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Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women

2014-07-04T00:00:50Z

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{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2013}}

{{Infobox Treaty
| name = Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women
| long_name =
| image = Flag of the United Nations.svg
| image_width =
| caption = UNO
| type =
| date_drafted =
| date_signed = 18 December 1979
| location_signed = New York City
| date_sealed =
| date_effective = 3 September 1981
| condition_effective = 20 ratifications
| date_expiration =
| signatories =
| parties = 188 ([[List of parties to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women|Complete List]])
| depositor =
| language =
| languages =
| website =
| wikisource = Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women
}}

The '''Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination against Women''' ('''CEDAW''') is an international treaty adopted in 1979 by the [[United Nations General Assembly]].
Described as an international [[bill of rights]] for women, it came into force on 3 September 1981 and has been ratified by 188 states. Over fifty countries that have ratified the Convention have done so subject to certain declarations, reservations, and objections, including 38 countries who rejected the enforcement article 29, which addresses means of settlement for disputes concerning the interpretation or application of the Convention.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/reservations-country.htm |title=Declarations, Reservations and Objections to CEDAW |publisher=Un.org |date= |accessdate=2011-09-27}}</ref> Australia's declaration noted the limitations on central government power resulting from its federal constitutional system. The United States and [[Palau]] have signed, but not yet ratified the treaty. The [[Holy See]], [[Iran]], [[Somalia]], [[South Sudan]], [[Sudan]] and [[Tonga]] are not signatories to CEDAW.

==The Convention==
The Convention defines discrimination against women in the following terms:

<blockquote>Any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women, irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of men and [[Women's rights|women]], of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.</blockquote>

It also establishes an agenda of action for putting an end to [[Sexism|sex-based discrimination]]:

States must take measures to seek to eliminate prejudices and customs based on the idea of the inferiority or the superiority of one sex or on [[stereotype]]d [[gender role|role for men and women]].

States ratifying the Convention are required to enshrine [[gender equality]] into their domestic legislation, repeal all discriminatory provisions in their laws, and enact new provisions to guard against discrimination against women. However, special protection for [[maternity]] is not regarded as gender discrimination (Article 4). Appropriate measures, including legislation, to suppress all forms of [[trafficking in women]] and [[forced prostitution]] are also not regarded as gender discrimination (Article 6). Equal opportunity in education for female students is required, and [[mixed-sex education|coeducation]] is encouraged. (Article 10). States ratifying the Convention must also establish tribunals and public institutions to guarantee women effective protection against discrimination, and take steps to eliminate all forms of discrimination practiced against women by individuals, organizations, and enterprises (Article 2,(e)).

==CEDAW with UNSCR 1325 and 1820==
[[File:Map5.1Discrepant Behavior compressed.jpg|right|400px|thumb| A world map showing countries by CEDAW enforcement, 2010.]]
'''Resolutions 1325 10th anniversary events highlight use of CEDAW mechanisms<ref name="gnwp">http://www.gnwp.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/11/Cedaw-1325-1820-synergy2.pdf</ref>
'''
* The 10th anniversary of Resolution 1325 in October 2010 highlighted the increasing demand for accountability to UN Security Council Resolution 1325 on Women, Peace and Security. Many expressed concern about the fact that only 22 Member States out of 192 have adopted national action plans. Women are still underrepresented if not totally absent in most official peace negotiations and sexual violence in conflict continue to increase.

These realities emphasized the need to use other legal mechanisms to strengthen the implementation of SCR 1325, particularly CEDAW. The well-established mechanisms of CEDAW – the Member States compliance report and the civil society shadow reporting process were cited as powerful instruments to ensure accountability.

Several regional and international meetings including the High Level Seminar “1325 in 2020: Looking Forward…Looking Back,” organized by the African Center for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes, and the “Stockholm International Conference 10 years with 1325 – What now?” called for the use of CEDAW to improve 1325 implementation.

'''Intersection between SCR 1325 and CEDAW
'''<ref>[http://www.gnwp.org/written-statement-submitted-to-cedaw-on-the-occasion-of-the-general-discussion-on-women-in-conflict-and-post-conflict-situations Written Statement submitted to CEDAW on the occasion of the General Discussion on Women in Conflict and Post-conflict Situations « Global Network of Women Peacebuilders]</ref>
* While CEDAW and UN Security Council Resolutions 1325 and 1820 on Women, Peace and Security are important international instruments on their own, there is also an intersection among the three standards that can be used to enhance their implementation and impact.

Resolutions 1325 and 1820 broaden the scope of CEDAW application by clarifying its relevance to all parties in conflict, whereas CEDAW provides concrete strategic guidance for actions to be taken on the broad commitments outlined in the two Resolutions (UNIFEM, 2006. CEDAW and SCR 1325: A Quick Guide).

CEDAW is a global human rights treaty that should be incorporated into national law as the highest standard for women's rights. It requires UN Member States that have ratified it (185 to date) to set in place mechanisms to fully realize women's rights.

Resolution 1325 is an international law unanimously adopted by the Security Council that mandates UN Member States to engage women in all aspects of peace building including ensuring women's participation on all levels of decision–making on peace and security issues.

Resolution 1820 links sexual violence as a tactic of war with the maintenance of international peace and security. It also demands a comprehensive report from the UN Secretary General on implementation and strategies for improving information flow to the Security Council; and adoption of concrete protection and prevention measures to end sexual violence.

Resolutions 1325 and 1820, and CEDAW share the following agenda on women's human rights and gender equality:<ref name="gnwp"/>

#Demand women’s participation in decision-making at all levels
#Rejection of violence against women as it impedes the advancement of women and maintains their subordinate status
#Equality of women and men under the law; protection of women and girls through the [[rule of law]]
#Demand security forces and systems to protect women and girls from [[gender-based violence]]
#Recognition of the fact that distinct experiences and burdens of women and girls come from systemic discrimination
#Ensure that women’s experiences, needs and perspectives are incorporated into the political, legal and social decisions that determine the achievement of just and lasting peace

A General Comment from the CEDAW committee could strengthen women’s advocacy for the full implementation of Resolutions 1325 and 1820 at the country and community levels. Conversely, CEDAW’s relevance to conflict-affected areas will be underscored further by the two Resolutions. In other words, all three international instruments will reinforce each other and be much more effective if used together in leveraging women’s human rights.<ref>[http://www.gnwp.org/what-we-do/local-legislative-advocacy/cedaw-with-unscr-1325-and-1820 CEDAW with UNSCR 1325 and 1820 « Global Network of Women Peacebuilders]</ref>

==Members and ratification==
{{Main|List of parties to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women}}
[[Image:CEDAW Participation.svg|right|400px|thumb| Participation in the CEDAW {{Col-begin}}
{{Col-2}}
{{legend|#00aa00|Signed and ratified}}
{{legend|#008000|Ratified by accession or succession}}
{{legend|#008080|Unrecognized state, abiding by treaty}}
{{Col-2}}
{{legend|#eeee00|Only signed}}
{{legend|#ff1111|Non-signatory}}
{{Col-end}}
]]
The seven UN member states that have not ratified or acceded to the convention are [[Iran]], [[Palau]], [[Somalia]], [[South Sudan]], [[Sudan]], [[Tonga]], and the United States.<ref name="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women">{{cite web|url=http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-8&chapter=4&lang=en |title='Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women' |publisher=Treaties.un.org |date= |accessdate=2011-09-27}}</ref>

The one [[United Nations General Assembly observers#Non-member states|UN non-member state]] that had not acceded to the convention is the [[Holy See]]/[[Vatican City]].<ref name="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women" /><ref>''Note:'' See New Zealand No 47 Declarations and Reservations New Zealand has signed this treaty on behalf on Niue.</ref>

The [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan) in 2007 has also ratified the treaty in its legislature, but is unrecognized by the United Nations and is a party to the treaty only unofficially.<ref>Government Information Office, Republic of China (Taiwan). "Taiwan Aims to Sign Up Against Discrimination." 8 September 2006.</ref>

The latest state to have acceded the convention was the [[State of Palestine]] on April 2, 2014.<ref name="Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women" />

==Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women==
The '''Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women''' is the United Nations (U.N.) treaty body that oversees the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). The formation of this committee was outlined in [http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm#article17 Article 17] of the CEDAW, which also established the rules, purpose, and operating procedures of the committee.<ref name="Fact Sheet">{{cite web|last=U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights|title=Fact Sheet No. 22, Discrimination Against Women: The Convention and the Committee|url=http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/47947740d.html|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=18 October 2012}}</ref> Throughout its years of operation the committee has held multiple sessions to ensure the rules outlined in the CEDAW are being followed. Over time the practices of the committee have evolved due to an increased focus on [[women's rights]] issues.

===History of the committee===

The Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women was formed on 3 September 1981 after the CEDAW received the 20 [[ratification]]s required for it to enter into force. Article 17 of the CEDAW established the committee in order to ensure that the provisions of the CEDAW were followed by the countries that had signed and agreed to be bound by it.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> The first regular session of the committee was held from 18–22 October 1982. In this session the first officers of the committee were elected by simple majority, with Ms. L. Ider of [[Mongolia]] becoming chairperson.<ref name= "The Work Of CEDAW">{{cite book|last=United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women|title=The Work of CEDAW: Reports of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women|year=1989|publisher=United Nations|location=New York|isbn=9211301327|pages=5}}</ref> Other officers elected were three vice chairpersons: M. Caron of Canada, Z. Ilic of [[Yugoslavia]] and L. Mukayiranga of [[Rwanda]]. The final officer elected was D. P. Bernard of [[Guyana]] as [[rapporteur]] of the committee. During this session the committee also unanimously approved to adopt its [[rules of procedure]].<ref name="The Work Of CEDAW" />

===Sessions===
[[File:Palais des nations.jpg|left|thumb|[[Palais des Nations]]]]
The rules regarding where and when the committee can hold sessions are laid out in their rules of procedure.<ref name=Rules>{{cite web|last=U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights|title=Rules of Procedure of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/docs/CEDAW_Rules_en.pdf|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=18 October 2012}}</ref>
[[File:UN Headquarters.jpg|thumb|[[UN Headquarters]]]]
The committee is allowed to hold as many meetings as are required to perform their duties effectively, with the [[State (polity)|states]] party to the CEDAW and the [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]] authorizing the number of regular sessions held.<ref name=Rules /> In addition, special sessions can be held at the request of either a state party to the convention or the majority of the members serving on the committee.<ref name=Rules /> Fifty-three sessions have been held to date, with the most recent taking place from 1 October 2012 to 19 October 2012.<ref name=Sessions>{{cite web|last=U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights|title=Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women – Sessions|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/sessions.htm|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=6 November 2012}}</ref> The first thirty-nine sessions were held at the [[United Nations headquarters]] building in New York City, with the fortieth session and alternating sessions following it held in the [[Palais des Nations]] in Geneva.<ref name=Sessions /> During each of its regular sessions the committee hears reports from states party to the CEDAW on their progress in adhering to CEDAW and implementing its ideas in their countries.<ref name=Report>{{cite web|last=United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women|title=Report of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women|url=http://daccess-dds ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N12/281/61/PDF/N1228161.pdf?OpenElement|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=18 October 2012}}</ref> The committee also holds pre-sessional work groups to discuss the issues and questions that the committee should deal with during the following session.

===Reports===

Under [http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm#article18 article 18] of the CEDAW states must report to the committee on the progress they have made in implementing the CEDAW within their state.<ref name=Rules /> As most of the information the committee works with comes from these reports, guidelines have been developed to help states prepare accurate and useful reports.<ref name=Methods>{{cite web|last=United Nations Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women|title=Overview of the current working methods of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women|url=http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/wk-methods/Overview-English.pdf|publisher=United Nations|accessdate=18 October 2012}}</ref> Initial reports discussing the current picture of discrimination against women in the reporting states are required to specifically deal with each article of the CEDAW, and consist of no more than one-hundred pages.<ref name=Rules /> States are required to prepare and present these initial reports within one year of ratifying the CEDAW.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> Periodic reports detailing the state's progress in adhering to the articles of the CEDAW should be no more than seventy-five pages in length and should focus on the specific period of time since the state's last report.<ref name=Rules /> States party to the CEDAW are typically required to provide periodic reports every four years, but if the committee is concerned about the situation in that state they can request a report at any time.<ref name="Fact Sheet" />

The committee chooses which reports to address by considering factors such as the amount of time the report has been pending, whether the report is initial or periodic (with more priority given to initial reports), and from which region the report originates.<ref name=Rules /> Eight states are invited to give their reports during each session and it is required a representative from the state is in attendance when the report is presented.<ref name=Rules /> The committee focuses on constructive dialogue when a report is presented, and appreciates careful time management on the part of the state presenting its report.<ref name=Rules /> Due to the high backlog of overdue reports the committee has encouraged states to combine all of their outstanding reports into one document, and sends reminders to states who have reports five years overdue.<ref name=Rules /> The CEDAW also requires that the committee provide an annual report that includes its activities, comments relating to the reports provided by states, information relating to the Optional Protocol of the CEDAW, and any other general suggestions or recommendations the committee has made.<ref name=Rules /> This report is given to the [[United Nations General Assembly]] through the [[United Nations Economic and Social Council|Economic and Social Council]].<ref name=Rules /> All reports, agendas and other official documents pertaining to the committee, including the reports provided by the states, are provided to the public unless otherwise decided by the committee.<ref name=Rules />

===General Recommendations===

Along with issuing its annual report and offering advice to reporting states, the committee has the ability to issue general recommendations that elaborate on its views of the obligations imposed by CEDAW.<ref name=Methods /> To date, the committee has issued twenty-five general recommendations, the latest dealing with the committee's interpretation of the CEDAW's obligations relating to women's role in public life, and women's access to healthcare.<ref name=Methods /> The recommendations issued by the committee in its first decade were short and dealt mainly with the content of states’ reports and reservations to the convention.<ref name=Methods /> Since 1991, however, recommendations have been focused on guiding states’ application of the CEDAW in specific situations.<ref name=Methods /> The formulation of a general recommendation begins with dialogue between the committee on the topic in the recommendation with various non-governmental organizations and other U.N. bodies.<ref name=Methods /> The recommendation is then drafted by a member of the committee and discussed and revised in the next session, and finally adopted in the following session.<ref name=Methods />

In 2013, the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women said in a general recommendation that states that have ratified the UN Women’s Rights Convention are obliged to uphold women’s rights before, during, and after conflict when they are directly involved in fighting, and/or are providing peacekeeping troops or donor assistance for conflict prevention, humanitarian aid or post-conflict reconstruction.<ref name="ohchr.org">http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=13885&LangID=E</ref> The Committee also stated that ratifying states should exercise due diligence in ensuring that non-state actors, such as armed groups and private security contractors, be held accountable for crimes against women.<ref name="ohchr.org"/>

===Changes in the committee===

For the first ten years the committee operated significantly differently from now. The only form of [[censure]] given to the committee by the CEDAW was their general recommendations and concluding comments following a report.<ref name=Reilly>{{cite book|last=Reilly|first=Niamh|title=Women's human rights : seeking gender justice in a globalizing age|year=2009|publisher=[[Polity Press]]|location=Cambridge|isbn=9780745637006|pages=62|edition=Reprinted.}}</ref> Due to the emergence of the Global Campaign for Women's Human Rights in 1991 more attention was given to the CEDAW, reviving the committee.<ref name=Reilly /> The committee made changes to the CEDAW that allowed it to meet more than once a year, and have taken advantage of this by meeting at least twice a year since 1997.<ref name=Reilly /> The committee originally only met for two weeks in its annual sessions, but that has now been changed to meeting multiple times a year in eighteen day sessions.<ref name=Report /> CEDAW also gained new complaint and inquiry proceedings allowing the committee to initiate inquiry proceedings if it believes a state is in severe violation of the articles of the CEDAW.<ref name=Reilly />

===Recommendations for improvement===

Despite evolving since the committee was first formed, members believe there are ways in which the committee can better meet the goals outlined in the CEDAW.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> One of the committee's main goals moving forward is expanding its information base, allowing it to more effectively deal with issues that arise concerning the CEDAW.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> The committee is authorized in [http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/text/econvention.htm#article22 Article 22] of the CEDAW to invite specialized U.N. agencies such as the [[United Nations Development Programme]] to deliver reports discussing women's rights issues in the state under discussion.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> Another method for gathering information is requesting reports from non-governmental organizations dealing with discrimination against women that are operating in the country under discussion.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> This is recommended to insure that the committee is receiving the full, unbiased picture of affairs within the reporting state.<ref name="Fact Sheet" />

Another recommendation for improvement involves interpreting and clarifying the language used in the CEDAW in order to make the document as useful as it can be.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> A third improvement that has been suggested is improving the efficiency of the committee.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> Due to the backlog in reports faced by the committee it has been suggested that the government officials who prepare reports presented to the committee should be trained, in order to make all reports uniform and more easily processed.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> A final suggestion for improvement is the implementation of a right of petition in the CEDAW, allowing the committee to hear complaints from citizens of a state against the state, increasing the committee's strength and direct impact on the problem of discrimination against women.<ref name="Fact Sheet" />

===Languages===

The official languages of the committee are English, Arabic, French, Russian, and Spanish, with any statement made in one of the official languages translated into the other four.<ref name=Rules /> A speaker who does not speak one of the official languages provides a translator.<ref name=Rules /> All formal decisions and documents issued by the committee are provided in each of the official languages.<ref name=Rules /> The original rules of procedure adopted by the committee did not include Arabic as an official language, but the rule was amended in the committees second session to include Arabic.<ref name="The Work Of CEDAW" />

===Members and Officers of the Committee===

Twenty-three members serve on the committee, described as experts for their experience and expertise in women's issues.<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book|last=Merry|first=Sally Engle|title=Human rights and gender violence : translating international law into local justice|year=2006|publisher=[[Univ. of Chicago Press]]|location=Chicago [u.a.]|isbn=0226520730|pages=82|edition=[Nachdr.].}}</ref> The members are nominated by their national governments and elected through a secret ballot by states party to the convention.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Upon winning the election and taking up their responsibilities the members of the committee recite the following statement, known as the solemn declaration, “I solemnly declare that I shall perform my duties and exercise powers as a member of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women honourably, faithfully, impartially and conscientiously”.<ref name=Rules /> The members come from a wide range of occupations including doctors, lawyers, diplomats and educators, providing various viewpoints to the committee due to their diversity.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> Many members continue to hold full-time jobs outside the committee and receive little monetary payment for their work on the committee.<ref name=autogenerated1 />

To insure that the nationality of members encompasses all the diverse states who have signed the CEDAW, members are elected according to regions divided into Latin America and the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> The members of the committee differ from those of other treaty bodies of the United Nations in that they have all been women with only one exception.<ref name="Fact Sheet" /> In the event a member of the committee is unable to continue serving on the committee before her term is up the state that had nominated the resigning member shall nominate another expert from their country to fill in her seat.<ref name=Rules /> Committee members and experts also attend an annual luncheon, hosted by the NGO Committee on the Status of Women, NY ([[NGO CSW/NY]]), where key issues are discusses and the efforts of the committee are honored.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ngocsw.org/about/how-we-work |title=NGO CSW, NY / About / How We Work |publisher=Ngocsw.org |date=26 July 2011 |accessdate=2011-09-27}}</ref>

'''Officers of the Committee'''

The officers of the committee are composed of a chairperson, three vice-chairpersons and a rapporteur.<ref>{{cite web|last=U.N. Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights|title=Membership of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/HRBodies/CEDAW/Pages/Membership.aspx|publisher=[[OHCHR]]|accessdate=18 October 2012}}</ref> Officers of the committee are nominated by another member of the committee, as opposed to a government which nominates members for the committee.<ref name="The Work Of CEDAW" /> All officers are elected by majority vote to a two-year term of office, and remain eligible for re-election after their term expires.<ref name=Rules /> The chairperson's duties include declaring a meeting to be open or closed, directing the discussion in a session, announcing decisions made by the committee, preparing agendas in consultation with the secretary-general, designating the members of pre-sessional working groups and representing the committee at United Nations meetings which the committee is invited to participate in.<ref name=Rules /> In the case the chairperson is unable to perform any her duties she designates one of the three vice-chairpersons to take over her role. If the chairperson fails to designate a vice-chairperson prior to her absence then the vice-chairperson with the first name in English alphabetical order takes over.<ref name=Rules /> In the event an officer is unable to continue serving on the committee before her term expires a new officer from the same region as the original officer shall be nominated, elected and will take over the vacated office.<ref name=Rules />
As of January 2013, the 23 members are:
[[File:Photo NA presse.JPG|thumbnail|right|[[Nicole Ameline]], French deputy and chairperson of CEDAW]]
{| class="wikitable" style="width:450px;"
|-
! Name !! State !! Term Expires
|-
|[[Noor Al-Jehani]] || {{flag|Qatar}} || 2016
|-
|[[Theodora Oby Nwankwo]] || {{flag|Nigeria}} || 2016
|-
|[[Hilary Gbedemah]] || {{flag|Ghana}} || 2016
|-
|[[Nicole Ameline]] (Chairperson) || {{flag|France}} || 2016
|-
|[[Nahla Haidar]] || {{flag|Lebanon}} || 2016
|-
|[[Dalia Leinarte]] || {{flag|Lithuania}} || 2016
|-
|[[Barbara Evelyn Bailey]] (Rapporteur) || {{flag|Jamaica}} || 2016
|-
|[[Niklas Bruun]] || {{flag|Finland}} || 2016
|-
|[[Silvia Pimentel]] || {{flag|Brazil}} || 2016
|-
|[[Biancamaria Pomeranzi]] || {{flag|Italy}} || 2016
|-
|[[Xiaoqiao Zou]] || {{flag|China}} || 2016
|-
|[[Ayse Feride Acar]] || {{flag|Turkey}} || 2014
|-
|[[Olinda Bareiro-Bobadilla]] || {{flag|Paraguay}} || 2014
|-
|[[Meriem Belmihoub-Zerdani]] || {{flag|Algeria}} || 2014
|-
|[[Naela Mohamed Gabr]] || {{flag|Egypt}} || 2014
|-
|[[Ruth Halperin-Kaddari]] || {{flag|Israel}} || 2014
|-
|[[Yoko Hayashi]] || {{flag|Japan}} || 2014
|-
|[[Ismat Jahan]] (Vice-Chairperson) || {{flag|Bangladesh}} || 2014
|-
|[[Violeta Neubauer]] (Vice-Chairperson) || {{flag|Slovenia}} || 2014
|-
|[[Pramila Patten]] (Vice-Chairperson) || {{flag|Mauritius}} || 2014
|-
|[[Maria Helena Lopes de Jesus Pires]] || {{flag|Timor Leste}} || 2014
|-
|[[Patricia Schulz]] || {{flag|Switzerland}} || 2014
|-
|[[Dubravka Šimonović]] || {{flag|Croatia}} || 2014
|}

==Optional Protocol==
The '''[[Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women]]''' is a side-agreement to the Convention which allows its parties to recognise the competence of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women to consider complaints from individuals.<ref>[http://www1.umn.edu/humanrts/instree/cedawopprot-2000.html Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women], Article 1.</ref>

The Optional Protocol was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 6 October 1999 and entered into force on 22 December 2000.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/protocol/wom1242.htm |title=Optional Protocol to Women's Convention Comes into Force |date=21 December 2000 |accessdate=2008-07-15}}</ref> Currently it has 80 signatories and 104 parties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-8-b&chapter=4&lang=en |title= Parties to the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women |publisher=UN OHCHR |accessdate=2009-10-03}}</ref>

==Controversy==
In an article in ''[[Moment (magazine)|Moment]]'' magazine in February 2011, Paula Kweskin, in discussing so-called "honor" killings taking place in the [[Palestinian Authority]], writes that two-thirds of all murders in the Palestinian Authority and Gaza are [[honor killing|“honor” killings]]. These crimes go unpunished and laws grant impunity to those who kill based on “family honor.” In interviews and press releases on their websites, many NGOs, including Badil, the Palestinian Center for Human Rights, and the Women's Center for Legal Aid and Counseling, have decried "honor" killings and the lack of legal protection for Palestinian women; yet these NGOs are silent when given a forum at CEDAW to address these problems.<ref>{{cite web|author=by elisniv |url=http://momentmagazine.wordpress.com/2011/02/24/ngos-fail-palestinian-women-at-the-un/ |title=NGOs Fail Palestinian Women at the UN |publisher=Momentmagazine.wordpress.com |date=24 February 2011 |accessdate=2011-09-27}}</ref>

The CEDAW has been controversial for statements that have been made by some of its members which were seen by a number of states and NGOs as promoting Western-style feminism. Often referenced is a 2000 report which said that in [[Belarus]], "the Committee is concerned by the continuing prevalence of sex-role stereotypes and by the reintroduction of such symbols as a [[Mothers' Day]] and a Mothers' Award, which it sees as encouraging women's traditional roles."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/reports/a5538.pdf |title=Womenwatch report |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2011-09-27}}</ref> Other controversial positions of CEDAW include supporting the decriminalization of prostitution in specific countries{{failed verification|date=December 2012}}, criticizing Slovenia because only 30% of children are in daycare, and pressuring numerous states to decriminalize abortion{{failed verification|date=December 2012}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fota.cdnetworks.net/pdfs/2009-02-b-80-Nations-Pressured-by-CEDAW-Comm-summ.pdf|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20110723040554/http://fota.cdnetworks.net/pdfs/2009-02-b-80-Nations-Pressured-by-CEDAW-Comm-summ.pdf|archivedate=23 July 2011 |title=Nations Pressured by CEDAW |publisher= |date= |accessdate=2011-09-27}}</ref> Other requests are seen by groups as a backdoor to forcing states parties to adopt an [[Equal Rights Amendment]] or comparable national legislation, which is seen as a violation of the CEDAW treaty mandate and the sovereignty of states parties.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cwfa.org/articledisplay.asp?id=1971 |title=Concerned Women for America – Exposing CEDAW |publisher=Cwfa.org |date= |accessdate=2011-09-27}}</ref>

More recently, the controversy concerning CEDAW has centered around the question of easy access to abortion and contraception. According to C-FAM (the [[Catholic Family and Human Rights Institute]]), at UN meetings officials pressed the delegation from Slovakia to liberalize its abortion laws and to inaugurate campaigns encouraging contraceptive use and "reproductive health awareness".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.c-fam.org/publications/id.664/pub_detail.asp |title=UN Committee Pressures Slovakia over its Concordat with the Catholic Church}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Equal Rights Amendment]]
* [[Parental leave]]
* [[Gender role]]
* [[Mixed-sex education]]
* [[Declaration on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women]]
* [[Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women]]
* [[EGM: prevention of violence against women and girls]]
* [[Global Implementation Plan to End Violence against Women and Girls]]
* [[Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and domestic violence]]
* [[Convention on the Political Rights of Women]]
* [[United Nations Development Fund for Women]]
* [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325]]
* [[UN Women]]
* [[Women's rights]]
* [[Equality Now]]

==Further reading==
* [http://www.ipu.org/PDF/publications/cedaw_en.pdf The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women and its Optional Protocol: Handbook for Parliamentarians], [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]] 2003
* [http://www.unifem.org/gender_issues/women_war_peace/%20 UN WOMEN "Women, War & Peace"]
* [http://unwomen-nc.org.sg/gender_issues_datasheet_4.shtml UN WOMEN Singapore Committee – Governance, Peace & Security]
* [http://www.unifem.org/gender_issues/violence_against_women/ UN WOMEN "Violence Against Women"]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cedaw/index.htm CEDAW site]
* [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cedaw.htm Convention text]
* [http://treaties.un.org/Pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=IV-8&chapter=4&lang=en List of parties]
* [http://www.cedaw2010.org/ CEDAW 2010], the website of the CEDAW Task Force of The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights.
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/cedaw/cedaw.html Introductory note by Dubravka Šimonović, procedural history note and audiovisual material] on the ''Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/historicarchives.html Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]

{{United Nations}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Women Dicrimination Against Convention}}
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[[Category:Treaties extended to West Berlin]]

Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women

2014-07-03T15:02:55Z

Plaerdemavida:

{{Infobox document
|document_name = The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women
|image =
|image_width =
|image_caption =
|date_created = 1993
|date_ratified = 20 December 1993
|location_of_document =
|writer =
|signatories =
|purpose = [[Women's rights]]
|wikisource =
}}
'''The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women''' was adopted without vote<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/resguide/r48_en.shtml
|title=RESOLUTIONS: General Assembly, 48th session
|work=un.org
|accessdate=May 14, 2014
}}</ref> by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in its resolution 48/104 of 20 December 1993. Contained within it is the recognition of "the urgent need for the universal application to women of the rights and principles with regard to equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings".<ref name="un-documents.net">{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm
|title=A/RES/48/104 - Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women - UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements
|work=un-documents.net
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> The resolution is often seen as complementary to, and a strengthening of, the work of the [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women]]<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/
|title=Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
|work=un.org
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> and [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=topic&tocid=459d17822&toid=459b17a82&docid=3ae6b39ec&skip=O
|title=Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, Part II, paragraf 38
|work=refworld.org
|accessdate=jule 2, 2014
}}</ref> It recalls and embodies the same rights and principles as those enshrined in such instruments as the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and Articles 1 and 2 provide the most widely used definition of [[violence against women]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats/gender/vaw/about.html
|title=UNECE Gender Statistics - About Violence Against Women
|work=unece.org
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref> As a consequence of the resolution, in 1999, the General Assembly, led by the representative from the Dominican Republic, designated 25 November as the [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women]].

==Background==
The international recognition that women have a right to a life free from violence is a recent one. Historically, their struggles with violence, and with the impunity that often protects the perpetrators, is linked with their fight to overcome discrimination. Since its founding the United Nations has concerned itself with the [[Division for the Advancement of Women|advancement of women's rights]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/events/women/iwd/2007/pdf/background.pdf|title=Ending Impunity for Violence Against Women and Girls|publisher=United Nations Department of Public Information|date=March 2007|accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref> but did not specifically target the high rates of female targeted violence until 1993. One of the aims of the resolution was to overturn the prevailing governmental stance that violence against women was a private, domestic matter not requiring state intervention. To mark [[International Women's Day]] on 8 March 1993, General Secretary, [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]], issued a statement in preparation of the declaration explicitly outlining the UN's role in the 'promotion' and 'protection' of women's rights:

<blockquote>
"The struggle for women's rights, and the task of creating a new United Nations, able to promote peace and the values which nurture and sustain it, are one and the same. Today - more than ever - the cause of women is the cause of all humanity."<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un.org/womenwatch/feature/iwd/1993/
|title=Secretary-General, in International Women's Day message, sys promotion and protection of women's rights central to work of United Nations
|date=International Women's Day 1993
|work=un.org (WomenWatch)
|accessdate=24 February 2010
}}</ref></blockquote>

==Definition of Violence Against Women==
Articles 1 and 2 of the resolution provide the most widely used definition of violence against women.
<blockquote>
Article One:
For the purposes of this Declaration, the term "[[violence against women]]" means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. </blockquote>

<blockquote>Article Two:
Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following:

:(a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including [[Battery (crime)|battering]], sexual abuse of female children in the household, [[dowry]]-related violence, [[marital rape]], [[female genital mutilation]] and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation;
:(b) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including [[rape]], [[sexual abuse]], [[sexual harassment]] and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, [[Human trafficking|trafficking]] in women and forced [[prostitution]];
:(c) Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the State, wherever it occurs.<ref name="un-documents.net"/></blockquote>

==Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women==
As a consequence of the declaration on 4 March 1994, the Commission on Human Rights adopted Resolution 1994/45<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/CHR/resolutions/E-CN_4-RES-1994-45.doc
|title=1994/45. Question of integrating the rights of women into the human rights mechanisms of the United Nations and the elimination of violence against women
|work=ohchr.org
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref> in which it decided to appoint [[Radhika Coomaraswamy]] as its first [[United Nations Special Rapporteur]] on violence against women, including its causes and consequences. The Special Rapporteur has a mandate to collect and analyse data from governments, treaty bodies, specialized agencies, NGOs, and other interested parties, and to respond effectively to such information. Furthermore, they also have a role in making recommendations on an international, national and regional level, as well as liaising with other Special Rapporteurs, special representatives, working groups and independent experts of the Commission on Human Rights.<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/women/rapporteur/
|title=Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences
|work=www2.ohchr.org
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref>

On 18 June 2009 the Human Rights Council appointed Rashida Manjoo as the third incumbent of the role after the tenure of her predecessor, Dr. Yakin Erturk, came to an end.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=52&LangID=E
|title=Violence Against Women: South African legal expert takes over as new UN Special Rapporteur
|work=http://www.ohchr.org
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref>

==Problems==
Many advocates of Women's Rights as Human Rights have expressed concerns that much of the ground gained by the declaration has been threatened by the rise of more conservative forces within the international community.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.awid.org/eng/Library/Violence-against-Women
|title=Violence against Women
|work=awid.org
|last=Reilly
|first=Niamh
|date=2008-02-12
|accessdate=jule 3, 2014
}}</ref> In March 2003, during a meeting of the [[UN Commission on the Status of Women]] the delegate from Iran objected to the inclusion of a paragraph that called on governments to "condemn violence against women and refrain from invoking any custom, tradition, or religious consideration to avoid their obligations with respect to its elimination as set out in the Declaration of the Elimination of Violence against Women." Representatives from Egypt, Pakistan, Sudan and US also raised objections; making it the first ever diplomatic failure at the UN Commission on the Status of Women.<ref>{{Cite news
|url= http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/030424/un-pact-sinks-issue-violence-against-women
|title=U.N. Pact Sinks on Issue of Violence Against Women | Womens eNews
|work=womensenews.org
|last=Freeburg
|first=Emily
|date=2003-04-23
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref>

==Campaigns==
Each year, the [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women]] marks the start of '16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence'.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/16_days/en/
|title=16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence
|work=who.int
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref> Human Rights organisations such as [[Center for Women's Global Leadership]]<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://16dayscwgl.rutgers.edu/
|title=16 Days of Activism Against Gender-Based Violence Campaign
|work=rutgers.edu
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref>, [[Unifem]], Women Won't Wait, Women for a Change, [[Women's Aid]], and other groups join together to speak out against gender violence and to promote the rights and principles of the declaration.
On 10 April 2009, [[Amnesty International]] held a demonstration in Narayanghat, [[Nepal]], to highlight the plight of women's rights activists after the Nepalese state failed to protect two activists from violent attacks and, finally, their murder.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/nepal-two-womens-rightss-rightss-rightss-rightss-rightss-rights-human-rights
|title=Nepal: Two Women's rights's rightss rights's rights's rights's rights human rights activists murdered after government fails to protect them from violent attacks
|date=April 10, 2009
|work=amnesty.org.uk
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref> Despite ratifying the declaration, Nepal had failed to abide by Article 4-c which asserts the clear obligation of states to: <blockquote>"Exercise due diligence to prevent, investigate and, in accordance with national legislation, punish acts of violence against women, whether those acts are perpetrated by the State or by private persons."<ref name="un-documents.net"/></blockquote>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/ United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Declaration On The Elimination Of Violence Against Women}}
[[Category:United Nations General Assembly resolutions]]
[[Category:Violence against women]]
[[Category:Women's rights]]
[[Category:1993 in law]]
[[Category:1993 in international relations]]
[[Category:Proclamations]]

Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women

2014-07-03T14:51:16Z

Plaerdemavida:

{{Infobox document
|document_name = The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women
|image =
|image_width =
|image_caption =
|date_created = 1993
|date_ratified = 20 December 1993
|location_of_document =
|writer =
|signatories =
|purpose = [[Women's rights]]
|wikisource =
}}
'''The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women''' was adopted without vote<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/resguide/r48_en.shtml
|title=RESOLUTIONS: General Assembly, 48th session
|work=un.org
|accessdate=May 14, 2014
}}</ref> by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in its resolution 48/104 of 20 December 1993. Contained within it is the recognition of "the urgent need for the universal application to women of the rights and principles with regard to equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings".<ref name="un-documents.net">{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm
|title=A/RES/48/104 - Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women - UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements
|work=un-documents.net
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> The resolution is often seen as complementary to, and a strengthening of, the work of the [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women]]<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/
|title=Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
|work=un.org
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> and [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=topic&tocid=459d17822&toid=459b17a82&docid=3ae6b39ec&skip=O
|title=Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, Part II, paragraf 38
|work=refworld.org
|accessdate=jule 2, 2014
}}</ref> It recalls and embodies the same rights and principles as those enshrined in such instruments as the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and Articles 1 and 2 provide the most widely used definition of [[violence against women]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.unece.org/stats/gender/vaw/about.html
|title=UNECE Gender Statistics - About Violence Against Women
|work=unece.org
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> As a consequence of the resolution, in 1999, the General Assembly, led by the representative from the Dominican Republic, designated 25 November as the [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women]].

==Background==
The international recognition that women have a right to a life free from violence is a recent one. Historically, their struggles with violence, and with the impunity that often protects the perpetrators, is linked with their fight to overcome discrimination. Since its founding the United Nations has concerned itself with the [[Division for the Advancement of Women|advancement of women's rights]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/events/women/iwd/2007/pdf/background.pdf|title=Ending Impunity for Violence Against Women and Girls|publisher=United Nations Department of Public Information|date=March 2007|accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref> but did not specifically target the high rates of female targeted violence until 1993. One of the aims of the resolution was to overturn the prevailing governmental stance that violence against women was a private, domestic matter not requiring state intervention. To mark [[International Women's Day]] on 8 March 1993, General Secretary, [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]], issued a statement in preparation of the declaration explicitly outlining the UN's role in the 'promotion' and 'protection' of women's rights:

<blockquote>
"The struggle for women's rights, and the task of creating a new United Nations, able to promote peace and the values which nurture and sustain it, are one and the same. Today - more than ever - the cause of women is the cause of all humanity."<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un.org/womenwatch/feature/iwd/1993/
|title=WomenWatch - International Women's Day 1993
|work=un.org
|accessdate=24 February 2010
}}</ref></blockquote>

==Definition of Violence Against Women==
Articles 1 and 2 of the resolution provide the most widely used definition of violence against women.
<blockquote>
Article One:
For the purposes of this Declaration, the term "[[violence against women]]" means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. </blockquote>

<blockquote>Article Two:
Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following:

:(a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including [[Battery (crime)|battering]], sexual abuse of female children in the household, [[dowry]]-related violence, [[marital rape]], [[female genital mutilation]] and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation;
:(b) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including [[rape]], [[sexual abuse]], [[sexual harassment]] and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, [[Human trafficking|trafficking]] in women and forced [[prostitution]];
:(c) Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the State, wherever it occurs.<ref name="un-documents.net"/></blockquote>

==Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women==
As a consequence of the declaration on 4 March 1994, the Commission on Human Rights adopted Resolution 1994/45<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://ap.ohchr.org/documents/E/CHR/resolutions/E-CN_4-RES-1994-45.doc
|title=1994/45. Question of integrating the rights of women into the human rights mechanisms of the United Nations and the elimination of violence against women
|work=ohchr.org
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref> in which it decided to appoint [[Radhika Coomaraswamy]] as its first [[United Nations Special Rapporteur]] on violence against women, including its causes and consequences. The Special Rapporteur has a mandate to collect and analyse data from governments, treaty bodies, specialized agencies, NGOs, and other interested parties, and to respond effectively to such information. Furthermore, they also have a role in making recommendations on an international, national and regional level, as well as liaising with other Special Rapporteurs, special representatives, working groups and independent experts of the Commission on Human Rights.<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/women/rapporteur/
|title=Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences
|work=www2.ohchr.org
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref>

On 18 June 2009 the Human Rights Council appointed Rashida Manjoo as the third incumbent of the role after the tenure of her predecessor, Dr. Yakin Erturk, came to an end.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=52&LangID=E
|title=Violence Against Women: South African legal expert takes over as new UN Special Rapporteur
|work=http://www.ohchr.org
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref>

==Problems==
Many advocates of Women's Rights as Human Rights have expressed concerns that much of the ground gained by the declaration has been threatened by the rise of more conservative forces within the international community.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.awid.org/eng/Library/Violence-against-Women
|title=Violence against Women
|work=awid.org
|last=Reilly
|first=Niamh
|date=2008-02-12
|accessdate=jule 3, 2014
}}</ref> In March 2003, during a meeting of the [[UN Commission on the Status of Women]] the delegate from Iran objected to the inclusion of a paragraph that called on governments to "condemn violence against women and refrain from invoking any custom, tradition, or religious consideration to avoid their obligations with respect to its elimination as set out in the Declaration of the Elimination of Violence against Women." Representatives from Egypt, Pakistan, Sudan and US also raised objections; making it the first ever diplomatic failure at the UN Commission on the Status of Women.<ref>{{Cite news
|url= http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/030424/un-pact-sinks-issue-violence-against-women
|title=U.N. Pact Sinks on Issue of Violence Against Women | Womens eNews
|work=womensenews.org
|last=Freeburg
|first=Emily
|date=2003-04-23
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref>

==Campaigns==
Each year, the [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women]] marks the start of '16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence'.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/16_days/en/
|title=16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence
|work=who.int
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref> Human Rights organisations such as [[Center for Women's Global Leadership]]<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://16dayscwgl.rutgers.edu/
|title=16 Days of Activism Against Gender-Based Violence Campaign
|work=rutgers.edu
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref>, [[Unifem]], Women Won't Wait, Women for a Change, [[Women's Aid]], and other groups join together to speak out against gender violence and to promote the rights and principles of the declaration.
On 10 April 2009, [[Amnesty International]] held a demonstration in Narayanghat, [[Nepal]], to highlight the plight of women's rights activists after the Nepalese state failed to protect two activists from violent attacks and, finally, their murder.<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.amnesty.org.uk/press-releases/nepal-two-womens-rightss-rightss-rightss-rightss-rightss-rights-human-rights
|title=Nepal: Two Women's rights's rightss rights's rights's rights's rights human rights activists murdered after government fails to protect them from violent attacks
|date=April 10, 2009
|work=amnesty.org.uk
|accessdate=Jule 3, 2014
}}</ref> Despite ratifying the declaration, Nepal had failed to abide by Article 4-c which asserts the clear obligation of states to: <blockquote>"Exercise due diligence to prevent, investigate and, in accordance with national legislation, punish acts of violence against women, whether those acts are perpetrated by the State or by private persons."<ref name="un-documents.net"/></blockquote>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/ United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Declaration On The Elimination Of Violence Against Women}}
[[Category:United Nations General Assembly resolutions]]
[[Category:Violence against women]]
[[Category:Women's rights]]
[[Category:1993 in law]]
[[Category:1993 in international relations]]
[[Category:Proclamations]]

Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women

2014-07-02T13:26:13Z

Plaerdemavida:

{{Infobox document
|document_name = The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women
|image =
|image_width =
|image_caption =
|date_created = 1993
|date_ratified = 20 December 1993
|location_of_document =
|writer =
|signatories =
|purpose = [[Women's rights]]
|wikisource =
}}
'''The Declaration on the Elimination of Violence Against Women''' was adopted without vote<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/resguide/r48_en.shtml
|title=RESOLUTIONS: General Assembly, 48th session
|work=un.org
|accessdate=May 14, 2014
}}</ref> by the [[United Nations General Assembly]] in its resolution 48/104 of 20 December 1993. Contained within it is the recognition of "the urgent need for the universal application to women of the rights and principles with regard to equality, security, liberty, integrity and dignity of all human beings".<ref name="un-documents.net">{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un-documents.net/a48r104.htm
|title=A/RES/48/104 - Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women - UN Documents: Gathering a body of global agreements
|work=un-documents.net
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> The resolution is often seen as complementary to, and a strengthening of, the work of the [[Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women]]<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/cedaw/
|title=Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women
|work=un.org
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> and [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url=http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=topic&tocid=459d17822&toid=459b17a82&docid=3ae6b39ec&skip=O
|title=Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action, Part II, paragraf 38
|work=refworld.org
|accessdate=jule 2, 2014
}}</ref> It recalls and embodies the same rights and principles as those enshrined in such instruments as the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and Articles 1 and 2 provide the most widely used definition of [[violence against women]].<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.unece.org/stats/gender/vaw/about.html
|title=UNECE Gender Statistics - About Violence Against Women
|work=unece.org
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> As a consequence of the resolution, in 1999, the General Assembly, led by the representative from the Dominican Republic, designated 25 November as the [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women]].

==Background==
The international recognition that women have a right to a life free from violence is a recent one. Historically, their struggles with violence, and with the impunity that often protects the perpetrators, is linked with their fight to overcome discrimination. Since its founding the United Nations has concerned itself with the [[Division for the Advancement of Women|advancement of women's rights]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.un.org/events/women/iwd/2007/pdf/background.pdf|title=Ending Impunity for Violence Against Women and Girls|publisher=United Nations Department of Public Information|date=March 2007|accessdate=2010-01-03}}</ref> but did not specifically target the high rates of female targeted violence until 1993. One of the aims of the resolution was to overturn the prevailing governmental stance that violence against women was a private, domestic matter not requiring state intervention. To mark [[International Women's Day]] on 8 March 1993, General Secretary, [[Boutros Boutros-Ghali]], issued a statement in preparation of the declaration explicitly outlining the UN's role in the 'promotion' and 'protection' of women's rights:

<blockquote>
"The struggle for women's rights, and the task of creating a new United Nations, able to promote peace and the values which nurture and sustain it, are one and the same. Today - more than ever - the cause of women is the cause of all humanity."<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.un.org/womenwatch/feature/iwd/1993/
|title=WomenWatch - International Women's Day 1993
|work=un.org
|accessdate=24 February 2010
}}</ref></blockquote>

==Definition of Violence Against Women==
Articles 1 and 2 of the resolution provide the most widely used definition of violence against women.
<blockquote>
Article One:
For the purposes of this Declaration, the term "[[violence against women]]" means any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life. </blockquote>

<blockquote>Article Two:
Violence against women shall be understood to encompass, but not be limited to, the following:

:(a) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring in the family, including [[Battery (crime)|battering]], sexual abuse of female children in the household, [[dowry]]-related violence, [[marital rape]], [[female genital mutilation]] and other traditional practices harmful to women, non-spousal violence and violence related to exploitation;
:(b) Physical, sexual and psychological violence occurring within the general community, including [[rape]], [[sexual abuse]], [[sexual harassment]] and intimidation at work, in educational institutions and elsewhere, [[Human trafficking|trafficking]] in women and forced [[prostitution]];
:(c) Physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated or condoned by the State, wherever it occurs.<ref name="un-documents.net"/></blockquote>

==Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women==
As a consequence of the declaration on 4 March 1994, the Commission on Human Rights adopted Resolution 1994/45<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.unhchr.ch/Huridocda/Huridoca.nsf/TestFrame/401503e99f333b03802567360041e65c?Opendocument
|title=Question of integrating the rights
|work=unhchr.ch
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> in which it decided to appoint [[Radhika Coomaraswamy]] as its first [[United Nations Special Rapporteur]] on violence against women, including its causes and consequences. The Special Rapporteur has a mandate to collect and analyse data from governments, treaty bodies, specialized agencies, NGOs, and other interested parties, and to respond effectively to such information. Furthermore, they also have a role in making recommendations on an international, national and regional level, as well as liaising with other Special Rapporteurs, special representatives, working groups and independent experts of the Commission on Human Rights.<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/women/rapporteur/
|title=Special Rapporteur on violence against women, its causes and consequences
|work=www2.ohchr.org
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref>

On 18 June 2009 the Human Rights Council appointed Rashida Manjoo as the third incumbent of the role after the tenure of her predecessor, Dr. Yakin Erturk, came to an end.<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.unhchr.ch/huricane/huricane.nsf/view01/45FE9FE81A1861D0C125761F0031B4C9?opendocument
|title=Violence Against Women: South African legal expert takes over as new UN Special Rapporteur
|work=unhchr.ch
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref>

==Problems==
Many advocates of Women's Rights as Human Rights have expressed concerns that much of the ground gained by the declaration has been threatened by the rise of more conservative forces within the international community.<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.awid.org/eng/Issues-and-Analysis/Library/Violence-against-Women
|title=Violence against Women / Library / Issues and Analysis / Home - AWID
|work=awid.org
|last=Reilly
|first=Niamh
|date=2008-02-12
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> In March 2003, during a meeting of the [[UN Commission on the Status of Women]] the delegate from Iran objected to the inclusion of a paragraph that called on governments to "condemn violence against women and refrain from invoking any custom, tradition, or religious consideration to avoid their obligations with respect to its elimination as set out in the Declaration of the Elimination of Violence against Women." Representatives from Egypt, Pakistan, Sudan and US also raised objections; making it the first ever diplomatic failure at the UN Commission on the Status of Women.<ref>{{Cite news
|url= http://www.womensenews.org/story/international-policyunited-nations/030424/un-pact-sinks-issue-violence-against-women
|title=U.N. Pact Sinks on Issue of Violence Against Women | Womens eNews
|work=womensenews.org
|last=Freeburg
|first=Emily
|date=2003-04-23
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref>

==Campaigns==
Each year, the [[International Day for the Elimination of Violence against Women]] marks the start of '16 Days of Activism Against Gender Violence'.<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.unfpa.org/public/News/events/16days/
|title=UNFPA - 16 Forms of Gender Violence & 16 Ways to Stop It
|work=unfpa.org
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> Human Rights organisations such as [[Center for Women's Global Leadership]], [[Unifem]], Women Won't Wait, Women for a Change, [[Women's Aid]], and other groups join together to speak out against gender violence and to promote the rights and principles of the declaration.
On 10 April 2009, [[Amnesty International]] held a demonstration in Narayanghat, [[Nepal]], to highlight the plight of women's rights activists after the Nepalese state failed to protect two activists from violent attacks and, finally, their murder.<ref>{{Cite web
|url= http://www.amnesty.org.uk/news_details.asp?NewsID=18151
|title=AIUK : Nepal: Two women human rights activists murdered after government fails to protect them from violent attacks
|work=amnesty.org.uk
|accessdate=February 24, 2010
}}</ref> Despite ratifying the declaration, Nepal had failed to abide by Article 4-c which asserts the clear obligation of states to: <blockquote>"Exercise due diligence to prevent, investigate and, in accordance with national legislation, punish acts of violence against women, whether those acts are perpetrated by the State or by private persons."<ref name="un-documents.net"/></blockquote>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/ United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Declaration On The Elimination Of Violence Against Women}}
[[Category:United Nations General Assembly resolutions]]
[[Category:Violence against women]]
[[Category:Women's rights]]
[[Category:1993 in law]]
[[Category:1993 in international relations]]
[[Category:Proclamations]]

Cornelia Fort

2014-06-19T16:38:39Z

Plaerdemavida:

[[File:CorneliaPT19.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Cornelia Clark Fort was a civilian instructor pilot at an airfield near Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, when the Japanese attacked on December 7, 1941.]]
'''Cornelia Clark Fort''' (February 5, 1919 – March 21, 1943) was a US [[aviator]] who became famous for two aviation related events. While conducting a civilian training flight at [[Pearl Harbor]], she was the first US pilot to encounter the Japanese air fleet during the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]], and narrowly escaped a strafing attack after landing. The next year, Fort became the second member of what became the [[Women Airforce Service Pilots]], and was working as a [[ferry flying|ferry]] pilot when she became the first female pilot in [[History of the United States|American history]] to die on active duty.

==Early life and career==
Fort was born to a wealthy and prominent [[Nashville, Tennessee]], family; her father, Rufus Elijah Fort, was a founder of [[National Life and Accident Insurance Company]].<ref>Rob Simbeck, ''Daughter of the Air: The Brief Soaring Life of Cornelia Fort'', Atlantic, 1999, ISBN 0-87113-688-0, [http://books.google.com/books?id=wxnOF4x6OD4C&pg=PA7&dq=Rufus+Elijah+Fort+National+Life+and+Accident&lr=&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=Rufus%20Elijah%20Fort%20National%20Life%20and%20Accident&f=false p. 7].</ref> She graduated from [[Sarah Lawrence College]] in 1939.<ref>Janet R. Daly Bednarek and Michael H. Bednarek, ''Dreams of Flight: General Aviation in the United States'', Texas A & M University Press, 2003, ISBN 1-58544-257-7, [http://books.google.com/books?id=x0uLSdn_hFUC&pg=PA81&dq=Cornelia+Fort+Sarah+Lawrence&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=Cornelia%20Fort%20Sarah%20Lawrence&f=false p. 81].</ref> After college, Fort joined the [[Junior League|Junior League of Nashville]]. She showed an early interest in flying, ultimately training for and earning her pilot's license in [[Hawaii]].

==Pearl Harbor attack==
While working as a civilian pilot instructor at [[Pearl Harbor]], Cornelia Fort inadvertently became one of the first witnesses to the [[Japan]]ese [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] that brought the United States into [[World War II]]. On December 7, 1941, Fort was in the air near Pearl Harbor teaching takeoffs and landings to a student pilot in an [[Interstate Cadet]] monoplane. Hers and a few other civilian aircraft were the only U.S. planes in the air near the harbor at that time. Fort saw a military airplane flying directly toward her and swiftly grabbed the controls from her student to pull up over the oncoming craft. It was then she saw the [[Rising Sun Flag|rising sun]] insignia on the wings. Within moments, she saw billows of black smoke coming from Pearl Harbor and bombers flying in. She quickly landed the plane at [[Honolulu International Airport#History|John Rodgers civilian airport]] near the mouth of Pearl Harbor. The pursuing [[A6M Zero|Zero]] strafed her plane and the runway as she and her student ran for cover.<ref>Sarah Byrn Rickman, ''Nancy Love and the WASP Ferry Pilots of World War II'', University of North Texas Press, 2008, ISBN 978-1-57441-241-3, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pwc9PZUjR4IC&pg=PA108&dq=Cornelia+Fort&client=firefox-a#v=snippet&q=John%20Rodgers&f=false p. 117].</ref><ref>Simbeck, [http://books.google.com/books?id=wxnOF4x6OD4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Cornelia+Fort&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=Suomala&f=false pp. 1-3, 99-100].</ref> The airport manager was killed and two other civilian planes did not return that morning.<ref>Simbeck, [http://books.google.com/books?id=wxnOF4x6OD4C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Cornelia+Fort&client=firefox-a#v=snippet&q=airport%20manager&f=false pp. 4, 109].</ref>

==Military service==
With all civilian flights grounded in Hawaii, Fort returned to the mainland in early 1942. She made a short movie promoting [[war bond]]s that was successful and led to speaking engagements.<ref>Marianne Verges, ''On Silver Wings: The Women Airforce Service Pilots of World War II, 1942-1944'', Ballantine, 1991, ISBN 0-345-36534-8, [http://books.google.com/books?client=firefox-a&id=EC1nAAAAMAAJ&dq=On+Silver+Wings%3A+The+Women+Airforce+Service+Pilots+of+World+War+II%2C+1942-1944&q=Cornelia+Fort#search_anchor p. 5].</ref> Later that year, [[Nancy Love]] recruited her to serve in the newly established [[Women's Auxiliary Ferrying Squadron]], precursor to the [[Women Airforce Service Pilots]] (WASP). She was the second woman accepted into the service.<ref>Rickman, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pwc9PZUjR4IC&pg=PA108&dq=Cornelia+Fort&client=firefox-a#v=snippet&q=WAFS%20in%20the%20order%20they%20joined&f=false p. 97].</ref> The WAFS ferried military planes to bases within the United States.

==Death==
Stationed at the 6th Ferrying Group base at [[Long Beach, California]], Cornelia Fort became the first WAFS fatality<ref>Emily Yellin, ''Our Mothers' War: American Women at Home and at the Front During World War II'', Free Press, 2004, ISBN 0-7432-4514-8 [http://books.google.com/books?id=UqghzKCPZw0C&pg=PA399&dq=Cornelia+Fort&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=twenty-four-year-old%20Fort&f=false p. 158].</ref> on March 21, 1943 when another plane being ferried by a male pilot struck the left wing of the [[BT-13]] she was ferrying in a mid-air collision ten miles south of [[Merkel, Texas]].<ref>Rickman, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pwc9PZUjR4IC&pg=PA108&dq=Cornelia+Fort&client=firefox-a#v=snippet&q=Merkel%2C%20Texas&f=false pp. 116-17].</ref><ref>Yellin, [http://books.google.com/books?id=UqghzKCPZw0C&pg=PA399&dq=Cornelia+Fort&client=firefox-a#v=snippet&q=March%2021%2C%201943%2C%20Fort&f=false p. 157].</ref> At the time of the accident, Cornelia Fort was one of the most accomplished pilots of the WAFS. The footstone of her grave is inscribed, "Killed in the Service of Her Country."<ref>Rickman, [http://books.google.com/books?id=pwc9PZUjR4IC&pg=PA108&dq=Cornelia+Fort&client=firefox-a#v=onepage&q=footstone&f=false p. 119].</ref>

==Legacy==
Cornelia Fort was portrayed in the film ''[[Tora, Tora, Tora]]'' by [[Jeff Donnell]].

The [[Cornelia Fort Airpark]] in [[East Nashville]] is named after her.

==See also==
*[[Women Airforce Service Pilots]] (WASP)
*[[Women Airforce Service Pilots Badge]]
*[[United States Army Air Forces]]
*[[Women's Army Corps]] (WAC)
*[[United States Army Air Forces]]
*[[United States Air Force]]

==References==
<references/>

==Further reading==
*Brinker Tanner, Doris. "Cornelia Fort: A WASP in World War II, Part I," ''Tennessee Historical Quarterly'' volume 40 (1981), pp. 381–94; "Cornelia Fort: Pioneer Woman Military Aviator, Part II," ''Tennessee Historical Quarterly'' volume 41 (1982), pp. 67–80.
* Fort, Cornelia. "At the Twilight's Last Gleaming: Personal-Experience Narrative of a Member of the WAFS," in ''The Army Reader'', ed. Karl Detzer, Bobbs-Merill, 1943, pp. 313–16. Also in ''Woman's Home Companion'', June 1943.
* Regis, Margaret. ''When Our Mothers Went to War: An Illustrated History of Women in World War II''. NavPublishing, 2008. ISBN 978-1-879932-05-0

==External links==
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/flygirls/peopleevents/pandeAMEX07.html PBS American Experience biography of Cornelia Fort]
*[http://www.ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/fort.html Collection of articles on Cornelia Fort]
*[http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=1546 National Museum of the USAF, fact sheet on Cornelia Fort]
*[http://www.maritimequest.com/misc_pages/monuments_memorials/cornelia_clark_fort_crash_site.htm Photos of the crash site]

{{Authority control|VIAF=122352006}}
{{Persondata 
| NAME =Fort, Cornelia
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = American aviator
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1919
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 1943
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Fort, Cornelia}}
[[Category:Aviators killed in aviation accidents or incidents in the United States]]
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:1943 deaths]]
[[Category:American aviators]]
[[Category:American people of World War II]]
[[Category:Aviators from Tennessee]]
[[Category:Female aviators]]
[[Category:People from Nashville, Tennessee]]
[[Category:Sarah Lawrence College alumni]]
[[Category:Women Airforce Service Pilots]]
[[Category:American women in World War II]]
[[Category:American military personnel killed in World War II]]