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Houseplant

2024-03-31T10:51:22Z

Postka: /* Care */

{{short description|Ornamental plant in a home or office}}
[[File:Orkide i finstua mot vest.jpg|thumb|A houseplant on an indoor windowsill]]
A '''houseplant''', sometimes known as a '''pot plant''', '''potted plant''', or an '''indoor plant''', is an [[Ornamental plant|ornamental]] [[plant]] that is grown indoors.<ref>{{Cite web |website=[[Dictionary.com]]|title=Definition of houseplant|url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/houseplant |access-date=2022-07-10|language=en}}</ref> As such, they are found in places like [[House|residences]] and [[office]]s, mainly for [[ornamental plant|decorative purposes]]. Common houseplants are usually tropical or semi-tropical, and are often [[epiphytes]], [[succulents]] or [[cacti]].<ref>MacDonald, Elvin "The World Book of House Plants" [[Popular Books]]{{page needed|date=May 2019}}</ref>

== Cultural history ==
===Early history===
The history of houseplants is intertwined with the history of container gardening in general. [[Ancient Egypt]]ians and [[Sumer]]ians grew ornamental and fruiting plants in decorative containers. [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] and the [[Roman empire|Roman]]s cultivated laurel trees (''[[Laurus nobilis]]'') in [[earthenware]] vessels. In [[ancient China]], potted plants were shown at garden exhibitions over 2,500 years ago.{{Citation needed|date=May 2023}}

In the medieval era, [[gillyflower]]s were displayed in containers.<ref>{{cite web |title=Castle Life - Medieval Gardens |url=https://www.castlesandmanorhouses.com/life_06_gardens.htm |website=www.castlesandmanorhouses.com}}</ref>

===Early modern era===
[[File:Francisco de Zurbarán - Still Life with Lemons, Oranges and a Rose,1633.png|thumb|''Still Life with Lemons, Oranges and a Rose'', by [[Francisco de Zurbarán]], 1633. Indoor citrus trees were popular in this era.]]
During the [[Renaissance]], plant collectors and affluent merchants from [[Italy]], the [[Netherlands]] and [[Belgium]] imported plants from [[Asia Minor]] and the [[East Indies]]. [[Senecio angulatus|Creeping groundsel]] was introduced in [[Malta]] and the rest of Europe in the 15th century as an ornamental plant.<ref name="wildplants">[http://www.maltawildplants.com/ASTR/Senecio_angulatus.php ''Senecio angulatus'' (Creeping Groundsel)] MaltaWildPlants.com by Stephen Mifsud</ref>

In the 17th century, fascination in exotic plants grew among the aristocracy of France and England. Inventor and writer [[Sir Hugh Platt]] published ''Garden of Eden'' in 1660, a book which directed indoor plant growing methods.<ref name="Janick2010">{{cite book |first=Jules |last=Janick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iiUI7fSXXxsC&pg=PA50|series=[[Horticultural Reviews]]|title=Horticultural Reviews |date=6 April 2010 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]]|isbn=978-0-470-65087-5 |pages=50–}}</ref> Wealthy British households purchased imported fruit trees, especially [[citrus]] trees, to grow in specialized [[Orangery|orangeries]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horwood |first=Catherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/155682753 |title=Potted history : the story of plants in the home |date=2007 |publisher=[[Frances Lincoln]]|isbn=978-0-7112-2800-9 |location=London |pages=21–31 |oclc=155682753}}</ref> Less wealthy people would also grow plants, especially flowers, indoors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horwood |first=Catherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/155682753 |title=Potted history : the story of plants in the home |date=2007 |publisher=[[Frances Lincoln]]|isbn=978-0-7112-2800-9 |location=London |pages=26 |oclc=155682753}}</ref> Orange trees became less fashionable as international commerce in oranges became more widespread.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horwood |first=Catherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/155682753 |title=Potted history : the story of plants in the home |date=2007 |publisher=[[Frances Lincoln]]|isbn=978-0-7112-2800-9 |location=London |pages=31 |oclc=155682753}}</ref> [[Succulent plant|Succulents]], such as aloes, were also cultivated.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horwood |first=Catherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/155682753 |title=Potted history : the story of plants in the home |date=2007 |publisher=[[Frances Lincoln]]|isbn=978-0-7112-2800-9 |location=London |pages=34 |oclc=155682753}}</ref>

===18th century===
In the early 18th century, windows in London became wider and brighter, expanding the opportunities for the lower classes to grow plants indoors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horwood |first=Catherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/155682753 |title=Potted history : the story of plants in the home |date=2007 |publisher=Frances Lincoln |isbn=978-0-7112-2800-9 |location=London |pages=32–33 |oclc=155682753}}</ref>

The expansion of European colonialism brought Europeans into contact with a wide variety of new plants, especially tropical plants more suited to growing as houseplants. Explorers and botanists brought over 5,000 species to [[Europe]] from [[South America]], [[Africa]], [[Asia]] and [[Australia]].<ref name="Janick2010" />

[[Forcing (horticulture)|Forcing]] plants to bloom out of season, especially bulbs, grew in popularity during this era.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Horwood |first=Catherine |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/155682753 |title=Potted history : the story of plants in the home |date=2007 |publisher=Frances Lincoln |isbn=978-0-7112-2800-9 |location=London |pages=48 |oclc=155682753}}</ref> The decorative pot or [[cachepot]] specifically for growing houseplants (as opposed to a simple terracotta pot, or a decorative vase) was developed in this era as ceramic manufacturing took off.<ref name="scotsman" />

[[Plant breeding]] developed in the late 17th and 18th centuries. These innovations were drawn and presented in the [[botanical garden]]s and in private court collections. At the end of the 18th century, flower tables became part of the salons. Furthermore, nurseries were flourishing in the 18th century, which stocked thousands of plants, including [[citrus]], [[jasmine]]s, [[Reseda (plant)|mignonette]], [[Laurus nobilis|bays]], [[Myrtus|myrtle]]s, [[agaves]] and [[aloe]]s.<ref name="scotsman"/>

===19th century===
[[File:Charles Darwin 1816.jpg|thumb|The earliest portrait of [[Charles Darwin]], 1816, holding a potted houseplant]]
The [[Victorian era]] saw the first use of houseplants by the [[middle class]], which were perceived as a symbol of [[social status]] and moral value.<ref>[https://www.oldhouseonline.com/interiors-and-decor/how-to-decorate-victorian-house-with-plants How To Decorate a Victorian House with Plants – A brief history of the Victorian obsession with houseplants, which turned parlors into bowers] by Old House Online Journal, June 21, 2011.</ref> Some foliage plants which tolerated the typical gloomy and snug environment inside a [[Victorian house]] became popular.<ref>[https://www.gardenista.com/posts/5-houseplants-that-changed-history/ 5 Houseplants That Changed History] by Amanda Gutterman from Gardenista, November 11, 2013</ref> The quintessential Victorian plants were palms (such as [[kentia palm]]s and [[parlour palm]]s), the [[Aspidistra elatior|cast iron plant]], and ferns. Ferns were grown in [[Wardian case]]s, an early type of [[terrarium]]. [[Geranium]]s were often placed on window ledges and in [[drawing room]]s and were the most affordable houseplant for the average Briton.<ref name="scotsman">[https://www.scotsman.com/arts-and-culture/our-fascination-indoor-potted-plants-has-long-and-colourful-history-2463847 Our fascination with indoor potted plants has a long and colourful history] by [[The Scotsman]], 3rd January 2008</ref><ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Potted history of houseplants in our houses and collections |url=https://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/features/potted-history-of-houseplants-in-our-houses-and-collections |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=National Trust |language=en}}</ref>

In 1818, [[Orchidaceae|orchids]] were introduced to Europe when they were used as packing material for the shipment of other rare plants.<ref name="scotsman" /> [[German ivy]] was introduced in the United States sometime in the 19th century as a houseplant.<ref name=hear>[http://www.hear.org/starr/hiplants/reports/pdf/delairea_odorata.pdf Delairea odorata] Forest Starr, Kim Starr, and Lloyd Loope. United States Geological Survey--Biological Resources Division. Haleakala Field Station, Maui, Hawai'i. January, 2003.Retrieved 31 October 2022.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Alvarez |first=Maria E. |date=1997 |title=Management of Cape-ivy (Delairea odorata) in the Golden Gate National Recreation Area |url=https://www.cal-ipc.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/1997_symposium_proceedings1933.pdf |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=California Invasive Plant Council}}</ref>

Other typical Victorian houseplants included mop-head chrysanthemums and yuccas.<ref name=":6" />

At the end of the 19th century, the range already included [[begonia]]s, [[cineraria]], [[clivia]], [[cyclamen]] and [[flamingo flower]]s, but also leafy ornamental plants such as [[Abies alba|silver fir]], ornamental [[asparagus]], [[lilium]], [[snake plant]], and [[ficus elastica|rubber tree]].<ref name="Janick2010" />

===20th century===
In the early 20th century, there was a turn against houseplants as they were seen as dated relics of the cluttered Victorian era. When there were houseplants, the more architecturally shaped cacti and succulents were the most common.<ref name=":6" /> In the 1920s, commercial houseplant production began in California, focused on the [[Howea forsteriana|Kentia palm]] and the [[Pothos (plant)|pothos]], later expanding to include ''[[Philodendron]]'' and ''[[Araucaria]]'' species in the 1940s.<ref name="Janick2010" />

During World War II, houseplants became more common in offices, which began to more closely resemble the domestic environment as more women entered the workforce.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last=Wretched Flowers |date=2021-09-15 |title=The Most Iconic Houseplant Trends Through the Decades |url=https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/houseplant-trends-history |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=Architectural Digest |language=en-US}}</ref>

By 1960, Florida produced more than 55% of American houseplants, and has since remained the main producer of houseplants for the American market.<ref name="Janick2010" /> Philodendrons, rubber plants and geraniums were mainstays of the postwar era.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Sandberg-Diment |first=Erik |date=12 March 1973 |title=New Plant Shops in Town |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-YCAAAAMBAJ&dq=New+York+Magazine+%22new+plant+shops+in+town%22+1973&pg=PA60 |journal=New York Magazine |volume=6 |issue=11 |pages=60–61}}</ref> Many plants entered the United States and the United Kingdom through the influence of [[Scandinavian design]], which featured plants.<ref name=":6" /> Tropical plants like [[Bromeliaceae|bromeliads]], [[Strelitzia|birds of paradise]], and philodendrons were popular accents in [[Tiki culture|tiki]]-themed spaces.<ref name=":7" /> The postwar years also saw a broader commercialization of houseplants. In the 1960s, plant care labels were introduced, and [[garden center]]s became ubiquitous in the 1970s.<ref name=":8" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-01-31 |title=Return of the Spider Plant |url=https://www.mccarthyandstone.co.uk/life-and-living/explore/lifestyle/return-of-the-spider-plant/ |access-date=2022-07-22 |website=www.mccarthyandstone.co.uk |language=en}}</ref>

A lush display of houseplants fit into the [[Environmentalism|environmentalist]] and [[hippie]] movements in the 1970s; a large indoor garden is characteristic of 1970s design.<ref>[https://www.homestolove.com.au/garden-and-plant-trends-6512 Garden and plant trends over the past 70 years] by Homes To Love, April 6, 2018</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=American Style Through the Decades: The Seventies |url=https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/american-style-150743 |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=Apartment Therapy |language=en}}</ref> Leafy plants were popular, particularly ferns and [[Chlorophytum comosum|spider plants]], often in [[macramé]] hanging planters.<ref name=":7" /> ''[[Monstera deliciosa]]'', ferns, aloes and [[Dracaena trifasciata|snake plants]] (''Dracaena'' sp., usually sold under their former genus of [[Sansevieria|Sanseveria]]) were also popular.<ref>[https://www.themiddlesizedgarden.co.uk/join-the-1970s-house-plants-revolution/ Join the 1970s house plants revolution] The Middle Sized Garden, November 5th, 2017</ref> Terrariums and bottle gardens began to appear as well.

In the 1980s, houseplants were often limited to large, lush statement pieces, particularly in bathrooms. The rise of [[shopping mall]]s with large skylights created a new place for plants to be grown.<ref name=":7" /> In the 1990s, [[moth orchid]]s became trendy.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Molly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1eB1EAAAQBAJ |title=Taming the Potted Beast: The Strange and Sensational History of the Not-So-Humble Houseplant |date=2022-09-13 |publisher=Andrews McMeel Publishing |isbn=978-1-5248-8166-5 |language=en}}</ref> The 1990s also brought a wave of interest in [[artificial plant]]s.<ref>[https://www.apartmenttherapy.com/indoor-plant-trends-1970s-1980s-1990s-2000s-36614952 Millennials Didn’t Invent Houseplants] by Gray Chapman, Apartment Therapy, June 18, 2019</ref>

===21st century===
[[File:An indoor living wall (28515828890).jpg|thumb|"Living walls", mass planted vertical gardens, emerged as a trend in 21st century interiors.<ref>{{citation |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/designing-plant-walls-for-home-and-office/ |title=Designing plant walls for home and office |work=[[CBS News Sunday Morning]] |date= 22 May 2022 }}</ref> ]]
Beginning in the mid-to-late 2010s, fashionable plants from earlier decades were revitalized and popularized by [[social media]], especially [[Instagram]], with "plantstagram" becoming a major driver of trendy plants. In 2015, 5 million Americans took up plant-related hobbies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bereznak |first=Alyssa |date=2017-07-03 |title=Plantstagram Is a Haven for People Who Bring the Outdoors Inside |url=https://www.theringer.com/2017/7/3/16043212/plants-on-instagram-54498d39bc01 |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=The Ringer |language=en}}</ref> In 2017, 30% of American households purchased at least one houseplant.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Houseplant comeback |url=https://www.greenhousemag.com/article/cover-story-houseplant-comeback-trends-millennials-indoor-foliage-2019/ |access-date=2022-07-22 |website=Greenhouse Management |language=en}}</ref>

Interest in houseplants exploded during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] that began in early 2020.<ref name="Carleton">{{Cite web|last=Carleton|first=Audrey|date=2021-08-16|title=Houseplants are a massive industry. How green are they, really?|url=https://www.vox.com/22611799/houseplants-environmental-impact-youtube|access-date=2021-08-17|website=Vox|language=en}}</ref> With people forced to spend more time indoors, many sought to fill their homes with houseplants. Plants were mentioned on Instagram an average of more than 3,000 times a day in July 2021 and the hashtag "#plantmom" has been used more than 2.6 million times.<ref name="Carleton"/> Plant sales in 2020 were at an all-time high, which brought concerns about the environmental impact of the industry.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carleton |first=Audrey |date=2021-08-16 |title=Houseplants are a massive industry. How green are they, really? |url=https://www.vox.com/22611799/houseplants-environmental-impact-youtube |access-date=2022-07-18 |website=Vox |language=en}}</ref>

Some of the most popular plants in the 2020s are the ''[[Monstera deliciosa]]'' and other [[aroids]],<ref name=":9">{{Cite news |date=11 November 2019 |title=How Much Would You Pay for a Houseplant? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/11/style/tropical-plants-rare.html}}</ref> as well as the [[Ficus lyrata|fiddle-leaf fig]]. This era saw a larger interest in growing plants with interesting or attractive forms or foliage, rather than focusing solely on flowers.<ref name=":9" />

==Care==
[[File:Blomsterfönstret av Carl Larsson 1894.jpg|thumb|"Flowers on the Windowsill", 1894]]
Houseplants have care requirements that differ from plants grown outdoors. Moisture, light, [[soil]] mixture, temperature, ventilation, [[humidity]], [[fertilizer]]s, and [[Potting (horticulture)|potting]] are all important factors. Each plant species has different care requirements, and care requirements can vary based on the specific pot, location in a particular home and potting mix used.

Most houseplants are species that have adapted to survive in a temperature range between 15 °C to 25 °C (60 °F to 80 °F) year-round, as those adapted for temperate environments require winter temperatures outside of normal indoor conditions.<ref>Fritz Encke: Kalt- und Warmhauspflanzen. 2. Auflage. Verlag Eugen Ulmer, Stuttgart 1987, {{ISBN|3-8001-6191-5}}</ref> Within that limitation, there are houseplants which are native to many different types of habitats, from [[tropical rainforest]]s to succulents and cacti native to deserts. Many houseplants are either [[epiphyte]]s or live in seasonally dry ecosystems that help them adapt to the dry indoor air and inconsistent watering many houseplants are subject to. Often, houseplants from tropical areas are understory plants, and because they grown in shady conditions naturally, they are often able to thrive in lower-light conditions.

Selected houseplants are typically of healthy origin, with tidy leaves and upright stems. Houseplants which survive in conditions similar to a homeowner's living space will have a higher probability of survival. Tropical houseplants which grow under high thresholds of heat, for instance, will grow ''sun leaves'' which contain fewer chloroplasts. Plants which grow in the shade will grow ''shade leaves'', containing more chloroplasts. Horticulturists at Texas A&M University recommend ''acclimatization'', a gradual process in which plants with too much or too little light or heat exposure are balanced accordingly to prevent overexposure. The brightness and strength of the light source under which a plant lives, including how long it spends under that light source, is vital to its survival. Other factors, like humidity and ventilation, must be kept under regular levels to prevent plant failure and susceptibility to disease.<ref>{{Cite web |title=House Plants {{!}} Archives {{!}} Aggie Horticulture |url=https://aggie-hort.tamu.edu/archives/parsons/publications/houseplant/houseplant.html#to_main_content |access-date=2023-05-17 |website=aggie-hort.tamu.edu}}</ref>

Houseplants are typically grown in specialized soilless mixtures called ''potting compost'' (in the UK), ''potting mix,'' or ''[[potting soil]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1999-09-21 |title=Indoor Plants - Soil Mixes |url=https://hgic.clemson.edu/factsheet/indoor-plants-soil-mixes/ |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=Home & Garden Information Center, Clemson University |language=en-US}}</ref> Most potting mixes contain a combination of [[peat]] or [[coir]] and [[vermiculite]] or [[perlite]].

Keeping plants consistently too wet ("overwatering") leads to the roots sitting in water, which often leads to [[root rot]]. Root rot is the most common cause of death for houseplants but keeping houseplants too dry ("under-watering") can also be detrimental.

Plants require [[nitrate]], [[phosphate]], and [[potassium]] to survive, as well as micronutrients including [[boron]], [[zinc]], [[manganese]], [[iron]], [[copper]], [[molybdenum]], and [[chlorine]]. Houseplants do not have access to these nutrients unless they are [[Fertilizer|fertilized]] regularly.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://www.planetnatural.com/plant-care/|title=How to Care for Indoor Plants (Houseplants)|date=2012-12-08|website=Planet Natural|language=en-US|access-date=2019-05-05}}</ref>

House plants are generally planted in pots that have [[drainage]] holes, to reduce the likelihood of over-watering and standing water. Pots are typically broken down into two groups: [[porous]] and non-porous. Porous pots (usually [[terracotta]]) provide better aeration as air passes laterally through the sides of the pot. Non-porous pots such as glazed or plastic pots tend to hold moisture longer and restrict [[airflow]].

Houseplants experience a range of pests. [[Fungus gnat]]s, [[spider mite]]s, [[mealybug]]s, [[thrips]] and [[Scale insect|scale]] are common pests.

With the right care, succulents avoid pests and diseases and achieve optimal growth. By picking the right succulent and taking care of its soil and watering needs, the houseplant lives long to serve its purpose.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-18 |title=How to pick a houseplant that will live for decades |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/home/2023/12/18/houseplants-that-live-long-time/ |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=Washington Post |language=en}}</ref>

===Alternative growing methods===
Houseplants are also grown in a variety of media other than potting mix, often in a [[Hydroponics|hydroponic]] or semi-hydroponic system. This may overlap with [[aquascaping]]. Materials like sand, gravel, brick, [[expanded clay aggregate]] and styrofoam may be employed.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

Some epiphytic plants may be grown mounted, either with their roots in potting mix and their stems attached to supports, or with their roots wrapped in sphagnum moss and attached to a vertical surface with wire. This can also overlap with the practice of [[kokedama]].

== Production ==
Houseplants are obtained either by collecting wild specimens of plants, or by growing them in greenhouses or commercial nurseries.

Wild collection of plants for the houseplant trade is a major threat to many species, especially plants with limited native ranges. Plants which are particularly threatened in this way are cacti, succulents, and carnivorous plants, especially [[Venus flytrap]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-05-06 |title=Is Your Pandemic Plant Obsession Driving Rare Species to Extinction? |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/black-market-plants-extinction-2652895775.html |access-date=2022-07-22 |website=EcoWatch |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Farzan |first=Antonia Noori |date=3 June 2019 |title=Beloved on Instagram, succulents are vanishing from state parks. Officials blame a foreign black market. |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/nation/2019/06/03/beloved-instagram-succulents-are-vanishing-state-parks-officials-blame-foreign-black-market/ |access-date=22 July 2022}}</ref>

Plants grown for commercial production may be produced from seed, by using traditional propagation techniques, or through [[Plant tissue culture|tissue culture]]. In 2002, the wholesale value of foliage plants grown in the United States was roughly 700 million dollars, mostly grown in Florida.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/644264104 |title=Horticultural reviews. Volume 31 |date=2005 |others=Jules Janick |isbn=978-0-470-65087-5 |location=Chichester |pages=58 |oclc=644264104}}</ref> In 2018, houseplant growers in the Netherlands produced a billion houseplants for the European market.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vooght |first=Clare |date=2019-01-25 |title=The growers feeding Britain's booming houseplant habit |url=https://inews.co.uk/inews-lifestyle/homes-and-gardens/houseplants-uk-250587 |access-date=2022-07-22 |website=inews.co.uk |language=en}}</ref>

==Effects of houseplants==
{{See also|List of air-filtering plants}}

===Air quality===
Although houseplants are commonly considered to have an active, positive effect on [[indoor air quality]], much of the non-academic reporting on the subject is based on experiments involving the removal of [[volatile organic compounds]] (VOCs) from the air, the evidence for which is unclear.<ref name=":4"/>

The 1989 [[NASA Clean Air Study]] was set up to research ways to clean the air in sealed environments such as space stations. This included an early study on the ability of potted plants to remove VOCs, which concluded that plants, specifically a combination of their roots and the soil microorganisms, were highly effective.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last1=Wolverton |first1=B. |url=https://archive.org/details/nasa_techdoc_19930072988 |title=Interior Landscape Plants for Indoor Air Pollution Abatement |last2=Johnson |first2=A. |last3=Bounds |first3=K. |year=1989 |hdl=2060/19930073077}}</ref><ref name=":4" /><ref name=":1">{{cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Ronald A. |last2=Burchett |first2=Margaret D. |last3=Alquezar |first3=Ralph |last4=Orwell |first4=Ralph L. |last5=Tarran |first5=Jane |last6=Torpy |first6=Fraser |date=20 July 2006 |title=The Potted-Plant Microcosm Substantially Reduces Indoor Air VOC Pollution: I. Office Field-Study |journal=Water, Air, and Soil Pollution |volume=175 |issue=1–4 |pages=163–180 |bibcode=2006WASP..175..163W |citeseerx=10.1.1.466.4897 |doi=10.1007/s11270-006-9124-z |s2cid=55621034}}</ref> However, this study tested plants in ways which are not representative of an indoor environment; in sealed chambers and with highly elevated levels of the VOCs [[benzene]], [[trichloroethylene]] and [[formaldehyde]].<ref name=":2"/> Subsequent studies have confirmed the combined role of soil and roots<ref name=":0">{{cite journal |last1=Orwell |first1=Ralph L. |last2=Wood |first2=Ronald A. |last3=Burchett |first3=Margaret D. |last4=Tarran |first4=Jane |last5=Torpy |first5=Fraser |date=19 September 2006 |title=The Potted-Plant Microcosm Substantially Reduces Indoor Air VOC Pollution: II. Laboratory Study |journal=Water, Air, and Soil Pollution |volume=177 |issue=1–4 |pages=59–80 |bibcode=2006WASP..177...59O |doi=10.1007/s11270-006-9092-3 |s2cid=98216746}}</ref><ref name=Sriprapat2016>{{Cite journal |last1=Sriprapat |first1=Wararat |last2=Strand |first2=Stuart E. |date=2016-04-01 |title=A lack of consensus in the literature findings on the removal of airborne benzene by houseplants: Effect of bacterial enrichment |journal=Atmospheric Environment |language=en |volume=131 |pages=9–16 |bibcode=2016AtmEn.131....9S |doi=10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.01.031 |issn=1352-2310 |doi-access=free}}</ref> and showed that they were effective at cleaning in higher VOC concentrations, but only at lower concentrations after the process had been "kick-started" by a higher level of exposure.<ref name=":1" /> Others have shown that is possible to artificially enrich the soil directly with VOC-degrading bacteria and achieve the same result, and posited that exposure to high VOC levels (or low levels but in bursts) during experiments and the subsequent increase in such bacteria may have been a cause of the large differences seen in the results of various studies.<ref name=Sriprapat2016/> A 2019 review paper calculated that it would require between 10 and 1000 houseplants per square meter to achieve the same level of VOC removal as occurs from passive exchange between indoor and outdoor air.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Cummings |first1=Bryan E. |last2=Waring |first2=Michael S. |date=6 November 2019 |title=Potted plants do not improve indoor air quality: a review and analysis of reported VOC removal efficiencies |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41370-019-0175-9 |journal=Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology |language=en |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=253–261 |doi=10.1038/s41370-019-0175-9 |pmid=31695112 |s2cid=207911697 |issn=1559-064X}}</ref>

Houseplants do have a statistically significant effect on the concentrations of both [[carbon monoxide]] and [[carbon dioxide]] in normal indoor environments, reducing carbon dioxide levels by 10-25% and carbon monoxide levels by up to 90%.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tarran |first1=Jane |title=IAQVEC 2007: Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference on Indoor Air Quality, Ventilation and Energy Conservation in Buildings: Sustainable Built Environment |last2=Torpy |first2=Fraser |last3=Burchett |first3=Margaret |year=2007 |isbn=978-4-86163-070-5 |pages=249–56 |chapter=Use of living pot-plants to cleanse indoor air – research review |publisher=Tohoku University Press |citeseerx=10.1.1.534.4181 }}</ref> The effect has been also investigated by NASA for use in spacecraft.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wolverton |first1=BC |year=1988 |title=Foliage plants for improving indoor air quality |hdl=2060/19930073015 }}</ref>

===Indoor environment===
Plants also appear to affect the indoor [[microbiome]], increasing the number and diversity of bacteria in homes, while reducing fungal diversity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mahnert |first1=Alexander |last2=Moissl-Eichinger |first2=Christine |last3=Berg |first3=Gabriele |date=2015-08-28 |title=Microbiome interplay: plants alter microbial abundance and diversity within the built environment |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=6 |page=887 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2015.00887 |issn=1664-302X |pmc=4552223 |pmid=26379656|doi-access=free }}</ref> They tend to increase humidity, reduce temperature swings, and reduce noise.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wolverton |first1=B. C. |first2=John D. |last2=Wolverton |year=1996 |title=Interior plants: their influence on airborne microbes inside energy-efficient buildings |journal=Journal of the Mississippi Academy of Sciences |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=99–105 |url=http://www.wolvertonenvironmental.com/MsAcad-96.pdf }}</ref>

===Human well-being===
[[File:Early 1900s photo of a boy in a greenhouse, looking at flowers.jpg|thumb|People have long ascribed psychological benefits to growing plants; this 1915 caption states that "''all your cares flee. As a nerve-soothing, health-giving, enthusing hobby, it has no equal.''"<ref>{{Cite book |title=How to make hotbeds and coldframes... |publisher=The Countryside Press |year=1915 |pages=61}}</ref>]]
There are also many claimed psychological and physiological benefits to having houseplants. A 2022 systematic review with some meta-analyses included 42 studies which together measured the following human functions to study the benefits of indoor plants:

Physiology:
* reaction time
* pain tolerance
* skin and body temperature
* blood pressure, heart rate, heart rate variability, blood saturation, blood volume pulse and power spectral density
* respiratory rate
* cortisol level, galvanic skin response (electrodermal activity)
* salivary amylase activity
* critical flicker fusion frequency

Cognition:
* reaction time
* performance on various tasks: sorting, productivity, association, reading, information processing, vigilance, Reading Span, Digit Span, and the Stroop task
* Neurobehavioral functioning assessment
* brain activity
* eye movement
* academic grades

Behavior:
* pain tolerance and pain killer consumption
* sick leave, workplace misconduct

Health:
* pain tolerance
* pain killer consumption
* sick leave
* hospitalization days

Most but not all studies found a positive effect of plants. Each of the above functions was found to be influenced positively by the majority of the studies which measured it. The authors only had enough good-quality comparable data to synthesize six areas, from which they confirmed a [[statistically significant]] improvement only in diastolic blood pressure and academic performance.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Ke-Tsung |last2=Ruan |first2=Li-Wen |last3=Liao |first3=Li-Shih |title=Effects of Indoor Plants on Human Functions: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analyses |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |date=17 June 2022 |volume=19 |issue=12 |pages=7454 |doi=10.3390/ijerph19127454 |doi-access=free |pmid=35742700 |pmc=9224521 |issn=1661-7827}}</ref>

A critical review of the experimental literature concluded in 2009:

{{Blockquote|text=The reviewed studies<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Min-sun |last2=Lee |first2=Juyoung |last3=Park |first3=Bum-Jin |last4=Miyazaki |first4=Yoshifumi |title=Interaction with indoor plants may reduce psychological and physiological stress by suppressing autonomic nervous system activity in young adults: a randomized crossover study |journal=Journal of Physiological Anthropology |date=28 April 2015 |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=21 |doi=10.1186/s40101-015-0060-8 |pmc=4419447 |pmid=25928639 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Catherine O. |last2=Browning |first2=William D |last3=Clancy |first3=Joseph O |last4=Andrews |first4=Scott L |last5=Kallianpurkar |first5=Namita B |date=12 July 2014 |title=BIOPHILIC DESIGN PATTERNS: Emerging Nature-Based Parameters for Health and Well-Being in the Built Environment |journal=International Journal of Architectural Research: ArchNet-IJAR |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=62 |doi=10.26687/archnet-ijar.v8i2.436 |doi-access=}}</ref> suggest that indoor plants can provide psychological benefits such as stress-reduction and increased pain tolerance. However, they also showed substantial heterogeneity in methods and results. We therefore have strong reservations about general claims that indoor plants cause beneficial psychological changes. It appears that benefits are contingent on features of the context in which the indoor plants are encountered and on characteristics of the people encountering them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bringslimark |first1=Tina |last2=Hartig |first2=Terry |last3=Patil |first3=Grete G. |title=The psychological benefits of indoor plants: A critical review of the experimental literature |journal=Journal of Environmental Psychology |date=December 2009 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=422–433 |doi=10.1016/j.jenvp.2009.05.001 }}</ref>}}

Houseplants can offer minor recovery from stress when instituted as part of an environment. The presence of a houseplant in an office setting can also increase productivity. A 2004 controlled study discovered that houseplants can improve mental focus, stabilize mood, and raise psychological motivation when present in otherwise unadorned environments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shibata |first1=Seiji |last2=Suzuki |first2=Naoto |date=November 2004 |title=Effects of an indoor plant on creative task performance and mood |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9450.2004.00419.x |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Psychology |language=en |volume=45 |issue=5 |pages=373–381 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9450.2004.00419.x |pmid=15535806 |s2cid=16332969 |issn=0036-5564}}</ref>

==List of common houseplants==
[[File:Money plant 3.jpg|thumb|''Epipremnum aureum'' or Pothos is one of the most common houseplants and has many variegated forms.]]

===Tropical and subtropical===
*''[[Aglaonema]]'' (Chinese evergreen)
*''[[Alocasia]]'' and ''[[Colocasia]]'' spp. (elephant ear)
*''[[Anthurium]]'' spp.
*''[[Aphelandra squarrosa]]'' (zebra plant)
*''[[Araucaria heterophylla]]'' (Norfolk Island pine)
*''[[Aspidistra elatior]]'' (cast iron plant)
*''[[Begonia]]'' species and cultivars
*''[[Bromeliaceae]]'' (bromeliads, including [[Tillandsia|air plants]])
*''[[Calathea]]'', ''[[Goeppertia]]'' and ''[[Maranta (plant)|Maranta]]'' spp. (prayer plants)
*''[[Chlorophytum comosum]]'' (spider plant)
*''[[Citrus]]'' (compact cultivars such as the [[Meyer lemon]])
*''[[Cyclamen]]''
*''[[Dieffenbachia]]'' (dumbcane)
*''[[Epipremnum aureum]]'' (pothos)
*[[Fern]]s and plants treated like ferns, such as ''[[Asparagus aethiopicus]]'' (asparagus fern) and ''[[Nephrolepis exaltata]]'' (Boston fern) [[File:Gummibaum (Ficus elastica Robusta).jpg|thumb|''Ficus elastica'', or the rubber plant, is a common house plant but is also a tree which can grow up to {{convert|30-40|m}} tall in the wild.]]
*''[[Ficus]]'' spp., including ''[[Ficus benjamina]]'' (weeping fig), ''[[Ficus elastica]]'' (rubber plant) and ''[[Ficus lyrata]]'' (fiddle-leaf fig)
*''[[Hoya (plant)|Hoya]]'' spp.
*''[[Orchidaceae]]'' (orchid) spp.
*''[[Peperomia]]'' spp.
*Palms, such as ''[[Chamaedorea elegans]]'' (parlor palm) and ''[[Dypsis lutescens]]'' (areca palm),
*''[[Philodendron]]'' spp.
*''[[Monstera]]'' species (Swiss cheese plants)
*''[[Heptapleurum arboricola]]'' (umbrella plant)
*''[[Sinningia speciosa]]'' (gloxinia)
*''[[Spathiphyllum]]'' (peace lily)
*''[[Stephanotis floribunda]]'' (Madagascar jasmine)
*''[[Streptocarpus]]'', including [[Streptocarpus sect. Saintpaulia|''Streptocarpus'' sect. ''Saintpaulia'']] (African violets)
*''[[Tradescantia zebrina]]'' (purple wandering Jew)
*''[[Pilea peperomioides]]''
*''[[Scindapsus pictus]]'' (satin pothos)

===Succulents===
[[File:Snake plant, Sansevieria trifasciata 'Golden Hahnii', in Tuntorp.jpg|thumb|Snake plant, ''Dracaena'' (formerly ''Sansevieria'') ''trifasciata'', is known as one of the toughest and most common houseplants.]]
*''[[Aloe]]'' spp. including ''[[Aloe vera]]''
*[[Cactaceae]] (cacti)
**''[[Epiphyllum]]'' (orchid cacti)
**''[[Mammillaria]]''
**''[[Opuntia]]'' (paddle cacti, including the prickly pear)
**''[[Zygocactus]]'' (Christmas cactus)
**''[[Gymnocalycium mihanovichii]]'' (chin cactus)
*''[[Crassula ovata]]'' (jade plant)
*''[[Echeveria]]'' spp.
*''[[Haworthia]]'' spp.
*''[[Dracaena (plant)|Dracaena]]'' spp., including plants formerly in the genus [[Sansevieria]], such as the snake plant or mother-in-law's tongue, ''[[Dracaena trifasciata]]''.
*''[[Senecio angulatus]]'' (creeping groundsel)
*''[[Senecio rowleyanus]]'' (string of pearls)
*''[[Yucca]]'' spp.
[[File:Cactus (34).jpg|thumb|There are many species of cacti and succulents that stay small enough to do well as houseplants.]]

===Forced bulbs===
''Note: Many forced bulbs are also [[temperate]].''
*''[[Crocus]]''
*''[[Hippeastrum]]'' (amaryllis)
*''[[Hyacinth (plant)|Hyacinthus]]'' (hyacinth)
*''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'' (narcissus or daffodil)

===Temperate plants===
*''[[Hedera helix]]'' (English ivy)
*''[[Saxifraga stolonifera]]'' (strawberry begonia)

==See also==
*[[Indoor bonsai]]
{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikiversity|Houseplant care}}{{Commons category|Houseplants}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:House plants| ]]
[[Category:Interior design]]

Sliding door

2024-03-31T10:07:10Z

Postka:

{{Short description|Door that opens horizontally by sliding}}
{{About|non-vehicular sliding doors|sliding doors on vehicles|Sliding door (car)}}
{{Redirect|Sliding doors|the film|Sliding Doors}}

[[File:Sliding door tracks, Pompeii.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Ancient Rome|Roman]] sliding door tracks at [[Pompeii]], [[Italy]] (1st century AD)]]

A '''sliding door''' is a type of [[door]] which opens [[Horizontal plane|horizontally]] by sliding, usually parallel to (and sometimes within) a wall. Sliding doors can be mounted either on top of a track below or be suspended from a track above. Some types slide into a space in the parallel wall in the direction of travel, rather than the door sliding along the outside of the parallel wall.<ref name=open-i-close>{{cite book|title=Open I Close: Windows, Doors, Gates, Loggias, Filters|first1=Anette|last1=Hochberg|first2=Jan-Henrik|last2=Hafke|first3=Joachim|last3=Raab|year=2010|publisher=Birkhäuser Verlag AG|page=116}}</ref> There are several types of sliding doors, such as [[pocket door]]s, [[sliding glass door]]s, center-opening doors, and bypass doors. Sliding doors are commonly used as [[shower]] doors, glass doors, [[screen door]]s, and [[wardrobe]] doors, and in vans.

==History==
Sliding doors were used as early as the 1st century [[Common Era|CE]] in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] houses (as evidenced by archaeological finds in [[Pompeii]], [[Italy]]). However, there is no evidence to confirm that the Romans were the first humans to have invented or used sliding doors.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Wool Trade of Ancient Pompeii|last=Moeller|first=Walter O.|page=47|year=1976}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Last Days of Pompeii|url=https://archive.org/details/lastdayspompeii28lyttgoog|last=Bulwer Lytton Baron Lytton|first=Edward|year=1893|publisher=Estes and Lauriat }}</ref>

==Sliding door gear==
The mechanism used to operate a sliding door is called ''sliding door gear''. There are two standard types: top-hung or bottom rolling systems. Both types do not have a perfect seal. To reduce air- and smoke-tightness and improve sound insulation, brush seals are commonly used.<ref name=open-i-close/>

===Top-hung sliding doors===
[[File:Blue Sliding Door (Closeup).jpg|thumb|Some sliding doors run on a wall-mounted rail, like this one|left]]
[[File:Sliding-wardrobe.jpg|thumb|right|Sliding doors in a modern wardrobe]]
The 'top-hung' system is most often used. The door is hung by two trolley hangers at the top of the door running in a concealed track; all the weight is taken by the hangers, making the door easier to move.<ref>{{cite book|title=Shelves, Closets and Cabinets|first1=Peter|last1=Jones|first2=Mary|last2=Kornblum|page=80|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|year=1987}}</ref>

At each end is a track stopper to absorb any impact made if the door is slammed and to hold the door in the open or closed position. All top-hung sliding door gear systems have a maximum weight limit per pair of trolley hangers.

As the door is hung at the top from two points, it also needs a bottom track/stay roller<ref>{{cite book|title=Graphic Standards Field Guide to Residential Construction|page=323|first1=Dennis J.|last1=Hall|first2=Nina M.|last2=Giglio|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}</ref>{{clarify|date=July 2021|reason=Is 'stay roller' another term for 'bottom track'? If so, change to 'bottom track (also referred to as a [italics] stay roller [end italics])'. If these are two components, change to 'bottom track and stay roller'. If neither of the previous apply, please clarify however contextually proper.}} to prevent it from [[degrees of freedom (mechanics)|swinging sideways]]. The most common type is called 'clear threshold guiding', a floor-fixed plastic guide about {{convert|60|mm}} wide which is fixed below the door at the midpoint of its run. A groove is cut into the bottom of the door which runs over this guide, preventing lateral movement of the door. With a glass door, the panel runs through the guide as illustrated. Because the door is always engaged in the guide, when the door is open, the floor is clear; hence 'clear threshold'.

The bottom of the doors are held in place on tracks. The rollers also have safety locks that prevent the doors from jumping off the tracks. Additional devices include soft-closers and dampeners, which make it easier to close the door gently.

A popular top-hung sliding door type is the [[barn door (architecture)|barn door]], inspired from countryside [[barn]]s, in modern homes of Scandinavian styles.

===Bottom-rolling door gear===
Sometimes a top-hung system cannot be used, as the weight of the door cannot be supported from above; in this case, a bottom-rolling system may be used.

A bottom-rolling system consists of two rollers (sometimes called a sheave) at the bottom of the door running on a track, and two guides at the top running in a guide channel. As all the weight of the door is concentrated on the two bottom wheels, more force is needed to move the door than on a top-hung system.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}}

===Lift-and-slide door gear===
A sliding door that is lifted from the frame during opening and closing is called a lift-and-slide door. This allows for a better seal, with less draught and better soundproofing.<ref name=open-i-close/>

=== Why Soundproof Sliding Doors? ===
A sliding doors should be soundproofed to prevent noise from passing through. This is more so if the door is used in residential buildings and offices with noisy neighborhoods. Soundproofing sliding doors keeps away unwanted noises from Mother Nature, construction sites, and neighborhood activities.

==Automatic sliding doors==
[[File:HK TST Kln Park Drive Yue Hwa Int Building 自動門 Showa automatic door.JPG|thumb|Automatic door in [[Hong Kong]]]]
{{main|Sliding door operator}}
Some sliding doors contain a motor and activation system to open them. These are called ''sliding door operators''. Automatic sliding doors are commonly found in offices and shop entrances. These doors contain a magnetic locking mechanism that automatically unlocks during emergencies.<ref name=open-i-close/>

==Usage==
Advantages of sliding doors are the small space requirements for door-opening, and their relative ease of automation. The mechanism is also secure, since it cannot be lifted out of its hinges.<ref>{{cite book|title=Facility Manager's Guide to Security: Protecting Your Assets|year=2005|publisher=The Fairmont Press, Inc.|first=Robert N.|last=Reid|page=80}}</ref> Sliding doors are commonly found as store, hotel, and office entrances, used in elevators, and used as patio doors, closet doors and room dividers.<ref>{{cite book|title=Olin's Construction: Principles, Materials, and Methods|last=Simmons|first=Leslie L.|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|year=2011}}</ref> Sliding doors are also used in transportation, such as in vans and both overground and underground trains. Volkswagen used these doors in the [[Volkswagen Type 147 Kleinlieferwagen|Volkswagen Fridolin]] produced between 1964 and 1974.

== See also ==
* [[Shoji]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category inline|bullet=none|Sliding doors}}

[[Category:Doors]]
[[Category:Italian inventions]]

The High Life (American TV series)

2024-03-31T09:28:59Z

Postka: /* Cast */

{{for|the 1994 British television series|The High Life (British TV series)}}
{{infobox television
| image =
| caption =
| genre = [[Sitcom]]
| runtime = 30 minutes
| company = [[Worldwide Pants|Worldwide Pants Incorporated]]
| creator = [[Adam Resnick]]
| producer =
| camera = [[Single-camera setup|Single-camera]] (videotape)
| starring = [[Mark Wilson (comedian)|Mark Wilson]] [[Ernie Grunwald]] [[Robert Joy]] Betsy Aidem Duke Moosekian
| composer = [[John Colby (musician)|John Colby]]
| narrated =
| country = United States
| language = English
| network = [[HBO]]
| first_aired = {{Start date|1996|11|09}}
| last_aired = {{End date|1996|12|18}}
| num_seasons = 1
| num_episodes = 8
| list_episodes = The High Life (1996 TV series)#Episodes
}}

'''''The High Life''''' is a 1996 black-and-white American [[sitcom]] [[television series]] starring the Canadian actors [[Mark Wilson (comedian)|Mark Wilson]] and [[Robert Joy]]. It was created and co-written by [[Adam Resnick]]. It was produced by [[David Letterman]]'s [[Worldwide Pants|Worldwide Pants Incorporated]] company and played on the [[HBO]] network from November 9 to December 18, 1996.

==Premise==
[[Mark Wilson (comedian)|Mark Wilson]] and [[Robert Joy]] star as the characters Earl and Emmett, respectively, who are two businessmen trying to get rich in 1950s [[Pittsburgh]]. The pair are co-owners of a small, struggling storage company called Paradise Storage. The show opens just as Earl's previous business deal, an investment in rock salts, falls apart. In order to recover his losses, Earl comes up with the idea to open the storage company. Earl is outspoken and always looking for quick ways to make a profit, while Emmett acts as his passive sidekick. Emmett was reluctant to join in on the business, but agreed because it was the only way for him to collect a debt Earl owed him. The show is shot in black and white in an attempt to emulate television from the 1950s, and especially the concept of the 1951-53 sitcom ''[[Amos 'n' Andy]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tvguide.com/tvshows/the-high-life/cast/201985 |title=The High Life Cast and Details|work=TV Guide |accessdate=2013-02-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://splitsider.com/2012/08/remembering-the-high-life-a-look-back-at-one-of-hbos-most-underrated-sitcoms/ | title = Remembering The High Life|publisher=Split Sider|accessdate=2013-10-31}}</ref>

==Cast==
*[[Robert Joy]] as Emmett
*[[Mark Wilson (comedian)|Mark Wilson]] as Earl
*[[Betsy Aidem]] as Irene
*[[Ernie Grunwald]] as Claude
*[https://www.encyclopedia.com/education/news-wires-white-papers-and-books/moosekian-duke Duke Moosekian] as Rudy
*Stephen Mellor as multiple characters

==History==
The show was originally supposed to air on CBS with the title "Emmett and Earl". It was set in present-day but with 1950s characteristics, and proved to be unnecessarily confusing for audiences. When CBS tested a pilot episode, the resulting numbers were disappointing, and CBS dropped the deal. The show's creator, [[Adam Resnick]], then sent a version of the pilot to HBO's head of programming, [[Chris Albrecht]]. Albrecht reportedly loved the show and invited Resnick to produce 10 episodes in HBO's studios exactly the way it had been pitched: in black and white, with just one camera, and set in the 1950s. But despite initial positivity, the HBO version of ''The High Life'' faced challenges from very early on. For monetary reasons, the studio hired an entirely non-unionized cast and crew, for which Resnick received negative feedback.

Additionally, both the camera crew and HBO's advertising department had trouble understanding Resnick's vision, and the result was an unusual show that some critics described as being nasty and mean-spirited, for which HBO did not know how to attract the right audience. Eventually, the show hired [[Peyton Reed]], who directed the show's final two episodes and was the only crew member who seemed to understand Resnick's ideas. However, despite Reed's enthusiastic directing, the crew, advertising staff, and cast grew even less cohesive, which led HBO to cut the season from 10 episodes to 8, foreshadowing the show's ultimate cancellation after just 8 episodes. Resnick has expressed disappointment in how the show's fate played out. Not only did its producer, [[David Letterman]] support the show, but Resnick believes it could have targeted a specific, dedicated audience had it been advertised properly. He believes the show was prematurely cancelled just as it had started to improve with Reed's directing, and wishes they had been granted a second chance.

The show was one of the first of its kind. Its frequently dark settings, with self-centered, unlikable characters was not commonplace in television before 1996. Shows that are popular today, such as ''[[It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia]]'', exhibit some of these same production and writing styles. Resnick also made the risky decision to cast Stephen Mellor as a different antagonist each week, a pattern that is visible in the first season NBC's popular ''[[30 Rock]]'' sitcom. These unique attributes aside, the show failed to survive and today, there are very few traces of it available anywhere on the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://splitsider.com/2012/08/remembering-the-high-life-a-look-back-at-one-of-hbos-most-underrated-sitcoms/ | title = Remembering The High Life|publisher=Split Sider|accessdate=2013-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=EpGuide |url=http://epguides.com/HighLife_US/ | title = The High Life Episode Guide|publisher=Episode Guide|accessdate=2013-10-31}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.latimes.com/1996-11-09/entertainment/ca-62776_1_high-life | title = The High Life Makes the 50s Fresh|work=Los Angeles Times| date = 9 November 1996|accessdate=2013-10-31}}</ref>

==Episodes==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="background:#fff;"
|-
! style="background:#39f;"| No.
! style="background:#39f;"| Title
! style="background:#39f;"| Directed by
! style="background:#39f;"| Written by
! style="background:#39f;"| Original air date
{{Episode list
|Title=Vacation Money
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1996|11|09}}
|EpisodeNumber=1
|DirectedBy= [[Peter Lauer]]
|WrittenBy= [[Adam Resnick]]
|ShortSummary= Earl is afraid of his wife, Irene, finding out that he used their vacation money to invest in rock salts, so he rents out the storage company in order to earn back the money. The renters identify themselves as a civic group, but turn out to be the [[Ku Klux Klan]]. This is problematic for Earl, whose black neighbor had expressed interest in investing in the storage company and was scheduled to visit the site that day.
|LineColor=3399ff
}}
{{Episode list
|Title=Crockett Hats
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1996|11|13}}
|EpisodeNumber=2
|DirectedBy= Peter Lauer
|WrittenBy= Adam Resnick
|ShortSummary= Earl and Emmett are targeted by a toy company representative when they start selling unauthorized [[Davy Crockett]] caps.
|LineColor=3399ff
}}
{{Episode list
|Title=The Rose
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1996|11|20}}
|EpisodeNumber=3
|DirectedBy= Peter Lauer
|WrittenBy= Adam Resnick
|ShortSummary= Earl's wife bakes a prize-winning cake that vaguely resembles a [[hammer and sickle]] symbol and Earl buys Russian-made vodka. The couple is then accused of being [[communists]] by followers of [[Joseph McCarthy|McCarthy]].
|LineColor=3399ff
}}
{{Episode list
|Title=Bowling
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1996|11|27}}
|EpisodeNumber=4
|DirectedBy= Peter Lauer
|WrittenBy= John Altschuler and Dave Krinsky
|ShortSummary= When Earl discovers that Irene's cousin, Judith, has a promising talent for bowling, he decides to manage her career.
|LineColor=3399ff
}}
{{Episode list
|Title=Funeral
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1996|12|04}}
|EpisodeNumber=5
|DirectedBy= [[Damon Santostefano]]
|WrittenBy= Vince Calandra
|ShortSummary= Earl is thrilled to find out that Irene's uncle has left them a small inheritance, until he finds out that they are expected to pay for his funeral.
|LineColor=3399ff
}}
{{Episode list
|Title=Army Buddy
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1996|12|11}}
|EpisodeNumber=6
|DirectedBy= [[Peyton Reed]]
|WrittenBy= Vince Calandra
|ShortSummary= One of Earl's old friends from the army, whose arm was amputated after battle, shows up and tells everyone that Earl saved his life during [[World War II]].
|LineColor=3399ff
}}
{{Episode list
|Title=Union
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1996|12|18}}
|EpisodeNumber=7
|DirectedBy= Damon Santostefano
|WrittenBy= John Altschuler and Dave Krinsky |
ShortSummary= Irene's nephew (Kutzy Claude), the only employee of the storage company, is targeted by a determined union worker who tries to convince him to join the organization.
|LineColor=3399ff
}}
{{Episode list
|Title=Vending Machine
|OriginalAirDate={{Start date|1996|12|25}}
|EpisodeNumber=8
|DirectedBy= Peyton Reed
|WrittenBy= Vince Calandra
|ShortSummary= Earl decides to get a vending machine for his office and plans to donate the proceeds to charity. When Irene finds out about the vending machine, she and her friends start to hang around the office very often.
|LineColor=3399ff
}}
|}

<ref>{{cite web|author=TV.com |url=http://www.tv.com/shows/the-high-life-1996/episodes/ | title = The High Life|publisher=TV.com|accessdate=2013-10-31}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|0115203|The High Life}}
*{{TV Guide show|201985}}
*{{epguides|HighLife_US}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:High Life (1996 TV series), The}}
[[Category:1996 American television series debuts]]
[[Category:1996 American television series endings]]
[[Category:1990s American single-camera sitcoms]]
[[Category:American English-language television shows]]
[[Category:HBO original programming]]
[[Category:Television series by Worldwide Pants]]
[[Category:Television shows set in Pittsburgh]]
[[Category:Black-and-white American television shows]]
[[Category:Television series set in the 1950s]]
[[Category:Television series created by Adam Resnick]]
[[Category:Amos 'n' Andy]]

Dawson State Jail

2024-03-31T06:10:35Z

Postka:

{{Short description|Jail in Dallas, Texas, United States}}
The '''Jesse R. Dawson State Jail''' ('''JD''') was a co-gender nonviolent offender state jail operated by the [[Corrections Corporation of America]] owned by the [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]] (TDCJ). It was located in [[Downtown Dallas|Downtown]] [[Dallas]],<ref>"[http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/unit_directory/jd.html DAWSON (JD)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603165803/http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/unit_directory/jd.html |date=2013-06-03 }}." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]]. Retrieved on June 3, 2013.</ref> on the banks of the [[Trinity River (Texas)|Trinity River]].<ref name=Wilonsky>Wilonsky, Robert. "[http://www.dallasnews.com/news/metro/20130528-dallas-dawson-state-jail-on-chopping-block-but-texas-department-of-criminal-justice-has-final-say.ece Dallas' Dawson State Jail on chopping block, but Texas Department of Criminal Justice has final say]." ''[[The Dallas Morning News]]''. May 28, 2013. Retrieved on June 3, 2013.</ref>

For a long time, officials from the City of Dallas have advocated for the closure of the jail in order to use the land for the [[Trinity River Corridor Project]]. Because of some health-related deaths that occurred before May 2013, the [[Texas Civil Rights Project]], the [[American Civil Liberties Union]] (ACLU) and other area groups had advocated for the closure of the jail. The state lawmakers, as well, had wanted the prison closed because the State of Texas had a decrease in its state jail population.

[[Texas Senator]] [[John Whitmire]] advocated for closing Dawson and the [[Mineral Wells Pre-Parole Transfer Facility]] in late 2012. In May 2013 the state government moved to end the $97 million budget for the facility as a way of closing the facility. The facility was closed in August 2013.

The [https://trinityparkconservancy.org Trinity Park Conservancy] purchased the jail for $3 million and set to transform the former prison into the anchor for new Trinity Park with park offices, bike rentals, restrooms, and restaurants.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kalthoff • • |first=Ken |date=2019-05-30 |title=Dawson State Jail to Become Anchor Building for New Trinity Park |url=https://www.nbcdfw.com/news/local/dawson-state-jail-to-become-trinity-park-anchor-building/248258/ |access-date=2024-03-31 |website=NBC 5 Dallas-Fort Worth |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* "[https://web.archive.org/web/20130603165803/http://www.tdcj.state.tx.us/unit_directory/jd.html DAWSON (JD)]." [[Texas Department of Criminal Justice]].

{{coord|32|46|33|N|96|48|56|W|scale:10000|display=title}}
{{Downtown Dallas}}
{{TDCJ-CID state jails}}

[[Category:Prisons in Texas]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Dallas]]
[[Category:CoreCivic]]

{{Dallas-stub}}
{{Texas-struct-stub}}

Business-to-business

2024-03-31T05:37:55Z

Postka:

{{short description|Commercial transaction between businesses}}
[[File:Guangzhou-electronic-components-shop-0479.jpg|thumb|The "electronic components district" of [[Guangzhou]], where numerous shops sell electronic components to other companies that would use them to manufacture consumer goods]]

'''Business-to-business''' ('''B2B''' or, in some countries, '''BtoB''') is a situation where one business makes a commercial transaction with another. This typically occurs when:

* A business sources materials for its production process for output (e.g., a food manufacturer purchasing salt), i.e. providing raw material to the other company that will produce output.
* A business needs the services of another for operational reasons (e.g., a food manufacturer employing an [[accountancy]] firm to [[External Audit|audit]] their finances).
* A business re-sells goods and services produced by others (e.g., a [[retail]]er buying the end product from the food manufacturer).

Business-to-Business companies represent a significant part of the [[Economy of the United States|United States economy]]. This is especially true in firms with 500 employees and above, of which there were 19,464 in 2015,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2015/econ/susb/2015-susb-annual.html|title=2015 SUSB Annual Data Tables by Establishment Industry|first=US Census|last=Bureau|website=www.census.gov}}</ref> where it is estimated that as many as 72% are businesses that primarily serve other businesses.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://fortune.com/fortune500/2015/ |title=Fortune 500 2015 |magazine=Fortune.com |access-date=2018-10-18}}</ref> One possible argument of [[economics]] to explain the levels of Business-to-Business activity is that it allows for business segmentation.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Business Segmentation and Location Revisited: Innovation and the Terra Incognita of Large Firms |year=1999 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00343409950081275 |publisher=Taylor & Francis Online |doi=10.1080/00343409950081275 |access-date=8 April 2023 |last1=Hayter |first1=Roger |last2=Patchell |first2=Jerry |last3=Rees |first3=Kevin |journal=Regional Studies |volume=33 |issue=5 |pages=425–442 }}</ref>

B2B is often contrasted with [[business-to-consumer]] (B2C) trade.

== Organization ==
B2B involves specific challenges at different stages. At their formation, organizations should be careful to rely on an appropriate combination of contractual and relational mechanisms.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Poppo|first1=Laura|last2=Zenger|first2=Todd|date=2002|title=Do formal contracts and relational governance function as substitutes or complements?|journal=Strategic Management Journal|language=en|volume=23|issue=8|pages=707–725|doi=10.1002/smj.249|issn=0143-2095|doi-access=free}}</ref> Specific combinations of contracts and relational norms may influence the nature and dynamics of the negotiations between firms.{{cn|date=March 2023}}

== Business to business model ==
=== Vertical B2B model ===
Vertical B2B is generally oriented to manufacturing or business. It can be divided into two directions: upstream and downstream. Producers or commercial retailers can have a supply relationship with upstream suppliers, including manufacturers, and form a sales relationship.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=E-COMMERCE, AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE|publisher=P.T. Joseph, S.J|year=2015|isbn=978-81-203-5154-7|pages=43–45}}</ref> As an example, [[Dell]] works with upstream suppliers of [[Integrated circuit|integrated circuit microchips]] and [[Printed circuit board|computer printed circuit boards (PCBs)]].

A vertical B2B website can be similar to the enterprise's online store.<ref name=":0" /> Through the website, the company can promote its products vigorously, more efficiently and more comprehensively which enriches transactions as they help their customers understand their products well. Or, the website can be created for business, where the seller advertises their products to promote and expand transactions.

A good example of a vertical B2B model is manufacturers vs wholesalers.

=== Horizontal B2B model ===
Horizontal B2B is the transaction pattern for the intermediate trading market. It concentrates similar transactions of various industries into one place, as it provides a trading opportunity for the purchaser and supplier, typically involving companies that do not own the products and do not sell the products. It is merely a platform to bring sellers and purchasers together online.<ref>{{Cite book|title=E-commerce: Formulation of Strategy|publisher=Robert T. Plant|year=2000|isbn=0-13-019844-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ecommerceformula00plan/page/26 26-27]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/ecommerceformula00plan/page/26}}</ref> The better platforms help buyers easily find information about the sellers and the relevant information about the products via the website.

A good example of horizontal B2B model is bankers vs corporate lawyers.

===Growth of e-procurement===
A 2022 Amazon report highlighted a "rapid transformation of B2B [[e-procurement]] in recent years", with 91% of the B2B buyers surveyed in their study stating that they preferred online purchasing.<ref>Amazon Business, [https://press.aboutamazon.com/2022/9/amazon-business-2022-state-of-business-procurement-report-highlights-opportunities-in-e-procurement Amazon Business' 2022 State of Business Procurement Report Highlights Opportunities in E-Procurement], published 28 September 2022, accessed 24 March 2023</ref>

== Comparison with Business-to-consumer (B2C) ==
{{More footnotes|section|date=March 2016}}
In B2B commerce, it is often the case that the parties to the relationship have comparable [[Negotiation|negotiating]] power, and even when they do not, each party typically involves professional staff and legal counsel in the negotiation of terms, whereas [[B2C]] is shaped to a far greater degree by economic implications of [[information asymmetry]]. However, within a B2B context, large companies may have many commercial, resource and information advantages over smaller businesses. The United Kingdom government, for example, created the post of [[Small Business Commissioner]] under the [https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/12/contents/enacted Enterprise Act 2016] to "enable small businesses to resolve disputes" and "consider complaints by small business suppliers about [[payment]] issues with larger businesses that they supply."<ref>[https://www.gov.uk/government/consultations/small-business-commissioner-role Small Business Commissioner role], 26 July 2015, accessed 22 October 2017</ref>

The principal difference between B2B and B2C is that the first one refers to commerce transaction between manufacturer and retailer, and the second one it is the retailer supplying goods to the consumer.<ref>{{cite CiteSeerX |last1=Kumar |first1=Vinod |last2=Raheja |first2=Gagandeep |title=Business to business and business to consumer management |citeseerx=10.1.1.299.8382 }}</ref> In B2B there are business people on both sides, whereas in B2C there is normally one business person and one consumer. In the first case, the decision is pursued by need (because the other business needs it), and in the second case, they are expectations rather than needs. B2B has many sellers and different stores, whereas B2C, is usually just one supplier. B2B concentrates on raw data for another company, but B2C focuses on producing something for consumers. A B2B transaction entails direct-sourcing contract management, which involves negotiating terms that establish prices and various other factors such as volume-based pricing, carrier and logistics preferences, etc. B2C transaction is clearer, it has spot sourcing contract management that offers a flat retail rate for each item sold. Time is also different as B2B has a slower process than B2C which is concluded in shorter periods (that could be minutes or days).

Business-to-business generally requires an upfront investment whereas business-to-consumers do not need a business to spend money on infrastructure. The last difference mentioned here is that in B2B, lagging behind in the digital transformation, have to deal with back-office connectivity and invoicing a number of different partners and suppliers, while B2C results in more seamless transactions as options, such as cyber-cash, allows the business to accept a wider variety of payment options. B2B typically only allows payment via credit card or invoice, making the purchasing process longer and more expensive than with B2C. B2B, as there are normally bigger amounts involved over longer periods of time, usually have higher costs than B2C, which consists of quick, daily transactions. Businesses typically want to buy on net terms, meaning that B2B merchants have to wait weeks, if not months to get paid for their goods or services. As a result, smaller businesses with less capital often struggle to stay afloat. In B2B, brand reputations greatly depend on the personal relationship between businesses. On the other hand, in B2C, the business's reputation is often fueled by publicity through the media.

In many cases, the overall volume of B2B (business-to-business) transactions is much higher than the volume of B2C transactions.<ref>{{cite book | last = Sandhusen | first = Richard | title = Marketing | publisher = Barron's Educational Series | location = Hauppauge, N.Y | year = 2008 | isbn = 978-0-7641-3932-1 | page = 520}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Shelly | first = Gary | title = Systems analysis and design | publisher = Course Technology, Cengage Learning | location = Boston, MA | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-0-538-47443-6 | page = 10}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Garbade | first = Michael | title = Differences in Venture Capital Financing of U.S., UK, German and French Information Technology Start-ups A Comparative Empirical Research of the Investment Process on the Venture Capital Firm Level | publisher = GRIN Verlag GmbH | location = München | year = 2011 | isbn = 978-3-640-89316-4 | page = 31}}</ref> The primary reason for this is that in a typical [[supply chain]] there will be many B2B transactions involving subcomponents or [[raw materials]], and only one B2C transaction, specifically the sale of the finished product to the end customer. For example, an automobile manufacturer makes several B2B transactions such as buying tires, glass for windows, and rubber hoses for its vehicles. The final transaction, a finished vehicle sold to the consumer, is a single ([[business-to-consumer|B2C]]) transaction.

==B2B2C==
'''B2B2C''' means "business-to-business-to-consumer". According to the [[TechTarget]] website, the purpose of the terminology is to "extend the business-to-business model to include [[e-commerce]] for consumers". B2B2C aims to "create a mutually beneficial relationship between suppliers of goods and services and online retailers".<ref>TechTarget, [https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/B2B2C-business-to-business-to-consumer B2B2C (business-to-business-to-consumer)], accessed 23 January 2021</ref> According to Lomate and Ramachandran, it enables manufacturers (the first "B" in B2B2C) to connect with, understand and serve their end customers ("C") without undermining their sales and distribution networks, including [[Online marketplace|online sellers]] (the second "B") or excluding them from continuing [[customer engagement]].<ref>Lomate, O. S. and Ramachandran, S., [https://www.infosys.com/about/knowledge-institute/insights/Documents/future-customer-engagement.pdf B2B2C: The Future of Customer Engagement], Infosys, 2019, accessed 23 January 2021</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Account manager]]
* [[B2B e-commerce]]
* [[Business-to-consumer]]
* [[Business-to-government]]
* [[Customer to customer]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Business marketing}}

[[Category:Business-to-business| ]]
[[Category:Information technology management]]
[[Category:Marketing by target group]]

Ethical marketing

2024-03-31T05:02:23Z

Postka:

{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=March 2016}}
{{original research|date=March 2016}}
}}

{{marketing}}
'''Ethical marketing''' refers to the application of [[marketing ethics]] into the [[marketing]] process. Briefly, marketing ethics refers to the philosophical examination, from a moral standpoint, of particular marketing issues that are matters of moral judgment. Ethical marketing generally results in a more socially responsible and [[culturally sensitive]] business community.

The establishment of marketing ethics has the potential to benefit society as a whole, both in the short- and long-term. As such, ethical marketing should be part of [[business ethics]] in the sense that marketing forms a significant part of any [[business model]]. Study of Ethical marketing should be included in [[applied ethics]] and involves examination of whether or not an [[honesty|honest]] and [[fact]]ual representation of a product or service has been delivered in a framework of cultural and social values.

Ethical marketing promotes qualitative benefits to its customers, which other business practices, products or services fail to recognise. The concern with [[marketing ethics|ethical issues]], such as child labor, working conditions, relationships with developing countries and environmental problems, has changed the attitude of the Western World to a more socially responsible way of thinking. Ethical marketing is a positive influence on companies, and their response is to market their products in a more socially responsible way.

The increasing trend of [[fair trade]] is an example of the impact of ethical marketing. In the Ethical Shoppers Price Index Survey (2009), fair trade was the most popular ethical badge products could have. It also revealed that many consumers distrusted green claims. (The idea of fair trade is that consumers pay a guaranteed commodity price to a small group of producers, the producers agree to pay fair labor prices and conserve the environment - a fair deal for everyone.)

The philosophy of marketing is not lost with this newfound ethical slant, but rather hopes to win [[customer loyalty]] by reinforcing the positive values of the brand, creating a strong citizen brand. However, this new way of thinking does create new challenges for the marketer of the 21st century, in terms of invention and development of products to add long-term benefits without reducing the product's desirable qualities.

Many brands have tried to use ethics to make themselves look responsible, often spinning environmental claims which has led to the term "[[greenwash]]". In research consumers have shown to have even less trust of ethical claims in ads than ordinary ads. As a result, media attention on ethics has resulted in many top brands suffering consumer boycotts. Although many brands have tried to leverage green issues, research shows that 2/3 of consumers responded more to ethical claims that relate to people rather than to the environment.<ref>{{cite book
|last=Arnold
|first=Chris
|year=2010
|title=Ethical Marketing & The New Consumer
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons (UK)
|pages= 272
|isbn=978-0-470-74302-7
}}</ref>

Ethical marketing should not be confused with government regulations brought into force to improve [[consumer welfare]], such as reducing sulfur dioxide emissions to improve the quality of the air. A government regulation is a legal remedy intended to mitigate or correct an ethical issue, such as pollution of the air that we all share. Enlightened ethical marketing is at work when the company and its marketers recognize further improvements for humankind, unrelated to those enforced by governments or public opinion. By way of example, the Coop Group refuses to invest money in tobacco, fur and any countries with oppressive regimes.

Over the past few years ethical marketing has become a more important part of marketing with many university courses adding modules on the importance of ethics within the industry, trade bodies such ss the [https://iccwbo.org/ ICC] have also added their own [https://icc.academy/certifications/icc-code-for-ethical-marketing-advertising-course/ courses].

Many industry awards also now recognise the importance of ethical marketing in the mix.

==See also==
* [[Business ethics]]
* [[Fair trade]]
* [[Greenwashing]]
* [[Marketing ethics]]
* [[Socially responsible marketing]]

==Further reading==
* {{cite book
| last = Murphy
| first = Patrick E. |author2=Gene R. Laczniak | author3-link = Norman E. Bowie |author3=Norman E. Bowie |author4=Thomas A. Klein
| title = Ethical marketing
| publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall
| location = Upper Saddle River, N.J
| origyear = 2004
| year = 2005
| isbn = 978-0-13-184814-6
| oclc = 54805964
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Laczniak
| first = Eugene R |author2=Robert F Lusch |author3=William A Strang
| title = Ethical marketing : product vs. process
| publisher = Graduate School of Business, University of Wisconsin-Madison
| location = Madison
| year = 1978
| oclc = 33226121
}}
* {{cite book
| last = Ginsburg
| first = Roy S
| title = Ethical marketing skills for lawyers
| publisher = Continuing Legal Education in Colorado
| location = Denver
| year = 2006
| oclc = 133147723
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Fan
|first=Y.
|year=2005
|title=Ethical branding and corporate reputation - Corporate Communication: 10:4
|journal=Corporate Communications
|publisher=Emerald Group Publishing Limited
|pages= 341–350
|hdl=2438/1283
|issn=1356-3289
|doi=10.1108/13563280510630133
|hdl-access=free
}}
* Serafinn, Lynn. (2011). ''The 7 Graces of Marketing: how to heal humanity and the planet by changing the way we sell. ''London: Humanity 1 Press. {{ISBN|9780956857804}} {{ISBN|9780956857804}}.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.196.234&rep=rep1&type=pdf Ethical Marketing for Competitive Advantage on the Internet]
* [http://ethicalmarketinggroup.com/cop/ Draft Code of Practice for Ethical Marketing, by the Ethical Marketing Group] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314130325/http://ethicalmarketinggroup.com/cop/ |date=2018-03-14 }}
* [https://ethicalmarketingnews.com/ Ethical Marketing News Resource for those Interested in Ethical Campaigns]

[[Category:Types of marketing]]
[[Category:Corporate social responsibility]]

Baron Rockley

2024-03-30T14:21:07Z

Postka:

{{short description|Barony in the Peerage of the United Kingdom}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
'''Baron Rockley''', of [[Lytchett Heath]]<ref>[https://www.geograph.org.uk/photo/3975019 Geograph]</ref> in the [[County of Dorset]], is a title in the [[peerage of the United Kingdom]].<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=34015 |date=16 January 1934 |page=386}}</ref> It was created on 11 January 1934 for the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] politician [[Evelyn Cecil, 1st Baron Rockley|Sir Evelyn Cecil]], who had earlier represented [[Hertfordshire East (UK Parliament constituency)|Hertfordshire East]], [[Aston Manor (UK Parliament constituency)|Aston Manor]] and [[Birmingham Aston (UK Parliament constituency)|Birmingham Aston]] in the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]].

He was the son of [[Lord Eustace Cecil]], fourth son of [[James Gascoyne-Cecil, 2nd Marquess of Salisbury]]. The first baron was married to the horticulturist [[Alicia Amherst]]. {{As of|2019}} the title is held by their great-grandson, the fourth baron, who succeeded his father in 2011.

==Barons Rockley (1934)==
*[[Evelyn Cecil, 1st Baron Rockley]] (1865–1941)
*[https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp132094/robert-william-evelyn-cecil-2nd-baron-rockley Robert William Evelyn Cecil, 2nd Baron Rockley] (1901–1976)
*[https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person/mp87554/james-hugh-cecil-3rd-baron-rockley James Hugh Cecil, 3rd Baron Rockley] (1934–2011)
*[https://de-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anthony_Cecil,_4._Baron_Rockley?_x_tr_sl=de&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en&_x_tr_pto=sc Anthony Robert Cecil, 4th Baron Rockley] (b. 1961)

The [[heir apparent]] is the present holder's son Hon. William Evelyn Cecil (b. 1996).

==Arms==
{{Infobox COA wide
|escutcheon = Barry of ten Argent and Azure over all six escutcheons Sable three two and one each charged with a lion rampant of the first and for difference a crescent Gules charged with another crescent Or.
|crest = Six arrows in saltire Or barbed and flighted Argent girt together with a belt Gules buckled and garnished Gold over the arrows a morion cap Proper.
|supporters = On either side a lion Ermine gorged with a collar Or pendent therefrom an escutcheon the dexter Sable a lion rampant Argnet and the sinister Gules three tilting spears erect Or headed Argent.
|motto = Sero Sed Serio<ref>{{cite book|title=Burke's Peerage |date=1956}}</ref>}}

==See also==
*[[Marquess of Salisbury]]
*[[Marquess of Exeter]]
*[[Viscount Cecil of Chelwood]]
*[[Baron Quickswood]]
*[[Viscount Wimbledon]]
*[[Baron Amherst of Hackney]]

==Notes==
{{more citations needed|date=September 2014}}
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Kidd, Charles, Williamson, David (editors). ''Debrett's Peerage and Baronetage'' (1990 edition). New York: St Martin's Press, 1990, {{Page needed |date=February 2013}}

==External links==
*{{Hansard-contribs | mr-james-cecil-1 | James Hugh Cecil, 3rd Baron Rockley }}
{{Extant Barons of the United Kingdom}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rockley}}
[[Category:Baronies in the Peerage of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Noble titles created in 1934]]
[[Category:Peerages created for UK MPs]]
[[Category:Cecil family|!]]

Effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance

2024-03-30T13:51:34Z

Postka:

{{short description|Consequences of not getting enough sleep}}
It has been estimated that over 20% of adults suffer from some form of [[sleep deprivation]].<ref name="Hublin">{{cite journal | last1 = Hublin | first1 = C | last2 = Kaprio | first2 = J | last3 = Partinen | first3 = M | last4 = Koskenvuo | first4 = M. | year = 2001 | title = Insufficient sleep: a population-based study in adults | url = https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article-pdf/24/4/392/13661692/sleep-24-4-392.pdf | journal = Sleep | volume = 24 | issue = 4| pages = 392–400 | doi = 10.1093/sleep/24.4.392 | pmid = 11403523 | doi-access = free }}</ref> [[Insomnia]] and sleep deprivation are common symptoms of [[Major depressive disorder|depression]], and can be an indication of other [[mental disorder]]s.<ref name="Diagnostic">Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-IV. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC: 1994</ref> The consequences of not getting enough sleep could have dire results, not only to the health, cognition, energy level and the mood of the person, but also to those around them. Sleep deprivation increases the risk of human-error related accidents, especially with vigilance-based tasks involving technology.<ref name="Dinges">{{cite journal | last1 = Dinges | first1 = DF | year = 1995 | title = An overview of sleepiness and accidents | journal = Journal of Sleep Research | volume = 4 | issue = S2| pages = 4–11 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2869.1995.tb00220.x| pmid = 10607205 | doi-access = }}</ref>
{{TOC limit|limit=3}}

== Attention ==

=== Neural substrates ===
[[Image:Parietal lobe.gif|250px|left|alt=the Parietal lobe highlighted in human brain.|''[[Parietal lobe]]'']]
The [[parietal lobe]]s of the brain are largely involved in [[attention]]. [[Lesion]]s to this region of the brain in humans result in difficulty or inability to attend to events that are [[contralateral]] to the lesioned [[Cerebral hemisphere|hemisphere]]. Those with lesions to the posterior parietal lobe have little to no difficulty shifting attention to and from [[Stimulus (physiology)|stimuli]] appearing in the space [[ipsilateral]] to the lesioned hemisphere. However, they do display a slowed response in shifting their focus of current attention to events and stimuli appearing contralateral to the lesioned hemisphere.<ref name="Cohen">{{cite journal | last1 = Cohen | first1 = A. | last2 = Rafal | first2 = R. D. | year = 1991 | title = Attention and Feature Integration | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 2 | issue = 2| pages = 106–110 | doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.1991.tb00109.x| s2cid = 145171384 }}</ref>

Studies involving [[single-unit recording]]s from the parietal lobes of monkeys have indicated that there are [[neuron]]s solely involved in integrating visual spatial information with postural information.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Promsote |first=Wanwisa |last2=Chumpolkulwong |first2=Kesara |last3=Musich |first3=Thomas |last4=Corley |first4=Michael J. |last5=Ndhlovu |first5=Lishomwa C. |last6=Sopanaporn |first6=Jumpol |last7=Inthawong |first7=Dutsadee |last8=Nadee |first8=Panupat |last9=Silsorn |first9=Decha |last10=Sirisrisopa |first10=Siwikorn |last11=Wongsawanonkul |first11=Sakda |last12=Parsons |first12=Matthew S. |last13=Cowden |first13=Jessica |last14=Imerbsin |first14=Rawiwan |last15=Lugo-Roman |first15=Luis |date=2023-11 |title=Impact of sleep deprivation on neurocognition and inflammation in rhesus macaques |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S2666354623000972 |journal=Brain, Behavior, & Immunity - Health |language=en |volume=33 |pages=100683 |doi=10.1016/j.bbih.2023.100683 |pmc=PMC10493883 |pmid=37701789}}</ref> Without this apparent combining of spatial information, it would be difficult or impossible to locate objects in external space (as information provided solely by the [[retina]] is insufficient). The position of the eyes, head and body must also be taken into consideration.

In addition, studies involving [[transcranial magnetic stimulation]] application over the parietal lobes as well as [[positron emission tomography]] (PET) analysis of the parietal lobes suggest that this region is involved in conjunction searches, but not in single-feature searches (see [[Visual search]] for supplementary information).<ref name="Ward">Ward, J. (2006). Space, Attention and the Parietal Lobes. The Student's Guide to Cognitive Neuroscience. New York, NY: Psychology Press</ref>

=== Auditory attention ===
[[Image:Brain Surface Gyri.SVG|thumb|right|alt=This shows the primary auditory cortex and the surrounding regions it communicates with.|The [[primary auditory cortex]] is highlighted in magenta, and has been known to interact with all areas highlighted on this neural map.]]
[[Hearing (sense)|Auditory]] attention has been examined following sleep deprivation. In one study, researchers examined the auditory attention of twelve non-sleep-deprived subjects and twelve sleep-deprived subjects at various time intervals. Subjects were involved in an auditory attention task, which required the reproduction of the spatial relationships between four letters, using a graph composed of six squares, immediately following the presentation of an item from a tape recorder. It was found that auditory attention of sleep-deprived individuals is affected as the total amount of sleep-deprivation increases, possibly due to lowered perceptual vigilance.<ref name="Linde">{{cite journal | last1 = Linde | first1 = L. | last2 = Edland | first2 = A. | last3 = Bergstrom | first3 = M. | year = 1999 | title = Auditory attention and multiattribute decision-making during a 33-h sleep deprivation period: mean performance and between-subject dispersions | journal = Ergonomics | volume = 42 | issue = 5| pages = 696–713 | doi=10.1080/001401399185397| pmid = 10327892 }}</ref>

=== Divided attention ===

[[Functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI) scans of the brains of subjects exposed to thirty-five hours of sleep deprivation indicate that sleep deprivation is related to increases in [[prefrontal cortex]] and parietal lobe activation during tasks that combine [[verbal learning]] and [[arithmetic]]. This is particularly apparent in the right hemisphere. In non-sleep-deprived people involved in verbal learning and arithmetic tasks, the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] and the right prefrontal cortex are active. Following sleep deprivation, there is increased activation of the left [[inferior frontal gyrus]] and the [[wikt:bilateral|bilateral]] parietal lobes. This information suggests that divided attention tasks require more attentional resources than normally required by a non-sleep-deprived person.<ref name="Drummond">{{cite journal | last1 = Drummond | first1 = S. P. A. | last2 = Gillin | first2 = J. C. | last3 = Brown | first3 = G. G. | year = 2001 | title = Increased cerebral response during a divided attention task following sleep deprivation | journal = Journal of Sleep Research| volume = 10 | issue = 2| pages = 85–92 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-2869.2001.00245.x | pmid = 11422722| doi-access = }}</ref>

=== Exogenous and endogenous attention ===

Studies using [[event-related potential]] (ERP) recordings have found that twenty-four hours of sleep deprivation decreases ERP response to signal inputs from [[endogenous]], but not [[exogenous]], sources. Therefore, it is suggested that sleep deprivation affects endogenously-driven selective attention to a greater extent than exogenously-driven selected attention.<ref name="Trujillo">{{cite journal | last1 = Trujillo | first1 = L. T. | last2 = Kornguth | first2 = S. | last3 = Schnyer | first3 = D. M. | year = 2009 | title = An ERP examination of the different effects of sleep deprivation on exogenously cued and endogenously cued attention | url= | journal = Journal of Sleep and Sleep Disorders Research | volume = 32 | issue = 10| pages = 1285–1297 | pmc = 2753807 | pmid = 19848358 | doi = 10.1093/sleep/32.10.1285 }}</ref>

=== Selective attention ===

Twenty-four hours of sleep deprivation has been found to affect the functional connectivity between the inferior frontal parietal region (IPS) and the [[parahippocampal place area]] (PPA). However, sleep deprivation does not affect the attention modulation index of the PPA. With this information, researchers have concluded that the [[psychophysiological]] interaction (PPI) is more involved in selective attention than the IPS and PPA.<ref name="Chee">Chee, M. W. L., Tan, J. C., Parimal, S. & Zagoradnov, V. (2009). [http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.493.2042&rep=rep1&type=pdf Sleep deprivation and its effects on object-selective attention]. Neuroimage, 1-8</ref>

Research has found that together, attention and sleep deprivation modulate the parahippocampal place area (PPA) activation and scene processing. Specifically, sleep deprivation was related to significant decreases in PPA activation while attending to scenes and when ignoring scenes. This is explained by the absence of change in the Attention Modulation Index (AMI). Face recognition is not affected by sleep deprivation.<ref name="Chee"/>

Sleep deprivation has been shown to negatively affect picture classification speed and accuracy, as well as [[recognition memory]].<ref name="Chee"/> It results in an inability to avoid attending to irrelevant information displayed during attention-related tasks. (Norton) It also decreases activation in the ventral visual area and the frontal parietal control regions.<ref name="Chee"/>

=== Supervisory attention ===

Studies involving sleep deprived subjects’ performance on [[choice reaction time]] tests—in which [[Reactive inhibition|response inhibition]], task shifting skill and task strategy were involved—have been conducted and analyzed. These three cognitive processes are involved and critical in tasks involving supervisory attention, which is defined as behaviour that arises through the selection and implementation of schemas.<ref name="Ward"/> Following one night of total sleep deprivation, subjects showed no decline in task shifting or response inhibition performance. However, sleep deprivation does affect the ability to use preparatory bias to increase performance speed. It is suggested that the brain’s cognitive resources make an active effort to succeed in a challenging task when subjected to sleep deprivation, and that this deficit becomes apparent in tasks involving preparatory bias.<ref name="Jennings">{{cite journal | last1 = Jennings | first1 = J. R. | last2 = Monk | first2 = T. H. | last3 = der Molen | first3 = M. W. | year = 2003 | title = Sleep deprivation influences some but not all processes of supervisory attention | journal = Psychological Science | volume = 14 | issue = 5| pages = 473–479 | doi=10.1111/1467-9280.02456| pmid = 12930479 | s2cid = 29269260 }}</ref> Similarly, partial sleep deprivation significantly influenced subjects simple reaction time, thus making it slower than subjects who were well rested <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berg |first1=Johannes Van Den |last2=Neely |first2=Gregory |date=2006 |title=Performance on a Simple Reaction Time Task While Sleep Deprived |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.2466/pms.102.2.589-599?journalCode=pmsb |journal=Perceptual and Motor Skills |volume=102 |issue=2 |pages=598–599 |doi=10.2466/pms.102.2.589-599 |pmid=16826680 |s2cid=1623919 |via=SAGE Journals}}</ref>

=== Visuospatial attention ===

Deficits in cognitive performance due to continuous sleep restriction are not well understood. However, there have been studies looking into physiological arousal of the sleep-deprived brain. Participants, whose total amount of sleep had been restricted by 33% throughout one week, were subjected to reaction time tests. The results of these tests were analyzed using quantitative [[EEG]] analysis. The results indicate that the frontal regions of the brain are first to be affected, whereas the parietal regions remain active until the effects of sleep deprivation become more severe, which occurred towards the end of the week. In addition, [[EEG]] and ERP analysis reveals that activation deficits are more apparent in the non-dominant hemisphere—than in the dominant hemisphere.<ref name="Cote">{{cite journal | last1 = Cote | first1 = K. A. | last2 = Milner | first2 = C. E. | last3 = Osip | first3 = S. L. | last4 = Baker | first4 = M. L. | last5 = Cuthbert | first5 = B. P. | year = 2008 | title = Physiological arousal and attention during a week of continuous sleep restriction | journal = Physiology & Behavior | volume = 95 | issue = 3| pages = 353–364 | doi=10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.06.016| pmid = 18655799 | s2cid = 24230233 }}</ref>
[[Image:Brain chrischan thalamus.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Diagram showing the Thalamus.| ''[[Thalamus]]''.]]
The effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance have been studied through the use of parametric visual attention tasks. Functional magnetic resonance imaging of participants' brains who were involved in ball-tracking tasks of various difficulty levels were obtained. These images were taken during rested wakefulness and again after one night of sleep deprivation. The [[thalamus]] is more highly activated when accompanied by sleep deprivation—than when the subject is in a state of rested wakefulness. Contrarily, the thalamus is more highly activated during difficult tasks accompanied by rested wakefulness, but not during a state of sleep deprivation. Researchers propose that the thalamic resources, which are normally activated during difficult tasks, are being activated in an attempt to maintain alertness during states of sleep deprivation. In addition, an increase in thalamic activation is related to a decrease in the parietal, prefrontal and [[cingulate cortex]] activation, resulting in the overall impairment of attentional networks, which are necessary for visuospatial attention performance.<ref name="Tomasi">{{cite journal | last1 = Tomasi | first1 = D. | last2 = Wang | first2 = R. L. | last3 = Telang | first3 = F. | last4 = Boronikolas | first4 = V. | last5 = Jayne | first5 = M. C. | last6 = Wang | first6 = G. J. | last7 = Fowler | first7 = J. S. | last8 = Volkow | first8 = N. D. | year = 2009 | title = Impairment of attentional networks after one night of sleep deprivation | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 19 | issue = 1| pages = 233–240 | doi=10.1093/cercor/bhn073| pmid = 18483003 | pmc = 2638746 }}</ref>

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) studies indicate that the [[posterior cingulate]] (PCC) and medial prefrontal cortex are involved in the anticipatory allocation of spatial attention. When sleep-deprived, PCC activity decreases, impairing selective attention. Subjects were exposed to an attention-shifting task involving spatially informative, misleading and uninformative cues preceding the stimuli. When sleep-deprived, subjects showed increased activation in the left [[intraparietal sulcus]]. This region is activated when exposed to stimuli in unexpected locations. These findings suggest that sleep-deprived people may be impaired in their ability to anticipate the locations of upcoming events. In addition, inability to avoid attending to irrelevant events may also be induced by sleep-deprivation.<ref name="Benjamin">{{cite journal | last1 = Benjamin | first1 = R. G. | year = 2008 | title = Sleep deprivation alters functioning within the neural network underlying the covert orienting of attention | doi = 10.1016/j.brainres.2008.04.030 | journal = Brain Research | volume = 1217| pages = 148–156 | pmid=18511023 | pmc=2528837}}</ref>

By contrast, other studies have indicated that the effects of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance, specifically sustained visual attention, are more global and [[wikt:bilateral|bilateral]] in nature (as opposed to more lateralized deficit explanations). In a study using the Choice Visual Perception Task, subjects were exposed to stimuli appearing in various locations in visual space. Results indicate that sleep deprivation results in a general decline in visual attention. It is also suggested that the sleep-deprived brain is able to maintain a certain level of cognitive performance during tasks requiring divided attention—by recruiting additional cortical regions that are not normally used for such tasks.<ref name="Kendall">{{cite journal | last1 = Kendall | first1 = A. P. | last2 = Kautz | first2 = M. A. | last3 = Russo | first3 = M. B. | last4 = Killgore | first4 = W. D. S. | year = 2006 | title = Effects of sleep deprivation on lateral visual attention | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 116 | issue = 10| pages = 1125–1138 | doi=10.1080/00207450500513922| pmid = 16923682 | s2cid = 26456267 }}</ref>

== Executive function ==
{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| width = 200
| image1 = Gray726-Brodman-prefrontal.svg
| alt1 = Prefrontal Cortex
| caption1 = [[Prefrontal cortex]]
| image2 = Gray727 anterior cingulate cortex.png
| alt2 = Anterior cingulate cortex
| caption2 = [[Anterior cingulate cortex]]
}}

[[Executive function]]ing is "the ability to plan and coordinate a willful action in the face of alternatives, to monitor and update action as necessary and suppress distracting material by focusing attention on the task at hand".<ref name="Jones">{{cite journal | last1 = Jones | first1 = K | last2 = Harrison | first2 = Y | year = 2001 | title = Frontal lobe function, sleep loss and fragmented sleep | journal = Sleep Medicine Reviews | volume = 5 | issue = 6| pages = 463–475 | doi=10.1053/smrv.2001.0203| pmid = 12531154 }}</ref> The prefrontal cortex has been identified as the most important region involved in executive functioning.<ref name="Koechlin">{{cite journal | last1 = Koechlin | first1 = E. | last2 = Ody | first2 = C. | last3 = Kouneiher | first3 = F. | year = 2003 | title = The architecture of cognitive control in the human prefrontal cortex | journal = Science | volume = 302 | issue = 5648| pages = 1181–1185 | doi=10.1126/science.1088545 | pmid=14615530| bibcode = 2003Sci...302.1181K | citeseerx = 10.1.1.71.8826 | s2cid = 18585619 }}</ref>

Researchers believe that three of the most 'basic' executive functions are: shifting, updating, and inhibition.<ref name="Miyake">{{cite journal | last1 = Miyake | first1 = A. | last2 = Friedman | first2 = N.P. | last3 = Emerson | first3 = M.J. | last4 = Witzki | first4 = A.H. | last5 = Howerter | first5 = A. | last6 = Wager | first6 = T.D. | year = 2000 | title = The Unity and Diversity of Executive Functions and Their Contributions to Complex ''Frontal Lobe'' Tasks: A Latent Variable Analysis | journal = Cognitive Psychology | volume = 41 | issue = 1| pages = 49–100 | doi = 10.1006/cogp.1999.0734 | pmid = 10945922 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.485.1953 | s2cid = 10096387 }}</ref> Shifting back and forth between different tasks is considered a very important mental behavior involved in executive functioning, as it involves active disengagement from the present task and engaging in a new task.<ref name="Norman">Norman, D. A., & Shallice, T. (1986). Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz, & D. Shapiro (Eds.), Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory (Vol. 4, pp. 1–18). New York: Plenum.</ref> Updating is believed to be involved in [[working memory]] (closely associated with the function of the prefrontal cortex<ref name="Jonides">Jonides, J., & Smith, E. E. (1997). The architecture of working memory. In M. D. Rugg (Ed.), Cognitive neuroscience (pp. 243–276). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press</ref>), where the information that is active needs to be updated by replacing old, now irrelevant information with new, relevant information based on the objective.<ref name="Morris">{{cite journal | last1 = Morris | first1 = N. | last2 = Jones | first2 = D. M. | year = 1990 | title = Memory updating in working memory: The role of the central executive | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 81 | issue = 2| pages = 111–121 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1990.tb02349.x}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Szmalec |first1=Arnaud |last2=Verbruggen |first2=Frederick |last3=Vandierendonck |first3=André |last4=Kemps |first4=Eva |date=2011 |title=Control of interference during working memory updating. |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0020365 |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance |volume=37 |issue=1 |pages=137–151 |doi=10.1037/a0020365 |pmid=20731517 |issn=1939-1277}}</ref> Inhibition involves controlled and deliberate impedance of automatic, predominant responses.<ref name="Malgorzata">{{cite journal | last1 = Malgorzata | first1 = G. | last2 = Małgorzata | first2 = S. | year = 2009 | title = Relation between response inhibition and symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity–impulsivity in children | journal = British Journal of Clinical Psychology | volume = 48 | issue = 4| pages = 425–430 | doi = 10.1348/014466509X449765 | pmid = 19523279 }}</ref>

[[The anterior cingulate cortex]] has been implemented in the process of inhibiting a habitual response or detecting possible conflicts in responses;<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Braver | first1 = T.S. | last2 = Barch | first2 = D.S. | last3 = Gray | first3 = J.R. | last4 = Molfese | first4 = D.L. Snyder | year = 2001 | title = Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Response Conflict: Effects of Frequency, Inhibition and Errors | journal = Cerebral Cortex | volume = 11 | issue = 9| pages = 825–836 | doi=10.1093/cercor/11.9.825| pmid = 11532888 | doi-access = free }}</ref> this is shown by the [[Stroop test]].<ref name="Sagaspe">{{cite journal | last1 = Sagaspe | first1 = P. | last2 = Sanchez-Ortuno | first2 = M. | last3 = Charles | first3 = A. | last4 = Taillard | first4 = J. | last5 = Valtat | first5 = C. | last6 = Bioulac | first6 = B. | last7 = Philip | first7 = P. | year = 2006 | title = Effects of sleep deprivation on Color-Word, Emotional, and Specific Stroop interference and on self-reported anxiety | journal = Brain and Cognition | volume = 60 | issue = 1| pages = 76–87 | doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2005.10.001| pmid = 16314019 | s2cid = 33994666 }}</ref> Studies have found that as little as 36 hours of sleep deprivation can cause a performance reduction in tasks requiring these executive functions.<ref name="Harrison">{{cite journal | last1 = Harrison | first1 = Y | last2 = Horne | first2 = JA. | year = 2000 | title = The impact of sleep deprivation on decision making: a review | journal = Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied | volume = 6 | issue = 3| pages = 236–249 | doi=10.1037/1076-898x.6.3.236| pmid = 11014055 }}</ref>

[[Image:Frontal lobe.gif|250px|left|alt=Frontal Lobe.| [[Frontal lobe]].]]
The processes above illustrate a model of controlled versus automatic behavior that was hypothesized by Shallice et al. (1989), called the [[supervisory attentional system]]. This system is believed to come into play when intervention of habitual response is necessary.<ref name="Shallice">{{cite journal | last1 = Shallice | first1 = T. | last2 = Burgess | first2 = P.W. | last3 = Baxter | first3 = D.M. | last4 = Schon | first4 = F. | year = 1989 | title = The origins of utilisation behaviour | journal = Brain | volume = 112 | issue = 6| pages = 1587–98 | doi=10.1093/brain/112.6.1587| pmid = 2597999 }}</ref> Damage to the prefrontal cortex will cause a breakdown in this system, resulting in [[utilization behavior]]s.<ref name="Shallice" /> These behaviors would include spontaneous sequences of action on irrelevant objects in the surroundings with no clear goal in mind.<ref name="Shallice" /> This theory has helped to extend the current knowledge on executive functions.

=== Decision making ===

[[Decision making]] involves a range of executive functions that need to be combined and organized in order to respond in the most appropriate manner (i.e., respond with the most advantageous decision).<ref name="Harrison, Y., Horne, J.A. (1999)">{{cite journal | last1 = Harrison | first1 = Y. | last2 = Horne | first2 = J.A. | year = 1999 | title = One night of sleep loss impairs innovative thinking and flexible decision making | journal = Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes | volume = 78 | issue = 2| pages = 128–145 | doi=10.1006/obhd.1999.2827| pmid = 10329298 }}</ref> There are many aspects to the process of decision making, including those discussed above. Other processes involved that correlate to executive function will be discussed below.

=== Complexity ===

While most important decisions are made over a longer period of time involving more in-depth cognitive analysis, humans usually have limited time in which to assimilate a large amount of information into an informed decision. Lack of sleep appears to negatively affect one's ability to appreciate and respond to increasing complexity, as was found in performance deficits after 1 night of sleep deprivation on a simulated marketing game.<ref name="Harrison" />

The game involved subjects promoting a fictional product while getting feedback on the financial effects of their decisions. They would continuously have to take into account new variables to succeed which would increase the game's complexity.<ref name="Harrison, Y., Horne, J.A. (1999)"/>

Other examples of inability to process complex information includes a decrease in ability to assess facial expressions, an increase in resolving to the use of stereotypes and racial biases in evaluations, and an increase in taking the easier solution to solving interpersonal problems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gordon|first1=Amie M.|last2=Mendes|first2=Wendy Berry|last3=Prather|first3=Aric A.|date=2017-09-27|title=The Social Side of Sleep: Elucidating the Links Between Sleep and Social Processes|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|volume=26|issue=5|pages=470–475|doi=10.1177/0963721417712269|pmid=29398789|pmc=5791747|issn=0963-7214}}</ref>

=== Innovation ===

Intuitively, because sleep deprivation had a negative effect on handling the complexity of the simulated marketing game, it also affected innovative processes as subjects failed to adopt a more innovative (and rewarding) style of play.<ref name="Harrison" /> Innovative thinking involves the construction of new behaviors based on the assimilation of continuously changing or novel information. In a study of military personnel who had undergone two nights of sleep deprivation, results showed marked reductions in the ability to generate ideas about a given topic (categories test); this is known as ideational fluency.<ref name="May">{{cite journal | last1 = May | first1 = J. | last2 = Kline | first2 = P. | year = 1987 | title = Measuring the effects on cognitive abilities of sleep loss during continuous operations | journal = British Journal of Psychology | volume = 78 | issue = 4| pages = 443–455 | doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1987.tb02261.x| pmid = 3427310 }}</ref>

[[Image:MRI of orbitofrontal cortex.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Approximate location of the orbitofrontal cortex.|Approximate Location of the ''[[Orbitofrontal cortex]]''.]]

=== Risk ===

Risk versus reward analysis is an important part of decision making. Attempting to create a representation and response to a risky situation highly involves the [[orbitofrontal cortex]].<ref name="Pais-Vieira">{{cite journal | last1 = Pais-Viera | first1 = M. | last2 = Lima | first2 = D. | last3 = Galhardo | first3 = V. | year = 2006 | title = Orbitofrontal cortex lesions disrupt risk assessment in a novel serial decision-making task for rats | journal = Neuroscience | volume = 145 | issue = 1| pages = 225–231 | doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.11.058 | pmid=17204373| s2cid = 29401671 }}</ref> In a study that involved risk taking analysis of drivers who had been driving for 12 hours straight, it was found that they were more willing to make hazardous maneuvers (and were reluctant to adopt any form of a cautious driving style).<ref name="Brown">{{cite journal | last1 = Brown | first1 = I.D. | last2 = Tickner | first2 = A.H. | last3 = Simmons | first3 = D.C. | year = 1970 | title = Effect of prolonged driving on overtaking criteria | journal = Ergonomics | volume = 13| issue = 2| pages = 239–242 | doi = 10.1080/00140137008931137 | pmid=5432365}}</ref>

Some studies shed further light on this phenomenon. One study used real-life decision making scenarios involving choosing cards from 1 of 4 decks of cards. Different cards were considered as a reward while the others were a penalty. The sleep-deprived subjects failed to alter their selection methods, continuing to choose cards from decks that were producing a high amount of penalty cards, whereas the control subjects were able to change their choosing strategy by a cost-benefit analysis based on monitoring the outcomes they were getting as they went along.<ref name="Harrison, Y., Horne, J.A. (1998)">{{cite journal | last1 = Harrison | first1 = Y. | last2 = Horne | first2 = J.A. | year = 1998 | title = Sleep loss impairs short and novel language tasks having a prefrontal focus | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2869.1998.00104.x | pmid = 9682180 | journal = Journal of Sleep Research | volume = 7 | issue = 2| pages = 95–100 | s2cid = 34980267 }}</ref>

=== Planning ===

The process of planning would be done congruently with decision making in determining the outcome behavior. As has been shown so far, sleep deprivation has many detrimental effects on executive functions and planning is not spared. One study involved [[cadets]] who were required to complete simulated military operations under sleep deprived conditions. Results showed a decrease in the subjects ability to 'plan on the fly' and overall outcomes were less than those for well rested cadets.<ref name="McCann">McCann, C., Pointing, T. (1995) The effect of alerting drugs on planning performance during sustained operations. Defence and Civil Institute of Environmental Medicine, North York, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved onon November 19, 2009 from http://cradpdf.drdc.gc.ca/PDFS/zbb55/p506693.pdf/{{Dead link|date=August 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

Another psychological test used to assess planning and decision making is the [[Tower of London test]]. This test has been widely used in the testing of executive functions—as well as studies of sleep-deprived subjects. In a study examining performance on this test after 45–50 hours of sleep deprivation, it was found that the sleep-deprived subjects not only took longer, but required more moves to complete the task than did the controls.<ref name="Killgore">{{cite journal | last1 = Killgore | first1 = W.D. | last2 = Kahn-Greene | first2 = E.T. | last3 = Grugle | first3 = N.L. | last4 = Killgore | first4 = D.B. | last5 = Balkin | first5 = T.J. | year = 2009 | title = Sustaining executive functions during sleep deprivation: A comparison of caffeine, dextroamphetamine, and modafinil | journal = Sleep | volume = 32 | issue = 2| pages = 205–16 | doi = 10.1093/sleep/32.2.205 | pmid = 19238808 | pmc = 2635585 }}</ref>

=== Error correction ===

Being able to show insight into one's performance on different tasks and correct or modify those behaviors if they are incorrect is an important part of executive functioning. The problems that could be associated with being unable to learn from a mistake or adapt to a mistake could impair many behaviors.

A common test used to assess error correction and trouble shooting with regards to the frontal lobe is the [[Wisconsin Card Sorting Test]]. This test involves a change in the rules which requires a shift in strategy. In the same study discussed above,<ref name="Killgore" /> detriments were also found on this task in the sleep deprived people.

== Memory ==

Research evidence suggests that sleep is involved in the acquisition, maintenance and retrieval of memories<ref name="Rauchs">{{cite journal | last1 = Rauchs | first1 = G. | last2 = Desgranges | first2 = B. | last3 = Foret | first3 = J. | last4 = Eustache | first4 = F. | year = 2005 | title = The relationships between memory systems and sleep stages | journal = Journal of Sleep Research | volume = 14 | issue = 2| pages = 123–140 | doi=10.1111/j.1365-2869.2005.00450.x| pmid = 15910510 | doi-access = }}</ref> as well as [[memory consolidation]].<ref name="Saxvig">{{cite journal | last1 = Saxvig | first1 = I. W. | last2 = Lundervold | first2 = A. J. | last3 = Gronli | first3 = J. | last4 = Ursin | first4 = R. | last5 = Bjorvatn | first5 = B. | last6 = Portas | first6 = C. M. | year = 2007 | title = The effect of a REM sleep deprivation procedure on different aspects of memory function in humans | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 45 | issue = 2| pages = 309–317 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00623.x| pmid = 17995908 }}</ref> Subsequently, sleep deprivation has been shown to affect both working memory and [[long-term memory]] processes.

=== Working memory ===

Sleep deprivation increases the number of errors made on working memory tasks. In one study, the working memory task involved illuminating a sequence of 3 or 4 coloured lights, then asking both sleep-deprived and non-sleep deprived people to memorize and repeat back the sequence. The sleep deprived performed the task much faster than those in the control condition (i.e., not sleep deprived), which initially appeared to be a positive effect. However, there was a significant difference in the number of errors made, with the fatigued group performing much worse.<ref name="Kahol">{{cite journal | last1 = Kahol | first1 = K. | last2 = Lebya | first2 = M. J. | last3 = Deka | first3 = M. | last4 = Deka | first4 = V. | last5 = Mayes | first5 = S. | last6 = Smith | first6 = M. | last7 = Ferrara | first7 = J. J. | last8 = Panchanathan | first8 = S. | year = 2007 | title = Effect of fatigue on psychomotor and cognitive skills | journal = The American Journal of Surgery | volume = 195 | issue = 2| pages = 195–204 | doi=10.1016/j.amjsurg.2007.10.004| pmid = 18194679 }}</ref>

Evidence from imaging studies also demonstrates the influence of sleep deprivation on working memory. [[EEG]] studies have documented lower accuracy and slower reaction times among sleep deprived participants performing working memory tasks. Decreasing alertness and lack of focus triggered deficits in working memory that are accompanied by significant degradation of [[event-related potentials]].<ref name="Smith">{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = M. E. | last2 = McEvoy | first2 = L. K. | last3 = Gevins | first3 = A. | year = 2002 | title = The impact of moderate sleep loss on neurophysiologic signals during working-memory task performance | url = https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article-pdf/25/7/56/13661849/sleep-25-7-56.pdf | journal = Sleep | volume = 25 | issue = 7| pages = 784–794 | doi = 10.1093/sleep/25.7.56 | pmid = 12405615 | pmc = 1626388 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

[[PET scans]] shows global decrease in [[glucose metabolism]] in response to sleep deprivation. As subjects become increasingly impaired on working memory tasks, a more specific decrease of glucose occurs in the thalamus, prefrontal cortex and [[posterior parietal cortex]].<ref name="Durmer">{{cite journal | last1 = Durmer | first1 = J. S. | last2 = Dinges | first2 = D. F. | year = 2005 | title = Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation | journal = Seminars in Neurology | volume = 25 | issue = 1| pages = 117–129 | doi=10.1055/s-2005-867080 | pmid=15798944| pmc = 3564638 }}</ref>

fMRI scans following brief sleep deprivation (24 hours or less) show increases in thalamic activation. Verbal working memory tasks normally cause increases in left [[temporal lobe]] activity. However, after 35 hours of deprivation, there are noted decreases in temporal lobe activation and increases in parietal lobe activation.<ref name="Durmer"/>
[[Image:Working memory model.svg|frame|left|alt=Diagram showing a model of working memory| ''[[Working memory]]'' model.]]
The working [[memory span]] is also affected by sleep deprivation. When sleep deprived participants in a study were asked to remember a [[nonsense word]] and locate it among a number of similar words, the length of time they could hold it in their working memory decreased by 38% compared to rested persons.<ref name="Turner">{{cite journal | last1 = Turner | first1 = T. H. | last2 = Drummond | first2 = S. P. A. | last3 = Salamat | first3 = J. S. | last4 = Brown | first4 = G. G. | year = 2007 | title = Effects of 24 Hr of total sleep deprivation on component processes of verbal working memory | journal = Neuropsychology | volume = 21 | issue = 6| pages = 787–795 | doi=10.1037/0894-4105.21.6.787 | pmid=17983292}}</ref>

=== Long-term memory ===

One way sleep is involved in the creation of long-term memories is through memory consolidation—the process by which a new memory is changed into a more permanent form. This is believed to be accomplished by creating connections between the medial temporal lobes and neocortical areas.<ref name="Rauchs"/> [[NREM]] (non-REM) and [[REM sleep]] are both believed to be implicated, with current theories suggesting NREM is most particularly involved in [[procedural memory]] and REM with [[declarative memory]].<ref name="Rauchs"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Electrical brain stimulation for the treatment of neurological disorders|last=Zohuri, Bahman|others=McDaniel, Patrick J.|isbn=978-0429325632|location=Oakville, ON|oclc=1108812410|date=2019-08-27}}</ref>

Animal studies have partly validated these claims. For instance, one study conducted with rats showed that REM sleep deprivation after learning a new task disrupted their ability to perform the task again later. This was especially true if the task was complex (i.e., involved using unusual information or developing novel adaptive behaviours).<ref name="Rauchs"/>

There is similar evidence for the role of sleep in procedural memory in humans. Participants in one study were trained on a procedural memory skill involving perceptual-motor skills. Those who were NREM sleep deprived performed significantly worse on subsequent trials compared to those who were fully rested.<ref name="Rauchs"/> Another study using a visual-motor procedural memory task documented similar results. Participants who were sleep deprived following the initial training showed no improvement on trials the next day, while those who received sleep showed significant positive changes.<ref name="Gais">{{cite journal | last1 = Gais | first1 = S. | last2 = Koster | first2 = S. | last3 = Sprenger | first3 = A. | last4 = Bethke | first4 = J. | last5 = Heide | first5 = W. | last6 = Kimmig | first6 = H. | year = 2008 | title = Sleep is required for improving reaction times after training on a procedural visuo-motor task | journal = Neurobiology of Learning and Memory | volume = 90 | issue = 4| pages = 610–615 | doi=10.1016/j.nlm.2008.07.016| pmid = 18723102 | s2cid = 31790114 }}</ref>
Studies such as these clearly demonstrate the disruptive influence sleep deprivation has on memory consolidation of procedural and declarative memories.

Sleep deprivation also has a documented effect on the ability to acquire new memories for subsequent consolidation. A study done on mice that were sleep deprived before learning a new skill but allowed to rest afterward displayed a similar number of errors on later trials as the mice that were sleep deprived only after the initial learning.<ref name="Linden">{{cite journal | last1 = Linden | first1 = E. R. | last2 = Bern | first2 = D. | last3 = Fishbein | first3 = W. | year = 1974 | title = Retrograde amnesia: prolonging the fixation phase of memory consolidation by paradoxical sleep deprivation | journal = Physiology and Behavior | volume = 14 | issue = 4| pages = 409–412 | doi=10.1016/0031-9384(75)90004-9| pmid = 166396 | s2cid = 9895768 }}</ref> In this case, it is hypothesized that rather than preventing the memory from being consolidated, sleep deprivation interfered with the initial acquisition of the memory. Mice with pre-trial sleep deprivation also took significantly longer to learn a task than well-rested mice.<ref name="Alvarenga">{{cite journal | last1 = Alvarenga | first1 = T. A. | last2 = Patti | first2 = C. L. | last3 = Andersen | first3 = M. L. | last4 = Silva | first4 = R. H. | last5 = Calzavara | first5 = M. B. | last6 = Lopez | first6 = G. B. | last7 = Frussa-Filho | first7 = R. | last8 = Tufik | first8 = S. | year = 2008 | title = Paradoxical sleep deprivation impairs acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval of a discriminative avoidance task in rats | journal = Neurobiology of Learning and Memory | volume = 90 | issue = 4| pages = 624–632 | doi=10.1016/j.nlm.2008.07.013| pmid = 18707010 | s2cid = 465398 }}</ref>

Sleep deprivation is also implicated in impaired ability to retrieve stored long-term memories. When an [[aversive stimulus]] was included in a trial (i.e., a blowdryer blasting hot air and noise at a mouse), mice that were sleep deprived were less anxious on subsequent trials. This suggests they had not retrieved all of the memory related to the unpleasant experience.<ref name="Alvarenga"/>

=== Explanations for the effect of sleep deprivation on memory ===

Several theories have been put forth to explain the effect sleep deprivation has on memory.

One early study into neurochemical influences on sleep and memory was conducted with cats and demonstrated that sleep deprivation increased brain [[protein synthesis]]. There is evidence that these altered levels of proteins could increase the excitability of the central nervous system, thus increasing the susceptibility of the brain to other neurochemical agents that can cause [[amnesia]].<ref name="Linden"/> Further research has revealed that the protein kinase A (PKA) signaling pathway is crucial to long-term memory. If PKA or protein synthesis inhibition occurs at certain moments during sleep, memory consolidation can be disrupted{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}. In addition, mice with genetic inhibition of PKA have been shown to have long-term memory deficits.<ref name="Graves">{{cite journal | last1 = Graves | first1 = L. | last2 = Pack | first2 = A. | last3 = Abel | first3 = T. | year = 2001 | title = Sleep and memory: a molecular perspective | journal = Trends in Neurosciences | volume = 24 | issue = 4| pages = 237–243 | doi=10.1016/s0166-2236(00)01744-6| pmid = 11250009 | s2cid = 32046011 }}</ref> Thus, sleep deprivation may act through the inhibition of these protein synthesis pathways.

[[Acetylcholine]] (ACh) may also be involved in the effects of sleep deprivation, particularly with regards to spatial memory. Muscarinic antagonists, or chemicals that block ACh, impair spatial learning when administered prior to a training task among rats{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}. ACh levels are also found to be lower when measured following a period of sleep deprivation.<ref name="Graves"/> ACh has also been shown to increase the activity of the PKA pathway, which is needed for memory consolidation.<ref name="Graves"/>

[[Serotonin]] levels (in the form of 5-HT) have been shown to decrease during REM and NREM sleep, leading some researchers to believe that it is also involved in memory consolidation during sleep{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}. Mice lacking the receptor gene for 5-HT engage in more REM sleep and perform better on spatial memory tasks.<ref name="Graves"/> Researchers have hypothesized that sleep deprivation interferes with the normal reduction in levels of 5-HT, impairing the process of memory consolidation.<ref name="Graves"/>

Another theory suggests that the [[Psychological stress and sleep|stress brought on by sleep deprivation]] affects memory consolidation by changing the concentration of [[corticosteroids]] in the body.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}} This was simulated in one study by elevating the concentration of [[glucocorticoids]] during early sleep stages. The observed effects on memory retention the next day were similar to those obtained from people who had received no sleep.<ref name="Plihal">{{cite journal | last1 = Plihal | first1 = W. | last2 = Born | first2 = J. | year = 1999 | title = Memory consolidation in human sleep depends on inhibition of glucocorticoid release | journal = Learning and Memory | volume = 10 | issue = 13| pages = 2741–2747 | doi=10.1097/00001756-199909090-00009| pmid = 10511433 }}</ref>

Sleep deprivation may affect memory by interfering with [[neuroplasticity]] as measured by [[long-term potentiation]] in the [[hippocampus]]. This reduced plasticity may be the root cause of impairments in both working memory among humans and spatial memory among rats.<ref name="Campbell">{{cite journal | last1 = Campbell | first1 = I. G. | last2 = Guinan | first2 = M. J. | last3 = Horowitz | first3 = J. M. | year = 2002 | title = Sleep deprivation impairs long-term potentiation in rat hippocampal slices | journal = Journal of Neurophysiology | volume = 88 | issue = 2| pages = 1073–1076 | doi = 10.1152/jn.2002.88.2.1073 | pmid = 12163556 | s2cid = 8621057 }}</ref> Sleep deprivation may additionally affect memory by reducing the proliferation of cells in the hippocampus.<ref name ="McEwen">{{cite journal | last1 = McEwen | first1 = B. S. | year = 2006 | title = Sleep deprivation as a neurobiologic and physiologic stressor: allostasis and allostatic load | journal = Zeitschrift für Kristallographie – Crystalline Materials | volume = 55 | issue = 10 Suppl 2| pages = 20–23 | doi=10.1016/j.metabol.2006.07.008| pmid = 16979422 }}</ref>

Sleep deprivation has also been associated with decreased overall membrane excitability of neurons in the brain. Activation of these membranes is critical for the formation of memories.<ref name="Yang">{{cite journal | last1 = Yang | first1 = R. | last2 = Hu | first2 = S. | last3 = Wang | first3 = Y. | last4 = Zhang | first4 = W. | last5 = Luo | first5 = W. | last6 = Chen | first6 = J. | year = 2008 | title = Paradoxical sleep deprivation impairs spatial learning and affects membrane excitability and mitochondrial protein in the hippocampus | journal = Brain Research | volume = 1230 | pages = 224–232 | doi=10.1016/j.brainres.2008.07.033 | pmid=18674519| s2cid = 915190 }}</ref> [[Mitochondria]] play an essential role in modulating neuron excitability, and research has shown that sleep deprivation is involved in inhibiting mitochondrial metabolism.<ref name="Yang" />

==Practical effects==

===Risk of traffic collisions ===
Reduced duration of sleep, as well as an increase in time spent awake, are factors that highly contribute to the risk of [[traffic collision]]s, the severity and fatality rates of which are on the same level as [[driving under the influence]] of [[alcohol (drug)|alcohol]],<ref name="Pack">{{cite journal | last1 = Pack | first1 = AI | last2 = Pack | first2 = AM | last3 = Rodgman | first3 = E | last4 = Cucchiara | first4 = A | last5 = Dinges | first5 = DF | last6 = Schwab | first6 = CW. | year = 1995 | title = Characteristics of crashes attributed to the driver having fallen asleep | journal = Accident Analysis and Prevention | volume = 27 | issue = 6| pages = 769–775 | doi=10.1016/0001-4575(95)00034-8| pmid = 8749280 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Stutts">{{cite journal | last1 = Stutts | first1 = JC | last2 = Wilkins | first2 = JW | last3 = Osberg | first3 = JS | last4 = Vaughn | first4 = BV. | year = 2003 | title = Driver risk factors for sleep-related crashes | journal = Accid Anal Prev | volume = 35 | issue = 3| pages = 321–331 | doi=10.1016/s0001-4575(02)00007-6| pmid = 12643949 }}</ref> with 19 hours of wakefulness corresponding to a [[blood alcohol content|BAC]] of 0.05%, and 24 hours of wakefulness corresponding to a BAC of 0.10%.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Dawson D, Reid K |title=Fatigue, alcohol and performance impairment|journal=Nature|year=1997|volume=388|issue=6639|pages=235|doi=10.1038/40775|pmid=9230429|bibcode=1997Natur.388..235D|doi-access=free}}</ref> Compounding this issue is the proven dissociation between objective performance and subjective alertness; people vastly underestimate the effect that sleep deprivation has on their cognitive performance, particularly during the circadian night.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Bermudez EB, Kerman EB, Cohen DA, Wyatt JK, Czeisler CA, Phillips AJ |title= Prediction of vigilant attention and cognitive performance using self-reported alertness, circadian phase, hours since awakening, and accumulated sleep loss|journal=PLOS ONE|year=2016|volume=11|issue= 3|pages= e0151770|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0151770|pmid= 27019198|pmc= 4809494|bibcode= 2016PLoSO..1151770B|doi-access= free}}
</ref> Much of the effect of acute sleep deprivation can be countered by [[nap]]ping, with longer naps giving more benefit than shorter naps.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mollicone | first1 = DJ | last2 = Van Dongen | first2 = HPA | last3 = Dinges | first3 = DF. | year = 2007| title = Optimizing sleep/wake schedules in space: Sleep during chronic nocturnal sleep restriction with and without diurnal naps | journal = Acta Astronautica | volume = 60 | issue = 4–7| pages = 354–361 | doi = 10.1016/j.actaastro.2006.09.022 | bibcode = 2007AcAau..60..354M }}</ref> Some industries, particularly the [[Fire Service]], have traditionally allowed workers to sleep while on duty, between calls for service. In one study of [[Emergency medical services|EMS]] providers, 24-hour shifts were not associated with a higher frequency of negative safety outcomes when compared to shorter shifts.<ref name=Patterson>{{cite journal|vauthors=Patterson PD, Weaver MD, Frank RC, Warner CW, Martin-Gill C, Guyette FX, Fairbanks RJ, Hubble MW, Songer TJ, Calloway CW, Kelsey SF, Hostler D |title=Association Between Poor Sleep, Fatigue, and Safety Outcomes in Emergency Medical Services Providers|journal=Prehospital Emergency Care|year=2012|volume=16|issue=1|pages=86–97|doi=10.3109/10903127.2011.616261 |pmid=22023164|pmc=3228875}}</ref>

This is especially relevant for young adults as they require 8–9 hours of sleep at night to overcome [[excessive daytime sleepiness]],<ref name="Roehrs">{{cite journal | last1 = Roehrs | first1 = TA | last2 = Timms | first2 = V | last3 = Zwyghuizen-Doorenbos | first3 = A | last4 = Roth | first4 = T. | year = 1989 | title = Sleep extension in sleepy and alert normals | url = https://academic.oup.com/sleep/article-pdf/12/5/449/13659314/120509.pdf | journal = Sleep | volume = 12 | issue = 5| pages = 449–457 | doi = 10.1093/sleep/12.5.449 | pmid = 2799218 | doi-access = free }}</ref> and are among the highest risk group for driving while feeling tired and sleep deprivation related crashes.<ref name="Pack"/><ref name="Carskadon">{{cite journal | last1 = Carskadon | first1 = MA. | year = 1989 | title = Adolescent sleepiness: increased risk in a high-risk population | url = http://psycnet.apa.org/record/1990-27983-001 | journal = Alcohol, Drugs and Driving | volume = 5–6 | pages = 317–328 }}</ref>

==See also==
{{Wiktionary|neuroscience}}

{{Wikibooks|Neuroscience}}

{{Wikiversity|Topic: Neuroscience}}

* [[Affective neuroscience]]
*[[Cognitive psychology]]
*[[Physiological psychology|Cognitive psychophysiology]]
*[[Experimental psychology]]
*[[List of neuroscience topics]]
* [[List of neuroscientists]]
* [[:Category:Neuroscience journals|Neuroscience journals]]
*[[Social neuroscience]]
*[[Skylab 4]]

{{clear}}

== References ==

{{reflist|2}}

{{Sleep}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Effects Of Sleep Deprivation On Cognitive Performance}}
[[Category:Health effects by subject|Sleep]]
[[Category:Sleeplessness and sleep deprivation]]
[[Category:Cognitive neuroscience]]

San people

2024-03-30T11:41:01Z

Postka:

{{Redirect|Bushmen|other uses|Bushman (disambiguation){{!}}Bushman}}
{{short description|Members of various indigenous hunter-gatherer people of Southern Africa}}
{{use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2020}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group = San Bushmen
| image = [[File:Namibian Bushmen Girls.JPG|frameless|upright=1.5]]
| caption = [[Juǀ'hoansi|Juǀ'hoan]] children in
[[Namibia]].
| population = ~105,000
| region1 = {{flag|Botswana}}
| pop1 = 63,500
| region2 = {{flag|Namibia}}
| pop2 = 27,000
| region3 = {{flag|South Africa}}
| pop3 = 10,000
| region4 = {{flag|Angola}}
| pop4 = <5,000
| region5 = {{flag|Zimbabwe}}
| pop5 = 1,200
| rels = [[San religion]], [[Christianity in Africa|Christianity]]
| langs = All languages of the [[Khoe languages|Khoe]], [[Kx'a languages|Kx'a]], and [[Tuu languages|Tuu]] language families, [[English language|English]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
| related = [[Khoekhoe]], [[Coloureds]], [[Basters]], [[Griqua people|Griqua]], [[Sotho people|Sotho]], [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]], [[Zulu people|Zulu]], [[Swazi people|Swazi]], [[Southern Ndebele people|Ndebele]], [[Pedi people|Pedi]], [[Tswana people|Tswana]], [[Lozi people|Lozi]]
}}
[[File:KhoisanLanguagesModernDistribution.png|thumb|Map of modern distribution of "Khoisan" languages. The territories shaded blue and green, and those to their east, are those of San peoples.]]
The '''San peoples''' (also '''Saan'''), or '''Bushmen''', are the members of the indigenous [[hunter-gatherer]] cultures of southern Africa, and the [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|oldest surviving cultures]] of the region.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-04-28 |title=Foragers to First Peoples: The Kalahari San Today {{!}} Cultural Survival |url=https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/foragers-first-peoples-kalahari-san-today |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=www.culturalsurvival.org |language=en}}</ref> Their recent ancestral territories span [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Angola]], [[Zambia]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Lesotho]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Mountain Bushmen of Basutoland |last=Walsham How |first=Marion |publisher=J. L. Van Schaik Ltd. |year=1962 |location=[[Pretoria]] }}</ref> and [[South Africa]].

The Bushmen speak, or their ancestors spoke, languages of the [[Khoe languages|Khoe]], [[Tuu languages|Tuu]] and [[Kxʼa languages|Kxʼa]] language families, and are seen by outsiders as a people only in contrast to neighboring pastoralists such as the [[Khoekhoe]] and descendants of more recent waves of immigration such as the [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]], [[Europeans]] and [[Indian subcontinent|Asians]].

In 2017, Botswana was home to approximately 63,500 San, making it the country with the highest proportion of San people at 2.8%.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hitchcock|first1=Robert K.|last2=Sapignoli|first2=Maria |date=8 May 2019|chapter=The economic wellbeing of the San of the western, central and eastern Kalahari regions of Botswana|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/335022800 |editor-first1=Christopher |editor-last1=Fleming |editor-first2=Matthew |editor-last2=Manning|title=Routledge Handbook of Indigenous Wellbeing|edition=1st|pages=170–183|publisher=[[Routledge]] |via=[[ResearchGate]]|isbn=9781138909175}}</ref>

== Definition ==
In [[Khoekhoegowab]], the term "San" has a long vowel and is spelled ''Sān''. It is an [[exonym]] with the meaning of "foragers" and is used in a derogatory manner to describe people too poor to have cattle. Based on observation of lifestyle, this term has been applied to speakers of three distinct language families living between the [[Okavango River]] in Botswana and [[Etosha National Park]] in northwestern [[Namibia]], extending up into southern [[Angola]]; central peoples of most of [[Namibia]] and Botswana, extending into [[Zambia]] and [[Zimbabwe]]; and the southern people in the central [[Kalahari Desert|Kalahari]] towards the [[Molopo River]], who are the last remnant of the previously extensive indigenous peoples of southern Africa.<ref name="Barnard">{{cite book|last=Barnard|first=Alan|title=Anthropology and the Bushman|year=2007|publisher=Berg|location=Oxford|isbn=9781847883308|pages=4–7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e3MihaaJ314C}}</ref>

==Names==
[[File:Portrait of a bushman. Alfred Duggan-Cronin. South Africa, early 20th century. The Wellcome Collection, London.jpg|thumb|Portrait of a bushman. Alfred Duggan-Cronin. South Africa, early 20th century. The Wellcome Collection, London.]]

The designations "Bushmen" and "San" are both [[Exonym and endonym|exonyms]]. The San have no collective word for themselves in their own languages. "San" is a derogatory word originally used by the pastoralist [[Khoekhoe]].

The San refer to themselves as their individual nations, such as [[ǃKung people|ǃKung]] (also spelled ''ǃXuun'', including the [[Juǀʼhoansi]]), [[ǀXam language|ǀXam]], [[Nǁng language|Nǁnǂe]] (part of the ǂKhomani), [[Khwe language|Kxoe]] (Khwe and ǁAni), [[Haiǁom]], [[Ncoakhoe]], [[Tshwa language|Tshuwau]], [[Gǁana language|Gǁana and Gǀui (ǀGwi)]], etc.<ref>Lee, Richard B. and Daly, Richard Heywood (1999) ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers'', Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|052157109X}}</ref><ref name=Smith>{{cite book|last= Smith|first=Andrew Brown|title=The Bushmen of Southern Africa: A Foraging Society in Transition|year= 2000 |publisher= New Africa Books|location= Cape Town|isbn= 9780864864192|page= 2|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=2YnZU4NCv3IC}}</ref><ref name=Ouzman>{{cite book|editor1-last=Smith|editor1-first=Claire|editor2-last= Wobst |editor2-first=H. Martin|last=Ouzman|first=Sven|title=Indigenous Archaeologies: Decolonizing Theory and Practice |chapter=Silencing and Sharing Southern Africa Indigenous and Embedded Knowledge|publisher=Routledge Taylor & Francis Group|location=Abingdon, Oxon|year=2004|page=209|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MylyVq_dMoIC|isbn=9781134391554}}</ref><ref name=MG2007>{{cite news|title=San, Bushmen or Basarwa: What's in a name?|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2007-09-05-san-bushmen-or-basarwa-whats-in-a-name|newspaper=Mail & Guardian |date= 5 September 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117025938/http://mg.co.za/article/2007-09-05-san-bushmen-or-basarwa-whats-in-a-name|archive-date= 17 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Coan|first=Stephen|title=The first people|url=http://www.witness.co.za/index.php?showcontent&global%5B_id%5D=44782|newspaper=The Witness|date=28 July 2010|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131014184714/http://www.witness.co.za/index.php?showcontent&global%5B_id%5D=44782|archive-date=14 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Representatives of San peoples in 2003 stated their preference for the use of such individual group names, where possible, over the use of the collective term ''San''.<ref>Statement by delegates of the Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA) and the South African San Institute attending the 2003 Africa Human Genome Initiative conference held in [[Stellenbosch]]. {{cite journal|last= Schlebusch|first=Carina|title=Issues raised by use of ethnic-group names in genome study|doi= 10.1038/464487a |date= 25 March 2010|journal= Nature|volume= 464|issue= 7288|page= 487|pmid= 20336115|bibcode= 2010Natur.464..487S |doi-access=free}}</ref>

"Bushmen" is the older cover term, but "San" had been widely adopted in the West by the late 1990s. "San" is a pejorative [[Khoekhoe]] appellation for foragers without cattle or other wealth, from a root ''saa'' "picking up from the ground" + plural ''-n'' in the [[Haiǁom dialect]].<ref>{{cite web|title= WIMSA Annual Report 2004-05|url= http://evan.oribi.cc:50080/index.php?option=com_rokdownloads&view=file&task=download&id=19%3Awimsa-annual-report-04-05&Itemid=79|publisher= WIMSA|access-date=18 March 2014|page=58|quote=the term 'San' comes from the Haiǁom language and has been abbreviated in the following way ... Saa – Picking things up (food) from the ground (i.e. 'gathering'), Saab – A male person gathering, Saas – A female person gathering, Saan – Many people gathering, San – One way to write 'all of the people gathering' |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140318092420/http://evan.oribi.cc:50080/index.php?option=com_rokdownloads&view=file&task=download&id=19%3Awimsa-annual-report-04-05&Itemid=79 |archive-date= 18 March 2014 }}</ref><ref>"The old Dutch also did not know that their so-called Hottentots formed only one branch of a wide-spread race, of which the other branch divided into ever so many tribes, differing from each other totally in language [...] While the so-called Hottentots called themselves Khoikhoi (men of men, ''i.e.'' men ''par excellence''), they called those other tribes ''Sā'', the Sonqua of the Cape Records [...] We should apply the term ''Hottentot'' to the whole race, and call the two families, each by the native name, that is the one, the ''Khoikhoi'', the so-called ''Hottentot proper''; the other the ''San'' (''Sā'') or ''Bushmen''." – Theophilus Hahn, ''Tsuni-ǁGoam: The Supreme Being to the Khoi-Khoi'' (1881), p. 3.</ref> The term ''Bushmen'', from 17th-century Dutch ''{{lang|nl| Bosjesmans}}'', is still widely used by others and to self-identify, but in some instances the term has also been described as pejorative.<ref name=Ouzman/><ref name=Mountain/><ref name=Guenther>{{cite book|editor-last=Solway|editor-first= Jacqueline|last= Guenther|first= Mathias|title=The Politics of Egalitarianism: Theory and Practice|chapter=Contemporary Bushman Art, Identity Politics, and the Primitivism Discourse|year=2006|publisher=Berghahn Books|location=New York|isbn= 9781845451158 |pages=181–182|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ovykFTcuPLMC}}</ref><ref name=Britten>{{cite book|last= Britten|first= Sarah|title= McBride of Frankenmanto: The Return of the South African Insult|year= 2007|publisher= 30° South|location=Johannesburg|isbn=9781920143183|pages=18–19|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vARidvH3b18C}}</ref>

Adoption of the Khoekhoe term ''San'' in Western anthropology dates to the 1970s, and this remains the standard term in English-language ethnographic literature, although some authors later switched back to using the name ''Bushmen''.<ref name=Barnard/><ref>{{cite news|last=Sailer|first=Steve|title=Feature: Name game – 'Inuit' or 'Eskimo'?|url=http://www.upi.com/Odd_News/2002/06/20/Feature-Name-game-Inuit-or-Eskimo/UPI-43191024597290/|newspaper=UPI|date=20 June 2002}}
"The fashion of renaming the Bushmen of Southwestern Africa as the 'San' exemplifies many of the problems with the name game. University of Utah anthropologist [[Henry Harpending]], who has lived with the famous tongue-clicking hunter-gatherers said, 'In the 1970s the name "San" spread in Europe and America because it seemed to be politically correct, while 'Bushmen' sounded derogatory and sexist.' Unfortunately, the hunter-gatherers never actually had a collective name for themselves in any of their own languages. 'San' was actually the insulting word that the herding Khoi people called the Bushmen. [...] Harpending noted, 'The problem was that in the Kalahari, "San" has all the baggage that the "N-word" has in America. Bushmen kids are graduating from school, reading the academic literature, and are outraged that we call them "San." [...] one did not call someone a San to his face. I continued to use Bushman, and I was publicly corrected several times by the righteous. It quickly became a badge among Western academics: If you say "San" and I say "San," then we signal each other that we are on the fashionable side, politically. It had nothing to do with respect. I think most politically correct talk follows these dynamics.'"</ref> The compound ''[[Khoisan]]'' is used to refer to the pastoralist Khoi. The foraging San collectively was coined by Leonhard Schulze in the 1920s and popularised by [[Isaac Schapera]] in 1930. Anthropological use of ''San'' was detached from the compound ''Khoisan'',<ref>"Schapera is the author of the convenient term Khoisan, compounded of the Hottentot's name for themselves (Khoi) and their name for the Bushmen (San)." [[Joseph Greenberg]], ''[[The Languages of Africa]]'' (1963), p. 66.</ref>
as it has been reported that the exonym ''San'' is perceived as a pejorative in parts of the central Kalahari.<ref name=Mountain>{{cite book|last= Mountain|first= Alan|title= First People of the Cape|year= 2003|publisher=New Africa Books|location=Claremont|isbn=9780864866233|pages=23–24|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nR2d1iJo6_UC}}</ref> By the late 1990s, the term ''San'' was in general use by the people themselves.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lee|first=Richard B.|title=The Dobe Ju/'Hoansi|year=2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn= 9781133713531|page=9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kRAKAAAAQBAJ|edition=Fourth}}</ref>
The adoption of the term was preceded by a number of meetings held in the 1990s where delegates debated on the adoption of a collective term.<ref>{{cite web|title= General Questions|url= http://www.khwattu.org/engage/general-questions/?id=43|work=ǃKhwa ttu – San Education and Culture Centre|access-date=12 January 2014}}
{{cite book|last=Dieckmann |first=Ute |title=Haiom in the Etosha region: A History of Colonial Settlement, Ethnicity and Nature Conservation |year=2007 |publisher=Basler Afrika Bibliographien |location=Basel |isbn= 9783905758009 |chapter=Shifting Identities |pages=300–302 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ePQlF_x4vYC}}</ref> These meetings included the Common Access to Development Conference organised by the [[Politics of Botswana|Government of Botswana]] held in [[Gaborone]] in 1993,<ref name=MG2007/> the 1996 inaugural Annual General Meeting of the Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA) held in Namibia,<ref>{{cite web|last= Le Raux |first= Willemien|title= Torn Apart – A Report on the Educational Situation of San Children in Southern Africa|url=http://www.wim-sa.org/resources/downloads|publisher=Kuru Development Trust and WIMSA |year=2000 |page=2|quote=Although the people are also known by the names Bushmen and Basarwa, the term ''San'' was chosen as an inclusive group name for this report, since WIMSA representatives have decided to use it until such time as one representative name for all groups will be accepted by all.}}</ref> and a 1997 conference in [[Cape Town]] on "Khoisan Identities and Cultural Heritage" organised by the [[University of the Western Cape]].<ref name=HitchcockBiesele>{{cite web|last1=Hitchcock|first1=Robert K.|last2= Biesele|first2= Megan|title= San, Khwe, Basarwa, or Bushmen? Terminology, Identity, and Empowerment in Southern Africa|url= http://www.khoisanpeoples.org/indepth/ind-identity.htm|work=Kalahari Peoples Fund|access-date=15 January 2014}}</ref>
The term ''San'' is now standard in South African, and used officially in the blazon of the [[Coat of arms of South Africa| national coat-of-arms]]. The "South African San Council" representing San communities in South Africa was established as part of WIMSA in 2001.<ref name=Marshall>{{cite news|last= Marshall|first=Leon|title=Africa's Bushmen May Get Rich From Diet-Drug Secret|url= http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0416_030416_san1.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20030418003427/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0416_030416_san1.html|url-status= dead|archive-date= 18 April 2003|newspaper= National Geographic News|date= 16 April 2003}}</ref><ref name=WynbergChennells>{{cite book|last1= Wynberg|first1= Rachel|last2= Chennells|first2= Roger|title=Indigenous Peoples, Consent and Benefit Sharing Lessons from the San-Hoodia case|chapter=Green Diamonds of the South: An Overview of the San-Hoodia Case|year= 2009|publisher= Springer|location= Dordrecht|isbn= 9789048131235|page=102|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1yrvafKoV2UC|author1-link= Rachel Wynberg}}</ref>
"Bushmen" is now considered derogatory by many South Africans,<ref name=Mountain/><ref name=Britten/><ref>{{cite book|last=Adhikari|first=Mohamed|title=Not White Enough, Not Black Enough: Racial Identity in the South African Coloured Community|year=2009|publisher=Ohio University Press|page=28|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLw8KzRbRdQC|isbn=9780896804425}}</ref> to the point where, in 2008, use of ''boesman'' (the modern [[Afrikaans]] equivalent of "Bushman") in the ''[[Die Burger]]'' newspaper was brought before the [[Promotion of Equality and Prevention of Unfair Discrimination Act, 2000| Equality Court]], which however ruled that the mere use of the term cannot be taken as derogatory, after the San Council had testified that it had no objection to its use in a positive context.<ref>{{cite news|title=Use of the word 'boesman' not hate speech, court finds|url= http://mg.co.za/article/2008-04-11-use-of-the-word-boesman-not-hate-speech-court-finds|newspaper=Mail & Guardian |date=11 April 2008}}
{{cite news|last= Schroeder|first=Fatima|title=Court: Use of 'boesman' not hate speech|url= http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/court-use-of-boesman-not-hate-speech-1.396406#.UtJP9NIW2yg|newspaper= IOL |date= 14 April 2008}} "Objectively speaking and taking into account the context in which (Die Burger) published the word 'boesman' and the evidence of the San Council witness, I find that the usage of the word did not cause harm, hostility or hatred. Instead, the San Council's representative was adamant that no hurt or harm was caused to them or the San community with the manner in which (Die Burger) published the word 'boesman'."</ref>

The term ''Basarwa'' (singular ''Mosarwa'') is used for the San collectively in Botswana.<ref name=Suzman>{{cite book|last=Suzman|first=James|title=Regional Assessment of the Status of the San in Southern Africa|year= 2001|publisher= Legal Assistance Centre|location=Windhoek|isbn=99916-765-3-8|pages=3–4|url= http://www.lac.org.na/projects/lead/Pdf/sanintro.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last= Marshall|first= Leon|title= Bushmen Driven From Ancestral Lands in Botswana |url= http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0416_030416_san2.html|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20030418002510/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/04/0416_030416_san2.html|url-status= dead|archive-date= 18 April 2003|newspaper= National Geographic News|date= 16 April 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Basarwa Relocation – Introduction |url= http://www.gov.bw/basarwa/background.html|publisher=Government of Botswana |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060409191312/http://www.gov.bw/basarwa/background.html|archive-date=9 April 2006}}</ref>
The term is a Bantu ([[Tswana language |Tswana]]) word meaning "those who do not rear cattle", that is, equivalent to Khoekhoe ''Saan''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ethnic Minorities and Indigenous Peoples|url= http://www.ditshwanelo.org.bw/ethnic.html|work= Ditshwanelo|publisher=The Botswana Centre for Human Rights|access-date=12 January 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140306195233/http://www.ditshwanelo.org.bw/ethnic.html|archive-date=6 March 2014}}</ref> The ''mo-/ba-'' [[Tswana language#Nouns|noun class]] prefixes are used for people; the older variant ''Masarwa'', with the ''le-/ma-'' prefixes used for disreputable people and animals, is offensive and was changed at independence.<ref name=HitchcockBiesele/><ref>{{cite web|last=Bennett|first=Bruce|title=Botswana historical place names and terminology|url= http://www.thuto.org/ubh/bw/plnam.htm|work= Thuto.org|publisher= University of Botswana History Department |access-date=12 January 2014}}</ref>

In Angola, they are sometimes referred to as ''mucancalas'',<ref>{{Citation |year= 2013 |title= ZOONIMIA HISTÓRICO-COMPARATIVA BANTU: Os Cinco Grandes Herbívoros Africanos |language=pt |publisher=Rhino Resource Center |location= Utrecht, Netherlands |url= http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/140/1403765149.pdf |access-date= 19 February 2016}}</ref> or ''bosquímanos'' (a [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] adaptation of the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] term for "Bushmen").
The terms ''Amasili'' and [[Twa|''Batwa'']] are sometimes used for them in [[Zimbabwe]].<ref name=HitchcockBiesele/>
The San are also referred to as ''Batwa'' by [[Xhosa people]] and as ''Baroa'' by [[Sotho people]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Moran|first=Shane|title=Representing Bushmen: South Africa and the Origin of Language|year= 2009 |publisher= University of Rochester Press|location=Rochester, NY|isbn= 9781580462945|page= 3|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=mz1sSYP4g7MC}}</ref>
The Bantu term ''Batwa'' refers to any foraging tribesmen and as such overlaps with the terminology used for the [[Pygmyism| "Pygmoid"]] [[Southern Twa]] of South-Central Africa.

== History ==
[[File:Bushmen Hottentots armed for an expedition.png|''Bush-Men Hottentots armed for an Expedition,'' 1804|thumb|right|upright=1]]
The hunter-gatherer San are among the oldest cultures on Earth,<ref name="Anton & Shelton">{{cite book |last1=Anton |first1=Donald K. |last2=Shelton |first2=Dinah L. |title=Environmental Protection and Human Rights |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76638-8 |page=640 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_dFYq4oFeYC&q=san+kalahari }}</ref> and are thought to be descended from the first inhabitants of what is now Botswana and South Africa. The historical presence of the San in Botswana is particularly evident in northern Botswana's [[Tsodilo Hills]] region. San were traditionally [[semi-nomadic]], moving seasonally within certain defined areas based on the availability of resources such as water, [[game animals]], and edible plants.<ref name="Anaya">{{cite report |author=Anaya, James |date=2 June 2010 |title=Addendum – The situation of indigenous peoples in Botswana |publisher=United Nations Human Rights Council. A/HRC/15/37/Add.2 |url=http://unsr.jamesanaya.org/docs/countries/2010_report_botswana_en.pdf}}</ref> Peoples related to or similar to the San occupied the southern shores throughout the eastern shrubland and may have formed a [[Sangoan]] continuum from the [[Red Sea]] to the [[Cape of Good Hope]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Smith|first=Malvern van Wyk|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDZjDwAAQBAJ&q=Boskopoid|title=The First Ethiopians: The image of Africa and Africans in the early Mediterranean world|date=2009-07-01|publisher=NYU Press|isbn=978-1-86814-834-9|language=en}}</ref>

By the end of the 18th century after the arrival of the Dutch, thousands of San had been killed and forced to work for the colonists. The [[British Empire|British]] tried to "civilize" the San and make them adapt a more agricultural lifestyle, but were not successful. By the 1870s, the last San of the Cape were hunted to extinction, while other San were able to survive. The South African government used to issue licenses for people to hunt the San, with the last one being reportedly issued in Namibia in 1936.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Godwin |first=Peter |title=Southern Africa's hunter-gatherers seek a foothold. |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0102/feature6/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160314082909/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0102/feature6/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2016-03-14 |journal=[[National Geographic]]}}</ref>

From the 1950s through to the 1990s, San communities switched to farming because of government-mandated modernization programs. Despite the lifestyle changes, they have provided a wealth of information in [[anthropology]] and [[genetics]]. One broad study of African [[genetic diversity]], completed in 2009, found that the genetic diversity of the San was among the top five of all 121 sampled populations.<ref>{{cite news|last=Connor|first=Steve|title=World's most ancient race traced in DNA study|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/worlds-most-ancient-race-traced-in-dna-study-1677113.html|newspaper=The Independent|date=1 May 2009}}</ref><ref name=Gill>{{cite news |author=Gill, Victoria |date=1 May 2009 |title=Africa's genetic secrets unlocked |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8027269.stm |format=online edition |work=BBC World News |publisher=[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]]|access-date=2009-09-03|url-status = live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090701001654/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8027269.stm|archive-date = 1 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1126/science.1172257| title = The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans| journal = Science| volume = 324| issue = 5930| pages = 1035–44| year = 2009 | pmid=19407144|pmc=2947357| last1 = Tishkoff | first1 = S. A.| last2 = Reed | first2 = F. A.| last3 = Friedlaender | first3 = F. R.| last4 = Ehret | first4 = C.| last5 = Ranciaro | first5 = A.| last6 = Froment | first6 = A.| last7 = Hirbo | first7 = J. B.| last8 = Awomoyi | first8 = A. A.| last9 = Bodo | first9 = J. -M. | last10 = Doumbo | first10 = O.| last11 = Ibrahim | first11 = M.| last12 = Juma | first12 = A. T.| last13 = Kotze | first13 = M. J.| last14 = Lema | first14 = G.| last15 = Moore | first15 = J. H.| last16 = Mortensen | first16 = H.| last17 = Nyambo | first17 = T. B.| last18 = Omar | first18 = S. A.| last19 = Powell | first19 = K.| last20 = Pretorius | first20 = G. S.| last21 = Smith | first21 = M. W.| last22 = Thera | first22 = M. A.| last23 = Wambebe | first23 = C.| last24 = Weber | first24 = J. L.| last25 = Williams | first25 = S. M.| bibcode = 2009Sci...324.1035T}}</ref> Certain San groups are one of 14 known extant "ancestral population clusters"; that is, "groups of populations with common genetic ancestry, who share ethnicity and similarities in both their culture and the properties of their languages".<ref name=Gill/>

Despite some positive aspects of government development programs reported by members of San and [[Bakgalagadi]] communities in Botswana, many have spoken of a consistent sense of exclusion from government decision-making processes, and many San and Bakgalagadi have alleged experiencing [[ethnic discrimination]] on the part of the government.<ref name=Anaya/>{{rp|8–9}} The [[United States Department of State]] described ongoing discrimination against San, or ''Basarwa'', people in Botswana in 2013 as the "principal human rights concern" of that country.<ref name=StateDept>{{cite book |author=Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor |title=Botswana 2013 Human Rights Report |publisher=United States Department of State |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/220296.pdf}}</ref>{{rp|1}}

==Society==
{{Further|San healing practices|San rock art|San religion}}
[[File:Botswana 063.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Drinking water from the bi bulb plant]]
[[File:BushmenSan.jpg|thumb|Starting a fire by hand]]
[[File:San wh03.jpg|thumb|Preparing poison arrows]]
[[File:San tribesman.jpg|thumb|San man]]

The San [[kinship system]] reflects their history as traditionally small mobile foraging bands. San kinship is similar to [[Inuit kinship]], which uses the same set of terms as in European cultures but adds a name rule and an age rule for determining what terms to use. The age rule resolves any confusion arising from kinship terms, as the older of two people always decides what to call the younger. Relatively few names circulate (approximately 35 names per sex), and each child is named after a grandparent or another relative, but never their parents.

Children have no social duties besides playing, and leisure is very important to San of all ages. Large amounts of time are spent in conversation, joking, music, and sacred dances. Women may be leaders of their own family groups. They may also make important family and group decisions and claim ownership of water holes and foraging areas. Women are mainly involved in the gathering of food, but sometimes also partake in hunting.<ref>{{Cite web |title=San - Bushmen - Kalahari, South Africa... |url=https://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_bushmen.html |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=www.krugerpark.co.za}}</ref>

Water is important in San life. During long droughts, they make use of sip wells in order to collect water. To make a sip well, a San scrapes a deep hole where the sand is damp, and inserts a long hollow grass stem into the hole. An empty [[ostrich egg]] is used to collect the water. Water is sucked into the straw from the sand, into the mouth, and then travels down another straw into the ostrich egg.<ref>{{Cite web |title=San - Bushmen - Kalahari, South Africa... |url=https://www.krugerpark.co.za/africa_bushmen.html |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=www.krugerpark.co.za}}</ref>

Traditionally, the San were an egalitarian society.<ref name=shostak>Marjorie Shostak, 1983, ''Nisa: The Life and Words of a ǃKung Woman''. New York: Vintage Books. Page 10.</ref> Although they had hereditary [[Tribal chief|chiefs]], their authority was limited. The San made decisions among themselves by [[Consensus decision-making|consensus]], with women treated as relative equals in decision making.<ref>Shostak 1983: 13</ref> San economy was a [[gift economy]], based on giving each other gifts regularly rather than on trading or purchasing goods and services.<ref>Shostak 1983: 9, 25</ref>

Most San are [[monogamy|monogamous]], but if a hunter is able to obtain enough food, he can afford to have a second wife as well.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.exploring-africa.com/en/botswana/san-or-bushmen/san-people|title = The San people|date = 6 September 2017}}</ref>

===Subsistence===
Villages range in sturdiness from nightly rain shelters in the warm spring (when people move constantly in search of budding greens), to formalized rings, wherein people congregate in the dry season around permanent waterholes. Early spring is the hardest season: a hot dry period following the cool, dry winter. Most plants still are dead or dormant, and supplies of autumn nuts are exhausted. Meat is particularly important in the dry months when wildlife can not range far from the receding waters.

Women gather fruit, berries, tubers, bush onions, and other plant materials for the band's consumption. [[Ostrich]] eggs are gathered, and the empty shells are used as water containers. Insects provide perhaps 10% of animal proteins consumed, most often during the dry season.<ref>{{cite book|author=Brian Morris |title=Insects and human life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ok-3NLX_8GQC&pg=PA57|year=2004|publisher=Berg |isbn=978-1-84520-075-6 |page=57}}</ref> Depending on location, the San consume 18 to 104 species, including grasshoppers, beetles, caterpillars, moths, butterflies, and termites.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ok-3NLX_8GQC&pg=PA39 Brian Morris (2005). Insects and Human Life, pp39-40.] See page 19: [https://books.google.com/books?id=ok-3NLX_8GQC&q=san&pg=PA19 for insect use in medicine, poison for arrows etc. Also page 188 regarding Kaggen, the Praying Mantis trickster deity who created the moon] More on Kaggen, who might sabotage a hunt by transforming into a louse and biting the hunter: [https://books.google.com/books?id=NtyI0b1CiDkC&pg=PA111 Mathias Georg Guenther (1999). ''Tricksters and Trancers: Bushman Religion and Society.'' p111.]</ref>

Women's traditional gathering gear is simple and effective: a hide sling, a blanket, a cloak called a ''kaross'' to carry foodstuffs, firewood, smaller bags, a digging stick, and perhaps, a smaller version of the [[kaross]] to carry a baby.

Men, and presumably women when they accompany them, hunt in long, laborious [[Tracking (hunting)|tracking]] excursions. They kill their game using [[bow and arrow]]s and [[spear]]s tipped in [[diamphotoxin]], a slow-acting [[arrow poison]] produced by beetle [[larva]]e of the genus ''[[Diamphidia]]''.<ref name=biodiversity>[http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/beetles/chrysomelidae/alticinae/arrows.htm "How San hunters use beetles to poison their arrows"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120603064943/http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/beetles/chrysomelidae/alticinae/arrows.htm |date=3 June 2012 }}, Biodiversity Explorer website</ref>

===Early history===
[[File:Wandering hunters (Masarwa bushmen), North Kalahari Desert.jpg|thumb|''Wandering hunters ([[Taa language|Masarwa]] Bushmen), North Kalahari desert'', published in 1892 (from [[Henry Anderson Bryden|H. A. Bryden]] photogr.)]]

A set of tools almost identical to that used by the modern San and dating to 42,000 BC was discovered at [[Border Cave]] in [[KwaZulu-Natal]] in 2012.<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-19069560 Earliest' evidence of modern human culture found], Nick Crumpton, BBC News, 31 July 2012</ref>

Historical evidence shows that certain San communities have always lived in the desert regions of the Kalahari; however, eventually nearly all other San communities in southern Africa were forced into this region. The Kalahari San remained in poverty where their richer neighbours denied them rights to the land. Before long, in both Botswana and Namibia, they found their territory drastically reduced.<ref>[http://www.theartofafrica.co.za/serv/moderntimes.jsp "The modern day Bushmen / San"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110618001626/http://www.theartofafrica.co.za/serv/moderntimes.jsp |date=18 June 2011 }}. Art of Africa. Retrieved 2012-01-29.</ref>

==Genetics==
Various [[Y chromosome]] studies show that the San carry some of the most divergent (earliest branching) [[Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup|human Y-chromosome haplogroup]]s. These haplogroups are specific sub-groups of haplogroups [[Haplogroup A (Y-DNA)|A]] and [[Haplogroup B (Y-DNA)|B]], the two earliest branches on the human Y-chromosome [[phylogenetic tree|tree]].<ref name=j1>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00130-1|title=African Y Chromosome and mtDNA Divergence Provides Insight into the History of Click Languages|year=2003|last1=Knight|first1=Alec|last2=Underhill|first2=Peter A.|last3=Mortensen|first3=Holly M.|last4=Zhivotovsky|first4=Lev A.|last5=Lin|first5=Alice A.|last6=Henn|first6=Brenna M.|last7=Louis|first7=Dorothy|last8=Ruhlen|first8=Merritt|last9=Mountain|first9=Joanna L.|journal=Current Biology|volume=13|issue=6|pages=464–73|pmid=12646128|s2cid=52862939|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|pmid=11420360 |url=http://www.familytreedna.com/pdf/Hammer_MBE_2001.pdf|year=2001 |last1=Hammer|first1=MF |last2=Karafet|first2=TM|last3=Redd|first3=AJ|last4=Jarjanazi|first4=H|last5=Santachiara-Benerecetti|first5=S |last6=Soodyall|first6=H|last7=Zegura|first7=SL|title=Hierarchical patterns of global human Y-chromosome diversity |volume=18|issue=7 |pages=1189–203|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a003906|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1186/2041-2223-1-6 |title=Development of a single base extension method to resolve Y chromosome haplogroups in sub-Saharan African populations |year=2010|last1=Naidoo |first1=Thijessen |last2=Schlebusch |first2=Carina M |last3=Makkan|first3=Heeran |last4=Patel |first4=Pareen|last5=Mahabeer |first5=Rajeshree |last6=Erasmus|first6=Johannes C|last7=Soodyall |first7=Himla|journal=Investigative Genetics|volume=1|page=6|pmid=21092339|issue=1|pmc=2988483 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Mitochondrial DNA]] studies also provide evidence that the San carry high frequencies of the earliest [[Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup|haplogroup]] branches in the human mitochondrial DNA tree. This DNA is inherited only from one's mother. The most divergent (earliest branching) mitochondrial haplogroup, [[Haplogroup L0|L0]]d, has been identified at its highest frequencies in the southern African San groups.<ref name=j1/><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1086/302848|title=MtDNA Variation in the South African Kung and Khwe—and Their Genetic Relationships to Other African Populations|year=2000|last1=Chen|first1=Yu-Sheng|last2=Olckers|first2=Antonel|last3=Schurr|first3=Theodore G.|last4=Kogelnik|first4=Andreas M.|last5=Huoponen|first5=Kirsi|last6=Wallace|first6=Douglas C.|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=66|issue=4|pages=1362–83|pmid=10739760|pmc=1288201}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/molbev/msm155|title=History of Click-Speaking Populations of Africa Inferred from mtDNA and Y Chromosome Genetic Variation|year=2007 |last1=Tishkoff|first1=S. A. |last2=Gonder|first2=M. K. |last3=Henn|first3=B. M. |last4=Mortensen|first4=H. |last5=Knight|first5=A. |last6=Gignoux|first6=C. |last7=Fernandopulle|first7=N. |last8=Lema|first8=G. |last9=Nyambo|first9=T. B. |first10=U. |last10=Ramakrishnan |first11=F. A. |last11=Reed |first12=J. L. |last12=Mountain |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|volume=24|issue=10|pages=2180–95 |pmid=17656633|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1002/elps.200900197|title=SNaPshot minisequencing to resolve mitochondrial macro-haplogroups found in Africa|year=2009|last1=Schlebusch|first1=Carina M.|last2=Naidoo|first2=Thijessen|last3=Soodyall |first3=Himla|journal=Electrophoresis |volume=30|issue=21 |pages=3657–64 |pmid=19810027|s2cid=19515426}}</ref>

In a study published in March 2011, Brenna Henn and colleagues found that the ǂKhomani San, as well as the [[Sandawe people|Sandawe]] and [[Hadza people]]s of [[Tanzania]], were the most genetically diverse of any living humans studied. This high degree of genetic diversity hints at the origin of [[anatomically modern humans]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Henn |first1=Brenna |last2=Gignoux |first2=Christopher R. |last3=Jobin |first3=Matthew |year=2011 |title=Hunter-gatherer genomic diversity suggests a southern African origin for modern humans |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=108 |issue=13 |pages=5154–62 |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |doi=10.1073/pnas.1017511108 |pmid=21383195 |pmc=3069156|url=https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/44431/1/1017511108.full.pdf |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Kaplan |first=Matt |year=2011 |title=Gene Study Challenges Human Origins in Eastern Africa |journal=[[Scientific American]]|publisher=[[Nature Publishing Group]] |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/gene-study-challenges-human-origin-africa/ |access-date=22 June 2012}}</ref>

A 2008 study suggested that the San may have been isolated from other original ancestral groups for as much as 50,000 to 100,000 years and later rejoined, re-integrating into the rest of the human gene pool.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7358868.stm|title= Human line 'nearly split in two'|work=BBC News|date=24 April 2008 | access-date=2009-12-31 | first=Paul | last=Rincon}}</ref>

A DNA study of fully sequenced genomes, published in September 2016, showed that the ancestors of today's San hunter-gatherers began to diverge from other human populations in Africa about 200,000 years ago and were fully isolated by 100,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/22/science/ancient-dna-human-history.html?_r=0|title= A Single Migration From Africa Populated the World, Studies Find'|publisher=New York Times, by Zimmer, Karl|date=21 September 2016}}</ref>

==Ancestral land conflict in Botswana==
{{main|Ancestral land conflict in Botswana}}
[[File:Bosquimanos-Grassland Bushmen Lodge, Botswana 09.jpg|thumb|San family in Botswana]]
According to professors ''Robert K. Hitchcock, Wayne A. Babchuk, "''In 1652, when Europeans established a full-time presence in Southern Africa, there were some 300,000 San and 600,000 [[Khoekhoe]] in Southern Africa. During the early phases of European colonization, tens of thousands of [[Khoekhoe]] and San peoples lost their lives as a result of genocide, murder, physical mistreatment, and disease. There were cases of “Bushman hunting” in which commandos (mobile [[Paramilitary|paramilitary units]] or posses) sought to dispatch San and [[Khoekhoe]] in various parts of Southern Africa."<ref>{{Citation |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Robert K. |title=Genocide of Khoekhoe and San Peoples of Southern Africa |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780203790830-7/genocide-khoekhoe-san-peoples-southern-africa-robert-hitchcock-wayne-babchuk |work=Genocide of Indigenous Peoples |access-date=2023-03-25 |doi=10.4324/9780203790830-7 |last2=Babchuk |first2=Wayne A.|date=2017 |pages=143–171 |isbn=9780203790830 }}</ref>

Much [[aboriginal people]]'s land in Botswana, including land occupied by the San people (or ''Basarwa''), was conquered during colonization. Loss of land and access to natural resources continued after Botswana's independence.<ref name="Anaya" />{{rp|2}} The San have been particularly affected by encroachment by majority peoples and non-indigenous farmers onto their traditional land. Government policies from the 1970s transferred a significant area of traditionally San land to majority [[agro-pastoralist]] tribes and [[White people|white]] settlers<ref name="Anaya" />{{rp|15}} Much of the government's policy regarding land tended to favor the dominant [[Tswana people|Tswana]] peoples over the minority San and [[Bakgalagadi]].<ref name="Anaya" />{{rp|2}} Loss of land is a major contributor to the problems facing Botswana's indigenous people, including especially the San's eviction from the [[Central Kalahari Game Reserve]].<ref name="Anaya" />{{rp|2}} The government of Botswana decided to relocate all of those living within the reserve to settlements outside it. Harassment of residents, dismantling of infrastructure, and bans on hunting appear to have been used to induce residents to leave.<ref name="Anaya" />{{rp|16}} The government has denied that any of the relocation was forced.<ref name="Forced Evictions-- Towards Solutions?: Second Report of the Advisory Group on Forced Evictions to the Executive Director of UN-HABITAT">{{cite book|last=Advisory Group on Forced Evictions, United Nations Human Settlements Programme|title=Forced Evictions-- Towards Solutions?: Second Report of the Advisory Group on Forced Evictions to the Executive Director of UN-HABITAT |year=2007 |publisher=UN-HABITAT|isbn=978-92-1-131909-5 |page=115 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gbpwMRxCsegC&q=%22C.S+Maribe%22}}</ref> A legal battle followed.<ref name="LandsBack">{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/africa/12/13/bushmen.reut/index.html |title=Botswana's bushmen get Kalahari lands back |publisher=CNN |access-date=2006-12-13 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061220110621/http://www.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/africa/12/13/bushmen.reut/index.html|date=13 December 2006 |archive-date = 20 December 2006}}</ref> The relocation policy may have been intended to facilitate diamond mining by [[Gem Diamonds]] within the reserve.<ref name="Anaya" />{{rp|18}}

==''Hoodia'' traditional knowledge agreement==
''[[Hoodia gordonii]]'', used by the San, was patented by the South African [[Council for Scientific and Industrial Research]] (CSIR) in 1998, for its presumed appetite suppressing quality. A licence was granted to [[Phytopharm]], for development of the active ingredient in the ''Hoodia'' plant, p57 (glycoside), to be used as a pharmaceutical drug for dieting. Once this patent was brought to the attention of the San, a benefit-sharing agreement was reached between them and the CSIR in 2003. This would award royalties to the San for the benefits of their indigenous knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/j.1747-1796.2004.tb00231.x| title = Rhetoric, Realism and Benefit-Sharing| journal = The Journal of World Intellectual Property| volume = 7| issue = 6| pages = 851–876| year = 2005| last1 = Wynberg | first1 = R. |url=http://www.icimod.org/resource/2248}}</ref> During the case, the San people were represented and assisted by the Working Group of Indigenous Minorities in Southern Africa (WIMSA), the South African San Council and the South African San Institute.<ref name=Marshall/><ref name=WynbergChennells/>

This benefit-sharing agreement is one of the first to give royalties to the holders of traditional knowledge used for drug sales. The terms of the agreement are contentious, because of their apparent lack of adherence to the Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing, as outlined in the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (CBD).<ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1111/1467-9388.00346| title = The Bonn Guidelines on Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit Sharing| journal = Review of European Community and International Environmental Law| volume = 12| pages = 84–98| year = 2003| last1 = Tully | first1 = S. |url=https://www.cbd.int/doc/articles/2003/A-00457.pdf}}</ref> The San have yet to profit from this agreement, as P57 has still not yet been legally developed and marketed.

==Representation in mass media==
[[File:Southafrica468bushman.jpg|thumb|[[Rock art of the Bushmen|Rock paintings]] in the [[Cederberg]], [[Western Cape]]]]
[[File:San-Paintings Murewa ZW.jpg|thumb|San paintings near [[Murewa]], [[Zimbabwe]]]]
[[File:San-Elephant Murewa ZW.jpg|thumb|San paintings near Murewa]]

===Early representations===
The San of the [[Kalahari]] were first brought to the globalized world's attention in the 1950s by South African author [[Laurens van der Post]]. Van der Post grew up in South Africa, and had a respectful lifelong fascination with native African cultures. In 1955, he was commissioned by the [[BBC]] to go to the Kalahari desert with a film crew in search of the San. The filmed material was turned into a very popular six-part television documentary a year later. Driven by a lifelong fascination with this "vanished tribe," Van der Post published a 1958 book about this expedition, entitled ''The Lost World of the Kalahari.'' It was to be his most famous book.

In 1961, he published ''The Heart of the Hunter,'' a narrative which he admits in the introduction uses two previous works of stories and mythology as "a sort of Stone Age Bible," namely ''[[Specimens of Bushman Folklore]]''' (1911), [[folkloristics|collected]] by [[Wilhelm Bleek|Wilhelm H. I. Bleek]] and [[Lucy Lloyd|Lucy C. Lloyd]], and [[Dorothea Bleek]]'s ''Mantis and His Friend.'' Van der Post's work brought indigenous African cultures to millions of people around the world for the first time, but some people disparaged it as part of the subjective view of a European in the 1950s and 1960s, stating that he branded the San as simple "children of Nature" or even "mystical ecologists."
In 1992 by John Perrot and team published the book [http://www.khoisanpeoples.org/sites/book-site.htm "Bush for the Bushman"] – a [http://savethesan.org "desperate plea"] on behalf of the aboriginal San addressing the international community and calling on the governments throughout Southern Africa to respect and reconstitute the ancestral land-rights of all San.

===Documentaries and non-fiction===
{{Advert section|date=July 2019}}

John Marshall, the son of [[Harvard University|Harvard]] anthropologist [[Lorna Marshall]], documented the lives of San in the [[Nyae Nyae]] region of [[Namibia]] over a period spanning more than 50-years. His early film ''The Hunters,'' shows a giraffe hunt. ''A Kalahari Family'' (2002) is a series documenting 50 years in the lives of the ''Juǀʼhoansi'' of Southern Africa, from 1951 to 2000. Marshall was a vocal proponent of the San cause throughout his life.<ref name="Thomas">{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Elizabeth Marshall|title=The Old Way: A Story of the First People|year=2007|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=9781429954518|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rtHR8_gK_WwC|pages=xiii,45–47}}</ref> His sister [[Elizabeth Marshall Thomas]] wrote several books and numerous articles about the San, based in part on her experiences living with these people when their culture was still intact. ''The Harmless People,'' published in 1959, and ''The Old Way: A Story of the First People,'' published in 2006, are two of them. John Marshall and Adrienne Miesmer documented the lives of the ǃKung San people between the 1950s and 1978 in ''Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman.''<ref>{{Citation |last=N!ai |title=N!ai: the story of a !Kung woman |date=2004 |url=http://www.aspresolver.com/aspresolver.asp?ANTH;763708 |access-date=2024-03-30 |others=Documentary Educational Resources (Firm), Public Broadcasting Associates |publisher=Documentary Educational Resources |last2=Marshall |first2=John |last3=Marshall-Cabezas |first3=Sue |last4=Miesner |first4=Adrienne |last5=Mbulu |first5=Letta}}</ref> <ref>{{Cite web |title=Reflecting on N!ai, The Story of a !Kung Woman |url=https://africa.harvard.edu/event/reflecting-nai-story-kung-woman |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=africa.harvard.edu |language=en}}</ref>This film, the account of a woman who grew up while the San lived as autonomous hunter-gatherers, but who later was forced into a dependent life in the government-created community at Tsumkwe, shows how the lives of the [[ǃKung people]], who lived for millennia as hunter gatherers, were forever changed when they were forced onto a reservation too small to support them.<ref>Kray, C. (1978) [http://people.rit.edu/cakgss/nai.html "Notes on 'Nǃai: The Story of a ǃKung Woman'"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080714061158/http://people.rit.edu/cakgss/nai.html |date=14 July 2008 }}. RIT. n.d. Web. 5 October 2013.</ref>

South African film-maker Richard Wicksteed has produced a number of documentaries on San culture, history and present situation; these include ''In God's Places'' / ''Iindawo ZikaThixo'' (1995) on the San cultural legacy in the southern Drakensberg; ''Death of a Bushman'' (2002) on the murder of San tracker Optel Rooi by South African police; ''The Will To Survive'' (2009), which covers the history and situation of San communities in southern Africa today; and ''My Land is My Dignity'' (2009) on the San's epic land rights struggle in Botswana's [[Central Kalahari Game Reserve]].

A documentary on San hunting entitled, ''The Great Dance: A Hunter's Story'' (2000), directed by Damon and [[Craig Foster (filmmaker)|Craig Foster]]. This was reviewed by [[Lawrence Van Gelder]] for the ''[[New York Times]],'' who said that the film "constitutes an act of preservation and a requiem."<ref>{{cite news|last1=Van Gelder|first1=Lawrence|title=A Hunter's Story|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/09/29/movies/film-in-review-the-great-dance.html?pagewanted=print&src=p|work=The New York Times|date=29 September 2000}}</ref>

[[Spencer Wells]]'s 2003 book ''[[The Journey of Man]]''—in connection with [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]'s [[Genographic Project]]—discusses a [[Genetics|genetic]] analysis of the San and asserts their [[genetic markers]] were the first ones to split from those of the ancestors of the bulk of other ''Homo sapiens sapiens.'' The [[PBS]] documentary based on the book follows these markers throughout the world, demonstrating that all of humankind can be traced back to the [[African continent]] (see [[Recent African origin of modern humans]], the so-called "out of Africa" hypothesis).

The BBC's ''[[The Life of Mammals#10. .22Food for Thought.22|The Life of Mammals]]'' (2003) series includes video footage of an indigenous San of the Kalahari desert undertaking a [[persistence hunt]] of a [[kudu]] through harsh desert conditions.<ref>{{cite web|last=Attenborough|first=David|title=Human Mammal, Human Hunter (video)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=826HMLoiE_o| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211104/826HMLoiE_o| archive-date=2021-11-04 | url-status=live|work=[[The Life of Mammals]]|publisher=BBC |date=5 February 2003}}{{cbignore}}</ref> It provides an illustration of how early man may have pursued and captured prey with minimal weaponry.

The BBC series ''[[How Art Made the World]]'' (2005) compares [[Rock art of the Bushmen|San cave paintings]] from 200 years ago to [[Ice Age art|Paleolithic European paintings]] that are 14,000 years old.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/howartmadetheworld/episodes/pictures/san/|title=How Art Made the World. Episodes . The Day Pictures Were Born. The San People of South Africa {{!}} PBS|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=2016-05-20}}</ref> Because of their similarities, the San works may illustrate the reasons for ancient cave paintings. The presenter [[Nigel Spivey]] draws largely on the work of Professor [[David Lewis-Williams]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Download How Art Made the World (Hardback) - Common ePub eBook @6B3B522E7DEEE17DDA23E86C6926E2F6.NMCOBERTURAS.COM.BR|url=http://6b3b522e7deee17dda23e86c6926e2f6.nmcoberturas.com.br/|website=6b3b522e7deee17dda23e86c6926e2f6.nmcoberturas.com.br|access-date=2020-05-26}}</ref> whose PhD was entitled "Believing and Seeing: Symbolic meanings in southern San rock paintings". Lewis-Williams draws parallels with prehistoric art around the world, linking in shamanic ritual and trance states.

===Films and music===
[[File:Rock painting in Twyfelfontein3.jpg|thumb|Rock painting of a man in Twyfelfontein valley]]

A 1969 film, ''[[Lost in the Desert]],'' features a small boy, stranded in the desert, who encounters a group of wandering San. They help him and then abandon him as a result of a misunderstanding created by the lack of a common language and culture. The film was directed by [[Jamie Uys]], who returned to the San a decade later with ''[[The Gods Must Be Crazy]],'' which proved to be an international hit. This comedy portrays a Kalahari San group's first encounter with an [[Cultural artifact|artifact]] from the outside world (a [[Coca-Cola]] bottle). By the time this movie was made, the ǃKung had recently been forced into sedentary villages, and the San hired as actors were confused by the instructions to act out inaccurate exaggerations of their almost abandoned hunting and gathering life.<ref>''[[Nǃai, the Story of a ǃKung Woman]].'' Documentary Educational Resources and Public Broadcasting Associates, 1980.</ref>

"[[Eh Hee]]" by [[Dave Matthews Band]] was written as an evocation of the music and culture of the San. In a story told to the [[Radio City Music Hall|Radio City]] audience (an edited version of which appears on the DVD version of ''[[Live at Radio City]]''), Matthews recalls hearing the music of the San and, upon asking his guide what the words to their songs were, being told that "there are no words to these songs, because these songs, we've been singing since before people had words." He goes on to describe the song as his "homage to meeting... the most advanced people on the planet."
[[File:Giraffe, Twyfelfontein.jpg|thumb|Rock engraving of a giraffe in Twyfelfontein valley]]

===Memoirs===
In [[Peter Godwin (writer)|Peter Godwin]]'s biography ''When A Crocodile Eats the Sun'', he mentions his time spent with the San for an assignment. His title comes from the San's belief that a solar eclipse occurs when a crocodile eats the sun.

===Novels===

[[Laurens van der Post]]'s two novels, ''A Story Like The Wind'' (1972) and its sequel, ''A Far Off Place'' (1974), made into a [[A Far-Off Place|1993 film]], are about a white boy encountering a wandering San and his wife, and how the San's life and survival skills save the white teenagers' lives in a journey across the desert.

[[James A. Michener]]'s ''[[The Covenant (novel)|The Covenant]]'' (1980), is a work of [[historical fiction]] centered on South Africa. The first section of the book concerns a San community's journey set roughly in 13,000 BC.

In [[Wilbur Smith]]'s novel ''[[The Burning Shore]]'' (an instalment in the [[Courtneys of Africa book series]]), the San people are portrayed through two major characters, O'wa and H'ani; Smith describes the San's struggles, history, and beliefs in great detail.

[[Norman Rush]]'s 1991 novel [[Mating (novel)|Mating]] features an encampment of Basarwa near the (imaginary) Botswana town where the main action is set.

[[Tad Williams]]'s epic ''[[Otherland]]'' series of novels features a South African San named ǃXabbu, whom Williams confesses to be highly fictionalised, and not necessarily an accurate representation. In the novel, Williams invokes aspects of San mythology and culture.

In 2007, [[David Gilman (writer)|David Gilman]] published ''The Devil's Breath''. One of the main characters, a small San boy named ǃKoga, uses traditional methods to help the character Max Gordon travel across Namibia.

[[Alexander McCall Smith]] has written a series of [[episodic fiction|episodic novels]] set in [[Gaborone]], the capital of Botswana. The fiancé of the protagonist of ''[[The No. 1 Ladies' Detective Agency]]'' series, Mr. J. L. B. Matekoni, adopts two orphaned San children, sister and brother Motholeli and Puso.

The San feature in several of the novels by Michael Stanley (the ''nom de plume'' of Michael Sears and Stanley Trollip), particularly in ''Death of the Mantis''.

In [[Christopher Hope (novelist)|Christopher Hope]]'s book ''Darkest England'', the San hero, David Mungo Booi, is tasked by his fellow tribesmen with asking the Queen for the protection once promised, and to evaluate the possibility of creating a colony on the island. He discovered England in the manner of 19th century Western explorers.

==Notable individuals==
=== ǃKung ===
*[[Nǃxau ǂToma]]
*[[Royal ǀUiǀoǀoo]]
=== Gǁana ===
*[[Roy Sesana]]
=== ǀXam ===
[[File:!Kweiten-ta ken (also known as Rachel or Griet) 1870s.jpg|thumb|A photograph of !Kweiten-ta ken when she was in [[Mowbray, Cape Town|Mowbray]] in 1874–5]]
* [[ǁKabbo]]
* [[ǃKweiten-ta-ǁKen]]

=== Nǁnǂe ===
* [[Elsie Vaalbooi]]
=== Naro ===
* [[Cgʼose Ntcoxʼo]]
* [[Coexʼae Qgam]]
=== ǂKhomani ===
*[[Dawid Kruiper]]

==See also==
*[[First People of the Kalahari]]
*[[Kalahari Debate]]
*[[Khoisan]]
*[[Negro of Banyoles]]
* [[Botswanan art#San art]]
*[[Strandloper (people)|Strandloper]]
*[[Vaalpens]]
*[[Boskop Man]]

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}


==Bibliography==
*{{Cite book |author=Shostak, Marjorie |author-link=Marjorie Shostak |year=1983 |title=Nisa: The Life and Words of a ǃKung Woman |location=New York |publisher=[[Vintage Books]] |isbn=0-7139-1486-6}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |author=Gordon, Robert J. |year=1999 |title=The Bushman Myth: The Making of a Namibian Underclass |publisher=Avalon |isbn=0-8133-3581-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/bushmanmythmakin00gord }}
*{{Cite book |author=Howell, Nancy |year=1979 |title=Demography of the Dobe ǃKung |location=New York |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=0-12-357350-5}}
*{{Cite book |author=Lee, Richard |author2=Irven DeVore |year=1999 |title=Kalahari Hunter-Gatherers: Studies of the ǃKung San & Their Neighbors |publisher=iUniverse |isbn=0-674-49980-8}}
*{{cite web|last=Solomon|first=Anne|title=The myth of ritual origins? Ethnography, mythology and interpretation of San rock art|url=http://www.antiquityofman.com/Solomon_myth_ritual.html|year=1997|work=The Antiquity of Man|publisher=South African Archaeological Bulletin}}
*{{cite web|last=Minkel|first=J. R.|title=Offerings to a Stone Snake Provide the Earliest Evidence of Religion|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=offerings-to-a-stone-snak|date=1 December 2006|work=Scientific American|access-date=12 January 2014}}
*{{cite news|last=Choi|first=Charles|title=African Hunter-Gatherers Are Offshoots of Earliest Human Split|url=http://www.livescience.com/23378-african-hunter-gatherers-human-origins.html|newspaper=LiveScience|date=21 September 2012}}
* San Spirituality: Roots, Expression,(2004) and Social Consequences, J. David Lewis-Williams, David G. Pearce, {{ISBN|978-0759104327}}
* Barnard, Alan. (1992): ''Hunters and Herders of Southern Africa.'' Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0521411882}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{wikisource1911Enc|Bushmen}}

* [http://www.khoisanpeoples.org/ The site of the Khoisan Speakers]
* [http://www.khwattu.org/ ǃKhwa ttu – San Education and Culture Centre]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070911175447/http://www.kuru.co.bw/ Kuru Family of Organisations]
* [http://www.san.org.za/ South African San Institute]

* [http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/bushman/ Bradshaw Foundation – The San Bushmen of South Africa]
* [http://www.culturalsurvival.org/country/botswana Cultural Survival – Botswana]
* [http://www.culturalsurvival.org/country/namibia Cultural Survival – Namibia]
* [http://www.iwgia.org/regions/africa International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs – Africa]
* [http://www.kalaharipeoples.org/ Kalahari Peoples Fund]
* [http://www.survival-international.org/tribes/bushmen Survival International – Bushmen]

{{Ethnic groups in Angola}}
{{Ethnic groups in Botswana}}
{{Ethnic groups in Namibia}}
{{Ethnic groups in South Africa}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:San people| ]]
[[Category:African nomads]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Angola]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Botswana]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Namibia]]
[[Category:Coloureds]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Zimbabwe]]
[[Category:Hunter-gatherers of Africa]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of Southern Africa]]

Lake Nakuru

2024-03-30T10:50:35Z

Postka:

{{More citations needed|date=May 2007}}

{{Infobox body of water
| name = Lake Nakuru
| image = Lake-Nakuru-Baboon-Hill-View.JPG
| caption = View of lake from Baboon cliff
| image_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = Rift valley
| coords = {{coord|0|22|S|36|05|E|region:KE_type:waterbody|display=inline,title}}
| lake_type = [[alkaline lake]]
| inflow =
| outflow = Lake Nakuru has no outflow. No rivers or cracks flowing out of Lake Nakuru
| catchment =
| basin_countries = [[Kenya]]
| length =
| width =
| area = {{convert|5|to|45|km2|abbr=on}}
| depth = {{convert|1|ft}}
| max-depth = {{convert|6|ft}}
| volume =
| residence_time =
| shore =
| elevation = {{convert|1754|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| frozen = Lake Nakuru is nestled in the vast great Rift Valley. The lake never freezes.
| islands =
| cities =
| pushpin_map = Kenya
| pushpin_map_alt = Location of lake in Kenya
|embedded = {{Designation list
| embed = yes
| designation1 = Ramsar
| designation1_date = 5 June 1990
| designation1_number = 476<ref>{{Cite web|title=Lake Nakuru|website=[[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service|url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/476|access-date=25 April 2018}}</ref>}}
}}

'''Lake Nakuru''' is one of the [[Rift Valley Lakes|Rift Valley lakes]], located at an elevation of {{convert|1754|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level. It lies to the south of [[Nakuru]], in the rift valley of [[Kenya]] and is protected by '''[[Lake Nakuru National Park]]'''.

The lake's abundance of [[algae]] used to attract a vast quantity of [[flamingo]]s that famously lined the shore. Other [[bird]]s also flourish in the area, as do [[warthog]]s, [[baboon]]s and other large [[mammal]]s. [[Eastern black rhino]]s and [[southern white rhino]]s have also been introduced.

The lake's water level dropped drastically in the early 1990s but has since largely recovered. In 2013, the lake received an alarming increase in its water levels that led to the migration of flamingos to [[Lake Bogoria]] in search of food supply.<ref name="kws">{{Cite web|title=Lake Nakuru water levels rise as flamingoes move to Lake Bogoria|url=http://www.kws.org/info/news/2012/03_08_12_water_level.html|access-date=2014-05-29|archive-url=https://archive.today/20140529123803/http://www.kws.org/info/news/2012/03_08_12_water_level.html|archive-date=2014-05-29|url-status=dead}}</ref> Between 2010 and 2020 Lake Nakuru increased in surface area from {{convert|40|to|68|km2}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tobiko |first=Keriako |date=2021 |title=Rising Water Levels in Kenya's Rift Valley Lakes, Turkwel Gorge Dam and Lake Victoria |url=http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/MENR_Scoping_Report_Latest-5-07-21.pdf |access-date=2022-03-16 |archive-date=2022-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428030814/http://www.environment.go.ke/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/MENR_Scoping_Report_Latest-5-07-21.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> 677 households, parts of Nakuru town and some National Park areas had been flooded.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Baraka |first=Carey |date=2022-03-17 |title=A drowning world: Kenya's quiet slide underwater |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/mar/17/kenya-quiet-slide-underwater-great-rift-valley-lakes-east-africa-flooding |access-date=2022-03-17 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

Nakuru means "Dust or Dusty Place" in the [[Maasai language]]. Lake Nakuru National Park, close to [[Nakuru]] town, was established in 1961. It started off small, only encompassing the famous lake and the surrounding mountainous vicinity, but has since been extended to include a large part of the [[savannah]]s.

Lake Nakuru is protected under the [[Ramsar Convention]] on wetlands.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ramsar.org/cda/ramsar/display/main/main.jsp?zn=ramsar&cp=1-63-68-159%5E23236_4000_0__ |title=Small Grants Fund project on ecotourism potential at Kenya's Lake Nakuru |date=2006-03-28 |publisher=Ramsar |access-date=2009-11-07}}</ref>

== Lake Nakuru National Park ==
[[File:Lake-Nakuru-National-Park-Entrance.JPG|thumb|right|National Park entrance]]
[[File:Flamingos at lake Nakuru.jpg|thumb|right|[[Flamingos]] feeding at Lake Nakuru]]
'''Lake Nakuru National Park''' (188 km2, 73 mi2), was created in 1961 around '''Lake Nakuru''', near [[Nakuru]] Town. It is best known for its thousands, sometimes millions of [[flamingo]]s <ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-02 |title=New hope for flamingo birds in Lake Nakuru |url=https://nation.africa/kenya/health/new-hope-for-flamingo-birds-in-lake-nakuru-4511810 |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=Nation |language=en}}</ref>nesting along the shores. The surface of the shallow lake is often hardly recognizable due to the continually shifting mass of pink. The number of flamingos on the lake varies with water and food conditions <ref>{{Cite web |last=Chebet |first=Caroline |title=Why flamingo populations are on the decline |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/environment/article/2001416464/why-flamingo-populations-are-on-the-decline |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=The Standard |language=en}}</ref>and the best vantage point is from ''Baboon Cliff''. Also, of interest is an area of {{convert|188|km|abbr=on}}around the lake fenced off as a sanctuary to protect [[giraffe]]s as well as both [[black rhinoceros|black]] and [[white rhinoceros|white rhino]]s.

The park has recently been enlarged partly to provide a sanctuary for black rhinos. This endeavour has necessitated a fence - to keep out poachers rather than to restrict the movement of wildlife. The park stretches for {{convert|12.1|km|abbr=on}} on the south eastern boundary with the [[Soysambu conservancy]] , which represents a possible future expansion of habitat for the rhinos and the only remaining [[wildlife corridor]] to [[Lake Naivasha]].

The park now (2009) has more than 25 [[eastern black rhinoceros]], one of the largest concentrations in the country, plus around 70 [[southern white rhino]]s. There are also a number of [[Rothschild's giraffe]], again relocated for safety from western [[Kenya]] beginning in 1977. [[Waterbuck]] are very common and both the [[Kenya]]n subspecies are found here. Among the predators are [[Panthera leo melanochaita|lion]]s, [[Southern cheetah|cheetah]]s and [[African leopard|leopard]]s, the latter being seen much more frequently in recent times. The park also has large sized [[Pythonidae|python]]s that inhabit the dense woodlands, and can often be seen crossing the roads or dangling from trees.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kahenda |first=Mercy |title=Residents’ nightmare as rare visitors come calling, wreak havoc |url=https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/article/2000130385/standard-digital |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=The Standard |language=en}}</ref>

As well as flamingos, there are a myriad of other bird species that inhabit the lake and the area surrounding it, such as [[African fish eagle]], [[Goliath heron]], [[hamerkop]], [[pied kingfisher]] and [[Verreaux's eagle]] among others of their kind.
{{clear}}
{{wide image|Lake-Nakuru.jpg|800px|Lake Nakuru panoramic from Baboon Cliff}}
{{clear}}

== Habitat and wildlife ==
[[File:Rhinos at lake nakuru.jpg|thumb|White Rhinos]]
Lake Nakuru, a small (varying from {{convert|5|to|45|km2|disp=sqbr}}) shallow [[Alkali#Lakes|alkaline lake]] on the southern edge of the town of [[Nakuru]] lies about {{convert|164|km}} north of [[Nairobi]]. It can therefore be visited in a day tour from the capital or more likely as part of a circuit including the [[Masai Mara]] (Also Maasai Mara) or [[Lake Baringo]] and eastwards up to [[Samburu National Reserve|Samburu]]. The lake is world-famous as the location of one of the greatest bird spectacle on earth – myriads of fuchsia pink [[flamingo]]s, of which there are often more than a million, or even two million.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-09-03 |title=Long-missed pink flamingos return to Kenya's Lake Nakuru |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-kenya-environment-flamingos-idUSKBN25U0WG |access-date=2023-01-03}}</ref> They feed on the abundant [[algae]], which thrives in the warm waters. Scientists reckon that the [[flamingo]] population at Nakuru consumes about {{convert|250,000|kg|abbr=on}} of [[algae]] per hectare of surface area per year.

There are two types of [[flamingo]] species: the [[lesser flamingo]] (shorter and lighter) and the [[greater flamingo]] (taller and darker). The lesser flamingos are more commonly pictured in documentaries mainly because their larger numbers. The number of flamingos has been decreasing recently, possibly due to too much tourism or by pollution resulting from industrial waste dumping into the water sources in the surrounding area - changes in water quality make the lake temporarily inhospitable for flamingoes. Usually, the lake recedes during the dry season and floods during the wet season.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zoRfAAAAIBAJ&dq=%22Lake+Nakuru%22&pg=PA27&article_id=3876,3511695 |title=The Lewiston Tribune |publisher=The Lewiston Tribune |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nEFSAAAAIBAJ&dq=%22Lake+Nakuru%22&pg=PA43&article_id=7149,430876 |title=St. Petersburg Times |publisher=St. Petersburg Times |language=en}}</ref>

In recent years, there have been wide variations between the dry and wet seasons' water levels. It is suspected that this is caused by increasing watershed land conversion to intensive crop production and urbanization, both which reduce the capacity of soils to absorb water, recharge ground water and thus increase seasonal flooding.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UzAqAAAAIBAJ&dq=%22Lake+Nakuru%22&pg=PA12&article_id=7144,1177819 |title=Park City Daily News |publisher=Park City Daily News |language=en}}</ref> Pollution and drought destroy the flamingos' food, [[Cyanobacteria]], or blue-green algae, causing them to migrate to the nearby Lakes, more recently lakes [[Elementaita]], [[Simbi]] Nyaima and [[Lake Bogoria|Bogoria]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xhknAAAAIBAJ&dq=%22Lake+Nakuru%22&pg=PA2&article_id=5236,3695403 |title=The Victoria Advocate |publisher=The Victoria Advocate |language=en}}</ref> Local climate changes have also been hypothesized to contribute to the changing environmental conditions in the lakes catchment. Recent media reports indicate increasing concern among stakeholders, as mass flamingo migrations and deaths could spell doom to the tourism industry.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UDIwAAAAIBAJ&dq=%22Lake+Nakuru%22&pg=PA171&article_id=2630,5900197 |title=Reading Eagle |publisher=Reading Eagle |language=en}}</ref>

The [[flamingo]]s feed on [[algae]], created from their droppings into the warm [[alkaline]] waters, and [[plankton]]. But [[flamingo]] are not the only avian attraction; also present are two large fish eating birds, [[pelican]]s and [[cormorant]]s. Despite the tepid and [[alkaline]] waters, a diminutive fish, ''[[Alcolapia grahami]]'' has flourished after being introduced in the early 1960s. The lake is rich in other bird life too. There are over 400 resident species on the lake and in the surrounding park. Thousands of both little [[grebe]]s and white winged black [[tern]]s are frequently seen as are [[stilt]]s, [[avocet]]s, [[duck]]s, and in the European winter the migrant waders.

[[Zooplankton]]: The monogonont [[rotifer]] species ''[[Brachionus]] sp.'' Austria (belonging to the ''[[Brachionus plicatilis]]'' cryptic species complex) occurs in the lake.
{{clear}}
[[File:Kenya, Nakuru Lake.jpg|thumb|720px|Flamingos on Lake Nakuru]]
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{commons category|Lake Nakuru}}
* [[Rift Valley lakes]]
* [[Great Rift Valley, Kenya|Great Rift Valley]]
* [[Rivers of Kenya]]

== Properties and lodges ==
''(listed alphabetically)''<ref>[https://www.kenya-getaways.com/category/kenya/lake-nakuru-national-park/ Lake Nakura National Park]</ref>
* http://www.flamingohillcamp.com/
* http://www.sopalodges.com/lake-nakuru-sopa-lodge/overview
* Lakira Camp
* http://mailisaba.ujimafoundation.org/
* https://www.sarovahotels.com/maracamp-masai-mara/

==References==
<references/>

== External links ==
{{wikivoyage|Lake Nakuru National Park}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20021112062553/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/11/1107_021108_TVflamingo.html National Geographic – "Mysterious Kenya Flamingo Die-Offs Tied to Toxins, Study Says"] (November 2002)

{{Lakes of Kenya}}
{{Great Rift Valley, Kenya}}
{{National Parks of Kenya}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Nakuru}}
[[Category:Lakes of Kenya]]
[[Category:National parks of Kenya]]
[[Category:Saline lakes of the Great Rift Valley]]
[[Category:Nakuru]]
[[Category:Shrunken lakes]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 1961]]
[[Category:Ramsar sites in Kenya]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Kenya]]
[[Category:Landforms of Rift Valley Province]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Rift Valley Province]]

Gardening

2024-03-30T09:43:26Z

Postka:

{{Short description|Practice of growing and cultivating plants}}
{{About||the cryptographic concept|Gardening (cryptanalysis)|people who garden|Gardener}}
[[File:Cementerio, Tulcán, Ecuador, 2015-07-21, DD 60.JPG|thumb|A gardener maintaining [[topiary]] in [[Tulcán]], Ecuador]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}

'''Gardening''' is the process of growing plants for their [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[flower]]s, [[herb]]s, and appearances within a designated space.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-10 |title=Gardening {{!}} Definition, Types, Tools, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/gardening |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> [[Garden|Gardens]] fulfill a wide assortment of purposes, notably the production of [[Aesthetics|aesthetically]] pleasing areas, [[Medication|medicines]], [[cosmetics]], [[dye]]s, [[food]]s, [[poison]]s, wildlife [[habitat]]s, and saleable goods (see [[market garden]]ing). People often partake in gardening for its [[Therapy|therapeutic]], [[health]], [[education]]al, [[Culture|cultural]], [[Philosophy|philosophical]], [[Environmental protection|environmental]], and [[Religion|religious]] benefits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lovell |first1=Rebecca |last2=Husk |first2=Kerryn |last3=Bethel |first3=Alison |last4=Garside |first4=Ruth |date=2014-10-07 |title=What are the health and well-being impacts of community gardening for adults and children: a mixed method systematic review protocol |journal=Environmental Evidence |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=20 |bibcode=2014EnvEv...3...20L |doi=10.1186/2047-2382-3-20 |issn=2047-2382 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/19910}}</ref>
[[File:Hayes-Valley-Farm_by_Zoey-Kroll_fava-hillside.jpg|thumb|Berms of fava beans have been planted at Hayes Valley Farm, a community-built farm on the former Central freeway ramps of San Francisco]]
Gardening varies in scale from the 800 hectare [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]] gardens<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-06-28 |title=The Gardens |url=https://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/estate/gardens |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=Palace of Versailles |language=en}}</ref> down to [[container garden]]s grown inside. Gardens take many forms, some only contain one type of plant while others involve a complex assortment of plants with no particular order.

Gardening can be difficult to differentiate from [[Agriculture|farming]]. They are most easily differentiated based on their primary objectives. Farming prioritizes saleable goods and may include [[livestock]] production whereas gardening often prioritizes aesthetics and [[leisure]]. As it pertains to food production, gardening generally happens on a much smaller scale with the intent of personal or [[Community gardening|community consumption]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bailey |first=Mark |date=2021-12-03 |title=The Difference Between Farming & Gardening |url=https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/marionco/2021/12/03/the-difference-between-farming-gardening/ |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=UF/IFAS Extension Marion County |language=en}}</ref> It is important to note that there are cultures which do not differentiate between farming and gardening.<ref>{{Cite web |title=gitigaan (ni) {{!}} {{!}} the Ojibwe People's Dictionary |url=https://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/main-entry/gitigaan-ni |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=ojibwe.lib.umn.edu}}</ref> This is primarily because [[subsistence agriculture]] has been the main method of farming throughout its 12,000 year history and is virtually indistinguishable from gardening.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Origins of agriculture - Neolithic Revolution, Domestication, Irrigation {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/agriculture/Earliest-beginnings |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Subsistence farming {{!}} Definition, Characteristics, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/subsistence-farming |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

== Prehistory ==
{{Main|Indigenous horticulture}}
Plant domestication is seen as the birth of agriculture. However, it is arguably proceeded by a very long history of gardening wild plants. While the 12,000 year-old date is the commonly accepted timeline describing plant domestication, there is now evidence from the [[Ohalo II]] hunter-gatherer site showing earlier signs of disturbing the soil and cultivation of pre-domesticated crop species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Snir |first1=Ainit |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Groman-Yaroslavski |first3=Iris |last4=Melamed |first4=Yoel |last5=Sternberg |first5=Marcelo |last6=Bar-Yosef |first6=Ofer |last7=Weiss |first7=Ehud |date=2015-07-22 |title=The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e0131422 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4511808 |pmid=26200895|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1031422S }}</ref> This evidence pushes early stage plant domestication to 23,000 years ago which aligns with research done by Allaby (2022) showing slight selection pressure of desirable traits in Southwest Asian [[cereal]]s (einkorn, emmer, barley).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Allaby |first1=Robin G. |last2=Stevens |first2=Chris J. |last3=Kistler |first3=Logan |last4=Fuller |first4=Dorian Q. |date=2022-03-01 |title=Emerging evidence of plant domestication as a landscape-level process |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534721003050 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=268–279 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2021.11.002 |pmid=34863580 |issn=0169-5347}}</ref> Despite not qualifying as [[History of plant breeding|plant domestication]], there are many archaeological studies pushing the potential date of [[Hominini|hominin]] selective [[ecosystem]] disturbance back up to 125,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roebroeks |first1=Wil |last2=MacDonald |first2=Katharine |last3=Scherjon |first3=Fulco |last4=Bakels |first4=Corrie |last5=Kindler |first5=Lutz |last6=Nikulina |first6=Anastasia |last7=Pop |first7=Eduard |last8=Gaudzinski-Windheuser |first8=Sabine |date=2021-12-17 |title=Landscape modification by Last Interglacial Neanderthals |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=7 |issue=51 |pages=eabj5567 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abj5567 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=8673775 |pmid=34910514|bibcode=2021SciA....7.5567R }}</ref> Much of these early recorded ecosystem disturbances were made through [[Control of fire by early humans|hominin use of fire]], which dates back to 1.5 Mya (although at this time fire was not likely being wielded as a landscape-changing tool by hominids).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Roebroeks |first1=Wil |last2=Villa |first2=Paola |date=2011-03-29 |title=On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=108 |issue=13 |pages=5209–5214 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1018116108 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3069174 |pmid=21402905|bibcode=2011PNAS..108.5209R }}</ref> This anthropogenic ecosystem disturbance may be the origins of gardening.

Every hunter-gatherer society has developed a niche of some sort, allowing them to thrive or even just survive amongst their environments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rowley-Conwy |first1=Peter |last2=Layton |first2=Robert |date=2011-03-27 |title=Foraging and farming as niche construction: stable and unstable adaptations |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1566 |pages=849–862 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0307 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=3048996 |pmid=21320899}}</ref> Many of these prehistoric hunter-gatherers had constructed a [[Niche construction|niche]] allowing for easier access to, or a higher amount of edible plant species.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Odling-Smee |first1=F. John |title=Niche Construction: The Neglected Process in Evolution (MPB-37) |date=2013-02-15 |work=Niche Construction |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400847266/html |access-date=2024-02-18 |publisher=Princeton University Press |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781400847266 |isbn=978-1-4008-4726-6 |last2=Lala |first2=Kevin N. |last3=Feldman |first3=Marcus}}</ref> This shift from [[Hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]] to increasingly modifying the environment in a way which produces an abundance of edible plant species marks the beginning of gardening.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Bruce D. |date=2011-03-27 |title=General patterns of niche construction and the management of 'wild' plant and animal resources by small-scale pre-industrial societies |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=366 |issue=1566 |pages=836–848 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0253 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=3048989 |pmid=21320898}}</ref> One of the most documented hominin niches is the use of off-site fire.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rolland |first=Nicolas |date=2004 |title=Was the Emergence of Home Bases and Domestic Fire a Punctuated Event? A Review of the Middle Pleistocene Record in Eurasia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42928622 |journal=Asian Perspectives |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=248–280 |jstor=42928622 |issn=0066-8435}}</ref> When done intentionally, this is often called [[forest gardening]] or [[Fire-stick farming|fire stick farming]] in Australia.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bliege Bird |first1=R. |last2=Bird |first2=D. W. |last3=Codding |first3=B. F. |last4=Parker |first4=C. H. |last5=Jones |first5=J. H. |date=2008-09-30 |title=The "fire stick farming" hypothesis: Australian Aboriginal foraging strategies, biodiversity, and anthropogenic fire mosaics |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=105 |issue=39 |pages=14796–14801 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0804757105 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2567447 |pmid=18809925|bibcode=2008PNAS..10514796B }}</ref> The modern study of [[fire ecology]] describes the many benefits off-site fires may have granted these early humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mellars |first=Paul |date=December 1976 |title=Fire Ecology, Animal Populations and Man: a Study of some Ecological Relationships in Prehistory |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-prehistoric-society/article/abs/fire-ecology-animal-populations-and-man-a-study-of-some-ecological-relationships-in-prehistory/067187FF74E33E228E229E46D9A72C78 |journal=Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society |language=en |volume=42 |pages=15–45 |doi=10.1017/S0079497X00010689 |s2cid=130614264 |issn=2050-2729}}</ref> Some of these [[Agroecology|agroecological]] practices have been well documented and studied during [[Colonization|colonial]] contact. However, they are vastly under represented in research done on early hominin fire use.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last1=Scherjon |first1=Fulco |last2=Bakels |first2=Corrie |last3=MacDonald |first3=Katharine |last4=Roebroeks |first4=Wil |date=June 2015 |title=Burning the Land: An Ethnographic Study of Off-Site Fire Use by Current and Historically Documented Foragers and Implications for the Interpretation of Past Fire Practices in the Landscape |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/681561 |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=299–326 |doi=10.1086/681561 |s2cid=141781968 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref> Based on current research, it is evident that these niches developed separately in different societies across different times and locations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carey |first=John |date=2023-04-11 |title=Unearthing the origins of agriculture |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=120 |issue=15 |pages=e2304407120 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2304407120 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=10104519 |pmid=37018195|bibcode=2023PNAS..12004407C }}</ref> Many of the Indigenous gardening methods were and still are often overlooked by colonizers due to the lack of resemblance to [[Western world|western]] gardens with well defined borders and non-naturalized plant species.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-05-01 |title=The idea of nature in America |url=https://www.amacad.org/publication/idea-nature-america |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |language=en}}</ref>

=== The Americas ===
There are long traditions of gardening within [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous societies]] spanning from the northernmost parts of [[Canada]] down to the southernmost tip of [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sapiens |date=2022-04-20 |title=The Yaghan Rise Again |url=https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/the-yaghan-rise-again/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=SAPIENS |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite journal |last1=Scherjon |first1=Fulco |last2=Bakels |first2=Corrie |last3=MacDonald |first3=Katharine |last4=Roebroeks |first4=Wil |date=June 2015 |title=Burning the Land: An Ethnographic Study of Off-Site Fire Use by Current and Historically Documented Foragers and Implications for the Interpretation of Past Fire Practices in the Landscape |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/681561 |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=299–326 |doi=10.1086/681561 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Norton |first1=C. H. |last2=Cuerrier |first2=A. |last3=Hermanutz |first3=L. |date=2021 |title=People and Plants in Nunatsiavut (Labrador, Canada): Examining Plants as a Foundational Aspect of Culture in the Subarctic |journal=Economic Botany |volume=75 |issue=3–4 |pages=287–301 |doi=10.1007/s12231-021-09530-7 |issn=0013-0001 |pmc=8888477 |pmid=35273405}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dmjj |title=Wild Harvest: Plants in the Hominin and Pre-Agrarian Human Worlds |date=2016 |publisher=Oxbow Books |doi=10.2307/j.ctvh1dmjj |jstor=j.ctvh1dmjj |isbn=978-1-78570-123-8}}</ref> The [[Arctic]] and [[Subarctic]] societies relied primarily on [[hunting]] and [[fishing]] due to the harsh climate although they have been known to collectively use at least 311 different plants as foods or medicines.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Norton |first=Christian H. |date=2019-03-13 |title=Inuit Ethnobotany in the North American Subarctic and Arctic: Celebrating a Rich History and Expanding Research into New Areas Using Biocultural Diversity |url=https://papyrus.bib.umontreal.ca/xmlui/handle/1866/22249}}</ref> The substantial knowledge and use of these plants along with the communal harvesting sites and emphasis on [[Reciprocity (evolution)|reciprocity]] between humans and plants indicates a basic level of gardening.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Weber |first=John T. |date=February 2022 |title=Traditional uses and beneficial effects of various species of berry-producing plants in eastern Canada |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/cjb-2021-0086 |journal=Botany |language=en |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=175–182 |doi=10.1139/cjb-2021-0086 |issn=1916-2790}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Migicovsky |first1=Zoë |last2=Amyotte |first2=Beatrice |last3=Ulrich |first3=Jens |last4=Smith |first4=Tyler W. |last5=Turner |first5=Nancy J. |last6=Pico |first6=Joana |last7=Ciotir |first7=Claudia |last8=Sharifi |first8=Mehdi |last9=Meldrum |first9=Gennifer |last10=Stormes |first10=Ben |last11=Moreau |first11=Tara |date=November 2022 |title=Berries as a case study for crop wild relative conservation, use, and public engagement in Canada |journal=Plants, People, Planet |language=en |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=558–578 |doi=10.1002/ppp3.10291 |issn=2572-2611|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Boulanger-Lapointe |first1=Noémie |last2=Gérin-Lajoie |first2=José |last3=Siegwart Collier |first3=Laura |last4=Desrosiers |first4=Sarah |last5=Spiech |first5=Carmen |last6=Henry |first6=Gregory H. R. |last7=Hermanutz |first7=Luise |last8=Lévesque |first8=Esther |last9=Cuerrier |first9=Alain |date=2019-02-01 |title=Berry Plants and Berry Picking in Inuit Nunangat: Traditions in a Changing Socio-Ecological Landscape |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-018-0044-5 |journal=Human Ecology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=81–93 |doi=10.1007/s10745-018-0044-5 |issn=1572-9915}}</ref> Similarly, the [[Fuegians|Fuegian]] Indigenous groups in South America had developed seemingly comparable niches due to a similar tundra ecosystem. While there are very few studies on the Fuegians, [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] mentioned wild edible plants such as [[Fungus|fungi]], [[kelp]], and wild [[celery]] growing next to the various Fuegian shelters.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_36/April_1890/Darwin_on_the_Fuegians_and_Patagonians |title=Popular Science Monthly Volume 36 April 1890}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=A short Account of Tierra del Fuego and its Inhabitants, by Thomas Bridges |url=https://patlibros.org/tdf/doc.php |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=patlibros.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Botanik online: PUBLIC DOMAIN - Charles Darwin - The Voyage of the Beagle - Chapter 10 |url=https://www1.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/d36_beag/chapter10.htm |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=www1.biologie.uni-hamburg.de}}</ref>
[[File:Indian_garden_from_Histoire_Naturelle_des_Indes.jpg|left|thumb|197x197px|From the Drake manuscript, this is a drawing done by an anonymous Frenchman in the 16th century. It shows an Indigenous garden planted with papaya, pineapple, maize, beans, and cucurbits.]]
Horticulture plays a relatively small role in these northern and southern tundra inhabitants compared with Indigenous societies in [[grassland]] and [[forest]] ecosystems. From the [[Boreal forest of Canada|boreal forests]] of Canada to the temperate forests and grasslands of Chile and Argentina different communities have developed food production niches. These include the use of fire for ecosystem maintenance and resetting [[Ecological succession|successional]] sequences, the sowing of wild annuals, the sowing of domesticated annuals (e.g. [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|three sisters]], [[New World crops]]), creating berry patches and orchards, manipulation of plants to encourage desired traits(e.g. increased nut, fruit, or root production), and landscape modification to encourage plant and animal growth (e.g. complex [[irrigation]] or [[Terrace (earthworks)|terraces]]).<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Bruce D. |date=2011-03-27 |title=General patterns of niche construction and the management of 'wild' plant and animal resources by small-scale pre-industrial societies |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=366 |issue=1566 |pages=836–848 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0253 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=3048989 |pmid=21320898}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Zeder |first=Melinda A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EaVTxjrbIFQC&pg=PR5 |title=Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms |date=2006-06-20 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24638-6 |language=en}}</ref> These modified landscapes as recorded by early American [[Philosophy|philosophers]] such as [[Henry David Thoreau|Thoreau]], and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emmerson]] were described as exhibiting pristine beauty.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Walden, or, Life in the woods |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/17029241/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Nature by Ralph Waldo Emerson {{!}} Essay |url=https://emersoncentral.com/texts/nature-addresses-lectures/nature2/chapter1-nature/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Ralph Waldo Emerson |language=en-US}}</ref> Indigenous gardens such as forest gardens therefore do not only serve as a producer of foods, medicines, or materials, but also pleasant aesthetics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wagner |first=John |date=2008-01-01 |title=Landscape Aesthetics, Water, and Settler Colonialism in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/jea/vol12/iss1/2 |journal=Journal of Ecological Anthropology |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=22–38 |doi=10.5038/2162-4593.12.1.2 |issn=1528-6509}}</ref>

Many popular crops originate from pre-colonial Indigenous agricultural societies. Some of these include [[maize]], [[quinoa]], [[Phaseolus vulgaris|common bean]], [[peanut]], [[pumpkin]], [[Cucurbita|squash]], [[Capsicum|pepper]], [[tomato]], [[cassava]], [[potato]], [[blueberry]], [[Opuntia|cactus pear]], [[cashew]], [[papaya]], [[pineapple]], [[strawberry]], [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]], [[Common sunflower|sunflower]], [[cotton]], [[Hevea brasiliensis|Pará rubber]], and [[tobacco]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Janick |first=Jules |date=2013-04-01 |title=Development of New World Crops by Indigenous Americans |url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/48/4/article-p406.xml |journal=HortScience |language=en-US |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=406–412 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.48.4.406 |issn=0018-5345|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of gardening}}[[Image:Forestgarden2.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Robert Hart (horticulturist)|Robert Hart]]'s forest garden in [[Shropshire]], England]]
===Ancient times===
[[Forest gardening]], a forest-based food production system, is the world's oldest form of gardening.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Forest Farms of Kandy: And Other Gardens of Complete Design|author=Douglas John McConnell|year=2003|page=1|publisher=Ashgate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYBSfUJPQXcC&pg=PA1|isbn=9780754609582|access-date=6 October 2020|archive-date=15 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181038/https://books.google.com/books?id=QYBSfUJPQXcC&pg=PA1|url-status=live}}</ref>

After the emergence of the first [[civilization]]s, wealthy individuals began to create gardens for aesthetic purposes. [[Ancient Egypt]]ian tomb paintings from the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] (around 1500 BC) provide some of the earliest physical evidence of ornamental [[horticulture]] and landscape design; they depict [[Egyptian lotus|lotus]] ponds surrounded by symmetrical rows of [[acacia]]s and [[palm tree|palms]]. A notable example of ancient ornamental gardens were the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]]—one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]] —while [[ancient Rome]] had dozens of gardens.

Wealthy ancient Egyptians used gardens for providing shade. Egyptians associated trees and gardens with gods, believing that their deities were pleased by gardens. Gardens in ancient Egypt were often surrounded by walls with trees planted in rows. Among the most popular species planted were [[date palms]], sycamores, [[Ficus|fig trees]], nut trees, and [[willows]]. These gardens were a sign of higher socioeconomic status. In addition, wealthy ancient Egyptians grew vineyards, as wine was a sign of the higher social classes. [[Rose]]s, poppies, [[Asteraceae|daisies]] and [[Iris (plant)|irises]] could all also be found in the gardens of the Egyptians.

[[Assyria]] was renowned for its beautiful gardens. These tended to be wide and large, some of them used for hunting game—rather like a game reserve today—and others as leisure gardens. [[Cupressus|Cypresses]] and palms were some of the most frequently planted types of trees.

Gardens were also available in [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]]. In [[Musawwarat es-Sufra]], the Great Enclosure dated to the 3rd century BC included splendid gardens.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|last=Stirn|first=Isma'il Kushkush,Matt|title=Why Sudan's Remarkable Ancient Civilization Has Been Overlooked by History|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/|access-date=2020-08-23|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712111903/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Ancient Roman]] gardens were laid out with hedges and vines and contained a wide variety of flowers—[[Acanthus (plant)|acanthus]], [[cornflowers]], [[crocus]], [[cyclamen]], hyacinth, iris, ivy, [[lavender]], lilies, myrtle, narcissus, poppy, [[rosemary]] and violets<ref name="localhistories">{{cite web|url=http://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html|title=A Brief History of Gardening|access-date=2010-06-04|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006030245/http://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html|url-status=live}}</ref>—as well as statues and sculptures. Flower beds were popular in the courtyards of rich Romans.

===The Middle Ages===
[[File:Mendel II 073 v.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A gardener at work, 1607]]

The [[Middle Ages]] represent a period of decline in gardens for aesthetic purposes. After the fall of Rome, gardening was done for the purpose of growing [[medicinal herbs]] and/or decorating church [[altars]]. Monasteries carried on a tradition of [[garden design]] and intense horticultural techniques during the medieval period in [[Europe]].
Generally, monastic garden types consisted of kitchen gardens, infirmary gardens, cemetery [[orchard]]s, cloister garths and vineyards. Individual monasteries might also have had a "green court", a plot of grass and trees where horses could graze, as well as a cellarer's garden or private gardens for obedientiaries, monks who held specific posts within the monastery.

[[Islamic garden]]s were built after the model of [[Persian gardens]] and they were usually enclosed by walls and divided in four by watercourses. Commonly, the centre of the garden would have a [[reflecting pool]] or [[pavilion]]. Specific to the Islamic gardens are the [[mosaic]]s and glazed tiles used to decorate the rills and [[fountain]]s that were built in these gardens.

By the late 13th century, rich Europeans began to grow gardens for leisure and for medicinal herbs and vegetables.<ref name="localhistories" /> They surrounded the gardens by walls to protect them from animals and to provide [[seclusion]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sellers |first=Authors: Vanessa Bezemer |title=Gardens of Western Europe, 1600–1800 {{!}} Essay {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gard_1/hd_gard_1.htm |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |language=en}}</ref> During the next two centuries, Europeans started planting lawns and raising flowerbeds and trellises of roses. Fruit trees were common in these gardens and also in some, there were turf seats. At the same time, the gardens in the [[monasteries]] were a place to grow flowers and medicinal herbs but they were also a space where the [[monk]]s could enjoy nature and relax.

The gardens in the 16th and 17th century were [[symmetric]], proportioned and balanced with a more classical appearance. Most of these gardens were built around a central axis and they were divided into different parts by hedges. Commonly, gardens had flowerbeds laid out in squares and separated by gravel paths.

Gardens in Renaissance were adorned with sculptures, [[topiary]] and fountains. In the 17th century, [[knot garden]]s became popular along with the [[hedge maze]]s. By this time, Europeans started planting new flowers such as [[tulips]], marigolds and [[sunflowers]].

===Cottage gardens===
[[File:XN Kerascoet.jpg|thumb|A cottage garden in [[Brittany]]]]

[[Cottage garden]]s, which emerged in [[Elizabethan times]], appear to have originated as a local source for herbs and fruits.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ryrie|first=Charlie|title=The Cottage Garden: How to Plan and Plant a Garden That Grows Itself|publisher=[[Collins & Brown]]|year=2004|page=7|isbn=978-1-84340-216-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8VfO_WIAx0wC&pg=PA7}}</ref> One theory is that they arose out of the [[Black Death]] of the 1340s, when the death of so many laborers made land available for small cottages with personal gardens.<ref name="Scott-James80">{{cite book|last=Scott-James|first=Anne|author2=Osbert Lancaster|title=The Pleasure Garden: An Illustrated History of British Gardening|publisher=[[Frances Lincoln Publishers]]|year=2004|page=80|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbhwIo3m3mQC&pg=PA80|isbn=978-0-7112-2360-8}}</ref> According to the late 19th-century legend of origin,<ref>[[Anne Scott-James]], ''The Cottage Garden'' (London: Lane) 1981, demythologised the origins of the English cottage garden, and its treasured [[topiary]] among the vegetables and flowers, popularly supposed to represent heirlooms from the seventeenth century.</ref> these gardens were originally created by the workers that lived in the cottages of the villages, to provide them with food and herbs, with flowers planted among them for decoration. [[Farmworker|Farm workers]] were provided with cottages that had architectural quality set in a small garden—about {{convert|1|acre|abbr=off}}—where they could grow food and keep pigs and chickens.<ref>Colvin, Howard (2008). ''A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 1600–1840'', [[Yale University Press]], {{ISBN|0-300-12508-9}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CSyaO-MqYoAC&pg=PA659 p. 659] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181038/https://books.google.com/books?id=CSyaO-MqYoAC&pg=PA659 |date=15 January 2023 }}</ref>

Authentic gardens of the [[yeoman]] cottager would have included a beehive and [[livestock]], and frequently a pig and sty, along with a well. The peasant cottager of medieval times was more interested in meat than flowers, with herbs grown for medicinal use rather than for their beauty. By Elizabethan times there was more prosperity, and thus more room to grow flowers. Even the early cottage garden flowers typically had their practical use—violets were spread on the floor (for their pleasant scent and keeping out vermin); [[calendula]]s and [[primula vulgaris|primroses]] were both attractive and used in cooking. Others, such as [[Dianthus barbatus|sweet William]] and [[hollyhock]]s, were grown entirely for their beauty.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lloyd|first=Christopher|author2=Richard Bird|others=Jacqui Hurst|title=The Cottage Garden|publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]|year=1999|pages=6–9|isbn=978-0-7513-0702-3}}</ref>

===18th century===
[[File:Sheffield Park Gardens, Fletching, Sussex - geograph.org.uk - 1582535.jpg|thumb|left|[[Sheffield Park Garden]], a [[landscape garden]] originally laid out in the 18th century by [[Capability Brown]]]]

In the 18th century, gardens were laid out more naturally, without any walls. This style of smooth undulating grass, which would run straight to the house, clumps, belts and scattering of trees and serpentine lakes formed by invisibly damming small rivers, were a new style within the [[England|English]] landscape. This was a "gardenless" form of landscape gardening, which swept away almost all the remnants of previous formally patterned styles. The [[English landscape garden]] usually included a lake, lawns set against [[Grove (nature)|groves of trees]], and often contained shrubberies, grottoes, pavilions, bridges and [[folly|follies]] such as mock temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. This new style emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe, replacing the more formal, symmetrical [[garden à la française]] of the 17th century as the principal gardening style of Europe.<ref>Yves-Marie Allain and Janine Christiany, ''L'Art des jardins en Europe'', Citadelles and Mazenod, Paris, 2006.</ref> The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. They were often inspired by paintings of landscapes by [[Claude Lorraine]] and [[Nicolas Poussin]], and some were Influenced by the classic [[Chinese gardens]] of the East,<ref name=Boults/> which had recently been described by European travelers.<ref name=Boults>{{cite book|title=Illustrated History of Landscape Design|author=Boults, Elizabeth and Chip Sullivan|publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-470-28933-4|page=175}}</ref> The work of [[Capability Brown|Lancelot 'Capability' Brown]] was particularly influential. Also, in 1804 the Horticultural Society was formed.

Gardens of the 19th century contained plants such as the monkey puzzle or [[Chile pine]]. This is also the time when the so-called "[[gardenesque]]" style of gardens evolved. These gardens displayed a wide variety of flowers in a rather small space. [[Rock garden]]s increased in popularity in the 19th century.

In ancient India, patterns from [[sacred geometry]] and [[mandala]]s were used to design gardens. Distinct mandala patterns denoted specific deities, planets, or even constellations. Such a garden was also referred to as a 'Mandala Vaatika'. The word 'Vaatika' can mean garden, plantation or parterre.

==Types==
{{Main|List of garden types}}Residential gardening takes place near the home, in a space referred to as the garden. Although a garden typically is located on the land near a residence, it may also be located [[roof garden|on a roof]], in an [[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]], on a [[balcony]], in a [[window box]], [[Patio|on a patio]] or [[vivarium]].[[File:SF Conservatory of Flowers 3.jpg|thumb|Conservatory of Flowers in [[Golden Gate Park]], [[San Francisco]]]]
[[File:Hanging baskets in thornbury arp.jpg|thumb|[[Hanging basket]]s in [[Thornbury, South Gloucestershire]]]]Gardening also takes place in non-residential green areas, such as parks, public or semi-public gardens ([[botanical garden]]s or [[zoo|zoological gardens]]), [[amusement park]]s, along transportation corridors, and around [[tourist attraction]]s and [[garden hotels]]. In these situations, a staff of gardeners or [[groundskeeper]]s maintains the gardens.
[[File:CCHS organic garden.jpg|thumb|An organic garden on a school campus]]
* Indoor gardening is concerned with the growing of [[houseplant]]s within a residence or building, in a [[conservatory (greenhouse)|conservatory]], or in a [[greenhouse]]. Indoor gardens are sometimes incorporated as part of [[air conditioning]] or heating systems. Indoor gardening extends the growing season in the fall and spring and can be used for [[winter gardening]].
* [[Native plant gardening]] is concerned with the use of [[native plants]] with or without the intent of creating [[wildlife habitat]]. The goal is to create a garden in harmony with, and adapted to a given area. This type of gardening typically reduces water usage, maintenance, and fertilization costs, while increasing [[native fauna]]l interest.
* [[Water garden]]ing is concerned with growing plants adapted to pools and ponds. [[Bog garden]]s are also considered a type of water garden. These all require special conditions and considerations. A simple water garden may consist solely of a tub containing the water and plant(s). In [[aquascaping]], a garden is created within an [[aquarium]] tank.
* [[Container garden]]ing is concerned with growing plants in any type of container either indoors or outdoors. Common containers are pots, [[hanging basket]]s, and planters. Container gardening is usually used in atriums and on balconies, patios, and roof tops.
* [[Hügelkultur]] is concerned with growing plants on piles of rotting wood, as a form of [[raised bed gardening]] and [[compost]]ing [[In situ#Biology and biomedical engineering|in situ]].<ref name="richsoil">{{cite web|url=http://www.richsoil.com/hugelkultur/|title=hugelkultur: the ultimate raised garden beds|website=www.richsoil.com|access-date=2 February 2012|archive-date=7 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107013815/https://richsoil.com/hugelkultur/|url-status=live}}</ref> An English [[loanword]] from German, it means "mound garden". [[Toby Hemenway]], noted [[permaculture]] author and teacher, considers wood buried in trenches to also be a form of hugelkultur referred to as a dead wood [[Swale (landform)|swale]].<ref name="Hemenway">{{cite book| author-link = Toby Hemenway|last = Hemenway | first = Toby |year = 2009 | title = Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture | publisher
= Chelsea Green Publishing | pages = 84–85 | isbn = 978-1-60358-029-8}}.</ref> Hugelkultur is practiced by [[Sepp Holzer]] as a method of [[forest gardening]] and [[agroforestry]], and by [[Geoff Lawton]] as a method of [[dryland farming]] and [[desert greening]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://permaculture.org.au/2009/12/11/greening-the-desert-ii-final/|title=Greening the Desert II|date=11 December 2009|access-date=2 February 2012|archive-date=7 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707194753/http://permaculture.org.au/2009/12/11/greening-the-desert-ii-final/|url-status=live}}</ref> When used as a method of disposing of large volumes of waste wood and woody debris, hugelkultur accomplishes [[carbon sequestration]].<ref name="richsoil" /> It is also a form of [[xeriscaping]].
* [[Community gardening]] is a social activity in which an area of land is gardened by a group of people, providing access to fresh produce, herbs, flowers and plants as well as access to satisfying labor, neighborhood improvement, sense of community and connection to the environment.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.communitygarden.org/learn/ |publisher=American Community Garden Association |year=2007 |title=What is a community garden? |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204082111/http://www.communitygarden.org/learn/ |archive-date=4 December 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hanna |first1=Autumn K. |last2=Oh |first2=Pikai |date=June 2000 |title=Rethinking Urban Poverty: A Look at Community Gardens |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/027046760002000308 |journal=Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=207–216 |doi=10.1177/027046760002000308 |s2cid=144427985 |issn=0270-4676}}</ref> Community gardens are typically owned in trust by local governments or nonprofits.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ferris |first1=John |last2=Norman |first2=Carol |last3=Sempik |first3=Joe |date=December 2001 |title=People, Land and Sustainability: Community Gardens and the Social Dimension of Sustainable Development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9515.t01-1-00253 |journal=Social Policy & Administration |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=559–568 |doi=10.1111/1467-9515.t01-1-00253 |issn=0144-5596}}</ref>
* [[Garden sharing]] partners landowners with gardeners in need of land. These shared gardens, typically front or back [[yard (land)|yards]], are usually used to produce food that is divided between the two parties.
* [[Organic horticulture|Organic gardening]] uses natural, sustainable methods, fertilizers and pesticides to grow non-[[genetically modified crops]].
*[[Biodynamic gardening]] or biodynamic agriculture is similar to organic gardening, but includes various [[esoteric]] concepts drawn from the ideas of [[Rudolf Steiner]], such as astrological sowing and planting calendar and particular field and compost preparations.
*Commercial gardening is a more intensive type of gardening that involves the production of vegetables, non-tropical fruits, and flowers from local farmers. Commercial gardening began because farmers would sell locally to stop food from spoiling faster because of the transportation of goods from a far distance. Mediterranean agriculture is also a common practice that commercial gardeners use. Mediterranean agriculture is the practice of cultivating animals such as sheep to help weed and provide manure for vine crops, grains, or citrus. Gardeners can easily train these animals to not eat the actual plant.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Greiner, Alyson L., 1966-|title=Visualizing human geography|date=28 January 2014|isbn=978-1-118-52656-9|edition=Second|location=Hoboken|oclc=862759747}}</ref>
*[[No-dig gardening]] (or no till gardening) is a method of gardening that avoids tillage as much as possible. This method of gardening is gaining popularity in part due to celebrated figures such as [[Charles Dowding]], [[Masanobu Fukuoka]], [[Jean-Martin Fortier]], [[Conor Crickmore|Connor Crickmore]], Jesse Frost, [[Elaine Ingham]], and many other market gardeners. Minimal tillage has been documented to help with promoting diverse [[Soil food web|soil biology]], water retention and drainage, healthier vigorous plants, reduction in weed pressure, reduction in labor, increased fertility and nutrient availability, increase carbon sequestration, reduction in cost, reduction in soil erosion, and reduction in pollution. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ogle |first1=Stephen M. |last2=Alsaker |first2=Cody |last3=Baldock |first3=Jeff |last4=Bernoux |first4=Martial |last5=Breidt |first5=F. Jay |last6=McConkey |first6=Brian |last7=Regina |first7=Kristiina |last8=Vazquez-Amabile |first8=Gabriel G. |date=2019-08-12 |title=Climate and Soil Characteristics Determine Where No-Till Management Can Store Carbon in Soils and Mitigate Greenhouse Gas Emissions |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=11665 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-47861-7 |pmid=31406257 |pmc=6691111 |bibcode=2019NatSR...911665O |issn=2045-2322}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=No-Till Farming Improves Soil Health and Mitigates Climate Change {{!}} Article {{!}} EESI |url=https://www.eesi.org/articles/view/no-till-farming-improves-soil-health-and-mitigates-climate-change |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=www.eesi.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arshad |first1=M. A. |last2=Schnitzer |first2=M. |last3=Angers |first3=D. A. |last4=Ripmeester |first4=J. A. |date=1990-01-01 |title=Effects of till vs no-till on the quality of soil organic matter |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717%2890%2990003-I |journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=595–599 |doi=10.1016/0038-0717(90)90003-I |issn=0038-0717}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The pros and cons of no till gardening - Gardening at USask - College of Agriculture and Bioresources |url=https://gardening.usask.ca/articles-and-lists/articles-notillgardening/why-notill-pro-con.php |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=Gardening at USask |language=en}}</ref>

== Tools ==
Regardless of historical time period, location, scale, or type of garden, all gardening requires some basic [[tool]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=College |first=Dartmouth |date=2023-01-22 |title=10,000 Years Ago – Ancient Stone Tools Provide the Earliest Evidence of Rice Harvesting |url=https://scitechdaily.com/10000-years-ago-ancient-stone-tools-provide-the-earliest-evidence-of-rice-harvesting/ |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=SciTechDaily |language=en-US}}</ref> Throughout most of humanity's past we have gotten by with very little in comparison with modernity. Agriculture was built on the use of hands, stones, sticks, human ingenuity, and fire.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fussell |first=G. E. |date=1966 |title=Ploughs and Ploughing before 1800 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3740696 |journal=Agricultural History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=177–186 |issn=0002-1482 |jstor=3740696}}</ref> The essential tools used in pre-[[Bronze Age|bronze age]] gardening were non-metal (primarily stone, bone, wood, or copper) knives, axes, adzes, [[foot plough]]s, animal-driven ploughs, animals, sickles, hoes, baskets, pottery, digging sticks, and fire for clearing land.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Snir |first1=Ainit |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Groman-Yaroslavski |first3=Iris |last4=Melamed |first4=Yoel |last5=Sternberg |first5=Marcelo |last6=Bar-Yosef |first6=Ofer |last7=Weiss |first7=Ehud |date=2015-07-22 |title=The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e0131422 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4511808 |pmid=26200895|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1031422S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Zhijun |date=October 2011 |title=New Archaeobotanic Data for the Study of the Origins of Agriculture in China |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/659308 |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=52 |issue=S4 |pages=S295–S306 |doi=10.1086/659308 |issn=0011-3204}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=López-Bultó |first1=Oriol |last2=Piqué |first2=Raquel |last3=Antolín |first3=Ferran |last4=Antón Barceló |first4=Joan |last5=Palomo |first5=Antoni |last6=Clemente |first6=Ignacio |date=2020 |title=Digging sticks and agriculture development at the ancient Neolithic site of la Draga (Banyoles, Spain) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352409X19305516 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=30 |issue=102193 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102193 |bibcode=2020JArSR..30j2193L |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lander |first1=Faye |last2=Russell |first2=Thembi |date=2018-06-14 |title=The archaeological evidence for the appearance of pastoralism and farming in southern Africa |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=e0198941 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0198941 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6002040 |pmid=29902271|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1398941L }}</ref> Up until the [[Green Revolution|green revolution]] these simple tools, although designed better and made with better materials, would continue to be the backbone of agricultural societies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=F. Frolik |first=Elvin |date=1977 |title=The History of Agriculture in the United States Beginning With the Seventeenth Century |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=tnas |journal=Nebraska Academy of Sciences and Affiliated Societies |via=DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln}}</ref>
[[File:7264 Canterbury Agricultural College farm.jpg|thumb|Harrowing a field on the Canterbury Agricultural College farm in 1948.]]
The [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]] created a large increase in availability and impact of agricultural tools. These tools include [[tractor]]s with modern implements, manure spreaders, [[cultivator]]s, mowers, earth-moving machines, hedge trimmers, strimmer's, wood-chippers, [[two-wheel tractor]]s, complex irrigation systems, [[plastic mulch]], plastic shelters, seeding trays, indoor [[grow light]]s, packaging, chemical [[fertilizer]]s, [[pesticide]]s, [[Genetically modified plant|genetically modified seeds]], and many more.

== Plant Propagation ==
Plants may be [[Plant propagation|propagated]] through many different methods. These methods are classified as either sexual or asexual propagation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Allard |first=Robert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74hdQoEc8XsC&dq=plant+breeding&pg=PA1 |title=Principles of Plant Breeding |date=1999-05-10 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-02309-8 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Asexual reproduction ===
[[Asexual reproduction]] occurs when plants produce [[Cloning|clonal offspring]]. This method of reproduction is often more simplistic and provides rapid population growth. Cloning may result in highly vulnerable plant populations if they do not also reproduce sexually in order to create genetic diversity thus allowing for certain levels of [[natural selection]] and [[Heterosis|hybrid vigor]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=13. Propagation {{!}} NC State Extension Publications |url=https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/extension-gardener-handbook/13-propagation |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=content.ces.ncsu.edu |language=en-US}}</ref> There are various methods of asexual plant propagation taken advantage of by gardeners. These include [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetative propagation]] which involves the growth of new plants from vegetative parts of the parent plant, such as roots, stems, and leaves.<ref>{{Citation |last=Pierik |first=R. L. M. |title=Vegetative propagation |date=1997 |work=In Vitro Culture of Higher Plants |pages=183–230 |editor-last=Pierik |editor-first=R. L. M. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-5750-6_19 |access-date=2024-03-22 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-5750-6_19 |doi-broken-date=22 March 2024 |isbn=978-94-011-5750-6}}</ref> Certain plants such as strawberries and raspberries produce [[stolon]]s or [[rhizome]]s which are stems which grow horizontally above or below ground, developing new plants at nodes. Another common method of asexual reproduction in garden plants is [[Fragmentation (reproduction)|fragmentation]] which involves a separation from the parent plant.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ceccherelli |first1=Giulia |last2=Cinelli |first2=Francesco |date=1999-06-11 |title=The role of vegetative fragmentation in dispersal of the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia in the Mediterranean |url=https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v182/p299-303/ |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |language=en |volume=182 |pages=299–303 |doi=10.3354/meps182299 |bibcode=1999MEPS..182..299C |issn=0171-8630}}</ref> This is common for shrubs, and trees such as willows which may shed their branches which is termed [[cladoptosis]]. Placing the shed limb into water or soil produces [[budding]] and causes roots to form.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sAzxAAAAMAAJ&dq=vegetative+propagation+of+willow&pg=PA129 |title=General Technical Report SRS |date=1999 |publisher=The Station |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Corm_stolons5680.jpg|thumb|[[Stolon|Stolons]] growing from nodes from a [[corm]] of ''[[Crocosmia]]'']]
Perhaps the most commonly-known method of asexual reproduction in gardening and farming is [[grafting]]. A human may chose to graft an excellent fruit producing cultivar on a selected [[rootstock]] cultivar of the same species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jung-Myung |last2=Kubota |first2=C. |last3=Tsao |first3=S. J. |last4=Bie |first4=Z. |last5=Echevarria |first5=P. Hoyos |last6=Morra |first6=L. |last7=Oda |first7=M. |date=2010-12-08 |title=Current status of vegetable grafting: Diffusion, grafting techniques, automation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304423810003699 |journal=Scientia Horticulturae |series=Special Issue on Vegetable Grafting |volume=127 |issue=2 |pages=93–105 |doi=10.1016/j.scienta.2010.08.003 |issn=0304-4238}}</ref> This involves cutting each plant and connecting the cuttings by mechanical means until they [[Inosculation|inosculate]] or fuse together. Grafting is done for many purposes. Firstly, the scion (portion of the plant above the graft site) can undergo artificial selection for specific desirable traits such as flavor while the rootstock can undergo selection for traits such as disease resistance or cold tolerance.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Goldschmidt |first=Eliezer E. |date=2014 |title=Plant grafting: new mechanisms, evolutionary implications |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=5 |page=727 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2014.00727 |doi-access=free |pmid=25566298 |pmc=4269114 |issn=1664-462X}}</ref> This effectively allows for much more efficiency in the artificial selection process as certain traits such as fruit taste can be ignored altogether in the rootstock allowing for a focused selection with less [[backcrossing]] to a plant that had good tasting fruit. Secondly, grafting allows for plants that require cross pollination for fruit generation, such as apples, to all grow together as one tree.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=W. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3UXixYFl5O4C&q=plant+multi+grafting&pg=PP6 |title=Grafting and Budding: A Practical Guide for Fruit and Nut Plants and Ornamentals |last2=Alexander |first2=DMcE |date=2008-08-11 |publisher=Landlinks Press |isbn=978-0-643-09899-2 |language=en}}</ref> Thirdly, this allows for quick reproduction where one [[mother plant]] can produce many semi-developed clones each year.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Angela R. |last2=Perkins-Veazie |first2=Penelope |last3=Hassell |first3=Richard |last4=Levi |first4=Amnon |last5=King |first5=Stephen R. |last6=Zhang |first6=Xingping |date=2008-10-01 |title=Grafting Effects on Vegetable Quality |url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/43/6/article-p1670.xml |journal=HortScience |language=en-US |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=1670–1672 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.43.6.1670 |issn=0018-5345|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Angela R. |last2=Perkins-Veazie |first2=Penelope |last3=Sakata |first3=Yoshiteru |last4=López-Galarza |first4=Salvador |last5=Maroto |first5=Jose Vicente |last6=Lee |first6=Sang-Gyu |last7=Huh |first7=Yun-Chan |last8=Sun |first8=Zhanyong |last9=Miguel |first9=Alfredo |last10=King |first10=Stephen R. |last11=Cohen |first11=Roni |last12=Lee |first12=Jung-Myung |date=2008-05-20 |title=Cucurbit Grafting |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07352680802053940 |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=50–74 |doi=10.1080/07352680802053940 |bibcode=2008CRvPS..27...50D |issn=0735-2689}}</ref>

=== Sexual reproduction ===
[[Sexual reproduction]] occurs through the [[pollination]] of a [[ovule]]. This pollination must occur between female and male parts of a single flower or between flowers. A plant may undergo [[Self-pollination|self pollination]] as a sexual means of reproduction where the genes of the mother plant will not perfectly match those of the progeny. Progeny from self pollination will however have less genetic diversity than plants from cross pollination which may result in [[inbreeding depression]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Charlesworth |first1=Deborah |last2=Willis |first2=John H. |date=November 2009 |title=The genetics of inbreeding depression |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg2664 |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=783–796 |doi=10.1038/nrg2664 |pmid=19834483 |issn=1471-0064}}</ref> Pollen is typically carried by wind, insects, or animals to complete pollination. Some greenhouses may have to manually pollinate their plants to produce fruit and seeds due to a lack of these conditions. Sexual reproduction can only be done by members of the same [[species]] and this produces varying levels of [[genetic diversity]] in the plants offspring. This genetic diversity is responsible for the survival of every plant as we know them today.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Booy |first1=G. |last2=Hendriks |first2=R. J. J. |last3=Smulders |first3=M. J. M. |last4=Groenendael |first4=J. M. Van |last5=Vosman |first5=B. |date=July 2000 |title=Genetic Diversity and the Survival of Populations |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-2000-5958 |journal=Plant Biology |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=379–395 |doi=10.1055/s-2000-5958 |bibcode=2000PlBio...2..379B |issn=1435-8603}}</ref> The diversity allows for disease resistance, adaptations to changing climate, changes in soil, changes in pollination methods, changes in animal grazing pressure, changes in weed pressure, and any other variations that arise in their growing conditions. [[Plant breeding|Crossing plants,]] or hybridizing, results in hybrid vigor and will increase the genetic diversity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Birchler |first1=James A. |last2=Yao |first2=Hong |last3=Chudalayandi |first3=Sivanandan |date=2006-08-29 |title=Unraveling the genetic basis of hybrid vigor |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=103 |issue=35 |pages=12957–12958 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0605627103 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1559732 |pmid=16938847|bibcode=2006PNAS..10312957B }}</ref>
[[File:Time_course_imaging_of_two_maize_inbreds_LH198_and_PHG47_and_their_F1_hybrid.gif|left|thumb|270x270px|Time course imaging of two maize inbreds (LH198 and PHG47) and the F1 hybrid (LH198/PHG47) generated by crossing the two together.]]
Many commercially grown plants are [[F1 hybrid]]s which ensures certain desirable traits. A common alternative to growing hybrid plants is to grow [[Heirloom plant|heirloom]] or [[Open pollination|open pollinated plants]] which, unlike F1 hybrids, will produce viable seed with progeny similar to its parent.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Heirloom plant {{!}} Definition, Examples, Importance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/heirloom-plant |access-date=2024-03-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Many modern gardeners will save seeds from heirloom varieties but not hybrids due to the certainty of desirable traits heirloom seeds provide. Historically a lack of plant breeding knowledge would have led to more hybridization and the creation of new genetically diverse [[landrace]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barnaud |first1=A. |last2=Trigueros |first2=G. |last3=McKey |first3=D. |last4=Joly |first4=H. I. |date=November 2008 |title=High outcrossing rates in fields with mixed sorghum landraces: how are landraces maintained? |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy200877 |journal=Heredity |language=en |volume=101 |issue=5 |pages=445–452 |doi=10.1038/hdy.2008.77 |pmid=18685567 |issn=1365-2540}}</ref> Each plant varies in its likelihood of [[outcrossing]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ritland |first1=Kermit |last2=Jain |first2=Subodh |date=August 1981 |title=A model for the estimation of outcrossing rate and gene frequencies using n independent loci |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy198157 |journal=Heredity |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=35–52 |doi=10.1038/hdy.1981.57 |issn=1365-2540}}</ref> Highly outcrossing plants such as spinach are more likely to create landraces.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jain |first=S. K. |date=January 1979 |title=Estimation of Outcrossing Rates: Some Alternative Procedures 1 |url=https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2135/cropsci1979.0011183X001900010006x |journal=Crop Science |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=23–26 |doi=10.2135/cropsci1979.0011183X001900010006x |issn=0011-183X}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Shigeta |first=Masayoshi |title=Creating Landrace Diversity: The Case of the Ari People and Ensete (Ensete ventricosum) in Ethiopia |date=1996 |work=Redefining Nature |pages=233–268 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003135746-11/creating-landrace-diversity-case-ari-people-ensete-ensete-ventricosum-ethiopia-masayoshi-shigeta |access-date=2024-03-22 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781003135746-11 |isbn=978-1-003-13574-6}}</ref> Many landraces and heirloom varieties along with their genetics are being lost due to the decrease in seed saving by modern farmers.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Hawkes |first1=J. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7gL1CAAAQBAJ&dq=loss+of+plant+genetics&pg=PR11 |title=The Ex Situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources |last2=Maxted |first2=Nigel |last3=Ford-Lloyd |first3=B. V. |date=2012-12-06 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-94-011-4136-9 |language=en}}</ref> This leads plant [[geneticist]]s to search for desirable genetics in wild ancestral varieties of commonly grown plants.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Mohd. Kamran |last2=Islam |first2=Tofazzal |last3=Gezgin |first3=Sait |last4=Di Gioia |first4=Francesco |date=2023 |title=Editorial: Wild plant genetic resources: a hope for tomorrow |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=14 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2023.1217547 |doi-access=free |pmid=37324690 |pmc=10264807 |issn=1664-462X}}</ref> Plants have been [[Selective breeding|artificially selected]] and bred since at least 7800 BCE. <ref>{{Cite web |last=SITNFlash |date=2015-08-09 |title=From Corgis to Corn: A Brief Look at the Long History of GMO Technology |url=https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/from-corgis-to-corn-a-brief-look-at-the-long-history-of-gmo-technology/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=Science in the News |language=en-US}}</ref> Despite the decrease in farmer seed saving, many landraces are also being created through artificial selection and [[Genetic engineering|genetic modification]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=SITNFlash |date=2015-08-09 |title=From Corgis to Corn: A Brief Look at the Long History of GMO Technology |url=https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/from-corgis-to-corn-a-brief-look-at-the-long-history-of-gmo-technology/ |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=Science in the News |language=en-US}}</ref> Gardeners remain vital in the preservation of diverse genetics whether they maintain a family heirloom variety bred to fit conditions from the distant past, or they breed new landraces with traits matching their modern climate and growing condition.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nazarea |first=Virginia Dimasuay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3IxSgc4cOsC&dq=the+role+of+gardeners+in+preserving+genetics&pg=PR9 |title=Heirloom Seeds and Their Keepers: Marginality and Memory in the Conservation of Biological Diversity |date=May 2005 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-2435-8 |language=en}}</ref>

Certain seeds may not sprout without certain environmental conditions. These seeds either require [[Scarification (botany)|scarification]] or [[Stratification (seeds)|stratification]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Valtueña |first1=F. J. |last2=Ortega-Olivencia |first2=A. |last3=Rodríguez-Riaño |first3=T. |date=2008-10-01 |title=Germination and seed bank biology in some Iberian populations of Anagyris foetida L. (Leguminosae) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00606-008-0067-2 |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |language=en |volume=275 |issue=3 |pages=231–243 |doi=10.1007/s00606-008-0067-2 |bibcode=2008PSyEv.275..231V |issn=1615-6110}}</ref> Gardeners may grow frustrated if they lack this crucial knowledge before attempting to propagate certain plants such as [[Garlic|hard neck garlic]] (asexual reproduction), which requires a cold dormant period to sprout, or [[Amelanchier alnifolia|saskatoon berries]] which have improved germination after being digested by bears through a process called [[Seed dispersal|endozoochory]]. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nowak |first1=Josh |last2=Crone |first2=Elizabeth E. |date=2012 |title=It is Good to be Eaten by a Bear: Effects of Ingestion on Seed Germination |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41412532 |journal=The American Midland Naturalist |volume=167 |issue=1 |pages=205–209 |doi=10.1674/0003-0031-167.1.205 |jstor=41412532 |issn=0003-0031}}</ref>

=== Transplanting ===
[[File:Cashew_grafted_seedlings.jpg|thumb|Cashew (''Anacardium occidentale'') grafted seedlings ready for transplanting at the Agroplan Mudas nursery, in Pacajus, Ceará, Brazil.]]
Many gardeners, especially those who live in colder climates, will start seeds indoors prior to transplanting the young plant outside.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ashworth |first=Suzanne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wb-KAgAAQBAJ&dq=seed+starting&pg=PA13 |title=Seed to Seed: Seed Saving and Growing Techniques for Vegetable Gardeners |date=2002 |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing |isbn=978-1-882424-58-0 |language=en}}</ref> This provides many benefits such as elongating the growing season, ensuring adequate quantities and quality of light, ensuring seedlings have adequate nutrients in the seed starting mix, ensuring seeds stay at correct humidity, heat, and moisture level for germination, and saving space in the garden.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bubel |first1=Nancy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vp9GDwAAQBAJ&dq=indoor+seed+starting&pg=PP1 |title=The New Seed-Starters Handbook |last2=Nick |first2=Jean |date=2018-01-30 |publisher=Rodale |isbn=978-1-63565-104-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Thomas S. C. |last2=Bedford |first2=K. E. |last3=Sholberg |first3=P. L. |date=2000-01-01 |title=Improved Germination of American Ginseng Seeds Under Controlled Environments |url=https://journals.ashs.org/horttech/view/journals/horttech/10/1/article-p131.xml |journal=HortTechnology |language=en-US |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=131–135 |doi=10.21273/HORTTECH.10.1.131 |issn=1943-7714}}</ref> Many crops will not be harvestable unless they are started inside so if a gardener wants to plant these crops in their garden without starting the plants themselves, they will need to purchase transplants which are commonly available at [[Garden centre|garden centers]], [[Plant nursery|plant nurseries]], and [[big-box store]]s. It is crucial that transplanting is done correctly. This generally implies providing the plants with enough soil so they do not become root-bound (roots wrapping in circles around transplant container), providing a hardening-off period (slow exposure to sun, wind, and cold), providing sufficient light, water, and nutrients, and choosing the correct plants to start indoors as some plants do not do well with the transplanting process.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Wei |last2=Tian |first2=Shijie |last3=Wang |first3=Qingyu |last4=Jiang |first4=Huanyu |date=August 2023 |title=Key Technologies of Plug Tray Seedling Transplanters in Protected Agriculture: A Review |journal=Agriculture |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1488 |doi=10.3390/agriculture13081488 |doi-access=free |issn=2077-0472}}</ref>

There are varying methods of starting your seeds. The most prevalent method would be to start seeds in transplant (plug) trays or in planters/pots. Another method is starting seeds in [[soil block]]s which may reduce transplant shock and stop root-binding due to their ability to air prune the roots.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dihingia |first1=Pramod Chandra |last2=Kumar |first2=G.V. Prasanna |last3=Sarma |first3=Pallab Kumar |last4=Neog |first4=Prasanta |date=2017-09-03 |title=Production of Soil Block Seedlings in Plug Trays for Mechanical Transplanting |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19315260.2017.1319889 |journal=International Journal of Vegetable Science |language=en |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=471–485 |doi=10.1080/19315260.2017.1319889 |issn=1931-5260}}</ref> Some plants such as onions and various herbs may be efficiently started by scattering their seeds on top of soil in a large tray where the seedlings will later be teased apart from each other and replanted in the garden or pots.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Aboukhadrah |first1=S. H. |last2=El - Alsayed |first2=Abdul Wahed Abdul Hameed |last3=Sobhy |first3=Labib |last4=Abdelmasieh |first4=William |date=2017-08-01 |title=Response of Onion Yield and Quality To Different Planting Date, Methods and Density |url=https://agro.journals.ekb.eg/article_3712.html |journal=Egyptian Journal of Agronomy |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=203–219 |doi=10.21608/agro.2017.1203.1065 |issn=0379-3575}}</ref>

== Pests ==
Garden pests are generally [[plant]]s, [[fungi]], or [[animal]]s (frequently [[insect]]s) that engage in activity that the gardener considers undesirable. A pest may crowd out desirable plants, disturb soil, stunt the growth of young seedlings, steal or damage fruit, or otherwise kill plants, hamper their growth, damage their appearance, or reduce the quality of the edible or ornamental portions of the plant. [[Aphid]]s, [[spider mite]]s, [[slug]]s, [[snail]]s, [[ant]]s, [[bird]]s, and even [[cat]]s are commonly considered to be garden pests.

Throughout history ecosystems that have undergone rapid changes are typically those which harbor the most pests.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article/62/7/658/243383?login=false |access-date=2024-03-29 |website=academic.oup.com}}</ref> For example, a highly and rapidly altered landscape such as modern [[Rapeseed oil|canola]] fields in the Americas can be a breeding ground for pests of the [[Brassicaceae]] family. <ref>{{Citation |last1=Dosdall |first1=Lloyd M. |title=Key Pests and Parasitoids of Oilseed Rape or Canola in North America and the Importance of Parasitoids in Integrated Management |date=2010 |work=Biocontrol-Based Integrated Management of Oilseed Rape Pests |pages=167–213 |editor-last=Williams |editor-first=Ingrid H. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3983-5_6 |access-date=2024-03-29 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-3983-5_6 |isbn=978-90-481-3983-5 |last2=Mason |first2=Peter G.}}</ref> A natural ecosystem will typically regulate pest levels through many biological means whether that be the natural introduction of a disease or an increase in the population of a predator species of animal.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=W. J. |last2=van Lenteren |first2=J. C. |last3=Phatak |first3=Sharad C. |last4=Tumlinson |first4=J. H. |date=1997-11-11 |title=A total system approach to sustainable pest management |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=94 |issue=23 |pages=12243–12248 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.23.12243 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=33780 |pmid=9356432|bibcode=1997PNAS...9412243L }}</ref>
[[File:Tropaeolum_speciosum_Poeppig_and_Endl._(AM_AK294005-1).jpg|thumb|The flame flower (''[[Tropaeolum speciosum]]''), climbs over other plants to a sunlit position]]
Because gardeners may have different goals, organisms considered "garden pests" vary from gardener to gardener. ''[[Tropaeolum speciosum]]'', for example, may be considered a desirable and ornamental garden plant, or it may be considered a pest if it [[seed]]s and starts to grow where it is not wanted. As another example, in [[lawn]]s, moss can become dominant and be impossible to eradicate. In some lawns, [[lichen]]s, especially very damp lawn lichens such as ''[[Peltigera]] lactucfolia'' and ''P. membranacea'', can become difficult to control and are considered pests.

===Pest control===
There are many ways by which unwanted pests are removed from a garden. The techniques vary depending on the pest, the gardener's goals, and the gardener's philosophy. For example, snails may be dealt with through the use of a chemical pesticide, an organic pesticide, hand-picking, barriers, or simply growing snail-resistant plants.

On a large scale [[pest control]] is often done through the use of [[pesticide]]s and [[herbicide]]s, which may be either [[Organic agriculture|organic]] or artificially synthesized. Pesticides may affect the [[ecology]] of a garden due to their effects on the populations of both target and non-target species. For example, unintended exposure to some [[neonicotinoid]] pesticides has been proposed as a factor in the recent decline in [[honey bee]] populations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Henry |first1=M. |last2=Beguin |first2=M. |last3=Requier |first3=F. |last4=Rollin |first4=O. |last5=Odoux |first5=J.-F. |last6=Aupinel |first6=P. |last7=Aptel |first7=J. |last8=Tchamitchian |first8=S. |last9=Decourtye |first9=A. |year=2012 |title=A Common Pesticide Decreases Foraging Success and Survival in Honey Bees |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00731655/file/51503_20120420060922456_1.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Science |volume=336 |issue=6079 |pages=348–350 |bibcode=2012Sci...336..348H |doi=10.1126/science.1215039 |pmid=22461498 |s2cid=41186355 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108011236/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00731655/file/51503_20120420060922456_1.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-08}}</ref> Pesticides and herbicides are also known to cause medical issues, typically to those in proximity during their application. <ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Athukorala |first1=Wasantha |last2=Lee |first2=Boon L. |last3=Wilson |first3=Clevo |last4=Fujii |first4=Hidemichi |last5=Managi |first5=Shunsuke |date=2023-03-01 |title=Measuring the impact of pesticide exposure on farmers' health and farm productivity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0313592622002156 |journal=Economic Analysis and Policy |volume=77 |pages=851–862 |doi=10.1016/j.eap.2022.12.007 |issn=0313-5926}}</ref> While farm workers are by far the most affected by the use of pesticides and herbicides, they are often under-informed or accept the consequences due to financial necessity. <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article/28/1/43/1553663?login=false |access-date=2024-03-17 |website=academic.oup.com}}</ref> [[Fungicide|Fungicides]] may be applied to the seed coat to reduce mortality of germinating seedlings.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoose |first1=Benjamin W. |last2=Geary |first2=Bradley D. |last3=Richardson |first3=William C. |last4=Petersen |first4=Steven L. |last5=Madsen |first5=Matthew D. |date=January 2022 |title=Improving dryland seedling recruitment using fungicide seed coatings |url=https://besjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/2688-8319.12132 |journal=Ecological Solutions and Evidence |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.1002/2688-8319.12132 |bibcode=2022EcoSE...3E2132H |issn=2688-8319}}</ref> The improper use of pesticides often leads to [[pesticide resistance]] which poses a risk in global food security.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Council |first1=National Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cayHXWAfI7QC&dq=pesticide+resistance&pg=PT10 |title=Pesticide Resistance: Strategies and Tactics for Management |last2=Agriculture |first2=Board on |last3=Populations |first3=Committee on Strategies for the Management of Pesticide Resistant Pest |date=1986-02-01 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-03627-6 |language=en}}</ref> With climate change affecting the distribution of pests, a global increase in pesticide usage has been observed which in turn has caused an increase of human health risks due to exposure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tudi |first1=Muyesaier |last2=Daniel Ruan |first2=Huada |last3=Wang |first3=Li |last4=Lyu |first4=Jia |last5=Sadler |first5=Ross |last6=Connell |first6=Des |last7=Chu |first7=Cordia |last8=Phung |first8=Dung Tri |date=2021-01-27 |title=Agriculture Development, Pesticide Application and Its Impact on the Environment |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=1112 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18031112 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=7908628 |pmid=33513796}}</ref> Creating new pesticides in order to manage resistant organisms is an immense expense and is often heavily criticized as an ineffective method of pest control.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Fred |last2=Brown |first2=Zachary S. |last3=Kuzma |first3=Jennifer |date=2018-05-18 |title=Wicked evolution: Can we address the sociobiological dilemma of pesticide resistance? |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aar3780 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=360 |issue=6390 |pages=728–732 |doi=10.1126/science.aar3780 |pmid=29773742 |issn=0036-8075}}</ref>
[[File:Crop under cover - geograph.org.uk - 4705215.jpg|left|thumb|210x210px|Crop under row cover to protect plants from pest damage.]]
Other means of control include the removal of infected plants, using [[fertilizer]]s and bio stimulants to improve the health and vigor of plants so they better resist attack, practicing [[crop rotation]] to prevent pest build-up, using foliar sprays, [[companion planting]], and practicing good garden hygiene, such as disinfecting tools and clearing debris and [[weed]]s which may harbor pests. <ref>{{Cite web |title=The Self-Sufficient Gardener Podcast--Episode 24 Companion Planting and Crop Rotation |url=http://theselfsufficientgardener.com/2010/08/11/episode-24-companion-planting-and-crop-rotation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918114758/http://theselfsufficientgardener.com/2010/08/11/episode-24-companion-planting-and-crop-rotation/ |archive-date=18 September 2010 |access-date=2010-08-13 |df=dmy}}</ref> Another common method of pest control, used frequently in market gardening, is using insect netting or plastic greenhouse covers. <ref>{{Cite journal |last=Böckmann |first=Elias |date=2022-12-01 |title=Effects of insect net coverage in field vegetables on pests, diseases, natural enemies, and yield |journal=Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection |language=en |volume=129 |issue=6 |pages=1401–1415 |doi=10.1007/s41348-022-00644-1 |issn=1861-3837|doi-access=free }}</ref> Gardeners may rely on one type of pest in order to eliminate another. Some examples of this are cats which hunt mice and rats, wild birds, bats, chickens, and ducks which hunt insects and slugs, or thorny hedges to deter deer and other creatures. Using these organisms to help control pests is called [[biological pest control]]. There are also targeted measures of animal pest control such as a mole vibrator which can deter mole activity in a garden, or automated gun shots to scare off birds.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mole-ested |url=http://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/1998/04/mole-ested?page=0,2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529055911/http://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/1998/04/mole-ested?page=0,2 |archive-date=29 May 2014 |access-date=2014-05-28}}</ref>
[[File:.22LR_ratshot.jpg|thumb|CCI .22LR snake shot loaded with #12 shot|302x302px]]

==== Garden guns ====
{{Main|Garden gun}}
Garden guns are smooth-bore shotguns specifically made to fire [[.22 caliber]] [[snake shot]], and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for pest control. Garden guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past {{convert|15 to 20|yard}} and are relatively quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to a standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a [[ricochet]]. They are also used for pest control at [[airport]]s, [[warehouse]]s, and [[Meat packing industry|stockyards]].<ref name="Eger2">{{cite web |last1=Eger |first1=Christopher |date=28 July 2013 |title=Marlin 25MG Garden Gun |url=http://www.marlinforum.com/Marlin-25MG-Garden-Gun.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918005923/http://www.marlinforum.com/Marlin-25MG-Garden-Gun.html |archive-date=18 September 2016 |access-date=17 September 2016 |website=Marlin Firearms Forum |publisher=Outdoor Hub LLC |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==Social aspects==
People can express their political or social views in gardens, intentionally or not. The lawn vs. garden issue is played out in [[urban planning]] as the debate over the "[[land ethic]]" that is to determine urban [[land use]] and whether hyper [[hygiene|hygienist]] [[bylaw]]s (e.g. [[weed control]]) should apply, or whether land should generally be allowed to exist in its natural wild state. In a famous [[Canadians|Canadian]] [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights]] case, "Sandra Bell vs. City of Toronto", 1997, the right to cultivate all native species, even most varieties deemed noxious or allergenic, was upheld as part of the [[Freedom of speech|right of free expression]].

[[Community gardening]] comprises a wide variety of approaches to sharing land and gardens.

[[File:Schultenhof Mettingen Bauerngarten 8.jpg|thumb|left|Garden at the Schultenhof in [[Mettingen]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany]]

People often surround their house and garden with a hedge. Common hedge plants are [[privet]], [[Crataegus|hawthorn]], [[beech]], [[Taxus|yew]], [[Leyland Cypress|leyland cypress]], [[Tsuga|hemlock]], [[Thuja occidentalis|arborvitae]], [[Berberis|barberry]], [[Buxus|box]], [[holly]], [[Nerium oleander|oleander]], [[forsythia]] and [[lavender]]. The idea of open gardens without hedges may be distasteful to those who enjoy privacy.
The [[Slow Food]] movement has sought in some countries to add an edible [[School garden|school yard]] and garden classrooms to schools, e.g. in [[Fergus, Ontario]], where these were added to a public school to augment the kitchen classroom. [[Garden sharing]], where urban landowners allow gardeners to grow on their property in exchange for a share of the harvest, is associated with the desire to control the quality of one's food, and reconnect with soil and community.<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/sep/04/ethicalliving.organics Meet the urban sharecroppers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331062414/http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/sep/04/ethicalliving.organics |date=31 March 2012 }} ''The Guardian'', 4 September 2008</ref>

In US and British usage, the production of ornamental plantings around buildings is called ''[[landscaping]]'', ''[[landscape maintenance]]'' or ''grounds keeping'', while international usage uses the term ''gardening'' for these same activities.

Also gaining popularity is the concept of "Green Gardening" which involves growing plants using organic fertilizers and pesticides so that the gardening process – or the flowers and fruits produced thereby – doesn't adversely affect the environment or people's health in any manner.

===Laws and restrictions===
In some parts of the world, particularly the United States, gardening can be restricted by law or by rules and regulations imposed by a home-owner's association.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rhoades |first1=Heather |title=Gardening Laws And Ordinances – Common Garden Laws |date=23 July 2021 |url=https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/special/urban/gardening-laws.htm}}</ref> In the United States, such rules may prohibit homeowners from growing vegetable gardens, prohibit [[xeriscaping]] or meadow gardens, or require garden plants to be chosen from a pre-approved list, to preserve the aesthetics of the neighborhood.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Barnes |first1=Joseph |title=The 5 Most Common HOA Landscaping/Gardening Policies (And Why They Matter To Your Community) |url=https://www.yellowstonelandscape.com/blog/most-common-hoa-landscaping-gardening-policies-why-matter-your-community |website=yellowstonelandscape.com |publisher=Yellowstone Landscape}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Vanitzian |first1=Donie |title=Q&A: An HOA board does not have the authority to ban drought-tolerant landscaping |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-associations-landscaping-plans-20160831-snap-story.html |website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=4 September 2016 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Linnekin |first1=Baylen |title=Local Laws Ban Front Yard Food Gardens in Cities Across the US |url=https://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/local_laws_ban_front_yard_food_gardens/ |website=earthisland.org |publisher=Earth Island Journal}}</ref> Numerous challenges to these laws, ordinances and regulations have emerged in recent years, with some resulting in legislation protecting a homeowner's right to cultivate native plants or grow vegetables.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Llorico |first1=Abby |title=Maryland couple's pushback on HOA rules changes landscape of state law |url=https://www.wusa9.com/article/tech/science/environment/maryland-couple-fights-hoa-rules-on-grass-lawns/65-d87be2e2-a109-4b7d-99fa-7497b91c7347 |website=wusa9.com|date=16 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Kornei |first1=Katherine |title=Only Two States Have Passed 'Right to Garden' Laws. Will Others Follow? |url=https://civileats.com/2022/08/20/two-states-right-to-garden-laws-local-food-community-nutrition-security-illinois-florida/ |website=civileats.com|date=20 August 2022 }}</ref> Laws protecting a homeowner's right to grow food plants have been termed "right to garden" laws.

== Benefits ==
Gardening is considered by many people to be a relaxing activity. There are also many studies about the positive effects on mental and physical health in relation to gardening.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-03-01|title=Gardening is beneficial for health: A meta-analysis|journal=Preventive Medicine Reports|language=en|volume=5|pages=92–99|doi=10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.11.007|issn=2211-3355|doi-access=free|last1=Soga|first1=Masashi|last2=Gaston|first2=Kevin J.|last3=Yamaura|first3=Yuichi|pmid=27981022|pmc=5153451}}</ref> Specifically, gardening is thought to increase [[self-esteem]] and reduce [[Stress (biology)|stress]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-05-18|title=8 Surprising Health Benefits of Gardening {{!}} UNC Health Talk|url=https://healthtalk.unchealthcare.org/health-benefits-of-gardening/|access-date=2021-02-20|website=healthtalk.unchealthcare.org|language=en-US|archive-date=15 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181050/https://healthtalk.unchealthcare.org/health-benefits-of-gardening/|url-status=live}}</ref> As writer and former teacher Sarah Biddle notes, one's garden may become a "tiny oasis to relax and recharge [one's] batteries."<ref>{{Cite web|last=Biddle|first=Sarah|date=2020-06-12|title=Gardens Simultaneously Calm and Reinvigorate|url=https://objectivestandard.org/blog/gardens-simultaneously-calm-and-reinvigorate|access-date=2021-02-20|website=Objective Standard Institute|language=en-US|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218174036/https://objectivestandard.org/blog/gardens-simultaneously-calm-and-reinvigorate|url-status=live}}</ref> Involving in gardening activities aid in creativity, observational skills, learning, planning and physical movement.<ref>{{cite web |title=Do you know better mental can be achieved by gardening? |url=https://aninews.in/news/lifestyle/others/do-you-know-better-mental-can-be-achieved-by-gardening20220713172010/ |website=ANI News |access-date=22 July 2022 |archive-date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722011747/https://aninews.in/news/lifestyle/others/do-you-know-better-mental-can-be-achieved-by-gardening20220713172010/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Others consider gardening to be a good hedge against supply chain disruptions with increased worries that the public cannot always trust that the grocery store shelves will be fully stocked.<ref>{{Cite web|access-date=July 19, 2022|title=Gardening Is a Hedge Against Supply Chain Disruptions|date=16 July 2022 |url=https://reason.com/2022/07/16/grow-your-own/|archive-date=19 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719153309/https://reason.com/2022/07/16/grow-your-own/|url-status=live}}</ref> In April 2022, about 31% of grocery products were out of stock which is an 11% increase from November 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|date=April 13, 2022|title=Product shortages and soaring prices reveal fragility of U.S. supply chain|website=[[CBS News]]|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/product-shortages-inflation-supply-chain-2022/|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=19 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719154901/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/product-shortages-inflation-supply-chain-2022/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Gardening can also support good numbers and a wide range of [[pollinator]]s, but worryingly [[bee]]s and other pollinators are in decline. Gardeners can make a difference to help reverse this trend.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How gardeners can help our declining bees and other pollinators / RHS Gardening |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/wildlife/help-our-declining-bees-and-other-pollinators |access-date=2022-12-22 |website=www.rhs.org.uk |language=en-gb |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181116/https://www.rhs.org.uk/wildlife/help-our-declining-bees-and-other-pollinators |url-status=live }}</ref> The main thing that matters is that they get their share of [[nectar]] to fuel their busy lifestyles,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-11-16 |title=The best wildflowers for bees |url=https://icanlawn.com/the-best-wildflowers-for-bees/ |access-date=2022-12-22 |website=icanlawn.com Blog |language=en |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181044/https://icanlawn.com/the-best-wildflowers-for-bees/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and this is where gardening can help them.

==Ornaments and accessories==
{{Main|Garden ornament}}
[[File:Urn, Palm House.JPG|thumb|left|upright|A classical [[urn]] at Palm House, the [[Belfast Botanic Gardens]], [[Northern Ireland]], as [[garden ornament]]]]

There is a wide range of [[garden ornament]]s and accessories available in the market for both the professional gardener and the amateur to exercise their creativity for example sculptures, lights or fountains. These are used to add decoration or functionality, and may be made from a wide range of materials such as copper, stone, wood, bamboo, [[stainless steel]], [[clay]], [[stained glass]], concrete, or iron. Examples include [[Trellis (architecture)|trellis]], [[garden furniture]], [[Garden gnome|gnomes]], [[Garden sculpture|statues]], [[outdoor fireplace]]s, [[fountain]]s, [[rain chain]]s, [[urns]], [[bird bath]]s and [[Bird feeder|feeders]], [[wind chime]]s, and garden lighting such as candle [[lanterns]] and [[oil lamps]]. The use of these items can be part of the expression of a gardener's gardening personality.

==As art==
{{See also|Landscape architecture|Jupiter Artland}}

Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, which generally means ''garden maintenance''. Garden design can include different themes such as perennial, [[Butterfly gardening|butterfly]], [[Wildlife garden|wildlife]], [[Japanese garden|Japanese]], [[Water garden|water]], [[Tropical garden|tropical]], or [[Shade garden|shade]] gardens.

In Japan, [[Samurai]] and [[Zen]] monks were often required to build decorative gardens or practice related skills like [[flower arrangement]] known as ''[[ikebana]]''. In 18th-century Europe, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped park lands, such as at [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]], France, or [[Stowe, Buckinghamshire|Stowe]], England. Today, [[landscape architect]]s and [[garden designer]]s continue to produce artistically creative designs for private garden spaces. In the US, professional landscape designers are certified by the Association of Professional Landscape Designers.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.apld.org/| title = APLD.org| access-date = 17 June 2009| archive-date = 19 December 2017| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171219081836/https://www.apld.org/| url-status = live}}</ref>

==See also==
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* [[Arboretum]]
* [[Bonsai]]
* [[Cultigen]]
* [[Eyecatcher (landscape)|Eyecatchers]]
* [[Garden writing]]
* [[Growbag]]
* [[Introduced species]]
* [[Impact gardening]]
* [[List of gardening topics]]
* [[List of horticulture and gardening books]]
* [[List of professional gardeners]]
* [[Master gardener program]]
* [[No-dig gardening]]
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{{Portal bar|Gardening|Agriculture}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Wmog|gardening}}
{{Commons category|Gardening}}
* [http://www.garden.org National Gardening Association] (USA)
* {{curlie|Home/Gardening}}

{{Horticulture and Gardening}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Gardening| ]]