competitiveness Report. Jordan also ranked 13th in the world and 3rd in the Middle East in terms of prevention of organized crime, making it one of the safest countries in the world.<ref name="jordaninvestment.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.jordaninvestment.com/JordanataGlance/SecurityPoliticalStability/tabid/72/language/en-US/Default.aspx |title=Security & Political Stability |publisher=Jordaninvestment.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Jordan}}
[[File:Abdullah II.jpg|thumb|King Abdullah II on a visit to The Pentagon.]]
Jordan has followed a pro-Western foreign policy and maintained close relations with the United States and the United Kingdom. These relations were damaged by Jordan's neutrality and maintaining relations with Iraq during the first [[Gulf War]]. Following the Gulf War, Jordan largely restored its relations with Western countries through its participation in the Southwest Asia peace process and enforcement of UN sanctions against Iraq. Relations between Jordan and the Persian Gulf countries improved substantially after King Hussein's death.

Jordan is a key ally of the USA and, together with Egypt, one of only two Arab nations to have made peace with Israel.<ref>{{cite news |title=Peace first, normalcy with Israel later: Egypt |newspaper=Al Arabiya News Channel |date=17 August 2009 |url=http://www.alarabiya.net/articles/2009/08/17/82112.html |accessdate=10 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Mideast peace drive gets two-prong boost |newspaper=Hurriyet Daily News and Economic Review |date=18 August 2009 |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=mideast-peace-drive-gets-two-prong-boost-2009-08-18 |accessdate=1 April 2010}}</ref>

In Israel in 2009, several [[Likud]] lawmakers proposed a bill that called for a Palestinian state on both sides of the Jordan River, presuming that Jordan should be the alternative homeland for the Palestinians. Later, following similar remarks by the Israeli Speaker of the Knesset, twenty Jordanian lawmakers proposed a bill in the [[Parliament of Jordan|Jordanian Parliament]] in which the peace treaty between Israel and Jordan would be frozen. The Israeli Foreign Ministry disavowed the original proposal.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.monstersandcritics.com/news/middleeast/news/article_1492072.php/Jordanian_lawmakers_demand_freeze_of_peace_pact_with_Israel_ |title=Jordanian lawmakers demand freeze of peace pact with Israel |date=29 July 2009 |publisher=Monsters and Critics |accessdate=23 March 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Azoulay |first=Yuval |url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1088343.html |title=Israel disavows MK's proposal to turn West Bank over to Jordan – Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News |work=Haaretz |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Jordanian Armed Forces}}
[[File:Jordanarmyissa.jpg|thumb|left|Jordanian troops in a military parade in Amman]]
The Jordanian military enjoys strong support and aid from the United States, the United Kingdom and France. This is due to its critical position between Israel, the West Bank, Syria, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia with very close proximity to Lebanon and Egypt. The development of the [[Royal Special Forces|Special Operations Forces]] has been particularly significant, enhancing the capability of the forces to react rapidly to threats to state security, as well as training special forces from the region and beyond.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalresearch.ca/jordan-says-it-trained-2-500-afghan-special-forces/19149 |title=Jordan Says It Trained 2,500 Afghan Special Forces |publisher=Globalresearch.ca |date=13 May 2010 |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5ijjb8xn57wfIS3SSG1it64ydGeZg |title=AFP: Jordan trained 2,500 Afghan special forces: minister |publisher=Google |date=12 May 2010 |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref>

There are about 50,000 Jordanian troops working with the United Nations in [[peacekeeping]] missions across the world. These soldiers provide everything from military defense, training of native police, medical help, and charity. Jordan ranks third internationally in taking part in UN peacekeeping missions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zawya.com/story.cfm/sidZAWYA20110426042611/Jordan_working_to_achieve_comprehensive_reform_in_all_fields |title=Bakhit highlighted that Jordan ranks third internationally in taking part in UN peacekeeping missions. |publisher=Zawya.com |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>

Jordan has dispatched several field hospitals to conflict zones and areas affected by natural disasters across the world such as [[Iraq]], the West Bank, [[Lebanon]], Afghanistan, [[Haiti]], Indonesia, Congo, [[Liberia]], Ethiopia, [[Eritrea]], Sierra Leone and Pakistan. The Kingdom's field hospitals extended aid to more than one million people in Iraq, some one million in the West Bank and 55,000 in Lebanon. According to the military, there are Jordanian peacekeeping forces in Asia, Africa, Europe and Latin America. Jordanian Armed Forces field hospital in [[Afghanistan]] has since 2002 provided assistance to some 750,000 persons and has significantly reduced the suffering of people residing in areas where the hospital operates.In some missions, the number of Jordanian troops was the second largest, the sources said.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/09262007004.htm |title=Jordanian peacekeepers earn country good reputation |publisher=Jordanembassyus.org |date=26 September 2007 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> Jordan also provides extensive training of security forces in Iraq,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.strategypage.com/htmw/htsf/articles/20060514.aspx |title=Special Operations: Jordanians Train Iraqi Commandoes |publisher=Strategypage.com |date=14 May 2006 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> the [[Palestinian territories]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/06252004001.htm |title=Jordan ready to train Palestinians — King |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2012-12-31}}</ref> and the [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|GCC]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.menewsline.com/article-4380-Jordan-Trains-GCC-States.aspx |title=Jordan Trains GCC States – MiddleEastNewsline |publisher=Menewsline.com |date=19 August 2009 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

==Administrative divisions==
{{Location map+ |Jordan |width=280 |float=right |caption=Administrative centers in Jordan |places=
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=31.93658 |long=35.94570 |label=[[Amman]]|mark = Green pog.svg
| marksize = 10 |position=left}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.585|long=35.97 |label=[[Ar Ramtha]] |position=top}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.33045 |long=35.747 |label=[[Ajloun]] |position=left}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=31.16481|long=35.76188 |label=[[Al Karak|Karak]]}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=29.53192|long=35.00608 |label=[[Aqaba]] |position = bottom}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=31.833|long=36.83 |label=[[Azraq]]}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.20|long=35.58 |label=[[Deir Alla]] |position = left}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.53|long=35.85715 |label=[[Irbid]] |position=left}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.27690|long=35.90555 |label=[[Jerash]]}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=31.71954|long=35.79411 |label=[[Madaba]] |position = left}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.40|long=36.26 |label=[[Mafraq]]}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=30.15|long=35.8 |label=[[Ma'an]]}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.50|long=38.25 |label=[[Ruwaished]] |position= bottom}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.0177|long=36.0464 |label=[[Russeifa]] |position= right}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=30.52|long=35.55 |label=[[Shoubak]]}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=30.85|long=35.70 |label=[[Tafilah]]}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=30.33|long=35.45 |label=[[Petra]]}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.03333|long=35.73333 |label=[[Salt, Jordan|Salt]] |position=left}}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=29.55|long=35.45 |label=[[Wadi Rum]] }}
{{Location map~ |Jordan |lat=32.081|long=36.1059 |label=[[Zarqa]]|position=right}}
}}
Jordan is divided into 12 provinces named [[Governorates of Jordan|Governorates]], which are sub-divided into 54 departments or districts named [[Nahias of Jordan|Nahias]].
{| style="background:none; font-size:95%;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|- valign="top"
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Governorate !! Capital !! Region
|-
| [[Ajloun Governorate]] || [[Ajloun]] || North
|-
| [[Aqaba Governorate]] || [[Aqaba]] || South
|-
| [[Balqa Governorate]] || [[Salt, Jordan|Salt]] || Central
|-
| [[Amman Governorate|Capital Governorate]] || [[Amman]] || Central
|-
| [[Irbid Governorate]] || [[Irbid]] || North
|-
| [[Jerash Governorate]] || [[Jerash]] || North
|}
|
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Governorate !! Capital !! Location
|-
| [[Karak Governorate]] || [[Al Karak]] || South
|-
| [[Ma'an Governorate]] || [[Ma'an]] || South
|-
| [[Madaba Governorate]] || [[Madaba]] || Central
|-
| [[Mafraq Governorate]] || [[Mafraq]] || North
|-
| [[Tafilah Governorate]] || [[Tafilah]] || South
|-
| [[Zarqa Governorate]] || [[Zarqa]] || Central
|}
|style="padding-top:8px;"|
|}

==Human rights==
{{Main|Human rights in Jordan}}
The 2010 Arab Democracy Index from the Arab Reform Initiative ranked Jordan first in the state of democratic reforms out of fifteen Arab countries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/middle-east/Report-Card-on-Democratic-Reforms-in-Arab-World-Issued-89461557.html |title=Report Card on Democratic Reforms in Arab World Issued |publisher=Voice of America (VOANews.com) |date=29 March 2010 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

Jordan ranked 141 out of 196 countries worldwide, earning "Not Free" status in [[Freedom House]]'s 2011 [[Freedom of the Press (report)|Freedom of the Press 2011 report]].<ref name="Freedom House">{{cite web |url=http://freedomhouse.org/images/File/fop/2011/FOTP2011GlobalRegionalTables.pdf |title=Freedom of the Press 2011-Regional Tables |publisher=Freedom House |date=2 May 2011 |accessdate=20 May 2011}}{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref> Jordan had the 5th freest press of 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Civil liberties and political rights scored 5 and 6 respectively in Freedom House's [[Freedom in the World|Freedom in the World 2011 report]], where 1 is most free and 7 is least free. This earned Jordan "Not Free" status.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=22&country=8064&year=2011 |title=Freedon in the World: Country Report for Jordan |publisher=Freedom House |date=13 January 2011 |accessdate=20 May 2011}}</ref> Jordan ranked ahead of 6, behind 4, and the same as 8 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region.

In the [[Press Freedom Index|2010 Press Freedom Index]] maintained by [[Reporters Without Borders]], Jordan ranked 120th out of 178 countries listed, 5th out of the 20 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region. Jordan's score was 37 on a scale from 0 (most free) to 105 (least free).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.rsf.org/press-freedom-index-2010,1034.html |title=Press Freedom Index 2010 |publisher=Reporters Without Borders |date=2010-10-28 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>

Jordan ranked 6th among the 19 countries in the Middle East and North Africa region, and 50th out of 178 countries worldwide in the 2010 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] (CPI) issued by [[Transparency International]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results |title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2010 Results |publisher=Transparency International |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Jordan's 2010 CPI score was 4.7 on a scale from 0 (highly corrupt) to 10 (very clean). Jordan ratified the [[United Nations Convention against Corruption]] (UNCAC) in February 2005<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/treaties/CAC/signatories.html |title=Signatories to the United Nations Convention against Corruption |publisher=United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime |date=2011-05-01 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> and has been a regional leader in spearheading efforts to promote the UNCAC and its implementation.<ref name="jordaninvestment.com"/>

In response to domestic and regional unrest, in February 2011 [[Abdallah II of Jordan|King Abdallah]] replaced his prime minister and formed a National Dialogue Commission with a reform mandate. The King told the new prime minister to "take quick, concrete and practical steps to launch a genuine political reform process", "to strengthen democracy," and provide Jordanians with the "dignified life they deserve."<ref>{{cite news|last=Derhally |first=Massoud A |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-02-01/jordan-s-prime-minister-rifai-resigns-king-asks-bakhit-to-form-government.html |title=Jordan's King Abdullah Replaces Prime Minister |publisher=Bloomberg |date=1 February 2011|accessdate=1 February 2011}}</ref> The King called for an "immediate revision" of laws governing politics and public freedoms.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://apnews.myway.com//article/20110201/D9L410G00.html |title=Jordan's king fires Cabinet amid protests |publisher=Apnews.myway.com |accessdate=1 February 2011}}</ref> Initial reports say that this effort has started slowly and that several "fundamental rights" are not being addressed.<ref>{{cite web|author=by   Christoph Wilcke |url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/03/08/jordan-measure-reform |title=Jordan: A Measure of Reform |publisher=Hrw.org |date=2011-03-08 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Jordan}}
[[File:Jordan Export Treemap.jpg|thumb|Graphical depiction of Jordan 's product exports in 28 color coded categories.]]
Jordan is classified by the [[World Bank]] as an "upper middle income country."<ref name="data.worldbank.org"/> According to the Heritage Foundation's [[Index of Economic Freedom]], Jordan has the third freest economy in the Middle East and North Africa, behind only [[Bahrain]] and [[Qatar]], and the 32nd freest in the world.<ref name="heritage.org"/> Jordan ranked as having the 35th best infrastructure in the world, according to the World Economic Forum's Index of Economic Competitiveness. The Kingdom scored higher than many of its peers in the Persian Gulf and Europe like [[Kuwait]], [[Israel]]. and [[Ireland]].<ref name="www3.weforum.org">{{cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GlobalCompetitivenessReport_2010-11.pdf |title=The Global Competitiveness Report 2010–2011 |publisher=World Economic Forum |date= |accessdate=2013-01-07}}</ref> The 2010 AOF Index of Globalization ranked Jordan as the most globalized country in the Middle East and North Africa region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://globalization.kof.ethz.ch/static/pdf/rankings_2010.pdf |title=2010 KOF Index of Globalization |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2013-01-07}}</ref> Jordan's banking sector is classified as "highly developed" by the IMF along with the GCC economies and Lebanon <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/med/2003/eng/creane/index.htm |title=Financial Development in the Middle East and North Africa |publisher=Imf.org |date=2003-09-05 |accessdate=2012-12-31}}</ref>

The official currency in Jordan is the [[Jordanian dinar]] and divides into 100 qirsh (also called piastres) or 1000 fils. Since 23 October 1995, the dinar has been officially pegged to the IMF's [[special drawing rights]] (SDRs). In practice, it is fixed at 1 US$ = 0.709 dinar, which translates to approximately 1 dinar = 1.41044 dollars.<ref>{{cite web|title=Exchange Rate Fluctuations|url=http://www.pmu.gov.jo/FinanceExcahngeratefulc.htm|publisher=Programme Management Unit|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20040719135641/http://www.pmu.gov.jo/FinanceExcahngeratefulc.htm|archivedate=2004-07-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://users.erols.com/kurrency/asia.htm |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20090224194704/http://users.erols.com/kurrency/asia.htm |archivedate=2009-02-24 |title=Tables of modern monetary history: Asia |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=2009-02-24 |accessdate=2013-01-07}}</ref> The Central Bank buys US dollars at 0.708 dinar, and sell US dollars at 0.7125 dinar,Exchangers buys US dollars at 0.708 and sell US dollars at 0.709.<ref>[http://www.jftp.gov.jo/Docs/JOR2R3-Domestic%20support.pdf Report of the Working Party on the Accession of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to the World Trade Organization]</ref>

The Jordanian market is considered one of the most developed Arab market outside the Gulf states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://al-shorfa.com/cocoon/meii/xhtml/en_GB/features/meii/features/main/2011/05/19/feature-03 |title=Jordan's accession to GCC garners mixed reactions in Qatar |publisher=Al-Shorfa |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> Jordan ranked 18th on the 2012 Global Retail Development Index which lists the 30 most attractive retail markets in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.atkearney.com/documents/10192/4799f4e6-b20b-4605-9aa8-3ef451098f8a |title=Global Retail Expansion: Keeps On Moving |publisher=A.T. Kearney |date= |accessdate=2013-01-07}}</ref> Jordan was ranked as the 19th most expensive country in the world to live in 2010 and the most expensive Arab country to live in.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pandaravadai.com/docs/Misc/MostOfTheMost.PDF |title=Most Expensive Countries to Live in |format=PDF |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref>

Jordan has been a member of the [[World Trade Organization]] since 2000.<ref name="oxford19">{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/country.asp?country=19 |title=Jordan: Country Profile – Geography, History, Government and Politics, Population and Economy |publisher=Oxfordbusinessgroup.com |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070621173535/http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/country.asp?country=19 |archivedate = 21 June 2007}}</ref> In the 2009 Global Trade Enabling Report, Jordan ranked 4th in the Arab World behind the [[UAE]], Bahrain, and [[Qatar]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.weforum.org/en/initiatives/gcp/GlobalEnablingTradeReport/index.htm |title=World Economic Forum – Global Enabling Trade Report |publisher=Weforum.org |date=19 May 2010 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref> The Free Trade Agreement (FTA) with the United States<ref name = "JUSFTA">{{cite web|url=http://www.jordanusfta.com/ |title=Jordan-US FTA |publisher=Jordan-US FTA |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> that went into effect in December 2001 will phase out duties on nearly all goods and services by 2010.

The proportion of skilled workers in Jordan is among the highest in the region.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://jobs.timesonline.co.uk/document/5c1b56fe-503a-40ff-ab4e-28aaf71ec6c6.pdf|work=The Times|location=London}}</ref> Many of the world’s major software and hardware IT companies are present in Jordan. The presence of such firms underlines Jordan’s attractiveness as a stable base with high-calibre human resources from which to serve the wider region.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/news/central-server-country-becoming-base-regional-operations-0 |title=A central server: The country is becoming a base for regional operations | ICT | Jordan |publisher=Oxford Business Group |date= |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref> According to a report published in January 2012 by the founder of venture capital firm Finaventures, Rachid Sefraoui, Amman is one of the top 10 best cities in the world to launch a tech start-up.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/news/programing-potential-rising-penetration-levels-spur-new-focus-sector-0 |title=Programing potential: Rising penetration levels spur new focus on the sector | ICT | Jordan |publisher=Oxford Business Group |date= |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref>

Jordan has high unemployment rates, 11.9% in the fourth quarter of 2010 but some estimate it to be as high as a quarter of the working-age population.<ref>{{cite web|title=Unemployment down to 11.9% in Q4|url=http://jordantimes.com/index.php?news=32978|publisher=The Jordan Times|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110501123428/http://jordantimes.com/index.php?news=32978|archivedate=2011-05-01}}</ref> An estimated 13.3% of citizens live under the poverty line.<ref>{{cite web|author=Suha Philip Ma'ayeh |url=http://www.thenational.ae/news/worldwide/middle-east/thousands-protest-in-jordan-for-third-week |title=Thousands protest in Jordan for third week – The National |publisher=Thenational.ae |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> Since the mid 1970s, migrants’ remittances are Jordan’s most important source of foreign exchange, and a decisive factor in the country’s economic development and the rising standard of living of the population.<ref name="N. Zaqqa 2006, p. 11"/> According to the [[National Labor Committee]], a U.S.-based NGO (Non-Governmental Organization), Jordan has experienced sharp increases in [[sweatshop]] conditions in its export-oriented [[manufacturing]] sector.<ref name="NLCNet">[http://www.nlcnet.org/live/searchresults.php?country=Jordan NLCNet]{{dead link|date=December 2010}}.</ref>

[[Agriculture in Jordan]] constituted almost 40% of GNP in the early 1950s; on the eve of the June 1967 War, it was 17%.<ref name="LOC">{{cite web|author=Chapin Metz, Helen|url=http://countrystudies.us/jordan/51.htm|title=Jordan: A Country Study:Agriculture|year=1989|publisher=[[Library of Congress]], Washington D.C.|accessdate=4 February 2009}}</ref> By the mid-1980s, agriculture's share of [[GNP]] in Jordan was only about 6%.<ref name="LOC"/>

Jordan hosts [[Special Operations Forces Exhibition|SOFEX]], the world's fastest growing and region’s only special operations and homeland security exhibition and conference.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sofexjordan.com |title=SOFEX Jordan |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2013-01-07}}</ref> Jordan is a regional and international provider of advanced military goods and services.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaddb-ipark.com/Public/English.aspx?Site_ID=1&Page_ID=843 |title=KADDB Industrial Park|publisher=Kaddb-ipark.com |date=9 October 2009 |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref> The KADDB Industrial Park, specialized in defense manufacturing, was opened in September 2009 in Mafraq. By 2015, the park is expected to provide around 15,000 job opportunities whereas the investment volume is expected to reach JD500 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kaddb-ipark.com/ |title=:: KADDB Industrial Park :: |publisher=Kaddb-ipark.com |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref> A report by [[Strategic Foresight Group]] has calculated the opportunity [[cost of conflict]] for the Middle East from 1991 to 2010 at $12 trillion. Jordan's share in this is almost $84 billion.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.strategicforesight.com/Cost%20of%20Conflict%20-%206%20pager.pdf |title=Cost of conflict in the Middle East |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>

Jordan has a 138% mobile phone penetration rate<ref>http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/economic_updates/jordan-fourth-telecoms-provider</ref> and a 63% internet penetration rate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jordantimes.com/ministry-preparing-to-develop-new-ict-strategy |title=Ministry preparing to develop new ICT strategy |publisher=The Jordan Times |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telecompaper.com/news/jordan-seeks-new-operators-in-spectrum-tender--912539 |title=Jordan seeks new operators in spectrum tender |publisher=Telecompaper |date=2012-12-06 |accessdate=2012-12-31}}</ref> 41.6% of all mobile phones in Jordan are smartphones, compared with 40% in the United States and 26% in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/online_mobile/40-percent-of-u-s-mobile-users-own-smartphones-40-percent-are-android/ |title=40 Percent of U.S. Mobile Users Own Smartphones; 40 Percent are Android | Nielsen Wire |publisher=Blog.nielsen.com |date=1 September 2011 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052702303302504577323440878296190.html | work=The Wall Street Journal | first=Ben | last=Rooney | title=Internet in Middle East Still Short of Its Potential}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.menafn.com/menafn/1093491626/Jordan-Local-firm-to-develop-games-for-BlackBerry-smartphone-PlayBook-users |title=Jordan- Local firm to develop games for BlackBerry smartphone, PlayBook users – middle east north africa financial network |publisher=MENAFN |date=30 June 2012 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> 97% of Jordanian households own at least one television set while 90% have satellite reception.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nytimes.com/2011/09/15/world/middleeast/jordanians-debate-role-of-press.html?pagewanted=all | work=The New York Times | first=Rana F. | last=Sweis | title=Jordanians Debate Role of Press | date=14 September 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Name * |url=http://english.business.jo/mobile-phone-penetration-reaches-120-per-cent/ |title=Mobile phone penetration reaches 120 per cent | Jordan Business News | Amman Social Business Events | Press Release & opinions |publisher=English.business.jo |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>
Furthermore, 61% of Jordanian households own at least one personal computer or laptop.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ameinfo.com/study-61-jordanian-households-computers-305639 |title=Study says 61% of Jordanian households have computers | Technology |publisher=AMEinfo.com |date=20 June 2012 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="jordantimes.com">{{cite news |url=http://www.jordantimes.com/?news=27413 |title=Domestic Internet penetration increases in 2010 |author=Hani Hazaimeh |newspaper=[[The Jordan Times]] |date=13 June 2010 |accessdate=10 November 2010}}</ref> Also, Jordan has one of the highest levels of peacekeeping troop contributions of all U.N. member states.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.atkearney.com/index.php/News-media/hong-kong-jordan-and-estonia-debut-among-the-top-10-in-expanded-ranking-of-the-worlds-most-globalized-countries.html |title=Hong kong, jordan, and estonia debut among the top 10 in expanded ranking of the world's most globalized countries | News & media |publisher=Atkearney.com |date=22 October 2007 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

According to an investment survey, Jordan ranked as the 9th best outsourcing destination worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.menafn.com/qn_news_story_s.asp?StoryId=1093280320 |title=Survey: Global Investment House after last year's drop |publisher=Menafn.com |date=21 March 2010 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> Amman is one of the top 10 cities in the world to launch a tech start-up in 2012 and is becoming referred to as the "Silicon Valley of the Middle East".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-02-06/cohan-jordan-vc-firms-forging-mideast-silicon-valley.html | work=Bloomberg | first=William D. | last=Cohan | title=Jordan VC Firms Forging Mideast Silicon Valley: William D. Cohan | date=5 February 2012}}</ref>

Jordan has hosted the World Economic Forum on the Middle East and North Africa six times and plans to hold it again at the Dead Sea for the seventh time in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jordantimes.com/jordan-to-host-world-economic-forum-in-2013 |title=Jordan to host World Economic Forum in 2013 |publisher=The Jordan Times |date= |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref> Amman also hosts the Mercedes Benz Fashion Week semiannually and is the only city in the region to hold such a prestigious event that is usually held by the likes of [[New York]], [[Paris]], and [[Milan]].<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/11/09/248539.html |title=Fashion week kicks off in Amman |publisher=English.alarabiya.net |date=2012-11-09 |accessdate=2012-12-31}}</ref>

===Natural resources===
[[File:Aqaba Railway Corporation BW 1.JPG|left|thumb|A phosphate train at Ram station]]
[[rock phosphate|Phosphate]] mines in the south have made Jordan one of the largest producers and exporters of this mineral in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordanphosphate.com/Content/PC/PageContent.aspx?ItemID=2 |title=Jordan Phosphate Mines Co |publisher=Jordanphosphate.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sulphuric-acid.com/Sulphuric-Acid-on-the-Web/Acid%20Plants/Jordan%20Phosphate%20-%20Aqaba.htm |title=Jordan Phosphate – Aqaba |publisher=Sulphuric-acid.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/article-1G1-72118642/phosphate-exports-jordan.html |title=Article: PHOSPHATE EXPORTS BY JORDAN. | AccessMyLibrary – Promoting library advocacy |publisher=AccessMyLibrary |date=22 September 2000 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/new/aboutjordan/er5.shtml |title=Embassy of Jordan (Washington, D.C.) |publisher=Jordanembassyus.org |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/jordan/50.htm |title=Jordan – Natural Resources |publisher=Countrystudies.us |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

Four nuclear power plants are planned with the first one to be operational in 2019.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petra.gov.jo/Public_News/Nws_NewsDetails.aspx?Site_Id=1&lang=2&NewsID=43782&CatID=13&Type=Home&GType=1 |title=Jordan News Agency (Petra) |Jordan to produce Uranium by 2013, says minister |publisher=Petra |date=21 September 2011 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>

Since the beginning of 2010, the government of Jordan has been seeking approval from the US for producing nuclear fuel from Jordan's uranium for use in nuclear power plants that Jordan plans to build. According to ''[[Haaretz]]'', Jordan learned that the US position is essentially the Israeli position, and the US has rejected Jordan's request for approval.<ref>{{cite web|last=Bar |first=Zvi |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/who-s-afraid-of-the-jordanian-atom-1.300485 |title=Who's Afraid of the Jordanian Atom? |publisher=Haaretz |date=2010-07-07 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>

Natural gas was discovered in Jordan in 1987, and the estimated size of the reserve discovered was about 230 billion cubic feet, and quantities are very modest compared with its neighbours. It was the development of the Risha field in the Eastern Desert beside the Iraqi border, and the field produces nearly 30 million cubic feet of gas a day, to be sent to a nearby power plant to produce nearly 10% of the Jordan's Electric needs.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mafhoum.com/press3/105E12.htm |title=Jordan |publisher=Mafhoum.com |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>

Despite the fact that reserves of crude oil are non-commercial, Jordan possesses one of the world's richest stockpiles of oil shale where there are huge quantities that could be commercially exploited in the central and northern regions west of the country. The moisture content and ash within is relatively low. And the total thermal value is 7.5 megajoules/kg, and the content of ointments reach 9% of the weight of the organic content.<ref>Arab Petroleum Research Center, 2003, Jordan, in Arab oil & gas directory 2003: Paris, France, Arab Petroleum Research Center, pp. 191–206.</ref> A switch to power plants operated by oil shale has the potential to reduce Jordan's energy bill by at least 40–50 per cent, according to the National Electric Power Company.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jordantimes.com/?news=19601 |title=Oil shale ventures to create thousands of jobs |newspaper=[[The Jordan Times]] |date=30 August 2009 |accessdate=15 June 2010}} {{Dead link|date=November 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

===Standard of living===
Jordan is one of the most liberal countries in the Middle East with a secular government.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/jordan/091028/film-jordan-petra-spielberg-hollywood?page=0,0 |title=Jordan's budding film industry |publisher=Globalpost.com |date=2 November 2009 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> In the 2010 Human Development Index, Jordan was placed in the "high human development" bracket and came 7th among Arab countries, after the Persian Gulf states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table1_reprint.pdf |title=Human Development Index and its components |publisher=undp.org |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> The 2010 Quality of Life Index prepared by [[International Living|''International Living'' magazine]] ranked Jordan second in the MENA with 55.0 points after Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=1&categ_id=3&article_id=110313 |title=Business Articles – Lebanon 4th on MENA Quality of Life Index |publisher=The Daily Star |date=5 January 2010 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

Decades of political stability and security and strict law enforcement make Jordan one of the top 10 countries worldwide in security.<ref name="jordaninvestment.com"/> In the 2010 Newsweek "World's Best Countries" list, Jordan ranked 53rd worldwide, and 3rd among Arab countries after Kuwait and the UAE.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/2010/08/15/interactive-infographic-of-the-worlds-best-countries.html |title=Interactive Infographic of the World's Best Countries |work=Newsweek |date=15 August 2010 |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref> Jordan is also among the top ten countries whose citizens feel safest walking the streets at night.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prosperity.com/country.aspx?id=JO |title=The 2011 Legatum Prosperity Index |publisher=Prosperity.com |accessdate=26 July 2012}}{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref>

88% of the population has medical insurance, the remaining 12% are covered under Royal makruma.<ref name="ReferenceB">{{cite web |url=http://www.jordaninvestment.com/default.aspx?tabid=76&language=en-US# |title=People & Talent |publisher=Jordaninvestment.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> As of 2011, 63% of working Jordanians are insured with the Social Security Corporation, as well as 120,000 foreigners, with plans to include the rest of Jordanian workers both inside and outside the kingdom as well as students, housewives, business owners, and the unemployed. Only 1.6% of Jordanians make less than $2 a day, one of the lowest in the developing world according to the Human Poverty Index.<ref>{{cite web|title=20,000 workers included under Social Security umbrella since May|url=http://www.jordantimes.com/index.php?news=39181|publisher=Jordan Times|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20111214144736/http://www.jordantimes.com/index.php?news=39181|archivedate=2011-12-14}}</ref>

In the 2010 Gallup Global Wellbeing Survey, 30% of Jordanians described their financial situation as "thriving", surpassed most of the Arab countries with the exception of [[Qatar]], the United Arab Emirates, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/147167/high-wellbeing-eludes-masses-countries-worldwide.aspx |title=High Wellbeing Eludes the Masses in Most Countries Worldwide |publisher=Gallup.com |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> In 2008, the Jordanian government launched the "Decent Housing for a Decent Living" project aimed at building 120,000 affordable housing units within the next 5 years, plus an additional 100,000 housing units if the need arises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/512281-jordan-unveils-7bn-housing-project |title=Jordan unveils $7bn housing project – Real Estate |publisher=ArabianBusiness.com |date=27 February 2008 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Jordan}}

[[File:Treasury Petra.jpg|thumb|left|[[Petra]], one of the [[New Seven Wonders of the World]]]]
Tourism accounted for 10%–12% of the country's Gross National Product in 2006. In 2010, there were 8 million visitors to Jordan. The result was $3.4 billion in tourism revenues, $4.4 billion if medical tourists are included.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chambermag.com/en/details.asp?t=05&yearmonthid=33&idno=25 |title=Periodical Islamic Chamber Of Commerce & Industry Magazine |publisher=Chambermag.com |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> Jordan offers everything from world-class historical and cultural sites like [[Petra]] and [[Jerash]] to modern entertainment in urban areas most notably [[Amman]]. Moreover, seaside recreation is present in [[Aqaba]] and [[Dead Sea]] through numerous international resorts. Eco-tourists have numerous nature reserves to choose from as like [[Dana Nature Reserve]]. Religious tourists visit [[Mt. Nebo]], the Baptist Site, and the mosaic city of [[Madaba]].

Jordan has nightclubs, discothèques and bars in Amman, Irbid, Aqaba, and many 4 and 5-star hotels. Furthermore, beach clubs are also offered at the [[Dead Sea]] and Aqaba. Jordan played host to the Petra Prana Festival in 2007 which celebrated Petra's win as one of the New Seven Wonders of the World with world-renowned DJs like [[Tiesto]] and [[Sarah Main]]. The annual Distant Heat festival in [[Wadi Rum]] and Aqaba ranked as one of the world's top 10 raves.
[[File:Baptism Site.jpg|thumb|right|Excavated remains of [[Bethabara]], Jordan, where [[John the Baptist]] is believed to have conducted his ministry.]]

The kingdom is home to several water parks for tourism purposes, and the capital alone has over 17,000 private swimming pools.<ref>http://www.jordantimes.com/index.php?news=28083</ref> [[Nature reserves in Jordan]] include the [[Dana Biosphere Reserve]], [[Azraq Wetland Reserve]], [[Shaumari Wildlife Reserve]] and [[Wadi Mujib|Mujib Nature Reserve]].

====Medical tourism====
Jordan has been a [[medical tourism]] destination in the Middle East since the 1970s. A study conducted by [[Private Hospitals Association (Jordan)|Jordan's Private Hospitals Association (PHA)]] found that 250,000 patients from 102 countries received treatment in the kingdom in 2010, compared to 190,000 in 2007, bringing over $1 billion in revenue. It is the region's top medical tourism destination as rated by the [[World Bank]], and fifth in the world overall.<ref>{{cite web|author=Health Tourism Destinations says: |url=http://medicaltourismguide.com/2009/04/07/jordan-top-medical-tourism-destination-in-the-arab-world/ |title=Jordan: Top Medical Tourism Destination in the Arab World |publisher=medicaltourismguide.com |date=19 April 2009 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Associated |first=The |url=http://www.haaretz.com/news/jordan-launches-medical-tourism-advertising-campaign-in-u-s-1.279922 |title=Jordan launches medical tourism advertising campaign in U.S. – Haaretz Daily Newspaper | Israel News |work=Haaretz |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.medicaltourismco.com/jordan-hospitals/medical-tourism-jordan.php |title=Medical Tourism Jordan – Jordan Health Travel – Jordan Medical Tourism |publisher=Medicaltourismco.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

It is estimated that Jordan received 50,000 Libyan patients and 80,000 Syrian refugees, who also sought treatment in Jordanian hospitals, in the first six months of 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theworld.org/2012/03/libya-civil-war-jordan/ |title=Libyan Fighters Recuperating In Jordan | PRI's The World |publisher=Theworld.org |date=2 March 2012 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>

Jordan's main focus of attention in its marketing effort are the ex-Soviet states, Europe, and America.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ameinfo.com/219214.html |title=Jordan pushes medical tourism industry | Middle East News |publisher=AMEinfo.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> Most common medical procedures on Arab and foreign patients included organ transplants, open heart surgeries, infertility treatment, laser vision corrections, bone operations and cancer treatment.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/new/newsarchive/2011/02202011003.htm |title=Kingdom’s medical tourism sector cracks global top five |publisher=Jordanembassyus.org |date=20 February 2011 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>

===Transportation===
{{Main|Transport in Jordan}}
[[File:Royaljord.a310-300.f-odvi.750pix.jpg|thumb|A Royal Jordanian [[Airbus A310-300]]]]
Being that Jordan is a transit country for goods and services to the [[Palestinian territories]] and [[Iraq]], Jordan maintains a well-developed transportation infrastructure. Jordan ranked as having the 35th best infrastructure in the world, one of the highest rankings in the developing world, according to the World Economic Forum's Index of Economic Competitiveness. It even scored higher than several developed countries like [[Israel]], Italy, Ireland, Greece and it was only two places behind the United Kingdom. Regionally, Jordan scored higher than [[Qatar]], [[Turkey]], and [[Kuwait]].<ref name="www3.weforum.org"/>

The Port of Aqaba was ranked as having the "Best Container Terminal" in the Middle East in 2006 by Lloyds List.<ref>{{cite web|author=ASC Staff |url=http://www.arabiansupplychain.com/article-76-top-10-middle-east-ports/4/#.UNdNYLRVjR0 |title=Top 10 Middle East Ports |publisher=ArabianSupplyChain.com |date=2006-10-31 |accessdate=2012-12-31}}</ref>

There are three commercial airports, all receiving and sending international commercial flights, two of them in [[Amman]] and the third is located in the city of [[Aqaba]]. The largest airport in the country is [[Queen Alia International Airport]] in Amman that serves as the hub of the international airline [[Royal Jordanian]]. The airport is currently under significant expansion in a bid to make it the hub for the Levant. [[Amman Civil Airport]] was the country's main airport before it was replaced by [[Queen Alia Airport]] but it still serves several regional routes. [[King Hussein International Airport]] serves [[Aqaba]] with connections to Amman and several regional and international cities.

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Jordan}}
[[File:Jordan pop.png|thumb|200px|Graph showing the population of Jordan, 1960–2005]]
The Jordanian Department of Statistics estimated the 2011 population at 6,249,000.<ref name=popest2011>{{cite web|title=Population of the Kingdom by Sex According to the 1952, 1961, 1979 and 1994 Censuses, and Estimated Population for Some Selected Years (In 000)|url=http://www.dos.gov.jo/dos_home_e/main/ehsaat/alsokan/2011/2-1.pdf|publisher=Department of Statistics- Jordan}}</ref> In 2009, the population of Jordan was slightly over 6,300,000.<ref name="cia.gov">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jo.html |title=CIA World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref> There were 946,000 households in Jordan in 2004, with an average of 5.3 persons/household (compared to 6 persons/household for the census of 1994).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dos.gov.jo/census2004/page1.htm |title=النتائج الاولية للتعداد |publisher=Dos.gov.jo |accessdate=15 June 2010}}{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref>

A study published by [[Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza]] found that the Jordanian genetics are closest to the [[Assyrians]] among all other nations of Western Asia.<ref name="Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza">{{cite book |title=The history and geography of human genes |author=Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza |publisher=princeton University press}}</ref>

===Immigrants and refugees===
In 2007, there were 700,000–1,000,000 [[Refugees of Iraq|Iraqis]] in Jordan.<ref>{{cite web|last=Leyne |first=Jon |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/6293807.stm |title=Doors closing on fleeing Iraqis |publisher=BBC News |date=2007-01-24 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> Since the [[Iraq War]] many Christians ([[Assyrian people|Assyrians/Chaldeans]]) from [[Iraq]] have settled permanently or temporarily in Jordan. They could number as many as 500,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.catholiccourier.com/cc/index.cfm/news/world-nation/iraqi-refugees-in-jordan-are-guests-with-few-privileges/ |title=Iraqi refugees in Jordan are 'guests' with few privileges |author=Mark Pattison |publisher=Catholic Courier |date=2010-09-29 |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> There were also 15,000 Lebanese who emigrated to Jordan following the 2006 War with Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/08042006006.htm |title=15,000 Lebanese in Jordan following conflict – Bakhit |publisher=Jordanembassyus.org |date=4 August 2006 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>

There are 1,200,000 illegal and some 500,000 legal migrant workers in the Kingdom.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jordantimes.com/jordan-faces-challenge-of-meeting-migrants-health-demands----study |title=Jordan faces challenge of meeting migrants' health demands –– study |publisher=The Jordan Times |date=2012-08-28 |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref> Furthermore, there are thousands of foreign women working in nightclubs, hotels and bars across the kingdom, mostly from Eastern Europe and North Africa.<ref name="N. Zaqqa 2006, p. 11">N. Zaqqa; Economic Development and Export of Human Capital. A Contradiction? The impact of human capital migration on the economy of sending countries. A case study of Jordan; PhD thesis 2006, p. 11</ref><ref name="womendialogue1">{{cite web|author=Author: Rola Abimourched Published: 26 November 2010 |url=http://www.womendialogue.org/magazine/conditions-domestic-workers-middle-east |title=The conditions of domestic workers in the Middle East |publisher=WoMen Dialogue |date=26 November 2010 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.ammonnews.net/article.aspx?articleNO=11349 |title=3% of Nightclub women are Jordanian |publisher=En.ammonnews.net |date=19 January 2011 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>

Jordan is home to a relatively large American and European expatriate population concentrated mainly in the capital as the city is home to many international organizations and diplomatic missions that base their regional operations in Amman.<ref name="CIA World Factbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/jo.html#People |title=CIA – The World Fact book – Jordan |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=22 December 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3464.htm |title=People of Jordan |publisher=State.gov |date=19 January 2010 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

According to [[UNRWA]], Jordan was home to 1,951,603 [[Palestinian refugees]] in 2008, most of them Jordanian citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/unrwa/publications/index.html|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080713042517/http://www.un.org/unrwa/publications/index.html|archivedate=13 July 2008 |title=UNRWA Statistics |publisher=United Nations |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> 338,000 of them were living in UNRWA refugee camps.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unrwa.org |title=UNRWA |publisher=UNRWA |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> Jordan revoked the citizenship of thousands of Palestinians to thwart any attempt to resettle West Bank residents in Jordan. West Bank Palestinians with family in Jordan or Jordanian citizenship were issued yellow cards guaranteeing them all the rights of Jordanian citizenship. Palestinians living in Jordan with family in the West Bank were also issued yellow cards. All other Palestinians wishing such Jordanian papers were issued green cards to facilitate travel into Jordan.<ref>{{cite web|title=Amman revoking Palestinians' citizenship|url=http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1246443863400&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull|publisher=Jerusalem Post|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110429194852/http://fr.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1246443863400&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull|archivedate=2011-04-29}}</ref>

===Language===
{{Main|Jordanian Arabic}}
The official language is [[Arabic]]. English, though without an official status, is widely spoken throughout the country and is the de facto language of commerce and banking, as well as a co-official status in the education sector. The spoken language is [[Jordanian Arabic]]. [[Modern Standard Arabic]] and English are obligatorily learnt at public and most private schools with French being a less popular elective. Radio Jordan offers radio services in Arabic, English, and French. [[Armenian language|Armenian]] as well as [[Caucasian languages]] like [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Circassian]] and [[Chechen language|Chechen]], are understood and spoken by small communities residing in Jordan, with several schools teaching them.

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Jordan}}
[[File:Abu Darweesh Mosque.jpg|left|thumb|Abu Darweesh Mosque]]
{{Bar box
|title=[[Religion in Jordan]]<ref name=" CIA World Factbook " />
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Religion
|right1=Percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{Bar percent|[[Muslims]]|Green|90}}
{{Bar percent|Christians|Blue|8}}
{{Bar percent|Other|Yellow|2}}
}}
Islam is the official religion and approximately 92% of the population is Muslim, primarily of the [[Sunni]] branch of Islam.

Jordan has laws promoting religious freedom, but they fall short of protecting all minority groups. Muslims who convert to another religion as well as missionaries face societal and legal discrimination.

According to the 2010 [[Legatum Prosperity Index]], less than half of Jordanians regularly attend religious services (around 40%).<ref name="The 2011 Legatum Prosperity Index">{{cite web|url=http://www.prosperity.com/prosperiscope/ |title=The 2011 Legatum Prosperity Index |publisher=Prosperity.com |accessdate=26 July 2012}}{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref>

Jordan has an indigenous Christian minority. Christians made up 30% of the Jordanian population in 1950.<ref name=lat>{{cite news |first=Jeffrey|last=Fleishman|title=For Christian enclave in Jordan, tribal lands are sacred |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2009/may/10/world/fg-tribal-catholic10|work=Los Angeles Times|date=10 May 2009|accessdate=10 May 2009}}</ref>

Other religious minorities groups in Jordan include adherents to the [[Druze]] and [[Bahá'í Faith]]. The Druze are mainly located in the eastern oasis town of [[Azraq]], some villages on the [[Syrian]] border and the city of [[Zarka]], while the village Adassiyeh bordering the [[Jordan Rift Valley|Jordan Valley]] is home to Jordan's [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í]] community.

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Jordan|Jordanian cuisine|Sport in Jordan}}
[[File:Mansaf1 cropped.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mansaf]], the national dish of Jordan.<ref>{{cite web|author=Business Optimization Consultants B.O.C. |url=http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/facts3.html |title=Jordan – Jordanian Cuisine |publisher=Kinghussein.gov.jo |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>]]
[[File:Prince Ali Shot finalc.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Prince Ali bin Al Hussein]], Vice President of the [[FIFA]].]]

Although religion and tradition play an important part in modern-day Jordanian society, Jordanians live in a relatively secular society that is increasingly grappling with the effects of westernization and globalization. Jordan is considered one of the Arab World's most cosmopolitan and westernized countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rt.com/news/media-jordan-breaking-taboos/ |title=Westernized media in Jordan breaking old taboos – RT |publisher=Rt.com |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> 67% of Jordanian youth identify themselves as liberals, second highest in the Arab World after Lebanon.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabyouthsurvey.com/2010/files/AYS2010_Top_10_Findings_Top_5_Findings_2011.pdf |title=Third Annual ASDA’A Burson-Marsteller Arab Youth Survey |publisher=ASDA’A Burson-Marsteller |date= |accessdate=2013-01-07}}</ref>

According to the Center for Strategic Studies, 52% of Jordanians support a secular state in which religious practices were considered to be “private matters that must be differentiated from social and political life". 6% express indifference towards a secular state or a more religious one. 42% prefer more religious involvement in social and political life.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/culture/2012/09/jordan-muslim-brotherhood-islamists-salafists-sufis.html |title=How Jordan's Islamists Came to Dominate Society: An Evolution - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East |publisher=Al-Monitor |date= |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref> Furthermore, this is reflected in the religious habits of Jordanians. According to the 2010 Legatum Prosperity Index, less than half of Jordanians regularly attend religious services (around 40%), a moderate percentage in comparison to industrialized countries. However, this rate is among the lowest of all the Arab countries and it is one of the lowest in the entire Muslim World.<ref name="The 2011 Legatum Prosperity Index"/>

Although many people from different regions of the world have come to settle in Jordan, [[Ethnic groups in Europe|Europeans]] like the ([[Circassians]] and the [[Chechens]]) or other Middle Easterners like the [[Armenians]], they have long been assimilated in the society and added their richness to the society that subsequently developed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4yHeq6UZxf8 |title=The cuisine of the Jordanians by YouTube |publisher=''Youtube'' |date=14 January 2012 |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> However, the culture of Jordan, as in its spoken language, values, beliefs, ethnicity is Arab as the Kingdom is in the heart of Southwest Asia. Jordan has a very diverse cultural scene with many different artists, religious sects, and ethnic groups residing in the small country because of Jordan's reputation for stability and tolerance.

Jordan imports the overwhelming majority of its music, cinema, and other forms of entertainment from other countries most specifically other [[Arab]] countries like [[Lebanon]] and [[Egypt]] as well as by the West primarily the United States. However, there has been a rise of home-grown songs, music, art, movies and television, but they pale in comparison to the amount imported from abroad.

==Health==
{{main |Health in Jordan}}
Jordan prides itself on its health service, one of the best in the region.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14631981 |title=BBC News - Jordan profile - Overview |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=2012-11-18 |accessdate=2012-12-18}}</ref> Government figures have put total health spending in 2002 at some 7.5% of Gross domestic product (GDP), while international health organizations place the figure even higher, at approximately 9.3% of GDP. The country's health care system is divided between public and private institutions. In the public sector, the Ministry of Health operates 1,245 primary health-care centers and 27 hospitals, accounting for 37% of all hospital beds in the country; the military's Royal Medical Services runs 11 hospitals, providing 24% of all beds; and the Jordan University Hospital accounts for 3% of total beds in the country. The private sector provides 36% of all hospital beds, distributed among 56 hospitals. In 1 June 2007, Jordan Hospital (as the biggest private hospital) was the first general specialty hospital who gets the international accreditation [[JCAHO]].<ref name=cp>{{cite web|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Jordan.pdf |title=Jordan country profile |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref>

According to 2003 estimates, the rate of prevalence of [[human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immune deficiency syndrome]] (HIV/AIDS) was less than 0.1%. According to a [[United Nations Development Program]] report, Jordan has been considered [[malaria]]-free since 2001; cases of [[tuberculosis]] declined by half during the 1990s, but tuberculosis remains an issue and an area needing improvement. Jordan experienced a brief outbreak of [[Avian influenza|bird flu]] in March 2006. Noncommunicable diseases such as cancer also are a major health issue in Jordan. Childhood [[immunization]] rates have increased steadily over the past 15 years; by 2002 immunizations and [[vaccine]]s reached more than 95% of children under five.<ref name=cp/> About 86% of Jordanians had medical insurance in 2009, the Jordanian government planned to reach 100% in 2011.

The King Hussein Cancer Center is a leading cancer treatment center. Jordan was ranked by the World Bank to be the number one health care services provider in the region and among the top 5 in the world. In 2008, 250,000 patients sought treatment in the Kingdom including Iraqis, Palestinians, Sudanese, Syrians, [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|GCC]] citizens, Americans, Canadians, and Egyptians. Jordan earned almost $1 billion dollars in medical tourism revenues according to the [[World Bank]].

According to the [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]], life expectancy in Jordan is 80.18 years, the second highest in the region (after Israel).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html?countryName=Jordan&countryCode=jo&regionCode=mde&rank=29#jo |title=Life Expectancy ranks |publisher=CIA World Factbook |date= |accessdate=2013-01-17}}</ref> There were 203 physicians per 100,000 people in the years 2000–2004, a proportion comparable to many developed countries and higher than most of the developing world.<ref name="hdr.undp.org">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Indicator_tables.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2007/2008 |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2013-01-07}}</ref>

Water and sanitation, available to only 10% of the population in 1950, now reach 99% of Jordanians, according to government statistics. They also show that electricity reaches 99% of the population, as compared to less than 10% in 1955.<ref>{{cite web|author=Business Optimization Consultants B.O.C. |url=http://www.kinghussein.gov.jo/resources4.html |title=Jordan – Human Resources – A Healthy Population |publisher=Kinghussein.gov.jo |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref>

==Education==
{{Main|Education in Jordan}}
[[File:JUSTmed.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Medical halls of JUST as seen with [[King Abdullah University Hospital|KAUH]].]]
The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 92.6%.<ref name=unescolit>{{cite web|title=National adult literacy rates (15+), youth literacy rates (15-24) and elderly literacy rates (65+)|url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics}}</ref> The education system ranks number one in the Arab World and is one of the highest in the developing world.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jordan.usaid.gov/sectors.cfm?inSector=17 |title=USAID/ Jordan- Education |publisher=Jordan.usaid.gov |date=12 June 2006 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref> UNESCO ranked Jordan's education system 18th worldwide for providing gender equality in education.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.english.globalarabnetwork.com/200910213278/Culture/education-system-in-jordan-scoring-well.html |title=Education system in Jordan scoring well | Culture |publisher=[[Global Arab Network]] |date=21 October 2009 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> 20.5% of Jordan's total government expenditures goes to education compared to 2.5% in [[Turkey]] and 3.86% in [[Syria]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nationmaster.com/time.php?stat=edu_pub_spe_on_edu_tot_of_gdp-education-public-spending-total-gdp&country=sy-syria |title=Time Series > Education > Public spending on education, total > % of GDP > Syria |publisher=NationMaster |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.oxfordbusinessgroup.com/weekly01.asp?id=4663 |title=Emerging Markets Economic Briefings |publisher=Oxfordbusinessgroup.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite web |url=http://www.jordaninvestment.com/JordanataGlance/PeopleTalent/tabid/76/language/en-US/Default.aspx |title=People & Talent |publisher=Jordaninvestment.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> Secondary school enrollment has increased from 63% to 97% of high school aged students in Jordan and between 79% and 85% of high school students in Jordan move on to higher education.<ref name="www-wds.worldbank.org">{{cite web|url=http://www-wds.worldbank.org/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2009/01/30/000104615_20090203101235/Rendered/PDF/JO010ERfKE0II01aisal0Stage010Jan.28.pdf |title=Education Reform for the Knowledge Economy II |publisher=World Bank |date= |accessdate=2013-01-07}}</ref>

In Jordan there are 2,000 researchers per million people. The top performers in the world were Finland, Iceland, Sweden and Japan with 5,000 researchers per million.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nature |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v444/n7115/full/444026a.html |title=: Islam and Science: The data gap : Article |publisher=Nature |date=2 November 2006 |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> According to the Global Innovation Index 2011, Jordan is the 3rd most innovative economy in the Middle East, behind [[Qatar]] and the [[United Arab Emirates]].<ref>http://www.globalinnovationindex.org/gii/main/previous/2010-11/FullReport_10-11.pdf</ref>

The kingdom has 10 public and 16 private universities, in addition to some 54 community colleges, of which 14 are public, 24 private and others affiliated with the [[Jordanian Armed Forces|Jordan Armed Forces]], the Civil Defence Department, the ministry of health and UNRWA.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ameinfo.com/225199.html |title=Jordan raises admission scores for private universities | Education |publisher=AMEinfo.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> There are over 200,000 Jordanian students enrolled in universities each year. An additional 20,000 Jordanians pursue higher education abroad primarily in the United States and Great Britain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordaninvestment.com/IndustrySectors/InformationCommunicationTechnologySector/tabid/89/language/en-US/Default.aspx |title=ICT |publisher=Jordaninvestment.com |accessdate=15 June 2010}}</ref> Jordan is already home to several international universities such as [[German Jordanian University]], [[Columbia University]], [[NYIT]], [[DePaul University]], and the American University of Madaba. [[George Washington University]] is planning to establish a medical university in Jordan as well, with plans to make it a regional hub for the training of medical personnel in the Middle East and North Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edarabia.com/20974/george-washington-university-to-establish-medical-university-in-jordan/ |title=George Washington University to establish Medical University in Jordan |publisher=Edarabia.com |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref>

Jordan is the top contributor among all Arab countries in terms of internet content. 75% of all Arabic online content originates from Jordan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jordanembassyus.org/new/newsarchive/2011/06072011004.htm |title=75% of online Arabic content originates in Jordan |publisher=Jordanembassyus.org |date=2011-06-07 |accessdate=2012-12-31}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Geography||Asia|Southwest Asia|Middle East|Jordan}}
* [[Outline of Jordan]]
* [[Index of Jordan-related articles]]
* [[Art in Jordan]]
* [[Music of Jordan]]
* [[Public holidays in Jordan]]
* [[List of international rankings|International rankings]]

{{clear}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* El-Anis, Imad. ''Jordan and the United States: The Political Economy of Trade and Economic Reform in the Middle East'' (I.B. Tauris, distributed by Palgrave Macmillan; 2011) 320 pages; case studies of trade in textiles, pharmaceuticals, and financial services.
* Robins, Philip. ''A History of Jordan'' (2004).
* Ryan, Curt. "Jordan in Transition: From Hussein to Abdullah" (2002).
* Salibi, Kamal S. ''The Modern History of Jordan'' (1998).
* Teller, Matthew. ''The Rough Guide to Jordan'' (4th ed., 2009).
* Eran, Oded. ''The End of Jordan as We Know It?'', [http://israelcfr.com/documents/6-3/6-3-3-OdedEran.pdf Israel Journal of Foreign Affairs, Vol. 6, No. 3 (2012)]

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Jordan}}
*{{official website}} [http://www.jordan.gov.jo/wps/portal Government of Jordan]
* [http://www.jordanian.ws/ Jordanian! Answers – What's your question about Jordan]
* {{CIA World Factbook link|jo|Jordan}}
* {{GovPubs|jordan}}
* {{dmoz|Regional/Middle_East/Jordan}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14631981 Jordan profile] from the [[BBC News]]
*[http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?vid=4&hid=12&sid=79c2e5d4-6baa-4534-b76d-154117d91890%40sessionmgr14&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=n5h&AN=57808785 Jordan Restlessness]
* {{Wikiatlas|Jordan}}
* {{Wikivoyage-inline}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|184818}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=JO Key Development Forecasts for Jordan] from [[International Futures]].

{{Navboxes
|title = Articles related to Jordan
|list =
{{Jordan topics|state=expanded}}
{{Navboxes
|title=[[File:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]] Geographic locale
|list=
{{Geographic location
|Northwest = {{Flag|Israel}}
|North = {{Flag|Syria}}
|Northeast = {{Flag|Iraq}}
|West = {{Flag|West Bank}}
|Centre = {{Flagicon|Jordan}} [[Outline of Jordan|Jordan]]
|East = {{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|Southwest = {{Flag|Israel}} ''[[Gulf of Aqaba]]''
|South = {{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}
|Southeast = {{Flag|Saudi Arabia}}}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Countries bordering the Red Sea}}
}}
{{Navboxes
|title=International membership and history
|list=
{{Union for the Mediterranean}}
{{Arab League}}
{{Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|state=collapsed}}
{{Monarchies|state=collapsed}}
{{Afro-Asiatic-speaking nations}}
{{Territories of the British Empire}}
}}
}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2012}}

[[Category:Jordan| ]]
[[Category:Member states of the Arab League]]
[[Category:Arabic-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Western Asian countries]]
[[Category:Countries bordering the Red Sea]]
[[Category:Eastern Mediterranean countries]]
[[Category:Fertile Crescent]]
[[Category:Levant]]
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]
[[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1946]]
[[Category:Western Asia]]
[[Category:Southern Levant]]
[[Category:Former British colonies]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]

{{Link FA|ar}}
{{Link GA|fi}}
[[ace:Yordania]]
[[kbd:Йордан]]
[[af:Jordanië]]
[[als:Jordanien]]
[[am:ጆርዳን]]
[[ang:Hascemisce Cynerīce þæs Iordanes]]
[[ar:الأردن]]
[[an:Chordania]]
[[arc:ܝܘܪܕܢܢ]]
[[frp:J·ordanie]]
[[ast:Xordania]]
[[az:İordaniya]]
[[bm:Ordon]]
[[bn:জর্দান]]
[[bjn:Yordania]]
[[zh-min-nan:Iok-tàn]]
[[be:Іарданія]]
[[be-x-old:Ярданія]]
[[bcl:Yordanya]]
[[bg:Йордания]]
[[bar:Jordanien]]
[[bo:རྗོར་ཌན།]]
[[bs:Jordan]]
[[br:Jordania]]
[[bxr:Йордан]]
[[ca:Jordània]]
[[cv:Иордани]]
[[ceb:Hordanya]]
[[cs:Jordánsko]]
[[cy:Gwlad Iorddonen]]
[[da:Jordan]]
[[de:Jordanien]]
[[dv:އުރުދުން]]
[[nv:Jóoʼdan]]
[[dsb:Jordaniska]]
[[et:Jordaania]]
[[el:Ιορδανία]]
[[es:Jordania]]
[[eo:Jordanio]]
[[ext:Jordania]]
[[eu:Jordania]]
[[fa:اردن]]
[[hif:Jordan]]
[[fo:Jordan]]
[[fr:Jordanie]]
[[fy:Jordaanje]]
[[ga:An Iordáin]]
[[gv:Yn Jordaan]]
[[gag:İordaniya]]
[[gd:Iòrdan (dùthaich)]]
[[gl:Xordania -الأردن]]
[[gu:જૉર્ડન]]
[[hak:Yok-tan]]
[[xal:Хашимит Җордин Нутг]]
[[ko:요르단]]
[[haw:Ioredāne]]
[[hy:Հորդանան]]
[[hi:जॉर्डन]]
[[hsb:Jordaniska]]
[[hr:Jordan]]
[[io:Jordania]]
[[ilo:Hordania]]
[[bpy:জর্ডান]]
[[id:Yordania]]
[[ia:Jordania]]
[[ie:Jordania]]
[[os:Иордани]]
[[is:Jórdanía]]
[[it:Giordania]]
[[he:ירדן]]
[[jv:Yordania]]
[[kl:Jordan]]
[[pam:Hordanya]]
[[krc:Иордания]]
[[ka:იორდანია]]
[[csb:Jordaniô]]
[[kk:Иордания]]
[[kw:Jordan]]
[[rw:Yorudani]]
[[sw:Yordani]]
[[kv:Иордания]]
[[ht:Jòdani]]
[[ku:Urdun]]
[[la:Iordania]]
[[lv:Jordānija]]
[[lb:Jordanien]]
[[lt:Jordanija]]
[[lij:Giordannia]]
[[li:Jordanië]]
[[ln:Zordaní]]
[[jbo:jorgu'e]]
[[lez:Иордания]]
[[lmo:Giurdania]]
[[hu:Jordánia]]
[[mk:Јордан]]
[[ml:ജോർദാൻ]]
[[mt:Ġordan]]
[[mr:जॉर्डन]]
[[arz:الاردن]]
[[mzn:اوردون]]
[[ms:Jordan]]
[[mdf:Иордание]]
[[mn:Йордан]]
[[my:ဂျော်ဒန်နိုင်ငံ]]
[[nah:Iordania]]
[[na:Djordan]]
[[nl:Jordanië]]
[[ja:ヨルダン]]
[[nap:Giordania]]
[[pih:Jordan]]
[[no:Jordan]]
[[nn:Jordan]]
[[nov:Jordan]]
[[oc:Jordania]]
[[or:ଜୋର୍ଡାନ]]
[[uz:Iordan]]
[[pa:ਜਾਰਡਨ]]
[[pnb:اردن]]
[[pap:Jordan]]
[[ps:اردن]]
[[km:ហ្សកដង់]]
[[pms:Giordania]]
[[nds:Jordanien]]
[[pl:Jordania]]
[[pt:Jordânia]]
[[crh:Urdun]]
[[ro:Iordania]]
[[qu:Hurdanya]]
[[ru:Иордания]]
[[sah:Иордания]]
[[se:Jordánia]]
[[sa:जार्डन]]
[[sco:Jordan]]
[[stq:Jordanien]]
[[sq:Jordania]]
[[scn:Giurdania]]
[[simple:Jordan]]
[[ss:IJoridane]]
[[sk:Jordánsko]]
[[sl:Jordanija]]
[[szl:Jordańijo]]
[[so:Urdun]]
[[ckb:ئوردن]]
[[sr:Јордан]]
[[sh:Jordan]]
[[su:Yordania]]
[[fi:Jordania]]
[[sv:Jordanien]]
[[tl:Hordan]]
[[ta:ஜோர்தான்]]
[[kab:Urdun]]
[[tt:Үрдүн]]
[[te:జోర్డాన్]]
[[th:ประเทศจอร์แดน]]
[[tr:Ürdün]]
[[tk:Iordaniýa]]
[[udm:Иордания]]
[[bug:Yordania]]
[[uk:Йорданія]]
[[ur:اردن]]
[[ug:ئىئوردانىيە]]
[[vec:Zordania]]
[[vi:Jordan]]
[[vo:Yordän]]
[[fiu-vro:Jordaania]]
[[war:Hordanya]]
[[wo:Jordaani]]
[[wuu:约旦]]
[[yi:יארדאניע]]
[[yo:Jọ́rdánì]]
[[zh-yue:約旦]]
[[diq:Urdun]]
[[bat-smg:Juordanėjė]]
[[zh:约旦]]

Georgia (country)

2013-01-18T21:01:25Z

PatriceNeff: Add ISO 3166 code to infobox. Template:ISO_3166_code_Georgia isn't used here because of the different common_name of the page.

{{Other uses|Georgia (disambiguation){{!}}Georgia}}
{{redirect|Republic of Georgia|the former independent republic in North America|Republic of Georgia (1861)}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}{{pp-semi-sock|small=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2011}}{{Infobox country
|native_name = {{lang|ka|საქართველო}} ''Sakartvelo''
|conventional_long_name = Georgia<ref>{{citation | chapter = Article 1.3 | title = [[Constitution of Georgia (country)|Constitution of Georgia]]}}</ref>
|common_name = Georgia (country)
|image_flag = Flag of Georgia.svg
|image_coat=Greater coat of arms of Georgia.svg
|national_motto = [[Dzala ertobashia|ძალა ერთობაშია]] ''Dzala ertobashia'' Strength is in Unity
|national_anthem = <center>[[File:Tavisupleba vocal.ogg]]</center> [[Tavisupleba|თავისუფლება]] ''Tavisupleba'' Freedom
|image_map = Georgia (orthographic projection with inset).svg
|map_caption = Georgia proper in dark green, areas outside of Georgian control in light green
|capital = [[Tbilisi]] (Official) [[Kutaisi]] (Legislative)
|latd= 41 | latm= 43 | latNS = N
|longd= 44 |longm= 47 |longEW = E
|largest_city = capital
|official_languages = [[Georgian language|Georgian]]<ref>{{citation | chapter = Article 8 | title = [[Constitution of Georgia (country)|Constitution of Georgia]]}}. In Abkhazia, also Abkhazian.</ref>
|national_languages =
|regional_languages =
|languages_type = Other languages
|languages = {{Collapsible list|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=71% [[Georgian language|Georgian]]| 9% [[Russian language|Russian]]| 7% [[Armenian language|Armenian]]|6% [[Azeri language|Azeri]]|7% [[Languages of Georgia (country)|others]].}}<ref name="CIA Factbook Georgia"/>
|ethnic_groups = {{Collapsible list|titlestyle=font-weight:normal; background:transparent; text-align:left;|title=84% [[Georgian people|Georgian]]|6.5% [[Azeri]]|5.7% [[Armenians|Armenian]]|1.5% [[Russians|Russian]]|2.5% others}}<ref name="CIA Factbook Georgia"/>
|ethnic_groups_year = 2002
|demonym = Georgian
|government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] republic
|leader_title1 = [[President of Georgia|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Mikheil Saakashvili]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Georgia|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Bidzina Ivanishvili]]
|legislature = [[Parliament of Georgia|Parliament]]
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Georgia (country)|Modern Statehood]]
|sovereignty_note =
|established_event1 = [[Democratic Republic of Georgia|Independence from Russian Empire]]
|established_date1 = May 26, 1918
|established_event2 =
|established_date2 = February 25, 1921
|established_event3 = Independence from the [[Soviet Union]] Declared Finalized
|established_date3 = April 9, 1991 December 25, 1991
|established_event9 =
|established_date9 =
|area_rank = 120th
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area_km2 = 69,700
|area_sq_mi = 26,911
|area_footnote =
|percent_water =
|area_label =
|area_label2 =
|area_dabodyalign =
|population_estimate = 4,469,200<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geostat.ge/cms/site_images/_files/english/population/Results_2010_eng__last.pdf |title= Statistics Georgia |publisher=Geostat | location = GE |accessdate=February 11, 2011}}</ref>
|population_estimate_rank = 121st
|population_estimate_year = 2011
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density_km2 = 68.1
|population_density_sq_mi = 164.2
|population_density_rank = 144th
|GDP_PPP = $24.541 billion<ref name = imf2>{{cite web | url = http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?pr.x=49&pr.y=13&sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=915&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=|title=Georgia|publisher=International Monetary Fund| accessdate = 2012-04-18}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_rank =
|GDP_PPP_year = 2011
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $5,491<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_nominal = $14.347 billion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_rank =
|GDP_nominal_year = 2011
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3,210<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
|Gini =
|Gini_rank =
|Gini_year =
|Gini_category =
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.733<ref name="HDI">{{cite web| format = PDF | url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2011_EN_Summary.pdf |title=Human Development Report |year= 2011|publisher=United Nations|accessdate= November 14, 2011}}</ref>
|HDI_rank = 74th
|HDI_year = 2011
|HDI_category = high
|currency = [[Lari (Georgia)|Lari]] (ლ)
|currency_code = GEL
|time_zone = GET
|utc_offset = +4
|time_zone_DST = not observed
|antipodes =
|date_format =
|DST_note =
|utc_offset_DST = +4
|drives_on = right
|ISO_3166–1_alpha2 = GE
|ISO_3166–1_alpha3 = GEO
|ISO_3166–1_numeric = 268
|cctld = [[.ge]]
|iso3166code = GE
|calling_code = 995
}}
'''Georgia''' {{IPAc-en|audio=en-us-Georgia.ogg|ˈ|dʒ|ɔr|dʒ|ə}} ({{lang-ka|[[wikt:ka:საქართველო|საქართველო]]}} [[Romanization of Georgian|''Sakartvelo'']], {{IPA-ka|sɑkʰɑrtʰvɛlɔ|IPA|Sakartvelo.ogg}}) is a sovereign state in the [[Caucasus]] region of [[Eurasia]]. Located at [[Europe–Asia border|the crossroads]] of [[Western Asia]] and [[Eastern Europe]], it is bounded to the west by the [[Black Sea]], to the north by [[Russia]], to the south by [[Turkey]] and [[Armenia]], and to the southeast by [[Azerbaijan]]. The capital of Georgia is [[Tbilisi]]. Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 km² and its population is almost 4.7 million. Georgia is a [[unitary state|unitary]], [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] republic, with the government elected through a [[representative democracy]].

During the [[Classical antiquity|classical era]] independent kingdoms became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of [[Colchis]] and [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] adopted Christianity in the early 4th century. A unified Georgia reached the peak of its political and economic strength during the reign of [[David IV of Georgia|King David IV]] and [[Queen Tamar]] in the 11th–12th centuries. At the beginning of the 19th century, Georgia was annexed by the [[Russian Empire]].<ref>David M. Lang, A Modern History of Georgia, p. 109</ref> After a brief [[Democratic Republic of Georgia|period of independence]] following the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], Georgia was [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|occupied]] by [[Union of Soviet Socialist Republics|Soviet Russia]] in 1921, becoming the [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic]] and part of the [[Soviet Union]]. After independence in 1991, [[Post-Communism|post-communist]] Georgia suffered from [[Georgian Civil War|civil unrest]] and economic crisis for most of the 1990s. This lasted until the [[Rose Revolution]] of 2003, after which the new government introduced democratic and economic reforms.<ref>Parsons, Robert (January 11, 2008), "[http://www.opendemocracy.net/article/conflicts/mikheil_saakashvili_bitter_victory Mikheil Saakashvili’s bitter victory]", ''openDemocracy.net''. Retrieved on May 21, 2008.</ref>

Georgia is a member of the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development]]. It contains two ''de facto'' independent regions, [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]], which gained [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|limited international recognition]] after the [[2008 South Ossetia war|2008 Russo-Georgian War]]. Georgia considers the regions to be part of its sovereign territory under Russian military occupation.<ref name="smr">[http://www.smr.gov.ge/docs/doc216.pdf Law of Georgian on Occupied Territories (431-IIs, October 23, 2008)]. [[State Ministry for Reintegration (Georgia)|State Ministry for Reintegration]]. Retrieved on December 15, 2011.</ref>

==Etymology==
{{Main|Name of Georgia}}
[[File:St. George Tbilisi Georgia L.Verdzeuli.jpg|thumb|left|It is said that ''[[Georgians]]'' were named because they revered [[Saint George]].]]
Ethnic [[Georgians]] call themselves ''Kartvelebi'' (ქართველები), their land ''Sakartvelo'' ([[wikt:საქართველო|საქართველო]] – meaning "a land of Kartvelians"), and their language ''Kartuli'' (ქართული). According to the ancient [[The Georgian Chronicles|Georgian Chronicles]], the ancestor of the [[Kartvelians]] was [[Kartlos]], the great grandson of the [[Biblical]] [[Japheth]]. The name ''Sakartvelo'' (საქართველო) consists of two parts. Its root, ''kartvel-i'' (ქართველ-ი), specifies an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of [[Kartli]], or [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] as it is known in sources of [[Eastern Roman Empire]].<ref>[[Constantine Porphyrogenitus]]: De Administrando Imperio, ed. G. Moravcsik and R.J.H. Jenkins, Dumbarton Oaks 1967</ref> [[Ancient Greeks]] ([[Strabo]], [[Herodotus]], [[Plutarch]], [[Homer]], etc.) and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] ([[Titus Livius]], [[Tacitus]], etc.) referred to early eastern Georgians as [[Caucasian Iberians|Iberians]] (''Iberoi'' in some Greek sources) and western Georgians as [[Colchians]].<ref>Braund, David. : A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562, pp. 17–18</ref>

The terms "Georgia" and "Georgian" appeared in Western Europe in numerous early medieval annals. At the time, the name was [[folk etymology|folk etymologized]]{{spaced ndash}}for instance, by the French chronicler [[Jacques de Vitry]] and the compiler [[John Mandeville]]{{spaced ndash}}from Georgians' especial reverence of [[Saint George]].<ref>[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]] (1966), ''The Georgians'', pp. 5-6. Praeger Publishers</ref><ref>Khintibidze, Elguja (1998), ''The Designations of the Georgians and Their Etymology'', pp. 29-30. [[Tbilisi State University]] Press, ISBN 5-511-00775-7 ([http://www.kartvfund.org.ge/anewtheory.htm A New Theory on the Etymology of the Designations of the Georgians (Excerpt from the book)]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}) ([http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:I5ZFxSehCcsJ:www.kartvfund.org.ge/index.php%3Fact%3Dpage%26id%3D33.58%26lang%3Den+%22A+New+Theory+on+the+Etymology+of+the+Designations%22&cd=3&hl=en&ct=clnk&source=www.google.com Google Cache])</ref> Another theory, popularized by the likes of [[Jean Chardin]], semantically linked "Georgia" to Greek and [[Latin language|Latin]] roots, respectively, ''γεωργός'' ("tiller of the land") and ''georgicus'' ("agricultural"). The supporters of this explanation sometimes referred to classical authors, in particular [[Pliny the Younger|Pliny]] and [[Pomponius Mela]], who wrote of "Georgi" tribes, which were named so to distinguish them from their unsettled and pastoral neighbors.<ref>Romer, Frank E. (ed., 1998), ''Pomponius Mela's Description of the World'', p. 72. [[University of Michigan Press]], ISBN 0-472-08452-6</ref> According to some scholars, "Georgia" could have been borrowed in the 11th or 12th century from the [[Syriac language|Syriac]] ''gurz-ān'' or ''-iyān'' and [[Arabic language|Arabic]] ''ĵurĵan'' or ''ĵurzan'', derived from the [[New Persian]] ''gurğ'' or ''gurğān''.

==History==
{{Main|History of Georgia (country)}}

===Prehistory===
{{main|Prehistoric Georgia}}
The territory of modern-day Georgia has been inhabited by [[Homo erectus]] since the [[Paleolithic Era]].
The proto-Georgian tribes first appear in written history in the 12th century BC.<ref name="PhoenixThe">Phoenix: The Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat and Caucasus by Charles Burney , David Marshall Lang, Phoenix Press; New Ed edition (December 31, 2001)</ref> Archaeological finds and references in ancient sources reveal elements of early political and state formations characterized by advanced metallurgy and goldsmith techniques that date back to the 7th century BC and beyond.<ref name="PhoenixThe" />

===Antiquity===
[[File:Georgian States Colchis and Iberia (600-150BC)-en.svg|thumb|Ancient Georgian States of [[Colchis]] and [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]].]]
The [[classical antiquity|classic period]] saw the rise of the early Georgian states [[Diauehi|Diaokhi]] (XIII BC) of [[Colchis]] (VIII BC), of [[Sper (Georgia)|Sper]] (VII BC) and of [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] (VI BC).
In the 4th century BC a unified kingdom of Georgia—an early example of advanced state organization under one king and an aristocratic hierarchy—was established.<ref>Lives and Legends of the Georgian Saints, St Vladimirs Seminary Pr; N.e.of 2r.e. edition (March 1997) by David Marshall Lang</ref>

The two early Georgian kingdoms of late [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]], known to [[Greco-Roman historiography]] as [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] ({{lang-ka|იბერია}}) (in the east of the country) and [[Colchis]] ({{lang-ka|კოლხეთი}}) (in the west), were among the first nations in the region to adopt Christianity (in AD 337, or in AD 319 as recent research suggests).
In [[Greek mythology]], Colchis was the location of the [[Golden Fleece]] sought by [[Jason]] and the [[Argonauts]] in [[Apollonius Rhodius|Apollonius Rhodius']] epic tale ''[[Argonautica]]''. The incorporation of the Golden Fleece into the myth may have derived from the local practice of using fleeces to sift gold dust from rivers.<ref name="LOCge15">"Christianity and the Georgian Empire" (early history) Library of Congress, March 1994, webpage:[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+ge0015) LCweb2-ge0015].</ref> Known to its natives as [[Egrisi]] or Lazica, Colchis was also the battlefield of the [[Lazic War]] fought between [[Byzantine Empire]] and [[Persian Empire|Persia]].

After the [[Roman Empire]] completed its conquest of the Caucasus region in 66 BC, the Georgian kingdoms were Roman client states and allies for nearly 400 years.<ref name=LOCge15/> In 337 AD King [[Mirian III of Iberia|Mirian III]] declared Christianity as the state religion, giving a great stimulus to the development of literature, arts, and ultimately playing a key role in the formation of the unified Georgian nation.<ref>Sketches of Georgian Church History by Theodore Edward Dowling</ref> [[Mirian III of Iberia|King Mirian III]]'s acceptance of Christianity effectively tied the kingdom to the neighboring [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]] which exerted a strong influence on Georgia for nearly a millennium, determining much of its present cultural identity.<ref name=LOCge15/>

===Middle Ages===
[[File:Queen Tamara of Georgia.jpg|thumb|left|Queen [[Tamar of Georgia]] presided over the "Golden age" of the medieval Georgian monarchy. Her position as the first woman to rule Georgia in her own right was emphasized by the title "Mepe" ("King").<ref>Eastmond (1998), p. 109.</ref>]]
The early kingdoms disintegrated into various feudal regions by the early [[Middle Ages]]. This made it easy for [[Arab conquests|Arabs to conquer]] most of [[Arab rule in Georgia|eastern Georgia]] in the 7th century. The various independent regions would not be united into a single Georgian Kingdom until the beginning of the 11th century.

Although [[Arabs]] captured the capital city of Tbilisi in AD 645, Kartli-Iberia retained considerable independence under local Arab rulers.<ref name=LOCge15/> In AD 813 the prince Ashot I – also known as Ashot Kurapalat – became the first of the [[Bagrationi dynasty|Bagrationi family]] to rule the kingdom. Ashot's reign began a period of nearly 1,000 years during which the Bagrationi, as the house was known, ruled at least part of what is now the republic.

Bagrat III (r. 1027–72) united western and eastern Georgia. In the next century, [[David IV of Georgia|David IV]] (called the Builder, r. 1089–1125) initiated the Georgian golden age by [[Great Turkish Invasion|driving]] the [[Seljuk Turks]] from the country and expanding Georgian cultural and political influence southward into Armenia and eastward to the Caspian Sea.<ref name=LOCge15/>

[[Kingdom of Georgia|The Georgian Kingdom]] reached its zenith in the 12th to early 13th centuries. This period has been widely termed as Georgia's Golden Age or Georgian Renaissance during the reigns of [[David the Builder]] and [[Tamar of Georgia|Queen Tamar]].<ref>History of Modern Georgia, by David Marshal Lang, p 29</ref> This early Georgian renaissance, which preceded its West European analogue, was characterized by the flourishing of romantic-chivalric tradition, breakthroughs in philosophy, and an array of political innovations in society and state organization, including religious and ethnic tolerance.<ref>Goldstein, Darra ''The Georgian Feast: the Vibrant Culture and Savory Food of the Republic of Georgia'' page 35</ref>

The Golden age of Georgia left a legacy of great cathedrals, romantic poetry and literature, and the epic poem "[[The Knight in the Panther's Skin]]".<ref>Georgian Literature and Culture, by Howard Aronson and Dodona Kiziria, p 119</ref> [[David IV of Georgia|David the Builder]] is popularly considered to be the greatest and most successful Georgian ruler in history. He succeeded in driving the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuks]] out of the country, winning the major [[Battle of Didgori]] in 1121. His reforms of the army and administration enabled him to reunite the country and bring most lands of the Caucasus under Georgia's control.

[[File:Georges V de Géorgie.jpg|thumb|King [[George V of Georgia|George V the Brilliant]] restored Georgia as a vibrant Christian culture after the expulsion of Mongols. The [[Georgian Flag]] was designed during his reign.<ref>D.M.Lang - Georgia in the Reign of Giorgi the Brilliant (1314-1346). Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, Vol. 17,No. 1 (1955), p.84</ref>]]
[[David IV of Georgia|David the Builder's]] granddaughter [[Tamar of Georgia|Tamar]] succeeded in neutralizing opposition and embarked on an energetic foreign policy aided by the downfall of the rival powers of the Seljuks and Byzantium. Supported by a powerful military élite, Tamar was able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated the Caucasus, and extended over large parts of present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, and eastern Turkey, until its collapse under the [[Mongol invasions of Georgia and Armenia|Mongol attacks]] within two decades after Tamar's death.

The revival of the Georgian Kingdom was set back after [[Tbilisi]] was captured and destroyed by the [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarezmian]] leader [[Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu|Jalal ad-Din]] in 1226.<ref>Grousset, Rene, ''The Empire of the Steppes'', (Rutgers University Press, 1991), 260</ref> The Mongols were expelled by [[George V of Georgia]], son of [[Demetrius II of Georgia]], who was named "Brilliant" for his role in restoring the country's previous strength and Christian culture. George V was the last great king of the unified Georgian state. After his death, different local rulers fought for their independence from central Georgian rule, until the total disintegration of the Kingdom in the 15th century. Georgia was further weakened by several [[Timur's invasions of Georgia|disastrous invasions]] by [[Timur|Tamerlane]]. [[Turkoman invasions of Georgia|Invasions continued]], giving the Kingdom no time for restoration, with both [[Kara Koyunlu|Black]] and [[Aq Qoyunlu|White]] sheep Turkomans constantly raiding its southern provinces. As a result, Georgian Kingdom collapsed into anarchy by 1466 and fragmented into three independent Kingdoms and five semi-independent principalities. Neighboring empires exploited the internal division of the weakened country, and beginning in the 16th century, the [[Safavid dynasty|Persian Empire]] and the [[Ottoman Empire]] subjugated the eastern and western regions of Georgia, respectively.

The rulers of regions which remained partly [[autonomous entity|autonomous]] organized rebellions on various occasions. However, subsequent Persian and Ottoman invasions further weakened local kingdoms and regions. As a result of incessant wars the population of Georgia dwindled from 5 million in the 13th century to 250,000 inhabitants at the end of the 18th century. [[Eastern Georgia]], composed of the regions of [[Kartli]] and [[Kakheti]], had been under Persian suzerainty since 1555. With the death of [[Nader Shah]] in 1747, both kingdoms broke free of Persian control and were reunified through a personal union under the energetic king [[Erekle II|Heraclius II]] in 1762.

===Georgia in the Russian Empire===
{{Main|Georgia within the Russian Empire}}
[[File:George XII of Georgia.jpg|thumb|left|King [[George XII of Georgia|George XII]] was the last king of [[Kartli and Kakheti]], which was annexed by Russia in 1801. The [[Bagrationi]] royal family fled the kingdom. The [[List of the kings of Georgia#Georgian Royal Family Today and Current Pretenders to the Throne|current pretenders]]' restoration to the throne is discussed in Georgian society.<ref>[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav101207a.shtml Time for a King for Georgia?] ''Eurasianet''</ref>]]
In 1783, Russia and the eastern Georgian Kingdom of [[Kartli-Kakheti]] signed the [[Treaty of Georgievsk]], which recognized the bond of [[Orthodox Christianity]] between Russian and Georgian people and promised eastern Georgia protection.<ref>The Treaty of Georgievsk [http://www.istoria.ge/Documents/1783%20georgievskis%20traqtati.htm (Full Text, Russian)]</ref> However, despite this commitment to defend Georgia, Russia rendered no assistance when the Turks and Persians invaded in 1785 and in 1795, completely devastating Tbilisi and massacring its inhabitants. This period culminated in the 1801 Russian violation of the Treaty of Georgievsk and annexation of eastern Georgia, followed by the abolishment of the royal [[Bagrationi dynasty]], as well as the [[autocephaly]] of the [[Georgian Orthodox Church]]. [[Pyotr Bagration]], one of the descendants of the abolished house of Bagrationi would later join the Russian army and rise to be a general by the Napoleonic wars.

On December 22, 1800, [[Tsar]] [[Paul I of Russia]], at the alleged request of the Georgian King [[Giorgi XII of Kartli-Kakheti|George XII]], signed the proclamation on the incorporation of Georgia (Kartli-Kakheti) within the Russian Empire, which was finalized by a decree on January 8, 1801,<ref>Gvosdev (2000), p. 85</ref><ref>Avalov (1906), p. 186</ref> and confirmed by Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] on September 12, 1801.<ref>Gvosdev (2000), p. 86</ref><ref>Lang (1957), p. 249</ref> The Georgian envoy in [[Saint Petersburg]] reacted with a note of protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor Prince Kurakin.<ref>Lang (1957), p. 251</ref> In May 1801, under the oversight of General [[Carl Heinrich Knorring]] Imperial Russia transferred power in eastern Georgia to the government headed by General Ivan Petrovich Lasarev.<ref>Lang (1957), p. 247</ref> The Georgian nobility did not accept the decree until April 1802 when General Knorring compassed the nobility in [[Tbilisi Sioni Cathedral|Tbilisi's Sioni Cathedral]] and forced them to take an oath on the [[Imperial Crown of Russia]]. Those who disagreed were temporarily arrested.<ref>Lang (1957), p. 252</ref>

In the summer of 1805, Russian troops on the Askerani River near [[Zagam, Georgia|Zagam]] defeated the Persian army and saved [[Tbilisi]] from conquest now that it was officially part of the Imperial territories.

Following the annexation of eastern Georgia, the western Georgian [[kingdom of Imereti]] was annexed by Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia]]. The last Imeretian king and the last Georgian Bagrationi ruler [[Solomon II of Imereti|Solomon II]] died in exile in 1815. From 1803 to 1878, as a result of numerous Russian wars against the [[Ottoman Empire]], several of Georgia's previously lost territories – such as [[Adjara]] – were recovered. The principality of [[Guria]] was abolished and incorporated into the Empire in 1828, and that of [[Samegrelo|Megrelia]] in 1857. The region of [[Svaneti]] was gradually annexed in 1857–59.

===Declaration of independence===
{{Main|Democratic Republic of Georgia}}
[[File:Georgien Parlament Unabhängigkeit.jpg|thumb|[[Declaration of independence]] by the Georgian parliament, 1918]]

After the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]], Georgia declared independence on May 26, 1918, in the midst of the [[Russian Civil War]]. The parliamentary election was won by the [[Menshevik]] Georgian Social-Democratic Party. Its leader, [[Noe Zhordania]], became prime minister.

In 1918, the [[Georgian–Armenian War]] erupted over parts of Georgian provinces populated mostly by Armenians which ended because of British intervention. In 1918–19, Georgian general [[Giorgi Mazniashvili]] led a Georgian attack against the White Army led by Moiseev and Denikin in order to claim the [[Black Sea]] coastline from [[Tuapse]] to [[Sochi]] and [[Adlersky City District|Adler]] for independent Georgia. The country's independence did not last long. Georgia was under British protection from 1918–1920.

===Georgia in the Soviet Union===
{{Main|Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic}}
[[File:Noe Schordania.jpg|thumb|left|Despite Soviet takeover, [[Noe Jordania]] was recognized as the legitimate head of the [[Government of the Democratic Republic of Georgia in Exile|Georgian Government]] by France, UK, Belgium, and [[Poland]] through the 1930s.<ref>Stefan Talmon (1998), ''Recognition of Governments in International Law'', p. 289-290. [[Oxford University Press]], ISBN 0-19-826573-5.</ref>]]

In February 1921, Georgia [[Red Army invasion of Georgia|was attacked]] by the Red Army. The Georgian army was defeated and the Social-Democrat government fled the country. On [[Soviet Occupation Day, Georgia|February 25, 1921]] the Red Army entered the capital Tbilisi and installed a Moscow directed communist government, led by Georgian Bolshevik [[Filipp Makharadze]].

Nevertheless the Soviet rule was firmly established only after a [[August Uprising|1924 revolt]] was brutally suppressed.<ref>Knight, Amy. ''Beria: Stalin's First Lieutenant'', [[Princeton University Press]], [[Princeton, New Jersey]], p. 237, ISBN 978-0-691-01093-9.</ref> Georgia was incorporated into the [[Transcaucasian SFSR]] uniting Georgia, [[Armenia]] and [[Azerbaijan]]. The TSFSR was disaggregated into its component elements in 1936 and Georgia became the [[Georgian SSR]].

[[File:Red Army in Tbilisi Feb 25 1921.jpg|thumb|The 11th Red Army of the [[Russian SFSR]] holds military parade in Tbilisi, [[Soviet Occupation Day, Georgia|February 25, 1921]].]]
[[Joseph Stalin]], an ethnic Georgian, was prominent among the [[Bolshevik]]s, who came to power in the Russian Empire after the [[October Revolution]] in 1917. Stalin was to rise to the highest position of the [[Soviet]] state.

From 1941 to 1945, during World War II, almost 700,000 Georgians fought in the [[Red Army]] against [[Nazi Germany]]. (A number [[Georgian Legion (1941-1945)|also fought on the German side]].) About 350,000 Georgians died in the battlefields of the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]].<ref>"[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2009/12/19/AR2009121901006.html Georgia blows up Soviet memorial, two people killed]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}". The Washington Post. December 19, 2009.</ref>

On April 9, 1989, a peaceful demonstration in the Georgian capital Tbilisi ended up with [[April 9 tragedy|several people being killed]] by Soviet troops. Before the October 1990 elections to the national assembly, the ''Umaghlesi Sabcho'' (Supreme Council) – the first polls in the USSR held on a formal multi-party basis – the political landscape was reshaped again. While the more radical groups boycotted the elections and convened an alternative forum (the National Congress) with alleged support of Moscow {{Citation needed|date=August 2008}}, another part of the anticommunist opposition united into the Round Table—Free Georgia (RT-FG) around the former dissidents like [[Merab Kostava]] and [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]].

The latter won the elections by a clear margin, with 155 out of 250 parliamentary seats, whereas the ruling Communist Party (CP) received only 64 seats. All other parties failed to get over the 5%-threshold and were thus allotted only some single-member constituency seats.

===Georgia after restoration of independence===

On April 9, 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Georgia declared independence. On May 26, 1991, [[Zviad Gamsakhurdia]] was elected as a first President of independent Georgia. Gamsakhurdia stoked Georgian nationalism and vowed to assert Tbilisi's authority over regions such as Abkhazia and South Ossetia that had been classified as autonomous [[oblast]]s under the Soviet Union.

He was soon deposed in a bloody ''coup d'état'', from December 22, 1991, to January 6, 1992. The coup was instigated by part of the National Guards and a paramilitary organization called "[[Mkhedrioni]]" or "horsemen". The country became embroiled in a bitter [[Georgian Civil War|civil war]] which lasted almost until 1995. [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] returned to Georgia in 1992 and joined the leaders of the coup — Kitovani and Ioseliani — to head a triumvirate called "The State Council".

In 1995, Shevardnadze was officially elected as president of Georgia. At the same time, simmering disputes within two regions of Georgia, [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]], between local separatists and the majority Georgian populations, erupted into widespread inter-ethnic violence and wars. Supported by [[Russia]], Abkhazia, and South Ossetia, with the exception of some "pockets" of territory, achieved ''de facto'' independence from Georgia.

Roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians<ref name="hrwreport">{{cite web |url=http://www.hrw.org/reports/1995/Georgia2.htm |title= Georgia/Abchasia: Violations of the laws of war and Russia's role in the conflict |date= March 1995 |publisher=Hrw.org }}</ref> were [[Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia|expelled]] from Abkhazia by Abkhaz separatists and North Caucasian volunteers (including Chechens) in 1992–1993. Around 23,000 Georgians<ref>{{cite web |publisher=Human Rights Watch/Helsinki |url= http://hrw.org/reports/1996/Russia.htm |title=Russia - The Ingush-Ossetian conflict in the Prigorodnyi region |date=May 1996}}</ref> fled South Ossetia as well, and many Ossetian families were forced to abandon their homes in the [[Borjomi]] region and moved to Russia.

In 2003, Shevardnadze (who won reelection in 2000) was deposed by the [[Rose Revolution]], after Georgian opposition and international monitors asserted that the November 2 parliamentary elections were marred by fraud.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav112204a.shtml |title=EurasiaNet Eurasia Insight – Georgia’s Rose Revolution: Momentum and Consolidation |publisher=Eurasianet.org |accessdate=May 5, 2009}}</ref> The revolution was led by [[Mikheil Saakashvili]], [[Zurab Zhvania]] and [[Nino Burjanadze]], former members and leaders of Shevardnadze's ruling party. Mikheil Saakashvili was elected as President of Georgia in 2004.

Following the Rose Revolution, a series of reforms were launched to strengthen the country's military and economic capabilities. The new government's efforts to reassert Georgian authority in the southwestern autonomous republic of [[Ajaria]] led to a major [[Ajaria Crisis|crisis]] early in 2004. Success in Ajaria encouraged Saakashvili to intensify his efforts, but without success, in breakaway South Ossetia.

These events, along with accusations of Georgian involvement in the [[Second Chechen War]],<ref>{{Cite news| last= Gorshkov | first= Nikolai | url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/world/europe/2269057.stm | title= Duma prepares for Georgia strike |work=BBC News | date= September 19, 2002 | accessdate= July 24, 2009}}</ref> resulted in a severe deterioration of [[Georgian-Russian relations|relations with Russia]], fuelled also by Russia's open assistance and support to the two secessionist areas. Despite these increasingly difficult relations, in May 2005 Georgia and Russia reached a bilateral agreement<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=10007 |title=Russia, Georgia strike deal on bases |publisher=Civil Georgia, Tbilisi |date =May 30, 2005}}</ref> by which Russian military bases (dating back to the Soviet era) in [[Batumi]] and [[Akhalkalaki]] were withdrawn. Russia withdrew all personnel and equipment from these sites by December 2007<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=16321|title=Russia Hands Over Batumi Military Base to Georgia|publisher=Civil Georgia, Tbilisi|date=November 13, 2007|accessdate=July 24, 2009}}</ref> while failing to withdraw from the [[Gudauta]] base in [[Abkhazia]] which it was required to vacate after the adoption of [[Adapted Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty]] during the [[1999 Istanbul summit]].<ref>[http://www.leader.viitorul.org/print.php?l=ro&idc=48&id=271 Russia's retention of Gudauta base – An unfulfilled CFE treaty commitment] Socor, Vladirmir. The Jamestown Foundation. May 22, 2006</ref>

===The South Ossetia War and since===
{{Main|2008 South Ossetia war}}
{{See also|International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia}}
[[File:US Navy 080824-N-4044H-059 Capt. John Moore, commodore, Combined Task Force (CTF) 367, greets local residents and receives flowers shortly after the arrival of the guided-missile destroyer USS McFaul (DDG 74) to the port of Bat.jpg|thumb|left|U.S. Navy Officer greets local Georgian residents in [[Batumi]] during the 2008 [[Russo-Georgian War]]]]
In 2008, a military conflict between Georgia and a grouping of [[Russia]], [[South Ossetia]], and [[Abkhazia]] was instigated by the shelling of Georgian towns around South Ossetia and months-long attacks on Georgian police and peacekeepers, supposedly by South Ossetian militias. On August 7, 2008, Georgian forces began shelling the South Ossetian capital, [[Tskhinvali]]; this was followed, on August 8, 2008, by an advance of Georgian Army infantry, tanks, and police commandos into South Ossetia; the action was supported by artillery and air support,<ref>{{citation | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7546639.stm | place = UK | title = Heavy fighting in South Ossetia (Georgian MLRS launched rockets on Tskhinvali) | format = video |publisher=BBC News | date = August 8, 2008}}</ref> leading to the capture of a number of key South Ossetian towns and retreat of Russian peacekeepers and South Ossetian forces.<ref name = nyt-20081106>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/07/world/europe/07georgia.html|title=Georgia Claims on Russia War Called Into Question|author =C. J. Chivers, Ellen Barry|work=The New York Times|date=November 6, 2008| accessdate = November 12, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{citation | url = http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,578273,00.html | title = The West Begins to doubt Georgian leader | journal=Der Spiegel | date = September 15, 2008}}</ref> However, after a Russian peacekeepers' base was shelled and personnel killed, units of the Russian [[58th Army (Russia)|58th Army]], supported by irregular forces, entered South Ossetia through the [[Roki Tunnel]], thus leading to a [[Battle of Tskhinvali|three-day battle]] which left the city of Tskhinvali in ruins.<ref>{{citation | title = Stockholm International Peace Research Institute Yearbook | year = 2009 | chapter = Armaments, Disarmament and International Security | publisher=Oxford University Press | ISBN = 978-0-19-956606-8}}</ref><ref name = "ground zero">{{Cite news| title = Ground zero in the Georgia-Russia war:South Ossetia city's residents are certain Russia is in the right | first = Peter | last = Finn | work=The [[Washington Post]] | date = August 18, 2008 | url = http://articles.sfgate.com/2008-08-18/news/17123137_1_georgian-forces-south-ossetian-tskhinvali}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url= http://exiledonline.com/how-to-screw-up-a-war-story-the-new-york-times-at-work/2/ |title= How To Screw Up A War Story: The New York Times At Work | first = Mark | last = Ames |publisher=Exiled Online |accessdate=November 2, 2010}}</ref> Georgian forces were subsequently forced to retreat and the [[Russian Air Force]] began launching [[2008 South Ossetia war#Battle of Tskhinvali|airstrikes]] against Georgian forces in South Ossetia, and multiple targets inside Georgia proper.<ref>{{citation | url = http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/07/world/europe/07georgia.html?_r=1&scp=4&sq=georgia&st=cse&oref=slogin | date = November 7, 2008 | title = Georgia Claims on Russia War Called Into Question | publisher=NY Times | first1=C. J. | last1=Chivers | first2=Ellen | last2=Barry}}</ref> The [[Georgian Air Force]] resisted and later continued to carry out air strikes against Russian troops. A second front was opened when the separatist Republic of [[Abkhazia]], with Russian support, launched an [[Battle of the Kodori Valley|offensive]] against Georgian troops in the [[Kodori Valley]]. Georgian troops offered minimal resistance and soon withdrew.<ref>{{cite news|last=Pronina |first=Lyubov |url=http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601100&sid=a6z1.HFQFr4E |title=Georgia Pulls Out of Ossetia as Second Front Opens (Update1) |publisher=Bloomberg |date=August 10, 2008 |accessdate=November 2, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Russian military pushes into Georgia|publisher=CNN|date=August 11, 2008|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/08/11/georgia.russia/index.html|accessdate=October 6, 2008 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080822004410/http://edition.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/europe/08/11/georgia.russia/index.html  |archivedate = August 22, 2008}}</ref> Russian paratroopers launched raids against military bases in [[Senaki]], Georgia, from Abkhazia, whilst the [[Russian Navy]] stationed a task force off the coast of Abkhazia, and [[Battle off the coast of Abkhazia|sank a Georgian Coast Guard cutter]].

[[File:Condoleezza Rice Visit to Georgia, Press Conference with Mikheil Saakashvli.JPG|thumb|US Secretary of State [[Condoleezza Rice]] holding a joint press conference with Georgian president [[Mikheil Saakashvili]] during the South Ossetian war]]

Russian forces, upon crossing into Georgia proper, soon entered [[Gori, Georgia|Gori]] where Georgian forces had earlier regrouped before retreating to [[Tbilisi]]. Irregulars such as Ossetians, Chechens and Cossacks followed; looting, killing, and arson was reported.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Georgian villages burned and looted as Russian tanks advance|work=The Guardian |location=London |date=August 13, 2008|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/aug/13/georgia.russia6|accessdate=January 9, 2008 | first=Luke | last=Harding}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Russia's cruel intention|work=The Guardian |location=London |date=August 13, 2008|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/2008/sep/01/russia.georgia|accessdate=October 7, 2008 | first=Luke | last=Harding}}</ref> Russian troops removed military equipment abandoned by retreating Georgian troops in Gori and the port of [[Poti]], where several naval and coast guard vessels moored in the harbour were scuttled.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jamestown.org |title=Lessons And Losses Of Georgia'S Five-Day War With Russia |publisher=Jamestown.org |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref>

On August 12, 2008, President [[Dmitry Medvedev|Medvedev]] announced a halt to further Russian military operations in Georgia<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian President Orders Halt To Military Operations In Georgia|publisher=[[GlobalSecurity.org]]|date=August 12, 2008|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2008/08/mil-080812-rferl01.htm|accessdate=October 6, 2008}}</ref> and ordered a gradual withdrawal from Gori, Poti and other established checkpoints. Despite this Russian forces remained in South Ossetia and Abkhazia,<ref>{{Cite news
|url=http://en.rian.ru/world/20081009/117637460.html|title=Russia hands over control of Georgian buffer zones to EU|publisher=[[RIA Novosti]]|date=October 9, 2008|accessdate=October 10, 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=00:52 |url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20081119/118400373.html |title=RIA Novosti — Russia — Russia fully staffs bases in Abkhazia, S.Ossetia |publisher=En.rian.ru |accessdate=May 10, 2009}}</ref> the independence of which it soon [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|recognized]].<ref>[http://abc.az/eng/news_26_08_2008_27081.html Russia recognised the independence of Abkhazia and South Ossetia from Georgia], Azerbaijan Business Centre, August 26, 2008. Retrieved August 26, 2008.</ref>

Because of the intensive fighting in South Ossetia, there were many disputed reports about the number of casualties on both sides, which targets had fallen under aerial attacks, the status of troop movements, and the most current location of the front line between the Georgian and Russian-Ossetian units.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL768040420080808|title=Russia sends forces into Georgian rebel conflict|publisher=Reuters|date=August 8, 2008|accessdate=July 24, 2009}}</ref> Since the war, South Ossetian and Russian officials have made a number of unsubstantiated claims<ref name="ground zero"/> that the Georgian Army was responsible for killing 1,400-2,000 South Ossetian civilians. Human Rights Watch and European Union investigators in South Ossetia have subsequently accused Russia of exaggerating the scale of such casualties.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/aug/13/georgia |title=Russia exaggerating South Ossetian death toll to provoke revenge against Georgians, says human rights group |work=The Guardian |location=London |date= August 13, 2008|accessdate=May 5, 2009 | first=Tom | last=Parfitt}}</ref><ref>[http://interfax.ru/txt.asp?id=88497&sec=1476 Conclusion of the Investigating Committee of the Russian Prosecutor's Office], July 3, 2009</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webcitation.org/5fm4fGQ5j |title=The August War between Russia and Georgia |author=Mikhail Barabanov |publisher=Webcitiation.org |accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Peter Wilson, Europe correspondent |url=http://www.theaustralian.com.au/news/russia-admits-fewer-civilians-killed/story-e6frg6to-1111117264050 |title=Death toll in South Ossetia a tenth of inititial Russian claims |work=The Australian |date=August 22, 2008 |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref> All sides sustained casualties, with Georgia accounting for the greatest number of military casualties with 170 confirmed dead or missing.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mod.gov.ge/2008/list/sia-E.html |title=List of Killed and Missing Military Servicemen during the Georgian-Russian WAR |publisher=Mod.gov.ge |date=February 14, 2009 |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref>

Since the war, Georgia has maintained that Abkhazia and South Ossetia are under Russian occupation and remain, legally, part of Georgia.<ref name="parliament.ge">[http://www.parliament.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=98&info_id=20047 Resolution of the Parliament of Georgia declaring Abkhazia and South Ossetia occupied territories], August 28, 2008.</ref><ref>[http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19330 Abkhazia, S.Ossetia Formally Declared Occupied Territory.] Civil Georgia. August 28, 2008</ref> Georgia has gained much international support for this position although attempts at limiting international access to and enforcing an economic embargo of the two break-away regions have produced mixed results.<ref>{{cite web|author=|url=http://en.tabula.ge/article-3573.html |title=Turkish Investment and Trade Booms in Abkhazia |publisher=Tabula Magazine English|date=2011-04-01 |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref>

==Geography and climate==
{{Main|Geography of Georgia (country)}}
{{See also|Borders of the continents#Europe and Asia|l1=Borders of the continents}}
[[File:Svaneti, georgia.jpg|thumb|[[Svaneti]] region, North-Western Georgia.]]

Georgia is situated in the [[South Caucasus]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/100270/Caucasus 'Caucasus (region and mountains, Eurasia)']. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', 2010: "Occupying roughly 170,000 sq mi (440,000 sq km), it is divided among Russia, Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia and forms part of the traditional dividing line between Europe and Asia. It is bisected by the Caucasus Mountains; the area north of the Greater Caucasus range is called Ciscaucasia and the region to the south Transcaucasia. Inhabited from ancient times, it was under nominal Persian and Turkish suzerainty until conquered by Russia in the 18th–19th centuries."</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cesww.fas.harvard.edu/ces_definition.html |title=CESWW – Definition of Central Eurasia |publisher=Cesww.fas.harvard.edu |accessdate=August 6, 2010}}</ref> between latitudes [[41st parallel north|41°]] and [[44th parallel north|44° N]], and longitudes [[40th meridian east|40°]] and [[47th meridian east|47° E]], with an area of {{convert|67900|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}. It is a very mountainous country. The [[Likhi Range]] divides the country into eastern and western halves.<ref name="Cac">{{cite web|url=http://www.cac-biodiversity.org/geo/geo_geography.htm |title=Georgia:Geography |publisher=Cac-biodiversity.org |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref> Historically, the western portion of Georgia was known as [[Colchis]] while the eastern plateau was called [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]]. Because of a complex geographic setting, mountains also isolate the northern region of [[Svaneti]] from the rest of Georgia.

The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range forms the northern border of Georgia.<ref name="Cac"/> The main roads through the mountain range into Russian territory lead through the Roki Tunnel between South and North Ossetia and the [[Darial Gorge]] (in the Georgian region of [[Khevi]]). The Roki Tunnel was vital for the Russian military in the [[2008 South Ossetia war]] because it is the only direct route through the Caucasus Mountains. The southern portion of the country is bounded by the [[Lesser Caucasus|Lesser Caucasus Mountains]].<ref name="Cac"/> The [[Greater Caucasus|Greater Caucasus Mountain Range]] is much higher in elevation than the [[Lesser Caucasus|Lesser Caucasus Mountains]], with the highest peaks rising more than {{convert|5000|m|ft|0|sp=us}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]].

The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount [[Shkhara]] at {{convert|5068|m|ft|0|sp=us}}, and the second highest is Mount Janga ([[Dzhangi-Tau]]) at {{convert|5059|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]]. Other prominent peaks include [[Mount Kazbek]]) at {{convert|5047|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, Shota Rustaveli ({{convert|4860|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}), Tetnuldi ({{convert|4858|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}), Mt. [[Ushba]] ({{convert|4700|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}), and [[Ailama]] ({{convert|4547|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}).<ref name="Cac"/> Out of the abovementioned peaks, only Kazbek is of [[volcanic]] origin. The region between [[Kazbek]] and [[Shkhara]] (a distance of about {{convert|200|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} along the Main Caucasus Range) is dominated by numerous glaciers. Out of the 2,100 glaciers that exist in the Caucasus today, approximately [[Glaciers of Georgia|30% are located within Georgia]].
[[File:Keselo, Tusheti.jpg|thumb|left|[[Tusheti]] region in northeast Georgia]]
The term, [[Lesser Caucasus|Lesser Caucasus Mountains]] is often used to describe the mountainous (highland) areas of southern Georgia that are connected to the Greater Caucasus Mountain Range by the Likhi Range.<ref name="Cac"/> The area can be split into two separate sub-regions; the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, which run parallel to the Greater Caucasus Range, and the [[Southern Georgia Volcanic Highland]], which lies immediately to the south of the Lesser Caucasus Mountains.

The overall region can be characterized as being made up of various, interconnected mountain ranges (largely of volcanic origin) and plateaus that do not exceed {{convert|3400|m|ft|0|sp=us}} in elevation. Prominent features of the area include the [[Javakheti Volcanic Plateau]], lakes, including Tabatskuri and Paravani, as well as mineral water and hot springs. Two major [[List of rivers of Georgia (country)|rivers in Georgia]] are the [[Rioni River|Rioni]] and the [[Mtkvari River|Mtkvari]]. The Southern Georgia Volcanic Highland is a young and unstable geologic region with high seismic activity and has experienced some of the most significant earthquakes that have been recorded in Georgia.

The [[Krubera Cave]] is the deepest known cave in the world. It is located in the [[Arabika Massif]] of the [[Gagra Range]], in Abkhazia. In 2001, a Russian–Ukrainian team had set the world depth record for a cave at {{convert|1710|m|ft|0|sp=us}}. In 2004, the penetrated depth was increased on each of three expeditions, when a [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] team crossed the {{convert|2000|m|ft|0|adj=on|sp=us}} mark for the first time in the history of [[speleology]]. In October 2005, an unexplored part was found by the CAVEX team, further increasing the known depth of the cave. This expedition confirmed the known depth of the cave at {{convert|2140|m|ft|0|sp=us}} (±{{convert|9|m|ft|1|abbr=on|disp=s}}).

===Topography===
[[File:Ushba 1879.jpg|thumb|[[Ushba]], a prominent peak of the [[Caucasus Mountains|Svanetian Caucasus]]]]

The landscape within the nation's boundaries is quite varied. Western Georgia's landscape ranges from low-land marsh-forests, swamps, and [[temperate rainforest]]s to eternal snows and glaciers, while the eastern part of the country even contains a small segment of semi-arid plains. Forests cover around 40% of Georgia's territory while the [[alpine tundra|alpine]]/[[subalpine zone|subalpine]] zone accounts for roughly around 10% of the land.

Much of the natural habitat in the low-lying areas of Western Georgia has disappeared over the last 100 years because of the agricultural development of the land and urbanization. The large majority of the forests that covered the [[Colchis]] plain are now virtually non-existent with the exception of the regions that are included in the national parks and reserves (e.g. [[Lake Paliastomi]] area). At present, the forest cover generally remains outside of the low-lying areas and is mainly located along the foothills and the mountains. Western Georgia's forests consist mainly of deciduous trees below {{convert|600|m|ft|0|sp=us}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]] and comprise of species such as [[oak]], [[hornbeam]], [[Oriental Beech|beech]], [[elm]], [[ash tree|ash]], and [[Sweet Chestnut|chestnut]]. Evergreen species such as [[Buxus|box]] may also be found in many areas. Ca. 1000 of all 4000 higher plants of Georgia are endemic in this country.<ref>{{cite web|author=January 7, 2009 |url=http://www.endemic-species-caucasus.info/ |title=Endemic Species of the Caucasus |publisher=Endemic-species-caucasus.info |date=January 7, 2009 |accessdate=May 5, 2009}}</ref>
[[File:Vardzia.jpg|thumb|left|View of the cave city of [[Vardzia]] and the valley of the [[Kura River]] below]]

The west-central slopes of the [[Meskheti Range]] in [[Ajaria]] as well as several locations in Samegrelo and Abkhazia are covered by [[temperate rain forests]]. Between {{convert|600|-|1000|m|ft|0}} above sea level, the deciduous forest becomes mixed with both broad-leaf and coniferous species making up the plant life. The zone is made up mainly of beech, [[Caucasian Spruce|spruce]], and [[Nordmann Fir|fir]] forests. From {{convert|1500|-|1800|m|ft|0}}, the forest becomes largely coniferous. The tree line generally ends at around {{convert|1800|m|ft|0}} and the alpine zone takes over, which in most areas, extends up to an elevation of {{convert|3000|m|ft|0}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]]. The eternal snow and [[glacier]] zone lies above the 3,000 metre line.

Eastern Georgia's landscape (referring to the territory east of the [[Likhi Range]]) is considerably different from that of the west, although, much like the [[Colchis]] plain in the west, nearly all of the low-lying areas of eastern Georgia including the [[Mtkvari]] and [[Alazani]] River plains have been deforested for agricultural purposes. In addition, because of the region's relatively drier climate, some of the low-lying plains (especially in [[Kartli]] and south-eastern Kakheti) were never covered by forests in the first place.

The general landscape of eastern Georgia comprises numerous valleys and gorges that are separated by mountains. In contrast with western Georgia, nearly 85% of the forests of the region are deciduous. Coniferous forests only dominate in the [[Borjomi Gorge]] and in the extreme western areas. Out of the deciduous species of trees, [[beech]], [[oak]], and [[hornbeam]] dominate. Other deciduous species include several varieties of [[maple]], [[aspen]], ash, and [[hazelnut]]. The Upper [[Alazani]] River Valley contains [[Taxus baccata|yew]] forests.

At higher elevations above {{convert|1000|m|ft|0}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]] (particularly in the [[Tusheti]], [[Khevsureti]], and [[Khevi]] regions), [[Scots Pine|pine]] and [[birch]] forests dominate. In general, the forests in eastern Georgia occur between {{convert|500|-|2000|m|ft|0}} above sea level, with the alpine zone extending from {{convert|2000|-|2300|m|ft|0|disp=s}} to {{convert|3000|-|3500|m|ft|0|sp=us|disp=s}}. The only remaining large, low-land forests remain in the [[Alazani]] Valley of Kakheti. The eternal snow and [[glacier]] zone lies above the {{convert|3500|m|ft|0|sing=on}} line in most areas of eastern Georgia.

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Georgia (country)}}
The climate of Georgia is extremely diverse, considering the nation's small size. There are two main climatic zones, roughly separating Eastern and Western parts of the country. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range plays an important role in moderating Georgia's climate and protects the nation from the penetration of colder air masses from the north. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains partially protect the region from the influence of dry and hot air masses from the south as well.

[[File:Batumi Botanical Garden. Black Sea.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Black Sea]] coast of [[Batumi]], Western Georgia.]]
Much of western Georgia lies within the northern periphery of the humid subtropical zone with annual precipitation ranging from {{convert|1000|–|4000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. The precipitation tends to be uniformly distributed throughout the year, although the rainfall can be particularly heavy during the Autumn months. The climate of the region varies significantly with elevation and while much of the lowland areas of western Georgia are relatively warm throughout the year, the foothills and mountainous areas (including both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus Mountains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters (snow cover often exceeds 2 meters in many regions). Ajaria is the wettest region of the [[Caucasus]], where the Mt. Mtirala [[temperate rain forest|rainforest]], east of [[Kobuleti]] receives around {{convert|4500|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} of precipitation per year.

Eastern Georgia has a transitional climate from humid subtropical to continental. The region's weather patterns are influenced both by dry, Caspian air masses from the east and humid, Black Sea air masses from the west. The penetration of humid air masses from the Black Sea is often blocked by several mountain ranges ([[Likhi]] and [[Meskheti]]) that separate the eastern and western parts of the nation. Annual precipitation is considerably less than that of western Georgia and ranges from {{convert|400|–|1600|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}.

The wettest periods generally occur during Spring and Autumn while Winter and the Summer months tend to be the driest. Much of eastern Georgia experiences hot summers (especially in the low-lying areas) and relatively cold winters. As in the western parts of the nation, elevation plays an important role in eastern Georgia where climatic conditions above {{convert|1500|m|ft|0}} are considerably colder than in the low-lying areas. The regions that lie above {{convert|2000|m|ft|0}} frequently experience frost even during the summer months.

===Biodiversity===
{{See also|List of non-marine molluscs of Georgia (country)|List of fish of the Black Sea}}
[[File:CaucasianOvcharka-Julius.jpg|thumb|Caucasian Shepherd Dog]]
Because of its high landscape diversity and low latitude Georgia is home to about 1000 species of [[vertebrates]], (330 birds, 160 fish, 48 [[reptiles]], and 11 [[amphibians]]). A number of large [[carnivores]] live in the forests, namely [[Brown bear]]s, [[wolf|wolves]], [[lynx]]es and [[Caucasian leopard|Caucasian Leopards]]. The [[common pheasant]] (also known as the Colchian Pheasant) is an endemic bird of Georgia which has been widely introduced throughout the rest of the world as an important [[game bird]]. The species number of [[invertebrates]] is considered to be very high but data is distributed across a high number of publications. The spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501 species.<ref name="Caucasus-spiders.info">{{cite web|url=http://caucasus-spiders.info/introduction/checklists/ |title=Caucasian Spiders " CHECKLISTS & MAPS |publisher=Caucasus-spiders.info |accessdate=May 5, 2009}}</ref>

Just over 6500 species of fungi, including lichen-forming species, have been recorded from Georgia,<ref>Nakhutsrishvili, I.G. ["Flora of Spore Producing Plants of Georgia (Summary)"]. 888 pp., Tbilisi, Academy of Science of the Georgian SSR, 1986</ref><ref name="cybertruffle1">{{cite web|url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/robigalia/eng/index.htm |title=Cybertruffle's Robigalia – Observations of fungi and their associated organisms |publisher=cybertruffle.org.uk |accessdate=July 27, 2011}}</ref> but this number is far from complete. The true total number of fungal species occurring in Georgia, including species not yet recorded, is likely to be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that only about 7% of all fungi worldwide have so far been discovered.<ref>Kirk, P.M., Cannon, P.F., Minter, D.W. and Stalpers, J. "Dictionary of the Fungi". Edn 10. CABI, 2008</ref> Although the amount of available information is still very small, a first effort has been made to estimate the number of fungal species endemic to Georgia, and 2595 species have been tentatively identified as possible endemics of the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cybertruffle.org.uk/gruzfung/eng/endelist.htm |title=Fungi of Georgia – potential endemics |publisher=cybertruffle.org.uk |accessdate=July 27, 2011}}</ref> 1729 species of plants have been recorded from Georgia in association with fungi.<ref name="cybertruffle1"/> The true number of plant species occurring in Georgia is likely to be substantially higher.

==Regions==
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Georgia (country)}}
{| class="infobox bordered" style="width: auto;"
|-
! colspan="3" style="font-size:larger; text-align: center;"| Regions of Georgia
|-
| colspan="3" | [[Image:Regions of Georgia.png|center|300px]]
|-
! Map ref. !! Region !! Capital
|-
| 1 || [[Abkhazia]] || [[Sukhumi]] (Sokhumi)
|-
| 2 || [[Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti]] || [[Zugdidi]]
|-
| 3 || [[Guria]] || [[Ozurgeti]]
|-
| 4 || [[Adjara]] || [[Batumi]]
|-
| 5 || [[Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti|Racha-Lechkhumi and Kvemo Svaneti]] || [[Ambrolauri]]
|-
| 6 || [[Imereti]] || [[Kutaisi]]
|-
| 7 || [[Samtskhe-Javakheti]] || [[Akhaltsikhe]]
|-
| 8 || [[Shida Kartli]] || [[Gori, Georgia|Gori]]
|-
| 9 || [[Mtskheta-Mtianeti]] || [[Mtskheta]]
|-
| 10 || [[Kvemo Kartli]] || [[Rustavi]]
|-
| 11 || [[Kakheti]] || [[Telavi]]
|-
| 12 || [[Tbilisi]] || [[Tbilisi]]
|}
Georgia is divided into 9 regions, 1 city, and 2 autonomous republics.<ref name="CIA Factbook Georgia">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gg.html |title=CIA Factbook Georgia |publisher=Cia.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref> These in turn are subdivided into 69 [[Districts of Georgia (country)|districts]].

===Autonomous republics===
{{Main|Abkhazia|Adjara}}
[[File:Georgia high detail map.png|left|thumb|Map of Georgia highlighting the disputed territories of Abkhazia and South Ossetia, both of which are de facto independent from the central government of Georgia.]]
Georgia contains two official autonomous regions, of which one has declared independence. In addition, another territory not officially autonomous has also declared independence. Officially autonomous within Georgia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.government.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=221 |title=Government of Georgia – Abkhazia |publisher=Government.gov.ge |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref> the de facto independent region of Abkhazia declared independence in 1999.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3261059.stm |work=BBC News | title=Regions and territories: Abkhazia | date=February 8, 2011}}</ref> The de facto independent South Ossetia is officially known within Georgia as the Tskinvali region to separate it from the Russian [[North Ossetia]].<ref name="BBC South Ossetia">{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3797729.stm |work=BBC News | title=Regions and territories: South Ossetia | date=February 8, 2011}}</ref> It was autonomous under the Soviet Union, and when it was renamed to Tskinvali in 1995 its autonomy was removed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statoids.com/yge.html |title=Georgia Districts |publisher=Statoids.com |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref> De facto separate since Georgian independence, offers were made to give South Ossetia autonomy again, but in 2006 an unrecognised referendum in the area resulted in a vote for independence.<ref name="BBC South Ossetia"/>

In both territories large numbers of people had been given Russian passports, some through a process of forced passportization by Russian authorities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.osce.org/home/73289 |title=Human Rights in the Occupied Territories of Georgia |publisher=Osce.org |accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref> This was used as a justification for Russian invasion of Georgia during the 2008 South Ossetia war after which Russia recognised the region's independence.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|title=Russian Passportization |url=http://topics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/09/09/russian-passportization/|accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref> Independence is denied by Georgia, which considers the regions as occupied by Russia.<ref name="parliament.ge"/><ref>[http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=19330 Abkhazia, S.Ossetia Formally Declared Occupied Territory.] Civil Georgia. August 28, 2008.</ref> Both republics have received [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|minimal international recognition]].

[[Adjara]] gained autonomy unilaterally under local strongman [[Aslan Abashidze]], who maintained close ties with Russia and allowed a Russian military base to be built in [[Batumi]]. Upon the election of Mikheil Saakashvili in 2004 tensions rose between Adjara and the Georgian government, leading to demonstrations in Adjara and the resignation and fleeing of Abashidze. The region retains autonomy.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/3520322.stm |work=BBC News | title=Regions and territories: Ajaria | date=February 8, 2011}}</ref>

==Government and politics==
{{Main|Politics of Georgia (country)}}
[[Image:Saakashvili76589.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Mikheil Saakashvili]] is the current [[President of Georgia]].]]
Georgia is a democratic [[semi-presidential]] republic, with the [[President of Georgia|President]] as the head of state, and Prime Minister as the head of government. The executive branch of power is made up of the President and the [[Cabinet of Georgia]]. The Cabinet is composed of ministers, headed by the [[Prime Minister of Georgia|Prime Minister]], and appointed by the President. Notably, the ministers of defense and interior are not members of the Cabinet and are subordinated directly to the President of Georgia. Mikheil Saakashvili is the current President of Georgia after winning 53.47% of the vote in the [[Georgian presidential election, 2008|2008 election]]. Since February 6, 2009 [[Nikoloz Gilauri]] has been the prime minister of Georgia.

[[Legislature|Legislative]] authority is vested in the [[Parliament of Georgia]]. It is unicameral and has 150 members, known as deputies, from which 75 members are proportional representatives and 75 are elected through single-member district plurality system, representing their constituencies. Members of parliament are elected for four-year terms. Five parties and electoral blocs had representatives elected to the parliament in the [[Georgian legislative election, 2008|2008 elections]]: the [[United National Movement]] (governing party), The Joint Opposition, the [[Christian-Democratic Movement (Georgia)|Christian-Democrats]], the [[Georgian Labour Party|Labour Party]] and [[Republican Party of Georgia|Republican Party]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2012}} On 26 May 2012, Saakashvili inaugurated a new Parliament building in the western city of [[Kutaisi]], in an effort to decentralise power and shift some political control closer to Abkhazia.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/national/georgia-opens-new-parliament-in-kutaisi-far-from-the-capital/2012/05/26/gJQAOhOGsU_story.html |title=Georgia opens new parliament in Kutaisi, far from the capital |newspaper=Washington Post |date=26 May 2012 |accessdate=26 May 2012}}{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref>

Although considerable progress was made since the [[Rose revolution]], Saakashvili states that Georgia is still not a "full-fledged, very well-formed, crystalized society."<ref name= misha>{{cite news|title=Georgia Leader: Country on Right Track|publisher=Fox News|date=January 7, 2008|url=http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Jan07/0,4670,GeorgiaPresidentialElection,00.html|accessdate=October 17, 2008 | first=Lynn | last=Berry}}{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref> The political system remains in the process of transition, with frequent adjustments to the balance of power between the President and Parliament, and opposition proposals ranging from transforming the country into parliamentary republic to re-establishing the [[Monarchy of Georgia|monarchy]].<ref name="GeorgiaToday">Zaza Jgharkava (October 18, 2007). [http://www.georgiatoday.ge/article_details.php?id=3733 Will a Constitutional Monarchy Be Restored in Georgia?]. Georgia Today, Issue #379.</ref><ref name="Lomsadze">Giorgi Lomsadze (December 18, 2007). [http://www.eurasianet.net/departments/insight/articles/eav101207a.shtml Time for a King for Georgia?]. EurasiaNet Civil Society.</ref> Observers note the deficit of trust in relations between the Government and the opposition.<ref>{{cite web|title=Western observers offer varied judgments on the conduct of the Georgian presidential election and its consequences|publisher=Armenian Reporter|date=August 1, 2008|url=http://yandunts.blogspot.com/2008/08/western-observers-offer-varied.html|accessdate=October 17, 2008}}</ref>

Different opinions exist regarding the degree of political freedom in Georgia. President [[Saakashvili]] believes that the country is "on the road to becoming a European democracy."<ref name= misha/> [[Freedom House]] lists Georgia as a partly free country.<ref>{{cite web|title=Freedom in the World 2008|publisher=[[Freedom House]]|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/images/File/fiw/FIW_2011_Booklet.pdf|accessdate=December 23, 2011}}{{dead link|date=June 2012}}</ref>

In preparation for 2012 parliamentary elections, Parliament adopted a new electoral code on December 27, 2011 that incorporated many recommendations from non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the Venice Commission. However, the new code failed to address the Venice Commission’s primary recommendation to strengthen the equality of the vote by reconstituting single-mandate election districts to be comparable in size. On December 28, Parliament amended the Law on Political Unions to regulate campaign and political party financing. Local and international observers raised concerns about several amendments, including the vagueness of the criteria for determining political bribery and which individuals and organizations would be subject to the law. As of March 2012, Parliament was discussing further amendments to address these concerns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5253.htm |title=Georgia |publisher=State.gov |date=2012-04-02 |accessdate=2012-09-05}}</ref>

The [[Georgian parliamentary election, 2012|elections in October 2012]] resulted in the clear victory for the opposition, which President Saakashvili conceded on the following day.<ref>{{Citation |title=Saakashvili Concedes Defeat in Parliamentary Election|newspaper=Civil|date=2 October 2012 |url=http://civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=25299}}</ref>

===Human rights===
{{Main|Human rights in Georgia}}
[[File:April 10, Day 2, rally at the Parliament.jpg|thumb|April 10, 2009 second day of the [[2009 Georgian demonstrations|opposition rallies]] in front of the Georgian Parliament.]]
Human rights in Georgia are guaranteed by the [[Constitution of Georgia (country)|country's constitution]]. There is an independent human rights ''public defender'' elected by the [[Parliament of Georgia]] to ensure such rights are enforced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ombudsman.ge |title=Georgia's public defender |publisher=Ombudsman.ge |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref> Georgia has ratified the [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]] in 2005. NGO "Tolerance", in its alternative report about its implementation, speaks of rapid decreasing of the number of Azerbaijani schools and cases of appointing headmasters to Azerbaijani schools who don't speak the [[Azerbaijani language]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.minelres.lv/reports/georgia/Shadow_Report_Georgia_2008.pdf |title=Alternative report on the implementation by Georgia of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities in the region of Kvemo Kartli – Tbilisi, 2008 – p. 58-59 |format=PDF |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref>

The government came under criticism for its alleged use of excessive force on May 26, 2011 when it dispersed protesters led by [[Nino Burjanadze]], among others, with tear gas and rubber bullets after they refused to clear [[Rustaveli avenue]] for an independence day parade despite the expiration of their demonstration permit and despite being offered to choose an alternative venue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.az/articles/Georgia/37341 |title=US, Britain, call for probe into May 26 events in Georgia |publisher=News.Az |date=May 28, 2011 |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Rachel Denber, Europe and Central Asia deputy director |url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2011/05/26/georgia-police-used-excessive-force-peaceful-protests |title=Georgia: Police Used Excessive Force on Peaceful Protests | Human Rights Watch |publisher=Hrw.org |date=May 26, 2011 |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Tbilisi Mayor's Offers Protesters Alternative Venues for Rally|url=http://civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=23518|publisher=Civil.ge|accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref><ref name="ABC-AP">{{cite news|url=http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory?id=13688230#.TvZtt_LntDp|title=Georgian Police Say 2 Killed in Protest Dispersal|last=MISHA|first=DZHINDZHIKHASHVILI|date=26 May 2011|work=[[ABC News]]|agency=Associated Press|accessdate=24 December 2011}}</ref> While human rights activists maintained that the protests were peaceful, the government pointed out that many protesters were masked and armed with heavy sticks and molotov cocktails.<ref>{{cite web|title=Audio, Video Recordings Implicate Protest Leaders to 'Plotting Violence'|url= http://civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=23537|publisher=Civil.ge|accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref> Georgian opposition leader Nino Burjanadze said the accusations of planning a coup were baseless, and that the protesters' actions were legitimate.<ref name="ABC-AP"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/saakashvili-dictatorship-opposition-people-missing/ |title="Saakashvili has basically endorsed dictatorship" – Georgian opposition – RT |publisher=Rt.com |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://rt.com/news/opposition-rally-crackdown-disappearances/ |title=People disappear in Georgia after violent dispersal of opposition rally |publisher=Rt.com |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=Luke Harding in Moscow and agencies |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/apr/09/georgia-protests-mikheil-saakashvili |title=Thousands gather for street protests against Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili |work=The Guardian |location=UK |accessdate=July 3, 2011 |date=April 9, 2009}}</ref>

===Foreign relations===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Georgia}}
[[File:Nato poster tbilisi.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Pro-[[NATO]] poster in [[Tbilisi]].]]
Georgia maintains good relations with its direct neighbours [[Armenia]], Azerbaijan, [[Turkey]], and is a member of the United Nations, the [[Council of Europe]], the [[World Trade Organization]], the [[Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation]], the [[Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe]], the [[Community of Democratic Choice]], the [[GUAM Organization for Democracy and Economic Development]], and the [[Asian Development Bank]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} Georgia also maintains political, economic and military relations with Japan, Uruguay,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=371&lang_id=ENG |title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia – Oriental Republic of Uruguay |publisher=Mfa.gov.ge |accessdate=May 5, 2009}}</ref> [[South Korea]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=386&lang_id=ENG |title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia – Visa Information for Foreign Citizens|publisher=Mfa.gov.ge |date=April 30, 2009 |accessdate=May 5, 2009}} (South Korea is on the list of the countries whose citizens do not need a visa to enter and stay on the territory of Georgia for 360 days)</ref> [[Israel]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=309&lang_id=ENG|title=Ministry of Foreignn Affairs of Georgia – Relations between Georgia and the State of Israel|publisher=mfa.gov.ge|accessdate=March 28, 2010}}</ref> [[Sri Lanka]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=379&lang_id=ENG |title=Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia – Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka |publisher=Mfa.gov.ge |accessdate=May 5, 2009}}</ref> [[Ukraine]] and many other countries.

The growing U.S. and European Union influence in Georgia, notably through proposed EU and NATO membership, the U.S. [[Georgia Train and Equip Program|Train and Equip]] military assistance program and the construction of the [[Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline]], have frequently strained Tbilisi's relations with Moscow. Georgia's decision to boost its presence in the coalition forces in Iraq was an important initiative.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=8271 |title=U.S. Announces New Military Assistance Program for Georgia |publisher=Civil.Ge |date=July 1, 2001 |accessdate=May 5, 2009}}</ref>

Georgia is currently working to become a full member of [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]]. In August 2004, the Individual Partnership Action Plan of Georgia was submitted officially to NATO. On October 29, 2004, the [[North Atlantic Council]] of NATO approved the [[NATO#International Partnership Action Plans|Individual Partnership Action Plan]] (IPAP) of Georgia and Georgia moved on to the second stage of Euro-Atlantic Integration. In 2005, by the decision of the President of Georgia, a state commission was set up to implement the Individual Partnership Action Plan, which presents an interdepartmental group headed by the Prime Minister. The Commission was tasked with coordinating and controlling the implementation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan.

[[File:President of Georgia and Obama cropped.jpg|thumb|Presidents [[Barack Obama]] and [[Mikheil Saakashvili]] meet in [[Washington D.C.|Washington]] for consultations, January 2012.]]
On February 14, 2005, the agreement on the appointment of [[Partnership for Peace]] (PfP) liaison officer between Georgia and the [[North Atlantic Treaty Organization]] came into force, whereby a liaison officer for the South Caucasus was assigned to Georgia. On March 2, 2005, the agreement was signed on the provision of the host nation support to and transit of NATO forces and NATO personnel. On March 6–9, 2006, the IPAP implementation interim assessment team arrived in Tbilisi. On April 13, 2006, the discussion of the assessment report on implementation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan was held at NATO Headquarters, within 26+1 format.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?sec_id=89&lang_id=ENG |title=Georgia's way to NATO |publisher=Mfa.gov.ge |date=May 27, 2010 |accessdate=November 2, 2010}}</ref> In 2006, the Georgian parliament voted unanimously for the bill which calls for integration of Georgia into NATO. The majority of Georgians and politicians in Georgia support the push for NATO membership.

From the European commission website: President [[Saakashvili]] views membership of the EU and [[NATO]] as a long term priority. As he does not want Georgia to become an arena of Russia-U.S. confrontation he seeks to maintain close relations with the United States and European Union, at the same time underlining his ambitions to advance co-operation with Russia.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} [[George W. Bush]] became the first sitting U.S. president to visit the country.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4531273.stm |title=Europe | Bush praises Georgian democracy |publisher=BBC News |date=May 10, 2005 |accessdate=May 5, 2009}}</ref> The street leading to [[Tbilisi International Airport]] has since been dubbed George W. Bush Avenue.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/aponline/us/AP-Bush.html?hp Bush Heads to Europe for G – 8 Summit], ''The New York Times''</ref> On October 2, 2006, Georgian and the European Union signed a joint statement on the agreed text of the Georgia-European Union Action Plan within the [[European Neighborhood Policy]] (ENP). The Action Plan was formally approved at the EU-Georgia Cooperation Council session on November 14, 2006 in [[Brussels]].<ref>[http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=13747 EU, Georgia Sign ENP Action Plan], ''Civil Georgia'', October 2, 2006.</ref>

===Military===
{{Main|Georgian Armed Forces}}
[[File:33rd LIB Georgia leaving for Afghanistan, 2011 (A).jpg|left|thumb|The 33rd Light Infantry Battalion prepares for deployment to Afghanistan.]]
Georgia's military is organized into [[Georgian Army|land]] and [[Georgian Air Force|air]] forces. They are collectively known as the Georgian Armed Forces (GAF).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gg.html |title=CIA – The World Factbook |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref> The mission and functions of the GAF are based on the [[Constitution of Georgia (country)|Constitution of Georgia]], Georgia’s Law on Defense and National Military Strategy, and international agreements to which Georgia is signatory. They are performed under the guidance and authority of the Ministry of Defense.

Since coming to power in 2004, Saakashvili has boosted spending on the country's armed forces and increased its overall size to around 45,000.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}} Of that figure, 12,000 have been trained in advanced techniques by US military instructors, under the [[Georgia Train and Equip Program]]. Some of these troops have been stationed in [[Iraq]] as part of the international coalition in the region, serving in [[Baqubah]] and the [[Green Zone]] of [[Baghdad]].

In May 2005, the [[13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion]] became the first full battalion to serve outside of Georgia. This unit was responsible for two checkpoints to the Green Zone, and provided security for the Iraqi Parliament. In October 2005, the unit was replaced by the 21st Infantry Battalion. Soldiers of the [[13th "Shavnabada" Light Infantry Battalion]] wear the "combat patches" of the American unit they served under, the [[U.S. 3d Infantry Division|Third Infantry Division]].

Since 2009, Georgia contributes nearly 1000 soldiers to the [[NATO]]-led [[International Security Assistance Force]] in Afghanistan, making it the highest per-capita troop contributor to the mission.<ref>Saakashvili, Mikheil. "Why Georgia sends troops to Afghanistan"[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/georgia/6809222/Why-Georgia-sends-troops-to-Afghanistan.html The Telegraph]</ref> As of September 2011, Georgia has suffered 10 deaths and 38 injuries.<ref>[http://civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=23895 Tenth Georgia Soldier Killed in Afghanistan] Retrieved: September 1, 2011</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Seth Robson |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/u-s-training-a-dual-mission-for-georgians-1.136920 |title=U.S. training a dual mission for Georgians |publisher=Stripes.com |accessdate=June 13, 2011}}</ref>

===Law enforcement===
{{main|Law enforcement in Georgia (country)}}
[[File:Tavisuplebis Moedani, Tbilisi.jpg|thumb|left|Georgian police patrol car in downtown [[Tbilisi]]]]
In Georgia, law enforcement is conducted and provided for by the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia. In recent years, the Patrol Police Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of Georgia has undergone a radical transformation, with the police having now absorbed a great many duties previously performed by dedicated independent government agencies. New duties performed by the police include border security and customs functions and contracted security provision; the latter function is performed by the dedicated 'security police'. Intelligence collecting in the interests of national security is now the remit of the [[Georgian Intelligence Service]].

[[File:Georgian policemen.jpg|thumb|Georgian Police officers in [[Tbilisi]]]]
In 2005 President [[Mikhail Saakashvili]] fired the entire traffic police force (numbering around 30,000 police officers) of the Georgian National Police due to corruption.
<ref name="mcclatchydc.com">{{cite web|author=Mark McDonald, Knight Ridder Newspapers |url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/190/story/11216.html |title=Firing of traffic police force stands as a symbol of hope in Georgia | McClatchy |publisher=Mcclatchydc.com |date= |accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=4849472 |title=Georgia's National Police Corruption Project |publisher=NPR |date=2005-09-15 |accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref> A new force was then subsequently built around new recruits.<ref name="mcclatchydc.com"/> The [[US State Department]]'s Bureau of International Narcotics and Law-Enforcement Affairs has provided assistance to the training efforts and continues to act in an advisory capacity.<ref>[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0OXU/is_8_60/ai_n15387346 Building security in the Republic of Georgia] ''Andrew Stamer'' Retrieved 1 June 2007</ref>

The new 'Patruli' force was first introduced in the [[summer]] of 2005 to replace the traffic police, a force which was accused of widespread corruption.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.president.gov.ge/?l=E&m=0&sm=3&st=120&id=211 |title=Remarks by President Saakashvili at the CIS Summit in Tbilisi |publisher=President of Georgia |date=June 3, 2005 |accessdate=2007-12-23}}</ref> The police introduced an 022 [[Emergency telephone number|emergency dispatch]] service in 2004.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://georgia.usembassy.gov/wardenmessage20041019.html |title=Security Notice |publisher=American Embassy Tblisi |accessdate=2007-12-23 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070815111418/http://georgia.usembassy.gov/wardenmessage20041019.html  |archivedate = 2007-08-15}}</ref>

Since the restructuring announced in 2005 almost all of Georgia's internal security agencies have acquired large amounts of new equipment and staff. One of the most visible changes that has come about as a result of the police force's restructuring and re-equipment is arguably the new liveries applied to service vehicles and uniforms for personnel; in both cases the Police has tried to move away from traditional designs and instead use modern hard-wearing materials and proven utilitarian, modern design.

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Georgia (country)|Agriculture in Georgia (country)}}
[[Image:VMK-003 in Batumi.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Georgian Railways]] represent a vital artery linking the [[Black Sea]] and [[Caspian Sea]] - the shortest route between [[Europe]] and [[Central Asia]].]]
Archaeological research demonstrates that Georgia has been involved in commerce with many lands and empires since the ancient times, largely due its location on the [[Black Sea]] and later on the historical [[Silk Road]]. Gold, silver, copper and [[iron ore|iron]] have been mined in the [[Caucasus Mountains]]. [[Wine making]] is a very old tradition. The country has sizable [[hydropower]] resources.<ref>{{cite web|title=U.S. Energy Informationa Administration "World Hydroelectricity Installed Capacity"|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/table64h.xls|publisher=Eia.doe.gov|accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref> Throughout Georgia's modern history agriculture and tourism have been principal economic sectors, because of the country's climate and topography.<ref name="cia">[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gg.html Georgia], from [[CIA World Factbook]].</ref>

For much of the 20th century, Georgia's economy was within the [[Soviet]] model of [[command economy]]. Since the fall of the [[Soviet Union|USSR]] in 1991, Georgia embarked on a major structural reform designed to transition to a [[free market]] economy. As with all other [[post-Soviet states]], Georgia faced a severe economic collapse. The civil war and military conflicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia aggravated the crisis. The agriculture and industry output diminished. By 1994 the gross domestic product had shrunk to a quarter of that of 1989.<ref>{{cite web|title=The [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development|EBDR]] country factsheet|url=http://www.ebrd.com/pubs/factsh/country/georgia.pdf|publisher=Ebrd.com}}{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> The first financial help from the West came in 1995, when the [[World Bank]] and [[International Monetary Fund]] granted Georgia a credit of USD 206 million and Germany granted [[German mark|DM]] 50 million.

[[Image:Telavi-131.jpg|thumb|The production of wine is a traditional component of the Georgian economy.]]
Since the early 21st century visible positive developments have been observed in the economy of Georgia. In 2007 Georgia's [[real GDP]] growth rate reached 12%, making Georgia one of the fastest [[Economic growth|growing economies]] in Eastern Europe.<ref name="cia"/> The World Bank dubbed Georgia "the number one economic reformer in the world" because it has in one year improved from rank 112th to 18th in terms of [[Ease of Doing Business Index|ease of doing business]].<ref>[http://www.doingbusiness.org/EconomyRankings/ World Bank Economy Rankings].</ref> The country has a high [[unemployment rate]] of 12.6% and has fairly low [[Median household income|median income]] compared to European countries.

[[2006 Russian ban of Moldovan and Georgian wines|The 2006 ban on imports]] of [[Georgian wine]] to Russia, one of Georgia's biggest trading partners, and break of financial links was described by the IMF Mission as an "external shock",<ref>[http://www.imf.ge/view2.php?lang=1&view=290 IMF Mission Press Statement at the Conclusion of a Staff Visit to Georgia]{{dead link|date=June 2012}}. June 1, 2007.</ref> In addition, Russia increased the price of gas for Georgia. This was followed by the spike in the [[Georgian lari]]'s rate of inflation.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}} The National Bank of Georgia stated that the inflation was mainly triggered by external reasons, including Russia’s economic embargo.<ref>[http://www.civil.ge/eng/article.php?id=15087 Central Bank Chief Reports on Inflation]. Civil Georgia, Tbilisi. May 10, 2007.</ref> The Georgian authorities expected that the current account deficit due to the embargo in 2007 would be financed by "higher foreign exchange proceeds generated by the large inflow of foreign direct investment" and an increase in tourist revenues.<ref>[http://www.imf.org/external/np/sec/pr/2006/pr06276.htm Statement by IMF Staff Mission to Georgia], Press Release No. 06/276. December 15, 2006.</ref> The country has also maintained a solid credit in international market securities.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=Sweet+Georgia&y=0&aje=true&x=0&id=070202001027|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080309012855/http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=Sweet+Georgia&y=0&aje=true&x=0&id=070202001027|archivedate=March 9, 2008 |title=Sweet Georgia. The Financial Times |publisher=Search.ft.com |accessdate=November 2, 2010}}</ref> Georgia is becoming more [[Globalization|integrated]] into the global trading network: its 2006 imports and exports account for 10% and 18% of GDP respectively.<ref name="cia"/> Georgia's main imports are natural gas, [[Petroleum|oil]] products, [[machinery]] and parts, and transport equipment.

[[File:Gudauri Georgia Panorama P.Liparteliani.jpg|left|thumb|The most visited ski resort of Georgia, [[Gudauri]].]]
Tourism is an increasingly significant part of the Georgian economy. About a million tourists brought US$313 million to the country in 2006.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://unwto.org/facts/eng/pdf/barometer/unwto_barom07_2_en.pdf |title=UNTWO World Tourism Barometer, Vol.5 No.2 |accessdate=March 26, 2008 |last=UNTWO |month=June | year=2007 |format=PDF }}</ref> According to the government, there are 103 resorts in different [[Köppen climate classification|climatic zones]] in Georgia. Tourist attractions include more than 2000 [[Spring (hydrosphere)|mineral springs]], over 12,000 historical and cultural monuments, four of which are recognised as UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]s ([[Bagrati Cathedral]] in Kutaisi and [[Gelati Monastery]], historical monuments of [[Mtskheta]], and Upper Svaneti).<ref>[http://www.investingeorgia.org/sectors/tourism/ Invest in Georgia: Tourism]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref>

Georgia is developing into an international transport corridor through [[Batumi]] and [[Poti]] ports, an oil pipeline from [[Baku]] through Tbilisi to [[Ceyhan]], the [[Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan pipeline]] (BTC) and a parallel gas pipeline, the [[South Caucasus Pipeline]].

Since coming to power Saakashvili administration accomplished a series of reforms aimed at improving tax collection. Among other things a [[flat income tax]] was introduced in 2004.<ref>The Financial Times – [http://search.ft.com/ftArticle?queryText=georgia+tax&y=0&aje=true&x=0&id=061018006831 Flat taxes could be a flash in the pan, IMF research says]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> As a result budget revenues have increased fourfold and a once large [[budget deficit]] has turned into [[budget surplus|surplus]].<ref>[[World Bank]], [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:21725423~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html World Development Indicators 2008]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gg.html#Econ |title=CIA – The World Factbook – Georgia |publisher=Cia.gov |accessdate=July 3, 2011}}</ref><ref>[http://www.investingeorgia.org/about_us/faq/ Frequently Asked Questions: I.Macroeconomic Environment]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}, investingeorgia.org</ref>

As of 2001 54% of the population lived below the national poverty line but by 2006 poverty decreased to 34%. In 2005 average monthly income of a household was GEL 347 (about 200 USD).<ref>{{cite web|title=The World Bank's Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Program progress report|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTPRS1/Resources/Georgia_2APR-PRSP(Sept1-2006.pdf).pdf|publisher=Siteresources.worldbank.org|accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref> IMF 2007 estimates place Georgia's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|nominal GDP]] at US$10.3 billion. Georgia's economy is becoming more devoted to [[Service economy|services]] (now representing 65% of GDP), moving away from [[agricultural sector]] ( 10.9%).<ref>World Development Indicators 2008, The World Bank. Data on composition of GDP is available at [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/DATASTATISTICS/0,,contentMDK:20398986~menuPK:64133163~pagePK:64133150~piPK:64133175~theSitePK:239419,00.html worldbank.org]</ref>

===Transport===

{{main|Transport in Georgia (country)}}
Today transport in Georgia is provided by means of [[Georgian Railway|rail]], road, shipping and air travel. Positioned in the [[Caucasus]] and on the coast of the Black Sea, Georgia is a key country through which energy imports to the [[European Union]] from neighbouring [[Azerbaijan]] pass. Traditionally the country was located on an important north-south trade route between [[European Russia]] and the [[Near East]] and [[Turkey]].

In recent years Georgia has invested large amounts of money in the modernisation of its transport networks. The construction of new highways has been prioritised and, as such, major cities like [[Tbilisi]] have seen the quality of their roads improve dramatically; despite this however, the quality of inter-city routes remains poor and to date only one [[motorway]]-standard road has been constructed - the ს 1.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.georoad.ge/?que=eng/statistics/roads |title=Roads Department of Georgia |publisher=Georoad.ge |date= |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref>
[[File:E60 Sakartvelo.jpg|left|thumb|A green directional sign on the ს 1 motorway, denoting it as such.]]
The Georgian railways represent an important transport artery for the Caucasus as they make up the largest proportion of a route linking the [[Black Sea|Black]] and [[Caspian Sea]]s, this in turn has allowed them to benefit in recent years from increased energy exports from neighbouring [[Azerbaijan]] to the [[European Union]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Turkey]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railway.ge/?web=0&action=page&p_id=407&lang=eng |title=Georgian Railway |publisher=Railway.ge |date= |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref> Passenger services are operated by the state-owned [[Georgian Railways]] whilst freight operations are carried out by a number of licensed operators. Since 2004 the Georgian Railways have been undergoing a rolling program of fleet-renewal and managerial restructuring which is aimed at making the service provided more efficient and comfortable for passengers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railway.ge/?web=0&action=page&p_id=245&lang=eng |title=Georgian Railway |publisher=Railway.ge |date= |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref> Infrastructural development has also been high on the agenda for the railways, with the key Tbilisi railway junction expected to undergo major reorganisation in the near future.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railway.ge/?web=0&action=page&p_id=242&lang=eng |title=Georgian Railway |publisher=Railway.ge |date= |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref> Additional projects also include the construction of the economically important [[Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway]], which for the first time will connect much of the Caucasus with Turkey by [[standard gauge]] railway.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railway.ge/?web=0&action=page&p_id=290&lang=eng |title=Georgian Railway |publisher=Railway.ge |date= |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref>

Air and maritime transport is developing in Georgia, with the former mainly used by passengers and the latter for transport of freight. Georgia currently has four international airports; the largest of which is by far [[Tbilisi International Airport]], hub for [[Georgian Airways]], which offers connections to many large European cities. Other airports in the country are largely underdeveloped or lack scheduled traffic, although, as of late, efforts have been made to solve both these problems.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.evolutsia.net/kutaisis-airport-georgias-opportunity/ |title=Kutaisi's airport: Georgia's opportunity |publisher=Evolutsia.Net |date=2012-01-18 |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref> There are a number of seaports along Georgia's [[Black Sea]] coast, the largest and must busy of which is the [[Batumi|Port of Batumi]]; whilst the town is itself a seaside resort, the port is a major cargo terminal in the caucasus and is often used by neighbouring [[Azerbaijan]] as a transit point for making energy deliveries to Europe. Scheduled and chartered passenger ferry services link Georgia with [[Ukraine]] and [[Turkey]].

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Georgia (country)}}
[[File:Qartvelebi poloneti.jpg|thumb|left|Georgian youth in the [[Chokha]], a traditional costume.]]
Like most native [[Peoples of the Caucasus|Caucasian peoples]], the Georgians do not fit into any of the main ethnic categories of Europe or Asia. The [[Georgian language]], the most pervasive of the [[Kartvelian languages]], is neither Indo-European, [[Turkic languages|Turkic]] nor [[Semitic languages|Semitic]]. The present day Georgian or Kartvelian nation is thought to have resulted from the fusion of aboriginal, [[Indigenous peoples|autochthonous]] inhabitants with immigrants who infiltrated into [[South Caucasus]] from the direction of [[Anatolia]] in remote antiquity.<ref>History of Modern Georgia, David Marshal Lang, p 18</ref> The ancient Jewish chronicle by [[Josephus]] mentions Georgians as Iberes who were also called Thobel [[Tubal]].<ref>The Complete Works, Jewish Antiquities, Josephus, Book 1, p 57</ref>

Ethnic [[Georgians]] form about 84% of Georgia's current population of 4,661,473 (July 2006 est.).<ref>This figure includes the territories currently out of the [[Cabinet of Georgia|Georgian government]]'s control – Abkhazia and South Ossetia – whose total population, as of 2005, is estimated by the State Department of Statistics of Georgia at 227,200 (178,000 in Abkhazia plus 49,200 in South Ossetia). ''Statistical Yearbook of Georgia 2005'': Population, Table 2.1, p. 33, Department for Statistics, Tbilisi (2005)</ref>  Other ethnic groups include [[Abkhazians]], [[Armenians]], [[Azeris]], [[Belorusians]], [[Bulgarians]], [[Estonians]], [[Germans]], [[Greeks]], [[Georgian Jews|Jews]], [[Moldovans]], [[Ossetians]], [[Polish people|Poles]], [[Russians]], [[Turkish people|Turks]] and [[Ukrainians]]. Notably, [[Georgian Jews|Georgia's Jewish community]] is one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world.
Georgia also exhibits significant linguistic diversity. Within the [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian family]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Megrelian language|Megrelian]], and [[Svan language|Svan]] are spoken.<ref name=ethnographic>{{cite web|url=http://www.hunmagyar.org/turan/caucasus/index.html |title=Ethnographic map of the Caucasus |publisher=Hunmagyar.org |accessdate=November 2, 2010}}</ref> The official languages of Georgia are Georgian and also [[Abkhazian language|Abkhaz]] within the autonomous region of Abkhazia. Georgian, the country's official language, is a primary language of approximately 71% of the population, with 9% speaking Russian, 7% [[Armenian language|Armenian]], 6% [[Azeri language|Azeri]], and 7% other languages.<ref name=cia/>

[[File:Ethnic Groups In Caucasus Region 2009.jpg|thumb|[[Peoples of the Caucasus|Ethno-linguistic group]]s in the Caucasus region.]]
In the early 1990s, following the dissolution of the [[Soviet Union]], violent [[separatism|separatist]] conflicts broke out in the autonomous regions of Abkhazia and South Ossetia. Many [[Ossetians]] living in Georgia left the country, mainly to Russia's [[North Ossetia]].<ref>Human Rights Watch/Helsinki, [http://hrw.org/reports/1996/Russia.htm Russia: The Ingush-Ossetian Conflict in the Prigorodnyi Region], May 1996.</ref> On the other hand, more than 150,000 Georgians left Abkhazia after the breakout of hostilities in 1993.<ref name=yb2005>''Statistical Yearbook of Georgia 2005'': Population, Table 2.1, p. 33, Department for Statistics, Tbilisi (2005)</ref> Of the [[Meskhetian Turk]]s who were [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union|forcibly relocated]] in 1944 only a tiny fraction returned to Georgia as of 2008.<ref>[http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/topic,463af2212,488edfe22,49749c843c,0.html World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples – Uzbekistan : Meskhetian Turks]. Minority Rights Group International.</ref>

The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnic [[Russians in Georgia|Russians]], or 6.3% of the population,<ref>[http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insightb/articles/eav043009.shtml Georgia: Ethnic Russians Say, "There’s No Place Like Home"]. EurasiaNet.org. April 30, 2009.</ref> 52,000 [[Ukrainians]] and 100,000 [[Greeks in Georgia]].<ref name=emigration/> Since 1990, 1.5 million Georgian nationals have left.<ref name=emigration>[http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/ge412ang.pdf Ethnic minorities in Georgia] ([[PDF]]). Federation Internationale des Ligues des Droits de l'Homme.</ref> At least one million immigrants from Georgia legally or illegally reside in Russia.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5412672.stm Georgians deported as row deepens]. BBC News. October 6, 2006.</ref> Georgia's net migration rate is −4.54, excluding Georgian nationals who live abroad. Georgia has nonetheless been inhabited by immigrants from all over the world throughout its independence. According to 2006 statistics, Georgia gets most of its immigrants from [[Turkey]] and [[China]].

Today 83.9% of the population practices [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christianity]], with majority of these adhering to the national [[Georgian Orthodox Church]]. Religious minorities include Muslims (9.9%), [[Armenian Apostolic]] (3.9%), and Roman Catholic (0.8%). 0.8% of those recorded in the 2002 census declared themselves to be adherents of other religions and 0.7% declared no religion at all.<ref name=cia/><ref name="nationmaster.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.nationmaster.com/country/gg-georgia/rel-religion |title=Georgian Religion statistics |publisher=NationMaster |accessdate=November 2, 2010}}</ref>

===Urbanisation===
{{Largest cities of Georgia (country)}}

===Education===
The education system of Georgia has undergone sweeping modernizing, although controversial, reforms since 2004.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4724213.stm Georgia purges education system. The [[BBC News]]. July 29, 2005.]</ref><ref>Molly Corso (May 13, 2005) [http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/civilsociety/articles/eav041305.shtml Education reform rocks Georgia]. Eurasianet. [[United Nations Development Programme]]. Retrieved on September 2, 2008.</ref> Education in Georgia is mandatory for all children aged 6–14.<ref name="tempus">[http://www.tempus.ge/EDUCATIONAL%20SYSTEM%20OF%20GEORGIA.html Education system in Georgia]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}. National Tempus Office Georgia. Retrieved on September 2, 2008.</ref> The school system is divided into elementary (6 years; age level 6–12), basic (3 years; age level 12–15), and secondary (3 years; age level 15–18), or alternatively vocational studies (2 years). Students with a secondary school certificate have access to higher education. Only the students who have passed the Unified National Examinations may enroll in a state-accredited higher education institution, based on ranking of scores he/she received at the exams.

Most of these institutions offer three levels of study: a Bachelor's Program (3–4 years); a Master's Program (2 years), and a Doctoral Program (3 years). There is also a Certified Specialist's Program that represents a single-level higher education program lasting for 3–6 years.<ref name="tempus"/><ref>[http://www.mes.gov.ge/index.php?module=text&link_id=50 Education institutions]. Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia. Retrieved on September 2, 2008.</ref> As of 2008, 20 higher education institutions are accredited by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia.<ref>[http://www.tempus.ge/georgian%20high%20education%20institutions.html High education institutions]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}. National Tempus Office Georgia. Retrieved on September 2, 2008.</ref> [[Gross enrolment ratio|Gross primary enrollment ratio]] was 94% for the period of 2001–2006.<ref>[http://devdata.worldbank.org/AAG/geo_aag.pdf Georgia at a glance]. World Bank. July 28, 2007.</ref>

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Georgia (country)}}
[[File:4th century BC golden earrings from Vani, Georgia. Collection of the Georgian National Museum.jpg|upright|thumb|Ancient [[Colchians|Colchian]] golden earrings, 4th century BC.]]
Georgian culture evolved over thousands of years with its foundations in [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberian]] and [[Colchis|Colchian]] civilizations,<ref>Georgia : in the mountains of poetry 3rd rev. ed., Nasmyth, Peter</ref> continuing into the rise of the unified Georgian Kingdom under the single monarchy of the [[Bagrationi]]. Georgian culture enjoyed a golden age and renaissance of [[classical literature]], arts, philosophy, architecture and science in the 11th century.<ref>Rapp, Stephen H. (2003), ''Studies In Medieval Georgian Historiography: Early Texts And Eurasian Contexts''. Peeters Publishers, ISBN 90-429-1318-5</ref>

The [[Georgian language]], and the Classical Georgian literature of the poet [[Shota Rustaveli]], were revived in the 19th century after a long period of turmoil, laying the foundations of the [[Romanticism|romantics]] and novelists of the modern era such as [[Grigol Orbeliani]], [[Nikoloz Baratashvili]], [[Ilia Chavchavadze]], [[Akaki Tsereteli]], [[Vazha Pshavela]], and many others.<ref name="Lang David, Georgians">Lang David, Georgians</ref> Georgian culture was influenced by [[Classical Greece]], the [[Roman Empire]], the [[Byzantine Empire]], and later by the [[Russian Empire]].

[[Georgians]] have their own unique 3 [[Georgian alphabet|alphabets]] which according to traditional accounts was invented by King [[Pharnavaz I of Iberia]] in 3rd century BC.<ref>[[David Marshall Lang|Lang, David Marshall]]. ''Georgia''. p. 515.{{Request quotation|date=March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.101languages.net/georgian/writing_system.html|title=Georgian Alphabet|publisher=101languages.net|accessdate=2012-10-30}}</ref>

Georgia is well known for its rich [[folklore]], unique traditional music, theatre, cinema, and art. Georgians are renowned for their love of music, dance, theatre and cinema. In the 20th century there have been notable Georgian painters such as [[Niko Pirosmani]], [[Lado Gudiashvili]], [[Elene Akhvlediani]]; ballet choreographers such as [[George Balanchine]], [[Vakhtang Chabukiani]], and [[Nino Ananiashvili]]; poets such as [[Galaktion Tabidze]], [[Lado Asatiani]], and [[Mukhran Machavariani]]; and theatre and film directors such as [[Robert Sturua]], [[Tengiz Abuladze]], [[Georgi Daneliya|Giorgi Danelia]] and [[Otar Ioseliani]].<ref name="Lang David, Georgians"/>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Georgia (country)}}
[[File:Svetitskhoveli1.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Svetitskhoveli Cathedral]] in [[Mtskheta]], Georgia’s ancient capital]]
A large majority of Georgia's population (83.9% in 2002)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geostat.ge/cms/site_images/_files/georgian/census/2002/I%20tomi%20-%20saqarTvelos%20mosaxleobis%202002%20wlis%20pirveli%20erovnuli%20sayovelTao%20aRweris%20Sedegebi.pdf |title=2002 census results| page=132 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref> practices [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]]. The [[Georgian Orthodox Church]] is one of the world's most ancient Christian Churches, and claims apostolic foundation by [[Saint Andrew]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patriarchate.ge/_en/?action=istoria |title=Patriarchate of Georgia - Official web-site |publisher=Patriarchate.ge |date= |accessdate=2012-06-10}}</ref> In the first half of the 4th century Christianity was adopted as the state religion of [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]] (present-day [[Kartli]], or Eastern Georgia), following the missionary work of [[Saint Nino]] of [[Cappadocia]].<ref name="Toumanoff1963">[[Cyril Toumanoff|Toumanoff, Cyril]], "Iberia between Chosroid and Bagratid Rule", in ''Studies in Christian Caucasian History'', Georgetown, 1963, pp. 374-377. Accessible online at [http://rbedrosian.com/Ref/Toumicb/toumicb.html]</ref><ref name="Rapp2007">{{cite book|last=Rapp|first=Stephen H., Jr|title=The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fWp9JA3aBvcC&pg=PA137|accessdate=11 May 2012|year=2007|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-3361-9|page=138|chapter=7 - Georgian Christianity}}</ref> The Church gained [[autocephaly]] during the early Middle Ages; it was abolished during the Russian domination of the country, restored in 1917 and fully recognised by the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] in 1990.

The special status of the Georgian Orthodox Church is officially recognised in the Constitution of Georgia and the [[Concordat of 2002]], although religious institutions are separate from the state, and every citizen has the right of religion.

Religious minorities of Georgia include [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Christians]] (3.9%), Muslims (9.9%), and Roman Catholics (0.8%).<ref name=cia/> [[Islam in Georgia (country)|Islam]] is represented by both [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijani]] [[Shia]] Muslims (in the South-East) and ethnic Georgian [[Sunni]] Muslims in Adjara. [[Georgian Jews]] trace the history of their community to the 6th century BC; their numbers have dwindled in the last decades due to strong emigration towards [[Israel]].

Despite the long history of religious harmony in Georgia,<ref>Spilling, Michael. Georgia (Cultures of the world). 1997</ref> there have been several instances of religious discrimination and violence against "nontraditional faiths", such as [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], by the followers of the [[defrocked]] Orthodox priest Vasil Mkalavishvili.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/backgrounder/eca/georgia/georgia_memo_full.htm |title=Memorandum to the U.S. Government on Religious Violence in the Republic of Georgia (Human Rights Watch August 2001) |publisher=Hrw.org |accessdate=May 5, 2009}}</ref>

===Architecture and arts===
[[File:Hpim3433.jpg|thumb|Old Tbilisi - Architecture in Georgia is in many ways a fusion of European and Asian.]]

Georgian architecture has been influenced by many civilizations. There are several different architectural styles for [[castles]], [[tower]]s, [[fortifications]] and churches. The Upper Svaneti fortifications, and the castle town of [[Shatili]] in [[Khevsureti]], are some of the finest examples of medieval Georgian castle architecture. Other architectural aspects of Georgia include [[Rustavelis Gamziri|Rustaveli]] avenue in Tbilisi in the Hausmann style, and the Old Town District.

Georgian ecclesiastic art is one of the most fascinating aspects of Georgian Christian architecture, which combines classical [[dome]] style with original [[basilica]] style forming what is known as the Georgian cross-dome style. Cross-dome architecture developed in Georgia during the 9th century; before that, most Georgian churches were basilicas. Other examples of Georgian ecclesiastic architecture can be found outside Georgia: [[Bachkovo Monastery]] in Bulgaria (built in 1083 by the Georgian military commander Grigorii Bakuriani), [[Iviron monastery]] in Greece (built by Georgians in the 10th century), and the [[Monastery of the Cross]] in Jerusalem (built by Georgians in the 9th century).

The art of Georgia spans the [[prehistoric]], the ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greek]], [[ancient Rome|Roman]], [[medieval]], [[ecclesiastic]], [[Iconography|iconic]] and modern [[visual arts]]. One of the most famous late 19th/early 20th century Georgian artists is a [[primitivist]] painter [[Niko Pirosmani]].

===Music===
{{Main|Music of Georgia (country)}}
Georgia has a rich and vibrant musical tradition, primarily known for its early development of [[polyphony]]. Georgian polyphony is based on three vocal parts, a unique tuning system based on perfect fifths, and a harmonic structure rich in parallel fifths and dissonances. Each region in Georgia has its own traditional music with Persian influenced drones and ostinato-like soloists in the East, complex improvised harmonies in the west, and solid moving chords in Svanetie.

===Cuisine===
{{Main|Georgian cuisine}}
[[File:Pepper (Georgian cuisine).jpg|thumb|left|[[Capsicum]]-based food]]
[[Georgian cuisine]] and [[Georgian wine|wine]] have evolved through the centuries, adapting traditions in each era. One of the most unusual traditions of dining is ''Supra'', or ''Georgian table'', which is also a way of socialising with friends and family. The head of ''Supra'' is known as [[Tamada]]. He also conducts the highly philosophical toasts, and makes sure that everyone is enjoying themselves. Various historical regions of Georgia are known for their particular dishes: for example, [[Khinkali]] (meat dumplings), from eastern mountainous Georgia, and [[Khachapuri]], mainly from [[Imereti]], [[Samegrelo]] and [[Adjara]]. In addition to traditional Georgian dishes, the foods of other countries have been brought to Georgia by immigrants from Russia, [[Greece]], and recently China.

===Sports===
{{Main|Sport in Georgia}}
[[File:Georgia vs Romania 2011 RWC (3).jpg|thumb|[[Georgia national rugby union team|Georgia]] vs. [[Romania]] on [[Rugby World Cup 2011|RWC]] 2011.]]
Among the most popular sports in Georgia are [[association football|football]], basketball, [[rugby union]], [[wrestling]], and [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifting]]. Historically, Georgia has been famous for its physical education; it is known that the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] were fascinated with Georgians' physical qualities after seeing the training techniques of ancient [[Caucasian Iberia|Iberia]].<ref>Romans erected the statue of the Iberian King Pharsman after he demonstrated Georgian training methods during his visit to Rome; [[Cassius Dio]], ''Roman History'', LXIX, 15.3</ref> Wrestling remains a historically important sport of Georgia, and some historians think that the [[Greco-Roman wrestling|Greco-Roman style of wrestling]] incorporates many Georgian elements.<ref>Williams, Douglas. ''Georgia in my Heart'', 1999.</ref>

Within Georgia, one of the most popularized styles of wrestling is the Kakhetian style. There were a number of other styles in the past that are not as widely used today. For example, the [[Khevsureti]] region of Georgia has three different styles of wrestling. Other popular sports in 19th century Georgia were [[polo]], and [[Lelo burti|Lelo]], a traditional Georgian game later replaced by rugby union.

The first and only race circuit in the Caucasian region is located in Georgia. [[Rustavi International Motorpark]] originally built in 1978 was re-opened in 2012 after total reconstruction<ref>{{cite web|url= http://rustavi2.com/news/news_text.php?id_news=45318&pg=1&im=main&ct=0&wth=0 | title=Rustavi 2 Broadcasting Company|publisher=Rustavi2.com |date=2012-04-29}}</ref> costing $20 million. The track satisfies the [[FIA]] Grade 2 requirements and currently hosts the [[Legends car racing]] series and Formula Alfa competitions.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.1tv.ge/news-view/37425/en | title=Georgian National Broadcaster|publisher=1tv.ge |date=2012-04-30}}</ref>

{{clear}}

==See also==
{{portal|Georgia (country)}}
* [[Outline of Georgia (country)]]
* [[Index of Georgia (country)-related articles]]

* [[Georgian media]]
* [[Healthcare in the Republic of Georgia|Healthcare in Georgia]]
* [[Human rights in Georgia]]
* [[International rankings of Georgia]]
* [[List of countries by received FDI]]
* [[List of wars involving Georgia (country)]]
* [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Georgia]]
* [[Public holidays in Georgia]]
* [[Telecommunications in Georgia (country)|Telecommunications in Georgia]]
* [[Transport in Georgia (country)|Transport in Georgia]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

;Bibliography
* Avalov, Zurab: ''Prisoedinenie Gruzii k Rossii'', Montvid, S.-Peterburg 1906
* Gvosdev, Nikolas K.: ''Imperial policies and perspectives towards Georgia: 1760–1819'', Macmillan, Basingstoke 2000, ISBN 0-312-22990-9
* Lang, David M.: ''The last years of the Georgian Monarchy: 1658–1832'', Columbia University Press, New York 1957

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
{{Commons category|Georgia}}

;Government
* [http://www.president.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG President of Georgia]
* [http://www.government.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG&sec_id=1 Government of Georgia]
* [http://www.mfa.gov.ge/index.php?lang_id=ENG Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Georgia ]
* [http://www.tourism.gov.ge/ Department of Tourism and Resorts]
* [http://www.amcham.ge/ American Chamber of Commerce in Georgia]
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-g/georgia.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]

;General information
* {{CIA World Factbook link|gg|Georgia}}
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/georgia.htm Georgia] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* {{dmoz|Regional/Asia/Georgia}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17301647 Georgia profile] from the [[BBC News]]
* {{Wikiatlas|Georgia}}
* {{osmrelation-inline|28699}}
* [http://amsi.ge/ Association of Modern Scientific Investigation – (AMSI)]
;News media
*[http://civil.ge/ Civil Georgia, daily news about Georgia]
* [http://alertnet.org/db/crisisprofiles/GG_OSS.htm?v=in_detail Crisis profile, Georgia, Abkhazia, S. Ossetia] From [http://alertnet.org/ Reuters Alertnet]
* [http://georgiandaily.com/ Georgian Daily], all the latest news from Georgia and related to Georgia
* [http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsgeorgia.ru%2F NewsGeorgia] Google Translation in to English from the NewsGeorgia (Russian Language) site
* [http://www.georgiacaucasus.com/ GeorgiaCaucasus.com ] GeorgiaCaucasus.com – online info Magazine dedicated to Georgia and Caucasus


;Other
* {{Wikivoyage-inline}}

{{Georgia topics}}
{{Ancient Georgians}}
{{Symbols of Georgia (country)}}
{{Georgian language}}
{{Georgian Alphabet Letters}}
{{Navboxes
|title=Articles Related to Georgia
|list=
{{Navboxes
|title=Internal
|list=
{{Administrative divisions of Georgia}}
{{Georgian historical regions}}
}}
{{Navboxes
|title=[[File:Gnome-globe.svg|25px]]{{nbsp}}Geographic locale
|list=
{{Sovereign states of Europe}}
{{Countries bordering the Black Sea}}
}}
{{Navboxes
|title=International membership and relationships
|list=
{{Council of Europe}}
{{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}}
{{Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (BSEC)}}
{{Black Sea Naval Co-operation Task Group}}
{{GUAM countries}}
{{Georgia ties}}
}}
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Georgia (Country)}}
[[Category:Georgia (country)| ]]
[[Category:Caucasus]]
[[Category:Black Sea countries]]
[[Category:Eastern Europe]]
[[Category:Countries in Europe]]
[[Category:Western Asian countries]]
[[Category:Member states of the Council of Europe]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1991]]
[[Category:Bicontinental countries]]

{{Link GA|de}}
{{Link FA|eo}}
{{Link FA|es}}
{{Link FA|fi}}
{{Link GA|ar}}
[[ace:Georgia]]
[[kbd:Хъырцей]]
[[af:Georgië]]
[[als:Georgien]]
[[am:ጂዮርጂያ]]
[[ang:Georgia (land)]]
[[ab:Қырҭтәыла]]
[[ar:جورجيا]]
[[an:Cheorchia]]
[[arc:ܓܘܪܓܝܐ (ܐܬܪܐ)]]
[[frp:Jôrg·ie (payis)]]
[[ast:Xeorxa]]
[[av:Гуржи]]
[[az:Gürcüstan]]
[[bn:জর্জিয়া (রাষ্ট্র)]]
[[bjn:Jorjiya]]
[[zh-min-nan:Sakartvelo]]
[[be:Грузія]]
[[be-x-old:Грузія]]
[[bcl:Georgya]]
[[bg:Грузия]]
[[bar:Georgien]]
[[bo:འཇོར་ཇི་ཡ། (རྒྱལ་ཁབ།)]]
[[bs:Gruzija]]
[[br:Jorjia (bro)]]
[[ca:Geòrgia]]
[[cv:Грузи]]
[[ceb:Georgia (nasod)]]
[[cs:Gruzie]]
[[cy:Georgia]]
[[da:Georgien]]
[[de:Georgien]]
[[dv:ޖޯޖިޔާ (ޤައުމު)]]
[[nv:Jóojah (Kéyah)]]
[[dsb:Georgiska]]
[[et:Gruusia]]
[[dz:ཇཽ་ཇཱ]]
[[el:Γεωργία]]
[[es:Georgia]]
[[eo:Kartvelio]]
[[ext:Geólgia]]
[[eu:Georgia]]
[[ee:Georgia]]
[[fa:گرجستان]]
[[hif:Georgia]]
[[fo:Georgia (land)]]
[[fr:Géorgie (pays)]]
[[fy:Geörgje]]
[[ga:An tSeoirsia]]
[[gv:Yn Çhorshey]]
[[gag:Gruziya]]
[[gd:A' Chairtbheil]]
[[gl:Xeorxia - საქართველო]]
[[gu:જ્યોર્જીયા (દેશ)]]
[[hak:Kak-lû-kit-â]]
[[xal:Гүрҗмүдин Орн]]
[[ko:조지아 (국가)]]
[[haw:Keokia]]
[[hy:Վրաստան]]
[[hi:जॉर्जिया]]
[[hsb:Georgiska]]
[[hr:Gruzija]]
[[io:Gruzia]]
[[ilo:Georgia (pagilian)]]
[[id:Georgia]]
[[ia:Georgia (pais)]]
[[ie:Georgia]]
[[os:Гуырдзыстон]]
[[is:Georgía]]
[[it:Georgia]]
[[he:גאורגיה]]
[[jv:Georgia]]
[[kn:ಜಾರ್ಜಿಯ]]
[[pam:Georgya]]
[[krc:Гюрджю]]
[[ka:საქართველო]]
[[csb:Grëzóńskô]]
[[kk:Грузия]]
[[kw:Pow Grouzi]]
[[rw:Geworugiya]]
[[sw:Georgia (nchi)]]
[[kv:Грузия]]
[[ht:Jeoji]]
[[ku:Gurcistan]]
[[ky:Грузия]]
[[lbe:Гуржисттан]]
[[ltg:Gruzeja]]
[[la:Georgia]]
[[lv:Gruzija]]
[[lb:Georgien]]
[[lt:Gruzija]]
[[lij:Geòrgia (stato)]]
[[li:Georgië]]
[[lez:Гуржистан]]
[[lmo:Georgia]]
[[hu:Grúzia]]
[[mk:Грузија]]
[[ml:ജോർജ്ജിയ]]
[[mt:Ġeorġja]]
[[mi:Hōria]]
[[mr:जॉर्जिया]]
[[xmf:საქორთუო]]
[[arz:جيورجيا]]
[[mzn:گرجستون]]
[[ms:Georgia (negara)]]
[[cdo:Gáh-lū-gék-ā]]
[[mdf:Грузие]]
[[mn:Гүрж]]
[[my:ဂျော်ဂျီယာနိုင်ငံ]]
[[nah:Georgia]]
[[na:Djiordjiya]]
[[nl:Georgië]]
[[ne:जर्जिया (देश)]]
[[new:ज्योर्जिया]]
[[ja:グルジア]]
[[ce:Гуьржий-Мохк]]
[[frr:Georgien]]
[[pih:Jorja]]
[[no:Georgia]]
[[nn:Georgia]]
[[nov:Georgia]]
[[oc:Georgia (Caucàs)]]
[[mhr:Грузий]]
[[or:ଜର୍ଜିଆ]]
[[uz:Gurjiston]]
[[ps:ګرجستان]]
[[pms:Geòrgia]]
[[nds:Georgien]]
[[pl:Gruzja]]
[[pnt:Γρουζία]]
[[pt:Geórgia]]
[[crh:Gürcistan]]
[[ro:Georgia]]
[[qu:Kartulsuyu]]
[[ru:Грузия]]
[[sah:Грузия]]
[[se:Georgia]]
[[sc:Georgia]]
[[sco:Georgie (kintra)]]
[[stq:Georgien]]
[[sq:Gjeorgjia]]
[[scn:Giorgia]]
[[si:ජෝර්ජියා (රට)]]
[[simple:Georgia (country)]]
[[ss:IJojiya]]
[[sk:Gruzínsko]]
[[sl:Gruzija]]
[[cu:Гєѡргїꙗ]]
[[szl:Gruzyjo]]
[[so:Joorjiya]]
[[ckb:گورجستان]]
[[sr:Грузија]]
[[sh:Gruzija]]
[[su:Géorgia]]
[[fi:Georgia]]
[[sv:Georgien]]
[[tl:Heorhiya]]
[[ta:சியார்சியா (நாடு)]]
[[tt:Гөрҗистан]]
[[te:జార్జియా (దేశం)]]
[[th:ประเทศจอร์เจีย]]
[[tg:Гурҷистон]]
[[tr:Gürcistan]]
[[tk:Gruziýa]]
[[udm:Грузия]]
[[uk:Грузія]]
[[ur:جارجیا]]
[[ug:گرۇزىيە]]
[[vec:Zorzania]]
[[vep:Gruzii]]
[[vi:Gruzia]]
[[vo:Grusiyän]]
[[fiu-vro:Gruusia]]
[[war:Georgia (nasod)]]
[[wo:Jeoorji]]
[[wuu:格鲁吉亚]]
[[yi:גרוזיע]]
[[yo:Georgia]]
[[zh-yue:格魯吉亞]]
[[diq:Gurcıstan]]
[[zea:Georhië]]
[[bat-smg:Grozėjė]]
[[zh:格鲁吉亚]]

Bhutan

2013-01-18T20:47:39Z

PatriceNeff: Fix largest_city=capital in infobox

{{pp-move-vandalism|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}
{{coord|27.417|90.435|region:BT|format=dms|display=title}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Bhutan
| native_name = {{resize|120%|འབྲུག་རྒྱལ་ཁབ་}} '' 'Brug Rgyal-khab'' {{small|{{nobold|([[Wylie transliteration|Wylie]])}}}} ''Dru Gäkhap''
| common_name = Bhutan
| image_flag = Flag of Bhutan.svg
| image_coat = Bhutan emblem.svg
| symbol_type = Emblem
| image_map = Bhutan (orthographic projection).svg
| alt_map = | map_caption =
| national_anthem = ''[[Druk tsendhen|Druk Tsendhen]]'' {{small|''The Thunder Dragon Kingdom''}} <center></center>
| capital = [[Thimphu]]
| latd=27 |latm=28.0 |latNS=N |longd=89 |longm=38.5 |longEW=E
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = [[Dzongkha]]
| demonym = Bhutanese
| government_type = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]
| leader_title1 = [[List of rulers of Bhutan|King]]
| leader_name1 = [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]]
| leader_title2 = [[List of Prime Ministers of Bhutan|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Jigme Y. Thinley]]
| legislature = [[Parliament of Bhutan|Parliament]]
| upper_house = [[National Council (Bhutan)|National Council]]
| lower_house = [[National Assembly (Bhutan)|National Assembly]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Bhutan|Formation]]
| sovereignty_note = Early 17th century
| established_event1 = [[House of Wangchuck|Wangchuk Dynasty]]
| established_date1 = 17 December 1907
| established_event2 = [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| established_date2 = 2007
| area_rank = 135th
| area_magnitude = 1 E10
| area_km2 = 38,394
| area_sq_mi = 14,824 
| area_footnote = <ref name=FYP9/><ref name=official/>
| percent_water = 1.1
| population_estimate = 742,737<ref name=clock>{{cite web |url=http://countrymeters.info/en/Bhutan |title=Bhutan Population clock |year=2012 |publisher=Countrymeters.info |accessdate=2012-10-22}}</ref>
| population_estimate_rank = 165th
| population_estimate_year = 2012
| population_census = 634,982<ref name=census>{{cite web |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/meetings/wshops/Thailand_15Oct07/docs/Countries_presentations/Bhutan_Results.ppt |title=Population and Housing Census of Bhutan — 2005 |format=PPT |publisher=[[UN]] |year=2005 |accessdate=2010-01-05}}</ref>
| population_census_year = 2005a
| population_density_km2 = 18.0 
| population_density_sq_mi = 46.6 
| population_density_rank = 154th
| GDP_PPP = $4.287 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web |url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2012/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2009&ey=2012&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=514&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=56&pr.y=0 |title=Bhutan |publisher=International Monetary Fund |accessdate=2012-04-17}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_rank =
| GDP_PPP_year = 2011
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $6,112<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
| GDP_nominal = $1.488 billion<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_rank =
| GDP_nominal_year = 2011
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = $2,121<ref name=imf2/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank =
| HDI = {{nowrap|{{increase}} 0.619<ref name=UN>{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf |format=PDF |title=Human Development Report 2009. Human development index trends: Table G |publisher=[[United Nations]] |year=2009 |accessdate=2009-10-05| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20091122115116/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf| archivedate= 22 November 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref>}}
| HDI_rank = 132nd
| HDI_year = 2007 
| HDI_category = medium
| currency = [[Bhutanese ngultrum]]b
| currency_code = BTN
| time_zone = [[Bhutan Time|BTT]]
| utc_offset = +6
| time_zone_DST = not observed
| utc_offset_DST = +6
| drives_on = left
| cctld = [[.bt]]
| calling_code = [[+975]]
| footnote_a = The population of Bhutan had been estimated based on the reported figure of about 1 million in the 1970s when the country had joined the United Nations and precise statistics were lacking.<big><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unhchr.ch/tbs/doc.nsf/0/073f330f9a61c6b0c1256aca004f2ea8?OpenDocument |title=Treaty Bodies Database – Document – Summary Record – Bhutan |publisher=[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights]] (UNHCHR) |date=2001-06-05 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref></big> Thus, using the annual increase rate of 2–3%, the most population estimates were around 2 million in the year 2000. A national census was carried out in 2005 and it turned out that the population was 672,425. Consequently, United Nations Population Division reduced its estimatation of the country's population in the 2006 revision<big><ref>{{cite web |url=http://esa.un.org/unpp|title=World Population Prospects |publisher=[[United Nations]] |year=2008 |accessdate=2009-12-04| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20100107202528/http://esa.un.org/unpp| archivedate= 7 January 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref></big> for the whole period from 1950 to 2050.
|footnote_b = The [[Indian rupee]] is also legal tender.
}}

'''Bhutan''' ([[Dzongkha language|Dzongkha]]: {{lang |dz|འབྲུག་ཡུལ་}}; [[Wylie transliteration]]: ''ʼbrug-yul''{{nbsp|2}}"Druk Yul"), officially the '''Kingdom of Bhutan''', is a [[landlocked]] [[Sovereign state|state]] in [[South Asia]] located at the eastern end of the [[Himalayas]]. It is bordered to the north by [[China]] and to the south, east and west by the [[India|Republic of India]]. Further west, it is separated from [[Nepal]] by the [[States and territories of India|Indian state]] of [[Sikkim]], while further south it is separated from [[Bangladesh]] by the Indian states of [[Assam]] and [[West Bengal]]. Bhutan's capital and largest city is [[Thimphu]].

Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warring [[fiefdom]]s until the early 17th century, when the [[lama]] and military leader [[Shabdrung]] [[Ngawang Namgyal]], fleeing religious persecution in [[Tibet]], unified the area and cultivated a distinct Bhutanese identity. Later, in the early 20th century, Bhutan came into contact with the [[British Empire]] and retained strong bilateral relations with India upon its independence. In 2006, based on a global survey, ''[[Business Week]]'' rated Bhutan the [[happiest country]] in Asia and the eighth-happiest in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm |title=The World's Happiest Countries |publisher=Business Week |date=2006-10-11 |accessdate=2009-04-23| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090426174928/http://images.businessweek.com/ss/06/10/happiest_countries/index_01.htm?| archivedate= 26 April 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

Bhutan's landscape ranges from [[Subtropics|subtropical]] plains in the south to the [[sub-alpine]] Himalayan heights in the north, where some peaks exceed {{j|{{convert|7000|m|ft}}}}. Its total area was reported as approximately {{convert|46500|km2|abbr=on}} in 1997<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/08fyp.pdf |title=8th Five Year Plan (1997–2002) |format=PDF |publisher=[[Government of Bhutan]] |year=1997 |accessdate=2011-08-22}}</ref> and {{convert|38394|km2|sqmi}} in 2002.<ref name=FYP9>{{cite web |url=http://www.gnhc.gov.bt/wp-content/uploads/2011/04/5yp09_main.pdf |title=9th Five Year Plan (2002–2007) |publisher=Royal Government of Bhutan |year=2002 |accessdate=2011-08-22}}</ref><ref name=official>{{cite web |url=http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/government/aboutbhutan.php |title=National Portal of Bhutan |publisher=Department of Information Technology, Bhutan |accessdate=2011-08-22}}</ref> Bhutan's state religion is [[Vajrayana Buddhism]] and the population, now (as of 2012/2013) estimated to be nearly three-quarters of a million,<ref name=clock/> is predominantly [[Buddhist]]. [[Hinduism]] is the second-largest religion.<ref>"Bhutan." ''World Almanac & Book Of Facts'' (2008): 752-753. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Dec. 2011.</ref>

In 2008, Bhutan made the transition from [[absolute monarchy]] to [[constitutional monarchy]] and held its first general election. As well as being a member of the [[United Nations]], Bhutan is a member of the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]] (SAARC) and hosted [[List of SAARC summits#Sixteenth summit|SAARC's sixteenth summit]] in April 2010.

== Etymology ==

Names similar to Bhutan{{spaced ndash}}including ''Bottanthis'', ''Bottan'' and ''Bottanter''{{spaced ndash}}began to appear in Europe around the 1580s. [[Jean-Baptiste Tavernier]]'s 1676 ''Six Voyages'' is the first to record the name ''Boutan''. However, in every case, these seem to have been describing not modern Bhutan but the [[Tibet (1912–1951)|Kingdom of Tibet]]. The modern distinction between the two did not begin until well into [[George Bogle (diplomat)|Bogle]]'s 1774 expedition{{mdash}}realizing the differences between the two regions, cultures, and states, his final report to the [[East India Company]] formally proposed labeling the [[Druk Desi]]'s kingdom as "Boutan" and the [[Panchen Lama]]'s as "Tibet". The EIC's surveyor general [[James Rennell]] first anglicized the French name as Bootan and then popularized the distinction between it and greater Tibet.<ref name="Kuensel">[http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_history_europe.php "History of Bhutan: How Europe heard about Bhutan"]. ''Kuensel''. 24 August 2003. Accessed 28 Sept 2011.</ref>

{{Multiple image
|align = left
|footer = Two of Rennell's EIC maps, showing the division of "Thibet or Bootan" into separate regions.
|image1 = 1777 Rennell - Dury Wall Map of Delhi and Agra, India - Geographicus - DelhiAgrah-dury-1777.jpg
|alt1 = Near Delhi, Tibet appears as "Thibet or Bootan"
|caption1 = 1777
|width1 = 205
|image2 = 1786 - A map of Bengal, Bahar, Oude & Allahabad - James Rennell - William Faden.jpg
|alt2 = "Thibet" with its interior and "Bootan" clearly separated
|caption2 = 1786
|width2 = 310
}}
The precise etymology of "Bhutan" is unknown, although it is likely to derive from the [[Old Tibetan|Tibetan]] [[endonym]] "Bod" used for [[Greater Tibet]]. Traditionally, it is taken to be a transcription of the [[Sanskrit]] ''Bhoṭa-anta'' (भोट-अन्त, "end of [[Tibet]]"), a reference to Bhutan's position as the southern extremity of the Tibetan plateau and culture.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Cultural History of Bhutan |volume=1 |first=Balaram |last=Chakravarti |publisher=Hilltop |year=1979 |page=7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6VxuAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref><ref name="Names&Histories">Taylor, Isaac. ''[http://www.archive.org/details/namesandtheirhi00taylgoog Names and Their Histories; a Handbook of Historical Geography and Topographical Nomenclature]''. Gale Research Co. (Detroit), 1898. Accessed 24 September 2011.</ref>

Locally, Bhutan has been known by many names. The earliest western records of Bhutan, the 1627 ''Relação'' of the [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] [[Jesuit]]s [[Estêvão Cacella]] and [[João Cabral]], records its name variously as ''Cambirasi'' (among the [[Koch Bihar]]is<ref>Cacella, Estêvão. Trans. by Baillie, Luiza Maria. [http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_01_01_01.pdf "Report which Father Estevao Cacella of the Society of Jesus Sent to Father Alberto Laercio, Provincial of the Province of Malabar of East India, about His Journey to Cathay, until He Came to the Kingdom of Bhotanta"] (1627). Accessed 28 September 2011.</ref>), ''Potente'', and ''Mon'' (an endonym for southern Tibet).<ref name="Kuensel"/> The first time a separate Kingdom of Bhutan did appear on a western map, it did so under its local name as "Broukpa".<ref name="Kuensel"/> Others including ''Lho Mon'' ("Dark Southland"), ''Lho Tsendenjong'' ("Southland of the [[Cypress]]"), ''Lhomen Khazhi'' ("Southland of the Four Approaches") and ''Lho Men Jong'' ("Southland of the [[medicinal herb|Herb]]s).<ref>{{cite book |title=Beneath Blossom Rain: Discovering Bhutan on the Toughest Trek in the World |series=Outdoor Lives |first=Kevin |last=Grange |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2011 |isbn=0-8032-3433-3 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=bWco7DY94fsC|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZvrWAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01 |title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife |volume=2 |series=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East |first=William M. |last=Clements |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-313-32849-8 |page=105}}</ref>

== History ==
{{main|History of Bhutan|Timeline of Bhutanese history}}

Stone tools, weapons, [[elephant]]s, and remnants of large stone structures provide evidence that Bhutan was inhabited as early as [[20th century BC|2000 BC]], although there are no existing records from that time. Historians have theorized that the state of ''Lhomon'' (literally, "southern darkness"), or ''Monyul'' ("Dark Land", a reference to the [[Monpa people|Monpa]], the [[indigenous peoples|aboriginal]] peoples of Bhutan) may have existed between 500 BC and AD 600. The names ''Lhomon Tsendenjong'' ([[Sandalwood]] Country), and ''Lhomon Khashi'', or Southern Mon (country of four approaches), have been found in ancient Bhutanese and Tibetan chronicles.<ref name=WIAS>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldinstituteforasianstudies.org/buthan.html|title=Bhutan|publisher=World Institute for Asian Studies|date=2006-08-21|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref><ref name=CS0>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Origins and Early Settlement, A.D. 600–1600|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref>
[[File:Cloud-hidden, whereabouts unknown (Paro, Bhutan).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Dzong]] in the [[Paro valley]], built in 1646]]
Buddhism was first introduced to Bhutan in the 7th century AD. Tibetan king [[Songtsän Gampo]]<ref name=Padel>{{cite book|title=Tigers in Red Weather: a Quest for the Last Wild Tigers|first=Ruth|last=Padel|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing USA|year=2006|isbn=0-8027-1544-3|pages=139–40|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=zYLJp0X04mUC|accessdate=2011-08-21}}</ref> (reigned 627–649), a convert to Buddhism, who actually had extended the Tibetan Empire into Sikkim and Bhutan,<ref>Sailen Debnath, Essays on Cultural History of North Bengal, ISBN 9788186860427; & Sailen Debnath, The Dooars in Historical Transition, ISBN 9788186860441</ref> ordered the construction of two Buddhist temples, at [[Bumthang (town)|Bumthang]] in central Bhutan and at Kyichu (near [[Paro, Bhutan|Paro]]) in the [[Paro Valley]].<ref name=CS1>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Arrival of Buddhism|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref> Buddhism was propagated in earnest<ref name=Padel/> in 746<ref name=Hattaway>{{cite book|title=Peoples of the Buddhist World: a Christian Prayer Diary|first=Paul|last=Hattaway|publisher=William Carey Library|year=2004|isbn=0-87808-361-8|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=OzEOKNPsv2EC|page=30|accessdate=2011-08-20}}</ref> under King Sindhu Rāja (''also'' Künjom;<ref name=Rennie>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=sHAnAtNrUQoC|title=Bhutan: Ways of Knowing|first1=Frank|last1=Rennie|first2=Robin|last2=Mason|publisher=IAP|pages=18, 58|year=2008|isbn=1-59311-734-5|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Sendha Gyab; Chakhar Gyalpo), an exiled [[Indian people|Indian]] king who had established a government in Bumthang at Chakhar Gutho Palace.<ref name=HBB>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=yA9uAAAAMAAJ|title=History of Bhutan Based on Buddhism|first=C. T.|last=Dorji|publisher=Sangay Xam, Prominent Publishers|year=1994|isbn=81-86239-01-4|accessdate=2011-08-12}}</ref>{{rp|35}} <ref name=Harding>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=rlxdncBwpbgC|title=The Life and Revelations of Pema Lingpa|first1=Padma-gliṅ-pa (Gter-ston)|first2=Sarah|last2=Harding|editor=Harding, Sarah|publisher=Snow Lion Publications|year=2003|isbn=1-55939-194-4|accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref>{{rp|13}}

[[Image:Tashigang Dzong 111120.jpg|thumb|Tashigang monastery, built in 1659.]]
Buddhist [[saint]] [[Padmasambhava|Padma Sambhava]] (also known as [[Guru Rinpoche]]) came to Bhutan in in 747.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhistchannel.tv/index.php?id=18,963,0,0,1,0 |title=Taktshang: a Buddhist Legend |first=Kinley |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |work=Buddhist Channel |date=2005-03-30 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Much of early Bhutanese history is unclear because most of the records were destroyed when fire ravaged the ancient capital, [[Punakha]], in 1827. By the 10th century, Bhutan's political development was heavily influenced by its religious history. Various sub-sects of Buddhism emerged which were patronized by the various [[Mongol]] warlords. After the decline of the [[Yuan Dynasty]] in the 14th century, these sub-sects vied with each other for supremacy in the political and religious landscape, eventually leading to the ascendancy of the [[Druk]]pa sub-sect by the 16th century.<ref name=CS1/><ref name=CS4>{{country study |country=Bhutan |abbr=bt |editor=Savada, Andrea Matles |year=1991 |section=Rivalry among the Sects |author=Worden, Robert L |pd=yes}}</ref>

[[Image:Thrikheb.jpg|thumb|250px|A ''thrikheb'' (throne cover) from the 19th century. Throne covers were placed atop the temple cushions used by high [[lama]]s. The central circular swirling quadrune is the [[Gankyil]] in its mode as the "Four Joys".]]
Until the early 17th century, Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warring [[fiefdom]]s, when the area was unified by the Tibetan lama and military leader [[Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal]] who had fled religious persecution in Tibet. To defend the country against intermittent Tibetan forays, Namgyal built a network of impregnable ''[[dzong]]'' (fortresses), and [[promulgation|promulgated]] the [[Tsa Yig]], a code of law that helped to bring local lords under centralized control. Many such ''dzong'' still exist and are active centers of religion and district administration. [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] [[Estêvão Cacella]] and [[João Cabral]] were the first recorded Europeans to visit Bhutan, on their way to Tibet. They met Ngawang Namgyal, presented him with firearms, [[gunpowder]] and a [[telescope]], and offered him their services in the war against Tibet, but the Shabdrung declined the offer. After a stay of nearly eight months Cacella wrote a long letter from the [[Chagri Monastery]] reporting on his travels. This is a rare extant report of the Shabdrung.<ref name=LP>{{cite book|title=Bhutan |series=Country Guides |first1=Lindsay |last1=Brown |first2=Stan |last2=Armington |edition=3 |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |year=2007 |pages=26, 36 |isbn=1-74059-529-7 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=s-L8NUlW_QgC |accessdate=2011-10-15}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Jesuit on the Roof of the World: Ippolito Desideri's Mission to Eighteenth-Century Tibet |first=Trent |last=Pomplun |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=0-19-537786-9 |page=49 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=-3iG4p85PHgC |accessdate=2011-10-19}}</ref> After Ngawang Namgyal's death in 1651, his passing was kept secret for 54 years; after a period of consolidation, Bhutan lapsed into internal conflict. In the year 1711 Bhutan went to war against the [[Mughal Empire]] and its [[Subedar]]s, who restored [[Koch Bihar]] in the south. During the chaos that followed, the Tibetans unsuccessfully attacked Bhutan in 1714.<ref name=CS3>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=Administrative Integration and Conflict with Tibet, 1651–1728|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref>

In the 18th century, the Bhutanese invaded and occupied the kingdom of [[Cooch Behar district|Cooch Behar]] to the south. In 1772, Cooch Behar appealed to the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] [[East India Company]] which assisted them in ousting the Bhutanese and later in attacking Bhutan itself in 1774. A peace treaty was signed in which Bhutan agreed to retreat to its pre-1730 borders. However, the peace was tenuous, and border skirmishes with the [[British India|British]] were to continue for the next hundred years. The skirmishes eventually led to the [[Duar War]] (1864–65), a confrontation for control of the [[Bengal]] [[Duars]]. After Bhutan lost the war, the [[Treaty of Sinchula]] was signed between [[British India]] and Bhutan. As part of the [[war reparations]], the Duars were ceded to the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] in exchange for a rent of Rs. 50,000. The treaty ended all hostilities between British India and Bhutan.

During the 1870s, power struggles between the rival valleys of [[Paro, Bhutan|Paro]] and [[Tongsa]] led to civil war in Bhutan, eventually leading to the ascendancy of [[Ugyen Wangchuck]], the ''ponlop'' (governor) of Tongsa. From his power base in central Bhutan, Ugyen Wangchuck defeated his political enemies and united the country following several civil wars and rebellions during 1882–85.<ref name=CS2>{{Country study|country=Bhutan|abbr=bt|editor=Savada, Andrea Matles|year=1991|section=British Intrusion, 1772–1907|author=Worden, Robert L|pd=yes}}</ref>

In 1907, an epochal year for the country, Ugyen Wangchuck was unanimously chosen as the hereditary king of the country by an assembly of leading Buddhist monks, government officials, and heads of important families. The British government promptly recognized the new monarchy, and in 1910 Bhutan signed the [[Treaty of Punakha]], a [[subsidiary alliance]] which gave the British control of Bhutan's foreign affairs and meant that Bhutan was treated as an Indian [[princely state]]. This had little real effect, given Bhutan's historical reticence, and also did not appear to affect Bhutan's traditional relations with Tibet. After the new [[Dominion of India|Union of India]] gained [[Independence of India|independence]] from the United Kingdom on 15 August 1947, Bhutan became one of the first countries to recognize India's independence. On 8 August 1949, a treaty similar to that of 1910, in which Britain had gained power over Bhutan's foreign relations, was signed with the newly independent India.<ref name=WIAS/>

In 1953, King [[Jigme Dorji Wangchuck]] established the country's legislature – a 130-member [[National Assembly]] – to promote a more democratic form of governance. In 1965, he set up a Royal Advisory Council, and in 1968 he formed a Cabinet. In 1971, Bhutan was admitted to the [[United Nations]], having held observer status for three years. In July 1972, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]] ascended to the throne at the age of sixteen after the death of his father, Dorji Wangchuck.

===Political reform and modernization===
{{further|Law of Bhutan|Constitution of Bhutan}}
King [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]] introduced significant political reforms, transferring most of his administrative powers to the Council of Cabinet Ministers and allowing for [[impeachment]] of the King by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.democracy-international.org/fileadmin/di/pdf/papers/di-bhutan.pdf|last=Hoffman|first=Klus|title=Democratization from Above: The Case of Bhutan|format=PDF|date=2006-04-01|accessdate=2010-04-24}}</ref>

In 1999, the government lifted a ban on [[television]] and the [[Internet]], making Bhutan one of the last countries to introduce television. In his speech, the King said that television was a critical step to the [[modernisation]] of Bhutan as well as a major contributor to the country's [[Gross National Happiness]] (Bhutan is the only country to measure happiness),<ref>{{cite journal|last=Larmer|first=Brook|year=2008|month=March|title= Bhutan's Enlightened Experiment|work=ngm.nationalgeographic.com|journal=National Geographic|issn=0027-9358|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2008/03/bhutan/larmer-text/2|accessdate=2010-06-19}}</ref> but warned that the "misuse" of television could erode traditional Bhutanese values.<ref>{{cite web|first1=Cathy|last1=Scott-Clark|first2=Adrian|last2=Levy|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,975769,00.html|title=Fast Forward into Trouble|publisher=The Guardian|date=2003-06-14|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref>

A new [[constitution]] was presented in early 2005. In December 2005, Jigme Singye Wangchuck announced that he would [[abdication|abdicate]] the throne in his son's favor in 2008. On 14 December 2006, he announced that he would be abdicating immediately. This was followed by the first national [[Elections in Bhutan|parliamentary elections]] in [[Bhutanese National Council election, 2007–2008|December 2007]] and [[Bhutanese general election, 2008|March 2008]].

On November 6, 2008, 28-year-old [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], eldest son of King [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], was crowned King.<ref>{{cite web|first=Nitasha|last=Kaul|title=Bhutan Crowns a Jewel|work=UPI Asia|publisher=United Press International|url=http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962|date=2008-11-10|accessdate=2011-06-19| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110615005027/http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2008/11/10/bhutan_crowns_a_jewel/1962| archivedate= 15 June 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
[[File:Tashichoedzong-Bhutan-2001.JPG|250px|thumb|View of [[Tashichoedzong]], [[Thimphu]], seat of the Bhutanese government since 1952.]]
{{main|Politics of Bhutan}}

Bhutan's political system has developed from an [[absolute monarchy]] into a [[constitutional monarchy]]. In 1999, the fourth king of Bhutan created a body called the [[Lhengye Zhungtshog]] (Council of Ministers). The ''[[Druk Gyalpo]]'' (King of Druk Yul) is [[head of state]]. [[Executive power]] is exercised by the Lhengye Zhungtshog, the council of ministers. [[Legislative power]] was vested in both the [[government]] and the former [[Tshogdu|Grand National Assembly]].

On the 17th of December 2005, the 4th King, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], announced to a stunned nation that the first general elections would be held in 2008 and that he would abdicate the throne in favor of his eldest son, the crown prince.<ref>{{cite web|author=Gelay Jamtsho|author2=Keys to Bhutan|url=http://www.keystobhutan.com/bhutan/bhutan_king_speech.php|title=His Majesty the King's Historic National Day Address – 2005|publisher=Keystobhutan.com|date=2008-10-31|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> King [[Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck]] took the throne on December 14, 2006 upon his father's abdication. Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck was adorned with Bhutan's Raven Crown at an ornate coronation ceremony in Thimphu on Thursday, November 6, 2008, becoming the world's youngest reigning monarch and head of the newest democracy.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7521429.stm|title=Bhutan King to be Crowned at Last|publisher=BBC News online|date=2008-07-23|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref>

The new political system comprises an upper and lower house, the latter based on political party affiliations. [[Bhutanese National Council election, 2007–2008|Elections]] for the upper house ([[National Council of Bhutan|National Council]]) were held on December 31, 2007, while [[Bhutanese general election, 2008|elections]] for the lower house, the 47-seat [[National Assembly of Bhutan|National Assembly]], were held on March 24, 2008. Two political parties, the [[People's Democratic Party (Bhutan)|People's Democratic Party]] (PDP) headed by [[Sangay Ngedup]], and the [[Druk Phuensum Tshogpa]] (DPT) headed by [[Jigmi Thinley]], competed in the National Assembly election. The Druk Phuensum Tshogpa won the elections taking 45 out of 47 seats in the parliament.<ref>{{cite web|first=Aradhana|last=Sharma|url=http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080044949&ch=3/25/2008%2012:28:00%20AM|title=Royalist Party Wins Election in Bhutan|publisher=NDTV.com|date=2008-03-25|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref>

[[Judicial]] power is vested in the [[courts]] of Bhutan. The [[Chief Justice]] is the [[Public administration|administrative]] head of the [[Judiciary]].

===Human rights===

Homosexuality is illegal, punishable by prison. There were, however, no reported cases of such charges.<ref name=hrr/>

====Ethnic conflict====
[[File:Lotshampa refugees in Beldangi Camp.jpg|thumb|[[Bhutanese refugees]] of ethnic Nepalese descent who fled to Nepal in the early 1990s.]]

In the 1990s, Nepalese came to Bhutan as economic migrants but later,(accordingly with the agreement) the country expelled or forced to leave nearly one-fifth of its population in the name of preserving its Tibetan Mahayana Buddhist culture and identity, claiming that those expelled were illegal residents.<ref name=theweek11>{{cite web |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110511104731/http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |archivedate=2011-05-11 |url=http://theweek.myrepublica.com/details.php?news_id=30312 |title=Family Portrait of Bhutan Nepalis in USA |publisher=The Week Republica |date=2011-04-15 |accessdate=2011-04-19}}</ref><ref name=CIDCM/><ref name=unhcr08/> The decision was motivated by the concern that the fast growing Nepali minority would take over the country, recalling similar events that caused the collapse of the nearby kingdom of Sikkim in 1975. The [[Lhotshampas]], the dissidents, were allegedly subjected to harassment and arrests.<ref name="hrw.org">Frelick, Bill. ''For Bhutan's Refugees, There's no Place Like Home.'' Human Rights Watch. Mar 3 2011. Web. Dec 30 2011. http://www.hrw.org/news/2011/03/30/bhutan-s-refugees-there-s-no-place-home</ref> An alleged harassment campaign escalating in the early 1990s ensued, and afterwards Bhutanese security forces began expelling people after making them renounce claims to their homes and homeland. Due to the violence, Bhutanese of Nepali origin, mainly Hindu, fled. According to the [[UNHCR]], more than 107,000 [[Bhutanese refugees]] living in seven camps in eastern [[Nepal]] have been documented as of 2008.<ref name=unhcr08>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=47a30dc82&query=bhutan|title=Refugees from Bhutan Poised for New Start|publisher=UNHCR|date=2008-02-01|accessdate=2011-04-19| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110510005625/http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/search?page=search&docid=47a30dc82&query=bhutan| archivedate= 10 May 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Whether all inhabitants are in fact refugees is questionable because the UNHCR did not check the initial inhabitants of the refugee camps adequately. <ref>{{cite web|last=Casella|first=Alexander|title=Nepal Finally Waves off Refugees|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/KL15Ad03.html|publisher=Asia Times Online}}, December 15, 2009</ref> The facilities inside the camp, which were reportedly better than in the surroundings, provided a strong motivation for Nepalese to seek admittance. After many years in refugee camps, many inhabitants are now moving to host nations such as Canada, Norway, the United Kingdom, Australia, and the United States as refugees. The [[United States]] has admitted 30,870 refugees from fiscal years 2008 through 2010.<ref>''Reguee Arrival Data.'' US Department of Health and Human Services. November 3, 2011. Web. December 30 2011. http://www.acf.hhs.gov/programs/orr/data/refugee_arrival_data.htm</ref>

The government does not permit citizenship for Bhutanese refugees, so most of them have become stateless refugees.<ref name=hrr/> Excessive bureaucratic obstacles have been used to hinder their relatives from getting ID cards and voting rights.<ref name=hrr/> Bhutan considers the political parties of these refugees illegal and terrorist in nature.<ref name=hrr/> Human rights groups claimed the government interfered with individual rights by requiring all citizens, including ethnic minority members, to wear the traditional dress of the ethnic majority in public places. However, the government strictly enforced the law only in Buddhist religious buildings, government offices, schools, official functions, and public ceremonies. <ref name=hrr>[http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/sca/136086.htm], U.S. Department of State, February 25, 2009</ref>

====Freedom of religion====
Mahayana Buddhism is the basis of the state's spiritual heritage, but the law provides for freedom of religion. <ref name=hrr/>

== Military and foreign affairs ==
{{main|Military of Bhutan|Foreign relations of Bhutan}}

The [[Royal Bhutan Army]] is Bhutan's military service. It includes the [[Royal Bodyguard of Bhutan|Royal Bodyguard]] and the [[Royal Bhutan Police]]. Membership is voluntary and the minimum age for recruitment is 18. The standing army numbers about 16,000 and is trained by the [[Indian Army]].<ref>{{cite web |first=Arun |last=Bhattacharjee |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/EL19Df04.html |title=Bhutan Army Sees Action at Last |publisher=Atimes.com |date=2003-12-19 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> It has an annual budget of about [[USD|$]]13.7 million (1.8 percent of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]]). Being a [[landlocked country]], Bhutan has no navy. It also has no air force or army aviation corps. The Army relies on the Eastern Air Command of the [[Indian Air Force]] for air assistance.

In 2007, Bhutan and India signed a new treaty that clarified Bhutan's own control over its foreign relations. This superseded the treaty signed in 1949. The previous treaty is still sometimes taken to mean that India controls Bhutan's foreign affairs, but the government of Bhutan handles all of its own foreign affairs, including issues in which India has a vested interest, such as Bhutan's border with China.

Bhutan has diplomatic relations with 21 countries and the [[European Union]] and has missions in India, [[Bangladesh]], [[Thailand]] and [[Kuwait]]. It has two [[United Nations|UN]] missions, one in New York and one in [[Geneva]]. Only India and Bangladesh have residential embassies in Bhutan, while Thailand has a consulate office in Bhutan.

[[Image:Bhutan CIA WFB 2010 map.png|thumb|Map of Bhutan showing its border with China and India as of 2012.]]
By a long-standing agreement, Indian and Bhutanese citizens may travel to each other's countries without the need for a [[passport]] or [[Visa (document)|visa]] but only their national identity cards. Bhutanese citizens may also work in India without legal restriction. Bhutan does not have formal diplomatic ties with its northern neighbour, the [[People's Republic of China]], although exchanges of visits at various levels between the two have significantly increased in recent times. The first bilateral agreement between China and Bhutan was signed in 1998 and Bhutan has also set up honorary consulates in [[Macau]] and [[Hong Kong]]. Bhutan's border with China is largely not demarcated and thus disputed in some places. Approximately 269 square kilometers remain under discussion between China and Bhutan.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=7833 |title=Indo-Bhutan Border Finalised |first=Samten |last=Wangchuk |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2006-12-13 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref>

On 13 November 2005, Chinese soldiers crossed into the disputed territories between China and Bhutan, and began building roads and bridges.<ref name=dispcb/> Bhutanese Foreign Minister [[Lyonpo Khandu Wangchuk|Khandu Wangchuk]] took up the matter with Chinese authorities after the issue was raised in the Bhutanese parliament. In response, Foreign Ministry spokesman Qin Gang of the People's Republic of China has said that the border remains in dispute and that the two sides are continuing to work for a peaceful and cordial resolution of the dispute.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.china.com/zh_cn/domestic/945/20051201/12906175.html|title=中国不丹同意平等友好协商早日解决边界问题 |trans_title=China and Bhutan Agree to Equal and Amicable Talks in Order to Resolve the Border Issue Quickly|language=Chinese|publisher=News.china.com|date=2005-12-01|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> An Indian intelligence officer has said that a Chinese delegation in Bhutan told the Bhutanese that they were "overreacting." The Bhutanese newspaper ''Kuensel'' has said that China might use the roads to further Chinese claims along the border.<ref name=dispcb>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871,000500020006.htm|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20060824075647/http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/7598_1583871,000500020006.htm|archivedate=2006-08-24|title=Alarm over Chinese Incursion|first=Pramod|last=Giri|publisher=Web.archive.org|date=2005-10-28|accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref>

On 8 February 2007, the Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty was substantially revised. The Treaty of 1949, Article 2 states: "The Government of India undertakes to exercise no interference in the internal administration of Bhutan. On its part the Government of Bhutan agrees to be guided by the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external relations." In the revised treaty it now reads as "In keeping with the abiding ties of close friendship and cooperation between Bhutan and India, the Government of the Kingdom of Bhutan and the Government of the Republic of India shall cooperate closely with each other on issues relating to their national interests. Neither government shall allow the use of its territory for activities harmful to the national security and interest of the other." The revised treaty also includes this preamble: "Reaffirming their respect for each other's independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity", an element that was absent in the earlier version. The Indo-Bhutan Friendship Treaty of 2007 clarifies Bhutan's status as an independent and sovereign nation.

Bhutan maintains formal [[foreign relations of Bhutan|diplomatic relations]] with several [[Asia]]n and [[Europe]]an nations, [[Canada]], and [[Brazil]]. Other countries, such as the [[United States]] and the [[United Kingdom]], have no formal diplomatic relations with Bhutan, but maintain informal contact through their respective embassies in [[New Delhi]] and Bhutanese honorary consulates in [[London]] and [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/2010/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=18408 |title=Bhutan establishes ties with Spain |first=Gyalsten K |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] |date=2011-02-15 |accessdate=2011-03-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.embassiesabroad.com/embassies-of/Bhutan#18596 |title=Overseas Embassies and Consulates of Bhutan |work=Go Abroad.com |accessdate=2011-03-29}}</ref><ref name=state>{{cite web|url=http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html|title=Bhutan Country Specific Information|work=[[United States Department of State]]|accessdate=2008-03-24| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080328065136/http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1068.html| archivedate= 28 March 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

== Geography ==
[[File:HaaValley.jpg|thumb|left|Haa Valley.]]
[[File:Bhutan topo en.jpg|thumb|Topographic map of Bhutan.]]
[[File:GangkharPuensum3.jpg|thumb|[[Gangkhar Puensum]] from Ura La, Bhutan.]]
{{main|Geography of Bhutan}}

Bhutan is located on the southern slopes of the eastern [[Himalayas]], landlocked between the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] to the north and the Indian states of [[Sikkim]], [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] to the west and south. It lies between latitudes [[26th parallel north|26°]] and [[29th parallel north|29°N]], and longitudes [[88th meridian east|88°]] and [[93rd meridian east|93°E]]. The land consists mostly of steep and high [[mountains of Bhutan|mountains]] crisscrossed by a network of swift rivers, which form deep valleys before draining into the Indian plains. Elevation rises from {{convert|200|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the southern foothills to more than {{convert|7000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. This great geographical diversity combined with equally diverse climate conditions contributes to Bhutan's outstanding range of biodiversity and ecosystems.<ref name=official/>

The northern region of the country consists of an arc of [[Eastern Himalayan alpine shrub and meadows]] reaching up to glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at the highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over {{convert|7000|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level; the highest point in Bhutan is [[Gangkhar Puensum]] at {{convert|7570|m|ft}}, which has the distinction of being the [[highest unclimbed mountain]] in the world.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} The lowest point, at {{convert|98|m|ft|abbr=on}}, is in the valley of [[Drangme Chhu]], where the river crosses the border with India.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide [[pasture]] for livestock, tended by a sparse population of migratory shepherds.

The [[Black Mountains (Bhutan)|Black Mountains]] in the central region of Bhutan form a watershed between two major river systems: the [[Mo Chhu]] and the [[Drangme Chhu]]. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between {{convert|1500|and|4925|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. The forests of the central Bhutan mountains consist of [[Eastern Himalayan subalpine conifer forests]] in higher elevations and [[Eastern Himalayan broadleaf forests]] in lower elevations. Woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan's forest production. The [[Torsa River|Torsa]], [[Raidak]], [[Sankosh]], and [[Manas River|Manas]] are the main rivers of Bhutan, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands.

In the south, the [[Shiwalik Hills]] are covered with dense [[Himalayan subtropical broadleaf forests]], alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around {{convert|1500|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level. The foothills descend into the subtropical [[Duars]] Plain. Most of the Duars is located in India, although a {{convert|10|to|15|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts: the northern and the southern Duars. The northern Duars, which abuts the Himalayan foothills, has rugged, sloping terrain and dry, [[porous]] soil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars has moderately fertile soil, heavy [[savanna]]h grass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by either the melting snow or the monsoon rains, empty into the [[Brahmaputra River]] in India. Data released by the Ministry of Agriculture showed that the country had a forest cover of 64% as of October 2005.

The climate in Bhutan varies with elevation, from subtropical in the south to [[temperate climate|temperate]] in the highlands and [[polar climate|polar-type]] climate, with year-round snow in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: summer, [[monsoon]], autumn, winter and spring. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and eastern Bhutan is temperate and drier than the west with warm summers and cool winters.

{{Geographic location
| Centre={{Flag icon|Bhutan}} Bhutan
| North={{Flag icon|China}} [[China]]
| East={{Flag icon|India}} [[India]]
| South={{Flag icon|India}} [[India]]
| West={{Flag icon|India}} [[India]]
}}

== Biodiversity ==
[[File:Takin, Thimphu mini-zoo.jpg|thumb|The [[Takin]] is Bhutan's [[national animal]].]]
{{see also|List of mammals of Bhutan}}

Bhutan signed the Rio [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] on 11 June 1992, and became a party to the convention on 25 August 1995.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/convention/parties/list/ |title=List of Parties |date=|accessdate=8 December 2012}}</ref> It has subsequently produced a [[Biodiversity Action Plan|National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan]], with two revisions, the most recent of which was received by the convention on 4 February 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/doc/world/bt/bt-nbsap-v3-en.pdf |title=Biodiversity Action Plan 2009 |date=|accessdate=9 December 2012}}</ref>

=== Animals ===
Bhutan has a rich primate life with rare species such as the [[golden langur]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=1990|title=Primates in Bhutan |journal=Oryx |volume=24 |page=125}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=1992|title=Golden langur – Distribution Confusion|journal=Oryx|volume=26|pages=172–173}}</ref> Recently, a variant Assamese macaque, which is also regarded by some authorities as a new species, ''Macaca munzala'' has also been recorded.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2008|title=Primates of Bhutan and Observations of Hybrid Langurs|journal=Primate Conservation|volume=23|pages=65–73}}</ref>

The [[Bengal tiger]], [[Greater One-horned Rhinoceros]], [[clouded leopard]], [[hispid hare]] and the [[sloth bear]] live in the lush tropical lowland and hardwood forests in the south. In the temperate zone, [[grey langur]], tiger, [[Indian leopard]], [[goral]] and [[serow]] are found in mixed conifer, broadleaf and pine forests. Fruit bearing trees and bamboo provide habitat for the [[Himalayan black bear]], [[red panda]], [[squirrel]], [[sambar (deer)|sambar]], [[wild pig]] and [[barking deer]]. The alpine habitats of the great Himalayan range in the north are home to the [[snow leopard]], [[blue sheep]], [[marmot]], [[Tibetan wolf]], [[antelope]], [[Himalayan musk deer]] and the [[takin]], Bhutan's [[national animal]]. The endangered Wild Water Buffalo occurs in southern Bhutan although in small numbers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2010 |title=The Vanishing Herds: Wild Water Buffalo|publisher=Gibbon Books & The Rhino Foundation for Nature in North East India|location=Guwahati, India}}</ref>

More than 770 species of bird have been recorded in the kingdom. The globally endangered [[White-winged Wood Duck]] has been added recently to the Bhutan's bird list.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Choudhury|first=A.U.|year=2007|title=White-winged duck ''Cairina (=Asarcornis) scutulata'' and Blue-tailed Bee-eater ''Merops philippinus'': two new country records for Bhutan.|journal=Forktail|volume=23|pages=153–155}}</ref>

=== Fungi ===
The number of fungi occurring in Bhutan, including lichen-forming species, is not known but is undoubtedly large, with many species yet to be discovered. Fungi form a key part of Bhutanese ecosystems, with mycorrhizal species providing forest trees with mineral nutrients necessary for growth, and with wood decay and litter decomposing species playing an important role in natural recycling. One fungus particularly important in Bhutan is [[Ophiocordyceps sinensis]]. This fungus is found in meadows at higher altitudes where it parasitizes and kills a particular species of moth as it pupates while buried in the ground. The fruitbodies grow out from the moth cadaver and emerge among the plants of the meadow, reaching a total height of a few centimetres. The fungus is important because of its enormous value in traditional Chinese medicine, and it is one of very few organisms other than animals to have been specifically listed in Bhutan's national biodiversity strategy and action plan.

=== Plants ===
More than 5,400 species of plants are known to occur throughout the kingdom.

===Conservation significance===
{{main|List of protected areas of Bhutan}}
{{Annotated image
|caption = [[Protected areas of Bhutan]] in lavender; [[Wildlife corridor|biological corridor]]s in green.
|image-width=300 |width=300
|imagemap=<imagemap>
Image:Bhutan protected areas location map.png|300px
default [[File:Bhutan protected areas location map.png]]
desc none
</imagemap>
|annotations=
{{Annotation|63|57|[[Jigme Dorji National Park|Jigme Dorji]]}}
{{Annotation|75|80|''[[Motithang Takin Preserve|Motithang]]''}}
{{Annotation|116|50|[[Wangchuck Centennial Park|Wangchuck Centennial]]}}
{{Annotation|220|65|[[Bumdeling Wildlife Sanctuary|Bumdeling]]}}
{{Annotation|150|90|[[Thrumshingla National Park|Thrumshingla]]}}
{{Annotation|264|138|[[Khaling Wildlife Sanctuary|Khaling]]}}
{{Annotation|20|100|[[Torsa Strict Nature Reserve|Torsa]]}}
{{Annotation|115|110|[[Jigme Singye Wangchuck National Park|Jigme Singye]]}}
{{Annotation|75|145|[[Phibsoo Wildlife Sanctuary|Phibsoo]]}}
{{Annotation|150|140|[[Royal Manas National Park|Royal Manas]]}}
{{Annotation|250|100|[[Sakteng Wildlife Sanctuary|Sakteng]]}}
}}
The Eastern [[Himalayas]] have been identified as a global [[biodiversity]] hotspot and counted among the 234 globally outstanding [[ecoregion]]s of the world in a comprehensive analysis of global biodiversity undertaken by [[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] between 1995 and 1997.

Bhutan is seen as a model for proactive [[Conservation movement|conservation]] initiatives. The Kingdom has received international acclaim for its commitment to the maintenance of its biodiversity. This is reflected in the decision to maintain at least sixty percent of the land area under [[forest]] cover, to designate more than 40%<ref name=BTF1>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/parks-of-bhutan|title=Parks of Bhutan|work=Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online|publisher=Bhutan Trust Fund|accessdate=2011-03-26}}</ref><ref name=BTF2>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutantrustfund.bt/about-bhutan-trust-fund/the-organisation|title=The Organisation|work=Bhutan Trust Fund for Environmental Conservation online|publisher=Bhutan Trust Fund|accessdate=2011-03-26}}</ref> of its territory as national parks, reserves and other protected areas, and most recently to identify a further nine percent of land area as biodiversity corridors linking the protected areas. Environmental conservation has been placed at the core of the nation's development strategy, the middle path. It is not treated as a sector but rather as a set of concerns that must be mainstreamed in Bhutan's overall approach to development planning and to be buttressed by the force of law.

===Conservation issues===
[[File:DholeT.zoo.jpg|thumb|200px|As of 2010, the [[Extinction|most endangered]] Asian [[Apex predator|top predator]] is the [[dhole]]. Fewer than 2,500 are believed to remain in the world.]]
{{further|Environmental issues in Bhutan}}
Although Bhutan's natural heritage is still largely intact, the Government has said that it cannot be taken for granted and that conservation of the natural environment must be considered one of the challenges that will need to be addressed in the years ahead.

Pressures on the natural environment are already evident and will be fuelled by a complex array of forces. They include population pressures, agricultural modernisation, poaching, hydro-power development, mineral extraction, industrialisation, urbanisation, sewage and waste disposal, tourism, competition for available land road construction and the provision of other physical infrastructure associated with social and economic development.

Policy implementation needs to be continually improved. Sustainable rural livelihoods that do not rely solely upon natural resource use need to be developed and supported, and there needs to be far wider understanding of the environmental threats that come hand in hand with development, to ensure the future of Bhutan's rich and diverse environment.

In practice, the overlap of these extensive protected lands with populated areas has led to mutual habitat encroachment. Protected wildlife has entered agricultural areas, trampling crops and killing livestock. In response, Bhutan has implemented an insurance scheme, begun constructing solar powered alarm fences, watch towers, and search lights, and has provided fodder and salt licks outside human settlement areas to encourage animals to stay away.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutanobserver.bt/addressing-human-wildlife-conflict|title=Addressing Human-Wildlife Conflict|first=Jigme|last=Wangchuk|publisher=[[Bhutan Observer]] online|date=2011-07-08|accessdate=2011-07-13}}</ref>

The huge market value of the [[Ophiocordyceps sinensis]] fungus crop collected from the wild has also resulted in unsustainable exploitation which is proving very difficult to regulate.<ref>P.F. Cannon, N.L. Hywel-Jones, N. Maczey, L. Norbu, Tshitila, T. Samdup & P. Lhendup, ''Steps towards sustainable harvest of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Bhutan'' Biodivers. Conserv. 18: 2263-2281 (2009).</ref>

== Economy ==
[[File:10 Ngultrum Vorderseite.jpg|thumb|Bhutan's currency is the [[ngultrum]].]]
[[File:Tree map export 2009 Bhutan.jpeg|thumb|Graphical depiction of Bhutan's product exports in 28 color-coded categories.]]
{{main|Economy of Bhutan}}

Bhutan's currency is the [[ngultrum]], whose value is [[Fixed exchange rate|fixed]] to the [[Indian rupee]]. The rupee is also accepted as [[legal tender]] in the country.

Though Bhutan's economy is one of the world's smallest, it has grown rapidly in recent years, by eight percent in 2005 and 14 percent in 2006. In 2007, Bhutan had the second fastest growing [[economy]] in the world, with an annual economic growth rate of 22.4 percent. This was mainly due to the commissioning of the gigantic [[Tala, Bhutan|Tala]] [[Tala Hydroelectricity Project|Hydroelectricity project]]. As of March 2006, Bhutan's [[per capita income]] was US$1,321.

Bhutan's economy is based on [[Agriculture in Bhutan|agriculture]], forestry, tourism and the sale of [[hydroelectric power]] to India. Agriculture provides the main livelihood for more than 80 percent of the population. [[Agrarian]] practices consist largely of [[subsistence farming]] and [[animal husbandry]]. Handicrafts, particularly weaving and the manufacture of religious art for home altars, are a small [[cottage industry]]. A landscape that varies from hilly to ruggedly mountainous has made the building of roads and other [[infrastructure]] difficult and expensive. This, and a lack of access to the sea, has meant that Bhutan has not been able to benefit from significant trading of its produce. Bhutan does not have any [[rail transport|railways]], though [[Indian Railways]] plans to link southern Bhutan to its vast network under an agreement signed in January 2005.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050126/main5.htm |first=Rajeev |last=Sharma |title=MoUs with Bhutan on Rail Links, Power Projects |publisher=Tribuneindia.com |date=2011-01-25 |accessdate=2009-04-23}}</ref> Bhutan and India signed a 'free trade' accord in 2008, which additionally allowed Bhutanese imports and exports from third markets to transit India without [[tariffs]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/india_e.htm |title=MEMBER INFORMATION: India and the WTO |publisher=[[World Trade Organization]] (WTO) |accessdate=2009-04-23| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090422224717/http://www.wto.org/english/theWTO_e/countries_e/india_e.htm| archivedate= 22 April 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Bhutan had trade relations with the [[Tibet Autonomous Region|Tibet region]] until 1960, when it closed its border with China after an influx of refugees.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China/JA12Ad02.html |title=In Bhutan, China and India Collide |first=Mohan|last=Balaji |date=2008-01-12 |accessdate=2010-10-03 |publisher=[[Asia Times]]}}</ref>

The industrial sector is in a nascent stage, and though most production comes from cottage industry, larger industries are being encouraged and some industries such as [[cement]], [[steel]], and [[ferroalloy]] have been set up. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian contract labour. Agricultural produce includes rice, chilies, dairy (some yak, mostly cow) products, buckwheat, barley, root crops, apples, and citrus and maize at lower elevations. Industries include cement, [[wood]] products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages and [[calcium carbide]].

Incomes of over [[Ngultrum|Nu]] 100,000 [[per annum]] are taxed, but very few wage and salary earners qualify. Bhutan's inflation rate was estimated at about three percent in 2003. Bhutan has a [[Gross Domestic Product]] of around [[US Dollar|USD]] 2.913 billion (adjusted to [[Purchasing Power Parity]]), making it the 162nd largest economy in the world. Per capita income is around $1,400,{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} ranked 124th. Government revenues total $272 million, though expenditures amount to $350 million. 60 percent of the budget expenditure, however, is financed by India's Ministry of External Affairs.<ref group=note>India's Ministry of External Affairs provides financial aid to neighbouring countries under "technical and economic cooperation with other countries and advances to foreign governments."</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |title=BUDGET |publisher=The Tribune (India) online |accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref> Bhutan's exports, principally electricity, [[cardamom]], [[gypsum]], [[timber]], handicrafts, cement, fruit, precious stones and [[spices]], total [[€]]128 million (2000 est.). Imports, however, amount to €164 million, leading to a [[trade deficit]]. Main items imported include [[fuel]] and [[lubricant]]s, [[grain]], [[machinery]], vehicles, fabrics and [[rice]]. Bhutan's main export partner is India, accounting for 58.6 percent of its export goods. [[Hong Kong]] (30.1 percent) and [[Bangladesh]] (7.3 percent) are the other two top export partners.{{sfn|CIA—The World Factbook}} As its border with Tibet is closed, trade between Bhutan and China is now almost non-existent. Bhutan's import partners include India (74.5 percent), Japan (7.4 percent) and Sweden (3.2 percent).

== Administrative divisions ==
{{main|Districts of Bhutan|Blocks of Bhutan|Local Government Act of Bhutan 2009}}

Bhutan is divided into twenty ''[[dzongkhag]]s'' (districts), administered by a body called the Dzongkhag Tshogdu. In certain ''[[thromde]]s'' (urban municipalities), a further municipal administration is directly subordinate to the Dzongkhag administration. In the vast majority of constituencies, rural ''[[gewog]]s'' (village blocks) are administered by bodies called the Gewog Tshogde.<ref name=LGA09>{{cite web|url=http://www.nab.gov.bt/downloadsact/Dzo74.pdf |format=PDF |title=Local Government Act of Bhutan 2009 |publisher=[[Government of Bhutan]] |date=2009-09-11 |accessdate=2011-01-20}}</ref>

Thromdes (municipalities) elect Thrompons to lead administration, who in turn represent the Thromde in the Dzongkhag Tshogdu. Likewise, gewogs elect headmen called ''gups'', vice-headmen called ''mangmis'', who also sit on the Dzongkhag Thshogdu, as well as other members of the Gewog Tshogde. The basis of electoral constituencies in Bhutan is the ''[[chiwog]]'', a subdivision of gewogs delineated by the Election Commission.<ref name=LGA09/>

{{Annotated image
|caption = [[Districts of Bhutan]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84 |title=Delimitation |publisher=Election Commission, [[Government of Bhutan]] |year=2011 |accessdate=2011-07-31| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110720105402/http://www.election-bhutan.org.bt/index.php?option=com_content&id=132&Itemid=84| archivedate= 20 July 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref>
|image- style="width:300px;" |width=300 |float=right
|imagemap=<imagemap>
Image:Bhutan location map.svg|320px
default [[File:Bhutan location map.svg]]
desc none
#
</imagemap>
|annotations=
{{Annotation|160|65|[[Bumthang District|Bumthang]]}}
{{Annotation|63|145|[[Chukha District|Chukha]]}}
{{Annotation|90|130|[[Dagana District|Dagana]]}}
{{Annotation|95|45|[[Gasa District|Gasa]]}}
{{Annotation|40|110|[[Haa District|Haa]]}}
{{Annotation|200|55|[[Lhuntse District|Lhuntse]]}}
{{Annotation|207|120|[[Mongar District|Mongar]]}}
{{Annotation|50|82|[[Paro District|Paro]]}}
{{Annotation|215|135|[[Pemagatshel District|Pema- gatshel]]}}
{{Annotation|87|73|[[Punakha District|Punakha]]}}
{{Annotation|260|145|[[Samdrup Jongkhar District|Samdrup Jongkhar]]}}
{{Annotation|15|140|[[Samtse District|Samtse]]}}
{{Annotation|135|155|[[Sarpang District|Sarpang]]}}
{{Annotation|40|60|[[Thimphu District|Thimphu]]}}
{{Annotation|250|110|[[Trashigang District|Trashigang]]}}
{{Annotation|240|80|[[Trashiyangtse District|Trashiyangtse]]}}
{{Annotation|145|100|[[Trongsa District|Trongsa]]}}
{{Annotation|125|140|[[Tsirang District|Tsirang]]}}
{{Annotation|105|90|[[Wangdue Phodrang District|Wangdue Phodrang]]}}
{{Annotation|160|130|[[Zhemgang District|Zhemgang]]}}
}}
{{div col}}
# [[Bumthang District|Bumthang]]
# [[Chukha District|Chukha]] (''Chhukha'')
# [[Dagana District|Dagana]]
# [[Gasa District|Gasa]]
# [[Haa District|Haa]]
# [[Lhuntse District|Lhuntse]]
# [[Mongar District|Mongar]]
# [[Paro District|Paro]]
# [[Pemagatshel District|Pemagatshel]] (''Pemagatsel'')
# [[Punakha District|Punakha]]
# [[Samdrup Jongkhar District|Samdrup Jongkhar]]
# [[Samtse District|Samtse]] (''Samchi'')
# [[Sarpang District|Sarpang]] (''Sarbhang'')
# [[Thimphu District|Thimphu]]
# [[Trashigang District|Trashigang]] (''Tashigang'')
# [[Trashiyangtse District|Trashiyangtse]]
# [[Trongsa District|Trongsa]] (''Tongsa'')
# [[Tsirang District|Tsirang]] (''Chirang'')
# [[Wangdue Phodrang District|Wangdue Phodrang]] (''Wangdi Phodrang'')
# [[Zhemgang District|Zhemgang]] (''Shemgang'')
{{div col end}}

== Cities and towns ==
{{main|List of cities in Bhutan}}

* [[Thimphu]], the largest city and capital of Bhutan.
* [[Damphu, Tsirang|Damphu]], the administrative headquarters of [[Tsirang District]].
* [[Jakar]], the administrative headquarters of [[Bumthang District]] and the place where Buddhism entered Bhutan.
* [[Mongar]], the eastern commercial hub of the country.
* [[Paro, Bhutan|Paro]], site of the [[Paro Airport|international airport]].
* [[Phuentsholing]], Bhutan's commercial hub.
* [[Punakha]], the old capital.
* [[Samdrup Jongkhar]] The south eastern town on the border with India.
* [[Trashigang]], administrative headquarters of [[Trashigang District]] the most populous district in the country.
* [[Trongsa]], in central Bhutan which has the largest and the most magnificent of all the [[dzongs]] in Bhutan.

{{Largest cities of Bhutan}}

== Demographics ==
{{Historical populations
|type=
|footnote= Source: http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/ 2005 figure does not include floating population nor migrants
|1969 |930614
|1980 |1165000
|1991 |1375400
|2005 |634982
}}

[[Image:Bhutanese people.jpg|thumb|left|Bhutanese people in national dress at the Wangdi Phodrang festival.]]
{{main|Demographics of Bhutan}}

Bhutanese people primarily consist of the [[Ngalop]]s and [[Sharchop people|Sharchop]]s, called the Western Bhutanese and Eastern Bhutanese respectively. The [[Lhotshampa]], meaning "southerners", are a heterogeneous group of mostly [[Nepali people|Nepali]] descent, it was claimed they constituted 45% of the population in 1988 census,<ref name="bns">http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/people-population/</ref> include migrants from as early as the 1890s to as recent as the 1980s, who have fought a bitter war with Bhutan over rights to abode, language, and dress, there has been a mass emigration from Bhutan (both forced and voluntary) resulting in hundreds of thousands of people [[stateless]] in [[refugee camps]]. The Ngalops primarily consist of Bhutanese living in the western part of the country. Their culture is closely related to that of Tibet. Much the same could be said of the Sharchops, the dominant group, who traditionally follow the [[Nyingmapa]] rather than the official [[Drukpa Kagyu]] form of [[Tibetan Buddhism]]. In modern times, with improved transportation infrastructure, there has been much intermarriage between these groups. In the early 1970s, intermarriage between the [[Lhotshampas]] and mainstream Bhutanese society was encouraged by the government, but after the late 1980s, the Bhutanese government forced about 108,000 Lhotshampas from their homes, seized their land, and expelled them to refugee camps.<ref name="hrw.org"/>

The [[Literacy|literacy rate]] in Bhutan is 59.5 percent.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=BTN |title=Report: Data Profile |publisher=World Bank |year=2008 |accessdate=2009-04-23 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20080801053414/http://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?PTYPE=CP&CCODE=BTN |archivedate=2008-08-01}}</ref> The country has a median age of 24.8 years.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html CIA World Factbook: Bhutan]</ref> Bhutan has a [[life expectancy]] of 62.2 years (61 for males and 64.5 for females) according to the latest data from the [[World Bank]]. There are 1,070 males to every 1,000 females in the country.

===Religion===
{{bar box |title=Religions of Bhutan |left1=religion |right1=percent |float=right
|bars =
{{bar percent|Buddhism|gold|76}}
{{bar percent|Hinduism|purple|23}}
{{bar percent|Others|black|1}}
}}
[[File:Takstan-monastery.jpg|thumb|The Buddhist ''Taktshang Goemba'' ("Tiger's Nest") in Bhutan, [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=27.491884,89.363544&spn=0.011706,0.026157&t=h&z=16&vpsrc=6&lci=com.panoramio.all located on a cliff 900 meters high]]]
{{main|Religion in Bhutan}}
It is estimated that between two-thirds and three-quarters of the Bhutanese population follow [[Vajrayana Buddhism]], which is also the [[state religion]]. About one-quarter to one-third are followers of [[Hinduism]]. Other religions account for less than 1% of the population.<ref name=USDOS>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007–Bhutan|publisher=[[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]]|date=2007-09-14|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90227.htm|accessdate=2008-01-06| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080109063821/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90227.htm| archivedate= 9 January 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The current legal framework, in principle guarantees [[freedom of religion]]; [[proselytism]], however, is forbidden by a royal government decision<ref name=USDOS/> and by judicial interpretation of the [[Constitution of Bhutan|Constitution]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bhutannewsservice.com/main-news/pastor-sentenced-to-3-yrs-in-prison|title=Pastor Sentenced to Three Years in Prison|work=Bhutan News Service online|publisher=Bhutan News Service|date=2010-12-12|accessdate=2011-01-25}}</ref>

Buddhism was introduced to Bhutan in the 7th century AD. Tibetan king [[Songtsän Gampo]] (reigned 627–649), a convert to Buddhism, ordered the construction of two Buddhist temples, at [[Bumthang (town)|Bumthang]]Jampa Lhakhang in central Bhutan and at Kyichu Lhakhang (near [[Paro, Bhutan|Paro]]) in the [[Paro Valley]].<ref name="CS1"/>

===Languages===
{{main|Languages of Bhutan}}
{{Annotated image
|caption=[[Languages of Bhutan]]
|image- style="width:300px;" |width=300 |float=left |image-bg-color=#F4E2BA
|imagemap=<imagemap>
Image:Languages of Bhutan.svg|300px
default [[File:Languages of Bhutan with labels.svg]]
desc none
# Dots and long names in small, Dzongkha in big
</imagemap>
|annotations=
{{Annotation|50|65|'''[[Dzongkha]]'''}}
{{Annotation|149|73|'''[[Bumthang language|Bumthang]]'''}}
{{Annotation|174|16|[[Kurtöp language|Kurtöp]]}}
{{Annotation|204|42|[[Dzala language|Dzala]]}}
{{Annotation|231|28|[[Khams Tibetan language|Khampa Tibetan]]}}
{{Annotation|122|42|[[Lakha]]}}
{{Annotation|100|81|[[Nyenkha]]}}
{{Annotation|136|91|[['Olekha|'Olekha (Monpa)]]}}
{{Annotation|165|56|[[Brokkat language|Brokkat]]}}
{{Annotation|207|61|[[Chocangacakha]]}}
{{Annotation|213|90|[[Chali language|Chali]]}}
{{Annotation|222|80|[[Dakpa language|Dakpa]]}}
{{Annotation|275|75|[[Brokpa language|Brokpa]]}}
{{Annotation|264|138|'''[[Nepali language|Nepali]]'''}}
{{Annotation|10|118|'''[[Nepali language|Nepali]]'''}}
{{Annotation|120|123|'''[[Nepali language|Nepali]]'''}}
{{Annotation|53|113|[[Lepcha language|Lepcha]]}}
{{Annotation|58|126|[[Lhokpu language|Lhokpu]]}}
{{Annotation|165|111|[[Kheng language|Kheng]]}}
{{Annotation|192|119|[[Gongduk language|Gongduk]]}}
{{Annotation|228|100|'''[[Tshangla language|Tshangla]] [[Tshangla language|(Sharchopkha)]]'''}}
}}
The national language is Bhutanese ([[Dzongkha language|Dzongkha]]), one of 53 languages in the [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan language]] family. The script, here called ''Chhokey'' ("Dharma Language"), is identical to classical Tibetan. In the schools English is the medium of instruction and Dzongkha is taught as the national language. [[Ethnologue]] lists 24 languages currently spoken in Bhutan, all of them in the [[Tibeto-Burman]] family, except [[Nepali language|Nepali]], an [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language]]. Until the 1980s, the government sponsored the teaching of Nepali in schools in Southern Bhutan. However, after the armed uprising in the south, Nepali was dropped from the curriculum. The languages of Bhutan are still not well-characterized, and several have yet to be recorded in an in-depth academic grammar. Before the 1980s, the [[Lhotshampa]] (Nepali-speaking community), mainly based in southern Bhutan, constituted approximately 30% of the population.<ref name=CIDCM>{{cite web|title=MAR {{!}} Data |Assessment for Lhotshampas in Bhutan |url=http://www.cidcm.umd.edu/mar/assessment.asp?groupId=76001 |work=Database |publisher=Center for International Development and Conflict Management, [[University of Maryland]] |accessdate=2011-08-09}}</ref>

Dzongkha is partially intelligible with [[Sikkimese language|Sikkimese]] and spoken natively by 25% of the population. [[Tshangla language|Tshangla]], the language of the Sharchop and the principal pre-Tibetan language of Bhutan, is spoken by a greater number of people. It is not easily classified and may constitute an independent branch of Tibeto-Burman. [[Nepali language|Nepali]] speakers constituted some 40% of the population as of 2006. The larger minority languages are [[Dzala language|Dzala]] (11%), [[Limbu language|Limbu]] (10%, immigrant), and [[Kheng language|Kheng]] (8%). There are no reliable sources for the ethnic or linguistic composition of Bhutan, so these numbers do not add up to 100%.

== Culture ==
[[File:Bhutanese thanka of Mt. Meru and the Buddhist Universe.jpg|thumb|200px|Bhutanese ''[[thanka]]'' of [[Mount Meru (mythology)|Mt. Meru]] and the Buddhist universe (19th century, [[Tongsa|Tongsa Dzong]], Tongsa, Bhutan).]]
[[File:Bhutan-masked-dance.jpg|thumb|200px|''Chaam'', sacred masked dances, are annually performed during religious festivals.]]
{{main|Culture of Bhutan}}

Bhutan has a rich and unique cultural heritage that has largely remained intact because of its isolation from the rest of the world until the early 1960s. One of the main attractions for tourists is the country's culture and traditions. Bhutanese tradition is deeply steeped in its Buddhist heritage.<ref>Kharat, Rajesh. "Bhutan's Security Scenario." ''Contemporary South Asia'' 13.2 (2004): 171-185. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Dec. 2011.</ref><ref>Martin Regg, Cohn. "Lost horizon." ''Toronto Star'' (Canada) n.d.: Newspaper Source Plus. Web. 8 Dec. 2011.</ref> [[Hinduism]] is the second dominant religion in Bhutan, being most prevalent in the southern regions.<ref>Zurick, David. "Gross National Happiness And Environmental Status In Bhutan." ''Geographical Review'' 96.4 (2006): 657-681. Academic Search Premier. Web. 8 Dec. 2011.</ref> The government is increasingly making efforts to preserve and sustain the current culture and traditions of the country. Because of its largely unspoiled natural environment and cultural heritage, Bhutan has been referred to as ''The Last [[Shangri-la]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/edens/bhutan|title=Bhutan – the Last Shangri La|publisher=PBS online|accessdate=2011-09-01}}</ref>

While Bhutanese citizens are free to travel abroad, Bhutan is viewed as inaccessible by many foreigners. Another reason for it being an unpopular destination is the cost, which is high for tourists on tighter budgets. Entry is free for citizens of India and Bangladesh, but all other foreigners are required to sign up with a Bhutanese tour operator and pay around US$250 per day that they stay in the country, though this fee covers most travel, lodging and meal expenses.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tourism.gov.bt/plan-your-trip/travel-requirements|title=Travel Requirements|publisher=Tourism Council of Bhutan|accessdate=2011-06-01}}</ref>

The national dress for Bhutanese men is the ''[[gho]]'', a knee-length robe tied at the waist by a cloth belt known as the ''kera''. Women wear an ankle-length dress, the ''[[kira (dress)|kira]]'', which is clipped at one shoulder and tied at the waist. An accompaniment to the kira is a long-sleeved blouse, the ''toego'', which is worn underneath the outer layer. Social status and class determine the texture, colours, and decorations that embellish the garments. Differently coloured scarves and shawls are important indicators of social standing, as Bhutan has traditionally been a [[feudal]] society. Jewellery is mostly worn by women, especially during religious festivals ([[tsechu]]s) and public gatherings. To strengthen Bhutan's identity as an independent country, Bhutanese law requires all Bhutanese government employees to wear the national dress at work though many citizens, particularly adults, choose to wear the customary dress as formal attire.

[[Rice]], [[buckwheat]], and increasingly [[maize]], are the staples of [[Bhutanese cuisine]]. The local diet also includes [[pork]], [[beef]], [[yak]] meat, [[chicken]], and [[mutton]]. Soups and stews of meat and dried vegetables spiced with chillies and cheese are prepared. ''Ema datshi,'' made very spicy with [[cheese]] and [[chili pepper|chilies]], might be called the national dish for its ubiquity and the pride that Bhutanese have for it. [[Dairy]] foods, particularly [[butter]] and cheese from yaks and [[cow]]s, are also popular, and indeed almost all milk is turned to butter and cheese. Popular beverages include [[butter tea]], [[tea]], locally brewed ''[[ara (drink)|ara]]'' ([[rice wine]]) and [[beer]]. Bhutan is the first country in the world to have banned the sale of [[tobacco]] under its [[Tobacco Control Act of Bhutan 2010|Tobacco Act of 2010]].<ref name=LP/>

[[Bhutanese architecture]] remains distinctively traditional, employing [[rammed earth]] and [[wattle and daub]] construction methods, stone masonry, and intricate woodwork around windows and roofs. Traditional architecture uses no nails or iron bars in construction.<ref name=LP/><ref>{{cite book|title=Earth Architecture |first=Ronald |last=Rael |publisher=Princeton Architectural Press |year=2008 |isbn=1-56898-767-6 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=BsLAeifqe4EC |page=92 |accessdate=2011-10-31}}</ref><ref name=bbc98>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profile/54627.stm |title=Country profile – Bhutan: a land frozen in time |date=1998-02-09 |publisher=BBC News online |accessdate=2010-10-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20101111083203/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/country_profile/54627.stm| archivedate= 11 November 2010 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Characteristic of the region is a type of castle fortress known as the [[dzong architecture|dzong]]. Since ancient times, the dzongs have served as the religious and secular administration centres for their respective districts.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Amundsen |first=Ingun B |url=http://www.thlib.org/static/reprints/jbs/JBS_05_02.pdf |format=PDF |title=On Bhutanese and Tibetan Dzongs |journal=Journal of Bhutan Studies |volume=5 |edition=Winter |year=2001 |pages=8–41 |accessdate=2011-10-19}} ([http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/collections/journals/jbs/ JBS])</ref> The [[University of Texas at El Paso]] in the United States has adopted Bhutanese architecture for its buildings on campus, as have the nearby Hilton Garden Inn and other buildings in the city of El Paso.<ref>{{cite web|work=UTEP Handbook of Operations |title=1.1 University History|url=http://admin.utep.edu/Default.aspx?PageContentMode=1&tabid=30289|publisher=University of Texas, El Paso|accessdate=2011-09-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110723225636/http://admin.utep.edu/Default.aspx?PageContentMode=1&tabid=30289| archivedate= 23 July 2011 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

Bhutan has [[public holidays in Bhutan|numerous public holidays]], most of which centre around traditional seasonal, secular and religious festivals. They include the [[Dongzhi (solar term)|winter solstice]] (around January 1, depending on the [[lunar calendar]]), the lunar New Year (February or March), the King's birthday and the anniversary of his coronation, the official end of [[monsoon]] season (September 22), National Day (December 17), and various Buddhist and Hindu celebrations.

Masked dances and dance dramas are common traditional features at festivals, usually accompanied by traditional music. Energetic dancers, wearing colourful wooden or composition face masks and stylized costumes, depict [[hero]]es, [[demons]], [[Daemon (classical mythology)|dæmons]], death heads, animals, [[gods]], and [[caricature]]s of common people. The dancers enjoy royal patronage, and preserve ancient [[folk]] and religious customs and perpetuate the ancient lore and art of mask-making.

The [[music of Bhutan]] can generally be divided into traditional and modern varieties; traditional music comprises religious and folk genres, the latter including ''[[zhungdra]]'' and ''[[boedra]]''.<ref name=Greenwood>{{cite book|title=The Greenwood Encyclopedia of World Folklore and Folklife: Southeast Asia and India, Central and East Asia, Middle East |volume=2 |first=William M. |last=Clements |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2006 |isbn=0-313-32849-8 |pages=106–110 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZvrWAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-10-16}}</ref> The modern ''[[rigsar]]'' is played on a mix of traditional instruments and electronic keyboards, and dates back to the early 1990s; it shows the influence of Indian popular music, a hybrid form of traditional and Western popular influences.<ref name=k1>{{cite web|accessdate=2011-10-16 |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=2420 |first=Ugyen |last=Penjor |title=From Ngesem Ngesem to Khu Khu Khu ... Rigsar music woos local music fans |date=2003-01-19 |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|accessdate=2011-10-16 |url=http://www.raonline.ch/pages/bt/visin/bt_music01a.html |title=Rigsar Dranyen |work=RAOnline |date=2011-06-17}}</ref>

In Bhutanese families, inheritance generally passes through the female rather than the male line. Daughters will inherit their parents' house. A man is expected to make his own way in the world and often moves to his wife's home. [[Love marriage]]s are common in urban areas, but the tradition of [[arranged marriage]]s is still common in the villages. Although uncommon, [[polygamy]] is accepted, often being a device to keep property in a contained family unit rather than dispersing it.<ref>{{cite book|title=Sikkim and Bhutan|publisher=Vikas Publications, Indian Council for Cultural Relations |first=V.H. |last=Coelho |year=1970 |accessdate=2011-09-01 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=KD0KAQAAIAAJ |page=82}}</ref> The previous king, [[Jigme Singye Wangchuck]], who abdicated in 2006, had four queens, all of whom are sisters. The current king, [[Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck]], wed [[Jetsun Pema]], 21, a commoner and daughter of a pilot, on 13 October 2011.

== Sports ==
[[File:Bhutan archery.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Changlimithang Stadium]] during a parade.]]

Bhutan's national sport is [[archery]], and competitions are held regularly in most villages. It differs from [[Olympic Games|Olympic]] standards in technical details such as the placement of the targets and atmosphere. There are two targets placed over 100 meters apart and teams shoot from one end of the field to the other. Each member of the team shoots two arrows per round. Traditional Bhutanese archery is a social event and competitions are organized between villages, towns, and amateur teams. There are usually plenty of food and drink complete with singing and dancing. Attempts to distract an opponent include standing around the target and making fun of the shooter's ability. Darts (''khuru'') is an equally popular outdoor team sport, in which heavy wooden darts pointed with a 10 cm nail are thrown at a paperback-sized target 10 to 20 meters away.

Another traditional sport is the ''[[Digor (sports)|Digor]]'', which resembles the [[shot put]] and [[horseshoe]] throwing. [[Cricket]] has gained popularity in Bhutan, particularly since the introduction of television channels from India. The [[Bhutan national cricket team]] is one of the more successful affiliate nations in the region. [[Association Football|Football]] is also an increasingly popular sport. In 2002, Bhutan's national football team played [[Montserrat]], in what was billed as [[The Other Final]]; the match took place on the same day Brazil played Germany in the [[2002 FIFA World Cup Final|World Cup final]], but at the time Bhutan and Montserrat were the world's two lowest ranked teams. The match was held in Thimphu's [[Changlimithang Stadium|Changlimithang National Stadium]], and Bhutan won 4–0. A documentary of the match was made by the Dutch filmmaker Johan Kramer.

== Education ==
{{expand section|date=November 2012}}

Bhutan has one decentralized university with eleven constituent colleges spread across the kingdom, the [[Royal University of Bhutan]].

== Traffic and transport ==
{{main|Transport in Bhutan}}

===Air===
[[Paro Airport]] is the only international airport in Bhutan. [[Yongphulla Airport]] in [[Trashigang]] is a small domestic airport that underwent upgrades through 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=13325 |title=Domestic Air Service to Take Wing Soon |first=Tshering |last=Palden |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2009-09-01 |accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> Yongphulla Airport was scheduled for completion in January 2010, but as of August 2011 work is still ongoing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=16565 |title=DYT Approves Quarry Without Community Clearance |first=Tshering |last=Palden |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2010-08-30 |accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref> There are plans for further domestic airports to be built at [[Bathpalathang]] in [[Bumthang District]] and at [[Gelephu]] in [[Sarpang District]], which were due to start operations in June 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=14069 |title=Two Domestic Airports by 2010 |first=Gyalsten K |last=Dorji |publisher=[[Kuensel]] online |date=2009-11-26 |accessdate=2011-08-10}}</ref>

===Rail===
Bhutan does not have any [[Rail transport|railways]], though it has entered into an agreement with India to link southern Bhutan to India's vast network by constructing a {{convert|11|mi|0|adj=on}}-long {{RailGauge|1676mm}} [[Indian gauge|broad gauge]] rail link between Hashimara in West Bengal and Toribari in Bhutan. The construction of the railway via through Satali, Bharna Bari and Dalsingpara by [[Indian railways]] is being funded by India.<ref name="times2009">{{cite news |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article6970997.ece |work=The Times |date=2009-12-30 |title=Isolated Buddhist kingdom of Bhutan to get its first railway link |first=Jeremy |last=Page |publisher=Times Newspapers Ltd |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref>

===Road===
The [[Lateral Road]] is Bhutan's primary east–west corridor, connecting [[Phuentsholing]] in the southwest to [[Trashigang]] in the east. In between, the Lateral Road runs directly through [[Wangdue Phodrang]], [[Trongsa]], and other population centers. The Lateral Road also has spurs connecting to the capital [[Thimphu]] and other major population centers such as [[Paro, Bhutan|Paro]] and [[Punakha]]. As with other roads in Bhutan, the Lateral Road presents serious safety concerns due to pavement conditions, sheer drops, hairpin turns, weather, and landslides.<ref>{{cite book|title=Beyond the Sky and the Earth: A Journey into Bhutan|first=Jamie|last=Zeppa|publisher=[[Penguin Books|Penguin]]|year=2000|isbn=1-57322-815-X|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=383rWqWgga8C}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=4775|title=Icy Roads Claim Lives|publisher=[[Kuensel]] online|date=2004-12-04|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kuenselonline.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=16502|title=Landslide at Dzong Viewpoint|first=Samten|last=Yeshi|publisher=[[Kuensel]] online|date=2010-08-24|accessdate=2011-07-25}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{portal|Geography|Asia|South Asia|Himalayas|SAARC|Bhutan}}

* 
* [[Index of Bhutan-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Bhutan]]
* 

{{clear}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note}}

{{clear}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

; Cited sources
* {{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html |title=CIA — The World Factbook |work=cia.gov |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=2011-05-26 |accessdate=2011-06-22 |ref={{harvid|CIA—The World Factbook}}| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20110623034614/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bt.html| archivedate= 23 June 2011 | deadurl= no}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book|last=Osmani |first=Siddiqur R. |coauthors=Bajracharya, B.B.; Tenzing, S.; Wangyal, T. |title=Macroeconomics of Poverty Reduction: The Case Study of Bhutan |publisher=UNDP |year=2007 |edition=2 |location=Colombo |page=302 |url=http://www.bt.undp.org/assets/files/publication/Macroeco_cs_for_Bhutan.pdf |format=PDF |isbn=978-955-1416-00-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Wangchhuk |first=Lily |title=Facts About Bhutan: The Land of the Thunder Dragon |publisher=Absolute Bhutan Books| year=2008 |location=Thimphu |isbn=99936-760-0-4}}
* {{cite web|title=A Hidden and Mysterious Kingdom |work=Toplum Postasi |url=http://www.toplumpostasi.net/index.php/cat/9/col/85/art/1026/PageName/English |accessdate=2006-06-14}}
* {{cite news |title=A New Measure of Well-Being From a Happy Little Kingdom |work=The New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/04/science/04happ.html?ex=1129089600&en=de859301f49c121d&ei=5070&emc=eta1 |accessdate=2005-10-04 |first=Andrew C. |last=Revkin |date=2005-10-04}}
* {{cite web|title=Border tension pushes MEA allocation |work=The Tribune, Chandigarh |url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm |accessdate=2005-09-08| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20050722073624/http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm| archivedate= 22 July 2005 | deadurl= no}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Bhutan |publisher=MSN Encarta |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568123/Bhutan.html |accessdate=2005-09-08 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQ2kjMZ |archivedate=2009-10-31 |deadurl=yes}}
* {{cite web|title=Bhutan-China Relations |work=Bhutan News Online |url=http://www.bhutannewsonline.com/bhutan_china.html |accessdate=2005-09-08}}
* {{cite web|title=BTI 2008 — Bhutan Country Report |work=|location=Gütersloh |publisher=Bertelsmann Stiftung| year=2007 |url=http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/index.php?id=1393&tt_news=&type=98&L=1 |accessdate=2008-12-11}}— [http://www.bertelsmann-transformation-index.de/fileadmin/pdf/Gutachten_BTI_2008/ASO/Bhutan.pdf PDF version]
* {{cite book|author=A.P. Agarwala |title=Sikkim and Bhutan |publisher=Nest and Wings |year=2003 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Xnw-2sU1KMoC |accessdate=2011-09-01 |isbn=81-7824-008-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Datta-Ray |first=Sunanda K. |authorlink=Sunanda K. Datta-Ray |title=Smash and Grab: The Annexation of Sikkim |publisher=Vikas |year=1984 |isbn=0-7069-2509-2 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=RCMuAAAAMAAJ |accessdate=2011-09-01}}
* {{cite book|author=Foning, A.R. |title=Lepcha, My Vanishing Tribe |publisher=Sterling Publishers |year=1987 |isbn=81-207-0685-4}}
* {{cite book|author=Rose, Leo |title=The Nepali Ethnic Community in the Northeast of the Subcontinent |publisher=University of California, Berkeley}}
* {{cite book|author=Napoli, Lisa |title=Radio Shangri-La: What I Learned in Bhutan, the Happiest Kingdom on Earth |publisher=Crown |year=2011 |isbn=0-307-45302-2}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Bhutan}}
* {{Official website|http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/}}
* {{CIA World Factbook link|bt|Bhutan}}
* [http://www.library.gov.bt/misc/bhutan-links.html Bhutan Links] at the [[National Library of Bhutan]].
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12480707 Bhutan profile], [[BBC News]].
* [http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/bhutan.htm Bhutan] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''.
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/64215/Bhutan Bhutan], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' entry.
* {{Dmoz|Regional/Asia/Bhutan}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Bhutan}}
* [http://www.tourism.gov.bt/ Tourism Council of Bhutan]
* {{wikivoyage}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=BT Key Development Forecasts for Bhutan] from [[International Futures]].

{{Bhutan topics}}
{{Countries and Territories of South Asia}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation}}
{{Monarchies}}

[[Category:Bhutan| ]]
[[Category:Constitutional monarchies]]
[[Category:Landlocked countries]]
[[Category:Least developed countries]]
[[Category:Member states of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation]]
[[Category:South Asian countries]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1949]]
[[Category:Member states of the United Nations]]

{{Link FA|eo}}
{{Link FA|mk}}
{{Link FA|no}}
{{Link GA|fi}}

[[ace:Bhutan]]
[[af:Bhoetan]]
[[als:Bhutan]]
[[am:ቡታን]]
[[ar:بوتان]]
[[an:Bután]]
[[roa-rup:Bhutan]]
[[frp:Botan]]
[[as:ভূটান]]
[[ast:Bután]]
[[gn:Vutã]]
[[az:Butan]]
[[bn:ভুটান]]
[[bjn:Bhutan]]
[[zh-min-nan:Bhutan]]
[[be:Бутан]]
[[be-x-old:Бутан]]
[[bh:भूटान]]
[[bcl:Butan]]
[[bi:Bhutan]]
[[bg:Бутан]]
[[bar:Bhutan]]
[[bo:འབྲུག་ཡུལ།]]
[[bs:Butan (država)]]
[[br:Bhoutan]]
[[bxr:Бутан]]
[[ca:Bhutan]]
[[cv:Бутан (патшалăх)]]
[[ceb:Bhutan]]
[[cs:Bhútán]]
[[cy:Bhutan]]
[[da:Bhutan]]
[[de:Bhutan]]
[[dv:ބޫޓާން]]
[[nv:Iiʼniʼ Tłʼiishtsoh Bikéyah]]
[[dz:འབྲུག་ཡུལ་]]
[[et:Bhutan]]
[[el:Μπουτάν]]
[[es:Bután]]
[[eo:Butano]]
[[ext:Bután]]
[[eu:Bhutan]]
[[fa:پادشاهی بوتان]]
[[hif:Bhutan]]
[[fo:Butan]]
[[fr:Bhoutan]]
[[fy:Bûtan]]
[[ga:An Bhútain]]
[[gag:Butan]]
[[gd:Butàn]]
[[gl:Bután - འབྲུག་ཡུལ]]
[[ki:Bhutan]]
[[gu:ભૂતાન]]
[[xal:Бутанмудин Нутг]]
[[ko:부탄]]
[[haw:Butana]]
[[hy:Բութան]]
[[hi:भूटान]]
[[hsb:Bhutan]]
[[hr:Kraljevina Butan]]
[[io:Bhutan]]
[[ilo:Butan]]
[[bpy:ভুটান]]
[[id:Bhutan]]
[[ia:Bhutan]]
[[ie:Bhutan]]
[[os:Бутан (паддзахад)]]
[[is:Bútan]]
[[it:Bhutan]]
[[he:בהוטן]]
[[jv:Bhutan]]
[[kn:ಭೂತಾನ್]]
[[pam:Butan]]
[[ka:ბჰუტანი]]
[[csb:Bhutan]]
[[kk:Бутан Патшалығы]]
[[kw:Bhoutan]]
[[rw:Butani]]
[[sw:Bhutan]]
[[kv:Бутан]]
[[ht:Boutan]]
[[ku:Bûtan (dewlet)]]
[[ky:Бутан]]
[[lez:Бутан]]
[[la:Butania]]
[[lv:Butāna]]
[[lb:Bhutan]]
[[lt:Butanas]]
[[lij:Bhutan]]
[[li:Bhutan]]
[[ln:Butáni]]
[[lmo:Bhutan]]
[[hu:Bhután]]
[[mk:Бутан]]
[[ml:ഭൂട്ടാൻ]]
[[mt:Butan]]
[[mr:भूतान]]
[[arz:بوتان]]
[[ms:Bhutan]]
[[mn:Бутан]]
[[my:ဘူတန်နိုင်ငံ]]
[[nah:Butan]]
[[na:Butan]]
[[nl:Bhutan]]
[[ne:भूटान]]
[[ja:ブータン]]
[[nap:Bhutan]]
[[ce:Бутан]]
[[pih:Buuten]]
[[no:Bhutan]]
[[nn:Bhutan]]
[[nov:Butan]]
[[oc:Botan]]
[[or:ଭୁଟାନ]]
[[pnb:بھوٹان]]
[[ps:بوتان]]
[[pms:Bhutan]]
[[tpi:Bhutan]]
[[nds:Bhutan]]
[[pl:Bhutan]]
[[pt:Butão]]
[[crh:Butan]]
[[ro:Bhutan]]
[[rm:Bhutan]]
[[qu:Butan]]
[[rue:Бгутан]]
[[ru:Бутан]]
[[sah:Бутан]]
[[se:Bhutan]]
[[sco:Bhutan]]
[[stq:Bhutan]]
[[sq:Butani]]
[[scn:Bhutan]]
[[simple:Bhutan]]
[[ss:IBhuthani]]
[[sk:Bhután]]
[[sl:Butan (država)]]
[[so:Butaan]]
[[ckb:بووتان]]
[[sr:Бутан]]
[[sh:Butan (država)]]
[[su:Bhutan]]
[[fi:Bhutan]]
[[sv:Bhutan]]
[[tl:Butan]]
[[ta:பூட்டான்]]
[[tt:Бутан]]
[[te:భూటాన్]]
[[th:ประเทศภูฏาน]]
[[tg:Бутон]]
[[tr:Bhutan]]
[[tk:Butan]]
[[tw:Butan]]
[[udm:Бутан (кун)]]
[[uk:Бутан]]
[[ur:بھوٹان]]
[[ug:بۇتان]]
[[vi:Bhutan]]
[[vo:Butän]]
[[fiu-vro:Bhutan]]
[[war:Butan]]
[[wo:Butaan]]
[[wuu:不丹]]
[[yi:בהוטאן]]
[[yo:Bhùtán]]
[[zh-yue:不丹]]
[[diq:Butan]]
[[bat-smg:Butans]]
[[zh:不丹]]

Brianna

2012-02-23T07:22:52Z

PatriceNeff: Remove spam mention

{{Infobox given name
| name = Brianna, Brieanna
| image=
| imagesize=
| caption=
| pronunciation = {{IPA-en|briˈænə|}} {{respell|bree|AN|ə}} {{IPA-en|briˈɑːnə|}} {{respell|bree|AH|nə}}
| gender = Female
| meaning = a feminine form of ''[[Brian]]''
| region =
| origin = English
| related names = [[Brian]]<ref name="o-brianna"/>
| footnotes =
}}
'''''Brianna''''', '''''Breanna''''', '''''Breanne''''', '''''Brianne''''', '''''Brina''''', and '''''Bryanna'''''. are feminine [[given name]]s. ''Brianna'' is a feminine [[English language]] form of the masculine [[Irish language]] name ''[[Brian]]''.<ref name="o-brianna">{{Cite web|url=http://www.askoxford.com/firstnames/brianna?view=uk |title=Brianna |work=[[AskOxford.com]] |accessdate=22 November 2009 }}</ref> The name is a relatively modern one and was occasionally used in England from about the 16th century and on. In recent years, the name has become more and more popular (especially in the United States).<ref name="e-brianna">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O41-Brianna.html |title=Brianna |work=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |accessdate=23 November 2009 }}</ref>

Variant spellings of ''Brianna'' include: ''Bryanna'',<ref name="y-brianna">{{Cite web|url=http://www.thinkbabynames.com/meaning/0/Bryanna |title=Bryanna |work=[[ThinkBabyNames.com]] |accessdate=17 December 2010}}</ref> ''Breanna'' (mainly in the United States),<ref name="o-brianna">{{Cite web|url=http://www.askoxford.com/firstnames/breanna?view=uk |title=Breanna |work=[[AskOxford.com]] |accessdate=22 November 2009 }}</ref> ''Brianne'', and ''Brina''.<ref name="e-brianna"/> ''Breanne'' is variant form of ''Breanna''.<ref name="e-breanna">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O41-Breanna.html |title=Breanna |work=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |accessdate=23 November 2009 }}</ref>

Other variant spellings of the name include '''''Briana'''''.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

==Use as a given name==
;Breanna
*[[Breanna Conrad]] (born 1989), an American teen featured on MTV's ''Laguna Beach: The Real Orange County''.

;Briana
*[[Briana Banks]] (born 1978), a German-American pornographic actress and model.
*[[Briana Corrigan]] (born 1965), a singer.
*[[Briana Evigan]] (born 1986), an American actress and dancer.
*[[Briana Scott]] (born 1969) an American singer-songwriter.
*[[Briana Scurry]] (born 1971), an American soccer player.
*[[Briana Waters]], an American convicted and sentenced to six years in prison for arson.

;Brianna
*[[Brianna Brown]] (born 1979), is an American actress.
*[[Murder of Brianna Denison|Brianna Denison]] (1988–2008), an American college student who was murdered.
*[[Brianna Glenn]] (born April 18, 1980), an American long jumper.
*[[Brianna Goldberg]], a Canadian journalist.
*[[Brianna Keilar]] (born 1980), a congressional correspondent for CNN.
*[[Brianna Love]] (born 1985), an American pornographic actress.
*[[Brianna & Brittany McConnell|Brianna McConnell]] (born 1993), an American actresses.
*[[Brianna Stewart]], possibly an alias of Treva Throneberry (born 1969).
*[[Brianna Taylor]] (born 1987), a reality show personality, singer and songwriter.

;Brianne
*[[Brianne Davis]] (born 1982), an American model and actress.
*[[Brianne Leary]] (born 1957), an American actress.
*[[Brianne Moncrief]], an American soap opera actress.
*[[Brianne Murphy]] (1933–2003), an Irish-American cinematographer.
*[[Brianne Prather]] (born 1980), an actress.
*[[Brianne Siddall]] (born 1963), an American actress.
*[[Brianne Tju]] (born 1996), an American actress.

;Brina
*[[Brina Palencia]] (born 1984), an American voice actress and ADR director.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:English feminine given names]]
[[Category:English-language given names]]

[[be:Імя Брайана]]
[[de:Brianna]]

FCB

2011-10-06T12:26:24Z

PatriceNeff: Removing Facebook, I have done an extensive web search and didn't find anybody referring to Facebook as FCB. Re-add with reference if you find some references.

'''FCB''' may refer to:
* Forsyth County Broncos
* Freedom Card Board, a card site
* Farm Credit Bank, part of the [[Farm Credit System]]
* [[File control block]]
* Foote, Cone & Belding, now part of [[draftfcb]], an advertising agency
* [[Frozen carbonated beverage]]
* Foreign [[central bank]]
* FCB Dienstverlenen in Arbeidsmarktvraagstukken (Welfare and Social Services), the Netherlands
* Fórum Cético Brasileiro (Brazilian Skeptic Forum)

'''FCB''' is also a common abbreviation for the football clubs:
* [[FC Barcelona]], Spain
* [[FC Bayern Munich]], Germany
* [[FC Basel]], Switzerland
* [[FC Baník Ostrava]], Czech Republic
* [[FK Budućnost Podgorica]], Montenegro
* [[Club Brugge|FC Brugge]], Belgium

{{disambig}}

[[ca:FCB]]
[[de:FCB]]
[[es:FCB]]
[[fa:FCB]]
[[ga:FCB]]
[[ko:FCB]]
[[it:FCB]]
[[nl:FCB]]
[[ja:FCB]]
[[sv:FCB]]

Alcossebre

2011-09-04T17:37:46Z

PatriceNeff: Remove link spam

[[File:Platja del Moro.JPG|thumb|Alcossebre, view of the beach known as Platja del Moro]]
[[File:Alcossebre.jpg|thumb|Seaside promenade]]
'''Alcossebre''' ([[Spanish language|Spanish]]: Alcocéber) is a seaside village in the [[Valencian Community]] located on the [[Costa del Azahar]] along the eastern Mediterranean coast of [[Spain]] in the province of [[Castelló (province)|Castelló]]. This town falls within the municipal limits of [[Alcala de Xivert]] along with neighboring [[Capicorb]] and [[Les Fonts]] (Las Fuentes).
It is a popular tourist destination without too many large buildings.

This small coastal village is located at the southern end of the [[Serra d'Irta]], with ten kilometers of coastline, five beaches of great quality and a variety of other unspoiled beaches. Unlike most of the coastal towns Alcossebre is one of the few towns that is not fully urbanized.

It is part of the [[Costa del Azahar]], bordering with [[Peniscola]] in the north and [[Torreblanca]] in the south.

== Attractions ==
Along Alcossebre's ten kilometers of coastline, there are four main beaches: Carregador, El Romà, El Moro and Manyetes (or Tropicana), the latter shared with Capicorb, that have the [[Blue flag]] as a sign of quality. There are also three coves: Tres Platges (Tres playas), a set of three bays separated by rocky formations whose bed is rock, Cala del Moro, which is separated from the beach with the same name by a small dune and the Cala Blanca which is located near the [[lighthouse]].

The beach of Les Fonts (Las Fuentes) is one of the most visited. It has a length of 360 meters and a width of 32 meters. There are some freshwater sources that sprout from the sand originating in the [[karstic]] system of the Sierra de Irta.

The [[Columbretes Islands]] lie far off the coast and can be seen in the distance in clear weather.

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [http://alcocebre.biz Guide of Alcocebre]
* [http://www.alcaladexivert.es/php/index.php?PHPSESSID=2780bf9fadade25c3fbf9d4ba8f942c5 Web de l'Ajuntament d'Alcalà de Xivert]

{{coord|40|14|41|N|0|16|38|E|region:ES-VC_type:city|display=title}}

[[Category:Baix Maestrat]]

[[ca:Alcossebre]]
[[es:Alcocéber]]
[[eu:Alcossebre]]
[[fr:Alcoceber]]
[[pt:Alcocebre]]

List of presidents of the Swiss Confederation

2010-09-07T07:49:40Z

PatriceNeff: Undid revision 382931231 by 76.172.103.248 (talk)

The '''List of Presidents of the Swiss Confederation''' (1848-present) presents the presiding member of the Swiss Federal Council, Switzerland's seven-member executive. Elected by the Federal Assembly for one year, the President of the Confederation chairs the meetings of the Federal Council and undertakes special representational duties. ''[[First among equals|Primus inter pares]]'', he or she has no powers above the other Councillors and continues to head his or her [[Ministry (government department)|department]] (see '''[[President of the Swiss Confederation]]''' for full details).

Traditionally, the duty rotates among the members in order of seniority and the previous year's Vice President becomes President. See [[list of members of the Swiss Federal Council]] for all seven.

==1848–1874==

[[Image:Picswiss ZH-13-30.jpg|150px|thumb|[[Jonas Furrer]], the first [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President of the Confederation]] (1848–1849)]]

* 1848 – [[Jonas Furrer]] (1805–1861)
* 1849 – [[Jonas Furrer]] (1805–1861)
* 1850 – [[Henri Druey]] (1799–1855)
* 1851 – [[Josef Munzinger]] (1791–1855)
* 1852 – [[Jonas Furrer]] (1805–1861)
* 1853 – [[Wilhelm Matthias Naeff]] (1802–1881)
* 1854 – [[Friedrich Frey-Herosé]] (1801–1873)
* 1855 – [[Jonas Furrer]] (1805–1861)
* 1856 – [[Jakob Stämpfli]] (1820–1879)
* 1857 – [[Constant Fornerod]] (1819–1899)
* 1858 – [[Jonas Furrer]] (1805–1861)
* 1859 – [[Jakob Stämpfli]] (1820–1879)
* 1860 – [[Friedrich Frey-Herosé]] (1801–1873)
* 1861 – [[Melchior Josef Martin Knüsel]] (1813–1889)
* 1862 – [[Jakob Stämpfli]] (1820–1879)
* 1863 – [[Constant Fornerod]] (1819–1899)
* 1864 – [[Jakob Dubs]] (1822–1879)
* 1865 – [[Karl Schenk]] (1823–1895)
* 1866 – [[Melchior Josef Martin Knüsel]] (1813–1889)
* 1867 – [[Constant Fornerod]] (1819–1899)
* 1868 – [[Jakob Dubs]] (1822–1879)
* 1869 – [[Emil Welti]] (1825–1899)
[[Image:Karl Schenk.gif|150px|thumb|[[Karl Schenk]], as the longest-serving member of the [[Swiss Federal Council|Federal Council]], was [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President of the Confederation]] six times, a number only equaled by [[Emil Welti]].]]
* 1870 – [[Jakob Dubs]] (1822–1879)
* 1871 – [[Karl Schenk]] (1823–1895)
* 1872 – [[Emil Welti]] (1825–1899)
* 1873 – [[Paul Cérésole]] (1832–1905)
* 1874 – [[Karl Schenk]] (1823–1895)

== 1875–1899 ==

* 1875 – [[Johann Jakob Scherer]] (1825–1878)
* 1876 – [[Emil Welti]] (1825–1899)
* 1877 – [[Joachim Heer]] (1825–1879)
* 1878 – [[Karl Schenk]] (1823–1895)
* 1879 – [[Bernhard Hammer]] (1822–1907)
* 1880 – [[Emil Welti]] (1825–1899)
* 1881 – [[Numa Droz]] (1844–1899)
* 1882 – [[Simeon Bavier]] (1825–1896)
* 1883 – [[Louis Ruchonnet]] (1834–1893)
* 1884 – [[Emil Welti]] (1825–1899)
* 1885 – [[Karl Schenk]] (1823–1895)
* 1886 – [[Adolf Deucher]] (1831–1912)
* 1887 – [[Numa Droz]] (1844–1899)
* 1888 (to November 27) – [[Wilhelm Hertenstein]] (1825–1888) [[Image:Hertenstein.gif|150px|thumb|[[Wilhelm Hertenstein]] died during his term, on 27 November 1888. {{As of|2009}}, he is the only President not to complete his term.]]
* 1888 (from November 27) – [[Bernhard Hammer]] (1822–1907) (acting)
* 1889 – [[Bernhard Hammer]] (1822–1907)
* 1890 – [[Louis Ruchonnet]] (1834–1893)
* 1891 – [[Emil Welti]] (1825–1899)
* 1892 – [[Walter Hauser]] (1837–1902)
* 1893 – [[Karl Schenk]] (1823–1895)
* 1894 – [[Emil Frey]] (1838–1922)
* 1895 – [[Josef Zemp]] (1834–1908)
* 1896 – [[Adrien Lachenal]] (1849–1918)
* 1897 – [[Adolf Deucher]] (1831–1912)
* 1898 – [[Eugène Ruffy]] (1854–1919)
* 1899 – [[Eduard Müller (Swiss politician)|Eduard Müller]] (1848–1919)

== 1900–1924 ==

* 1900 – [[Walter Hauser]] (1837–1902)
* 1901 – [[Ernst Brenner]] (1856–1911)
* 1902 – [[Josef Zemp]] (1834–1908)
* 1903 – [[Adolf Deucher]] (1831–1912)
* 1904 – [[Robert Comtesse]] (1847–1922)
* 1905 – [[Marc-Emile Ruchet]] (1853–1912)
* 1906 – [[Ludwig Forrer]] (1845–1921)
* 1907 – [[Eduard Müller (Swiss politician)|Eduard Müller]] (1848–1919)
* 1908 – [[Ernst Brenner]] (1856–1911)
* 1909 – [[Adolf Deucher]] (1831–1912)
* 1910 – [[Robert Comtesse]] (1847–1922)
[[Image:Gustave Ador.jpg|150px|thumb|[[Gustave Ador]], [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President of the Confederation]] in 1919, was also President of the [[International Committee of the Red Cross|ICRC]]]]
* 1911 – [[Marc-Emile Ruchet]] (1853–1912)
* 1912 – [[Ludwig Forrer]] (1845–1921)
* 1913 – [[Eduard Müller (Swiss politician)|Eduard Müller]] (1848–1919)
* 1914 – [[Arthur Hoffmann (politician)|Arthur Hoffmann]] (1857–1927)
* 1915 – [[Giuseppe Motta]] (1871–1940)
* 1916 – [[Camille Decoppet]] (1862–1925)
* 1917 – [[Edmund Schulthess]] (1868–1944)
* 1918 – [[Felix Calonder]] (1863–1952)
* 1919 – [[Gustave Ador]] (1845–1928)
* 1920 – [[Giuseppe Motta]] (1871–1940)
* 1921 – [[Edmund Schulthess]] (1868–1944)
* 1922 – [[Robert Haab]] (1865–1939)
* 1923 – [[Karl Scheurer]] (1872–1929)
* 1924 – [[Ernst Chuard]] (1857–1942)

== 1925–1949 ==

* 1925 – [[Jean-Marie Musy]] (1876–1952)
* 1926 – [[Heinrich Häberlin]] (1868–1947)
* 1927 – [[Giuseppe Motta]] (1871–1940)
* 1928 – [[Edmund Schulthess]] (1868–1944)
* 1929 – [[Robert Haab]] (1865–1939)
* 1930 – [[Jean-Marie Musy]] (1876–1952)
* 1931 – [[Heinrich Häberlin]] (1868–1947)
* 1932 – [[Giuseppe Motta]] (1871–1940)
* 1933 – [[Edmund Schulthess]] (1868–1944)
* 1934 – [[Marcel Pilet-Golaz]] (1889–1958)
* 1935 – [[Rudolf Minger]] (1881–1955)
* 1936 – [[Albert Meyer (politician)|Albert Meyer]] (1870–1953)
* 1937 – [[Giuseppe Motta]] (1871–1940)
* 1938 – [[Johannes Baumann]] (1874–1953)
* 1939 – [[Philipp Etter]] (1891–1977)
* 1940 – [[Marcel Pilet-Golaz]] (1889–1958)
* 1941 – [[Ernst Wetter]] (1877–1963)
* 1942 – [[Philipp Etter]] (1891–1977)
* 1943 – [[Enrico Celio]] (1889–1980)
* 1944 – [[Walther Stampfli]] (1884–1965)
* 1945 – [[Eduard von Steiger]] (1881–1962)
* 1946 – [[Karl Kobelt]] (1891–1968)
* 1947 – [[Philipp Etter]] (1891–1977)
* 1948 – [[Enrico Celio]] (1889–1980)
* 1949 – [[Ernst Nobs]] (1886–1957)

== 1950–1974 ==

* 1950 – [[Max Petitpierre]] (1899–1994)
* 1951 – [[Eduard von Steiger]] (1881–1962)
* 1952 – [[Karl Kobelt]] (1891–1968)
* 1953 – [[Philipp Etter]] (1891–1977)
* 1954 – [[Rodolphe Rubattel]] (1896–1961)
* 1955 – [[Max Petitpierre]] (1899–1994)
* 1956 – [[Markus Feldmann]] (1897–1958)
* 1957 – [[Hans Streuli]] (1892–1970)
* 1958 – [[Thomas Holenstein]] (1896–1962)
* 1959 – [[Paul Chaudet]] (1904–1977)
* 1960 – [[Max Petitpierre]] (1899–1994)
* 1961 – [[Friedrich Traugott Wahlen]] (1899–1985)
* 1962 – [[Paul Chaudet]] (1904–1977)
* 1963 – [[Willy Spühler]] (1902–1990)
* 1964 – [[Ludwig von Moos]] (1910–1990)
* 1965 – [[Hans-Peter Tschudi]] (1913–2002)
* 1966 – [[Hans Schaffner]] (1908–2004)
* 1967 – [[Roger Bonvin]] (1907–1982)
* 1968 – [[Willy Spühler]] (1902–1990)
* 1969 – [[Ludwig von Moos]] (1910–1990)
* 1970 – [[Hans-Peter Tschudi]] (1913–2002)
* 1971 – [[Rudolf Gnägi]] (1917–1985)
* 1972 – [[Nello Celio]] (1914–1995)
* 1973 – [[Roger Bonvin]] (1907–1982)
* 1974 – [[Ernst Brugger]] (1914–1998)

== 1975–1999 ==

* 1975 – [[Pierre Graber]] (1908–2003)
* 1976 – [[Rudolf Gnägi]] (1917–1985)
* 1977 – [[Kurt Furgler]] (1924–2008)
* 1978 – [[Willy Ritschard]] (1918–1983)
* 1979 – [[Hans Hürlimann]] (1918–1994)
* 1980 – [[Georges-André Chevallaz]] (1915–2002)
* 1981 – [[Kurt Furgler]] (1924–2008)
* 1982 – [[Fritz Honegger]] (1917–1999)
* 1983 – [[Pierre Aubert]] (born 1927)
* 1984 – [[Leon Schlumpf]] (born 1925)
* 1985 – [[Kurt Furgler]] (1924–2008)
* 1986 – [[Alphons Egli]] (born 1924)
* 1987 – [[Pierre Aubert]] (born 1927)
* 1988 – [[Otto Stich]] (born 1927)
* 1989 – [[Jean-Pascal Delamuraz]] (1936–1998)
* 1990 – [[Arnold Koller]] (born 1933)
* 1991 – [[Flavio Cotti]] (born 1939)
* 1992 – [[René Felber]] (born 1933)
* 1993 – [[Adolf Ogi]] (born 1942)
* 1994 – [[Otto Stich]] (born 1927)
* 1995 – [[Kaspar Villiger]] (born 1941)
* 1996 – [[Jean-Pascal Delamuraz]] (1936–1998)
* 1997 – [[Arnold Koller]] (born 1933)
* 1998 – [[Flavio Cotti]] (born 1939)
* 1999 – [[Ruth Dreifuss]] (born 1940)

== 2000–present ==
[[File:Doris Leuthard, 2010.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Doris Leuthard]], the current [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President]] (2010)]]

* 2000 – [[Adolf Ogi]] (born 1942)
* 2001 – [[Moritz Leuenberger]] (born 1946)
* 2002 – [[Kaspar Villiger]] (born 1941)
* 2003 – [[Pascal Couchepin]] (born 1942)
* 2004 – [[Joseph Deiss]] (born 1946)
* 2005 – [[Samuel Schmid]] (born 1947)
* 2006 – [[Moritz Leuenberger]] (born 1946)
* 2007 – [[Micheline Calmy-Rey]] (born 1945)
* 2008 – [[Pascal Couchepin]] (born 1942)
* 2009 – [[Hans-Rudolf Merz]] (born 1942)
* 2010 – [[Doris Leuthard]] (born 1963)
* 2011 – Not yet known (elections in December 2010), traditionally, the vice-president for 2010 ([[Moritz Leuenberger]], born 1946, but Mr. Leuenberger announced his resignation so that [[Micheline Calmy-Rey]], born 1945, should be elected President)

== See also ==

* [[Presidents of the National Council of Switzerland]]
* [[List of Presidents of the Swiss Diet|Presidents of the Swiss Diet]] (before 1848)

{{Swiss Presidents}}

[[Category:Lists of presidents|Switzerland, President of the Confederation]]
[[Category:Members of the Swiss Federal Council|*]]
[[Category:Swiss Federal Council]]
[[Category:Lists of Swiss people|Presidents of the Confederation]]

[[als:Liste der Schweizer Bundespräsidenten]]
[[de:Liste der Schweizer Bundespräsidenten]]
[[et:Šveitsi liidupresidentide loend]]
[[fr:Liste des présidents de la Confédération suisse]]
[[gl:Lista de presidentes da Confederación Suíza]]
[[id:Daftar Presiden Swiss]]
[[it:Lista dei Presidenti della Confederazione svizzera]]
[[nl:Lijst van bondspresidenten van Zwitserland]]
[[oc:Lista dels presidents de Soïssa]]
[[pl:Prezydenci Szwajcarii]]
[[pt:Anexo:Lista de presidentes da Confederação Suíça]]
[[ru:Список президентов и вице-президентов Швейцарии]]
[[sk:Zoznam prezidentov Švajčiarska]]
[[sl:Seznam predsednikov Švicarske konfederacije]]
[[fi:Luettelo Sveitsin liittopresidenteistä]]
[[sv:Lista över Schweiz presidenter och vicepresidenter]]
[[zh:瑞士联邦总统列表]]

Telephone directory

2010-09-07T07:47:09Z

PatriceNeff: Undid revision 383327170 by Pafideas (talk)

{{unreferenced|date=November 2008}}
{{Redirect|Phone book|a contact list|Contact list}}
[[Image:Phone book.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Moscow phone book, 1930.]]

A '''telephone directory''' (also called a '''telephone book''' and '''phone book''') is a listing of telephone [[subscriber]]s in a geographical area or subscribers to services provided by the organization that publishes the directory.

==Content==
[[Image:MichYellowBooks.JPG|thumb|right|A combination yellow page & white page telephone directory.]]
Subscriber names are generally listed in alphabetical order, together with their postal or street address and [[telephone number]]. Every subscriber in the geographical coverage area is usually listed, but subscribers may request the exclusion of their number from the directory, often for a fee. Their number is then said to be "unlisted" ([[American English]]), "ex-directory" ([[British English]]) or "private" ([[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]).

In the case of unlisted numbers, practices as to [[Caller-ID]] vary by jurisdiction. Sometimes, the [[Caller-ID]] on outbound calls is blank; in other jurisdictions, unlisted numbers still appear, unless the caller dials a blocking code; in still others, the customer may request automatic blocking from the telephone company's service representatives.

In the US, under current rules and practices, [[mobile phone]] and [[Voice over IP]] listings are not included in telephone directories. Efforts to create cellular directories have met stiff opposition from several fronts, including a significant percentage of subscribers who seek to avoid [[telemarketer]]s

In 1991, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled (in ''[[Feist v. Rural]]'') that telephone companies do not have a [[copyright]] on telephone listings, because copyright protects creativity and not the mere labor of collecting existing information. Within the geographical reach of the Court, the ''Feist'' ruling has resulted in the availability of many innovative telephone directory services on [[CD-ROM]] and the [[World Wide Web]].

==Publication==

Telephone directories can be published in [[hard copy]] or in electronic form. In the latter case, the directory can be provided as an online service through proprietary terminals or over the Internet, or on physical media such as CD-ROM.

In [[France]], the [[Minitel]] [[videotex]] system originated as an attempt by [[France Télécom]] to rid itself of its paper publishing costs by renting a Minitel terminal to all telephone users. However, France Télécom continues to give hard copies to its subscribers.

In [[Iceland]], directories are published in hard copy and there is also an online directory at [[Ja.is]] providing various related services.

In [[Switzerland]], most [[pay phone]]s are now accompanied with electronic telephone directory terminals instead of paper directories, and phone users are charged for each search.

==Types==
[[File:Telefonbog ubt-1.JPG|thumb|White pages]]
A telephone directory may also be called a '''phone book''' or may be known by the color of the paper it is printed on.
*White pages generally indicates personal or alphabetic listings.
*[[Yellow pages]], golden pages or A2Z, generally indicates a '''business directory''' classified by business type or services provided, almost always with paid advertising.
*[[Reverse telephone directory|Grey pages]], sometimes called a "reverse telephone directory".
*Other colors may have other meanings, depending on a country's customs. Information on [[government agencies]] is often printed on blue or green pages.

==Ancillary content==

A telephone directory may also provide instructions about how to use the [[Local telephone service|telephone service]] in the local area, may give important numbers for [[emergency services]], [[utilities]], hospitals, doctors and organizations who can provide support in times of personal crisis. It may also have [[civil defense]] or [[emergency management]] information. There may be transit maps, postal code guides, or stadium seating charts, as well as advertising.

==History==

[[Image:New haven directory 1878.jpg|thumb|New Haven directory, November, 1878.]]The first telephone directory, consisting of a single page, was issued on February 21, 1878. It covered 50 subscribers in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. The [[R. H. Donnelley|Reuben H. Donnelly]] company asserts that it published the first classified directory, or yellow pages, for [[Chicago, Illinois]], in 1886.

The first [[United Kingdom|British]] telephone directory was published on 15 January 1880 (the year after a public telephone service was introduced into the UK) by The Telephone Company. It contains 248 names and addresses of individuals and businesses in London - but no numbers<ref>Records of the Telephone Company Limited (Bell's Patents), BT Archives reference TPA</ref>. It is preserved as part of the British phone book collection by [[BT Archives]].

==Reverse directories==
{{main|Reverse telephone directory}}
A reverse telephone directory is sorted by number, which can be looked up to give the name and address of the subscriber. Reverse telephone directories are used by law enforcement and other emergency services in order to determine the origin of any request for assistance. These systems include both publicly accessible (listed) and private (unlisted) services. As such, these directories are restricted to internal use only. Publicly accessible reverse telephone directories may be provided as part of the standard directory services from the telecommunications carrier in some countries.

== Phone books in popular culture ==
Ripping phone books in half has often been considered a [[Feats of strength|feat of strength]].

In the show ''[[MythBusters]]'' on the [[Discovery Channel]], [[Adam Savage]] and [[Jamie Hyneman]] tried to separate two phone books with the pages interlaced with each other. Most viewers assume that the two phone books used are regular [[San Francisco]] area [[Yellow Pages]]. The myth states that two phone books with interlaced pages cannot be pulled apart. After using themselves in a game of [[tug-o-war]], two five-person tug-o-war teams, all 10 people vs. the anchored books, then two rental cars, they resorted to using two older American military vehicles, a tank and an [[armored personnel carrier]] (APC). While the phone books were separated, the [[force gauge]] that was used recorded {{convert|8000|lbf|N|lk=on}} of force when the interlacing failed. Savage explained that they would have been able to suspend the weight of the two rental cars they used earlier, using the interlaced phone books as the attaching point. The books stayed together due to the friction of the hundreds of pages rubbing against each other.

==See also==
{{commons cat|Phone books}}
* [[Domain Name System|DNS]]
* [[Whois]]
* [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]]
* [[Reverse telephone directory]]
* [[Silent number]]

==References==
<references />


[[Category:Telephone numbers]]
[[Category:Directories]]

[[cs:Telefonní seznam]]
[[da:Telefonbog]]
[[de:Telefonbuch]]
[[es:Guía telefónica]]
[[eo:Telefonlibro]]
[[eu:Telefono gida]]
[[fr:Annuaire téléphonique]]
[[id:Buku telepon]]
[[is:Símaskrá]]
[[it:Elenco telefonico]]
[[he:ספר טלפונים]]
[[hu:Telefonkönyv]]
[[nl:Telefoongids]]
[[ja:電話帳]]
[[no:Telefonkatalog]]
[[pl:Książka telefoniczna]]
[[pt:Lista telefônica]]
[[simple:Telephone book]]
[[fi:Puhelinluettelo]]
[[sv:Telefonkatalog]]
[[zh:電話簿]]

Joseph Deiss

2010-08-21T20:37:34Z

PatriceNeff: Revert. Deiss != Deiß in the German language. I've never seen him referenced with ß except by the far-right politician Schlüer: http://www.calmy-rey-blog.ch/2010/06/25/der-preis-fur-deis/

{{Other people3||the American author (1912-1999)|Joseph Jay Deiss}}
{{Infobox Politician
| name=Joseph Deiss
| image=Joseph Deiss.jpg
| imagesize=
| office=[[Member of the Swiss Federal Council]]
| term_start=1999
| term_end=2006
| predecessor = [[Flavio Cotti]]
| successor = [[Doris Leuthard]]
| office2 = [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President of Switzerland]]
| term_start2 = January 1, 2004
| term_end2 = December 31, 2004
| vicepresident2 = [[Samuel Schmid]]
| viceprimeminister2 =
| deputy2 =
| president2 =
| primeminister2 =
| predecessor2 = [[Pascal Couchepin]]
| successor2 = [[Samuel Schmid]]
|order3 =
|office3 = [[President of the United Nations General Assembly]]
|term_start3 = September 14, 2010
|term_end3 =
|deputy3 =
|succeeding3 = [[Ali Abdussalam Treki]]
|successor3 = Incumbent
| birth_date={{birth date and age|1946|01|18}}
| birth_place=[[Fribourg]]
| party=[[Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland|CVP/PDC]]
| spouse=
|}}
'''Joseph Deiss''' (born January 18, 1946 in [[Fribourg]]) is an economist, [[Switzerland|Swiss]] politician and a member of the [[Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland|Christian Democratic People's Party (CVP/PDC)]]. From 1999 to 2006, he was a member of the [[Swiss Federal Council]], heading first the [[Federal Department of Foreign Affairs]] (1999–2002) and then the [[Federal Department of Economic Affairs]] (2003–2006). He was elected [[President of the United Nations General Assembly]] for its 65th session in 2010.<ref>{{cite news|last=Emch|first=Rita|title=Swiss named president of UN General Assembly|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/foreign_affairs/Swiss_named_president_of_UN_General_Assembly.html?cid=9081430|accessdate=11 June 2010|newspaper=[[Swissinfo]]|date=June 11, 2010}}</ref>

== Political career ==
=== Legislative and local experience ===

Joseph Deiss started his political career in 1981 as a representative of his party in the cantonal parliament of [[Canton of Fribourg|Fribourg]]. In 1991 he became the president of the cantonal parliament for one year. Between 1982 and 1996 Deiss was the mayor of his home village [[Barberêche]] (FR).

In 1991 he was elected to the [[National Council of Switzerland|National Council]]. From 1995 to 1996 Deiss was vice president of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the National Council. In 1996 he was made president of the committee in charge of the total revision of the [[Swiss Constitution]].

=== In the Federal Council ===

Deiss was elected to the [[Swiss Federal Council]] on March 11, 1999, along with his erstwhile colleague [[Ruth Metzler-Arnold]]. Together with [[Adalbert Durrer]] and [[Remigio Ratti]], he was one of three official candidates proposed by the CVP for the seat of retiring Councillor [[Flavio Cotti]]. However, the election became a narrow contest between Deiss and [[Peter Hess (Swiss politician)|Peter Hess]], who was favoured by many conservative representatives. Deiss eventually won after the sixth ballot, by 120 to 119 votes.<ref>Official Record of the United Federal Assembly, ''[http://www.parlament.ch/Poly/Download_amtl_Bulletin/99_03/Vbaf9903.pdf AB V 1999 625]''.</ref>

In office, he has headed the following departments:
*[[Federal Department of Foreign Affairs]] (1999–2002)
*[[Federal Department of Economic Affairs]] (since 2003)

After the failure of [[Ruth Metzler]] [[Swiss Federal Council election, 2003|to be re-elected in 2003]], Metzler challenged him for his seat, but lost by 138 votes to 96. He was subsequently elected [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President of the Confederation]] for 2004, one year earlier than would have been regular. He became the only remaining representative of the CVP in the Council.

On April 27, 2006, Deiss rather unexpectedly resigned as Federal Councillor.<ref>[http://www.nzz.ch/2006/04/27/il/newzzEMIRIXY2-12.html Bundesrat Deiss tritt zurück], [[NZZ]] Online, April 27, 2006.</ref> The CVP's seat not being contested by the other parties, he was succeeded by the president of the CVP, [[Doris Leuthard]], who took over from Deiss on August 1, 2006.

== Professional career ==
Joseph Deiss studied economics and social sciences for his first degree at the [[University of Fribourg]]. He continued to complete a doctorate at the same university after which he spent some time doing research at [[King's College, Cambridge|King's College]] at the [[University of Cambridge]].

After this period of research Joseph Deiss took on the post of lecturing Economics at the University of Fribourg. In 1983 he was made visiting professor at a number of Swiss universities: [[ETH Zurich]], [[University of Lausanne]] and [[University of Geneva]].

From 1993 to 1996 Joseph Deiss acted as [[National Price Supervisor]]. He then returned to the University of Fribourg to become the Dean of the Faculty of Economics and Social Sciences. At this time at university, Joseph Deiss was also the chairman of the Board of Directors at ''Schumacher AG'' in [[Schmitten, Fribourg|Schmitten]] (FR) and chairman of the [[Raiffeisenbank]] in [[Haut-Lac]], [[Courtepin]] (FR).

== Personal life ==
Deiss is married and has three sons.

Joseph Deiss is an Honorary Member of [http://www.raoulwallenberg.net The International Raoul Wallenberg Foundation]

== Works ==
*''Manuel d'économie politique'', with Danielle Meuwly, 1st edition 1994, reedited.
*''Initiation à l'économie politique : analyse économique de la Suisse'', 1st edition 1982, reedited.
*''Economie politique et politique économique de la Suisse'', 1st edition 1979, reedited.
*''The regional adjustment process and regional monetary policy'', 1978.
*''La théorie pure des termes de l'échange international'', doctorate thesis, 1971.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.evd.admin.ch/evd/portrait/lebenslauf/index.html?lang=en Official biography]
*{{HDS|43253}}
*{{Swiss Federal Councillor|109}}
*{{Parliament.ch|58|language=French}}
*{{PND|121460053}}

{{commonscat|Joseph Deiss}}

{{start box}}
{{s-off}}
{{succession box | before = [[Flavio Cotti]] | title = [[Member of the Swiss Federal Council]] | years = 1999-2006 | after = [[Doris Leuthard]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Pascal Couchepin]] | title = [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President of Switzerland]] | years = 2004 | after = [[Samuel Schmid]] }}
{{succession box | before = [[Ali Abdussalam Treki]] | title = [[President of the United Nations General Assembly]] | years = 2010–11 | after = Incumbent }}
{{end box}}
{{Swiss Presidents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Deiss, Joseph}}
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Fribourg (city)]]
[[Category:Members of the Swiss Federal Council]]
[[Category:Swiss economists]]
[[Category:University of Fribourg alumni]]
[[Category:King's College, Cambridge]]
[[Category:University of Fribourg faculty]]
[[Category:University of Geneva faculty]]
[[Category:Presidents of the United Nations General Assembly]]

[[als:Joseph Deiss]]
[[de:Joseph Deiss]]
[[et:Joseph Deiss]]
[[es:Joseph Deiss]]
[[eo:Joseph Deiss]]
[[fr:Joseph Deiss]]
[[id:Joseph Deiss]]
[[it:Joseph Deiss]]
[[la:Iosephus Deiss]]
[[nl:Joseph Deiss]]
[[no:Joseph Deiss]]
[[pl:Joseph Deiss]]
[[pt:Joseph Deiss]]
[[ru:Дейс, Жозеф]]
[[sv:Joseph Deiss]]

Noah Delgado

2010-08-21T20:31:14Z

PatriceNeff: Remove broken image

{{Infobox Football biography 2
| playername = Noah Delgado
| fullname = Noah Delgado
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1979|12|30}}
| cityofbirth = [[Fremont, California]]
| countryofbirth = [[United States]]
| height = {{height|ft=5|in=10}}
| position = [[Midfielder]]
| currentclub = [[Puerto Rico Islanders]]
| clubnumber = 5
| youthyears1 = 1998–2001
| youthclubs1 = [[Fresno State Bulldogs]]
| years1 = 2002
| clubs1 = [[Portland Timbers (USL)|Portland Timbers]]
| caps1 = 5
| goals1 = 0
| years2 = 2003
| clubs2 = [[Syracuse Salty Dogs]]
| caps2 =
| goals2 =
| years3 = 2004
| clubs3 = [[Rochester Raging Rhinos]]
| caps3 = 23
| goals3 = 1
| years4 = 2005–
| clubs4 = [[Puerto Rico Islanders]]
| caps4 = 130
| goals4 = 12
| nationalyears1 = 2008–
| nationalteam1 = {{nft|Puerto Rico}}
| nationalcaps1 = 5
| nationalgoals1 = 1
| medaltemplates =
| pcupdate = May 1, 2010
| ntupdate = April 7, 2008
}}

'''Noah Delgado''' (born December 30, 1979 in [[Fremont, California]]) is an [[United States|American]]-born [[Puerto Rico|Puerto Rican]] [[Association football|footballer]] currently playing for [[Puerto Rico Islanders]] in the [[USSF Division 2 Professional League]].

==Career==
===High School and College===
Delgado attended [[Irvington High School (Fremont, California)|Irvington High School]], where he was a member of the school's soccer team during his four years, and was also a kicker for their [[American football|football]] team for two years. The team was North Coast Section champs during his junior and senior seasons. He played [[college soccer]] at [[Fresno State University]], scoring 28 goals and registering 20 assists in 76 games during his four seasons at the school.

===Professional===
Delgado was drafted by the [[Los Angeles Galaxy]] of the MLS in the fourth round (48th overall) of the [[2002 MLS SuperDraft]]<ref>{{cite web| url=http://gobulldogs.cstv.com/sports/m-soccer/mtt/delgado_noah00.html| title=Player Bio: Noah Delgado :: Men's Soccer| publisher=Fresno State University| language=English| date=| accessdate=2008-07-18}}</ref>, but was not offered a contract with the team. In 2002, he played five games for the [[Portland Timbers (USL)|Portland Timbers]] in the [[USL A-League]]<ref>[http://2002.timbersfanpage.com/ 2002 Portland Timbers]</ref>. In 2003, he played for [[Syracuse Salty Dogs]], and then for [[Rochester Raging Rhinos]] in 2004.

Delgado joined the [[Puerto Rico Islanders]] in 2005, being one of only two players to play in all of the 28 games of the season. Since then he has become a key figure in the Islanders' midfield. In 2008 he was named co-captain, an honor he shares with [[Petter Villegas]]. In 2008 he lead the Islanders two the USL-1 Finals and the [[CONCACAF Champions League]] Quarter-finals. He became captain of the Puerto Rico Islanders for the 2009 season and remains the captain for the 2010 season.<ref>[http://futbolboricua.blogspot.com/2009/02/islanders-boost-offense-for-2009.html Islanders Boost Offense for 2009]</ref>

===International===
Delgado, as a US citizen like all the native Puerto Ricans has five caps with the [[Puerto Rico national football team|Puerto Rico]] national team.

==Honors==
===Club===
===={{Flagicon|Puerto Rico}} Puerto Rico Islanders====
*'''[[USL_First_Division|USL First Division Championship]]
**''' Runners-up (1):''' [[United Soccer Leagues 2008|2008]]

*'''[[USL_First_Division|Commissioner's Cup]]
**''' Winners (1):''' [[United Soccer Leagues 2008|2008]]

*'''[[CFU Club Championship]]
**''' Winner (1):''' [[2010 CFU Club Championship|2010]]
**''' Runner-up (1):''' [[2009 CFU Club Championship|2009]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.prislandersfc.com/index/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=96:perfil-noah-delgado&catid=43:profile&Itemid=86 Puerto Rico Islanders bio]
*[http://www.gobulldogs.com/sports/m-soccer/mtt/delgado_noah00.html Fresno State bio]

{{Puerto Rico Islanders Squad}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Delgado, Noah}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Fresno State Bulldogs soccer players]]
[[Category:Puerto Rican footballers]]
[[Category:Portland Timbers (USL) players]]
[[Category:USL First Division players]]
[[Category:Syracuse Salty Dogs players]]
[[Category:Rochester Raging Rhinos players]]
[[Category:Puerto Rico Islanders players]]
[[Category:People from Fremont, California]]

[[Category:Expatriate footballers in Puerto Rico]]
{{PuertoRico-sport-bio-stub}}

[[fr:Noah Delgado]]

Alphons Egli

2010-08-10T14:53:43Z

PatriceNeff: rv per WP:MOSDATE

[[Image:Alphons Egli.gif|right]]

'''Alphons Egli''' (born October 8, 1924) is a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] politician and [[member of the Swiss Federal Council]] (1983-1986).

He was elected to the [[Federal Council of Switzerland]] on December 8, 1982 and handed over office on December 31, 1986. He is affiliated to the [[Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland]].

During his office time he held the [[Department of Home Affairs (Switzerland)|Federal Department of Home Affairs]] and was [[President of the Confederation (Switzerland)|President of the Confederation]] in 1986.

Egli is a [[Swiss citizenship|citizen]] of [[Entlebuch]] and [[Lucerne]].

== External links ==
* {{HDS|4734}}
* {{Swiss Federal Councillor|94}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Hans Hürlimann]] | title = [[Member of the Swiss Federal Council]] | years = 1983–1986 | after = [[Flavio Cotti]]}}
{{end box}}
{{Swiss Presidents}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Egli, Alphons}}
{{Switzerland-politician-stub}}

[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the Swiss Federal Council]]

[[als:Alphons Egli]]
[[de:Alphons Egli]]
[[fr:Alphons Egli]]
[[id:Alphons Egli]]
[[it:Alphons Egli]]
[[la:Alphonsus Egli]]
[[nl:Alphons Egli]]
[[pl:Alphons Egli]]
[[pt:Alphons Egli]]
[[ru:Эгли, Альфонс]]

User:PatriceNeff/Memonic

2010-08-10T09:04:46Z

PatriceNeff: /* Reviews */ - Proper citations

{{Userspace draft|source=ArticleWizard|date=August 2010}}

{{Infobox software
|name=Memonic
|latest release version = 1.1.3
|latest release date = {{release date and age|2010|07|27}}
|operating_system = [[iOS (Apple)]], [[WebOS]], [[Microsoft Windows]]
|license = [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]], paid web service
|website = [http://www.memonic.com/ www.memonic.com]
}}

'''Memonic''' is a free online application that allows users to save and organize clips of information while conducting research online and offline. A clip or "item" can be a full webpage or webpage excerpt, a document or document excerpt, a text note, or a screenshot. Memonic was launched on November 5, 2009.<ref>[http://blog.memonic.com/archive/2009/11/04/memonic-at-the-swiss-innovation-forum.html memonic at the Swiss Innovation Forum], [http://blog.memonic.com/archive/2009/11/13/thank-you-for-your-warm-welcome.html Thank you for your warm welcome!]</ref>

== Product characteristics ==

Memonic offers a bookmarklet, which lets users select a webpage or portions of this page and save the excerpt online. The webclipping bookmarklet is currently offered for [[Firefox]], [[Opera]], [[Internet Explorer]], [[Safari]] and [[Google Chrome]] browsers. The online application works on the latest version of these browsers.

Items can also be added by email, or composed from scratch. Items can be organized in sets, edited, commented and searched. A user can also create groups to share items with a closed set of users.<ref>[http://blog.memonic.com/archive/2010/07/11/collaborative-research-with-memonic-groups.html Collaborative research with Memonic Groups]</ref> They can also have file attachments.

Memonic is available online and offers today an [[iPhone]] and [[iPad]] application and a [[Windows]] extension. The use of Memonic is free up to a certain usage limit above which a paid subscription may be purchased. The free online service has a usage limit of 100 items. A premium service is available that currently costs €29 per year and offers unlimited items.<ref>[http://www.memonic.com/subscription/plans Plans & Prices]</ref>

== Similar products and services ==

Memonic’s competitors include [[Evernote]], [[Microsoft]] [[OneNote]], [[Zotero]], [[Springpad]], [[Springnote]], [[Yojimbo]], [[Circus Ponies NoteBook]] on [[Macintosh]]; and [[Lognoter|Lognoter PIM version]] on [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Macintosh]] and [[Linux]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Reviews==
* {{cite news|url=http://www.centernetworks.com/information-capturing-memonic|title=Information Capturing Service Memonic Launches Subscription Based Option|work=CenterNetworks|date=March 5, 2010|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}
* {{cite news|url=http://www.makeuseof.com/dir/memonic-organize-web-content/|title= Memonic: Easily Store & Organize Web Content|work=MakeUseOf|date=January 17, 2010|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}
* {{cite news|url=http://lifehacker.com/5459573/memonic-helps-you-clip-and-organize-data-from-across-the-web|title=Memonic Helps You Clip and Organize Data From Across the Web|work=Lifehacker|date=January 29, 2010|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}
* {{cite news|url=http://www.killerstartups.com/Web-App-Tools/memonic-com-capture-the-best-of-the-www|title=Memonic.com - Capture The Best Of The WWW|work=Killerstartups|date=November 11, 2009|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}
* {{cite news|url=http://eu.techcrunch.com/2010/05/12/next10-memonic-wants-to-kill-copy-paste-closes-angel-funding/|title=Next10: Memonic wants to kill “copy-paste”, closes Angel funding|work=TechCrunch|date=May 12, 2010|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}
* {{cite news|url=http://maketecheasier.com/memonic-web-clipping-tool-to-share-web-content/2010/07/17|title=Memonic: A Web Clipping Tool to Capture And Share Web Content|work=MakeTechEasier|date=July 17, 2010|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}
* {{cite news|url=http://techie-buzz.com/internet-tools/memonic-web-clipping-tool.html|title=Memonic: Clip Portions of a Webpage and Share With Your Friends|work=TechieBuzz|date=August 1, 2010|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}

==External links==
* [http://www.memonic.om/ Memonic Website]
* [http://blog.memonic.om/ Memonic Official Blog]
* [http://www.crunchbase.com/company/memonic Memonic on Crunchbase]

[[Category:Notetaking software]]
[[Category:Web annotation]]
[[Category:Cloud storage]]
[[Category:Proprietary cross-platform software]]

User:PatriceNeff

2010-08-10T08:56:44Z

PatriceNeff:

'''PatriceNeff''' is a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Wikipedia]] editor. He lives in the [[German language|German]] part of that lovely country and many of his contributions have been in the German Wikipedia. But it really just depends on his mood, "red links" and many other element whether he decides to edit/create a given article in the German or [[English language|English]] wikipedia.

His interests are:
* [[Switzerland]], [[Japan]]
* [[Politics]], especially [[Politics of Switzerland]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Computing]], [[Internet]], [[Free software]]

This is also where you're most likely to stumble across some of his contributions.

== Interests ==

Disclosure of [[Wikipedia:Conflict_of_interest|conflicts of interest]]:

* I'm a co-founder of [[Memonic]] (see [[/Memonic]])

== Wikipedia stuff ==
* [[/Todo]]
* [[/Legislative and executive chambers of the cantons]]

== External Links ==
* http://patrice.ch/ - his private site
* http://weblog.patrice.ch/ - his weblog

{{User de}} {{User en-3}} {{User es-2}} {{User fr-1}}

[[de:Benutzer:PatriceNeff]]
[[es:Usuario:PatriceNeff]]
[[fr:Utilisateur:PatriceNeff]]
[[ja:利用者:PatriceNeff]]

Moritz Leuenberger

2010-08-10T08:55:14Z

PatriceNeff: Expand on the resignation

{{Infobox Officeholder
|name = Moritz Leuenberger
|image = Moritz Leuenberger, 2010.jpg
|office = [[Swiss Federal Council|Member of the Swiss Federal Council]]
|term_start = 1 January 1995
|term_end = 
|predecessor = [[Otto Stich]]
|successor =
|office2 = [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President of Switzerland]]
|vicepresident2 = [[Kaspar Villiger]]
|term_start2 = 1 January 2001
|term_end2 = 31 December 2001
|predecessor2 = [[Adolf Ogi]]
|successor2 = [[Kaspar Villiger]]
|vicepresident3 = [[Micheline Calmy-Rey]]
|term_start3 = 1 January 2006
|term_end3 = 31 December 2006
|predecessor3 = [[Samuel Schmid]]
|successor3 = [[Micheline Calmy-Rey]]
|office4 = Head of the [[Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications]]
|term_start4 = 1 January 1995
|term_end4 = 31 December 2010
|predecessor4 = [[Adolf Ogi]]
|successor4 = To be determined
|office5 = Vice President of Switzerland
|president5 = [[Doris Leuthard]]
|term_start5 = 1 January 2010
|term_end5 = 31 December 2010
|predecessor5 = [[Doris Leuthard]]
|successor5 = [[Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf]]
|president6 = [[Samuel Schmid]]
|term_start6 = 1 January 2005
|term_end6 = 31 December 2005
|predecessor6 = [[Samuel Schmid]]
|successor6 = [[Micheline Calmy-Rey]]
|president7 = [[Adolf Ogi]]
|term_start7 = 1 January 2000
|term_end7 = 31 December 2000
|predecessor7 = [[Adolf Ogi]]
|successor7 = [[Kaspar Villiger]]
|birth_date = {{bda|1946|9|21|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Bienne]], [[Switzerland]]
|death_date =
|death_place =
|party = [[Social Democratic Party of Switzerland|Social Democratic Party]]
|spouse = [[Gret Loewensberg]]
}}
'''Moritz Leuenberger''' (born 21 September 1946 in [[Biel/Bienne]], [[Canton of Bern]]) is a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[politician]], [[lawyer]], member of the [[Swiss Federal Council]] since 1995 and [[President of the Swiss Confederation|President of the Confederation]] in 2001 and in 2006.

Leuenberger was elected to the Federal Council on 27 September 1995 as a member of the [[Social Democratic Party of Switzerland|Social Democratic Party (SPS/PSS)]] from the [[Canton of Zürich]]. From 1991 to 1995, he was a member of the government of the Canton of Zurich.

Since 1995, Leuenberger has headed the [[Federal Department of Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications]] (''Environment'' and ''Communications'' were added to the name of the department in 1998).

Leuenberger has been married to architect [[Gret Loewensberg]] since 2003.

At a ceremony in [[Brussels]], the [[Community of European Railway and Infrastructure Companies|Community of European Railways]] and [[Union des Industries Ferroviaires Européennes]] presented the 2009 European Railway Awards on January 20, 2009. Leuenberger was presented with the Political Award for his work to build and maintain a sustainable transportation policy.<ref>{{cite press release| url=http://www.cer.be/force-download.php?file=/media/Press/2009/090120_europearailwayaward.pdf| publisher=CER and UNIFE| date=January 20, 2009| title=European rail sector celebrates European Railway Award 2009| format=PDF| accessdate=February 16, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/news_digest/Leuenberger_picks_up_railway_award.html?siteSect=104&sid=10221532&cKey=1232515361000&ty=nd| title=Leuenberger picks up railway award| work=Swissinfo| date=January 20, 2009| accessdate=February 16, 2009}}</ref>

On July 9, 2010 Leuenberger announced he would leave the Federal Council as of December 31, 2010.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/Specials/Cabinet_Election/News/Long-serving_Swiss_cabinet_minister_resigns_.html?cid=16370158|title= Long-serving Swiss cabinet minister resigns|work=Swissinfo|date=July 9, 2010|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}</ref> At this time [[Hans-Rudolf Merz]] had been expected to resign as well and there were talks between the two about resigning together. Leuenberger's resignation came as a complete surprise.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.nzz.ch/hintergrund/dossiers/erneuerung_im_bundesrat/der_ruecktritt_von_moritz_leuenberger/leuenberger_durchkreuzt_merz_plaene_1.6529385.html| title= Leuenberger durchkreuzt Merz' Pläne | work=NZZ| date=July 11, 210| accessdate=August 10, 2010}}</ref> One month later, on August 6, 2010, Hans-Rudolf Merz also announced his resignation for October.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/Specials/Cabinet_Election/News/Embattled_finance_minister_bows_out.html?cid=20888998|title=Embattled finance minister bows out|work=Swissinfo|date=August 6, 2010|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}</ref> This led to the situation that the parliament would have had to elect a new federal chancellor both in September and November. To avoid this situation, Leuenberger then announced he would change his resignation to allow for just one election for both new chancellors.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzz.ch/hintergrund/dossiers/erneuerung_im_bundesrat/aktuelle_berichterstattung/bundesratsruecktritte_als_aergernis_1.7155647.html|title=Bundesratsrücktritte als Ärgernis|work=NZZ|date=August 10, 2010|accessdate=August 10, 2010}}</ref>

==Works==
*''Die Rose und der Stein : Grundwerte in der Tagespolitik: Reden und Texte'', Zürich 2002. ISBN 3-85791-399-1
*''Träume und Traktanden - Reden und Texte'', 6. Aufl., Zürich 2002. ISBN 3-85791-348-7

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Swiss Federal Councillor|106}}
*[http://www.uvek.admin.ch/org/vorsteher/00481/index.html?lang=en Department of the Environment, Transport, Energy and Communications]
*{{HDS|33679}}
*{{de icon}} [http://MoritzLeuenberger.blueblog.ch/ Leuenberger's own blog site]

{{commonscat|Moritz Leuenberger}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Otto Stich]]}}
{{s-ttl|title={{nowrap|[[Member of the Swiss Federal Council]]}}|years=1995–2010}}
{{s-aft|after=To be elected}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Adolf Ogi]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of the Confederation|President of Switzerland]]|years=2001}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Kaspar Villiger]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Samuel Schmid]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of the Confederation|President of Switzerland]]|years=2006}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Micheline Calmy-Rey]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Swiss Presidents}}
{{Members of the Swiss Federal Council}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Leuenberger, Moritz}}
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:Current national leaders]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Members of the Swiss Federal Council]]
[[Category:Social Democratic Party of Switzerland politicians]]
[[Category:People from Biel/Bienne]]

{{Switzerland-politician-stub}}

[[als:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[da:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[de:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[et:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[es:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[eo:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[fr:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[gl:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[id:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[is:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[it:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[la:Mauritius Leuenberger]]
[[nl:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[ja:モーリッツ・ロイエンベルガー]]
[[no:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[pl:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[pt:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[rm:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[ru:Лойенбергер, Мориц]]
[[sr:Мориц Леунбергер]]
[[fi:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[sv:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[yo:Moritz Leuenberger]]
[[zh:莫里茨·洛伊恩贝格尔]]

Wikipedia:Requested articles/Applied arts and sciences/Computer science, computing, and Internet

2010-08-09T17:11:51Z

PatriceNeff: /* F-O */ - Add request for Memonic

{{divbox|yellow|Adding an entry to this list|If you want an article created, please follow these instructions:
#'''Provide a [[WP:RS|reliable independent source]]''' such as a review in an online newspaper or magazine.
#'''Provide a short description''', and some indication of [[WP:HOLE|how we would know the proposed subject from a hole in the ground]].}}

__TOC__
==Algorithms==
*[[ALPAE]]
*[[Anytime A*]]
*[[Anytime B*]]
*[[Baldi-Chauvin algorithm]] - see [http://www.pnas.org/content/91/3/1059.full.pdf]
*[[BCJ]] - mentioned in the [[7z]] article.
*[[BCJ2]]
*[[Burke-Fisher error repair]]
*[[Coercibility]]
*[[Data exploration]]
*[[Deutsch-Schorr-Waite algorithm]]/[[Link inversion algorithms]]
*[[Distributed tree search]] by Korf and Ferguson
*[[EBCOT]] (JPEG 2000)
*[[ELS-coder]]
*[[ELBG]] - Enhanced LBG (VQ algorithm)
*[[ECPG]]-Embedded SQL in C
*[[Farthest Addition]] Constructive greedy algorithm (see nearest neighbour, nearest addition)
*[[Find-S]] - see [http://jmvidal.cse.sc.edu/talks/conceptlearning/finds.xml]
*[[Free-form deformation]], a non-linear transformation
*[[Fully threaded binary search tree]]
*[[Fully Automatic Clustering System]], a vector quantization algorithm (linked from [[FACS]])
*[[Frequent subtree mining]]
*[[Geansai gorm]]
*[[Golly (program)]], a cellular automata simulator - see [http://allmyapps.com/app/ubuntu-9.10/golly]
*[[Gossip-based multicast protocol]]
*[[Gur game]]
*[[Hunter-gatherer algorithm]]
*[[Jump string]], somehow related to [[Jump table]]s
*[[Kernel Perceptron]], a Perceptron that uses the [[kernel trick]]
*[[Map matching]] assistance for [[dead reckoning]] used e.g. in car navigation, see [[Etak]] and [http://www.ertico.com/en/activities/completed_projects/agora_website.htm AGORA]
*[[March C+ algorithm]]
*[[Maximum cardinality search algorithm]] - see Lex BFS
*[[Multihop data propagation]]
*[[Multilist structure]]
*[[Multipacket reception]] - The ability of a router to transmit and receive packets on different frequencies simultaneously, using, and therefore built upon, [[MIMO]].
*[[MQ-coding]] (JPEG 2000)
*[[Nested means]]
*[[Neuromimetic intelligence]] See [http://cortex.loria.fr/ Cortex] project.
*[[Normalized Compression Distance]] - An algorithm for calculating the differences between sets of data by using compression algorithms.
*[[Rao-Blackwellized particle filter]] - For performing approximate inference in dynamic systems with both discrete and continuous state
*[[Raptor Looping]]
*[[Reference Broadcast Synchronization]] - A relatively new method of time synchronization that is superior to [[Network Time Protocol]] when applied to for wireless networks. More info can be found [http://lecs.cs.ucla.edu/Publications/papers/broadcast-osdi.pdf here] (PDF technical paper).
*[[Rocchio's algorithm]]
*[[ServEnt Threads]] used by W-PuTTY-CD- See [http://www.winputty.com W-PuTTY-CD, PuTTY communication in a Microsoft Windows™ DLL shell].
*[[Spectral test]]
*[[Syncscan]]
*[[Unparser]]
*[[Value range analysis]] - analysis for compiler optimizations like redundancy elimination, dead code elimination, instruction selection, etc. that tracks various properties of values defined and changed in a program (min-max integer bounds, set-reset bits, etc.) - implemented in Intel compiler, to be implemented in GNU GCC, etc.
*[[Wavefront Expansion Motion Planner]]
*[[Nesting problem]] - The nesting problem, called " marker making problem " (MMP) in apparel industry, belongs to the class of two-dimensional packing problems
*[[Gentleboost]]

==Computer books==
*[[UNIX Network Programming]]
*[[What to do when you get your hands on a microcomputer]] - ISBN 0830600825, published 1982. (Article originally requested under mis-worded title, "What To Do If You Ever Get Your Hands On A Microcomputer".) Need to evaluate [[Wikipedia:Notability (books)|notability]].

==Widget Toolkits==
* [[Native Development Kit]]
* [[Software Evaluation Kit]]

==Computer management==
*[[1st line technical support]]
*[[2nd line technical support]]

==Computer architecture==
*[[Simplescalar]] Computer Architecture simulator
*[[Block floating-point]]
*[[Declarative Transaction Management]]
*[[Dynamic System Domain]] (Servers) See [http://www.sun.com/servers/white-papers/domains.html] [http://docs.sun.com/source/806-3509-13/2__Domains.html] [http://www.crn.com/it-channel/18818096] [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fXL3R9cMfXo]
*[[Electronic BatchRecords]]
*[[Independent timing]] - how this feature of host bus adapter works and helps to access devices without losing speed
*[[indivisibility]] - is the required property of a [[Test-and-set]] instruction used to implement a [[Semaphore (programming)|semaphore]]. [[uninterruptible]]. — 'Indivisibility' and 'uninterruptible' are generic words and deserve [[WP:DAB|DABs]]; in the context of CS, [[Atomicity (programming)]], [[Indivisibility (programming)]] and [[Uninterruptibility (programming)]] now redirect to [[Linearizability]]. – [[User:Regregex|Regregex]] ([[User talk:Regregex|talk]]) 13:58, 30 July 2009 (UTC)
*[[Kernel Based Methods]] - See [http://www.kernel-machines.org/ www.kernel-machines.org]
*[[Kernel Machines]] - See [http://www.kernel-machines.org/ www.kernel-machines.org]
*[[List of instruction sets by number of instructions]]
*[[Localizer (computer science)|Localizer]] in networking of mobile devices (?)
*[[MARIE]] - [[:pl:MARIE]]
*[[Micropipeline]]
*[[MIPSel]]
*[[MPS Table]] - Multiprocessor system table
*[[Petascale simulation]]
*[[Test design]] Could someone elaborate on this, please.
*[[Duncan's Taxonomy]]
*[[Snoopy Cache]] in protocols and hardware (already mentioned in the DEC article, as well as in the article on Butler Lampson)
*[[Resource Allocation Graphs]] A system to keep track of deadlocks in operating systems.
*[[modular bay]]s, i.e. the wee dashboard that pops up every time you use your brother printer).</s>
*[[throughput computing]] In contrast to high-performance computing which focuses on pure performance (speed of individual operations), throughput computing focues on operations per unit time.
*[[PEMIC]] PEdagogical Model of Instructional Computer.
*[[Globally Asynchronous Locally Synchronous]] (GALS)

==Computer languages==
*[[EMC-SNAS]] EMC filesystem? EMC Scalable Network Accelerator in front of their storage?
*[[Potion (programming language)]]. <nowiki>"</nowiki>Potion is an object- and mixin-oriented (traits) language.<nowiki>"</nowiki> per http://github.com/why/potion/tree/master (Apparently under development - I'm not sure whether this is currently notable or not.)
*[[Seed7]] see http://seed7.sourceforge.net Other links: [https://www.complang.tuwien.ac.at/library/ibv/detail.php?nr=1082 Abstract of diploma thesis] (in german, about MASTER, a predecessor of Seed7), [http://seed7.sourceforge.net/thesis/doctorate Doctorate thesis] (in german, about MASTER, a predecessor of Seed7), Paper from Daniel Zingaro: [http://www.cas.mcmaster.ca/sqrl/papers/SQRLreport47.pdf Modern Extensible Languages] ([http://www.danielzingaro.com/extensible.pdf alternate link]) (paragraph about Seed7 at page 16), [http://mensanator.com/mensanator/cycle/ultimate_cycle.htm The Quest for the Ultimate Cycle] explores the 3n+C extension of the Collatz Conjecture with Seed7 programs, [http://www.freshports.org/lang/seed7 A FreeBSD port] / [http://www.freebsd.org/cgi/cvsweb.cgi/ports/lang/seed7 see also here] (not maintained by Mr. Mertes)
*[[Velneo]] See http://english.velneo.com
*[[Comparison of Visual Basic and Visual Basic .NET]] - the reason of creation is stated in the section '''Adding a link''' of the page [[Template talk:DotNET]]. [[User:UU|UU]] ([[User talk:UU|talk]]) 18:35, 7 December 2008 (UTC)
*[[WhizBase]] - WhizBase 5 is a hypertext pre-processor for Windows® based web servers. - http://www.whizbase.com
*[[Fancy (programming language)]] - A dynamic, pure object-oriented programming language inspired by Smalltalk, Ruby and Erlang. http://www.fancy-lang.org
*[[Robot interaction language]] - ROILA is a new spoken language that researchers in the Netherlands are working on to help people talk to their growing number of helper robots http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128558974 and http://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2010-07/new-robot-language-lets-you-communicate-multilingual-helper-bots

==Early computer models/processors==
*[[RAND Tablet]]

==Hardware==
* [[A4tech]] is a company that makes PC peripherals
*[[Intel X-25m]] The fastest reads of any single hard drive ever. http://www.maximumpc.com/article/reviews/intel_x25m
*[[Madd Electronics Group]] - A romanian company of hardware distribution - www.pcmadd.com
*[[Glare screen]] - a new laptop kind of screen now in "mass" use -- Do you mean [[Glossy display]]? [[User:MaxVT|MaxVT]] ([[User talk:MaxVT|talk]]) 18:11, 2 November 2008 (UTC)
*[[4B/5B-NRZI]] - Signal encoding scheme for 100BASE-X Physical Media
*[[AJ-100]] - Direct execution processor for java
*[[Apacer Technology Inc.]] - A company which makes Memory modules, Flash drives and other computer hardware - [http://www.apacer.com http://www.apacer.com]
*[[Apple Media Wall]] - Apple 3x8 feet multi-touch computer.
*[[bridge media adapter]]
*[[Bridging chipset]] Chipsets used to adapt eSATA hard drives to Firewire, USB, etc. Discuss faster/slower chipsets i.e Oxford, Prolific, etc. and why they are so. [http://www.plxtech.com/products/consumer/#das] [http://www.prolific.com.tw/eng/Products.asp?ID=9]
*[[BTTV]] - Analog V4L capture card BTTV based tuners
*[[BBWC]] - Battery Backed Write Cache
*[[CAMLINK]] - A digital video (frame grabber) interface.
*[[Conductive Pen]] - A silver pen used for circuit boards
*[[DFA Chip]]
*[[DLP Monitor/DLP]]
*[[Domino Logic]]
*[[Drive Xpert]]
*[[eeepc s101]]
*[[ECL monitors]]
*[[Front Panel Audio]] - Two most common types are onboard AC97 and Azalia from Realtek. The problem is that the PC case connector descriptions always differ from m/b description, which is rather confusing. An article about existing case FP types, m/b FP types and their correlations would be good.
*[[GP2X Caanoo]] - Linux-based handheld video game console and media player created by GamePark Holdings of South Korea. It is the successor to the GP2X Wiz, an earlier device by GPH.
*[[IEEE 1680]]
*[[IOdrive]] an SSD produced by Fusion-IO which is attached via pci-e
*[[IPC-A-610]] is a workmanship standard for the manufacture of electronic assemblies. There are three classes, class III being the most stringent, such as for life support and mission critical systems. [http://www.newageems.com/quality.html]
*[[Kraken_(Supercomputer)|Kraken (Supercomputer)]] see http://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=114373&org=OCI&from=news (or [[National_Institute_for_Computational_Sciences|NICS]], analogous to [[TACC]]). See also [[Teragrid]]
*[[Micro Solutions Backpack]] - External CD-ROM drive
*[[Mica2 Motes]] - Wireless Sensor Network - http://www.xbow.com/products/Product_pdf_files/Wireless_pdf/MICA2_Datasheet.pdf
*[[Multi channel data link]] - http://high_speed_video.colostate.edu/camera_manual.pdf page 2.5
*[[N8VEM]] - home brew Z80 CP/M computer project http://groups.google.com/group/n8vem
*[[Oregon State Wireless Active Learning Device]] - Ultra mobile PC created by Oregon State students for Oregon State students as a platform for learning device for computer science and ece. http://beaversource.oregonstate.edu/projects/cspfl/, http://oregonstate.edu/dept/ncs/lifeatosu/2009/inventive-education-research-with-an-edge/, http://opensourcebridge.org/proposals/130, https://fedoraproject.org/wiki/OSU_Computer_Science_Platform
*[[P90 year]] - cf. [[MIPS-year]]. It seems like there should be some generic unit of [[computation]], but I can't find it. — [[User:Ken g6|Ken g6]] ([[User talk:Ken g6|talk]]) 21:03, 27 January 2009 (UTC)
*[[Personal Security Environment]] PSE, a type of of user authentication often using a digital certificate. See http://www.bridge-ca.de/html/glossary.html, and http://help.sap.com/saphelp_sm32/helpdata/EN/b8/821feedadd11d2a60a0000e835363f/content.htm.
*[[PSMI]]
*[[Quad small form factor pluggable]] - Apparently some sort of digital connector used in Infiniband and storage applications, often abbreviated QSFP. There are about 24,000 results for it on Google: http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&complete=0&q=%22quad+small+form+factor+pluggable%22 It is notable to the extent that lots of very high end hardware seems to employ the connectors in applications and handling data in ways that are not immediately obvious to the uninitiated.
*[[Qualcomm Gobi]] - the first multi-mode 3G (GSM, EV-DO, HSPA) WWAN solution for mobile computer devices (notebooks, UMPCs)
*[[radeon r800]]
*[[RLDRAM]] - Reduced Latency DRAM
*[[Secondary Precharge Transistor]] - Domino logic charge sharing trick
*[[SecurDisc]] - A feature on many LG brand DVD writers
*[[Select Bay]]
*[[self-tending drive doors]] meachanisms on Dell's XPS 700 computer.
*[[Siemens C166 processor]]
*[[SmartQ 5]] and [[SmartQ 7]] - Tablets (aka MIDs) created by SmartDevices. As mobile computing becomes ever more important, these devices are notable because of their inexpensiveness and stance of open technology. They also represent increased efforts by firms in China to enter the embedded-linux market. References to these wikipages already exist from the Portable Linux Devices page.
*[[Soft AP]] - Software that enables a normally client-only [[WiFi]] adaptor to be used as an [[Access Point]].
*[[Toshiba Satellite A300]]
*[[UAJ (Universal Audio Jack)]] - a way to sense the type of audio a computer has. I.e., dolby 5.1, 6.1 or 7.1.
*[[Virtual Extended Bus]] - Some type of physical storage bus extension to PCI-X present on certain high-end Xeon motherboards: uses the acronym [[VXB]]
*[[VPR matrix]]
*[[Wavescalar]] modern research dataflow processor
*[[Way prediction]] (reducing conflict misses in a cache [[Socket M]] AMD processor)
*[[Wireless Networks Cable]] Low Loss Cable varieties and appropriate usage
*[[Worldisk]] Hard disk supplier. Remanufactured or relabeled Fujitsu??
*[[xpsport ]] New port format?
*[[powder display]], more exactly [[quick response liquid powder display]] or [[QRLPD]] – roughly an [[e-paper]] variant developed by Bridgestone (and produced by Hitachi)
*[[mycpu TTL processor]], Processor and complete 8 bit computer system. a "do it yourself" computer, in a manner uncommon amongst computer enthusiasts since the 70's. www.mycpu.eu

==The Internet==
*[[AcmeFiles.com]] A website where you can download lots of software for free. One of the most visited download sites around the world.[http://www.acmefiles.com/] [2009|5|05] 4:40 p.m.
*[[Acolite Internet Hosting]] - [http://acolitehosting.co.uk Acolite Internet Hosting] -- New UK Internet Hosting Provider using backbone of Heart Internet. Founded in 2009.
*[[Aggregator site]] — There's already the [[:Category:Video game review aggregators]] but this needs an introduction page. And there are also other kinds of aggregator sites than just movie and video game review sites. The article could contain at least something about the history and business model of these sites. —[[User:ZeroOne|ZeroOne]] ([[User talk:ZeroOne|talk]] / [[Special:Emailuser/ZeroOne|@]]) 07:31, 27 April 2009 (UTC)
*[[Agora (Nomic)]] - as mentioned in [[Nomic]] this game has the distinction of having been running since 1993 (rather early, in Internet time) and is obviously rather special in the world of Nomic... official website at http://www.agoranomic.org/ ; description from semi-outsider perspective on http://www.nomic.net/~nomicwiki/index.php/Agora
*[[allyve]] - big German internet SSO startpage, www.allyve.com [http://www.ftd.de/technik/medien_internet/309114.html] [http://www.handelsblatt.com/unternehmen/startup/es-geschah-in-einer-sommernacht;2008004]
*[[Animation vs Animator]] -A flash movie on the internet.
*[[Awards site]] - a site where people can come and enter their site into a competition and other people come and vote on other peoples sites.
*[[BanglaGamer]] -- [http://www.banglagamer.com/] the fastest growing e-sports community of Bangladesh.
*[[bash.org]] - biggest online quote database, important part of internet culture [http://bash.org/]
*[[Betanews]] - a computer news and download site
*[[Bitcoin]] - a new digital currency created using the sha-1 hash function
*[[Britekite]] -- page deleted, please replace.{{clarify}}
*[[Burning Board]] - A forum software used by ClassicPro's official site
*[[Buzzillions]] - [http://www.buzzillions.com/ buzzillions.com] -- It's one of those review websites,like [[Epinions]].Consumers review tons of products of many kinds.There are 2 reviews about it:[http://venturebeat.com/2007/04/09/buzzillions-offering-power-reviews/ Venturebeat/buzzillions],[http://www.businesswire.com/portal/site/home/permalink/?ndmViewId=news_view&newsId=20091209005014&newsLang=en Businesswire/buzzillions]
*[[Chelsio Communications]], a leading manufacturer of high-end networking equipment, such as iSCSI, InfiniBand and 10GbE NICs
*[[CloudOS]] A web based application platform, developed by microsoft [http://www.zdnet.be/news.cfm?id=72726&mxp=200] [http://news.com.com/Microsofts+Cloud+OS+takes+shape/2100-1007_3-6196152.html]
*[[Coding for a Cause]] - a movement of open source technology advocates supporting not-for-profits by building them websites for free. See [http://www.codingforacause.org] & [http://2010.fldrupalcamp.org/news/junior-achievement-of-orlando-selected-for-coding-for-a-cause]
*[[CollegeACB.com]] - http://CollegeACB.com an Anonymous Confession Board for colleges. Notability: [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1942971,00.html], [http://www.nbcconnecticut.com/news/local-beat/College-ACB-Anonymous-and-Anything-Goes--85986392.html]
*[[Comparison of Internet search engines]]
*[[Computer Programmers Forum]] -[http://www.programers.co.nr Site is here] [http://www.i-newswire.com/goprint173198.html The independent article]-- A computer programming forum that is very popular in the programming world. [[Special:Contributions/71.212.148.61|71.212.148.61]] ([[User talk:71.212.148.61|talk]]) 03:15, 29 May 2009 (UTC)
*[[Cooltoad]] -- [Cooltoad http://www.cooltoad.com], a website for free email, search, and music. [[User:Wiki5d|Wiki5d]] ([[User talk:Wiki5d|talk]]) 14:54, 16 November 2008 (UTC)
*[[Crimesider]] -- [Crimesider http://www.Crimesider.com], is a [[CBS News]] website devoted to true-crime articles.
*[[EasyBib]] - Largest online bibliography service [http://easybib.com Easybib Website]
*[[Elovix]] -- [http://www.elovix.com], a new community, focussing on Social Networking, Help, troubleshooting, Downloads and much more
*[[ExitReality]] - Makes the entire Internet 3D - a 3D architecture for the Internet with open standards
*[[FC2.com]] - Recently deleted for G11 (advertisement), but it seems fairly important as it's Japan's #4 most visited site according to Alexa, and #1 most visited only-Japanese site (see http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/fc2.com). [[User:CharonM72|CharonM72]] ([[User talk:CharonM72|talk]]) 22:59, 12 May 2009 (UTC)
*[[Fizy.com]] -- [http://www.Fizy.com] [http://translate.google.com/translate?prev=hp&hl=tr&js=n&u=http://www.radikal.com.tr/Radikal.aspx%3FaType%3DRadikalHaberDetay%26ArticleID%3D916276%26Date%3D10.01.2009%26CategoryID%3D96&sl=auto&tl=en] Music and video search engine with interface in 26 languages. I created the item myself but was deleted as (G11: Unambiguous advertising or promotion) although I have no affiliation with the site :( --[[User:Nevit|Nevit]] ([[User talk:Nevit|talk]]) 18:45, 12 May 2009 (UTC)
*[[Flickrvision.com]]popular well known website that shows realtime geolocated images from flickr.com[[User:Mancgollum|Mancgollum]] ([[User talk:Mancgollum|talk]]) 08:39, 17 February 2009 (UTC)
*[[Fluther]] - [http://www.fluther.com/ Fluther] -- Website where users can ask questions about many topics and receive answers from people with knowledge on the topic in a short time. Users may also answer questions which they know the answer to.
*[[FPS Bay]] - [http://fpsbay.com/ FPS Bay] -- Free Public Sharing Bay. Website where users can Upload and Download files directly, without sign-up, totally free of charge, with minimal/no limitations. (File sharing, Internet, Resources, fpsbay.com).
*[[Global Research]]
*[[GROU.PS]] - [http://grou.ps] -- Alexa ranking 6k, 12m monthly unique visitors, 100m monthly page views, with Ning's closure of their free networks, became the world's largest *free* do-it-yourself social networking platform. more information available on techcrunch
*[[i-doser]] - I-Doser is a brainwave synchronizer that emulates the use of a prescription drug.[http://www.i-doser.com/ Offical website]
*[[I've got a jar of dirt]] - internet meme, from "Pirates of the Caribbean" - --[[User:Gondana|Gondana]] ([[User talk:Gondana|talk]]) 00:41, 3 May 2009 (UTC)
*[[icloud.com]] -- [http://icloud.com/] a free Cloud OS from icloud, available in 8 languages. Vision: To give everyone a free online computer
*[[Internet Week New York]]
*[[iPBFree]] -- [http://ipbfree.com/] a free forum hoster that allows near complete customization and control.
*[[Itch.com]] - [http://itch.com] Itch.com - Massively Multiplayer Browser-based Games -- Basically, it is a portal with a great variety of games, which at the same time has many subdomains with more games… People on charge of this site are tech guys who firstly built companies that provided IT solutions to businesses. Then, they realized it wasn't their calling, so they couldn't resist filling what they see as a huge gap in pure browser-based games. As a result, Itch.com became a community for players of free to play multiplayer online games. The page has a variety of games and an active and supportive community of players and moderators.
*[[JavaStore]] - A new online store by Sun Microsystems for selling and distributing Java apps.[http://www.java.com/en/store/ Java Store Website]
*[[Jowki]] - [http://www.jowki.com Jowki] - Tech Blog ran by a 15 year old from Bradford, United Kingdom. News and reviews on web-tools, applications, gadgets etc.
*[[Keen.com]] - One of the first & largest psychic advice websites. For more info on request, please see [[User:Brian-keen|Brian-keen's User Page]] ([[User talk:Brian-keen|talk]]) 19:39 PT, August 1, 2010
*[[Link Management Protocol]] - a link management protocol (LMP) that runs between a pair of nodes and is used to manage traffic engineering links (from [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc4204.txt RFC4204])—[[User:C45207|C45207]] | [[User_talk:C45207|Talk]] 05:39, 9 June 2009 (UTC)
*[[Local Lizard]] - Local business directory using picture and video adverts (see [http://www.locallizard.co.uk]) --[[User:Locallizard|Locallizard]] ([[User talk:Locallizard|talk]]) 15:43, 12 July 2010 (UTC)
*[[Loop'd Network]] - A Site for Athletes to Get Sponsors with Over 300,000 Members and Millions of Hits a Day, With The Ability to Make a Profile [http://www.loopd.com/Default.aspx]
*[[MacedonianFootball.com]] - [http://www.macedonianfootball.com Macedonian Football website] - Internet project for popularization of the Macedonian football
*[[Macy Gray (neopet)]] Macy Gray is also a kind of neopet but it was retired 2001 or 2002 for legal reasons.
*[[Magellan (search engine)]] -- one of the early search engines that became the basis of the [[Excite]] web portal.
*[[Merawatan]].Merawatan is a social networking site for people of [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/pakistan Pakistan]. Address: http://www.merawatan.pk/
*[[mothballing]] -- the prosess of leaving old and un-updated pages on the internet for further refrence
*[[Naviance Succeed]] - [http://www.hobsons.com/products/prepare/workspaceK12.php Naviance Succeed suite] -- Features a Survey Builder that reports statistical data about College acceptance rates, college admissions, rankings, college placement, school GPAs, admission criteria, etc.
*[[Naviance, Inc.]] - ([http://naviance.com/about-naviance/about-naviance.html Naviance Corporate Website]) -- Naviance is division of Hobsons, which is a subsidiary of [http://naviance.com/weblinks/third-party-links/dmgi.html DMG Information], which in turn is part of the [http://naviance.com/weblinks/third-party-links/dmgt.html Daily Mail and General Trust plc]
*[[Neoseeker]] http://www.neoseeker.com. Canada's largest hardware and software reviews site, and runs one of the largest gaming communities. Owned by Neo-Era media
*[[Newsbook]] - term is currently a redlink in [[Web search engine]]. Looks like it should mean something but I'm not familiar with this term. -- [[Special:Contributions/201.37.230.43|201.37.230.43]] ([[User talk:201.37.230.43|talk]]) 02:00, 13 May 2009 (UTC)
*[[Onnetworks]]-A Company That Offers Shows Outside Of Television
*[[OpenBittorrent]] - OpenBitTorrent is a bittorrent tracker free for anyone to use. You don't need to register, upload or index a torrent anywhere, all you have to do is to include the OpenBitTorrent tracker URL in your torrent. [http://openbittorrent.com/] (This could just be added into the [[BitTorrent tracker]] article --[[User:Danlev|'''Dan Leveille''']][[User talk:Danlev|'''TALK''']] 22:09, 27 September 2009 (UTC))
*[[Opennet]] - opposite of the [[darknet]], see subheading of [[Freenet Freenet#Darknet_versus_Opennet]]
*[[papercritters.com]] -- [http://www.papercritters.com] Create your own 3d "Paper Critters" by designing it, printing it, and cutting/glueing it.
*[[Pay.gov]] A website portal for the US government.
*[[Paymo Time Tracker]] [http://www.paymo.biz] Seems to be quite a popular free time tracker, went to do a background check on wikipedia but there's nothing here. i found it mentioned on a bunch of sites and blogs. [http://financialsoft.about.com/b/2009/01/09/paymo-time-tracker.htm/]
*[[Project Deploy*]] -- [http://www.projectdeploy.org], Project Deploy* is a free open source online tool that allows users to quickly generate a web project framework.
*[[RareShare]] [http://www.RareShare.org RareShare] is a social hub connecting patients, families, and health care professionals affected by rare medical disorders.
*[[RFC 2606]] - Reserved DNS names for private use: [http://tools.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2606.txt RFC 2606]. The actually are articles for each of the reserved names.
*[[RVSiteBuilder]] - Website Builder for cPanel Hosting Provider [http://www.google.com/#hl=en&q=RVSiteBuilder] & [http://www.rvsitebuilder.com/]
*[[SEO Resource (search engine Optimization)]] -- List of seo resources that includes free directories list, seo articles and many more. Address:http://dailyupdatedirectories.blogspot.com
*[[SklogWiki]] - [http://www.sklogwiki.org/SklogWiki/index.php/Main_Page www.SklogWiki.org] is a science [[List of wikis |wiki site]] dedicated to [[thermodynamics]] and [[statistical mechanics]], especially that of simple liquids, complex fluids, and soft condensed matter. SklogWiki is particularly oriented towards theoretical and computational studies. Notability example: one of the two specialised on-line encyclopaedias mentioned in a [http://extension.info.unlp.edu.ar/documentos/open_access/Wikimedia.pdf presentation] by [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usuario:Patricio.lorente Patricio Lorente] (President of [http://www.wikimedia.org.ar/wiki/Portada Wikimedia Argentina]).
*[[SlideShare]] - a Web 2.0 site for sharing presentations and documents online [http://www.slideshare.net]
*[[SnapFiles]] - a software download site
*[[Soompi.com]] [http://soompi.com] [http://www.alexa.com/data/details/main/soompi.com Alexa ranking]Soompi is the largest Asian American community site online and the largest site for English fans of Asian pop.
*[[TakeOnIt]] - a website which compares the opinions of the Earth's leading experts and influencers [http://www.takeonit.com]
*[[The Great IPv6 Experiment]] -- an attempt to stress test the IPv6 protocol by serving up masses of porn for free if you could connect using IPv6. There's a little bit of information here [http://ozgrant.com/2007/09/16/ipv6-and-the-ipv6-experiment/] [[User:Friism|Friism]] ([[User talk:Friism|talk]])
*[[The Worlds Smallest Violin]] [Theworldssmallestviolin.com] A site which is funded by views and a site which gives 50% of its revenue each month to charity. Used to be a popular single flash button which played a violin noise. Hosts videos, pictures and games daily. Created by Josh Burton [[User:Joshbburton|Joshbburton]] ([[User talk:Joshbburton|talk]]) 01:42, 29 March 2009 (UTC)
*[[Thinkature.com]] - [http://www.thinkature.com Online real-time collaboration website]
*[[Thumbdive]] -- [http://www.thumbdive.com/] a social networking site designed for connecting and sharing with others in a more private way. Thought to aim at privacy problems encountered by Facebook and MySpace users. Currently on private beta only. [[User:Tonyngkh|Tonyngkh]] ([[User talk:Tonyngkh|talk]]) 18:43, 8 April 2009 (UTC)
*[[Tower of Babble BBS (Milwaukee, Wisconsin)]], [[Online Data Systems BBS]], and [[Metro Big 10/Big 12 BBSes]] - notable BBSes (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Drawing_board/Archives/2008/December#BBS_Addition/ and http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Drawing_board#BBS_Addition)[[User:ReveurGAM|ReveurGAM]] ([[User talk:ReveurGAM|talk]]) 11:15, 9 January 2009 (UTC)
*[[Usenet servers]] - Computers that can serve, or distribute Usenet posts. Some of these are free.
*[[virtualmanager.com]] It is a football manager site used by over half a miilion people with an average of 200 clubs joining everyday
*{{req|Waffles.fm}} - a private [[BitTorrent tracker|BitTorrent music tracker]]
*[[WebLems]] -- web-based problems
*{{req|What.cd}} - a private [[BitTorrent tracker|BitTorrent music tracker]]
*[[wixi.com]] - The discussion about radio station WIXI says, "Wixi.com should have its own article." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:WIXI.
*[[WWF Pak]] - http://wwfpak.org a site of pakistan (releated to WWF) for supporting nature
*[[X-OriginalArrivalTime]] - Mail header possibly used by webmailers - Time possibly in UTC
*[[X-Originating-IP]]- Mail header possibly used by webmailers - Used by Hotmail and Lycos - original IP that send the mail?
*[[Yahoo! Profile]] In 2008 Yahoo introduced a new universal [[Yahoo! Profile]] replacing [[Yahoo! 360]] Profiles and other types of profiles used throughout Yahoo!'s products. The use of "adult" profiles was discontinued at that time.[http://www.ygroupsblog.com/blog/2008/03/27/clarification-about-the-yahoo-profiles-photo-announcement]
* [[Yfrog]] This website seems to be a social networking website similar to twitter. Josh Groban referred to it in an early August 2010 tweet.
*[[ZookZ]] - [http://www.zookz.com ZookZ] - A site that provides legal movie and music downloads for a monthly subscription. Founded in 2008.

==People==
*[[HD Moore]], creator of [[Metasploit]], and influential security researcher and Open Source pioneer.
*[[Saul Greenberg]], PhD, influential and prolific researcher in Human Computer Interaction. Fellow of ACM CHI Academy, inventor of Phidgets, Professor at the University of Calgary [http://pages.cpsc.ucalgary.ca/~saul/].
*[[Jean-Francois Lévesque]], Video game programmer. Known to have programmed the fire propagation in Far Cry 2. Named #22 game industry hero of 2008 according to Edge Magazine. [http://www.edge-online.com/features/the-top-25-game-industry-heroes-2008]
*[[Antonio Acosta]], Certified Genesys CTI expert [http://www.antonio.acosta.net]
*[[Michael Buen]], co-developer of the I LOVE YOU Virus.
*[[Emmy Cicierega]]
*[[Christophe de Dinechin]], French video games and 3D graphics pioneer ([[Alpha Waves]]), programming languages researcher ([[XL Programming Language]], [[concept programming]], [[Exception handling]]), also designed [[HP Integrity Virtual Machines]]
* [[Eiichi Goto]] (1931–2005), Japanese computer pioneer, one of the developers/inventors of the [http://www.thocp.net/hardware/parametron.htm Parametron Computer 1], the [[quantum flux parametron]], and [[hash consing]]. See [http://www.sigsam.org/bulletin/articles/153/goto.pdf obituary]. — [[User:Tobias Bergemann|Tobias Bergemann]] ([[User talk:Tobias Bergemann|talk]]) 07:26, 31 March 2009 (UTC)
*[[Val Henson]], a hacker of various kernel-space tecnologies [http://www.valhenson.org/]
*[[M. Tim Jones]], author ("GNU/Linux Application Programming", "Artificial Intelligence: A Systems Approach", "AI Application Programming", "BSD Sockets Programming from a Multilanguage Perspective", and "TCP/IP Application Layer Protocols for Embedded Systems"), and 60+ articles of which some are referenced in Wikipedia ([[Cloud Computing]], [[BusyBox]], [[Platform virtualization]], [[O(1) scheduler]], [[QEMU]], [[Security-Enhanced Linux]], [[Slab allocation]], [[Journaling file system]], [[Asynchronous I-O]], [[Service Location Protocol]], [[Stream Control Transmission Protocol]], [[Linux startup process]], etc.).
*[[James Kutsch]], Ph.D., inventor of the first talking computer for blind people[http://www.lead411.com/James_Kutsch_1123947.html] (National Institute for the Blind)
*[[Michelle Levesque]], member of the [[OpenNet Initiative]], employee at [[Google]] and author of [http://www.insanecats.com/]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Ari Luotonen]], CERN & Mosaic Communications Corporation employee. See [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ari_Luotonen de article]
*[[Peter Löthberg]], Swedish Internet patriarch and optical Internet guru
*[[Gustavo Moya]], ixaya.com OpenSource Community Sponsor and Foundator.{{notablewarn}}
*[[Marc Sokol]] Author of Realia Cobol, VP at Computer Associates[http://jkbcapital.com/leadership/sokol.html]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Michael Shrayer]], Author of the [[Electric Pencil]]. [[Special:Whatlinkshere/Michael_Shrayer]].
*[[Jürgen Höller]], Spring Framework designer, developer, and front-man.
*[[Greg Newton-Ingham]], Expert in Audio, Video, Computer Security and On-line information]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Randy Ubillos]], video editing pioneer. He developed Adobe Premiere and Final Cut Pro.
*[[Daniel Brandt]], [[Googlewatch]]er, [[Scroogle]]r.
*[[Ed Bott]], journalist. He worked at PCWorld, and currently works at ZDnet
*[[Luciano Bello]], Debian Developer who discovered an epic fail in OpenSSl package.
*[[Steve Chamberlain]], original programmer of Cygwin [[Cygwin#History]]
*[[Wilhelm Oddo Ml]]
*[[Tam Hanna]] Online and offline journalist covering handheld computers. Said to also offer marketing advice to mobile computing companies; CEO of Tamoggemon
*[[Ioannis Aslanidis]] Gentoo Developer, Bluetooth Documentation for Linux, Research Proceedings, Open Source Developer.
*[[Morris Mano]]
*[[Laura Chappell]], [[Wireshark]] expert and founder of the university [[Laura Chappell's Wireshark University]]
*[[Varun Mittal]], Programmer in Web Scripting and Action Scripting . Known to have programmed the Amazon Web Services implementation for Tekmedia , a product of Tekriti Software.[http://varunmittal.blogspot.com/]
[http://tekritisoftware.com/?q=tekmedia]
*[[Michael Osinski]] former owner of software company that handled mortgage issues that caused crash. Wrote washington post op ed. Lots of articles exist about him.
*[[Greg Wiggleton]] Creator of the services such as Simple URL, Simple Image, and a forum site called ZeNfA.net Forums [[Special:Contributions/74.232.21.249|74.232.21.249]] ([[User talk:74.232.21.249|talk]]) 05:04, 1 September 2009 (UTC)
*[[Dave Small (computer scientist)]] Creator of the Spectre GCR, an Apple Mac emulator for the Atari ST series of computers.
*[[Jackson Peebles]], Web Developer, Started independent web design company at young age, now founder/developer of multiple softwares and websites
<s>*[[Christopher Curry]] should be a forward to [[Chris Curry]], co-founder of [[Acorn Computers]].</s> Done, but, use [[WP:AFC/R]] [[User:Chzz|'''  Chzz ''']][[User talk:Chzz| ► ]] 09:03, 8 May 2010 (UTC)
*[[Simon Foster]], created the graphics for the extremely successful [[RollerCoaster Tycoon]] series, as well as [[Transport Tycoon]]
*[[Daniel Spiewak]], is a software developer based out of Wisconsin, USA. Over the years, he has worked with Java, Ruby, Scala, SQL, C and C++, ML, and half-a-dozen experimental languages. His current Open Source endeavor is the ActiveObjects ORM, which seeks to be a more intuitive and lightweight database access layer than existing Java solutions.
*[[Xeke]], prolific computer hacker.
*[[James King (Website Developer)]] (a.k.a Jamesking56), Website Developer (http://jamesking56.uk.to)
*[[Steve Ward (computer scientist)]], computer scientist at MIT

==Organizations==
*[[silex labs]] - A non profit organization based in France, dedicated to open source web applications. It is the official maintainer of [http://silex-ria.org Silex], [http://amfphp.sourceforge.net AMFPHP], [http://oof.sourceforge.net Oof] and [http://flog.sourceforge.net Flog]. It also offers open source projects to help with their communication. See [http://silexlabs.org] for more info.
*[[OSSCube]] - A US-based company offering open source training, consulting and development services, specializing in healthcare, education, sugarcrm, drupal and php development services. More Details - [http://osscube.com]
*[[Envoy Services Limited]] - A UK-based company offering merchants secure access to an expanding global network of established corporate banks and popular local services
*[[Digitalk]] - Smalltalk company
*[[INAIC]] - The Internet Names Authority and Information Center, the authority overseeing new public and corporate Top Level Domain applications
*[[Global Domains International, Inc.]] - A multi-level marketing (MLM) company that hosts and sells web space www.website.ws or www.jacobwyatt.com
*[[Cloudworks]] - A hosted Computing or Cloud Computing company [www.cloudworks.com]
*[[Cyberpowerpc]] - A computer hardware company that sells and manufactures high-performance desktop and laptop computers.
*[[Fachak]] - A company that provides online content sharing platform [www.fachak.com]
*[[Madd Electronics Group]] - A Romanian It Company - [www.pcmadd.com]
*[[Electric Rain]]
*[[International Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Systems]] (IPTPS) [http://iptps06.cs.ucsb.edu/]
*[[LANCAST]] IT company, see [http://www.lancast.ie/]
*[[Laura Chappell's Wireshark University]], a university run by [[Laura Chappell]] with a curriculum centred around the network scanner [[Wireshark]]
*[[MetaRam]], company that aims to quadruple computers' maximum RAM limits[http://news.google.com/news?hl=en&tab=wn&ned=us&ncl=1136262642&scoring=d]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Microhardxce]] (MHX) [http://microhardxce.tripod.com], a Canadian-based software company specializing in free educational and computer protection software.
*[[ParcPlace Systems]] - Smalltalk company
*[[Rosedu]], Romanian Open Source Education, open source organisation from Romania
*[[Security Certified Program]] – company that issues the [[SCNS]], [[SCNP]] and [[Security Certified Network Architect]] professional certifications.
*[[Service Strategies Corporation]] – company that issues the [[Service Capability & Performance]] standards.
*[[Softwrap]], a UK-based company offering DRM technology to developers.
*[[Sumerge]], a Egypt-based software development company that specializes in developing, customizing and integrating business and technical software solutions and services to clients worldwide
*[[Ufanet]], Russian Internet service provider. Ufa city, Bashkortostan. [http://www1.ufanet.ru]
*[[Zvents]] - Event search company powering most of newspaper industry
*[[ACTUNIV]] - Computer Training and Technology Software
*[[LEADconcept]] - Leading Edge Technology To Match your Bussiness Solution - www.leadconcept.com
*[[Oxxbowz United Feelings]]
*[[Wireless Innovation Alliance]] - The Wireless Innovation Alliance is a coalition of companies, organizations, and advocates working to unlock the potential that lies inside the “White Spaces” of our Television spectrum. [http://www.wirelessinnovationalliance.org/]
*[[Tangible and Embedded Interaction]], international conference on tangible and embedded interaction. See [http://tei-conf.org/]
*[[Magid Computers]] - Advanced web solutions company based in New York, with offices in Los Angeles and Dallas, supporting small businesses. [http://www.emagid.com/]
*[[Shareware Industry Awards Foundation]]
*[[Webteh]] - A Slovenian software company that produces [[BS.Player]]
*[[Little Apps]] - A software company based out of [[Calgary]], [[Canada]] that develops programs under the GNU GPLv3 including a [[registry cleaner]] and a disk cleaner.

==Operating Systems==

*[[CMX RTOS]] -- Adding links [[CMX]], [[RTOS]], [[CMX RTOS]] -- [[Special:Contributions/201.37.230.43|201.37.230.43]] ([[User talk:201.37.230.43|talk]]) 15:58, 1 July 2009 (UTC)

*[[Fluke operating system]]

*[[Nova Linux]] / [[Nova (Linux)]] (Not sure preferred format). - Distro being developed by Cuba to assist independence from Microsoft and other U.S. companies. http://www.eweek.com/c/a/Linux-and-Open-Source/Cuba-Launches-Own-Linux-Variant-to-Counter-US/?kc=rss

*[[Paranoid Linux]] - a distro designed for privacy and security, that ''"assumes that its operator is under assault from the government ... and it does everything it can to keep your communications and documents a secret."'' [http://paranoidlinux.org/] -- Update: Cite given ( paranoidlinux.org ) is dead/parked as of this date. Fnord. -- [[Special:Contributions/201.37.230.43|201.37.230.43]] ([[User talk:201.37.230.43|talk]]) 16:05, 1 July 2009 (UTC)

*[[RTOS-UH]] [[Real-time_operating_system|Real Time Operating System]]-[[Leibniz_University_Hannover|University Hannover]] using a [[Deutsches Institut für Normung|DIN]] 66253-2 language called [[PEARL]]. The article is locked, because it was deleted sometimes ago. See http://www.irt.uni-hannover.de/rtos/rtos-gb.html that we are talking about a real operating system, and not vaporware.

*[[SpiralOS]]

*[[TOSS Linux]] - Popular all new Linux Distribution being developed entirely by CSE Dept of Thiagarajar College of Engg. aiming Engineers and developers. http://www.intrepidkarthi.com/toss

*[[Windows Construct Edition]]

*[[ZyNOS]] - is ZyXEL's proprietary Network Operating System. It is the platform on all Prestige routers that delivers network services and applications. It is designed in a modular fashion so it is easy for developers to add new features. New ZyNOS software upgrades can be easily downloaded from our FTP sites as they become available [http://www.tcgweb.com/netgear/zynos_faq.htm] [[User:Almogo|Almogo]] ([[User talk:Almogo|talk]]) 16:33, 24 July 2009 (UTC)

*[[Chakra (operating system)]] - a fast, user-friendly and extremely powerful Live CD "distrolet" based on KDEmod and Arch Linux. Currently in alpha stage, it features a graphical installer, automatic hardware configuration, and some more tools and extras. [http://chakra-project.org]

===Linux Kernel===
*[[Woof (Linux)]] - a build script from [[Barry Kauler]] which automatically downloads packages from any Linux distro and assembles them into a lightweight Linux OS. [http://puppylinux.com/woof/]

==Programming==
*[[Action Event Paradigm]]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Agent Oriented Programming]] - AOP on [http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Computer_programming/Agent_Oriented_Programming|wikibooks]
*[[Annotative programming]] - http://www.flare.org{{notablewarn}}
*[[ANT OPTS]] -does this mean the ANT_OPTS environment variable for [[Apache Ant]]? Better to add it there
*[[Browser Object Model]] - [http://javascript.about.com/od/browserobjectmodel/a/bom.htm]; [http://javascript.about.com/od/browserobjectmodel/a/bom01.htm]; [http://w3schools.com/jsref/obj_window.asp]; [https://developer.mozilla.org/en/DOM/window.navigator];

*[[Bsymbolic]]
*[[Bytecode instrumentation]]
*[[Capuchin Project]]
*[[Coding Dojo]]
http://developer.sonyericsson.com/site/global/newsandevents/latestnews/newsapr08/p_project_capuchin_announcement.jsp
*[[CardTerminal Application Programming Interface | CT-API]] (CardTerminal Application Programming Interface)
*[[DRLVM]] stands for Dynamic Runtime Layer Virtual Machine a clean-room implementation of the [[J2SE | Java Platform, Standard Edition]] 1.5.0 virtual machine.
*[[DOM API]] applications using DOM API to comunicate over networks and internally
*[[DooPHP]] - high performance [[PHP framework]]
*[[EJB-QL]]SQL/HQL-like query language for Enterprise Java Beans
*[[Ephemeral random constant]], related to [[genetic programming]]
*[[Fractional programming]]
*[[Front Controller Design Pattern]]
*[[FSML]] Financial Services Markup Langage - http://xml.coverpages.org/FSML-v1500a.pdf
*[[FWEB]] - documentation system for Fortran
*[[Genome strength]]
*[[Global offset table]]
*[[GoASM]] - an [[Assembly language|assembler]] for [[x86]] platforms {{notablewarn}}
*[[HLAPI]] ([[High-level Application Programming Interface]]) - perhaps the same thing as [[HLLAPI]] ([[High-level Language Application Programming Interface]])? {{notablewarn}}
*[[Jeff Duntemann]] [http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/au/1337 o'reilly biography]
*[[LateralGM]]
*[[Libclear]] [http://www.mirrors.wiretapped.net/security/info/textfiles/b4b0/b4b0-5.txt Description of libclear] {{notablewarn}}
*[[List of sound libraries (computing)]] - and linking to it from other pages.
*[[Loop rotation]] - trying to optimize loops somehow, referred to in [http://www.analog.com/UploadedFiles/Associated_Docs/5266839372613293690438645_Blackfin_comp_man.pdf]
*[[McAfee SLATES model]]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Moravec interest operator]]
*[[Muenchian method]] (Grouping method in XSLT)
*[[Nanothreads]]
*[[Ninject]] a IOC container
*[[Nuweb]] [[literate programming]] tool
*[[Open Hypermedia Systems]]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Page Controller Design Pattern]]
*[[Pageflow]]
*[[Render Target]] - [http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/bb976073.aspx] and [http://www.gamedev.net/reference/articles/article2333.asp] [[User:NoodlePowa|NoodlePowa]] ([[User talk:NoodlePowa|talk]]) 02:50, 15 March 2009 (UTC)
*[[RosAsm]] - an [[Assembly language|assembler]] for [[x86]] platforms {{notablewarn}}
*[[RxML]] - RxML standard{{notablewarn}}
*[[SafeArray]] - I ([[User:Gerbrant]]) can write a stub, but documentation is hard to find so it'd be better to let an expert have a go.
*[[Samstyle PHP Framework]] - fast and lightweight [[PHP]] framework. [[User:Hellclanner|Hellclanner]] ([[User talk:Hellclanner|talk]]) 15:30, 13 August 2009 (UTC)
*[[SAP-BW]] (Related to data warehousing )
*[[Shadow table]] - system for managing multiple versions of records in a relational database.
*[[Skrit]]{{notablewarn}}
*[[STL.NET]] — STL for [[Microsoft .NET]]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Synchronization domain]] - terminology in thread synchronization.
*[[T4 (Microsoft)]] - see [http://www.t4editor.net/] for a commercial tool
*[[Vanilla object]]
*[[VHPI]] - [[VHDL]] Procedural Interface
*[[W-PuTTY-CD]] - [[SSH]], [[Telnet]], [[Rlogin]] and [[Raw]] [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]] clients in a [[Microsoft Windows]]™ [[DLL]] shell. See [http://www.winputty.com W-PuTTY-CD, PuTTY communication in a Microsoft Windows™ DLL shell].
*[[web.py]] - a web framework for [[Python (programming language)|Python]], see [http://webpy.org webpy.org]
*[[Writeln]]
*[[XBreed]]
*[[XMLdoc]] see [http://www.filigris.com/products/docflex_xml/xmldoc/about.php XML File Documentor]
*[[Openedge Progress Software Development]] - Check [http://www.javra.com] for Progress Software Development and Application Modernization.

==Protocols==

*[[SIP2]] - the standard protocol for library interfaces, originally created by 3com. A couple of existing pages link to this topic, but it's hard to find a general introduction anywhere (detailed developers guides etc are easily found, but not simple tutorials, howtos etc). Not to be confused with SIP (session initiation protocol) which is something else.

* [[VARAN|Versatile Automation Random Access Network]] - Versatile Automation Random Access Network. VARAN bus.

* [[NABTO|Network Access Bridge TO]] - A fusion of VOIP/SIP and HTTP, makes you able to create a direct http connection between a browser and a webserver even if both peers are behind a NAT or firewall etc.

*[[FIPA Contract Net Interaction Protocol]] The FIPA Contract Net Interaction Protocol (IP) is a minor modification of the original contract net IP pattern.

*[[UUSee]] a P2P TV proprietary software [http://www.uusee.com/]. It is used by CNC World (Xinhua's new English language TV channel at [http://www.xhstv.com/english_video_online.asp]). Spanish description here: [http://uusee.uptodown.com/]

==Real-Time computing==
*[[Latency budget]]
*[[Scheduling analysis]]
*[[Real-Time UML]]

==Searching/search engines==
*[[search2.net]] is a search engine based on opensource software nutch and online since 2009.
*[[www.fuzzfind.com]] : FuzzFind is a web meta search mashup that combines the leading search engines (Google, Bing, Yahoo) and social bookmarking sites (del.icio.us), with personalizable results <ref>[]http://www.altsearchengines.com/2009/03/12/fuzzfind-combines-google-yahoo-live-delicious/</ref><ref>[http://philbradley.typepad.com/phil_bradleys_weblog/2007/12/fuzzfind-web-se.html]</ref><ref>[http://www.searchenginejournal.com/fuzzfind-calibrating-social-and-algorithmic-search/6217/]</ref>
*[[Speedy Spider]] from [[Entireweb]], apparently a large Swedish search engine. Purpose?
*[[www.zookfind.com]] is a search engine that delivers the search results of Google, Yahoo, Ask, MSN - Offers Pay Per Click Advertising similar to Google Adwords{{notablewarn}}
*[[Optevi.com]] : "User-controlled ranking" search engine{{notablewarn}}
*[[VidSerp.com]]--would love an article telling anything and everything that there is to be told on VidSerp.com{{notablewarn}}
*[[Junoba.com]] : Meta search engine{{notablewarn}}
*[[Document ranking]]
*[[Search portal]]
*[[Zitku]] : Is a search engine, web crawler, and internet archiver that uses only community edited data from ODP and wikipedia.{{notablewarn}}
*[[Document Clustering]]-- I would like to have information about different clustering algorithms, how they work and their application for the search engines.{{notablewarn}}
*[[people search]] - the process of searching for people, a class of vertical search engine that specializes in searching for people
*[[DASL or DAV Searching and Locating]] - A protocol for searching [[WebDAV]] repositories [http://webdav.org/dasl/ http://webdav.org/dasl/]
*[[Soovle.com]] - Search suggestions from the major providers on the net - provided in a visually appealing fashion. First site to focus on helping the user get to the best search terms.<ref>[http://searchengineland.com/7-search-tools-you-may-not-know-but-should-15198.php]</ref><ref>[http://www.jenkinslaw.org/blog/2008/10/22/more-next-gen-search-engines/]</ref><ref>[http://www.technospot.net/blogs/soovle-custom-search-engine-where-you-can-save-states-and-suggestions/]</ref><ref>[http://philbradley.typepad.com/phil_bradleys_weblog/2008/10/soovle---let-the-web-help.html]</ref><ref>[http://philbradley.typepad.com/phil_bradleys_weblog/2008/11/soovle-adds-save-search-functionality.html]</ref><ref>[http://www.downloadsquad.com/2008/11/30/soovle-offers-search-suggestions-for-7-search-engines/]</ref>
* [[Video search engine optimization]] (VSEO)

==Security==
*[[40-track mode]] - Method of data concealment on a 3.5" floppy disk used by the KGB and collaborator [[Robert Hanssen]]. The Norwegian Wikipedia page on this can be consulted.
*[[adsttnmq1]] - some kind of exploit that has infected a lot of web pages.
*[[AD Mutate]] - Mutation integration in Hacking
*[[Alliance of Security Analysis Professionals]]
*[[Ashar]]
*[[Asprox]] - Phishing botnet gaining significant popularity
*[[Authority Information Access]]
*[[Biggleman's Safe]] - A fictional hypothetical cryptology problem where a builder designs an unbreakable safe, builds it, and locks the designs within the unbreakable safe.
*[[BlackEnergy]] - [[Distributed denial of service]] tool [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/01/04/changing_face_of_ddos/]
*[[Blue Ridge Networks]] - a company responsible for creating the BorderGuard and manages VPNs.{{notablewarn}}
*[[CCSK Cyclic Code Shift Keying]]
*[[Chaotic Cryptosystems]]
*[[CROOK]] Unix OS
*[[crypto-chip]]
*[[CryptoHeaven]]
*[[Database Encryption]]
*[[Defender Pro Internet Security]] - An Antivirus Program
*[[Enterprise Security Client]] - Redhat program to work with smart cards & security certificates; inherited from Netscape in 2004; http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/cert-system/ ; mentioned by [http://www.dwheeler.com/blog/2008/10/22#development-cost-linux-2008 dwheeler in a blog entry about the size of Linux distributions]
*[[EKE Authentication Standard]] - is an authentication standard that uses the Diffie-Hellman algoritm
*[[Executable Protection]]
*[[Entrust TruePass tm]]{{notablewarn}}
*[[eXtensible Content Protection]]{{notablewarn}}
*[[eraser software]] [http://www.heidi.ie/eraser/ homepage for this opensource eraser/wipe program]
*[[Fortify (programming)]] - provides a suite of tools to perform source code analysis{{notablewarn}}
*[[Generalized Framework for Access Control]] (GFAC){{notablewarn}}
*[[HenWen]] (software)
*[[HMBr57]] - A PHP shell used by hackers and script kiddies.
*[[InfoJack]] - a malicious program targeted at Windows Mobile smartphones. See http://www.switched.com/2008/06/24/mobile-phones-next-big-target-for-hackers/?icid=100214839x1204932576x1200226997
*[[Information Asset Profiling]]
*[[Information Technology Baseline Protection Manual]]
*[[Identification, Authentication & Authorization]]
*[[Internet Grooming]]
*[[K7 Computing]] - One of the software company, developing internet security suite and antivirus softwares.
*[[Key continuity management]] - Distributed public key infrastructure based on whether several messages were signed with the same self-signed cert. This is used by Mac OS X code signing and by the PGP web of trust.
*[[LARIAT]] - A virus research system at MIT. See [http://www.ll.mit.edu/IST/ideval/pubs/2002/2002_IEEE_Aero_LARIAT.pdf]
*[[Link Layer Security]]
*[[List of security and privacy software]] - A comparision of diverse security and privacy/anonymity applications in different subcategories: data encryption, communication encryption, traceless erasing, firewalls, tor, i2p, freenet. Just a list with the most important information to each system so a person interested in these fields will get an overview about the software available and then read on in the respective article.
*[[Low integrity mode]]
*[[Local File Include]]
*[[Mini-certificates]] - WTLS mini-certificates, used for wireless devices.
*[[Model-driven security]] - this is also related to "model-based security": the application to model-driven engineering concepts to security
*[[Multicast encryption]]
*[[Needham-Schroeder-Lowe]] - encryption algorithm. Should this be simply included in [[Needham-Schroeder_protocol]]?
*[[NSTISSC]] - National Security Telecommunications and Information Systems Security Committee
*[[OS-178B]]
*[[PassWindow]] - Online visual one time password method
[http://vest.fr/PassWindow_Analysis.pdf]
[http://www.australianit.news.com.au/story/0,24897,25538086-15306,00.html] [http://www.passwindow.com][http://blogs.techrepublic.com.com/security/?p=2271]
*[[PLP (Personal License Password)]]
*[[PolyUnpack]]
*[[Power-Line Exploit]] - Featured on [http://www.networkworld.com/news/2009/070909-electrical-data-theft.html?page=1 Network World], will be unveiled during Black Hat 2009 USA in Las Vegas in late July. [http://www.blackhat.com/html/bh-usa-09/bh-usa-09-speakers.html#Barisani Conference Page]
*[[SHALB]] Security High Availability Load Balancing concept. Information Security Agency - see http://shalb.com
*[[Secure Signature Creation Device]]
*[[Spy Shredder]]
*[[Survivability and Information Assurance]] - [http://www.cert.org/sia]
*[[TICSA]] - Security certification, possibly obsolete
*[[Tiny Fragment Attack]] - Another [[Intrusion detection system evasion techniques|IDS evasion technique]]
*[[Trusted Network Interpretation of the TCSEC]] (the Red Book)
*[[Trusted Zone Management]]
*[[Theory of Security Maxims]] I ask to create an Article, based on the Information at this website: http://www.ne.anl.gov/capabilities/vat/seals/maxims.html so the article could be easyly translated to other languages and linked there from the english article. (The author of the article on the website should be asked, first)
*[[YaSSL]] - A dual licensed ([[GPL2#Version_2|GPLv2]] and comercial)) lightweight SSL library for embedded applications/devices
*[[xp-police-av]] - fake spyware removal tool that takes control of the victim's browser and redirects them to its website, giving them a "special offer" on a licence for xpPoliceAntiVirus. Imitates genuine microsoft logos, trademarks and packaging [http://windowsprotection.net/how-to-remove-xp-police-avcom-hijacker-xp-police-avcom-removal-guide/] [http://www.spywarevoid.com/remove-xp-police-avcom-browser-hijacker.html]

==Software==
===A-E===
*[[activeCollab]] --Project management and collaboration tool
* [[AIMP]] -- An Open Source audio player
*[[Arctic Core]] - An [http://arccore.com/ open source AUTOSAR] implementation.
*[[Appetizer (software)]] - See [http://app.etizer.org http://app.etizer.org]. Appetizer is one of the few open source docks for Windows. It can be fully customized via skins and plugins and is available in 12 languages. It is also fully portable (it was initially a [[PortableApps.com]] application) and is still actively developed. It has been reviewed in several websites and magazines: "Freeware of the month" on [[UpdateStar]] [http://www.updatestar.com/latestnews/335]; 5/5 and "Top 10 of the best launchers" on [[Clubic]] [http://www.clubic.com/telecharger-fiche268466-appetizer.html][http://www.clubic.com/article-265688-2-top-logiciels-lancer-applications-windows-clubic.html]; 9/10 on [[Softonic.com]] [http://appetizer.en.softonic.com/]; and 4/5 on [[PC Tools (magazine)]] (half page review on issue #10). It has also been reviewed today on [http://www.downloadsquad.com/2009/04/23/appetizer-open-source-portable-application-launcher/ DownloadSquad] and [http://lifehacker.com/5227008/appetizer-is-a-customizable-open-source-application-launcher Lifehacker].
*[[AmTax]]
*[[Analog Rails]] - An EDA tool/platform and start-up company aimed at providing 100% automation and simulation of analog/mixed-signal IC layouts, see [http://www.analograils.com http://www.analograils.com] and [http://www.eetimes.com/showArticle.jhtml;jsessionid=TWHYXWTJHUERQQSNDLPSKHSCJUNN2JVN?articleID=200900265 EETimes article]
*[[AfterLogic WebMail Lite]] - open-source cross-platform webmail script, available for PHP and ASP.NET. See [http://www.noupe.com/ajax/10-ajax-webmail-clients.html], [http://sourceforge.net/projects/webmail-php-lt/]
*[[Avantstar]] [http://www.avantstar.com/]
*[[BDV DataHider]] - portable application for encryption and hiding data on a flash drives. Source: [http://www.bdvnotepad.com/datahider_en.htm].
*[[BDV Notepad]] - portable plain text editor, freeware. Source: [http://www.bdvnotepad.com/bdvnotepad_en.htm].
*[[B Lyrics Mimer]]-Portable Karaoke creator freeware.[http://www.psyzone.co.in]; and [http://blog.freedownloadscenter.com/2009/04/30/b-lyrics-mimer/]; and [http://www.techtipsgeek.com/convert-mp3-into-karaoke-using-blyric-mimer/8007/]; and [http://www.online-tech-tips.com/computer-tips/make-mp3-karaoke/];
*[[BleachBit]] open source, cross-platform cleaner of disk space and privacy ([[User:AndrewHZ/BleachBit|article started]])
*[[Bluebeam PDF Revu]] – A professional PDF editor for the architecture, engineering and construction industry and other technical users. See http://www.pcw.co.uk/personal-computer-world/software/2241459/bluebeam-pdf-revu-pdf-creation and http://www.dcd.com/bpr/bpr_mayjun_2_2009.html.
*[[bsdiff]] open source executable comparison tool
*[[BS.Player]] - an audio and video player which is now an adware. It has been widely used by downloaders. Now the article is deleted. Hope someone look for at least two reviews from reliable secondary sources such as CNet, FileHippo.com and Softpedia
*[[Business Cataylst]] - a hosted (SaaS) platform for building and managing Online Businesses - Acquired by Adobe Systems in August, 2009. Source: [http://www.adobe.com/special/businesscatalyst/]
*[[Codelobster]] - Free PHP IDE; Free PHP, HTML, CSS, Javascript code editor with plug-ins for [[Drupal]], [[WordPress]], [[Smarty]], [[Joomla]], [[JQuery]], [[Facebook]], [[Codeigniter]], [[CakePHP]]; see [http://www.codelobster.com]; Several independent reviews: http://www.softsea.com/review/Codelobster.html, http://www.softpedia.com/reviews/windows/CodeLobster-Review-37401.shtml, http://review.techworld.com/applications/3212761/codelobster-review/, http://www.ilovefreesoftware.com/04/programming/codelobster-free-ide-for-php-coding-and-php-debugging.html
*[[Comparison of X Window Systems]] - see [[X_Window_System#Implementations]]
*[[Corel Home Office]] is a sleek new office suite for word processing, spreadsheets and presentation projects.
*[[CursorFX]] - a tool to create or apply existing cursor themes to change cursors
*[[DevelSoftware assembler x86-64]] - freeware x86-64 assembler
*[[Disco Project]] erlang/python mapreduce+ framework: [http://discoproject.org Disco]
*[[DNSKong]] "DNSKong is an Internet privacy filter, which uses simple text files. The program filters Domain Name Server requests on a local machine or home router. DNSKong comes in a version 1 with visual cues and version 2 w/o visual cues and more advanced configuration." http://www.pyrenean.com/
*[[D-Pixed]] D-Pixed is image editor specializing in 256 color images. Originally a Japanese program, it has been translated to English.
http://www.flat2d.fr/dpixed_en.aspx
*[[Driver Genius Professional Edition]] [http://www.driver-soft.com] - a sound device manager and updater
*[[eDexter]] "eDexter is an Internet privacy filter-supplement, working with DNSKong, to reduce unncessary & unwanted graphic-file downloading. The program speeds up web-page display by replacing remote images with smaller, local ones." http://www.pyrenean.com/
* [[Eshbel Technologies]] - an ERP software developer, notable as the first to offer an ERP system fully based on [[.Net]] and [[WPF]] technologies. I wrote up a page about it but can't post as I have a COI. Several articles including a case study in conjunction with Microsoft have been published and links included in the mock-up page http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:ThinkERP/Eshbel_Technologies
*[[Eventum]] - issue tracking software from MySQL.org see [[Comparison of issue tracking systems]], [http://eventum.mysql.org/ http://eventum.mysql.org/]
*[[EHCP]] - A free GNU/GPL hosting conttrol panel solution
*[[Lelogiciel]] - Language lab software india log on to http://www.lelogiciel.in

===F-O===
*[[FatBooth]] - an apple application for Iphone and Ipod Touch which is extremely popular and uses an algorithm to make the person's face fatter
*[[FBackup]] - a popular freeware backup software for Windows. Details on http://www.fbackup.com/ Reliable source where it was mentioned: Lifehacker (http://lifehacker.com/5294315/fbackup-makes-backing-up-application-data-simpler), MakeUseOf (http://www.makeuseof.com/tag/save-backup-program-data-and-your-information-using-fbackup/), DownloadSquad (http://www.downloadsquad.com/2010/05/17/screenshot-tour-fbackup-is-a-simple-no-frills-free-backup-appl/), Secure Computing magazine (http://www.securecomputing.net.au/Download/130945,fbackup-44213.aspx)
*[[Fluff Busting Purity]] - (previously known as "Facebook Purity" until Facebook threatened a lawsuit) a greasemonkey script for cleaning up the application spam and other junk messages and visual clutter on Facebook users homepages. http://www.fbpurity.com http://facebook.com/fluffbustingpurity
*[[Feudalism 2]] an online computer game
*[[FontReview]] - a good replacement for Windows 9x/NT's built-in font viewer
*[[FourCC Changer]] - a tool to alter an AVI file's description code
*[[Freevo]] - A home theatre PC platform
*[[Greymatter (software)]] - A popular CGI-based blogging software written in PERL.
http://freshmeat.net/projects/greymatter/
*[[G2 Rule Engine Platform]] A real-time rule engine platform used in a wide variety of fields. See http://www.gensym.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=54
*[[G3D Engine]] "G3D is a commercial-grade 3D Engine available as Open Source (BSD License). It is used in games, tech demos, research papers, military simulators, and university courses. It provides a set of routines and structures so common that they are needed in almost every graphics program. It makes low-level libraries like OpenGL and sockets easier to use without limiting functionality or performance. G3D gives you a rock-solid, highly optimized base from which to build your application." http://g3d-cpp.sourceforge.net/
*[[History of Bangla computing]] the history of how the softwares of Bengali/Bangla script interfacing developed at 1980s-present
*[[Hive (Hadoop)]] a data warehouse infrastructure built on top of Hadoop.[http://wiki.apache.org/hadoop/Hive]
*[[Iolo System Mechanic]] computer maintenance software; comes in differerent packages: cleans computer, registry, speeds up computer and internet, keeps computer protected, etc.
*[[IconEdit2]] TrueColor icon editor. Supports 256x256 Vista icons. Source: [http://www.iconedit2.com] References: [http://download.cnet.com/IconEdit2/3000-2195_4-10043447.html?tag=mncol] , [http://www.softpedia.com/get/Desktop-Enhancements/Icons-Related/IconEdit.shtml] , [http://www.tucows.com/preview/194901]
*[[Jinzora]] - A PHP internet jukebox manager.
*[[JPCSP]] - An emulator of the Playstation Portable platform written in Java, or recently C++. As found on http://jpcsp.org/ Source: [http://www.brighthub.com/video-games/pc/reviews/33558.aspx]
*[[JuggleMaster]] - A program written by Ken Matsuoka, and Per Johan Groland, who converted it to C++, which displays an animated juggler juggling balls. Source: [http://www.jugglemaster.net]
*[[Kajona]] - A CMS written in PHP. [http://www.kajona.de]
*[[KDEmod]] - A modular KDE for Arch Linux, part of the Chakra Project; also offers some minor bug fixes and extra icons; used in the Chakra LiveCD [http://chakra-project.org/about-kdemod.html] [http://chakra-project.org/wiki/index.php/KDEmod_Differences]
*[[Koteret-Lakoach-Nachas-Zefa]] Hebrew for koteret = title, lakoach = client/customer, nachash = snake, zefa = viper. It is a name of a service window in Mercury Winrunner Web Add-In. WinRunner is a software testing tool. I think the particular module has been developed by somebody from Israel (Possibly by Dan Tsirlin).
*[[LBackup]] - Backup system aimed at systems administrators - home page : http://www.lbackup.org/, published articles / references :
** http://www.mactech.com/articles/mactech/Vol.24/24.08/2408LBackup/index.html
** http://www.macworkshops.com/most/shed_mw09.html
** http://topunixserverbackup.info/
** http://blog.liw.fi/recentchanges/
** http://superuser.com/questions/10721/intelligent-file-copy-move-software
** http://www.trivadis.com/uploads/tx_cabagdownloadarea/BackupRecoveryOSS.pdf
**http://www.processor.com/articles/PDFMagazine/Good/P___2839.PDF (mentions [[Lucid Information Systems]], currently key contributor)
**http://www.jaredandcoralee.com/CLIapps.html
*[[lexiCan]] - lexiCan Knowledge Management Software, commonly called just lexiCan, is a software application for Microsoft Windows by vetafab Software GmbH. lexiCan Reader, is a read only client which allows knowledge distribution across a company network, e.g. for instructions, course material, faqs, manuals. As found on Hane, Paula (2009-06-29). "New Version of Knowledge Management Software: lexiCan 3". Information Today. http://newsbreaks.infotoday.com/Digest/New-Version-of-Knowledge-Management-Software-lexiCan--54906.asp. Retrieved on 2009-07-07
*[[Lzip]] - A lossless data compressor based on the LZMA algorithm, with very safe integrity checking and a user interface similar to the one of gzip or bzip2. See http://www.nongnu.org/lzip/lzip.html http://www.linuxformat.co.uk/archives?issue=113
*[[Memonic]] - a free online application that allows users to save and organize clips of information while conducting research. I created a draft [[User:PatriceNeff/Memonic]]. [[Wikipedia:Conflict_of_interest#Declaring_an_interest|Disclosure]]: I'm a co-founder of Memonic. -- [[User:PatriceNeff|Patrice]] ([[User talk:PatriceNeff|talk]]) 17:11, 9 August 2010 (UTC)
*[[McAfee Total Protection Service]] – How does it differ from [[McAfee ViruScan]]?
*[[Move player]]/[[Move Player]] (used by [[Fox on Demand]])
*[[MHSVLC Player]]
*[[MAHASERVER TV]]
* {{req|Musophobia the Particle Painter}} A particle based, generative painting application, developed for iPhone and iPad. Musophobia is featured at SIGGRAPH 2010 and its abstact can be found at ACM PORTAL [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1836872&jmp=cit&coll=ACM&dl=ACM&CFID=95583895&CFTOKEN=31479383#CIT]
*[[Naiture]] - mysterious artificial life project
*[[Native Client]] - Google FOSS for runnning x86 native code in a browser.
*[[Nav4All]] - Satelite Navigation Software [http://www.nav4all.com Nav4All.com]
*[[NDIF]] - an early Mac OS Disk Image file format
*[[Net-C]] - a multi-platform serverless lan messenger and chat. It is recognized as a valuable alternative for lan messengers in forums, web sites, etc. Official page: [http://dgtalize.com/products/netc]
*[[Network Broadcast Sound]]
*[[NetworkMiner]] - Open Source Network Forensics Application see: http://networkminer.wiki.sourceforge.net/NetworkMiner [[Special:Contributions/62.116.231.10|62.116.231.10]] ([[User talk:62.116.231.10|talk]]) 13:40, 19 May 2009 (UTC)
*[[Ninan]] (Server-side Usenet binary downloader and manager) [http://www.ninan.org/]
*[[Nodebug]]
*[[ocad]] - Software for creating maps (www.ocad.com)
*[[OCP art studio]] - Art package for the 48K spectrum and related models.
*[[OnShare]]
*[[Open Colour Standard]] ([http://create.freedesktop.org/wiki/Open_Color_Standard], [http://adaptstudio.ca/ocs/], [http://www.internetevolution.com/author.asp?section_id=867&doc_id=185725])
*[[OpenP2M]], File sharing software prodyced by [[Glauber Magalhães Pires]]
*[[Open Linux Router]], http://www.openlinuxrouter.com/ The Open Linux Router has a modular design that gives the user the ability to choose what features that will be implemented.
*[[OS/161]]
*[[Orange Juice (game company)]]
*[[OldApps.com]] - (Old Version Download Website. This could be very informative resource to those who still use older systems.)

===P-R===
*[[Papervision3D]] - An ActionScript 3.0 framework built to deal with 3D computer graphics.
*[[Pacifist (Mac OS X)]], an installer for Mac OS X that can install software that the default installer will not. Presumed notable as per inclusion in [[Pacifist_(disambiguation)]]
*[[Paludis]], a package mangler. It is one of the alternatives of the Gentoo package manager portage [http://en.gentoo-wiki.com/wiki/Paludis].
*[[PaperCut NG]] http://www.papercut.biz/pcng/ print and internet monitoring / quota software
*[[PC Health Software]]
*[[PCSP]] - A PSP Emulator for windows coded in C++ started by hlide and shadow [http://www.pcsp-emu.com]
*[[PCShowBuzz]]
*[[Phone Support Tools (PST)]]
*[[PhotoShare]] - An iPhone application [http://www.bcphotoshare.com]
*[[Picket (software)|Picket]] - a [[Bugtracker]] writen in [[Python (programming language)|Python]] over [[Django (web framework)|Django]].
*[[Picture Converter]] [http://www.digitope.com/pictureconverter/index.aspx] - Image resizing and conversion software
*[[Pilot running]]
*[[PLURK]] Trends
*[[Pixelshop]] [http://www.digitope.com/pixelshop/index.aspx] - Icon and cursor editing software
*[[podfading]]
*[[PowerPad]] http://quickmediasoftware.com/software/powerpad/powerpad.html - Text Editor
*[[Printer's Apprentice]] [http://www.loseyourmind.com/pa80.aspx] - a powerful font manager
*[[PrintingWorks]] http://www.lucidsystems.org print monitoring / quota software
*[[Problem Steps Recorder]] A program that will be available in Windows 7 for simplifying troubleshooting
*[[ProcessGuard]]
*[[PropertyBox]] (real estate website generation software) [http://propertybox.wbpsystems.com]
*[[Prozilla]] is a download accelerator for Linux [http://freshmeat.net/projects/prozilla/]
*[[ProxMox Virtual Environment]] (virtualization) [http://pve.proxmox.com/]
*[[PSEmu]] - [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:Articles_for_deletion/PSEmu]
*[[Pview]] http://www.mssm.edu/cnic/tools.pview.html
*[[Pykota]] http://www.pykota.com/ print monitoring / quota software
*[[qualxserve service agreement]]
*[[Qlikview]]
*[[Quick Format]]
*[[Quick View Plus]] - [http://www.avantstar.com/metro/home/Products/QuickViewPlus10 Official website]
*[[Quick Virus Remover]] - [http://sites.google.com/site/qvr Official website]
*[[Raven DB]] [http://ravendb.net/ Official website]
*[[Raece Conquest]]
*[[Rapture3D]] an Ambisonic OpenAL driver bundled with [[DiRT 2]]. There's a first attempt without adequate sources at [[User:Rfurse/Rapture3D]].
*[[ranqit]] user-driven top ten lists - see http://www.ranqit.com/
*[[rasdaman]] (raster data manager) array database system - see http://www.rasdaman.com/
*[[rapget]] - downloader for file-sharing sites (Rapidshare, megaupload, ...)
*[[RBAU]]
*[[RD Tabs]] - third party windows remote desktop application (tabbed like firefox)
*[[Real3d (rendering software)]] Real3D, 3d-rendering software for Amiga computers, first released in 1989(?)
*[[RealProducer]]
*[[Reloaded (software type)]]
*[[Refinery CMS]] - [http://refinerycms.com Official website]
*[[Caucho Resin|Resin Application Server]] - Java application server. See [http://www.caucho.com/], [http://www.theserverside.com/news/thread.tss?thread_id=38144], [http://www.onjava.com/pub/a/onjava/2002/09/18/resin.html], [http://enterprisearchitecture.nih.gov/ArchLib/AT/TA/ApplicationServerBrick.htm]
*[[RMAN (Oracle Backup Utility)]]
*[[RosAsm]] - 32-bit assembler for Windows and Wine
*[[Routing and Remote Access Service]] (RRAS) - See http://www.microsoft.com/technet/itsolutions/network/rras/
*[[rsnapshot]]- Open Source filesystem snapshot utility for making backups of local and remote systems - http://www.rsnapshot.org/
*[[Rational Functional Tester]]- An IBM product - See http://www-01.ibm.com/software/awdtools/tester/functional/index.html
*[[Remindo]] - SaaS corporate company network - See http://webworkerdaily.com/2009/02/20/remindo-corporate-social-networking

===S===
*[[Scarab (software)]] - A highly customizable java-based issue tracking system hosted at [http://scarab.tigris.org scarab.tigris.org]. Included in [[Comparison of issue tracking systems]] [[Special:Contributions/198.6.216.9|198.6.216.9]] ([[User talk:198.6.216.9|talk]])
*[[San Andreas Multiplayer]] A multiplayer modification for the PC version of [[Rockstar North]] game ''[[Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas]]''. More information is available at the program's official [http://www.sa-mp.com website].
*[[SANmelody]] - Storage Virtualization Software
*[[Sega X]] See [http://www.segax.blogspot.com.com Sega X Blog] -The site no longer exists --[[User:Peppage|Peppage]] ([[User talk:Peppage|talk]]) 17:32, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
*[[Safarp]]
*[[SAIL LABS Technology]] [[automatic speech recognition]]
*[[Screenmate]]. Examples: [[eSheep]], [[Neko (computer program)|Neko]], etc.
*[[ScreenScenes]] Software package with Screensavers that includes Claria adware
*[[SecDoK]] Unknown
*[[Selective display]] - Option in the [[Emacs]] text editor; see [http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/manual/html_node/Selective-Display.html]
*[[ServletExec]]
*[[SESAM/SQL-Server]] Relational database system from [[Fujitsu]], see [http://www.fujitsu-siemens.com/products/software/database_systems/sesamsql.html software homepage]
*[[shared browsing]] - what it is, how it works and which software is available (with links)
*[[SICSIM]] - A Discrete Event, Flow Level simulator for simulating Peer-to-Peer overlays. Developed in [[SICS]]
*[[Silex_RIA]] - Open source web application which let you produce Flash websites/web applications/CD-R/points of sell/... without Flash and without programming skills. It has a plugin system to change the framework behaviour with javascript, ActionScript2, ActionScript3, php and haXe. See [http://silex-ria.org Silex official website] and [http://silexlabs.org Silex Labs blog] for more info.
*[[smartctl]] - see [http://smartmontools.sourceforge.net/ smartmontools] Control/Monitor Utility for [[S.M.A.R.T.]] in [[UNIX]]
*[[SmartStartMenu]] - see[http://www.codeproject.com/KB/applications/smartstartmenu.aspx] An application launcher for [[WINDOWS]]
*[[smilez]] tab add-on for aol instant messenger, can be found on aim ad hack site.
*[[snoop filter]] - see: [http://www.realworldtech.com/page.cfm?ArticleID=RWT110805135916&p=3]
*[[Socialbox]] - Facebook's IM Client
*[[Softsaurus]]
*[[Sound Designer II]], an audio/music file format by [[Digidesign]].
*[[Software of Unknown Pedigree]] an alternative to COTS software where origin is unknown / documentation not available for verification purposes
*[[Source Navigator]]
*[[SpamFilter ISP]] software created by LogSat Software (http://www.logsat.com) in August 2002, and used by companies and governments to block spam emails before they enter their networks. According to CNET (http://www.download.com/Spam-Filter-ISP/3000-2382_4-10753030.html) there are more than 111,000 downloads for it to-date from that download site alone.
*[[Spectrum (software)|Spectrum]], XMPP multiprotocol gateway based on libpurlpe (http://spectrum.im/)
*[[Spold]]
*[[SpriteWorld]] (Mac OS/Mac OS X game creation SDK)
*[[SProbe]]
*[[Spyware Terminator]]
*[[Stampede Linux]]
*[[StarTron]] a computer game[http://www.caiman.us/scripts/fw/f358.html], uses registered TCP port 1057[http://www.iana.org/assignments/port-numbers]
*[[StaxRip]] — free video converter
*[[Stikipad]]
*[[Swiftlight]] - project management and communication software
*[[sXid]] - Flags changes in SUID programs in Unix like OS
*[[SupremeSched]]
*[[surl]] (command line tool application for url shortening) https://launchpad.net/surl
*[[Summarize (software)]] (OS X service utility)
*[[Summation (computer software)]] – principal competitor to [[Concordance (software)|Concordance®]]
*[[SurveyEngine]] - human decision modelling software
*[[Sentinel System Driver]] (A piece of software that runs on Windows XP)
*[[SuperCopier]] (A software that replaces Windows explorer file copy and adds many features.)
*[[Synchronization Primitive]] something to do with threads and parallel processes
*[[System Mechanic]] - an awarded system suite released by [[iolo technologies]]
*[[SQLiteTool]] - SQLite database client

===T-V===
*[[TalkAndWrite]] An online tutoring tool.A Skype whiteboard. Server free[http://www.talkandwrite.com Homepage]
*[[Taskpad]]
*[[TeamTalk]] (a Voice over IP conferencing tool. [http://bearware.dk Homepage])
*[[TeraCopy]]
*[[TGB Dual]] (a game boy emulator)
*[[ThinkVantage]]
*[[ThirdVoice]]
*[[ThreatFire]]
*[[Tidal Enterprise Scheduler]]
*[[Tversity]]
*[[TLSF Allocator]] TLSF (Two-Level Segregate Fit) allocator [http://rtportal.upv.es/rtmalloc/ TLSF]
*[[Toad's Tool 64]] A level editor for Super Mario 64 created by VL-Tone. (This deserves to be added, ad the level editor for Sims has a page)
*[[TimeSnapper]]
*[[TrackMeNot]] - a privacy-enhancing [[Mozilla Firefox]] plugin that performs searches on a number popular [[search engine]]s, at somewhat randomized intervals, with a self-evolving set of keywords

*[[T-Splines]] - Is used in CAD programs to create previously impossible freeform, organic, watertight designs. The product T-Splines is a plug in for Autodesk Maya and Rhinoceros 3D. Disclosure: I recently became employed by T-Splines. The following are links to T-Splines coverage. Cadalyst CAD magazine.<ref>http://www.cadalyst.com/design-visualization/siggraph-evolves-along-with-technology-11232</ref> Desktop Engineering Editor's Pick of the Week.<ref>http://www.deskeng.com/articles/aaasjp.htm</ref> Entertainment Engineering coverage from SIGGRAPH (pg. 17).<ref>http://www.entertainmentengineering.com/v5.issue09/</ref> Core 77 design magazine.<ref>http://www.core77.com/blog/technology/from_tsquares_to_tsplines_745.asp</ref> 3D World Magaine (pg 92) excerpt.<ref>http://www.tsplines.com/pdf/3dworld.pdf</ref>

There have been numerous scholarly articles written on the underlying T-Spline technology.<ref>http://www.tsplines.com/technicalpapers.html</ref><ref>http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&q=t-spline&btnG=Search&as_sdt=20000000000000&as_ylo=&as_vis=0</ref>

Additional information about T-Splines Inc. and the T-Spline technology can be found on its website.<ref>http://www.tsplines.com/products/what-are-t-splines.html</ref><ref>http://www.tsplines.com/about/technology.html</ref>

*[[Trumpet (IRC client))]] - Fairly notable [[DOS]] [[IRC]] client
*[[Turtle Tracks (Logo)]], the Logo interpreter
*[[Tux Commander]] - file manager on linux [tuxcmd.sourceforge.net]
*[[Type Library]]
*[[Typing software]] (quite a few articles on specific applications, many of questionable notability (see [[:Category:Typing software]]), but no broader article on the subject)
*[[UDP Host Cache]] - One method used by [[Gnutella]] to find an initial host; See [http://www.the-gdf.org/index.php?title=UDP_Host_Cache]
*[[Unblocker]] A software that unblocks deleting or modifying files in a computer's system which normally only the system itself can do
*[[Video.X driver]] - the file included from [[Mac-on-Linux]] [http://mac-on-linux.sourceforge.net/] and [[PearPC]] [http://pearpc.sourceforge.net/]
*[[VAJLEBKA System]] (specialy designed cascade captcha guard for php pages)
*[[VAX Floating Point Format]] (Including VAX D, VAX G, and VAX F formats)
*[[Versato.exe]]
*[[Video titling]] (software list that will title videos)
*[[Virtual Peer Programming]] (Something being pioneered in Jbuilder 2006)
*[[Visual Autorun]] [http://www.digitope.com/vautorun/index.aspx] - CD Menu and slideshow software
*[[Visual Page]] (By Symantec - Abandoned HTML WYSIWYG editor)
*[[VQC1]] and [[VQC2]], video/audio codecs
*[[Viero]] Clear Channels prg\ogram for managing Commercials. [http://lanint.com here]
*[[vizrea]] Website [http://www.vizrea.com here]

===W-Z===
*[[Warbears (Website)]] - People play as a created character and play missions and play games for credits
*[[Warbirds (Computer game)]] - Combat Flight Simulator
*[[Web Client Network]]
*[[w32codecs]]/win32codecs - commonplace package of questionably legal drivers for Linux incorporating wrappers for win32 codecs
*[[WebFerret]] (Desktop metasearch utility for Microsoft Windows)
*[[Webpublishing System]] - A program or system that allows you to apply your content to the web. ie. Wordpress,Blogger.
*[[Webrip]] - Commonly associated with mp3s. I believe it's an mp3 encoded at 128kbs or lower to get a small filesize for web distribution?
*[[Webstump]] - Software from the Free software foundation
*[[WhiteSmoke (writing software)]], see [http://www.whitesmoke.com/]
*[[WIKIWYG]]
*[[Winchester OS]] - I remember we had this at school running on the 186. It could run both from floppy or hard drive, had a blue boot up screen and used the function buttons to choose from the menu. We had it from 1990 to 1994 to give an idea of dates.
*[[WinHex]]/[[Winhex]]
*[[WinSoft Software]]
*[[WisBar task management software for pocket pc]]
*[[Wolverine (offline mail reader)]] ([[offline mail reader]])
*[[WPF/E (Windows Presentation Foundation Everywhere)]]
*[[wvWare]]
*[[Writing With Symbols 2000]] - abbv. WWS2000, a program that helps children with severe learning difficulty's
*[[X Video Driver]]
*[[XDP (PDF files)]]
*[[XLiveCD]] - See [http://xlivecd.indiana.edu/ xlivecd.indiana.edu]
*[[XMDF (file format)]] - eXtensible Model Data Format[http://www.wes.army.mil/ITL/XMDF/], developed by the U.S. Army [http://www.erdc.usace.army.mil/ Engineer Research and Development Center (ERDC)]
*[[XPde]] (desktop environment)
*[[Zzaph]]
*[[ZynOS]] - An ZyXEL router operating system
*[[unified information systems]]
*[[zombie cookie]] - or [[repawning cookie]] a kind of [[Flash cookie]] not covered in [[Local Shared Object]]. Sources: [http://csis.pace.edu/~dwyer/research/BT%20paper%20Dwyer%20Draft.pdf] (page 16 "Quantcast") [http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1446862] [http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-10787882] [http://www.secuobs.com/revue/news/140937.shtml] [http://www.infoworld.com/d/applications/adobe-flash-cookies-pose-vexing-privacy-questions-132?r=38] [http://www.theregister.co.uk/2009/08/19/flash_cookies/]

==Software engineering==
*[[Acceptance criteria]]
*[[application signatures]]
*[[Arthur van Hoff]]
*[[Astroinformatics]]
*[[B-method]]
*[[Bayes error rate]]
*[[Behavioral entity]]
*[[Brownfield Development]] - A systems development method that acknowledges the existance of legacy codebases during design, build and test phases
*[[Business Delegate]] - A [[Java BluePrints]]' pattern[http://java.sun.com/blueprints/patterns/BusinessDelegate.html]
*[[Quality in business systems]]
*[[CDM Rule Frame]] Oracle Custom Development Method (CDM)[http://www.oracle.com/technology/products/jheadstart/idev.html] - ''...consists of a template package and utilities that boost productivity. It now also includes CDM RuleFrame a powerful framework for the implementation of business rules.''
*[[Code debt]] (definition, origin of term)
*[[Comparison of open source licenses]] as child of [[Open source]]
*[[Component-based software development]]
*[[Conceptual level design]]
*[[Confessional debugging]]
*[[Dale Luck]]
*[[Dead Letter Queue]]
*[[Decessor]]
*[[Design for diversity]] (google, http://sunnyday.mit.edu/papers/nver-tse.pdf)
*[[eCollaboration]] and [[eBusiness]] (near-synonyms), in the context of dynamic, cooperative networks formed by a group of autonomous enterprises using e.g. the [[Service-Oriented Architecture]] paradigm. (definition)
*[[Effect correspondence diagram]]
*[[Enterprise design pattern]]
*[[Event bubbling]]
*[[Event delegation]]
*[[Fault injection and robustness testing]] ?? [[fault injection]] and [[robustness testing]]
*[[Five State Model for Processes]]
*[[Generic software]]
*[[Graph index]] - An index of frequent features of a graph database (e.g., [http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1007607 gIndex])
*[[Ideafarm]] (IP well known ports 902 & 903) [http://www.ideafarm.com/ Homepage]
*[[Infinite Plane Rendering]]
*[[Infrastructure software]] (definition and explanation of the term, examples)
* [[instance member]]
*[[ISO 19109]] - Metamodels
*[[IT Consolidation]]
*[[Jamagic]]
*[[Jay Elroy Sulzberger]]
*[[JFG interlocked functions]]
*[[Jim Blandy]]
*[[Joel N. Weber II]]
*[[List of FreeBSD developers]]
*[[List of GNU Project people]]
*[[Logical view]]
*[[MIDAG]] (Medical Image Display Analysis Group) [http://midag.cs.unc.edu/ Homepage]
*[[MoLIC]] - acronym for “Modeling Language for Interaction as Conversation” - UI extension to UML
*[[Multi-Touch, Physics and Gestures]] - The writer Mike Elgan put it this way in this buzz: "My view is that what I call MPG devices (multi-touch, physics and gestures) are the third generation of computing UI. The first was command line interfaces, and the second was WIMP (windows, icons, menus and pointing devices).
*[[Noah Friedman]]
*[[Object Action Interface model]] (OAI)
*[[Object Points]]
*[[Peter Bos]]
*[[Plugin architecture development]]
*[[Positive acknowledgement with retransmission]]
*[[Preliminary Investigation]] - What it is and how to write one
*[[Program management (software)]]
*[[Project MAC people]]
*[[Requirements document]]
*[[Robert Lafore]]
*[[Real-Time Process Algebra]] (RTPA) - http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=590763
*[[Semantic Purity]]
*[[Source code extensions]]
*[[Subsystem model]]
*[[Tami Friedman]]
*[[Thomas Edmund Turner]]
*[[Use Case Points]]
*[[Value-based software engineering]]
*[[Visual environment]] full explanation/benefits
*[[XKERMIT]] - (A version of [[Kermit (protocol)|Kermit]] which runs on X-Windows]]

==Storage==
*[[Geoplexing]]
*[[TapeAlert]] - A standard for tapes, autochangers, libraries used for diagnostics and health (see tapealert.org)
*[[SFSZ]] - Disk format, Used by Netgear SC101. What is it and how is it used? Its this.[[ZFS]] Solaris's new file system, which is used by several other OEMS as its new and very efficient.

===File formats===
*[[CD5 (Chasys Draw Image)]] - CD5 is a tag-based image format used by the photoshop competitor [[Chasys Draw IES]]. It supports free-style layers with independent color formats and blend modes, animation, multiple-resolution images, metadata, multi-level lossless compression (multiple codecs), and full alpha channels. See the details page [http://www.jpcha2.com/chm_view.php?src_dir=chasys_draw_ies&src_file=tech_cd5.htm] for more details.
* contesters to [[APNG]]/[[MNG]][http://gjuyn.xs4all.nl/pnganim.html]:
**[[mPNG]] (aNIM or anIM chunk)
**[[PNG in GIF]] (“PIG”)
**[[RGBA in GIF]]
*[[VR8]] - Roland proprietary file format used with BOSS BR-1600CD, how to convert it to .wav
*[[K3G]] - LG Electronics Portable Video file format, how to convert it to .avi, apps (such as Gom) which support it.
*[[Creative Voice file]] (.voc) - "a proprietary audio file format developed by Creative Labs for use by their Soundblaster sound cards"
*[[mp3HD]] - a new audio file format by Thomson ([http://www.all4mp3.com/Learn_mp3_hd_1.aspx])
*[[DDS (Data Definition Specification)]]
*[[MD4 (file format)]] - Quake file format for models. ([http://linux.ucla.edu/~phaethon/q3/formats/md4format.html])

==Theory and theorem==
*[[Agricultural knowledge system in SSM]]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Bias-Variance dilemma]] a topic in most introductory texts on machine learning and pattern recognition.
*[[Boom Hierachy]] - Hierachy named after H.J. Boom, containing Trees, Lists, Bags, Sets, in order of decreasing information stored. See [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.49.3252], pdf located here: [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download;jsessionid=D77E84E922E6AAC2255BF91CED520939?doi=10.1.1.49.3252&rep=rep1&type=pdf] [[User:Nikolaibelkin|Nikolaibelkin]] ([[User talk:Nikolaibelkin|talk]]) 05:13, 14 June 2009 (UTC)
*[[Business System Domain]]
*[[Cell probe complexity]] - See [http://citeseer.ist.psu.edu/miltersen99cell.html]
*[[Computational basis]], [[Hadamard basis]] - In [[quantum computing]]. We already have [[Bell basis]] (although it's a redirect).
*[[Connection trap]]
*The [[Conservation of Complexity]] which was proposed by [[Larry Tesler]] when he was working at [[Xerox PARC]]. See [http://www.designingforinteraction.com/tesler.html] and [http://www.asktog.com/columns/011complexity.html]
*[[Everything is a File]] The principle that in the unix operating system, everything is represented as a file. See [http://www.ussg.iu.edu/usail/concepts/filesystems/everything-is-a-file.html]
*[[Exact Real Arithmetic]]/[[Exact real arithmetic]] - Umbrella term for [[arbitrary-precision arithmetic]], [[interval arithmetic]] and the like. See e.g. [http://www.haskell.org/haskellwiki/Exact_real_arithmetic here]. — [[User:Tobias Bergemann|Tobias Bergemann]] ([[User talk:Tobias Bergemann|talk]]) 08:14, 12 March 2009 (UTC)
*[[Generalized regular expression]] It's referred to by the article on [[star height]], but i don't really understand it. this might be more of a mathematical topic, but if it is, i'm not sure which category
*[[Hughes phenomenon]] - related to [[VC dimension]], a result in learning theory that states that increasing the number of input dimensions while keeping the number of examples constant will result in an increase in the classification error
*[[Interval domain]] - proposed by [[Dana Scott]] in 1970 (I think) as a [[domain theory|domain-theoretic]] model for [[real numbers]], see [[Abbas Edalat]] and Philipp Sünderhauf, ''{{citeseer|A Domain-Theoretic Approach to Computability on the Real Line|edalat97domaintheoretic}}'', and Andrej Bauer and Iztok Kavkler, ''[http://math.andrej.com/2007/09/18/the-role-of-the-interval-domain-in-modern-exact-real-airthmetic/ The Role of the Interval Domain in Modern Exact Real Arithmetic]''. — [[User:Tobias Bergemann|Tobias Bergemann]] ([[User talk:Tobias Bergemann|talk]]) 07:31, 12 March 2009 (UTC)
*[[Isoefficiency Analysis]] in parallel algorithm development
*[[No-valley theorem]] - theorem regarding the properties of an AS path in [[BGP]] routing. One explanation: [http://www.cs.luc.edu/~pld/courses/net2/spr02/bgpnotes2]
*[[Optic-based quantum computers]]
*[[Point Splatting]] as it relates to surface tracking and visualization and how it differs from [[marching cube]]
*[[Pure Lisp]]/[[Pure LISP]] - See [http://foldoc.org/?Pure+Lisp] and [http://www-formal.stanford.edu/jmc/history/lisp/node3.html]
*[[Reverse Shannon theorem]] - the classical RS theorem in context is referenced e.g. here: [http://arxiv.org/abs/0912.5537]
*[[Software modules]]
*[[K-median problem]]
*[[Sparse Distributed Memory]]
*[[Sparse map]]s - see [http://goog-sparsehash.sourceforge.net/ Google Sparse Hash]
*[[Timmothy Stowe]]{{notablewarn}}
*[[Transdichotomous RAM]] - See [http://theory.lcs.mit.edu/classes/6.897/spring05/lec/lec09.pdf]
* [[WYSIWYN]] - 'What You See Is What You Need' theory of interface design

==Other uncategorized computer science terms==
*[[ADOVARS]]
*[[Ambiguous Name Resolution (ANR)]] (used in LDAP queries)
*[[Bag Blogs]]
*[[Bistable Cholesteric Display]]
* [[Counter string]] (or [[Counterstring]], not sure how it's spelled correctly) — a string that self-documents its length. Example: "*3*5*7*10*", where the number before the last asterisk, 10, indicates the string length. See [http://www.satisfice.com/blog/archives/22 Counterstrings: Self-Describing Test Data] and [http://www.compendiumdev.co.uk/page.php?title=test_utils_in_excel Test Utilities in Excel] (section CounterStrings). In particular, the description of the counter string generation algorithm will be useful. — [[User:Modbear|Modbear]] ([[User talk:Modbear|talk]]) 19:21, 26 March 2009 (UTC)
*[[Ctrl-scroll lock]] (or [[control-scroll lock]]) – according to the Wikipedia article on the [[scroll lock]] key, this key combination is identical to [[ctrl-break]]. But [http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc266483(loband).aspx this article] suggests a special use for this key combination.
*[[Desideratabase]]
*[[Distributed key]] (Databases, not cryptography)
*[[Giga Information Group]] - (Company providing research in IT industry taken over by Forrester Research)
*[[Heroglyph]] (Plug-in about [[Video titling]] for [[ProDAD]], [[Edius]] and other DVD software)
*[[Human Vs Computer]] Who has more processing power?
*[[Internet Tweeter]] (A term used to classify, recognize, and manage a type of blog,forum, or netgroup vandal)
*[[List of Compose Key combinations]] Comprehensive lists of Compose Key combinations for each operating system. Mac 10.4 list started at [[Talk:Compose_key]].
*[[Most Network]] - a fiber optic network that provides a very efficient and low-cost mechanism for transporting high volumes of data. (From http://msdn2.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms859428.aspx)
*[[Nested paging]] The term "'''Nested paging'''" is mentioned on the [[VirtualBox]] article, but it doesn't say what "'''Nested paging'''" means.
*[[Pattern discovery]] (might be the same as [[pattern recognition]])
*[[PCI Expansion Port 3]] - Used for connecting a docking station or a port replicator.
*[[PCMEF]]Presantation Control Mediator Control *[[PinoyMT]] Corpus Based Machine Translation System
*[[Q30IsIdxJoudresxAaaqpcawXc]] (component of JPEG file, as seen in Kaspersky Anti-Virus)
*[[RHDB]]
*[[Remotely Queued]](when downloading)
*[[Screencast Central]]
*[[Serializer construct]] - referred to in the [[Actor model]] article
*[[Sinclair Programs]] - independent magazine of type-in programs for Sinclair Computers
* [[Situated automata]] - paradigm by Rosenschein and Kaelbling where an angent specification is compiled down to a digital machine.
*[[Sun Academic Initiative]] Academic program from Sun Some information can be founded here:[http://www.sun.com/solutions/landing/industry/education/sai/index.xml]
*[[TCTT.DLL]]
*[[Theorem proving tactics]] (used for [[interactive theorem proving]])
*[[timed automata]] - timing extensions to [[petri nets]], especially [[finite state machine]]s
*[[Topo computer]]
*[[VAX floating point numbers]], [[D-floating point]], [[F-floating point]], [[G-floating point]]
*'''Veiled''', simple browser-based [[Darknet (file sharing)]] tool --- http://www.darkreading.com/shared/printableArticle.jhtml?articleID=217801293 -- '''Note''': [[Veiled]] is currently a music album --- we'll probably need a disamb page. -- [[Special:Contributions/201.37.230.43|201.37.230.43]] ([[User talk:201.37.230.43|talk]]) 16:28, 17 June 2009 (UTC)
*[[Winstation Library]] - [[Microsoft components]]

===Uncategorized terms requiring cleanup===
''The following terms have been listed as "uncategorized" for an extended period, and attempts to categorize using Google and other search methods have failed. If you are familiar with a term, please move it to the appropriate category and add a brief description.''
*[[EURACE]] [http://eurace.org eurace.org]
*[[PM Quadtree]] (These are Polygon Map [[Quadtree|Quadtrees]] which are spatial, or GIS mapping structures.
*[[EncuentroLinux]] The Chilian Linux Conference http://2008.encuentrolinux.cl/

[[Category:Wikipedia requested articles|Computer Science]]

http://www.lifepk.com

User:PatriceNeff/Memonic

2010-08-09T16:46:19Z

PatriceNeff: Proposal for a Memonic entry. Careful, conflict of interest by me.

{{Userspace draft|source=ArticleWizard|date=August 2010}}

{{Infobox software
|name=Memonic
|latest release version = 1.1.3
|latest release date = {{release date and age|2010|07|27}}
|operating_system = [[iOS (Apple)]], [[WebOS]], [[Microsoft Windows]]
|license = [[Proprietary software|Proprietary]], paid web service
|website = [http://www.memonic.com/ www.memonic.com]
}}

'''Memonic''' is a free online application that allows users to save and organize clips of information while conducting research online and offline. A clip or "item" can be a full webpage or webpage excerpt, a document or document excerpt, a text note, or a screenshot. Memonic was launched on November 5, 2009.<ref>[http://blog.memonic.com/archive/2009/11/04/memonic-at-the-swiss-innovation-forum.html memonic at the Swiss Innovation Forum], [http://blog.memonic.com/archive/2009/11/13/thank-you-for-your-warm-welcome.html Thank you for your warm welcome!]</ref>

== Product characteristics ==

Memonic offers a bookmarklet, which lets users select a webpage or portions of this page and save the excerpt online. The webclipping bookmarklet is currently offered for [[Firefox]], [[Opera]], [[Internet Explorer]], [[Safari]] and [[Google Chrome]] browsers. The online application works on the latest version of these browsers.

Items can also be added by email, or composed from scratch. Items can be organized in sets, edited, commented and searched. A user can also create groups to share items with a closed set of users.<ref>[http://blog.memonic.com/archive/2010/07/11/collaborative-research-with-memonic-groups.html Collaborative research with Memonic Groups]</ref> They can also have file attachments.

Memonic is available online and offers today an [[iPhone]] and [[iPad]] application and a [[Windows]] extension. The use of Memonic is free up to a certain usage limit above which a paid subscription may be purchased. The free online service has a usage limit of 100 items. A premium service is available that currently costs €29 per year and offers unlimited items.<ref>[http://www.memonic.com/subscription/plans Plans & Prices]</ref>

== Similar products and services ==

Memonic’s competitors include [[Evernote]], [[Microsoft]] [[OneNote]], [[Zotero]], [[Springpad]], [[Springnote]], [[Yojimbo]], [[Circus Ponies NoteBook]] on [[Macintosh]]; and [[Lognoter|Lognoter PIM version]] on [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Macintosh]] and [[Linux]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Reviews==
* [http://www.centernetworks.com/information-capturing-memonic CenterNetworks]
* [http://www.makeuseof.com/dir/memonic-organize-web-content/ MakeUseOf]
* [http://lifehacker.com/5459573/memonic-helps-you-clip-and-organize-data-from-across-the-web Lifehacker]
* [http://www.killerstartups.com/Web-App-Tools/memonic-com-capture-the-best-of-the-www Killerstartups]
* [http://eu.techcrunch.com/2010/05/12/next10-memonic-wants-to-kill-copy-paste-closes-angel-funding/ TechCrunch]
* [http://maketecheasier.com/memonic-web-clipping-tool-to-share-web-content/2010/07/17 MakeTechEasier]
* [http://techie-buzz.com/internet-tools/memonic-web-clipping-tool.html TechieBuzz]

==External links==
* [http://www.memonic.om/ Memonic Website]
* [http://blog.memonic.om/ Memonic Official Blog]
* [http://www.crunchbase.com/company/memonic Memonic on Crunchbase]

[[Category:Notetaking software]]
[[Category:Web annotation]]
[[Category:Cloud storage]]
[[Category:Proprietary cross-platform software]]

User:PatriceNeff

2010-08-09T16:23:04Z

PatriceNeff: Disclose Memonic, fix weblog link

'''PatriceNeff''' is a [[Switzerland|Swiss]] [[Wikipedia]] editor. He lives in the [[German language|German]] part of that lovely country and many of his contributions have been in the German Wikipedia. But it really just depends on his mood, "red links" and many other element whether he decides to edit/create a given article in the German or [[English language|English]] wikipedia.

His interests are:
* [[Switzerland]], [[Japan]]
* [[Politics]], especially [[Politics of Switzerland]]
* [[Christianity]]
* [[Computing]], [[Internet]], [[Free software]]

This is also where you're most likely to stumble across some of his contributions.

== Interests ==

Disclosure of [[Wikipedia:Conflict_of_interest|conflicts of interest]]:

* I'm a co-founder of [[Memonic]]

== Wikipedia stuff ==
* [[/Todo]]
* [[/Legislative and executive chambers of the cantons]]

== External Links ==
* http://patrice.ch/ - his private site
* http://weblog.patrice.ch/ - his weblog

{{User de}} {{User en-3}} {{User es-2}} {{User fr-1}}

[[de:Benutzer:PatriceNeff]]
[[es:Usuario:PatriceNeff]]
[[fr:Utilisateur:PatriceNeff]]
[[ja:利用者:PatriceNeff]]

Telephone directory

2009-12-22T10:18:01Z

PatriceNeff: Undid two revisions by Tts7376 (talk)

{{unreferenced|date=November 2008}}
{{Redirect|Phone book|a contact list|Contact list}}
[[Image:Phone book.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Moscow phone book, 1930.]]

A '''telephone directory''' (also called a '''telephone book''' and '''phone book''') is a listing of telephone [[subscriber]]s in a geographical area or subscribers to services provided by the organization that publishes the directory.

==Content==
[[Image:MichYellowBooks.JPG|thumb|right|A combination yellow page & white page telephone directory.]]
Subscriber names are generally listed in alphabetical order, together with their postal or street address and [[telephone number]]. Every subscriber in the geographical coverage area is usually listed, but subscribers may request the exclusion of their number from the directory, often for a fee. Their number is then said to be "unlisted" ([[American English]]), "ex-directory" ([[British English]]) or "private" ([[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]]).

In the case of unlisted numbers, practices as to [[Caller-ID]] vary by jurisdiction. Sometimes, the [[Caller-ID]] on outbound calls is blank; in other jurisdictions, unlisted numbers still appear, unless the caller dials a blocking code; in still others, the customer may request automatic blocking from the telephone company's service representatives.

In the US, under current rules and practices, [[mobile phone]] and [[Voice over IP]] listings are not included in telephone directories. Efforts to create cellular directories have met stiff opposition from several fronts, including a significant percentage of subscribers who seek to avoid [[telemarketer]]s.

In 1991, the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] ruled (in ''[[Feist v. Rural]]'') that telephone companies do not have a [[copyright]] on telephone listings, because copyright protects creativity and not the mere labor of collecting existing information. Within the geographical reach of the Court, the ''Feist'' ruling has resulted in the availability of many innovative telephone directory services on [[CD-ROM]] and the [[World Wide Web]].

==Publication==

Telephone directories can be published in [[hard copy]] or in electronic form. In the latter case, the directory can be provided as an online service through proprietary terminals or over the Internet, or on physical media such as CD-ROM.

In [[France]], the [[Minitel]] [[videotex]] system originated as an attempt by [[France Télécom]] to rid itself of its paper publishing costs by renting a Minitel terminal to all telephone users. However, France Télécom continues to give hard copies to its subscribers.

In [[Switzerland]], most [[pay phone]]s are now accompanied with electronic telephone directory terminals instead of paper directories, and phone users are charged for each search.

==Types==

A telephone directory may also be called a '''phone book''' or may be known by the color of the paper it is printed on.
*White pages generally indicates personal or alphabetic listings.
*[[Yellow pages]], golden pages or A2Z, generally indicates a '''business directory''' classified by business type or services provided, almost always with paid advertising.
*[[Reverse telephone directory|Grey pages]], sometimes called a "reverse telephone directory".
*Other colors may have other meanings, depending on a country's customs. Information on [[government agencies]] is often printed on blue or green pages.

==Ancillary content==

A telephone directory may also provide instructions about how to use the [[Local telephone service|telephone service]] in the local area, may give important numbers for [[emergency services]], [[utilities]], hospitals, doctors and organizations who can provide support in times of personal crisis. It may also have [[civil defense]] or [[emergency management]] information. There may be transit maps, postal code guides, or stadium seating charts, as well as advertising.

==History==

[[Image:New haven directory 1878.jpg|thumb|New Haven directory, November, 1878.]]The first telephone directory, consisting of a single page, was issued on February 21, 1878. It covered 50 subscribers in [[New Haven, Connecticut]]. The [[R. H. Donnelley|Reuben H. Donnelly]] company asserts that it published the first classified directory, or yellow pages, for [[Chicago, Illinois]], in 1886. The first [[United Kingdom|British]] telephone directory was published in 1880.

==Reverse directories==
{{main|Reverse telephone directory}}
A reverse telephone directory is sorted by number, which can be looked up to give the name and address of the subscriber. Reverse telephone directories are used by law enforcement and other emergency services in order to determine the origin of any request for assistance. These systems include both publicly accessible (listed) and private (unlisted) services. As such, these directories are restricted to internal use only. Publicly accessible reverse telephone directories may be provided as part of the standard directory services from the telecommunications carrier in some countries.

== Phone books in popular culture ==
Ripping phone books in half has often been considered a [[Feats of strength|feat of strength]].

In the show ''[[MythBusters]]'' on the [[Discovery Channel]], [[Adam Savage]] and [[Jamie Hyneman]] tried to separate two phonebooks with the pages interlaced with each other. Most viewers assume that the two phonebooks used are regular [[San Francisco]] area [[Yellow Pages]]. The myth states that two phonebooks with interlaced pages cannot be pulled apart. After using themselves in a game of [[tug-o-war]], two five-person tug-o-war teams, all 10 people vs. the anchored books, then two rental cars, they resorted to using two older American military vehicles, a tank and an [[armoured personnel carrier]] (APC). While the phonebooks were separated, the [[force gauge]] that was used recorded {{convert|8000|lbf|N|lk=on}} of force when the interlacing failed. Savage explained that they would have been able to suspend the weight of the two rental cars they used earlier, using the interlaced phonebooks as the attaching point.

==See also==
{{commons cat|Phone books}}
* [[Domain Name System|DNS]]
* [[Whois]]
* [[Lightweight Directory Access Protocol|LDAP]]
* [[Reverse telephone directory]]
* [[Silent number]]


[[Category:Telephone numbers]]
[[Category:Directories]]

[[cs:Telefonní seznam]]
[[da:Telefonbog]]
[[de:Telefonbuch]]
[[es:Guía telefónica]]
[[eo:Telefonlibro]]
[[eu:Telefono gida]]
[[fr:Annuaire téléphonique]]
[[id:Buku telepon]]
[[is:Símaskrá]]
[[it:Elenco telefonico]]
[[he:ספר טלפונים]]
[[hu:Telefonkönyv]]
[[nl:Telefoongids]]
[[ja:電話帳]]
[[no:Telefonkatalog]]
[[pl:Książka telefoniczna]]
[[pt:Lista telefônica]]
[[simple:Telephone book]]
[[fi:Puhelinluettelo]]
[[sv:Telefonkatalog]]

Blogger (service)

2009-12-10T16:55:57Z

PatriceNeff: Fix some links, remove link to 2004 redesign as it doesn't exist anymore.

{{Infobox Website
| name = Blogger
| logo =
| screenshot = [[Image:Blogger screen.jpg|220px]]
| caption = Blogger.com
| url = [http://www.blogger.com/ www.blogger.com]
| commercial = yes
| type = [[Blog publishing system|Blog host]]
| language = English
| registration = Optional, Free
| owner = [[Google Inc.]]
| author = [[Pyra Labs]]
| launch date = August 23, 1999<ref>[http://www.blogger.com/about ''The Story of Blogger'', Blogger.com]</ref>
| current status = active
| revenue =
| slogan =
| alexa = [http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/blogger.com 7]
}}
'''Blogger''' is a [[blog]] [[Weblog software|publishing system]]. It was created by [[Pyra Labs]], which was bought by [[Google]] in 2003. The service itself is located at [http://www.blogger.com/ www.blogger.com], and blogs that do not publish to their own websites are hosted by Google at [[subdomain]]s of ''blogspot.com''.

== History ==

*On August 23, 1999, Blogger was launched by [[Pyra Labs]]. As one of the earliest dedicated blog-publishing tools, it is credited for helping popularize the format.
*In February 2003, [[Pyra Labs]] was acquired by [[Google]] under undisclosed terms. The acquisition allowed premium features (for which Pyra had charged) to become free. About a year later, Pyra Labs' co-founder, [[Evan Williams (blogger)|Evan Williams]], left Google.
*In 2004, Google purchased [[Picasa]]; it integrated Picasa and its photo sharing utility [[Hello (application)|Hello]] into Blogger, allowing users to post photos to their blogs.
*On May 9, 2004, Blogger introduced a major redesign, adding features such as [[web standards]]-compliant templates, individual archive pages for posts, comments, and posting by [[email]].
*On August 14, 2006, Blogger launched its latest version in [[Development stage#Beta|beta]], codenamed "Invader", alongside the gold release. This migrated users to Google servers and included some new features.
*In December 2006, this new version of Blogger was taken out of beta.
*By May 2007, Blogger had completely moved over to Google operated servers.
*In October 2008, [[Turkey]] temporarily blocked access to Blogger.<ref name=turkey>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Blogger.com Banned in Turkey |url=http://advocacy.globalvoicesonline.org/2008/10/25/bloggercom-banned-in-turkey/ |quote=A Turkish court has blocked access to the popular blog hosting service Blogger (Blogger.com and Blogspot.com owned by Google), from Friday, October 24th, 2008." The ban was lifted on Tuesday, October 28th, 2008. |work=advocacy.globalvoicesonline.org |date=2008 |accessdate=2008-12-01 }}</ref>{{Verify source|date=December 2008}}

Blogger was ranked 16 on the list of top 50 domains in terms of number of unique visitors in 2007.<ref>[http://blog.compete.com/2007/10/30/top-50-websites-domains-digg-youtube-flickr-facebook/ "Top 50 Domains - Ranked by Unique Visitors"”] September, 2007.</ref>{{Update after}}

=== Redesign ===

As part of the Blogger redesign in 2006, all blogs associated with a user's Google Account were migrated to Google servers. Blogger claims that the service is now more reliable because of the quality of the servers.<ref>[http://buzz.blogger.com/2006/12/new-version-of-blogger.html Blogger Buzz: The New Version of Blogger]</ref>

Along with the migration to [[List of Google services and tools|Google servers]], several new features were introduced, including label organization, a [[drag-and-drop]] template editing interface, reading permissions (to create private blogs) and new [[Web feed]] options. Furthermore, blogs are updated dynamically, as opposed to rewriting [[HTML]] files.

In a version of the service called Blogger in Draft,<ref>http://draft.blogger.com/</ref> new features are tested before being released to all users. New features are discussed in the service's [http://bloggerindraft.blogspot.com/ official blog].

In September 2009, Google introduced new features into Blogger, including a new interface for post editing, improved image handling, [[Raw HTML Conversion]], and other [[Google Docs]]-based implementations, including:

* Adding location to posts via [[geotagging]].
* Post time-stamping at publication, not at original creation.
* Vertical re-sizing of the post editor. The size is saved in a per-user, per-blog preference.
* Link editing in Compose mode.
* Full [[Safari_(web_browser)|Safari 3]] support and fidelity on both [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]] and [[Mac OS]].
* New Preview dialog that shows posts in a width and font size approximating what is seen in the published view.
* Placeholder image for tags so that embeds are movable in Compose mode.
* New toolbar with Google aesthetics, faster loading time, and "undo" and "redo" buttons. Also added was the full justification button, a strike-through button, and an expanded color palette.

=== Integration ===

* The [[Google Toolbar]] has a feature called "BlogThis!" which allows toolbar users with Blogger accounts to post links directly to their blogs.
* "Blogger for Word" is a [[Gratis versus Libre|free]] add-in for [[Microsoft Word]]. This add-in allows users to save a Microsoft Word Document directly to a Blogger blog, as well as edit their posts both on- and offline. {{As of|2007|01}}, Google says "Blogger for Word is not currently compatible with the new version of Blogger", and they state no decision has been made about supporting it with the new Blogger.<ref>http://help.blogger.com/bin/answer.py?answer=42497&topic=8931</ref> However, [[Microsoft Office 2007]] adds native support for a variety of blogging systems, including Blogger.

* Blogger supports Google's [[AdSense]] service as a way of generating revenue from running a [[blog]].
* Blogger offers multiple author support, making it possible to establish [[Collaborative blog|group blogs]].
* Blogger offers a template editing feature, which allows users to customize the Blogger template.
* [[Google Docs]] has direct publishing integration to Blogger
* [[Windows Live Writer]], a standalone app of the [[Windows Live]] suite, publishes directly to Blogger.

===Blocking===
Blogger has been blocked for periods of time in the following countries:
*[[Fiji]]
*[[People's Republic of China]]
*[[Iran]]
*[[Pakistan]]<ref name=gatekeepers>{{cite news |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Google’s Gatekeepers |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/30/magazine/30google-t.html?_r=1&partner=rss&emc=rss&pagewanted=all |quote=Over the past couple of years, Google and its various applications have been blocked, to different degrees, by 24 countries. Blogger is blocked in Pakistan, for examplesss, and Orkut in Saudi Arabia. |work=[[New York Times]] |date=2008 |accessdate=2008-12-01 }}</ref>
*[[Syrian Arab Republic]]
*[[Myanmar]]

==Limitations==
Blogger has imposed the following limitations on content storage and bandwidth, per user account:
*'''Number of blogs''' = 100
*'''Number of posts''' = Unlimited
*'''Size of posts''' = Individual posts do not have a specific size limit, but very large posts may run you up against the page size limit.
*'''Size of pages''' = Individual pages (the main page of your blog, or your archive pages) are limited to 1 MB in size. This will allow for a few hundred pages of text, but it may be a problem if you are listing hundreds of posts on the front page of your blog. If you hit this limit, you will see an error message saying "006 Please contact Blogger Support." You can get around this error by lowering the number of posts on your main page, which will have the added benefit of making your page load faster as well.
*'''Number of labels''' = 5,000
*'''Number of comments''' (appearing alongside a post on a single page) = A post can have any number of comments. As with archived posts, if you choose to hide comments on your blog, all pre-existing comments will remain saved on your account.
*'''Number of pictures''' (hyperlinked from user's [[Picasa]] Web Album) = Up to 1 GB of total storage
*'''Size of pictures''' = If you are posting pictures through Blogger Mobile there is a limit of 250K per picture. Also, actual posted pictures are maximized to 800px.
*'''Team members''' (or those that can write to your blog) = 100

== See also ==
* [[List of Google products]]
* [[Niche blogging]]

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.blogger.com/ Blogger website]
* [http://www.google.com/support/blogger/bin/answer.py?hl=en&answer=42347 Blogger list of third-party Apps (includes posting clients)]
* [http://cdn.conversationsnetwork.org/ITC.ML-MegHourihan-2005.05.17.mp3 Meg Hourihan interview] (in [[MP3]] format), summarized [http://www.itconversations.com/shows/detail541.html here], from [[IT Conversations]]
* {{dmoz|Computers/Internet/On_the_Web/Weblogs/Tools/Publishers/Blogger}}

{{Google Inc.}}

[[Category:Blog hosting services]]
[[Category:Blog software]]
[[Category:Virtual communities]]
[[Category:Internet properties established in 1999]]
[[Category:Google services|Blogger]]
[[Category:Internet services supporting OpenID]]

[[ar:بلوغر]]
[[bg:Blogger]]
[[ca:Blogger]]
[[da:Blogger.com]]
[[de:Blogger.com]]
[[es:Blogger]]
[[fa:بلاگر]]
[[fr:Blogger]]
[[ko:블로거닷컴]]
[[id:Blogger (layanan)]]
[[it:Blogger (piattaforma)]]
[[hu:Blogger]]
[[ml:ബ്ലോഗര്‍ ഡോട്ട് കോം]]
[[nl:Blogger (software)]]
[[ja:Blogger]]
[[no:Blogger]]
[[nn:Blogger]]
[[pl:Blogger]]
[[pt:Blogger]]
[[ru:Blogger]]
[[sah:Blogger]]
[[fi:Blogger]]
[[sv:Blogger]]
[[tl:Blogger]]
[[ta:புளோகர்]]
[[th:บล็อกเกอร์]]
[[tr:Blogger.com]]
[[uk:Blogger]]
[[vi:Blogger (dịch vụ)]]
[[yi:בלאגער]]
[[zh:Blogger]]

Nestlé

2009-12-06T22:18:17Z

PatriceNeff: Undid revision 330118861 by 82.154.123.226 (talk)

{{Infobox Company
|name =Nestlé S.A.
|company_logo =[[Image:Nestlé.svg|240px]]
|type =[[Public limited company|Public]] ({{SWX|NESN}})
|foundation =[[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]] (1866)
|founder =[[Henri Nestlé]]
|location =[[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]]
|area_served =Worldwide
|key_people =[[Peter Brabeck-Letmathe]] ([[Chairman]]) [[Paul Bulcke]] ([[CEO]])
|industry =[[Food processing]]
|products =[[Baby food]], [[coffee]], [[dairy products]], [[breakfast cereals]], [[confectionery]], [[bottled water]], [[ice cream]], [[pet foods]], [[List of Nestlé brands|more...]]
|revenue =[[Swiss franc|CHF]] 109.9 [[1000000000 (number)|billion]] (2008)<ref name="AR2008">{{cite web |url=http://www.nestle.com/Resource.axd?Id=CBFBD75A-AD9C-4D83-B844-1533E2831F84 |format=PDF|title=Financial Statements 2008 |accessdate=2009-02-22 |publisher=Nestlé}}</ref>
|operating_income ={{profit}} CHF 15.68 billion (2008)<ref name="AR2008" />
|net_income ={{profit}} CHF 18.04 billion (2008)<ref name="AR2008" />
|assets =CHF 106.2 billion (2008)<ref name="AR2008" />
|equity =CHF 54.92 billion (2008)<ref name="AR2008" />
|num_employees =283,000 (2008)<ref name="AR2008" />
|homepage =[http://www.nestle.com/ Nestlé.com]
|intl =yes
}}
'''Nestlé [[S.A. (corporation)|S.A.]]''' ({{IPA-fr|nɛs'le}}) is a [[Multinational corporation|multinational]] packaged foods company founded and headquartered in [[Vevey]], [[Switzerland]], and listed on the [[SWX Swiss Exchange]] with a market capitalization of over 87 billion [[Swiss franc]]s. It originated in a 1905 merger of the [[Anglo-Swiss Milk Company]] for milk products established in 1866 by the Page Brothers in [[Cham, Switzerland]], and the [[Farine Lactée Henri Nestlé Company]] set up in 1866 by [[Henri Nestlé]] to provide an infant food product. The two world wars both affected growth: during the first, dried milk was widely used but the second war caused profits to drop by around 70%. However, sales of the [[instant coffee]] [[Nescafé]] were boosted by the [[Military of the United States|US military]]. After the wars, growth was stimulated by acquisitions that expanded the company's product range and brought a number of globally recognized brands into its fold, including [[Maggi]], Thomy and [[Nescafé]]. Nestlé is the world's largest foods company, followed by [[Kraft Foods]]. <ref>{{cite web
|url = http://web.archive.org/web/20070220225956/http://www.google.com/analytics/case_study_nestle.html
|title = Nestlé: Following the Customers' Tracks with Google Analytics
|publisher = Google Analytics
|author =
|date =
|accessdate=2007-02-21(30-10-08 for archive version)
}}</ref>

==Pronunciation==
Today, in [[English language|English]]-speaking countries, "Nestlé" is most commonly {{pron-en|ˈnɛstleɪ}}). However, the original pronunciation was {{IPA-en|ˈnɛsəl|}}, as in the English [[verb]] "nestle". This pronunciation was common throughout much of the 20th century, but changes in its spoken form in advertising influenced it to become more akin to its native pronunciation {{IPA|[nɛsle]}} in French-speaking Switzerland. The old pronunciation, however, is still used today in some regions such as the [[Black Country]].
"Nestle" in [[Alemannic German]] (Alemannisch – as spoken in southwestern Germany and in Switzerland) refers to a small nest (Nest being the same word in English and German). The -le ending makes the word into a [[diminutive]].

==History==
[[File:NestleHQ.jpg|thumb|Nestlé headquarters in [[Vevey]].]]

The company dates to 1867, when two separate Swiss enterprises were founded that would later form the core of Nestlé. In August of that year, Charles A. and George Page, brothers from Lee County, IL in the United States, established the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company in [[Cham, Switzerland|Cham]]. In September, in Vevey, Henri Nestlé developed a milk-based baby food and soon began marketing it. In the succeeding decades both enterprises aggressively expanded their businesses throughout Europe and the United States. (Henri Nestlé retired in 1875, but the company, under new ownership, retained his name as Farine Lactée Henri Nestlé.) In 1877 Anglo-Swiss added milk-based baby foods to its products, and in the following year the Nestlé company added condensed milk, so that the firms became direct and fierce rivals.

[[File:Henry Nestle.jpg|thumb|left|100px|[[Henri Nestlé]].]]

In 1905, however, the companies merged to become the Nestlé and Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company, retaining that name until 1947, when the name Nestlé Alimentana SA was taken as a result of the acquisition of Fabrique de Produits Maggi SA (founded 1884) and its holding company, Alimentana SA of Kempttal, Switzerland. Maggi was a major manufacturer of soup mixes and related foodstuffs. The company’s current name was adopted in 1977. By the early 1900s, the company was operating factories in the United States, United Kingdom, Germany and Spain. World War I created new demand for dairy products in the form of government contracts; by the end of the war, Nestlé's production had more than doubled.

After the war, government contracts dried up and consumers switched back to fresh milk. However, Nestlé's management responded quickly, streamlining operations and reducing debt. The 1920s saw Nestlé's first expansion into new products, with chocolate the company's second most important activity.

[[Image:Nestle's old logo.png|thumb|Nestlé's logo used until 1970s.]]

Nestlé felt the effects of World War II immediately. Profits dropped from US$20 million in 1938 to US$6 million in 1939. Factories were established in developing countries, particularly Latin America. Ironically, the war helped with the introduction of the company's newest product, Nescafé, which was a staple drink of the US military. Nestlé's production and sales rose in the wartime economy.

The end of World War II was the beginning of a dynamic phase for Nestlé. Growth accelerated and companies were acquired. In 1947 came the merger with [[Maggi]] seasonings and soups. [[Crosse & Blackwell]] followed in 1950, as did [[Findus]] (1963), [[Libby's]] (1971) and [[Stouffer's]] (1973). Diversification came with a shareholding in [[L'Oréal]] in 1974. In 1977, Nestlé made its second venture outside the food industry by acquiring [[Alcon|Alcon Laboratories Inc.]]

In 1984, Nestlé's improved bottom line allowed the company to launch a new round of acquisitions, notably American food giant [[Carnation (trademark)|Carnation]] and the British confectionery company [[Rowntree's|Rowntree Mackintosh]] in 1988, which brought the [[The Willy Wonka Candy Company|Willy Wonka]] Brand to Nestlé.

[[Image:Nestlé1.jpg|thumb|The [[Brazil]]ian president, [[Lula da Silva]], inaugurates a factory in [[Feira de Santana]] ([[Bahia]]), February, 2007.]]

The first half of the 1990s proved to be favorable for Nestlé: trade barriers crumbled and world markets developed into more or less integrated trading areas. Since 1996 there have been acquisitions including [[San Pellegrino]] (1997), [[Spillers Petfoods]] (1998), and [[Ralston Purina]] (2002). There were two major acquisitions in [[North America]], both in 2002: in June, Nestlé merged its U.S. ice cream business into [[Dreyer's]], and in August a US$2.6 billion acquisition was announced of [[Chef America]], the creator of [[Hot Pockets]]. In the same time frame, Nestlé came close to purchasing the iconic American company [[Hershey's]], though the deal fell through.<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/2050788.stm
|title = Nestlé buys US ice cream firm
|publisher = BBC News
|date=17 June 2002
|accessdate=2007-02-22
}}</ref>
Another recent purchase includes the [[Jenny Craig, Inc.|Jenny Craig]] weight loss program for US$600 million.

In December 2005 Nestlé bought the [[Greece|Greek]] company [[Delta Ice Cream]] for [[Euro|€]]240 million. In January 2006 it took full ownership of Dreyer's, thus becoming the world's biggest ice cream maker with a 17.5% market share.<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/4627810.stm
|title = Nestlé takes world ice cream lead
|publisher = BBC News
|date=19 January 2006
|accessdate=2007-02-22
}}</ref>

In November 2006, Nestle purchased the Medical Nutrition division of Novartis Pharmaceutical for $2.5B, also acquiring in 2007 the milk flavoring product known as Ovaltine.
In April 2007 Nestlé bought baby food manufacturer [[Gerber Products Company|Gerber]] for $5.5 billion.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://money.cnn.com/2007/04/12/news/international/bc.gerber.nestle.reut/index.htm?section=money_latest
|title=Nestlé to buy Gerber for $5.5B
|publisher=CNN
|date=12 April 2007
|accessdate=2007-04-12
}}{{Dead link|date=June 2008}}</ref>
<ref>[http://www.novartis.com/newsroom/media-releases/en/2007/1118074.shtml Media releases]</ref><ref>[http://www.novartis.com/newsroom/media-releases/en/2007/1150584.shtml Media releases]</ref>

In December 2007 Nestle entered in a strategic partnership with a Belgian chocolate maker [[Pierre Marcolini]].<ref>http://www.food-business-review.com/article_news.asp?guid=01FB6A4D-FE12-432A-AF8B-D8189D6E8395</ref>

==Products==
{{Main|List of Nestlé brands}}
Nestlé has a wide range of products across a number of markets including coffee (''Nescafé''), [[bottled water]], other [[beverages]], [[chocolate]], [[ice cream]], [[baby food|infant foods]], [[performance]] and healthcare nutrition, seasonings, frozen and refrigerated foods, [[confectionery]] and [[pet food]].

==Business==
[[File:Kobe Nestle Japan HQ02ss3000.jpg|thumb|Japan headquarters]]
[[Image:Nestlé Tower Croydon.JPG|The [[Nestlé Tower]] in [[London Borough of Croydon|Croydon]]. This serves as their headquarters in the United Kingdom.|thumb]]
=== Management ===
The executive board, a distinct entity from the [[board of directors]], includes:
* Paul Bulcke, Nestlé CEO
* John J. Harris, [[vice president|EVP]], [[chairman of the board|Chairman]], and CEO of Nestlé Waters
* Frits van Dijk, EVP of Asia, Oceania, Africa, Middle East divisions
* Petraea Heynike, EVP of Strategic Business Units and Marketing
* Francisco Castañer, EVP of Pharmaceutical and Cosmetic Products, Liaison with L'Oréal, Human Resources
* Michael Powell, EVP of United Kingdoms Division
* James Singh, EVP of Finance, Control, Legal, Tax, Purchasing, Export
* Luis Cantarell, EVP of Europe divisions
* Richard T. Laube, Deputy EVP of Nutrition Strategic Business units
* Werner J. Bauer, EVP of Research and Development, Technical, Production, Environment.

Current members of the board of directors of Nestlé are: [[Günter Blobel]], [[Dr.Beat Hess]], [[Daniel Borel]], Peter Brabeck-Letmathe, [[Rolf Hänggi]], [[Nobuyuki Idei]], [[Andreas Koopmann]], [[André Kudelski]], [[Jean Pierre Meyers]], [[Carolina Müller-Möhl]], [[Kaspar Villiger]].
Secretary to the Board [[Bernard Daniel]].

According to a 2006 global survey of online consumers by the ''Reputation Institute'', Nestlé has a reputation score of 70.4 on a scale of 1–100.<ref>{{cite paper
|url = http://www.reputationinstitute.com/press/06-04-06_Swiss_Reptrak_pr.pdf
|title = The Reputations of Switzerland Largest Companies:
|publisher = Reputation Institute
|format = .PDF
|date=5 April 2006
|accessdate=2007-02-22
}} </ref>

===Earnings===
In 2008, consolidated sales were [[Swiss franc|CHF]] 109.9 billion and net profit was CHF 18.04 billion. [[Research and development]] investment was CHF 1.977 billion.<ref name="AR2008"/>
* Sales by activity breakdown: 27% from drinks, 26% from dairy and food products, 18% from ready-prepared dishes and ready-cooked dishes, 12% from chocolate, 11% from pet products, 6% from [[pharmaceutical]] products and 2% from baby milks.
* Sales by geographic area breakdown: 32% from Europe, 31% from [[Americas]] (26% from US), 16% from [[Asia]], 21% from rest of the world.

=== Joint ventures ===
Nestlé holds 26.4% of the shares of L'Oréal, the world's largest company in [[make-up|cosmetics]] and [[beauty]]. The ''Laboratoires Inneov'' is a [[joint venture]] in nutritional cosmetics between Nestlé and L'Oréal, and ''Galderma'' a joint venture in dermatology with L'Oréal. Others include [[Cereal Partners Worldwide]] with [[General Mills]], [[Beverage Partners Worldwide]] with [[The Coca-Cola Company|Coca-Cola]], and Dairy Partners Americas with [[Fonterra]].

==Controversy and criticism==
{{criticism section|date=June 2009}}
Some of Nestlé's past and current business actions have attracted widespread criticism. The most prominent and well documented controversy concerns its methods of marketing of processed cow's milk or [[baby formula]] (infant or more recently follow on formula) as a substitute for breastfeeding, to mothers across the world including [[developing country|developing countries]]. Promotion in economically disadvantaged countries is of particular concern. Nestlé's activities attracted worldwide attention during the Nestlé boycott of 1977. The company's marketing and PR teams have worked to improve the public perception of the company's activities concerns over the years, launching some [[Fairtrade]] products in the interim,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nestle.co.uk/OurBrands/AboutOurBrands/Beverages/PartnersBlend.htm|title=Nestlé UK - Partners Blend|accessdate=2007-02-24|publisher=Nestlé UK}}</ref> and several grind-at-home Fairtrade coffees in Sweden, which led to a new round of criticism.

===The Mugabe connection===
In late September 2009, it was brought to light that Nestlé was buying milk from illegally-seized farms currently operated by [[Robert Mugabe|Robert Mugabe's]] wife, [[Grace Mugabe]]. Mugabe and his regime are currently subject to EU sanctions, a fact that Nestlé used to point out that, as a Swiss company, they were exempt from EU rulings, and thus trade was fair.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?from=rss_News&set_id=1&click_id=79&art_id=vn20090928074015118C579440|title=IOL.co.za - Nestle Defends Buying Milk from Mugabe Dairy|accessdate=2009-09-28|publisher=IOL.co.za}}</ref>

During a reign of terror starting in 2002, [[Zimbabwe]] seized thousands of profitable white-owned farms, which were handed over to [[ZANU-PF]] supporters. Since then, many if not most of the farms are no longer operational. The campaign of state-orchestrated violence killed many and displaced thousands of workers and farmers.

===Marketing of formula===
{{main|infant formula|Nestlé boycott}}
Beginning in the late 1970s Nestlé began to attract global criticism for its [[infant formula|infant-formula]] marketing policies, especially those conducted in [[Developing country|developing countries]]. Public outcry peaked with the [[Nestlé boycott]] of 1977 which (though suspended for several years in the mid-1980s) remains in effect today. Nestlé is the most boycotted company in the world as a result.<ref>[http://blogs.guardian.co.uk/businessinsight/archives/2005/09/01/branded.html]</ref>

Evidence<ref>[http://ethics.emory.edu/news/archives/000152.html]</ref> shows that Nestlé advertised and still advertises its formula as a risk-free substitute (or even a preferable alternative) to [[breastmilk]], resulting in increased use and often replacing available breastmilk. There is a substantial body of evidence<ref>[http://www.breastfeedingtaskforla.org/ABMRisks.htm]</ref> on the risks of the use of formula. Risks stem from the intrinsic problems of use of a non-human substance as a food for the human infant, the risks of contamination of the product itself with chemical contaminants or pathogenic bacteria<ref>[http://tvnz.co.nz/view/news_health_story_skin/473952?format=html]</ref> or the risks of incorrect or unsafe preparation or storage and use of formula in bottles. The risks of formula are much greater when used in the developing world, and it is estimated that 1.5 million deaths a year are attributable to a lack of breastfeeding.<ref>[http://www.unicef.org/programme/breastfeeding/challenge.htm]/</ref> However, deaths also occur in the developed world,<ref>[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15121986?dopt=Abstract]</ref> especially among premature infants who are at increased risk of [[necrotising enterocolitis]] when fed with formula.

The promotion and distribution of formula, particularly in undeveloped regions, continues.<ref name="Moorhead_2007">[http://www.guardian.co.uk/medicine/story/0,,2079757,00.html Joanna Moorhead. "Milking It" ''[[The Guardian]]'', May 15, 2007]</ref><ref name=unicef>{{cite web | title = Infant and Young Child Feeding and Care| work = UNICEF | url = http://www.unicef.org/nutrition/index_breastfeeding.html| accessdate = 2007-06-08 }}</ref> Responding to criticism, Nestlé now labels all non-formula milk products (such as [[coffee creamer]]) with explicative warnings such as, "this product is not to be used as a breast milk substitute."<ref name="BMJ"/> The agricultural conglomerate also voiced its agreement to abide by the nonbinding [[International Code of Marketing of Breast-milk Substitutes]] established in 2004 by the [[World Health Assembly]], though the company has faced multiple allegations of breaching this policy.<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/2667401.stm
|title = Baby milk marketing 'breaks rules'
|publisher = BBC News
|date=17 January 2003
|accessdate=2007-02-22
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.ibfan.org/english/codewatch/btr04/btr04contents.html
| title=Breaking the Rules, Stretching the Rules 2004
| accessdate=2007-02-22}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.ibfan.org/site2005/Pages/article.php?iui=1&art_id=420&goto_news=1
| title=Companies violate the 25-year-old marketing code
| publisher=International Baby Food Action Network
| date=2006-05-21
| accessdate=2007-03-03
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/medicine/story/0,,2079757,00.html
| title=Milking it
| publisher=[[The Guardian]]
| first=Joanna
| last=Moorhead
| date=2007-05-15
| accessdate=2008-10-18
}}and
[http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/downloads/a_generation_on.pdf Save the Children media briefing (acrobat format), accessed 15 May 2007]</ref> The most recent evidence of malpractice came in February 2008, to which Nestlé responded by halting distribution of one product line and shutting down the operations of an independent licensee.<ref name="BMJ">{{cite web
| url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/337/sep09_2/a1379?papetoc
| title=Misperceptions and misuse of Bear Brand coffee creamer as infant food: national cross sectional survey of consumers and paediatricians in Laos
| date=2008-09-09
| publisher=[[BMJ]]
| first=Hubert
| last=Barennes
| coauthors=Todisoa Andriatahina, Vattanaphone Latthaphasavang, Margot Anderson, Leila M Srour
| accessdate=2008-10-18}}</ref>

===Compensation from Ethiopian government===
In December 2002, the food-retailing corporation stirred up bad publicity when it demanded $6 million in compensation from one of the world's poorest governments. Twenty years previously, the then-military [[Ethiopia]]n regime had seized and [[nationalize]]d a Nestlé [[subsidiary]], and the company claimed entitlement to financial [[restitution]] under [[international law]].<ref> {{cite press release
|title=We want more - Nestle demand millions from Ethiopia
|publisher=Oxfam
|date=18 December 2002
|url=http://www.oxfam.org/en/news/pressreleases2002/pr021218_nestle_ethiopia.htm
|accessdate=2007-06-11 }}</ref> The [[United States dollar|US$]]6 million demand was issued for shares in an Ethiopian agricultural firm, which was [[nationalization|nationalised]] by the [[Marxist]] [[Mengistu Haile Mariam|Mengistu]] regime in 1975. Nestlé acquired ELIDCO’s parent company, the [[Schweisfurth Group]], ten years later. Nestlé initially refused the Ethiopian government’s offer of a settlement worth around US$1.5 million (a figure based on the 2002 exchange rate between the dollar and the [[Ethiopian birr]]) but insisted on $6m (based on the exchange rate at the time of the nationalization).<ref>{{cite web
|title=Nestle in Ethiopia compensation row
|publisher=BBC News
|date=18 December 2002
|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/2587697.stm
|accessdate=2007-06-11 }}</ref> Initially rejecting a settlement of $1.5 million, Nestlé eventually accepted this lesser amount, which it subsequently availed to famine relief projects in the region.<ref> {{cite press release
|title=Nestlé and Ethiopia. A Statement by Nestlé CEO Peter Brabeck
|publisher=Nestlé
|date=23 December 2002
|url=http://www.nestle.com/MediaCenter/PressReleases/AllPressReleases/EthiopiaStatementBrabeckCEO-23Dec02.htm?Tab=2002
|accessdate=2007-06-11 }}</ref>

===Nestlé Purina in Venezuela===
In early 2005, Nestlé Purina sold thousands of tons of contaminated [[fodder|animal feed]] in [[Venezuela]].<ref>[http://www.euromonitor.com/Pet_Food_and_Pet_Care_Products_in_Venezuela Pet Food And Pet Care Products in Venezuela]</ref> The local brands included Dog Chow, Cat Chow, Puppy Chow, Fiel, Friskies, Gatsy, K-Nina, Nutriperro, Perrarina and Pajarina. It was reported that the contamination was caused by a supplier that had stored corn used in animal food production incorrectly, which led to a proliferation of a fungus with a high quantity of [[aflatoxin]] causing hepatic problems in the animals that ate the food.{{Fact|date=November 2008}}
On March 3, 2005, the [[National Assembly of Venezuela|National Assembly]] (Venezuela's federal legislature) stated that the company Nestlé Purina was responsible for the quality standards and that compensation must be paid to the owners of the affected animals.{{Fact|date=October 2008}}

===Bottled water===
In 2001, [[Mecosta County, Michigan]] licensed the company, of which [[Perrier]] was then a subsidiary, to open a bottling plant in [[Stanwood, Michigan|Stanwood]] for a fee of less than US$100 a year.<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Water/Who's_Right_Water.html
|title = Whose Right to Water?
|publisher = Dollars and Sense magazine
|author = Kevin Murray
|date=December 2003
|accessdate=2007-02-22
}}</ref>
Operating requirements of the factory called for pumping 500,000 gallons (1.9 million litres) of water a day from an [[aquifer]]. After learning about the plan, Michigan Citizens for Water Conservation launched a direct action campaign against Nestlé and sought a temporary injunction to halt pumping while the court heard arguments on the legality of Nestlé's use of the water. However, this injunction has not been granted. Nestlé purchased the [[Calistoga Water Company]] in 1980.

Nestlé Canada applied for a five year extension and increase in volume with respect to water bottling activities at [[Aberfoyle, Ontario]] near [[Guelph Ontario]]. In April 2008 they were granted only a two year extension and no increase in volume after a prolonged decision period and considerable opposition from area residents,<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://news.guelphmercury.com/article/317975
|title="Nestlé Waters permit renewed for two years"
|publisher = Guelph Mercury
|author = Rob O'Flanagan
|date = April 17, 2008
|accessdate=2008-05-07}}</ref>
led by the Wellington Water Watchers.<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://wellingtonwaterwatchers.wordpress.com
|title = Wellington Water Watchers Weblog
|accessdate=2008-05-07
}}</ref>

In 2006 Nestle began a negotiations process with the town of McCloud, California, to build one of the nation's largest bottled water plants in the US and extract water from the springs of Mt. Shasta. The contract process was protested by local groups like Protect our Waters and California Trout, which claim that Nestle neglected to study the impact on the region's ground water and grossly overstated the potential economic benefits of the proposed plant.<ref>[http://www.protectourwaters.org Protect our Waters]</ref> The plan was canceled in August 2008.<ref>http://www.caltrout.org/article.asp?id=355&bc=1</ref>

===Genetically-modified organisms===
In August 2004 a Greenpeace test found [[genetically modified organisms]] in [[China|Chinese]] [[Nesquik]]. A Chinese woman sued Nestlé since the use of GMOs in that kind of product was prohibited by local law. In December a second test was negative.<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.10thnpc.org.cn/english/China/84272.htm
|title = Nestle Urged to 'Tell Truth' About GMOs
|publisher = China Daily
|date=8 January 2004
|accessdate=2007-02-22
}}</ref> In November 2005 Nestlé opposed a [[Swiss]] ban on GMOs.<ref>{{cite web
|url = http://www.planetark.com/dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/33668/story.htm
|title = Swiss Adopt Five-Year GMO Farming Ban
|publisher = Tom Armitage
|author = Planet Ark
|date=28 November 2005
|accessdate=2007-02-22
}}</ref>

===Slave-labour involvement accusations===
In April 2006, a ''Forbes'' article reported on Nestlé's purchasing of chocolate from plantations which employed slave labour.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.forbes.com/free_forbes/2006/0424/096.html |title=Slave Chocolate? |date=April 24, 2006 |accessdate=2008-01-09 |last=Orr |first=Deborah}}</ref> According to the article, the [[International Labour Organisation]], part of the [[United Nations|UN]], estimates that 284,000 child labourers work on cocoa farms in West Africa, mainly in the Côte d'Ivoire. [[Mars Incorporated|Mars]] and [[The Hershey Company|Hershey's]] are also being investigated. Global Exchange and the [[International Labour Rights Fund]] are taking Nestlé, commodities trader [[Archer Daniels Midland]] and [[Cargill]] to court in the US under the [[Torture Victim Protection Act of 1992|Torture Victim Protection Act]] and [[Alien Tort Claims Act]].<ref>{{cite news
|url = http://www.foodnavigator.com/Financial-Industry/Nestle-ADM-and-Cargill-go-to-court-over-cocoa-child-labour
|title = Nestlé, ADM and Cargill go to court over cocoa child labour
|author = Lindsey Partos
|publisher = Food And Drink Europe
|date=26 August 2005
|accessdate=2007-02-22
}}
</ref><ref>[http://www.iradvocates.org/nestlecase.htmlInternational Rights Advocate, "Nestle, Archer Daniels Midland, and Cargill" Retrieved on 27 July 2008]</ref> Nestlé signed an agreement called the [[Cocoa Protocol]] to say that it would find a way by July 2005 to certify that chocolate had not been produced by underage, indentured, trafficked or coerced labor.<ref>[http://www.corpwatch.org/article.php?id=14514 Wallis, William and Dino Mahtani. " IVORY COAST: Cocoa exports 'fund' Ivory Coast Conflict" June 7, 2007. Downloaded on 3 July 2008]</ref>

===Outsourcing and price-fixing===
Unions representing Nestle employees around the world united in the International Union of Food, Agricultural, Hotel, Restaurant, Catering, Tobacco and Allied Workers' Associations (IUF) <ref><http://www.iuf.org></ref> have expressed concern over a number of workplace issues including Nestle's move towards outsourcing of its manufacturing. In October 2008, the IUF launched NestleWatch <ref><http://www.nestlewatch.org></ref>, a new web-based initiative to address these issues.

In December 2007 Nestlé was found guilty of colluding with other milk producers to fix prices in Greece.<ref>http://www.foodanddrinkeurope.com/news/ng.asp?n=81829-nestle-vivartia-milk-prices</ref>

===Melamine in Chinese milk===
{{main|2008 Chinese milk scandal}}
{{seealso|International Reaction to the 2008 Dairy Scandal}}
In late September 2008, the [[Hong Kong]] government claimed to have found [[melamine]] in a [[China|Chinese]]-made Nestlé milk product. The [[Dairy Farm International Holdings|Dairy Farm]] [[milk]] was made by Nestlé's division in the Chinese coastal city [[Qingdao]].<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/as_china_baby_formula_recall;_ylt=AnB1GihZ3skp0da.OyxM_m0DW7oF ''China milk scandal claims victim outside mainland'', (accessed September 21, 2008 12:14 AM)]</ref> Nestlé affirmed that all its products were safe and were not made from milk adulterated with melamine. On October 2, 2008 the Taiwan Health ministry announced that six types of milk powders produced in China by Nestlé contained traces of melamine. Nestlé has announced that it will begin a recall of milk products produced in China.<ref>{{cite news
| url=http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20081002/ap_on_re_as/as_asia_tainted_milk_22
|title=Taiwan says melamine found in Nestle milk powders
|author=Associated Press
|publisher=Yahoo! News
|accessdate=2008-10-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
| url=http://www.channelnewsasia.com/stories/afp_asiapacific/view/379798/1/.html
|title=Taiwan finds low levels of melamine in Nestle milk products
|author=AFP
|publisher=Channel News Asia
|accessdate=2008-10-02}}</ref>

===Misleading advertising claims about Maggi noodles===
{{main|Maggi noodles#Health claims controversy}}

== See also ==
{{Companies portal}}
{{portal|Food|Food.jpg}}
* [[Joseph Rowntree (philanthropist)|Joseph Rowntree]]
* [[Big Chocolate]]
* [[Nestle boycott]]
* [[Farfel the Dog]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{official|http://www.nestle.com}}
*[http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/05/business/worldbusiness/05nestle.html?ex=1391317200&en=9bfbfa3f4307cbb5&ei=5007&partner=USERLAND Article on ownership structure of Nestlé and L'Oréal]
* [http://www.nestle.com/Media_Center/Press_Releases/All+Press+Releases/30May05_SWX_Swiss_Exchange.htm Nestlé S.A. concentrates trading of its shares on SWX Swiss Exchange]
===Data===
*[http://biz.yahoo.com/ic/41/41815.html Yahoo! - Nestlé SA Company Profile]
 
{{Nestlé}}
{{Swiss Market Index companies}}
{{British Royal Warrant holders}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nestle}}
[[Category:Swiss confectionery]]
[[Category:Chocolatiers]]
[[Category:Companies established in 1866]]
[[Category:Companies formerly listed on the London Stock Exchange]]
[[Category:Companies listed on the SIX Swiss Exchange]]
[[Category:Dairy products companies]]
[[Category:Nestlé brands]]
[[Category:Royal Warrant Holders]]

[[ar:نستله]]
[[bg:Нестле]]
[[ca:Nestlé]]
[[cs:Nestlé]]
[[da:Nestlé]]
[[de:Nestlé]]
[[el:Νεστλέ]]
[[es:Nestlé]]
[[fa:نستله]]
[[fr:Nestlé]]
[[ko:네슬레]]
[[hi:नेस्ले]]
[[hr:Nestlé]]
[[id:Nestlé]]
[[is:Nestlé]]
[[it:Nestlé]]
[[he:נסטלה]]
[[la:Nestlé]]
[[ms:Nestlé]]
[[nl:Nestlé]]
[[ja:ネスレ]]
[[no:Nestlé]]
[[pl:Nestlé]]
[[pt:Nestlé]]
[[ro:Nestlé]]
[[ru:Nestlé]]
[[fi:Nestlé]]
[[sv:Nestlé]]
[[tl:Nestlé]]
[[tr:Nestlé]]
[[vi:Nestlé]]
[[wuu:雀巢公司]]
[[zh-yue:雀巢]]
[[zh:雀巢]]