Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Alaiye

2013-02-25T19:06:12Z

Rami radwan:

[[Image:Alanya by Piri Reis.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Piri Reis]] map of Alanya from 1525, shortly after the beylik was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire.]]
'''Alaiye''' ('''علائية''') is the medieval [[Seljuq dynasty|Seljuq]] name for [[Alanya]] (on the southern coast of [[Turkey]]). The city name is derived from the name of Sultan [[Kayqubad I]]. It refers to the city-state in a specific period and the [[Anatolian beyliks|beylik]] which developed around there, at times under the [[Karamanids|Karamanid]] dynasty. After the 1242 [[Battle of Köse Dağ]], the Seljuqs lost control of the city, and it became semi-autonomous.

==Occupations==
Before the influence of the Karamanid dynasty, [[Henry II of Jerusalem]] made an unsuccessful attempt to invade the city in 1291. Karamanids influence then began in 1293, with the capture of the beylik by [[Majd ad-Din Mahmud]] ({{lang-tr|Mecdüddin Mahmud}}). In 1427, the [[Mamluk]] Sultan [[Barsbay|Al-Ashraf Sayf Addin Barsbay]] acquired the beylik from the Karamanid Sultan Damad II İbrahim Bey in exchange of 5,000 gold coins.<ref name=kultur>{{cite web |url= http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313679A66406202CCB03183B17125FC74AB |title= The History of Alanya |work= [http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN Ministry of Tourism] |accessdate= 2007-05-01 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070901040742/http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN/BelgeGoster.aspx?17A16AE30572D313679A66406202CCB03183B17125FC74AB  |archivedate = 2007-09-01}}</ref> In 1366, an attempt to occupy the beylik by [[Peter I of Cyprus]] was unsuccessful.

==Governance==
The beylik existed as an independent principality in some form from 1293 until 1471. The second rule of [[Kayqubad III]] was centered there. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] general [[Gedik Ahmed Pasha]]'s victory against Kasim Bey and the Karamanids also happened in Alaiye. During this period no major state existed in [[Anatolia]], following the defeat of the [[Sultanate of Rûm|Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm]] by the [[Mongol Empire]] at the [[Battle of Köse Dag]].

Following minor Christian incursions in the region in 1371, Badr ad-Din Mahmud Bey, an [[emir]] of the Karamanids built a [[mosque]] and [[medrese]] in 1373-1374 in the city.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Summary of Archaeological Work in Turkey in 1953 |journal= Anatolian Studies |volume= 4 |year= 1954 |pages= 14 |accessdate= 2007-11-06 |author= Dörner, F. K.; L. Robert; Rodney Young; Paul A. Underwood; Halet Çambel; Tahsin Özgüç; A. M. Mansel; A. Gabriel |doi= 10.2307/3642371 |publisher= Anatolian Studies, Vol. 4 |jstor=3642371}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

*(Turkish) [http://www.enfal.de/starih29.htm Alâiye Beyligi]

{{coord|36.545669|31.99813|region:TR-07_type:city|display=title}}

{{Medieval states in Anatolia}}

[[Category:Anatolian beyliks]]
[[Category:History of Alanya]]
[[Category:States in medieval Anatolia|States in medieval Anatolia]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1293]]
[[Category:History of Antalya Province]]

{{MediterraneanTR-geo-stub}}
[[ar:علائية]]
[[fr:Alaya]]

Rayleigh scattering

2013-01-28T00:09:44Z

Rami radwan:

{{About|the optical phenomenon|the magnetic phenomenon|Rayleigh law|the stochastic distribution|Rayleigh distribution|the wireless [[multipath propagation]] model|Rayleigh fading}}
[[File:The Coorong South Australia.jpg|thumb|Rayleigh scattering causes the blue hue of the daytime sky and the reddening of the sun at sunset]]
[[File:SDIM0241b.jpg|thumb|Rayleigh scattering is more evident after sunset. This picture was taken about one hour after sunset at 500m altitude, looking at the horizon where the sun had set.]]
[[File:Green-lased palm tree (crop).jpg|thumb|right|The beam of a 5 mW green [[laser pointer]] is visible at night partly because of Rayleigh scattering on various particles and molecules present in air.]]
'''Rayleigh scattering''', named after the British physicist [[Lord Rayleigh]],<ref>Lord Rayleigh (John Strutt) refined his theory of scattering in a series of papers that were issued over a period of decades. Here is a partial list of those papers:
# John Strutt (1871) "On the light from the sky, its polarization and colour," ''Philosophical Magazine'', series 4, vol.41, pages 107-120, 274-279.
# John Strutt (1871) "On the scattering of light by small particles," ''Philosophical Magazine'', series 4, vol. 41, pages 447-454.
# John Strutt (1881) "On the electromagnetic theory of light," ''Philosophical Magazine'', series 5, vol. 12, pages 81-101.
# John Strutt (1899) "On the transmission of light through an atmosphere containing small particles in suspension, and on the origin of the blue of the sky," ''Philosophical Magazine'', series 5, vol. 47, pages 375-394.
</ref> is the [[elastic scattering]] of [[light]] or other [[electromagnetism|electromagnetic]] radiation by particles much smaller than the [[wavelength]] of the light. The particles may be individual atoms or molecules. It can occur when light travels through transparent solids and liquids, but is most prominently seen in [[gas]]es. Rayleigh scattering is a function of the electric [[polarizability]] of the particles.

Rayleigh scattering of [[sunlight]] in the atmosphere causes [[diffuse sky radiation]], which is the reason for the blue color of the sky and the yellow tone of the sun itself.

Scattering by particles similar to or larger than the wavelength of light is typically treated by the [[Mie theory]], the [[discrete dipole approximation]] and other computational techniques. Rayleigh scattering applies to particles that are small with respect to wavelengths of light, and that are optically "soft" (i.e. with a refractive index close to 1). On the other hand, [[Anomalous Diffraction Theory]] applies to optically soft but larger particles.

==Small size parameter approximation==
The size of a scattering particle is parameterized by the ratio ''x'' of its [[characteristic dimension]] ''r'' and [[wavelength]] ''λ'':
:<math> x = \frac{2 \pi r} {\lambda}.</math>
Rayleigh scattering can be defined as scattering in the small size parameter regime {{nowrap|''x'' ≪ 1}}. Scattering from larger spherical particles is explained by the [[Mie theory]] for an arbitrary size parameter ''x''. For small ''x'' the Mie theory reduces to the Rayleigh approximation.

The amount of Rayleigh scattering that occurs for a beam of light depends upon the size of the particles and the wavelength of the light. Specifically, the intensity of the scattered light varies as the sixth power of the particle size, and varies inversely with the fourth power of the wavelength.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Barnett|first=C.E.|title=Some application of wavelength turbidimetry in the infrared|journal=J.Phys.Chem|year=1942|volume=46|issue=1|pages=69–75}}</ref>

The [[Intensity (physics)|intensity]] ''I'' of light scattered by a single small particle from a beam of unpolarized light of wavelength ''λ'' and intensity ''I''0 is given by:

:<math> I = I_0 \frac{ 1+\cos^2 \theta }{2 R^2} \left( \frac{ 2 \pi }{ \lambda } \right)^4 \left( \frac{ n^2-1}{ n^2+2 } \right)^2 \left( \frac{d}{2} \right)^6</math><ref>Seinfeld and Pandis, ''Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 2nd Edition'', John Wiley and Sons, New Jersey 2006, Chapter 15.1.1</ref>

where ''R'' is the distance to the particle, ''θ'' is the scattering angle, ''n'' is the [[refractive index]] of the particle, and ''d'' is the diameter of the particle. The Rayleigh scattering cross-section is given by

:<math> \sigma_\text{s} = \frac{ 2 \pi^5}{3} \frac{d^6}{\lambda^4} \left( \frac{ n^2-1}{ n^2+2 } \right)^2</math>

The Rayleigh scattering coefficient for a group of scattering particles is the number of particles per unit volume ''N'' times the cross-section. As with all [[wave]] effects, for [[Coherence (physics)|incoherent]] scattering the scattered powers add arithmetically, while for coherent scattering, such as if the particles are very near each other, the fields add arithmetically and the sum must be squared to obtain the total scattered power.

==From molecules==
[[File:Rayleigh sunlight scattering.png|thumb|right|250px|Figure showing the greater proportion of blue light scattered by the atmosphere relative to red light.]]
Rayleigh scattering also occurs from individual molecules. Here the scattering is due to the molecular [[polarizability]] ''α'', which describes how much the electrical charges on the molecule will move in an electric field. In this case, the Rayleigh scattering intensity for a single particle is given by<ref>[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/atmos/blusky.html#c2 Rayleigh scattering at Hyperphysics]</ref>
:<math>I = I_0 \frac{8\pi^4\alpha^2}{\lambda^4 R^2}(1+\cos^2\theta).</math>
The amount of Rayleigh scattering from a single particle can also be expressed as a [[absorption cross section|cross section]] ''σ''. For example, the major constituent of the atmosphere, nitrogen, has a Rayleigh cross section of {{val|5.1|e=-31|u=m2}} at a wavelength of 532 nm (green light).<ref>Maarten Sneep and Wim Ubachs, [http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jqsrt.2004.07.025 Direct measurement of the Rayleigh scattering cross section in various gases]. Journal of Quantitative Spectroscopy and Radiative Transfer, 92, 293 (2005).</ref> This means that at atmospheric
pressure, about a fraction 10−5 of light will be scattered for every meter of travel.

The strong wavelength dependence of the scattering (~''λ''−4) means that shorter ([[blue]]) wavelengths are scattered more strongly than longer ([[red]]) wavelengths. This results in the indirect blue light coming from all regions of the sky. Rayleigh scattering is a good approximation of the manner in which light scattering occurs within various media for which scattering particles have a small size parameter.

==Reason for the blue color of the sky==
{{Further|Diffuse sky radiation}}

[[File:CircularPolarizer.jpg|thumb|right|Scattered blue light is [[Polarization (waves)|polarized]]. The picture on the right is shot through a [[Polarizing filter (photography)|polarizing filter]] which [[Polarizer|removes]] light that is [[Linear polarization|linearly polarized]] in a specific direction.]]

A portion of the beam of light coming from the sun scatters off molecules of gas and other small particles in the atmosphere. It is this scattered light that gives the surrounding sky its brightness and its color. As previously explained, Rayleigh scattering is inversely proportional to the fourth power of wavelength, so that shorter wavelength violet and blue light will scatter more than the longer wavelengths (yellow and especially red light). The resulting color, which appears like a pale blue, actually is a mixture of all the scattered colors, mainly blue and green. Conversely, glancing toward the sun, the colors that were not scattered away — the longer wavelengths such as red and yellow light — are directly visible, giving the sun itself a slightly yellowish hue. Viewed from space, however, the sky is black and the sun is white.

The reddening of sunlight is intensified when the sun is near the horizon, because the volume of air through which sunlight must pass is significantly greater than when the sun is high in the sky. The Rayleigh scattering effect is thus increased, removing virtually all blue light from the direct path to the observer. The remaining unscattered light is mostly of a longer wavelength, and therefore appears to be orange.

Rayleigh scattering primarily occurs through light's interaction with air molecules. Or, from a purely macroscopic point of view, blue sky comes from microscopic density fluctuations, resulting from the random motion of molecules in the air. A region of higher or lower density has a slightly different [[refractive index]] from the surrounding medium, and therefore it acts like a short-lived particle that scatters light in random directions. Smaller regions fluctuate more than larger ones, and, since short wavelengths are disturbed by small regions more than longer wavelengths, they are scattered more.

Some of the scattering can also be from sulfate particles. For years after large [[Plinian eruption]]s, the blue cast of the sky is notably brightened by the persistent sulfate load of the [[stratospheric]] gases. Some works of the artist [[J. M. W. Turner]] may owe their vivid red colours to the eruption of [[Mount Tambora]] in his lifetime.

In locations with little [[light pollution]], the moonlit night sky is also blue, because moonlight is reflected sunlight, with a slightly lower [[color temperature]] due to the brownish color of the moon. The moonlit sky is not perceived as blue, however, because at low light levels human vision comes mainly from [[rod cells]] that do not produce any color perception ([[Purkinje effect]]).{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}

==In optical fibers==
Rayleigh scattering is an important component of the scattering of optical signals in [[optical fibers]]. Silica fibers are disordered materials, thus their density varies on a microscopic scale. The density fluctuations give rise to energy loss due to the scattered light, with the following coefficient<ref>K.Rajagopal, ''Textbook on Engineering Physics'', PHI, New Delhi 2008, part I, Chapt. 3</ref>:

:<math>\alpha_\text{scat} = \frac{8 \pi^3}{3 \lambda^4} n^8 p^2 k T_\text{f} \beta</math>

where ''n'' is the refraction index, ''p'' is the photoelastic coefficient of the glass, ''k'' is the [[Boltzmann constant]], and ''β'' is the isothermal compressibility. ''T''f is a ''[[fictive temperature]]'', representing the temperature at which the density fluctuations are "frozen" in the material.

==In porous materials==
[[File:Why is the sky blue.jpg|thumb|Rayleigh scattering in [[Opalescence|opalescent]] glass: it appears blue from the side, but orange light shines through.<ref>[http://www.webexhibits.org/causesofcolor/14B.html Blue & red | Causes of Color]</ref>]]
''λ''−4 Rayleigh-type scattering can also be exhibited by porous materials. An example is the strong optical scattering by nanoporous materials.<ref name = Svensson>T. Svensson & Z. Shen, "Laser spectroscopy of gas confined in nanoporous materials", Applied Physics Letters '''96''', 021107 (2010). [http://link.aip.org/link/?APL/96/021107]</ref> The strong contrast in refractive index between pores and solid parts of sintered [[alumina]] results in very strong scattering, with light completely changing direction each 5 micrometers on average. The ''λ''−4-type scattering is caused by the nanoporous structure (a narrow pore size distribution around ~70 nm) obtained by [[sintering]] monodispersive alumina powder.

==See also==
* [[Rayleigh Sky Model]]
* [[Rayleigh fading]]
* [[Ricean fading]]
* [[Raman scattering]]
* [[Optical phenomenon]]
* [[Dynamic light scattering]]
* [[Tyndall effect]]
* [[Critical opalescence]]
* [[Marian Smoluchowski]]
* [[Rayleigh Criterion]]
* [[Aerial perspective]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Refbegin}}
*C.F. Bohren, D. Huffman, ''Absorption and scattering of light by small particles'', John Wiley, New York 1983. Contains a good description of the asymptotic behavior of Mie theory for small size parameter (Rayleigh approximation).
* {{cite book
| last = Ditchburn
| first = R.W.
| year = 1963
| title = Light
| edition = 2nd
| pages = 582–585
| publisher = Blackie & Sons
| location = London
| isbn = 0-12-218101-8
}}
* {{cite journal
| last = Chakraborti
| first = Sayan
| year = 2007
| month = September
| title = Verification of the Rayleigh scattering cross section
| journal = [[American Journal of Physics]]
| volume = 75
| issue = 9
| pages = 824−826
| doi = 10.1119/1.2752825
|arxiv = physics/0702101 |bibcode = 2007AmJPh..75..824C }}
* {{cite book
| last = Ahrens
| first = C. Donald
| year = 1994
| title = Meteorology Today: an introduction to weather, climate, and the environment
| edition = 5th
| pages = 88–89
| publisher = West Publishing Company
| location = St. Paul MN
| isbn = 0-314-02779-3
}}
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
* Pedro Lilienfeld, "A Blue Sky History." (2004). ''Optics and Photonics News''. Vol. 15, Issue 6, pp. 32–39. {{doi|10.1364/OPN.15.6.000032}}. Gives a brief history of theories of why the sky is blue leading up to Rayleigh's discovery, and a brief description of Rayleigh scattering.

==External links==
* [http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/atmos/blusky.html#c2 HyperPhysics description of Rayleigh scattering]
* [http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/General/BlueSky/blue_sky.html Full physical explanation of sky color, in simple terms]
* [http://onlinephototutorials.com/2008/08/03/remove-haze-from-landscape-photos/ Removing the effects of Rayleigh scattering on a photo in Photoshop]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Rayleigh Scattering}}
[[Category:Scattering, absorption and radiative transfer (optics)]]
[[Category:Atmospheric optical phenomena]]
[[Category:Visibility]]
[[Category:Light]]

[[af:Rayleigh-verstrooiing]]
[[AR:تبعثر ريليه]]
[[bg:Разсейване на електромагнитни вълни (на Релей)]]
[[bs:Rayleighovo raspršenje]]
[[ca:Difusió de Rayleigh]]
[[cs:Rayleighův rozptyl]]
[[da:Rayleigh-spredning]]
[[de:Rayleigh-Streuung]]
[[el:Μοριακή σκέδαση]]
[[es:Dispersión de Rayleigh]]
[[eo:Disĵeto de Rayleigh]]
[[eu:Rayleighen sakabanaketa]]
[[fa:پراکندگی رایلی]]
[[fr:Diffusion Rayleigh]]
[[ko:레일리 산란]]
[[hr:Rayleighovo raspršenje]]
[[it:Scattering di Rayleigh]]
[[he:פיזור ריילי]]
[[lt:Relėjaus sklaida]]
[[ml:ഋയ്ലി വിസരണം]]
[[ms:Selerakan Rayleigh]]
[[nl:Rayleighverstrooiing]]
[[ja:レイリー散乱]]
[[no:Rayleigh-spredning]]
[[nn:Rayleigh-spreiing]]
[[pl:Rozpraszanie Rayleigha]]
[[pt:Dispersão de Rayleigh]]
[[ro:Împrăștiere Rayleigh]]
[[ru:Рэлеевское рассеяние]]
[[simple:Rayleigh scattering]]
[[sk:Rayleighov rozptyl]]
[[sl:Rayleighovo sipanje]]
[[sv:Rayleigh-spridning]]
[[tr:Rayleigh saçılımı]]
[[uk:Релеївське розсіювання]]
[[vi:Tán xạ Rayleigh]]
[[zh:瑞利散射]]

Sint Maarten

2013-01-21T19:29:58Z

Rami radwan:

{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Sint Maarten
| common_name = Sint Maarten
| image_flag = Flag of Sint Maarten.svg
| image_coat = Coat of arms of Sint Maarten.svg
| image_map = Sint Maarten in its region.svg
| map_caption = {{map caption |location_color=circled in red |region=the [[Caribbean]] |region_color=light yellow}}
| image_map2 = Sint Maarten-CIA WFB Map.png
| map_caption2 = {{nowrap|Sint Maarten is located on the southern half of the island of [[Saint Martin]].}}
| map2_width = 250px
| national_motto = "Semper progrediens" ([[Latin]]) "Always progressing"
| national_anthem = ''[[O Sweet Saint Martin's Land]]''
| official_languages = [[Dutch language|Dutch]]{{·}}[[English language|English]]<ref name="constitution"/>
| demonym = St. Maartener
| capital = [[Philipsburg, Sint Maarten|Philipsburg]]
| latd=18 |latm=02 |latNS=N |longd=63 |longm=03 |longEW=W
| largest_city = [[Lower Prince's Quarter]]
| government_type = [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| leader_title1 = [[Dutch monarchy|Monarch]]
| leader_name1 = [[Beatrix of the Netherlands|Queen Beatrix]]
| leader_title2 = [[Governor of Sint Maarten|Governor]]
| leader_name2 = [[Eugene Holiday]]
| leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Sint Maarten|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name3 = [[Sarah Wescot-Williams]]
| legislature = [[Estates of Sint Maarten]]
| area_rank =
| area_magnitude = 1 E7
| area_km2 = 34
| area_sq_mi = 13.1 
| percent_water = negligible
| population_estimate = 37,429
| population_estimate_rank =
| population_estimate_year = 2010
| population_census = 30,594
| population_census_year = 2001
| population_density_km2 = 1100
| population_density_sq_mi = 
| population_density_rank =
| GDP_PPP = $400 million 
| GDP_PPP_rank =
| GDP_PPP_year = 2003
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = $11,400
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
| sovereignty_type = [[Autonomy]] {{nobold|within the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]}}
| established_event1 = Established
| established_date1 = 10 October 2010
| HDI = n/a
| HDI_rank = n/a
| HDI_year = 2003
| HDI_category = unranked
| currency = [[Netherlands Antillean guilder]]
| currency_code = ANG
| country_code =
| time_zone = [[Atlantic Standard Time|AST]]
| utc_offset = −4
| drives_on = right
| cctld = [[.an]],a [[.sx]] b
| calling_code = [[Area code 721|+1 721]]<ref>Sint Maarten joined the [[North American Numbering Plan]] on 30 September 2011; it previously shared the country code [[Telephone numbers in Curaçao and the Caribbean Netherlands|+599]] with Curaçao and the Caribbean Netherlands.{{cite web |url=http://www.nanpa.com/pdf/PL_423.pdf |title=PL-423: Updated Information - Introduction of NPA 721 (Sint Maarten) |publisher=North American Numbering Plan Administration |date=2011-07-27 |accessdate=2011-07-29}} Permissive dialing, allowing the use of +599, will be in place until 30 September 2012.</ref>
| footnotes = a. To be phased out. b. Assigned, but not yet in use.
}}

'''Sint Maarten''' ({{IPA-nl|sɪnt ˈmaːrtə(n)}}) is a [[constituent country]] of the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. It encompasses the southern half of the [[Caribbean Sea|Caribbean]] island of [[Saint Martin]], while the northern half of the island constitutes the French [[overseas collectivity]] of [[Collectivity of Saint Martin|''Saint-Martin'']]. Its capital is [[Philipsburg, Sint Maarten|Philipsburg]].

Before 10 October 2010, Sint Maarten was known as the Island Territory of Sint Maarten ({{lang-nl|Eilandgebied Sint Maarten}}), and was one of five [[List of islands of the Netherlands Antilles|island territories]] (''eilandgebieden'') that constituted the [[Netherlands Antilles]].

==History==
{{see also|History of Saint Martin}}

In 1493, during [[Christopher Columbus]]' [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|second voyages]] to the [[West Indies]], upon first sighting the island he named it ''Isla de San Martín'' after Saint [[Martin of Tours]] because it was 11 November, [[St. Martin]] Day. However, though he claimed it as a [[Spain|Spanish]] territory, Columbus never landed there, and Spain made the settlement of the island a low priority.

The [[France|French]] and [[Netherlands|Dutch]], on the other hand, both coveted the island. While the French wanted to colonize the islands between [[Trinidad]] and [[Bermuda]], the Dutch found ''San Martín'' a convenient halfway point between their colonies in [[New Amsterdam]] (present day [[New York City|New York]]) and [[Brazil]]. With few people inhabiting the island, the Dutch easily founded a settlement there in 1631, erecting Fort Amsterdam as protection from invaders. Jan Claeszen Van Campen became its first [[List of Sint Maarten governors|governor]], and soon thereafter the [[Dutch East India Company]] began their salt mining operations. French and [[United Kingdom|British]] settlements sprang up on the island as well. Taking note of these successful colonies and wanting to maintain their control of the salt trade, the Spanish now found St. Martin much more appealing. The [[Eighty Years' War]] which had been raging between Spain and the Netherlands provided further incentive to attack.

Spanish forces [[Capture of Saint Martin|captured Saint Martin from the Dutch]] in 1633, seizing control and driving most or all of the colonists off the island. At Point Blanche, they built what is now Old Spanish Fort to secure the territory. Although the Dutch retaliated in [[Attack on Saint Martin|several attempts to win back]] St. Martin, they failed. Fifteen years after the Spanish conquered the island, the Eighty Years' War ended. Since they no longer needed a base in the Caribbean and St. Martin barely turned a profit, the Spanish lost their inclination to continue defending it. In 1648, they deserted the island.

With St. Martin free again, both the Dutch and the French jumped at the chance to re-establish their settlements. Dutch colonists came from [[Sint Eustatius|St. Eustatius]], while the French came from [[St. Kitts]]. After some initial conflict, both sides realized that neither would yield easily. Preferring to avoid an all-out war, they signed the [[Treaty of Concordia]] in 1648, which divided the island in two. During the treaty's negotiation, the French had a fleet of [[navy|naval]] ships off shore, which they used as a threat to bargain more land for themselves. In spite of the treaty, relations between the two sides were not always cordial. Between 1648 and 1816, conflicts changed the border sixteen times. In the end, the French came out ahead with {{convert|21|sqmi|km2}} to the {{convert|16|sqmi|km2}} of the Dutch side.

Although the Spanish had been the first to import slaves to the island, their numbers had been few. But with the new cultivation of [[cotton]], [[tobacco]], and [[sugar]], mass numbers of slaves were imported to work on the [[Plantation (settlement or colony)|plantation]]s. The slave population quickly grew larger than that of the land owners. Subjected to cruel treatment, slaves staged rebellions, and their overwhelming numbers made them impossible to ignore. On 12 July 1848, the French abolished slavery on their side of St. Martin. The Dutch followed suit fifteen years later.

===20th century===
After abolition of slavery, plantation culture declined and the island's economy suffered. In 1939, St. Martin received a major boost when it was declared a [[duty-free]] port. The Dutch side began focusing on [[tourism]] in the 1950s, with the French side following suit two decades later. Because of being split up into a Dutch and a French part, the tourist boom was heavier on Sint Maarten than on the surrounding islands. Its [[Princess Juliana International Airport]] became one of the busiest in the Eastern Caribbean. For much of this period, Sint Maarten was governed by business tycoon [[Claude Wathey]] of the [[Democratic Party Sint Maarten|Democratic Party]].<ref name="autogenerated1">NRC.nl - [http://www.nrc.nl/nieuwsthema/antillen/article1890492.ece/Sint_Maarten_bloeit,_politici_leven_in_luxe Sint Maarten bloeit, politici leven in luxe]</ref>

The island's demographics changed dramatically during this period as well. The island's population increased from a mere 5,000 people to around 80,000 people in the mid-1990s. Immigration from the neighbouring Lesser Antilles, [[Curaçao]], [[Haiti]], the [[Dominican Republic]], the [[United States]], [[Europe]], and [[Asia]] turned the native population into a minority.<ref>Oostindie 1998:126-127</ref>

Sint Maarten became an "island territory" (''eilandgebied'' in [[Dutch language|Dutch]]) of the [[Netherlands Antilles]] in 1983. Before that date, Saint Martin was part of the island territory of the Windward Islands, together with [[Saba]] and [[Sint Eustatius]]. The status of an island territory entails considerable autonomy summed up in the [[Island Regulation of the Netherlands Antilles]]. The island territory of Sint Maarten was ruled by an island council, an executive council, and an [[Administrator of the Government|administrator]] ({{lang-nl|gezaghebber}}) appointed by the Dutch Crown.

On 5 September 1995, [[Hurricane Luis]] severely pounded the islands causing extensive damage 35 years to the day after [[Hurricane Donna]].

===21st century===
In 1994, the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]] and [[France]] signed the [[Franco-Dutch treaty on Saint Martin border controls]], which allows for joint Franco-Dutch border controls on so-called "risk flights". After some delay, the treaty was ratified in November 2006 in the Netherlands, and subsequently entered into force on 1 August 2007. Though the treaty is now in force, its provisions are not yet implemented as the working group specified in the treaty is not yet installed.

On 10 October 2010, Sint Maarten became a [[constituent country]] ({{lang-nl|Land Sint Maarten}}) within the Kingdom of the Netherlands, making it a constitutional equal partner with [[Aruba]], [[Curaçao]], and the [[Netherlands]] proper. Sint Maarten has been assigned the [[ISO 3166-1 alpha-2]] country codes of SXM and SX,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/support/country_codes/iso_3166_code_lists/iso-3166-1_decoding_table.htm#SX|title=ISO 3166-1 decoding table|publisher=International Organization for Standardization|accessdate=2010-12-16}}</ref> and the [[.sx]] Internet [[ccTLD]] became available to register on the 15th of November 2012.<ref>123-reg Blog - [http://www.123-reg.co.uk/blog/domains/lets-talk-about-sx/ Let's talk about .SX!]</ref>

==Government and politics==
{{main|Politics of Sint Maarten}}
[[File:Philipsburg 001.jpg|thumb|300px|The Courthouse in Philipsburg is one of the symbols of Sint Maarten.]]
[[File:Saint-Martin Island topographic map-en.svg|thumb|280px|An elevation map of the island of Saint Martin.]]
[[File:Saint martin map.PNG|thumb|280px|Map showing French ''Saint-Martin'' (north) and Dutch ''Sint Maarten'' (south).]]
The [[Constitution of Sint Maarten]] was unanimously adopted by the island council of Sint Maarten on 21 July 2010. Elections for a new island council [[Sint Maarten general election, 2010|were held on 17 September 2010]], since the number of seats was increased from 11 to 15. The newly elected island council became the [[Estates of Sint Maarten]] on 10 October.<ref>RNW.nl - [http://www.rnw.nl/caribiana/article/eilandsraad-sint-maarten-unaniem-achter-staatsregeling Eilandsraad Sint Maarten unaniem achter staatsregeling]</ref>

[[Eugene Holiday]] was appointed as the first [[Governor of Sint Maarten]] ({{lang-nl|gouverneur}}) by the [[Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands]] in September 2010. He also assumed office on 10 October 2010.

===Current composition of the Estates of Sint Maarten===
{{Sint Maarten general election, 2010}}

===Corruption===
In 1978, the government of the Netherlands Antilles installed a Research Committee on the Windward Islands ({{lang-nl|Commissie van Onderzoek Bovenwindse Eilanden}}) to investigate claims of corruption in the island government. Even though the report issued by this commission was damaging for the island's government, measures were not put into place to curb corruption, arguably because the government of the Netherlands Antilles depended on the support of Wathey's Democratic Party in the [[Estates of the Netherlands Antilles]]. In August 1990, the public prosecutor of the Netherlands Antilles started an investigation into the alleged ties between the island government of Sint Maarten and the [[Sicilian Mafia]], and in 1991 the [[Court of Audit]] of the Netherlands Antilles issued a report which concluded that the island government of Sint Maarten was ailing.<ref>Oostindie and Klinkers 2001:188-189</ref>

In the government and parliament of the Netherlands, the call for measures became louder and louder. With Dutch pressure, the government of the Netherlands Antilles installed the [[Miguel Pourier|Pourier]] Commission tasked with investigating the state of affairs of the island government of Sint Maarten in December 1991. Its report concluded that the island was in a severe financial crisis, that rules of democratic decision-making were continuously broken, and that the island government constituted an [[oligarchy]]. In short, the island government failed completely according to the report. After long negotiations, the [[Council of Ministers of the Kingdom of the Netherlands|Kingdom government]] enacted an Order-in-Council for the Kingdom ({{lang-nl|Algemene Maatregel van Rijksbestuur}}) in early 1993, placing Sint Maarten under direct supervision by the Kingdom. Although originally meant for one year, the Order-in-Council for the Kingdom was eventually extended until 1 March 1996.<ref>Oostindie and Klinkers 2001:189-191</ref>

Though much has changed since, allegations of criminal activities continue to plague Sint Maarten. In 2004, the Minister of Justice of the Netherlands Antilles asked the Scientific Research and Documentation Centre ({{lang-nl|Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek- en Documentatiecentrum}} (WODC)) of the Dutch Ministry of Justice to conduct research into organized crime in Sint Maarten. The report concluded that [[money laundering]] and cocaine trade are widespread on Sint Maarten. It also alleged that money from the island was used to finance terrorist networks [[Hamas]], its associate [[Holy Land Foundation]], and the [[Taliban]].<ref name="autogenerated1"/><ref>NRC.nl - [http://www.nrc.nl/nieuwsthema/antillen/article1847339.ece/Sint_Maarten_vrijhaven_voor_criminele_gelden Sint Maarten vrijhaven voor criminele gelden]</ref>

In April 2009, former Commissioner Louie Laveist was convicted, and sentenced to an 18-month prison sentence, by the Sint Maarten Court-of-First-Instance, on account of forgery, fraud, and bribery.<ref>NRC.nl - [http://www.nrc.nl/binnenland/article2227000.ece/Gedeputeerde_Sint_Maarten_veroordeeld_voor_corruptie Gedeputeerde Sint Maarten veroordeeld voor corruptie]</ref> He was later acquitted of forgery and of fraud by the [[Common Court of Justice of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba]], but not of bribery.<ref>The Daily Herald - [http://www.thedailyherald.com/islands/1-news/424-louie-laveist-partially-vindicated-on-appeal.html Louie Laveist partially vindicated on appeal]</ref>

==Demographics==
In the 2001 Netherlands Antilles census, the population of the island territory was 30,594.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cbs.an/census/antde2.asp |title=Population and Housing Census 2001 |publisher=Cbs.an |date= |accessdate=2010-10-10}}</ref> The official estimate of the population as of 1 January 2010 was 37,429 for a population density of 1,100 inhabitants per km².

===Settlements===
[[File:Saint Maarten, Dutch Side.jpg|thumb|Dutch side]]
[[File:Corsair Airbus A330 at SXM Bidini.jpg|thumb|[[Corsairfly]] [[Airbus A330-200]] on short final over [[Maho Beach]].]]
*[[Philipsburg, Sint Maarten|Philipsburg]] with 1,228 inhabitants
*Lower Prince's Quarter with 8,123 inhabitants
*Cul de Sac with 7,880 inhabitants
*Cole Bay with 6,046 inhabitants
*Upper Prince's Quarter with 4,020 inhabitants
*Little Bay (Fort Amsterdam) with 2,176 inhabitants
*Simpson Bay with 736 inhabitants
* Lowlands with 232 inhabitants

==Culture==
[[Image:CourthouseSXM.png|thumb|200px|Courthouse.]]
{{see also|Culture of Saint Martin}}
The official languages are [[Dutch language|Dutch]] and [[English language|English]].<ref name="constitution">According to [http://www.sxmparliament.org/images/staatsregeling.engels.constitution1.pdf Art. 1 para 2. Constitution of Sint Maarten]: "The official languages are Dutch and Spanish"</ref> A local English-based [[Netherlands Antilles Creole|creole dialect]] is also spoken. An annual [[Sint Maarten Heineken Regatta|regatta]] is also held on around March.

==Education==
*[[American University of the Caribbean]] School of Medicine (AUC), founded in 1978, was previously located on [[Montserrat]]. Because of the eruption of the [[Soufrière Hills volcano]] in 1995, AUC moved its campus to St. Maarten later that year. A permanent campus was completed in 1998 in [[Cupecoy]].

*[[University of St. Martin]] (USM) in [[Philipsburg, Sint Maarten|Philipsburg]].

==Economy==
Winair ([[Windward Islands Airways]]) has its headquarters on the grounds of [[Princess Juliana Airport]] in Sint Maarten.<ref>"Directory: World Airlines." ''[[Flight International]]''. 30 March–5 April 2004. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/2004/2004-09%20-%200339.html?search=%22Windward%20Islands%20Airways%22 96].</ref>
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{portal|Geography|North America|Caribbean|Netherlands}}
*[[Caribbean]]
**[[Leeward Islands]]
***[[Saint Martin]]
****[[Collectivity of Saint Martin]]
*****[[France]]
******[[Overseas departments and territories of France]]
*******[[Région Guadeloupe et Saint Martin]] (Scouting)
****Sint Maarten
*****[[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]
******[[Caribbean Netherlands]]
*****[[List of Sint Maarten governors]]
*****[[Princess Juliana International Airport]]
*****[[Maho Beach]], famous viewing area for airport takeoffs and landings.
***[[Culture of St. Martin]]
****''[[O sweet Saint-Martin's Land]]'' (bi-national song/anthem of Saint-Martin/Sint-Maarten)
***[[History of St. Martin]]
*[[List of divided islands]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
*Gert Oostindie (1998) ''[http://books.google.nl/books?id=cJzjyHRIa6QC&lpg=PP1&dq=gert%20oostindie&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false Het paradijs overzee: de 'Nederlandse' Caraïben en Nederland]''. Amsterdam: Bert Bakker.
*Gert Oostindie and Inge Klinkers (2001) ''[http://books.google.nl/books?id=Y1kdZ-aVMLUC&lpg=PP1&dq=oostindie&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false Knellende koninkrijksbanden: het Nederlandse dekolonisatiebeleid in de Caraïben, 1940-2000]''. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

==External links==
{{commons category|Saint Martin (Netherlands)|Sint Maarten}}
;Organizations
* [http://www.stmaartenlibrary.org/ Philipsburg Jubilee Public Library]
* [http://www.sintmaartenchamber.org/ St. Maarten Chamber of Commerce and Industry] - Official site
* [http://www.shta.com/ St. Maarten Hospitality and Trade Association] - Official trade association site

;Universities
* [http://www.aucmed.edu/ American University of the Caribbean School of Medicine]
* [http://www.usmonline.net/ University of St. Maarten]

;Secondary Education
* [http://www.carib-international.org/ Caribbean International Academy]
* [http://learningunlimited.oh.schoolwebpages.com Learning Unlimited Preparatory School]
* [http://www.stdominichigh.com/ St. Dominic High School]
* [http://www.stmaartenacademy.com/ St. Maarten Academy]

;Tourism
*{{Wikivoyage-inline}}
*{{CIA World Factbook link|sk|Sint Maarten}}
* [http://www.vacationstmaarten.com/ St. Maarten Tourist Bureau] - Official site of St. Maarten's Tourist Office
* [http://www.visitstmaarten.com/ St. Maarten Hospitality and Trade Association (visitor information)] - Destination site
* [http://www.pjiae.com/home.html Princess Juliana International Airport] - Official site

;News and Opinion
* [http://www.thedailyherald.com/ St. Maarten Daily Herald] - Local newspaper
* [http://www.sxmislandtime.com/ St. Maarten Island Times] - News and current events
* [http://www.smn-news.com/ St. Martin News Network] - Local news and opinion

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[[Category:Sint Maarten| ]]
[[Category:Dutch-speaking countries]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Islands of the Netherlands Antilles]]
[[Category:Saint Martin]]
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[[Category:Kingdom of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Netherlands Antilles articles correct after Dissolution]]
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[[Category:Island countries]]

[[af:Sint Maarten]]
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[[cs:Svatý Martin (nizozemská část)]]
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[[vi:Sint Maarten]]
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[[zh:荷屬聖馬丁]]

Characteristic length

2013-01-20T22:41:16Z

Rami radwan:

In physics, a '''characteristic length''' is an important dimension that defines the scale of a physical system. Often such a length is used as an input to a formula in order to predict some characteristics of the system.

Examples:
* [[Reynolds number]]
* [[Biot number]]
* [[Nusselt number]]

==External links==
*[http://www.answers.com/topic/characteristic-length Definition]

{{physics-stub}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Characteristic Length}}
[[Category:Physical constants]]
[[ar:سمة بعدية]]
[[de:Charakteristische Länge]]
[[fa:طول مشخصه]]
[[nl:Hydraulische diameter]]
[[pt:Comprimento característico]]

Battle of Salamis

2013-01-10T06:52:00Z

Rami radwan:

{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict=Battle of Salamis
|partof=the [[Greco-Persian Wars]]
|image=[[Image:Salamis.png|300px]]
|caption=Satellite image of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], with the straits to the mid-right
|battle_name=Battle of Salamis
|date=September, 480 BC
|place=The Straits of [[Salamis Island|Salamis]]
|result=Decisive [[Greece|Greek]] victory.
|territory=Persia fails to conquer the Peloponnese.
|combatant1=[[Ancient Greece|Greek]] city-states
|combatant2=[[Achaemenid|Achaemenid Empire]]
|commander1=[[Eurybiades]], [[Themistocles]]
|commander2=[[Xerxes I of Persia]], [[Artemisia I of Caria]], [[Ariabignes]] {{KIA}}
|strength1=366–378 ships a
|strength2=~1,200 shipsb 600-800 ships c
|casualties1=40 ships
|casualties2=200 ships
|notes=a [[Herodotus]] gives 378 ships of the alliance, but his numbers add up to 366.<ref name = VIII48/> b As suggested by several ancient sources; c Modern estimates
}}
{{Campaignbox Second Persian invasion of Greece}}

The '''Battle of Salamis''' ({{lang-grc|Ναυμαχία τῆς Σαλαμῖνος}}, ''Naumachia tēs Salaminos'') was fought between an Alliance of [[Greece|Greek]] [[city-state]]s and the Persian Empire in September 480 B.C.E., in the [[strait]]s between the mainland and [[Salamis Island|Salamis]], an island in the [[Saronic Gulf]] near [[Athens]]. It marked the high-point of the [[second Persian invasion of Greece]] which had begun in 480 BC.

To block the Persian advance, a small force of Greeks blocked the pass of [[Thermopylae]], while an Athenian-dominated Allied navy engaged the Persian fleet in the nearby straits of [[Artemisium]]. In the resulting [[Battle of Thermopylae]], the rearguard of the Greek force was annihilated, whilst in the [[Battle of Artemisium]] the Greeks had heavy losses and retreated after the loss at Thermopylae. This allowed the Persians to conquer [[Boeotia]] and [[Attica]]. The Allies prepared to defend the [[Isthmus of Corinth]] whilst the fleet was withdrawn to nearby Salamis Island.

Although heavily outnumbered, the Greek Allies were persuaded by the Athenian general [[Themistocles]] to bring the Persian fleet to battle again, in the hope that a victory would prevent naval operations against the [[Peloponessus]]. The Persian king [[Xerxes I|Xerxes]] was also anxious for a decisive battle. As a result of subterfuge on the part of Themistocles, the Persian navy sailed into the Straits of Salamis and tried to block both entrances. In the cramped conditions of the Straits the great Persian numbers were an active hindrance, as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganised. Seizing the opportunity, the Greek fleet formed in line and scored a decisive victory, sinking or capturing at least 300 Persian ships.

As a result Xerxes retreated to Asia with much of his army, leaving [[Mardonius]] to complete the conquest of Greece. However, the following year, the remainder of the Persian army was decisively beaten at the [[Battle of Plataea]] and the Persian navy at the [[Battle of Mycale]]. Afterwards the Persian made no more attempts to conquer the Greek mainland. These battles of Salamis and Plataea thus mark a turning point in the course of the Greco-Persian wars as a whole; from then onward, the Greek ''poleis'' would take the offensive. A number of historians believe that a Persian victory would have hamstrung the development of Ancient Greece, and by extension western civilization, and this has led them to claim that Salamis is one of the most significant battles in human history.<ref name=hanson />

==Sources==
{{Main|Herodotus}}

The main source for the Greco-Persian Wars is the Greek historian [[Herodotus]]. Herodotus, who has been called the 'Father of History',<ref>Cicero, On the Laws I, 5</ref> was born in 484 BC in Halicarnassus, Asia Minor (then under Persian overlordship). He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek—''Historia''; English—''[[Histories (Herodotus)|(The) Histories]]'') around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been relatively recent history (the wars finally ending in 450 BC).<ref name = hxvi/> Herodotus's approach was entirely novel, and at least in Western society, he does seem to have invented 'history' as we know it.<ref name = hxvi/> As Holland has it: "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally."<ref name = hxvi>Holland, pp''xvi''–''xvii''.</ref>

Some subsequent ancient historians, despite following in his footsteps, criticised Herodotus, starting with [[Thucydides]].<ref>Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, e.g. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0200&layout=&loc=1.22 I, 22]</ref><ref name = Fin15>Finley, p15.</ref> Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the [[Siege of Sestos]]), and therefore evidently felt that Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting.<ref name = Fin15/> [[Plutarch]] criticised Herodotus in his essay "On The Malignity of Herodotus", describing Herodotus as "''Philobarbaros''" (barbarian-lover), for not being pro-Greek enough, which suggests that Herodotus might actually have done a reasonable job of being even-handed.<ref>Holland, p''xxiv''.</ref> A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Pipes.htm|title=Herodotus: Father of History, Father of Lies|accessdate=2008-01-18|author=David Pipes|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080127105636/http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Pipes.htm |archivedate = January 27, 2008}}</ref> However, since the 19th century his reputation has been dramatically rehabilitated by archaeological finds which have repeatedly confirmed his version of events.<ref name = h377>Holland, p377.</ref> The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus generally did a remarkable job in his ''Historia'', but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism.<ref name = h377/> Nevertheless, there are still some historians who believe Herodotus made up much of his story.<ref>Fehling, pp1–277.</ref>

The Sicilian historian [[Diodorus Siculus]], writing in the 1st century BC in his ''[[Bibliotheca historica|Bibliotheca Historica]]'', also provides an account of the Greco-Persian wars, partially derived from the earlier Greek historian [[Ephorus]]. This account is fairly consistent with Herodotus's.<ref>Diodorus Siculus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084&layout=&loc=11.28 Bibliotheca Historica], XI, 28–34</ref> The Greco-Persian wars are also described in less detail by a number of other ancient historians including Plutarch, [[Ctesias of Cnidus]], and are alluded by other authors, such as the playwright [[Aeschylus]]. Archaeological evidence, such as the [[Serpent Column]], also supports some of Herodotus's specific claims.<ref>Note to Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=9.81.1 IX, 81]</ref>

==Background==
{{Main|Greco-Persian Wars|Second Persian invasion of Greece|Battle of Thermopylae|Battle of Artemisium}}

The Greek city-states of Athens and [[Eretria]] had supported the unsuccessful [[Ionian Revolt]] against the Persian Empire of [[Darius I]] in 499-494 BC, led by the satrap of Miletus, Aristagoras. The Persian Empire was still relatively young, and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples.<ref name = h47>Holland, pp47–55</ref><ref name="h203" /> Moreover, Darius was a usurper, and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule.<ref name = h47/> The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire, and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved (especially those not already part of the empire).<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=5.105 V, 105]</ref><ref name = h171/> Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece.<ref name = h171>Holland, pp171–178</ref> A preliminary expedition under Mardonius, in 492 BC, to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re-conquest of [[Thrace]] and forced [[Macedon]] to become a client kingdom of Persia.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;layout=;query=chapter%3D%23946;loc=6.43.1 VI, 44]</ref>

In 491 BC, Darius sent emissaries to all the Greek city-states, asking for a gift of 'earth and water' in token of their submission to him.<ref name = h178>Holland, pp178–179</ref> Having had a demonstration of his power the previous year, the majority of Greek cities duly obliged. In Athens, however, the ambassadors were put on trial and then executed; in Sparta, they were simply thrown down a well.<ref name = h178/> This meant that Sparta was also now effectively at war with Persia.<ref name = h178/>

Darius thus put together an amphibious task force under [[Datis]] and [[Artaphernes (son of Artaphernes)|Artaphernes]] in 490 BC, which attacked [[Naxos Island|Naxos]], before receiving the submission of the other [[Cyclades|Cycladic Islands]]. The task force then moved on Eretria, which it besieged and destroyed.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231007;layout=;loc=6.100.1 VI, 101]</ref> Finally, it moved to attack Athens, landing at the bay of [[Marathon, Greece|Marathon]], where it was met by a heavily outnumbered Athenian army. At the ensuing [[Battle of Marathon]], the Athenians won a remarkable victory, which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=6.113 VI, 113]</ref>

[[Image:Map Greco-Persian Wars-en.svg|thumb|left|300px|A map showing the Greek world at the time of the battle]]

Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece; however, in 486 BC, his [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] subjects revolted, indefinitely postponing any Greek expedition.<ref name = h203>Holland, p203</ref> Darius then died whilst preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I.<ref>Holland, pp206–206</ref> Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly restarted the preparations for the invasion of Greece.<ref name = h208>Holland, pp208–211</ref> Since this was to be a full scale invasion, it required long-term planning, stock-piling and conscription.<ref name = h208/> Xerxes decided that the [[Hellespont]] would be bridged to allow his army to cross to Europe, and that a canal should be dug across the isthmus of [[Mount Athos]] (rounding which headland, a Persian fleet had been destroyed in 492 BC).<ref name = h213/> These were both feats of exceptional ambition, which would have been beyond any contemporary state.<ref name = h213>Holland, pp213–214</ref> By early 480 BC, the preparations were complete, and the army which Xerxes had mustered at [[Sardis]] marched towards Europe, crossing the Hellespont on two [[pontoon bridge]]s.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231100;layout=;loc=7.35.1 VII, 35]</ref>

The Athenians had also been preparing for war with the Persians since the mid-480s BC, and in 482 BC the decision was taken, under the guidance of the Athenian politician [[Themistocles]], to build a massive fleet of [[trireme]]s that would be necessary for the Greeks to fight the Persians.<ref name = h217>Holland, pp217–223</ref> However, the Athenians did not have the manpower to fight on land and sea; and therefore combatting the Persians would require an alliance of Greek city states. In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water, but made the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.32.1 VII, 32]</ref> Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states. A congress of city states met at [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]] in late autumn of 481 BC,<ref name=VII145>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.145.1 VII, 145]</ref> and a confederate alliance of [[History of Greece|Greek city-states]] was formed. It had the power to send envoys asking for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world, especially since many of the city-states in attendance were still technically at war with each other.<ref name = h226>Holland, p226</ref>

Initially the 'congress' agreed to defend the narrow [[Vale of Tempe]], on the borders of Thessaly, and thereby block Xerxes's advance.<ref name = h248>Holland, pp248–249</ref> However, once there, they were warned by [[Alexander I of Macedon]] that the vale could be bypassed through the pass by the modern village of [[Sarantaporo]], and that the army of Xerxes was overwhelming, the Greeks retreated.<ref name=VII173>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.173.1 VII, 173]</ref> Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont. A second strategy was therefore adopted by the allies. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the very narrow pass of [[Thermopylae]]. This could easily be blocked by the Greek hoplites, despite the overwhelming numbers of Persians. Furthermore, to prevent the Persians bypassing Thermopylae by sea, the Athenian and allied navies could block the straits of Artemisium. This dual strategy was adopted by the congress.<ref name = h255>Holland, pp255–257</ref> However, the Peloponnesian cities made fall-back plans to defend the [[Isthmus of Corinth]] should it come to it, whilst the women and children of Athens had been evacuated ''en masse'' to the Peloponnesian city of [[Troezen]].<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231343;layout=;loc=8.39.1 VIII, 40]</ref>

Famously, the much smaller Greek army held the pass of Thermopylae against the Persians for three days before being outflanked by a mountain path. Much of the Greek army retreated, before the Spartans and Thespians who had continued to block the pass were surrounded and killed.<ref name = h292>Holland, pp292–294</ref> The simultaneous Battle of Artemisium was up to that point a stalemate;<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231321;layout=;loc=8.19.1 VIII, 18]</ref> however, when news of Thermopylae reached them, the Allied fleet also retreated, since holding the straits of Artemisium was now a moot point.<ref>Herodotus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231324;layout=;loc=8.20.1 VIII, 21]</ref>

==Prelude==
The Allied fleet now sailed from Artemisium to Salamis to assist with the final evacuation of Athens; ''en route'' Themistocles left inscriptions addressed to the [[Ionia]]n Greek crews of the Persian fleet on all springs of water that they might stop at, asking them to defect to the Allied cause.  Following Thermopylae, the Persian army proceeded to burn and sack the [[Boeotia]]n cities which had not surrendered, [[Plataea]] and [[Thespiae]]; before marching on the now evacuated city of Athens.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231353;layout=;loc=8.49.1 VIII, 50]</ref> The Allies (mostly Peloponnesian) prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth, demolishing the single road that led through it, and building a wall across it.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231380;layout=;loc=8.72.1 VIII, 71]</ref> This strategy was flawed, however, unless the Allied fleet was able to prevent the Persian fleet from transporting troops across the Saronic Gulf. In a council-of-war called once the evacuation of Athens was complete, the Corinthian naval commander [[Adeimantus of Corinth|Adeimantus]] argued that the fleet should assemble off the coast of the Isthmus in order to achieve such a blockade.<ref name = h302>Holland, pp302–303</ref> However, Themistocles argued in favour of an offensive strategy, aimed at decisively destroying the Persians' naval superiority. He drew on the lessons of Artemisium, pointing out that ''"battle in close conditions works to our advantage"''.<ref name = h302/> He eventually won through, and the Allied navy remained off the coast of Salamis.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231369;layout=;loc=8.62.1 VIII, 63]</ref>

The time-line for Salamis is difficult to establish with any certainty.<ref name = L164/> Herodotus presents the battle as though it occurred directly after the capture of Athens, but nowhere explicitly states as much. If Thermopylae/Artemisium occurred in September, then this may be the case, but it is probably more likely that the Persians spent two or three weeks capturing Athens, refitting the fleet, and resupplying.<ref name = L164>Lazenby, pp164–167</ref> Clearly though, at some point after capturing Athens, Xerxes held a council of war with the Persian fleet; Herodotus says this occurred at [[Faliro|Phalerum]].<ref name = VIII68/> [[Artemisia I of Caria|Artemisia]], queen of [[Halicarnassus]] and commander of its naval squadron in Xerxes's fleet, tried to convince him to wait for the Allies to surrender believing that battle in the straits of Salamis was an unnecessary risk.<ref name = VIII68>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231374;layout=;loc=8.68A%201 VIII, 68]</ref> Nevertheless, Xerxes and his chief advisor [[Mardonius]] pressed for an attack.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231378;layout=;loc=8.68C%201 VIII, 69]</ref>

It is difficult to explain exactly what eventually brought about the battle, assuming that neither side simply attacked without forethought.<ref name = L164/> Clearly though, at some point just before the battle, new information began to reach Xerxes of rifts in the allied command; the Peloponnesians wished to evacuate from Salamis while they still could.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231383;layout=;loc=8.75.1 VIII, 74]</ref> This alleged rift amongst the Allies may have simply been a ruse, in order to lure the Persians to battle.<ref name = h310/> Alternatively, this change in attitude amongst the Allies (who had waited patiently off the coast of Salamis for at least a week while Athens was captured) may have been in response to Persian offensive maneuvers.<ref name = L164/> Possibly, a Persian army had been sent to march against the Isthmus in order to test the nerve of the fleet.<ref name = L164/><ref name = h310/>

Either way, when Xerxes received this news, he ordered his fleet to go out on patrol off the coast Salamis, blocking the southern exit.<ref name = h310/> Then, at dusk, he ordered them to withdraw, possibly in order to tempt the Allies into a hasty evacuation.<ref name = h310>Holland, pp310–315</ref> That evening Themistocles now attempted what appears to have been a spectacularly successful use of misinformation. He sent a servant, [[Sicinnus]], to Xerxes, with a message proclaiming that Themistocles was ''"on the king's side and prefers that your affairs prevail, not the Hellenes"''.<ref name = VIII75>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231384;layout=;loc=8.76.1 VIII, 75]</ref> Themistocles claimed that the Allied command was in-fighting, that the Peloponnesians were planning to evacuate that very night, and that to gain victory all the Persians need to do was to block the straits.<ref name = VIII75/> In performing this subterfuge, Themistocles seems to have been trying to bring about exactly the opposite; to lure the Persian fleet into the Straits.
<ref name = h310/> This was exactly the kind of news that Xerxes wanted to hear; that the Athenians might be willing to submit to him, and that he would be able to destroy the rest of the Allied fleet.<ref name = h310/> Xerxes evidently took the bait, and the Persian fleet was sent out that evening to effect this block.<ref name = VIII76>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=8.76 VIII, 76]</ref> Xerxes ordered a throne to be set up on the slopes of [[Mount Aigaleo]] (overlooking the straits), in order to watch the battle from a clear vantage point, and so as to record the names of commanders who performed particularly well.<ref name = h318/>

According to Herodotus, the Allies spent the evening heatedly debating their course of action.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231389;layout=;loc=8.79.1 VIII, 78]</ref> The Peloponnesians were in favour of evacuating,<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=8.70 VIII, 70]</ref> and it was at this point that Themistocles attempted his ruse with Xerxes.<ref name = VIII75/> It was only when [[Aristides]], the exiled Athenian general arrived that night, followed by some deserters from the Persians, with news of the deployment of the Persian fleet,<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231388;layout=;loc=8.80.1 VIII, 81]</ref><ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231391;layout=;loc=8.83.1 VIII, 82]</ref> that the Peloponnesians accepted that they could not escape, and so would fight.<ref name = VIII83/> However, it has been reasonably suggested that the Peloponnesians must have been party to Themistocles's stratagem, so serenely did they accept that they would now have to fight at Salamis.<ref>Holland, p316</ref> The Allied navy was thus able to prepare properly for battle the forthcoming day, whilst the Persians spent the night fruitlessly at sea, searching for the alleged Greek evacuation. The next morning, the Persians sailed in to the straits to attack the Greek fleet; it is not clear when, why or how this decision was made, but it is clear that they did in fact take the battle to the Allies.<ref name = h318>Holland, p318</ref>

==The opposing forces==
===The Greek fleet===
[[Image:Trireme.jpg|thumb|Greek Trireme]]
Herodotus reports that there were 378 triremes in the Allied fleet, and then breaks the numbers down by city state (as indicated in the table).<ref>Herodotus, [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=8.42.1 VIII, 44–48]</ref> However, his numbers for the individual contingents only add up to 366. He does not explicitly say that all 378 fought at Salamis (''"All of these came to the war providing triremes...The total number of ships...was three hundred and seventy-eight"''),<ref name = VIII48/> and he also says that the Aeginetans ''"had other manned ships, but they guarded their own land with these and fought at Salamis with the thirty most seaworthy"''.<ref name = VIII46/> Thus it has been supposed that the difference between the numbers is accounted for a [[garrison]] of 12 ships left at [[Aegina]].<ref>e.g. Macaulay, in a note accompanying his translation of Herodotus VIII, 85</ref> According to Herodotus, two more ships defected from the Persians to the Greeks, one before Artemisium and one before Salamis, so the total complement at Salamis would have been 368 (or 380).<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231391;layout=;loc=8.81.1 VIII, 82]</ref>

According to the Athenian playwright [[Aeschylus]], who actually fought at Salamis, the Greek fleet numbered 310 triremes (the difference being the number of Athenian ships).<ref>Aeschylus, The Persians</ref> [[Ctesias]] claims that the Athenian fleet numbered only 110 triremes, which ties in with Aeschylus's numbers.<ref name = ctes/> According to [[Hypereides|Hyperides]], the Greek fleet numbered only 220.<ref name = Lee>Lee, [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/27/arts/27greek.html?_r=2&pagewanted=all A Layered Look Reveals Ancient Greek Texts]</ref> The fleet was effectively under the command of Themistocles, but nominally led by the Spartan nobleman [[Eurybiades]], as had been agreed at the congress in 481 BC.<ref name = h226>Holland, pp226–227</ref> Although Themistocles had tried to claim leadership of the fleet, the other city states with navies objected, and so Sparta (which had no naval tradition) was given command of the fleet as a compromise.<ref name = h226/>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!|City!!Number of ships|!!City!!Number of ships|!!City!!Number of ships
|-
| [[Athens]]<ref name = VIII44>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231347;layout=;loc=8.43.1 VIII, 44]</ref> || 180 || [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]]<ref name = VIII1>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=8.1 VIII, 1]</ref><ref name = VIII43>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231346;layout=;loc=8.44.1 VIII, 43]</ref> || 40 || [[Aegina]]<ref name = VIII46>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231349;layout=;loc=8.45.1 VIII, 46]</ref> || 30
|-
| [[Chalcis]]<ref name = VIII46/><ref name = VIII1/> || 20 || [[Megara]]<ref name = VIII1/><ref name = VIII45>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231348;layout=;loc=8.44.1 VIII, 45]</ref> || 20 || [[Sparta]]<ref name = VIII43/> || 16
|-
| [[Sicyon]]<ref name = VIII43/> || 15 || [[Epidaurus]]<ref name = VIII43/> || 10 || [[Eretria]]<ref name = VIII46/> || 7
|-
| [[Ambracia]]<ref name = VIII45/> || 7 ||[[Troezen]]<ref name = VIII43/> || 5 || [[Naxos, Greece|Naxos]]<ref name = VIII46/> || 4
|-
| [[Leukas|Leucas]]<ref name = VIII45/> || 3 || [[Ermioni|Hermione]]<ref name = VIII43/> || 3 || [[Styra]]<ref name = VIII46/> || 2
|-
| [[Cythnus]]<ref name = VIII46/> || 1 (1) || [[Ceos]]<ref name = VIII46/> || 2 || [[Milos|Melos]]<ref name = VIII48>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231351;layout=;loc=8.47.1 VIII, 48]</ref><ref name = VIII46/> || (2)
|-
| [[Siphnus]]<ref name = VIII48/><ref name = VIII46/> || (1) || [[Serifos]]<ref name = VIII48/><ref name = VIII46/> || (1) || [[Crotone|Croton]]<ref name = VIII47>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231350;layout=;loc=8.46.1 VIII, 47]</ref> || 1
|-
| '''Total'''||'''366 ''' or '''378'''<ref name = VIII48/> ('''5''') || || || ||
|}
 Plain numbers represent triremes; those indicated in parentheses are [[Galley#Penteconters|penteconters]] (fifty-oared galleys)

===The Persian fleet===
According to Herodotus, the Persian fleet initially numbered 1,207 triremes.<ref name = VII89>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.89.1 VII, 89]</ref> However, by his reckoning they lost approximately a third of these ships in a storm off the coast of [[Magnesia (regional unit)|Magnesia]],<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.188 VII, 188]</ref> 200 more in a storm off the coast of Euboea,<ref name = VIII14>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231317;layout=;loc=8.13.1 VIII, 14]</ref> and at least 50 ships to Allied action at the Battle of Artemisium.<ref name = VIII14/><ref name = VIII11>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231314;layout=;loc=8.10.1 VIII, 11]</ref> Herodotus claims that these losses were replaced in full,<ref name = VIII66>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231372;layout=;loc=8.65.1 VIII, 60]</ref> but only mentions 120 ships from the Greeks of Thrace and nearby islands as reinforcements.<ref name = VII185>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.185.1 VII, 185]</ref> [[Aeschylus]], who fought at Salamis, also claims that he faced there 1,207 warships, of which 207 were "fast ships".<ref>Aeschylus, ''The Persians''</ref> [[Diodorus Siculus|Diodorus]]<ref>Diodorus Siculus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084&layout=&loc=11.3 XI, 3]</ref> and [[Lysias]]<ref>Lysias II, 27</ref> independently claim there were 1,200 ships in the Persian fleet assembled at Doriskos in the spring of 480 BC. The number of 1,207 (for the outset only) is also given by [[Ephorus]],<ref>Ephorus, Universal History</ref> while his teacher [[Isocrates]] claims there were 1,300 at Doriskos and 1,200 at Salamis.<ref>Isocrates, Oration VII, 49</ref><ref>Isocrates, Oration IV, 93</ref> Ctesias gives another number, 1,000 ships,<ref name = ctes>Ctesias, [http://www.livius.org/ct-cz/ctesias/photius_persica2.html Persica] (from Photius's Epitome)</ref> while [[Plato]], speaking in general terms refers to 1,000 ships and more.<ref>Plato, ''Laws'' III, 699</ref>

The number 1,207 appears very early in the historical record (472 BC), and the Greeks appear to have genuinely believed they faced that many ships. Because of the consistency in the ancient sources, some modern historians are inclined to accept 1,207 as the size of the initial Persian fleet;<ref>Köster (1934)</ref><ref>Holland, p394</ref><ref name = L93>Lazenby, pp93–94</ref> others reject this number, with 1,207 being seen as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the [[Iliad]], and generally claim that the Persians could have launched no more than around 600 warships into the Aegean.<ref name = L93/><ref>Green, p61</ref><ref>Burn, p331</ref> However, very few appear to accept that there were this many ships at Salamis: most favour a number in the range 600-800.<ref>Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους (History of the Greek nation) vol Β', Ekdotiki Athinon 1971</ref><ref name="Demetrius, 1998">Demetrius, 1998</ref><ref>Lazenby p174</ref> This is also the range given by adding the approximate number of Persian ships after Artemisium (~550) to the reinforcements (120) quantified by Herodotus.<ref name = VII185/>

==Strategic and tactical considerations==
The overall Persian strategy for the invasion of 480 BC was to overwhelm the Greeks with a massive invasion force, and complete the conquest of Greece in a single campaigning season.<ref name = h209>Holland, pp209–212</ref> Conversely, the Greeks sought to make the best use of their numbers by defending restricted locations and to keep the Persians in the field for as long as possible. Xerxes had obviously not anticipated such resistance, or he would have arrived earlier in the campaigning season (and not waited 4 days at Thermopylae for the Greeks to disperse).<ref name = h327>Holland, pp327–329</ref> Time was now of the essence for the Persians - the huge invasion force could not be reasonably supported indefinitely, nor probably did Xerxes wish to be at the fringe of his empire for so long.<ref name = h308>Holland, pp308–309</ref> Thermopylae had shown that a frontal assault against a well defended Greek position was useless; with the Allies now dug in across the Isthmus, there was little chance of conquering the rest of Greece by land.<ref name="Lazenby, p197">Lazenby, p197</ref> However, as equally demonstrated by Thermopylae, if the Greeks could be outflanked, their smaller numbers of troops could be destroyed.<ref name = L248/> Such an outflanking of the Isthmus required the use of the Persian navy, and thus the destruction of the Allied navy. In summary, if Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy, he would be in a strong position to force a Greek surrender; this seemed the only hope of concluding the campaign in that season.<ref name = h308/> Conversely by avoiding destruction, or as Themistocles hoped, by crippling the Persian fleet, the Greeks could prevent their conquest.<ref name = h303>Holland, p303</ref>

However, it was strategically not necessary for the Persians to actually fight this battle at Salamis.<ref name = L248/> According to Herodotus, Queen Artemisia of [[Caria]] pointed this out to Xerxes in the run-up to Salamis. Artemisia suggested that fighting at sea was an unnecessary risk, recommending instead:
<blockquote>If you do not hurry to fight at sea, but keep your ships here and stay near land, or even advance into the Peloponnese, then, my lord, you will easily accomplish what you had in mind on coming here. The Hellenes are not able to hold out against you for a long time, but you will scatter them, and they will each flee to their own cities.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231376;layout=;loc=8.68A%201 VIII, 68]</ref></blockquote>

The Persian fleet was still large enough to both bottle up the Allied navy in the straits of Salamis, ''and'' send ships to land troops in the Peloponnesus.<ref name = L248/> However, in the final reckoning, both sides were prepared to stake everything on a naval battle, in the hope of decisively altering the course of the war.<ref name = h303>Holland, p303</ref>

The Persians were at a significant tactical advantage, outnumbering the Allies, but also having "better sailing" ships.<ref name = L138>Lazenby, p138</ref> The "better sailing" that Herodotus mentions was probably due to the superior seamanship of the crews;<ref name = L138/> most of the Athenian ships (and therefore the majority of the fleet) were newly built, and had inexperienced crews.<ref>Holland, pp222–224</ref> The most common naval tactics in the Mediterranean area at the time were ramming (triremes being equipped with a ram at the bows), or boarding by ship-borne marines (which essentially turned a sea battle into a land one).<ref name = L34>Lazenby, pp34–37</ref> The Persians and Asiatic Greeks had by this time begun to use a manoeuver known as [[diekplous]]. It is not entirely clear what this was, but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side.<ref name = L34/> This maneuver would have required skilled sailing, and therefore the Persians would have been more likely to employ it; the Allies however, developed tactics specifically to counter this.<ref name = L34/>

There has been much debate as to the nature of the Allied fleet compared to the Persian fleet. Much of this centres around the suggestion, from Herodotus, that the Allied ships were heavier, and by implication less maneuverable.<ref name = VIII60>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;layout=;query=chapter%3D%231364;loc=8.60.1 VIII, 60]</ref> The source of this heaviness is uncertain; possibly the Allied ships were bulkier in construction, or that the ships were water-logged since they had not been dried out in the winter (though there is no real evidence for either suggestion).<ref name = L34/> Another suggestion is that the heaviness was caused by the weight of fully armored [[hoplite]] marines (20 fully armored hoplites would have weighed 2 tons).<ref name = L34/> This 'heaviness', whatever its cause, would further reduce the likelihood of them employing the ''diekplous''.<ref name = L34/> It is therefore probable that the Allies had extra marines on board if their ships were less maneuverable, since boarding would then be the main tactic available to them (at the cost of making the ships even heavier).<ref name = L34/> Indeed, Herodotus refers to the Greeks capturing ships at Artemisium, rather than sinking them.<ref name="VIII11" /> It has been suggested that the weight of the Allied ships may also have made them more stable in the winds off the coast of Salamis, and made them less susceptible to ramming (or rather, less liable to sustain damage when rammed).<ref name = Strauss/>

Tactically speaking then, a battle in the open sea, where their superior seamanship and numbers could count was preferable for the Persians.<ref name = h318/> For the Greeks, the only realistic hope of a decisive victory was to draw the Persians into a constricted area, where their numbers would count for little.<ref name = h302/> The battle at Artemisium had seen attempts to negate the Persian advantage in numbers, but ultimately the Allies may have realised that they needed an even more constricted channel in order to defeat the Persians.<ref>Lazenby, p150</ref> Therefore, by sailing into the Straits of Salamis to attack the Greeks, the Persians were playing into the Allies' hands. It seems probable that the Persians would not have attempted this unless the Persians were confident of the collapse of the Allied navy, and thus Themistocles's subterfuge appears to have played a key role in tipping the balance in the favor of the Greeks.<ref name = h318/> Salamis was, for the Persians, an unnecessary battle and a strategic mistake.<ref name = L248>Lazenby, pp248–253</ref>

==The battle==
[[Image:Battle of salamis.png|thumb|right|300px]]

The actual battle of Salamis is not well described by the ancient sources, and it is unlikely that anyone (other than perhaps Xerxes) involved in the battle had a clear idea what was happening across the width of the straits.<ref name = h310/><ref name="Holland, p399">Holland, p399</ref> What follows is more of a discussion than a definitive account.

===Dispositions===
In the Allied fleet, the Athenians were on the left, and on the right were probably the Spartans (although Diodorus says it was the Megareans and Aeginetians); the other contingents were in the center.<ref name = VIII85/><ref name = DSXI18>Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084;query=chapter%3D%2394;layout=;loc=11.17.1 XI, 18]</ref> The Allied fleet probably formed into two ranks, since the straits would have been too narrow for a single line of ships.<ref name="Lazenby, p187">Lazenby, p187</ref> Herodotus has the Allied fleet in a line running north-south, probably with the northern flank off the coast of modern-day Saint George's Islet (''Ayios Georgis''), and the southern flank off the coast of [[Cape Vavari]] (part of Salamis).<ref name = L184>Lazenby, pp184–185</ref> Diodorus suggests the Allied fleet was aligned east-west, spanning the straits between Salamis and Mount Aigaleos; however, it was perhaps unlikely that the Allies would have rested one of their flanks against Persian occupied territory.<ref name = L184/>

It seems relatively certain that the Persian fleet was sent out to block the exit from the Straits the evening before the battle. Herodotus clearly believed that the Persian fleet actually entered the Straits at nightfall, planning to catch the Allies as they fled.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231385;layout=;loc=8.75.1 VIII, 76]</ref> However, modern historians have greatly debated this point, with some pointing out the difficulties of maneuvering in this confined space by night, and others accepting Herodotus's version.<ref name = h320/><ref name = L181>Lazenby, p181</ref> There are thus two possibilities; that during the night the Persians simply blocked the exit to the Straits, and then entered the straits in daylight; or that they entered the straits and positioned themselves for battle during the night.<ref name = h320/><ref name = L181/> Regardless of when they attempted it, it seems likely that the Persians pivoted their fleet off the tip of Cape Vavari, so that from an initial east-west alignment (blocking the exit), they came round to a north-south alignment (see diagram).<ref name = L174>Lazenby, pp174–180</ref> The Persian fleet seems to have been formed into three ranks of ships (according to Aeschylus);<ref name = h310/> with the powerful Phoenician fleet on the right flank next to [[Egaleo (mountain)|Mount Aigaleos]], the Ionian contingent on the left flank and the other contingents in the centre.<ref name = VIII85>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231394;layout=;loc=8.84.1 VIII 85]</ref>

Diodorus says that the Egyptian fleet was sent to circumnavigate Salamis, and block the northern exit from the Straits.<ref name = DSXI17>Diodorus Siculus, Biblioteca Historica [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0084;query=chapter%3D%2393;layout=;loc=11.18.1 XI, 17]</ref> If Xerxes wanted to trap the Allies completely, this maneuver would have made sense (especially if he was not expecting the Allies to fight).<ref name = h310/> However, Herodotus does not mention this (and possibly alludes to the Egyptian presence in the main battle), leading some modern historians to dismiss it;<ref name = L174/> though again, others accept it as a possibility.<ref name = h310/> Xerxes had also positioned around 400 troops on the island known as [[Psyttaleia]], in the middle of the exit from the straits, in order to kill or capture any Greeks who ended up there (as a result of shipwreck or grounding).<ref name = h318/>

===The opening phase===
Regardless of what time they entered the straits, the Persians did not move to attack the Allies until daylight. Since they were not planning to flee after all, the Allies would have been able to spend the night preparing for battle, and after a speech by Themistocles, the marines boarded and the ships made ready to sail.<ref name = VIII83>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231392;layout=;loc=8.84.1 VIII, 83]</ref>
According to Herodotus, this was dawn, and as the Allies ''"were putting out to sea the barbarians immediately attacked them"''.<ref name = VIII83/><ref name = VIII84/> If the Persians only entered the straits at dawn, then the Allies would have had the time to take up their station in a more orderly fashion.<ref name = h320/>

Aeschylus claims that as the Persians approached (possibly implying that they were not already in the Straits at dawn), they heard the Greeks singing their battle hymn ([[paean]]) before they saw the Allied fleet:<ref name = h320/>

: {{lang|grc|Ὦ παῖδες Ἑλλήνων ἴτε,}}
: {{lang|grc|ἐλευθεροῦτε πατρίδ', ἐλευθεροῦτε δὲ}}
: {{lang|grc|παῖδας, γυναῖκας, θεῶν τέ πατρῴων ἕδη,}}
: {{lang|grc|θήκας τε προγόνων:}}
: {{lang|grc|νῦν ὑπὲρ πάντων ἁγών.}}

: ''Forward, sons of the Greeks,''
: ''Liberate the fatherland, ''
: ''Liberate your children, your women,''
: ''The altars of the gods of your fathers,''
: ''And the graves of your ancestors:''
: ''Now is the fight for everything.''

Herodotus recounts that, according to the Athenians, as the battle began the Corinthians hoisted their sails and began sailing away from the battle, northwards up the straits.<ref name = VIII94>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231403;layout=;loc=8.93.1 VIII, 94]</ref> However, he also says that other Greeks denied this story.<ref name = VIII94/> If this did in fact occur, one possible interpretation is that these ships had been sent to reconnoitre the northern exit from the straits, in case the arrival of the encircling Egyptian detachment was imminent (if indeed this also occurred).<ref name = h320/> Another possibility (not exclusive with the former) is that the departure of the Corinthians triggered the final approach of the Persians, suggesting as it did that the Allied fleet was disintegrating.<ref name = h320>Holland, pp320–326</ref> At any rate, if they indeed ever left, the Corinthians soon returned to the battle.<ref name = VIII94/>

Approaching the Allied fleet in the crowded Straits, the Persians appear to have become disorganised and cramped in the narrow waters.<ref name = DSXI18/><ref name = h320/> Moreover, it would have become apparent that, far from disintegrating, the Greek fleet was lined up, ready to attack them.<ref name="Lazenby, p187"/><ref name = h320/> However, rather than attacking immediately, the Allies initially appeared to back their ships away as if in fear.<ref name = VIII84>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231393;layout=;loc=8.83.1 VIII, 84]</ref> According to [[Plutarch]], this was to gain better position, and also in order to gain time until the early morning wind.<ref>Plutarch. Themistocles, 14</ref> Herodotus recounts the legend that as the fleet had backed away, they had seen an apparition of a woman, asking them ''"Madmen, how far will ye yet back your ships?"''<ref>Herodotus VIII, 84; Macaulay translation cf. [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=8.84.1 Godley translation]</ref> However, he more plausibly suggests that whilst the Allies were backing water, a single ship shot forward to ram the nearest Persian vessel. The Athenians would claim that this was the ship of the Athenian Ameinias of [[Pallene, Chalcidice|Pallene]]; the Aeginetans would claim it as one of their ships.<ref name = VIII84/> The whole Greek line then followed suit and made straight for the disordered Persian battle line.<ref name = VIII86>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231395;layout=;loc=8.85.1 VIII, 86]</ref>

===The main battle===
The details of the rest of the battle are generally sketchy, and no one involved would have had a view of the entire battlefield.<ref name = h320/> Triremes were generally armed with a large ram at the front, with which it was possible to sink an enemy ship, or at least disable it by shearing off the banks of oars on one side.<ref name = L34/> If the initial ramming was not successful, something similar to a land battle ensued.<ref name = L34/> Both sides had marines on their ships for this eventuality; the Greeks with fully armed [[hoplite]]s;<ref name = h320/> the Persians probably with more lightly armed Iranian infantry.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=7.184 VII, 184]</ref>

Across the battlefield, as the first line of Persian ships was pushed back by the Greeks, they became fouled in the advancing second and third lines of their own ships.<ref name = VIII89>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231398;layout=;loc=8.88.1 VIII, 89]</ref> On the Greek left, the Persian admiral [[Ariabignes]] (a brother of Xerxes)<ref name = VIII89/> was killed early in the battle; left disorganised and leaderless, the Phoenician squadrons appear to have been pushed back against the coast, many vessels running aground.<ref name = h320/> In the centre, a wedge of Greek ships pushed through the Persians lines, splitting the fleet in two.<ref name = h320/>

Herodotus recounts that Artemisia the queen of Halicarnassus, and commander of the Carian contingent, found herself pursued by the ship of Ameinias of Pallene. In her desire to escape, she attacked and rammed another Persian vessel, thereby convincing the Athenian captain that the ship was an ally; Ameinias accordingly abandoned the chase.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;layout=;query=chapter%3D%231396;loc=8.88.1 VIII, 87]</ref> However, Xerxes, looking on, thought that she had successfully attacked an Allied ship, and seeing the poor performance of his other captains commented that "''My men have become women, and my women men''".<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=8.88.1 VIII, 88]</ref>

The Persian fleet began to retreat towards Phalerum, but according to Herodotus, the Aeginetans ambushed them as they tried to leave the Straits.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231400;layout=;loc=8.92.1 VIII, 91]</ref> The remaining Persian ships limped back to the harbour of Phalerum and the shelter of the Persian army.<ref>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231401;layout=;loc=8.93.1 VIII, 92]</ref> The Athenian general [[Aristides]] then took a detachment of men across to Psyttaleia to slaughter the garrison that Xerxes had left there.<ref name = VIII95>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231404;layout=;loc=8.94.1 VIII, 95]</ref> The exact Persian casualties are not mentioned by Herodotus. However, he claims that the next year, the Persian fleet numbered 300 triremes.<ref name = VIII130>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126&layout=&loc=8.130 VIII, 130]</ref> The number of losses then depends on the number of ships the Persian had to begin with; something in the range of 200–300 seems likely, based on the above estimates for the size of the Persian fleet. According to Herodotus, the Persians suffered many more casualties than the Greeks because most Persians did not know how to swim.<ref name = VIII89/> Xerxes, sitting on Mount Aigaleos on his throne, witnessed the carnage.<ref name = VIII90/> Some ship-wrecked Phoenician captains tried to blame the Ionians for cowardice before the end of the battle.<ref name = VIII90>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231399;layout=;loc=8.91.1 VIII, 90]</ref> Xerxes, in a foul mood, and having just witnessed an Ionian ship capture an Aeginetan ship, had the Phoenicians beheaded for slandering "''more noble men''".<ref name = VIII90/>

==Aftermath==
{{Main|Second Persian invasion of Greece}}
[[Image:Snake_column_Hippodrome_Constantinople_2007.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Serpent Column]], a monument to their alliance, dedicated by the victorious Allies in the aftermath of Plataea; now at the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople]]]]

In the immediate aftermath of Salamis, Xerxes attempted to build a pontoon bridge or causeway across the straits, in order to use his army to attack the Athenians; however, with the Greek fleet now confidently patrolling the straits, this proved futile.<ref name = h327/> Herodotus tells us that Xerxes held a council of war, at which the Persian general Mardonius tried to make light of the defeat: <blockquote> ''Sire, be not grieved nor greatly distressed because of what has befallen us. It is not on things of wood that the issue hangs for us, but on men and horses...If then you so desire, let us straightway attack the Peloponnese, or if it pleases you to wait, that also we can do...It is best then that you should do as I have said, but if you have resolved to lead your army away, even then I have another plan. Do not, O king, make the Persians the laughing-stock of the Greeks, for if you have suffered harm, it is by no fault of the Persians. Nor can you say that we have anywhere done less than brave men should, and if Phoenicians and Egyptians and Cyprians and Cilicians have so done, it is not the Persians who have any part in this disaster. Therefore, since the Persians are in no way to blame, be guided by me; if you are resolved not to remain, march homewards with the greater part of your army. It is for me, however, to enslave and deliver Hellas to you with three hundred thousand of your host whom I will choose.''<ref name = VIII100>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231409;layout=;loc=8.99.1 VIII, 100]</ref></blockquote>

Fearing that the Greeks might attack the bridges across the Hellespont and trap his army in Europe, Xerxes resolved to do this, taking the greater part of the army with him.<ref name = VIII97>Herodotus [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0126;query=chapter%3D%231406;layout=;loc=8.96.1 VIII, 97]</ref> Mardonius handpicked the troops who were to remain with him in Greece, taking the elite infantry units and cavalry, to complete the conquest of Greece.<ref name = h327/> All of the Persian forces abandoned Attica, however, with Mardonius over-wintering in Boeotia and Thessaly; the Athenians were thus able to return to their burnt city for the winter.<ref name = h327/>

The following year, 479 BC, Mardonius recaptured Athens (the Allied army still preferring to guard the Isthmus). However, the Allies, under Spartan leadership, eventually agreed to try to force Mardonius to battle, and marched on Attica.<ref name = h338/> Mardonius retreated to Boeotia to lure the Greeks into open terrain and the two sides eventually met near the city of [[Plataea]] (which had been razed the previous year).<ref name = h338>Holland, pp338–341</ref> There, at the [[Battle of Plataea]], the Greek army won a decisive victory, destroying much of the Persian army and ending the invasion of Greece; whilst at the near-simultaneous [[Battle of Mycale]] the Allied fleet destroyed much of the remaining Persian fleet.<ref name = h338/>

==Significance==
The Battle of Salamis marked the turning point in the [[Greco-Persian wars]].<ref name="Lazenby, p197"/> After Salamis, the Peloponnesus, and by extension Greece as an entity, was safe from conquest; and the Persians suffered a major blow to their prestige and morale (as well as severe material losses).<ref name = h333>Holland, pp333–335</ref> At the following battles of Plataea and Mycale, the threat of conquest was removed, and the Allies were able to go on the counter-offensive.<ref>Lazenby, p247</ref> The Greek victory allowed Macedon to revolt against Persian rule; and over the next 30 years, Thrace, the [[Aegean Islands]] and finally [[Ionia]] would be removed from Persian control by the Allies, or by the Athenian-dominated successor, the [[Delian League]].<ref name = h359>Holland, pp359–363</ref> Salamis started a decisive swing in the balance of power toward the Greeks, which would culminate in an eventual Greek victory, severely reducing Persian power in the Aegean.<ref name = h366>Holland, p366</ref>

Like the Battles of Marathon and Thermopylae, Salamis has gained something of a 'legendary' status (unlike, for instance, the more decisive Battle of Plataea), perhaps because of the desperate circumstances and the unlikely odds.<ref name = hxvi>Holland, pp xvi–xxii</ref> A significant number of historians have stated that Salamis is one of the most significant battles in human history (though the same is often stated of Marathon).<ref name = hanson>Hanson, pp12–60</ref><ref name="Demetrius, 1998" /><ref name = Strauss>Strauss, pp1–294</ref><ref name="Holland, p399"/> In a more extreme form of this argument, some historians argue that if the Greeks had lost at Salamis, the ensuing conquest of Greece by the Persians would have effectively stilted the growth of Western Civilization as we know it.<ref>Discussed by Green (The Year of Salamis), p xxiii and Holland, pp xvi–xxii</ref> This view is based on the premise that much of modern Western society, such as philosophy, science, personal freedom and democracy are rooted in the legacy of Ancient Greece.<ref name = hxvi/> Thus, this school of thought argues that, given the domination of much of modern history by Western Civilization, Persian domination of Greece might have changed the whole trajectory of human history.<ref name = hanson/> It is also worth mentioning that the celebrated blossoming of hugely influential Athenian culture occurred only ''after'' the Persian wars were won.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/web/20070311001648/http://www.molloy.edu/sophia/plato/fifth_century.htm |title=The Fabulous Fifth Century: Athens During the Age of Pericles - II. Greek Society After the Persian Wars |publisher=Molloy.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hermes-press.com/RNC_background.htm |title=Greek Society After the Persian Wars |publisher=Hermes-press.com |date= |accessdate=2011-05-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.essortment.com/all/persianwaranci_rhnf.htm |title=The Persian War in ancient Greece |publisher=Essortment.com |date=1986-05-16 |accessdate=2011-05-29}}</ref>

Militarily, it is difficult to draw many lessons from Salamis, because of the uncertainty about what actually happened. Once again the Allies chose their ground well in order to negate Persian numbers, but this time (unlike Thermopylae) had to rely on the Persians launching an unnecessary attack for their position to count.<ref name = L248>Lazenby, pp248–253</ref> Since it brought about that attack, perhaps the most important military lesson is to be found in the use of deception by Themistocles to bring about the desired response from the enemy.<ref name = L248/>

==Notes==
{{Citation style|details=Page references should be formatted consistently, i.e. "p./pp. XXX"|date=February 2010}}
{{Reflist|20em}}

==References==
===Ancient sources===
* Herodotus, ''The Histories'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Hdt.+toc Perseus online version]
* [[Aeschylus]], extract from [http://www.poetry-archive.com/a/the_battle_of_salamis.html ''The Persians'']
* Ctesias, ''Persica'' (excerpt in Photius's epitome)
* Diodorus Siculus, ''Biblioteca Historica''.
* Thucydides, ''History of the Peloponnesian War''
* [[Ephorus]], Universal History
* [[Plutarch]], Themistocles
* Cicero, ''On the Laws''

===Modern sources===
* Holland, Tom. ''Persian Fire.'' London: Abacus, 2005 (ISBN 978-0-349-11717-1)
* Green, Peter. ''The Greco-Persian Wars.'' Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970; revised ed., 1996 (hardcover, ISBN 0-520-20573-1); 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-20313-5).
* Lazenby, JF. ''The Defence of Greece 490–479 BC.'' Aris & Phillips Ltd., 1993 (ISBN 0-85668-591-7)
* Fehling, D. ''Herodotus and His "Sources": Citation, Invention, and Narrative Art''. Translated by J.G. Howie. Leeds: Francis Cairns, 1989.
* {{Cite book| last=Finley | first=Moses | title= Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War (translated by Rex Warner)| chapter = Introduction | publisher= Penguin | year= 1972 | ISBN = 0-14-044039-9}}
* Burn, A.R., "Persia and the Greeks" in The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 2: The Median and Achaemenid Periods, Ilya Gershevitch, ed. (1985). Cambridge University Press.
* Köster, A.J. Studien zur Geschichte des Antikes Seewesens. Klio Belheft 32 (1934).
* Green, Peter. ''The Year of Salamis, 480–479 B.C.'' London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970 (ISBN 0-297-00146-9).
* Hanson, Victor Davis. ''Carnage and Culture: Landmark Battles in the Rise of Western Power''. New York: DoubleDay, 2001 (hardcover, ISBN 0-385-50052-1); New York: Anchor Books, 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0-385-72038-6).
* Lee, Felicia R. ''[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/11/27/arts/27greek.html?_r=2&pagewanted=all A Layered Look Reveals Ancient Greek Texts]'' ''The New York Times'', 27 November 2006
* Strauss, Barry. ''The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece—and Western Civilization''. New York: Simon and Schuster, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-7432-4450-8; paperback, ISBN 0-7432-4451-6).
* Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους (History of the Greek nation) vol Β', Ekdotiki Athinon 1971
* Garoufalis N. Demetrius, Η ναυμαχία της Σαλαμίνας, η σύγκρουση που άλλαξε τον ρού της ιστορίας (The battle of Salamis, the conflict that changed the flow of history), Στρατιωτική Ιστορία (Military History) magazine, issue 24, August 1998

==External links==
{{Commons category|Battle of Salamis}}
* [http://www.livius.org/saa-san/salamis/battle.html Livius Picture Archive: the naval battle off Salamis (480 BC)]
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{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Battle Of Salamis}}
[[Category:Battle of Salamis| ]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Achaemenid Empire]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Athens|Salamis]]
[[Category:480 BC]]

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[[oc:Batalha de Salamina]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Salaminą]]
[[pt:Batalha de Salamina]]
[[ro:Bătălia de la Salamina]]
[[ru:Битва при Саламине]]
[[simple:Battle of Salamis]]
[[sk:Bitka pri Salamíne]]
[[sl:Bitka pri Salamini]]
[[sr:Битка код Саламине]]
[[sh:Bitka kod Salamine]]
[[fi:Salamiin taistelu]]
[[sv:Slaget vid Salamis]]
[[tr:Salamis Deniz Muharebesi]]
[[uk:Битва при Саламіні]]
[[vi:Trận Salamis]]
[[zh:萨拉米斯战役]]

Talbiseh bakery massacre

2012-12-26T00:29:08Z

Rami radwan:

{{Multiple issues|{{refimprove|date=December 2012}}{{orphan|date=December 2012}}}}

{{Campaignbox Syrian uprising}}
The '''Talbiseh bakery massacre''' ([[Arabic]]: مجزرة مخبز تلبيسة‎) took place in the town of [[Talbiseh]] on December 24, 2012 during the [[Syrian civil war]].{{citation needed|date=December 2012}} More than 14 people were killed by bombing from warplanes from the [[Government of Syria|Syrian government]]..<ref>[http://www.shrc.org/data/aspx/d15/4945.aspx Asad Forces Bomb another Bakery in Homs]</ref> The civilians in the city were killed while queuing for bread at a local bakery. This massacre occurred one day after the [[Halfaya massacre]].<ref>[http://www.denverpost.com/breakingnews/ci_22253453/un-envoy-meet-press-syrias-assad-peace UN envoy worried after talks with Syria's Assad]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Syrian civil war}}

[[Category:Massacres of the Syrian civil war]]
[[Category:2012 in Syria]]
[[Category:Mass murder in 2012]]
[[Category:Hama Governorate]]
[[Category:Massacres in Syria]]

{{stub}}

[[ar:مجزرة مخبز تلبيسة]]

Talbiseh bakery massacre

2012-12-25T03:37:07Z

Rami radwan: ←Created page with '{{Campaignbox Syrian uprising}} The Talbiseh bakery massacre (Arabic: مجزرة مخبز تلبيسة‎) occurred in the small Talbiseh on 24 December ...'

{{Campaignbox Syrian uprising}}
The Talbiseh bakery massacre ([[Arabic]]: مجزرة مخبز تلبيسة‎) occurred in the small [[Talbiseh]] on 24 December 2012, where more than 14 people were killed by bombing from warplanes. The civilians in the city killed while queueing for bread at a bakery. This massacre had done after one day from [[Halfaya massacre]].<ref>http://www.denverpost.com/breakingnews/ci_22253453/un-envoy-meet-press-syrias-assad-peace</ref>
==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Syrian civil war}}

[[Category:Massacres of the Syrian civil war]]
[[Category:2012 in Syria]]
[[Category:Mass murder in 2012]]
[[Category:Hama Governorate]]
[[Category:Massacres in Syria]]

[[ar:مجزرة مخبز تلبيسة]]

Talbiseh

2012-12-25T03:05:56Z

Rami radwan:

{{Infobox settlement
|name =Talbiseh
|settlement_type =
|official_name =
|other_name = Talbisa
|native_name = <big>تلبيسة</big>
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|pushpin_map = Syria 
|pushpin_label_position =bottom
|pushpin_map_caption =Location in Syria
|pushpin_mapsize =250

|coordinates_region = SY
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = {{flag|Syria}}
|subdivision_type1 = [[Governorates of Syria|Governorate]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Homs Governorate]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of Syria|District]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[al-Rastan District]]
|subdivision_type3 = [[Nahiyah]]
|subdivision_name3 = Talbiseh
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'''Talbiseh''' ({{lang-ar|<big>تلبيسة</big>}}, also spelled '''Talbisa''', '''Tell Bisa''', '''Talbeesa''') is a small city in northwestern [[Syria]] administratively part of the [[Homs Governorate]], about 10 kilometers north of [[Homs]]. Nearby localities include [[al-Rastan]] to the north, [[al-Ghantoo]] to the southwest and [[al-Mashrafah]] to the east. According to the [[Central Bureau of Statistics (Syria)|Central Bureau of Statistics]] (CBS) Talbiseh had a population of 30,796 in 2004.<ref name=CBS>[http://www.cbssyr.org/new%20web%20site/General_census/census_2004/NH/TAB04-19-2004.htm General Census of Population and Housing 2004]. [[Central Bureau of Statistics (Syria)|Syria Central Bureau of Statistics]] (CBS). Homs Governorate. {{ar icon}}</ref> Its inhabitants are mostly [[Sunni Muslim]]s.<ref name=Oudat2011>Oudat, Bassel. [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2011/1076/re4.htm Capital of the Revolution]. ''[[Al Ahram Weekly]]''. 2011-12-21.</ref>

==History==
In 1945 a large [[hoard]] of [[Byzantine Empire]]-era [[copper]] coins were discovered in Talbiseh.<ref name=ANS1955>American Numismatic Society, 1955, p. 108.</ref> The roughly 835 coins, which dated back to 631 CE, consisted of three specimens depicting the emperors [[Justin II]], [[Phocas]] and [[Heraclius Constantine]].<ref name=Pottier2004>Pottier, 2004, p. 120.</ref>

Talbiseh was described a village of mud houses in the mid-19th century. Unlike most Syrian villages at the time whose houses had flat roofs, the mud houses had dome-shaped roofs.<ref name=Walpole1851>Walpole, 1851, p. 179.</ref>

===2011–2012 Syrian uprising===
Talbiseh witnessed large demonstrations protesting against the government of [[Bashar al-Assad]] in April 2011 as part of the [[2011–2012 Syrian uprising]].<ref name=BBC2011>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13130401 Syria protests: Homs city sit-in 'dispersed by gunfire']. ''[[BBC News]]''. 2011-04-19.</ref> Since the beginning of the insurrection, the city has become a stronghold for the opposition and the anti-government [[Free Syrian Army]] (FSA).<ref name=BBC20120611>{{cite news|author=|title=Syrian forces attack Homs amid fears of new massacre|newspaper=|publisher=[[BBC News]]|location=|date=2012-06-11|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18398146|accessdate=2012-06-23}}</ref> As such, Talbiseh has been targeted by the [[Syrian Army]] and security forces throughout the uprising. Between 29 May and early June 2011 Syrian troops backed by tanks [[Siege of Rastan and Talbiseh|entered and besieged]] the city with the stated aim of rooting out "terrorist groups." Opposition activists claimed troops were raiding houses and arresting suspected dissidents. Five residents and four soldiers were reportedly killed in the first day of the operation.<ref name=AlJazeera>{{cite news|author=|title=Syrian tanks attack three central towns|publisher=[[Al Jazeera English]]|location=|date=2011-05-29|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2011/05/201152818244563547.html|accessdate=2012-06-23}}</ref>

On 8 June 2012, three civilians and nine Syrian troops were killed in fighting in the Talbiseh area.<ref name=NOWLebanon>{{cite news|author=|title=Syria bloodshed kills 41 on Thursday, activists say|agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]|publisher=[[NOW Lebanon]]|location=|date=2012-06-08|url=http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArchiveDetails.aspx?ID=406751|accessdate=2012-06-23}}</ref> Heavy fighting between the Syrian Army and the FSA continued until at least 11 June. According to [[United Nations]] observers, the FSA took a number of government soldiers captive.<ref name=nowlebanon>[http://www.nowlebanon.com/NewsArticleDetails.aspx?ID=408057 UN observers voice concern over Homs]. ''[[NOW Lebanon]]''. 2012-06-11.</ref> The Syrian Army attempted to retake Talbiseh on 21 July, sparking heavy clashes in the city and subsequent artillery bombardment.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-18937514 Syria crisis: Heavy clashes in second city of Aleppo]. ''[[BBC News]]''. 2012-07-21.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=33em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite book|author=American Numismatic Society|title=Numismatic Literature, Issues 26–33|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ppgoAAAAMAAJ&q=Tell+Bisse+Syria&dq=Tell+Bisse+Syria&hl=en&sa=X&ei=RpHbT57VH4mk8gSB94jjCg&ved=0CFwQ6AEwBw|publisher=American Numismatic Society|year=1955}}}
*{{cite book|first=Henri|last=Pottier|title=The Coinage of Syria Under Persian Occupation|url=http://books.google.com/books?ei=Ho7bT-nmDoS69QSn_YS-Cg&id=-xcXAQAAIAAJ&dq=Tell+Bisa+coins&q=Tell+Bisa#search_anchor|publisher=CNRS|year=2004|isbn=2271061156}}}
*{{cite book|first=Frederick|last=Walpole|title=The Ansayrii, (or Assassins): With Travels in the Further East, in 1850–51. Including a Visit to Ninevah|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=6b5JAAAAMAAJ&dq=Tell+Bisse+Syria&source=gbs_navlinks_s|publisher=R. Bentley|year=1851}}
{{refend}}

{{Homs Governorate|rastan}}

[[Category:Cities in Syria]]
[[Category:Populated places in al-Rastan District]]
[[ar:تلبيسة]]

Lechwe

2012-08-29T06:20:01Z

Rami radwan: /* Subspecies */

{{Taxobox
| name = Lechwe
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| trend = stable
| status_ref = <ref name=iucn>{{IUCN2008|assessors=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group|year=2008|id=11033|title=Kobus leche|downloaded=10 May 2006}} Database entry includes a brief justification of why this species is of least concern.</ref>
| image = LechweBotswana.JPG
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption = Red lechwe
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Artiodactyla]]
| familia = [[Bovidae]]
| genus = ''[[Kobus (antelope)|Kobus]]''
| species = '''''K. leche'''''
| binomial = ''Kobus leche''
| binomial_authority = [[John Edward Gray|Gray]], 1850
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = ''[[Red Lechwe|Kobus leche leche]]'' ''[[Kafue Lechwe|Kobus leche kafuensis]]'' ''[[Roberts' Lechwe|Kobus leche robertsi]]'' ''[[Black Lechwe|Kobus leche smithemani]]'' ''[[Cape Lechwe|Kobus leche venterae]]''
}}

[[Image:Flying-Antelope-Okavango.jpg|thumb|left|A female lechwe "flying" over a patch of clear water early in the morning in the [[Okavango Delta]]]]
The '''lechwe''', or '''southern lechwe''', (''Kobus leche'') is an [[antelope]] found in [[Botswana]], [[Zambia]], southeastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], northeastern [[Namibia]], and eastern [[Angola]], especially in the [[Okavango Delta]], [[Kafue Flats]] and [[Bangweulu Swamps]].

Lechwe stand {{convert|90|to|100|cm|in|abbr=on}} at the shoulder and weigh from {{convert|70|to|120|kg|lb|abbr=on}}. They are golden brown with white bellies. Males are darker in colour, but general hue varies depending on [[subspecies]]. The long, spiral-structured horns are vaguely lyre-shaped, they are found only in males. The hindlegs are somewhat longer in proportion than in other antelopes, to ease long-distance running in marshy soil.

Lechwe are found in [[marsh]]y areas where they eat aquatic [[plants]]. They use the knee-deep water as protection from predators. Their legs are covered in a water-repellant substance which allows them to run quite fast in knee-deep water.

Lechwe are [[diurnal animal|diurnal]]. They gather in herds which can include many thousands of individuals. Herds are usually all of one sex, but during mating season they mix.

==Subspecies==
[[File:Lechwe antelopes Berlin.jpg|250px|thumbnail|left|Lechwe antelopes in Berlin zoological park]]

Traditionally, four subspecies of the lechwe have been recognized.<ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Groves|pages=}}</ref><ref name=africa>Haltenorth, T. & H. Diller. 1980. ''Mammals of Africa including Madagascar.'' Harpercollins Publishers. ISBN 0-00-219778-2</ref> Additionally, the [[Upemba lechwe]], which only was described in 2005, is treated as a subspecies of the lechwe by some authorities.<ref name=iucn/>

* [[Red lechwe]] or Zambesi lechwe (''K. l. leche'') - most of range, overall tawny-fawn with black to front of front legs
* [[Kafue lechwe]] or brown lechwe (''K. l. kafuensis'') - Kafue Flats, as previous, but front legs almost entirely black, [[Vulnerable species|vulnerable]].<ref name=karfue>{{IUCN2008|assessors=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group|year=2008|id=11045|title=Kobus leche ssp. kafuensis |downloaded=23 July 2008}}</ref>
* [[Roberts' lechwe]] or Kawambwa lechwe (''K. l. robertsi'') - formerly near [[Kawambwa]], [[extinct]].<ref name=kawambwa>{{IUCN2008|assessors=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group|year=2008|id=11038|title=Kobus leche ssp. robertsi |downloaded=23 July 2008}}</ref>
* [[Black lechwe]] or Bangweulu lechwe (''K. l. smithemani'') - Bangweulu Swamps, adult males blackish, vulnerable<ref name=black>{{IUCN2008|assessors=IUCN SSC Antelope Specialist Group|year=2008|id=11046|title=Kobus leche ssp. smithemani |downloaded=23 July 2008}}</ref>
* [[Cape Lechwe|Cape lechwe]] or Venter's lechwe (''K. l. venterae'') - now extinct, but formerly inhabited the marshes and fens of the North West, Free State, Northern Cape and Eastern Cape Provinces of [[South Africa]], as far south as Cradock and Tarkastad

==References==
{{reflist}}

 

==External links==
{{Commons category|Kobus leche}}
*ARKive - [http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Kobus_leche_smithemani/ images and movies of the black lechwe ''(Kobus leche smithemani)'']

{{Artiodactyla|R.2}}

[[Category:Marsh antelopes]]
[[Category:Mammals of Africa]]
[[Category:Fauna of East Africa]]
[[Category:Mammals of Angola]]
[[Category:Mammals of the Democratic Republic of the Congo]]
[[Category:Mammals of Namibia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Zambia]]
[[Category:Megafauna of Africa]]

[[af:Rooilechwe]]
[[av:Личи (хӀайван)]]
[[az:Liçi (məməli)]]
[[ca:Cob lichi]]
[[cs:Voduška červená]]
[[de:Letschwe]]
[[es:Kobus leche]]
[[eu:Kobus leche]]
[[fr:Kobus leche]]
[[it:Kobus leche]]
[[lt:Ličis]]
[[lez:Личи (гьайван)]]
[[hu:Zambézi mocsáriantilop]]
[[ms:Letwi Merah]]
[[nl:Litschiewaterbok]]
[[ja:リーチュエ]]
[[no:Letjevannbukk]]
[[mhr:Личи (янлык)]]
[[pnb:لیچوی]]
[[pl:Kob liczi]]
[[pt:Cob-leche]]
[[ru:Личи (млекопитающее)]]
[[sr:Лечва]]
[[fi:Liki]]
[[sv:Letjevattenbock]]
[[tr:Leçve]]
[[udm:Личи (пӧйшур)]]
[[zh:驴羚]]

Eurasian brown bear

2012-08-29T06:11:59Z

Rami radwan: /* Description */

{{Taxobox
| name = Eurasian brown bear
| status = LC
| status_system= iucn3.1
| status_ref =<ref>{{IUCN2006|assessors=Bear Specialist Group|year=1996|id=41688|title=Ursus arctos|downloaded=12 May 2006}} </ref>
| image = Brown bear (Ursus arctos arctos) running.jpg
| image_width = 250px
| image_caption =
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Mammal]]ia
| ordo = [[Carnivora]]
| familia = [[Ursidae]]
| genus = ''[[Ursus (biology)|Ursus]]''
| species = ''[[Ursus arctos|U. arctos]]''
| subspecies = '''''U. arctos arctos'''''
| trinomial = ''Ursus arctos arctos''
| trinomial_authority = [[Carolus Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758
| range_map =
| range_map_width =
| range_map_caption =
}}
The '''Eurasian brown bear''' (''Ursus arctos arctos'') is a subspecies of [[brown bear]], found across northern [[Eurasia]]. The Eurasian brown bear is also known as the '''common brown bear''', '''European brown bear''' and colloquially by many other names.

== Description ==
[[Image:Eurasian Brown Bear.jpg|left|thumb|Eurasian brown bear]]
The Eurasian brown bear has brown fur, which can range from yellow-brownish to dark brown, red brown, and almost black in some cases; albinism has also been recorded.<ref>[http://dnevnik.hr/vijesti/hrvatska/lovac-ubio-albino-medvjeda-nikad-vidzenog-kod-nas.html Albino brown bear killed in 2009]. Dnevnik.hr (2009-10-29). Retrieved on 2011-09-24.</ref> The fur is dense to varying degree and the hair can grow up to 10 cm in length. The shape of the head is normally quite round with relatively small and round ears, a wide skull and a mouth equipped with 42 teeth, including predatory teeth. It has a powerful bone structure, large paws, equipped with big claws, which can grow up to 10 cm in length. The weight varies depending on habitat and time of the year. A full grown male weighs on average 265–355 kg (583–780 lb). The largest Eurasian brown bear recorded was 481 kg (1,058 lb) and was nearly 2.5 m (8.2 ft) long. Females typically range between 150–250 kg (330–550 lb).<ref>Wood, The Guinness Book of Animal Facts and Feats. Sterling Pub Co Inc (1983), ISBN 978-0-85112-235-9</ref>

==History==
Brown bears were present in Britain until around 500 AD when they were exterminated through hunting.<ref name="britbear">{{cite web | url = http://www.toothandclaw.org.uk/species.asp? | title = Brown Bear | publisher = Tooth & Claw| accessdate = 2008-01-05 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071223002029/http://www.toothandclaw.org.uk/species.asp? | archivedate = 2007-12-23}}</ref>

Eurasian brown bears were used in [[Ancient Rome]] for fighting in arenas. The strongest bears apparently came from [[Caledonia]] and [[Dalmatia]].<ref name="SAM">{{cite book | author = Pastoureau, Michel | title = L’ours; Histoire d’un roi dechu | year = 2007 | isbn= 2-02-021542-X | page = 419 }}</ref>

In antiquity, the Eurasian brown bear was largely carnivorous, with 80% of its diet consisting of animal matter. However, as its habitat increasingly disappeared, meat consisted of only 40% of its dietary intake in the late [[Middle Ages]], till modern times where meat now amounts to little more than 10–15% of its diet.<ref name="SAM" />

Unlike in America, where an average of two people a year are killed by bears, Scandinavia only has records of three fatal bear attacks in the last century. <ref name="britbear" />

== Species origin ==
[[Image:Ursus arctos arctos.jpg|thumb|Eurasian brown bear resting]]
Modern research<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20090406024210/http://www.bearproject.info/norsk/bearproject.php Det Skandinaviske Bjørneprosjektet]</ref> has made it possible to track the origin of the subspecies. It is difficult to tell anything about the Eurasian brown bear, but the species to which it belongs might have developed about 5 million years ago. Researchers have also found that the Eurasian brown bear was separated about 850,000 years ago, one branch based in Western Europe and the other branch in Russia, Eastern Europe and [[Asia]]. Through research of ''[[mitochondrial DNA]]'' (mtDNA) researchers have found that the European family has been divided into two subgroups, one in the [[Iberian peninsula]] and the other in the [[Balkans]].

There are four major populations in [[Scandinavia]], all with their core area in [[Sweden]]. By analyzing the mtDNA of the southern population researchers have found that they probably have come from populations in the [[Pyrenees]] in southern France and Spain and the [[Cantabrian Mountains]] (Spain). Bears from these populations spread to southern Scandinavia after the last [[ice age]]. The northern bear populations has its origin in the Finnish/Russian population. Their ancestors probably survived the ice age in the ice-free areas, west of the Ural mountains, and thereafter spread to Northern Europe.

== Distribution ==
Although their inclusion as of [[Least Concern]] on the 2006 [[IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]] refers to the global species, not to the Eurasian brown bear specifically, local populations are becoming increasingly scarce. And as the IUCN itself adds <blockquote>
Least Concern does not always mean that species are not at risk. There are declining species that are evaluated as Least Concern.
</blockquote>

Brown bears could once be found across most of northern Eurasia.

The brown bear has long been extinct in Britain and Ireland, but it still exists in [[Northern Europe]] and in Russia. There is a tiny population in the [[Pyrenees]], on the border between Spain and France, which is on the edge of extinction, as well as [[Cantabrian brown bear|an equally threatened group]] in the [[Cantabrian Mountains]] in Spain. There are also populations in the [[Abruzzi]] and [[Trentino]] regions of [[Italy]].

Populations in [[Baltoscandia]] are steadily and slowly increasing – they include over 2000 bears in [[Sweden]], another 1200 in [[Finland]], 700 in [[Estonia]] and around 70 in [[Norway]].
<ref>[http://naturetravels.wordpress.com/2008/01/28/brown-bears-in-sweden-the-shy-giant-of-the-wilderness/ Brown Bears in Sweden – the shy giant of the wilderness « Nature Travels: Outdoor Holidays in Sweden]. Naturetravels.wordpress.com (2008-01-28). Retrieved on 2011-09-24.</ref><ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20081007011527/http://www.rktl.fi/riista/riistavarat/suurpedot_2007/karhu.html Karhu]. rktl.fi (Finnish)</ref>

Large populations can be found in [[Albania]], [[Romania]], [[Slovakia]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] and [[Bulgaria]]; smaller, but still significant populations can also be found in [[Greece]], [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]]; in 2005, there were an estimated 200 in [[Ukraine]]; these populations are part of two distinct metapopulations: the Carpathian (over 5,000 individuals), and the Dinaric-Pindos (Balkans), with around 3,000 individuals.<ref>[http://www.kora.ch/sp-ois/bear-ois/index.htm Bear Online Information System for Europe]. Kora.ch. Retrieved on 2011-09-24.</ref>

The largest brown bear population in Europe can be found in [[Russia]]; it has now recovered from an all-time low caused by intensive hunting prior to the Russian revolution of 1917

Globally, the largest population is found east of the Ural mountain range, in the large [[Siberia]]n forests; brown bears are also present in smaller numbers in parts of central Asia (former Soviet states).

Other subspecies of brown bear persist in small, isolated and for the most part highly threatened populations in [[Turkey]], [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]], [[Pakistan]], parts of northwest [[India]], central [[China]], and on the island of [[Hokkaidō]] in Japan.

== Cultural depictions ==

The historic distribution of bears and the impression it made on people has been reflected in the names of a number of localities (some notable examples include [[Bern]], [[Medvednica]] and [[Ayu-Dag]]), as well as personal names—for example, [[Xiong]] (熊), [[Bernard]], [[Arthur]], [[Ursula]], [[Urs]], [[Björn]], [[Nedved]], [[Medvedev]]. The constellations [[Ursa Major]] and [[Ursa Minor]] are named for bears.

The bear is traditionally regarded as the symbol of the Russian (military and political) might; it is also [[Finland]]'s national animal; and in [[Croatia]], a brown bear is depicted on the [[Obverse and reverse|reverse]] of the Croatian 5 [[Croatian kuna|kuna]] coin, minted since 1993.<ref>[http://www.hnb.hr Croatian National Bank]. [http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/ekovanic.htm?tsfsg=a89719a221b101407a7b882421d5f621 Kuna and Lipa, Coins of Croatia]: [http://www.hnb.hr/novcan/kovanice/e5kuna.htm?tsfsg=fa39efd7c6602f992d2ea120f7b64c3e 5 Kuna Coin]. – Retrieved on 31 March 2009.</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Bear conservation]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|35em}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.bearproject.info/ Det Skandinaviske Bjørneprosjektet]
* [http://www.lcie.org/ Large Carnivore Initiative for Europe]

[[Category:Bears]]
[[Category:Mammals of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Mammals of Iran]]
[[Category:Fauna of Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Mammals of Romania]]
[[Category:Mammals of Russia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Sweden]]
[[Category:Mammals of Serbia]]
[[Category:Mammals of Finland]]

[[bg:Евроазиатска кафява мечка]]
[[ca:Ursus arctos arctos]]
[[da:Skandinavisk brunbjørn]]
[[es:Ursus arctos arctos]]
[[gl:Oso pardo europeo]]
[[it:Ursus arctos arctos]]
[[he:דוב חום אירואסייתי]]
[[lv:Eirāzijas brūnais lācis]]
[[lb:Europäesche Bronge Bier]]
[[lt:Eurazijos rudasis lokys]]
[[mk:Евроазиска кафеава мечка]]
[[nl:Europese bruine beer]]
[[no:Eurasisk brunbjørn]]
[[koi:Евразияись ош]]
[[simple:Eurasian Brown Bear]]

Asian woolly-necked stork

2012-08-29T05:39:36Z

Rami radwan: /* Different views & aspects */

{{Taxobox
| name = Woolly-necked Stork
| status = LC | status_system = IUCN3.1
| image = White necked stork (Ciconia episcopus) 21-Mar-2007 7-37-51 AM 21-Mar-2007 7-37-52.JPG
| image_caption = Lake Periyar, Idduki, Kerala, India
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[bird|Aves]]
| ordo = [[Ciconiiformes]]
| familia = [[Ciconiidae]]
| genus = ''[[Ciconia]]''
| species = '''''C. episcopus'''''
| binomial = ''Ciconia episcopus''
| binomial_authority = [[Pieter Boddaert|Boddaert]], 1783
}}

The '''Woolly-necked Stork, Bishop Stork''' or '''White-necked Stork''' (''Ciconia episcopus'') is a large wading [[bird]] in the [[stork]] family Ciconiidae. It can also be known as the '''Espiscopos'''.

It is a widespread tropical species which breeds in in [[Asia]], from [[India]] to [[Indonesia]], and also in [[Africa]]. It is a resident breeder in wetlands with trees. The large stick nest is built in a forest tree, and 2-5 [[egg (biology)|eggs]] form the typical clutch. This stork is usually silent, but indulges in mutual bill-clattering when adults meet at the nest.
[[File:हजि_लक_लक,_woolly_necked_stork.jpg|Flying in Maharashtra, India|thumb|left]]
The Woolly-necked Stork is a broad winged soaring bird, which relies on moving between thermals of hot air for sustained long distance flight. Like all storks, it flies with its neck outstretched.

The Woolly-necked Stork is a large bird, typically 85 cm tall. It is glistening black with black 'skull cap',white neck and white lower belly. The upper parts are glossed dark green, and the breast and belly have a purple hue.It has long red legs and heavy blackish bill.Sexes are alike. Juvenile birds are duller versions of the adult.

African birds, ''C. e. microscelis'', have the head mainly black, but the nominate Asian race, ''C. e. episcopus'', has the head mainly white except for a darker area around the eyes. Eastern Indonesian birds belong to a third form, ''C. e. neglecta''.

The Woolly-necked Stork walks slowly and steadily on the ground seeking its prey, which like that of most of its relatives, consists of [[amphibian]]s, small [[reptile]]s and large [[insect]]s. African birds are attracted to [[bush fire]]s.

The bird derives its scientific species name from the black and white vestments formerly worn by [[cleric]]s.

The Woolly-necked Stork is one of the species to which the ''Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds'' ([[AEWA]]) applies.

== References ==
{{reflist}}
* {{IUCN2008|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2008|id=144782|title=Ciconia episcopus|downloaded=3 February 2009}}
* ''Birds of The Gambia'' by Barlow, Wacher and Disley, ISBN 1-873403-32-1
* ''Birds of India'' by Grimmett, Inskipp and Inskipp, ISBN 0-691-04910-6

==Different views & aspects==
<gallery perrow="5">
File:Woolly-necked Stork (Ciconia episcopus) in the fields near Hodal I IMG 9322.jpg| In the fields near [[Hodal]] in [[Faridabad]] District of [[Haryana]], [[India]].
File:Woolly-necked Stork (Ciconia episcopus) with Black-headed Ibises & Painted Stork W2 IMG 9730.jpg|with [[Black-headed Ibis]] & [[Painted Stork]] at [[Pocharam]] lake, [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[India]]
File:Woolly-necked Stork (Ciconia episcopus) taking off from the fields near Hodal I .jpg|Taking off from the fields near [[Hodal]] in [[Faridabad]] District of [[Haryana]], [[India]]
File:Wooly necked stork 1.jpg
File:Wooly necked stork 2.jpg
file:A woolly-necked stork.jpg
File:Wooly necked stork 3.jpg
File:Wooly necked stork 4.jpg
</gallery>

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Ciconia episcopus}}
{{Wikispecies|Ciconia episcopus}}
*[http://www.birdlife.org/datazone/species/index.html?action=SpcHTMDetails.asp&sid=3832&m=0 BirdLife Species Factsheet]
* [http://www.redlist.org/search/details.php?species=49657 IUCN Red List]
* [http://ibc.lynxeds.com/species/woolly-necked-stork-ciconia-episcopus Woolly-necked Stork videos, photos & sounds] on the Internet Bird Collection
* Woolly-necked Stork - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/086.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].

{{Storks}}

[[Category:Ciconia]]
[[Category:Birds of Africa]]
[[Category:Birds of Asia]]
[[Category:Birds of Iran|Stork, Woolly-necked]]
[[Category:Birds of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Birds of India]]
[[Category:Birds of Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Birds of Cambodia]]
[[Category:Birds of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Birds of Laos]]
[[Category:Birds of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Birds of Burma]]
[[Category:Birds of Nepal]]
[[Category:Birds of Thailand]]
[[Category:Birds of Vietnam]]
[[Category:Birds of Southeast Asia]]
[[Category:Megafauna of Eurasia]]

[[ar:لقلق صوفي العنق]]
[[bg:Ciconia episcopus]]
[[br:C'hwibon gouzoug gloanek]]
[[ca:Cigonya de coll blanc]]
[[de:Wollhalsstorch]]
[[es:Ciconia episcopus]]
[[eo:Lankola cikonio]]
[[eu:Ciconia episcopus]]
[[fr:Cigogne épiscopale]]
[[it:Ciconia episcopus]]
[[hu:Gyapjasnyakú gólya]]
[[ml:കരിംകൊക്ക്]]
[[ms:Burung Botak Padang]]
[[nl:Bisschopsooievaar]]
[[ja:シロエリコウ]]
[[pnb:اونی تون آلی سٹارک]]
[[pl:Bocian białoszyi]]
[[ru:Белошейный аист]]
[[sv:Ullhalsstork]]

Grey crowned crane

2012-08-27T23:05:40Z

Rami radwan:

{{Taxobox
| name = Grey Crowned Crane
| status = EN | status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/143771/0 IUCN Red List], retrieved 03-12-2009</ref>
| image = Balearica regulorum -Tanzania-8.jpg
| image_caption = In [[Tanzania]]
| image_width = 300px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Gruiformes]]
| familia = [[Gruidae]]
| genus = ''[[Balearica]]''
| species = '''''B. regulorum'''''
| binomial = ''Balearica regulorum''
| binomial_authority = [[Edward Turner Bennett|Bennett]], 1834
}}

The '''Grey Crowned Crane''' (''Balearica regulorum'') is a [[Aves|bird]] in the [[crane (bird)|crane]] family [[Crane (bird)|Gruidae]]. It occurs in dry savannah in [[Africa]] south of the [[Sahara]], although it nests in somewhat wetter [[habitat]]s. This animal does not [[bird migration|migrate]].

There are two [[subspecies]]. The East African '''''B. r. gibbericeps''''' ('''Crested Crane''') occurs from eastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] through [[Uganda]], of which it is the national bird, and [[Kenya]] to eastern [[South Africa]]. It has a larger area of bare red facial skin above the white patch than the smaller nominate species, '''''B. r. regulorum''''' ('''South African Crowned Crane'''), which breeds from [[Angola]] south to South Africa.

This species and the closely related [[Black Crowned Crane]] are the only cranes that can roost in trees, because of a long hind toe that can grasp branches. This habit, amongst other things, is a reason why the relatively small ''Balearica'' cranes are believed to closely resemble the ancestral members of the [[Crane (bird)|Gruidae]].

[[File:Gray Crowned Crane at Zoo Copenhagen.jpg|upright|thumb|left|At [[Copenhagen Zoo]]]]
The Grey Crowned Crane has a breeding display involving dancing, bowing, and jumping. It has a booming call which involves inflation of the red [[gular sac]]. It also makes a honking sound quite different from the trumpeting of other crane species.

The [[bird nest|nest]] is a platform of [[grass]] and other plants in tall wetland vegetation. The Grey Crowned Crane lays a clutch of 2-5 [[bird egg|eggs]]. Incubation is performed by both sexes and lasts 28–31 days. Chicks fledge at 56–100 days.

The Grey Crowned Crane is about 1 m (3.3 ft) tall and weighs 3.5 kg (7.7 lbs). Its body [[plumage]] is mainly grey. The wings are also predominantly white, but contain feathers with a range of colours. The head has a crown of stiff golden [[feather]]s. The sides of the face are white, and there is a bright red inflatable [[throat pouch]]. The [[beak|bill]] is relatively short and grey, and the legs are black. The sexes are similar, although males tend to be slightly larger. Young birds are greyer than adults, with a feathered [[Buff (colour)|buff]] face.

Although the Grey Crowned Crane remains common over much of its [[range (biology)|range]], it faces threats to its habitat due to drainage, overgrazing, and [[pesticide]] pollution. In 2012 it was uplisted from [[Vulnerable]] to [[Endangered]] by the [[IUCN]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Recently recategorised species|url=http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/global_species_programme/whats_new.html|publisher=Birdlife International (2012)|accessdate=15 June 2012}}</ref>.

Like all cranes, it feeds on [[insect]]s and other invertebrates, [[reptile]]s, small [[mammal]]s, as well as grass seeds.

The Grey Crowned Crane is the national bird of [[Uganda]] and features in the country's [[Flag of Uganda|flag]] and [[Coat of Arms of Uganda|coat of arms]].

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Balearica regulorum 1 Luc Viatour.jpg
File:Grey crowned crane2.jpg|In Uganda
File:Grey_Crowned_Crane2.jpg|
file:Gray Crowned Cranes .jpg
File:Grey Crowned Crane 2.jpg
File:Grey-crowned_Crane,_Serengeti.jpg|Serengeti, Tanzania
File:Grey Crowned Crane Tanzania.jpg|Serengeti, Tanzania
File:Grey_Crowned_Crane_Maasai_Mara_Kenya_Aug_2012.jpg|Maasai Mara Game Reserve, Kenya, Aug 2012
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{IUCN2010|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2009|id=143771|title=Balearica regulorum|version=2010.1|downloaded=1 April 2010}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is vulnerable
* Archibald, G. W. 1992a. African cranes for the future. Proc. First S. Afr. Crane Conf.:7-9.
* Gitahi, P. 1993. The bird with the golden crown. Komba 1:5.
* Johnsgard PA. 1983. Cranes of the world. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
* Mafabi, P. 1991. The ecology and conservation status of the Grey Crowned Crane in Uganda. Proc. 1987 Intl. Crane Workshop:363-367.
* Urban, E. K. Status of cranes in Africa, 1994. Proc. 1993 Afr. Crane and Wetland Training Workshop.

==External links==
{{commons|Balearica regulorum}}
{{wikispecies|Balearica regulorum}}
* (Grey) Crowned Crane - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/209.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
*[http://www.gekphotography.com/Other/Louisville-Zoo-3-13-2010/Greg-Zoo-3-13-2010/IMG5043copyLR/809348322_DWzRV-M.jpg East African Crowned Crane]
*[http://www.savingcranes.org/species/grey_crowned.cfm Grey Crowned Crane], International Crane Foundation
*[http://www.impetusinmundum.de/documentation/Album.html?Bildliste=721b2e42-721b2e4d&Region=Crested+Cranes Pictures of Crested Cranes from Uganda]

{{Gruidae}}

[[Category:Balearica]]
[[Category:National symbols of Uganda]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1834]]
[[Category:Birds of Uganda]]

[[af:Mahem]]
[[bg:Сив коронован жерав]]
[[br:Garan roueel]]
[[ca:Grua coronada de coll gris]]
[[cs:Jeřáb královský]]
[[de:Südafrika-Kronenkranich]]
[[es:Balearica regulorum]]
[[eo:Grizkrona gruo]]
[[eu:Balearica regulorum]]
[[fr:Grue royale]]
[[it:Balearica regulorum]]
[[he:עגור כתר אפור]]
[[lt:Pilkakuodė gervė]]
[[hu:Szürkenyakú koronásdaru]]
[[nl:Grijze kroonkraan]]
[[ja:ホオジロカンムリヅル]]
[[pl:Koronnik szary]]
[[pt:Grou-coroado-oriental]]
[[ru:Восточный венценосный журавль]]
[[simple:East African Crowned Crane]]
[[fi:Etelänkruunukurki]]
[[sv:Grå krontrana]]
[[ta:மாகேம்]]
[[th:นกกระเรียนมงกุฎเทา]]
[[uk:Журавель вінценосний східний]]
[[vi:Sếu xám hoàng gia]]
[[zh:灰冠鶴]]

Grey crowned crane

2012-08-27T23:04:38Z

Rami radwan:

{{Taxobox
| name = Grey Crowned Crane
| status = EN | status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/143771/0 IUCN Red List], retrieved 03-12-2009</ref>
| image = Balearica regulorum -Tanzania-8.jpg
| image_caption = In [[Tanzania]]
| image_width = 300px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Gruiformes]]
| familia = [[Gruidae]]
| genus = ''[[Balearica]]''
| species = '''''B. regulorum'''''
| binomial = ''Balearica regulorum''
| binomial_authority = [[Edward Turner Bennett|Bennett]], 1834
}}

The '''Grey Crowned Crane''' (''Balearica regulorum'') is a [[Aves|bird]] in the [[crane (bird)|crane]] family [[Crane (bird)|Gruidae]]. It occurs in dry savannah in [[Africa]] south of the [[Sahara]], although it nests in somewhat wetter [[habitat]]s. This animal does not [[bird migration|migrate]].

There are two [[subspecies]]. The East African '''''B. r. gibbericeps''''' ('''Crested Crane''') occurs from eastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] through [[Uganda]], of which it is the national bird, and [[Kenya]] to eastern [[South Africa]]. It has a larger area of bare red facial skin above the white patch than the smaller nominate species, '''''B. r. regulorum''''' ('''South African Crowned Crane'''), which breeds from [[Angola]] south to South Africa.

This species and the closely related [[Black Crowned Crane]] are the only cranes that can roost in trees, because of a long hind toe that can grasp branches. This habit, amongst other things, is a reason why the relatively small ''Balearica'' cranes are believed to closely resemble the ancestral members of the [[Crane (bird)|Gruidae]].

[[File:Gray Crowned Crane at Zoo Copenhagen.jpg|upright|thumb|left|At [[Copenhagen Zoo]]]]
The Grey Crowned Crane has a breeding display involving dancing, bowing, and jumping. It has a booming call which involves inflation of the red [[gular sac]]. It also makes a honking sound quite different from the trumpeting of other crane species.

The [[bird nest|nest]] is a platform of [[grass]] and other plants in tall wetland vegetation. The Grey Crowned Crane lays a clutch of 2-5 [[bird egg|eggs]]. Incubation is performed by both sexes and lasts 28–31 days. Chicks fledge at 56–100 days.

The Grey Crowned Crane is about 1 m (3.3 ft) tall and weighs 3.5 kg (7.7 lbs). Its body [[plumage]] is mainly grey. The wings are also predominantly white, but contain feathers with a range of colours. The head has a crown of stiff golden [[feather]]s. The sides of the face are white, and there is a bright red inflatable [[throat pouch]]. The [[beak|bill]] is relatively short and grey, and the legs are black. The sexes are similar, although males tend to be slightly larger. Young birds are greyer than adults, with a feathered [[Buff (colour)|buff]] face.

Although the Grey Crowned Crane remains common over much of its [[range (biology)|range]], it faces threats to its habitat due to drainage, overgrazing, and [[pesticide]] pollution. In 2012 it was uplisted from [[Vulnerable]] to [[Endangered]] by the [[IUCN]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Recently recategorised species|url=http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/global_species_programme/whats_new.html|publisher=Birdlife International (2012)|accessdate=15 June 2012}}</ref>.

Like all cranes, it feeds on [[insect]]s and other invertebrates, [[reptile]]s, small [[mammal]]s, as well as grass seeds.

The Grey Crowned Crane is the national bird of [[Uganda]] and features in the country's [[Flag of Uganda|flag]] and [[Coat of Arms of Uganda|coat of arms]].

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Balearica regulorum 1 Luc Viatour.jpg
File:Grey crowned crane2.jpg|In Uganda
File:Grey_Crowned_Crane2.jpg|

File:Grey Crowned Crane 2.jpg
File:Grey-crowned_Crane,_Serengeti.jpg|Serengeti, Tanzania
File:Grey Crowned Crane Tanzania.jpg|Serengeti, Tanzania
File:Grey_Crowned_Crane_Maasai_Mara_Kenya_Aug_2012.jpg|Maasai Mara Game Reserve, Kenya, Aug 2012
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{IUCN2010|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2009|id=143771|title=Balearica regulorum|version=2010.1|downloaded=1 April 2010}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is vulnerable
* Archibald, G. W. 1992a. African cranes for the future. Proc. First S. Afr. Crane Conf.:7-9.
* Gitahi, P. 1993. The bird with the golden crown. Komba 1:5.
* Johnsgard PA. 1983. Cranes of the world. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
* Mafabi, P. 1991. The ecology and conservation status of the Grey Crowned Crane in Uganda. Proc. 1987 Intl. Crane Workshop:363-367.
* Urban, E. K. Status of cranes in Africa, 1994. Proc. 1993 Afr. Crane and Wetland Training Workshop.

==External links==
{{commons|Balearica regulorum}}
{{wikispecies|Balearica regulorum}}
* (Grey) Crowned Crane - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/209.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
*[http://www.gekphotography.com/Other/Louisville-Zoo-3-13-2010/Greg-Zoo-3-13-2010/IMG5043copyLR/809348322_DWzRV-M.jpg East African Crowned Crane]
*[http://www.savingcranes.org/species/grey_crowned.cfm Grey Crowned Crane], International Crane Foundation
*[http://www.impetusinmundum.de/documentation/Album.html?Bildliste=721b2e42-721b2e4d&Region=Crested+Cranes Pictures of Crested Cranes from Uganda]

{{Gruidae}}

[[Category:Balearica]]
[[Category:National symbols of Uganda]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1834]]
[[Category:Birds of Uganda]]

[[af:Mahem]]
[[bg:Сив коронован жерав]]
[[br:Garan roueel]]
[[ca:Grua coronada de coll gris]]
[[cs:Jeřáb královský]]
[[de:Südafrika-Kronenkranich]]
[[es:Balearica regulorum]]
[[eo:Grizkrona gruo]]
[[eu:Balearica regulorum]]
[[fr:Grue royale]]
[[it:Balearica regulorum]]
[[he:עגור כתר אפור]]
[[lt:Pilkakuodė gervė]]
[[hu:Szürkenyakú koronásdaru]]
[[nl:Grijze kroonkraan]]
[[ja:ホオジロカンムリヅル]]
[[pl:Koronnik szary]]
[[pt:Grou-coroado-oriental]]
[[ru:Восточный венценосный журавль]]
[[simple:East African Crowned Crane]]
[[fi:Etelänkruunukurki]]
[[sv:Grå krontrana]]
[[ta:மாகேம்]]
[[th:นกกระเรียนมงกุฎเทา]]
[[uk:Журавель вінценосний східний]]
[[vi:Sếu xám hoàng gia]]
[[zh:灰冠鶴]]

Grey crowned crane

2012-08-27T23:04:05Z

Rami radwan: /* Gallery */

{{Taxobox
| name = Grey Crowned Crane
| status = EN | status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref>[http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/143771/0 IUCN Red List], retrieved 03-12-2009</ref>
| image = Balearica regulorum -Tanzania-8.jpg
| image_caption = In [[Tanzania]]
| image_width = 300px
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Gruiformes]]
| familia = [[Gruidae]]
| genus = ''[[Balearica]]''
| species = '''''B. regulorum'''''
| binomial = ''Balearica regulorum''
| binomial_authority = [[Edward Turner Bennett|Bennett]], 1834
}}

The '''Grey Crowned Crane''' (''Balearica regulorum'') is a [[Aves|bird]] in the [[crane (bird)|crane]] family [[Crane (bird)|Gruidae]]. It occurs in dry savannah in [[Africa]] south of the [[Sahara]], although it nests in somewhat wetter [[habitat]]s. This animal does not [[bird migration|migrate]].

There are two [[subspecies]]. The East African '''''B. r. gibbericeps''''' ('''Crested Crane''') occurs from eastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] through [[Uganda]], of which it is the national bird, and [[Kenya]] to eastern [[South Africa]]. It has a larger area of bare red facial skin above the white patch than the smaller nominate species, '''''B. r. regulorum''''' ('''South African Crowned Crane'''), which breeds from [[Angola]] south to South Africa.

This species and the closely related [[Black Crowned Crane]] are the only cranes that can roost in trees, because of a long hind toe that can grasp branches. This habit, amongst other things, is a reason why the relatively small ''Balearica'' cranes are believed to closely resemble the ancestral members of the [[Crane (bird)|Gruidae]].

[[File:Gray Crowned Crane at Zoo Copenhagen.jpg|upright|thumb|left|At [[Copenhagen Zoo]]]]
The Grey Crowned Crane has a breeding display involving dancing, bowing, and jumping. It has a booming call which involves inflation of the red [[gular sac]]. It also makes a honking sound quite different from the trumpeting of other crane species.

The [[bird nest|nest]] is a platform of [[grass]] and other plants in tall wetland vegetation. The Grey Crowned Crane lays a clutch of 2-5 [[bird egg|eggs]]. Incubation is performed by both sexes and lasts 28–31 days. Chicks fledge at 56–100 days.

The Grey Crowned Crane is about 1 m (3.3 ft) tall and weighs 3.5 kg (7.7 lbs). Its body [[plumage]] is mainly grey. The wings are also predominantly white, but contain feathers with a range of colours. The head has a crown of stiff golden [[feather]]s. The sides of the face are white, and there is a bright red inflatable [[throat pouch]]. The [[beak|bill]] is relatively short and grey, and the legs are black. The sexes are similar, although males tend to be slightly larger. Young birds are greyer than adults, with a feathered [[Buff (colour)|buff]] face.

Although the Grey Crowned Crane remains common over much of its [[range (biology)|range]], it faces threats to its habitat due to drainage, overgrazing, and [[pesticide]] pollution. In 2012 it was uplisted from [[Vulnerable]] to [[Endangered]] by the [[IUCN]]<ref>{{cite web|title=Recently recategorised species|url=http://www.birdlife.org/action/science/species/global_species_programme/whats_new.html|publisher=Birdlife International (2012)|accessdate=15 June 2012}}</ref>.

Like all cranes, it feeds on [[insect]]s and other invertebrates, [[reptile]]s, small [[mammal]]s, as well as grass seeds.

The Grey Crowned Crane is the national bird of [[Uganda]] and features in the country's [[Flag of Uganda|flag]] and [[Coat of Arms of Uganda|coat of arms]].

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Balearica regulorum 1 Luc Viatour.jpg
File:Grey crowned crane2.jpg|In Uganda
File:Grey_Crowned_Crane2.jpg|
file:Gray Crowned Cranes.jpg
File:Grey Crowned Crane 2.jpg
File:Grey-crowned_Crane,_Serengeti.jpg|Serengeti, Tanzania
File:Grey Crowned Crane Tanzania.jpg|Serengeti, Tanzania
File:Grey_Crowned_Crane_Maasai_Mara_Kenya_Aug_2012.jpg|Maasai Mara Game Reserve, Kenya, Aug 2012
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}
* {{IUCN2010|assessors=BirdLife International|year=2009|id=143771|title=Balearica regulorum|version=2010.1|downloaded=1 April 2010}} Database entry includes justification for why this species is vulnerable
* Archibald, G. W. 1992a. African cranes for the future. Proc. First S. Afr. Crane Conf.:7-9.
* Gitahi, P. 1993. The bird with the golden crown. Komba 1:5.
* Johnsgard PA. 1983. Cranes of the world. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
* Mafabi, P. 1991. The ecology and conservation status of the Grey Crowned Crane in Uganda. Proc. 1987 Intl. Crane Workshop:363-367.
* Urban, E. K. Status of cranes in Africa, 1994. Proc. 1993 Afr. Crane and Wetland Training Workshop.

==External links==
{{commons|Balearica regulorum}}
{{wikispecies|Balearica regulorum}}
* (Grey) Crowned Crane - [http://sabap2.adu.org.za/docs/sabap1/209.pdf Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds].
*[http://www.gekphotography.com/Other/Louisville-Zoo-3-13-2010/Greg-Zoo-3-13-2010/IMG5043copyLR/809348322_DWzRV-M.jpg East African Crowned Crane]
*[http://www.savingcranes.org/species/grey_crowned.cfm Grey Crowned Crane], International Crane Foundation
*[http://www.impetusinmundum.de/documentation/Album.html?Bildliste=721b2e42-721b2e4d&Region=Crested+Cranes Pictures of Crested Cranes from Uganda]

{{Gruidae}}

[[Category:Balearica]]
[[Category:National symbols of Uganda]]
[[Category:Animals described in 1834]]
[[Category:Birds of Uganda]]

[[af:Mahem]]
[[bg:Сив коронован жерав]]
[[br:Garan roueel]]
[[ca:Grua coronada de coll gris]]
[[cs:Jeřáb královský]]
[[de:Südafrika-Kronenkranich]]
[[es:Balearica regulorum]]
[[eo:Grizkrona gruo]]
[[eu:Balearica regulorum]]
[[fr:Grue royale]]
[[it:Balearica regulorum]]
[[he:עגור כתר אפור]]
[[lt:Pilkakuodė gervė]]
[[hu:Szürkenyakú koronásdaru]]
[[nl:Grijze kroonkraan]]
[[ja:ホオジロカンムリヅル]]
[[pl:Koronnik szary]]
[[pt:Grou-coroado-oriental]]
[[ru:Восточный венценосный журавль]]
[[simple:East African Crowned Crane]]
[[fi:Etelänkruunukurki]]
[[sv:Grå krontrana]]
[[ta:மாகேம்]]
[[th:นกกระเรียนมงกุฎเทา]]
[[uk:Журавель вінценосний східний]]
[[vi:Sếu xám hoàng gia]]
[[zh:灰冠鶴]]

Medium Earth orbit

2012-08-25T22:12:13Z

Rami radwan:

{{redirect|MEO}}
{{Comparison satellite navigation orbits}}
[[File:Orbitalaltitudes.jpg|thumb|To-scale diagram of low, medium and high earth orbits]]
'''Medium Earth orbit (MEO)''', sometimes called '''intermediate circular orbit (ICO)''', is the region of space around the Earth above [[Low Earth Orbit|low Earth orbit]] (altitude of {{convert|2000|km|mi|0}}) and below [[geostationary orbit]] (altitude of {{convert|35786|km|mi|0}}).<ref name=nasa20120718>
{{cite web |title=Definitions of geocentric orbits from the Goddard Space Flight Center |url=http://gcmd.nasa.gov/User/suppguide/platforms/orbit.html |work=User support guide: platforms |publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center |accessdate=2012-07-08 }}</ref>

The most common use for [[satellite]]s in this region is for [[navigation]], [[communication]], and [[geodetic]]/[[space environment]] science.<ref name=nasa20120718/> The most common altitude is approximately {{convert|20200|km|mi|0}}), which yields an orbital period of 12 hours, as used, for example, by the [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS).<ref name=nasa20120718/>
Other satellites in Medium Earth Orbit include [[GLONASS|Glonass]] (with an altitude of {{convert|19100|km|mi|0}}) and [[Galileo positioning system|Galileo]] (with an altitude of {{convert|23222|km|mi|0}}) constellations.{{cn|date=July 2012}}
Communications satellites that cover the North and South Pole are also put in MEO.<ref>[http://www.intelsat.com/resources/satellite-basics/benefits.asp Satellite Basics: Solution Benefits]</ref>

The [[orbital period]]s of MEO satellites range from about 2 to nearly 24 hours.<ref name=nasa20120718/>
[[Telstar]] 1, an experimental satellite launched in 1962, orbits in MEO.<ref>[http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Fall99/Coffey/MEO.HTM Medium Earth Orbit]</ref>

The orbit is home to a number of satellites.<ref name=nasa20120718/>

==See also==
{{Portal box|Spaceflight|Astronomy|Solar System|Space}}
* [[List of orbits]]
* [[Escape velocity]]
* [[Low Earth orbit]] (LEO)
* [[High Earth orbit]] (HEO)
* [[Highly Elliptical Orbit]] (HEO)
* [[Specific orbital energy#Examples|Specific orbital energy examples]]
* [[International Space Station]]
* [[Atmospheric reentry]]
* [[Satellite phone]]
* [[Suborbital spaceflight]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{orbits}}

[[Category:Earth orbits]]
[[ar:مدار أرضي متوسط]]
[[bg:Средна околоземна орбита]]
[[ca:Òrbita terrestre mitjana]]
[[es:Órbita circular intermedia]]
[[fr:Orbite terrestre moyenne]]
[[it:Orbita terrestre media]]
[[he:מסלול לווייני בינוני]]
[[lv:Vidēja Zemes orbīta]]
[[ja:中軌道]]
[[no:MEO]]
[[nn:MEO]]
[[pnb:گھبلازمینی مدار]]
[[pl:Średnia orbita okołoziemska]]
[[tr:Orta Dünya yörüngesi]]
[[ur:وسطی زمینی مدار]]
[[zh:中地球轨道]]

The Little Mermaid

2012-08-25T15:02:42Z

Rami radwan:

{{About|the fairy tale|the Disney film|The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|other uses}}
{{Infobox short story | 
| name = The Little Mermaid
| image = [[File:Edmund Dulac - The Mermaid - The Prince.jpg|200px]]
| caption = The Little Mermaid and the Prince in an illustration by [[Edmund Dulac]].
| title_orig = Danish: ''Den lille havfrue''
| translator =
| image = [[File:Edmund Dulac - The Mermaid - The Prince.jpg|180px]]
| image_caption = [[Edmund Dulac]] illustration
| author = [[Hans Christian Andersen]]
| country = [[Denmark]]
| language = [[Danish language|Danish]]
| series =
| genre = [[Fairy tale]]
| published_in =
| publication_type =
| publisher = C. A. Reitzel
| pub_date = [[1837 in literature|7 April 1837]]
| english_pub_date =
}}

"'''The Little Mermaid'''" ({{lang-da|Den lille havfrue}}, literally: the little seawoman) is a popular [[fairy tale]] by the Danish poet and author [[Hans Christian Andersen]] about a young [[mermaid]] willing to give up her life in the sea and her identity as a mermaid to gain a human soul and the love of a human prince.

Written originally as a [[ballet]], the tale was first published in 1837 and has been adapted to various media including [[The Little Mermaid (musical)|musical theatre]] and [[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|animated film]].

==Plot==

The Little Mermaid lives in an underwater kingdom with her father, the sea king; her grandmother and her five elder sisters, each born one year apart. When a mermaid turns 15, she is allowed to swim to the surface to watch the world above, and as the sisters become old enough, one of them visits the surface every year. As each of them returns, the Little Mermaid listens longingly to their various descriptions of the surface and of human beings.

When the Little Mermaid's turn comes, she ventures to the surface, sees a ship with a handsome prince, and falls in love with him from a distance. A great storm hits and the Little Mermaid saves the prince from nearly drowning. She delivers him unconscious to the shore near a temple. Here she waits until a young girl from the temple finds him. The prince never sees the Little Mermaid.

The Little Mermaid asks her grandmother whether humans can live forever if they do not drown. The grandmother explains that humans have a much shorter lifespan than merfolks' 300 years, but that when mermaids die they turn to sea foam and cease to exist, while humans have an eternal soul that lives on in Heaven. The Little Mermaid, longing for the prince and an eternal soul, eventually visits the Sea Witch, who sells her a potion that gives her legs in exchange for her tongue (as the Little Mermaid has the most intoxicating voice in the world). The Sea Witch warns, however, that once she becomes a human, she will never be able to return to the sea. Drinking the potion will make her feel as if a sword is being passed through her, yet when she recovers she will have two beautiful legs, and will be able to dance like no human has ever danced before. However, it will constantly feel like she is walking on sharp swords hard enough to make her bleed. In addition, she will only get a soul if she finds true love's kiss and if the prince loves her and marries her, for then a part of his soul will flow into her. Otherwise, at dawn on the first day after he marries another woman, the Little Mermaid will die brokenhearted and disintegrate into sea foam.

The Little Mermaid drinks the potion and meets the prince, who is attracted to her beauty and grace even though she is mute. Most of all he likes to see her dance and she dances for him despite her excruciating pain. When the prince's father orders his son to marry the neighboring king's daughter, the prince tells the Little Mermaid he will not because he does not love the princess. He goes on to say he can only love the young woman from the temple, who he believes rescued him. It turns out that the princess is the temple girl, who had been sent to the temple to be educated. The prince loves her and the wedding is announced.

The prince and princess marry, and the Little Mermaid's heart breaks. She thinks of all that she has given up and of all the pain she has suffered. She despairs, thinking of the death that awaits her, but before dawn, her sisters bring her a knife that the Sea Witch has given them in exchange for their long hair. If the Little Mermaid slays the prince with the knife and lets his blood drip on her feet, she will become a mermaid again, all her suffering will end and she will live out her full life.

The Little Mermaid cannot bring herself to kill the sleeping prince lying with his bride and as dawn breaks she throws herself into the sea. Her body dissolves into foam, but instead of ceasing to exist, she feels the warmth of the sun; she has turned into a spirit, a daughter of the air. The other daughters of the air tell her she has become like them because she strove with all her heart to gain an eternal soul. She will earn her own soul by doing good deeds for 300 years; for each good child she finds, one year would be taken from her sentence while for each bad child, she would cry and each tear would mean one day more and she will eventually rise up into the kingdom of God.

==Publication==
"The Little Mermaid" was written in 1836, and first published by C.A. Reitzel in [[Copenhagen, Denmark|Copenhagen]] 7 April 1837 in ''Fairy Tales Told for [[Child]]ren. First Collection. Third Booklet. 1837.'' (''Eventyr, fortalte for Børn. Første Samling. Tredie Hefte. 1837.''). The story was republished 18 December 1849 as a part of ''Fairy Tales. 1850''. (''Eventyr. 1850''), and again 15 December 1862 as a part of ''Fairy Tales and Stories. First Volume. 1862.'' (''Eventyr og Historier. Første Bind. 1862.'').<ref>[http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/register/info_e.html?vid=16 Hans Christian Andersen Center: Hans Christian Andersen: The Little Mermaid]</ref>

==Debate over ending==
[[Image:Mermaid Last Page.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Original manuscript, last page]]

Some scholars consider the last episode with its happy ending to be an unnatural addition. Jacob Bøggild and Pernille Heegaard point out that:
{{Quotation|One of the crucial aspects which any interpretation must confront is the final sequence of the tale, in which the little mermaid, against all odds, is redeemed from immediate damnation and accepted into the spiritual sphere, where the "daughters of the air" reside. In this, she is apparently promised the "immortal soul", which it has been her main motivation to obtain — along with the prince, of course. This ending has baffled critics because the narrative that precedes it points rather to a tragic conclusion than to a happy one.|Jacob Bøggild & Pernille Heegaard|Ambiguity in Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Mermaid|Andersen og Verden [Andersen and the World] (1993)<ref>[http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/forskning/konference/resume_e.html?id=9708 Bøggild, Jacob, & Pernille Heegaard, "Ambiguity in Hans Christian Andersen's The Little Mermaid", published in ''Andersen og Verden'', Odense, 1993]. Via ''Summaries of papers from previous international HCA conferences'', Hans Christian Andersen Center, Institute of Literature, Media and Cultural Studies at the University of South Denmark</ref>}}

Andersen originally ended the tale with the mermaid dissolving, but then later added the "daughters of air" coda, stating that it was his original intention and, in fact, the working title of the story.<ref name="surlalunefairytales.com">[http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/littlemermaid/notes.html Sur La Lune fairy tales, notes on ''The Little Mermaid'']</ref> The daughters of air say they can earn souls simply by doing three hundred years' worth of good deeds, but Andersen later revised it to state that all this depends upon whether children are good or bad. Good behavior takes a year off the maidens' time of service while bad behavior makes them weep and a day is added for every tear they shed. This has come under much criticism from scholars and reviewers, stating that, "This final message is more frightening than any other presented in the tale. The story descends into the Victorian moral tales written for children to scare them into good behavior. [[P. L. Travers]], author of [[Mary Poppins]] and noted folklore commentator, says, 'But a year taken off when a child behaves and a tear shed and a day added whenever a child is naughty? Andersen, this is blackmail. And the children know it and say nothing. There's magnanimity for you' (Travers 1979, 93)."<ref name="surlalunefairytales.com"/><ref>Altmann, Anna E. and Gail deVos, ''Tales, Then and Now: More Folktales as Literary Fictions for Young Adults'' (Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, 2001), pp. 179-183.</ref>

The transformation of the little mermaid from sea creature to mermaid in human form to a creature of the air may reflect Andersen's constant engagement with mutability and changes in identity.<ref>Tatar, Maria, ''The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales'' (New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2002), pp.308.</ref>

The tale itself is considered by some feminists to contain a message about love and self-sacrifice, and the dangers of accepting abuse or inconsiderate treatment in the name of love.<ref>Borges, Virginia, [http://www.endicott-studio.com/rdrm/rrMermaids.html A Million Little Mermaids], article in ''Journal of Mythic Arts'' Summer 2007, webpage found 15 May 2007.</ref><ref>[http://www.onlinedatingbook.co.uk/blog/relationships-and-dating/why-the-story-of-the-little-mermaid-should-be-taught-to-every-single-child Why ''The Little Mermaid'' Should Be Told To Every Child''], webpage found 15 May 2008.</ref>

There are interpretations that suggest the Little Mermaid did not give up everything for love alone. The tale presents a rare heroine with investigative curiosity because she is fascinated by the unknown, the forbidden, and is intent on broadening her horizons from the beginning, exampled by her arranging the flowers in her garden into the shape of the sun, and peeking in through the window of the prince's cabin during his birthday celebrations. She wants, above all, to explore the world and discover things that are beyond what she already knows. The world above, for her, seems larger than her own world and holds a greater range of possibilities to exercise her adventurous spirit. This is demonstrated, in some versions, when the prince has a page boy's costume made for the Little Mermaid so that she may ride on horseback and explore the land with him. This willingness to cross-dress shows signs of her willingness to transgress gender boundaries and take risks to be able to see the world. This also comments on Andersen's interests in changes in identity.<ref>Tatar, Maria, ''The Annotated Classic Fairy Tales'' (New York, NY: W.W. Norton & Company, 2002), pp. 305,311,315,320,323.</ref>

== Psychoanalytic interpretations ==
The story has been interpreted as the difficult liminal passage of the girl into the order of speech and social symbolism (power, politics and agency) which is symbolically understood as masculine.<ref>White, S. (1993) Split Skins, Female Agency and Bodily Mutilation in 'The Little Mermaid in Collins, J & Radner, H. "Film Theory Goes to the Movies".</ref> The artist Pen Dalton has made use of Laura Mulvey's interpretation of fetishism in art<ref>Mulvey, L. (1973) ''Fears, Fantasies and the Male Unconscious or You Don't Know What is Happening, Do You Mr Jones?'' Spare Rib Magazine, reprinted in [[Laura Mulvey]], 2007, "Visual and Other Pleasures"</ref> to link The Little Mermaid story to the wearing of fetishistic clothes, and obsessive cosmetic surgery with masculine fears of loss.

==Adaptations==
* It was first translated into English by H. P. Paull in 1872.
* It was made into an opera entitled [[Rusalka (opera)|Rusalka]], music composed by [[Antonin Dvořák|Dvorak]], first performed in Prague in 1901.
* Austrian composer [[Alexander von Zemlinsky]]'s 40-minute long [[symphonic poem]], ''Die Seejungfrau'' ("The Mermaid"), received its premiere in 1905.
* The 1914 play ''The Garden of Paradise'' written by [[Edward Sheldon]] was adapted from it.
* In 1957, the French composer [[Germaine Tailleferre]] wrote a three-act opera version of ''The Little Mermaid'' (called ''La Petite Sirène'' in French) on a libretto adapted by [[Philippe Soupault]].
* ''[[Classics Illustrated|Classics Illustrated Junior]]'', a 1950s American comic book series, published a version of the tale as issue #525.
* In 1961, ''Shirley Temple Theatre'' broadcast a television version of "The Little Mermaid", starring [[Shirley Temple]] as the Mermaid.
* "Coralina: La Doncella del Mar" starring Dyanik Zurakowska is the first segment of the 1966 Spanish anthology film ''Fantasia...3''.
* In 1966 the story appeared in the live action/stop-motion animated movie "[[The Daydreamer (film)]]" produced by Rankin/Bass. It centers on a young Hans Christian Andersen (played by Paul O'Keefe) and features the voices of [[Burl Ives]] as Father Neptune, [[Hayley Mills]] as The Little Mermaid, and in what would be her last film role [[Tallulah Bankhead]] is the voice of the Sea Witch.
* One of the earliest animated films based on the story was the [[Soviet Union]]'s 29-minute ''[[The Little Mermaid (1968 film)|The Little Mermaid]]'' ({{lang-ru|''Русалочка''}}), released in 1968.
* In 1974, [[Richard Chamberlain]] narrated a [[Reader's Digest]] animated version.
* There are several [[anime]] adaptations of the story, including ''[[Anderusen Dowa Ningyo Hime]]'' (''Andersen's Story: The Mermaid Princess''), a feature film directed by [[Tomoharu Katsumata]] (1975); and the 1991 [[Nippon Hoso Kyokai|NHK]] TV series ''[[Saban's Adventures of the Little Mermaid]]''. There have also been the [[magical girl]] adaptions [[Mahō no Mako-chan]] and [[Mermaid Melody Pichi Pichi Pitch]].
* In 1976, a live-action ''Rusalochka'' (Русалочка), a joint production by the [[USSR]] and [[Bulgaria]], was released. Directed by Vladimir Bychkov, starring Vyctoriya Novikova as the mermaid and Valentin Nikulin.
* Film adaptaption Czech production 1976, ''The little Mermaid'' (''Malá mořská víla''); [[:pl:Miroslava Šafránková|Miroslava Šafránková]]- Mermaid and [[Libuse Safránková]].
* Japanese Jazz-Fusion Band "The Square" (now known as [[T-Square (band)|T-Square]]) wrote and released a song called "Little Mermaid" in 1982, with the album called "Magic".
* In 1987, [[Shelley Duvall]] produced a [[The Little Mermaid (Faerie Tale Theatre episode)|version]] of the story for ''[[Faerie Tale Theatre]]''.
* In 1989, the fairy tale was adapted into an [[animated film]] by the Walt Disney studio called ''[[The Little Mermaid (1989 film)|The Little Mermaid]]''. After which a TV series of the same name followed, also by Disney, taking place before the movie's storyline. In 2000, a sequel titled ''[[The Little Mermaid II: Return to the Sea]]'', concerning the adventures of the Little Mermaid's human daughter Melody, who longs to be a mermaid, was released by [[The Walt Disney Company]]. A prequel was released in 2008 entitled ''[[The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning]]''; the story is set before the events of the original film, in which King Triton has banned music from Atlantica. The movie also explains the absence of the Little Mermaid's mother.
* [[Golden Films]] adapted the story in 1992 as ''[[The Little Mermaid (1992 film)|The Little Mermaid]]''. The production was distributed by [[GoodTimes Entertainment]].
* In the late 1990s, the [[HBO]] series ''[[Happily Ever After: Fairy Tales for Every Child]]'' did an episode based on ''The Little Mermaid''.
* The novel, ''My Love, My Love: Or The Peasant Girl'' by [[Rosa Guy]] is based on the Hans Christian Andersen tale, and inspired the musical ''[[Once on This Island]]'', set in the French Antilles.
* Japanese artist [[Junko Mizuno]] adapted ''The Little Mermaid'' as ''Princess Mermaid'', the third and final part of her "fractured fairy tales".
* In 2004, the animated TV series ''[[Hans Christian Andersen]] [[The Fairytaler]]'' had an episode telling the story of ''The Little Mermaid''.
* The [[Royal Danish Ballet]] commissioned Russian-American composer [[Lera Auerbach]] to create a modern rendition of this fairy tale. It was choreographed by [[John Neumeier]] and premiered on 15 April 2005.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-250257/Performing-Arts#860511.hook ''Britannica Book of the Year 2006'', "Performing Arts, Europe: Dance"]</ref>
* On 28 July 2007, the premiere of Lior Navok's version for actress, two pianos and chamber ensemble/orchestra.<ref>[http://www.liornavok.com/music.asp?name=The+Little+Mermaid+%2D+for+chamber+ensemble+%2F+orchestra&id=75", "Lior Navok's 'The Little Mermaid'"]</ref>
* The Russian movie ''[[Mermaid (2007 film)|Rusalka]]'' (2007) by Anna Melikyan is a modern-day adaptation, set in Russia.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0995747/ "Rusalka (2007)"]</ref>
* On January 10, 2008, the [[The Little Mermaid (musical)|stage version of the Disney film]] opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]].The music in the play is by Alan Meken, lyrics by Howard Ashman and Glenn Slater. Howard Ashman and Alan Maken were also the composing and song writing team for the Disney original flim.

* The 2008 [[Hayao Miyazaki]] film, [[Ponyo|''Ponyo on the Cliff by the Sea'']], was inspired by and based loosely on ''The Little Mermaid''.<ref>{{Cite web|publisher=Walt Disney Studios|url=http://disneydvd.disney.go.com/ponyo.html|title=Ponyo}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|publisher=Sci Fi Wire|title=Legendary animator Miyazaki reveals Ponyo's inspirations|author=Fred Topel|date=12 August 2009}}</ref>
* In 2009, an upcoming movie from the upcoming series, "Tales from H.C. Anderson" will have a shortened version.
* Producers using the software [[Vocaloid]] have made two songs based on ''The Little Mermaid''. One is sung by Luka Megurine and is called 人魚姫/Ningyo Hime (The Little Mermaid). The other is sung by Miku Hatsune, Luka Megurine, Meiko and Kaito and is called リトマメ / Rito Mame (Little Mermaid).
* On March 20, 2010, [[San Francisco Ballet]] performed the United States premier of [[John Neumeier|John Neumeier's]] "The Little Mermaid".
* An episode of the [[anime]] [[Devil May Cry: The Animated Series]] is loosely based on the story of The Little Mermaid, including a narration of part of the story.
* In July 2010, it was announced that director [[Joe Wright]] will helm a live action adaptation of the story.
* In the book "The Mermaid's Madness (2010) by [[Jim C. Hines]] the Mermaid is named Lirea and she is on a quest of revenge on the human prince who denied her advances.
* Korean/Chinese band [[EXO (band)|EXO's]] track titled 'Baby Don't Cry' is based on Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid".
* Japanese visual kei band [[LM.C|LM.C's]] track titled "Ningyo No Namida" (Literally "Tears of the Mermaid") is based loosely on Hans Christian Andersen's "The Little Mermaid".

==The Little Mermaid statue==
[[File:The Little Mermaid statue.jpg|thumb|[[The Little Mermaid (statue)|''The Little Mermaid'' statue]] in [[Copenhagen]], Denmark]]
:{{Main|The Little Mermaid (statue)}}

A [[The Little Mermaid (statue)|statue of the Little Mermaid]] normally sits on a rock in the [[Copenhagen]] harbor in Langelinie. This small and unimposing statue is a Copenhagen icon and a major [[tourist attraction]].

The statue was commissioned in 1909 by [[Carl Jacobsen]], son of the founder of [[Carlsberg Group|Carlsberg]], after he had been fascinated by a ballet about the fairytale. The sculptor [[Edward Eriksen]] created the statue, which was unveiled on 23 August 1913. His wife, [[Eline Eriksen]], was the model. It has been severely vandalized <ref>{{Cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/45721.stm | work=BBC News | title=Feminists claim responsibility for statue attack | accessdate=25 May 2010}}</ref> several times.

In May 2010, it was moved from its Copenhagen harbor emplacement for the first time ever, for transport to [[Expo 2010]] in [[Shanghai]] where it remained until October 20, 2010. In the Disney version of The Little Mermaid when Ariel is sitting on top of the rock looking longingly at Prince Eric, she is in exactly the same position that the statue is in.

== In other languages ==

* [[Albanian language|Albanian]] - '''Sirena e vogel'''
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] - '''الحورية الصغيرة''' - ''Al-houriya As-saghira''
* [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] - '''Малката русалка''' - ''Malkata Rusalka''
* [[Catalan language|Catalan]] - '''La Sireneta'''
* [[Chinese language|Chinese]] - '''小美人鱼''' - ''Xiǎo Měirényú''
* [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] - '''小魚仙'''
* [[Croatian language|Croatian]] - '''Mala Sirena'''
* [[Czech language|Czech]] - '''Malá Mořská Víla'''
* [[Danish language|Danish]] - '''Den Lille Havfrue'''
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]] - '''De kleine zeemeermin'''
* [[English language|English]] - '''The Little Mermaid'''
* [[Estonian language|Estonian]] - '''Väike Merineitsi'''
* [[Filipino language|Filipino]]- '''Ang Munting Sirena'''
* [[Finnish language|Finnish]] - '''Pieni merenneito'''
* [[French language|French]] - '''La Petite Sirène'''
* [[German language|German]] - '''Die Kleine Meerjungfrau'''
* [[Greek language|Greek]] - '''Η Μικρή Γοργόνα''' - ''I Mikrí Gorgóna''
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] - '''בת הים הקטנה''' - ''Bat Hayam Haktana''
* [[Hindi language|Hindi]] - '''छोटी मत्स्यस्त्री''' - ''Chōtī Matsyastrī''
* [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] - '''A kis hableány'''
* [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] - '''Litla Hafmeyjan'''
* [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] - '''Putri Duyung Kecil'''
* [[Irish language|Irish]] - '''An Mhaighdean Mhara Bheag'''
* [[Italian language|Italian]] - '''La Sirenetta'''
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]] - '''人魚姫''' - ''Ningyo Hime'' (literally ''Mermaid Princess'')
* [[Korean language|Korean]] - '''인어 공주'''(人魚公主) - ''In-eo Gongju'' (literally ''Mermaid Princess'')
* [[Latvian language|Latvian]] - '''Nāriņa'''
* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] - '''Undinėlė'''
* [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]] - '''Малата Сирена''' - ''Malata Sirena''
* [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] - '''Puteri Duyung Kecil''' - ''Puteri Duyung Kecil''
* [[Maltese language|Malti]] - '''Is-Sirena ż-żgħira'''
* [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]] - '''Лусын дагина''' - ''Lusiin dagina''
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] - '''Den lille havfrue'''
* [[Persian language|Persian]] - '''پری دریایی کوچولو''' - ''Pari Daryayi-e Kuchulu''
* [[Polish language|Polish]] - '''Mała Syrenka'''
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] - '''A Pequena Sereia'''
* [[Romanian language|Romanian]] - '''Mica Sirenă'''
* [[Russian language|Russian]] - '''Русалочка''' - ''Rusalochka''
* [[Serbian language|Serbian]] - '''Мала сирена''' - ''Mala Sirena''
* [[Slovak language|Slovak]] - '''Malá Morská Víla'''
* [[Slovenian language|Slovenian]] - '''Mala Morska Deklica'''
* [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] - '''පුංචි දියකිඳුරිය ''' - ''Punchi Diyakinduriya''
* [[Swedish language|Swedish]] - '''Den Lilla Sjöjungfrun'''
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]] - '''La Sirenita'''
* [[Thai language|Thai]] - '''เงือกน้อย''' - ''Ngueak Noi''
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]] - '''Küçük Deniz Kızı'''
* [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] - '''Nàng Tiên Cá'''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource|The Little Mermaid}}
{{Commons category}}
* [http://shortstoriesshort.com/story/little-mermaid The Little Mermaid SHORT STORY]
* [http://www.cph-visual.com/guide/the_statue_of_fhe_little_mermaid.php See photos of The Little Mermaid]
* [http://www.andersen.sdu.dk/vaerk/hersholt/TheLittleMermaid_e.html "The Little Mermaid"] Jean Hersholt's English translation
* [http://www.kb.dk/elib/lit/dan/andersen/eventyr.dsl/hcaev008.htm ''Den lille Havfrue''] Original Danish text from the [[Danish Royal Library]]
* [http://museum.odense.dk/andersen/manuskript/visning.asp?inventarnr=HCA/XVIII-58-A&sprog=engelsk ''Den lille havfrue''] Original manuscript (Odense City Museum)
* [http://www.surlalunefairytales.com/littlemermaid/index.html Surlalune: Annotated "The Little Mermaid"] Paull's translation, with annotations, scans from six illustrated editions, bibliography.

{{Hans Christian Andersen}}



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[[da:Den lille Havfrue (eventyr)]]
[[de:Die kleine Meerjungfrau (Märchen)]]
[[et:Väike merineitsi]]
[[es:La sirenita]]
[[fa:پری دریایی کوچولو (داستان)]]
[[fr:La Petite Sirène (Andersen)]]
[[gl:A sereíña]]
[[ko:인어공주]]
[[is:Litla hafmeyjan]]
[[it:La sirenetta (fiaba)]]
[[he:בת הים הקטנה]]
[[la:Sirenella]]
[[hu:A kis hableány]]
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[[ja:人魚姫]]
[[no:Den lille havfrue (eventyr)]]
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[[pt:A Pequena Sereia]]
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[[zh-yue:人魚公主]]
[[zh:美人魚 (童話)]]

The Nation

2012-08-24T20:57:40Z

Rami radwan:

{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2012}}
{{about|the U.S. magazine|other uses|Nation (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Magazine
| title = The Nation
| image_file = The Nation magazine cover May 3 2010.png
| image_size = 220px
| image_caption = ''The Nation'', cover dated May 3, 2010
| editor = [[Katrina vanden Heuvel]]
| editor_title = Editor
| previous_editor = [[Victor Navasky]] [[Norman Thomas]] (associate editor) [[Carey McWilliams (journalist)|Carey McWilliams]] [[Freda Kirchwey]]
| staff_writer =
| frequency = Weekly
| total_circulation = 140,787<ref>{{cite web |url=http://abcas3.accessabc.com/ecirc/magtitlesearch.asp |title= eCirc for Consumer Magazines |date= June 30, 2011 |publisher= [[Audit Bureau of Circulations (North America)|Audit Bureau of Circulations]]|accessdate=December 1, 2011}}</ref>
| circulation_year = 2012
| category = Political, [[Progressivism|Progressive]], Liberalism
| company = The Nation Company, L.P.
| publisher = [[Katrina vanden Heuvel]]
| firstdate = July 6, 1865
| country = United States
| based = New York City
| website = [http://www.thenation.com/ TheNation.com]
| issn = 0027-8378
}}

'''''The Nation''''' is the oldest continuously published weekly magazine in the United States. The [[periodical]], devoted to politics and culture, is self-described as "the flagship of the [[left-wing politics|left]]."<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/dp/B000CNEFRE/ Publisher's description] on [[Amazon.com]] page about ''The Nation''. Retrieved June 27, 2006.</ref> Founded on July 6, 1865, it is published by The Nation Company, L.P., at 33 Irving Place, New York City.<ref>"[http://www.thenation.com/about-and-contact About and Contact]." ''The Nation''. Retrieved on September 6, 2011. "Mailing Address: 33 Irving Place New York, New York 10003"</ref>

''The Nation'' has bureaus in Washington, D.C., London and South Africa, with departments covering architecture, art, corporations, [[Defense (military)|defense]], [[Natural environment|environment]], films, [[Law|legal affairs]], music, [[peace]] and [[disarmament]], poetry and the United Nations. Circulation peaked at 187,000 in 2006 but by 2010 had dropped back to 145,000 in print, though digital subscriptions had risen to over 15,000.<ref name="NYT1">[http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/08/business/media/08nation.html?_r=1&ref=business "Bad News for Liberals May be Good News for a Liberal Magazine"], by Jeremy W. Peters, New York Times, November 8, 2010</ref> Print ad pages declined by 5% from 2009 to 2010, while digital advertising rose 32.8% from 2009–10.<ref>{{cite web|author=Steve Cohn |url=http://www.minonline.com/news/min-Correction-The-Nation-Only-Down-Slightly-in-Print-Ad-Sales-Up-in-Web_15730.html |title=min Correction: The Nation Only Down Slightly in Print Ad Sales, Up in Web |publisher=MinOnline |accessdate=2011-12-03}}</ref> Advertising accounts for 10% of total revenue for the magazine, while circulation totals 60%.<ref name="NYT1" /> ''The Nation'' has lost money in all but three or four years of operation and is sustained in part by a group of more than 30,000 donors called The Nation Associates, who donate funds to the periodical above and beyond their annual subscription fees.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} This program accounts for 30% of the total revenue for the magazine. An annual cruise also generates $200,000 for the magazine.<ref name="NYT1" />

==Mission==
According to ''The Nation'''s founding prospectus of 1865, "''The Nation'' will not be the organ of any party, sect, or body. It will, on the contrary, make an earnest effort to bring to the discussion of political and social questions a really critical spirit, and to wage war upon the vices of violence, exaggeration and misrepresentation by which so much of the political writing of the day is marred."

==History==

''The Nation'' was established in July 1865 on "[[Park Row (Manhattan)|Newspaper Row]]" at 130 Nassau Street in [[Manhattan]]. The publisher was Joseph H. Richards, and the editor was [[Edwin Lawrence Godkin]], an immigrant from [[England]] who had formerly worked as a correspondent of the London ''Daily News.''<ref>John Bassett Moore, "Proceedings at the Semi-Centennial Dinner: The Biltmore, April 19, 1917." ''The Nation,'' vol. 104, no. 2704 (April 27, 1917), section 2, pp. 502-503.</ref> Godkin, a [[classical liberal]], sought to establish what one sympathetic commentator later characterized as "an organ of opinion characterized in its utterance by breadth and deliberation, an organ which should identify itself with causes, an which should give its support to parties primarily as representative of these causes."<ref name=Moore503>Moore, "Proceedings at the Semi-Centennial Dinner," pg. 503.</ref>

Among the causes supported by the publication in its earliest days was civil service reform — moving the basis of government employment from a [[political patronage]] system to a professional bureaucracy based upon [[meritocracy]].<ref name=Moore503 /> ''The Nation'' also was preoccupied with the reestablishment of a sound national currency in the years after the [[American Civil War]], arguing that a stable currency was necessary to restore the economic stability of the nation.<ref>Moore, "Proceedings at the Semi-Centennial Dinner," pp. 503-504.</ref> Closely related to this was the publication's advocacy of the elimination of [[protective tariffs]] in favor of lower prices of consumer goods associated with a [[free trade]] system.<ref name=Moore504>Moore, "Proceedings at the Semi-Centennial Dinner," pg. 504.</ref>

[[Wendell Phillips Garrison]], son of [[William Lloyd Garrison]], was Literary Editor from 1865 to 1906. The magazine would stay at Newspaper Row for 90 years.

In 1881, newspaperman-turned-railroad-baron [[Henry Villard]] acquired ''The Nation'' and converted it into a weekly literary supplement for his daily newspaper the ''New York Evening Post''. The offices of the magazine were moved to the ''Evening Post'''s headquarters at 210 Broadway. The ''New York Evening Post'' would later morph into a tabloid; the ''[[New York Post]]'' was a left-leaning afternoon tabloid under owner [[Dorothy Schiff]] from 1939 to 1976 and, since then, has been a [[conservatism in the United States|conservative]] tabloid owned by [[Rupert Murdoch]], while ''The Nation'' became known for its markedly liberal (and sometimes leftist) politics.

In 1900, Henry Villard's son, [[Oswald Garrison Villard]], inherited the magazine and the ''Evening Post'', selling off the latter in 1918. Thereafter, he remade ''The Nation'' into a [[current affairs (news format)|current affairs]] publication and gave it an anti-classical liberal orientation: Oswald Villard welcomed the New Deal and supported the nationalization of industries – thus reversing the meaning of "liberalism" as the founders of "The Nation" would have understood the term, from a belief in a smaller and more restricted government to a belief in a larger and less restricted government. Villard's takeover prompted the FBI to monitor the magazine for roughly 50 years. The FBI had a file on Villard from 1915. Villard sold the magazine in 1935. It became a nonprofit in 1943.

Almost every editor of ''The Nation'' from Villard's time to the 1970s was looked at for "subversive" activities and ties.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kimball |first=Penn |title=The History of ''The Nation'' According to the FBI |journal=The Nation |date=22 March 1986 |pages=399–426 |publisher=The Nation Company L.P. |location=New York, New York |issn=0027-8378}}</ref> When [[Albert Jay Nock]], not long later, published a column criticizing [[Samuel Gompers]] and trade unions for being complicit in the [[war machine]] of the [[First World War]], ''The Nation'' was briefly suspended from the U.S. mail.<ref>{{cite journal| author = Wreszin, Michael | year = 1969 | title = Albert Jay Nock and the Anarchist Elitist Tradition in America | journal = [[American Quarterly]] | volume = 21 | issue = 2 | pages = 165–189 | doi = 10.2307/2711573| publisher = The Johns Hopkins University Press| jstor = 2711573}} p. 173. Wreszin remarks, "It was probably the only time any publication was suppressed in America for attacking a labor leader, but the suspension seemed to document Nock's charges."</ref>

During the late 1940s and again in the early 1950s, a merger was discussed by The Nation's [[Freda Kirchwey]] (later [[Carey McWilliams (journalist)|Carey McWilliams]]) and The New Republic's [[Michael Straight]]. The two magazines were very similar at that time—both were left of center, ''The Nation'' further left than ''TNR''; both had circulations around 100,000, ''TNR'' had a slightly higher circulation; and both lost money—and it was thought that the two magazines could unite and make the most powerful journal of opinion.

During this period, [[Paul Blanshard]] was an Associate Editor of ''The Nation'' and served during the 1950s as its Special Correspondent in [[Uzbekistan]]. His most famous writing was a series of articles attacking the Roman Catholic Church in America as a dangerous, powerful, and undemocratic institution.

The new publication would have been called ''The Nation and New Republic''. Kirchwey was the most hesitant, and both attempts to merge failed. The two magazines would later take very different paths, with ''The Nation'' having a higher circulation and ''The New Republic'' moving more to the right.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Navasky |first=Victor S. |title=The Merger that Wasn't |journal=The Nation |date=1 January 1990 |publisher=The Nation Company L.P. |location=New York, New York |issn=0027-8378}}</ref>

In June 1979, new ''Nation'' publisher [[Hamilton Fish V|Hamilton Fish]] and then-editor [[Victor Navasky]] moved the weekly to 72 [[Fifth Avenue (Manhattan)|Fifth Avenue]]. In June 1998, the periodical had to move to make way for [[condominium]] development. The offices of ''The Nation'' are now at 33 Irving Place in the [[Gramercy, Manhattan|Gramercy]] neighborhood.

In 1977, Hamilton Fish V bought the magazine and, in 1985, sold it to [[Arthur L. Carter]], who had made a fortune as a founding partner of [[Carter, Berlind, Potoma & Weill|Cogan, Berlind, Weill & Levitt]].

In 1995, Victor Navasky bought the magazine and, in 1996, became publisher.

[[Katrina vanden Heuvel]] is the editor and publisher of the Nation as of 2010.<ref name="NYT1" />

==Controversy==
In 1989 ''The Nation'' published a lighthearted and positive portrayal of child [[sex slavery]] in [[Haiti]]. The author "was friendly with a charming and cultivated American priest who educated lads for export. The image of Father Martin in his robes--with his company of smiling acolytes, in uniform white cotton shorts, serving in the garden--stayed in my mind." The author reports that one [[pedophile]] "was beaming at the fun that was preceding the orgy ... maybe foreplay wasn't so bad when it just happened naturally." However, the author felt "embarrassed" and claims that he himself did not partake in any pederasty.<ref>http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-8180313.html</ref> In 2009 Mary Eberstadt criticized this article in her review "How Pedophilia Lost Its Cool".<ref>http://www.firstthings.com/article/2009/11/how-pedophilia-lost-its-cool</ref>

The [[Anti-Defamation League]] criticised the journal for allowing advertisements from the [[Institute for Historical Review]], which promotes [[Holocaust denial]]; ''The Nation'' vowed to not let it happen again.<ref>Foxman, Abraham H., [http://www.adl.org/media_watch/magazines/20040421-The+Nation.htm ADL Letter to The Nation], April 21, 2004.</ref>

==Notable contributors==
The publisher and editor is [[Katrina vanden Heuvel]]. Former editors include Victor Navasky, [[Norman Thomas]] (associate editor), [[Carey McWilliams (journalist)|Carey McWilliams]], and [[Freda Kirchwey]], the subject of a biography by the feminist historian [[Sara Alpern]].

Notable contributors have included [[Albert Einstein]], [[Albert J. Nock]], [[Franz Boas]], [[Patrick Buchanan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://live.thenation.com/archive/detail/13070747 |title=The Pen That Just Grew (The Nation, November 16, 1964) |publisher=Live.thenation.com |accessdate=2010-04-28}}</ref> [[Martin Luther King Jr.]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Barbara Garson]], [[H. L. Mencken]], [[Gore Vidal]], [[Edward Said]], [[Arthur Danto]], [[Christopher Hitchens]], [[Hunter S. Thompson]], [[Langston Hughes]], [[Ralph Nader]], [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], [[Kai Bird]], [[Clement Greenberg]], [[Tom Hayden]], [[Daniel Singer (journalist)|Daniel Singer]], [[I.F. Stone]], [[Studs Terkel]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[George Orwell]], [[Henry Miller]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], [[James K. Galbraith]], [[John Steinbeck]], [[Barbara Tuchman]], [[T. S. Eliot]], [[Kurt Vonnegut]], [[Robert Frost]], [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], [[Hannah Arendt]], [[Ezra Pound]], [[Henry James]], [[Charles Sanders Peirce]],<ref>Over 300 of Peirce's reviews and pieces published in 1869–1908 in ''The Nation'' were reprinted together in ''[[Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography#CN|Charles Sanders Peirce: Contributions to The Nation]]'', v. 1–4, Kenneth Laine Ketner and James Edward Cook, eds., Texas Technological University Press, Lubbock, Texas, 1975–87. Out of print except [http://www.nlx.com/collections/96 online via InteLex].</ref> [[Jean-Paul Sartre]], [[John Maynard Keynes]],<ref>[http://www.nndb.com/people/248/000024176/ NNDB John Maynard Keynes article], "from 1925 he was also a frequent contributor to The Nation, America's long-running leftist magazine."</ref> [[Naomi Klein]], [[Alexander Cockburn]], [[Tariq Ali]], [[Michael Naumann]], [[Stuart Chase]], and poet [[John Beecher]].

==Regular columns==
The magazine runs a number of regular columns. The longest-running of these contributors had written their columns for over 20 years.
*''Sister Citizen'' by [[Melissa Harris-Perry]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenation.com/columns/sister-citizen |title=Sister Citizen |publisher=The Nation |accessdate=2011-12-03}}</ref>
*''Beat the Devil'' by [[Alexander Cockburn]]
*''The Liberal Media'' by [[Eric Alterman]]
*''Diary of a Mad Law Professor'' by [[Patricia J. Williams]]
*''Subject to Debate'' by [[Katha Pollitt]]
*''Beneath the Radar'' by [[Gary Younge]]
*''Look Out'' by [[Naomi Klein]]
*''Deadline Poet'' by [[Calvin Trillin]]
*''The Nation [[cryptic crossword]]'' by [[Frank W. Lewis]]
*''Minority Report'' (1982 to 2002) by [[Christopher Hitchens]]
*''Dispatches'' (1984–87) by [[Max Holland]] and Kai Bird<ref name="Hiar">{{cite web|url=http://corbinhiar.wordpress.com/2009/04/24/kai-bird-the-nations-foreign-editor/|title=Kai Bird: The Nation’s Foreign Editor|last=Hiar|first=Corbin|date=24 April 2009|work=Hiar learning|publisher=Wordpress|accessdate=April 24, 2010}}</ref>

==Editorial board==
In 2008, ''The Nation'' editorial board was composed of Deepak Bhargava, [[Norman Birnbaum]], [[Barbara Ehrenreich]], [[Richard Falk]], [[Frances FitzGerald (journalist)|Frances FitzGerald]], [[Eric Foner]], [[Philip Green (author)|Philip Green]], [[Lani Guinier]], Tom Hayden, [[Randall Kennedy]], [[Tony Kushner]], Elinor Langer, [[Deborah Meier]], [[Toni Morrison]], Victor Navasky, [[Pedro Antonio Noguera]], [[Richard Parker (economist)|Richard Parker]], [[Michael Pertschuk]], [[Elizabeth Pochoda]], [[Marcus Raskin|Marcus G. Raskin]], [[Andrea Batista Schlesinger]], [[David Weir (journalist)|David Weir]], and [[Roger Wilkins]].

==See also==
{{Portalbox|New York City|Journalism}}
* [[The American Prospect]]
* [[The Atlantic]]
* [[Commentary (magazine)]]
* [[Dissent (magazine)]]
* [[Mother Jones (magazine)]]
* [[The New Republic]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.thenation.com ''The Nation'' website]
*[http://www.thenation.com/archive/ ''The Nation'' digital archive]
*[http://www.thenation.com/masthead ''The Nation'' masthead]
*[http://associates.thenation.com/ The Nation Associates home page]

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[[Category:Modern liberal American magazines]]
[[Category:American weekly magazines]]
[[Category:Companies based in New York City]]
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Post-structuralism

2012-08-24T09:30:25Z

Rami radwan:

{{for|the application of this theory to international relations|Post-structuralism (international relations)}}
{{Philosophy-sidebar}}{{Semiotics}}{{Postmodernism}}
'''Post-structuralism''' is a label formulated by American academics to denote the heterogeneous works of a series of French intellectuals who came to international prominence in the 1960s and '70s.<ref name="Bensmaia05">Bensmaïa, Réda ''Poststructuralism'', article published in [[Lawrence D. Kritzman|Kritzman, Lawrence]] (ed.) ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bREQibN9i-sC The Columbia History of Twentieth-Century French Thought]'', Columbia University Press, 2005, pp.92-93</ref><ref name="Poster88">[[Mark Poster]] (1988) [http://books.google.com/books?id=-OnWAAAAMAAJ ''Critical theory and poststructuralism: in search of a context''], section ''Introduction: Theory and the problem of Context'', pp.5-6</ref> The label primarily encompasses the intellectual developments of prominent mid-[[20th-century French philosophy|20th-century French]] and [[continental philosophy|continental philosophers]] and theorists.<ref name="Merquior1987">Merquior, J.G. (1987). Foucault ([[Fontana Modern Masters]] series), University of California Press, ISBN 0-520-06062-8.</ref> Poststructuralism denies the possibility of a truly scientific study of "man" or of "human nature". It disintegrates [[metanarrative]]s of historical progress -- the idea that the gradual movement out of superstition and into reason is a necessary condition of man's being (see [[dialectical materialism]]).

Post-structuralism is a response to [[structuralism]]. Structuralism is an intellectual movement developed in Europe from the early to mid-20th century. It argued that human culture may be understood by means of a structure-—modeled on language (i.e., [[structural linguistics]])—that is distinct both from the organizations of reality and the organization of ideas and imagination—a "third order".<ref>[[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze, Gilles]]. 2002. "How Do We Recognise Structuralism?" In ''Desert Islands and Other Texts 1953-1974.'' Trans. David Lapoujade. Ed. Michael Taormina. Semiotext(e) Foreign Agents ser. Los Angeles and New York: Semiotext(e), 2004. 170-192. ISBN 1-58435-018-0. p.171-173.</ref> The precise nature of the revision or critique of structuralism differs with each post-structuralist author, though common themes include the rejection of the self-sufficiency of the structures that structuralism posits and an interrogation of the [[binary opposition]]s that constitute those structures.<ref>Craig, Edward, ed. 1998. ''Routledge Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.'' Vol. 7 (Nihilism to Quantum mechanics). London and New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-18712-5. p.597.</ref> Writers whose work is often characterised as post-structuralist include [[Jacques Derrida]], [[Michel Foucault]], [[Gilles Deleuze]], [[Judith Butler]], and [[Julia Kristeva]].

The movement is closely related to [[postmodernism]]. As with structuralism, [[antihumanism]] is often a central tenet. [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|Existential phenomenology]] is a significant influence; Colin Davis has argued that post-structuralists might just as accurately be called "post-phenomenologists".<ref>Davis, Colin; "Levinas: An Introduction"; p8; 2006; Continuum, London.</ref>

Some commentators{{who|date=August 2012}} have criticized poststructuralism for being radically [[Relativism|relativistic]] or [[nihilism|nihilistic]]; others{{who|date=August 2012}} have objected to its extremity and linguistic complexity. Others{{who|date=August 2012}} see it as a threat to traditional values or professional scholarly standards. Many theorists{{who|date=August 2012}} who have been called "post-structuralist" have rejected the label.<ref>Harrison, Paul; 2006; "Post-structuralist Theories"; pp122-135 in Aitken, S. and Valentine, G. (eds); 2006; ''Approaches to Human Geography''; Sage, London</ref>

==Theory==
=== General practices ===
Post-structural practices generally operate on some basic assumptions:

* Post-structuralists hold that the concept of "[[Self (philosophy)|self]]" as a separate, singular, and coherent entity is a fictional construct. Instead, an individual comprises tensions between conflicting knowledge claims (e.g. gender, race, class, profession, etc.). Therefore, to properly study a text a reader must understand how the work is related to his or her own personal concept of self. This self-perception plays a critical role in one's interpretation of meaning. While different thinkers' views on the self (or the subject) vary, it is often said to be constituted by discourse(s). [[Lacan]]'s account includes a psychoanalytic dimension, while [[Derrida]] stresses the effects of power on the self. This is thought to be a component of post-modernist theory.

* The author's intended meaning, such as it is (for the author's identity as a stable "self" with a single, discernible "intent" is also a fictional construct), is secondary to the meaning that the reader perceives. Post-structuralism rejects the idea of a literary text having a single purpose, a single meaning, or one singular existence. Instead, every individual reader creates a new and individual purpose, meaning, and existence for a given text. To step outside of literary theory, this position is generalizable to any situation where a subject perceives a sign. Meaning (or the [[Course in General Linguistics|signified]], in [[Ferdinand de Saussure|Saussure]]'s scheme, which is as heavily presumed upon in post-structuralism as in structuralism) is constructed by an individual from a [[Course in General Linguistics|signifier]]. This is why the signified is said to 'slide' under the signifier, and explains the talk about the "primacy of the signifier."

* A post-structuralist critic must be able to use a variety of perspectives to create a multifaceted interpretation of a text, even if these interpretations conflict with one another. It is particularly important to analyze how the meanings of a text shift in relation to certain variables, usually involving the identity of the reader (for example: class, racial, or sexual identity).

=== [[:wikt:destabilize|Destabilized]] [[Meaning (philosophy of language)|meaning]] ===

In the post-structuralist approach to [[textual analysis]], the reader replaces the author as the primary subject of inquiry. This displacement is often referred to as the "destabilizing" or "decentering" of the author, though it has its greatest effect on the text itself. Without a central fixation on the author, post-structuralists examine other sources for meaning (e.g., readers, cultural norms, other literature, etc.). These alternative sources are never authoritative, and promise no consistency.

In his essay "Signification and Sense," [[Emmanuel Levinas]] remarked on this new field of [[semantic]] inquiry:

{{Quotation|...language refers to the position of the listener and the speaker, that is, to the contingency of their story. To seize by inventory all the contexts of language and all possible positions of interlocutors is a senseless task. Every verbal signification lies at the confluence of countless semantic rivers. Experience, like language, no longer seems to be made of isolated elements lodged somehow in a Euclidean space... [Words] signify from the "world" and from the position of one who is looking.|Levinas, ''Signification and Sense'', Humanism of the Other| tr. Nidra Poller<ref>Levinas, Emmanuel. ''Humanism of the Other''. Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2003. p. 11-12.</ref>}}

=== [[Deconstruction]] ===

A major theory associated with Structuralism was [[binary opposition]]. This theory proposed that there are certain theoretical and conceptual opposites, often arranged in a hierarchy, which human logic has given to text. Such binary pairs could include Enlightenment/Romantic, male/female, speech/writing, rational/emotional, signifier/signified, symbolic/imaginary.

Post-structuralism rejects the notion of the essential quality of the dominant relation in the hierarchy, choosing rather to expose these relations and the dependency of the dominant term on its apparently [[:wikt:subservient|subservient]] counterpart. The only way to properly understand these meanings is to deconstruct the [[:wikt:assumption|assumptions]] and knowledge systems which produce the illusion of singular meaning. This « deconstruction » can be used to explain how male can become female, how speech can become writing, and how rational can become emotional.{{clarification needed|date=June 2012}}

== Post-structuralism and structuralism ==
[[Structuralism]] was an intellectual movement in France in the 1950s and 1960s that studied the underlying structures in cultural products (such as texts) and used analytical concepts from linguistics, psychology, anthropology, and other fields to interpret those structures. It emphasized the logical and scientific nature of its results.

Post-structuralism offers a way of studying how knowledge is produced and critiques structuralist premises. It argues that because history and culture condition the study of underlying structures, both are subject to biases and misinterpretations. A post-structuralist approach argues that to understand an object (e.g., a text), it is necessary to study both the object itself and the systems of knowledge that produced the object.

=== Historical vs. descriptive view ===

Post-structuralists generally assert that post-structuralism is historical, and they classify structuralism as descriptive. This terminology relates to [[Ferdinand de Saussure|Ferdinand de Saussure's]] distinction between the views of [[historical linguistics|historical (diachronic)]] and [[descriptive linguistics|descriptive (synchronic)]] reading. From this basic distinction, post-structuralist studies often emphasize history to analyze descriptive concepts. By studying how cultural concepts have changed over time, post-structuralists seek to understand how those same concepts are understood by readers in the present. For example, Michel Foucault's ''[[Madness and Civilization]]'' is both a history and an inspection of cultural attitudes about madness. The theme of history in modern [[Continental philosophy|Continental]] thought can be linked to such influences as [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]'s ''[[On the Genealogy of Morals]]'' and [[Martin Heidegger]]'s ''[[Being and Time]]''.

Structuralists also seek to understand the historical interpretation of cultural concepts, but focus their efforts on understanding how those concepts were understood by the author in his or her own time, rather than how they may be understood by the reader in the present.

=== Scholars between both movements ===
The uncertain distance between structuralism and post-structuralism is further blurred by the fact that scholars generally do not label themselves as post-structuralists. Some scholars associated with structuralism, such as [[Roland Barthes]], also became noteworthy in post-structuralism. Three of the most prominent post-structuralists were first counted among the so-called "Gang of Four" of structuralism par excellence: [[Jacques Lacan]], [[Roland Barthes]], and [[Michel Foucault]]. The works of [[Jacques Derrida]], [[Gilles Deleuze]], and [[Julia Kristeva]] are also counted as prominent examples of post-structuralism.

The critical reading carried out by these thinkers sought to find contradictions that an author includes, supposedly inevitably, in his work. Those inconsistencies are used to show that the interpretation and criticism of any literature is in the hands of the reader and includes that reader's own cultural biases and assumptions. While many structuralists first thought that they could tease out an author's intention by close scrutiny, they soon argued that textual analysis discovered so many disconnections that it was obvious that their own experiences lent a view that was unique to them.

Some observers from outside the post-structuralist camp have questioned the rigor and legitimacy of the field. American philosopher [[John Searle]]<ref>Searle, John. (1990). "[http://www.ditext.com/searle/searle1.html The Storm Over the University]," in The [[New York Times Review of Books]], 06 December 1990.</ref> argued in 1990 that "The spread of 'poststructuralist' literary theory is perhaps the best known example of a silly but noncatastrophic phenomenon." Similarly, physicist [[Alan Sokal]]<ref>Sokal, Alan. (1997) "[http://www.physics.nyu.edu/faculty/sokal/le_monde_english.html Professor Latour's Philosophical Mystifications]," originally published in French in ''[[Le Monde]]'', 31 January 1997; translated by the author.</ref> in 1997 criticized "the postmodernist/poststructuralist gibberish that is now [[hegemonic]] in some sectors of the American academy." Literature scholar Norman Holland argued that post-structuralism was flawed due to reliance on Saussure's linguistic model, which was seriously challenged by the 1950s and was soon abandoned by linguists: "Saussure's views are not held, so far as I know, by modern linguists, only by literary critics and the occasional philosopher. [Strict adherence to Saussure] has elicited wrong film and literary theory on a grand scale. One can find dozens of books of literary theory bogged down in signifiers and signifieds, but only a handful that refer to [[Chomsky]]."<ref>Holland, Norman N. (1992) The Critical I, Columbia University Press, ISBN ISBN 0-231-07650-9, p. 140.</ref>

==Etymology==
Some have argued that the term "post-structuralism" arose in [[Anglo-America]]n academia as a means of grouping together continental philosophers who rejected the methods and assumptions of [[analytical philosophy]].{{citation needed|date=June 2012}}

== History ==
Post-structuralism emerged in [[France]] during the 1960s as an [[antinomian]] movement critiquing [[structuralism]]. According to [[José Guilherme Merquior|J.G. Merquior]]<ref name="Merquior1987"/> a [[love–hate relationship]] with structuralism developed amongst many leading French thinkers in the 1960s.

The period was marked by political anxiety, as students and workers alike rebelled against the state in May 1968, nearly causing the downfall of the French government. At the same time, however, the support of the [[French Communist Party]] (FCP) for the oppressive policies of the [[USSR]] contributed to popular disillusionment with [[orthodox Marxism]]. As a result, there was increased interest in alternative radical philosophies, including [[feminism]], [[western Marxism]], [[anarchism]], [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]], and [[nihilism]]. These disparate perspectives, which Michel Foucault later labeled "subjugated knowledges,"  were all linked by being critical of dominant Western philosophy and culture. Post-structuralism offered a means of justifying these criticisms, by exposing the underlying assumptions of many Western norms.

Two key figures in the early post-structuralist movement were [[Jacques Derrida]] and [[Roland Barthes]]. In a 1966 lecture "Structure, Sign and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences", Jacques Derrida presented a thesis on an apparent rupture in intellectual life. Derrida interpreted this event as a "decentering" of the former intellectual cosmos. Instead of progress or divergence from an identified centre, Derrida described this "event" as a kind of "play."

Although Barthes was originally a structuralist, during the 1960s he increasingly favored post-structuralist views. In 1967, Barthes published [[Death of the author|“The Death of the Author”]] in which he announced a metaphorical event: the "death" of the author as an authentic source of meaning for a given text. Barthes argued that any literary text has multiple meanings, and that the author was not the prime source of the work's semantic content. The "Death of the Author," Barthes maintained, was the "Birth of the Reader," as the source of the proliferation of meanings of the text.

In a 1976 lecture series, Foucault briefly summarized the general impetus of the post-structuralist movement:

{{Quotation|...For the last ten or fifteen years, the immense and proliferating criticizability of things, institutions, practices, and discourses; a sort of general feeling that the ground was crumbling beneath our feet, especially in places where it seemed most familiar, most solid, and closest to us, to our bodies, to our everyday gestures. But alongside this crumbling and the astonishing efficacy of discontinuous, particular, and local critiques, the facts were also revealing something... beneath this whole thematic, through it and even within it, we have seen what might be called the insurrection of subjugated knowledges.|Foucault, ''Society Must be Defended'', 7th January 1976| tr. [[David Macey]]<ref name="Foucault2003">{{cite book|author=Michel Foucault|title="Society Must Be Defended": Lectures at the Collège de France, 1975-1976|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=lVJ9lVQV0o8C&pg=PR9|accessdate=24 July 2012|year=2003|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-312-20318-4|pages=6-7}}</ref>}}

Post-structuralist philosophers like Derrida and Foucault did not form a self-conscious group, but each responded to the traditions of [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] and [[structuralism]]. Phenomenology, often associated with two German philosophers [[Edmund Husserl]] and [[Martin Heidegger]], rejected previous systems of knowledge and attempted to examine life "just as it appears" (as phenomena).<ref>Colebrook, Claire. "Deleuze," Routledge Critical Thinkers, 2002</ref> Both movements rejected the idea that knowledge could be centred on the human knower, and sought what they considered a more secure foundation for knowledge.<ref name="Colebrook">Colebrook 2002, pp. 2-4</ref>

In phenomenology this foundation would be experience itself; in structuralism, knowledge was to be founded on the "structures" that make experience possible: concepts, and language or signs. Post-structuralism, in turn, argued that founding knowledge either on pure experience (phenomenology) or systematic structures (structuralism) was impossible. This impossibility was meant not to be a failure or loss, but a cause for "celebration and liberation."<ref name="Colebrook" />

== Major works ==
===Eco and the open text===
When ''The Open Work'' was written by [[Umberto Eco]] (1962) it was in many (or all) senses post-structuralist. The influence of this work is, however, complex: Eco worked closely with Barthes, and in the second Preface to the book (1967), Eco explicitly states his post-structuralist position and the assonance{{Clarify|date=February 2010}} with his friend's position. The entire book is a critique of a certain concept of "structure" and "form," giving to the reader a strong power in understanding the text. {{Citation needed|date=September 2008}}

===Barthes and the need for metalanguage===
Although many may have felt the necessity to move beyond structuralism, there was clearly no consensus on how this ought to occur. Much of the study of post-structuralism is based on the common critiques of structuralism. [[Roland Barthes]] is of great significance with respect to post-structuralist theory. In his work, ''Elements of Semiology'' (1967), he advanced the concept of the "[[metalanguage]]". A metalanguage is a systematized way of talking about concepts like meaning and grammar beyond the constraints of a traditional (first-order) language; in a metalanguage, symbols replace words and phrases. Insofar as one metalanguage is required for one explanation of first-order language, another may be required, so metalanguages may actually replace first-order languages. Barthes exposes how this structuralist system is regressive; orders of language rely upon a metalanguage by which it is explained, and therefore [[deconstruction]] itself is in danger of becoming a metalanguage, thus exposing all languages and discourse to scrutiny. Barthes' other works contributed deconstructive theories about texts.

=== Derrida's lecture at Johns Hopkins ===
The occasional designation of post-structuralism as a movement can be tied to the fact that mounting criticism of structuralism became evident at approximately the same time that structuralism became a topic of interest in universities in the United States. This interest led to a 1966 conference at [[Johns Hopkins University]] that invited scholars who were thought to be prominent post-structuralists, including Derrida, Barthes, and Lacan.

Derrida's lecture at that conference, "Structure, Sign, and Play in the Human Sciences," often appears in collections as a manifesto against structuralism. Derrida's essay was one of the earliest to propose some theoretical limitations to structuralism, and to attempt to theorize on terms that were clearly no longer structuralist.

The element of "play" in the title of Derrida's essay is often erroneously taken to be "play" in a linguistic sense, based on a general tendency towards puns and humour, while [[social constructionism]] as developed in the later work of Michel Foucault is said to create a sense of strategic agency by laying bare the levers of historical change. The importance of Foucault's work is seen by many to be in its synthesis of this social/historical account of the operations of power (see [[governmentality]]).

=== Judith Butler and Gender Trouble ===
A major American thinker associated with post structuralist thought is [[Judith Butler]]. Trained in Continental philosophy and published on Hegel, Butler is better known for her engagement with [[feminist theory]] and as the 'mother' (along with English literature scholar [[Eve Sedgwick]]) of [[Queer Theory]]. In ''Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity'', Butler explored the persistence of biological sex in feminist theory as the source and cause of the unequal social treatment and status of women. Using ideas about power and subjectification first broached by [[Michel Foucault]] in Discipline and Punish,<ref>Michel Foucault, ''Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison''(1975)</ref> and the linguistic theories of [[J. L. Austin]], Butler argued that sex was an effect rather than the cause of social gender difference, and that the fiction of a stable core gender identity was maintained through socially coerced performances of gender. Butler's ideas depend greatly on the notion of "[[performativity]]" and she is widely credited with introducing the term into [[gender studies]]. Austin described performative words as those which both describe and produce a thing. The classic example is a minister's statement, "I now pronounce you husband and wife," which both describes and produces two people as married. Similarly, Butler argued that repetitive socially coerced gender performances, which aspire to replicate a normative gender ideal, actually produce the sexed body and gender identity. In ''Gender Trouble'', Butler also relied on deconstructionist language theory and Freudian psychoanalysis to argue that heterosexuality is structured in an ongoing series of losses stemming from a repudiation of homosexuality; as such homosexuality can be seen as constitutive of heterosexuality, necessitating its repeated repudiations. Butler embraced the Foucauldian notion that there is no "outside" to culture, and therefore resistance—even consciousness, volition, the self—to forms of oppression is always already structured in terms of that oppression. Therefore, resistance can only take the form of failed imitations of social norms, whose very failure reveals the structures of power that often masquerade as natural or inevitable. For this reason, Butler's work has been taken up by gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender people because it re-imagines sexual and gender non-conformity—not to mention the way that heterosexual and cisgender norms are often reproduced in gay and lesbian culture and relationships—as a form of resistance to a heteronormative society that attempts (but always fails) to naturalize the relationships among sex, gender, and sexual orientation.<ref>Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (NY: Routledge, 1990).</ref>

== See also ==
{{columns-list|3|
* [[Development criticism]]
* [[Narrative therapy]]
* [[Postmodernism]]
* [[Reader-Response]]
* [[Semiotics]]
* [[Social criticism]]
* [[Social theory]]
* [[Sokal Affair]]
* [[Structuralism]]

}}

===Authors===
The following are often said to be post-structuralists, or to have had a post-structuralist period:
{{Columns-list|3|
* [[Kathy Acker]]
* [[Jean Baudrillard]]
* [[Judith Butler]]
* [[Hélène Cixous]]
* [[Gilles Deleuze]]
* [[Jacques Derrida]]
* [[Umberto Eco]]
* [[John Fiske (media studies)]]
* [[Michel Foucault]]
* [[Félix Guattari]]
* [[René Girard]]
* [[Luce Irigaray]]
* [[Sarah Kofman]]
* [[Philippe Lacoue-Labarthe]]
* [[Jean-François Lyotard]]
* [[Jean-Luc Nancy]]
* [[Avital Ronell]]
* [[Bernard Stiegler]]
* [[Gianni Vattimo]]
}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
* Barry, P. ''Beginning theory: an introduction to literary and cultural theory''. Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2002.
* Barthes, Roland. ''Elements of Semiology''. New York: Hill and Wang, 1967.
* [[J. A. Cuddon|Cuddon, J. A.]] ''Dictionary of Literary Terms & Literary Theory''. London: Penguin, 1998.
* Eagleton, T. ''Literary theory: an introduction'' Basil Blackwell, Oxford,1983.
* Matthews, E. ''Twentieth-Century French Philosophy''. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1996.
* Ryan, M. ''Literary theory: a practical introduction''. Blackwell Publishers Inc, Massachusetts,1999.
* Wolfreys, J & Baker, W (eds). ''Literary theories: a case study in critical performance''. Macmillan Press, Hong Kong,1996.
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://hydra.humanities.uci.edu/derrida/sign-play.html ''Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences'' - Jacques Derrida]
* [http://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/0748639217 The Baudrillard Dictionary] edited by [[Richard G. Smith (geographer)|Richard G Smith]]
*[http://www.brocku.ca/english/courses/4F70/poststruct.html "Some Post-Structural Assumptions" - John Lye]
*[http://www.fiu.edu/~mizrachs/pomo.html Talking pomo: An analysis of the post-modern movement, by Steve Mizrach]
*[http://www.foucault.info/ Information on Michel Foucault, including an archive of writings and lectures]
*[http://www.poststructuralism.info poststructuralism.info] - A collaborative web site that aims to allow users not only to describe post-structuralist ideas, but to create new ideas and concepts based on post-structuralist foundations

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Structural linguistics

2012-08-24T09:29:38Z

Rami radwan:

{{linguistics}}
'''Structural linguistics''' is an approach to [[linguistics]] originating from the work of Swiss linguist [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]. De Saussure's ''[[Course in General Linguistics]]'', published posthumously in 1916, stressed examining language as a static system of interconnected units. He is thus known as a father of modern linguistics for bringing about the shift from [[Diachronic linguistics|diachronic]] to [[Synchronic linguistics|synchronic]] analysis, as well as for introducing several basic dimensions of semiotic analysis that are still important today, such as [[syntagmatic analysis|syntagmatic]] and [[paradigmatic analysis]] (or 'associations' as Saussure was still calling them).<ref>Ferdinand de Saussure, ''Course in General Linguistics'', Open Court House.</ref>

Structural linguistics thus involves collecting a corpus of utterances and then attempting to classify all of the elements of the corpus at their different linguistic levels: the [[phoneme]]s, [[morpheme]]s, [[Lexical category|lexical categories]], [[noun phrase]]s, [[verb phrase]]s, and [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] types.<ref name="Searle1972">[http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/19720629.htm John R. Searle, "Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics"], ''New York Review of Books'', June 29, 1972.</ref> One of Saussure's key methods was [[syntagmatic analysis|syntagmatic]] and [[paradigmatic analysis]] that respectively define units syntactically and lexically, according to their contrast with the other units in the system.

Structural linguistics is now overwhelmingly regarded by professional linguists as outdated and as superseded by developments such as [[cognitive linguistics]] and [[generative grammar]], or to have been so modified in its basic tenets as to no longer be used without misrepresentation, as in [[systemic linguistics]].{{cn|date=March 2012}} This development is occasionally overstated; for example [[Jan Koster]] states, "Saussure, considered the most important linguist of the century in Europe until the 1950s, hardly plays a role in current theoretical thinking about language,"<ref>Koster, Jan. (1996) "Saussure meets the brain", in R. Jonkers, E. Kaan, J. K. Wiegel, eds., Language and Cognition 5. Yearbook 1992 of the Research Group for Linguistic Theory and Knowledge Representation of the University of Groningen, Groningen, pp. 115-120.</ref> More accurate would be to say that Saussure's contributions have been absorbed into how language is approached at such a fundamental level as to be, for many intents and purposes, invisible, much like the contributions of the [[Neogrammarian]]s in the 19th century. Over-reactions can also be seen in comments of the cognitive linguist Mark Turner<ref>Turner, Mark. 1987. Death is the Mother of Beauty: Mind, Metaphor, Criticism. University of Chicago Press, p. 6.</ref> who reports that many of Saussure's concepts were "wrong on a grand scale" while Norman N. Holland<ref name="Holland"/> notes that "Saussure's views are not held, so far as I know, by modern linguists, only by literary critics, [[Lacan]]ians, and the occasional philosopher;" others have made similar observations.<ref>Fabb, Nigel. (1988) Saussure and literary theory: from the perspective of linguistics. Critical Quarterly, Volume 30, Issue 2, pages 58–72, June 1988.</ref><ref>Evans, Dylan. (2005) "From Lacan to Darwin", in The Literary Animal: Evolution and the Nature of Narrative, eds. Jonathan Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2005, pp.38-55.</ref> Here it is necessary be rather more finely nuanced in the positions attributed to Saussure and in their longterm influence on the development of linguistic theorizing in all schools; for a more up-to-date re-reading of Saussure with respect to these issues, see Paul Thibbault.<ref>Thibbault, Paul. 1996. Re-reading Saussure: The Dynamics of Signs in Social Life. London: Routledge.</ref> Just as many principles of structural linguistics are still pursued, modified and adapted in current practice and according to what has been learnt since about the embodied functioning of brain and the role of language within this, so basic tenets begun with Saussure still can be found operating behind the scenes.

== History ==
Structural linguistics begins with the posthumous publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's ''Course in General Linguistics'' in 1916, which was compiled from lectures by his students. The book proved to be highly influential, providing the foundation for both modern linguistics and [[semiotics]].

After Saussure, the history of structural linguistics branches off in two directions. First, in America, linguist [[Leonard Bloomfield|Leonard Bloomfield's]] reading of Saussure's course proved influential, bringing about the Bloomfieldean phase in American linguistics that lasted from the mid 1930s to the mid 1950s. Bloomfield "bracketed" all questions of [[semantics]] and meaning as largely unanswerable, and encouraged a mechanistic approach to linguistics. The paradigm of Bloomfieldean linguistics in American linguistics was replaced by the paradigm of [[generative grammar]] with the publication of [[Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky's]] ''[[Syntactic Structures]]'' in 1957.

Second, in [[Europe]], Saussure influenced the [[Prague School]] of [[Roman Jakobson]] and [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]], whose work would prove hugely influential, particularly concerning [[phonology]], and the [[The Copenhagen school (Linguistics)|School]] of [[Louis Hjelmslev]]. Structural linguistics also had an influence on other disciplines in Europe, including [[anthropology]], [[psychoanalysis]] and [[Marxism]], bringing about the movement known as [[structuralism]].

Linguists who published articles on structuralism include: [[Leonard Bloomfield]], [[Charles F. Hockett]], [[John Lyons (linguist)|John Lyons]], [[R. H. Robins]], [[Otto Jespersen]], [[Émile Benveniste]], [[Edward Sapir]], [[André Martinet]], [[Thomas Givon]], F. R. Palmer, Ferenc Klefer, [[Robert D. Van Valin]], [[Louis Hjelmslev]], and Ariel Shisha-Halevy.

== Basic theories and methods ==
The foundation of structural linguistics is a "sign," which in turn has two components: a "signified" is an idea or concept, while the "signifier" is a means of expressing the signified. The "sign" is thus the combined association of signifier and signified. Signs can be defined only by being placed in contrast with other signs, which forms the basis of what later became the paradigmatic dimension of semiotic organization (i.e., collections of terms/entities that stand in opposition). This idea contrasted drastically with the idea that signs can be examined in isolation from a language and stressed Saussure's point that linguistics must treat language synchronically.

Paradigmatic relations hold among sets of units that (in the early Saussurian renditions) exist in the mind, such as the set distinguished phonologically by variation in their initial sound ''cat, bat, hat, mat, fat'', or the morphologically distinguished set ''ran, run, running''. The units of a set must have something in common with one another, but they must contrast too, otherwise they could not be distinguished from each other and would collapse into a single unit, which could not constitute a set on its own, since a set always consists of more than one unit. Syntagmatic relations, in contrast, are concerned with how units, once selected from their paradigmatic sets of oppositions, are 'chained' together into structural wholes. These dimensions, still fundamental to all linguistic and semiotic organisation, are often confused with other, related but quite distinct dimensions of organisation. Prominent examples of this are the confusion of paradigmatic with spatial relationships, and syntagmatic with temporal relations. For the latter, for example, the fact that in spoken language syntagmatic units come 'one after the other' is misread as a temporal relationship rather than the abstract structural relationship that it actually is. Thus, in written language, syntagmatic units are organised by spatial sequentiality and not by temporal sequentiality. These conflations can be quite pernicious and need to be watched for carefully when reading texts purporting to use Saussurean or semiotic methods.

One further common confusion here is that syntagmatic relations, assumed to occur in time, are anchored in speech and are considered either diachronic (confusing syntagmatic with historical) or are part of parole ("everyday speech": confusing syntagmatic with performance and behaviour and divorcing it from the linguistic system), or both. Both paradigmatic and syntagmatic organizations belong to the abstract system of language ''[[langue (linguistics)|langue]]'' (French for "Language;" or an abstract, Platonic ideal). Different linguistic theories place different weight on the study of these dimensions: all structural and generative accounts, for example, pursue primarily characterisations of the syntagmatic dimension of the language system (syntax), while functional approaches, such as [[systemic linguistics]] focus on the paradigmatic. Both dimensions need to be appropriately included, however.

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations provide the structural linguist with a tool for categorization for phonology, morphology and syntax. Take morphology, for example. The signs ''cat'' and ''cats'' are associated in the mind, producing an abstract paradigm of the word forms of ''cat''. Comparing this with other paradigms of word forms, we can note that in the English language the plural often consists of little more than adding an ''S'' to the end of the word. Likewise, through paradigmatic and syntagmatic analysis, we can discover the syntax of sentences. For instance, contrasting the syntagma {{lang|fr|''je dois''}} ("I should") and {{lang|fr|''dois je?''}} ("Should I?") allows us to realize that in French we only have to invert the units to turn a sentence into a question. We thus take syntagmatic evidence (difference in structural configurations) as indicators of paradigmatic relations (e.g., in the present case: questions vs. assertions). The most detailed account of the relationship between a paradigmatic organisation of language as a motivator and classifier for syntagmatic configurations is that set out in the systemic-network organization of [[systemic functional grammar]], where paradigmatic relations and syntagmatic configurations each have their own separate formalisation, related by realization constraints. Modern linguistic formalisms that work in terms of lattices of linguistic signs, such as [[Head-driven phrase structure grammar]], similarly begin to separate out an explicit level of paradigmatic organization.

Saussure developed structural linguistics, with its idealized vision of language, partly because he was aware that it was impossible in his time to fully understand how the human brain and mind created and related to language:
:Saussure set out to model language in purely linguistic terms, free of psychology, sociology, or anthropology. That is, Saussure was trying precisely ''not'' to say what goes on in your or my mind when we understand a word or make up a sentence. [...] Saussure was trying to de-psychologize linguistics.<ref name="Holland">Holland, Norman N. (1992) The Critical I, Columbia University Press, ISBN ISBN 0-231-07650-9</ref>

== Criticism ==
Linguist [[Noam Chomsky]] maintained that structural linguistics was efficient for phonology and morphology, because both have a finite number of units that the linguist can collect. However, he did not believe structural linguistics was sufficient for syntax, reasoning that an infinite number of sentences could be uttered, rendering a complete collection impossible. Instead, he proposed the job of the linguist was to create a small set of rules that could generate all the sentences of a language, and nothing but those sentences.<ref name="Searle">[http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/19720629.htm Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics]</ref> Chomsky's critiques led him to found [[generative grammar]].

One of Chomsky's key objections to structural linguistics was its inadequacy in explaining complex and/or ambiguous sentences. As Searle<ref name="Searle1972"/> writes:
:..."John is easy to please" and "John is eager to please" look as if they had exactly the same grammatical structure. Each is a sequence of noun-copula-adjective-infinitive verb. But in spite of this surface similarity the grammar of the two is quite different. In the first sentence, though it is not apparent from the surface word order, "John" functions as the direct object of the verb to please; the sentence means: it is easy for someone to please John. Whereas in the second "John" functions as the subject of the verb to please; the sentence means: John is eager that he please someone. That this is a difference in the syntax of the sentences comes out clearly in the fact that English allows us to form the noun phrase "John's eagerness to please" out of the second, but not "John's easiness to please" out of the first. There is no easy or natural way to account for these facts within structuralist assumptions.

By the latter half of the 20th century, many of Saussure's ideas were under heavy criticism. In 1972, Chomsky described structural linguistics as an "impoverished and thoroughly inadequate conception of language,"<ref>Chomsky, Noam. (1972) ''Language and Mind. Enlarged Ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, p. 20</ref> while in 1984, Marcus Mitchell declared that structural linguistics were "fundamentally inadequate to process the full range of [[natural language]] [and furthermore were] held by no current researchers, to my knowledge."<ref>Marcus, Mitchell, (1984) "Some Inadequate Theories of Human Language Processing." ''Talking Minds: The Study of Language in Cognitive Science''. Eds. Thomas G. Bever, John M. Carroll, and Lance A. Miller. Cambridge MA: MIT P, 1984. 253-77.</ref> Holland<ref name="Holland"/> writes that it was widely accepted that Chomsky had "decisively refuted Saussure. [...] Much of Chomsky's work is not accepted by other linguists [and] I am not claiming that Chomsky is right, only that Chomsky has proven that Saussure is wrong. Linguists who reject Chomsky claim to be going beyond Chomsky, or they cling to [[phrase-structure grammar]]s. They are not turning back to Saussure." Such debates show the over-exaggeration often attributed to relations between adolescents and parents, and in this sense at least Saussure's role as the 'father of modern linguistics' appears quite secure. Nowadays such hyperbole is out of place and Saussure can take up his historical place as innovator and provider of essential concepts, even though many of the details of analysis and particular positions taken may not be followed. This is particularly important given that lack of understanding of basic semiotic constructs such as the paradigmatic and syntagmatic continue to contribute to confused argumentation.

In the 1950s as structural linguistics were fading in importance in linguistics, Saussure's ideas were appropriated by several prominent figures in [[continental philosophy]], and from there were borrowed in [[literary theory]], where they are used to interpret novels and other texts. However, several critics have charged that Saussure's ideas have been misunderstood or deliberately distorted by continental philosophers and literary theorists and are certainly not directly applicable to the textual level, which Saussure himself would have firmly placed within parole and so not amenable to his theoretical constructs<ref>[[Raymond Tallis|Tallis, Raymond]]. Not Saussure: A Critique of Post-Saussurean Literary Theory, Macmillan Press 1988, 2nd ed. 1995.</ref><ref>Tallis, Raymond. Theorrhoea and After, Macmillan, 1998.</ref> For example, Searle<ref name="Searle1983">Searle, John R. "Word Turned Upside Down." New York Review of Books, Volume 30, Number 16· October 27, 1983.</ref> maintains that, in developing his [[deconstruction]] method, [[Jacques Derrida]] altered one of Saussure's key concepts: "The correct claim that the elements of the language only function as elements because of the differences they have from one another is converted into the false claim that the elements [...] are "constituted on" (Derrida) the ''traces'' of these other elements." (That said, from a philosophical perspective, it may be fair to say that this alteration was Derrida's deliberate project of critiquing the [[metaphysics of presence]] in [[Western Philosophy]].)

For structural linguistics in general, and its development both before and after Saussure and its position within Western Linguistics, Peter Seuren<ref>Seuren, Peter. 1998. A Western Linguistics: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell</ref> provides an excellent overview, while Peter Matthews<ref>Matthews, Peter. 2001. A Short History of Structural Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> offers a very readable presentation focusing specifically on structural linguistics.

== References ==
<references/>

== External links ==
* [http://science.jrank.org/pages/9907/Language-Linguistics-Structuralist-Era.html The Structuralist Era]

[[Category:Structuralism]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]

[[et:Strukturaallingvistika]]
[[es:Estructuralismo (lingüística)]]
[[fa:زبان‌شناسی ساخت‌گرا]]
[[it:Strutturalismo (linguistica)]]
[[kk:Тіл білімінін кұрылымы]]
[[ru:Структурная лингвистика]]
[[uk:Структурна лінгвістика]]

Structural linguistics

2012-08-24T09:29:13Z

Rami radwan:

{{linguistics}}
'''Structural linguistics''' is an approach to [[linguistics]] originating from the work of Swiss linguist [[Ferdinand de Saussure]]. De Saussure's ''[[Course in General Linguistics]]'', published posthumously in 1916, stressed examining language as a static system of interconnected units. He is thus known as a father of modern linguistics for bringing about the shift from [[Diachronic linguistics|diachronic]] to [[Synchronic linguistics|synchronic]] analysis, as well as for introducing several basic dimensions of semiotic analysis that are still important today, such as [[syntagmatic analysis|syntagmatic]] and [[paradigmatic analysis]] (or 'associations' as Saussure was still calling them).<ref>Ferdinand de Saussure, ''Course in General Linguistics'', Open Court House.</ref>

Structural linguistics thus involves collecting a corpus of utterances and then attempting to classify all of the elements of the corpus at their different linguistic levels: the [[phoneme]]s, [[morpheme]]s, [[Lexical category|lexical categories]], [[noun phrase]]s, [[verb phrase]]s, and [[sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] types.<ref name="Searle1972">[http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/19720629.htm John R. Searle, "Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics"], ''New York Review of Books'', June 29, 1972.</ref> One of Saussure's key methods was [[syntagmatic analysis|syntagmatic]] and [[paradigmatic analysis]] that respectively define units syntactically and lexically, according to their contrast with the other units in the system.

Structural linguistics is now overwhelmingly regarded by professional linguists as outdated and as superseded by developments such as [[cognitive linguistics]] and [[generative grammar]], or to have been so modified in its basic tenets as to no longer be used without misrepresentation, as in [[systemic linguistics]].{{cn|date=March 2012}} This development is occasionally overstated; for example [[Jan Koster]] states, "Saussure, considered the most important linguist of the century in Europe until the 1950s, hardly plays a role in current theoretical thinking about language,"<ref>Koster, Jan. (1996) "Saussure meets the brain", in R. Jonkers, E. Kaan, J. K. Wiegel, eds., Language and Cognition 5. Yearbook 1992 of the Research Group for Linguistic Theory and Knowledge Representation of the University of Groningen, Groningen, pp. 115-120.</ref> More accurate would be to say that Saussure's contributions have been absorbed into how language is approached at such a fundamental level as to be, for many intents and purposes, invisible, much like the contributions of the [[Neogrammarian]]s in the 19th century. Over-reactions can also be seen in comments of the cognitive linguist Mark Turner<ref>Turner, Mark. 1987. Death is the Mother of Beauty: Mind, Metaphor, Criticism. University of Chicago Press, p. 6.</ref> who reports that many of Saussure's concepts were "wrong on a grand scale" while Norman N. Holland<ref name="Holland"/> notes that "Saussure's views are not held, so far as I know, by modern linguists, only by literary critics, [[Lacan]]ians, and the occasional philosopher;" others have made similar observations.<ref>Fabb, Nigel. (1988) Saussure and literary theory: from the perspective of linguistics. Critical Quarterly, Volume 30, Issue 2, pages 58–72, June 1988.</ref><ref>Evans, Dylan. (2005) "From Lacan to Darwin", in The Literary Animal: Evolution and the Nature of Narrative, eds. Jonathan Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 2005, pp.38-55.</ref> Here it is necessary be rather more finely nuanced in the positions attributed to Saussure and in their longterm influence on the development of linguistic theorizing in all schools; for a more up-to-date re-reading of Saussure with respect to these issues, see Paul Thibbault.<ref>Thibbault, Paul. 1996. Re-reading Saussure: The Dynamics of Signs in Social Life. London: Routledge.</ref> Just as many principles of structural linguistics are still pursued, modified and adapted in current practice and according to what has been learnt since about the embodied functioning of brain and the role of language within this, so basic tenets begun with Saussure still can be found operating behind the scenes.

== History ==
Structural linguistics begins with the posthumous publication of Ferdinand de Saussure's ''Course in General Linguistics'' in 1916, which was compiled from lectures by his students. The book proved to be highly influential, providing the foundation for both modern linguistics and [[semiotics]].

After Saussure, the history of structural linguistics branches off in two directions. First, in America, linguist [[Leonard Bloomfield|Leonard Bloomfield's]] reading of Saussure's course proved influential, bringing about the Bloomfieldean phase in American linguistics that lasted from the mid 1930s to the mid 1950s. Bloomfield "bracketed" all questions of [[semantics]] and meaning as largely unanswerable, and encouraged a mechanistic approach to linguistics. The paradigm of Bloomfieldean linguistics in American linguistics was replaced by the paradigm of [[generative grammar]] with the publication of [[Noam Chomsky|Noam Chomsky's]] ''[[Syntactic Structures]]'' in 1957.

Second, in [[Europe]], Saussure influenced the [[Prague School]] of [[Roman Jakobson]] and [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]], whose work would prove hugely influential, particularly concerning [[phonology]], and the [[The Copenhagen school (Linguistics)|School]] of [[Louis Hjelmslev]]. Structural linguistics also had an influence on other disciplines in Europe, including [[anthropology]], [[psychoanalysis]] and [[Marxism]], bringing about the movement known as [[structuralism]].

Linguists who published articles on structuralism include: [[Leonard Bloomfield]], [[Charles F. Hockett]], [[John Lyons (linguist)|John Lyons]], [[R. H. Robins]], [[Otto Jespersen]], [[Émile Benveniste]], [[Edward Sapir]], [[André Martinet]], [[Thomas Givon]], F. R. Palmer, Ferenc Klefer, [[Robert D. Van Valin]], [[Louis Hjelmslev]], and Ariel Shisha-Halevy.

== Basic theories and methods ==
The foundation of structural linguistics is a "sign," which in turn has two components: a "signified" is an idea or concept, while the "signifier" is a means of expressing the signified. The "sign" is thus the combined association of signifier and signified. Signs can be defined only by being placed in contrast with other signs, which forms the basis of what later became the paradigmatic dimension of semiotic organization (i.e., collections of terms/entities that stand in opposition). This idea contrasted drastically with the idea that signs can be examined in isolation from a language and stressed Saussure's point that linguistics must treat language synchronically.

Paradigmatic relations hold among sets of units that (in the early Saussurian renditions) exist in the mind, such as the set distinguished phonologically by variation in their initial sound ''cat, bat, hat, mat, fat'', or the morphologically distinguished set ''ran, run, running''. The units of a set must have something in common with one another, but they must contrast too, otherwise they could not be distinguished from each other and would collapse into a single unit, which could not constitute a set on its own, since a set always consists of more than one unit. Syntagmatic relations, in contrast, are concerned with how units, once selected from their paradigmatic sets of oppositions, are 'chained' together into structural wholes. These dimensions, still fundamental to all linguistic and semiotic organisation, are often confused with other, related but quite distinct dimensions of organisation. Prominent examples of this are the confusion of paradigmatic with spatial relationships, and syntagmatic with temporal relations. For the latter, for example, the fact that in spoken language syntagmatic units come 'one after the other' is misread as a temporal relationship rather than the abstract structural relationship that it actually is. Thus, in written language, syntagmatic units are organised by spatial sequentiality and not by temporal sequentiality. These conflations can be quite pernicious and need to be watched for carefully when reading texts purporting to use Saussurean or semiotic methods.

One further common confusion here is that syntagmatic relations, assumed to occur in time, are anchored in speech and are considered either diachronic (confusing syntagmatic with historical) or are part of parole ("everyday speech": confusing syntagmatic with performance and behaviour and divorcing it from the linguistic system), or both. Both paradigmatic and syntagmatic organizations belong to the abstract system of language ''[[langue (linguistics)|langue]]'' (French for "Language;" or an abstract, Platonic ideal). Different linguistic theories place different weight on the study of these dimensions: all structural and generative accounts, for example, pursue primarily characterisations of the syntagmatic dimension of the language system (syntax), while functional approaches, such as [[systemic linguistics]] focus on the paradigmatic. Both dimensions need to be appropriately included, however.

Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations provide the structural linguist with a tool for categorization for phonology, morphology and syntax. Take morphology, for example. The signs ''cat'' and ''cats'' are associated in the mind, producing an abstract paradigm of the word forms of ''cat''. Comparing this with other paradigms of word forms, we can note that in the English language the plural often consists of little more than adding an ''S'' to the end of the word. Likewise, through paradigmatic and syntagmatic analysis, we can discover the syntax of sentences. For instance, contrasting the syntagma {{lang|fr|''je dois''}} ("I should") and {{lang|fr|''dois je?''}} ("Should I?") allows us to realize that in French we only have to invert the units to turn a sentence into a question. We thus take syntagmatic evidence (difference in structural configurations) as indicators of paradigmatic relations (e.g., in the present case: questions vs. assertions). The most detailed account of the relationship between a paradigmatic organisation of language as a motivator and classifier for syntagmatic configurations is that set out in the systemic-network organization of [[systemic functional grammar]], where paradigmatic relations and syntagmatic configurations each have their own separate formalisation, related by realization constraints. Modern linguistic formalisms that work in terms of lattices of linguistic signs, such as [[Head-driven phrase structure grammar]], similarly begin to separate out an explicit level of paradigmatic organization.

Saussure developed structural linguistics, with its idealized vision of language, partly because he was aware that it was impossible in his time to fully understand how the human brain and mind created and related to language:
:Saussure set out to model language in purely linguistic terms, free of psychology, sociology, or anthropology. That is, Saussure was trying precisely ''not'' to say what goes on in your or my mind when we understand a word or make up a sentence. [...] Saussure was trying to de-psychologize linguistics.<ref name="Holland">Holland, Norman N. (1992) The Critical I, Columbia University Press, ISBN ISBN 0-231-07650-9</ref>

== Criticism ==
Linguist [[Noam Chomsky]] maintained that structural linguistics was efficient for phonology and morphology, because both have a finite number of units that the linguist can collect. However, he did not believe structural linguistics was sufficient for syntax, reasoning that an infinite number of sentences could be uttered, rendering a complete collection impossible. Instead, he proposed the job of the linguist was to create a small set of rules that could generate all the sentences of a language, and nothing but those sentences.<ref name="Searle">[http://www.chomsky.info/onchomsky/19720629.htm Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics]</ref> Chomsky's critiques led him to found [[generative grammar]].

One of Chomsky's key objections to structural linguistics was its inadequacy in explaining complex and/or ambiguous sentences. As Searle<ref name="Searle1972"/> writes:
:..."John is easy to please" and "John is eager to please" look as if they had exactly the same grammatical structure. Each is a sequence of noun-copula-adjective-infinitive verb. But in spite of this surface similarity the grammar of the two is quite different. In the first sentence, though it is not apparent from the surface word order, "John" functions as the direct object of the verb to please; the sentence means: it is easy for someone to please John. Whereas in the second "John" functions as the subject of the verb to please; the sentence means: John is eager that he please someone. That this is a difference in the syntax of the sentences comes out clearly in the fact that English allows us to form the noun phrase "John's eagerness to please" out of the second, but not "John's easiness to please" out of the first. There is no easy or natural way to account for these facts within structuralist assumptions.

By the latter half of the 20th century, many of Saussure's ideas were under heavy criticism. In 1972, Chomsky described structural linguistics as an "impoverished and thoroughly inadequate conception of language,"<ref>Chomsky, Noam. (1972) ''Language and Mind. Enlarged Ed. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, p. 20</ref> while in 1984, Marcus Mitchell declared that structural linguistics were "fundamentally inadequate to process the full range of [[natural language]] [and furthermore were] held by no current researchers, to my knowledge."<ref>Marcus, Mitchell, (1984) "Some Inadequate Theories of Human Language Processing." ''Talking Minds: The Study of Language in Cognitive Science''. Eds. Thomas G. Bever, John M. Carroll, and Lance A. Miller. Cambridge MA: MIT P, 1984. 253-77.</ref> Holland<ref name="Holland"/> writes that it was widely accepted that Chomsky had "decisively refuted Saussure. [...] Much of Chomsky's work is not accepted by other linguists [and] I am not claiming that Chomsky is right, only that Chomsky has proven that Saussure is wrong. Linguists who reject Chomsky claim to be going beyond Chomsky, or they cling to [[phrase-structure grammar]]s. They are not turning back to Saussure." Such debates show the over-exaggeration often attributed to relations between adolescents and parents, and in this sense at least Saussure's role as the 'father of modern linguistics' appears quite secure. Nowadays such hyperbole is out of place and Saussure can take up his historical place as innovator and provider of essential concepts, even though many of the details of analysis and particular positions taken may not be followed. This is particularly important given that lack of understanding of basic semiotic constructs such as the paradigmatic and syntagmatic continue to contribute to confused argumentation.

In the 1950s as structural linguistics were fading in importance in linguistics, Saussure's ideas were appropriated by several prominent figures in [[continental philosophy]], and from there were borrowed in [[literary theory]], where they are used to interpret novels and other texts. However, several critics have charged that Saussure's ideas have been misunderstood or deliberately distorted by continental philosophers and literary theorists and are certainly not directly applicable to the textual level, which Saussure himself would have firmly placed within parole and so not amenable to his theoretical constructs<ref>[[Raymond Tallis|Tallis, Raymond]]. Not Saussure: A Critique of Post-Saussurean Literary Theory, Macmillan Press 1988, 2nd ed. 1995.</ref><ref>Tallis, Raymond. Theorrhoea and After, Macmillan, 1998.</ref> For example, Searle<ref name="Searle1983">Searle, John R. "Word Turned Upside Down." New York Review of Books, Volume 30, Number 16· October 27, 1983.</ref> maintains that, in developing his [[deconstruction]] method, [[Jacques Derrida]] altered one of Saussure's key concepts: "The correct claim that the elements of the language only function as elements because of the differences they have from one another is converted into the false claim that the elements [...] are "constituted on" (Derrida) the ''traces'' of these other elements." (That said, from a philosophical perspective, it may be fair to say that this alteration was Derrida's deliberate project of critiquing the [[metaphysics of presence]] in [[Western Philosophy]].)

For structural linguistics in general, and its development both before and after Saussure and its position within Western Linguistics, Peter Seuren<ref>Seuren, Peter. 1998. A Western Linguistics: An Historical Introduction. Wiley-Blackwell</ref> provides an excellent overview, while Peter Matthews<ref>Matthews, Peter. 2001. A Short History of Structural Linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</ref> offers a very readable presentation focusing specifically on structural linguistics.

== References ==
<references/>

== External links ==
* [http://science.jrank.org/pages/9907/Language-Linguistics-Structuralist-Era.html The Structuralist Era]

[[Category:Structuralism]]
[[Category:Linguistics]]
[[ar:ما بعد البنيوية]]
[[et:Strukturaallingvistika]]
[[es:Estructuralismo (lingüística)]]
[[fa:زبان‌شناسی ساخت‌گرا]]
[[it:Strutturalismo (linguistica)]]
[[kk:Тіл білімінін кұрылымы]]
[[ru:Структурная лингвистика]]
[[uk:Структурна лінгвістика]]

Seohyun

2012-08-23T07:28:41Z

Rami radwan:

{{Other people2|Joo-hyun}}
{{Korean name|Seo}}
{{BLP sources|date=February 2010}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Seohyun
| background = solo_singer
| image = Seohyun, lg 3d, snsd.jpg
| image_size =
| caption =
| birth_name = 서주현 (Seo Joo-hyun)
| alias = Maknae, Seororo, Seobaby, Gguk Gguk Ee, Hyun, Joohyun,
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1991|6|28}}
| religion = Christian
| origin = [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]
| genre = [[K-pop]], [[dance-pop]], [[teen pop]], [[bubblegum pop]], [[electropop]]
| occupation = [[Singer]], [[musician]], [[dancer]], [[Promotional model|model]], [[presenter]], [[actress]], [[voice actress]],
| instrument = [[piano]], [[guitar]], [[violin]]<ref>{{cite web |date=June 19, 2010 |url=http://www.dkpopnews.net/2010/06/videoseohyun-playing-guitar-on-wgm.html |title=Video: Seohyun playing guitar on WGM |publisher=Daily K-pop News |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |January 16, 2010 |url=http://iloveyongseo.wordpress.com/2011/01/16/photosyongseo-love-yonghwa-and-seohyun-and-their-love-for-musical-instruments/ |title=PHOTOS: YongSeo Love Yonghwa and Seohyun and their love for Musical Instruments |accessdate=September 1, 2011}}</ref>
| years_active = {{start date|2004}}–present
| label = [[SM Entertainment]]
| associated_acts = [[Girls' Generation]] [[SM Town]] [[TaeTiSeo]] 
| website = [http://girlsgeneration.smtown.com Official website]
 [[File:Seohyun signature.png|150px]] Signature of Seohyun
}}
{{Contains Korean text}}
{{Infobox Korean name
|title = [[Korean name]]
|color = khaki
|hangul = {{linktext|서|주|현}}
|hanja = {{linktext|徐|珠|賢}}
|rr = Seo Ju-hyeon
|mr = Sŏ Chu-hyŏn
|hangulstage = 서현
|rrstage = Seo-hyeon
|mrstage = Sŏ-hyŏn
}}

'''Seo Joo-hyun''', who uses the stage name '''Seohyun''', is a [[South Korean idol]] singer, dancer, actress, and spokesmodel. She is the youngest member, lead vocalist and supporting dancer of the girl group [[Girls' Generation]].<ref>"[http://www.allkpop.com/2010/02/seohyun-hates-the-lyrics-to-oh SNSD’s Seohyun hates the lyrics to Oh!?]", ''allkpop'', Feb 15, 2010.</ref>

== Biography ==
Seohyun was born on June 28, 1991, in [[Seoul]], [[South Korea]]. As an elementary school student, Seohyun was discovered by a talent staff while riding in a subway train, who encouraged her to audition for SM Entertainment. In 2003, Seohyun auditioned and joined the company under the SM Casting System. She is known for singing children's songs for her audition unlike other applicants who usually sing pop and dance songs. <ref>[MTV SNSD Episode 04 - Seohyun: www.youtube.com/watch?v=OfnexAjOylc]</ref> She attended Seoul Middle School and Daeyoung High School, then transferred to Jeonju Arts High School, from which she graduated on February 9, 2010 and currently attends [[Dongguk University]]<ref>{{ko icon}} Kim, Hyeong-wu. [http://www.newsen.com/news_view.php?uid=201002051128431002 소녀시대 서현 졸업사진 공개 화제 ‘청순 풋풋 매력발산’ (''SNSD Seohyun's Graduation Photo Revealed, "Innocent, Youthful and Charmful"'')]. ''Newsen''. February 5, 2010. Retrieved February 26, 2010.</ref><ref>Kim, Ji-yeon. {{ko icon}} [http://star.mt.co.kr/view/stview.php?no=2010022316311666405 '입학' 서현 "대학생활 열심히..좋은 추억만들고파" ("''Admission" Seohyun: "I Will Study Hard in University...and Wish to Make Many Memories"'')]. ''SPN Daily''/''Money Today''. February 23, 2010. Retrieved February 26, 2010.</ref> with fellow Girls' Generation member, [[Im Yoona|Yoona]]. Seohyun's major is acting. Seohyun is fluent in Korean and Japanese. She can speak a little bit of Mandarin and English too. She is also an accomplished pianist.

In 2010, Seohyun was appointed by the Seoul Metropolitan Office as Korea's Goodwill Ambassador for Student Fitness.<ref>{{ko icon}} [http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2010/04/13/0200000000AKR20100413096600004.HTML?did=1179m 박태환ㆍ서현 `서울학생 체력증진' 홍보대사 (''Park Tae-hwan of Seoul students 'fitness and Seohyun' Ambassadors.'')] ''Yonhap News''. April 13, 2010. Retrieved April 26, 2010.</ref> In 2012, Seohyun was appointed as the Goodwill Ambassador for the United Nation 2012 Yeosu Expo.<ref>[http://soshified.com/2012/05/seohyun-appointed-as-goodwill-ambassador-for-the-un-2012-yeosu-expo 'Seohyun Appointed as Goodwill Ambassador for the UN 2012 Yeosu Expo']</ref> On October 11, 2011, Seohyun was inaugurated as a [[UNICEF]] envoy at Changseong-Dong, Seoul. In the past, Seohyun has worked with UNICEF for the “Help Children in Africa” project.<ref>[http://www.allkpop.com/2011/10/photos-from-seohyun-and-donghaes-unicef-envoy-inauguration-ceremony 'Photos from Seohyun and Donghae’s ‘UNICEF’ envoy inauguration ceremony']</ref>

==Career==
''Main article : [[Girls' Generation]]''


===Girls' Generation===
{{Main|Girls' Generation}}
In 2007, Seohyun was chosen as a member of the group Girls' Generation. The 9-member girl group debuted on August 5, 2007.

In 2012, Seohyun, along with fellow Girls' Generation members [[Taeyeon]] and [[Tiffany (Korean singer)|Tiffany]], formed a sub-unit called [[TaeTiSeo]]. The trio released their first album titled "Twinkle" on April 30, 2012.

===Solo releases===
Seohyun released various singles with [[Jessica (entertainer)|Jessica]] and Tiffany — the first called ''Oppa Nappa'' ({{lang-ko|"오빠 나빠"}}, ''Bad Older Brother'')<ref name=Oppa>{{ko icon}} Kim Hyeong-wu. [http://isplus.joins.com/article/article.html?aid=1094530 소녀시대 티파니 “‘오빠나빠’ 활동 당시 성대결절 고생” (''Girls' Generation's Tiffany: "'Bad Older Brother' Activities Were Difficult on Vocal Nodules"'')]. ''[[JoongAng Ilbo]]''/''Newsen''. February 16, 2009. Retrieved February 26, 2010.</ref> and the second titled ''Mabinogi (It's Fantastic!)'', a theme song for a video game.<ref name=Mabinogi>{{ko icon}} [http://isplus.joins.com/article/article.html?aid=985744 소녀시대 티파니 제시카 서현 게임 주제가 신곡 발표 (''Girls' Generation's Tiffany/Jessica/Seohyun Announce Game Theme Song as New Single'')]. ''[[JoongAng Ilbo|IS Plus]]''/''Newsen''. August 1, 2008. Retrieved February 26, 2010.</ref> On February 17, 2009, Seohyun sang a duet with trot singer Joo Hyun-mi called ''JjaRaJaJja'' (Korean: "짜라자짜").<ref name=Jja>{{ko icon}} [http://www.hankyung.com/news/app/newsview.php?aid=2009021643317 주현미 -소녀시대, 트로트 싱글 `짜라자짜` 발표 (''Ju Hyeon-mi-Girls' Generation Announce Trot Single "Jjarajajja"'')]. ''[[Korea Economic Daily]]''. February 16, 2009. Retrieved February 26, 2010.</ref> The song earned a nomination at the 2009 M.net Asian Music Awards for ''Trot Music of the Year''.<ref name="MAMA"/> She sang the song ''S.E.O.U.L'' with [[Super Junior]]'s Kyuhyun, Ryeowook, Sungmin and Donghae and fellow Girls' Generation members Taeyeon, Jessica, [[Sooyoung]] and [[Sunny (Korean singer)|Sunny]]. She also sang the promotional song for Caribbean Bay with her fellow members Taeyeon, Jessica, Tiffany, Sunny, and members of the boy band [[2PM]]. She sang the official soundtrack of a MBC drama, ''Kim Soo Ro'' entitled, ''It's Okay Even If It Hurts'' (Korean: 아파도 괜찮아요), which was released on June 25, 2010. <ref>[www.bugsmusic.co.kr]</ref> In October 2010, Seohyun was one of the twenty idols from different South Korean groups that recorded the song, ''Let's Go'', for the purpose of increasing public participation in the [[2010 G-20 Seoul summit]]. She provided vocals along with labelmates Sungmin, Jonghyu and, Luna. <ref name=G20>{{cite web|url=http://www.allkpop.com/2010/09/20-idol-singers-unite-to-sing-the-g20-seoul-summit-theme-song|title=20 idol singers unite to sing the G20 Seoul Summit theme song|date=September 30, 2010|publisher=allkpop.com|accessdate=December 31, 2010}}</ref> In 2011, she was a featured artist in [[TVXQ]]'s fifth studio album, ''Keep Your Head Down'' with the song ''Journey''. The song ''Journey'' also became the official soundtrack for the drama series ''Paradise Ranch''.<ref name=Journ>{{ko icon}} [http://media.daum.net/entertain/all/view.html?cateid=1005&newsid=20110111084824572&p=starnews 소시 서현, 2인 동방신기 도우미로..신곡 피처링] ''Daum''. January 11, 2010. Retrieved January 12, 2010.</ref> On October 11, Seohyun released a digital single "Dreams Comes True" together with Donghae for 2011 [[Asia Song Festival]]. This was a project by [[UNICEF]], as the profit was donated to East Africa . <ref>[http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/html/835/2942835.html "Music and charity as Asia Song Fest wraps up its eighth year"] ''Joongang Daily''. 17 October 2011. Retrieved 2012-03-27</ref> On the October 25, 2011, Seohyun released a digital single together with [[Kim Hyun Joong]] entitled ''The Magic of Yellow Ribbon'', which became the theme song of the commercial [[The Face Shop]]. On February 13, 2012, Seohyun and Brown Eyes' singer Yoon Gun released a duet called ''Don't Say No''.<ref>[http://www.soompi.com/news/girls-generations-seohyun-and-yoon-gun-hint-at-collaboration-song Girls’ Generation’s Seohyun and Yoon Gun Hint at Collaboration Song]</ref><ref>[http://www.soompi.com/news/yoon-gun-and-girls-generation-seohyun-to-release-duet-single-dont-say-no-on-february-13 Yoon Gun and Girls' Generation Seohyun to Release Duet Single "Don't Say No" on February 13]</ref> On April 16, 2012, Seohyun sang the soundtrack for the SBS drama ''[[Fashion King]]'', which starred fellow Girls' Generation member [[Kwon Yuri]], with the song entitled ''I'll Be Waiting''.<ref>[http://www.allkpop.com/2012/04/wonder-girls-sunye-girls-generation-member-seohyun-to-release-new-ost-tracks Wonder Girls’ Sunye & Girls’ Generation member Seohyun to release new OST tracks]</ref>

===Promotion===
Seohyun modeled with TVXQ for the 2004 Smart Uniform modeling show. <ref>[http://soshified.com/timeline/]</ref> She and fellow members Sooyoung and Yuri had a photoshoot for QTV's Photographer Audition Survival program ''Photographer''. The photoshoot was entitled "Dreaming Water" and was a joint campaign by Cosmopolitan Magazine and UNICEF to promote the preservation of water for a clean environment.<ref>{{ko icon}} Lee Mihye. [http://www.newsen.com/news_view.php?uid=200910121819211001 [포토엔]소녀시대 서현-유리, 손에 손잡고 ‘예쁘게 찍어주세요’ (''S[PhotoEn] SNSD Seohyun - Yuri - Sooyoung photoshoot for UNICEF and Cosmopolitan Magazine'')]. ''Newsen''. October 12, 2009. Retrieved on April 14, 2010</ref> On March 29, 2010, along with Taeyeon, Yuri, Yoona, and Sooyoung, was hired by [[Nintendo]] Korea as campaign models for the portable game console, Nintendo DSi.<ref>{{ko icon}} [http://www.todaykorea.co.kr/news/articleView.html?idxno=105176 소녀시대 ‘닌텐도 DS Crimson/Black’ 모델 발탁! (''SNSD Chosen as Models for Nintendo DSi'')]. ''TodayKorea''/''Newsen''. March 29, 1010. Retrieved on April 14, 2010.</ref> In March, Seohyun and [[f(x) (band)|f(x)]] member [[Krystal Jung|Krystal]] collaborated in a CF for [[Clean and Clear]].<ref>{{ko icon}} [http://www.newsen.com/news_view.php?uid=201002030833341001 '소녀시대 서현-f(x) 크리스탈, 화장품 전속모델 동반발탁']</ref> In late April 2010, she with fellow members Yuri and Yoona, 2PM members Nichkhun, Taecyeon and Chansung had released a commercial for Everland's Caribbean Bay. <ref>{{ko icon}} [http://www.newscj.com/news/articleView.html?idxno=43401 소녀시대-2PM ‘캐비’ M/V서 섹시한 라이프가드로 변신] ''Newscj.com''. May 7, 2010</ref><ref>{{ko icon}} [http://sstv.freechal.com/index.html?page=news/flypage&cid=16&nid=82646 소녀시대 유리, 머리카락 넘기는 모습도 '섹시'] ''SSTV''.</ref> In September 2011, Seohyun became the model for The Face Shop and released several commercials with Kim Hyun-joong.<ref>[http://soshified.com/2011/09/seohyun-chosen-as-model-for-the-face-shop Seohyun Chosen as Model for The Face Shop] September 19, 2011. Retrieved September 20, 2011.</ref>

===Television appearances===
Apart from her appearances with other Girls' Generation members on various shows, she partnered with singer and actor [[Jung Yong Hwa]], who is the main singer of the idol band [[CN Blue]], as a virtually married couple for [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation|MBC]]'s TV show ''[[We Got Married]]''. The two became known as the ''[[YongSeo]] Couple''. The couple first met on 11 February 2010, and filmed their final episode on [[White Day]], 14 March 2011, and left the show on April 2, 2011, when their final episode aired.

Seohyun, along with fellow Girls' Generation members Tiffany and Taeyeon, is an MC on MBC's [[Show! Music Core]] since February 4, 2012.<ref>[http://www.allkpop.com/2012/01/taeyeon-and-seohyun-to-join-tiffany-as-new-music-core-mcs Taeyeon and Seohyun to join Tiffany as new ‘Music Core’ MCs]</ref>

===Voice acting===
Seohyun and Taeyeon served as voice actors for the Korean version of the animation ''[[Despicable Me]]''. Seohyun dubbed the character Edith, while Taeyeon's role was Edith's older sister Margo.<ref>{{ko icon}} [http://www.newsen.com/news_view.php?uid=201005171053311001 소녀시대 태연-서현, 3D 애니 ‘슈퍼배드’ 목소리 캐스팅 (''Girls' Generation's Taeyeon and Seohyun cast as voice actors for 3D Animation'')], Newsen.com, May 17, 2010. Retrieved May 17, 2010</ref>

==Discography==
{{Main|Girls' Generation discography}}

===Singles===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center;
|-
!rowspan="2"| Year
!rowspan="2"| Single
!colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
!rowspan="2"| Album
|- style=font-size:smaller
!width=35| [[Gaon Chart|KOR]]
!width=35| [[Oricon|JPN]]
|-
| 2008
|align="left"|"Mabinogi (It's Fantastic!)" (with [[Jessica (entertainer)|Jessica]] and [[Tiffany (South Korean singer)|Tiffany]])<ref name=Mabinogi/>
| style="text-align:center;"| —
| style="text-align:center;"| —
|Non-album release
|-
| 2009
| align="left"|"JjaRaJaJja" (with [[Joo Hyun-Mi]] and [[Davichi]])<ref name=Jja/>
| style="text-align:center;"| —
| style="text-align:center;"| —
|''JjaRaJaJja''
|-
| rowspan="2"| 2011
| align="left"|"Dreams Comes True" (with [[Lee Donghae|Donghae]])
| style="text-align:center;"| —
| style="text-align:center;"| —
|Non-album release
|-
| align="left"|"The Magic of Yellow Ribbon" (with [[Kim Hyun Joong]])
| style="text-align:center;"| —
| style="text-align:center;"| —
|Non-album release
|-
| 2012
| align="left"|"Don't Say No" (with Yoon Gun)
| style="text-align:center;"| —
| style="text-align:center;"| —
|Non-album release
|-
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center; font-size:8pt;"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory.
|}

===As featured artist===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center;
|-
!rowspan="2"| Year
!rowspan="2"| Single
!colspan="2"| Peak chart positions
!rowspan="2"| Album
|- style=font-size:smaller
!width=35| [[Gaon Chart|KOR]]
!width=35| [[Oricon|JPN]]
|-
| 2009
|align="left"|"[[S.E.O.U.L.]]" (with [[Super Junior]])
| style="text-align:center;"| 9
| style="text-align:center;"| —
| rowspan="2"|Non-album release
|-
| 2010
|align="left"|"Let's Go" (as part of [[G20|Group of 20]])<ref name=G20/>
| style="text-align:center;"| —
| style="text-align:center;"| —
|-
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center; font-size:8pt;"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart or were not released in that territory.
|}

===Other songs===
{| class="wikitable" style=text-align:center;
|-
! rowspan="1" | Year
! rowspan="1" | Song
! rowspan="1 "| Album
|-
|2008
|align="left"|"Oppa Nappa" (with [[Jessica (entertainer)|Jessica]] and [[Tiffany (South Korean singer)|Tiffany]])<ref name=Oppa/>
| ''RoomMate''
|-
|2010
|align="left"|"It's Okay Even If It Hurts"
| ''Kim Soo Ro Soundtrack''
|-
|2011
|align="left"|"Journey" (with [[TVXQ]])<ref name=Journ/>
| ''[[Keep Your Head Down]]''
|-
|2012
|align="left"|"I'll Wait for You"
| ''Fashion King Soundtrack''
|}

===Music videos===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Song
|-
| 2008
|"Oppa Nappa" (Seohyun, [[Jessica]] and [[Tiffany (Korean singer)|Tiffany]])
|-
| 2009
|align="left"|"[[S.E.O.U.L.]]" ([[Super Junior]] and [[Girls' Generation]])
|-
| rowspan="3" | 2010
|align="left"|"Caribbean Bay" ([[2PM]] and [[Girls' Generation]])
|-
|align="left"|"Oh! My Goddess" ([[TRAX (band)|TRAX]])
|-
|align="left"|"Let's Go" ([[G20|Group of 20]])
|-
| 2011
|align="left"|"[[For First Time Lovers]]" ([[Jung Yong Hwa]])
|}

==Filmography==
{{Main|Girls' Generation filmography}}

===Film===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Notes
|-
|2010
|align="left"|''[[Despicable Me]]''
| Edith (voice)
| Main role, Korean version
|}

===Television===
Aside from television appearances with Girls' Generation, Seohyun also appeared in the following television shows.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
! Title
! Role
! Network
! Notes
|-
|2007
|align="left"|''[[Unstoppable Marriage#TV series|Unstoppable Marriage]]''
| Bool Gwang Dong
| [[Korean Broadcasting System|KBS]]
| Cameo role
|-
|2010–2011
|align="left"|''[[We Got Married]]'' with [[Yonghwa]] {{Main|List of We Got Married (YongSeo) episodes}}
| Herself
| [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation|MBC]]
| [[YongSeo]] Couple
|-
| 2011
|align="left"|''[[Running Man]]''
| Herself
| [[Seoul Broadcasting System|SBS]]
| Episodes 63-64
|-
| 2012
|align="left"|''[[Show! Music Core]]''
| Presenter
| [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation|MBC]]
| Replacement for [[Kwon Yuri|Yuri]]
|-
|}

==Endorsements==
Aside from her endorsements along with Girls' Generation, Seohyun also appeared as endorser in the following brands.

* 2010: [[Clean and Clear]] (with [[Krystal Jung|Krystal]])
* 2011–present: [[The Face Shop]] (with [[Kim Hyun-joong]])

==Awards and nominations==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year
!Organization
!Category
!Nominated Work
!Result
|- style="text-align:center;"
| 2009
| [[Mnet Asian Music Awards|2009 Mnet Asian Music Awards]]
| Trot Music of the Year
| "JjaRaJaJja" (Shared with [[Joo Hyun-Mi]] and [[Davichi]])
| {{nom}}<ref name="MAMA">{{ko icon}} [http://mama.mnet.com/2009/AwardVote/AwardVote.asp ''M.net Asian Music Awards 2009 official website''] Retrieved June 14, 2010.</ref>
|- style="text-align:center;"
|rowspan="4"|2010
| [[Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism|South Korea Ministry of Culture]]
| Recognition Award
| rowspan="3"|Herself
| {{won}}<ref>[http://www.sonems.net/2010/01/100113-seohyun-yoona-ministry-of.html]. ''SONEms: Ministry of Culture''.</ref>
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Yahoo! Buzz|2010 Yahoo! Buzz Awards]]
| Female Top Buzz Star
| {{nom}}<ref>{{ko icon}} [http://kr.promotion.yahoo.com/asiabuzz2010/?goPage=11]. ''Yahoo Buzz Awards''.</ref>
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Seoul|Chungdamdong Hush Cosmetic Surgery Poll]]
| Best Natural Beauty
| {{won}}<ref name=Beauty>[http://news.nate.com/view/20110411n26054 '소녀시대' 서현, 인형포스 작렬 "기타 배우실래요?"] ''Nate''. April 11, 2011. Retrieved April 12, 2011.</ref>
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Munhwa Broadcasting Corporation|MBC Entertainment Awards 2010]]
| Most Popular Couple
| YongSeo (Shared with [[Jung Yong Hwa]])
| {{won}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allkpop.com/2010/12/yoo-jae-suk-wins-daesang-adam-and-khuntoria-couples-also-win-at-the-mbc-entertainment-awards-other-winners# |title=Yoo Jae Suk wins Daesand Adam and Khuntoria couples also win at the MBC Entertainment Awards |publisher=Allkpop |accessdate=October 1, 2011}}</ref>
|- style="text-align:center;"
|rowspan="2"|2011
| [[Mnet 20's Choice Awards]]
| Hot Campus Goddess
|rowspan="2"|Herself
| {{nom}}<ref>{{ko icon}} [http://music.cyworld.com/event/promotion/2011/choice/vote.asp''Mnet’s 20’s Choice Awards 2011 official website''] Retrieved June 26, 2011.</ref>
|-
|- style="text-align:center;"
| [[Mnet Asian Music Awards]]
| Most Cute and Gorgeous Lady
| {{nom}}<ref>[http://koreanentspy.wordpress.com/2011/09/28/mnet-media-awards-2011-nominees-has-just-been-released/ ''Mnet Media Awards 2011 nominees has just been released.''] Retrieved September 29, 2011.</ref>
|}

==See also==
* [[TaeTiSeo]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Girls' Generation}}

{{Persondata
|NAME = Seo, Joo-hyun
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Seohyun
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = [[South Korea]]n [[singer]], [[dancer]], model, [[actress]]
|DATE OF BIRTH = June 28, 1991
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[South Korea]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Seohyun}}
[[Category:Girls' Generation members]]
[[Category:South Korean Christians]]
[[Category:Korean-language singers]]
[[Category:Japanese-language singers]]
[[Category:South Korean idols]]
[[Category:South Korean female singers]]
[[Category:Trot singers]]
[[Category:South Korean rhythm and blues singers]]
[[Category:South Korean television presenters]]
[[Category:South Korean sopranos]]
[[Category:South Korean pianists]]
[[Category:South Korean violinists]]
[[Category:South Korean voice actors]]
[[Category:South Korean female models]]
[[Category:South Korean television personalities]]
[[Category:Dongguk University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Seoul]]
[[Category:1991 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Running Man (TV series) contestants]]
[[AR:سيوهيون]]
[[de:Seohyun]]
[[es:Seohyun]]
[[ko:서현 (1991년)]]
[[id:Seohyun]]
[[jv:Soehyoen]]
[[ms:Seohyun]]
[[ja:ソヒョン]]
[[pt:Seohyun]]
[[simple:Seohyun]]
[[fi:Seohyun]]
[[tl:Seohyun]]
[[th:ซอฮย็อน]]
[[vi:Seohyun]]
[[zh:徐玄]]

Cultural critic

2012-08-23T01:00:00Z

Rami radwan:

A '''cultural critic''' is a [[critic]] of a given [[culture]], usually as a whole and typically on a radical basis.{{cn|date=April 2012}} There is significant overlap with [[social theory|social]] and [[cultural theory]].

==Terminology==
Contemporary usage has tended to include all types of [[criticism]] directed at [[culture]].

The term ''cultural criticism'' itself has been claimed by [[Jacques Barzun]]: ''No such thing was recognized or in favour when we [i.e. Barzun and Trilling] began — more by intuition than design — in the autumn of 1934''.<ref>''Remembering [[Lionel Trilling]]'', (1976), reprinted in ''The Jacques Barzun Reader'' (2002).</ref><ref>Casey Nelson Blake, a professor at [[Columbia University]] where Barzun and Trilling were, uses the term in the 1990 book title ''Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of [[Randolph Bourne]], [[Van Wyck Brooks]], [[Waldo Frank]], and [[Lewis Mumford]]''.</ref> In contrast, a work such as [[Richard Wolin]]'s 1995 ''The Terms of Cultural Criticism: The Frankfurt School, Existentialism, Poststructuralism'' (1995) uses it as a broad-brush description.

==Victorian sages as critics==
Cultural critics came to the scene in the nineteenth century. [[Matthew Arnold]]<ref>His much-cited ''[[Culture and Anarchy]]'' was subtitled ''An Essay in Political and Social Criticism''.</ref> and [[Thomas Carlyle]] are leading examples of a cultural critic of the [[Victorian age]]; in Arnold there is also a concern for religion. [[John Ruskin]] was another. Because of an equation made between ugliness of material surroundings and an impoverished life, [[aesthete]]s and others might be considered implicitly to be engaging in cultural criticism, but the actual articulation is what makes a critic. In France, [[Charles Baudelaire]] was a cultural critic, as was [[Søren Kierkegaard]] in Denmark and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] in Germany.

==Twentieth century==
{{See|Critical theory|Frankfurt School}}
In the twentieth century [[Irving Babbitt]] on the right, and [[Walter Benjamin]]<ref>E.g. [[Richard Wolin]], ''Walter Benjamin: An Aesthetic of Redemption'' (1994), series ''Weimar and Now: German Cultural Criticism'', 7.</ref> on the left, might be considered major cultural critics. The field of play has changed considerably, in that the [[humanities]] have broadened to include [[cultural studies]] of all kinds, which are grounded in [[critical theory]].

==Examples of contemporary usage==
*[[Allan Bloom]]<ref>[http://www.fortfreedom.org/l27.htm A Cultural Critic Answers His Own]</ref>
*[[Noam Chomsky]]
*[[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]]<ref>[http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/070201/gates.shtml Scholar, cultural critic Gates to give Kent Lecture]</ref>
*[[Roger Kimball]]<ref>Self-description [http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2005/rkimball_intrvw_aug05.asp].</ref>
*[[Mark Kingwell]]
*[[Neil Postman]]
*[[Daniel Quinn]]<ref>[http://www.ishmael.org/Education/writings/unschooling.shtml Recently I was introduced to an audience as a cultural critic, and I think this probably says it best. ].</ref>
*[[Slavoj Zizek]]

==See also==
*[[Anti-capitalism]]
*''[[Arts & Letters Daily]]''
*[[Critical theory]]
*[[Cultural pessimism]]
*[[Culture theory]]
*''[[The New Criterion]]''
*[[Social science]]
*[[Social theory]]
*[[Sociology]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/alumni/Magazine/Summer2000/krutchCultural.html ''Joseph Wood Krutch as a Cultural Critic'' by John Margolis]

[[Category:Criticisms]]
[[Category:Sociology_of_culture]]
[[AR:النقد الحضاري]]
[[de:Kulturkritik]]
[[es:Crítica sociocultural]]
[[nl:Cultuurkritiek]]

Cultural critic

2012-08-23T00:37:51Z

Rami radwan:

A '''cultural critic''' is a [[critic]] of a given [[culture]], usually as a whole and typically on a radical basis.{{cn|date=April 2012}} There is significant overlap with [[social theory|social]] and [[cultural theory]].

==Terminology==
Contemporary usage has tended to include all types of [[criticism]] directed at [[culture]].

The term ''cultural criticism'' itself has been claimed by [[Jacques Barzun]]: ''No such thing was recognized or in favour when we [i.e. Barzun and Trilling] began — more by intuition than design — in the autumn of 1934''.<ref>''Remembering [[Lionel Trilling]]'', (1976), reprinted in ''The Jacques Barzun Reader'' (2002).</ref><ref>Casey Nelson Blake, a professor at [[Columbia University]] where Barzun and Trilling were, uses the term in the 1990 book title ''Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of [[Randolph Bourne]], [[Van Wyck Brooks]], [[Waldo Frank]], and [[Lewis Mumford]]''.</ref> In contrast, a work such as [[Richard Wolin]]'s 1995 ''The Terms of Cultural Criticism: The Frankfurt School, Existentialism, Poststructuralism'' (1995) uses it as a broad-brush description.

==Victorian sages as critics==
Cultural critics came to the scene in the nineteenth century. [[Matthew Arnold]]<ref>His much-cited ''[[Culture and Anarchy]]'' was subtitled ''An Essay in Political and Social Criticism''.</ref> and [[Thomas Carlyle]] are leading examples of a cultural critic of the [[Victorian age]]; in Arnold there is also a concern for religion. [[John Ruskin]] was another. Because of an equation made between ugliness of material surroundings and an impoverished life, [[aesthete]]s and others might be considered implicitly to be engaging in cultural criticism, but the actual articulation is what makes a critic. In France, [[Charles Baudelaire]] was a cultural critic, as was [[Søren Kierkegaard]] in Denmark and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] in Germany.

==Twentieth century==
{{See|Critical theory|Frankfurt School}}
In the twentieth century [[Irving Babbitt]] on the right, and [[Walter Benjamin]]<ref>E.g. [[Richard Wolin]], ''Walter Benjamin: An Aesthetic of Redemption'' (1994), series ''Weimar and Now: German Cultural Criticism'', 7.</ref> on the left, might be considered major cultural critics. The field of play has changed considerably, in that the [[humanities]] have broadened to include [[cultural studies]] of all kinds, which are grounded in [[critical theory]].

==Examples of contemporary usage==
*[[Allan Bloom]]<ref>[http://www.fortfreedom.org/l27.htm A Cultural Critic Answers His Own]</ref>
*[[Noam Chomsky]]
*[[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]]<ref>[http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/070201/gates.shtml Scholar, cultural critic Gates to give Kent Lecture]</ref>
*[[Roger Kimball]]<ref>Self-description [http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2005/rkimball_intrvw_aug05.asp].</ref>
*[[Mark Kingwell]]
*[[Neil Postman]]
*[[Daniel Quinn]]<ref>[http://www.ishmael.org/Education/writings/unschooling.shtml Recently I was introduced to an audience as a cultural critic, and I think this probably says it best. ].</ref>
*[[Slavoj Zizek]]

==See also==
*[[Anti-capitalism]]
*''[[Arts & Letters Daily]]''
*[[Critical theory]]
*[[Cultural pessimism]]
*[[Culture theory]]
*''[[The New Criterion]]''
*[[Social science]]
*[[Social theory]]
*[[Sociology]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/alumni/Magazine/Summer2000/krutchCultural.html ''Joseph Wood Krutch as a Cultural Critic'' by John Margolis]

[[Category:Criticisms]]
[[Category:Sociology_of_culture]]

[[de:Kulturkritik]]
[[es:Crítica sociocultural]]
[[nl:Cultuurkritiek]]

Culture theory

2012-08-23T00:31:06Z

Rami radwan:

{{About|culture|Cultural Theory|Cultural Theory of risk}}
'''Culture theory''' is the branch of [[comparative anthropology]] and [[semiotics]] (not to be confused with [[cultural sociology]] or [[cultural studies]]) that seeks to define the [[heuristic]] concept of [[culture]] in [[operationalism|operational]] and/or [[scientific method|scientific]] terms.

In the 19th century, "[[culture]]" was used by some to refer to a wide array of [[human]] activities, and by others as a synonym for "[[civilization]]". In the 20th century, [[Anthropology| anthropologists]] began theorizing about culture as an object of scientific analysis. Some used it to distinguish human [[Adaptation (biology)|adaptive strategies]] from the largely [[instinct]]ive adaptive strategies of [[animal]]s, including the adaptive strategies of other [[primate]]s and non-human [[Hominidae|hominid]]s, whereas others used it to refer to symbolic [[representation (arts)|representations]] and expressions of human experience, with no direct adaptive value. Both groups understood culture as being definitive of [[human nature]].

According to many [[theory|theories]] that have gained wide acceptance among anthropologists, culture exhibits the way that humans interpret their [[biology]] and their [[social environment|environment]]. According to this point of view, culture becomes such an integral part of human [[existentialism|existence]] that it ''is'' the human environment, and most cultural [[Social change|change]] can be attributed to human adaptation to [[history|historical events]]. Moreover, given that culture is seen as the primary adaptive mechanism of humans and takes place much faster than [[human evolution|human biological evolution]], most cultural change can be viewed as culture adapting to itself.

Although most anthropologists try to define culture in such a way that it separates human beings from other animals, many human traits are similar to those of other animals, particularly the traits of other primates. For example, [[chimpanzee]]s have big [[brain]]s, but human brains are bigger. Similarly, [[bonobo]]s exhibit complex [[non-human animal sexuality|sexual behaviour]], but human beings exhibit much more complex [[human sexuality|sexual behaviours]]. As such, anthropologists often debate whether [[human behaviour]] is different from [[ethology|animal behaviour]] in degree rather than in kind; they must also find ways to distinguish cultural behaviour from sociological behaviour and [[psychological]] behavior.

Acceleration and amplification of these various aspects of culture change have been explored by complexity economist, [http://tuvalu.santafe.edu/~wbarthur/Papers/Papers.html W. Brian Arthur]. In his book, ''The Nature of Technology'', Arthur attempts to articulate a theory of change that considers that existing technologies (or material culture) are combined in unique ways that lead to novel new technologies. Behind that novel combination is a purposeful effort arising in human motivation. This articulation would suggest that we are just beginning to understand what might be required for a more robust theory of culture and culture change, one that brings coherence across many disciplines and reflects an integrating elegance.

==References==
* Ogburn, William F. ''Social Change''. 1922. Reprint. Dell, New York. 1966.
* Rogers, G.F.C. ''The Nature of the Engineering: A Philosophy of Technology''. Palgrave Macmillan, London, 1983.
* Schumpeter, Joseph. ''The Theory of Economic Development''. 1912. Reprint. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA. 1966. 1934.

==See also==
* [[Cultural studies]]
* [[Cultural behavior]]
* [[Culture industry]]
* [[Critical theory]]
* [[Dual inheritance theory]]
* [[Intercultural relations]]
* [[Popular culture studies]]
* [[Structuralism]]
* [[Tartu-Moscow Semiotic School]]

{{Culture}}
{{Human geography}}

[[Category:Cultural anthropology]]
[[Category:Cultural studies]]
[[Category:Theories]]
[[ar:نظرية الثقافة]]
[[de:Kulturtheorie]]
[[et:Kultuuriteooria]]
[[hr:Kulturna teorija]]
[[pt:Teoria da cultura]]
[[sh:Kulturna teorija]]

Covering Islam

2012-08-21T07:48:49Z

Rami radwan:

{{unreferenced|date=May 2009}}
'''''Covering Islam''''' is a 1981 book written by [[Palestine|Palestinian]] author [[Edward Said]] about how the world views [[Islam]]. Said describes the book as the third and last in a series of books (the first two were ''Orientalism'' and ''The Question of Palestine'') in which he analyzes the relations between the Islamic world, Arabs and East and West, France, Great Britain and the United States.

''Covering Islam'' deals with issues during and after the [[Iranian hostage crisis]], and how the Western media has speculated on the realities of Islamic life. Said questions the objectivity of the media, and discusses the relations between knowledge, power and the Western media (<ref>{{cite book|last=Said|first=Edward|title=Covering Islam: how the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world|year=1997|publisher=Random House|location=New York|isbn=978-0-679-75890-7}}</ref> Said, E. 1997).

==Synopsis==
Said postulates that, if knowledge is power, those who control the modern Western media (visual and print) are most powerful because they are able to determine what people like or dislike, what they wear and how they wear it, and what they should know and must not know about themselves.

A man's intellect enables him to think, ponder, contemplate and question. His intellect is, according to Islam, what makes him unique as an individual. Man, by nature, is a rational being, but the western media wants him to be irrational—in the sense of accepting or agreeing to an idea without verifying, thinking about or questioning it. In other words, says Said, irrationalism means to let one person think and decide for another—to let one person control others.

Said refers to the media's ability to control and filter information as an 'invisible screen', releasing what it wants people to know and blacking out what it does not want them to know. In the age of information, Said argues, it is the media that interprets and filters information—and Said claims that the media has determined very selectively what Westerners should and should not know about Islam and the Muslim world. Islam is portrayed as oppressive (women in [[Hijab]]); outmoded (hanging, beheading and stoning to death); anti-intellectualist (book burning); restrictive (bans on post- and extramarital affairs, alcohol and gambling); extremist (focusing on Algeria, Lebanon and of course Egypt); backward (Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the Sudan); the cause of worldwide conflict (Palestine, Kashmir and Indonesia); and dangerous (Turkey and Iran).

The modern Western media, says Said, does not want people to know that in Islam both men and women are equal; that Islam is tough on crime and the causes of crime; that Islam is a religion of knowledge par excellence; that Islam is a religion of strong ethical principles and a firm moral code; that socially Islam stands for equality and brotherhood; that politically Islam stands for unity and humane governance; that economically Islam stands for justice and fairness; and that Islam is at once a profoundly spiritual and a very practical religion. Said claims that untruth and falsehood about Islam and the Muslim world are consistently propagated in the media, in the name of objectivity, liberalism, freedom, democracy and ‘progress’.<ref>{{cite book|last=Said|first=Edward|title=Covering Islam: how the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world|year=1997|publisher=Random House|location=New York|isbn=978-0-679-75890-7}}</ref>

==References==

<references />
Said, E. (1997). Covering Islam: how the media and the experts determine how we see the rest of the world. New York, NY: Random House.
{{No footnotes|date=November 2010}}
* Welty, Gordon. "Review of Edward Said, Covering Islam, Vintage Books, 1997." ''Dayton Voice'', August 10, 1997.

[[Category:1981 books]]
[[Category:Political books]]
[[Category:Works by Edward Said]]
[[Category:Islamic studies books]]
[[ar:تغطية الإسلام (كتاب)]]

Riyadh TV Tower

2012-08-19T22:41:14Z

Rami radwan:

[[Image:RiyadhTVTower.JPG|thumb|200px|Riyadh TV Tower]]
The '''Riyadh TV Tower''' in [[Riyadh]], [[Saudi Arabia]] is a 170 meter high television tower located inside the premises of Saudi Ministry of Information. It was completed in 1978.

== See also ==
*[[List of towers]]

== External links ==
* {{Structurae|id=s0000282|title=Riyadh Television Tower}}

{{SaudiArabia-struct-stub}}

{{coord|24|38|36|N|46|41|45|E|type:landmark|display=title}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in 1978]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Riyadh]]
[[Category:Television towers in Saudi Arabia]]
[[ar:برج التلفزيون (الرياض)]]
[[de:Fernsehturm Riad]]
[[hr:Radiotelevizijski toranj Rijad]]

Nesting Orientalisms

2012-08-19T02:19:37Z

Rami radwan:

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2011}}
'''Nesting Orientalisms''' is a concept introduced by Milica Bakić-Hayden, a [[visiting lecturer]] at the [[University of Pittsburgh]]. It is based on gradation of "Orients", i.e. otherness and primitiveness.

== Background ==

Milica Bakić-Hayden based her concept on the ideas [[Edward Said|Edward Said's]] [[Orientalism (book)|Orientalism]]. It is sometimes said that Bakić-Hayden was influenced by Larry Wolff<ref>{{Citation |last=Ashbrook |first=John E |author=John E Ashbrook |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title=Buying and selling the Istrian goat : Istrian regionalism, Croatian nationalism, and EU enlargement |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=uk9VVZ1esGwC&pg=PA22&dq=%22Nesting+Orientalisms%22&hl=en&ei=GuBcTr_SG86N-wbg94HuAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDUQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q=%22Nesting%20Orientalisms%22&f=false |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |year=2008 |publisher=Peter Lang |location=New York |isbn=90-5201-391-8 |oclc=213599021 |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |page=22 |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=Milica Bakić-Hayden built on Wolff's work, incorporating ideas from Edward Said's ''Orientalism'' |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}</ref>, but in fact she had already used the term 'Nesting Orientalism' in a 1992 article co-authored with her husband Robert Hayden, i.e. before Wolff published his ideas on ''Inventing Eastern Europe'' <ref>Milica Bakic-Hayden and Robert Hayden, "Orientalist Variations on the Theme "Balkans": Symbolic Geography in Recent Yugoslav Cultural Politics" Slavic review, vol. 51, no. 1 (Spring 1992), p. 4.</ref>.

== The concept ==

This concept explains "a tendency of each region to view the cultures and religions to its South and East as more conservative and primitive".<ref>{{cite book|last=Petrović|first=Tanja|title=Kulturen der Differenz – Transformationsprozesse in Zentraleuropa nach 1989 transdisziplinäre Perspektiven|year=2009|publisher=Vienna Univ. Press|isbn=3-89971-714-7|author=Tanja Petrović|editor=Heinz Fassmann|accessdate=31 August 2011|page=141}}</ref> It explains how a group which creates the Orientalized other can also be the subject of Orientalization by another group, and so on.<ref>{{Citation |last=Cela |first=Alba |author=Alba Cela |title= ‘Orientalism’ in service of Contemporary National Identity Building in Albania: The literary work of Ismail Kadare. |url= http://web.ceu.hu/nation/theses/Cela.pdf |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |year= 2006 |publisher=Central European University Nationalism Studies Program |location= Budapest, Hungary |isbn= |oclc= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |page=18 |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=Milica Bakic-Hayden’s work on “Nesting Orientalisms”... exposed how the project of creating a necessary other sometimes involves the Orientalization of one group by another, who has been in turn Orientalized by another, and so on. |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}</ref> According to this concept Asia is more "east" or "other" than Eastern Europe. Within Eastern Europe the [[Balkans]] is perceived as most "eastern". Such hierarchy continues within the Balkans.<ref>{{Citation |last=Harrington |first=Carol |author=Carol Harrington |coauthors= Ayman Salem; Tamara Zurabishvili|title=After communism : critical perspectives on society and sociology |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=fNejIRHgCyIC&pg=PA84&dq=%22Nesting+Orientalisms%22&hl=en&ei=GuBcTr_SG86N-wbg94HuAQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CC4Q6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=%22Nesting%20Orientalisms%22&f=false |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |location= |isbn=978-0-8204-6951-5 |oclc=56334118 |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |page=84 |quote=...Hayden very interestingly introduced the idea of 'nesting Orientalism', which contains the process of descending East/West exclusion: "The gradation of 'Orients' that I call 'nesting Orientalisms' is a pattern of reproduction of the original dichotomy upon which the Orientalism is premised. }}</ref>

=== Nesting Balkanisms ===
In the case of the Balkans there are many rankings connected with this concept, which "play a significant role in . . . [[Identity (social science)|identity]] building [and proclaiming] a more prestigious position within a generally negatively assessed entity".<ref name=Ethnologia37>{{Citation |last=Elchinova |first= Magdalena |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title=Bulgaria's Way to Europe: Some Aspects of Identity Construction Among Bulgarian Students Today |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=0ogSzrXJEfMC&pg=PA37&dq=%22Nesting+Orientalisms%22&hl=en&ei=UUddToTxDOSk4AT93pUm&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CDQQ6AEwAjgK#v=onepage&q=%22Nesting%20Orientalisms%22&f=false |accessdate= |edition= |series=Ethnologia Balkanica |volume=8 |origyear= |year= 2004 |publisher=Prof. M. Drinov Academic Pub. House |location= Sofia |isbn= |oclc=41714232 |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |page=37 |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=[C]f. the idea of 'nesting orientalisms' in Bakic-Hayden 1995, and the related concept of 'nesting balkanisms' in Todorova 1997 ... The dynamic nature of 'Europe' and 'the Balkans' is even more salient when the two are regarded as identity constructions. As such, they are still opposed to each other (Todorova 1997:19) for the Balkans are not alien to Europe, they are its 'darker side'|laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}</ref> Proclaiming one's European character was a tool in creating the pattern of "nesting orientalisms" in the Balkans.<ref>{{Citation |last= Biehl |first= Peter F. |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title=Archäologien Europas: Geschichte, Methoden und Theorien |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=Iqewqjc22igC&pg=PA316&dq=%22Nesting+Orientalisms%22&hl=en&ei=pVldTqCkIPT04QTKmaEd&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCgQ6AEwADgo#v=onepage&q=%22Nesting%20Orientalisms%22&f=false |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |publisher=Waxmann |isbn=978-3-8309-1067-1 |oclc= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |page=316 |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote=The renegotiation of the European character of the Balkan peoples was the major issue among the conflicting parties, and a device in constructing the pattern of 'nesting orientalisms' mentioned above (Bakić-Hayden...) |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}</ref>

Hence, Bulgarian historian [[Maria Todorova]] introduced the related concept of "nesting balkanisms".<ref name=Ethnologia37/> Todorova emphasized the importance of this concept in identity constructions, which in the case of the Balkans involve the dual perception of the Balkans as a part of Europe but also as in opposition, as the "darker side" of Europe.<ref name=Ethnologia37/>

=== Nesting Colonialisms ===

Another concept related to the concept of nesting orientalisms was introduced by Tanja Petrović, a [[Serbs|Serbian]] [[Anthropology|anthropologist]] from [[Slovenia]]: that of "nesting colonialisms", which is marked by parallels and analogies of the [[European Union]] and the rest of the world, which are perceived as former colonial powers and former colonies. This concept provides members of European Union, no matter whether they had a colonial past or not, with a "pool" of discursive patterns used for exclusion of those who are outside the European Union.<ref>{{cite book|last=Petrović|first=Tanja|title=Kulturen der Differenz – Transformationsprozesse in Zentraleuropa nach 1989 transdisziplinäre Perspektiven|year=2009|publisher=Vienna Univ. Press|isbn=3-89971-714-7|author=Tanja Petrović|editor=Heinz Fassmann|accessdate=31 August 2011|page=141}}</ref>

=== Nesting Occidentalisms ===

Bulgarian intellectuals have modified the concept of Nesting Orientalisms into the reversed concept of ''Nesting Occidentalisms''.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bracewell|first=Wendy|title=Balkan Departures: Travel Writing from South-Eastern Europe|year=2009|publisher=Berghahn|location=New York|isbn=1-84545-254-2|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dCb4_3H6yjkC&pg=PA111&lpg=PA111&dq=%22nesting+occidentalisms%22&source=bl&ots=ysRGvoXMRf&sig=Ee2z3xuTCstOBgAWDvkGnAl9eSk&hl=en&ei=KixeTrDaLsbb4QSL2Jke&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CBcQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=%22nesting%20occidentalisms%22&f=false|author=Wendy Bracewell|coauthors=Alex Drace-Francis|accessdate=31 August 2011|page=111|quote=Milica Bakić Hayden speaks of "nesting Orientalisms". Bulgarian intellectuals ... appear to have ... adopted a reversed version of her model. They approach Europe in terms of 'nesting Occidentalisms' or a 'gradation of Occidents'. }}</ref>

The concept of nesting occidentalisms is present in the 2006 [[mockumentary]] ''[[Borat]]'', which exploits foreign and domestic hierarchies of [[Americans]].<ref>{{Citation |last= Hall |first= Richard Andrew |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title= BORAT: ORIENTALIST SATIRE FOR MAKE GLORIOUS DEBATE WESTERN INTELLIGENTSIYA |url= http://homepage.mac.com/khallbobo/RichardHall/pubs/boratslavicreview022807.pdf |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |location= |isbn= |oclc= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= Borat! is replete with what might be called 'nesting occidentalisms' or 'nesting antiAmericanisms': that is, it creates and plays on foreign and domestic hierarchies of Americans, good, bad, and ugly |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Orientalism]]
* [[Occidentalism]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Citation |last= Said|first=Edward W. |authorlink=Edward Said |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title= Orientalism |url= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |year= 1978 |publisher=Pantheon Books |location=New York |isbn=978-0-394-42814-7 |oclc=4004102 |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}
* {{Citation |last=Wolff |first=Larry |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title=Inventing Eastern Europe : the map of civilization on the mind of the enlightenment |url= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |year=1994 |publisher=Stanford University Press |location=Stanford, Calif. |isbn=978-0-8047-2314-5 |oclc=298105078 |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}
* {{Citation |last= Bakić-Hayden |first=Milica |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title=Nesting Orientalisms: The Case of Former Yugoslavia |url= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |volume=54/4 |origyear= |year=1995 |publisher=Slavic Review|isbn= |oclc=479320036 |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |pages= 917–931 |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}
* {{Citation |last= Todorova |first= Maria |authorlink=Maria Todorova |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title=Imagining the Balkans |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=WZweAIJI0ZwC&dq=%22Imagining+the+Balkans%22&hl=en&src=bmrr&ei=JPBdTriQC-Xm4QSWv_BI&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCkQ6AEwAA |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |year=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location= New York |isbn= 978-9989-851-31-5 |oclc= 34282740 |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}
* "Nesting Balkanisms among Dalmatian and Istrian Croats in the 1990s" at the Special Convention "Nationalism, Identity and Regional Cooperation: Compatibilities and Incompatibilities" Centro per l'Europa centro orientale e balcanica in association with ASN Bologna University Forli, Italy (4–9 June 2002)
* {{Citation |last= Petrović |first= Tanja |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title= 'Nesting colonialisms' : new and old patterns of exclusion in the European periphery |url= |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |publisher=Mirovni inštitut |location= Ljubljana |isbn= |oclc=443779356 |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |page= 28 |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}
* {{Citation |last= Petrović |first= Tanja |author=Tanja Petrović |author-separator= |editor= |editorn= |editorn-last= |editorn-first= |editor-link= |editorn-link= |others= |title=NESTING COLONIALISMS: AUSTRIA, SLOVENIA AND DISCOURSES ON THE WESTERN BALKANS IN THE CONTEXT OF THE EU ENLARGEMENT |url=http://www.drzavljanska-vzgoja.org/Portals/0/Dokumenti/clanki/Petrovic_DMG_2.pdf |accessdate= |edition= |series= |origyear= |publisher=Znanstvenoraziskovalni center SAZU |location= Ljubljana |isbn= |oclc= |doi_inactivedate= |bibcode= |id= |nopp= |at= |chapter= |chapterurl= |quote= |laysummary= |laydate= |separator= |postscript= |lastauthoramp= |ref= }}
[[Category:Orientalism]]
[[Category:Theories of aesthetics]]
[[Category:Prejudices]]
[[ar:ما بعد الاستشراق]]

Talbiya

2012-08-18T01:16:41Z

Rami radwan:

{{About|a Jerusalem neighborhood|the Muslim prayer|Talbiyah}}

[[File:The Exterior of the hotel.jpg|thumb|250px|View of Talbiya from the [[Old City]] of Jerusalem]]

'''Talbiya''' or '''Talbiyeh''' ({{lang-ar|الطالبية}}, {{lang-he|טלביה}}), officially '''Komemiyut''', is an upscale neighborhood in [[Jerusalem]], [[Israel]], located between [[Rehavia]] and [[Katamon]]. It was built in the 1920s and 1930s on land purchased from the [[Greek Patriarchate]]. Most of the early residents were affluent [[Christian Arabs]] who built elegant homes with Renaissance, Moorish and Arab architectural motifs, surrounded by trees and flowering gardens.<ref name="arch">{{cite web |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Archaeology/jermandate.html |title=Jerusalem: Architecture in the British Mandate Period |last=Eylon |first=Lili |year=2011 |accessdate=18 December 2011 |work=Jewish Virtual Library}}</ref>

==History==
[[Image:Villa Salameh.JPG|thumb|250px|Villa Salameh in Talbiya]]
After World War I, Constantine Salameh, a native of Beirut, bought land in Talbiya from the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate with the idea of building a prestigious neighborhood for Christian Arabs. In addition to a villa for himself, Salameh built two apartment houses on the square that was named for him.<ref name="Salameh">{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/villa-dolorosa-1.308144 |title=Villa Dolorosa: The story of Villa Salameh, one of the most impressive buildings in Jerusalem, is a tale of a passion for beauty and luxury, of Palestinian emigration and loss, and of a titanic battle for its ownership |work=[[Haaretz]] |date=8 January 2003 |accessdate=18 December 2011}}</ref> After Israel's War of Independence, many Arab residents of Talbiya lost the right to their properties due to Israel's [[Custodian of Enemy Property|Absentee Property Law]]. After a long legal process, Salameh was paid a symbolic $700,000 in compensation for his multi-million dollar properties located in Israel because he had proved that he had not left the Palestine Mandate due to the conflict, rather he was on a business trip during the outbreak of hostilities. <ref name="Salameh"/> Talbiya's ''Gan Hashoshanim'' (Rose Garden) dates back to the 1930s. After the establishment of the [[State of Israel]], official Independence Day events were held at this park.

[[File:Hansen 007.jpg|thumb|200px|Hansen Lepers Hospital, Talbiya]]
Before the Six-Day War, many of the villas in Talbiya housed foreign consulates. The home of Constantine Salameh, which he leased to the Belgian consulate, faces a flowering square, originally Salameh Square, later renamed Wingate Square to commemorate [[Orde Wingate]], a British officer who trained members of the [[Haganah]] in the 1930s. Marcus Street is named for Colonel [[David (Mickey) Marcus]], an officer in the U.S. army who volunteered to be a military advisor in Israel’s War of Independence.<ref name="arch"/>

==Today==
The neighborhood's Hebrew name ''Komemiyut,'' (קוממיות) introduced after the [[Declaration of Independence (Israel)|establishment of the state]], never caught on, and it is still known as ''Talbiya.''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/weekend/week-s-end/a-stir-over-sign-language-1.375919 |title=A stir over sign language: A recently discovered trove of documents from the 1950s reveals a nasty battle in Jerusalem over the hebraization of street and neighborhood names. This campaign is still raging today. |work=Haaretz |date=29 July 2011 |accessdate=18 December 2011}}</ref> Many of Jerusalem's important cultural institutions are located in Talbiya, among them the [[Jerusalem Theater]], the [[Van Leer Jerusalem Institute|Van Leer Institute]] and [[Beit HaNassi]], the official residence of the [[President of Israel]].

== Notable residents ==
*[[Haim Yavin]]
*[[Edward Said]]
*[[Shimon Peres]]
*[[Ya'akov Ne'eman]]
*[[Martin Buber]]

{{coord|31|46|N|35|13|E|display=title|region:IL_type:city_source:GNS-enwiki}}

==References==
{{Commons category|Talbiya}}

{{reflist}}
{{Neighborhoods of Jerusalem}}

[[Category:Populated places established in the 1920s]]
[[Category:Neighbourhoods of Jerusalem]]

{{Link FA|he}}
[[ar:حي الطالبية]]
[[cs:Talbija]]
[[he:טלביה]]
[[mk:Талбија]]
[[pl:Talbija]]
[[pt:Talbiya]]
[[yi:טאלביע]]

Cultural critic

2012-08-16T00:14:31Z

Rami radwan:

A '''cultural critic''' is a [[critic]] of a given [[culture]], usually as a whole and typically on a radical basis.{{cn|date=April 2012}} There is significant overlap with [[social theory|social]] and [[cultural theory]].

==Terminology==
Contemporary usage has tended to include all types of [[criticism]] directed at [[culture]].

The term ''cultural criticism'' itself has been claimed by [[Jacques Barzun]]: ''No such thing was recognized or in favour when we [i.e. Barzun and Trilling] began — more by intuition than design — in the autumn of 1934''.<ref>''Remembering [[Lionel Trilling]]'', (1976), reprinted in ''The Jacques Barzun Reader'' (2002).</ref><ref>Casey Nelson Blake, a professor at [[Columbia University]] where Barzun and Trilling were, uses the term in the 1990 book title ''Beloved Community: The Cultural Criticism of [[Randolph Bourne]], [[Van Wyck Brooks]], [[Waldo Frank]], and [[Lewis Mumford]]''.</ref> In contrast, a work such as [[Richard Wolin]]'s 1995 ''The Terms of Cultural Criticism: The Frankfurt School, Existentialism, Poststructuralism'' (1995) uses it as a broad-brush description.

==Victorian sages as critics==
Cultural critics came to the scene in the nineteenth century. [[Matthew Arnold]]<ref>His much-cited ''[[Culture and Anarchy]]'' was subtitled ''An Essay in Political and Social Criticism''.</ref> and [[Thomas Carlyle]] are leading examples of a cultural critic of the [[Victorian age]]; in Arnold there is also a concern for religion. [[John Ruskin]] was another. Because of an equation made between ugliness of material surroundings and an impoverished life, [[aesthete]]s and others might be considered implicitly to be engaging in cultural criticism, but the actual articulation is what makes a critic. In France, [[Charles Baudelaire]] was a cultural critic, as was [[Søren Kierkegaard]] in Denmark and [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] in Germany.

==Twentieth century==
{{See|Critical theory|Frankfurt School}}
In the twentieth century [[Irving Babbitt]] on the right, and [[Walter Benjamin]]<ref>E.g. [[Richard Wolin]], ''Walter Benjamin: An Aesthetic of Redemption'' (1994), series ''Weimar and Now: German Cultural Criticism'', 7.</ref> on the left, might be considered major cultural critics. The field of play has changed considerably, in that the [[humanities]] have broadened to include [[cultural studies]] of all kinds, which are grounded in [[critical theory]].

==Examples of contemporary usage==
*[[Allan Bloom]]<ref>[http://www.fortfreedom.org/l27.htm A Cultural Critic Answers His Own]</ref>
*[[Noam Chomsky]]
*[[Henry Louis Gates, Jr.]]<ref>[http://chronicle.uchicago.edu/070201/gates.shtml Scholar, cultural critic Gates to give Kent Lecture]</ref>
*[[Roger Kimball]]<ref>Self-description [http://www.ignatiusinsight.com/features2005/rkimball_intrvw_aug05.asp].</ref>
*[[Mark Kingwell]]
*[[Neil Postman]]
*[[Daniel Quinn]]<ref>[http://www.ishmael.org/Education/writings/unschooling.shtml Recently I was introduced to an audience as a cultural critic, and I think this probably says it best. ].</ref>
*[[Slavoj Zizek]]

==See also==
*[[Anti-capitalism]]
*''[[Arts & Letters Daily]]''
*[[Critical theory]]
*[[Cultural pessimism]]
*[[Culture theory]]
*''[[The New Criterion]]''
*[[Social science]]
*[[Social theory]]
*[[Sociology]]

==Notes==
<references/>

==External links==
*[http://www.columbia.edu/cu/alumni/Magazine/Summer2000/krutchCultural.html ''Joseph Wood Krutch as a Cultural Critic'' by John Margolis]

[[Category:Criticisms]]
[[Category:Sociology_of_culture]]
[[ar:نظرية الثقافة]]
[[de:Kulturkritik]]
[[es:Crítica sociocultural]]
[[nl:Cultuurkritiek]]

Attar of Nishapur

2012-08-12T03:21:50Z

Rami radwan: /* Works */

{{Infobox saint
| name = Attar of Nishapur
| image = Attar.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| alt =
| caption = Attar of Nishapur
| titles = Spiritual Poet
| birth_date = c. 1145 C.E.
| birth_place = [[Nishapur]]
| death_date = c. 1220 C.E.
| death_place = [[Nishapur]]
| venerated_in = [[Islam]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day =
| attributes =
| patronage =
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
| suppressed_by =
| influences =[[Ferdowsi]], [[Sanai]], [[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari]], [[Mansur Al-Hallaj|Hallaj]], [[Abusa'id Abolkhayr]], [[Bayazid Bastami]]
| influenced = [[Rumi]], [[Hafiz Shirazi|Hafiz]], [[Jami]], [[Ali-Shir Nava'i|Nava'i]] and many other later Sufi Poets
| tradition =[[Mysticism|Mystic]] [[poetry]]
| major_works =''[[Tadhkiratul Awliya|Memorial of the Saints]]'' ''[[The Conference of the Birds]]''
}}

'''Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm''' (1145-1146 - c. 1221; {{lang-fa|ابو حمید ابن ابوبکر ابراهیم}}), better known by his pen-names '''Farīd ud-Dīn''' ('''فریدالدین''') and '''‘Attār''' ('''عطار''' - "the perfumer"), was a [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Muslim]] poet, theoretician of [[Sufism]], and [[hagiographer]] from [[Nishapur|Nīshāpūr]] who had an abiding influence on Persian poetry and [[Sufism]].

==Biography==

Information about Attar's life is rare. He is mentioned by only two of his contemporaries, `Awfi and [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|Tusi]]. However, all sources confirm that he was from [[Nishapur]], a major city of medieval [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] (now located in the northeast of [[Iran]]), and according to `Awfi, he was a poet of the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuq period]]. It seems that he was not well known as a poet in his own lifetime, except at his home town, and his greatness as a mystic, a poet, and a master of narrative was not discovered until the 15th century.<ref name="Iranica">B. Reinert, [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/attar-farid-al-din-persian-poet-and-sufi "`Attar"], in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'', Online Edition</ref>

[[File:Image-Attaar0b.jpg|thumb|left|`Attar's mausoleum in [[Nishapur]], [[Iran]]]]
`Attar was probably the son of a prosperous chemist, receiving an excellent education in various fields. While his works say little else about his life, they tell us that he practiced the profession of pharmacy and personally attended to a very large number of customers.<ref name="Iranica" /> The people he helped in the pharmacy used to confide their troubles in `Attar and this affected him deeply. Eventually, he abandoned his pharmacy store and traveled widely - to [[Baghdad]], [[Basra]], [[Kufa]], [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], [[Damascus]], [[Khwarizm]], [[Turkistan]], and India, meeting with Sufi [[Shaykh]]s - and returned promoting Sufi ideas.<ref name="Bashiri">Iraj Bashiri, "[http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.html Farid al-Din `Attar]"</ref>

`Attar's initiation into Sufi practices is subject to much speculation and fabrication. Of all the famous Sufi Shaykhs supposed to have been his teachers, only one - [[Majd ud-Din Baghdadi]] - comes within the bounds of possibility. The only certainty in this regard is `Attar's own statement that he once met him.<ref>''Tadkerat al-Awlīya''; pp. 1,6,21</ref>

In any case it can be taken for granted that from childhood onward `Attar, encouraged by his father, was interested in the Sufis and their sayings and way of life, and regarded their saints as his spiritual guides.<ref>''Tadkerat al-Awlīya''; pp. 1,55,23 ff</ref>

`Attar reached an age of over 70 and died a violent death in the massacre which the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols inflicted on Nishapur]] in April 1221.<ref name="Iranica" /> Today, his [[mausoleum]] is located in Nishapur. It was built by [[Ali-Shir Nava'i]] in the 16th century.

Like many aspects of his life, his death, too, is blended with legends and speculation.

==Teachings==
[[File:Mahmoud and Ayaz.jpg|thumb|Ayaz kneeling before [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni]]. A miniature painting made in the year 1472, is used to illustrate the six poems by Attar of Nishapur.]]

The thought-world depicted in `Attar's works reflects the whole evolution of the Sufi movement. The starting point is the idea that the body-bound soul's awaited release and return to its source in the other world can be experienced during the present life in mystic union attainable through inward purification.<ref>F. Meier, "Der Geistmensch bei dem persischen Dichter `Attar", Eranos-Jahrbuch 13, 1945, pp. 286 ff</ref> In explaining his thoughts, 'Attar uses material not only from specifically Sufi sources but also from older ascetic legacies. Although his heroes are for the most part Sufis and ascetics, he also introduces stories from historical chronicles, collections of anecdotes, and all types of high-esteemed literature.<ref name="Iranica" /> His talent for perception of deeper meanings behind outward appearances enables him to turn details of everyday life into illustrations of his thoughts. The [[idiosyncrasy]] of `Attar's presentations invalidates his works as sources for study of the historical persons whom he introduces. As sources on the [[hagiology]] and [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] of Sufism, however, his works have immense value.

Judging from `Attar's writings, he viewed the ancient [[Aristotle|Aristotelian heritage]] with skepticism and dislike.<ref>''Mūṣibat-Nāma'', p. 54 ff</ref><ref>''Asrār-Nāma'', pp. 50, 794 ff</ref> Interestingly, he did not want to uncover the secrets of nature. This is particularly remarkable in the case of [[medicine]], which fell within the scope of his profession. He obviously had no motive for showing off his secular knowledge in the manner customary among court [[panegyrist]]s, whose type of poetry he despised and never practiced. Such knowledge is only brought into his works in contexts where the theme of a story touches on a branch of natural science.

==Poetry==
`Attar speaks of his own poetry in various contexts including the epilogues of his long narrative poems. He confirms the guess likely to be made by every reader that he possessed an inexhaustible fund of thematic and verbal inspiration. He writes that when he composed his poems, more ideas came into his mind than he could possibly use.<ref>''Asrār-Nāma''; p. 185: verse 3146, and p. 186: verse 3151</ref> He also states that the effort of poetical composition threw him into a state of trance in which he could not sleep.<ref>''Asrār-Nāma''; p. 185: verse 3148</ref>

==Works==
[[File:Farid Al Din Attar.JPG|300px|thumb|right|Manuscript forFarid Al Din Attar keeping in Pergamon Museum]]

The question whether all the works that have been ascribed to him are really from his pen, has not been solved. This is due to two facts that have been observed in his works:<ref name="Iranica" />

# There are considerable differences of style among these works.
# Some of them indicate a [[Sunnite]], and others a [[Shia]], allegiance of the author.

Classification of the various works by these two criteria yields virtually identical results. The German [[oriental studies|orientalist]] Hellmut Ritter at first thought that the problem could be explained by a spiritual evolution of the poet. He distinguished three phases of `Attar's creativity:

# Works in which [[mysticism]] is in perfect balance with a finished, story-teller's art.
# Works in which a pantheistic zeal gains the upper hand over literary interest.
# Works in which the aging poet idolizes [[Imam]] [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]] while there is no trace of ordered thoughts and descriptive skills.<ref name="Bashiri" />

Ritter surmised that the last phase, that of old age, was coincidental with a conversion to [[Shia|Shi'ism]].<ref>H. Rittner, "Philologika X," pp. 143 f</ref> However, in 1941, the Persian scholar Nafisi was able to prove that the works of the third phase in Ritter's classification were written by another `Attar who lived about two hundred and fifty years later at [[Mashhad]] and was a native of Tun.<ref name="Iranica" /> Ritter accepted this finding in the main, but doubted whether Nafisi was right in attributing the works of the second group also to this `Attar of Tun. One of Ritter's arguments is that the principal figure in the second group is not Ali, as in the third group, but [[al-Hallaj|Hallaj]], and that there is nothing in the explicit content of the second group to indicate a Shia allegiance of the author. Another is the important chronological point that a manuscript of the ''Jawhar al-Dāt'', the chief work in the second group, bears the date 735 A.H. (= 1334-35 AD). While `Attar of Tun's authorship of the second group is untenable, Nafisi was certainly right in concluding that the style difference (already observed by Ritter) between the works in the first group and those in the second group is too great to be explained by a spiritual evolution of the author. The authorship of the second group remains an unsolved problem.<ref name="Iranica" />

According to [[Edward G. Browne]], [[Farid al-Din Attar|Attar]] as well as [[Rumi]] and [[Sana'i]] were all Sunni Muslims and their poetry abound with praise for the first two caliphs [[Abu Bakr]] and [[Umar ibn al-Khattāb]].<ref>[[Edward G. Browne]], ''A Literary History of Persia from the Earliest Times Until Firdawsh'', 543 pp., Adamant Media Corporation, 2002, ISBN 1-4021-6045-3, ISBN 978-1-4021-6045-5 (see p.437)</ref> According to [[Annemarie Schimmel]], the tendency among [[Shia]] authors to include leading mystical poets such as Rumi and Attar among their own ranks, became stronger after the introduction of [[Twelver Shia]] as the state religion in the [[Safavid Empire]] in 1501.<ref>[[Annemarie Schimmel]], ''Deciphering the Signs of God'', 302 pp., SUNY Press, 1994, ISBN 0-7914-1982-7, ISBN 978-0-7914-1982-3 (see p.210)</ref>

In the introductions of ''Mokhtār-Nāma'' ('''<big>مختارنامه</big>''') and ''Khosrow-Nāma'' ('''<big>خسرونامه</big>'''), `Attar lists the titles of further products of his pen:
[[File:The Mantiq al-tair.jpg|thumb|''"Manteq at-Ṭayr"'' (''"[[The Conference of the Birds]]"'')]]
* ''Dīvān'' ('''<big>دیوان</big>''')
* ''Asrār-Nāma'' ('''<big>اسرار نامه</big>''')
* ''Maqāmāt-e Toyūr'' (= ''Manteq aṭ-Ṭayr''; '''<big>مقامات الطیور</big>''' or '''<big>منطق الطیر</big>''')
* ''Moṣībat-Nāma'' ('''<big>مصیب نامه</big>''')
* ''Elāhī-Nāma'' ('''<big>الهی نامه</big>''')
* ''Jawāher-Nāma'' ('''<big>جواهر نامه</big>''')
* ''Šarḥ al-Qalb''<ref>quoted in H. Ritter, "Philologika X," pp. 147-53</ref> ('''<big>شرح القلب</big>''')

He also states, in the introduction of the ''Mokhtār-Nāma'', that he destroyed the ''Jawāher-Nāma' and the ''Šarḥ al-Qalb'' with his own hand.

Although the contemporary sources confirm only `Attar's authorship of the ''Dīvān'' and the ''[[The Conference of the Birds|Manteq al-Ṭayr]]'', there are no grounds for doubting the authenticity of the ''Mokhtār-Nāma'' and ''Khosrow-Nāma'' and their prefaces.<ref name="Iranica" /> One work is missing from these lists, namely the ''[[Tadhkirat al-awliya|Tadhkerat al-Awlīya]]'', which was probably omitted because it is a prose work; its attribution to `Attar is scarcely open to question. In its introduction `Attar mentions three other works of his, including one entitled ''Šarḥ al-Qalb'', presumably the same that he destroyed. The nature of the other two, entitled ''Kašf al-Asrār'' and ''Ma'refat al-Nafs'', remains unknown.<ref>Ritter, "Philologika XIV," p. 63</ref>

===Manteq aṭ-Ṭayr===
{{Main|The Conference of the Birds}}
Led by the [[hoopoe]], the birds of the world set forth in search of their king, [[Simurgh]]. Their quest takes them through seven valleys in the first of which a hundred difficulties assail them. They undergo many trials as they try to free themselves of what is precious to them and change their state. Once successful and filled with longing, they ask for wine to dull the effects of dogma, belief, and unbelief on their lives. In the second valley, the birds give up reason for love and, with a thousand hearts to sacrifice, continue their quest for discovering the Simurgh. The third valley confounds the birds, especially when they discover that their worldly knowledge has become completely useless and their understanding has become ambivalent. There are different ways of crossing this Valley, and all birds do not fly alike. Understanding can be arrived at variously—some have found the [[Mihrab]], others the idol.

The fourth valley is introduced as the valley of detachment, i.e., detachment from desire to possess and the wish to discover. The birds begin to feel that they have become part of a universe that is detached from their physical recognizable reality. In their new world, the planets are as minute as sparks of dust and elephants are not distinguishable from ants. It is not until they enter the fifth valley that they realize that unity and multiplicity are the same. And as they have become entities in a vacuum with no sense of eternity. More importantly, they realize that God is beyond unity, multiplicity, and eternity. Stepping into the sixth valley, the birds become astonished at the beauty of the Beloved. Experiencing extreme sadness and dejection, they feel that they know nothing, understand nothing. They are not even aware of themselves. Only thirty birds reach the abode of the Simurgh. But there is no Simurgh anywhere to see. Simurgh's chamberlain keeps them waiting for Simurgh long enough for the birds to figure out that they themselves are the ''si'' (thirty) ''murgh'' (bird). The seventh valley is the valley of deprivation, forgetfulness, dumbness, deafness, and death. The present and future lives of the thirty successful birds become shadows chased by the celestial Sun. And themselves, lost in the Sea of His existence, are the Simurgh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.html |title=Central Asia and Iran |publisher=Angelfire.com |date= |accessdate=2012-02-23}}</ref>

====`Attar's Seven Valleys of Love in the Manteq al-Tayr====
*The Valley of Quest
*The Valley of Love
*The Valley of Understanding
*The Valley of Independence and Detachment
*The Valley of Unity
*The Valley of Astonishment and Bewilderment
*The Valley of Deprivation and Death

===Tadhkerat al-Awlīya===
{{Main|Tadhkirat al-awliya}}
Attar's only known prose work which he worked on throughout much of his life and which was available publicly before his death, is a biography of Muslim saints and mystics. In what is considered the most compelling entry in this book, `Attar relates the story of the execution of Hallaj, the mystic who had uttered the words "I am the Truth" in a state of ecstatic contemplation.

===Ilahi-Nama===
The Ilahi-Nama ({{lang-fa|الهی نامه}}) is another famous poetic work of Attar consisting of 6500 verses. In terms of form and content, it has some similarities with Bird Parliament. The story is about a king who is confronted with the materialistic and worldly demands of his six sons. The King tries to show the temporary and senseless desires of his six son by retelling them a large number of spiritual stories. The first son asks for the daughter of the king of fairies (Pariyaan).

===Mokhtar Nama===
Mokhtar-Nama ({{lang-fa|مختار نامه}}), a wide-ranging collection of quatrains (2088 in number). In the Mokhtar-nama, a coherent group of mystical and religious subjects is outlined (search for union, sense of uniqueness, distancing from the world, annihilation, amazement, pain, awareness of death, etc.), and an equally rich group of themes typical of lyrical poetry of erotic inspiration adopted by mystical literature (the torment of love, impossible union, beauty of the loved one, stereotypes of the love story as weakness, crying, separation).<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/ot_grp12/ot_mokhtarnama_20080407.html Daniela Meneghini, "MOḴTĀR-NĀMA"]{{dead link|date=February 2012}}</ref>

===Divan===
[[File:Bihhzad 004.jpg|thumb|A miniature painting by [[Bihzad]] illustrating the funeral of the elderly Attar of Nishapur after he was held captive and killed by a [[Mongol]] invader.]]

The Divan ({{lang-fa|دیوان عطار}}) of Attar consists almost entirely of poems in the [[Ghazal]] ("lyric") form, as he collected his [[Ruba'i]] ("quatrains") in a separate work called the Mokhtar-nama. There are also some [[Qasida]] ("Odes"), but they amount to less than one-seventh of the Divan. His Qasidas expound upon mystical and ethical themes and moral precepts. They are sometimes modeled after [[Sanai]]. The [[Ghazals]] often seem from their outward vocabulary just to be love and wine songs with a predilection for libertine imagery, but generally imply spiritual experiences in the familiar symbolic language of classical Islamic [[Sufism]].<ref name="Iranica"/> Attar's lyrics express the same ideas that are elaborated in his epics. His lyric poetry does not significantly differ from that of his narrative poetry, and the same may be said of the rhetoric and imagery.

==Legacy==
===Influence on Rumi===
`Attar is one of the most famous [[mysticism|mystic]] poets of Iran. His works were the inspiration of [[Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi|Rumi]] and many other mystic poets. `Attar, along with [[Sanai]] were two of the greatest influences on Rumi in his [[Sufi]] views. Rumi has mentioned both of them with the highest esteem several times in his poetry. Rumi praises `Attar as follows:

{{bquote|''Attar has roamed through the seven cities of love while we have barely turned down the first street.''<ref>''Fodor's Iran'' (1979) by Richard Moore and Peter Sheldon, p. 277</ref>}}

===As a pharmacist===
`Attar was a [[pseudonym|pen-name]] which he took for his occupation. `Attar means [[herbalist]], [[medication|druggist]], [[perfume|perfumist]] or [[alchemist]], and during his lifetime in [[Persian Empire|Persia]], much of [[medicine]] and drugs were based on [[herb]]s. Therefore, by profession he was similar to a modern-day town [[physician|doctor]] and [[pharmacist]].

===In popular culture===
Several [[music]]al artists have albums or songs which share the name of his most famous work, ''[[Conference of the Birds]]'', as well as the themes of enlightenment contained therein. Notably, [[jazz]] [[Double-bass|bassist]] [[David Holland]]'s [[Conference of the Birds (Dave Holland album)|album]], which was written as a metaphor for his own [[enlightenment (spiritual)|enlightenment]], and [[Om (band)|Om's]] [[Conference of the Birds (Om album)|Conference of the Birds]], which deals with extremely esoteric themes often connected with metaphors of [[flight]], inward vision, destruction of [[Religious views on the self|self]], and oneness with the [[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|cosmos]]

==See also==
{{portal|Poetry}}
*[[Sufism]]
*[[The Seven Valleys]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*[[Edward Granville Browne|E.G. Browne]]. ''Literary History of Persia''. 1998. ISBN 0-7007-0406-X.
*Jan Rypka, ''History of Iranian Literature''. Reidel Publishing Company. 1968 {{OCLC|460598}}. ISBN 90-277-0143-1

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Attar}}
* [[q:Attar|A few wikiquotes]]
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/attar-farid-al-din-persian-poet-and-sufi Attar in Encyclopedia Iranica by B. Reinert]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.html#Farid Attar, Farid ad-Din]. A biography by Professor [[Iraj Bashiri]], [[University of Minnesota]].
* [http://red-sulphur.org/?q=node/357 `Attar's poem in Praise of Prophet Muhammad]
* [http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/sufi/attar/attarp/ Poetry by `Attar]
* [http://www.re-press.org/content/view/50/38/ Fifty Poems of `Attar]. A Translation of 50 poems with the Persian on the facing page.
* [http://ganjoor.net/ Attar's works in original Persian] at Ganjoor Persian Library
* [http://www.scribd.com/doc/29159138/Attar-Complete Deewan-e-Attar in original Persian single pdf file uploaded by javed Hussen]
* [http://www.iran551.com/en/about-neyshabur/tourism/174-attarpanorama Panoramic Images of Attar Tombs]

{{Persian literature}}
{{Scholars of Khorasan}}
{{Sufism}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Attar, Farid Od-Din Mohammad Ebn Ebrahim
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1145
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Nishapur]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Nishapur]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Attar, Farid Od-Din Mohammad Ebn Ebrahim}}
[[Category:1140s births]]
[[Category:1220s deaths]]
[[Category:Iranian poets]]
[[Category:Medieval writers]]
[[Category:Persian poets]]
[[Category:Muslim saints]]
[[Category:Iranian Muslims]]
[[Category:Iranian Sufis]]
[[Category:Sufi poets]]
[[Category:Sufi fiction]]
[[Category:Wisdom literature]]
[[Category:Poets from Nishapur]]
[[Category:Sufis from Nishapur]]
[[Category:Attar of Nishapur]]

[[ar:فريد الدين عطار]]
[[az:Fəridəddin Əttar]]
[[bg:Фарид ад-дин Аттар]]
[[ca:Farid-ad-Din Attar]]
[[de:Fariduddin Attar]]
[[es:Farid al Din Attar]]
[[eo:Farid-ud-din Attar]]
[[fa:عطار نیشابوری]]
[[fr:Farid Al-Din Attar]]
[[gl:Attar]]
[[ko:아타르]]
[[hy:Աթթար]]
[[it:Farid al-Din 'Attar]]
[[he:פאריד אל-דין אטאר]]
[[jv:Attar saka Nishapur]]
[[kk:Фарид ад-дин Аттар]]
[[lt:Faridas ad Dinas Ataras]]
[[arz:فريد الدين العطار]]
[[nl:Farid ad-Din Attar]]
[[no:Farid ud din Attar]]
[[pnb:فريد الدين عطار]]
[[ps:فريد الدين عطار]]
[[ro:Attar]]
[[ru:Аттар]]
[[ckb:عەتتار]]
[[sv:Farid ad-din Attar]]
[[tg:Аттор]]
[[tr:Ferîdüddîn-i Attâr]]
[[ur:شیخ فرید الدین عطار]]

Attar of Nishapur

2012-08-12T03:21:22Z

Rami radwan: /* Works */

{{Infobox saint
| name = Attar of Nishapur
| image = Attar.jpg
| imagesize = 200px
| alt =
| caption = Attar of Nishapur
| titles = Spiritual Poet
| birth_date = c. 1145 C.E.
| birth_place = [[Nishapur]]
| death_date = c. 1220 C.E.
| death_place = [[Nishapur]]
| venerated_in = [[Islam]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day =
| attributes =
| patronage =
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
| suppressed_by =
| influences =[[Ferdowsi]], [[Sanai]], [[Khwaja Abdullah Ansari]], [[Mansur Al-Hallaj|Hallaj]], [[Abusa'id Abolkhayr]], [[Bayazid Bastami]]
| influenced = [[Rumi]], [[Hafiz Shirazi|Hafiz]], [[Jami]], [[Ali-Shir Nava'i|Nava'i]] and many other later Sufi Poets
| tradition =[[Mysticism|Mystic]] [[poetry]]
| major_works =''[[Tadhkiratul Awliya|Memorial of the Saints]]'' ''[[The Conference of the Birds]]''
}}

'''Abū Hamīd bin Abū Bakr Ibrāhīm''' (1145-1146 - c. 1221; {{lang-fa|ابو حمید ابن ابوبکر ابراهیم}}), better known by his pen-names '''Farīd ud-Dīn''' ('''فریدالدین''') and '''‘Attār''' ('''عطار''' - "the perfumer"), was a [[Persian people|Persian]] [[Muslim]] poet, theoretician of [[Sufism]], and [[hagiographer]] from [[Nishapur|Nīshāpūr]] who had an abiding influence on Persian poetry and [[Sufism]].

==Biography==

Information about Attar's life is rare. He is mentioned by only two of his contemporaries, `Awfi and [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi|Tusi]]. However, all sources confirm that he was from [[Nishapur]], a major city of medieval [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]] (now located in the northeast of [[Iran]]), and according to `Awfi, he was a poet of the [[Great Seljuq Empire|Seljuq period]]. It seems that he was not well known as a poet in his own lifetime, except at his home town, and his greatness as a mystic, a poet, and a master of narrative was not discovered until the 15th century.<ref name="Iranica">B. Reinert, [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/attar-farid-al-din-persian-poet-and-sufi "`Attar"], in ''[[Encyclopædia Iranica]]'', Online Edition</ref>

[[File:Image-Attaar0b.jpg|thumb|left|`Attar's mausoleum in [[Nishapur]], [[Iran]]]]
`Attar was probably the son of a prosperous chemist, receiving an excellent education in various fields. While his works say little else about his life, they tell us that he practiced the profession of pharmacy and personally attended to a very large number of customers.<ref name="Iranica" /> The people he helped in the pharmacy used to confide their troubles in `Attar and this affected him deeply. Eventually, he abandoned his pharmacy store and traveled widely - to [[Baghdad]], [[Basra]], [[Kufa]], [[Mecca]], [[Medina]], [[Damascus]], [[Khwarizm]], [[Turkistan]], and India, meeting with Sufi [[Shaykh]]s - and returned promoting Sufi ideas.<ref name="Bashiri">Iraj Bashiri, "[http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.html Farid al-Din `Attar]"</ref>

`Attar's initiation into Sufi practices is subject to much speculation and fabrication. Of all the famous Sufi Shaykhs supposed to have been his teachers, only one - [[Majd ud-Din Baghdadi]] - comes within the bounds of possibility. The only certainty in this regard is `Attar's own statement that he once met him.<ref>''Tadkerat al-Awlīya''; pp. 1,6,21</ref>

In any case it can be taken for granted that from childhood onward `Attar, encouraged by his father, was interested in the Sufis and their sayings and way of life, and regarded their saints as his spiritual guides.<ref>''Tadkerat al-Awlīya''; pp. 1,55,23 ff</ref>

`Attar reached an age of over 70 and died a violent death in the massacre which the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols inflicted on Nishapur]] in April 1221.<ref name="Iranica" /> Today, his [[mausoleum]] is located in Nishapur. It was built by [[Ali-Shir Nava'i]] in the 16th century.

Like many aspects of his life, his death, too, is blended with legends and speculation.

==Teachings==
[[File:Mahmoud and Ayaz.jpg|thumb|Ayaz kneeling before [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni]]. A miniature painting made in the year 1472, is used to illustrate the six poems by Attar of Nishapur.]]

The thought-world depicted in `Attar's works reflects the whole evolution of the Sufi movement. The starting point is the idea that the body-bound soul's awaited release and return to its source in the other world can be experienced during the present life in mystic union attainable through inward purification.<ref>F. Meier, "Der Geistmensch bei dem persischen Dichter `Attar", Eranos-Jahrbuch 13, 1945, pp. 286 ff</ref> In explaining his thoughts, 'Attar uses material not only from specifically Sufi sources but also from older ascetic legacies. Although his heroes are for the most part Sufis and ascetics, he also introduces stories from historical chronicles, collections of anecdotes, and all types of high-esteemed literature.<ref name="Iranica" /> His talent for perception of deeper meanings behind outward appearances enables him to turn details of everyday life into illustrations of his thoughts. The [[idiosyncrasy]] of `Attar's presentations invalidates his works as sources for study of the historical persons whom he introduces. As sources on the [[hagiology]] and [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] of Sufism, however, his works have immense value.

Judging from `Attar's writings, he viewed the ancient [[Aristotle|Aristotelian heritage]] with skepticism and dislike.<ref>''Mūṣibat-Nāma'', p. 54 ff</ref><ref>''Asrār-Nāma'', pp. 50, 794 ff</ref> Interestingly, he did not want to uncover the secrets of nature. This is particularly remarkable in the case of [[medicine]], which fell within the scope of his profession. He obviously had no motive for showing off his secular knowledge in the manner customary among court [[panegyrist]]s, whose type of poetry he despised and never practiced. Such knowledge is only brought into his works in contexts where the theme of a story touches on a branch of natural science.

==Poetry==
`Attar speaks of his own poetry in various contexts including the epilogues of his long narrative poems. He confirms the guess likely to be made by every reader that he possessed an inexhaustible fund of thematic and verbal inspiration. He writes that when he composed his poems, more ideas came into his mind than he could possibly use.<ref>''Asrār-Nāma''; p. 185: verse 3146, and p. 186: verse 3151</ref> He also states that the effort of poetical composition threw him into a state of trance in which he could not sleep.<ref>''Asrār-Nāma''; p. 185: verse 3148</ref>

==Works==
[[File:Farid Al Din Attar.JPG|300px|thumb|left|Manuscript forFarid Al Din Attar keeping in Pergamon Museum]]

The question whether all the works that have been ascribed to him are really from his pen, has not been solved. This is due to two facts that have been observed in his works:<ref name="Iranica" />

# There are considerable differences of style among these works.
# Some of them indicate a [[Sunnite]], and others a [[Shia]], allegiance of the author.

Classification of the various works by these two criteria yields virtually identical results. The German [[oriental studies|orientalist]] Hellmut Ritter at first thought that the problem could be explained by a spiritual evolution of the poet. He distinguished three phases of `Attar's creativity:

# Works in which [[mysticism]] is in perfect balance with a finished, story-teller's art.
# Works in which a pantheistic zeal gains the upper hand over literary interest.
# Works in which the aging poet idolizes [[Imam]] [[Ali ibn Abu Talib]] while there is no trace of ordered thoughts and descriptive skills.<ref name="Bashiri" />

Ritter surmised that the last phase, that of old age, was coincidental with a conversion to [[Shia|Shi'ism]].<ref>H. Rittner, "Philologika X," pp. 143 f</ref> However, in 1941, the Persian scholar Nafisi was able to prove that the works of the third phase in Ritter's classification were written by another `Attar who lived about two hundred and fifty years later at [[Mashhad]] and was a native of Tun.<ref name="Iranica" /> Ritter accepted this finding in the main, but doubted whether Nafisi was right in attributing the works of the second group also to this `Attar of Tun. One of Ritter's arguments is that the principal figure in the second group is not Ali, as in the third group, but [[al-Hallaj|Hallaj]], and that there is nothing in the explicit content of the second group to indicate a Shia allegiance of the author. Another is the important chronological point that a manuscript of the ''Jawhar al-Dāt'', the chief work in the second group, bears the date 735 A.H. (= 1334-35 AD). While `Attar of Tun's authorship of the second group is untenable, Nafisi was certainly right in concluding that the style difference (already observed by Ritter) between the works in the first group and those in the second group is too great to be explained by a spiritual evolution of the author. The authorship of the second group remains an unsolved problem.<ref name="Iranica" />

According to [[Edward G. Browne]], [[Farid al-Din Attar|Attar]] as well as [[Rumi]] and [[Sana'i]] were all Sunni Muslims and their poetry abound with praise for the first two caliphs [[Abu Bakr]] and [[Umar ibn al-Khattāb]].<ref>[[Edward G. Browne]], ''A Literary History of Persia from the Earliest Times Until Firdawsh'', 543 pp., Adamant Media Corporation, 2002, ISBN 1-4021-6045-3, ISBN 978-1-4021-6045-5 (see p.437)</ref> According to [[Annemarie Schimmel]], the tendency among [[Shia]] authors to include leading mystical poets such as Rumi and Attar among their own ranks, became stronger after the introduction of [[Twelver Shia]] as the state religion in the [[Safavid Empire]] in 1501.<ref>[[Annemarie Schimmel]], ''Deciphering the Signs of God'', 302 pp., SUNY Press, 1994, ISBN 0-7914-1982-7, ISBN 978-0-7914-1982-3 (see p.210)</ref>

In the introductions of ''Mokhtār-Nāma'' ('''<big>مختارنامه</big>''') and ''Khosrow-Nāma'' ('''<big>خسرونامه</big>'''), `Attar lists the titles of further products of his pen:
[[File:The Mantiq al-tair.jpg|thumb|''"Manteq at-Ṭayr"'' (''"[[The Conference of the Birds]]"'')]]
* ''Dīvān'' ('''<big>دیوان</big>''')
* ''Asrār-Nāma'' ('''<big>اسرار نامه</big>''')
* ''Maqāmāt-e Toyūr'' (= ''Manteq aṭ-Ṭayr''; '''<big>مقامات الطیور</big>''' or '''<big>منطق الطیر</big>''')
* ''Moṣībat-Nāma'' ('''<big>مصیب نامه</big>''')
* ''Elāhī-Nāma'' ('''<big>الهی نامه</big>''')
* ''Jawāher-Nāma'' ('''<big>جواهر نامه</big>''')
* ''Šarḥ al-Qalb''<ref>quoted in H. Ritter, "Philologika X," pp. 147-53</ref> ('''<big>شرح القلب</big>''')

He also states, in the introduction of the ''Mokhtār-Nāma'', that he destroyed the ''Jawāher-Nāma' and the ''Šarḥ al-Qalb'' with his own hand.

Although the contemporary sources confirm only `Attar's authorship of the ''Dīvān'' and the ''[[The Conference of the Birds|Manteq al-Ṭayr]]'', there are no grounds for doubting the authenticity of the ''Mokhtār-Nāma'' and ''Khosrow-Nāma'' and their prefaces.<ref name="Iranica" /> One work is missing from these lists, namely the ''[[Tadhkirat al-awliya|Tadhkerat al-Awlīya]]'', which was probably omitted because it is a prose work; its attribution to `Attar is scarcely open to question. In its introduction `Attar mentions three other works of his, including one entitled ''Šarḥ al-Qalb'', presumably the same that he destroyed. The nature of the other two, entitled ''Kašf al-Asrār'' and ''Ma'refat al-Nafs'', remains unknown.<ref>Ritter, "Philologika XIV," p. 63</ref>

===Manteq aṭ-Ṭayr===
{{Main|The Conference of the Birds}}
Led by the [[hoopoe]], the birds of the world set forth in search of their king, [[Simurgh]]. Their quest takes them through seven valleys in the first of which a hundred difficulties assail them. They undergo many trials as they try to free themselves of what is precious to them and change their state. Once successful and filled with longing, they ask for wine to dull the effects of dogma, belief, and unbelief on their lives. In the second valley, the birds give up reason for love and, with a thousand hearts to sacrifice, continue their quest for discovering the Simurgh. The third valley confounds the birds, especially when they discover that their worldly knowledge has become completely useless and their understanding has become ambivalent. There are different ways of crossing this Valley, and all birds do not fly alike. Understanding can be arrived at variously—some have found the [[Mihrab]], others the idol.

The fourth valley is introduced as the valley of detachment, i.e., detachment from desire to possess and the wish to discover. The birds begin to feel that they have become part of a universe that is detached from their physical recognizable reality. In their new world, the planets are as minute as sparks of dust and elephants are not distinguishable from ants. It is not until they enter the fifth valley that they realize that unity and multiplicity are the same. And as they have become entities in a vacuum with no sense of eternity. More importantly, they realize that God is beyond unity, multiplicity, and eternity. Stepping into the sixth valley, the birds become astonished at the beauty of the Beloved. Experiencing extreme sadness and dejection, they feel that they know nothing, understand nothing. They are not even aware of themselves. Only thirty birds reach the abode of the Simurgh. But there is no Simurgh anywhere to see. Simurgh's chamberlain keeps them waiting for Simurgh long enough for the birds to figure out that they themselves are the ''si'' (thirty) ''murgh'' (bird). The seventh valley is the valley of deprivation, forgetfulness, dumbness, deafness, and death. The present and future lives of the thirty successful birds become shadows chased by the celestial Sun. And themselves, lost in the Sea of His existence, are the Simurgh.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.html |title=Central Asia and Iran |publisher=Angelfire.com |date= |accessdate=2012-02-23}}</ref>

====`Attar's Seven Valleys of Love in the Manteq al-Tayr====
*The Valley of Quest
*The Valley of Love
*The Valley of Understanding
*The Valley of Independence and Detachment
*The Valley of Unity
*The Valley of Astonishment and Bewilderment
*The Valley of Deprivation and Death

===Tadhkerat al-Awlīya===
{{Main|Tadhkirat al-awliya}}
Attar's only known prose work which he worked on throughout much of his life and which was available publicly before his death, is a biography of Muslim saints and mystics. In what is considered the most compelling entry in this book, `Attar relates the story of the execution of Hallaj, the mystic who had uttered the words "I am the Truth" in a state of ecstatic contemplation.

===Ilahi-Nama===
The Ilahi-Nama ({{lang-fa|الهی نامه}}) is another famous poetic work of Attar consisting of 6500 verses. In terms of form and content, it has some similarities with Bird Parliament. The story is about a king who is confronted with the materialistic and worldly demands of his six sons. The King tries to show the temporary and senseless desires of his six son by retelling them a large number of spiritual stories. The first son asks for the daughter of the king of fairies (Pariyaan).

===Mokhtar Nama===
Mokhtar-Nama ({{lang-fa|مختار نامه}}), a wide-ranging collection of quatrains (2088 in number). In the Mokhtar-nama, a coherent group of mystical and religious subjects is outlined (search for union, sense of uniqueness, distancing from the world, annihilation, amazement, pain, awareness of death, etc.), and an equally rich group of themes typical of lyrical poetry of erotic inspiration adopted by mystical literature (the torment of love, impossible union, beauty of the loved one, stereotypes of the love story as weakness, crying, separation).<ref>[http://www.iranica.com/newsite/index.isc?Article=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/ot_grp12/ot_mokhtarnama_20080407.html Daniela Meneghini, "MOḴTĀR-NĀMA"]{{dead link|date=February 2012}}</ref>

===Divan===
[[File:Bihhzad 004.jpg|thumb|A miniature painting by [[Bihzad]] illustrating the funeral of the elderly Attar of Nishapur after he was held captive and killed by a [[Mongol]] invader.]]

The Divan ({{lang-fa|دیوان عطار}}) of Attar consists almost entirely of poems in the [[Ghazal]] ("lyric") form, as he collected his [[Ruba'i]] ("quatrains") in a separate work called the Mokhtar-nama. There are also some [[Qasida]] ("Odes"), but they amount to less than one-seventh of the Divan. His Qasidas expound upon mystical and ethical themes and moral precepts. They are sometimes modeled after [[Sanai]]. The [[Ghazals]] often seem from their outward vocabulary just to be love and wine songs with a predilection for libertine imagery, but generally imply spiritual experiences in the familiar symbolic language of classical Islamic [[Sufism]].<ref name="Iranica"/> Attar's lyrics express the same ideas that are elaborated in his epics. His lyric poetry does not significantly differ from that of his narrative poetry, and the same may be said of the rhetoric and imagery.

==Legacy==
===Influence on Rumi===
`Attar is one of the most famous [[mysticism|mystic]] poets of Iran. His works were the inspiration of [[Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi|Rumi]] and many other mystic poets. `Attar, along with [[Sanai]] were two of the greatest influences on Rumi in his [[Sufi]] views. Rumi has mentioned both of them with the highest esteem several times in his poetry. Rumi praises `Attar as follows:

{{bquote|''Attar has roamed through the seven cities of love while we have barely turned down the first street.''<ref>''Fodor's Iran'' (1979) by Richard Moore and Peter Sheldon, p. 277</ref>}}

===As a pharmacist===
`Attar was a [[pseudonym|pen-name]] which he took for his occupation. `Attar means [[herbalist]], [[medication|druggist]], [[perfume|perfumist]] or [[alchemist]], and during his lifetime in [[Persian Empire|Persia]], much of [[medicine]] and drugs were based on [[herb]]s. Therefore, by profession he was similar to a modern-day town [[physician|doctor]] and [[pharmacist]].

===In popular culture===
Several [[music]]al artists have albums or songs which share the name of his most famous work, ''[[Conference of the Birds]]'', as well as the themes of enlightenment contained therein. Notably, [[jazz]] [[Double-bass|bassist]] [[David Holland]]'s [[Conference of the Birds (Dave Holland album)|album]], which was written as a metaphor for his own [[enlightenment (spiritual)|enlightenment]], and [[Om (band)|Om's]] [[Conference of the Birds (Om album)|Conference of the Birds]], which deals with extremely esoteric themes often connected with metaphors of [[flight]], inward vision, destruction of [[Religious views on the self|self]], and oneness with the [[Cosmos: A Personal Voyage|cosmos]]

==See also==
{{portal|Poetry}}
*[[Sufism]]
*[[The Seven Valleys]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
*[[Edward Granville Browne|E.G. Browne]]. ''Literary History of Persia''. 1998. ISBN 0-7007-0406-X.
*Jan Rypka, ''History of Iranian Literature''. Reidel Publishing Company. 1968 {{OCLC|460598}}. ISBN 90-277-0143-1

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Attar}}
* [[q:Attar|A few wikiquotes]]
* [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/attar-farid-al-din-persian-poet-and-sufi Attar in Encyclopedia Iranica by B. Reinert]
* [http://www.angelfire.com/rnb/bashiri/Poets/Attar.html#Farid Attar, Farid ad-Din]. A biography by Professor [[Iraj Bashiri]], [[University of Minnesota]].
* [http://red-sulphur.org/?q=node/357 `Attar's poem in Praise of Prophet Muhammad]
* [http://www.poetseers.org/spiritual_and_devotional_poets/sufi/attar/attarp/ Poetry by `Attar]
* [http://www.re-press.org/content/view/50/38/ Fifty Poems of `Attar]. A Translation of 50 poems with the Persian on the facing page.
* [http://ganjoor.net/ Attar's works in original Persian] at Ganjoor Persian Library
* [http://www.scribd.com/doc/29159138/Attar-Complete Deewan-e-Attar in original Persian single pdf file uploaded by javed Hussen]
* [http://www.iran551.com/en/about-neyshabur/tourism/174-attarpanorama Panoramic Images of Attar Tombs]

{{Persian literature}}
{{Scholars of Khorasan}}
{{Sufism}}

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Attar, Farid Od-Din Mohammad Ebn Ebrahim
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1145
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Nishapur]]
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Nishapur]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Attar, Farid Od-Din Mohammad Ebn Ebrahim}}
[[Category:1140s births]]
[[Category:1220s deaths]]
[[Category:Iranian poets]]
[[Category:Medieval writers]]
[[Category:Persian poets]]
[[Category:Muslim saints]]
[[Category:Iranian Muslims]]
[[Category:Iranian Sufis]]
[[Category:Sufi poets]]
[[Category:Sufi fiction]]
[[Category:Wisdom literature]]
[[Category:Poets from Nishapur]]
[[Category:Sufis from Nishapur]]
[[Category:Attar of Nishapur]]

[[ar:فريد الدين عطار]]
[[az:Fəridəddin Əttar]]
[[bg:Фарид ад-дин Аттар]]
[[ca:Farid-ad-Din Attar]]
[[de:Fariduddin Attar]]
[[es:Farid al Din Attar]]
[[eo:Farid-ud-din Attar]]
[[fa:عطار نیشابوری]]
[[fr:Farid Al-Din Attar]]
[[gl:Attar]]
[[ko:아타르]]
[[hy:Աթթար]]
[[it:Farid al-Din 'Attar]]
[[he:פאריד אל-דין אטאר]]
[[jv:Attar saka Nishapur]]
[[kk:Фарид ад-дин Аттар]]
[[lt:Faridas ad Dinas Ataras]]
[[arz:فريد الدين العطار]]
[[nl:Farid ad-Din Attar]]
[[no:Farid ud din Attar]]
[[pnb:فريد الدين عطار]]
[[ps:فريد الدين عطار]]
[[ro:Attar]]
[[ru:Аттар]]
[[ckb:عەتتار]]
[[sv:Farid ad-din Attar]]
[[tg:Аттор]]
[[tr:Ferîdüddîn-i Attâr]]
[[ur:شیخ فرید الدین عطار]]

Category:Schools in Jerusalem

2012-08-11T15:46:34Z

Rami radwan:

{{Commons category|Schools in Jerusalem}}

[[Category:Schools in Israel]]
[[Category:Schools in the Palestinian territories]]
[[Category:Education in Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Schools by city|Jerusalem]]

[[ar:تصنيف:مدارس القدس]]
[[he:קטגוריה:ירושלים: בתי ספר]]

Boundary layer

2012-08-06T07:05:43Z

Rami radwan:

{{for|the [[anatomy|anatomical]] structure|Boundary layer of uterus}}
[[Image:Boundarylayer.png|320px|thumb|right|Boundary layer visualization, showing transition from laminar to turbulent condition]]
In [[physics]] and [[fluid mechanics]], a '''boundary layer''' is the layer of [[fluid]] in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. In the [[Earth's atmosphere]], the [[planetary boundary layer]] is the air layer near the ground affected by diurnal heat, moisture or momentum transfer to or from the surface. On an [[aircraft]] [[wing]] the boundary layer is the part of the flow close to the wing, where [[viscosity|viscous]] [[force]]s distort the surrounding non-viscous flow. See [[Reynolds number]].

Laminar boundary layers can be loosely classified according to their structure and the circumstances under which they are created. The thin shear layer which develops on an oscillating body is an example of a [[Stokes boundary layer]], while the [[Blasius boundary layer]] refers to the well-known [[Similitude (model)|similarity]] solution near an attached flat plate held in an oncoming unidirectional flow. When a fluid rotates and viscous forces are balanced by the [[Coriolis effect]] (rather than convective inertia), an [[Ekman layer]] forms. In the theory of heat transfer, a thermal boundary layer occurs. A surface can have multiple types of boundary layer simultaneously.

==Aerodynamics==
[[File:Laminar boundary layer scheme.svg|thumb|320px|Laminar boundary layer velocity profile]] The [[Aerodynamics|aerodynamic]] boundary layer was first defined by [[Ludwig Prandtl]] in a paper presented on August 12, 1904 at the third [[International Congress of Mathematicians]] in [[Heidelberg, Germany]]. It simplifies the equations of fluid flow by dividing the flow field into two areas: one inside the boundary layer, dominated by [[viscosity]] and creating the majority of [[drag (physics)|drag]] experienced by the boundary body; and one outside the boundary layer, where viscosity can be neglected without significant effects on the solution. This allows a closed-form solution for the flow in both areas, a significant simplification of the full [[Navier–Stokes equations]]. The majority of the [[heat transfer]] to and from a body also takes place within the boundary layer, again allowing the equations to be simplified in the flow field outside the boundary layer. The pressure distribution throughout the boundary layer in the direction normal to the surface (such as an airfoil) remains constant throughout the boundary layer, and is the same as on the surface itself.

The thickness of the velocity boundary layer is normally defined as the distance from the solid body at which the viscous flow velocity is 99% of the freestream velocity (the surface velocity of an inviscid flow). An alternative definition, the displacement thickness, recognises that the boundary layer represents a deficit in mass flow compared to inviscid flow with slip at the wall. It is the distance by which the wall would have to be displaced in the inviscid case to give the same total mass flow as the viscous case. The [[no-slip condition]] requires the flow velocity at the surface of a solid object be zero and the fluid temperature be equal to the temperature of the surface. The flow velocity will then increase rapidly within the boundary layer, governed by the boundary layer equations, below.

The thermal boundary layer thickness is similarly the distance from the body at which the temperature is 99% of the temperature found from an inviscid solution. The ratio of the two thicknesses is governed by the [[Prandtl number]]. If the Prandtl number is 1, the two boundary layers are the same thickness. If the Prandtl number is greater than 1, the thermal boundary layer is thinner than the velocity boundary layer. If the Prandtl number is less than 1, which is the case for air at standard conditions, the thermal boundary layer is thicker than the velocity boundary layer.

In high-performance designs, such as [[glider aircraft|glider]]s and commercial aircraft, much attention is paid to controlling the behavior of the boundary layer to minimize drag. Two effects have to be considered. First, the boundary layer adds to the effective thickness of the body, through the [[displacement thickness]], hence increasing the pressure drag. Secondly, the [[simple shear|shear]] forces at the surface of the wing create [[skin friction|skin friction drag]].

At high [[Reynolds number]]s, typical of full-sized aircraft, it is desirable to have a [[Laminar flow|laminar]] boundary layer. This results in a lower skin friction due to the characteristic velocity profile of laminar flow. However, the boundary layer inevitably thickens and becomes less stable as the flow develops along the body, and eventually becomes [[turbulent]], the process known as [[boundary layer transition]]. One way of dealing with this problem is to suck the boundary layer away through a [[porous]] surface (see [[Boundary layer suction]]). This can reduce drag, but is usually impractical due to its mechanical complexity and the power required to move the air and dispose of it. [[Natural laminar flow]] techniques push the boundary layer transition aft by reshaping the [[airfoil|aerofoil]] or [[fuselage]] so that its thickest point is more aft and less thick. This reduces the velocities in the leading part and the same Reynolds number is achieved with a greater length.

At lower [[Reynolds number]]s, such as those seen with model aircraft, it is relatively easy to maintain laminar flow. This gives low skin friction, which is desirable. However, the same velocity profile which gives the laminar boundary layer its low skin friction also causes it to be badly affected by [[adverse pressure gradient]]s. As the pressure begins to recover over the rear part of the wing chord, a laminar boundary layer will tend to separate from the surface. Such [[flow separation]] causes a large increase in the [[pressure drag]], since it greatly increases the effective size of the wing section. In these cases, it can be advantageous to deliberately trip the boundary layer into turbulence at a point prior to the location of laminar separation, using a [[turbulator]]. The fuller velocity profile of the turbulent boundary layer allows it to sustain the adverse pressure gradient without separating. Thus, although the skin friction is increased, overall drag is decreased. This is the principle behind the dimpling on golf balls, as well as [[vortex generator]]s on aircraft. Special wing sections have also been designed which tailor the pressure recovery so laminar separation is reduced or even eliminated. This represents an optimum compromise between the pressure drag from flow separation and skin friction from induced turbulence.

==Naval architecture==
{{Expand section|date=April 2009}}

Many of the principles that apply to aircraft also apply to ships, submarines, and offshore platforms.

For ships, unlike aircraft, one deals with incompressible flows, where change in water density is negligible (a pressure rises close to 1000kPa leads to a change of only 2–3 kg/m3). This field of fluid dynamics is called hydrodynamics. A ship engineer designs for hydrodynamics first, and for strength only later. The boundary layer development, breakdown, and separation become critical because the high viscosity of water produces high shear stresses. Another consequence of high viscosity is the slip stream effect, in which the ship moves like a spear tearing through a sponge at high velocity.

==Boundary layer equations==

The deduction of the '''boundary layer equations''' was one of the most important advances in fluid dynamics (Anderson, 2005). Using an [[order of magnitude analysis]], the well-known governing [[Navier–Stokes equations]] of [[viscous]] [[fluid]] flow can be greatly simplified within the boundary layer. Notably, the [[Characteristic polynomial#Characteristic equation|characteristic]] of the [[Partial differential equation|partial differential equations (PDE)]] becomes parabolic, rather than the elliptical form of the full Navier–Stokes equations. This greatly simplifies the solution of the equations. By making the boundary layer approximation, the flow is divided into an inviscid portion (which is easy to solve by a number of methods) and the boundary layer, which is governed by an easier to solve [[Partial differential equation|PDE]]. The continuity and Navier–Stokes equations for a two-dimensional steady [[incompressible flow]] in [[Cartesian coordinates]] are given by

:<math> {\partial u\over\partial x}+{\partial \upsilon\over\partial y}=0 </math>

:<math> u{\partial u \over \partial x}+\upsilon{\partial u \over \partial y}=-{1\over \rho} {\partial p \over \partial x}+{\nu}\left({\partial^2 u\over \partial x^2}+{\partial^2 u\over \partial y^2}\right) </math>

:<math> u{\partial \upsilon \over \partial x}+\upsilon{\partial \upsilon \over \partial y}=-{1\over \rho} {\partial p \over \partial y}+{\nu}\left({\partial^2 \upsilon\over \partial x^2}+{\partial^2 \upsilon\over \partial y^2}\right) </math>

where <math>u</math> and <math>\upsilon</math> are the velocity components, <math>\rho</math> is the density, <math>p</math> is the pressure, and <math>\nu</math> is the [[kinematic viscosity]] of the fluid at a point.

The approximation states that, for a sufficiently high [[Reynolds number]] the flow over a surface can be divided into an outer region of inviscid flow unaffected by viscosity (the majority of the flow), and a region close to the surface where viscosity is important (the boundary layer). Let <math>u</math> and <math>\upsilon</math> be streamwise and transverse (wall normal) velocities respectively inside the boundary layer. Using [[scale analysis (mathematics)|scale analysis]], it can be shown that the above equations of motion reduce within the boundary layer to become

:<math> {\partial u\over\partial x}+{\partial \upsilon\over\partial y}=0 </math>

:<math> u{\partial u \over \partial x}+\upsilon{\partial u \over \partial y}=-{1\over \rho} {\partial p \over \partial x}+{\nu}{\partial^2 u\over \partial y^2} </math>

and if the fluid is incompressible (as liquids are under standard conditions):

:<math> {1\over \rho} {\partial p \over \partial y}=0 </math>

The asymptotic analysis also shows that <math>\upsilon</math>, the wall normal velocity, is small compared with <math>u</math> the streamwise velocity, and that variations in properties in the streamwise direction are generally much lower than those in the wall normal direction.

Since the static pressure <math>p</math> is independent of <math>y</math>, then pressure at the edge of the boundary layer is the pressure throughout the boundary layer at a given streamwise position. The external pressure may be obtained through an application of [[Bernoulli's equation]]. Let <math> u_0 </math> be the fluid velocity outside the boundary layer, where <math> u </math> and <math> u_0 </math> are both parallel. This gives upon substituting for <math>p</math> the following result

:<math> u{\partial u \over \partial x}+\upsilon{\partial u \over \partial y}=u_0{\partial u_0 \over \partial x}+{\nu}{\partial^2 u\over \partial y^2} </math>

with the boundary condition

:<math> {\partial u\over\partial x}+{\partial v\over\partial y}=0 </math>

For a flow in which the static pressure <math> p </math> also does not change in the direction of the flow then

:<math> {\partial p\over\partial x}=0 </math>

so <math> u_0 </math> remains constant.

Therefore, the equation of motion simplifies to become

:<math> u{\partial u \over \partial x}+\upsilon{\partial u \over \partial y}={\nu}{\partial^2 u\over \partial y^2} </math>

These approximations are used in a variety of practical flow problems of scientific and engineering interest. The above analysis is for any instantaneous [[laminar flow|laminar]] or [[turbulent]] boundary layer, but is used mainly in laminar flow studies since the [[mean]] flow is also the instantaneous flow because there are no velocity fluctuations present.

==Turbulent boundary layers==

The treatment of turbulent boundary layers is far more difficult due to the time-dependent variation of the flow properties. One of the most widely used techniques in which turbulent flows are tackled is to apply [[Reynolds decomposition]]. Here the instantaneous flow properties are decomposed into a mean and fluctuating component. Applying this technique to the boundary layer equations gives the full turbulent boundary layer equations not often given in literature:

:<math> {\partial \overline{u}\over\partial x}+{\partial \overline{v}\over\partial y}=0 </math>

:<math> \overline{u}{\partial \overline{u} \over \partial x}+\overline{v}{\partial \overline{u} \over \partial y}=-{1\over \rho} {\partial \overline{p} \over \partial x}+ \nu \left({\partial^2 \overline{u}\over \partial x^2}+{\partial^2 \overline{u}\over \partial y^2}\right)-\frac{\partial}{\partial y}(\overline{u'v'})-\frac{\partial}{\partial x}(\overline{u'^2}) </math>

:<math> \overline{u}{\partial \overline{v} \over \partial x}+\overline{v}{\partial \overline{v} \over \partial y}=-{1\over \rho} {\partial \overline{p} \over \partial y}+\nu \left({\partial^2 \overline{v}\over \partial x^2}+{\partial^2 \overline{v}\over \partial y^2}\right)-\frac{\partial}{\partial x}(\overline{u'v'})-\frac{\partial}{\partial y}(\overline{v'^2}) </math>

Using the same order-of-magnitude analysis as for the instantaneous equations, these turbulent boundary layer equations generally reduce to become in their classical form:

:<math> {\partial \overline{u}\over\partial x}+{\partial \overline{v}\over\partial y}=0 </math>

:<math> \overline{u}{\partial \overline{u} \over \partial x}+\overline{v}{\partial \overline{u} \over \partial y}=-{1\over \rho} {\partial \overline{p} \over \partial x}+{\nu}{\partial^2 \overline{u}\over \partial y^2}-\frac{\partial}{\partial y}(\overline{u'v'}) </math>

:<math> {\partial \overline{p} \over \partial y}=0 </math>

The additional term <math>\overline{u'v'}</math> in the turbulent boundary layer equations is known as the Reynolds shear stress and is unknown [[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]]. The solution of the turbulent boundary layer equations therefore necessitates the use of a [[Turbulence modeling|turbulence model]], which aims to express the Reynolds shear stress in terms of known flow variables or derivatives. The lack of accuracy and generality of such models is a major obstacle in the successful prediction of turbulent flow properties in modern fluid dynamics.

== Heat and mass transfer ==
In 1928, the French engineer [[André Lévêque]] observed that convective heat transfer in a flowing fluid is affected only by the velocity values very close to the surface.<ref>{{cite journal
|author= Lévêque, A.
|year=1928
|title=Les lois de la transmission de chaleur par convection
|journal=Annales des Mines ou Recueil de Mémoires sur l'Exploitation des Mines et sur les Sciences et les Arts qui s'y Rattachent, Mémoires
|volume=XIII
|issue=13
|pages=201–239
|language=French}}</ref><ref name="McMahon">{{cite web
|title=André Lévêque p285, a review of his velocity profile approximation
|author=Niall McMahon
|url=http://www.computing.dcu.ie/~nmcmahon/biography/leveque/leveque_approximation.html}}</ref> For flows of large Prandtl number, the temperature/mass transition from surface to freestream temperature takes place across a very thin region close to the surface. Therefore, the most important fluid velocities are those inside this very thin region which change can be considered linear with normal distance from the surface. In this way, for
:<math>u(y) = u_0 \left[ 1 - \frac{(y - h)^2}{h^2} \right] = u_0 \frac{y}{h} \left[ 2 - \frac{y}{h} \right] \;, </math>
when <math> y \rightarrow 0</math>, then
:<math>u(y) \approx 2 u_0 \frac{y}{h} = \theta y </math>,
where ''θ'' is the tangent of the Poiseuille parabola intersecting the wall.
Although Lévêque's solution was specific to heat transfer into a Poiseuille flow, his insight lead other scientist to solve the thermal boundary-layer problem exactly.<ref name="Martin2002">{{cite article
|author=Martin, H.
|year=2002
|title=The generalized Lévêque equation and its practical use for the prediction of heat and mass transfer rates from pressure drop
|journal=Chemical Engineering Science
|volume=57
|issue=16
|pages=3217–3223
|doi=10.1016/S0009-2509(02)00194-X}}</ref> Schuh observed that in a boundary-layer, ''u'' is again a linear function of ''y'', but that in this case, the wall tangent is a function of ''x''.<ref>{{cite article
|author=Schuh, H.
|year=1953
|title=On asymptotic solutions for the heat transfer at varying wall temperatures in a laminar boundary layer with Hartree's velocity profiles
|journal=Jour. Aero. Sci.
|volume=20
|issue=2
|pages=146–147}}</ref> He expressed this with a modified version of Lévêque's profile,
:<math>u(y) = \theta(x) y </math>.
This results in a very good approximation, even for low <math>Pr</math> numbers, so that only liquid metals with <math>Pr</math> much less than 1 cannot be treated this way.<ref name="Martin2002"/>
In 1962, Kestin and Persen published a paper describing solutions for heat transfer when the thermal boundary layer is contained entirely within the momentum layer and for various wall temperature distributions.<ref>{{cite journal
|author= Kestin, J. and Persen, L.N.
|year=1962
|title=The transfer of heat across a turbulent boundary layer at very high prandtl numbers
|journal=Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
|volume=5
|pages=355–371}}</ref> For the problem of a flat plate with a temperature jump at <math>x = x_0</math>, they propose a substitution that reduces the parabolic thermal boundary-layer equation to an ordinary differential equation. The solution to this equation, the temperature at any point in the fluid, can be expressed as an incomplete [[gamma function]].<ref name="McMahon"/> [[Hermann Schlichting|Schlichting]] proposed an equivalent substitution that reduces the thermal boundary-layer equation to an ordinary differential equation whose solution is the same incomplete gamma function.<ref>{{cite book
|author=Schlichting, H.
|year=1979
|title=Boundary-Layer Theory
|publisher=McGraw-Hill
|place=New York (USA)
|edition=7}}</ref>

==Boundary layer turbine==
This effect was exploited in the [[Tesla turbine]], patented by [[Nikola Tesla]] in 1913. It is referred to as a bladeless [[turbine]] because it uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the blades as in a conventional turbine. Boundary layer turbines are also known as cohesion-type turbine, bladeless turbine, and Prandtl layer turbine (after [[Ludwig Prandtl]]).

==See also==
* [[Boundary layer separation]]
* [[Boundary-layer thickness]]
* [[Boundary layer suction]]
* [[Boundary layer control]]
* [[Coandă effect]]
* [[Facility for Airborne Atmospheric Measurements]]
* [[Logarithmic law of the wall]]
* [[Planetary boundary layer]]
* [[Shape factor (boundary layer flow)]]
* [[Shear stress]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

* {{cite book|last=Chanson|first=H.|authorlink=Hubert Chanson|title=Applied Hydrodynamics: An Introduction to Ideal and Real Fluid Flows|url=http://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:191112|publisher=CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, Leiden, The Netherlands, 478 pages|year=2009|isbn=978-0-415-49271-3}}
* A.D. Polyanin and V.F. Zaitsev, ''Handbook of Nonlinear Partial Differential Equations'', Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, Boca Raton – London, 2004. ISBN 1-58488-355-3
* A.D. Polyanin, A.M. Kutepov, A.V. Vyazmin, and D.A. Kazenin, ''Hydrodynamics, Mass and Heat Transfer in Chemical Engineering'', Taylor & Francis, London, 2002. ISBN 0-415-27237-8
* Hermann Schlichting, Klaus Gersten, E. Krause, H. Jr. Oertel, C. Mayes "Boundary-Layer Theory" 8th edition Springer 2004 ISBN 3-540-66270-7
* John D. Anderson, Jr., [http://aps.org/units/dfd/resources/upload/prandtl_vol58no12p42_48.pdf "Ludwig Prandtl's Boundary Layer"], ''Physics Today'', December 2005
*{{cite book
| last = Anderson
| first = John
| year = 1992
| title = Fundamentals of Aerodynamics
| publisher = S.S.CHAND
| location = Toronto
| edition = 2nd edition
| pages= 711–714
| isbn = 0-07-001679-8
}}
*[[Hendrik Tennekes|H. Tennekes]] and [[John L. Lumley|J. L. Lumley]], "A First Course in Turbulence", The MIT Press, (1972).

==External links==
* [http://www.nsdl.arm.gov/Library/glossary.shtml#boundary_layer National Science Digital Library – Boundary Layer]
* Moore, Franklin K., "''[http://naca.larc.nasa.gov/reports/1953/naca-report-1124/ Displacement effect of a three-dimensional boundary layer]''". NACA Report 1124, 1953.
* Benson, Tom, "''[http://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/boundlay.html Boundary layer]''". NASA Glenn Learning Technologies.
* [http://www.maths.man.ac.uk/~ruban/blsep.html Boundary layer separation]
* [http://eqworld.ipmnet.ru/en/solutions/npde/npde-toc5.pdf ''Boundary layer equations: Exact Solutions''] – from EqWorld
* Jones, T.V. [http://www.thermopedia.com/content/596/ ''BOUNDARY LAYER HEAT TRANSFER'']

{{DEFAULTSORT:Boundary Layer}}
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Stokes flow

2012-08-06T06:40:35Z

Rami radwan:

[[File:Stokes sphere.svg|thumb|right|200px|An object moving through a gas or liquid experiences a [[force]] in direction opposite to its motion. [[Terminal velocity]] is achieved when the drag force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the force propelling the object. Shown is a [[sphere]] in Stokes flow, at very low [[Reynolds number]].]]
'''Stokes flow''' (named after [[George Gabriel Stokes]]), also named '''creeping flow''', is a type of [[fluid flow]] where [[advection|advective]] [[inertia|inertial]] forces are small compared with [[Viscosity|viscous]] forces. The [[Reynolds number]] is low, i.e. <math>\textit{Re} \ll 1</math>. This is a typical situation in flows where the fluid velocities are very slow, the viscosities are very large, or the length-scales of the flow are very small. Creeping flow was first studied to understand [[lubrication]]. In nature this type of flow occurs in the swimming of [[microorganism]]s and [[sperm]]<ref>Dusenbery, David B. (2009). ''Living at Micro Scale''. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6.</ref> and the flow of [[lava]]. In technology, it occurs in [[paint]], [[Microelectromechanical Systems|MEMS]] devices, and in the flow of viscous [[polymer]]s generally.

The primary [[Green's function]] of Stokes flow is the '''Stokeslet''', which is associated with a singular point force embedded in a Stokes flow. From its derivatives other [[fundamental solution]]s can be obtained <ref name="Chwang">Chwang, A. and Wu, T. (1974). [http://www.nada.kth.se/~annak/Chwang&Wu.pdf "Hydromechanics of low-Reynolds-number flow. Part 2. Singularity method for Stokes flows"]. ''J. Fluid Mech. 62''(6), part 4, 787-815.</ref>.

== Stokes equations ==

For this type of flow, the inertial forces are assumed to be negligible and the [[Navier–Stokes equations]] simplify to give the Stokes equations:

:<math>\boldsymbol{\nabla} \cdot \mathbb{P} + \mathbf{f} = 0</math>

where <math>\mathbb{P}</math> is the [[stress tensor]], and <math>\mathbf{f}</math> an applied body force. There is also an equation for [[conservation of mass]]. In the common case of an incompressible [[Newtonian fluid]], the Stokes equations are:

:<math>\boldsymbol{\nabla}p = \mu \nabla^2 \mathbf{u} + \mathbf{f}</math>
:<math>\boldsymbol{\nabla}\cdot\mathbf{u}=0</math>

Here <math>\mathbf{u}</math> is the velocity of the fluid, <math>\boldsymbol{\nabla} p</math> is the gradient of the pressure, and <math>\mu</math> is the dynamic viscosity.

===Properties===
The Stokes equations represent a considerable simplification of the full [[Navier–Stokes equations]], especially in the incompressible Newtonian case.<ref name=Leal>{{cite book | author=Leal, L.G. | title=Advanced Transport Phenomena:Fluid Mechanics and Convective Transport Processes | year=2007}}</ref><ref name=Kirby>{{cite book | author=Kirby, B.J. | title=Micro- and Nanoscale Fluid Mechanics: Transport in Microfluidic Devices.| url=http://www.kirbyresearch.com/textbook| year=2010| publisher=Cambridge University Press| isbn=978-0-521-11903-0}}</ref>
<ref name=Happel>Happel, J. & Brenner, H. (1981) ''Low Reynolds Number Hydrodynamics'', Springer. ISBN 90-01-37115-9.</ref><ref name=Batchelor>{{cite book | author=Batchelor, G. | title=Introduction to Fluid Mechanics | year=2000}}</ref>

; Instantaneity
:A Stokes flow has no dependence on time other than through time-dependent [[boundary condition]]s. This means that, given the boundary conditions of a Stokes flow, the flow can be found without knowledge of the flow at any other time.

; Time-reversibility
:An immediate consequence of instantaneity, time-reversibility means then a time-reversed Stokes flow solves the same equations as the original Stokes flow. This property can sometimes be used (in conjunction with linearity and symmetry in the boundary conditions) to derive results about a flow without solving it fully. Time reversibility means that it is difficult to mix two fluids using creeping flow; a dramatic demonstration is possible of apparently mixing two fluids and then unmixing them by reversing the direction of the mixer.<ref>Dusenbery, David B. (2009). ''Living at Micro Scale'', pp.46. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. ISBN 978-0-674-03116-6.</ref> <ref>http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p08_KlTKP50&feature=related </ref>

While these properties are true for incompressible Newtonian Stokes flows, the non-linear and sometimes time-dependent nature of [[non-Newtonian fluid]]s means that they do not hold in the more general case.

===Methods of solution===
====By stream function====
The equation for an incompressible Newtonian Stokes flow can be solved by the stream function method in planar or in 3-D axisymmetric cases
{| class=wikitable
!Type of function
!Geometry
!Equation
!Comments
|-
|[[Stream function]] <math>(\psi)</math>
|2-D planar
| <math>\nabla^4 \psi = 0</math> or <math>\Delta^2 \psi = 0</math> ([[biharmonic equation]])
| <math>\Delta</math> is the [[Laplacian]] operator in two dimensions
|-
|[[Stokes stream function]] <math>(\Psi)</math>
|3-D spherical
|<math>E^2 \Psi = 0,</math> where <math>E = {\partial^2 \over \partial r^2} + {\sin{\theta} \over r^2} {\partial \over \partial \theta} \left({ 1 \over \sin{\theta}} {\partial \over \partial \theta}\right)</math>
|For derivation of the <math>E</math> operator see [[Stokes_stream_function#Vorticity]]
|-
|[[Stokes stream function]] <math>(\Psi)</math>
|3-D cylindrical
|<math>L_{-1}^2 \Psi = 0,</math> where <math>L_{-1} = \frac{\partial^2}{\partial z^2} + \frac{\partial^2}{\partial \rho^2} - \frac{1}{\rho}\frac{\partial}{\partial\rho}</math>
|For <math>L_{-1}</math> see <ref>{{Cite journal
| volume = 7
| issue = 04
| pages = 529–549
| last = Payne
| first = LE
| coauthors = WH Pell
| title = The Stokes flow problem for a class of axially symmetric bodies
| journal = Journal of Fluid Mechanics
| year = 1960
|bibcode = 1960JFM.....7..529P |doi = 10.1017/S002211206000027X }}</ref>
|}.

====By Green's function: the Stokeslet====
The linearity of the Stokes equations in the case of an incompressible Newtonian fluid means that a [[Green's function]], <math>\mathbb{J}(\mathbf{r})</math> – known as a Stokeslet – for the equations can be found, where '''r''' is the position vector. The solution for the pressure ''p'' and velocity '''u''' due to a point force <math>\mathbf{F}\delta(\mathbf{r})</math> acting at the origin with |'''u'''| and ''p'' vanishing at infinity is given by<ref name=kim2005>Kim, S. & Karrila, S. J. (2005) ''Microhydrodynamics: Principles and Selected Applications'', Dover. ISBN 0-486-44219-5.</ref>

:<math>\begin{align} \mathbf{u}(\mathbf{r}) &= \mathbf{F} \cdot \mathbb{J}(\mathbf{r}) \\
p(\mathbf{r}) &= \frac{\mathbf{F}\cdot\mathbf{r}}{4 \pi |\mathbf{r}|^3} \end{align}</math>

where

:<math>\mathbb{J}(\mathbf{r}) = {1 \over 8 \pi \mu} \left( \frac{\mathbb{I}}{|\mathbf{r}|} + \frac{\mathbf{r}\mathbf{r}^\mathrm{T}}{|\mathbf{r}|^3} \right)</math>  is a second-rank [[tensor]] (or more accurately [[tensor field]]) known as the [[Oseen tensor]] (after [[Carl Wilhelm Oseen]]).

For a continuous-force distribution (density) <math>\mathbf{f}(\mathbf{r})</math> the solution (again vanishing at infinity) can then be constructed by superposition:
:<math>\begin{align}\mathbf{u}(\mathbf{r}) &= \int \mathbf{f}(\mathbf{r'}) \cdot \mathbb{J}(\mathbf{r} - \mathbf{r'}) \mathrm{d}\mathbf{r'} \\
p(\mathbf{r}) &= \int \frac{\mathbf{f}(\mathbf{r'})\cdot(\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r'})}{4 \pi |\mathbf{r}-\mathbf{r'}|^3} \, \mathrm{d}\mathbf{r'} \end{align}</math>

====By Papkovich–Neuber solution====
The [[Papkovich–Neuber solution]] represents the velocity and pressure fields of an incompressible Newtonian Stokes flow in terms of two [[Harmonic function|harmonic]] potentials.

====By boundary element method====
Certain problems, such as the evolution of the shape of a bubble in a Stokes flow, are conducive to numerical solution by the [[boundary element method]]. This technique can be applied to both 2- and 3-dimensional flows.

== See also ==

* [[Darcy's law]]
* [[Laminar flow]]
* [[Lubrication theory]]
* [[Hele-Shaw flow]]
* [[Oseen equations]]
* [[Poiseuille]]
* [[Slender-body theory]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}
* Ockendon, H. & Ockendon J. R. (1995) ''Viscous Flow'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-45881-1.

[[Category:Fluid dynamics]]
[[Category:Equations of fluid dynamics]]
[[ar:جريان ستوكس]]
[[bs:Stokesovo strujanje]]
[[de:Schleichende Strömung]]
[[fr:Écoulement de Stokes]]
[[it:Flusso di Stokes]]

Sperm

2012-08-06T06:35:34Z

Rami radwan:

{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Other uses}}[[File:Complete diagram of a human spermatozoa en.svg|thumb|right|350px|Diagram of a human sperm cell]]

The term '''sperm''' is derived from the Greek word (σπέρμα) ''sperma'' (meaning "seed") and refers to the male reproductive [[Cell (biology)|cells]]. In the types of [[sexual reproduction]] known as [[anisogamy]] and [[oogamy]], there is a marked difference in the size of the [[gamete]]s with the smaller one being termed the "male" or sperm cell. A uniflagellar sperm cell that is [[Motility|motile]] is referred to as a '''[[spermatozoon]]''', whereas a non-motile sperm cell is referred to as a '''spermatium'''. Sperm cells cannot divide and have a limited life span, but after fusion with [[Ovum|egg cells]] during fertilization, a new organism begins developing, starting as a [[Totipotency|totipotent]] [[zygote]].{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}
The [[human]] sperm cell is [[haploid]], so that its 23 chromosomes can join the 23 chromosomes of the female egg to form a [[diploid]] cell. In mammals, sperm develops in the [[testicles]] and is released from the [[penis]].

==Sperm in animals==

===Anatomy===
[[File:Sperm-egg.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Sperm fertilizing a female's egg]]

The mammalian sperm cell consists of a head, a midpiece and a tail. The head contains the [[Cell nucleus|nucleus]] with densely coiled chromatin fibres, surrounded anteriorly by an [[acrosome]], which contains enzymes used for penetrating the female egg. The midpiece has a central filamentous core with many mitochondria spiralled around it, used for [[Adenosine triphosphate|ATP]] production for the journey through the female [[cervix]], [[uterus]] and [[uterine tubes]]. The tail or "[[flagellum]]" executes the lashing movements that propel the spermatocyte.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}

During [[fertilization]], the sperm provides three essential parts to the [[oocyte]]: (1) a signalling or activating factor, which causes the [[metabolically]] dormant oocyte to activate; (2) the haploid paternal [[genome]]; (3) the [[centrosome]], which is responsible for maintaining the [[microtubule]] system.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter=The biology of fertilization in humans|editors=Patrizio, Pasquale et al.|title=A color atlas for human assisted reproduction: laboratory and clinical insights|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7817-3769-2|page=3|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2SBoQ8H-KMIC&pg=PA3|author=Hewitson, Laura & Schatten, Gerald P.}}</ref>

===Origin===
The spermatozoa of [[animal]]s are produced through [[spermatogenesis]] inside the male [[gonad]]s ([[testicle]]s) via [[meiosis|meiotic]] division. The initial [[spermatozoon]] process takes around 70 days to complete. The [[spermatid]] stage is where the sperm develops the familiar tail. The next stage where it becomes fully mature takes around 60 days when its called a [[spermatozoan]].<ref>http://www.netdoctor.co.uk/menshealth/facts/semenandsperm.htm</ref>
Sperm cells are carried out of the male body in a fluid known as [[semen]]. Human sperm cells can survive within the female reproductive tract for more than 5 days post coitus.<ref>Gould JE, Overstreet JW and Hanson FW (1984) Assessment of human sperm function after recovery from the female reproductive tract. Biol Reprod 31,888–894.</ref> Semen is produced in the [[seminal vesicles]], [[prostate gland]] and [[urethral gland]]s.

===Sperm quality===
[[File:Sperm stained.JPG|thumb|left|200px|Human sperm stained for semen quality testing.]]
{{main|Semen quality}}
Sperm [[quantity]] and quality are the main parameters in [[semen quality]], which is a measure of the ability of [[semen]] to accomplish [[fertilization]]. Thus, in humans, it is a measure of [[fertility]] in a [[man]]. The genetic quality of sperm, as well as its volume and motility, all typically decrease with age.<ref name="About.com article by R. Gurevich">{{Cite web|url=http://infertility.about.com/od/causesofinfertility/f/maleagefertile.htm|title=Does Age Affect Male Fertility?|last=Gurevich|first=Rachel|date=06-10-2008|work=About.com:Fertility|publisher=About.com|accessdate=14 February 2010}}</ref> (See [[paternal age effect]].)
===Market for human sperm===
{{See|Sperm donation}}
On the global market, [[Denmark]] has a well-developed system of human sperm export. This success mainly comes from the reputation of Danish sperm donors for being of high [[sperm quality|quality]]<ref name=ncbio/> and, in contrast with the law in the other Nordic countries, gives donors the choice of being either anonymous or non-anonymous to the receiving couple.<ref name=ncbio>[http://www.ncbio.org/NcBioBurrell.pdf Assisted Reproduction in the Nordic Countries] ncbio.org</ref> Furthermore, Nordic sperm donors tend to be tall and highly educated<ref name=newser>[http://www.newser.com/story/34788/fda-rules-block-import-of-prized-danish-sperm.html FDA Rules Block Import of Prized Danish Sperm] Posted Aug 13, 08 7:37 AM CDT in World, Science & Health</ref> and have altruistic motives for their donations,<ref name=newser/> partly due to the relatively low monetary compensation in Nordic countries. More than 50 countries worldwide are importers of Danish sperm, including [[Paraguay]], [[Canada]], [[Kenya]], and [[Hong Kong]].<ref name=ncbio/> However, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) of the US has banned import of any sperm, motivated by a risk of [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease|mad cow disease]], although such a risk is insignificant, since artificial insemination is very different from [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob_disease#Transmission|the route of transmission of mad cow disease]].<ref name=kotler>[http://www.laweekly.com/news/news/the-god-of-sperm/17290/ The God of Sperm] By Steven Kotler</ref> The [[Creutzfeldt-Jakob_disease#Incidence_and_prevalence|prevalence of mad cow disease]] is one in a million, probably less for donors. If prevalence was the case, the infectious proteins would then have to cross the [[blood-testis barrier]] to make transmission possible.<ref name=kotler/>

===History===
{{see also|Homunculus#Homunculus of spermists}}
Sperm were first observed in 1677 by [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]]<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/genetics_reproduction/timeline.html|title=Timeline: Assisted reproduction and birth control|accessdate=2006-04-06 | work=CBC News}}</ref> using a [[microscope]], he described them as being [[animalcule]]s (little animals), probably due to his belief in [[preformationism]], which thought that each sperm contained a fully formed but small human.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}

===Forensic Analysis===
Ejaculated fluids are detected by [[Uv light|ultraviolet light]], irrespective of the structure or colour of the surface.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wiki.benecke.com/index.php?title=2008_The_Open_Forensic_Science_Journal:_Detection_of_Semen_%28Human_and_Boar%29_and_Saliva_on_Fabrics_by_a_Very_High_Powered_UV-/VIS-Light_Source|title=Detection of Semen (Human and Boar) and Saliva on Fabrics by a Very High Powered UV-/VIS-Light Source|author=Anja Fiedler, Mark Benecke et al.|accessdate=2009-12-10}}</ref> Sperm heads, e.g. from vaginal swabs, are still detected by [[microscopy]] using the "Christmas Tree Stain" method, i.e., Kernechtrot-Picroindigocarmine (KPIC) staining.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astm.org/JOURNALS/FORENSIC/PAGES/JFS4620349.htm|title=Cytological detection of spermatozoa: comparison of three staining methods|author=Allery JP, Rougé D et al.|accessdate=2009-12-10}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://static.dna.gov/lab-manual/Linked%20Documents/Protocols/pdi_lab_pro_2.05.pdf|title=The Presidents's DNA Initiative: Semen Stain Identification: Kernechtrot|author=Illinois State Police/President's DNA Initiative|accessdate=2009-12-10}}</ref>

==Sperm in plants==

Sperm cells in algal and many plant [[gametophyte]]s are produced in male [[Gametangium|gametangia]] ([[Antheridium|antheridia]]) via [[mitosis|mitotic]] division. In [[flowering plant]]s, sperm nuclei are produced inside [[pollen]].{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}

==Motile sperm cells==
[[File:Plant sperm.png|thumb|Motile sperm cells of algae and seedless plants.<ref name="Raven">{{cite book | last = Raven | first = Peter H. | coauthors = Ray F. Evert, Susan E. Eichhorn | title = Biology of Plants, 7th Edition | publisher = W.H. Freeman and Company Publishers | year = 2005 | location = New York | pages = | isbn = 0-7167-1007-2}}</ref>]]

Motile sperm cells typically move via [[Flagellum|flagella]] and require a water medium in order to swim toward the egg for fertilization. In animals most of the energy for sperm motility is derived from the metabolism of [[fructose]] carried in the [[semen|seminal fluid]]. This takes place in the [[mitochondria]] located in the sperm's midpiece (at the base of the sperm head). These cells cannot swim backwards due to the nature of their propulsion. The uniflagellated sperm cells (with one flagellum) of [[animal]]s are referred to as '''[[Spermatozoon|spermatozoa]]''', and are known to vary in size.{{citation needed|date=January 2011}}

Motile sperm are also produced by many [[protist]]s and the [[gametophyte]]s of [[bryophyte]]s, [[fern]]s and some [[gymnosperm]]s such as [[cycad]]s and [[ginkgo]]. The sperm cells are the only flagellated cells in the life cycle of these plants. In many ferns and [[lycophyte]]s, they are multi-flagellated (carrying more than one flagellum).<ref name="Raven"/>

In [[nematode]]s, the sperm cells are [[amoeboid]] and crawl, rather than swim, towards the egg cell.<ref name="Bottino">{{cite journal |id= |author=Bottino D, Mogilner A, Roberts T, Stewart M, Oster G |title=How nematode sperm crawl |journal=J. Cell. Sci. |volume=115 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=367–84 |year=2002 |pmid=11839788 |doi=}}</ref>

==Non-motile sperm cells==
Non-motile sperm cells called '''spermatia''' lack flagella and therefore cannot swim. Spermatia are produced in a [[Gametangium|spermatangium]].<ref name="Raven"/>

Because spermatia cannot swim, they depend on their environment to carry them to the egg cell. Some [[red alga]]e, such as ''[[Polysiphonia]]'', produce non-motile spermatia that are spread by water currents after their release.<ref name="Raven"/> The spermatia of [[Rust (fungus)|rust fungi]] are covered with a sticky substance. They are produced in flask-shaped structures containing [[nectar]], which attract [[Fly|flies]] that transfer the spermatia to nearby [[hyphae]] for fertilization in a mechanism similar to [[insect pollination]] in [[flowering plant]]s.<ref name="Sumbali">{{cite book | last = Sumbali| first = Geeta | coauthors = | title = The Fungi | publisher = Alpha Science Int'l Ltd. | year = 2005 | location = | pages = | isbn = 1-84265-153-6}}</ref>

Fungal spermatia (also called pycniospores, especially in the Uredinales) may be confused with [[conidium|conidia]]. Conidia are [[spore]]s that germinate independently of fertilization, whereas spermatia are [[gamete]]s that are required for fertilization. In some fungi, such as ''[[Neurospora crassa]]'', spermatia are identical to microconidia as they can perform both functions of fertilization as well as giving rise to new organisms without fertilization.<ref name="Maheshwari">{{cite journal |id= |author=Maheshwari R |title=Microconidia of Neurospora crassa |journal=Fungal Genet. Biol. |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=1–18 |year=1999 |pmid=10072316 |doi=10.1006/fgbi.1998.1103}}</ref>

==Sperm nuclei==
In many [[land plant]]s, including most gymnosperms and all [[angiosperm]]s, the male [[gametophyte]]s ([[Pollen|pollen grains]]) are the primary mode of [[biological dispersal|dispersal]], for example via wind or insect [[pollination]], eliminating the need for water to bridge the gap between male and female. Each pollen grain contains a spermatogenous (generative) cell. Once the pollen lands on the [[Stigma (flower)|stigma]] of a receptive flower, it germinates and starts growing a [[pollen tube]] through the [[carpel]]. Before the tube reaches the [[ovule]], the nucleus of the generative cell in the pollen grain divides and gives rise to two sperm nuclei which are then discharged through the tube into the [[ovule]] for fertilization.<ref name="Raven"/>

In some [[protist]]s, fertilization also involves sperm [[Cell nucleus|nuclei]], rather than cells, migrating toward the egg cell through a fertilization tube. [[Oomycete]]s form sperm nuclei in a [[syncytium|syncytical]] [[antheridium]] surrounding the egg cells. The sperm nuclei reach the eggs through fertilization tubes, similar to the pollen tube mechanism in plants.<ref name="Raven"/>

==See also==
*[[Ejaculation]]
*[[Female sperm]]
*[[Female sperm storage]]
*[[Polyspermy]]
*[[Semen]]
*[[Sperm competition]]
*[[Sperm donation]]
*[[Sperm granuloma]]
*[[Spermatogenesis]]
*[[Spermatozoon]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.channel4.com/microsites/G/TGSR/PDF/Great-Sperm-Race.pdf The Great Sperm Race] pdf
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vvnEsOaKxuw&NR=1 Human Sperm Under a Microscope]

{{s-start}}
{{succession box|title=[[Stages of human development]]|before=None|after=[[Zygote]]|years=Sperm cell + [[Oocyte]]}}
{{s-end}}

[[Category:Fertility]]
[[Category:Germ cells]]
[[Category:Male reproductive system]]
[[Category:Reproduction]]
[[Category:Semen]]
[[ar:حيوان منوي]]
[[cy:Sberm]]
[[fr:Éjaculat]]
[[gu:વીર્ય]]
[[mzn:اسپرم]]
[[ta:விந்து]]
[[tr:Sperm]]

Laminar flow

2012-08-06T06:20:10Z

Rami radwan:

[[Image:Stokes sphere.svg|thumb|upright|An object moving through a gas or liquid experiences a [[force]] in direction opposite to its motion. [[Terminal velocity]] is achieved when the drag force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the force propelling the object. Shown is a [[sphere]] in Stokes flow, at very low [[Reynolds number]].]]
'''Laminar flow''', sometimes known as [[Streamlines, streaklines and pathlines|streamline]] flow, occurs when a fluid flows in parallel layers, with no disruption between the layers.<ref name=Batchelor>{{cite book | author=Batchelor, G. | title=Introduction to Fluid Mechanics | year=2000}}</ref> At low velocities the fluid tends to flow without lateral mixing, and adjacent layers slide past one another like playing cards. There are no cross currents perpendicular to the direction of flow, nor [[eddies]] or swirls of fluids.<ref name="Geankoplis, Christie John 2003">{{cite book
|title=Transport Processes and Separation Process Principles
|author=Geankoplis, Christie John
|year=2003
|publisher=Prentice Hall Professional Technical Reference
|isbn=0-13-101367-X
|url=http://www.pearsonhighered.com/educator/product/Transport-Processes-and-Separation-Process-Principles-Includes-Unit-Operations/9780131013674.page}}</ref> In laminar flow the motion of the particles of fluid is very orderly with all particles moving in straight lines parallel to the pipe walls.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.efm.leeds.ac.uk/CIVE/CIVE1400/Section4/laminar_turbulent.htm
|title= Real Fluids
|author= Noakes, Cath & Sleigh, Andrew
|date= January 2009
|work= An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
|publisher= University of Leeds
|accessdate=23 November 2010}}</ref>
In [[fluid dynamics]], laminar flow is a flow regime characterized by high [[momentum diffusion]] and low momentum [[convection]].

When a fluid is flowing through a closed channel such as a pipe or between two flat plates, either of two types of flow may occur depending on the velocity of the fluid: laminar flow or [[turbulent flow]]. Laminar flow is the opposite of [[turbulent flow]] which occurs at higher velocities where [[eddies]] or small packets of fluid particles form leading to lateral mixing.<ref name="Geankoplis, Christie John 2003"/> In nonscientific terms laminar flow is "smooth", while turbulent flow is "rough."

The type of flow occurring in a fluid in a channel is important in fluid dynamics problems. The [[dimensionless number|dimensionless]] [[Reynolds number]] is an important parameter in the equations that describe whether flow conditions lead to laminar or turbulent flow. In the case of flow through a straight pipe with a circular cross-section, at a Reynolds number below the critical value of approximately 2040<ref name=Recrit>{{cite journal|last=Avila|first=K.|coauthors=D. Moxey, A. de Lozar, M. Avila, D. Barkley, B. Hof|title=The Onset of Turbulence in Pipe Flow|journal=Science|year=2011|month=July|volume=333|issue=6039|pages=192–196|doi=10.1126/science.1203223|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/content/333/6039/192|bibcode = 2011Sci...333..192A }}</ref> fluid motion will ultimately be laminar, whereas at larger Reynolds number the flow can be turbulent. The Reynolds number delimiting laminar and turbulent flow depends on the particular flow geometry, and moreover, the transition from laminar flow to turbulence can be sensitive to disturbance levels and imperfections present in a given configuration.

When the [[Reynolds number]] is much less than 1, [[Creeping motion]] or [[Stokes flow]] occurs. This is an extreme case of laminar flow where viscous (friction) effects are much greater than [[inertial force]]s. The common application of laminar flow would be in the smooth flow of a viscous liquid through a tube or pipe. In that case, the velocity of flow varies from zero at the walls to a maximum along the centerline of the vessel. The flow profile of laminar flow in a tube can be calculated by dividing the flow into thin cylindrical elements and applying the viscous force to them.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/pfric.html
|title=Laminar Flow
|author=Nave, R.
|year=2005
|work=HyperPhysics
|publisher=Georgia State University
|accessdate=23 November 2010}}
</ref>

For example, consider the flow of air over an aircraft [[wing]]. The [[boundary layer]] is a very thin sheet of air lying over the surface of the wing (and all other surfaces of the aircraft). Because air has [[viscosity]], this layer of air tends to adhere to the wing. As the wing moves forward through the air, the boundary layer at first flows smoothly over the streamlined shape of the [[airfoil]]. Here the flow is called ''laminar'' and the boundary layer is a [[Boundary layer|laminar layer]]. [[Ludwig Prandtl|Prandtl]] applied the concept of the laminar boundary layer to airfoils in 1904.<ref>{{cite book
|title=A history of aerodynamics and its impact on flying machines
|author=Anderson, J.D.
|year=1997
|publisher=Cambridge U. Press
|isbn=0-521-66955-3
|url=http://books.google.com/books?isbn=0521669553
}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
|title=Laminar flow analysis
|author=Rogers, D.F.
|year=1992
|publisher=Cambridge U. Press
|isbn=0-521-44152-1 {{Please check ISBN|reason=Check digit (1) does not correspond to calculated figure.}}
|url=http://books.google.com/books?isbn=0521411521
}}</ref>
[[Image:Laminar flow.gif|thumb|right|upright|In the case of a moving plate in a liquid, it is found that there is a layer or lamina which moves with the plate, and a layer which is essentially stationary if it is next to a stationary plate.]]
[[Image:Laminar flow profile.gif|thumb|right|upright|The streamlines associated with laminar flow resemble a deck of cards. This flow profile of a fluid in a pipe shows that the fluid acts in layers and slides over one another.]]

A [[laminar flow reactor]](LFR) is a reactor that uses '''laminar flow''' to study chemical reactions and process mechanisms.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary|laminar}}
* {{youtube|p08_KlTKP50}}
* {{youtube|KqqtOb30jWs}} Laminar flow in a pipe
* http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminar_flow_reactor

==See also==
* [[Turbulence]]
* [[Chaos theory]]

[[Category:Aerodynamics]]
[[Category:Fluid dynamics| ]]
[[Category:Fluid mechanics| ]]
[[ar:جريان صفائحي]]
[[bg:Ламинарен поток]]
[[bs:Laminarno strujanje]]
[[ca:Flux laminar]]
[[cs:Laminární proudění]]
[[de:Laminare Strömung]]
[[et:Laminaarne voolamine]]
[[es:Flujo laminar]]
[[fa:جریان آرام]]
[[fr:Écoulement laminaire]]
[[ko:층류]]
[[hr:Laminarno strujanje]]
[[it:Regime laminare]]
[[he:זרימה שכבתית]]
[[ka:ლამინარული დინება]]
[[kk:Ламинарлы ағын]]
[[hu:Lamináris áramlás]]
[[ms:Lamina]]
[[nl:Laminaire stroming]]
[[ja:層流]]
[[pl:Przepływ laminarny]]
[[pt:Fluxo laminar]]
[[ro:Curgere laminară]]
[[ru:Ламинарное течение]]
[[simple:Laminar flow]]
[[sk:Laminárne prúdenie]]
[[sl:Laminarni tok]]
[[fi:Laminaarinen virtaus]]
[[sv:Laminär strömning]]
[[ta:வரிச்சீர் ஓட்டம்]]
[[uk:Ламінарна течія]]
[[vi:Dòng chảy tầng]]
[[zh:层流]]

Vijayanagara Empire

2012-08-02T13:48:02Z

Rami radwan:

{{Infobox Former Country
|conventional_long_name = Vijayanagara Empire
|common_name = Vijayanagara Empire o o
|native_name =
|continent = moved from Category:Asia to South Asia
|region = South Asia
|country = India
|status = Empire
|government_type = Monarchy
|
|image_flag =
|year_start = 1336
|year_end = 1646
|
|event_start =
|date_start =
|event_end =
|date_end =
|
|event1 = Earliest records
|date_event1 = 1343
|
|
|p1 = Hoysala Empire
|flag_p1 =
|image_p1 =
|p2 = Kakatiya dynasty
|flag_p2 =
|image_p2 =
|p3 = Pandyan Empire
|flag_p3 =
|image_p3 =
|p4 = Reddy dynasty
|flag_p4 =
|image_p4 =
|s1 = Mysore Kingdom
|flag_s1 = Flag of Mysore.svg
|image_s1 =
|s2 = Keladi Nayaka
|flag_s2 =
|image_s2 =
|s3 = Nayaks of Tanjore
|flag_s3 =
|image_s3 =
|s4 = Nayaks of Madurai
|flag_s4 =
|image_s4 =
|s5 = Nayakas of Chitradurga
|flag_s5 =
|image_s5 =
|s6 = Bijapur Sultanate
|flag_s6 =
|image_s6 =
|s7 = Qutb Shahi dynasty
|flag_s7 = QutbshahiFlag.PNG
|image_s7 =
|
|image_flag
|flag_type =|
|image_coat = 
|symbol = 
|symbol_type = 
|
|image_map = Vijayanagara-empire-map.svg
|image_map_caption = Extent of Vijayanagara Empire, 1446, 1520 CE
|
|capital = Vijayanagara
|
|national_motto =
|national_anthem =
|common_languages = [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]],[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|religion = [[Hinduism|Hindu]]
|currency =
|
|
|leader1 = Harihara Raya I
|leader2 = Sriranga III
|leader3 =
|leader4 =
|year_leader1 = 1336–1356
|year_leader2 = 1642–1646
|year_leader3 =
|year_leader4 =
|title_leader = [[Monarch|King]]
|stat_year1 = 
|stat_area1 = 
|stat_pop1 = 
|footnotes = 
}}
{{Vijayanagara empire}}

The '''Vijayanagara Empire''' referred to as the '''Kingdom of Bisnaga''' by the [[Portuguese India|Portuguese]], was a empire based in [[South India]], in the [[Deccan Plateau]] region. It was established in 1336 by [[Harihara I]] and his brother [[Bukka Raya I]]. The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the southern powers to ward off [[Islamic invasions of India|Islamic invasions]] by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646 although its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the [[Deccan sultanates]]. The empire is named after its capital city of [[Vijayanagara]], whose ruins surround present day [[Hampi]], now a [[World Heritage Site]] in [[Karnataka]], [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Master Plan for Hampi Local Planning Area|url=http://www.bellary.nic.in/HMP/REPORT%20PDFs/CHAPTER-2.pdf}}</ref> The writings of medieval European travelers such as [[Domingo Paes]], [[Fernão Nunes]] and [[Niccolò Da Conti]], and the literature in local languages provide crucial information about its history. Archaeological excavations at Vijayanagara have revealed the empire's power and wealth.

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at [[Hampi]]. The previous temple building traditions in South India came together in the [[Vijayanagara Architecture]] style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired architectural innovation of [[Hindu]] temple construction, first in the Deccan and later in the [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian]] idioms using the local [[granite]]. Secular royal structures show the influence of the [[Sultanate of Delhi|Northern Deccan Sultanate]] architecture. Efficient administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation. The empire's patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in the languages of [[Kannada language|Kannada]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Sanskrit]], while [[Carnatic music]] evolved into its current form. The Vijayanagara Empire created an epoch in South Indian history that transcended regionalism by promoting [[Hinduism]] as a unifying factor.

==History==
{{Main|Origin of Vijayanagara Empire|Ancient City of Vijayanagara|Battle of Raichur|Battle of Talikota}}
[[Image:South India in AD 1400.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Map of South India in 15th century]]
[[Image:Balakrishna temple DK.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Chalukya]] pillars and [[Dravida]] Vimana, [[Hampi]]]]
Differing theories have been proposed regarding the Vijayanagara empire's origins. Many historians propose [[Harihara I]] and [[Bukka Raya I]], the founders of the empire, were [[Kannadiga]]s and commanders in the army of the [[Hoysala Empire]] stationed in the [[Tungabhadra]] region to ward off Muslim invasions from the Northern India.<ref name="Kannadaempire">Historians such as [[P. B. Desai]] (''History of Vijayanagar Empire'', 1936), [[Henry Heras]] (''The Aravidu Dynasty of Vijayanagara'', 1927), [[B.A. Saletore]] (''Social and Political Life in the Vijayanagara Empire'', 1930), G.S. Gai (Archaeological Survey of India), William Coelho (''The Hoysala Vamsa'', 1955) and Kamath (Kamath 2001, pp157–160)</ref><ref name="karma">Karmarkar (1947), p30</ref><ref name="Kulke">Kulke and Rothermund (2004), p188</ref><ref name="rice">Rice (1897), p345</ref> Others claim that they were Telugu people first associated with the [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya kingdom]] who took control of the northern parts of the [[Hoysala Empire]] during its decline.<ref name="telguorigin">Robert Sewell (''A Forgotten Empire Vijayanagar: A Contribution to the History of India'', 1901), Nilakanta Sastri (1955), N. Ventakaramanayya (''The Early Muslim expansion in South India'', 1942) and B. Surya Narayana Rao (''History of Vijayanagar'', 1993) in Kamath (2001) pp157–160.</ref> Irrespective of their origin, historians agree the founders were supported and inspired by [[Vidyaranya]], a saint at the [[Sringeri]] monastery to fight the Muslim invasion of South India.<ref name="vidya">Nilakanta Sastry (1955), p216</ref><ref name="vidya1">Kamath (2001), p160</ref> Writings by foreign travelers during the late medieval era combined with recent excavations in the Vijayanagara principality have uncovered much-needed information about the empire's history, fortifications, scientific developments and architectural innovations.<ref name="History">Portuguese travelers Barbosa, Barradas and Italian Varthema and Caesar Fredericci in 1567, Persian Abdur Razzak in 1440, Barani, Isamy, Tabataba, Nizamuddin Bakshi, [[Ferishta]] and Shirazi and vernacular works from the 14th century to the 16th century. (Kamath 2001, pp157–158)</ref><ref name="discover">Fritz & Michell (2001) pp1–11</ref>

Before the early 14th-century rise of the Vijayanagara Empire, the Hindu states of the Deccan, the [[Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri|Yadava Empire]] of Devagiri, the [[Kakatiya dynasty|Kakatiya Kingdom]] of [[Warangal]], the [[Pandyan Empire]] of [[Madurai]], and the tiny kingdom of [[Kampili]] had been repeatedly invaded by [[Muslim]]s from the north, and by 1336 they had all been defeated by [[Alla-ud-din Khilji]] and [[Muhammad bin Tughluq]], the [[Sultanate of Delhi|Sultans of Delhi]]. The [[Hoysala Empire]] was the sole remaining Hindu state in the path of the Muslim invasion.<ref name="onlykingdom">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p216</ref> After the death of Hoysala king [[Veera Ballala III]] during a battle against the Sultan of Madurai in 1343, the Hoysala Empire merged with the growing Vijayanagara empire.
[[File:Cheluvanarayanaswamy temple melkote DK.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Kalyanamantapa [[Melkote]]]]

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of ''Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara'' ("master of the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the chiefdom of [[Arcot]], the [[Reddy]]s of Kondavidu, the [[Madurai Sultanate|Sultan of Madurai]] and gained control over [[Goa]] in the west and the Tungabhadra-[[Krishna River]] [[doab]] in the north.<ref name="femalepoet">Kamath (2001), p162</ref><ref name="vijayama1">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p317</ref> The original capital was in the [[principality]] of [[Anegondi]] on the northern banks of the Tungabhadra River in today's [[Karnataka]]. It was later moved to nearby Vijayanagara on the river's southern banks during the reign of Bukka Raya I.

With the Vijayanagara Kingdom now imperial in stature, [[Harihara II]], the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the [[Krishna River]] and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.<ref name="umbrella">The success was probably also due to the peaceful nature of Muhammad II Bahmani, according to Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p242</ref> The next ruler, [[Deva Raya I]], emerged successful against the [[Gajapatis]] of [[Orissa]] and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.<ref name="aqueduct">From the notes of Portuguese Nuniz. Robert Sewell notes that a big dam across was built the Tungabhadra and an aqueduct {{convert|15|mi|km|0}} long was cut out of rock (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p243).</ref> [[Deva Raya II]] (called ''Gajabetekara'')<ref name="hunter">Also deciphered as ''Gajaventekara'', a metaphor for "great hunter of his enemies", or "hunter of elephants" (Kamath 2001, p163).</ref> succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the [[Sangama Dynasty|Sangama dynasty]] rulers.<ref name="hunter1">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p244</ref> He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the [[Zamorin]] of [[History of Kozhikode|Calicut]] and [[Quilon]] in the south. He invaded the island of [[Lanka]] and became overlord of the kings of [[Burma]] at [[Pegu]] and [[Tanintharyi Division|Tanasserim]].<ref name="Burma">From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak. Writings of Nuniz confirms that the kings of Burma paid tributes to Vijayanagara empire (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p245)</ref><ref name="Burma1">Kamath (2001), p164</ref><ref name="Bidjanagar">From the notes of Abdur Razzak about Vijayanagara: ''a city like this had not been seen by the pupil of the eye nor had an ear heard of anything equal to it in the world'' (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'' 2003, p11)</ref> The empire declined in the late 15th century until the serious attempts by commander [[Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya]] in 1485 and by general [[Tuluva Narasa Nayaka]] in 1491 to reconsolidate the empire. After nearly two decades of conflict with rebellious chieftains, the empire eventually came under the rule of Krishnadevaraya, the son of Tuluva Narasa Nayaka.<ref name="great">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p250</ref>

In the following decades the Vijayanagara empire dominated all of Southern India and fought off invasions from the five established [[Deccan Sultanates]].<ref name="civilization">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p239</ref><ref name="civilization1">Kamath (2001), p159</ref> The empire reached its peak during the rule of [[Krishnadevaraya]] when Vijayanagara armies were consistently victorious.<ref name="perfect">From the notes of Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes about Krishnadevaraya: ''A king who was perfect in all things'' (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'' 2003, p31)</ref> The empire annexed areas formerly under the Sultanates in the northern Deccan and the territories in the eastern Deccan, including [[Kalinga (India)|Kalinga]], while simultaneously maintaining control over all its subordinates in the south.<ref name="richcity">The notes of Portuguese Barbosa during the time of Krishnadevaraya confirms a very rich and well provided Vijayanagara city (Kamath 2001, p186)</ref> Many important monuments were either completed or commissioned during the time of Krishnadevaraya.<ref name="dibba">Most monuments including the royal platform (''Mahanavami Dibba'') were actually built over a period spanning several decades (Dallapiccola 2001, p66)</ref>

Krishnadevaraya was followed by [[Achyuta Raya]] in 1530 and in 1542 by [[Sadashiva Raya]] while the real power lay with [[Aliya Rama Raya]], the son-in-law of Krishnadevaraya, whose relationship with the Deccan Sultans who allied against him has been debated.<ref name="involve">Dr. P. B. Desai asserts that Rama Raya's involvement often was at the insistence of one Sultan or the other (Kamath 2001, p172).</ref>

[[Image:Karnataka Hampi IMG 0730.jpg|200px|thumb|left|Virupaksha temple, [[Hampi]]]]
The sudden capture and killing of Aliya Rama Raya in 1565 at the [[Battle of Talikota]], against an alliance of the Deccan sultanates, after a seemingly easy victory for the Vijayanagara armies, created havoc and confusion in the Vijayanagara ranks, which were then completely routed. The Sultanates' army later plundered Hampi and reduced it to the ruinous state in which it remains; it was never re-occupied. Tirumala Raya, the sole surviving commander, left Vijayanagara for Penukonda with vast amounts of treasure on the back of 550 elephants.<ref name="venue1">Some scholars say the war was actually fought between Rakkasagi and Tangadigi in modern [[Bijapur district, Karnataka|Bijapur district]], close to Talikota, and the battle is also called "Battle of Rakkasa-Tangadi". Shervani claimed that the actual venue of the battle was Bannihatti (Kamath 2001, p170)</ref>

The empire went into a slow decline regionally, although trade with the Portuguese continued, and the British were given a land grant for the establishment of [[Madras]].<ref name="reviver">The Telugu work ''Vasucharitamu'' refers to Aravidu King Tirumala Raya (1570) as the ''reviver of the [[Karnata Empire]]''. (Ramesh 2006)</ref><ref name="reviver1">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p268</ref> [[Tirumala Deva Raya]] was succeeded by his son [[Sriranga I]] later followed by [[Venkata II]] who made [[Chandragiri]] his capital, repulsed the invasion of the [[Bahmani Sultanate]] and saved [[Penukonda]] from being captured.<ref name="capital">Kamath (2001), p174</ref> His successor [[Ramadeva]] took power and ruled until 1632, after whose death [[Venkata III]] became king and ruled for about ten years after which [[Vellore]] was made the capital. The empire was finally conquered by the [[Sultanate]]s of [[Bijapur Sultanate|Bijapur]] and [[Golkonda]].<ref name="capital"/> The largest feudatories of the Vijayanagar empire – the [[Kingdom of Mysore|Mysore Kingdom]], [[Keladi Nayaka]], [[Madurai Nayak Dynasty|Nayaks of Madurai]], [[Thanjavur Nayaks|Nayaks of Tanjore]], [[Nayakas of Chitradurga]] and [[Nayak dynasty|Nayak Kingdom]] of [[Gingee]] palegars of gummanayakanapalya – declared independence and went on to have a significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries. These Nayaka kingdoms lasted into the 18th century while the Mysore Kingdom remained a princely state until [[Indian Independence]] in 1947 although they came under the [[British Raj]] in 1799 after the death of [[Tipu Sultan]].<ref name="capital1">Kamath (2001), p220, p226, p234</ref>

==Governance==
[[Image:Hampi natural fortress Dk.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Natural fortress at [[Vijayanagara]]]]
[[Image:Vijayanagara royal insignia.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Royal Insignia: boar, sun, moon and dagger]]
The rulers of the Vijayanagara empire maintained the well-functioning administrative methods developed by their predecessors, the Hoysala, Kakatiya and Pandya kingdoms, to govern their territories and made changes only where necessary.<ref name="waradmin">A war administration, (K.M. Panikkar in Kamath 2001, p174)</ref> The King was the ultimate authority, assisted by a cabinet of ministers (''Pradhana'') headed by the prime minister (''Mahapradhana''). Other important titles recorded in inscriptions were the chief secretary (''Karyakartha'' or ''Rayaswami'') and the imperial officers (''Adhikari''). All high ranking ministers and officers were required to have military training.<ref name="rank">From the notes of Persian Abdur Razzak and research by B.A. Saletore (Kamath 2001, p175)</ref> A secretariat near the king's palace employed [[scribes]] and officers to maintain records made official by using a [[wax seal]] imprinted with the ring of the king.<ref name="wax">From the notes of Nuniz (Kamath 2001, p175)</ref> At the lower administrative levels, wealthy feudal landlords (''Goudas'') supervised accountants (''Karanikas'' or ''Karnam'') and guards (''Kavalu''). The palace administration was divided into 72 departments (''Niyogas''), each having several female attendants chosen for their youth and beauty (some imported or captured in victorious battles) who were trained to handle minor administrative matters and to serve men of nobility as courtesans or concubines.<ref name="courtesans">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p286</ref>

The empire was divided into five main provinces (''Rajya''), each under a commander (''Dandanayaka'' or ''Dandanatha'') and headed by a governor, often from the royal family, who used the native language for administrative purposes.<ref name="provinces">From the notes of Duarte Barbosa (Kamath 2001, p176). However, the kingdom may have had nine provinces (T.V. Mahalingam in Kamath 2001, p176)</ref> A ''Rajya'' was divided into regions (''Vishaya'' ''Vente'' or ''Kottam''), and further divided into counties (''Sime'' or ''Nadu'') themselves subdivided into municipalities (''Kampana'' or ''Sthala''). Hereditary families ruled their respective territories and paid tribute to the empire while some areas, such as [[Keladi (India)|Keladi]] and [[Madurai]], came under the direct supervision of a commander.

On the battlefields, the king's commanders led the troops. The empire's war strategy rarely involved massive invasions; more often it employed small scale methods such as attacking and destroying individual forts. The empire was among the first in India to use long range [[artillery]] commonly manned by foreign gunners. (Gunners from present day [[Turkmenistan]] were considered the best).<ref name="gunner">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p287</ref> Army troops were of two types: The king's personal army directly recruited by the empire and the feudal army under each feudatory. King Krishnadevaraya's personal army consisted of 100,000 infantry, 20,000 cavalrymen and over 900 elephants. This number was only a part of the army numbering over 1.1 million soldiers, a figure that varied as an army of two million has also been recorded along with the existence of a navy as evidenced by the use of the term ''Navigadaprabhu'' (commander of the navy).<ref name="armysize">From the notes of Abdur Razzaq and Paes respectively (Kamath 2001, p176)</ref> The army recruited from all classes of society (supported by the collection of additional feudal tributes from feudatory rulers), and consisted of [[Archery|archers]] and [[musket]]eers wearing quilted [[tunic]]s, shieldmen with swords and [[poignard]]s in their girdles, and soldiers carrying shields so larges that no armour was necessary. The horses and elephants were fully armoured and the elephants had knives fastened to their tusks to do maximum damage in battle.<ref name="battle">From the notes of Nuniz (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p288)</ref>

The capital city was completely dependent on the water supply systems constructed to channel and store water, and ensure a consistent supply throughout the year. The remains of these hydraulic systems have given historians a picture of the prevailing [[surface-water hydrology|surface water]] distribution methods in use at that time in South India's semiarid regions.<ref name="water">Davison-Jenkins (2001), p89</ref> Contemporary inscriptions and notes of foreign travelers describe how huge tanks were constructed by labourers.<ref name="water1">From the notes of Domingo Paes and Nuniz (Davison-Jenkins 2001, p98)</ref> Excavations have uncovered the remains of a well-connected water distribution system existing solely within the royal enclosure and the large temple complexes (suggesting it was for the exclusive use of royalty, and for special ceremonies) with sophisticated channels using gravity and [[siphon]]s to [[Water transportation|transport water]] through [[Pipeline transport|pipelines]].<ref name="water2">Davison-Jenkins (2001), p90</ref> The only structures resembling public waterworks are the remains of large water tanks that collected the seasonal monsoon water and then dried up in summer except for the few fed by springs. In the fertile agricultural areas near the [[Tungabhadra River]], canals were dug to guide the river water into [[irrigation tank]]s. These canals had [[sluice]]s that were opened and closed to control the water flow. In other areas the administration encouraged the digging of wells monitored by administrative authorities. Large tanks in the capital city were constructed with royal patronage while smaller tanks were funded by wealthy individuals to gain social and religious merit.

==Economy==
[[Image:Hampi Marketplace DK.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Ancient market place and plantation at [[Hampi]]]]
The empire's economy was largely dependent on agriculture. Sorghum (''jowar''), cotton and [[Pulse (legume)|pulse legumes]] grew in semi arid regions, while sugarcane, rice and wheat thrived in rainy areas. [[Betel|Betel leaves]], [[areca]] (for chewing), and coconut were the principal cash crops, and large scale cotton production supplied the weaving centers of the empire's vibrant textile industry. Spices such as [[turmeric]], pepper, [[cardamom]] and ginger grew in the remote [[Malnad]] hill region and were transported to the city for trade. The empire's capital city was a thriving business centre that included a burgeoning market in large quantities of precious gems and gold.<ref name="trade">From the notes of Duarte Barbosa (Kamath 2001, p181).</ref> Prolific temple-building provided employment to thousands of [[stone masonry|masons]], [[sculpture|sculptors]], and other skilled artisans.

Land ownership was important. Most of the growers were [[tenant farmer]]s and were given the right of part ownership of the land over time. Tax policies encouraging needed produce made distinctions between land use to determine tax levies. For example, the daily market availability of rose petals was important for perfumers, so cultivation of roses received a lower tax assessment.<ref name="rose">From the notes of Abdur Razzak in Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p298</ref> Salt production and the manufacture of [[Salt pan (evaporation)|salt pans]] were controlled by similar means. The making of [[ghee]] (clarified butter), which was sold as an oil for human consumption and as a fuel for lighting lamps, was profitable.<ref name="Ghee">From the notes of Abdur Razzak in Nilakanta Sastry (1955), p299</ref> Exports to China intensified and included cotton, spices, jewels, semi-precious stones, ivory, rhino horn, ebony, amber, coral, and aromatic products such as perfumes. Large vessels from China made frequent visits, some captained by the Chinese Admiral [[Cheng Ho]], and brought Chinese products to the empire's 300 ports, large and small, on the [[Arabian Sea]] and the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The ports of [[Mangalore]], [[Honavar]], [[Bhatkal]], [[Barkur]], [[Cochin]], [[Kannur|Cannanore]], [[Machilipatnam]] and [[Dharmadam]] were the most important.<ref name="ports">From the notes of Abdur Razzak in Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p304</ref>

When merchant ships docked, the merchandise was taken into official custody and taxes levied on all items sold. The security of the merchandise was guaranteed by the administration officials. Traders of many nationalities ([[Arabs]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Gujar Khan|Guzerates]], [[Greater Khorasan|Khorassanian]]s) settled in [[Kozhikode|Calicut]], drawn by the thriving trade business.<ref name="ports"/> Ship building prospered and [[keel]]ed ships of 1000–1200 ''bahares'' ([[Tonnage|burden]]) were built without decks by sewing the entire [[Hull (watercraft)|hull]] with ropes rather than fastening them with nails. Ships sailed to the [[Red Sea]] ports of [[Aden]] and [[Mecca]] with Vijayanagara goods sold as far away as [[Venice]]. The empire's principal exports were pepper, ginger, cinnamon, cardamom, [[Cherry plum|myrobalan]], [[Tamarind|tamarind timber]], [[Golden Shower Tree|anafistula]], precious and semi-precious stones, pearls, musk, ambergris, rhubarb, aloe, cotton cloth and porcelain.<ref name="ports"/> Cotton yarn was shipped to [[Burma]] and indigo to Persia. Chief imports from [[Palestine]] were copper, quicksilver (mercury), vermilion, coral, saffron, coloured velvets, rose water, knives, coloured [[camlet]]s, gold and silver. [[Persia]]n horses were imported to Cannanore before a two week land trip to the capital. Silk arrived from China and sugar from [[Bengal]].

East coast trade hummed, with goods arriving from [[Golkonda]] where rice, millet, pulse and tobacco were grown on a large scale. Dye crops of indigo and [[chay root]] were produced for the weaving industry. A mineral rich region, [[Machilipatnam]] was the gateway for high quality iron and steel exports. Diamond mining was active in the Kollur region.<ref name="iron">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p305</ref> The cotton weaving industry produced two types of cottons, plain [[Calico (fabric)|calico]] and muslin (brown, bleached or dyed). Cloth printed with coloured patterns crafted by native techniques were exported to [[Java]] and the [[Far East]]. Golkonda specialised in plain cotton and [[Pulicat]] in printed. The main imports on the east coast were non-ferrous metals, camphor, porcelain, silk and luxury goods.<ref name="east coast">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p306</ref>

==Culture==
===Social life===

[[Image:Vijayanagar snakestone.jpg|thumb|left|200px|''[[Nāga]]'' (snake) stone worship at Hampi]]
Most information on the social life in Vijayanagara empire comes from the writings of foreign visitors and evidence that research teams in the Vijayanagara area have uncovered. The [[Hindu caste system]] was prevalent and rigidly followed, with each caste represented by a local body of elders who represented the community. These elders set the rules and regulations that were implemented with the help of royal decrees. [[Untouchability]] was part of the caste system and these communities were represented by leaders (''Kaivadadavaru''). The Muslim communities were represented by their own group in coastal Karnataka.<ref name="wrestling">Kamath (2001), p179</ref> The caste system did not, however, prevent distinguished persons from all castes from being promoted to high ranking cadre in the army and administration. In civil life, by virtue of the caste system, [[Brahmin]]s enjoyed a high level of respect. With the exception of a few who took to military careers, most Brahmins concentrated on religious and literary matters. Their separation from material wealth and power made them ideal arbiters in local judicial matters, and their presence in every town and village was a calculated investment made by the nobility and aristocracy to maintain order.<ref name="intellectual">According to Sir Charles Elliot, the intellectual superiority of Brahmins justified their high position in society (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p289)</ref> However, the popularity of low-caste scholars (such as [[Molla (poet)|Molla]] and [[Kanakadasa]]) and their works (including those of [[Vemana]] and [[Sarvajna]]) is an indication of the degree of social fluidity in the society.

The practice of [[Sati (practice)|Sati]] was common, though voluntary, and mostly practiced among the upper classes. Over fifty inscriptions attesting to this have been discovered in the Vijayanagara principality alone. These inscriptions are called ''Satikal'' (Sati stone) or ''Sati-virakal'' (Sati [[hero stone]]). ''Satikals'' commemorated the death of a woman by entering into fire after the death of her husband while ''Sati-virakals'' were made for a woman who performed ''Sati'' after her husband's heroic death. Either way, the woman was raised to the level of a demi-goddess and proclaimed by the sculpture of a Sun and crescent moon on the stone.<ref name="virkal">Verghese (2001), p41</ref>

The socio-religious movements of the previous centuries, such as [[Lingayatism]], provided momentum for flexible social norms to which women were expected to abide. By this time [[South India]]n women had crossed most barriers and were actively involved in matters hitherto considered the monopoly of men, such as administration, business and trade, and involvement in the fine arts.<ref name="finearts">B.A. Saletore in Kamath (2001), p179</ref> [[Tirumalamba|Tirumalamba Devi]] who wrote ''Varadambika Parinayam'' and [[Gangadevi]] who wrote ''Madhuravijayam'' were among the notable women poets of the era.<ref name="femalepoet"/> Early Telugu women poets like [[Timmakka|Tallapaka Timmakka]] and Atukuri Molla became popular during this period. The court of the [[Nayaks of Tanjore]] is known to have patronised several women poets. The [[Devadasi system]] existed, as well as legalised prostitution relegated to a few streets in each city.<ref name="prostitute">Kamath, p180</ref> The popularity of harems amongst men of the royalty is well known from records.

[[File:Dutchbisnagar1667.jpg|thumb|"Clothing of Bisnagar [Vijayanagar]," a Dutch engraving by *Cornelius Hazart*,]]
Well-to-do men wore the ''Petha''or ''Kulavi'', a tall [[turban]] made of silk and decorated with gold. As in most Indian societies, jewellery was used by men and women and records describe the use of anklets, bracelets, finger-rings, necklaces and ear rings of various types. During celebrations, men and women adorned themselves with flower garlands and used perfumes made of [[rose water]], [[civet]], [[musk]] or [[sandalwood]].<ref name="perfume">Kamath (2001), p. 180</ref> In stark contrast to the commoners whose lives were modest, the lives of the empire's kings and queens were full of ceremonial pomp in the court. Queens and princesses had numerous attendants who were lavishly dressed and adorned with fine jewellery, their daily duties being light.<ref name="sundry">From the writings of Portuguese Domingo Paes (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p. 296)</ref>

Physical exercises were popular with men and wrestling was an important male preoccupation for sport and entertainment. Even women wrestlers are mentioned in records.<ref name="wrestling"/> Gymnasiums have been discovered inside royal quarters and records speak of regular physical training for commanders and their armies during peace time.<ref name="training">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p296</ref> Royal palaces and market places had special arenas where royalty and common people alike amused themselves by watching matches such as cock fights, ram fights and wrestling between women.<ref name="training"/> Excavations within the Vijayanagara city limits have revealed the existence of various types of community-based activities in the form of engravings on boulders, rock platforms and temple floors, implying these were places of casual social interaction. Some of these games are in use today and others are yet to be identified.<ref name="games">Mack (2001), p39</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Haridasas of Vijayanagar Empire}}
[[Image:Ugranarasimha statue at Hampi.JPG|thumb|right|[[Narasimha|Lakshmi Narasimha]] ([[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]) at [[Hampi]]]]
[[File:Virupaksha temple mantapa DK.jpg|thumb|right|Ornate pillars, Virupaksha temple [[Hampi]]]]
[[Image:Sculpture at Hazara Rama Temple in Hampi.jpg|thumb|right|Lord [[Rama]] breaking Shiva's bow in Hazare Rama Temple at [[Hampi]]]]

The Vijayanagara kings were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.<ref name="democracy">From the notes of Duarte Barbosa (Kamath 2001, p178)</ref> The kings used titles such as ''Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya'' ("protector of cows and Brahmins") and ''Hindurayasuratrana'' ("upholder of Hindu faith") that testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress, as Philip Wagoner points out in his 1996 article 'Sultan Among Hindu Kings' published in the ''Journal of Asian Studies''. The Empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout [[Shaiva]]s (worshippers of [[Shiva]]), but made grants to the [[Vaishnava]] order of [[Sringeri]] with [[Vidyaranya]] as their patron saint, and designated ''[[Varaha]]'' (the boar, an [[Avatar]] of [[Vishnu]]) as their [[emblem]].<ref name="emb">Kamath (2001), p177</ref> It is also important to note here that over one-fourth of the archaeological dig found a "Islamic Quarter" not far from the "Royal Quarter." Nobles from Central Asia's Timurid kingdoms also came down to Vijayanagara. The later [[Saluva]] and [[Tuluva]] kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord [[Venkateshwara]] (Vishnu) at [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple|Tirupati]]. A Sanskrit work, ''Jambavati Kalyanam'' by King Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha ''Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani'' ("protective jewel of [[Karnata Empire]]").<ref name="devata">Fritz & Michell, p14</ref> The kings patronised the saints of the [[dvaita]] order (philosophy of dualism) of [[Madhvacharya]] at [[Udupi]].<ref name="patron">Kamath (2001), p177–178</ref>

The [[Bhakti]] (devotional) movement was active during this time, and involved well known [[Haridasa]]s (devotee saints) of that time. Like the [[Virashaiva]] movement of the 12th century, this movement presented another strong current of devotion, pervading the lives of millions. The haridasas represented two groups, the ''[[Vyasakuta]]'' and ''[[Dasakuta]]'', the former being required to be proficient in the [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]] and other [[Darshanas]], while the ''Dasakuta'' merely conveyed the message of Madhvacharya through the Kannada language to the people in the form of devotional songs (''Devaranamas'' and ''Kirthanas''). The philosophy of Madhvacharya was spread by eminent disciples such as [[Naraharitirtha]], [[Jayatirtha]], [[Sripadaraya]], [[Vyasatirtha]], [[Vadirajatirtha]] and others.<ref name="yathi trayaru">Shiva Prakash in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p192, pp194–196</ref> Vyasatirtha, the ''guru'' (teacher) of Vadirajatirtha, [[Purandaradasa]] (Father of Carnatic music<ref name="father10">Iyer (2006), p93</ref><ref name="father">Owing to his contributions to carnatic music, Purandaradasa is known as ''Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha''. (Kamat, ''Saint Purandaradasa'')</ref>) and [[Kanakadasa]]<ref name="kanaka">Shiva Prakash (1997), p196</ref> earned the devotion of King Krishnadevaraya.<ref name="command">Shiva Prakash (1997), p195</ref><ref name="rajguru">Kamath (2001), p178</ref><ref name="rajguru2">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p324</ref> The king considered the saint his ''Kuladevata'' (family deity) and honoured him in his writings.<ref name="rajguru1">{{cite web|last=Pujar|first=Narahari S.|coauthors=Shrisha Rao and H.P. Raghunandan|title=Sri Vyasa Tirtha|url=http://www.dvaita.org/scholars/vyasaraja/|publisher=Dvaita Home Page|work=|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref> During this time, another great composer of early carnatic music, [[Annamacharya]] composed hundreds of ''Kirthanas'' in [[Telugu Language|Telugu]] at [[Tirumala - Tirupati|Tirupati]] in present day [[Andhra Pradesh]].<ref name="Guru">Kamath (2001), p185</ref>

The defeat of the [[Jain]] [[Western Ganga Dynasty]] by the Cholas in early 11th century and the rising numbers of followers of Vaishnava Hinduism and Virashaivism in the 12th century was mirrored by a decreased interest in Jainism.<ref name="jain">Kamath (2001), pp.112, 132</ref> Two notable locations of Jain worship in the Vijayanagara territory were [[Shravanabelagola]] and [[Kambadahalli]].

[[Islamic]] contact with South India began as early as the 7th century, a result of trade between the Southern kingdoms and [[Arab]] lands. [[Jumu'ah|Jumma]] [[Masjid]]s existed in the Rashtrakuta empire by the 10th century<ref name="jumma">From the notes of Arab writer Al-Ishtakhri (Nilakanta Sastry 1955, p396)</ref> and many mosques flourished on the [[Malabar coast]] by the early 14th century.<ref name="jumma1">From the notes of Ibn Batuta (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p396)</ref> Muslim settlers married local women; their children were known as Mappillas (''Moplahs'') and were actively involved in [[horse trading]] and manning shipping fleets. The interactions between the Vijayanagara empire and the Bahamani Sultanates to the north increased the presence of Muslims in the south. The introduction of [[Christianity]] began as early as the 8th century as shown by the finding of [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper plates]] inscribed with land grants to Malabar Christians. Christian travelers wrote of the scarcity of Christians in South India in the Middle Ages, promoting its attractiveness to missionaries.<ref name="mission">From the notes of Jordanus in 1320–21 (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p397)</ref> The arrival of the [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] in the 15th century and their connections through trade with the empire, the propagation of the faith by [[Francis Xavier|Saint Xavier]] (1545) and later the presence of [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutch]] settlements fostered the growth of Christianity in the south.

===Literature===
{{Main|Vijayanagara Empire Literature}}
During the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire, poets, scholars and philosophers wrote in Kannada, Sanskrit and other regional languages like Telugu and Tamil and covered such subjects as religion, biography, ''Prabandha'' (fiction), music, grammar, poetry and medicine. The Court language of the Vijayanagara Empire was Kannada. Later, Telugu language became a popular literary medium, reaching its peak under the patronage of [[Krishnadevaraya]].

Most Sanskrit works were commentaries either on the [[Vedas]] or on the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]] epics, written by well known figures such as [[Sayana]] and Vidyaranya that extolled the superiority of the [[Advaita]] philosophy over other rival Hindu philosophies.<ref name="advaita">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p321</ref> Other writers were famous [[Dvaita]] saints of the [[Udupi]] order such as Jayatirtha (earning the title ''Tikacharya'' for his polemicial writings), Vyasatirtha who wrote rebuttals to the Advaita philosophy and of the conclusions of earlier logicians, and Vadirajatirtha and Sripadaraya both of whom criticised the beliefs of [[Adi Sankara]].<ref name="critique">Nilakanta Sastry (1955), p324</ref> Apart from these saints, noted Sanskrit scholars adorned the courts of the Vijayanagara kings and their feudatory chiefdoms. Many kings of the dynasty were themselves litterateurs and authored classics such as King Krishnadevaraya's ''Jambavati Kalyana'', a poetic and dramatically skillful work.<ref name="jambavati">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p318</ref>

The [[Kannada literature in Vijayanagara empire|Kannada poets and scholars of the empire]] produced important writings supporting the Vaishnava [[Bhakti]] movement heralded by the [[Haridasa]]s (devotees of Vishnu), [[Brahmin]]ical and Virashaiva ([[Lingayatism]]) literature. The ''[[Haridasa]]'' poets celebrated their devotion through songs called ''Devaranama'' (lyrical poems) in the ''ragale'' metre. Their inspirations were the teachings of Madhvacharya and Vyasatirtha. Purandaradasa and Kanakadasa are considered the foremost among many ''Dasas'' (devotees) by virtue of their immense contribution.<ref name="devaranama">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p365</ref> [[Kumara Vyasa]], the most notable of Brahmin scholars wrote ''Gadugina Bharata'', a translation of the epic ''Mahabharata''. This work marks a transition of Kannada literature from old Kannada to modern Kannada.<ref name="brahminical">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p364</ref> [[Chamarasa]] was a famous Virashaiva scholar and poet who had many debates with Vaishnava scholars in the court of Devaraya II. His ''Prabhulinga Lile'', later translated into Telugu and Tamil, was a eulogy of Saint [[Allama Prabhu]] (the saint was considered an incarnation of Lord [[Ganapathi]] while [[Parvati]] took the form of a princess of Banavasi).<ref name="ganapathi">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p363</ref>
</s>

At this peak of [[Telugu people|Telugu]] literature, the most famous writing in the ''Prabandha'' style was ''Manucharitamu''. King Krishnadevaraya was an accomplished Telugu scholar and wrote the celebrated ''Amuktamalyada''.<ref name="prabandha">During the rule of Krishnadevaraya, encouragement was given to the creation of original ''Prabandhas'' (stories) from [[Puranic]] themes (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p372)</ref> In his court were the eight famous scholars regarded as the pillars ([[Ashtadiggajas]]) of the literary assembly, the most famous being [[Allasani Peddana]] honoured with the title ''Andhrakavitapitamaha'' (father of Telugu poetry) and [[Tenali Ramakrishna]], Krishnadevaraya's court jester who authored several acclaimed works.<ref name="astadiggajas">Like the Nine gems of King Vikramaditya's court, the Ashtadiggajas of Krishnadevara's court are famous in legend (Nilakanta Sastri 1955, p372)</ref> This was the age of [[Srinatha]], the greatest of all Telugu poets in legend, who wrote books like ''Marutratcharitamu'' and ''Salivahana-sapta-sati''. He was patronised by King Devaraya II and his stature was equal to the most important ministers in the court.<ref name="salivahana">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p370</ref>

Though much of the [[Tamil language|Tamil]] literature from this period came from Tamil speaking regions ruled by the feudatory Pandya who gave particular attention on the cultivation of Tamil literature, some poets were patronised by the Vijayanagara kings. [[Svarupananda Desikar]] wrote an anthology of 2824 verses, ''Sivaprakasap-perundirattu'', on the Advaita philosophy. His pupil the ascetic, [[Tattuvarayar]], wrote a shorter anthology, ''Kurundirattu'', that contained about half the number of verses. Krishnadevaraya patronised the Tamil Vaishnava poet Haridasa whose ''Irusamaya Vilakkam'' was an exposition of the two Hindu systems, Vaishnava and Shaiva, with a preference for the former.<ref name="Tamil1">Nilakanta Sastri (1955), p347</ref>

Notable among secular writings on music and medicine were [[Vidyaranya]]'s ''Sangitsara'', [[Praudha Raya]]'s ''Ratiratnapradipika'', [[Sayana]]'s ''Ayurveda Sudhanidhi'' and [[Lakshmana Pandita]]'s ''Vaidyarajavallabham''.<ref>Prasad (1988), pp.268–270</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Main|Vijayanagara Architecture|Vijayanagara|Hampi}}


[[Image:Yali pillars1 in Aghoreshwara Temple in Ikkeri.jpg|thumb|150px|left|''Yali'' pillars in Aghoreshwara Temple at Ikkeri in [[Shimoga District]]]]
[[Image:Stone Chariot at the Vitthala Temple in Hampi.jpg|thumb|right|Stone [[temple car]] in Vitthala Temple at [[Hampi]]]]
[[Image:Hazara Rama Temple Rear View at Hampi.jpg|thumb|right|Inside the Hazara Rama temple at [[Hampi]]]]

Vijayanagara architecture is a vibrant combination of the [[Chalukya dynasty|Chalukyan]], [[Hoysala Empire|Hoysalan]], [[Pandyan dynasty|Pandyan]] and [[Chola dynasty|Cholan]] styles, idioms that prospered in previous centuries.<ref name="blossom">Art critic [[Percy Brown (scholar)|Percy Brown]] calls Vijayanagara architecture a blossoming of [[Dravidian architecture|Dravidian]] style (Kamath 2001, p182)</ref><ref name="blossom1">Arthikaje, ''Literary Activity''</ref> Its legacy of sculpture, architecture and painting influenced the development of the arts long after the empire came to an end. Its stylistic hallmark is the ornate [[Column|pillar]]ed ''Kalyanamantapa'' (marriage hall), ''Vasanthamantapa'' (open pillared halls) and the ''Rayagopura'' (tower). Artisans used the locally available hard granite because of its durability since the kingdom was under constant threat of invasion. While the empire's monuments are spread over the whole of Southern India, nothing surpasses the vast open air theatre of monuments at its capital at [[Vijayanagara]], a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]].<ref name="Stones">"So intimate are the rocks and the monuments they were used for make, it is was sometimes impossible to say where nature ended and art began" (Art critic Percy Brown, quoted in ''Hampi, A Travel Guide'', p64)</ref>

In the 14th century the kings continued to build [[vesara]] or Deccan-style monuments but later incorporated Dravida-style [[gopuram]]s to meet their ritualistic needs. The Prasanna Virupaksha temple (underground temple) of [[Bukka]] and the Hazare Rama temple of [[Deva Raya]] are examples of Deccan architecture.<ref name="deccan">Fritz & Michell, p9</ref> The varied and intricate ornamentation of the pillars is a mark of their work.<ref name="pillar">Nilakanta Sastri about the importance of pillars in the Vijayanagar style in Kamath (2001), p183</ref> At Hampi, though the ''Vitthala'' temple is the best example of their pillared ''Kalyanamantapa'' style, the ''Hazara Ramaswamy'' temple is a modest but perfectly finished example.<ref name="Drama">"Drama in stone" wrote art critic Percy Brown, much of the beauty of Vijayanagara architecture came from their pillars and piers and the styles of sculpting (''Hampi, A Travel Guide'', p77)</ref> A visible aspect of their style is their return to the simplistic and serene art developed by the Chalukya dynasty.<ref name="serene">About the sculptures in Vijayanagara style, see Kamath (2001), p184</ref> A grand specimen of Vijayanagara art, the ''Vitthala'' temple, took several decades to complete during the reign of the [[Tuluva]] kings.<ref name="grand">Several monuments are categorised as Tuluva art (Fritz & Michell 2001, p9)</ref>

Another element of the Vijayanagara style is the carving of large [[Monolithic architecture|monoliths]] such as the ''Sasivekalu'' ([[mustard seed|mustard]]) [[Ganesha]] and ''Kadalekalu'' ([[Peanut|ground nut]]) Ganesha at Hampi, the Gommateshvara [[Bahubali]] statues in [[Karkala]] and [[Venur]], and the [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] bull in [[Lepakshi]]. The Vijayanagara temples of [[Bhatkal]], [[Kanakagiri]], [[Shringeri]] and other towns of coastal Karnataka, as well as [[Tadpatri]], [[Lepakshi]], [[Ahobilam]], [[Tirumala Venkateswara Temple]] and [[Srikalahasti]] in [[Andhra Pradesh]], and [[Vellore]], [[Kumbakonam]], [[Kanchi]] and [[Srirangam]] in [[Tamil Nadu]] are examples of this style. Vijayanagara art includes wall-paintings of the [[Dashavatara]] and ''Girijakalyana'' (marriage of [[Parvati]]) in the [[Virupaksha Temple]] at [[Hampi]], the ''Shivapurana'' paintings (tales of Shiva) at the [[Virabhadra]] temple at [[Lepakshi]], and those at the [[derasar|Jain ''basadi'' (temple)]] and the Kamaskshi and Varadaraja temple at Kanchi.<ref name="paint">Some of these paintings may have been redone in later centuries (Rajashekhar in Kamath 2001, p184)</ref> This mingling of the South Indian styles resulted in a richness not seen in earlier centuries, a focus on [[relief]]s in addition to sculpture that surpasses that previously in India.<ref name="compliments">Historians and art critics K.A. Nilakanta Sastri, A. L. Basham, James Fergusson and S. K. Saraswathi have commented about Vijayanagara architecture (Arthikaje ''Literary Activity'').</ref>

An aspect of Vijayanagara architecture that shows the cosmopolitanism of the great city is the presence of many secular structures bearing Islamic features. While political history concentrates on the ongoing conflict between the Vijayanagara empire and the Deccan Sultanates, the architectural record reflects a more creative interaction. There are many [[arch]]es, [[dome]]s and [[Vault (architecture)|vault]]s that show these influences. The concentration of structures like [[Chhatri|pavilion]]s, [[stable]]s and [[tower]]s suggests they were for use by royalty.<ref name="deccanstyle">Fritz & Michell (2001), p10</ref> The decorative details of these structures may have been absorbed into Vijayanagara architecture during the early 15th century, coinciding with the rule of Deva Raya I and Deva Raya II. These kings are known to have employed many Muslims in their army and court, some of whom may have been [[Mughal architecture|Muslim architects]]. This harmonious exchange of architectural ideas must have happened during rare periods of peace between the Hindu and Muslim kingdoms.<ref name="harmony">Philon (2001), p87</ref> The "Great Platform" (''Mahanavami dibba'') has relief carvings in which the figures seem to have the facial features of central Asian Turks who were known to have been employed as royal attendants.<ref name="Turk">Dallapiccola (2001), p69</ref>

===Language===
[[Image:Shravanabelagola Vindyagiri 14thc Kannada inscription.JPG|thumb|left|Poetic inscription in Kannada by Vijayanagara poet Manjaraja (1398 CE)]]
Kannada, Telugu and Tamil were used in their respective regions of the empire. Over 7000 inscriptions (''Shasana'') including 300 copper plate inscriptions (''Tamarashasana'') have been recovered, almost half of which are in Kannada, the remaining in Telugu, Tamil and Sanskrit.<ref name="gai">G.S. Gai in Kamath (2001), p10, 157.</ref><ref name="inscriptions">{{cite web|title=The Vijayanagar Empire|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka39.htm|author=Arthikaje, Mangalore|publisher=1998–2000 OurKarnataka.Com, Inc|work=|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref> Bilingual inscriptions had lost favour by the 14th century.<ref name="bilingual">Thapar (2003), pp 393–95</ref> The empire minted coins at Hampi, Penugonda and Tirupati with [[Devanagari|Nagari]], Kannada and Telugu legends usually carrying the name of the ruler.<ref name="coins">{{cite web|title=''Vijayanagara'' Coins|url=http://www.chennaimuseum.org/draft/gallery/04/01/coin6.htm|author=|publisher= Government Museum Chennai|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref><ref name="coins1">{{cite web|first=Govindaraya S.| last= Prabhu|title=Catalogue, Part one|url=http://prabhu.50g.com/vijayngr/vij_cat.html |publisher=Prabhu'S Web Page On Indian Coinage|work=Vijayanagara, the forgotten empire|accessdate=2006-12-31}} {{Dead link|date=March 2012|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> Gold, silver and copper were used to issue coins called ''Gadyana'', ''Varaha'', ''Pon'', ''Pagoda'', ''Pratapa'', ''Pana'', ''Kasu'' and ''Jital''.<ref name="coins2">{{cite web|title=Coinage|url=http://www.vijayanagaracoins.com/htm/catalog.htm|author=Harihariah Oruganti|publisher=Vijayanagara Coins|work=Catalogue|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref> The coins contained the images of various Gods including Balakrishna (infant Krishna), [[Venkateshwara]] (the presiding deity of the temple at Tirupati), Goddesses such as [[Bhudevi]] and Sridevi, divine couples, animals such as bulls and elephants and birds. The earliest coins feature [[Hanuman]] and [[Garuda]] (divine eagle), the vehicle of Lord Vishnu.
Kannada and Telugu inscriptions have been deciphered and recorded by historians of the [[Archaeological Survey of India]].<ref name="inscriptions1">{{cite book|last=Ramesh| first=K. V.|title=South Indian Inscription, Volume 16: Telugu Inscriptions from Vijayanagar Dynasty| chapter=Stones 1–25 |chapterurl= http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_16/stones_1_to_25.html
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|location=New Delhi|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref><ref name="inscriptions2">{{cite book|last=Sastry & Rao| first=Shama & Lakshminarayan|title=South Indian Inscription, Volume 9: Kannada Inscriptions from Madras Presidency| chapter=Miscellaneous Inscriptions, Part II|chapterurl= http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_9/vijayanagara.html
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|location=New Delhi|accessdate=2006-12-31}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Hampi]]
*[[History of India]]
*[[History of South India]]
*[[Karnataka]]
*[[Political history of medieval Karnataka]]
{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
<div class="references-small">
{{col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-2}}
*{{cite web|author=Arthikaje|title=Literary Activity, Art and Architecture|url=http://www.ourkarnataka.com/states/history/historyofkarnataka47.htm |publisher=OurKarnataka.Com|work=History of karnataka|accessdate=2006-12-31}}
*{{cite book |last= Dallapiccola|first=Anna L. |editor=John M. Fritz and George Michell (editors) |title= New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|year= 2001|publisher= MARG|location=Mumbai |isbn= 81-85026-53-X|chapter= Relief carvings on the great platform}}
*{{cite book |last= Davison-Jenkins|first=Dominic J. |editor=John M. Fritz and George Michell (editors) |title= New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|year= 2001|publisher= MARG|location=Mumbai |isbn= 81-85026-53-X|chapter= Hydraulic works}}
*{{cite book |last= Durga Prasad|first= J.|title= History of the Andhras up to 1565 A. D.|year= 1988 |publisher= P.G. Publisher|location= Guntur|url= http://202.41.85.234:8000/gw_44_5/hi-res/hcu_images/G2.pdf|accessdate=2007-01-27|format=PDF}}
*''Hampi travel guide'' (2003). New Delhi: Good Earth publication & Department of Tourism, India. ISBN 81-87780-17-7, {{LCCN|2003334582}}.
*{{cite book|author=Fritz, John M. and George Michell (editors)|title= New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagar|year= 2001|publisher=MARG |location= Mumbai|isbn= 81-85026-53-X}}
*{{cite book |last= Kamath|first= Suryanath U.|title= A concise history of Karnataka: from pre-historic times to the present|origyear=1980|year= 2001|publisher= Jupiter books|location= Bangalore|oclc= 7796041 |lccn= 8095179}}
*{{cite book |last= Karmarkar|first= A.P.|title= Cultural history of Karnataka: ancient and medieval|origyear=1947|year= 1947|publisher= Karnataka Vidyavardhaka Sangha|location= Dharwad|oclc= 8221605}}
*{{cite book |last= Kulke and Rothermund|first=Hermann and Dietmar |title= A History of India|origyear=2004|year= 2004|publisher= Routledge (4th edition)|location= |isbn= 0-415-32919-1}}
*{{cite book |last= Mack|first=Alexandra |editor=John M. Fritz and George Michell (editors) |title= New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|year= 2001|publisher= MARG|location=Mumbai |isbn= 81-85026-53-X|chapter= The temple district of Vitthalapura}}
{{Col-2-of-2}}
*{{cite book |last= Nilakanta Sastri|first= K.A.|title= A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar|origyear=1955|year=2002|publisher= Indian Branch, Oxford University Press|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-19-560686-8}}
*{{cite book |last= Iyer|first= Panchapakesa A.S.|title= Karnataka Sangeeta Sastra|origyear=2006|year=2006|publisher= Zion Printers|location= Chennai|isbn= }}
*{{cite book |last= Philon|first=Helen |editor=John M. Fritz and George Michell (editors) |title= New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|year= 2001|publisher= MARG|location=Mumbai |isbn= 81-85026-53-X|chapter= Plaster decoration on Sultanate-styled courtly buildings}}
*{{cite web|last=Pujar|first=Narahari S.|coauthors=Shrisha Rao and H.P. Raghunandan|title= Sri Vyâsa Tîrtha (1460–1539) – a short sketch |url=http://www.dvaita.org/scholars/vyasaraja/ |publisher=Dvaita Home Page|work=|accessdate=2006-12-31}}
*{{cite book|last=Ramesh| first=K. V.|title=South Indian Inscription, Volume 16: Telugu Inscriptions from Vijayanagar Dynasty| chapter=Introduction |chapterurl= http://www.whatisindia.com/inscriptions/south_indian_inscriptions/volume_16/introduction_2.html
|publisher=Archaeological Survey of India|location=New Delhi|accessdate=2006-12-31}}
*{{cite book |last=Shiva Prakash|first=H.S.|editor=Ayyappapanicker|title=Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology |year= 1997|publisher=Sahitya Akademi|isbn=81-260-0365-0|chapter= Kannada}}
*{{cite book |last= Rice|first= B.L.|title= Mysore Gazatteer Compiled for Government-vol 1|origyear=1897|year=2001|publisher= Asian Educational Services|location= New Delhi, Madras|isbn= 81-206-0977-8}}
*{{cite book |last= Verghese|first=Anila |editor=John M. Fritz and George Michell (editors) |title= New Light on Hampi: Recent Research at Vijayanagara|year= 2001|publisher= MARG|location=Mumbai |isbn= 81-85026-53-X|chapter= Memorial stones}}
*{{cite book |last= Thapar|first= Romila|title= The Penguin History of Early India|origyear=2003|year= 2003|publisher= Penguin Books|location= New Delhi|isbn= 0-14-302989-4}}
*{{cite book|last= Michell| first= George (editor)|title= Vijayanagara: Splendour in Ruins|year= 2008|publisher= Mapin Publishing and The Alkazi Collection of Photography |location= Ahmedabad|isbn= 978-81-89995-03-4}}
{{col-end}}
</div>


==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Portal|India}}
*[http://www.hampionline.com/ Hampi – History and Tourism]
*[http://www.hampi.in/ www.Hampi.in] – Photos, descriptions & maps of the Hampi Ruins.
* [http://www.archaeos.org/vmp-season-1/ Archaeos Mapping Project at Vijayanagara – Seasons 1]
* [http://www.archaeos.org/vmp-season-2-3/ Archaeos Mapping Project at Vijayanagara – Seasons 2–3]
* [http://www.archaeos.org/vmp-summary.html Archaeos Mapping Project at Vijayanagara – Seasons 1–4 Summary]
* [http://coinindia.com/galleries-vijayanagar.html Coins of Vijayanagar]

{{featured article}}

[[Category:Empires and kingdoms of India]]
[[Category:Former countries in South Asia]]
[[Category:Historical Hindu empires]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1336]]
[[Category:Vijayanagara Empire| ]]

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[[bn:বিজয়নগর সাম্রাজ্য]]
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[[fr:Royaume de Vijayanâgara]]
[[ko:비자야나가르 제국]]
[[id:Kekaisaran Wijayanagara]]
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[[kn:ವಿಜಯನಗರ ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ]]
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[[ja:ヴィジャナガル王国]]
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[[pl:Królestwo Widźajanagaru]]
[[pt:Reino de Bisnaga]]
[[ru:Виджаянагарская империя]]
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[[fi:Vijayanagara]]
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[[ta:விஜயநகரப் பேரரசு]]
[[te:విజయనగర సామ్రాజ్యము]]
[[th:จักรวรรดิวิชัยนคร]]
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[[zh:毗奢耶那伽罗王朝]]

Exxon Valdez oil spill

2011-07-19T17:25:22Z

Rami radwan:

{{Infobox oil spill
| spill_name = ''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill
| image = Exval.jpeg
| image_size = 250px
| image_caption = 3 days after ''[[Exxon Valdez]]'' ran aground
| location = [[Prince William Sound]], [[Alaska]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|60.83333|-146.86667|region:US-AK_type:landmark|display=title,inline}}
| spill_date = 24 March 1989
| cause = Grounding of the ''[[Exxon Valdez]]'' oil tanker
| operator = [[Exxon]]
| volume = {{convert|260000|oilbbl|m3}} - {{convert|750000|oilbbl|m3}}
| area = {{convert|11000|mi2|abbr=on}}
| coast = {{convert|1300|mi|abbr=on}}
}}

[[File:OilSheenFromValdezSpill.jpg|thumb|right|250px|During the first few days of the spill, heavy sheens of oil covered large areas of the surface of Prince William Sound.]]

The '''''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill''' occurred in Prince William Sound, Alaska, on March 24, 1989, when the ''[[Exxon Valdez]]'', an [[oil tanker]] bound for [[Long Beach, California|Long Beach]], California, struck [[Prince William Sound]]'s [[Bligh Reef]] and [[oil spill|spilled]] {{convert|260000|to|750000|oilbbl|m3}} of [[crude oil]].<ref name="adn_disputed_numbers" /><ref name="otm" /> It is considered to be one of the most devastating human-caused [[environmental disaster]]s.<ref name="AUTOREF" /> The ''Valdez'' spill was the largest ever in U.S. waters until the 2010 ''[[Deepwater Horizon oil spill|Deepwater Horizon]]'' [[oil spill]], in terms of volume released.<ref name="histories" /> However, Prince William Sound's remote location, accessible only by helicopter, plane, and boat, made government and industry response efforts difficult and severely taxed existing plans for response. The region is a [[habitat]] for [[salmon]], [[sea otter]]s, [[Pinniped|seals]] and [[seabird]]s. The oil, originally extracted at the [[Prudhoe Bay oil field]], eventually covered {{convert|1300|mi|km}} of coastline,<ref name="faq" /> and {{convert|11000|sqmi|km2}} of ocean.<ref name="SpillAroundUs" /> Then Exxon CEO, [[Lawrence G. Rawl]], shaped the company's response.<ref name="AUTOREF1" />''

[[File:OilPoolFromValdezSpill.jpeg|thumb|250px|right|Beginning three days after the vessel grounded, a storm pushed large quantities of fresh oil on to the rocky shores of many of the beaches in the Knight Island chain. In this photograph, pooled oil is shown stranded in the rocks.]]
According to official reports, the ship was carrying approximately {{convert|55|e6USgal|m3}} of oil, of which about {{convert|11|to|32|e6USgal|m3}} were spilled into the Prince William Sound.<ref name="scientific american" /><ref name="skinner" /> A figure of {{convert|11|e6USgal|m3}} was a commonly accepted estimate of the spill's volume and has been used by the State of Alaska's ''Exxon Valdez'' Oil Spill Trustee Council,<ref name="faq" /> the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] and environmental groups such as [[Greenpeace]] and the [[Sierra Club]].<ref name="histories" /><ref name="greenpeace" /><ref name="AUTOREF2" /> Some groups, such as [[Defenders of Wildlife]], dispute the official estimates, maintaining that the volume of the spill has been underreported.<ref name="AUTOREF3" /> Alternative calculations, based on an assumption that the sea water rather than oil was drained from the damaged tanks, estimate the total to have been {{convert|25|to|32|e6USgal|m3}}.<ref name="adn_disputed_numbers"/>

==Identified causes==
Multiple factors have been identified as contributing to the incident:
* [[Exxon Shipping Company]] failed to supervise the master and provide a rested and sufficient crew for ''Exxon Valdez''. The [[National Transportation Safety Board|NTSB]] found this was wide spread throughout industry, prompting a safety recommendation to Exxon and to the industry.<ref Name=NTSB/>
* The third mate failed to properly maneuver the vessel, possibly due to fatigue or excessive workload.<ref Name=NTSB>{{Cite book | title=Practices that related to the ''Exxon Valdez'' | date= 18 September 1990 | pages=1–6 | place=Washington, DC | publisher=National Transportation and Safety Board | url=http://www.ntsb.gov/Recs/letters/1990/M90_26_31a.pdf}}</ref>
* [[Exxon Shipping Company]] failed to properly maintain the [[Raytheon]] Collision Avoidance System (RAYCAS) [[radar]], which, if functional, would have indicated to the third mate an impending collision with the [[Bligh]] reef by detecting the "radar reflector", placed on the next rock inland from Bligh Reef for the purpose of keeping boats on course via radar.<ref name="AUTOREF4" />

The captain was confirmed to be asleep when the ship crashed in Prince William Sound's reef.
In light of the above and other findings, investigative reporter [[Greg Palast]] stated in 2008 "Forget the drunken skipper fable. As to Captain [[Joe Hazelwood]], he was below decks, sleeping off his bender. At the helm, the third mate never would have collided with Bligh Reef had he looked at his RAYCAS radar. But the radar was not turned on. In fact, the tanker's radar was left broken and disabled for more than a year before the disaster, and Exxon management knew it. It was [in Exxon's view] just too expensive to fix and operate."<ref name="AUTOREF5" />

Exxon blamed Captain Hazelwood for the grounding of the tanker.

Other factors, according to an [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|M.I.T.]] course entitled "Software System Safety" by Professor Nancy G. Leveson,<ref name="AUTOREF6" /> included:
# Tanker crews were not told that the previous practice of the Coast Guard tracking ships out to Bligh reef had ceased.<ref name="Leveson20" />
# The oil industry promised, but never installed, state-of-the-art iceberg monitoring equipment.<ref name="Leveson18" />
# ''Exxon Valdez'' was sailing outside the normal sea lane to avoid small icebergs thought to be in the area.<ref name="Leveson18" />


# The 1989 tanker crew was half the size of the 1977 crew, worked 12−14 hour shifts, plus overtime. The crew was rushing to leave Valdez with a load of oil.<ref name="Leveson19" />
# Coast Guard tanker inspections in Valdez were not done, and the number of staff was reduced.<ref name="Leveson19" />
# Lack of available equipment and personnel hampered the spill cleanup.<ref name="Leveson20" />

==Cleanup measures and environmental consequences==
[[File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Workers using high-pressure, hot-water washing to clean an oiled shoreline]]

There was use of a [[dispersant]], a [[surfactant]] and [[solvent]] mixture. A private company applied dispersant on March 24 with a helicopter and dispersant bucket. Because there was not enough wave action to mix the dispersant with the oil in the water, the use of the dispersant was discontinued. One trial explosion was also conducted during the early stages of the spill to burn the oil, in a region of the spill isolated from the rest by another explosion.{{clarify|date=October 2010}} The test was relatively successful, reducing 113,400 liters of oil to 1,134 litres of removable residue, but because of unfavorable weather no additional burning was attempted.<ref name="AUTOREF7" /> The dispersant Corexit 9580 was tried as part of the cleanup.<ref name="AUTOREF7" /> Corexit has been found to be toxic to cleanup workers and wildlife while breaking oil down, creating underwater plumes.{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}

Mechanical cleanup was started shortly afterwards using booms and skimmers, but the skimmers were not readily available during the first 24 hours following the spill, and thick oil and [[kelp]] tended to clog the equipment.<ref name="skinner" />

Exxon was widely criticized for its slow response to cleaning up the disaster and John Devens, the mayor of [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]], has said his community felt betrayed by Exxon's inadequate response to the crisis.<ref name="AUTOREF8" /> More than 11,000 Alaska residents, along with some Exxon employees, worked throughout the region to try to restore the environment.
[[File:Exxon Valdez Cleanup.jpg|thumb|250px|right|Clean-up efforts after the ''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill]]

Because Prince William Sound contained many rocky coves where the oil collected, the decision was made to displace it with high-pressure hot water. However, this also displaced and destroyed the microbial populations on the shoreline; many of these organisms (e.g. [[plankton]]) are the basis of the coastal marine food chain, and others (e.g. certain [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]]) are capable of facilitating the [[biodegradation]] of oil. At the time, both scientific advice and public pressure was to clean everything, but since then, a much greater understanding of [[bioremediation|natural]] and facilitated [[Environmental remediation|remediation]] processes has developed, due somewhat in part to the opportunity presented for study by the ''Exxon Valdez'' spill. Despite the extensive cleanup attempts, less than ten percent of the oil was recovered and a study conducted by NOAA determined that as of early 2007 more than {{convert|26|e3U.S.gal|m3}} of oil remain in the sandy soil of the contaminated shoreline, declining at a rate of less than 4% per year.<ref name="AUTOREF9" /><ref name="guardian" />

In 1992, Exxon released a video titled ''Scientists and the Alaska Oil Spill''. It was provided to schools with the label "A Video for Students".<ref name="AUTOREF10" />

[[File:EVOSWEB 013 oiled bird3.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Wildlife was severely affected by the oil spill.]]

Both the long-term and short-term effects of the oil spill have been studied.<ref name="AUTOREF11" /> Immediate effects included the deaths of, at the best estimates{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}, 100,000 to as many as 250,000 seabirds, at least 2,800 [[sea otter]]s, approximately 12 [[North American River Otter|river otters]], 300 [[Common Seal|harbor seals]], 247 [[Bald Eagle]]s, and 22 [[Killer whale|orcas]], as well as the destruction of billions of salmon and herring eggs.<ref name="scientific american" /><ref name="AUTOREF12" /> The effects of the spill continued to be felt for many years{{quantify|date=October 2010}} afterwards. Overall reductions in population were seen in various ocean animals, including stunted growth in pink salmon populations.<ref name="williamson" /> The effect on salmon and other prey populations in turn adversely affected [[killer whales]] in Prince William Sound and Alaska's Kenai Fjords region. Eleven members (about half) of one resident pod disappeared in the following year. By 2009, scientists{{who|date=October 2010}} estimated the [[AT1 transient population]] (considered part of a larger population of 346 transients), numbered only 7 individuals and had not reproduced since the spill, this population is expected to die out.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Sea otters and ducks also showed higher{{quantify|date=October 2010}} [[death rate]]s in following years,{{quantify|date=October 2010}} partially because they ingested prey from contaminated soil and from ingestion of oil residues on hair due to grooming.<ref name="still" />

Some twenty years after the spill, a team from the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill|University of North Carolina]] found that the effects were lasting far longer than expected.<ref name="williamson" /> The team estimates some shoreline Arctic habitats may take up to thirty years to recover.{{clarify|30 more years? or 30 in total?|date=October 2010}}<ref name="scientific american" /> Exxon Mobil denies any concerns over this, stating that they anticipated a remaining fraction that they assert will not cause any long-term ecological impacts, according to the conclusions of 350 peer-reviewed studies.<ref name="still" /> However, a [[NOAA]] study concluded that this contamination can produce chronic low-level exposure, discourage subsistence where the contamination is heavy, and decrease the "wilderness character" of the area.<ref name="guardian" />

==Litigation and cleanup costs==
[[File:RaptorEducationGroupIncEagles.jpg|thumb|right|Eagles rescued from the oil spill]]
{{Confusing|section|date=July 2010|reason=please clarify current state in first paragraph: are punitive damages now paid (and if yes, how much) or still being appealed?}}
In the case of ''[[Exxon Shipping Co. v. Baker|Baker v. Exxon]]'', an [[Anchorage, Alaska|Anchorage]] jury awarded $287 million for [[actual damages]] and $5 billion for [[punitive damages]]. The punitive damages amount was equal to a single year's [[Profit (accounting)|profit]] by Exxon at that time.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010|reason=and clarify date and relevance: which time, and did court fix the amount from the profit? Otherwise this is irrelevant.}} To protect itself in case the judgment was affirmed, Exxon obtained a $4.8 billion credit line from [[JPMorgan Chase|J.P. Morgan & Co.]] J.P. Morgan created the first modern [[credit default swap]] in 1994, so that Morgan's would not have to hold as much money in reserve (8% of the loan under [[Basel I]]) against the risk of Exxon's default.<ref name="AUTOREF13" />

Meanwhile, Exxon appealed the ruling, and the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals]] ordered the original judge, Russel Holland, to reduce the punitive damages. On December 6, 2002, the judge announced that he had reduced the damages to $4 billion, which he concluded was justified by the facts of the case and was not grossly excessive. Exxon appealed again and the case returned to court to be considered in light of a recent [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] ruling in a similar case, which caused Judge Holland to increase the punitive damages to $4.5 billion, plus interest.

After more appeals, and oral arguments heard by the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals on January 27, 2006, the damages award was cut to $2.5 billion on December 22, 2006. The court cited recent Supreme Court rulings relative to limits on punitive damages.

Exxon appealed again. On May 23, 2007, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals denied ExxonMobil's request for a third hearing and let stand its ruling that Exxon owes $2.5 billion in punitive damages. Exxon then appealed to the Supreme Court, which agreed to hear the case.<ref name="cert" /> On February 27, 2008, the Supreme Court heard oral arguments for 90 minutes. [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States|Justice]] [[Samuel Alito]], who at the time, owned between $100,000 and $250,000 in Exxon stock, recused himself from the case.<ref name="scotus" /> In a decision issued June 25, 2008, Justice [[David Souter]] issued the judgment of the court, vacating the $2.5 billion award and remanding the case back to a lower court, finding that the damages were excessive with respect to [[Admiralty law|maritime common law]]. Exxon's actions were deemed "worse than negligent but less than malicious."<ref name="latimes 080626" /> The judgment limits punitive damages to the compensatory damages, which for this case were calculated as $507.5 million.<ref name="scotusopinion" /> The basis for limiting punitive damages to no more than twice{{clarify|where does the "twice" come from?|date=October 2010}} the actual damages has no precedent to support it.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Some lawmakers, such as [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] Chairman [[Patrick J. Leahy]], have decried the ruling as "another in a line of cases where this Supreme Court has misconstrued congressional intent to benefit large corporations."<ref name="AUTOREF14" />

Exxon's official position is that punitive damages greater than $25 million are not justified because the spill resulted from an accident, and because Exxon spent an estimated $2 billion cleaning up the spill and a further $1 billion to settle related civil and criminal charges. Attorneys for the plaintiffs contended that Exxon bore responsibility for the accident because the company "put a drunk in charge of a tanker in Prince William Sound."<ref name="AUTOREF15" />

Exxon recovered a significant portion of clean-up and legal expenses through insurance claims associated with the grounding of the ''Exxon Valdez''.<ref name="hfw" /><ref name="10K" /> Also, in 1991, Exxon made a quiet, separate financial settlement of damages with a group of seafood producers known as the [[Seattle Seven]] for the disaster's effect on the Alaskan seafood industry. The agreement granted $63.75 million to the Seattle Seven, but stipulated that the seafood companies would have to repay almost all of any punitive damages awarded in other civil proceedings. The $5 billion in punitive damages was awarded later, and the Seattle Seven's share could have been as high as $750 million if the damages award had held. Other plaintiffs have objected to this secret arrangement,<ref name="AUTOREF16" /> and when it came to light, Judge Holland ruled that Exxon should have told the jury at the start that an agreement had already been made, so the jury would know exactly how much Exxon would have to pay.<ref name="9th" />

==Aftermath==
===Oil still remains===

The oil that has spilled into the region is claimed to be just as toxic as it was 20 years ago. Due to its toxicity, the oil is still killing many birds and marine life to this day.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}} Sea otters and other marine life have a small region for gathering food and living. The oil spill has affected many of the hunting and living areas of many marine animals, and has forced animals to migrate to other areas that have a sustainable living area. Some species have been drastically affected by this oil spill. In particular a bird species by the name Kittlitz's Murrelets have declined 99% from 1974 to 2004. The accelerated rate of bird deaths was due mainly to the oil spill destroying the animal’s habitat. Species such as the Pigeon Guillemot and the Marbled Murrelet have also decreased in numbers due to the oil spill. Oil has also extended to the Kenai Peninsula, which is located 450 miles away from the site of occurrence, destroying even more natural habitats that once belonged to a wide range of wild life. Exxon-Mobil still has to pay $92 million due to all of the harm done to wildlife and their habitats.

Digs still continue through the William Sound Beaches in order to determine the level of pollution that has remained over the years. More than 50% of the dig sites show that significant amounts of oil still remain. Over the years, the oil has moved from the water, and has embedded itself in the dirt of the William Sound Beaches. Ironically, it would be more damaging to the wildlife habitat if a clean-up of the area was commissioned. Digs have also uncovered large amounts of oil in marine life that is often consumed by other animals, including humans.
Plants have also suffered due to this oil spill. The oil spill led to a significant increase of the temperature of water. The hot water was then displaced by the oil in the water, and washed up on shore. Plants that inhabited the shore line were drenched in boiling hot water. Many plants were wiped out, and after 20 years there are no signs of significant recovery of these plants. The oil also contributed to a large amount of erosion of the rocks, which further destroyed the habitats of the wildlife that inhabited the area. Homes of sea otters and other such marine life caved in, preventing the otters from returning to their homes, and offspring.
<ref>{{cite web|title=20 years After Valdez Oil Spill|url=http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/mar2009/2009-03-24-01.html|publisher=MSNNBC|accessdate=5/11/2011}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=20 years later...|url=http://www.nps.gov/kefj/naturescience/upload/KEFJ_EVOS_1989-2009_qa.pdf|publisher=U.S Department of the Interior|accessdate=5/11/2011}}</ref> <ref>{{cite web|title=Oil plagues sound 20 years after Exxon Valdez|url=http://www.ens-newswire.com/ens/mar2009/2009-03-24-01.html|publisher=Environment News Service|accessdate=5/11/2011}}</ref>
Although there were many bad things that occurred, some good came from this incident. Hulls of oil tankers are now double layered so that they won’t rupture completely when something hits the hull. This allows for safer transportation of large amounts of oil. National Park Services and other government agencies have decreased the time it takes to respond to such disasters. There are many new techniques that are now being implemented in order to help clean up. Of these “new techniques” hot water (not boiling) washing seems to work the best since the oil is very slightly soluble in hot water making it easy for the oil to “wash off”.

==Political consequences and reforms==
===Coast Guard report===
A report by the [[Missions of the United States Coast Guard#National Response Center|US National Response Team]] summarized the event and made a number of recommendations, such as changes to the work patterns of Exxon crew in order to address the causes of the accident.<ref name="skinner" />

===Oil Pollution Act of 1990===
In response to the spill, the [[Congress of the United States|United States Congress]] passed the [[Oil Pollution Act of 1990]] (OPA). The legislation included a clause that prohibits any vessel that, after March 22, 1989, has caused an oil spill of more than {{convert|1|e6USgal|m3}} in any marine area, from operating in Prince William Sound.<ref name="opa" />

In April 1998, the company argued in a legal action against the Federal government that the ship should be allowed back into Alaskan waters. Exxon claimed OPA was effectively a [[bill of attainder]], a regulation that was unfairly directed at Exxon alone.<ref name="attainder" /> In 2002, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against Exxon. As of 2002, OPA had prevented 18 ships from entering Prince William Sound.<ref name="nyt" />

OPA also set a schedule for the gradual phase in of a [[double hull]] design, providing an additional layer between the oil tanks and the ocean. While a double hull would likely not have prevented the Valdez disaster, a Coast Guard study estimated that it would have cut the amount of oil spilled by 60 percent.<ref name="AUTOREF17" />

The ''[[Exxon Valdez]]'' supertanker was towed to [[San Diego, California|San Diego]], arriving on July 10. Repairs began on July 30. Approximately {{convert|1600|ST|t|lk=on}} of steel were removed and replaced. In June 1990 the tanker, renamed ''S/R Mediterranean'', left harbor after $30 million of repairs.<ref name="nyt" /> It was still sailing as of January 2010, registered in [[Panama]]. The vessel is currently owned by a Hong Kong company, who operates it under the name ''Dong Fang Ocean''.

In 2009, ''Exxon Valdez'' Captain Joseph Hazelwood offered a "heartfelt apology" to the people of Alaska, suggesting he had been wrongly blamed for the disaster: "The true story is out there for anybody who wants to look at the facts, but that's not the sexy story and that's not the easy story," he said.<ref name="AUTOREF18" /> Yet Hazelwood said he felt Alaskans always gave him a fair shake.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}

===Alaska regulations===
In the aftermath of the spill, Alaska governor [[Steve Cowper]] issued an executive order requiring two [[tugboats]] to escort every loaded tanker from Valdez out through Prince William Sound to Hinchinbrook Entrance. As the plan evolved in the 1990s, one of the two routine tugboats was replaced with a 210-foot (64 m) Escort Response Vehicle (ERV). The majority of tankers at Valdez are no longer single-hulled, Congress has enacted legislation requiring all tankers to be [[double hull|double-hulled]] by 2015.

===Opposition to oil drilling===
The [[Oil, Chemical and Atomic Workers International Union]], representing approximately 40,000 US workers, announced opposition to drilling in the [[Arctic National Wildlife Refuge]] (ANWR) until Congress enacted a comprehensive national energy policy.

==Economic and personal impact==
In 1991, following the collapse of the local marine population (particularly clams, herring, and seals) the [[Chugach Alaska Corporation]], an [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations|Alaska Native Corporation]], filed for [[Chapter 11, Title 11, United States Code|Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection]]. It has since recovered.<ref name="AUTOREF19" />

According to several studies funded by the state of Alaska, the spill had both short-term and long-term economic effects. These included the loss of [[recreational sport]]s, fisheries, reduced tourism, and an estimate of what economists call "[[existence value]]", which is the value to the public of a pristine Prince William Sound.<ref name="fisheries" /><ref name="tourism" /><ref name="AUTOREF20" />

The economy of the city of [[Cordova, Alaska|Cordova]], Alaska was adversely affected after the spill damaged stocks of [[salmon]] and [[herring]] in the area. Several residents, including one former mayor, committed suicide after the spill.<ref name="AUTOREF21" /><ref name="AUTOREF22" />

==See also==
* [[List of oil spills]]
* [[Deepwater Horizon oil spill]]
* [[Ixtoc I oil spill]]
* ''[[Dead Ahead: The Exxon Valdez Disaster]],'' 1992 [[HBO]] movie

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="adn_disputed_numbers">{{Cite news | author=Elizabeth Bluemink | title=Size of Exxon spill remains disputed | work=Anchorage Daily News | url=http://www.adn.com/2010/06/05/1309722/size-of-exxon-spill-remains-disputed.html | date=Thursday, 10 June 2010 | accessdate=29 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="otm">{{Cite interview | subject=Riki Ott | interviewer=Brooke Gladstone | title=How Much Oil Really Spilled From the ''Exxon Valdez''? | url=http://www.onthemedia.org/transcripts/2010/06/18/01 | format=audio/transcript | program=''On The Media'' | callsign=National Public Radio | date=Friday, 18 June 2010 | accessdate=29 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF">{{Cite web |url=http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/history/faq.cfm |title=Frequently Asked Questions About the Spill |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070630224835/www.evostc.state.ak.us/History/FAQ.cfm | archivedate=June 30, 2007| accessdate=October 11, 2010 |publisher=Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council }}</ref>

<ref name="histories">{{Cite journal | author=Hazardous Materials Response and Assessment Division | title=Oil Spill Case Histories 1967–1991, Report No. HMRAD 92-11| publisher=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration | date =September 1992| location=Seattle | page =80| url=http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/26_spilldb.pdf| format =PDF| accessdate= March 10, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="faq">{{Cite web| title = Questions and Answers |url=http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/facts/qanda.cfm | work=History of the Spill| publisher =Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council |accessdate=May 26, 2009}}</ref>

<ref name="SpillAroundUs">{{Cite news | author=Brandon Keim | title=The ''Exxon Valdez'' Spill Is All Around Us | url=http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2009/03/valdezlegacy/ | work=Wired Science | date=March 24, 2009 | accessdate=29 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF1">[http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/projects/Fall02/Susi/exxon.htm Effective Crisis Management, ''The Exxon Crisis'', 1989], 2002, [http://iml.jou.ufl.edu/ University of Florida Interactive Media Lab], Retrieved July 21, 2010</ref>

<ref name="greenpeace">{{Cite web| title=Exxon Valdez disaster – 15 years of lies| work=Greenpeace News| publisher=Greenpeace | date=March 24, 2004| url=http://www.greenpeace.org/international/news/exxon-valdez-disaster-15-year| accessdate=March 10, 2008}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF2">{{Cite press release | title=16 Years After ''Exxon Valdez'' Tragedy, Arctic Refuge, America's Coasts Still At Risk | publisher=Sierra Club | date=March 23, 2005 | url=http://www.sierraclub.org/pressroom/releases/pr2005-03-23a.asp| accessdate=March 10, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF3">{{Cite press release| title=Exxon Valdez Oil Spill: Fifteen Years Later| publisher=[[Defenders of Wildlife]]| date=March 24, 2004| url=http://www.defenders.org/newsroom/press_releases_folder/2004/03_24_2004_exxon_valdez_oil_spill_fifteen_years_later.php?ht=valdez%20valdez| accessdate=March 10, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF4">{{Cite web|url=http://www.gregpalast.com/ten-years-after-but-who-was-to-blame-2/ |title=Ten years after but who was to blame? |publisher=Greg Palast |date=1999-03-21 |accessdate=2010-07-21}} {{Dead link|date=October 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF5">[http://www.gregpalast.com/court-rewards-exxon-for-valdez-oil-spill/ Court Rewards Exxon for Valdez Oil Spill]</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF6">{{Cite web|url=http://ocw.mit.edu/courses/aeronautics-and-astronautics/16-358j-system-safety-spring-2005/lecture-notes/ |author=Nancy G. Leveson |title=Software System Safety |publisher=Ocw.mit.edu |date=July 2005 |pages=18–20 |ref=Leveson|accessdate=2010-07-30}}</ref>

<ref name="Leveson18">[[#Leveson|Leveson, p.18]]</ref>

<ref name="Leveson19">[[#Leveson|Leveson, p.19]]</ref>

<ref name="Leveson20">[[#Leveson|Leveson, p.20]]</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF7">{{Cite book|url=http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/book_shelf/26_spilldb.pdf |title=Oil Spill Case Histories |publisher=NOAA |work=Report No. HMRAD 92-11 |date=September 1992 |accessdate=2010-07-21}}</ref>

<ref name="skinner">{{Cite book| author =Skinner, Samuel K| authorlink =Samuel K. Skinner| coauthors =[[William K. Reilly|Reilly, William K.]]| title =The ''Exxon Valdez'' Oil Spill| publisher =National Response Team| month =May | year =1989| url =http://www.akrrt.org/Archives/Response_Reports/ExxonValdez_NRT_1989.pdf| format =PDF| accessdate =March 9, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF8">{{Cite web| last =Baker| first=Mallen| title=Companies in Crisis – What not to do when it all goes wrong| work=Corporate Social Responsibility News| url=http://www.mallenbaker.net/csr/CSRfiles/crisis03.html| accessdate=March 9, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF9">{{Cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/views04/0322-04.htm |author=Marybeth Holleman |title=The Lingering Lessons of the ''Exxon Valdez'' Spill |work=The Seattle Times |date=2004-03-22 |accessdate=2010-07-21}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF10">{{Cite web|url=http://www.textbookleague.org/36exx.htm |author=D. Michael Fry |title=How Exxon's "Video for Students" Deals in Distortions |publisher=The Textbook Letter |date=1992-11-19 |accessdate=2010-07-21}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF11">{{Cite conference | author=SC Jewett, TA Dean, and M Hoberg |title=Scuba Techniques Used to Assess the Effects of the ''Exxon Valdez'' Oil Spill | booktitle=In: SC Jewett (ed). Cold Water Diving for Science. | conference=Proceedings of the American Academy of Underwater Sciences, 21st Annual Scientific Diving Symposium |year=2001 |url=http://archive.rubicon-foundation.org/4720 |accessdate=June 27, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF12">{{Cite news | title = ''Exxon Valdez'': Ten years on | date = 1999-03-18 | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/298608.stm | work = BBC News | accessdate = 2010-05-24}}</ref>

<ref name="still">{{Cite news | title =Exxon Valdez oil spill still a threat: study|publisher=abc.net.au| publisher =[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]| date =May 17, 2006| url =http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2006/05/17/1640469.htm| accessdate =March 9, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="williamson">{{Cite news | last =Williamson| first =David| title =Exxon Valdez oil spill effects lasting far longer than expected, scientists say| work =UNC/News| publisher =[[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]]| date =December 18, 2003| url =http://www.unc.edu/news/archives/dec03/peters121803.html| accessdate =March 9, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="scientific american">{{Cite news| last= Graham| first= Sarah|url=http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa003&articleID=0001A1FF-12D7-1FE2-92D783414B7F0000|title=Environmental Effects of ''Exxon Valdez'' Spill Still Being Felt |date=December 19, 2003 |work= [[Scientific American]]| accessdate= March 9, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="guardian">{{Cite news | last =MacAskill| first =Ewan| title =18 years on, ''Exxon Valdez'' oil still pours into Alaskan waters |work=The Guardian | date =February 2, 2007| url =http://environment.guardian.co.uk/waste/story/0,,2004154,00.html| accessdate =March 9, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF13">{{Cite web|last=Lanchester |first=John |url=http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2009/06/01/090601crbo_books_lanchester |title=Books: Outsmarted |work=The New Yorker |date=2009-01-07 |accessdate=2010-07-21}}</ref>

<ref name="cert">{{Cite news | author =Staff writer| title = Supreme Court to review ''Exxon Valdez'' award| work =[[CNN|money.cnn.com]]| publisher =CNN| date =October 29, 2007| url =http://money.cnn.com/2007/10/29/news/exxon_valdez/index.htm| accessdate =March 10, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="scotus">{{Cite news | author =Staff writer| title =High Court may lower ''Exxon Valdez'' damages|publisher=CNN | agency =Associated Press| date =February 27, 2008| url =http://money.cnn.com/2008/02/27/news/companies/exxon_valdez.ap/index.htm| accessdate =March 10, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="latimes 080626">{{Cite news | author =Savage, David G.| title =Justices slash ''Exxon Valdez'' verdict| work =[[Los Angeles Times|articles.latimes.com]]| publisher =[[Tribune Company]]| date=June 26, 2008| url =http://articles.latimes.com/2008/jun/26/nation/na-valdez26| accessdate =June 26, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="scotusopinion">{{Cite court | litigants =Exxon v. Baker | court=[[Supreme Court of the United States of America]]| vol=554| reporter=U.S.| opinion= | date=June 25, 2008| url =http://www.supremecourt.gov/opinions/07pdf/07-219.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF14">{{Cite web|url=http://leahy.senate.gov/press/200806/062508d.html |title=Reaction Of Sen. Leahy On Supreme Court Ruling In Exxon v. Baker |publisher=Leahy.senate.gov |date=June 25, 2008 |accessdate=February 25, 2009}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF15">{{Cite news | last =Egelko| first =Bob| title =Punitive damages appealed in Valdez spill|work=San Francisco Chronicle | date =January 28, 2006| url =http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/01/28/BAGHUGUQCA1.DTL| accessdate =March 10, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="hfw">{{Cite web| last =Bandurka| first =Andrew| coauthors =Sloane, Simon| title =Exxon Valdez – D. G. Syndicate 745 vs. Brandywine Reinsurance Company (UK) - Summary of the Court of Appeal Judgment| publisher =[[Holman Fenwick & Willan]]| date =March 10, 2005| url =http://www.hfw.com/l3/new/newl3a100305.html| accessdate =March 10, 2008}} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref>

<ref name="10K">{{Cite web| title =Exxon Corporation 1993 Form 10-K| work =[[EDGAR]]| publisher =[[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]]| date =March 11, 1994| url =http://yahoo.brand.edgar-online.com/fetchFilingFrameset.aspx?FilingID=512563&Type=HTML| accessdate =March 10, 2008 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080304025742/http://yahoo.brand.edgar-online.com/fetchFilingFrameset.aspx?FilingID=512563&Type=HTML  |archivedate = March 4, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF16">{{Cite news | last =Erb| first =George| title =Exxon Valdez case still twisting through courts| work =[[Puget Sound Business Journal]]| date =November 3, 2000| url =http://www.bizjournals.com/seattle/stories/2000/11/06/newscolumn3.html?t=printable| accessdate =March 10, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="9th">[http://www.ca9.uscourts.gov/coa/newopinions.nsf/0333BD942E7EA5AA8825724C0059D92E/$file/0435182.pdf?openelement ''Exxon v. Baker''], CV-89-00095-HRH (9th Cir. 2006).</ref>

<ref name="opa">{{Cite web| title =Oil Pollution Act of 1990 - Summary| work =Federal Wildlife and Related Laws Handbook| date =August 18, 1990| url =http://ipl.unm.edu/cwl/fedbook/oilpollu.html| accessdate =March 10, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="attainder">{{Cite journal| last =Carrigan| first =Alison| title =The bill of attainder clause: a new weapon to challenge the Oil Pollution Act of 1990| journal =Boston College Environmental Affairs Law Review| issue =Fall 2000| url =http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/law/lwsch/journals/bcealr/28_1/04_FMS.htm| accessdate =March 10, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="nyt">{{Cite news | title =Exxon Valdez Is Barred From Alaska Sound|work=The New York Times | date =November 2, 2002| url =http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9904EEDC163EF931A35752C1A9649C8B63| accessdate =March 10, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF17">{{Cite news | last =Kizzia| first =Tom| title =Double-hull tankers face slow going| work =[[Anchorage Daily News]]| date =May 13, 1999| url =http://www.adn.com/evos/stories/T99032456.html| accessdate =March 10, 2008 }}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF18">Loy, Wesley. "Captain of ''Exxon Valdez'' offers 'heartfelt apology' for oil spill." ''Anchorage Daily News''. March 4, 2009. [http://www.adn.com/2009/03/04/711385/hazelwood-offers-heartfelt-apology.html]. Retrieved 2011-03-24.</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF19">{{Cite news | last =Loshbaugh| first =Doug| title =School of Hard Knocks| work =[[Juneau Empire]]| year =2000| url =http://www.juneaualaska.com/between/chugach.shtml| accessdate =May 18, 2010 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20070927134153/http://www.juneaualaska.com/between/chugach.shtml|archivedate=September 27, 2007 }}</ref>

<ref name="fisheries">{{Cite web| last =Carson| first =Richard| coauthors =Hanemann, W. Michael| title =A Preliminary Economic Analysis of Recreational Fishing Losses Related to the ''Exxon Valdez'' Oil Spill| publisher =Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council| date =December 18, 1992| url =http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/Universal/Documents/Publications/Economic/Econ_Fishing.pdf|format=PDF| accessdate =March 10, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="tourism">{{Cite web| title =An Assessment of the Impact of the ''Exxon Valdez'' Oil Spill on the Alaska Tourism Industry| publisher =Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council| month =August | year =1990| url =http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/Universal/Documents/Publications/Economic/Econ_Tourism.pdf| format =PDF| accessdate =March 10, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF20">{{Cite web| title =Economic Impacts of Spilled Oil| work =Publications| publisher =Exxon Valdez Oil Spill Trustee Council| url =http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/Publications/economic.cfm| accessdate =March 10, 2008}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF21">{{Cite news|url=http://www.durangoherald.com/sections/News/Earth/2009/02/12/Alaskan_oil_spill_prompts_action/|title=Alaskan oil spill prompts action|last=Rodebaugh|first=Dave|date=February 12, 2009|publisher=The Durango Herald|accessdate=May 16, 2009}}</ref>

<ref name="AUTOREF22">Suzuki, David. ''[[The Nature of Things]]''. [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]. Retrieved on May 16, 2009.</ref>
|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ntsb.gov/recs/letters/1990/M90_26_31A.pdf NTSB safety recommendation to address crew management deficiencies at Exxon and in industry.]
*[http://www.evostc.state.ak.us/ ''Exxon Valdez'' Oil Spill Trustee Council]
*[http://www.exxonmobil.com/Corporate/about_issues_valdez.aspx ExxonMobil updates and news on Valdez]
*[http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/photos/exxon/exxon.html ''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill] at [[National Ocean Service]]
*[http://www.fakr.noaa.gov/oil/ EVOS Damage Assessment and Restoration] at [[National Marine Fisheries Service]]
*[http://www.epa.gov/oilspill/exxon.htm ''Exxon Valdez''] at [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]
*[http://www.nrt.org/ US National Response Team]
*[http://www.eoearth.org/article/Exxon_Valdez_oil_spill ''Exxon Valdez'' oil spill] at [[Encyclopedia of Earth]]
*[http://www.cglaw.com/viewdoc137.html The story behind the oil spill verdict] – originally published in ''[[San Diego Union-Tribune]]''
*[http://www.akrrt.org/Archives/Response_Reports/ExxonValdez_NRT_1989.pdf Alaskan Regional Response Team report on the ''Exxon Valdez'' disaster.]
*[http://www.democracynow.org/2010/5/26/bp_played_central_role_in_botched BP Played Central Role in Botched Containment of 1989 ''Exxon Valdez'' Disaster] - video report by ''[[Democracy Now!]]''

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Gene targeting

2011-07-18T20:07:38Z

Rami radwan:

[[Image:ChimericMouseWithPups.jpg| thumb | A [[chimera (genetics)|chimeric]] mouse gene targeted for the [[Agouti gene|agouti coat color gene]], with its offspring]]

'''Gene targeting''' (also, replacement strategy based on homologous recombination) is a [[genetics|genetic]] technique that uses [[Genetic recombination|homologous recombination]] to change an [[endogenous]] [[gene]]. The method can be used to delete a gene, remove [[exons]], add a gene, and introduce [[point mutations]]. Gene targeting can be permanent or conditional. Conditions can be a specific time during [[Developmental biology|development]] / life of the organism or limitation to a specific [[Tissue (biology)|tissue]], for example. Gene targeting requires the creation of a specific [[Vector (molecular biology)|vector]] for each gene of interest. However, it can be used for any gene, regardless of transcriptional activity or gene size.

== Methods ==
Gene targeting methods are established for several [[model organism]]s and may vary depending on the [[species]] used. In general, a
targeting construct made out of [[DNA]] is generated in [[bacteria]]. It typically contains part of the gene to be targeted, a [[reporter gene]], and a (dominant) [[selectable marker]].

To target genes in [[Mus musculus|mice]], this construct is then inserted into mouse [[embryonic stem cell]]s in
culture. After cells with the correct insertion have been selected, they can be used to contribute to a mouse's
tissue via [[embryo]] injection. Finally, [[Chimera (genetics)|chimeric]] mice where the modified cells made up the reproductive organs are selected for via [[Selective breeding|breeding]]. After this step the entire body of the mouse is based on the previously selected embryonic stem cell.

[[Image:Physcomitrella knockout mutants.JPG|thumb|''Wild-type [[Physcomitrella patens|Physcomitrella]] and [[Knockout Moss|knockout-mosses]]'': Deviating phenotypes induced in gene-disruption library transformants. Physcomitrella wild-type and transformed plants were grown on minimal Knop medium to induce differentiation and development of [[gametophore]]s. For each plant, an overview (upper row, scale bar corresponds to 1 mm) and a close-up (bottom row, scale bar equals 0.5 mm) is shown. A, Haploid wild-type moss plant completely covered with leafy gametophores and close-up of wild-type leaf. B-D, Different Mutants.<ref>{{Cite doi|10.1186/1471-2229-2-6}}</ref>]]

To target genes in [[Physcomitrella patens|moss]], this construct is incubated together with freshly isolated [[protoplast]]s and
with [[Polyethylene glycol]]. As mosses are [[haploid]] organisms,<ref>[[Ralf Reski]] (1998): [[Developmental biology|Development]],
[[genetics]] and [[molecular biology]] of [[moss]]es. Botanica Acta 111, 1-15.</ref> regenerating [[moss]] filaments ([[protonema]]) can directly be screened for gene targeting, either by treatment with [[antibiotic]]s or with [[PCR]]. Unique among [[plant]]s, this procedure for [[reverse genetics]] is as efficient as in [[yeast]].<ref>[[Ralf Reski]](1998): [[Physcomitrella patens|Physcomitrella]] and [[Arabidopsis thaliana|Arabidopsis]]: the David and Goliath of [[reverse genetics]]. Trends Plant in Science 3, 209-210. [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6TD1-3TDR5V7-5&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000050221&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=814de6be1c3e4db9010cd1d37568f143]</ref>
Using modified procedures, gene targeting has also been successfully applied to cattle, sheep, swine, and many fungi.

The frequency of gene targeting can be significantly enhanced through the use of engineered [[endonuclease|endonucleases]] such as [[zinc finger nuclease|zinc finger nucleases]]<ref name=Bibikova2003>{{Cite doi| 10.1126/science.1079512 }}</ref>, engineered [[homing endonuclease|homing endonucleases]]<ref name=Grizot2009>{{Cite doi|10.1093/nar/gkp548 }}</ref>, and nucleases based on engineered [[TAL effector|TAL effectors]].<ref name=Miller2010>{{Cite doi|10.1038/nbt.1755 }}</ref> To date, this method has been applied to a number of species including [[Drosophila melanogaster]]<ref name=Bibikova2003/>, [[tobacco]]<ref name=Cai> {{Cite doi|10.1007/s11103-008-9449-7 }}</ref>
<ref name=Townsend2009> {{Cite doi|10.1038/nature07845 }}</ref>, [[maize|corn]]<ref name=Shukla2009>{{Cite doi|10.1038/nature07992 }}</ref>, [[human]] cells<ref name=Urnov2005> {{Cite doi|10.1038/nature03556 }}</ref>, [[mouse|mice]]<ref name=Cui2010>{{Cite doi|10.1038/nbt.1731 }}</ref>, and [[rat|rats]].<ref name=Cui2010/>

== Comparison with gene trapping ==
[[Gene trapping]] is based on random insertion of a cassette while gene targeting targets a specific gene. Cassettes can be used for many different things while the flanking homology regions of gene targeting cassettes need to be adapted for each gene. This makes gene trapping more easily amenable for large scale projects than targeting. On the other hand, gene targeting can be used for genes with low transcriptions that would go undetected in a trap screen. Also, the probability of trapping increases with [[intron]] size. For gene targeting these compact genes are just as easily altered.

== Applications==
Gene targeting has been widely used to study human genetic diseases by removing "knock-out", or adding "knock-in", specific mutations of interest to a variety of models. Previously used to engineer rat cell models, advances in gene targeting technologies are enabling the creation of a new wave of [[isogenic human disease models]]. These models are the most accurate in-vitro models available to researchers to date, and are facilitating the development of new personalised drugs and diagnostics, particularly in the field of cancer.<ref>A Panel of Isogenic Human Cancer Cells Suggests a Therapeutic Approach for Cancers with Inactivated p53 Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A Printed online at www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.0813333106</ref>

== 2007 Nobel prize==
[[Mario Capecchi|Mario R. Capecchi]], [[Martin Evans|Martin J. Evans]] and [[Oliver Smithies]] were declared laureates of the 2007 [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] for their work on "principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells", or gene targeting.<ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2007/press.html
| title = Press Release: The 2007 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
| accessdate = 2007-10-08
}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Gene trapping]] (random gene knockout technique)
* [[Mus musculus]] (house mouse; common model organism)
* ''[[Physcomitrella patens]]'' (only plant in which gene targeting is available, as of 1998<ref>[http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S136952660000145X Arabidopsis gene knockout: phenotypes wanted]</ref>)
* [[Toll-like receptor]] (example of a gene targeted for analysis)

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://cancer.ucsd.edu/Research/Shared/tgm/genetargeting.asp guide to gene targeting] by the University of California, San Diego
* [http://www.med.umich.edu/tamc/esoutline.html outline of gene targeting] by the University of Michigan
* [http://141.217.91.198/knockout.htm gene targeting diagram & summary] by Heydari lab, Wayne State University
* [http://reportergene.blogspot.com research highlights on reporter genes] used in gene targeting
* [http://www.bio-pro.de/standort/5_bioregionen/bioregio_freiburg/index.html?lang=en&artikelid=/artikel/01584/index.html Targeted gene replacement in barley]

{{genetic engineering}}

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Cefalexin

2011-07-17T18:23:57Z

Rami radwan:

{{drugbox
| verifiedrevid = 420030571
| IUPAC_name = (6''R'',7''R'')-7-{[(2''R'')-2-amino-2-phenylacetyl]amino}- 3-methyl-8-oxo-5-thia-1-azabicyclo[4.2.0]oct-2-ene- 2-carboxylic acid
| image = Cefalexin.svg
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = 5SFF1W6677
| InChI = 1/C16H17N3O4S/c1-8-7-24-15-11(14(21)19(15)12(8)16(22)23)18-13(20)10(17)9-5-3-2-4-6-9/h2-6,10-11,15H,7,17H2,1H3,(H,18,20)(H,22,23)/t10-,11-,15-/m1/s1
| smiles = O=C2N1/C(=C(\CS[C@@H]1[C@@H]2NC(=O)[C@@H](c3ccccc3)N)C)C(=O)O
| InChIKey = ZAIPMKNFIOOWCQ-UEKVPHQBBS
| ChEMBL_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEMBL = 1727
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C16H17N3O4S/c1-8-7-24-15-11(14(21)19(15)12(8)16(22)23)18-13(20)10(17)9-5-3-2-4-6-9/h2-6,10-11,15H,7,17H2,1H3,(H,18,20)(H,22,23)/t10-,11-,15-/m1/s1
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = ZAIPMKNFIOOWCQ-UEKVPHQBSA-N
| CAS_number = 15686-71-2
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 25541
| ATC_prefix = J01
| ATC_suffix = DB01
| ATC_supplemental = {{ATCvet|J51|DA01}}
| PubChem = 2666
| DrugBank = APRD00250
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = D00263
| C = 16 | H = 17 | N = 3 | O = 4 | S = 1
| molecular_weight = 347.39 g/mol
| bioavailability = Well absorbed
| protein_bound = 15%
| metabolism = 80% excreted unchanged in urine within 6 hours of administration
| elimination_half-life = For an adult with normal renal function, the serum half-life is 0.5-1.2 hours<ref>McEvoy, G.K. (ed.). American Hospital Formulary Service - Drug Information 95. Bethesda, MD: American Society of Hospital Pharmacists, Inc., 1995 (Plus Supplements 1995)., p. 166</ref>
| excretion = [[Kidney|Renal]]
| pregnancy_AU = A
| pregnancy_US = B
| pregnancy_category =
| legal_AU = S4
| legal_UK = POM
| legal_US =
| legal_status =
| routes_of_administration = Oral
}}
'''Cefalexin''' ([[International Nonproprietary Name|INN]]) or more commonly '''cephalexin''' ({{IPAc-en|icon|ˌ|s|ɛ|f|ə|ˈ|l|ɛ|k|s|ɨ|n}}) is a first-generation [[cephalosporin]] [[antibiotic]] introduced in 1967 by [[Eli Lilly and Company]].<ref name=Martindale>{{Cite book|editor=Sweetman, Sean C. |chapter=Antibacterials|title=[[Martindale: The complete drug reference]] |edition=36th |year=2009 |pages=218–9 |publisher=Pharmaceutical Press |location=London|isbn=978-0-85369-840-1}}</ref><ref name=Sneader>{{Cite book|last=Sneader |first=Walter |title=Drug discovery: a history |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |year=2005 |chapter=Cephalosporin analogues |chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=mYQxRY9umjcC&pg=PA324|pages=324 |isbn=0-471-89980-1 |accessdate=2009-06-26}}</ref> It is an orally administered agent with a similar antimicrobial spectrum to the intravenous agents [[cefalotin]] and [[cefazolin]]. It was first marketed as '''Keflex''' (Lilly), and now is also sold under several other trade names.<ref name=Martindale/>

As of 2008, cefalexin was the most popular cephalosporin antibiotic in the United States, with more than 25 million prescriptions of its generic versions alone, for US$255 million in sales.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/data/articlestandard//drugtopics/222009/599844/article.pdf "2008 Top 200 generic drugs by total prescriptions" ]|332.8 KB}}. ''Drug Topics'' (May 26, 2009). Retrieved on July 24, 2009.</ref><ref>{{PDFlink|[http://drugtopics.modernmedicine.com/drugtopics/data/articlestandard//drugtopics/192009/597086/article.pdf "2008 Top 200 generic drugs by retail dollars" ]|399.4 KB}}. ''Drug Topics'' (May 26, 2009). Retrieved on July 24, 2009.</ref>

==Medical uses==
Cefalexin is used to treat a number of [[infection]]s including: [[otitis media]], [[streptococcal pharyngitis]], bone and joint infections, [[pneumonia]], [[cellulitis]], and [[urinary tract infection]]s.<ref name=AHFS>{{cite web|title=Cephalexin|url=http://www.drugs.com/monograph/cephalexin.html|work=The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists|accessdate=3 April 2011}}</ref> It may be used to prevent [[bacterial endocarditis]].<ref name=AHFS/>

===Infections===
In addition to being a rational [[first-line treatment]] for [[cellulitis]], it is a useful alternative to [[penicillin]]s in patients with penicillin [[hypersensitivity]]. In patients with mild or questionable history of penicillin allergy, cephalasporins are now thought to be relatively safe.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Pichichero ME |title=Use of selected cephalosporins in penicillin-allergic patients: a paradigm shift |journal=Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease |volume=57 |issue=3 Suppl |pages=13S–18S |year=2007 |month=March |pmid=17349459 |doi=10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2006.12.004}}</ref> Caution should always be taken when prescribing cephalosporins to those with strong history of true penicillin hypersensitivity, however, because cefalexin and other first-generation cephalosporins are known to have a modest cross-allergy in patients with penicillin hypersensitivity.

===Formulations===
Cefalexin is marketed by [[generic drug|generic pharmaceutical]] manufacturers under a wide range of brand names, including: Apo-Cephalex, Biocef, Cefanox, Ceforal, Cephabos, Cephalexin, Cephorum, Ceporex, Cilex, Ialex, Ibilex, Kefexin, Keflet, Keflex, Rekosporin, Keforal, Keftab, Keftal, Lopilexin, Larixin, Novo-Lexin, Ospexin, Tenkorex, Zephalexin, Panixine Disperdose, and Sporidex.

A version of Keflex 750 mg capsules is marketed for twice-daily dosage, to improve [[Compliance (medicine)|compliance]]. However, it is not a [[sustained release]] formulation, and since it is more expensive than the older strengths, some physicians prescribe three 250 mg capsules to be taken twice daily, as a cheaper alternative.{{Citation needed|date=March 2008}}

In Finland, cefalexin is marketed under several names. [[Orion Corporation|Orion]] markets Kefexin.<ref>http://spc.nam.fi/indox/nam/html/nam/humpil/2/244412.pdf</ref> People with renal dysfunction requiring longer periods between doses.<ref>http://spc.nam.fi/indox/nam/html/nam/humspc/2/244362.shtml</ref>

==Adverse effects==
Adverse effects from cefalexin include [[diarrhea]], dizziness, agitation, headache, indigestion, joint pain, stomach pain (usually mild) and tiredness. The drug can also cause yellowing of the eyes or skin; red, blistered, swollen or peeling skin; unusual bruising or bleeding; decreased urination; severe cramps and confusion. An allergic reaction to this medicine is unlikely. Symptoms of an allergic reaction include rash, itching, swelling, or trouble breathing.

{{clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/druginfo/meds/a682733.html MedlinePlus Drug Information: Cephalosporins (systemic)] – information from USP DI Advice for the Patient
*[http://www.fda.gov/medwatch/SAFETY/2004/jun_PI/Keflex_PI.pdf FDA Drug Information PDF] and Pharmacy Drug Information Insert.
* [http://druginfo.nlm.nih.gov/drugportal/dpdirect.jsp?name=cephalexin+anhydrous U.S. National Library of Medicine: Drug Information Portal - Cephalexin]

{{CephalosporinAntiBiotics}}

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[[Category:Enantiopure drugs]]
[[Category:Cephalosporin antibiotics]]
[[Category:Eli Lilly and Company]]
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Mercedes-Benz E-Class

2011-07-02T21:58:27Z

Rami radwan:

:''E-Class redirects here. For [[Chrysler]]'s [[Badge engineering|rebadged]] version of the [[Dodge 600]] sold from 1983–1984, see [[Chrysler E-Class]].''

{{Infobox automobile
|image = [[File:2010 Mercedes-Benz E 350 4Matic sedan -- NHTSA 01.jpg|250px|2010 Mercedes-Benz E 350 (W212) 4Matic sedan (US)]]
|name = Mercedes-Benz E-Class
|manufacturer = [[Mercedes-Benz]] [[Magna Steyr]] (4MATIC only)
|parent_company = [[Daimler-Benz]] [[DaimlerChrysler]] (1998–2007) [[Daimler AG]] (2008–present)
|production = predecessors date to mid-1930s E-class nomenclature adopted in 1993
|class = [[Mid-size]] [[luxury car]] [[Executive car]]
|layout = [[Front-engine design|Front engine]], [[rear-wheel drive]]/[[Four-wheel drive]]
|related = [[Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class]]
}}

The '''Mercedes-Benz E-Class''' is a range of [[executive car|executive-size]] cars manufactured by [[Mercedes-Benz]] in various engine and body configurations. The E initially stood for ''Einspritzmotor'', (German for fuel injection engine); a new feature in volume production vehicles at the time that the E-Class first appeared, with the E as a suffix to the engine nomenclature (e.g. 230E) in the 1950s. It was not until the launch of the facelifted [[Mercedes-Benz W124|W124]] that the E was used as a prefix (i.e. E220) and the model referred to officially as the E-Class (or ''E-Klasse''). At this time all Mercedes cars used fuel injection and the company felt it was not necessary to add this as a distinguishing feature. Due to the E-Class's size and durability, the cars also frequently serve as taxis in European countries. Older models like the W123 and W124 are used in Malaysia as inter-state taxis, and the W211 is used in Singapore as a taxi. Mercedes-Benz also offers special-purpose vehicles (e.g. police or ambulance modifications) from the factory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mercedes-benz.de/content/germany/mpc/mpc_germany_website/de/home_mpc/sonderfahrzeuge0/home/products/branch-solutions/taxi0/e-klasse.html |title=Mercedes-Benz Deutschland – Sonderfahrzeuge – Taxi – E-Klasse |accessdate=2008-08-05 |publisher= [[Daimler AG]] |language=German }}</ref>

== History ==
===W120 'Ponton'===
{{main|Mercedes-Benz W120}}

The first modern mid size Mercedes was the [[Mercedes-Benz W120|W120 'Ponton' 180]] of 1953. Sharing its engineering with the [[Mercedes-Benz R121|R121]] 190 SL of 1955, the Ponton was a stylish sedan with [[Straight-4|four-cylinder]] power. A larger-engined [[Mercedes-Benz W121|W121 190]] appeared in 1958.

===W110 'Fintail'===
{{main|Mercedes-Benz W110}}

Mercedes added tailfins to both the big [[Mercedes-Benz S-Class|S-Class]] and the new [[Mercedes-Benz W110|W110 'Fintail' 190]] of 1962. [[Straight-6]] power appeared for the first time in the 1965 230 model, and the fours grew in displacement that year as well.

===W114/W115 'Stroke-8'===
{{main|Mercedes-Benz W114}}

The mid size Mercedes was redesigned in 1968 as the [[Mercedes-Benz W114|W114/W115 'Stroke-8']]. This time, the 6-cylinder models (The W114s) were most prevalent, with the W115 line making up the bottom of the company's offerings with four – and [[Straight-5|five-cylinder]] power. [[Diesel engine|Diesel]] engines joined the line-up, as did a [[coupé]] body.

===W123===
{{main|Mercedes-Benz W123}}

The popular [[Mercedes-Benz W123|W123]] quickly became a best-seller on its launch in 1977. Especially in [[Diesel engine|Diesel]] [[Mercedes-Benz 240D|240D]] (and later [[Mercedes-Benz 300D|300D]]) guises, the cars enhanced the company's reputation for product quality. Over 2.3 million were produced until the end of production in 1985.

Saloon/Sedan, Coupé and Estate body configurations were offered.{{-}}

===W124===
{{main|Mercedes-Benz W124}}

{{Infobox automobile
|name = W124
|image = [[File:Mercedes-Benz W124T front 20090418.jpg|250px|W124 Mercedes-Benz E-Class estate]]
|assembly = [[Sindelfingen, Germany]] [[Bremen (city)|Bremen, Germany]] [[Rastatt]], [[Germany]] (for the US-market) [[Zuffenhausen]], [[Germany]], [[Pune, India]] [[Toluca]], [[Mexico]]
|production = 1984–1996
|body_style = 4-door [[sedan (car)|sedan]] 5-door [[station wagon]] 2-door [[coupe]] 2-door [[convertible]]
|weight = 3927 lb (500E) 3826 lb (400E)
|wheelbase = Sedan & Wagon: {{convert|110.2|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} Coupe: {{convert|106.9|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|length = Wagon: {{convert|188.2|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} Sedan: {{convert|187.2|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} Coupe: {{convert|183.9|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|width = {{convert|68.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} E500 Sedan: {{convert|70.7|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|height = Wagon: {{convert|59.8|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} Sedan: {{convert|56.3|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} Coupe: {{convert|55.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} Convertible: {{convert|54.8|in|mm|0|abbr=on}} E500 Sedan: {{convert|55.4|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|platform = [[Mercedes-Benz W124]]
}}

The 'E-Class' name first appeared in the USA with the face-lifted [[Mercedes-Benz W124|W124]] for the modelyear 1994 (the w124 was introduced in the US in 1986 but continued with the older models' naming convention until 1993, when all Mercedes-Benz models switched to a new system, e.g., E320 instead of 300E). The [[Mercedes-Benz 300D|300D]] continued to be the fuel economy option over the 4 and 6 cylinder gasoline engines, and the gasoline [[V8 engine]]s (available after 1992) increased gasoline power outputs further. The V8 powered sedans/saloons were named 400E/500E from 1992–1993, and E420/E500 after 1993. Likewise, the 3-liter cars (e.g., 'E300') where also re-badged to 'E320' with the new 3.2 [[litre]] [[internal combustion engine|engines]] and naming rationalization of 1994.

Saloon/Sedan, Coupé, Convertible and Estate body configurations were offered.

From 1992 to 1994 Mercedes offered a limited production sport version of the W124 sedan, created and assembled with help from [[Porsche]]. This was called the [[Mercedes-Benz 500E|500E]] (E500 for 1994).

{{-}}

===W210===
{{main|Mercedes-Benz W210}}
{{Infobox automobile
|name = W210
|image = [[File:Mercedes W210 front 20080320.jpg|250px|1996–99 Mercedes-Benz W210 E-Class sedan]]
|production = 1995–2002
|wheelbase = {{convert|111.5|in|mm|0|abbr=on}}
|assembly = [[Graz]], [[Austria]] [[Sindelfingen, Germany]] [[Bremen (city)|Bremen, Germany]] [[Pune, India]] [[Ho Chi Minh City]], [[Vietnam]] [[Cairo, Egypt]] [[Bogor]], [[Indonesia]]<ref>http://car-cat.com/firm-1046.html</ref>
|platform = [[Mercedes-Benz W210]]
|body_style = 4-door [[sedan (car)|sedan]] 5-door [[station wagon]]
}}

The [[Mercedes-Benz W210|W210]] E-Class, launched in 1996, brought the mid-size Mercedes firmly into the upper end of the luxury market. Though six-cylinder models were still offered for a time, the four-light front end and high prices moved the car upmarket. In September 1999 the W210 E-class was facelifted. This included visual, mechanical and quality improvements over the earlier versions.

The Mercedes-Benz E-Class was ''[[Motor Trend]]'''s [[Motor_Trend_Car_of_the_Year#Import_Car_of_the_Year|Import Car of the Year]] for 1996.

{{-}}

===W211===
{{main|Mercedes-Benz W211}}

{{Infobox automobile
|name = W211
|image = [[File:Mercedes-Benz E320 2 -- 12-17-2009.jpg|250px|2003–2006 Mercedes-Benz E-320 sedan (US)]]
|production = 2002–2009
|platform = [[Mercedes-Benz W211]]
|assembly = [[Sindelfingen, Germany]] [[Bremen (city)|Bremen, Germany]] [[Zuffenhausen]], [[Germany]] [[Santiago Tianguistenco]], [[Mexico]] [[Graz]], [[Austria]] [[Pune, India]] [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China|China]] [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] [[Pekan]], [[Malaysia]] [[Tehran]], [[Iran]] [[Samut Prakan]], [[Thailand]] [[Bogor]], [[Indonesia]]
|transmission = 5-speed [[automatic transmission|automatic]] 7-speed automatic 6-speed manual
|body_style = 4-door [[sedan (car)|sedan]] 5-door [[station wagon]]
|related = [[Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class]]
}}

Launched in 2002, the [[Mercedes-Benz W211|W211]] E-Class was another evolution of the previous model and was considered by the motoring media as an even more competitive offering to the long term rival [[BMW 5-Series]] (which previously was the preferred choice of the motoring media). Before [[North America]]n sales began, the car was shown in the [[2002 in film|2002 movie]] ''[[Men in Black II]]''.

The W211-based [[Mercedes-Benz W219|W219]] [[Mercedes-Benz CLS-Class|CLS-Class]] 4-door [[coupé]] was introduced as a niche model in 2005, primarily to attract a younger demographic.

The W211 E-Class was face lifted in 2007 to address quality and technical issues raised by earlier models, [[Sensotronic]] was dropped, while [[precrash system|Pre-Safe]] (w/o brake support) was made standard. The largest factory built engine in the E-class range is the E500 (badged E550 in the U.S.) which had its engine size increased from 5 litres to 5.5 litres in 2006 along with the facelift. There is also an AMG model badged E63 [[Mercedes-AMG|AMG]] and other tuning house installations.

Mercedes-Benz introduced their [[BlueTec]] [[Diesel engine|Diesel]] system to the E-Class at the 2006 [[North American International Auto Show]] as the E320 CDI BlueTec. BlueTec is a two-phase system for cleaning diesel emissions. The first phase makes the E320 CDI legal in 45 of the 50 [[United States]] (plus the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]). The second phase uses [[urea]] for further reductions to meet the more stringent standards of [[California]], [[Maine]], [[Massachusetts]], [[New York]], and [[Vermont]]. Sales of E320 CDI BlueTec began in autumn 2006 as a 2007 model, but 50-state legal models with urea injection will not be introduced until the 2009 model year.

<gallery>
File:2009 Mercedes-Benz E350.jpg|2009 Mercedes-Benz E350 (W211; US)
Image:Mercedes W211 front 20080127.jpg|Facelift E-Class W211
Image:Mercedes W211 rear 20080127.jpg|Facelift E-Class W211
</gallery>{{-}}

===W212===
{{Infobox automobile
| name = Mercedes-Benz W212
| image = [[File:Mercedes E 250 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY Avantgarde (W212) front 20100705.jpg|250px|Mercedes-Benz E 250 CDI (W212) Avantgarde sedan (Germany)]]
| production = 2009–present
| model_years =
| assembly = [[Sindelfingen]], [[Germany]] [[Pune, India]] [[Santiago Tianguistenco]], [[Mexico]] [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] [[Beijing]], [[China]] [[Chakan]], [[India]]
| class = [[Executive car]]
| body_style = 4-door [[sedan (car)|sedan]] 4-door [[station wagon]] 2-door [[coupe]] [[convertible]]
| layout = [[Front-engine design|Front engine]], [[rear-wheel drive]] / [[four-wheel drive]]
| designer =
| sp = uk
}}
{{main|Mercedes-Benz W212}}

The [[Mercedes-Benz W212|W212]] replaced the W211 in 2009. Official photos of the W 212 were leaked on the internet on the 9th December, 2008 ahead of its 2009 [[Geneva Motor Show]] unveiling.<ref>[http://www.autoscoops.eu/nieuws/2008/mercedes-e-klasse-de-eerste-fotos Mercedes E-Klasse: de eerste foto's]</ref> Scans of a leaked brochure were posted onto the internet in January 2009, detailing the whole E-Class range including the new E 200 CGI and E 230 CGI with [[gasoline direct injection|direct injected]] forced inducted engines.<ref>[http://paultan.org/archives/2009/01/08/leaked-2010-mercedes-benz-e-class-w212-brochures-with-detailed-specification-sheets/ Leaked 2010 Mercedes-Benz E-Class (W 212) Brochures with detailed specification sheets]</ref> New features include a [[blind spot monitor]], [[lane departure warning system|Lane Keeping Assist]], [[Precrash system|Pre-safe with Attention Assist]] and [[Night View Assist|Night View Assist Plus]]. In the United States the E-class will be priced nearly US$4,600 less than the previous model.<ref>{{cite web|last=Joseph |first=Noah |url=http://www.autoblog.com/2009/05/04/mercedes-slashes-nearly-5k-off-the-list-price-of-a-new-e-class/ |title=Mercedes slashes nearly $5k off the list price of a new E-Class — Autoblog |publisher=Autoblog.com |date=2009-04-05 |accessdate=2010-03-21}}</ref> The E-class coupe is built in Bremen using the [[Mercedes-Benz C-class|W204 C-class]] platform.<ref>{{cite web|last=Shunk |first=Chris |url=http://www.autoblog.com/2009/05/19/2010-mercedes-benz-e-class-coupe-a-c-class-underneath/ |title=2010 Mercedes-Benz E-Class Coupe a C-Class underneath? — Autoblog |publisher=Autoblog.com |date=2009-05-19 |accessdate=2010-03-21}}</ref> The W212 estate was also announced and goes on sale from November 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.carthusiast.com/2010-mercedes-e-class-estate-intelligent-estate-of-the-art-1877.html |title=2010 Mercedes E-Class Estate, Intelligent (E)state-of-the-art |publisher=Carthusiast.com |date=2009-08-06 |accessdate=2010-03-21}}</ref> The W212 cabriolet was announced January 11, 2010 at the North American International Auto Show, for sale March 27, 2010 in Europe and in May 2010 in the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldcarfans.com/110011123916/2010-mercedes-benz-e-class-cabriolet-world-debut-in-detroit |title=2010 Mercedes-Benz E-Class Cabriolet World Debut in Detroit |publisher=Worldcarfans.com |date= |accessdate=2010-03-21}}</ref>

<gallery>
File:2009-2010 Mercedes-Benz E 350 (C207) coupe 01.jpg|Mercedes-Benz E 350 coupe (Australia)
File:2010 Mercedes-Benz E 350 4Matic sedan -- NHTSA 02.jpg|Mercedes-Benz E 350 4Matic sedan (US)
File:Mercedes E 350 CDI BlueEFFICIENCY T-Modell Avantgarde (S212) rear 20100612.jpg|Mercedes-Benz E 350 CDI Avantgarde wagon (Germany)
</gallery>{{-}}

== E55 AMG ==
The previous AMG model of the E-Class was the W211 E55 with {{convert|469|hp|kW|abbr=on}} and 516 lbf·ft(700Nm) between 2650 and 4500 rpm (the power band). A supercharger system was used to increase the power of the base engine of the E55 from {{convert|369|hp|kW|abbr=on}} to {{convert|469|hp|kW|abbr=on}}. The E55 can accelerate from 0 to {{convert|60|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in 4.2 seconds and has a quarter-mile time of anywhere from the high 11's to low 12's depending on driver and each individual car. The difference between the E55 opposed to the newer naturally aspirated E63 is the potential of one to the E55. Since the E55 engine has a forced induction system (supercharger), this allows for smaller pulleys to be installed and tuned to gain more power. The major drawback to the E55 is the cooling system (mainly the stock Bosch intercooler pump does not have sufficient flow rate) which is highly prone to heat soaking after a series of high speed pulls. The solution to this common problem is replacing the stock intercooler pump with an aftermarket Johnson CM30 pump.

Prior to the W211 E55 was the [[W210]] E55 model which has a naturally aspirated AMG-tuned powerplant. The M113 powered the W210 E55 which used a 5.4L V8 SOHC 24V to produce 354 PS (260 kW; 349 hp in US-spec) and 391 ft·lb (530 N·m) of torque. The body styling on all of the W210 AMG models was the same until 2000 when a facelift and numerous interior upgrades were implemented. The W210 E55 was the last vehicle that a major portion of production took place by hand at AMG in Affalterbach. Production was actually split between Affalterbach and the Bremen Mercedes-Benz facility until the end of 2001. The 2001 E55 AMG was a rare version of the W210 E55, of which only 659 units were produced in 2001. Various road tests revealed 0–60 mph in 4.8–5.3 seconds and quarter-mile times of 13.3–13.5 seconds.

== E63 AMG ==
The performance version of the E-Class, the E63 AMG is the first sedan built entirely by AMG. With a {{convert|518|hp|kW|abbr=on}} engine, the E63 can achieve a top speed of around {{convert|200|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} (electronic limiter off), and can accelerate from 0 to {{convert|60|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} in 4.3 seconds.

The styling has been altered for both aesthetic and practical purposes: AMG side skirts and rear apron give the E63 more aggressive styling, and the larger air apertures on the front of the car allow for more air intake to the naturally aspirated 6.2 liter V8. Another styling change on the E63 is the wider, flared front wheel arches which accommodate the AMG front axle with a {{convert|2.2|in|mm|adj=mid|-wider}} track.<ref>{{cite web | last = Siler | phil = Wes | title = Mercedes E63 AMG: 518 HP Hammers Out 186 MPH Top Speed | publisher = [http://www.jalopnik.com] | url = http://jalopnik.com/5203553/mercedes-e63-amg-518-hp-hammers-out-186-mph-top-speed | accessdate = 2010-02-28 }}</ref>

==Production and sales==
[[File:Obere Mittelklasse Marktanteile Deutschland September 2009.PNG|thumb|left|Germany market share, E-Class vs. rivals]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Calendar year
!Production (sedan/estate/coupe/convertible) !!US sales !!China sales
|-
| 2001
| ||44,445<ref>http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Mercedes-Benz+USA+Records+Highest+Sales+in+Its+History.-a096075297</ref>||
|-
| 2002
| ||42,598||
|-
| 2003
| ||55,683<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2005/01/04/313903.html |title=2004 Highest Year on Record for Mercedes-Benz USA |publisher=Theautochannel.com |date= |accessdate=2010-03-21}}</ref>||
|-
| 2004
| ||58,954||
|-
| 2005
| ||50,383<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theautochannel.com/news/2007/01/03/032870.html |title=Mercedes-Benz Rings in the New Year with Record 2006 Sales |publisher=Theautochannel.com |date= |accessdate=2010-03-21}}</ref>||
|-
| 2006
| ||50,195||
|-
| 2007
| ||48,950<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.emercedesbenz.com/Jan09/05_001548_Mercedes_Benz_USA_Sales_Drop_32_Percent_In_December_2008.html |title=Mercedes-Benz USA's Sales Drop 32.1 Percent In December 2008 | eMercedesBenz – The Unofficial Mercedes-Benz Weblog |publisher=eMercedesBenz |date=2009-01-05 |accessdate=2010-03-21}}</ref>||
|-
| 2008
| ||38,576||
|-
| 2009
| ||43,072<ref>http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/highest-sales-month-for-the-year-at-21469-brings-mercedes-benz-to-an-18-percent-increase-for-2010-112881769.html</ref>||8,200<ref>http://www.mercedes-benz.com.cn/content/china/mpc/mpc_china_website/enng/home_mpc/passengercars/home/passengercars_world/news/2010news/A_Record-Breaking_Year.html</ref>
|-
| 2010
| 323,200 (208,400 / 44,400 / 49,600 / 20,800)<ref>http://www.daimler.com/dccom/0-5-7171-1-1359454-1-0-0-0-0-0-12037-0-0-0-0-0-0-0-0.html</ref>||60,922||40,760<ref>http://www.mercedes-benz.com.cn/content/china/mpc/mpc_china_website/enng/home_mpc/passengercars/home/passengercars_world/news/2011_News/115_Growth_Mercedes-Benz_Remains_China_s_Fastest_Growing_Premium_brand_in_2010.html</ref>
|}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Mercedes-Benz E-Class}}
*[http://www.mbusa.com/mercedes/vehicles/class/class-E Mercedes E Class Overview]
* [http://www.autoexpress.co.uk/carreviews/roadtests/33497/mercedesbenz_eclass.html UK Mercedes-Benz E-Class Information Website]

{{Mercedes-Benz vehicles}}

[[Category:Executive cars]]
[[Category:Mercedes-Benz vehicles|E-Class]]
[[Category:Mid-size cars]]
[[Category:All wheel drive vehicles]]
[[Category:Rear wheel drive vehicles]]
[[Category:Sedans]]
[[Category:Coupes]]
[[Category:Station wagons]]
[[Category:Vehicles introduced in 1995]]
[[ar:مرسيدس بنز الفئة E]]
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[[es:Mercedes-Benz Clase E]]
[[fa:مرسدس-بنز کلاس-ای]]
[[fr:Mercedes-Benz Classe E]]
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[[nl:Mercedes-Benz E-Klasse]]
[[ja:メルセデス・ベンツ Eクラス]]
[[no:Mercedes-Benz E-klasse]]
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[[zh:梅赛德斯-奔驰E级]]

Democratic socialism

2011-07-01T11:11:30Z

Rami radwan:

{{Socialism sidebar}}
'''Democratic socialism''' is a description used by various [[socialism|socialist]] movements and organizations, to emphasize the [[democracy|democratic]] character of their political orientation. Democratic socialism is contrasted with political movements that resort to [[authoritarianism|authoritarian]] ([[Stalinism|Stalinist Communism]]) means to achieve a transition to socialism , instead advocating for the immediate creation of decentralized [[economic democracy]] from the grassroots level, undertaken by and for the [[working class]] itself.

The term is sometimes used synonymously with "[[social democracy]]", but social democrats need not accept this label, and many self-identified democratic socialists oppose contemporary social democracy because social democracy retains the [[capitalist mode of production]].<ref name=sdvrds>[http://www.socialistparty-usa.org/sdvrds.html Social Democracy Versus Revolutionary Democratic Socialism] by J. David Edelstein.</ref>

Democratic socialism is often used in contrast to movements, who supported the Soviet Union, the People's Republic of China and other socialist states during the [[Cold War]]. Some Social democratic parties label themselves "democratic socialist", however, their policies and goals have moved toward [[social liberalism]] and [[neoliberalism]] since the dissolution of the Soviet Union.

==Definition==
Democratic socialism is difficult to define, and groups of scholars have radically different definitions for the term. Some definitions simply refer to all forms of [[socialism]] that follow an electoral, [[reformism|reformist]] or evolutionary path to socialism, rather than a [[revolution]]ary one.<ref>This definition is captured in this statement: [[Anthony Crosland]] "argued that the socialisms of the pre-war world (not just that of the [[Marxist]]s, but of the democratic socialists too) were now increasingly irrelevant." (Chris Pierson, "Lost property: What the Third Way lacks", ''Journal of Political Ideologies'' (June 2005), 10(2), 145–163 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13569310500097265). Other texts which use the terms "democratic socialism" in this way include Malcolm Hamilton ''Democratic Socialism in [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Sweden]]'' (St Martin’s Press 1989).</ref> Often, this definition is invoked to distinguish democratic socialism from [[communism]], as in Donald Busky's ''Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey'',<ref>See pp.7-8.</ref> Jim Tomlinson's ''Democratic Socialism and Economic Policy: The Attlee Years, 1945-1951'', Norman Thomas ''Democratic Socialism: a new appraisal'' or [[Roy Hattersley]]'s ''Choose Freedom: The Future of Democratic Socialism''.

But for those who use the term in this way, the scope of the term "socialism" itself can be very vague, and include forms of socialism compatible with [[capitalism]]. For example, Robert M. Page, a Reader in Democratic Socialism and Social Policy at the [[University of Birmingham]], writes about "transformative democratic socialism" to refer to the politics of the [[Clement Attlee]] government (a strong [[welfare state]], fiscal redistribution, some nationalisation) and "revisionist democratic socialism", as developed by [[Anthony Crosland]] and [[Harold Wilson]]:
<blockquote>The most influential revisionist Labour thinker, Anthony Crosland..., contended that a more 'benevolent' form of capitalism had emerged since the [Second World War]... According to Crosland, it was now possible to achieve greater equality in society without the need for 'fundamental' economic transformation. For Crosland, a more meaningful form of equality could be achieved if the growth dividend derived from effective management of the economy was invested in 'pro-poor' public services rather than through fiscal redistribution.<ref>Robert M Page, "Without a Song in their Heart: New Labour, the Welfare State and the Retreat from Democratic Socialism", ''Jnl Soc. Pol.'', 36, 1, 19–37 2007.</ref></blockquote>
Indeed, some proponents of [[market socialism]] see the latter as a form of democratic socialism.<ref>For example, David Miller, ''Market, State, and Community: Theoretical Foundations of Market Socialism'' (Oxford University Press, 1990).</ref>

A variant of this set of definitions is [[Joseph Schumpeter]]’s argument, set out in ''Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy'' (1941), that [[liberal democracies]] were evolving from "liberal capitalism" into democratic socialism, with the growth of [[workers' self-management]], [[industrial democracy]] and regulatory institutions.<ref>See John Medearis, "Schumpeter, the New Deal, and Democracy", ''The American Political Science Review'', 1997.</ref>

In contrast, other definitions of democratic socialism sharply distinguish it from [[social democracy]].<ref name=sdvrds /> For example, [[Peter Hain]] classifies democratic socialism, along with [[libertarian socialism]], as a form of [[anti-authoritarian]] "[[The Two Souls of Socialism|socialism from below]]" (using the term popularised by [[Hal Draper]]), in contrast to [[Stalinism]] and social democracy, variants of [[authoritarian]] [[state socialism]]. For Hain, this democratic/authoritarian divide is more important than the [[revolutionary socialism|revolutionary]]/[[reformist]] divide.<ref>[[Peter Hain]] ''Ayes to the Left'' Lawrence and Wishart.</ref> In this definition, it is the active participation of the population as a whole, and workers in particular, in the management of economy that characterises democratic socialism, while [[nationalisation]] and [[economic planning]] (whether controlled by an elected government or not) are characteristic of state socialism. A similar, but more complex, argument is made by [[Nicos Poulantzas]].<ref>"[http://www.newleftreview.org/?page=article&view=1242 Towards a Democratic Socialism]", ''New Left Review'' I/109, May–June 1978.</ref>

Other definitions fall between the first and second set, seeing democratic socialism as a specific political tradition closely related to and overlapping with social democracy. For example, [[Bogdan Denitch]], in ''Democratic Socialism'', defines it as proposing a radical reorganization of the socio-economic order through public ownership, [[workers' control]] of the [[labor process]] and redistributive tax policies.<ref>Bogdan Denitch, ''Democratic Socialism: The Mass Left in Advanced Industrial Societies'' (Allanheld, Osmun, 1981).</ref> Robert G. Picard similarly describes a democratic socialist tradition of thought including [[Eduard Bernstein]], [[Karl Kautsky]], [[Evan Durbin]] and [[Michael Harrington]].<ref>''The Press and the Decline of Democracy: Democratic Socialist Response in Public Policy'' (1985 Praeger/Greenwood).</ref>

The term ''democratic socialism'' can be used in a third way, to refer to a version of the [[Soviet democracy|Soviet model]] that was reformed in a democratic way. For example, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] described [[perestroika]] as building a "new, humane and democratic socialism".<ref>Paul T. Christensen “Perestroika and the Problem of Socialist Renewal” ''Social Text'' 1990.</ref> Consequently, some former [[Communist parties]] have rebranded themselves as democratic socialist, as with the [[The Left Party.PDS|Party of Democratic Socialism]] in Germany.

[[Hal Draper]] uses the term "revolutionary-democratic socialism" as a type of [[socialism from below]] in his ''[[The Two Souls of Socialism]]''. He writes: 'the leading spokesman in the Second International of a revolutionary-democratic Socialism-from-Below [was] [[Rosa Luxemburg]], who so emphatically put her faith and hope in the spontaneous struggle of a free working class that the myth-makers invented for her a "theory of spontaneity"'.<ref>Hal Draper, ''The Two Souls of Socialism'', "[http://www.sirendesign.net/solidarity/socialism.htm#Chap7 Chapter 7: The Revisionist Facade]".</ref> Similarly, about [[Eugene Debs]], he writes: '"Debsian socialism" evoked a tremendous response from the heart of the people, but Debs had no successor as a tribune of revolutionary-democratic socialism'.<ref>Hal Draper, ''The Two Souls of Socialism'', "[http://www.sirendesign.net/solidarity/socialism.htm#Chap8 Chapter 8: The 100% American Scene]".</ref>

Justification of democratic socialism can be found in the works of social philosophers like [[Charles Taylor (philosopher)|Charles Taylor]] and [[Axel Honneth]], among others. Honneth has put forward the view that political and economic ideologies have a social basis, that is, they originate from intersubjective communication between members of a society.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Honneth|first=Axel|authorlink=Axel Honneth|chapter=The Limits of Liberalism: On the Political-Ethical Discussion Concerning Communitarianism|year=1995|editor-surname= Honneth|editor-first= Axel|title=The Fragmented World of the Social|publisher=State University of New York Press|location=Albany|isbn=0-7914-2300-X|pages=231–247 |postscript=}}</ref> Honneth criticises the liberal state because it assumes that principles of [[individual liberty]] and [[private property]] are ahistorical and abstract, when, in fact, they evolved from a specific social discourse on human activity. Contra [[Liberalism|liberal]] [[individualism]], Honneth has emphasised the inter-subjective dependence between humans; that is, our well-being depends on recognising others and being recognised by them. Democratic socialism, with its emphasis on social [[collectivism]], could be seen as a way of safeguarding this dependency.

In recent years, some have suggested replacing "democratic" with "participatory" upon seeing the reduction of the former to parliamentarism.

==History==
===Forerunners and formative influences===

[[Fenner Brockway]], a leading British democratic socialist of the [[Independent Labour Party]], wrote in his book ''Britain's First Socialists'':

<blockquote>The [[Levellers]] were pioneers of political democracy and the sovereignty of the people; the [[Agitators]] were the pioneers of [[workers' control|participatory control by the ranks at their workplace]]; and the [[Diggers]] were pioneers of communal ownership, [[cooperation]] and [[egalitarianism]]. All three equate to democratic socialism.<ref>Quoted in [[Peter Hain]] ''Ayes to the Left'' Lawrence and Wishart, p.12.</ref></blockquote>

The tradition of the Diggers and the Levellers was continued in the period described by [[EP Thompson]] in ''[[The Making of the English Working Class]]'' by [[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]] groups like the [[London Corresponding Society]] and by polemicists such as [[Thomas Paine]]. Their concern for both democracy and [[social justice]] marks them out as key precursors of democratic socialism.<ref>Isabel Taylor [http://www.zyworld.com/albionmagazineonline/english_radicalism.htm “A Potted History of English Radicalism”] ''Albion Magazine'' Summer 2007; M. Thrale (ed.) ''Selections from the Papers of the London Corresponding Society 1792-1799'' (Cambridge University Press, 1983); E. P. Thompson ''The Making of the English Working Class''. Victor Gollancz Ltd., 1963.</ref>

The term "socialist" was first used in English in the British ''Cooperative Magazine'' in 1827<ref>Hain, op cit, p.13.</ref> and came to be associated with the followers of the [[Wales|Welsh]] reformer [[Robert Owen]], such as the [[Rochdale Pioneers]] who founded the [[co-operative movement]]. Owen's followers again stressed both [[participatory democracy]] and economic socialisation, in the form of consumer [[co-operative]]s, [[credit unions]] and [[mutual aid (organization)|mutual aid]] societies. The [[Chartists]] similarly combined a [[labour movement|working class politics]] with a call for greater democracy. Many countries have this.

The British [[moral philosopher]] [[John Stuart Mill]] also came to advocate a form of economic socialism within a [[Liberalism|liberal]] context. In later editions of his ''[[Principles of Political Economy]]'' (1848), Mill would argue that "as far as economic theory was concerned, there is nothing in principle in economic theory that precludes an economic order based on socialist policies".<ref>Wilson, Fred. "[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mill/John Stuart Mill]". ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', 10 July 2007. Retrieved 17 March 2008.</ref><ref>"Mill, in contrast, advances a form of liberal democratic socialism for the enlargement of freedom as well as to realize social and distributive justice. He offers a powerful account of economic injustice and justice that is centered on his understanding of freedom and its conditions." Bruce Baum, "[J. S. Mill and Liberal Socialism]", Nadia Urbanati and Alex Zacharas, eds., ''J. S. Mill’s Political Thought: A Bicentennial Reassessment'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007).</ref>

In North America, [[Henry George]] promoted the [[Single Tax]] Movement, which sought a form of democratic socialism via [[progressive taxation]], with tax only on [[natural resource]]s. George remained an advocate of the [[free market]] for the allocation of all other goods and services.<ref>"[http://www.henrygeorge.org/canons.htm Taxes: What Are They Good For?]" Henry George Institute. Retrieved 17 March 2008.</ref>

===Modern democratic socialism===
[[Image:jameskeirhardie.jpg|thumb|right|[[James Keir Hardie]] was an early democratic socialist, who founded the [[Independent Labour Party]] in the United Kingdom]]

Democratic socialism became a prominent movement at the end of the 19th century. In the US, [[Eugene V. Debs]], one of the most famous American socialists, led a movement centered around democratic socialism and made five bids for President, once in 1900 as candidate of the [[Social Democratic Party (United States)|Social Democratic Party]] and then four more times on the ticket of the [[Socialist Party of America]].<ref>Donald Busky, "Democratic Socialism in North America", ''Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey'' especially pp.153-177.</ref> The socialist industrial unionism of [[Daniel DeLeon]] in the [[United States]] represented another strain of early democratic socialism in this period. It favored a form of government based on industrial unions, but which also sought to establish this government after winning at the ballot box.<ref>Donald Busky "Democratic Socialism in North America" ‘’Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey’’ especially pp.150-154.</ref>

[[File:Saragat.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Italian President [[Giuseppe Saragat]]]]
In Britain, the democratic socialist tradition was represented in particular by the [[William Morris]]' [[Socialist League (UK, 1885)|Socialist League]] in the 1880s and by the [[Independent Labour Party]] (ILP) founded by [[Keir Hardie]] in the 1890s, of which [[George Orwell]] would later be a prominent member.<ref>Donald Busky, "Democratic Socialism in Great Britain and Ireland", ''Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey'', pp.83-5 on Morris, pp.91-109 on Hardie and the ILP. On Morris as democratic socialist, see also volume 3 of David Reisman, ed., ''Democratic Socialism in Britain: Classic Texts in Economic and Political Thought, 1825–1952'' and [[E P Thompson]], ''William Morris: Romantic to Revolutionary'' (London: Merlin, 1977). On the ILP as democratic socialist, see also [http://www.the-ilp.org.uk/ilphist.htm The ILP: A Very Brief History]; James, David, Jowitt, Tony, and Laybourn, Keith, eds. ''The Centennial History of the Independent Labour Party''. Halifax: Ryburn, 1992.</ref>

In other parts of Europe, many democratic socialist parties were united in the [[International Working Union of Socialist Parties]] (the "Two and a Half International") in the early 1920s and in the [[London Bureau]] (the "Three and a Half International") in the 1930s. These internationals sought to steer a course between the social democrats of the [[Second International]], who were seen as insufficiently socialist (and had been compromised by their support for [[World War I]]), and the perceived anti-democratic [[Third International]]. The key movements within the Two and a Half International were the ILP and the [[Austromarxism|Austromarxists]], and the main forces in the Three and a Half International were the ILP and the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification ([[POUM]]) of Spain.<ref>F. Peter Wagner, ''Rudolf Hilferding: Theory and Politics of Democratic Socialism'' (Atlantic Highlands 1996).</ref><ref>Janet Polasky, ''The Democratic Socialism of Emile Vandervelde: Between Reform and Revolution'' (Oxford 1995).</ref>

In America, a similar tradition continued to flourish in Debs' [[Socialist Party of America]], especially under the leadership of [[Norman Thomas]].<ref>Robert John Fitrakis, "[http://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/dissertations/AAI9029621 The idea of democratic socialism in America and the decline of the Socialist Party: Eugene Debs, Norman Thomas and Michael Harrington. (Volumes I and II)]" (January 1, 1990). ETD Collection for Wayne State University. Paper AAI9029621. See also "[http://www.dsausa.org/pdf/widemsoc.pdf What is Democratic Socialism? Questions and Answers from the Democratic Socialists of America]".</ref> Senator [[Bernie Sanders]] from Vermont is a self-described democratic socialist, and is the only open socialist to ever be elected to the [[United States Senate]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/04/AR2006110401124.html |title=Exceedingly Social, But Doesn't Like Parties |accessdate=2009-03-17 |publisher=The Washington Post |date=2006-11-05 |quote=Vermont ...[is]... about to send the first avowed socialist to the Senate since ... well ... never. | first=Michael | last=Powell}}</ref>

In the early 1920s, the [[guild socialism]] of [[G. D. H. Cole]] attempted to envision a socialist alternative to [[Soviet]]-style [[authoritarianism]], while [[council communism]] articulated democratic socialist positions in several respects, notably through renouncing the [[vanguard party|vanguard]] role of the revolutionary party and holding that the system of the [[Soviet Union]] was not authentically socialist.<ref>On Cole as democratic socialist, see also volume 7 of David Reisman, ed, ''Democratic Socialism in Britain: Classic Texts in Economic and Political Thought, 1825–1952''.</ref>

In [[Italy]], the [[Italian Democratic Socialist Party]] broke away from the [[Italian Socialist Party]] in 1947, when this latter joined the Soviet-funded [[Italian Communist Party]] to prepare the decisive [[Italian general election, 1948|general election of 1948]]. Despite remaining a minor party in Italian Parliament for fifty years, its leader [[Giuseppe Saragat]] became [[President of Italy]] in 1964.

During [[India]]'s [[Indian independence movement|freedom movement]], many figures on the left of the [[Indian National Congress]] organized themselves as the [[Congress Socialist Party]]. Their politics, and those of the early and intermediate periods of [[Jayaprakash Narayan]]'s career, combined a commitment to the socialist transformation of society with a principled opposition to the one-party authoritarianism they perceived in the [[Stalinist]] revolutionary model. This political current continued in the [[Praja Socialist Party]], the later [[Janata Party]] and the current [[Samajwadi Party]].<ref>"[http://www.kamat.com/database/content/democratic_socialism/ Vikas Kamat Democratic Socialism in India]".</ref><ref>A. Appadorai, "Recent Socialist Thought in India", ''The Review of Politics'' Vol. 30, No. 3 (Jul., 1968), pp. 349-362.</ref>

In the [[Middle East]], the biggest democratic socialist party is the [[Organization of Iranian People's Fedaian (Majority)]].

The ''folkesocialisme'' or [[Popular Socialism|people's socialism]] that emerged as a vital current of the left in [[Scandinavia]] beginning in the 1950s could be characterized as a democratic socialism in the same vein. Former Swedish prime minister [[Olof Palme]] is an important proponent of democratic socialism.<ref>"Därför är jag demokratisk socialist", speech by Olof Palme at the 1982 [[Socialdemokraterna|Social Democratic]] party congress</ref>

==Notable democratic socialists==
*[[Clement Attlee]]
*[[Bernie Sanders]]
*[[Salvador Allende]]
*[[Isabel Allende]]
*[[Léon Blum]]
*[[Leonel Brizola]]
*[[Jean Jaurès]]
*[[Helen Keller]]
*[[George Orwell]]
*[[Bertrand Russell]]
*[[David Schweickart]]
*[[Naomi Klein]]
*[[Ken Livingstone]]
*[[Albert Camus]]
*[[Tony Benn]]
*[[Olof Palme]]
*[[Cornel West]]
*[[J. K. Rowling]]
*[[Jack Layton]]
*[[Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva]]

==See also==
*[[Democratic Socialist Party]]
*[[List of democratic socialist parties and organizations]]
*[[Libertarian socialism]]
*[[Luxemburgism]]
*[[New Democratic Party]]
*[[Participatory democracy]]
*[[Revolutionary socialism]]
*[[Sewer Socialism]]
*[[Social democracy]]
*[[Socialism of the 21st century]]
*[[Soviet democracy]]
*[[Third camp]]
*[[Third Way (centrism)|Third way]]
*[[Workers' council]]
*[[Yellow socialism]]

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=35em}}

==Bibliography==
* Donald F. Busky, ''Democratic Socialism: A Global Survey'' Greenwood Publishing, 2000 ISBN 0-275-96886-3
* [[Roy Hattersley]] ''Choose Freedom: The Future of Democratic Socialism'', Penguin, 1987 ISBN 0140104941
* [[Ralph Miliband]] ''Socialism for a Sceptical Age'' Polity Press, London, 1994
* David Reisman, ed, ''Democratic Socialism in Britain: Classic Texts in Economic and Political Thought, 1825–1952'' Chatto and Pickering, 1996 ISBN 978-1-85196-285-3. (Includes texts by [[William Morris]], [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[GDH Cole]], [[Richard Crossman]] and [[Aneurin Bevan]].)
* [[Norman Thomas]] ''Democratic Socialism: a new appraisal'', [[League for Industrial Democracy]], 1953
* Jim Tomlinson ''Democratic Socialism and Economic Policy: The Attlee Years, 1945-1951'' Cambridge University Press, 1997 ISBN 0521550955

==External links==
* [http://www.ydsusa.org/toward_ds.html Joseph Schwartz and Jason Schulman ''Towards Freedom: The Theory and Practice of Democratic Socialism'']
* [http://www.kamat.com/database/content/democratic_socialism/ Democratic Socialism in India]
* [http://www.zcommunications.org/newinternational.htm Proposal for a Participatory Socialist International]

{{Socialism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Democratic Socialism}}
[[Category:Socialism]]
[[Category:Social democracy]]
[[Category:Democratic socialism]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Political culture]]

[[ast:Socialismu democráticu]]
[[ar:اشتراكية ديمقراطية]]
[[ca:Socialisme democràtic]]
[[cs:Demokratický socialismus]]
[[da:Demokratisk socialisme]]
[[de:Demokratischer Sozialismus]]
[[es:Socialismo democrático]]
[[eo:Demokrata socialismo]]
[[fr:Socialisme démocratique]]
[[ko:민주사회주의]]
[[it:Socialismo democratico]]
[[lt:Demokratinis socializmas]]
[[mk:Демократски социјализам]]
[[ja:民主社会主義]]
[[no:Demokratisk sosialisme]]
[[nn:Demokratisk sosialisme]]
[[pl:Socjalizm demokratyczny]]
[[pt:Socialismo democrático]]
[[ru:Демократический социализм]]
[[sq:Demokracia socialiste]]
[[scn:Sucialìsimu dimucràticu]]
[[simple:Democratic socialism]]
[[sk:Demokratický socializmus]]
[[sr:Демократски социјализам]]
[[sh:Демократски социјализам]]
[[fi:Demokraattinen sosialismi]]
[[sv:Demokratisk socialism]]
[[tr:Demokratik sosyalizm]]
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[[zh:民主社会主义]]

Libertarian socialism

2011-07-01T11:10:23Z

Rami radwan:

{{Libertarianism sidebar}}
'''Libertarian socialism''' (sometimes called '''[[social anarchism]]''',<ref name="Ostergaard 1991. p. 21">[[Geoffrey Ostergaard|Ostergaard, Geoffrey]]. "Anarchism". ''A Dictionary of Marxist Thought''. Blackwell Publishing, 1991. p. 21.</ref><ref name="Noam Chomsky 2004, p. 739">Chomsky, Noam and Carlos Peregrín Otero. ''Language and Politics''. AK Press, 2004, p. 739</ref> and sometimes '''[[left libertarianism]]''')<ref>Bookchin, Murray and Janet Biehl. ''The Murray Bookchin Reader''. Cassell, 1997. p. 170</ref><ref>Hicks, Steven V. and Daniel E. Shannon. ''The American journal of economics and sociolology''. Blackwell Pub, 2003. p. 612</ref> is a group of [[political philosophy|political philosophies]] that promote a non-hierarchical, non-bureaucratic, [[stateless society]] without private property in the [[means of production]]. Libertarian socialism is opposed to all coercive forms of social organization, and promotes [[Free association (communism and anarchism)|free association]] in place of government and opposes what it sees as the coercive social relations of capitalism, such as [[wage labor]]. The term libertarian socialism is used by some socialists to differentiate their philosophy from [[state socialism]]<ref>Paul Zarembka. Transitions in Latin America and in Poland and Syria. Emerald Group Publishing, 2007. p. 25</ref><ref>Guerin, Daniel. ''Anarchism: A Matter of Words'': " Some contemporary anarchists have tried to clear up the misunderstanding by adopting a more explicit term: they align themselves with libertarian socialism or communism." Faatz, Chris, ''Towards a Libertarian Socialism''.</ref> or by some as a synonym for [[left anarchism]].<ref name="Ostergaard 1991. p. 21"/><ref name="Noam Chomsky 2004, p. 739"/><ref>Ross, Dr. Jeffery Ian. ''Controlling State Crime'', Transaction Publishers (200) p. 400</ref>

Adherents of libertarian socialism assert that a society based on freedom and equality can be achieved through abolishing [[authoritarian]] institutions that control certain [[means of production]] and subordinate the majority to an owning class or political and economic elite.<ref>Mendes, Silva. ''Socialismo Libertário ou Anarchismo'' Vol. 1 (1896): "Society should be free through mankind's spontaneous federative affiliation to life, based on the community of land and tools of the trade; meaning: Anarchy will be equality by abolition of private property and liberty by abolition of authority"</ref> Libertarian socialism also constitutes a tendency of thought that promotes the identification, criticism and practical dismantling of illegitimate authority in all aspects of life.

Accordingly, libertarian socialists believe that "the exercise of power in any institutionalized form—whether economic, political, religious, or sexual—brutalizes both the wielder of power and the one over whom it is exercised."<ref>{{cite book | last=Ackelsberg | first=Martha A. | title=Free Women of Spain: Anarchism and the Struggle for the Emancipation of Women | page=41 | year=2005 | publisher=[[AK Press]] | isbn=978-1-902593-96-8}}</ref> Libertarian socialists generally place their hopes in decentralized means of [[direct democracy]] such as [[libertarian municipalism]], citizens' assemblies, [[trade union]]s and [[workers' council]]s.<ref>{{cite book | last=Rocker | first=Rudolf | title=Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice | page=65 | year=2004 | publisher=[[AK Press]] | isbn=978-1-902593-92-0 }}</ref>

Political philosophies commonly described as libertarian socialist include most varieties of [[anarchism]] (especially [[anarchist communism]], [[Collectivist anarchism|anarchist collectivism]], [[anarcho-syndicalism]],<ref>{{cite book | last=Sims | first=Franwa | title=The Anacostia Diaries As It Is | page=160 | year=2006 | publisher=Lulu Press}}</ref> [[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]<ref>[http://www.mutualist.org/id32.html A Mutualist FAQ: A.4. Are Mutualists Socialists?]</ref>) as well as [[autonomism]], [[Communalism (Political Philosophy)|communalism]], [[participism]], some versions of [[individualist anarchism]], and also [[libertarian Marxist]] philosophies such as [[council communism]] and [[Luxemburgism]].<ref>Murray Bookchin, ''Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism''; [[Robert Graham (historian)|Robert Graham]], ''The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution''</ref>

== Overview ==

Libertarian socialism is a western philosophy with diverse interpretations, though some general commonalities can be found in its many incarnations. Its proponents generally advocate a worker-oriented system of production and organization in the workplace that in some aspects radically departs from [[neoclassical economics]] in favor of democratic cooperatives or common ownership of the means of production ([[socialism]]).<ref>Brooks, Frank H. ''The Individualist Anarchists: An Anthology of Liberty'' Transaction Publishers (1994) p. 75</ref> They propose that this economic system be executed in a manner that attempts to maximize the [[liberty]] of [[individual]]s and minimize concentration of power or authority ([[libertarianism]]).

[[File:Noam chomsky cropped.jpg|thumb|right|[[Noam Chomsky]], a noted libertarian socialist.]]

Libertarian socialists are strongly critical of coercive institutions, which often leads them to reject the legitimacy of the state in favor of anarchism.<ref>Spiegel, Henry. ''The Growth of Economic Thought'' Duke University Press (1991) p.446</ref> Adherents propose achieving this through decentralization of political and economic power, usually involving the socialization of most large-scale property and enterprise. Libertarian socialism tends to deny the legitimacy of most forms of economically significant private property, viewing capitalist property relations as forms of domination that are antagonistic to individual freedom.<ref>Paul, Ellen Frankel et al. ''Problems of Market Liberalism'' Cambridge University Press (1998) p.305</ref>

The first person to describe himself as a libertarian was [[Joseph Déjacque]], an early French [[Anarchist communism|anarchist communist]]. The word stems from the [[French language|French]] word ''libertaire'', and was used to evade the French ban on anarchist publications.<ref>[[wikt:Libertarian|Wikiquote]]. Retrieved June 4, 2006.</ref> In this tradition, the term "libertarianism" in "libertarian socialism" is generally used as a synonym for [[anarchism]], which some say is the original meaning of the term; hence "libertarian socialism" is equivalent to "socialist anarchism" to these scholars.<ref>Noam Chomsky, Carlos Peregrín Otero. Language and Politics. AK Press, 2004, p. 739.</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Perlin |first=Terry M. |title=Contemporary Anarchism |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1979 |page=40|isbn=978-0-87855-097-5}}</ref> In the context of the European socialist movement, ''libertarian'' has conventionally been used to describe those who opposed state socialism, such as [[Mikhail Bakunin]]. In the United States, the movement most commonly called [[libertarianism]] follows a capitalist philosophy; the term ''libertarian socialism'' therefore strikes many Americans as a contradiction in terms.

However, the association of socialism with libertarianism predates that of capitalism, and many anti-authoritarians still decry what they see as a mistaken association of capitalism with libertarianism in the United States.<ref>Bookchin, Murray. ''The Modern Crisis'' Black Rose Books (1987) p.154–55</ref> As [[Noam Chomsky]] put it, a consistent libertarian "must oppose private ownership of the means of production and the [[wage slavery]], which is a component of this system, as incompatible with the principle that labor must be freely undertaken and under the control of the producer."<ref>Chomsky, Noam. Otero, Carlos. ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Y75K660UfzsC&pg=PA26&vq=%22a+consistent+libertarian%22&source=gbs_search_r&cad=1_1&sig=ACfU3U2w0FYsroDsqLlqB0d7kSxjhOS4Dg Radical Priorities]'' AK Press (2003) p.26</ref>

In a chapter recounting the history of libertarian socialism, economist [[Robin Hahnel]] relates that thus far the period where libertarian socialism has had its greatest impact was at the end of the 19th century through the first four decades of the twentieth century.

<blockquote>Early in the twentieth century, libertarian socialism was as powerful a force as social democracy and communism. The [[Anarchist St. Imier International|Libertarian International– founded at the Congress of Saint Imier]] a few days after the split between Marxist and libertarians at the congress of the [[First International|Socialist International]] held in [[Hague Congress (1872)|The Hague in 1872]]– competed successfully against social democrats and communists alike for the loyalty of anticapitalist activists, revolutionaries, workers, unions and political parties for over fifty years. Libertarian socialists played a major role in the Russian revolutions of [[Russian Revolution (1905)|1905]] and [[Russian Revolution (1917)|1917]]. Libertarian socialists played a dominant role in the [[Mexican Revolution]] of 1911. Twenty years after World War I was over, libertarian socialists were still strong enough to spearhead the [[Spanish Revolution|social revolution that swept across Republican Spain]] in 1936 and 1937.<ref>Hahnel, Robin. ''Economic Justice and Democracy'', Routledge Press, 138</ref></blockquote>

=== Anti-capitalism ===

{{main|Anti-capitalism}}
{{Socialism sidebar}}

Libertarian socialists assert that when power is exercised, as exemplified by the economic, social, or physical dominance of one individual over another, the burden of proof is always on the authoritarian to justify their action as legitimate when taken against its effect of narrowing the scope of human freedom.<ref>Chomsky, Noam. 'Language and Politics' AK Press (2004) p.775</ref> Typical examples of legitimate exercise of power would include the use of physical force to rescue someone from being injured by an oncoming vehicle, or self-defense. Libertarian socialists typically oppose rigid and stratified structures of authority, be they [[political power|political]], [[economic power|economic]], or social.<ref>Ed, Andrew. 'Closing the Iron Cage: The Scientific Management of Work and Leisure' Black Rose Books (1999) p. 116</ref>

Libertarian socialists believe that all social bonds should be developed by [[individuals]] who have an equal amount of [[Negotiation|bargaining]] power, that an accumulation of economic power in the hands of a few and the centralization of political power both reduce the bargaining power—and thus the liberty of the other individuals in society.<ref>Brown, Susan. 'The Politics of Individualism' Black Rose Books (2003) p.117</ref> To put it another way, capitalist (and [[libertarianism|right-libertarian]]) principles concentrate economic power in the hands of those who own the most capital. Libertarian socialism aims to distribute power, and thus freedom, more equally amongst members of society. A key difference between libertarian socialism and capitalist libertarianism is that advocates of the former generally believe that one's degree of freedom is affected by one's economic and social status, whereas advocates of the latter focus on freedom of choice. This is sometimes characterized as a desire to maximize "free creativity" in a society in preference to "free enterprise."<ref>Otero, C.P. in Chomsky, Noam. ''Radical Priorities'', Black Rose Books, 1981, pp. 30-31</ref>

Libertarian socialists believe if freedom is valued, then society must work towards a system in which individuals have the power to decide economic issues along with political issues. Libertarian socialists seek to replace unjustified authority with [[direct democracy]], voluntary [[federation]], and popular autonomy in all aspects of life,<ref>Harrington, Austin, et al. 'Encyclopedia of Social Theory' Routledge (2006) p.50</ref> including physical [[Community|communities]] and economic [[Business|enterprises]].

Many libertarian socialists argue that large-scale voluntary associations should manage industrial manufacture, while workers retain rights to the individual products of their labor.<ref>Lindemann, Albert S. 'A History of European Socialism' Yale University Press (1983) p.160</ref> As such, they see a distinction between the concepts of "private property" and "personal possession". Whereas "private property" grants an individual exclusive control over a thing whether it is in use or not, and regardless of its productive capacity, "possession" grants no rights to things that are not in use.<ref>Ely, Richard et al. 'Property and Contract in Their Relations to the Distribution of Wealth' The Macmillan Company (1914)</ref>

===Opposition to the state===
{{main|Anti-statism}}
{{Anarchism sidebar}}

Libertarian socialists regard all{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} concentrations of power as sources of oppression that must be continually challenged and justified. Opposition generally first begins with large [[Corporation#Criticisms|corporations]] for inherently being designed as private tyrannies; and secondly the [[State (polity)|state]], because citizens can vote for their state's representatives and often have some means of democratic participation, even if a nation state is violating its social contract.

In lieu of corporations and states, libertarian socialists seek to organize themselves into voluntary associations (usually [[collective]]s, [[intentional community|communes]], [[municipalities]], [[cooperative]]s, [[commons]], or [[Syndicalism|syndicates]]) that use [[direct democracy]] or [[consensus]] for their decision-making process. Some libertarian socialists advocate combining these institutions using rotating, recallable [[Wiktionary:Delegate|delegates]] to higher-level [[federation]]s.<ref>Bookchin, Murray. 'Social Anarchism Or Lifestyle Anarchism' AK Press (1995) p.71-72</ref> [[Spanish anarchism]] is a major example of such federations in practice.

Contemporary examples of libertarian socialist organizational and decision-making models in practice include a number of anti-capitalist and global justice movements<ref>Purkis, Jon. Bowen, James. 'Changing Anarchism' Manchester University Press (2004) p.165,179</ref> including [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista]] [[Councils of Good Government]] and the Global [[Indymedia]] network (which covers 45 countries on six continents). There are also many examples of [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] societies around the world whose political and economic systems can be accurately described as [[anarchism|anarchist]] or libertarian socialist, each of which is unique and uniquely suited to the culture that birthed it.<ref>Graeber, David. "Fragments of an Anarchist Anthropology" Prickly Paradigm Press (2004) p. 22–23, 26–29</ref> For libertarians, that diversity of practice within a framework of common principles is proof of the vitality of those principles and of their flexibility and strength.

Contrary to popular opinion, libertarian socialism has not traditionally been a [[utopia]]n movement, tending to avoid dense [[Theory|theoretical]] analysis or prediction of what a future society would or should look like. The tradition instead has been that such decisions cannot be made now, and must be made through struggle and experimentation, so that the best solution can be arrived at democratically and organically, and to base the direction for struggle on established historical example. Supporters often suggest that this focus on exploration over predetermination is one of their great strengths. They point out that the success of the [[scientific method]] comes from its adherence to open [[Rationality|rational]] exploration, not its conclusions, rather than [[dogma]] and predetermined predictions.

Although critics claim that they are avoiding questions they cannot answer, libertarian socialists believe that a methodological approach to exploration is the best way to achieve their social goals. To them, dogmatic approaches to social organization are doomed to failure; and thus reject Marxist notions of [[Historical materialism|linear and inevitable historical progression]]. Noted anarchist [[Rudolf Rocker]] once stated, "I am an anarchist not because I believe anarchism is the final goal, but because there is no such thing as a final goal" (''The London Years'', 1956).

Because libertarian socialism encourages exploration and embraces a diversity of ideas rather than forming a compact movement, there have arisen inevitable controversies over individuals who describe themselves as libertarian socialists but disagree with some of the core principles of libertarian socialism. For example, [[Peter Hain]] interprets libertarian socialism as minarchist rather than anarchist, favoring radical decentralization of power without going as far as the complete abolition of the state<ref>Hain, Peter "Rediscovering our Libertarian Roots" Chartist (August 2000)</ref> and libertarian socialist [[Noam Chomsky]] supports dismantling all forms of unjustified social or economic power, while also emphasizing that state intervention should be supported as a temporary protection while oppressive structures remain in existence.

Proponents are known for opposing the existence of states or [[government]] and refusing to participate in coercive state institutions. Indeed, in the past many refused to swear oaths in [[court]] or to participate in trials, even when they faced imprisonment<ref>Bookchin, Murray. 'The Spanish Anarchists: the heroic years, 1868-1936' AK Press (1998) p. 112.</ref> or deportation.<ref>Polenberg, Richard. 'Fighting Faiths: The Abrams Case, the Supreme Court, and Free Speech' Cornell University Press (1999) p.127-130</ref> The libertarian socialist [[Freedom and Solidarity Party]] in Turkey is an exception to this.

===Violent and non-violent means===
Some libertarian socialists see violent revolution as necessary in the abolition of capitalist society. Along with many others, [[Errico Malatesta]] argued that the use of violence was necessary; as he put it in ''[[Umanità Nova]]'' (no. 125, September 6, 1921):

{{Block quote|It is our aspiration and our aim that everyone should become socially conscious and effective; but to achieve this end, it is necessary to provide all with the means of life and for development, and it is therefore necessary to destroy with violence, since one cannot do otherwise, the violence that denies these means to the workers.<ref>[[Umanità Nova]], n. 125, September 6, 1921. (A translation can be found at [http://www.marxists.org/archive/malatesta/1921/09/haste.htm The revolutionary haste by Errico Malatesta]. Retrieved June 17, 2006.</ref>}}

[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] argued in favor of a [[non-violent revolution]]. The progression towards violence in anarchism stemmed, in part, from the massacres of some of the communes inspired by the ideas of Proudhon and others. Many anarcho-communists began to see a need for revolutionary violence to counteract the violence inherent in both capitalism and government.<ref>Goldman, Emma. 'Anarchism and Other Essays' Mother Earth (1910) p.113.</ref>

==Political roots==
===Anarchism===
As [[Albert Meltzer]] and [[Stuart Christie]] stated in their book ''The Floodgates of Anarchy'', anarchism has:

{{Block quote|...its particular inheritance, part of which it shares with socialism, giving it a [[family resemblance]] to certain of its enemies. Another part of its inheritance it shares with [[liberalism]], making it, at birth, kissing-cousins with American-type radical [[individualism]], a large part of which has married out of the family into the [[Right Wing]] and is no longer on speaking terms. (''The Floodgates of Anarchy'', 1970, page 39.)}}

That is, anarchism arose as a cross between socialism and liberalism, incorporating the anti-capitalist attitude of socialists and the anti-statist, what would today be called libertarian, attitude of [[classical liberalism]]. [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], who is often considered the father of modern anarchism, coined the phrase "[[Property is theft]]" to describe part of his view on the complex nature of ownership in relation to freedom. When he said property is theft, he was referring to the capitalist who he believed stole profit from laborers. For Proudhon, the capitalist's employee was "subordinated, exploited: his permanent condition is one of obedience."<ref>''[http://fair-use.org/p-j-proudhon/general-idea-of-the-revolution/organization-of-economic-forces#s3p5 General Idea of the Revolution in the Nineteenth Century'' (1851), Sixth Study, § 3 ¶ 5].</ref>
[[File:Peter Kropotkin circa 1900.jpg|200px|left|thumb|[[Peter Kropotkin]], main theorist of [[anarcho-communism]]]]
Seventeen years (1857) after Proudhon first called himself an anarchist (1840), [[anarchist communist]] [[Joseph Déjacque]] was the first person to describe himself as a libertarian.<ref name="dejacque">[http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle–Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in [[French language|French]])</ref> Outside the United States, "libertarian" generally refers to anti-authoritarian [[anticapitalist|anti-capitalist]] ideologies.<ref>[http://www.infoshop.org/faq/secA1.html#seca13 An Anarchism FAQ - A.1 What is anarchism?]</ref> For these reasons the term "libertarian socialism" is today almost synonymous with anarchism, outside of the US the term "libertarian socialism" would be considered redundant.{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}}

Back in the United States, [[Henry George]] spearheaded the [[Single Tax]] Movement, which sought socialism via progressive taxation, with tax only on natural resources. This might be seen as a predecessor to libertarian socialism trends there.

Libertarian socialism has its roots in both classical liberalism and socialism, though it is often in conflict with liberalism (especially [[neoliberalism]] and [[right-libertarianism]]) and authoritarian [[State socialism]] simultaneously. While libertarian socialism has roots in both socialism and liberalism, different forms have different levels of influence from the two traditions. For instance [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualist]] anarchism is more influenced by liberalism while [[Communist anarchism|communist]] and [[Anarcho-syndicalism|syndicalist]] anarchism are more influenced by socialism. It is interesting to note, however, that mutualist anarchism has its origins in 18th and 19th century European socialism (such as [[Charles Fourier|Fourierian socialism]])<ref>Swartz, Clarence Lee. What is Mutualism?</ref><ref>"Ricardian Socialism". The Blackwell Encyclopaedia of Political Thought. 1987. p. 441</ref> while communist and syndicalist anarchism has its earliest origins in early 18th century liberalism (such as the [[French Revolution]]).<ref>[[Robert Graham (historian)|Graham, Robert]]. [[Anarchism - A Documentary History of Libertarian Ideas]] - Volume One: From Anarchy to Anarchism (300CE to 1939), Black Rose Books, 2005</ref>

===Marxism===
{{Ref improve section|date=October 2010}}
In rejecting both capitalism and the state, some libertarian socialists align themselves with anarchists in opposition to both capitalist [[representative democracy]] and to authoritarian forms of [[Marxism]]. Although anarchists and Marxists share an ultimate goal of a stateless society, anarchists criticise most Marxists for advocating a transitional phase under which the state is used to achieve this aim. Nonetheless, libertarian Marxist tendencies such as [[autonomist Marxism]] and [[council communism]] have historically been intertwined with the anarchist movement.

Anarchist movements have come into conflict with both capitalist and Marxist forces, sometimes at the same time, as in the [[Spanish Civil War]], though as in that war Marxists themselves are often divided in support or opposition to anarchism. Other political persecutions under [[Bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] parties have resulted in a strong historical antagonism between anarchists and libertarian Marxists on the one hand and [[Leninism|Leninist]] Marxists and their derivatives such as [[Maoism|Maoists]] on the other. In recent history, however, libertarian socialists have repeatedly formed temporary alliances with Marxist-Leninist groups for the purposes of protest against institutions they both reject.

Part of this antagonism can be traced to the [[International Workingmen's Association]], the ''[[First International]]'', a congress of [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] workers, where [[Mikhail Bakunin]], who was fairly representative of anarchist views, and [[Karl Marx]], whom anarchists accused of being an "authoritarian", came into conflict on various issues. Bakunin's viewpoint on the illegitimacy of the state as an institution and the role of [[electoral politics]] was starkly counterposed to Marx's views in the First International. Marx and Bakunin's disputes eventually led to Marx taking control of the First International and expelling Bakunin and his followers from the organization. This was the beginning of a long-running feud and schism between libertarian socialists and what they call "authoritarian communists", or alternatively just "authoritarians".

Some Marxists have formulated views that closely resemble [[syndicalism]], and thus express more affinity with anarchist ideas. Several libertarian socialists, notably [[Noam Chomsky]], believe that anarchism shares much in common with certain variants of Marxism such as the [[council communism]] of Marxist [[Anton Pannekoek]]. In Chomsky's ''[[Notes on Anarchism]]'',<ref>[http://www.chomsky.info/articles/1970----.htm Notes on Anarchism] by Noam Chomsky</ref> he suggests the possibility "that some form of council communism is the natural form of [[revolutionary socialism]] in an [[industrialization|industrial]] society. It reflects the belief that democracy is severely limited when the industrial system is controlled by any form of autocratic elite, whether of owners, managers, and technocrats, a '[[Vanguard party|vanguard' party]], or a State bureaucracy."

[[Autonomist Marxism]], [[Neo-Marxism]] and [[Situationist International|Situationist theory]] are also regarded as being [[anti-authoritarian]] variants of Marxism that are firmly within the libertarian socialist tradition. Similarly, [[William Morris]] is regarded as both a libertarian socialist and a Marxist.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}

{{See also|Anarchism and Marxism}}

==Notable libertarian socialist tendencies==
===Mutualism===
{{Main|Mutualism (economic theory)}}
[[File:Proudhon-children.jpg|right|thumb|[[Proudhon]] and his children, by [[Gustave Courbet]] (1865).]]

Mutualism is a political and economic theory largely associated with [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]]. Proudhon argued that "all capital, whether material or mental, being the result of collective labour, is, in consequence, collective property."<ref name="ReferenceA">Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. 'What is Property?'</ref> This meant that artisans would manage the tools required for their own work while, in large scale enterprises, this meant replacing wage labour by workers' co-operatives. He argued "it is necessary to form an ASSOCIATION among workers . . . because without that, they would remain related as subordinates and superiors, and there would ensue two . . . castes of masters and wage-workers, which is repugnant to a free and democratic society."<ref>Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. ''The General Idea of the revolution'' Freedom Press (1923)</ref> As he put it in 1848:

"Under the law of association, transmission of wealth does not apply to the instruments of labour, so cannot become a cause of inequality... We are socialists... under universal association, ownership of the land and of the instruments of labour is ''social'' ownership... We want the mines, canals, railways handed over to democratically organised workers' associations... We want these associations to be models for agriculture, industry and trade, the pioneering core of that vast federation of companies and societies, joined together in the common bond of the democratic and social Republic."<ref>Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. 'Oeuvres Complètes' (Lacroix edition), volume 17, pages 188-9</ref>

Mutualists believe that a free labor market would allow for conditions of equal income in proportion to exerted labor.<ref name="Tandy-96">Tandy, Francis D., 1896, ''[[Voluntary Socialism]]'', chapter 6, paragraphs 9, 10, 15, 19 & 22. Carson, Kevin, 2004, ''Studies in Mutualist Political Economy'', chapter 2 (after Meek & Oppenheimer).</ref> As Jonathan Beecher puts it, Proudhon's aim was to, "emancipate labor from the constraints imposed by capital".<ref>{{cite book |last=Beecher |first=Jonathan F. |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Victor Considerant and the Rise and Fall of French Romantic Socialism |year=2001 |page=155 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location= |isbn=978-0-520-22297-7}}</ref>

Proudhon supported individual possession of land and argued that the "land is indispensable to our existence, consequently a common thing, consequently insusceptible of appropriation." <ref name="ReferenceA"/> He believed that an individual only had a right to land while he was using or occupying it. If the individual ceases doing so, it reverts to unowned land.<ref>Swartz, Clarence Lee. [http://www.panarchy.org/swartz/mutualism.6.html What is Mutualism? VI. Land and Rent]</ref> Mutualists hold a [[labor theory of value]], arguing that in exchange labor should always be worth "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility,"<ref name="Tandy-96">Tandy, Francis D., 1896, ''[[Voluntary Socialism]]'', chapter 6, paragraph 15.</ref> and considering anything less to be exploitation, theft of labor, or [[usury]].

Mutualists oppose the institutions by which individuals gain income through loans, investments, and rent, as they believe the income received through these activities is not in direct accord with labor spent.<ref name="Tandy-96">Tandy, Francis D., 1896, ''[[Voluntary Socialism]]'', chapter 6, paragraph 19. Carson, Kevin, 2004, ''Studies in Mutualist Political Economy'', chapter 2 (after Ricardo, Dobb & Oppenheimer).</ref> In place of these capitalist institutions they advocate [[Worker cooperative|labor-owned cooperative firms]] and associations.<ref>Hymans, E., ''Pierre-Joseph Proudhon'', pp. 190-1, Woodcock, George. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'', Broadview Press, 2004, pp. 110 & 112</ref> Mutualists advocate mutual banks, owned by the workers, that do not charge interest on secured loans. Most mutualists believe that anarchy should be achieved gradually rather than through revolution.<ref>http://mutualist.org/</ref>

[[Worker cooperative]]s such as the [[Mondragón Cooperative Corporation]] follow an economic model similar to that of mutualism. The model followed by the corporation [[WL Gore and Associates]], inventor of [[Gore-Tex]] fabrics, is also similar to mutualism as there is no chain of command and salaries are determined collectively by the workers.

[[G.D.H. Cole]]'s [[guild socialism]] was similar to mutualism.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wyatt | first1 = C | year = | title = A recipe for a cookshop of the future: G. D. H. Cole and the conundrum of sovereignty | url = http://www.cseweb.org.uk/pdfs/CC90/5.%20Wyatt.pdf | journal = Capital and Class | volume = 90 | issue = | page = 2006 }}</ref> Today, mutualism's stress on worker association is similar to the more developed modern theory of [[participatory economics]], although participatory economists do not believe in markets.

Mutualist anarchist ideas continue to have influence today, even if indirectly. Many modern day [[workers' cooperative|cooperatives]] are influenced directly or indirectly by economic mutualism that became popular in the late 19th century.<ref>[http://aia.mahost.org/pro_coop.html Anarchism In Action: Cooperatives]</ref>

Some [[individualist anarchists]], such as [[Benjamin Tucker]], were influenced by Proudhon's Mutualism, but unlike Proudhon, they did not call for "association" in large enterprises.<ref>Woodcock, George. ''Anarchism: A History of Libertarian Ideas and Movements'', Broadview Press, 2004, p. 20</ref>

=== Collectivist anarchism ===
{{Main| Collectivist anarchism}}
[[File:Bakunin.png|upright|thumb|left|[[Mikhail Bakunin]]]]
Collectivist anarchism (also known as anarcho-collectivism) is a revolutionary<ref name="Patsouras, Louis 2005. p. 54">Patsouras, Louis. 2005. Marx in Context. iUniverse. p. 54</ref> doctrine that advocates the abolition of the [[State (polity)|state]] and [[private property|private ownership]] of the [[means of production]]. Instead, it envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves.

For the [[collectivization]] of the means of production, it was originally envisaged that workers will revolt and forcibly collectivize the means of production<ref name="Patsouras, Louis 2005. p. 54"/> Once collectivization takes place, [[worker]]s' salaries would be determined in democratic organizations based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market.<ref>Bakunin Mikail. Bakunin on Anarchism. Black Rose Books. 1980. p. 369</ref> This contrasts with [[anarcho-communism]] where wages would be abolished, and where individuals would take freely from a storehouse of goods "to each according to his need." Thus, Bakunin's "Collectivist Anarchism," notwithstanding the title, is seen as a blend of [[individualism]] and [[collectivism]].<ref>Morriss, Brian. Bakukunin: The Philosophy of Freedom. Black Rose Books Ltd., 1993. p. 115</ref>

Collectivist anarchism is most commonly associated with [[Mikhail Bakunin]], the [[anti-authoritarian]] sections of the [[First International]], and the early [[Anarchism in Spain|Spanish anarchist movement]].

===Anarchist communism===
{{Main|Anarchist communism}}
[[File:ErricoMalatesta.gif|upright|thumb|right|[[Errico Malatesta]], 1891]]
Anarchist communism was first formulated in the [[Italy|Italian]] section of the [[First International]], by [[Carlo Cafiero]], [[Errico Malatesta]], [[Andrea Costa]], and other ex-[[Giuseppe Mazzini|Mazzinian]] [[Republicanism|republicans]]. It was later expanded by such anarchist thinkers as [[Peter Kropotkin]], who formulated his anarchist communist world view in books such as ''[[The Conquest of Bread]]'' and ''[[Fields, Factories and Workshops]]''. Out of respect for [[Mikhail Bakunin]], they did not make their differences from standard [[anarchism]] explicit until after the latter's death.<ref>Guillaume, James. [http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/guillaume/works/bakunin.htm Michael Bakunin - A Biographical Sketch]</ref> In 1876, at the Florence Conference of the Italian Federation of the International (which was actually held in a forest outside [[Florence]], due to [[police]] activity), they declared the principles of anarcho-communism, beginning with the following:

{{quotation|The Italian Federation considers the collective property of the products of labour as the necessary complement to the collectivist programme, the aid of all for the satisfaction of the needs of each being the only rule of production and consumption, which corresponds to the principle of solidarity. The federal congress at Florence has eloquently demonstrated the opinion of the Italian International on this point...}}

This report was made in an article by Malatesta and Cafiero in the (Swiss) [[Jura federation]]'s bulletin later that year. Cafiero notes, in ''Anarchie et Communisme'', that private property in the product of labor will lead to unequal accumulation of capital, and therefore undesirable class distinctions.

Anarcho-communists hold that the liberation of the individual, as well as the abolition of [[wage slavery]] and the State, requires the introduction of a free distribution economy, and therefore the abolition of the market.<ref>Light, Andrew 'Social Ecology after Bookchin' Guilford Press (1998) p.314</ref> In this belief they are contrasted with some anarchists and libertarian socialists who advocate collective ownership with market elements and sometimes [[barter]]. Anarcho-communists assert that a [[gift economy]] can be operated by collectives through [[direct democracy]].

As [[Peter Kropotkin]] put it, "We must recognize, and loudly proclaim, that every one, whatever his grade in the old society, whether strong or weak, capable or incapable, has, before everything, THE RIGHT TO LIVE, and that society is bound to share amongst all, without exception, the means of existence at its disposal." (Conquest of Bread ch. 3)

Anarcho-communist currents include [[platformism]] and [[insurrectionary anarchism]].

===Anarcho-syndicalism===
{{Main|Anarcho-syndicalism}}

Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of [[anarchism]] that focuses on the [[labor union|labor movement]].<ref>Sorel, Georges. 'Political Theorists in Context' Routledge (2004) p. 248</ref> Anarcho-syndicalists view [[trade union|labor unions]] as a potential force for [[revolution]]ary social change, replacing capitalism and the [[State (polity)|state]] with a new society democratically self-managed by workers.

The basic principles of anarcho-syndicalism are:
:# Workers' [[Wiktionary:Solidarity|solidarity]]
:# [[Direct action]]
:# [[Workers' self-management]]
[[File:Anarchist flag.svg|right|thumb|Flag often used by anarcho-syndicalists and anarcho-communists, and the flag of [[Anarchist Catalonia]], a 20th-century example of an anarcho-communist society]]

Workers' solidarity means that anarcho-syndicalists believe all workers—no matter their [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[gender]], or [[ethnic]] group—are in a similar situation in regard to their [[Wiktionary:Boss|boss]] ([[class consciousness]]). Furthermore, it means that, within capitalism, any gains or losses made by some workers from or to bosses will eventually affect all workers. Therefore, to [[Wiktionary:Liberate|liberate]] themselves, all workers must support one another in their [[class conflict]].

Anarcho-syndicalists believe that only [[direct action]]—that is, action concentrated on directly attaining a goal, as opposed to indirect action, such as electing a representative to a government position—will allow workers to liberate themselves.<ref>Rocker, Rudolf. 'Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice' AK Press (2004) p. 73</ref>

Moreover, anarcho-syndicalists believe that workers' organizations (the organizations that struggle against the wage system, which, in anarcho-syndicalist theory, will eventually form the basis of a new society) should be self-managing. They should not have bosses or "business agents"; rather, the workers should be able to make all the decisions that affect them themselves.

[[Rudolf Rocker]] was one of the most popular voices in the anarcho-syndicalist movement. He outlined a view of the origins of the movement, what it sought, and why it was important to the future of labor in his 1938 pamphlet ''Anarcho-Syndicalism''.

The [[International Workers Association]] is an international anarcho-syndicalist federation of various labor unions from different countries. The [[Spain|Spanish]] [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] played and still plays a major role in the Spanish [[labor movement]]. It was also an important force in the [[Spanish Civil War]].

===Council and left communism===
{{Main|Council Communism|Left communism}}
Council communism was a radical [[left-wing politics|Left]] movement originating in [[Germany]] and the [[Netherlands]] in the 1920s. Its primary organization was the [[Communist Workers Party of Germany]] (KAPD). Council communism continues today as a theoretical and [[activist]] position within [[Marxism]], and also within libertarian socialism. The central argument of council communism, in contrast to those of [[Social democracy]] and [[Leninism|Leninist]] [[communism]], is that [[workers' councils]] arising in the factories and municipalities are the natural and legitimate form of [[working class]] organisation and government power. This view is opposed to the [[reformist]] and [[Bolshevik]] stress on [[Vanguard party|vanguard parties]], [[parliament]]s, or the [[State (polity)|state]].

The core principle of council communism is that the state and the economy should be managed by [[workers' councils]], composed of delegates elected at workplaces and recallable at any moment. As such, council communists oppose state-run "bureaucratic socialism". They also oppose the idea of a "revolutionary party", since council communists believe that a revolution led by a party will necessarily produce a party [[dictatorship]]. Council communists support a workers' democracy, which they want to produce through a federation of workers' councils.
[[File:Rosa Luxemburg.jpg|200px|right|thumb|[[Rosa Luxemburg]]]]
The [[Russian language|Russian]] word for council is "[[Soviet (council)|soviet]]", and during the early years of the revolution worker's councils were politically significant in [[Russia]]. It was to take advantage of the [[Aura (paranormal)|aura]] of workplace power that the word became used by [[Lenin]] for various political organs. Indeed, the name "[[Supreme Soviet]]", by which the parliament was called; and that of the [[Soviet Union]] itself make use of this terminology, but they do not imply any [[decentralization]].

Furthermore, council communists held a critique of the [[Soviet Union]] as a capitalist state, believing that the [[Bolshevik]] revolution in Russia became a "[[bourgeois]] revolution" when a party bureaucracy replaced the old [[feudal]] [[aristocracy]]. Although most felt the [[October Revolution|Russian Revolution]] was working class in character, they believed that, since capitalist relations still existed (because the workers had no say in running the economy), the Soviet Union ended up as a [[state capitalist]] country, with the state replacing the individual capitalist. Thus, council communists support workers' revolutions, but oppose one-party dictatorships.

Council communists also believed in diminishing the role of the party to one of [[agitprop|agitation]] and [[propaganda]], rejected all participation in [[elections]] or parliament, and argued that workers should leave the reactionary trade unions and form one big revolutionary union.

Left communism' is the range of [[Communism|communist]] viewpoints held by the communist left, which criticizes the political ideas of the [[Bolsheviks]] at certain periods, from a position that is asserted to be more authentically [[Marxism|Marxist]] and [[Proletariat|proletarian]] than the views of [[Leninism]] held by the [[Communist International]] after its first and during its second congress.

Left Communists see themselves to the left of [[Leninism|Leninists]] (whom they tend to see as 'left of capital', not socialists), [[Anarchist Communism|Anarchists]] (some of whom they consider internationalist socialists) as well as some other revolutionary socialist tendencies (for example [[De Leonism|De Leonists]], who they tend to see as being internationalist socialists only in limited instances).

Although she lived before left communism became a distinct tendency, [[Rosa Luxemburg]] has heavily influenced most left communists, both politically and theoretically. Proponents of left communism have included [[Amadeo Bordiga]], [[Herman Gorter]], [[Anton Pannekoek]], [[Otto Rühle]], [[Karl Korsch]], [[Sylvia Pankhurst]] and [[Paul Mattick]].

Prominent [[list of left communist internationals|left communist groups existing today]] include the [[International Communist Current]] and the [[International Bureau for the Revolutionary Party]]. Also, different factions from the old Bordigist [[International Communist Party]] are considered left communist organizations.

===Johnson-Forest tendency===
{{Main|Johnson-Forest Tendency}}
[[File:RD lecture2.jpg|150px|left|thumb|[[Raya Dunayevskaya]]]]The Johnson-Forest tendency, sometimes called the Johnsonites, refers to a radical left tendency in the [[United States]] associated with [[Marxist]] theorists [[C.L.R. James]] and [[Raya Dunayevskaya]], who used the pseudonyms J.R. Johnson and Freddie Forest respectively. They were joined by [[Grace Lee Boggs]], a Chinese-American woman who was considered the third founder.

===''Socialisme ou Barbarie''===
{{Main|Socialisme ou Barbarie}}
Socialisme ou Barbarie (Socialism or Barbarism) was a French-based radical [[libertarian socialist]] group of the post-[[World War II]] period (the name comes from a phrase [[Rosa Luxemburg]] used in a 1916 essay, 'The Junius Pamphlet'). It existed from 1948 until 1965. The animating personality was [[Cornelius Castoriadis]], also known as Pierre Chaulieu or Paul Cardan.<ref>{{cite journal | author=Dick Howard | title=Introduction to Castoriadis | journal=Telos | year=1975 | issue=23 | page=118}}</ref>

===Within the New Left===
{{Main|New Left}}

The emergence of the New Left in the 1950s and 1960s led to a revival of interest in libertarian socialism.<ref>[[Robin Hahnel]], ''Economic Justice and Democracy: From Competition to Cooperation'' Part II</ref> The New Left's critique of the [[Old Left]]'s authoritarianism was associated with a strong interest in personal liberty, [[autonomy]] (see the thinking of [[Cornelius Castoriadis]]) and led to a rediscovery of older socialist traditions, such as [[left communism]], [[council communism]], and the [[Industrial Workers of the World]]. The New Left also led to a revival of anarchism. Journals like ''Radical America'' and ''[[Black Mask (anarchists)|Black Mask]]'' in America, ''[[Solidarity (UK)|Solidarity]]'', ''[[Big Flame (political group)|Big Flame]]'' and ''[[Democracy & Nature]]'', succeeded by ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy'',<ref>[http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/journal/ The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy]</ref> in the UK, introduced a range of left libertarian ideas to a new generation. [[Social ecology]], [[autonomism]] and, more recently, [[participatory economics]] (parecon), and [[Inclusive Democracy]] emerged from this.

===Situationist International===
{{Main|Situationist International}}
The Situationist International was a restricted group of international revolutionaries founded in 1957, and which had its peak in its influence on the unprecedented [[general strike|general]] [[wildcat strikes]] of [[May 1968 in France]].

With their ideas rooted in [[Marxism]] and the 20th century European artistic [[avant-garde]]s, they advocated experiences of life being alternative to those admitted by the [[capitalism|capitalist order]], for the fulfillment of human primitive desires and the pursuing of a superior passional quality. For this purpose they suggested and experimented with the ''construction of situations'', namely the setting up of environments favorable for the fulfillment of such desires. Using methods drawn from the arts, they developed a series of experimental fields of study for the construction of such situations, like [[unitary urbanism]] and [[psychogeography]].

They fought against the main obstacle on the fulfillment of such superior passional living, identified by them in [[advanced capitalism]]. Their theoretical work peaked on the highly influential book ''[[The Society of the Spectacle]]'' by [[Guy Debord]]. Debord argued in 1967 that spectacular features like [[mass media]] and [[advertising]] have a central role in an advanced capitalist society, which is to show a fake reality in order to mask the real capitalist degradation of human life. To overthrow such a system, the Situationist International supported the May '68 revolts, and asked the workers to [[Council for Maintaining the Occupations|occupy the factories]] and to run them with [[direct democracy]], through [[workers' councils]] composed by instantly revocable delegates.

After publishing in the last issue of the magazine an analysis of the May 1968 revolts, and the strategies that will need to be adopted in future revolutions,<ref name="SI12BeginningOfAnEra">''The Beginning of an Era'' ([http://www.bopsecrets.org/SI/12.era1.htm part1], [http://www.bopsecrets.org/SI/12.era2.htm part 2]) Situationist International #12, 1969</ref> the SI was dissolved in 1972.<ref>{{cite web | title=Situationism in a nutshell | author=Karen Elliot | url=http://www.barbelith.com/cgi-bin/articles/00000011.shtml | publisher=Barbelith Webzine | date=2001-06-01 | accessdate=2008-06-23}}</ref>

===Autonomism===
{{Main|Autonomism}}
[[File:AntonioNegri SeminarioInternacionalMundo.jpg|upright|thumb|left|[[Antonio Negri]], main theorist of Italian autonomism]]Autonomism refers to a set of [[left-wing]] political and social movements and theories close to the [[socialism|socialist movement]]. As an identifiable theoretical system it first emerged in [[History of Italy as a Republic|Italy in the 1960s]] from [[workerist]] (''[[operaismo]]'') [[communism]]. Later, post-[[Marxism|Marxist]] and [[anarchist]] tendencies became significant after influence from the [[Situationist International|Situationists]], the failure of Italian [[far-left]] movements in the 1970s, and the emergence of a number of important theorists including [[Antonio Negri]], who had contributed to the 1969 founding of ''[[Potere Operaio]]'', Mario Tronti, [[Paolo Virno]], etc.

Unlike other forms of Marxism, autonomist Marxism emphasises the ability of the working class to force changes to the organization of the capitalist system independent of the state, trade unions or political parties. Autonomists are less concerned with party political organization than other Marxists, focusing instead on self-organized action outside of traditional organizational structures. Autonomist Marxism is thus a "bottom up" theory: it draws attention to activities that autonomists see as everyday working class resistance to capitalism, for example absenteeism, slow working, and socialization in the workplace.

Through translations made available by Danilo Montaldi and others, the Italian autonomists drew upon previous activist research in the United States by the [[Johnson-Forest Tendency]] and in France by the group [[Socialisme ou Barbarie]].

It influenced the German and Dutch Autonomen, the worldwide [[Social Centre movement]], and today is influential in Italy, France, and to a lesser extent the English-speaking countries. Those who describe themselves as autonomists now vary from Marxists to [[post-structuralism|post-structuralists]] and anarchists. The Autonomist Marxist and ''Autonomen'' movements provided inspiration to some on the revolutionary left in English speaking countries, particularly among anarchists, many of whom have adopted autonomist tactics. Some English-speaking anarchists even describe themselves as ''Autonomists''.

The Italian ''operaismo'' movement also influenced Marxist academics such as [[Harry Cleaver]], [[John Holloway (economist)|John Holloway]], Steve Wright, and [[Nick Dyer-Witheford]].

===Social ecology and Communalism===
{{Main|Social ecology}}
{{Main|Communalism (Political Philosophy)}}
Social ecology is closely related to the work and ideas of [[Murray Bookchin]] and influenced by anarchist [[Peter Kropotkin]]. Social ecologists assert that the present [[ecological crisis]] has its roots in human social problems, and that the domination of human-over-nature stems from the domination of human-over-human.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bookchin |first=Murray |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=The Philosophy of Social Ecology: Essays on Dialectical Naturalism |year=1994 |pages=119–120 |publisher=Black Rose Books |location= |isbn=978-1-55164-018-1 }}</ref>

Bookchin later developed a political philosophy to complement social ecology which he called "[[Communalism (Political Philosophy)|Communalism]]" (spelled with a capital "C" to differentiate it from other forms of communalism). While originally conceived as a form of [[Social anarchism]], he later developed Communalism into a separate ideology which incorporates what he saw as the most beneficial elements of Anarchism, Marxism, syndicalism, and radical ecology.

Politically, Communalists advocate a network of directly democratic citizens' assemblies in individual communities/cities organized in a confederal fashion. This method used to achieve this is called [[Libertarian Municipalism]] which involves the establishment of face-to-face democratic institutions which are to grow and expand confederally with the goal of eventually replacing the nation-state. Unlike anarchists, Communalists are not opposed to taking part in parliamentary politics -especially municipal elections- as long as candidates are [[libertarian socialist]] and anti-statist in outlook.

Economically, [[Communalism]] favours the abolition of markets and money and the transition to an economy similar to [[libertarian communism]] and according to the principle "from each according to ability, to each according to need."{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}

===Participism===
{{Main|Participism}}
[[File:NLN Michael Albert.jpg|thumb|[[Michael Albert]]]]
[[Participism]] is a twenty-first century form of libertarian socialism. It comprises two related economic and political systems called [[Participatory economics]] or “Parecon” and [[Participatory politics]] or “Parpolity”.

Parecon is an economic system proposed primarily by activist and political theorist [[Michael Albert]] and radical economist [[Robin Hahnel]], among others. It uses participatory decision making as an economic mechanism to guide the production, consumption and allocation of resources in a given society. Proposed as an alternative to contemporary capitalist market economies and also an alternative to centrally planned socialism, it is described as "an anarchistic economic vision", and it could be considered a form of socialism as under Parecon, the means of production are owned by the workers.
The underlying values that Parecon seeks to implement are equity, solidarity, diversity, workers' self-management and efficiency. (Efficiency here means accomplishing goals without wasting valued assets.) It proposes to attain these ends mainly through the following principles and institutions:
Workers' and consumers' councils utilizing self-managerial methods for decision making, balanced job complexes, remuneration according to effort and sacrifice, and Participatory Planning.

Under Parecon, the current monetary system would be replaced with a system of non-transferable “credit” which would cease to exist upon purchase of a commodity.

Parpolity is a theoretical political system proposed by [[Stephen R. Shalom]]. It was developed as a political vision to accompany Parecon.
The values on which Parpolity is based are:
Freedom, self-management, justice, solidarity and tolerance.
The goal, according to Shalom, is to create a political system that will allow people to participate, as much as possible in a face to face manner. Participism as a whole is critical of aspects of modern [[representative democracies]] and [[capitalism]] arguing that the level of political control by the people isn’t sufficient. To address this problem Parpolity suggests a system of “Nested Councils”, which would include every adult member of a given society. With five levels of nested councils it is thought, could represent the population of the United States.

Under [[Participism]], the state as such would dissolve into a mere coordinating body made up of [[delegates]] which would be recallable at any time by the nested council below them.

===Inclusive Democracy===
{{Main|Inclusive Democracy}}
Inclusive Democracy is a political theory and political project that aim for [[direct democracy]], [[economic democracy]] in a [[stateless society|stateless]], moneyless and marketless economy, [[Workers' self-management|self-management]] (democracy in the social realm) and ecological democracy. The theoretical project of '''Inclusive Democracy '''('''ID'''; as distinguished from the political project which is part of the democratic and autonomy traditions) emerged from the work of political philosopher, former academic and activist [[Takis Fotopoulos]] in ''Towards An Inclusive Democracy'' and was further developed by him and other writers in the journal ''[[Democracy & Nature]]'' and its successor ''The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy'', an [[electronic journal]] freely available and published by the International Network for Inclusive Democracy.

According to [[Arran Gare]], ''Towards an Inclusive Democracy'' "offers a powerful new interpretation of the history and destructive dynamics of the market and provides an inspiring new vision of the future in place of both neo-liberalism and existing forms of socialism".<ref>Arran Gare, [http://researchbank.swinburne.edu.au/vital/access/services/Download/swin:989/SOURCE1 "Beyond Social Democracy? Takis Fotopoulos' Vision of an Inclusive Democracy as a New Liberatory Project"] ''Democracy & Nature'', Vol. 9, No. 3 (November 2003), pp. 345-358(14)</ref> Also, as David Freeman points out, although Fotopoulos' approach "is not openly anarchism, yet anarchism seems the formal category within which he works, given his commitment to direct democracy, municipalism and abolition of state, money and market economy".<ref>David Freeman, [http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/journal/vol1/vol1_no3_freeman.htm "Inclusive democracy and its prospects"] review of book ''Towards An Inclusive Democracy: The Crisis of the Growth Economy and the Need For a New Liberatory Project'', published in ''Thesis Eleven'', Sage Publications, no. 69 (May 2002), pp. 103-106.</ref>

===Within parliamentary politics===
There was a strong left-libertarian current in the British [[labour movement]] and the term ''libertarian socialist'' has been applied to a number of [[democratic socialist]]s, including some prominent members of the [[British Labour Party]]. The [[Socialist League (UK, 1885)|Socialist League]] was formed in 1885 by [[William Morris]] and others critical of the authoritarian socialism of the [[Social Democratic Federation]]. It was involved in the [[New Unionism]], the rank and file union militancy of the 1880s-90s, which anticipated [[syndicalism]] in some key ways ([[Tom Mann]], a New Unionist leader, was one of the first British syndicalists). The Socialist League was dominated by anarchists by the 1890s.<ref>John Quail, ''The Slow-Burning Fuse''</ref>

The [[Independent Labour Party]], formed at that time, drew more on the [[Non-Conformist]] religious traditions in the British working class than on Marxist theory, and had a libertarian socialist strain. Others in the tradition of the ILP, and described as libertarian socialists, have been [[Nye Bevan]], [[Michael Foot]], [[Robin Cook]], [[Tony Benn]] and most importantly, [[G. D. H. Cole]]. Labour minister [[Peter Hain]] has written in support of libertarian socialism, identifying an axis involving a "bottom-up vision of socialism, with anarchists at the [[revolutionary]] end and democratic socialists [such as himself] at its [[reformism|reformist]] end", as opposed to the axis of [[state socialism]] with Marxist-Leninists at the revolutionary end and social democrats at the reformist end.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hain |first=Peter |authorlink= |coauthors= |title=Ayes to the Left: A Future for Socialism |year=1995 |publisher=Lawrence and Wishart |location= |isbn=978-0-85315-832-5 }}</ref>

Defined in this way, libertarian socialism in the contemporary political mainstream is distinguished from modern social democracy and democratic socialism principally by its political [[Decentralization|decentralism]] rather than by its economics. The multi-tendency [[Socialist Party USA]] also has a strong libertarian socialist current.

[[Katja Kipping]] and [[Julia Bonk]] in [[Germany]], and [[Ufuk Uras]] and the [[Freedom and Solidarity Party]] in Turkey, are examples of a contemporary libertarian socialist politicians and parties operating within a mainstream government.

==Contemporary libertarian socialism==
{{Main|Contemporary anarchism}}
Libertarian socialists in the early 21st century have been involved in the [[squatter]] movement; [[social centers]]; [[infoshop]]s; anti-poverty groups such as [[Ontario Coalition Against Poverty|OCAP]] and [[Food Not Bombs]]; [[Leasehold estate|tenants']] unions; [[housing cooperative]]s; [[Intentional community|intentional communities]] generally and [[egalitarian communities]]; anti-[[sexist]] organizing; grassroots media initiatives; digital media and computer activism; experiments in [[participatory economics]]; [[anti-racist]] and [[anti-fascist]] groups like [[Anti-Racist Action]] and [[Anti-Fascist Action]]; activist groups protecting the rights of [[immigrant]]s and promoting the free movement of people, such as the [[No Border network]]; [[worker co-operative]]s, [[countercultural]] and [[artist]] groups; and the [[peace movement]] etc.

==Libertarian socialist periodicals==
* ''Against the Grain: a libertarian socialist newspaper'' (USA 1976-1978)<ref name="anarca-bolo.ch">[http://www.anarca-bolo.ch/cira//periodici/per_angl.htm Périodiques en anglais - CIRA - Lausanne]</ref>
* ''[[Anarcho-Syndicalist Review]]'' ([[United States|US]])
* ''[[Big Flame (political group)|Big Flame]]'' (UK, 1960s-70s)
* ''[[Comment: New Perspectives in Libertarian Thought]]'' (US, 1960s, edited by [[Murray Bookchin]])<ref>[http://www.communalism.org/Archive/4/wise.html note 1]</ref>
* ''[[Democracy & Nature]]'' (US/UK) - succeeded by ''The International Journal of [[Inclusive Democracy]]'' (belongs to the direct democratic, libertarian socialist and autonomy traditions)<ref>[http://www.inclusivedemocracy.org/journal The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy]</ref>
* ''Contemporary Issues-[[Dinge der Zeit]]'' (English and German language "magazine for a democracy of content", 1947-1997 published by [[Joseph Weber]], Murray Bookchin's mentor)<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article604538.ece Murray Bookchin obituary - Times Online]</ref>
* ''[[Flash Point]]: a libertarian socialist newsjournal'' (Saskatoon, Canada, 1970s)<ref name="anarca-bolo.ch"/>
* ''[[Freedom newspaper]]'' ([[United Kingdom]])
* ''Heatwave'' (UK, 1960s)<ref>[http://libcom.org/library/heatwave-radcliffe-uk-1960s-situationists-rosemont-iww-surrealiism Heatwave Magazine - UK, 1960s | libcom.org]</ref>
* ''[[Leeds Other Paper]]'' (UK, 1974–1991)<ref>[http://www.worldcatlibraries.org/wcpa/top3mset/52965802 Leeds other paper Leeds libertarian socialist newspaper. [WorldCat.org]]</ref>
* ''[[Libertarian Communism (journal)|Libertarian Communism]]''
* ''[[New Internationalist]]'' (UK)
* ''[[Organized Thoughts]]'' (US, 1990s)<ref>[http://www.etext.org/Politics/Organized.Thoughts/ Index of /Politics/Organized.Thoughts]</ref>
* ''[[Our Generation]]'' (originally ''Our Generation Against Nuclear War''), 1961–1994; a historical and theoretical journal
* ''[[Rebelles]]'' (Quebec, 1990s)<ref>[http://struggle.ws/wsm/rbr/rbr8/summitlessons.html Lessons from the Summit Protest movement]</ref>
* ''[[Red and Black Notes]]'' (Detroit, 1990s-, features [[Cajo Brendel]], [[Cornelius Castoriadis]], [[Martin Glaberman]], [[CLR James]], [[Larry Gambone]] and others)<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20091027001239/http://ca.geocities.com/red_black_ca/print.htm r&bnindex]</ref>
* ''[[Red & Black Revolution]]'' (Publication of The [[Workers Solidarity Movement]], [[Ireland]])
* ''[[Root and Branch (journal)|Root and Branch]]'' (Cambridge, Mass., USA, 1970-, featured work of [[Paul Mattick]] and others)<ref>[http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Lobby/2379/rb2.htm&date=2009-10-26+23:49:34 Root And Branch]</ref>
* ''[[Social Anarchism (journal)]]'', a Baltimore-based journal founded in 1981 and currently publishing.
* ''[[Socialisme ou Barbarie]]'' ([[France]])
* ''[[Solidarity (UK)|Solidarity]] (UK, 1960s-70s)<ref>[http://libsoc.blogspot.com/2004/07/saddams-british-admirers-5-paul.html GAUCHE]</ref>
* ''[[Der Sozialist]]'', (Germany, 1900s, co-edited by [[Gustav Landauer]] and [[Margarethe Hardegger]])<ref>[http://www.global-labour.org/pat_horn.htm Pat Horn]</ref>
* ''[[Tegen de Stroom]]'' (1990s, Netherlands)<ref>[http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/ws99/ws57_karl.html Obituary for the Dutch anarchist Karl Kreuger]</ref>
* ''[[The Commune]]'' (UK, 2008-) <ref>[http://www.thecommune.co.uk The Commune - for worker's self-management and communism]</ref>
* ''[[Workers Solidarity]]'' (Publication of the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]], [[Ireland]])
* ''Zenit'' [[Sweden]], 1958-1970 (Magazine by [[Syndikalistiska Grupprörelsen]])
* ''[[Turnusol]] ([[Turkey]], 2008~)<ref>[http://www.turnusol.biz/ Başka Bir Sol Mümkün!]</ref>
* ''[[Z Magazine]]''

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Anarcho-syndicalism]]
* [[Council communism]]
* [[Direct democracy]]
* [[Economic Democracy]]
* [[Free association (communism and anarchism)]]
* [[Geolibertarianism]]
* [[Georgism]]
* [[Inclusive Democracy]]
* [[Left communism]]
* [[Left libertarianism]]
* [[Libertarianism]]
* [[Libertarian League]]
* [[Libertarian Marxism]]
* [[Luxemburgism]]
* [[Parecon]]
* [[Ricardian socialism]]
* [[Socialism]]
* [[Syndicalism]]
* [[Veganarchism]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* Otsuka, Michael. ''Libertarianism without Inequality'', by (Oxford University Press 2003)
* ''Non-Leninist Marxism: Writings on the Workers Councils'' (a collection of writings by Gorter, Pannekoek, Pankhurst, and Ruhle). Red and Black Publishers, St Petersburg, Florida, 2007. ISBN 978-0-9791813-6-8

==External links==
===Libertarian socialist general resources===
* [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/libertaire/libertaire.htm Le Monde Libertaire] Transcription of the first known publication to declare itself 'Libertarian' and socialist, in 1858.
* [http://www.libcom.org/ libcom.org the home of Libertarian Communism in Britain]
* [http://www.libertyandsocialism.org/ World Libertarian Socialist Network] Global Network of Libertarian Socialist Organizations
* [http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/ A People's Libertarian Index]
* [http://flag.blackened.net/liberty/libsoc.html Libertarian socialism]
* [http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Lobby/2379/ Collective Action Notes] is a libertarian socialist publication whose website hosts an extensive collection of online anti-authoritarian texts. (link dead) [http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Lobby/2379/ Archived version] is at The Internet Archive.
* [http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/anarchism/left.html Anarchism and the left]
* [http://infoshop.org/iportal/lib_marxism.php Infoshop's libertarian Marxism and libertarian socialism portal]

===Introductory articles===
* [http://www.theanarchistlibrary.org/HTML/Wayne_Price__Libertarian_Marxism_s_Relation_to_Anarchism.html "Libertarian Marxism's Relation to Anarchism" by Wayne Price]
* [http://www.wpunj.edu/~newpol/issue23/lowy23.htm "Franz Kafka and Libertarian Socialism"] by [[Michael Löwy]]
* [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=8200 Prospects for Libertarian Socialism]
* "The [http://www.democracynature.org/dn/vol7/ojeili_intellectuals.htm 'Advance Without Authority']: Post-modernism, Libertarian Socialism and Intellectuals" by Chamsy Ojeili, ''[[Democracy & Nature]]'' vol.7,no.3, 2001.
* "[http://www.democracynature.org/dn/vol7/takis_movements.htm The End of Traditional Antisystemic Movements] and the Need for a New Type of Antisystemic Movements Today" by [[Takis Fotopoulos]], ''[[Democracy & Nature]]'', Vol. 7, no. 3, 2001.

===Libertarian socialist websites===
* [http://www.connexions.org/RedMenace.htm The Red Menace] Archive of The Red Menace, published by the Libertarian Socialist Collective
* [http://www.wsm.ie/ Workers Solidarity Movement]
* [http://www.iww.org.uk/ Industrial Workers of the World]
* [http://william-king.www.drexel.edu/top/personal/cs/coopsocialism.html Professor Roger McCain's libertarian socialist economics page]
* [http://socialecologylondon.wordpress.com/ Social Ecology London, English libertarian socialist study/action group]
* [http://www.turnusol.biz/ TURNUSOL, A Libertarian Socialist Internet Periodical, Turkey]
* [http://www.libertyandsolidarity.org/ Liberty & Solidarity]

===Libertarian socialist history===
* [http://www.zabalaza.net/theory/socialism_from_below/contents.htm "Socialism from below"] by [[George Woodcock]]
* [http://struggle.ws/wsm/russia.html Anarchism and the Russian revolution]
* [http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/youcreatedcosmos/news.html&date=2009-10-26+00:30:03 The Bolshevik Counter-Revolution against the workers and popular soviet/council power was done with party dictatorship and massacre on the Kronstadt soviet in March 1921.]
* [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/indexTimeline.htm Anarchist timeline] includes libertarian socialists
* [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm Anarchist Encyclopedia] (from the Daily Bleed) includes libertarian socialists

===Film===
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fwr2x3TiQ5E Noam Chomsky Discussion with Libertarian Socialists], Ireland 2006.

{{Socialism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Libertarian Socialism}}
[[Category:Communism]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Social anarchism]]
[[Category:Left-libertarianism]]
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[[Category:Libertarianism by form]]
[[ar:اشتراكية تحررية]]
[[bg:Либертарен социализъм]]
[[ca:Socialisme llibertari]]
[[et:Libertaarsotsialism]]
[[el:Ελευθεριακός σοσιαλισμός]]
[[es:Socialismo libertario]]
[[eo:Libertarianisma socialismo]]
[[fr:Anarchisme socialiste]]
[[ko:자유 사회주의]]
[[id:Sosialisme libertarian]]
[[it:Socialismo libertario]]
[[hu:Libertárius szocializmus]]
[[nl:Libertarisch socialisme]]
[[nn:Fridomssosialisme]]
[[pl:Wolnościowy socjalizm]]
[[pt:Socialismo libertário]]
[[ru:Либертарный социализм]]
[[sl:Libertarni socializem]]
[[fi:Anarkososialismi]]
[[sv:Frihetlig socialism]]
[[th:สังคมนิยมเสรี]]
[[tr:Özgürlükçü sosyalizm]]
[[zh:自由意志社會主義]]

Political freedom

2011-07-01T11:08:39Z

Rami radwan:

{{Freedom}}
'''Political freedom''', or political [[agency (philosophy)|agency]], is a central concept in Western history and political thought, and one of the most important (real or ideal) features of [[democracy|democratic]] societies.<ref>Hannah Arendt, "What is Freedom?", ''Between Past and Future: Eight Exercises in Political Thought'', (New York: Penguin, 1993).</ref> It has been described as a relationship free of oppression<ref>Iris Marion Young, "Five Faces of Oppression", ''Justice and the Politics of Difference" (Princeton University press, 1990), 39-65.</ref> or coercion;<ref>Michael Sandel, ''Justice: What's the Right Thing to Do?'' (Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010).</ref> the absence of disabling conditions for a particular group or individual and the fulfillment of enabling conditions;<ref>Amartya Sen, ''Development as Freedom'' (Anchor Books, 2000).</ref> or the absence of economic compulsion.<ref>Karl Marx, "Alienated Labour" in ''Early Writings''.</ref> Although political freedom is often interpreted [[negative liberty|negatively]] as the freedom from unreasonable external constraints on action,<ref>Isaiah Berlin, ''Liberty'' (Oxford 2004).</ref> it can also refer to the [[positive liberty|positive]] exercise of rights, [[Capability_approach|capacities]] and possibilities for action, and the exercise of social or group rights.<ref>Charles Taylor, "What's Wrong With Negative Liberty?", ''Philosophy and the Human Sciences: Philosophical Papers'' (Cambridge, 1985), 211-29.</ref> The concept can also include freedom from "internal" constraints on political action or speech (e.g. social [[conformity]], consistency, or "inauthentic" behaviour.)<ref>Ralph Waldo Emerson, "[http://www.emersoncentral.com/selfreliance.htm Self-Reliance]"; Nikolas Kompridis, "Struggling Over the Meaning of Recognition: A Matter of Identity, Justice or Freedom?" in ''European Journal of Political Theory'' July 2007 vol. 6 no. 3 277-289.</ref> The concept of political freedom is closely connected with the concepts of [[civil liberties]] and [[human rights]], which in [[democratic]] societies are usually afforded legal protection from the [[State (polity)|state]].
==History==

[[Hannah Arendt]] traces the origins of the concept of freedom to the practice of politics in [[ancient Greece]]. According to her study, the concept of freedom was historically inseparable from political action. Politics could only be practiced by those who had freed themselves from the necessities of life, so that they could attend to the realm of political affairs. According to Arendt, the concept of freedom became associated with the Christian notion of [[free will|freedom of the will]], or inner freedom, around the 5th century C.E. and since then, freedom as a form of political action has been neglected, even though, as she says, freedom is "the raison d'être of politics."<ref>Hannah Arendt, "What is Freedom?", ''Between Past and Future: Eight exercises in political thought'' (New York: Penguin, 1993).</ref>

Arendt says that political freedom is historically opposed to [[sovereignty]] or will-power, since in ancient Greece and Rome, the concept of freedom was inseparable from performance, and did not arise as a conflict between the "will" and the "self." Similarly, the idea of freedom as freedom ''from'' politics is a notion that developed in modern times. This is opposed to the idea of freedom as the capacity to "begin anew," which Arendt sees as a corollary to the innate human condition of natality, or our nature as "new beginnings and hence beginners."

In Arendt's view, political action is an interruption of automatic process, either natural or historical. The freedom to begin anew is thus an extension of "the freedom to call something into being which did not exist before, which was not given, not even as an object of cognition or imagination, and which therefore, strictly speaking, could not be known."

==Views==

Various groups along the [[political spectrum]] naturally differ on what they believe constitutes "true" political freedom.

[[Left-wing politics|Left wing]] political philosophy generally couples the notion of freedom with that of [[positive liberty]], or the enabling of a group or individual to determine their own life or realize their own potential. Freedom, in this sense, may include freedom from poverty, starvation, treatable disease, and oppression, as well as freedom from force and coercion, from whomever they may issue.

However [[Friedrich Hayek]], a well-known [[classical liberal]], criticized this as a misconception of freedom:

<blockquote>[T]he use of ‘liberty’ to describe the physical ‘ability to do what I want’, the power to satisfy our wishes, or the extent of the choice of alternatives open to us...has been deliberately fostered as part of the socialist argument... the notion of collective power over circumstances has been substituted for that of individual liberty.<ref>Friedrich August von Hayek, ‘Freedom and Coercion’ in David Miller (ed), Liberty (1991) pp. 80, 85-86}}</ref></blockquote>

Many [[social anarchism|social anarchists]] see negative and positive liberty as complementary concepts of freedom. They describe the negative liberty-centric view endorsed by [[capitalists]] as "selfish freedom". According to [http://www.spunk.org/texts/intro/faq/sp001547/secF2.html#secf22 Anarchism FAQ]
{{Quotation|The right-libertarian does not address or even acknowledge that the (absolute) right of private property may lead to extensive control by property owners over those who use, but do not own, property (such as workers and tenants). Thus a free-market capitalist system leads to a very selective and class-based protection of "rights" and "freedoms." For example, under capitalism, the "freedom" of employers inevitably conflicts with the "freedom" of employees. When stockholders or their managers exercise their "freedom of enterprise" to decide how their company will operate, they violate their employee's right to decide how their laboring capacities will be utilized. In other words, under capitalism, the "property rights" of employers will conflict with and restrict the "human right" of employees to manage themselves. Capitalism allows the right of self-management only to the few, not to all. Or, alternatively, capitalism does not recognize certain human rights as universal which anarchism does.}}

Some notable philosophers, such as [[Alasdair MacIntyre]], have theorized freedom in terms of our social interdependence with other people.<ref>Alasdair MacIntyre, "The Virtues of Acknowledged Dependence", ''Rational Dependent Animals: Why Humans Need the Virtues'' (Open Court, 2001).</ref>

According to political philosopher [[Nikolas Kompridis]], the pursuit of freedom in the modern era can be broadly divided into two motivating ideals: freedom as [[autonomy]], or [[independence]]; and freedom as the ability to cooperatively initiate a new beginning.<ref>Nikolas Kompridis, "The Idea of a New Beginning: A Romantic Source of Normativity and Freedom" in ''Philosophical Romanticism'' (New York: Routledge, 2007), 32-59.</ref>

Political freedom has also been theorized in opposition to [[power]], or in terms of "power relations", by [[Michel Foucault]].<ref>Michel Foucault, "The Subject and Power" in Paul Rabinow and Nikolas S. Rose, eds., ''The Essential Foucault''.</ref> It has also been closely identified with certain kinds of artistic and cultural practice by [[Cornelius Castoriadis]], [[Antonio Gramsci]], [[Herbert Marcuse]], [[Jacques Ranciere]], and [[Theodor Adorno]].

[[Environmentalist]]s often argue that political freedoms should include some constraint on use of [[ecosystem]]s. They maintain there is no such thing, for instance, as "freedom to pollute" or "freedom to deforest" given that such activities create [[negative externalities]]. The popularity of [[Sport utility vehicle|SUV]]s, [[golf]], and [[urban sprawl]] has been used as evidence that some ideas of freedom and [[ecological conservation]] can clash. This leads at times to serious confrontations and clashes of [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]] reflected in advertising campaigns, e.g. that of [[PETA]] regarding [[fur]].

[[John Dalberg-Acton, 1st Baron Acton|John Dalberg-Acton]] stated that "The most certain test by which we judge whether a country is really free is the amount of security enjoyed by minorities."<ref>{{cite book |title= The History of Freedom and Other Essays|edition= |last= Acton|first= John D.|year= 1907|publisher= Macmillan|location= London |page= 4}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Democracy]]
* [[Civil Rights]]
*[[Freedom of assembly]]
*[[Freedom of association]]
*[[Freedom of movement]]
*[[Freedom of religion]]
*[[Freedom of speech]]
*[[Freedom of the press]]
*[[Freedom of thought]]
*Freedom from [[Unreasonable search and seizure|unreasonable searches and seizures]], which is related to freedom of privacy
*[[Right to arms|Freedom to bear arms]]
*[[Suffrage]]
*[[Scientific freedom]]
*[[Academic freedom]]
*[[Economic freedom]]
* [[List of indices of freedom]]
* [[Hannah Arendt]]
* [[Charles Taylor]]
* [[Isaiah Berlin]]
* [[Karl Marx]]
* [[John Locke]]
* [[Two Treatises of Government]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote|freedom}}
*[http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=1 Freedom House]
*[http://ksghome.harvard.edu/~aabadie/povterr.pdf Poverty, Political Freedom, and the Roots of Terrorism] from Alberto Abadie – Harvard University and NBER, October 2004 (pdf)
*[http://gsociology.icaap.org/report/polsum.html Brief review of trends in political change: freedom and conflict] Global trends
*[http://discovery.sabhlokcity.com/ The Discovery of Freedom], a manuscript by Sanjeev Sabhlok

{{DEFAULTSORT:Political Freedom}}
[[Category:Civil rights and liberties]]
[[Category:Political philosophy]]
[[Category:Social philosophy]]
[[ar:حرية سياسية]]
[[arc:ܚܐܪܘܬܐ]]
[[be-x-old:Свабода (палітычная)]]
[[de:Freiheit]]
[[el:Πολιτική ελευθερία]]
[[es:Libertad]]
[[fa:آزادی سیاسی]]
[[fr:Liberté (politique)]]
[[hu:Szabadság (politika)]]
[[nl:Politieke vrijheid]]
[[no:Frihet]]
[[ru:Политическая свобода]]
[[sv:Frihet]]
[[uk:Політична свобода]]
[[vi:Tự do (chính trị)]]
[[zh:政治自由]]

Revolutionary socialism

2011-07-01T11:07:11Z

Rami radwan:

{{Socialism sidebar |expanded=Currents}}

The term '''revolutionary socialism''' refers to [[Socialism|Socialist]] tendencies that advocate the need for fundamental social change through [[revolution]] by mass movements of the working class, as a strategy to achieve a socialist society. The term is used by socialist and communist tendencies in contrast to [[social democracy|reformism]], the advocacy of the possibility of gradual change as a means of achieving socialism or of ameliorating capitalism, and also in contrast to the concept of small revolutionary groups seizing power without active mass support, termed [[Blanquism]].

== Origins ==
[[File:Karl Marx.jpg|thumb|right|[[Karl Marx]], 1875.]]
In the [[Communist Manifesto]], [[Karl Marx]] and [[Frederick Engels]] wrote:<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1848/communist-manifesto/ch01.htm#007]</ref>

{{quote|All previous historical movements were movements of minorities, or in the interest of minorities. The proletarian movement is the self-conscious, independent movement of the immense majority, in the interest of the immense majority. The proletariat, the lowest stratum of our present society, cannot stir, cannot raise itself up, without the whole superincumbent strata of official society being sprung into the air.
Though not in substance, yet in form, the struggle of the proletariat with the bourgeoisie is at first a national struggle. The proletariat of each country must, of course, first of all settle matters with its own bourgeoisie.
In depicting the most general phases of the development of the proletariat, we traced the more or less veiled civil war, raging within existing society, up to the point where that war breaks out into open revolution, and where the violent overthrow of the bourgeoisie lays the foundation for the sway of the proletariat.| [[Karl Marx]] and [[Frederick Engels]]}}

Scholars have pointed out that the term 'revolution' as used by Marx, Engels and their followers tends to refer to complete change of a social and economic nature by a mass movement of the "immense majority" (as shown by the quote above). In addition, if this revolutionary change was not opposed by the existing ruling elite, Marx and Engels contended, it could be carried out peacefully.<ref>"... we do not deny that there are countries like England and America... where labour may attain its goal by peaceful means." Marx, 18 September 1872, at the Hague Congress of the International, http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1872/09/08.htm, K. Marx and F. Engels, On Britain, Foreign Languages Press, Moscow, 1962</ref><ref>"Both Marx and Engels and, later, Lenin on many occasions referred to a ''peaceful'' revolution, that is, one attained by a class struggle, but not by violence." Schaff, Adam, 'Marxist Theory on Revolution and Violence', p. 263. in Journal of the history of ideas, Vol 34, no.2 (Apr-Jun 1973)</ref> By contrast, the [[Blanquist]] view emphasised the overthrow by force of the ruling elite in government by an active minority of revolutionaries, who then proceed to implement socialist change, disregarding the state of readiness of society as a whole and the mass of the population in particular for revoutionary change.

The reformist viewpoint was introduced into Marxist thought by [[Eduard Bernstein]], one of the leaders of the [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] (SPD). From 1896 to 1898, Bernstein published a series of articles entitled "Probleme des Sozialismus" ("Problems of Socialism"). These articles led to a debate on [[Marxist revisionism|revisionism]] in the SPD, and can be seen as the origins of a reformist trend within Marxism.

In 1900, [[Rosa Luxemburg]] wrote ''[[Social Reform or Revolution]]'', a [[polemic]] against Bernstein's position. The work of reforms, Luxemburg argued, could only be carried on, "in the framework of the social form created by the last revolution". In order to advance society to socialism from the capitalist 'social form', a social revolution will be necessary:<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/luxemburg/1900/reform-revolution/ch08.htm Luxemburg, Rosa, ''Social Reform or Revolution'', Chapter 8, ''Conquest of Political Power''], accessed 1 July 2007. ''Rosa Luxemburg Speaks'', p107-8, Pathfinder, (1970)</ref>

{{quote|Bernstein, thundering against the conquest of political power as a theory of [[Blanquist]] violence, has the misfortune of labeling as a Blanquist error that which has always been the pivot and the motive force of human history. From the first appearance of class societies, having class struggle as the essential content of their history, the conquest of political power has been the aim of all rising classes. Here is the starting point and end of every historic period…In modern times, we see it in the struggle of the bourgeoisie against feudalism.|Rosa Luxemburg, ''Social Reform or Revolution''}}

[[Vladimir Lenin]] attacked Bernstein’s position in his ''What is to be Done''. When Bernstein first put forward his ideas the majority of the SPD rejected them. The 1899 Congress of the SPD reaffirmed the Erfurt programme, as did the 1901 congress. The 1903 congress denounced "revisionist efforts".

== The First World War and Zimmerwald==

However on 4 August 1914 the SPD members of the Reichstag voted for the government’s war budget, while the French and Belgium socialists publicly supported their governments. [[Vladimir Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky]], [[Karl Liebknecht]] and [[Rosa Luxemburg]], together with a small number of other Marxists opposed to the war, came together in the [[Zimmerwald Conference]] in September 1915. This conference saw the beginning of the end of the uneasy coexistence of revolutionary socialists and [[Reformism|reformist]] socialists in the [[Second International]]. The conference adopted a proposal by Trotsky to avoid an immediate split with the Second International. At first opposed to it, in the end Lenin voted<ref>See Christian Rakovsky's [http://www.marxists.org/archive/rakovsky/biog/biog2.htm biography] by Gus Fagan for details</ref> for Trotsky's resolution to avoid a split among anti-war socialists.

In December, 1915 and March, 1916, eighteen Social Democratic representatives, the Haase-Ledebour Group, voted against war credits, and were expelled from the Social Democratic Party. Liebknecht wrote ''Revolutionary Socialism in Germany'' in 1916, arguing that this group was not a revolutionary socialist group, despite their refusal to vote for war credits, further defining, in his view, what was meant by a revolutionary socialist.<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/archive/liebknecht-k/works/1916/misc/revolutionary-socialism-germany.htm Liebknecht, Karl, ''Revolutionary Socialism in Germany'', 1916], accessed 1 July 2007</ref>

==The Russian revolution of 1917 and after==

Many revolutionary socialists argue that the Russian revolution of October 1917 led by Lenin and [[Leon Trotsky]] follows the revolutionary socialist model of a revolutionary movement of the immense majority. By contrast, the October revolution is popularly portrayed as a putsch or coup d'état along the lines of Blanquism.

Revolutionary socialists, particularly Trotskyists, argue that the Bolsheviks only seized power as the expression of the mass of workers and peasants, whose desires are brought into being by an organised force - the revolutionary party. Marxists such as Trotskyists argue that Lenin did not advocate seizing of power until he felt that the majority of the population, represented in the soviets, demanded revolutionary change and no longer supported the reformist government of [[Alexander Kerensky]] established in the earlier revolution of February 1917:

{{quote|"Lenin, after the experience of the reconnoiter, withdrew the slogan of the immediate overthrow of the Provisional Government. But he did not withdraw it for any set period of time, for so many weeks or months, but strictly in dependence upon how quickly the revolt of the masses against the conciliationists would grow."|Leon Trotsky, Lessons of October, Chapter Four, The April Conference}}

For these Marxists, the fact that the Bolsheviks won a majority (in alliance with the Left Socialist Revolutionaries) in the second all-Russian congress of Soviets - democratically elected bodies - which convened at the time of the October revolution, shows that they had popular support of the masses of workers, peasants and soldiers, the vast majority of Russian society.

In his pamphlet, The Lessons of October, published in 1923,<ref>http://www.marxist.net/trotsky/russia/lessons.htm</ref> Trotsky argued that military power lay in the hands of the Bolsheviks before the October revolution was carried out but this power was not used against the government until the Bolsheviks gained mass support.

The mass of the soldiers began to be led by the Bolshevik party after the 'July days' of 1917, and followed only the orders of the [[Military Revolutionary Committee]] under the leadership of Trotsky in October (also termed the 'Revolutionary Military Committee' in Lenin's collected works).<ref>[http://www.marxist.net/trotsky/russia/lessons.htm#6 Trotsky, Leon, ''Lessons of October'']: "On October 16th the Military Revolutionary Committee was created, the legal Soviet organ of insurrection." Accessed 27/8/07</ref>
Yet Trotsky only mobilised the Military Revolutionary Committee to seize power on the advent of the Second All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, which began on 25 October 1917.

Following the [[October Revolution|Russian Revolution of 1917]] the [[Third International]] was founded. This International became widely identified with [[Communism]], but also defined itself in terms of revolutionary socialism.

Emerging from the [[Communist International]], but critical of the post-1924 Soviet Union, the [[Trotskyist]] tradition in Western Europe and elsewhere uses the term 'revolutionary socialism'. For instance, in 1932, the first issue of the first Canadian Trotskyist newspaper, ''The Vanguard'', published an editorial, "Revolutionary Socialism vs Reformism".<ref>[http://www.socialisthistory.ca/Docs/TrotOrigin/VanguardEdits32.htm ''Socialist History Project''], accessed 1 July 2007</ref> Today, many Trotskyist groups advocate "revolutionary socialism" as opposed to reformism, and are considered, and consider themselves, "revolutionary socialists".<ref>For instance, the Committee for a Workers International states, "We campaign for new workers’ parties and for them to adopt a socialist programme. At the same time, the CWI builds support for the ideas of revolutionary socialism" [http://www.socialistworld.net/z/bin/kw.cgi/show?id=2771] and the UK Socialist Workers Party’s Alex Callinicos argues ''The Case for Revolutionary Socialism'', [http://www.swp.org.uk/swp_archive.php?article_id=5039].</ref>
[[Luxemburgism]] is another revolutionary socialist tradition.

Some revolutionaries outside of the [[Marxist]] tradition, such as [[Libertarian socialism|libertarian socialists]], have described themselves as revolutionary socialists.

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Political theories]]
[[Category:History of socialism]]
[[ar:اشتراكية ثورية]]
[[it:Socialismo rivoluzionario]]
[[nl:Revolutionair socialisme]]
[[pl:Socjalizm rewolucyjny]]
[[ru:Революционный социализм]]
[[zh:革命社會主義]]

Collective security

2011-06-30T15:34:27Z

Rami radwan:

''Collective security'' can be understood as a security arrangement, regional or global, in which each state in the system accepts that the security of one is the concern of all, and agrees to join in a collective response to threats to, and breaches of, the peace. '''Collective security''' is more ambitious than systems of [[alliance security]] or [[collective defence]] in that it seeks to encompass the totality of states within a region or indeed globally, and to address a wide range of possible threats. While collective security is an idea with a long history, its implementation in practice has proved problematic. Several prerequisites have to be met for it to have a chance of working.

==History==
===Early mentions===
Collective security, as suggested by many, is one of the most promising approaches for peace and a valuable device for power management on an international scale. Cardinal Richelieu proposed a scheme for collective security in 1629, which was partially reflected in the 1648 Peace of Westphalia. In the eighteenth century many proposals were made for collective security arrangements, especially in Europe.

The concept of a peaceful community of [[nation]]s was outlined in 1795 in [[Immanuel Kant]]’s ''Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm|last=Kant|first=Immanuel |publisher=Mount Holyoke College| title=Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch|accessdate=2008-05-16}}</ref> Kant outlined the idea of a league of nations that would control conflict and promote peace between states.<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Western Thought:from Ancient Greece to the Twentieth Century|last1=Skirbekk |first1=Gunnar |authorlink1=Gunnar Skirbekk |last2=Gilje|first2=Nils |year=2001 |publisher=Routledge |edition=illustrated|location= |isbn=9780415220736 |page=288 |pages=487 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=NoLAHXt4PRMC |accessdate=17 October 2010}}</ref> However, he argues for the establishment of a peaceful world community not in a sense that there be a global government but in the hope that each state would declare itself as a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings. His key argument is that a union of free states would promote peaceful society worldwide: therefore, in his view, there can be a perpetual peace shaped by the international community rather than by a world government.<ref>http://www.constitution.org/kant/perpeace.htm</ref>

[[Bahá'u'lláh]] (1817–1892), the founder of the [[Bahá'í Faith]], prescribed collective security as a means to establish world peace in his writings during the 19th century:
<blockquote>
The time must come when the imperative necessity for the holding of a vast, an all-embracing assemblage of men will be universally realized. The rulers and kings of the earth must needs attend it, and, participating in its deliberations, must consider such ways and means as will lay the foundations of the world's Great Peace amongst men. Such a peace demandeth that the Great Powers should resolve, for the sake of the tranquility of the peoples of the earth, to be fully reconciled among themselves. Should any king take up arms against another, all should unitedly arise and prevent him. If this be done, the nations of the world will no longer require any armaments, except for the purpose of preserving the security of their realms and of maintaining internal order within their territories. This will ensure the peace and composure of every people, government and nation.<ref>{{cite book | first = | last = [[Bahá'u'lláh]] | title = [[Gleanings from the Writings of Bahá'u'lláh]] translated by [[Shoghi Effendi]] 1983 Edition | publisher = Bahá'í Publishing Trust | year = 1976 |location = Wilmette Il | isbn = 0-87743-187-5 }} p. 248</ref>
</blockquote>

International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the [[Concert of Europe]] that developed after the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in the nineteenth century in an attempt to maintain the ''status quo'' between European states and so avoid war.{{sfn|Reichard|2006|p=9}}{{sfn|Rapoport|1995|pp=498–500}}  This period also saw the development of international law with the first [[Geneva conventions]] establishing laws about humanitarian relief during war and the international [[Hague Conventions (1899 and 1907)|Hague Conventions]] of 1899 and 1907 governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes.{{sfn|Bouchet-Saulnier|Brav|Olivier|2007|pp=14–134}}{{sfn|Northedge|1986|p=10}}

The forerunner of the League of Nations, the [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]] (IPU), was formed by peace activists [[William Randal Cremer]] and [[Frederic Passy]] in 1889. The organization was international in scope with a third of the members of [[parliament]], in the 24 countries with parliaments, serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means and arbitration and annual conferences were held to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. The IPU's structure consisted of a Council headed by a President which would later be reflected in the structure of the League.<ref>{{Cite web | title =Before the League of Nations | publisher = The United Nations Office at Geneva | url =http://www.unog.ch/80256EE60057D930/(httpPages)/B5B92952225993B0C1256F2D00393560?OpenDocument | accessdate =2008-06-14}}</ref>

At the start of the twentieth century two power blocs emerged through alliances between the European [[Great Powers]]. It was these alliances that came into effect at the [[Origins of World War I|start of the First World War]] in 1914, drawing all the major European powers into the war. This was the first major war in Europe between [[industrialized]] countries and the first time in Western Europe the results of [[industrialization]] (for example [[mass production]]) had been dedicated to war. The result of this [[industrial warfare]] was an unprecedented casualty level with eight and a half million members of [[armed services]] dead, an estimated 21 million wounded, and approximately 10 million [[civilian]] deaths.{{sfn|Bell|2007|pp=15–17}}{{sfn|Northedge|1986|pp=1–2}}

By the time the fighting ended in November 1918, the war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage on the continent.{{sfn|Bell|2007|p=16}} Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as "[[The war to end war|the war to end all wars]]",{{sfn|Archer|2001|p=14}}{{sfn|Northedge|1986|p=1}} and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included [[arms race]]s, alliances, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. The perceived remedies to these were seen as the creation of an international organization whose aim was to prevent future war through [[disarmament]], open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage wars, and penalties that made war unattractive to nations.{{sfn|Bell|2007|p=8}}

===Collective Security in the League of Nations===
Post World War I, the first large scale attempt to provide collective security in modern times was the establishment of the [[League of Nations]] in 1919-20. The provisions of the League of Nations Covenant represented a weak system for decision-making and for collective action. An example of the failure of the League of Nations' collective security is the [[Manchurian Crisis]], when [[Japan]] occupied part of [[China]] (which was a League member). After the invasion, members of the League passed a resolution calling for Japan to withdraw or face severe penalties. Given that every nation on the League of Nations council had veto power, Japan promptly vetoed the resolution, severely limiting the LN's ability to respond. After two years of deliberation, the League passed a resolution condemning the invasion without committing the League's members to any action against it. The Japanese replied by quitting the [[League of Nations]].

A similar process occurred in 1935, when Italy invaded Ethiopia. Sanctions were passed, but Italy would have vetoed any stronger resolution. Additionally, Britain and France sought to court Italy's government as a potential deterrent to Hitler, given that Mussolini was not in what would become the Axis alliance of WWII. Thus, neither enforced any serious sanctions against the Italian government. Additionally, in this case and with the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, the absence of the USA from the League of Nations deprived the LN of another major power that could have used economic leverage against either of the aggressor states. Inaction by the League subjected it to criticisms that it was weak and concerned more with European issues (most leading members were European), and did not deter Hitler from his plans to dominate Europe. The Ethiopian monarch Emperor [[Haile Selassie I]] continued to support collective security though, having assessed that impotence lay not in the principle but in its covenantors commitment to honor its tenets.

One active and articulate exponent of collective security during the immediate pre-war years was the Soviet foreign minister [[Maxim Litvinov]]. However, there are grounds for doubt about the depth of Soviet commitment to this principle, as well as that of Western powers. After the [[Munich Agreement]] in September 1938 and the passivity of outside powers in the face of German occupation of the remainder of [[Czechoslovakia]] in March 1939 it was shown that the Western Powers were not prepared to engage in collective security against aggression by the Axis Powers together with the Soviet Union, Soviet foreign policy was revised and Litvinov was replaced as foreign minister in early May 1939, in order to facilitate the negotiations that led to the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]] with Germany, signed by Litvinov's successor, [[Vyacheslav Molotov]], on August 23 of that year. The war in Europe broke out a week later, with the [[Invasion of Poland (1939)|German invasion of Poland]] on September 1.

===Recent events===
The 1945 [[United Nations Charter]], although containing stronger provisions for decision-making and collective military action than those of the League of Nations Covenant, does not represent a complete system of collective security, but rather a balance between collective action on the one hand and continued operation of the states system (including the continued special roles of great powers) on the other.

Cited examples of the limitations of collective security include the [[Falklands War]]. When [[Argentina]] invaded the islands, which are [[overseas territories]] of the [[United Kingdom]], many UN members stayed out of the issue, as it did not directly concern them. There was also a controversy about the [[United States]] role in that conflict due their obligations as an [[Inter-American Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance]] (the "Rio Pact") member. However, many politicians who view the system as having faults also believe it remains a useful tool for keeping international peace.

The role of the UN and collective security in general is also evolving given the rise of internal state conflicts since the end of WWII, there have been 111 military conflicts world wide, but only 9 of which have involved two or more states going to war with one another. The remainder have either been internal civil wars or civil wars where other nations intervened in some manner. This means that collective security may have to evolve towards providing a means to ensure stability and a fair international resolution to those internal conflicts. Whether this will involve more powerful peacekeeping forces or a larger role for the UN diplomatically will likely be judged from a case to case basis.

==Theory of Collective Security==
Collective security can be understood as a security arrangement in which all states cooperate collectively to provide security for all by the actions of all against any states within the groups which might challenge the existing order by using force. This contrasts with self-help strategies of engaging in war for purely immediate national interest. While collective security is possible, several prerequisites have to be met for it to work.

Sovereign nations eager to maintain the status quo, willingly cooperate, accepting a degree of vulnerability and in some cases of minor nations, also accede to the interests of the chief contributing nations organising the collective security. Collective Security is achieved by setting up an international cooperative organisation, under the auspices of international law and this gives rise to a form of international collective governance, albeit limited in scope and effectiveness. The collective security organisation then becomes an arena for diplomacy, balance of power and exercise of soft power. The use of hard power by states, unless legitimised by the Collective Security organisation, is considered illegitimate, reprehensible and needing remediation of some kind. The collective security organisation not only gives cheaper security, but also may be the only practicable means of security for smaller nations against more powerful threatening neighbours without the need of joining the camp of the nations balancing their neighbours.

The concept of "collective security" forwarded by men such as [[Michael Joseph Savage]], [[Martin Wight]], [[Immanuel Kant]], and [[Woodrow Wilson]], are deemed to apply interests in security in a broad manner, to "avoid grouping powers into opposing camps, and refusing to draw dividing lines that would leave anyone out."<ref>{{cite book | last = Yost | first = David S. | title = NATO Transformed: The Alliance's New Roles in International Security | publisher = Leicester University Press | year = 1977 |location = London}} p. 149</ref> The term "collective security" has also been cited as a principle of the [[United Nations]], and the [[League of Nations]] before that. By employing a system of collective security, the UN hopes to dissuade any member state from acting in a manner likely to threaten peace, thereby avoiding any conflict.

===Basic Assumptions===
Organski (1960) lists five basic assumptions underlying the theory of collective security :<ref>As quoted in Ghosh (1960), pg 89. Paraphrased.</ref>
* In an armed conflict, member nation-states will be able to agree on which nation is the aggressor.
* All member nation-states are equally committed to contain and constrain the aggression, irrespective of its source or origin.
* All member nation-states have identical freedom of action and ability to join in proceedings against the aggressor.
* The cumulative power of the cooperating members of the alliance for collective security will be adequate and sufficient to overpower the might of the aggressor.
* In the light of the threat posed by the collective might of the nations of a collective security coalition, the aggressor nation will modify its policies, or if unwilling to do so, will be defeated.

===Prerequisites===
Morgenthau (1948) states that three prerequisites must be met for collective security to successfully prevent war :
* The collective security system must be able to assemble military force in strength greatly in excess to that assembled by the aggressor(s) thereby deterring the aggressor(s) from attempting to change the world order defended by the collective security system.
* Those nations, whose combined strength would be used for deterrence as mentioned in the first prerequisite, should have identical beliefs about the security of the world order that the collective is defending.
* Nations must be willing to subordinate their conflicting interests to the common good defined in terms of the common defence of all member-states.

==Collective defense==
[[Image:Military Alliances.svg|thumb|375px|Current major military alliances
{{legend|#000080|[[North Atlantic Treaty Organization|NATO]], [[European Security and Defence Policy|ESDP]]}}
{{legend|#008080|[[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation|SCO]], [[Collective Security Treaty Organisation|CSTO]]}}
{{legend|#800000|[[South_American_Union#Defence_policy|SADC]]}}
{{legend|#008000|[[Peace and Security Council|PSC]]}}]]

{{see also|List of military alliances}}

Collective defense (also collective defence) is an arrangement, usually formalized by a treaty and an organization, among participant states that commit support in defense of a member state if it is attacked by another state outside the organization. [[NATO]] is the best known collective defense organization. Its now famous Article V calls on (but does not fully commit) member states to assist another member under attack. This article was invoked after the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]] on the [[United States]], after which other NATO members provided assistance to the US [[War on Terror]] in [[Afghanistan]].

Collective defense has its roots in multiparty [[alliance]]s, and entails benefits as well as risks. On the one hand, by combining and pooling resources, it can reduce any single state's cost of providing fully for its security. Smaller members of NATO, for example, have leeway to invest a greater proportion of their budget on non-military priorities, such as education or health, since they can count on other members to come to their defense, if needed.

On the other hand, collective defense also involves risky commitments. Member states can become embroiled in costly wars in which neither the direct victim nor the aggressor benefit. In the [[First World War]], countries in the collective defense arrangement known as the [[Triple Entente]] ([[French Third Republic|France]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], [[Russian Empire|Russia]]) were pulled into war quickly when Russia started full mobilization against [[Austria-Hungary]], whose ally [[German Empire|Germany]] subsequently declared war on Russia.

== See also ==
* [[NATO]]
* European [[Common Security and Defence Policy]]
* [[Shanghai Cooperation Organization]]
* [[Collective Security Treaty Organization]]
* [[African Union]]
* [[Peace and Security Council]]
* [[Union of South American Nations]]
* [[First World War]]
* [[Second World War]]
* [[Soviet-German relations before 1941]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite book | last = Beer | first = Francis A., ed. | title = Alliances: Latent War Communities in the Contemporary World | publisher = Holt, Rinehart, Winston | year = 1970 |location = New York}}
*{{cite book | last = Bourquin | first = Maurice | title = Collective Security, A record of the Seventh and Eighth International Studies Conference | publisher = International Institute | year = 1936 |location = Paris}}
*{{cite book | last = Claude Jr. | first = Inis L. | title = Collective Security as an Approach to Peace in: Classic Readings and Contemporary Debates in International Relations ed. Donald M. Goldstein, Phil Williams, & Jay M. Shafritz | year = 2006 |location = Belmont CA |publisher = Thomson Wadsworth}} pgs. 289-302
*{{cite book |title=International Relations |last=Ghosh |first=Peu |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2009 |publisher=PHI Learning Private Ltd|location=New Delhi |isbn=9788120338753 |edition=Eastern Economy Edition |page= |pages=389 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=y88qTWmqb7oC |accessdate=15 October 2010}}
*[[Vaughan Lowe|Lowe, Vaughan]], [[Adam Roberts (scholar)|Adam Roberts]], Jennifer Welsh and Dominik Zaum, ''The United Nations Security Council and War: The Evolution of Thought and Practice since 1945'' Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010, paperback, 794 pp. ISBN 978-0-19-958330-0.
*{{cite book |title=World Politics|last=Organski |first=A.F.K. |authorlink=A.F.K. Organski |coauthors= |year=1958 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |location=New York |series=Borzoi books on International Politics|edition=1|isbn= |page= |pages=461 |url=http://books.google.co.in/books?id=cL0zAAAAIAAJ |accessdate=15 October 2010}}
*[[Adam Roberts (scholar)|Roberts, Adam]] and Dominik Zaum, ''Selective Security: War and the United Nations Security Council since 1945'' (Adelphi Paper no. 395 of International Institute for Strategic Studies, London), Abingdon: Routledge, 2008, 93 pp. ISBN 978-0-415-47472-6.
*{{cite book | last = Wight | first = Martin | title = Systems of States ed. Hedley Bull | publisher = Leicester University Press | year = 1977 |location = London}} pp. 149

== External links ==
* de Wet, Erika, Wood, Michael. [http://www.mpepil.com/sample_article?id=/epil/entries/law-9780199231690-e270&recno=2& Collective Security], Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law
*[http://jimmycarterlibrary.org/documents/nobel.phtml President Carter's Nobel Lecture]

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Ram pressure

2011-06-30T13:27:30Z

Rami radwan:

In [[physics]], '''ram pressure''' is a pressure exerted on a body which is moving through a [[fluid]] medium. It causes a strong [[drag (physics)| drag]] force to be exerted on the body. It is given by:

<math>P= \rho v^2</math> <ref> Relativistic Astrophysics and Cosmology, A Fabian and Lasenby, University of Cambridge Lecture Notes, Michaelmas 2010. </ref>

where P is the pressure, <math>\rho</math> is the density of the fluid and v the velocity of the body. Alternatively the body can be stationary and v describe the velocity of the fluid, e.g. the [[solar wind]].

For example, a [[meteor]] traveling through the Earth's atmosphere produces a [[shock wave]] generated by the extremely rapid compression of air in front of the meteoroid. It is primarily this ram pressure (rather than [[friction]]) which heats the air which in turn heats the meteoroid as it flows around it.<ref>Plait, p.1</ref>

In the case of a [[galaxy]] moving through the [[intergalactic gas]], the ram pressure is capable of stripping the galaxy of much of its [[interstellar gas]].<ref> Grebel, Gallagher, Harbeck, pp.1-15</ref>

==Notes==

<div class="references-small"><references/></div>

==References==
*Grebel, Gallagher, Harbeck (2003) [http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/0301025 ''The Progenitors of Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxies'' ] ArXiv.org. retrieved Nov. 2007
*Plait, Philip (2002), Top 5 Cosmic Myths #4:[http://www.rense.com/general28/top5.htm ''Meteors are heated by friction as they pass through the atmosphere''] Retrieved 2011-05-31

== External links ==

*[http://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0609156 Educational materials on air resistance]

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Magnetopause

2011-06-30T11:56:55Z

Rami radwan:

[[File:Magnetopause.jpg|thumb|350px| Artistic rendition of the Earth's magnetopause. The magnetopause is where the pressure from the solar wind and the planet's magnetic field are equal. The position of the Sun would be far to the left in this image]]

The '''magnetopause''' is the abrupt boundary between a [[magnetic field]], (see: [[magnetosphere]]) and surrounding [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]. The magnetopause ripples, flaps, and moves inward and outward in response to varying [[solar wind]] conditions.

In terms of [[planetary science]], the magnetopause is the outermost boundary of the region controlled by a planet's magnetic field. It separates the [[magnetosheath]] and the [[magnetosphere]]. It is the location where the outward [[magnetic pressure]] of a planet's magnetic field is counterbalanced by the [[solar wind]] plasma.

Most of the solar particles are deflected to either side of the magnetopause, much like water is deflected before the bow of a ship. At Earth and all the other planets with intrinsic magnetic fields, some particles succeed in entering and becoming trapped within the magnetosphere. At Earth, these particles form the plasma sheet.

==Estimating the standoff distance to the magnetopause==
If the pressure from particles within the magnetosphere is neglected, it is possible to estimate the distance to the part of the magnetosphere that faces the [[Sun]]. The condition governing this position is that the dynamic [[ram pressure]] from the [[solar wind]] is equal to the magnetic pressure from the [[Earth]]'s [[magnetic field]].
:<math>(\rho v^2)_{sw}\approx ( \frac{4 B(r)^2}{2\mu_0})_m</math><ref group="note">The reason for the factor of 4 is because the magnetic field strength just inside the magnetopause is twice the dipole value for a planar magnetopause</ref> where <math>\rho</math> and <math>v</math> are the [[density]] and [[velocity]] of the [[solar wind]], and
''B''(''r'') is the [[Magnetic field|Magnetic field strength of the planet]] in [[SI]] units (''B'' in [[Tesla (unit)|T]], [[Permeability constant|μ0]] in [[Henry (unit)|H]]/[[metre|m]])

Since the [[dipole]] magnetic field strength varies with distance as <math>1/r^3</math> the magnetic field strength can be written as <math>B(r)=B_0/r^3</math>.
:<math>\rho v^2\approx \frac{2 B_0^2}{r^6 \mu_0}</math>.
Solving this equation for r leads to an estimate of the distance
:<math>r\approx \sqrt[6]{\frac{2 B_0^2}{\mu_0 \rho v^2}}</math>

The distance from Earth to the subsolar magnetopause varies over time due to solar activity, but typical distances range from <math>6-15 R_{\oplus}</math>. Emperical models<ref>Magnetopause shape as a bivariate function of interplanetary magnetic field Bz and solar wind Dynamic pressure, E. Roelof and D. Sibeck, J. Geophys. Res., 98, A12, doi:10.1029/93JA02362, 1993</ref><ref>A new functional form to study the solar wind control of the magnetopause size and shape, J.‐H. Shue, J. Chao, H. Fu, C. Russell, P. Song, K. Khurana, and H. Singer, J. Geophys. Res., 102, A5, doi:10.1029/97JA00196, 1997</ref> using real-time [[solar wind]] data can provide a real-time estimate of the magnetopause location. A [[bow shock]] stands upstream from the magnetopause. It serves to decelerate and deflect the solar wind flow before it reaches the magnetopause <ref>Imke de Pater and Jack J. Lissauer: ''Planetary Sciences'', page 261. Cambridge University Press, 2001. ISBN 0 521 48219 4</ref>

==Solar System magnetopauses==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+ Overview of the Solar System magnetopauses<ref>After ''Planetary magnetospheres,'' M. K. Kivelson and F. Bagenal, The Encyclopedia of the Solar System, 1st edition, P. Weissman, L. A. McFadden, and T. Johnson, Eds.-in-Chief, Academic Press, pp. 477, 1998. (2nd ed, 2006.) ISBN 10: 0-12-088589-1, ISBN 13: 978-0-12-088589-3</ref>
|-
! Planet!! Number !! Magnetic moment <ref group="note">compared to Earth's magnetic moment (<math>7.906\times 10^{31}\,\text{gauss}/\text{m}^3</math>)</ref> !! Magnetopause distance <ref group="note">typical distance between magnetopause and magnetosphere in planet radii</ref>!! Observed size of the [[magnetosphere]]<ref group="note">in planet radii</ref>|| variance of [[magnetosphere]]<ref group="note">in planet radii, the [[magnetosphere]] varies mainly in response to solar wind dynamic pressure and interplanetary magnetic field orientation</ref>
|-
| [[Image:Mercury symbol.svg|25px|Mercury]] [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] ||1||0.0004 || 1.5 || 1.4||0
|-
| [[Image:Venus symbol.svg|25px|Venus]] [[Venus]] ||2|| 0 || 0|| 0||0
|-
| [[Image:Earth symbol.svg|25px|Earth]] [[Earth]]||3|| 1 || 10 || 10||2
|-
| [[Image:Mars symbol.svg|25px|Mars]] [[Mars]]||4|| 0 || 0 || 0||0
|-
| [[Image:Jupiter symbol.svg|25px|Jupiter]] [[Jupiter]] ||5|| 20000 || 42 || 75||25
|-
| [[Image:Saturn symbol.svg|25px|Saturn]] [[Saturn]] ||6|| 600 || 19|| 19||3
|-
| [[Image:Uranus symbol.svg|25px|Uranus]] [[Uranus]]||7|| 50 || 25 || 18||0
|-
| [[Image:Neptune symbol.svg|25px|Neptune]] [[Neptune]]||8|| 25 || 24 || 24.5||1.5
|}

Research on the magnetopause is conducted using the LMN coordinate system (which is set of axes like XYZ). N points normal to the magnetopause outward to the magnetosheath, L lies along the projection of the dipole axis onto the magnetopause (positive northward), and M completes the triad by pointing dawnward.

== See also ==
* [[Heliopause]]
* [[Shock wave]]
* [[Solar system]]
* For applications to [[spacecraft propulsion]], see [[magnetic sail]].

== Notes ==
<references group="note" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Magnetosphere}}

[[Category:Space plasmas]]
[[Category:Plasma physics]]
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Market socialism

2011-06-30T10:05:20Z

Rami radwan:

{{about||the [[libertarian socialism|libertarian socialist]] proposals sometimes described as "market socialism"|mutualism (economic theory)| the [[economic system]] in [[People's Republic of China]]|socialist market economy}}

{{Socialism sidebar |expanded=Currents}}

'''Market socialism''' refers to various economic systems where the [[means of production]] are publicly owned, managed and operated for a profit in a market economy. The profit generated in a market socialist system would be used to directly remunerate employees or go toward [[public finance]].<ref>Buchanan, Alan E. Ethics, Efficiency and the Market. Oxford University Press US. 1985. ISBN 978-0-8476-7396-4, [http://books.google.com/books?id=dqcoCqFrZFYC&pg=PA104&dq=ethics,efficiency+and+the+market+Two.types.of.market.socialism&ei=04CPSsGIEJi-lATShbijBw#v=onepage&q=&f=false pp. 104-105]</ref><ref>''Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century'', 2003, by Gregory and Stuart. ISBN 0-618-26181-8. (P.142): "It is an economic system that combines social ownership of capital with market allocation of capital...The state owns the means of production, and returns accrue to society at large."</ref> Theoretically, the fundamental difference between a traditional [[socialist economy]] and a market socialist economy is the existence of a market for the means of production and capital goods under market socialism.

Market socialism generally refers to three related but distinct economic systems.

Early forms of market socialism consisted of proposals for cooperative enterprises operating in a free-market economy, so that exploitation would be eliminated and individuals would receive the [[To each according to his contribution|full product of their labor]]. Early market socialism was expressed by [[Ricardian socialism|Ricardian socialist]]s, [[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualists]], [[individualist anarchist]]s and syndicalists.

The maturing of neoclassical economic theory led to various new proposals of market socialism in the early twentieth century. The traditional neoclassical market socialist proposals consisted of state-owned industries and a central planning board (CPB) that sets prices to equal [[marginal cost]], thereby achieving [[pareto efficiency]].

Market socialism has also been used to refer to an economic system that utilizes a [[free price system]] for the allocation and distribution of all resources, with public ownership being reserved to "strategic" sectors of the economy. Within this model, the state would utilize market mechanisms to direct economic activity in the same manner governments affect economic decisions in capitalist economies, including the use of (external) regulation over the otherwise autonomously-operating enterprises. This allows for the public enterprises to function in a decentralized fashion.

== Theoretical history ==

The earliest models of this form of market socialism were developed by [[Enrico Barone]] (1908)<ref>F. Caffé (1987), "Barone, Enrico," ''The [[New Palgrave: A Dictionary of Economics]]'', ISBN 978-1-56159-197-8, v. 1, p. 195.</ref><ref>Enrico Barone, "Il Ministro della Produzione nello Stato Collettivista", ''Giornale degli Economisti'', 2, pp. 267-293, trans. as "The Ministry of Production in the Collectivist State," in [[F. A. Hayek]], ed. (1935), ''Collectivist Economic Planning'', ISBN 978-0-7100-1506-8 pp. 245-90.</ref> and [[Oskar R. Lange]] (c. 1936).<ref>Robin Hahnel (2005), ''Economic Justice and Democracy'', Routlege, ISBN 978-0-415-93344-5, [http://books.google.com/books?id=m3QMGLrRbSAC&pg=PA170&dq=%22Economic+Justice+and+Democracy%22+Hahnel+%22usually+called+market+socialist+models%22&ei=VoSPSp_PK5iSlQSElPirBw#v=onepage&q=&f=false p. 170]</ref> Lange and [[Fred M. Taylor]]<ref>Fred M. Taylor (1929). "The Guidance of Production in a Socialist State," ''American Economic Review'', 19(1), [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0002-8282%28192903%2919%3A1%3C1%3ATGOPIA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-0&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage pp. 1-8].</ref> proposed that central planning boards set prices through "trial and error," making adjustments as shortages and surpluses occurred rather than relying on a [[free price mechanism]]. If there were shortages, prices would be raised; if there were surpluses, prices would be lowered.<ref>Mark Skousen (2001), ''Making Modern Economics'', M.E. Sharpe, ISBN 978-0-7656-0479-8,[http://books.google.com/books?id=QV2OJqbt45oC&pg=PA414&dq=Skousen+%22Making+of+Modern+Economics%22+%22channeled+through+a+central+planning+board%22&ei=hIaPSp7dMIvKlQTO4tixBw#v=onepage&q=&f=false pp. 414-415].</ref> Raising the prices would encourage businesses to increase production, driven by their desire to increase their profits, and in doing so eliminate the shortage. Lowering the prices would encourage businesses to curtail production to prevent losses, which would eliminate the surplus. Therefore, it would be a simulation of the market mechanism, which Lange thought would be capable of effectively managing supply and demand<ref>[[János Kornai]] (1992),''The Socialist System: the political economy of communism, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-828776-6, p. 476.</ref> but could not work as efficiently or as effectively as the true thing. Time delays due to bureaucracy, distortions due to politics, and the lack of an entrepreneurial process that would come up with newer, better and cheaper products would seriously hamper the results of this approach vis-a-vis the real thing, which would also avoid the financial cost of paying for inessential government administrative staff.

A second form of market socialism has been termed "free market socialism" because it does not involve planners.<ref>''Property and Prophets: the evolution of economic institutions and ideologies'', E. K. Hunt, published by M.E. Sharpe, ISBN 978-0-7656-0609-9, [http://books.google.com/books?id=fMGjVbg_mOAC&pg=PA72&dq=free.market.socialism&ei=FYmPSp62D4rgkwTLjbyvBw#v=onepage&q=free.market.socialism&f=false p.72]</ref><ref>[http://mutualist.blogspot.com/2006/07/js-mill-market-socialist.html Mutualist Blog: Free Market Anti-Capitalism: "J.S. Mill, Market Socialist"]</ref> [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] developed a theoretical system called [[Mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]], which attacks the legitimacy of existing [[property rights]], [[subsidies]], [[corporations]], [[banking]], and [[Renting|rent]]. Proudhon envisioned a decentralized market where people would enter the market with equal power, negating wage slavery.<ref>[http://mutualist.blogspot.com/2006/01/eugene-plawiuk-on-anarchist-socialism.html Mutualist Blog: Free Market Anti-Capitalism: Eugene Plawiuk on Anarchist Socialism]</ref> Proponents believe that cooperatives, credit unions, and other forms of worker ownership would become viable without being subject to the [[Sovereign state|state]]. Market socialism has also been used to describe some [[individualist anarchist]] works<ref>Murray Bookchin, ''Ghost of Anarcho-Syndicalism''; [[Robert Graham (historian)|Robert Graham]], ''The General Idea of Proudhon's Revolution''.</ref> which argue that free markets help workers and weaken capitalists.

H.D.Dickinson published two articles proposing a form of market socialism: Price Formation in a Socialist Community (The Economic Journal 1933) and The Problems of a Socialist Economy (The Economic Journal 1934). Dickinson proposed a mathematical solution whereby the problems of a socialist economy could be solved by a central planning agency. The central agency would have the necessary statistics on the economy, as well as the capability of using statistics to direct production. The economy could be represented as a system of equations. Solution values for these equations could be used to price all goods at marginal cost and direct production. Hayek (1935) argued against the proposal to simulate markets with equations. Dickinson (1939) adopted the Lange-Taylor proposal to simulate markets through trial and error.

The Lange-Dickinson version of market socialism kept capital investment out of the market. Lange (1926 p65) insisted that a central planning board would have to set capital accumulation rates arbitrarily. Lange and Dickinson saw potential problems with bureaucratization in market socialism. According to Dickinson "the attempt to check irresponsibility will tie up managers of socialist enterprises with so much red tape and bureaucratic regulation that they will lose all initiative and independence" Dickinson 1938 p214). In the Economics of Control (1944) Abba Lerner admitted that capital investment would be politicized in market socialism.

Although the name is similar, it markedly differs from the [[socialist market economy]] and [[Socialist-oriented market economy]], which is practiced within the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]], respectively.

Proponents of market socialism argue that it combines the advantages of a [[market economy]] with those of [[socialist economics]]. Economist [[John Roemer]] (who developed 'Coupon Socialism') and philosopher [[David Schweickart]], whose version of market socialism is called "[[Economic Democracy#Market_models|Economic Democracy]]", are two separate advocates of socialist market.

Bardham and Roemer suggested a form of Market Socialism where there was a 'stock market' that distributed capital fairly between the workers. In this stock market, there is no buying or selling of stocks, which leads to negative externalities associated with a concentration of capital ownership. The Bardham and Roemer model satisfied the main requirements of both Socialism (workers own all the factors of production - not just labour) and market economies (prices determine efficient allocation of resources). A New Zealand Economist, Steven O'Donnell, expanded on the Bardham and Roemer model and decomposed the capital function in a general equilibrium system to take account of entrepreneurial activity in market socialist economies. O'Donnell (2003) set up a model that could be used as a blueprint for transition economies, and the results suggested that although market socialist models were inherently unstable in the long term, in the short term they would provide the economic infrastructure necessary for a successful transition from Socialist to market economy.

==Theoretical basis==
The key theoretical basis for market socialism is the negation of the underlying expropriation of surplus value present in other, exploitative, modes of production. Socialist theories that favored the market date back to the [[Ricardian socialism|Ricardian socialists]], who advocated a free-market combined with state ownership of the means of production.

An important base for the first definition of market socialism in [[economic theory]] is the [[Lange Model]], which states that an economy in which all production is performed by the state, but in which there is a functioning price mechanism, has similar properties to a market economy under [[perfect competition]], in that it achieves [[Pareto efficiency]].

==Implementation==
[[Peter Drucker]] described the U.S. system of regulated pension funds providing capital to financial markets as "pension fund socialism".<ref>''The unseen revolution: how pension fund socialism came to America'', Peter Ferdinand Drucker, Harper Collins, 1976, ISBN 978-0-06-011097-0</ref> [[William H. Simon]] characterized pension fund socialism as "a form of market socialism", concluding that it was promising but perhaps with prospects more limited that those envisioned by its enthusiasts.<ref>William H. Simon, "Prospects for Pension Fund Socialism", ''Corporate control and accountability: changing structures and the dynamics'' J McCahery, et al., Oxford University Press, 1995, ISBN [http://books.google.com/books?id=RPo4_dUeHAAC&pg=PA167&dq=pension.fund.socialism.is.a.form.of.market.socialism&ei=r5KPSs3wGpPOlQSSwv27Bw#v=onepage&q=pension.fund.socialism.is.a.form.of.market.socialism&f=false p.167]</ref>

==Other uses of the term==
Market socialism has also been used as a name for any attempt by a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]]-style economy to introduce market elements into its economic system. In this sense, "market socialism" was first attempted during the 1920s in the Soviet Union as the [[New Economic Policy]] (NEP), but soon abandoned. Later, elements of "market socialism" were introduced in [[Hungary]] (where it was nicknamed "[[goulash communism]]"), [[Czechoslovakia]] and [[Yugoslavia]] (see [[Titoism]]) in the 1970s and 1980s. Modern [[Vietnam]] and [[Laos]] also describe themselves as market socialist systems. The [[Soviet Union]] attempted to introduce a market socialist system with its [[perestroika]] reforms under [[Mikhail Gorbachev]]. During the later stages there was talk within top circles that the government should create the Socialist Market Economy; however, they never reached an agreement of how much socialism and market was to be featured.

Historically, these kinds of "market socialist" systems attempt to retain government ownership of the ''commanding heights of the economy'', such as heavy industry, energy, and infrastructure, while introducing decentralised decision making and giving local managers more freedom to make decisions and respond to market demands. Market socialist systems also allow private ownership and [[entrepreneur]]ship in the service and other secondary economic sectors. The [[market]] is allowed to determine prices for consumer goods and agricultural products, and farmers are allowed to sell all or some of their products on the open market and keep some or all of the profit as an incentive to increase and improve production.

===Socialist market economy===
The Chinese experience with [[socialism with Chinese characteristics]] is frequently referred to as a '[[socialist market economy]]' in which the 'commanding heights' remain in state ownership, but a substantial portion of both the state and private sectors of economy are governed by free market practices, including a stock exchange for trading equity. The free-market is the arbitrator for most economic activity, with economic planning being relegated to macro-economic government indicative planning that does not encompass the microeconomic decision-making that is left to the individual organizations and state-owned enterprises. This model includes a significant amount of privately owned firms that operate as a business for profit, but only for consumer goods and services.<ref>[http://www.adb.org/Documents/Events/2004/PRC_Planning_System_Reform/chow1.pdf "The Role of Planning in China's Market Economy"], presented before the "International Conference on China's Planning System Reform," March 24 and 25, 2004 in Beijing, by Prof. Gregory C. Chow, Princeton University.</ref>

Directive centralized planning composed of mandatory output requirements and production quotas have been displaced by the free-market mechanism (for most of the economy) and directive planning in larger state industries.<ref>[http://www.adb.org/Documents/Events/2004/PRC_Planning_System_Reform/chow1.pdf "The Role of Planning in China's Market Economy"], presented before the "International Conference on China's Planning System Reform," March 24 and 25, 2004 in Beijing, by Prof. Gregory C. Chow, Princeton University.</ref> One of the major changes between the old [[planned economy]] and the socialist market model is the [[corporatization]] state institutions, with 150 of them reporting directly to the central government.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.forbes.com/2008/07/08/china-enterprises-state-lead-cx_jrw_0708mckinsey.html | work=Forbes | title=Reassessing China's State-Owned Enterprises}}</ref> By 2008, these state-owned corporations have became increasingly dynamic and generated lots of revenue for the state,<ref>http://us.ft.com/ftgateway/superpage.ft?news_id=fto031620081407384075</ref><ref>David A. Ralston, Jane Terpstra-Tong, Robert H. Terpstra, Xueli Wang, [http://ufirc.ou.edu/publications/Enterprises%20of%20China.pdf "Today's State-Owned Enterprises of China: Are They Dying Dinosaurs or Dynamic Dynamos?"]</ref> with the state-sector leading the recovery of economic growth in 2009 in the wake of the financial crises.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8153138.stm | work=BBC News | title=China grows faster amid worries | date=July 16, 2009 | accessdate=May 12, 2010}}</ref>

The [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] pursued market-oriented reforms in 1986, resulting in what is officially called a '[[Socialist-oriented market economy]]', a system that utilizes market forces to distribute consumer goods produced by state-run, collectively owned and privately owned enterprises.

Proponents of socialist market economic systems argue from a Marxist perspective, stating that a planned socialist economy can only be brought about by first establishing a comprehensive commodity market economy and letting it fully develop until it exhausts its historical stage and gradually transforms itself into a planned economy.<ref>[http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:tWl8XGM_vQAJ:www.nodo50.org/cubasigloXXI/congreso06/conf3_zhonquiao.pdf+Socialist+planned+commodity+economy&hl=en&gl=us ''Market Economy and Socialist Road''], Duan Zhongqiao</ref> They argue that the economic system of the USSR and its satellite states attempted to go from a natural economy to a planned economy by decree, without passing through the necessary market economy phase of development. Proponents of socialist-directed market economies distinguish themselves from market socialists, and state that market socialists believe that only through utilizing the market mechanism can socialism be achieved, and that planned economies are ineffective or undesirable.<ref>[http://docs.google.com/gview?a=v&q=cache:tWl8XGM_vQAJ:www.nodo50.org/cubasigloXXI/congreso06/conf3_zhonquiao.pdf+Socialist+planned+commodity+economy&hl=en&gl=us ''Market Economy and Socialist Road''], Duan Zhongqiao</ref>

==See also==
* [[Anti-capitalism]]
* [[Criticisms of Socialism]]
* [[Mutualism (economic theory)|Mutualism]]
* [[Social capitalism]]
* [[Lange Model]]
* [[Goulash Communism]]
* [[Ricardian socialism]]
* [[Social market economy]]
* [[Socialist market economy]]
* [[Socialist-oriented market economy]] (the modern economic system in Vietnam)
* [[New Economic Mechanism]]
* [[Parecon]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Bertell Ollman ed. (1998). ''Market Socialism: the Debate Among Socialists'', with other contributions by James Lawler, Hillel Ticktin and David Schewikart. [http://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=Bertell+Ollman+ed.+.+%22Market+Socialism%3A+the+Debate+Among+Socialists%22&hl=en&lr=&btnG=Search Preview.]
* Steven O'Donnell (2003). ''Introducing Entrepreneurial Activity Into Market Socialist Models'', University Press, Auckland
* [[John Roemer|John E. Roemer]] et al. (E. O. Wright, ed.) (1996). ''Equal Shares: Making Market Socialism Work'', Verso.
* [[Alec Nove]] (1983). ''The Economics of Feasible Socialism'', HarperCollins.
* [[David Miller (political theorist)|David Miller]] (1989). ''Market, State, and Community: Theoretical Foundations of Market Socialism'', Clarendon Press, Oxford.
* [[David Schweickart]] (2002). ''After Capitalism'', Rowman & Littlefield, Lanham, Maryland.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Market Socialism}}
[[Category:Socialism]]
[[Category:Political economy]]
[[Category:Macroeconomics]]
[[Category:Economic ideologies]]
[[Category:Libertarianism by form]]

[[ast:Socialismu de mercáu]]
[[ar:اشتراكية السوق]]
[[de:Konkurrenzsozialismus]]
[[es:Socialismo de mercado]]
[[fa:سوسیالیسم بازار]]
[[fr:Socialisme de marché]]
[[nl:Marktsocialisme]]
[[ja:市場社会主義]]

Magnetosheath

2011-06-30T10:00:41Z

Rami radwan:

The '''magnetosheath''' is the region of space between the [[magnetopause]] and the [[bow shock]] of a [[planet|planet's]] [[magnetosphere]]. The regularly organized [[magnetic field]] generated by the planet becomes weak and irregular in the magnetosheath due to interaction with the incoming [[solar wind]], and is incapable of fully deflecting the highly [[charged particle]]s. The density of the particles in this region is considerably lower than what is found beyond the bow shock, but greater than within the [[magnetopause]], and can be considered a transitory state.

[[Image:Structure of the magnetosphere.svg|thumb|350px|Schematic of Earth's magnetosphere, showing the relative position of the magnetosheath]]

Scientific research into the exact nature of the magnetosheath has been limited due to a longstanding misconception that it was a simple byproduct of the bow shock/magnetopause interaction and had no inherently important properties of its own. Recent studies indicate, however, that the magnetosheath is a dynamic region of turbulent [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]] flow that may play an important role in the structure of the bow shock and the magnetopause, and may help to dictate the flow of energetic particles across those boundaries.{{Citation needed|date=July 2007}}

The [[Earth|Earth's]] magnetosheath typically occupies the region of space approximately 10 Earth radii on the upwind ([[Sun]]-facing) side of the planet, extending significantly farther out on the downwind side due to the pressure of the solar wind. The exact location and width of the magnetosheath does depend on variables such as [[Solar variation|solar activity]].

==External links==
*[http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/M/magnetosheath.html The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and Spaceflight]
*[http://www-ssc.igpp.ucla.edu/ssc/textbook/magneto.html Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics]
{{magnetosphere}}

[[Category:Planetary science]]
[[Category:Space plasmas]]
[[Category:Plasma physics]]
[[ar:غمد مغناطيسي]]
[[ko:자기권덮개]]
[[pt:Magnetobainha]]
[[zh:磁層鞘]]