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Musicians of the Titanic

2013-01-12T22:21:43Z

Rigaudon: /* Georges Alexandre Krins */ tidy

{{Use British English|date=April 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}
{{cleanup-reorganize|date=April 2012}}

[[File:Titanic orchetra.jpg|thumb|Titanic's orchestra; Top: Clarke; Taylor. Middle: Krins, Hartley, Brailey. Bottom: Hume; Woodward. Not pictured: Bricoux.]]
The '''Musicians of the RMS ''Titanic''''' all perished with the ship when it sank in 1912. They played music, intending to calm the passengers, for as long as they possibly could and all went down with the ship. All were recognized for their heroism.
[[File:Titanic Band.jpg|thumb|190px|Members of the ''Titanic'' orchestra]]

The ship's eight-member orchestra boarded at [[Southampton]] and travelled as second-class passengers. They were not on the payroll of the [[White Star Line]], but were contracted to White Star by the Liverpool firm of [[C.W. & F.N. Black]], who placed musicians on almost all British liners. Until the night of the sinking, the orchestra performed as two separate entities: a [[quintet]] led by violinist and official bandleader [[Wallace Hartley]], that played at teatime, after-dinner concerts, and Sunday services, among other occasions; and the violin, cello and piano trio of [[Roger Marie Bricoux|Roger Bricoux]], [[Georges Alexandré Krins|George Krins]] and [[Theodore Ronald Brailey|Theodore Brailey]], that played at the Á La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanic_band.shtml/ |title=Titanic's Band or Orchestra|publisher=Titanic-Titanic.com| accessdate=31 July 2007}}</ref>

==List of musicians==
{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! Name !! Age !! Hometown !! Position !! Body
|-
| [[Theodore Ronald Brailey|Brailey, Mr. W. Theodore Ronald]]||24 || London, England || Pianist || –
|-
| [[Roger Marie Bricoux|Bricoux, Mr. Roger Marie]] || 20 || [[Cosne-sur-Loire]], France || Cellist || –
|-
| Clarke, Mr. John Frederick Preston || 30 || [[Liverpool]], Lancashire, England || Bassist || 202[[CS Mackay-Bennett|MB]]
|-
| [[Wallace Hartley|Hartley, Mr. Wallace Henry]] || 33 || [[Dewsbury]], Yorkshire, England || [[Bandmaster]] || 224[[CS Mackay-Bennett|MB]]
|-
| [[John Law Hume|Hume, Mr. John Law "Jock"]] || 21 || [[Dumfries]], Scotland || Violinist || 193[[CS Mackay-Bennett|MB]]
|-
| [[Georges Alexandre Krins|Krins, Mr. Georges Alexandre]]|| 23 || London, England || Violinist || –
|-
|Taylor, Mr. Percy Cornelius || 32 || London, England || Cellist || –
|-
|Woodward, Mr. John Wesley || 32 || [[Oxford]], England || Cellist || –
|}

== Theodore Ronald Brailey ==
{{Infobox person
|name =
|image =
|caption =
|birth_name = Theodore Ronald Brailey
|birth_date = {{birth date|1887|10|25|df=y}}
|birth_place =
|death_date = {{death date and age|1912|4|15|1887|10|25|df=y}}
|death_place = {{RMS|Titanic}}, [[Atlantic Ocean]]
|occupation = Pianist
|spouse =
|religion =
|parents =
}}

'''Theodore Ronald Brailey''' (25 October 1887 – 15 April 1912) was an [[English people|English]] [[piano|pianist]] on the {{RMS|Titanic}} on its maiden voyage. He died in the disaster.<ref name="Valiant Musicians">{{cite web |url= http://www.worldmilitarybands.com/the-valiant-musicians/ |title=The Valiant Musicians | World Military Bands|first=Jack|last=Kopstein |work=worldmilitarybands.com |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Titanica">{{cite web |url= http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-biography/theodore-ronald-brailey.html |title=Mr W. Theodore Ronald Brailey | Encyclopaedia Titanica |first= |last=Encyclopaedia Titanica |work=encyclopedia-titanica.org |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>

Theodore Ronald Brailey was born on 25 October 1887 in [[Walthamstow]], [[Essex]].<ref>{{harvnb|Steve Turner|2011|p=62}}</ref> His father, William "Ronald" Brailey, was a well-known figure of [[Spiritualism]] at the time.<ref>{{harvnb|Steve Turner|2011|p=60}}</ref> He studied [[piano]] at school and one of his first jobs was playing piano in a local hotel.<ref>{{harvnb|Steve Turner|2011|p=63}}</ref>

In 1902 he joined the [[Lancashire Fusiliers|Royal Lancashire Fusiliers regiment]] signing for 12 years service as a musician.<ref>{{harvnb|Steve Turner|2011|p=65}}</ref> He was stationed in [[Barbados]] but resigned his commission prematurely in 1907.<ref>{{harvnb|Steve Turner|2011|p=68}}</ref> He returned to England and lived at 71 Lancaster Road, Ladbroke Grove, [[London]].<ref name="Titanica"/> In 1911, he enlisted aboard ship, playing first on the {{RMS|Saxonia}}, prior to joining the [[Cunard]] steamer {{RMS|Carpathia}} in 1912, where he met the French [[cello|cellist]] [[Roger Marie Bricoux]]. Both men then joined the [[White Star Line]] and were recruited by [[Liverpool]] music agency, C.W. and F.N. Black, to serve on the {{RMS|Titanic}}<ref name="Valiant Musicians"/><ref name="Titanica"/><ref name="titanica">{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-victim/roger-bricoux.html |title=Mr Roger Marie Bricoux | Encyclopedia Titanica |first=|last=Whitfield, Geoff and Mendez, Olivier |work=encyclopedia-titanica.org |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=5 June 2011}}</ref> Brailey boarded the ''Titanic'' on Wednesday 10 April 1912 in [[Southampton]], UK. His ticket number was 250654, the ticket for all the members of [[Wallace Hartley]]'s orchestra. His cabin was in the 2nd class quarters.<ref name="Valiant Musicians"/><ref name="Titanica"/><ref name="Titanic Site">{{cite web |url= http://www.titanicsite.kit.net/passageiros_2classe.html |title=Titanic Site |first=|last=titanicsite |work=titanicsite.kit.net |year=2007 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>

After the ''Titanic'' hit an iceberg and began to sink, Brailey and his fellow band members started playing music to help keep the passengers calm as the crew loaded the [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]]s. Many of the survivors said that he and the band continued to play until the very end. One second class passenger said: "Many brave things were done that night, but none were more brave than those done by men playing minute after minute as the ship settled quietly lower and lower in the sea. The music they played served alike as their own immortal requiem and their right to be recalled on the scrolls of undying fame." Brailey was 24 years old when he died. His body was never recovered.<ref name="Valiant Musicians"/><ref name="Titanica"/><ref name="Ancestry">{{cite web |url= http://boards.ancestry.co.uk/surnames.brailey/74/mb.ashx |title=Theodore Ronald Brailey - 2nd Class Passenger on the Titanic from England - Brailey - Family History & Genealogy Message Board - Ancestry.co.uk |first= |last=Ancestry.co.uk |work=boards.ancestry.co.uk |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>

== Roger Marie Bricoux ==

{{infobox person
|name =
|image =
|caption =Members of the ''Titanic'' orchestra
|birth_name = Roger Marie Bricoux
|birth_date = {{birth date|1891|6|1|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Cosne-sur-Loire]], [[France]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1912|4|15|1891|6|1|df=y}}
|death_place = {{RMS|Titanic}}, [[Atlantic Ocean]]
|occupation = Cellist
|spouse =
|religion =
|parents =
}}

'''Roger Marie Bricoux''' (1 June 1891 – 15 April 1912) was a [[French people|French]] [[cello|cellist]] on the {{RMS|Titanic}} on its maiden voyage.<ref name="Ancestry">{{cite web |url= http://boards.ancestry.co.uk/localities.weurope.monaco.general/55/mb.ashx?pnt=1 |title=Roger-Marie Bricoux -Passenger on the Titanic from Monaco - General - Family History & Genealogy Message Board - Ancestry.co.uk |first= |last=Ancestry.co.uk |work=boards.ancestry.co.uk |year=2011 [last update] |quote= 1 June 1891 |accessdate=5 June 2011}}</ref> He died in the disaster.

Roger Bricoux was born on 1 June 1891 in rue de Donzy, [[Cosne-sur-Loire]], France.<ref name="Titanic-Titanic">{{cite web |url= http://www.titanic-titanic.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=63&t=4931 |title=Titanic-Titanic.com • View topic - Roger Bricoux [cellist] |first= |last=Titanic-Titanic |work=titanic-titanic.com |year=2011 [last update] |quote=rue de Donzy |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> He was the son of a musician and the family moved to [[Monaco]] when he was a young boy.<ref>{{harvnb|Steve Turner|2011|p=50}}</ref> He was educated in various [[Catholic school|Catholic institutions]] in [[Italy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Steve Turner|2011|p=51}}</ref> It was during his studies that he joined his first [[orchestra]] and won first prize at the Conservatory of Bologna for musical ability.<ref name="superforum.fr">{{cite web |url= http://titanic.superforum.fr/t448-roger-bricoux-violoncelliste |title=Roger Bricoux [violoncelliste] |first= |last=Sha're|work=titanic.superforum.fr |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> After studying at the Paris Conservatory, he moved to England in 1910 to join the orchestra in the Grand Central Hotel in [[Leeds]].<ref>{{harvnb|Steve Turner|2011|p=52}}</ref> At the end of 1911, he moved to [[Lille]], France, living at 5 Place du Lion d’Or and played in various locations throughout the city.<ref name="Valiant Musicians">{{cite web |url= http://www.worldmilitarybands.com/the-valiant-musicians/ |title=The Valiant Musicians | World Military Bands |first=Jack|last=Kopstein |work=worldmilitarybands.com |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>

Before joining the ''Titanic'', Bricoux and [[piano|pianist]] [[Theodore Ronald Brailey]] had served together on the [[Cunard]] steamer {{RMS|Carpathia}} before joining the [[White Star Line]]<ref name="Valiant Musicians"/><ref name="titanica">{{cite web |url= http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-victim/roger-bricoux.html |title=Mr Roger Marie Bricoux | Encyclopedia Titanica |first= |last=Whitfield, Geoff and Mendez, Olivier |work=encyclopedia-titanica.org |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=5 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="superforum.fr"/> He boarded the ''Titanic'' on Wednesday 10 April 1912 in [[Southampton]], UK.<ref name="superforum.fr"/> His ticket number was 250654, the ticket for all the members of [[Wallace Hartley]]'s orchestra. His cabin was 2nd class and he was the only French musician aboard the ''Titanic''.<ref name="Titanic Site">{{cite web |url= http://www.titanicsite.kit.net/passageiros_2classe.html |title=Titanic Site |first= |last=titanicsite |work=titanicsite.kit.net |year=2007 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>

After the ''Titanic'' hit an iceberg and began to sink, Bricoux and his fellow band members started playing music to help keep the passengers calm as the crew loaded the [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]]s. Many of the survivors said that he and the band continued to play until the very end. One second class passenger said: "Many brave things were done that night, but none were more brave than those done by men playing minute after minute as the ship settled quietly lower and lower in the sea. The music they played served alike as their own immortal requiem and their right to be recalled on the scrolls of undying fame." Bricoux was 20 years old when he died.<ref name="superforum.fr"/> His body was never recovered.<ref name="Valiant Musicians"/>

In 1913, after his apparent disappearance, he was declared a "[[desertion|deserter]]" by the [[French army]]. It was not until 2000, that he was eventually officially registered as dead in France, mainly due to the efforts of the Association Française du Titanic.<ref name="encyclopedia-titanica">{{cite web |url= http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/memorial-roger-bricoux-titanic-cello-player.html |title=Memorial to Roger Bricoux, Titanic cello player (2000) - 2 November 2000 |first= Olivier|last=Mendez|work=encyclopedia-titanica.org |year=2011 [last update] |quote=On November 2nd 2000, the Association Francaise du Titanic unveiled a memorial plaque in memory of Roger Bricoux in Cosne-sur-Loire, the city where he was born on June 1st 1891. In 1913, Roger had been considered a desertor by the French army, and it was not before 2000, thanks to the AFT's work, that he was officially registered as... dead. |accessdate=5 June 2011}}</ref> On 2 November 2000, the same association unveiled a memorial plaque to Bricoux in [[Cosne-sur-Loire]].<ref name="Titanic-Titanic"/><ref name="encyclopedia-titanica"/>

== Wallace Henry Hartley {{anchor|Wallace Hartley}} ==

{{Infobox person
|name = Wallace Hartley
|image = Wallace Hartley.gif
|caption = Wallace Hartley, bandmaster and violinist on board the ''Titanic''
|birth_name = Wallace Henry Hartley
|birth_date = {{birth date|1878|6|2|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Colne]], Lancashire, England
|death_date = {{death date and age|1912|4|15|1878|6|2|df=y}}
|death_place = {{RMS|Titanic}}, Atlantic Ocean
|occupation = Violinist, Bandleader
|spouse =
|religion = [[Methodist]] Christian<ref name="Faith">{{cite web|url = http://www.umc.org/site/apps/nlnet/content3.aspx?c=lwL4KnN1LtH&b=5259669&ct=9353535|title=Did faith drive Titanic musicians?|author=Joey Butler|publisher=[[The United Methodist Church]]|quote=Wallace Hartley was raised in Colne, England. His father, Albion Hartley, was choirmaster and Sunday school superintendent at Bethel Independent Methodist Chapel. Perhaps a foreshadowing of things to come, it was choirmaster Hartley who introduced the hymn “Nearer, My God, to Thee” to the congregation. Colne had deep ties to Methodism, although its introduction to the movement wasn’t the best first impression. Several times John Wesley visited the mill town, which had a tough reputation, and was always met with opposition and, in some cases, violence. During one visit, he was met by an angry mob, and one of his helpers was thrown to his death off a bridge. However, Methodism was eventually embraced in Colne, and almost 10 Methodist chapels sprang up there. Born in 1878, young Wallace studied at Colne’s Methodist day school, sang in Bethel’s choir and learned violin from a congregation member.|accessdate=2 December 2010}}</ref>
|parents =
}}

'''Wallace Henry Hartley''' (2 June 1878 – 15 April 1912) was an English violinist and [[bandleader]] on the {{RMS|Titanic}} on its maiden voyage. He became famous for leading the eight member band as the ship sank on 15 April 1912. He died in the sinking.

===Life and career===
Wallace Hartley was born and raised in [[Colne]], Lancashire, England. Hartley's father, Albion Hartley, was the [[choirmaster]] and [[Sunday school]] superintendent at Bethel Independent Methodist Chapel, where the family attended [[service of worship|worship services]]. Hartley himself introduced the hymn “[[Nearer, My God, to Thee]]” to the [[local church|congregation]]. Wallace studied at Colne’s Methodist day school, sang in Bethel’s choir and learned violin from a fellow congregation member.<ref name="Faith"/><ref name="Dalesman">{{cite news | first = Martin | last = Handley | work = The Yorkshire Dalesman | publisher = Country Publications Ltd | location = [[Skipton]] | pages = 38–40 | year = 2012 | month = April}}</ref>

After leaving school, Hartley started work with the [[Craven & Union Bank]] in Colne. When his family moved to [[Huddersfield]], Hartley joined the [[Huddersfield Philharmonic Orchestra]]. In 1903, he left home to join the municipal orchestra in [[Bridlington]], where he stayed for six years. He later moved to [[Dewsbury]], West Yorkshire and in 1909, he joined the [[Cunard Line]] as a musician, serving on the ocean liners {{RMS|Lucania}}, {{RMS|Lusitania}} and {{RMS|Mauretania|1906|6}}.<ref name="Dalesman"/>

Whilst serving on the ''Mauretania'', the employment of Cunard musicians was transferred to the music agency C.W. & F.N. Black, which supplied musicians for Cunard and the [[White Star Line]]. This transfer changed Hartley's onboard status, as he was no longer counted as a member of the crew, but rather as a passenger, albeit one accommodated in second-class accommodation at the agency's expense. It later transpired that neither the shipping company nor the music agency had insured the musicians, with each claiming it was the other's responsibility.<ref name="Dalesman"/>

In April 1912, Hartley was assigned to be the bandmaster for the White Star Line ship {{RMS|Titanic}}.<ref name="Dalesman"/> He was at first hesitant to again leave his fiancée, Maria Robinson, to whom he had recently proposed, but Hartley decided that working on the maiden voyage of the ''Titanic'' would give him possible contacts for future work.

Apart from his notable and tragically short tenure as leader of the band on the ''Titanic'', Hartley is also known for introducing the [[tritone substitution]] to ballroom dance music.

===Sinking of the ''Titanic''===
After the ''Titanic'' hit an iceberg and began to sink, Hartley and his fellow band members started playing music to help keep the passengers calm as the crew loaded the [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]]s. Many of the survivors said that he and the band continued to play until the very end. None of the band members survived the sinking and the story of them playing to the end became a popular legend. One survivor who clambered aboard 'Collapsible A' claimed to have seen Hartley and his band standing just behind the first funnel, by the Grand Staircase. He went on to say that he saw three of them washed off while the other five held on to the railing on top the Grand Staircase's deckhouse, only to be dragged down with the bow, just before Hartley exclaimed, "Gentlemen, I bid you farewell!" A newspaper at the time reported "the part played by the orchestra on board the Titanic in her last dreadful moments will rank among the noblest in the annals of heroism at sea."

Though the final song played by the band is unknown, "[[Nearer, My God, to Thee]]" has gained popular acceptance. Former bandmates claimed that Hartley had said he would play either "Nearer, My God, to Thee" or "[[O God, Our Help in Ages Past]]" if he was ever on a sinking ship, but [[Walter Lord]]'s book ''[[A Night to Remember (book)|A Night to Remember]]'' popularised wireless officer [[Harold Sydney Bride|Harold Bride]]'s account of hearing the song "Autumn".

===After the sinking===
[[File:Bust of Wallace Hartley - geograph.org.uk - 1547029.jpg|thumb|right|180px|Bust of Wallace Hartley in Albert Road, Colne]]
Hartley's body was recovered by the [[CS Mackay-Bennett|''Mackay–Bennett'']] almost two weeks after the sinking. He was transferred to the ''Arabic'' and sent to England. Hartley's funeral took place in Colne on 18 May 1912. One thousand people attended his funeral, while 40,000 lined the route of his funeral procession.<ref name="Dalesman"/>

Hartley is buried in Colne, where a 10-foot headstone, containing a carved violin at its base, was erected in his honour.

A memorial to Hartley, topped by his [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]], was erected in 1915 outside the Albert Street Methodist Church in Colne where Hartley began his musical career. Hartley's large [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] terraced house in West Park Street, [[Dewsbury]], West Yorkshire, bears a [[blue plaque]] to remind passers-by that this was the bandleader's home.<ref name="Dalesman"/>

As of 2001, Hartley's name was still being used when naming new streets and housing in the town of Colne. In 2008, the pub chain [[J D Wetherspoon]] named a newly opened pub, (the building having been the long-standing King's Head Hotel up until the mid 1990s<ref>http://www.jdwetherspoon.co.uk/home/pubs/the-wallace-hartley</ref>), in Colne after the bandleader.<ref name="lantel">{{cite news | first = Jon | last = Livesey | work = Lancashire Telegraph | url = http://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/3799270.New_Colne_pub_to_be_named_after_Titanic_hero/ | title = New Colne pub to be named after Titanic hero | date = 28 October 2008 | accessdate =24 March 2008}}</ref>

===Portrayals===
*Charles Belchier (1958) (''[[A Night to Remember (1958 film)|A Night to Remember]]'')
*Victor Langley (1979) (''[[S.O.S. Titanic]]'')
*Jonathan Evans-Jones (1997) (''[[Titanic (1997 film)|Titanic]]'')

== John Law Hume ==

{{Infobox person
|name =
|image =
|caption =
|birth_name = John Law Hume
|birth_date = {{birth date|1890|8|9|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Dumfries]], Scotland
|death_date = {{death date and age|1912|4|15|1890|8|9|df=y}}
|death_place = {{RMS|Titanic}}, Atlantic Ocean
|occupation = Violinist
|spouse =
|religion =
|parents =
}}

'''John Law Hume''' (9 August 1890 – 15 April 1912) was a Scottish violinist on the {{RMS|Titanic}} on its maiden voyage. He died in the disaster.<ref name="Ancestry">{{cite web |url= http://homepages.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~hume/tree/2/33759.htm |title=John Law Hume |first= |last=Ancestry.com |work=homepages.rootsweb.ancestry.com |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>

John Law Hume (also known as 'Jock') was born on 9 August 1890 in [[Dumfries]], Scotland and lived with his parents at 42 George Street, Dumfries.<ref name="Ancestry"/> He had already played on at least five ships before the Titanic. He was recruited to play on the maiden voyage due to his good reputation as a musician.<ref name="Norwich Evening News">{{cite web |url=http://www.eveningnews24.co.uk/news/boughton_resident_s_book_reveals_tale_of_young_bandsman_on_titanic_1_898839 |title=Boughton resident’s book reveals tale of young bandsman on Titanic – News – Norwich Evening News |first=David|last=Blackmore |work=Norwich Evening News |year=2011 [last update] |quote=“He played on at least five ships before the Titanic and he was put forward to play on the ship because they really wanted to cream of the crop to play for passengers. It was such a famous ship and the largest liner at the time and that’s what made John really want to be on its maiden voyage.” |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>

He boarded the ''Titanic'' on Wednesday 10 April 1912 in [[Southampton]], UK. His ticket number was 250654, the ticket for all the members of [[Wallace Hartley]]'s orchestra. His cabin was in the 2nd class quarters.

After the ''Titanic'' hit an iceberg and began to sink, Hume and his fellow band members assembled in the first class lounge and started playing music to help keep the passengers calm. They later moved to the forward half of the boat deck, where they continued to play as the crew loaded the [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]]s. Many of the survivors said that he and the band continued to play until the very end. One second class passenger said: "Many brave things were done that night, but none were more brave than those done by men playing minute after minute as the ship settled quietly lower and lower in the sea. The music they played served alike as their own immortal requiem and their right to be recalled on the scrolls of undying fame."

Hume was 21 years old when he died, unaware that his fiancée, Mary Costin, was pregnant with his child.<ref name="Norwich Evening News"/> His body was recovered by the [[CS Mackay-Bennett|CS ''Mackay-Bennett'']], a cable repair ship, owned by the [[Commercial Cable Company]], registered in London.<ref name="Titanica">{{cite web |url= http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-biography/jock-hume.html |title=Mr John Law Hume | Encyclopedia Titanica |first= |last=Encyclopedia Titanica |work=encyclopedia-titanica.org |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> He was buried in grave 193 at [[Fairview Cemetery, Halifax, Nova Scotia|Fairview Lawn Cemetery]], [[Halifax Regional Municipality|Halifax]], Nova Scotia, Canada on Wednesday 8 May 1912.<ref name="Titanica"/><ref name="Titanic Remembered">{{cite web |url= http://maritime.elettra.co.uk/titanic/dumfries.html |title=Titanic Remembered – in Dumfries |first= |last=Titanic Remembered |work=maritime.elettra.co.uk |year=2011 [last update] |quote=in grave 193 |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Ancestry2">{{cite web |url= http://boards.ancestry.com/surnames.hume/595/mb.ashx |title=John Law Hume - Musician on the Titanic from England - Hume - Family History & Genealogy Message Board - Ancestry.com |first= |last=Ancestry.com|work=boards.ancestry.com |year=2011 [last update] |quote=Burial:Fairview Lawn Cemetery, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada on Friday 3rd May 1912|accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> A memorial was erected for John Law Hume and Thomas Mullin (third class steward) in Dock Park, Dumfries. It reads:

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
{| style="float: left;" border="1"
|- style="font-size: 90%; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"

! scope="col" |

In memory of John Law Hume, a member of the band and Thomas Mullin, steward, natives of

these towns who lost their lives in the wreck of the White Star Liner "Titanic" which

sank in mid-Atlantic on the 14th day of April 1912. They died at the post of duty.<ref name="Titanic Remembered"/>
|}
Hume and the other members of [[Wallace Hartley]]'s orchestra were all members of the Amalgamated British Musicians Union and were employed by a [[Liverpool]] music agency, C.W. and F.N. Black, which supplied musicians for Cunard and the [[White Star Line]].<ref name="Titanica"/><ref name="Callous">{{cite web|url=http://www.deadlinenews.co.uk/2011/03/20/callous-demand-on-family-of-scots-violinist-who-played-as-titanic-sank/ |title=Callous demand on family of Scots violinist who played as Titanic sank | Deadline News |first=Peter |last=Laing|work=deadlinenews.co.uk|year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref><ref name="Bad Note">{{cite web|url=http://news.stv.tv/scotland/west-central/237225-a-bad-note-the-bill-sent-to-titanic-violinist-who-played-on-as-the-ship-went-down/|title=A bad note: the bill sent to Titanic violinist who played on as the ship went down | Glasgow and West | STV News|first=Gordon|last=Darroch |work=news.stv.tv |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> On 30 April 1912 Jock Hume's father, Andrew, received the following note from the agency:

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto 1em auto;"
{| style="float: left;" border="1"
|- style="font-size: 90%; color:black; width:30em; max-width: 40%;" cellspacing="5"
|
Dear Sir:

We shall be obliged if you will remit us the sum of 5s. 4d., which is owing to us as per enclosed statement.

We shall also be obliged if you will settle the enclosed uniform account.

Yours faithfully,

C.W. & F.N. Black<ref name="Valiant Musicians"/><ref name="Titanica"/>
|}

The letter caused controversy at the time when it was reprinted in the Amalgamated Musicians Union's monthly newsletter.<ref name="Callous"/> Andrew Law Hume decided not to settle the bill.<ref name="Bad Note"/>

==Georges Alexandre Krins==

{{Infobox person
|name =
|image =
|caption =
|birth_name = Georges Alexandre Krins
|birth_date = {{birth date|1889|3|18|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Paris]], [[France]]
|death_date = {{death date and age|1912|4|15|1889|3|18|df=y}}
|death_place = {{RMS|Titanic}}, [[Atlantic Ocean]]
|occupation = Cellist
|spouse =
|religion =
|parents =
}}

'''Georges Alexandre Krins''' (18 March 1889 – 15 April 1912) was a [[Belgian people|Belgian]] [[violin]]ist on the {{RMS|Titanic}} on its maiden voyage.<ref name="Titanica">{{cite web |url= http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-biography/georges-krins.html |title=Mr Georges Alexandre Krins | Encyclopedia Titanica |first= |last=Encyclopedia Titanica|work=encyclopedia-titanica.org |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> He died in the disaster.

Georges Alexandre Krins was born on 18 March 1889 in [[Paris]], France.<ref name="Titanic-Titanic">{{cite web |url= http://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanic_memorial-george_krins.shtml |title=Titanic Memorial - George Krins, Spa, Belgium |first= |last=Titanic-Titanic.com|work=titanic-titanic.com |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref> His family was from [[Belgium]] and soon after his birth they moved back there to the town of [[Spa, Belgium|Spa]]. He first studied at Academie de Musique de Spa. He then moved to the Conservatoire Royal de Musique in [[Liège]], Belgium where he studied from 30 October 1902 until 1908 where he won first prize for [[violin]], with the highest distinction.<ref name="Valiant Musicians"/><ref name="Titanica"/><ref name="The Brave Bandsmen
">{{cite web |url= http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/the-brave-bandsmen-belgian-memorial.html |title=The Brave Bandsmen - A Belgian Memorial :: Liverpool Echo (1912) - 25 April 1912 |first= |last=Liverpool Echo|work=encyclopedia-titanica.org |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>

As a young man he wanted to join the army; however his parents persuaded him otherwise.<ref name="Titanica"/> He worked in his father's shop and played in La Grande Symphonie, [[Spa, Belgium|Spa]].<ref name="Titanica"/> In 1910, he moved to [[Paris]] to be first violin at Le Trianon Lyrique.<ref name="Titanica"/> He subsequently moved to London and played for two years at the [[Ritz Hotel]] until March 1912.<ref name="Titanica"/> He lived at 10 Villa Road, [[Brixton]], London and became bandmaster of the Trio String Orchestra which played near the Café Français.<ref name="Titanica"/> This led to him being recruited by CW & FN Black, [[Liverpool]] to play on the ''Titanic''.<ref name="Valiant Musicians"/><ref name="Titanica"/>

He boarded the ''Titanic'' on Wednesday 10 April 1912 in [[Southampton]], UK. His ticket number was 250654, the ticket for all the members of [[Wallace Hartley]]'s orchestra.<ref name="Titanica"/> His cabin was 2nd class and he was the only Belgian musician aboard the ''Titanic''.<ref name="Titanica"/>

After the ''Titanic'' hit an iceberg and began to sink, Krins and his fellow band members assembled in the first class lounge and started playing music to help keep the passengers calm. They later moved to the forward half of the boat deck, where they continued to play as the crew loaded the [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]]s. Krins was 23 years old when he died. His body was never recovered.<ref name="Valiant Musicians"/><ref name="Titanica"/><ref name="Passenger 47">{{cite web |url= http://www.hostmybb.com/phpbb/viewtopic.php?p=26167&sid=05a5d5d60b39bf2cb03681fcf29898f8&mforum=httpwwwjohntita |title=TITANIC 4 YOU CHAT FORUMS :: View topic - The Titanic's Band / Orchestra |first= |last=Passenger 47 |work=hostmybb.com |year=2011 [last update] |accessdate=6 June 2011}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
<gallery>
File:RMS Titanic Musician's Memorial, Southampton.jpg|RMS [[Titanic Musicians' Memorial, Southampton]]
File:RMS Titanic 3.jpg|The RMS ''Titanic''
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Crew of the RMS Titanic]]
* [[RMS Titanic]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===
*{{cite book|author=[[Steve Turner (writer)|Steve Turner]]|title=The Band That Played on: The Extraordinary Story of the 8 Musicians Who Went Down With the Titanic|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=nJXxPgcgaIEC|accessdate=1 June 2011|date=22 March 2011|publisher=Thomas Nelson Inc|isbn=9781595552198|ref=harv}}
*[http://www.yvonnehume.co.uk Yvonne Hume], great niece of John Law Hume, author of: RMS Titanic 'The First Violin' the true story of Titanic's first violinist ISBN 9781840335217 (hardback) ISBN 9781840335514 (softback) RMS Titanic 'dinner is served' menus from the liner revisited and updated ISBN 9781840334845 Stenlake Publishing [http://www.stenlake.co.uk www.stenlake.co.uk] Published in Canada by; Nimbus Publishing [http://www.nimbus.ca www.nimbus.ca] RMS Titanic 'The First Violin' ISBN 9781551099187 Formac [http://www.formac.ca www.formac.ca] RMS Titanic 'dinner is served'

==External links==
*[http://www.nmni.com/titanic/Home/Stories/Memorial-to-Titanic-Cellists.aspx Memorial to the Titanic Cellists]

;Roger Marie Bricoux
*[http://www.titanic-titanic.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=63&t=4931 Roger Marie Bricoux on Titanic-Titanic.Com]
*[http://aftitanic.free.fr/anglais/titanic%20anglais.php Association Française du Titanic]

;Theodore Ronald Bailey
*[http://www.titanic-titanic.com/theodore_ronald_brailey.shtml Theodore Ronald Brailey on Titanic-Titanic.com]

;Wallace Hartley
{{Commons category|Wallace Hartley}}
*[http://www.titanic-titanic.com/wallace_hartley.shtml Wallace Hartley on Titanic-Titanic.com]
*[http://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanic_memorial-wallace_hartley.shtml Wallace Hartley's Memorial on Titanic-Titanic.com]
*[http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/biography/442/ Wallace Hartley Information on [[Encyclopedia Titanica]]]
*[http://home.earthlink.net/~llywarch/tnc02.html.htm More on the Issue of Music Played Near the Climax of the Disaster]
*[http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=pif&GRid=7980&PIgrid=7980&PIcrid=638754&ShowCemPhotos=Y& Photo of Hartley's grave]
*[http://www.hartleyfamily.org.uk/Fame2SZ.htm Wallace Hartley's Family Tree]

;John Law Hume (or Hulme)
*[http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/alex-creighton.html John Law Hulme on Encyclopaedia Titanica]
*[http://www.flickr.com/photos/54266035@N02/5260297317/ Photograph of John Law Hulme's gravestone in Fairview Lawn Cemetery, Halifax, Canada]

;Georges Alexandre Krins
*[http://www.titanic-titanic.com/titanic_memorial-george_krins.shtml Georges Alexandré Krins on Titanic-Titanic.Com]
*[http://www.superstock.com/stock-photos-images/1899-13903 Photo of Georges Alexandré Krins]

{{Titanic musicians}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2012}}

{{RMS Titanic}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Titanic, Musicians of the RMS}}
[[Category:Belgian violinists]]
[[Category:RMS Titanic's crew and passengers]]
[[Category:Scottish violinists]]
[[Category:English Methodists]]
[[Category:English violinists]]
[[Category:Bandleaders]]
[[Category:Deaths on the RMS Titanic]]
[[Category:People lost at sea]]
[[Category:1912 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Nièvre]]
[[Category:French cellists]]
[[Category:English pianists]]
{{Link FA|fr}}

[[es:Orquesta del Titanic]]
[[eo:Ŝipa orkestro de Titanic]]
[[fr:Orchestre du Titanic]]
[[hu:A Titanic zenészei]]
[[fi:Titanicin orkesteri]]

Suzuki method

2012-05-21T16:44:31Z

Rigaudon: /* Criticism and response */ italics

{{Music Education}}
The '''Suzuki method''' (Suzuki movement) is a method of teaching music conceived by Japanese [[violin]]ist [[Shinichi Suzuki (violinist)|Shin'ichi Suzuki]] that emerged in the mid-20th century. The central belief of Suzuki, based on his language acquisition theories, is that all people are capable of learning from their [[Nature versus nurture|environment]]. The essential components of his method spring from the desire to create the "right environment" for learning music. He also believed that this positive environment would also help to foster [[moral character|character]] in students.

==Background==
{{quote|I want to make good citizens. If a child hears fine music from the day of his birth and learns to play it himself, he develops sensitivity, discipline and endurance. He gets a beautiful heart.|Shin'ichi Suzuki}}

The Suzuki Method was conceived in the mid-20th century by [[Shinichi Suzuki (violinist)|Shin'ichi Suzuki]], a Japanese [[violin]]ist who desired to bring beauty to the lives of children in his country after the devastation of [[World War II]]. As a skilled violinist but a beginner at the German language who struggled to learn it, Suzuki noticed that children pick up their native language quickly, and even dialects adults consider "difficult" to learn are spoken with ease by people of 5 or 6 years. He reasoned that if children have the skill to acquire their [[first language|mother tongue]], then they have the necessary ability to become proficient on a musical instrument. He pioneered the idea that pre-school age children could learn to play the violin if learning steps were small enough and if the instrument was scaled down to fit their body. He modeled his method, which he called {{nihongo|"Talent Education"|才能教育|sainō kyōiku}}, after his theories of natural [[language acquisition]]. Suzuki believed that every child, if properly taught, was capable of a high level of musical achievement. He also made it clear that the goal of such musical education was to raise generations of children with "noble hearts" (as opposed to creating famous musical [[Child prodigy|prodigies]]).

The Suzuki method was first developed in [[Japan]]. It spread from there to other [[Pacific Rim]] countries, and then to Europe as well as Africa. Although it originally used the study of the [[violin]] to achieve its goals, it has also been adapted for other instruments: [[flute]], [[recorder]], [[piano]], [[guitar]], [[cello]], [[viola]], [[double bass|bass]], [[organ (music)|organ]], [[harp]] and [[human voice|voice]]. In addition, there are a few "Suzuki [[Preschool]]s" which have adapted Suzuki's philosophy to use in the non-musical disciplines of [[early childhood education]].

==Philosophy==
{{quote|''...all'' children can be well educated...|Shin'ichi Suzuki}}

The central belief of Suzuki, based on his language acquisition theories, is that all people can (and will) learn from their [[Nature versus nurture|environment]]. The essential components of his method spring from the desire to create the "right environment" for learning music (he believed that this positive environment would also help to foster excellent [[moral character|character]] in every student). These components include:

*Saturation in the musical [[community]], including attendance at local [[concert]]s of classical music, exposure to and friendship with other music students, and listening to music performed by "artists" (professional classical musicians of high caliber) in the home every day (starting before birth if possible).
*Deliberate avoidance of musical aptitude tests or "auditions" to begin music study. Suzuki firmly believed that teachers who test for musical aptitude before taking students, or teachers who look only for "talented" students, are limiting themselves to people who have already started their music education. Just as every child is expected to learn their native language, Suzuki expected every child to be able to learn to play music well when they were surrounded with a musical environment from infancy. (This does not preclude auditions for public performances).
*Emphasis on playing from a very young age, sometimes beginning formal instruction between the ages of 3 and 5 years old. (See [[Suzuki method#Technique|Technique]]).
*Using well trained teachers, preferably also trained in using the Suzuki materials and philosophy. Suzuki Associations all over the world offer ongoing teacher-training programs to prospective and continuing Suzuki teachers. A basic competency as a performer was recently made mandatory for all teachers in the American Association; the holding of a music degree is not required.
*In the beginning, [[learning music by ear]] is emphasized over reading [[musical notation]]. This follows Suzuki's observation that in language acquisition, a child learns to speak before learning to read. Related to this, memorization of all solo repertoire is expected, even after a student begins to use [[sheet music]] as a tool to learn new pieces. There is no formal plan or prescribed materials for introducing music theory & reading into the curriculum; this is left to the judgement of the teacher.
*The method also encourages, in addition to individual playing, regular playing in groups (including playing in [[unison]]).
*Retaining and reviewing every piece of music ever learned on a regular basis, in order to raise technical and musical ability. Review pieces, along with "preview" parts of music a student is yet to learn, are often used in creative ways to take the place of the more traditional [[etude]] books. Traditional etudes and technical studies are not used in the beginning stages, which focus almost exclusively on a set of performance pieces.
*Frequent public performance, so that performing is natural and enjoyable.

The method discourages competitive attitudes between players, and advocates collaboration and mutual encouragement for those of every ability and level. However, there is an audition process if a student wishes to perform publicly with the Suzuki Youth Orchestra of America, a national group sponsored by the Suzuki Association of the Americas.

The parent of the young student is expected to supervise instrument practice every day (instead of leaving the child to practice alone between lessons) and to attend and take notes at every lesson so as to be able to coach the student effectively. It is not necessary for the parent to be able to play as well as the child (or at all); only that the parent knows from the lessons what the child should be doing and how the child should be doing it. This element of the method is so prominent that a newspaper article once dubbed it "The Mom-Centric Method" (Constance Meyer, [[LA Times]], Sept 7, 2003).

===Criticism and response===
{{unreferenced|section|date=March 2011}}
The most common criticisms of the Suzuki method from educators outside the various Suzuki associations are that group playing, extensive listening to and copying of recordings, and early focus on memorization lead to:
* compromised [[sight reading]] skills
* a tendency towards [[rote learning]] and mechanistic group performance at the expense of individual musicianship

Other criticisms include:

* if music is to be learned from audio recordings, the quality of the recorded pieces must be questioned in terms of style, integrity, and its positive or negative traits. The resulting views are relative and may differ between people.

* any reliance on listening to a ''single piece'' in order to learn it is not sufficient for instilling a sense of the style of the work (where the style refers to the traits of performance that are common to many similar works), since a style can only be acquired by listening to a range of works of common style (including listening to works for enjoyment, rather than with only the goal of copying them).

Many Suzuki teachers have addressed these concerns by introducing sight reading exercises earlier and more often than was practiced when the method was first introduced in the [[Western world|West]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}) Some also defend their emphasis on unity of musical expression in group performance by pointing out that this is a necessary skill "just like ... in the string section of any professional [[orchestra|symphony]]", and add that although group performance plays an important motivating and [[musical ensemble|ensemble]] role, and is a highly visible part of the Suzuki method, solo expression can also be encouraged, and individually tailored lessons are at the heart of the method (Barber, 1991). In order to assure the quality of teachers, each national Suzuki association institutes its own competency requirements for teacher training: for example, a basic "competency" audition to register teacher training in the American Association was instituted in 2002. Suzuki teachers often urge their students to listen to many different recordings and live concerts in order to help them acquire a sense of musical style.

Criticism has also sprung up from within the Suzuki movement:
* students may progress too rapidly and find themselves studying repertoire for which they are not yet emotionally prepared.
* [[Baroque]] music is emphasized in the Suzuki violin literature to the detriment of other styles and periods. Some of this literature includes note errors and 19th-century editorial changes that are not in keeping with [[historically informed performance]] practice. (The International Suzuki Association is in the process of addressing this by revising the violin repertoire.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}})
* "Older students can become overly dependent" on the support structure of recordings, parental note-taking and tutoring at home, and teaching styles appropriate for younger students (Barber, 1991).
* very young students, such as those aged 3–5, are often not ready for formal instruction, and too much emphasis on practicing hard at this age may be counterproductive (American Suzuki Journal, 2005).

It is common for many Suzuki teachers to introduce supplemental repertoire such as fiddle tunes or other classical music as collected by Barbara Barber in ''Solos for Young Violinists''. This practice addresses the concern that students progress too quickly as well as the limited musical styles represented in the Suzuki books. Supporters of the method contend that the tendency of students not to grow into independence is largely a cultural issue in America and can be easily addressed by a teacher who requires students to begin working independently (''American Suzuki Journal'', 1996) and has a process in place for that transition.

==Technique==
Although Suzuki was a violinist, the method he founded is not a "school of violin playing" (like the French or the Russian school of playing) whose students are always easily identified by the certain set of techniques they use to play the violin. However, some of the technical concepts Suzuki taught his own students, such as the development of "tonalization", were so essential to his way of teaching that they have been carried over into the entire method. Other non-instrument specific techniques are used to implement the basic elements of the philosophy in each [[academic discipline|discipline]].

*'''Tonalization''' is a term coined by Suzuki, and is deliberately similar to the word "vocalization" (as it is used by singers when they talk about warming up their voices). Tonalization is defined as the student's ability to produce and recognize a beautiful, ringing tone quality on their instrument. While initially developed for violin education, the tonalization technique has been applied to other instruments such as the piano. Suzuki believed that a student must learn tonalization in order to properly reproduce and perform music (Lavie, Karen, New Zealand Suzuki Journal, 2005). Outside the Suzuki method, the term used is "tone production," and is part of Western music education stretching back to its beginning.

*Using '''[[sound recording]]s''' is another technique common to all the musical instruments taught in the Suzuki method. Records, tapes, and CDs are used to help students learn notes, [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]], [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]], [[rhythm]], and beautiful tone quality [[learning music by ear|by ear]]. Suzuki pointed out that great artists (such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]) were surrounded with excellent performances from birth, and that the advent of recording technology made this aspect of their environment possible to achieve for large numbers of "ordinary" people whose parents were not themselves great musicians & music teachers like [[Leopold Mozart|Mozart's father]] was. So-called "traditional" (that is, not Suzuki trained) music educators have used this technique since the earliest days of recording technology; the difference in the Suzuki method is the scale on which Suzuki systematically insisted on daily listening in the home, from before birth if possible, and his focus on using recordings of beginner's repertoire alongside recordings of advanced repertoire.

*"Adult" sized '''instruments are adapted''' to meet the demands of a small child's body in various ways. This lowers the age at which people are developmentally ready to begin studying an instrument. Scaled down instrument sizes are used for children studying [[stringed instruments]]. Curved headjoint flutes with displaced keys which are closer together than normal flute keys & holes are also available making it possible for children as young as 3 years old to study the flute through the Suzuki method. Height adjustable chairs, benches, and footrests are used for piano, guitar, cello, and string bass. Although fractional sized student violins were available when Suzuki began to teach, the success and popularity of his idea that pre-school aged children could also learn to play prompted [[luthier|violinmakers]] to scale violins down to even smaller [[violin#Sizes|sizes]] than before.

*'''Suzuki Institutes''' were established to encourage a musical community, train teachers, and provide a place where master teachers' ideas can easily be spread to the whole community of Suzuki students, teachers, & parents. These short term music festivals began in Matsumoto, Japan, where teachers & students came to learn from Suzuki himself. In the US, they often last for a week or two and include daily [[masterclass]]es; repertoire (group) classes; teacher training courses; concerts; discussion sessions; seminars; and various 'enrichment' classes in different musical styles, instruments, or non-musical (usually arts, crafts, or dancing) activities. As at any music festival, participants must pay registration and tuition fees to the institute they are attending. Each national Suzuki association handles registration for teacher training, and policies differ from country to country.

*A '''Common repertoire''' for all students of an instrument was established. This body of music allows each student to participate in group classes, helps to foster local and international musical community and camaraderie, and provides motivation for students to learn new music while keeping the 'old' pieces they have learned in top form. This is in direct contrast to music education outside of the method, in which teachers tailor the repertoire to the current need and level of the individual student.

==Repertoire==
{{Expand section|brief descriptions of each instrument's repertoire, including the names of some of the composers & pieces that are represented in each. (Note that the violin description does not need any more expansion. Mandolin, voice, organ, harp, recorder and ECE could all do with more detailed descriptions of repertoire.)|date=February 2007}}

{{quote|...If it is true that "everything in music is preparation" (Gerhart Zimmermann), then the genius of Suzuki is truly expressed in the scope and sequencing of the music....|[[Edward Kreitman]]}}

The core Suzuki literature is published on [[sound recording|audio recordings]] and in [[sheet music]] books for each instrument, and Suzuki teachers supplement the repertoire common to each instrument as needed, particularly in the area of teaching reading. One of the innovations of the Suzuki method was to make quality recordings of the beginners' pieces widely available, performed by professional musicians. Many traditional (non-Suzuki trained) music teachers also use the Suzuki repertoire, often to supplement their [[curriculum]], and they adapt the music to their own philosophies of teaching.

Another innovation of Suzuki was to deliberately leave out the large amount of technical instructions & exercises found in many beginners' music books of his day. He favored a focus on song-playing over technical exercise, and asked teachers to allow students to make music from the beginning, helping to motivate young children with short, attractive songs which can themselves be used as technique building exercises. Each song in the common repertoire is carefully chosen to introduce some new or higher level of technique than the previous selection.

Suzuki teaching uses a common core repertoire for students of the same instrument worldwide, and although it focuses on Western European "classical" music, it emphasizes that this music can be a bridge across cultural and language barriers: one does not have to share the ethnic or national origin of the composers in order to learn or share the music.

Suzuki created a series of rhythmic variations on the theme "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star", using rhythms from more advanced literature in units small enough for a beginner to grasp quickly. Although these variations were created for violin, most of the instruments use them as a starting point for their repertoire.

===Violin===
Compiled and edited by [[Shinichi Suzuki (violinist)|Suzuki]]. In ten volumes, beginning with Suzuki's [[Variation (music)|Variations]] on "[[Twinkle Twinkle Little Star]]" and ending with two [[Mozart]] concertos. This repertoire is currently in the process of being revised by the International Suzuki Association. The first 3 books are mostly graded [[arrangements]] of music not originally written for solo violin, although book 1 contains several original compositions by Suzuki for violin & piano. These arrangements are drawn from folk tunes and from composers such as [[Bach]], [[Telemann]], [[Antonín Dvořák|Dvořák]], [[Beethoven]], [[Schubert]], [[Handel]], [[Paganini]], [[Boccherini]] and [[Brahms]]. Books 4–10 continue the graded selection by incorporating 'standard' or 'traditional' student violin solos by [[Fritz Seitz|Seitz]], [[Vivaldi]], [[Bach]], [[Veracini]], [[Arcangelo Corelli|Corelli]], [[Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf]], [[Rameau]], [[Handel]], [[Mozart]], [[Fiocco]], and others. Audio recordings for books 1–4 are available in separate albums by artists such as [[David Nadien]], [[David Cerone]], and Shin'ichi Suzuki. New recordings of volumes 1–4 by William Preucil, Jr. were released in 2007, along with revised versions of the first 4 books. Recordings for books 5–8 have been made by [[Koji Toyoda]], although many of the pieces can be found separately on other artist's albums. In 2008 [[Takako Nishizaki]] made a complete set of recordings of Books 1-8 for [[Naxos Records]]. There are no official recordings of books 9 and 10 but these books, simply being Mozart's A major and D major violin concertos, have readily available recordings by various violinists. Completing the 10 volumes is not the end of the Suzuki journey, as many Suzuki teachers traditionally continue with the [[Max Bruch|Bruch]] and [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]] concertos, along with pieces from other composers such as [[Maria Theresa von Paradis|Paradis]],
[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], and [[Fritz Kreisler|Kreisler]].

===Viola===
Compiled and edited by [[Doris Preucil]]. Like the violin repertoire, much of the viola repertoire is drawn from the [[Baroque]] period. In eight volumes, the first 3 have been arranged (or [[transposition (music)|transposed]]) almost directly from the first 3 violin volumes, and the rest differ significantly as they delve into standard viola literature. These volumes include works by [[Telemann]], [[Henri Casadesus|Casadesus]], [[Bach]], and others. Volume eight, released in 2005, contains works by [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]], [[Vivaldi]], [[Cassado]], [[Jean-Marie Leclair|Leclair]], [[Telemann]], [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel|Hummel]],and [[Max Bruch|Bruch]]. The series is expected to end with [[Schubert]]'s [[Arpeggione Sonata]]. Books 1–4 have been recorded on two albums by [[William Preucil]], and the rest are available in separate albums.

===Cello===
The cello repertoire is in ten volumes, with some early pieces arranged from the early violin volumes, and the first distinct piece (the second) being "French Folk Song". Tsuyoshi Tsutsumi performs volumes 1 through 4. Volumes 4–10 contain works by: [[Vivaldi]], [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]], [[David Popper|Popper]], [[Breval]], [[Goltermann]], [[William Henry Squire|Squire]], [[Bach]], [[Maria Theresa von Paradis|Paradis]], [[Eccles (composer)|Eccles]],{{Disambiguation needed|date=June 2011}} [[Gabriel Fauré|Fauré]], [[von Goens]], [[Sammartini]], [[Haydn]], and [[Boccherini]].

===Piano===
Composed of seven volumes. The first book starts out with Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star (as with the violin books) and goes on with many folk songs & contemporary songs. As one progresses to the second book, there are pieces written by [[classical period (music)|classical]] and [[baroque music|baroque]] composers, such as [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] and [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]. The fourth book ends with the Gigue from partita in Bb by Bach, the fifth book ends with the famous Für Elise by van Beethoven, the sixth book ends with the Sonata in C major k.545 by Mozart, and the seventh book ends with the Piano Sonata No. 11 in A major by [[Mozart]], this book also includes [[The Harmonious Blacksmith]] by [[Handel]]. There are also many [[Minuet]]s in the second book. The New International Edition adds some more recent compositions to the books, such as the music of Bela Bartok.

Revised versions of the Piano books have now been published. The new volumes are collections of piano repertoire from all eras representing works by composers such as Mozart, Bergmuller, Beethoven, Bach, Tchaikovsky, Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Daquin, Grieg, Grandados, Villa-Lobos, Scarlatti, Handel, Bartok, and Debussy. Many pieces from the original books remain; some have been shifted to another volume. The book/CD combo for Revised Books 4-7 is now available, and was performed by Japanese concert artist Seizo Azuma.

===Bass===
Four volumes in this series. Volume 1 and 2 contain arrangements of the traditional Suzuki violin pieces mixed in with some new arrangements of other pieces. Volume 3 contains some new transcriptions of jazz, gaelic, and folk songs; plus works by [[Handel]], [[Gossec]], [[Beethoven]], [[Bach]], Webster, [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saens]], and [[Antonín Dvořák|Dvorak]]. Famous pieces include: The Elephant from [[Carnival of the Animals]] by Saint-Saens, [[Ode to Joy]] by Beethoven, and Largo from the [[New World Symphony]] by Dvorak.

===Flute===
Compiled and edited by Toshio Takahashi. In fourteen volumes, beginning with [[Mary Had a Little Lamb]] and ending in the Flute Concerto by [[Otaka]]. Also included are concerti by [[Mozart]], [[Cimarosa]], [[Ibert]] and [[Quantz]]. Students also study music by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Handel]], [[Michel Blavet|Blavet]], [[Gabriel Fauré|Fauré]] and other major composers.

===Recorder===
In eight Volumes. Shares some early repertoire with other instruments, such as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, several Bach Minuets, etc. Later books delve into more complex renaissance and baroque music, including instruction in intense baroque ornamentation along with 17th c. Dutch and Italian articulation techniques.

===Guitar===
Compiled through a collaborative process involving teachers from the United States, Europe and Australia, and edited by Frank Longay. In nine volumes. The method begins with Twinkle Variations and many folk songs, and adds pieces originally written for the lute in the Renaissance, and spanning all musical time periods, including pieces by [[Gaspar Sanz|Sanz]], [[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]], [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Matteo Carcassi|Carcassi]], [[Mauro Giuliani|Giuliani]], [[Fernando Sor|Sor]], [[Francisco Tárrega|Tarrega]], [[Isaac Albéniz|Albéniz]], Mudarra, and Yocoh's Sakura Variations. Music in book one is performed by Frank Longay and Bill Kossler, with books two through four recorded by Seth Himmelhoch, Andrew LaFrenier, and Louis Brown. George Sakellariou has recorded books five, six and seven and William Kanengiser recorded books 8 and 9.

===Harp===
In four volumes. These books are suitable for learning to read and play music on the pedal harp or the lever harp (folk harp, Irish/Celtic harp, etc. that preferably has 30 or more strings). Most of the music is arrangements of either folk music or classical music. Students of the lever harp will find some of the pieces in the later books to have challenging lever changes. This series ultimately leads to more in-depth study of the pedal harp and its repertoire and teaches more of a classical style technique. Those pursuing traditional Celtic music can use this as a foundation, however, the traditional style of teaching focuses on relying on the ear rather than on the written note. Repertoire for volume Four is selected, though the music is not published in a single book.

===Voice===
In five Levels. Developed in Finland since 1986, the vocal repertoire of the Suzuki method has spread to over 20 countries including America, Australia, Europe, Asia and New Zealand. Teacher training courses are scheduled yearly in Europe, US and Australia.

===Organ===
Gunilla Rönnberg and Lars Hagström started compiling and editing the Suzuki method for the Organ 1998. Currently Volumes 1-4 have been published, Volumes 5 & 6 will be published shortly, and material for Volumes 7 & 8 is currently being researched. As of 2011, an active Suzuki-training organ scheme is under way in the Australian city of [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]].

===Mandolin===
The application of Suzuki's teaching philosophy to the mandolin is currently being researched in Italy.

===Early Childhood Education and Suzuki in the Schools===
Although [[Early childhood education]] (ECE) is not an instrument, a curriculum for (pre-instrumental) ECE has been developed within the Suzuki philosophy. Also, a "modified" Suzuki philosophy curriculum has been developed to apply Suzuki teaching to instrumental music classes in schools.

===Supplemental materials===
Supplementary materials are also published under the Suzuki name, including some etudes, note-reading books, piano accompaniment parts, guitar accompaniment parts, [[duet]]s, [[trio (music)|trio]]s, [[string orchestra]], and [[string quartet]] arrangements of Suzuki repertoire.

==Historical notes==
In the late nineteenth century, Japan's borders were [[Meiji period#Economy|opened to trade with the outside world]], and in particular to the importation of [[Western Culture]]. As a result of this, Suzuki's father, who owned a company which had manufactured the [[Shamisen]], began to manufacture [[violin]]s instead.

In his youth, Shin'ichi Suzuki chanced to hear a [[phonograph]] recording of [[Franz Schubert]]'s Ave Maria, as played on violin by [[Mischa Elman]]. Gripped by the beauty of the music, he immediately picked up a violin from his father's factory and began to teach himself to play the instrument "[[learning music by ear|by ear]]." His father felt that instrumental performance was beneath his son's social status, and refused to allow him to study the instrument. At age 17, he began to teach himself by ear, since no formal training was allowed to him. Eventually he convinced his father to allow him to study with a violin teacher in Tokyo.

At age 22, Suzuki travelled to Germany to find a violin teacher to continue his studies. While there, he studied privately with [[Karl Klingler]], but did not receive any formal degree past his high school diploma. He met and became friends with [[Albert Einstein]], who encouraged him in learning classical music. He also met, courted, and married his wife, Waltraud.

In 1945, Suzuki began his Talent Education movement in [[Matsumoto, Nagano|Matsumoto]], [[Japan]] shortly after the end of [[World War II]]. Raising children with "noble hearts" (inspired by great music and diligent study) was one of his primary goals; he believed that people raised and "nurtured by love" in his method would grow up to achieve better things than war. One of his students during this post-1945 period was violinist Hidetaro [[Suzuki]], no relation, who later became a veteran of international violin competitions (Tchaikovsky, Queen Elizabeth, Montreal International) and then the longtime concertmaster of the [[Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra]].

Eventually, the center of the Suzuki movement in education was established as the Talent Education Research Institute (TERI) in Matsumoto. TERI hosts thousands of people each year—students, parents, teachers, (and teacher trainees). Other organizations have sprung up all over the world to help oversee the movement and train teachers. These include the Asia Suzuki Association, the Suzuki Association of the Americas, the European Suzuki Association (which is currently assisting in the beginnings of the Suzuki movement in [[Africa]]) and the Pan-Pacific Suzuki Association.

[[John D. Kendall]] of [[Southern Illinois University Edwardsville]] brought the Suzuki method, along with adaptations to better fit the requirements of the American classroom, to the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s. [[Vilem Sokol]] of the [[Seattle Youth Symphony]] hosted Suzuki in Seattle. The majority of American Suzuki pedagogues and teaching methods are grounded in the Suzuki-Kendall system. Other pioneers of the Suzuki Method in the US include [[Roland and Almita Vamos]], Elizabeth and Harlow Mills, Betty Haag, Louise Behrend, Dorothy Roffman, William Starr, Anastasia Jempelis, and Margery Aber.

==Sources==
*Barber, Barbara (Autumn, 1991). "Traditional & Suzuki Teaching: A Comparison". ''American String Teacher''.
*Bradley, Jane (Spring 2005). "When to Twinkle – Are Children Ever Too Young?". ''American Suzuki Journal Vol. 33, #3, p53''.
*Campell, Don. ''The Mozart Effect for Children''. Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., New York, NY, 2000, ISBN 0-380-97782-6
*Hermann, Evelyn. ''Shinichi Suzuki: The Man and his Philosophy''. Warner Brothers Publications, 1981, ISBN 0-87487-589-7.
*Kelly, Birte (2002). [http://www.internationalsuzuki.org/regional_associations.htm International Suzuki Association: Regional Suzuki Associations]. Retrieved February 21, 2007.
*Kreitman, Edward. ''Teaching from the Balance Point: A Guide for Suzuki Teachers, Parents, and Students''. Western Springs School of Talent Education Publications, Western Springs, IL, 1998.
*Lavie, Karen (Summer, 2005). "On Gastronomy and Tonalization." ''New Zealand Suzuki Journal Vol. 16, #4, pp. 5–6''.
*Meyer, Constance (2003, [[7 September]]). The Mom-Centric Method. ''Los Angeles Times'', Classical Music.
*''Nurtured by Love: The life and work of Shinichi Suzuki'' [Video Documentary]. Produced by The Cleveland Institute of Music. Telos Productions, Inc.
*Suzuki Organ Website [http://www.suzukiorgan.com/], Retrieved June 20, 2010
*Suzuki, Shinichi. ''Nurtured By Love: A New Approach to Talent Education''. Warner bros. Publication, [[Miami, Florida]], 1968
*Suzuki, Shinichi. ''Ability Development from Age Zero''. Warner bros. Publication, [[Miami, Florida]], 1981
*Suzuki Talent Education Association of Australia (Vic) Inc., (Copyright 2005). [http://www.suzukimusic.org.au/history.htm History of the Suzuki Method]. Retrieved November 29, 2008.

==Related pages==
*[[Shinichi Suzuki (violinist)]]
*[[Blanche Ray Alden]]

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Practice Ideas for Suzuki Students}}
*[http://www.internationalsuzuki.org/ International Suzuki Association]
*[http://www.suzukiassociation.org/ Suzuki Association of the Americas]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/Arts.SuzukiAbout The American Suzuki Institute at the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point: The Suzuki Method in Action]: An online collection documenting Suzuki and his teaching methodology.
*[http://www.istitutosuzukiitalia.org/ Italian Suzuki Association]
*{{dmoz|Arts/Music/Education/Methods_and_Techniques/Suzuki_Method/}}



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[[Category:Music education]]
[[Category:Pedagogy]]
[[Category:Philosophy of education]]

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Suzuki method

2012-05-21T16:42:12Z

Rigaudon: /* Criticism and response */ Dubious and unsourced

{{Music Education}}
The '''Suzuki method''' (Suzuki movement) is a method of teaching music conceived by Japanese [[violin]]ist [[Shinichi Suzuki (violinist)|Shin'ichi Suzuki]] that emerged in the mid-20th century. The central belief of Suzuki, based on his language acquisition theories, is that all people are capable of learning from their [[Nature versus nurture|environment]]. The essential components of his method spring from the desire to create the "right environment" for learning music. He also believed that this positive environment would also help to foster [[moral character|character]] in students.

==Background==
{{quote|I want to make good citizens. If a child hears fine music from the day of his birth and learns to play it himself, he develops sensitivity, discipline and endurance. He gets a beautiful heart.|Shin'ichi Suzuki}}

The Suzuki Method was conceived in the mid-20th century by [[Shinichi Suzuki (violinist)|Shin'ichi Suzuki]], a Japanese [[violin]]ist who desired to bring beauty to the lives of children in his country after the devastation of [[World War II]]. As a skilled violinist but a beginner at the German language who struggled to learn it, Suzuki noticed that children pick up their native language quickly, and even dialects adults consider "difficult" to learn are spoken with ease by people of 5 or 6 years. He reasoned that if children have the skill to acquire their [[first language|mother tongue]], then they have the necessary ability to become proficient on a musical instrument. He pioneered the idea that pre-school age children could learn to play the violin if learning steps were small enough and if the instrument was scaled down to fit their body. He modeled his method, which he called {{nihongo|"Talent Education"|才能教育|sainō kyōiku}}, after his theories of natural [[language acquisition]]. Suzuki believed that every child, if properly taught, was capable of a high level of musical achievement. He also made it clear that the goal of such musical education was to raise generations of children with "noble hearts" (as opposed to creating famous musical [[Child prodigy|prodigies]]).

The Suzuki method was first developed in [[Japan]]. It spread from there to other [[Pacific Rim]] countries, and then to Europe as well as Africa. Although it originally used the study of the [[violin]] to achieve its goals, it has also been adapted for other instruments: [[flute]], [[recorder]], [[piano]], [[guitar]], [[cello]], [[viola]], [[double bass|bass]], [[organ (music)|organ]], [[harp]] and [[human voice|voice]]. In addition, there are a few "Suzuki [[Preschool]]s" which have adapted Suzuki's philosophy to use in the non-musical disciplines of [[early childhood education]].

==Philosophy==
{{quote|''...all'' children can be well educated...|Shin'ichi Suzuki}}

The central belief of Suzuki, based on his language acquisition theories, is that all people can (and will) learn from their [[Nature versus nurture|environment]]. The essential components of his method spring from the desire to create the "right environment" for learning music (he believed that this positive environment would also help to foster excellent [[moral character|character]] in every student). These components include:

*Saturation in the musical [[community]], including attendance at local [[concert]]s of classical music, exposure to and friendship with other music students, and listening to music performed by "artists" (professional classical musicians of high caliber) in the home every day (starting before birth if possible).
*Deliberate avoidance of musical aptitude tests or "auditions" to begin music study. Suzuki firmly believed that teachers who test for musical aptitude before taking students, or teachers who look only for "talented" students, are limiting themselves to people who have already started their music education. Just as every child is expected to learn their native language, Suzuki expected every child to be able to learn to play music well when they were surrounded with a musical environment from infancy. (This does not preclude auditions for public performances).
*Emphasis on playing from a very young age, sometimes beginning formal instruction between the ages of 3 and 5 years old. (See [[Suzuki method#Technique|Technique]]).
*Using well trained teachers, preferably also trained in using the Suzuki materials and philosophy. Suzuki Associations all over the world offer ongoing teacher-training programs to prospective and continuing Suzuki teachers. A basic competency as a performer was recently made mandatory for all teachers in the American Association; the holding of a music degree is not required.
*In the beginning, [[learning music by ear]] is emphasized over reading [[musical notation]]. This follows Suzuki's observation that in language acquisition, a child learns to speak before learning to read. Related to this, memorization of all solo repertoire is expected, even after a student begins to use [[sheet music]] as a tool to learn new pieces. There is no formal plan or prescribed materials for introducing music theory & reading into the curriculum; this is left to the judgement of the teacher.
*The method also encourages, in addition to individual playing, regular playing in groups (including playing in [[unison]]).
*Retaining and reviewing every piece of music ever learned on a regular basis, in order to raise technical and musical ability. Review pieces, along with "preview" parts of music a student is yet to learn, are often used in creative ways to take the place of the more traditional [[etude]] books. Traditional etudes and technical studies are not used in the beginning stages, which focus almost exclusively on a set of performance pieces.
*Frequent public performance, so that performing is natural and enjoyable.

The method discourages competitive attitudes between players, and advocates collaboration and mutual encouragement for those of every ability and level. However, there is an audition process if a student wishes to perform publicly with the Suzuki Youth Orchestra of America, a national group sponsored by the Suzuki Association of the Americas.

The parent of the young student is expected to supervise instrument practice every day (instead of leaving the child to practice alone between lessons) and to attend and take notes at every lesson so as to be able to coach the student effectively. It is not necessary for the parent to be able to play as well as the child (or at all); only that the parent knows from the lessons what the child should be doing and how the child should be doing it. This element of the method is so prominent that a newspaper article once dubbed it "The Mom-Centric Method" (Constance Meyer, [[LA Times]], Sept 7, 2003).

===Criticism and response===
{{unreferenced|section|date=March 2011}}
The most common criticisms of the Suzuki method from educators outside the various Suzuki associations are that group playing, extensive listening to and copying of recordings, and early focus on memorization lead to:
* compromised [[sight reading]] skills
* a tendency towards [[rote learning]] and mechanistic group performance at the expense of individual musicianship

Other criticisms include:

* if music is to be learned from audio recordings, the quality of the recorded pieces must be questioned in terms of style, integrity, and its positive or negative traits. The resulting views are relative and may differ between people.

* any reliance on listening to a ''single piece'' in order to learn it is not sufficient for instilling a sense of the style of the work (where the style refers to the traits of performance that are common to many similar works), since a style can only be acquired by listening to a range of works of common style (including listening to works for enjoyment, rather than with only the goal of copying them).

Many Suzuki teachers have addressed these concerns by introducing sight reading exercises earlier and more often than was practiced when the method was first introduced in the [[Western world|West]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}}) Some also defend their emphasis on unity of musical expression in group performance by pointing out that this is a necessary skill "just like ... in the string section of any professional [[orchestra|symphony]]", and add that although group performance plays an important motivating and [[musical ensemble|ensemble]] role, and is a highly visible part of the Suzuki method, solo expression can also be encouraged, and individually tailored lessons are at the heart of the method (Barber, 1991). In order to assure the quality of teachers, each national Suzuki association institutes its own competency requirements for teacher training: for example, a basic "competency" audition to register teacher training in the American Association was instituted in 2002. Suzuki teachers often urge their students to listen to many different recordings and live concerts in order to help them acquire a sense of musical style.

Criticism has also sprung up from within the Suzuki movement:
* students may progress too rapidly and find themselves studying repertoire for which they are not yet emotionally prepared.
* [[Baroque]] music is emphasized in the Suzuki violin literature to the detriment of other styles and periods. Some of this literature includes note errors and 19th-century editorial changes that are not in keeping with [[historically informed performance]] practice. (The International Suzuki Association is in the process of addressing this by revising the violin repertoire.{{Citation needed|date=December 2011}})
* "Older students can become overly dependent" on the support structure of recordings, parental note-taking and tutoring at home, and teaching styles appropriate for younger students (Barber, 1991).
* very young students, such as those aged 3–5, are often not ready for formal instruction, and too much emphasis on practicing hard at this age may be counterproductive (American Suzuki Journal, 2005).

It is common for many Suzuki teachers to introduce supplemental repertoire such as fiddle tunes or other classical music as collected by Barbara Barber in Solos for Young Violinists. This practice addresses the concern that students progress too quickly as well as the limited musical styles represented in the Suzuki books. Supporters of the method contend that the tendency of students not to grow into independence is largely a cultural issue in America and can be easily addressed by a teacher who requires students to begin working independently (American Suzuki Journal, 1996) and has a process in place for that transition.

==Technique==
Although Suzuki was a violinist, the method he founded is not a "school of violin playing" (like the French or the Russian school of playing) whose students are always easily identified by the certain set of techniques they use to play the violin. However, some of the technical concepts Suzuki taught his own students, such as the development of "tonalization", were so essential to his way of teaching that they have been carried over into the entire method. Other non-instrument specific techniques are used to implement the basic elements of the philosophy in each [[academic discipline|discipline]].

*'''Tonalization''' is a term coined by Suzuki, and is deliberately similar to the word "vocalization" (as it is used by singers when they talk about warming up their voices). Tonalization is defined as the student's ability to produce and recognize a beautiful, ringing tone quality on their instrument. While initially developed for violin education, the tonalization technique has been applied to other instruments such as the piano. Suzuki believed that a student must learn tonalization in order to properly reproduce and perform music (Lavie, Karen, New Zealand Suzuki Journal, 2005). Outside the Suzuki method, the term used is "tone production," and is part of Western music education stretching back to its beginning.

*Using '''[[sound recording]]s''' is another technique common to all the musical instruments taught in the Suzuki method. Records, tapes, and CDs are used to help students learn notes, [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]], [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]], [[rhythm]], and beautiful tone quality [[learning music by ear|by ear]]. Suzuki pointed out that great artists (such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]) were surrounded with excellent performances from birth, and that the advent of recording technology made this aspect of their environment possible to achieve for large numbers of "ordinary" people whose parents were not themselves great musicians & music teachers like [[Leopold Mozart|Mozart's father]] was. So-called "traditional" (that is, not Suzuki trained) music educators have used this technique since the earliest days of recording technology; the difference in the Suzuki method is the scale on which Suzuki systematically insisted on daily listening in the home, from before birth if possible, and his focus on using recordings of beginner's repertoire alongside recordings of advanced repertoire.

*"Adult" sized '''instruments are adapted''' to meet the demands of a small child's body in various ways. This lowers the age at which people are developmentally ready to begin studying an instrument. Scaled down instrument sizes are used for children studying [[stringed instruments]]. Curved headjoint flutes with displaced keys which are closer together than normal flute keys & holes are also available making it possible for children as young as 3 years old to study the flute through the Suzuki method. Height adjustable chairs, benches, and footrests are used for piano, guitar, cello, and string bass. Although fractional sized student violins were available when Suzuki began to teach, the success and popularity of his idea that pre-school aged children could also learn to play prompted [[luthier|violinmakers]] to scale violins down to even smaller [[violin#Sizes|sizes]] than before.

*'''Suzuki Institutes''' were established to encourage a musical community, train teachers, and provide a place where master teachers' ideas can easily be spread to the whole community of Suzuki students, teachers, & parents. These short term music festivals began in Matsumoto, Japan, where teachers & students came to learn from Suzuki himself. In the US, they often last for a week or two and include daily [[masterclass]]es; repertoire (group) classes; teacher training courses; concerts; discussion sessions; seminars; and various 'enrichment' classes in different musical styles, instruments, or non-musical (usually arts, crafts, or dancing) activities. As at any music festival, participants must pay registration and tuition fees to the institute they are attending. Each national Suzuki association handles registration for teacher training, and policies differ from country to country.

*A '''Common repertoire''' for all students of an instrument was established. This body of music allows each student to participate in group classes, helps to foster local and international musical community and camaraderie, and provides motivation for students to learn new music while keeping the 'old' pieces they have learned in top form. This is in direct contrast to music education outside of the method, in which teachers tailor the repertoire to the current need and level of the individual student.

==Repertoire==
{{Expand section|brief descriptions of each instrument's repertoire, including the names of some of the composers & pieces that are represented in each. (Note that the violin description does not need any more expansion. Mandolin, voice, organ, harp, recorder and ECE could all do with more detailed descriptions of repertoire.)|date=February 2007}}

{{quote|...If it is true that "everything in music is preparation" (Gerhart Zimmermann), then the genius of Suzuki is truly expressed in the scope and sequencing of the music....|[[Edward Kreitman]]}}

The core Suzuki literature is published on [[sound recording|audio recordings]] and in [[sheet music]] books for each instrument, and Suzuki teachers supplement the repertoire common to each instrument as needed, particularly in the area of teaching reading. One of the innovations of the Suzuki method was to make quality recordings of the beginners' pieces widely available, performed by professional musicians. Many traditional (non-Suzuki trained) music teachers also use the Suzuki repertoire, often to supplement their [[curriculum]], and they adapt the music to their own philosophies of teaching.

Another innovation of Suzuki was to deliberately leave out the large amount of technical instructions & exercises found in many beginners' music books of his day. He favored a focus on song-playing over technical exercise, and asked teachers to allow students to make music from the beginning, helping to motivate young children with short, attractive songs which can themselves be used as technique building exercises. Each song in the common repertoire is carefully chosen to introduce some new or higher level of technique than the previous selection.

Suzuki teaching uses a common core repertoire for students of the same instrument worldwide, and although it focuses on Western European "classical" music, it emphasizes that this music can be a bridge across cultural and language barriers: one does not have to share the ethnic or national origin of the composers in order to learn or share the music.

Suzuki created a series of rhythmic variations on the theme "Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star", using rhythms from more advanced literature in units small enough for a beginner to grasp quickly. Although these variations were created for violin, most of the instruments use them as a starting point for their repertoire.

===Violin===
Compiled and edited by [[Shinichi Suzuki (violinist)|Suzuki]]. In ten volumes, beginning with Suzuki's [[Variation (music)|Variations]] on "[[Twinkle Twinkle Little Star]]" and ending with two [[Mozart]] concertos. This repertoire is currently in the process of being revised by the International Suzuki Association. The first 3 books are mostly graded [[arrangements]] of music not originally written for solo violin, although book 1 contains several original compositions by Suzuki for violin & piano. These arrangements are drawn from folk tunes and from composers such as [[Bach]], [[Telemann]], [[Antonín Dvořák|Dvořák]], [[Beethoven]], [[Schubert]], [[Handel]], [[Paganini]], [[Boccherini]] and [[Brahms]]. Books 4–10 continue the graded selection by incorporating 'standard' or 'traditional' student violin solos by [[Fritz Seitz|Seitz]], [[Vivaldi]], [[Bach]], [[Veracini]], [[Arcangelo Corelli|Corelli]], [[Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf]], [[Rameau]], [[Handel]], [[Mozart]], [[Fiocco]], and others. Audio recordings for books 1–4 are available in separate albums by artists such as [[David Nadien]], [[David Cerone]], and Shin'ichi Suzuki. New recordings of volumes 1–4 by William Preucil, Jr. were released in 2007, along with revised versions of the first 4 books. Recordings for books 5–8 have been made by [[Koji Toyoda]], although many of the pieces can be found separately on other artist's albums. In 2008 [[Takako Nishizaki]] made a complete set of recordings of Books 1-8 for [[Naxos Records]]. There are no official recordings of books 9 and 10 but these books, simply being Mozart's A major and D major violin concertos, have readily available recordings by various violinists. Completing the 10 volumes is not the end of the Suzuki journey, as many Suzuki teachers traditionally continue with the [[Max Bruch|Bruch]] and [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]] concertos, along with pieces from other composers such as [[Maria Theresa von Paradis|Paradis]],
[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], and [[Fritz Kreisler|Kreisler]].

===Viola===
Compiled and edited by [[Doris Preucil]]. Like the violin repertoire, much of the viola repertoire is drawn from the [[Baroque]] period. In eight volumes, the first 3 have been arranged (or [[transposition (music)|transposed]]) almost directly from the first 3 violin volumes, and the rest differ significantly as they delve into standard viola literature. These volumes include works by [[Telemann]], [[Henri Casadesus|Casadesus]], [[Bach]], and others. Volume eight, released in 2005, contains works by [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]], [[Vivaldi]], [[Cassado]], [[Jean-Marie Leclair|Leclair]], [[Telemann]], [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel|Hummel]],and [[Max Bruch|Bruch]]. The series is expected to end with [[Schubert]]'s [[Arpeggione Sonata]]. Books 1–4 have been recorded on two albums by [[William Preucil]], and the rest are available in separate albums.

===Cello===
The cello repertoire is in ten volumes, with some early pieces arranged from the early violin volumes, and the first distinct piece (the second) being "French Folk Song". Tsuyoshi Tsutsumi performs volumes 1 through 4. Volumes 4–10 contain works by: [[Vivaldi]], [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]], [[David Popper|Popper]], [[Breval]], [[Goltermann]], [[William Henry Squire|Squire]], [[Bach]], [[Maria Theresa von Paradis|Paradis]], [[Eccles (composer)|Eccles]],{{Disambiguation needed|date=June 2011}} [[Gabriel Fauré|Fauré]], [[von Goens]], [[Sammartini]], [[Haydn]], and [[Boccherini]].

===Piano===
Composed of seven volumes. The first book starts out with Twinkle, Twinkle, Little Star (as with the violin books) and goes on with many folk songs & contemporary songs. As one progresses to the second book, there are pieces written by [[classical period (music)|classical]] and [[baroque music|baroque]] composers, such as [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] and [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]. The fourth book ends with the Gigue from partita in Bb by Bach, the fifth book ends with the famous Für Elise by van Beethoven, the sixth book ends with the Sonata in C major k.545 by Mozart, and the seventh book ends with the Piano Sonata No. 11 in A major by [[Mozart]], this book also includes [[The Harmonious Blacksmith]] by [[Handel]]. There are also many [[Minuet]]s in the second book. The New International Edition adds some more recent compositions to the books, such as the music of Bela Bartok.

Revised versions of the Piano books have now been published. The new volumes are collections of piano repertoire from all eras representing works by composers such as Mozart, Bergmuller, Beethoven, Bach, Tchaikovsky, Schumann, Chopin, Mendelssohn, Daquin, Grieg, Grandados, Villa-Lobos, Scarlatti, Handel, Bartok, and Debussy. Many pieces from the original books remain; some have been shifted to another volume. The book/CD combo for Revised Books 4-7 is now available, and was performed by Japanese concert artist Seizo Azuma.

===Bass===
Four volumes in this series. Volume 1 and 2 contain arrangements of the traditional Suzuki violin pieces mixed in with some new arrangements of other pieces. Volume 3 contains some new transcriptions of jazz, gaelic, and folk songs; plus works by [[Handel]], [[Gossec]], [[Beethoven]], [[Bach]], Webster, [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saens]], and [[Antonín Dvořák|Dvorak]]. Famous pieces include: The Elephant from [[Carnival of the Animals]] by Saint-Saens, [[Ode to Joy]] by Beethoven, and Largo from the [[New World Symphony]] by Dvorak.

===Flute===
Compiled and edited by Toshio Takahashi. In fourteen volumes, beginning with [[Mary Had a Little Lamb]] and ending in the Flute Concerto by [[Otaka]]. Also included are concerti by [[Mozart]], [[Cimarosa]], [[Ibert]] and [[Quantz]]. Students also study music by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Handel]], [[Michel Blavet|Blavet]], [[Gabriel Fauré|Fauré]] and other major composers.

===Recorder===
In eight Volumes. Shares some early repertoire with other instruments, such as Twinkle Twinkle Little Star, several Bach Minuets, etc. Later books delve into more complex renaissance and baroque music, including instruction in intense baroque ornamentation along with 17th c. Dutch and Italian articulation techniques.

===Guitar===
Compiled through a collaborative process involving teachers from the United States, Europe and Australia, and edited by Frank Longay. In nine volumes. The method begins with Twinkle Variations and many folk songs, and adds pieces originally written for the lute in the Renaissance, and spanning all musical time periods, including pieces by [[Gaspar Sanz|Sanz]], [[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]], [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Matteo Carcassi|Carcassi]], [[Mauro Giuliani|Giuliani]], [[Fernando Sor|Sor]], [[Francisco Tárrega|Tarrega]], [[Isaac Albéniz|Albéniz]], Mudarra, and Yocoh's Sakura Variations. Music in book one is performed by Frank Longay and Bill Kossler, with books two through four recorded by Seth Himmelhoch, Andrew LaFrenier, and Louis Brown. George Sakellariou has recorded books five, six and seven and William Kanengiser recorded books 8 and 9.

===Harp===
In four volumes. These books are suitable for learning to read and play music on the pedal harp or the lever harp (folk harp, Irish/Celtic harp, etc. that preferably has 30 or more strings). Most of the music is arrangements of either folk music or classical music. Students of the lever harp will find some of the pieces in the later books to have challenging lever changes. This series ultimately leads to more in-depth study of the pedal harp and its repertoire and teaches more of a classical style technique. Those pursuing traditional Celtic music can use this as a foundation, however, the traditional style of teaching focuses on relying on the ear rather than on the written note. Repertoire for volume Four is selected, though the music is not published in a single book.

===Voice===
In five Levels. Developed in Finland since 1986, the vocal repertoire of the Suzuki method has spread to over 20 countries including America, Australia, Europe, Asia and New Zealand. Teacher training courses are scheduled yearly in Europe, US and Australia.

===Organ===
Gunilla Rönnberg and Lars Hagström started compiling and editing the Suzuki method for the Organ 1998. Currently Volumes 1-4 have been published, Volumes 5 & 6 will be published shortly, and material for Volumes 7 & 8 is currently being researched. As of 2011, an active Suzuki-training organ scheme is under way in the Australian city of [[Newcastle, New South Wales|Newcastle]].

===Mandolin===
The application of Suzuki's teaching philosophy to the mandolin is currently being researched in Italy.

===Early Childhood Education and Suzuki in the Schools===
Although [[Early childhood education]] (ECE) is not an instrument, a curriculum for (pre-instrumental) ECE has been developed within the Suzuki philosophy. Also, a "modified" Suzuki philosophy curriculum has been developed to apply Suzuki teaching to instrumental music classes in schools.

===Supplemental materials===
Supplementary materials are also published under the Suzuki name, including some etudes, note-reading books, piano accompaniment parts, guitar accompaniment parts, [[duet]]s, [[trio (music)|trio]]s, [[string orchestra]], and [[string quartet]] arrangements of Suzuki repertoire.

==Historical notes==
In the late nineteenth century, Japan's borders were [[Meiji period#Economy|opened to trade with the outside world]], and in particular to the importation of [[Western Culture]]. As a result of this, Suzuki's father, who owned a company which had manufactured the [[Shamisen]], began to manufacture [[violin]]s instead.

In his youth, Shin'ichi Suzuki chanced to hear a [[phonograph]] recording of [[Franz Schubert]]'s Ave Maria, as played on violin by [[Mischa Elman]]. Gripped by the beauty of the music, he immediately picked up a violin from his father's factory and began to teach himself to play the instrument "[[learning music by ear|by ear]]." His father felt that instrumental performance was beneath his son's social status, and refused to allow him to study the instrument. At age 17, he began to teach himself by ear, since no formal training was allowed to him. Eventually he convinced his father to allow him to study with a violin teacher in Tokyo.

At age 22, Suzuki travelled to Germany to find a violin teacher to continue his studies. While there, he studied privately with [[Karl Klingler]], but did not receive any formal degree past his high school diploma. He met and became friends with [[Albert Einstein]], who encouraged him in learning classical music. He also met, courted, and married his wife, Waltraud.

In 1945, Suzuki began his Talent Education movement in [[Matsumoto, Nagano|Matsumoto]], [[Japan]] shortly after the end of [[World War II]]. Raising children with "noble hearts" (inspired by great music and diligent study) was one of his primary goals; he believed that people raised and "nurtured by love" in his method would grow up to achieve better things than war. One of his students during this post-1945 period was violinist Hidetaro [[Suzuki]], no relation, who later became a veteran of international violin competitions (Tchaikovsky, Queen Elizabeth, Montreal International) and then the longtime concertmaster of the [[Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra]].

Eventually, the center of the Suzuki movement in education was established as the Talent Education Research Institute (TERI) in Matsumoto. TERI hosts thousands of people each year—students, parents, teachers, (and teacher trainees). Other organizations have sprung up all over the world to help oversee the movement and train teachers. These include the Asia Suzuki Association, the Suzuki Association of the Americas, the European Suzuki Association (which is currently assisting in the beginnings of the Suzuki movement in [[Africa]]) and the Pan-Pacific Suzuki Association.

[[John D. Kendall]] of [[Southern Illinois University Edwardsville]] brought the Suzuki method, along with adaptations to better fit the requirements of the American classroom, to the United States in the late 1950s and early 1960s. [[Vilem Sokol]] of the [[Seattle Youth Symphony]] hosted Suzuki in Seattle. The majority of American Suzuki pedagogues and teaching methods are grounded in the Suzuki-Kendall system. Other pioneers of the Suzuki Method in the US include [[Roland and Almita Vamos]], Elizabeth and Harlow Mills, Betty Haag, Louise Behrend, Dorothy Roffman, William Starr, Anastasia Jempelis, and Margery Aber.

==Sources==
*Barber, Barbara (Autumn, 1991). "Traditional & Suzuki Teaching: A Comparison". ''American String Teacher''.
*Bradley, Jane (Spring 2005). "When to Twinkle – Are Children Ever Too Young?". ''American Suzuki Journal Vol. 33, #3, p53''.
*Campell, Don. ''The Mozart Effect for Children''. Harper Collins Publishers, Inc., New York, NY, 2000, ISBN 0-380-97782-6
*Hermann, Evelyn. ''Shinichi Suzuki: The Man and his Philosophy''. Warner Brothers Publications, 1981, ISBN 0-87487-589-7.
*Kelly, Birte (2002). [http://www.internationalsuzuki.org/regional_associations.htm International Suzuki Association: Regional Suzuki Associations]. Retrieved February 21, 2007.
*Kreitman, Edward. ''Teaching from the Balance Point: A Guide for Suzuki Teachers, Parents, and Students''. Western Springs School of Talent Education Publications, Western Springs, IL, 1998.
*Lavie, Karen (Summer, 2005). "On Gastronomy and Tonalization." ''New Zealand Suzuki Journal Vol. 16, #4, pp. 5–6''.
*Meyer, Constance (2003, [[7 September]]). The Mom-Centric Method. ''Los Angeles Times'', Classical Music.
*''Nurtured by Love: The life and work of Shinichi Suzuki'' [Video Documentary]. Produced by The Cleveland Institute of Music. Telos Productions, Inc.
*Suzuki Organ Website [http://www.suzukiorgan.com/], Retrieved June 20, 2010
*Suzuki, Shinichi. ''Nurtured By Love: A New Approach to Talent Education''. Warner bros. Publication, [[Miami, Florida]], 1968
*Suzuki, Shinichi. ''Ability Development from Age Zero''. Warner bros. Publication, [[Miami, Florida]], 1981
*Suzuki Talent Education Association of Australia (Vic) Inc., (Copyright 2005). [http://www.suzukimusic.org.au/history.htm History of the Suzuki Method]. Retrieved November 29, 2008.

==Related pages==
*[[Shinichi Suzuki (violinist)]]
*[[Blanche Ray Alden]]

==External links==
{{Wikibooks|Practice Ideas for Suzuki Students}}
*[http://www.internationalsuzuki.org/ International Suzuki Association]
*[http://www.suzukiassociation.org/ Suzuki Association of the Americas]
*[http://digital.library.wisc.edu/1711.dl/Arts.SuzukiAbout The American Suzuki Institute at the University of Wisconsin–Stevens Point: The Suzuki Method in Action]: An online collection documenting Suzuki and his teaching methodology.
*[http://www.istitutosuzukiitalia.org/ Italian Suzuki Association]
*{{dmoz|Arts/Music/Education/Methods_and_Techniques/Suzuki_Method/}}



{{DEFAULTSORT:Suzuki Method}}
[[Category:Music education]]
[[Category:Pedagogy]]
[[Category:Philosophy of education]]

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[[de:Suzuki-Methode]]
[[es:Método Suzuki]]
[[fr:Méthode Suzuki]]
[[ko:스즈키 교육법]]
[[it:Metodo Suzuki]]
[[nl:Suzukimethode]]
[[ja:スズキ・メソード]]
[[oc:Metòde Suzuki]]
[[pt:Método Suzuki]]
[[simple:Suzuki method]]
[[sv:Suzukimetoden]]
[[zh:鈴木教學法]]

I Vow to Thee, My Country

2012-04-05T17:43:29Z

Rigaudon: /* Tune */ Wikilinked Imogen Holst

'''I Vow to Thee, My Country''' is a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[patriotic song]] created in 1921 when a [[poetry|poem]] by Sir [[Cecil Spring-Rice]] was set to music by [[Gustav Holst]].

==History==
The origin of the [[lyric]] is a [[poem]] by [[diplomacy|diplomat]] [[Cecil Spring-Rice]] which he wrote in 1908 whilst posted to the British Embassy in [[Stockholm]]. Then called ''Urbs Dei'' or ''The Two Fatherlands'', the poem described how a [[Christian]] owes his loyalties to both his homeland and the heavenly kingdom. The first verse, as originally composed, had an overtly patriotic stance, which typified its pre-first world war era.

In 1912, Spring-Rice was appointed as Ambassador to the [[United States of America]] where he influenced the administration of [[Woodrow Wilson]] to abandon [[Neutral country|neutrality]] and join Britain in the war against [[German Empire|Germany]]. After the Americans entered the war, he was recalled to Britain. Shortly before his departure from the US in January 1918, he re-wrote and renamed ''Urbs Dei'', significantly altering the first verse to concentrate on the huge losses suffered by British soldiers during the intervening years.

The first verse, and the rarely sung second verse, refer to the United Kingdom, and particularly to the sacrifice of those who died during the First World War. The last verse, starting "And there's another country", is a reference to [[heaven]]. The final line is based on [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]] 3:17, which reads in the [[Authorized King James Version|King James Bible]], "Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace."

===Tune===
{{Main|Thaxted (tune)}}
In 1921 [[Gustav Theodore Holst|Gustav Holst]] adapted the music from a section of ''Jupiter'' from his suite ''[[The Planets]]'' to create a setting for the poem. The music was extended slightly to fit the final two lines of the first verse. At the request of the publisher Curwen Holst made a version as a unison song with orchestra (Curwen also published Sir [[Hubert Parry]]'s unison song with orchestra, [[And did those feet in ancient time|Jerusalem]]). This was probably first performed in 1921 and became a common element at [[Armistice]] memorial ceremonies, especially after it was published as a hymn in 1926.<ref>{{cite web
|title=I Vow To Thee My Country
|publisher=G4 Central
|url=http://www.g4central.co.uk/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=67&Itemid=61|accessdate=2007-08-31
}}</ref> Holst harmonised the tune to make it usable as a hymn, which was included in Songs of Praise<ref>Vaughan Williams & Shaw, Songs of Praise, Oxford University Press 1926</ref> in 1926 with the same words, but the tune was then called ''[[Thaxted (tune)|Thaxted]]'' (named after the village where Holst lived for many years). The editor of the new (1926) edition of Songs of Praise was Holst's close friend [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], which may have provided the stimulus for producing the hymn.

Holst's daughter, [[Imogen Holst|Imogen]], recorded that "At the time when he was asked to set these words to music, Holst was so over-worked and over-weary that he felt relieved to discover they 'fitted' the tune from Jupiter".<ref>Holst, Imogen, A Thematic Catalogue of Gustav Holst's Music. Faber 1974, page 145</ref>

== Lyrics ==

:I vow to thee, my country, all earthly things above,
:Entire and whole and perfect, the service of my love;
:The love that asks no question, the love that stands the test,
:That lays upon the altar the dearest and the best;
:The love that never falters, the love that pays the price,
:The love that makes undaunted the final sacrifice.

:I heard my country calling, away across the sea,
:Across the waste of waters she calls and calls to me.
:Her sword is girded at her side, her helmet on her head,
:And round her feet are lying the dying and the dead.
:I hear the noise of battle, the thunder of her guns,
:I haste to thee my mother, a son among thy sons.

:And there's another country, I've heard of long ago,
:Most dear to them that love her, most great to them that know;
:We may not count her armies, we may not see her King;
:Her fortress is a faithful heart, her pride is suffering;
:And soul by soul and silently her shining bounds increase,
:And her ways are ways of gentleness, and all her paths are peace.

==Contemporary use==

* It is associated with [[Remembrance Day]] services all over the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].<ref name="BBC News051114">{{cite news |title=The sound of silence |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=2005-11-14 |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/4429278.stm|accessdate=2007-04-20}}</ref>
* [[Diana, Princess of Wales]], requested that this hymn be sung at her wedding in 1981, saying that it had "always been a favourite since schooldays". It was also sung at her [[Death of Diana, Princess of Wales|funeral]] in 1997 and her ten-year memorial thanksgiving service in 2007.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://hymntime.com/tch/htm/i/v/ivow2the.htm
|title=I vow to thee, my Country|date=08/11/2007}}</ref> It is included on the [http://www.amazon.com/Diana-Princess-Wales-1961-1997-Recording/dp/B0000042I9 BBC Recording of the Funeral Service.]

* It was quoted by [[Margaret Thatcher]] in 1988 in her [[Sermon on the Mound]] to the [[General Assembly of the Church of Scotland]].
* It was featured in a ''[[Top Gear (2002 TV series)|Top Gear]]'' episode where [[Jeremy Clarkson]] drives a [[Land Rover Discovery]] up [[Cnoc an Fhreiceadain]].
* In August 2004, the Right Reverend [[Stephen Lowe (clergyman)|Stephen Lowe]], [[Bishop of Hulme]], called for it not to be used in Church of England services, calling it "totally heretical".<ref>{{cite news
|title=Ban this racist hymn, says bishop
|publisher=[[Daily Telegraph]]
|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1469204/Ban-this-racist-hymn-says-bishop.html
|date=2004-08-12
|accessdate=2009-06-26
| location=London
| first1=Jonathan
| last1=Petre
| first2=Jonathan
| last2=Wynne-Jones
}}</ref> His view that it placed national loyalties above religious ones, an unquestioning support of governments, opened a debate on its wider implications.<ref>{{cite news
|author=Today programme
|authorlink=Today programme
|title=I Vow To Thee My Country
|publisher=[[BBC Radio 4]]
|date=2004-08-13
|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio4/today/reports/arts/vow_20040813.shtml
|accessdate=2007-08-31
}}</ref><ref>{{cite news
|first=Gerry
|last=Hanson
|title=Patriotism and Sacrifice
|date=2004-09-28
|publisher=Diocese of Oxford Reporter
|url=http://www.oxford.anglican.org/page/1258
|accessdate=2007-09-01
|archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070708194033/http://oxford.anglican.org/page/1258  |archivedate = 2007-07-08}}</ref>
*The music of ''[[Thaxted (tune)|Thaxted]]'' is often used in a number of common Christian hymns.
* It was chosen by [[Phil Archer]], a fictional character from the British [[BBC Radio 4]] soap opera ''[[The Archers]]'', to be played in his memorial service.
* It was chosen by Johnny Worricker, a fictional character from the movie [[Page Eight]] to be played at the memorial service of his friend Benedict Baron.
* It is the School Hymn of [[Diocesan College]], Cape Town, South Africa. The song is also sung in a war-chant version at rugby matches. The verses are sung in the order 1 and then 3 and sometimes verse 2 is sung at the end.
* The tune is shared with "[[World In Union]]", the official theme song of the [[Rugby World Cup]].
* It was used by the Japanese figure skater [[Mao Asada]] (浅田真央) in one of her [[Mao Asada#Programs|2011-12 exhibition programs]].
* It was performed by folk singer Fash Stewart as part of his set at [[Tartan Heart Festival]] in 2011.
* It was sung as part of the [[Royal British Legion|Festival of Remembrance]] in 2011. Where the third line of the last verse was changed to "....,we may not see her '''Queen'''"
* American choral composer [[Z. Randall Stroope]] incorporated the first verse and other texts to compose "Homeland" for choir and wind ensemble (or choir and orchestra). The music includes Holst's theme as well as original material by Stroope.

==Commercial uses==
* [[Charlotte Church]] – debut album ''[[Voice of an Angel]]''.
* [[G4 (band)|G4]] – album ''[[G4 & Friends]]''.
* [[Libera (music)|Libera]] – 2003 album ''Free''.
* [[English cricket team]] – backing vocals for [[Keedie]] (as B-side to ''[[Jerusalem (song)|Jerusalem]]'').
* [[Katherine Jenkins]] – album ''Living a Dream''.
* [[Bathory (band)|Bathory]] – album ''1991 Twilight of gods''.
* [[Blake]] – album ''Together''.
* [[The Day Today]] - A musical version features in one segment.
* [[Civilization V]] - Diplomacy music for the English empire.

The third verse is a possible source for the title to both the play and the film ''[[Another Country (play)|Another Country]]'', where the hymn is sung.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hymntime.com/tch/htm/i/v/o/ivow2the.htm ''I Vow to Thee, My Country'' at CyberHymnal].
*[http://anthem4england.co.uk/anthems/i-vow-to-thee-my-country/ ''I Vow to Thee, My Country'' at anthem4england.co.uk]

[[Category:British patriotic songs]]
[[Category:Christian hymns]]
[[Category:1921 songs]]

[[de:I Vow to Thee, My Country]]
[[ko:내 조국이여, 나 그대에게 맹세하노라]]
[[hr:I Vow to Thee, My Country]]
[[he:I Vow to Thee, my Country]]
[[ja:我は汝に誓う、我が祖国よ]]
[[simple:I Vow to Thee, My Country]]

Opera

2012-03-30T08:00:45Z

Rigaudon: /* Other trends */ spacing

{{two other uses|the art form|the browser|Opera (web browser)||Opera (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Palais Garnier.jpg|300px|thumb|The [[Palais Garnier]] of the [[Paris Opéra]], one of the world's most famous [[opera house]]s.]]

'''Opera''' (English plural: ''operas;'' Italian plural: ''opere'') is an [[Performing arts|art form]] in which [[Singing|singer]]s and [[musician]]s perform a [[drama]]tic work combining text (called a [[libretto]]) and [[Sheet music|musical score]], usually in a theatrical [[Set construction|setting]].<ref>Some definitions of opera: "dramatic performance or composition of which music is an essential part, branch of art concerned with this" (''[[Concise Oxford English Dictionary]]''); "any dramatic work that can be sung (or at times declaimed or spoken) in a place for performance, set to original music for singers (usually in costume) and instrumentalists" (Amanda Holden, ''Viking Opera Guide''); "musical work for the stage with singing characters, originated in early years of 17th century" (''[[Pears Cyclopaedia]]'', 1983 ed.).</ref> Opera incorporates many of the elements of spoken theatre, such as [[acting]], [[Theatrical scenery|scenery]], and [[costume]]s and sometimes includes dance. The performance is typically given in an [[opera house]], accompanied by an [[orchestra]] or smaller [[musical ensemble]].

Opera is part of the Western [[classical music]] tradition.<ref>Comparable art forms from various other parts of the world, many of them ancient in origin, are also sometimes called "opera" by analogy, usually prefaced with an adjective indicating the region (for example, [[Chinese opera]]). These independent traditions are not derivative of Western opera, but are rather distinct forms of [[musical theatre]]. Opera is also not the only type of Western musical theatre: in the ancient world, [[Theatre of ancient Greece|Greek drama]] featured singing and instrumental accompaniment; and in modern times, other forms such as the [[musical theatre|musical]] have appeared.</ref> It started in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with [[Jacopo Peri]]'s lost ''[[Dafne]]'', produced in [[Florence]] around 1597) and soon spread through the rest of Europe: [[Heinrich Schütz|Schütz]] in Germany, [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] in France, and [[Henry Purcell|Purcell]] in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century. In the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, except France, attracting foreign composers such as [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]]. [[Opera seria]] was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until [[Christoph Willibald Gluck|Gluck]] reacted against its artificiality with his "reform" operas in the 1760s. Today the most renowned figure of late 18th century opera is [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], who began with opera seria but is most famous for his Italian [[comic opera]]s, especially ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]], [[Don Giovanni]]'', and ''[[Così fan tutte]]'', as well as ''[[The Magic Flute]]'', a landmark in the German tradition.

The first third of the 19th century saw the highpoint of the [[bel canto]] style, with [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]], [[Gaetano Donizetti|Donizetti]] and [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]] all creating works that are still performed today. It also saw the advent of [[Grand Opera]] typified by the works of [[Giacomo Meyerbeer|Meyerbeer]]. The mid-to-late 19th century was a "golden age" of opera, led and dominated by [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] in Germany and [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]] in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the [[verismo]] era in Italy and contemporary [[French opera]] through to [[Giacomo Puccini|Puccini]] and [[Richard Strauss|Strauss]] in the early 20th century. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, particularly in [[Russian opera|Russia]] and [[Bohemia]]. The 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as [[atonality]] and [[serialism]] ([[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]] and [[Alban Berg|Berg]]), [[Neoclassicism]] ([[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]]), and [[Minimalism]] ([[Philip Glass]] and [[John Adams (composer)|John Adams]]). With the rise of recording technology, singers such as [[Enrico Caruso]] became known to audiences beyond the circle of opera fans. Operas were also performed on (and written for) radio and television.

==Operatic terminology==
The words of an opera are known as the [[libretto]] (literally "little book"). Some composers, notably [[Richard Wagner]], have written their own libretti; others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e.g. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] with [[Lorenzo Da Ponte]]. Traditional opera, often referred to as "[[number opera]]", consists of two modes of singing: [[recitative]], the plot-driving passages sung in a style designed to imitate and emphasize the inflections of speech,<ref>[[#Apel1969|Apel]], p. 718.</ref> and [[aria]] (an "air" or formal song) in which the characters express their emotions in a more structured melodic style. Duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action. In some forms of opera, such as [[Singspiel]], [[opéra comique]], [[operetta]], and [[semi-opera]], the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, recitative, are also referred to as [[arioso]]. During the Baroque and Classical periods, recitative could appear in two basic forms: ''secco'' (dry) recitative, accompanied only by ''[[Figured bass|continuo]]'', which was usually a [[harpsichord]] and a cello; or ''accompagnato'' (also known as ''strumentato'') in which the orchestra provided accompaniment. By the 19th century, ''accompagnato'' had gained the upper hand, the orchestra played a much bigger role, and [[Richard Wagner]] revolutionised opera by abolishing almost all distinction between aria and recitative in his quest for what he termed "endless melody". Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagner's example, though some, such as [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] in his ''[[The Rake's Progress]]'' have bucked the trend. The terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail [[#Operatic voices|below]].<ref>General information in this section comes from the relevant articles in ''The Oxford Companion to Music'', by. P.Scholes (10th ed., 1968).</ref>

==History==
===Origins===
{{Main|Origins of opera}}
[[File:Claudio Monteverdi 5.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Claudio Monteverdi]]]]
The word ''opera'' means "work" in Italian (it is the plural of [[Latin]] ''opus'' meaning "work" or "labour") suggesting that it combines the arts of solo and choral singing, declamation, acting and dancing in a staged spectacle. ''[[Dafne]]'' by [[Jacopo Peri]] was the earliest composition considered opera, as understood today. It was written around 1597, largely under the inspiration of an elite circle of literate [[Florence|Florentine]] [[Humanism|humanist]]s who gathered as the "[[Florentine Camerata|Camerata de' Bardi]]". Significantly, ''Dafne'' was an attempt to revive the classical [[Tragedy|Greek drama]], part of the wider revival of antiquity characteristic of the [[Renaissance]]. The members of the Camerata considered that the "chorus" parts of Greek dramas were originally sung, and possibly even the entire text of all roles; opera was thus conceived as a way of "restoring" this situation. ''Dafne'' is unfortunately lost. A later work by Peri, ''[[Euridice (opera)|Euridice]]'', dating from 1600, is the first opera score to have survived to the present day. The honour of being the first opera still to be regularly performed, however, goes to [[Claudio Monteverdi]]'s ''[[L'Orfeo]]'', composed for the court of [[Mantua]] in 1607.<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapter 1; articles on Peri and Monteverdi in ''The Viking Opera Guide''.</ref> The Mantua court of the [[House of Gonzaga|Gonzagas]], employers of Monteverdi, played a significant role in the origin of opera employing not only court singers of the [[concerto delle donne]] (till 1598), but also one of the first actual "opera singers"; [[Madama Europa]].<ref>Karin Pendle Women and music 2001 p65 "From 1587–1600 a Jewish singer cited only as Madama Europa was in the pay of the Duke of Mantua,"</ref>

===Italian opera===
{{Main|Italian opera}}

====The Baroque era====
[[File:Haendel.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[George Frideric Handel]], 1733]]
[[File:Ceskystage.jpg|thumb|Private baroque theatre in [[Český Krumlov]]]]
[[File:Pannini, Giovanni Paolo - Musical Fête - 1747.png|thumb|[[Teatro Argentina]] ([[Giovanni Paolo Panini|Panini]], 1747, [[Musée du Louvre]])]]

Opera did not remain confined to court audiences for long. In 1637, the idea of a "season" ([[Carnival]]) of publicly attended operas supported by ticket sales emerged in Venice. Monteverdi had moved to the city from Mantua and composed his last operas, ''[[Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria]]'' and ''[[L'incoronazione di Poppea]]'', for the Venetian theatre in the 1640s. His most important follower [[Francesco Cavalli]] helped spread opera throughout Italy. In these early Baroque operas, broad comedy was blended with tragic elements in a mix that jarred some educated sensibilities, sparking the first of opera's many reform movements, sponsored by Venice's Arcadian Academy which came to be associated with the poet [[Metastasio]], whose [[Libretto|libretti]] helped crystallize the genre of [[opera seria]], which became the leading form of Italian opera until the end of the 18th century. Once the Metastasian ideal had been firmly established, comedy in Baroque-era opera was reserved for what came to be called [[opera buffa]].

Before such elements were forced out of opera seria, many libretti had featured a separately unfolding comic plot as sort of an "opera-within-an-opera." One reason for this was an attempt to attract members of the growing merchant class, newly wealthy, but still less cultured than the nobility, to the public [[opera house]]s. These separate plots were almost immediately resurrected in a separately developing tradition that partly derived from the [[commedia dell'arte]], a long-flourishing improvisatory stage tradition of Italy. Just as intermedi had once been performed in-between the acts of stage plays, operas in the new comic genre of "intermezzi", which developed largely in Naples in the 1710s and '20s, were initially staged during the intermissions of opera seria. They became so popular, however, that they were soon being offered as separate productions.

''Opera seria'' was elevated in tone and highly stylised in form, usually consisting of ''secco'' recitative interspersed with long ''da capo'' arias. These afforded great opportunity for virtuosic singing and during the golden age of ''opera seria'' the singer really became the star. The role of the hero was usually written for the [[castrato]] voice; castrati such as [[Farinelli]] and [[Senesino]], as well as female [[soprano]]s such as [[Faustina Bordoni]], became in great demand throughout Europe as ''opera seria'' ruled the stage in every country except France. Indeed, Farinelli was the most famous singer of the 18th century. Italian opera set the Baroque standard. Italian libretti were the norm, even when a German composer like [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]] found himself writing for London audiences. Italian libretti remained dominant in the [[classical period (music)|classical period]] as well, for example in the operas of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], who wrote in Vienna near the century's close. Leading Italian-born composers of [[opera seria]] include [[Alessandro Scarlatti]], [[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]] and [[Nicola Porpora|Porpora]].<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 1–3.</ref>

====Reform: Gluck, the attack on the Metastasian ideal, and Mozart====
{{listen
| plain=yes
| style=float:right
| filename = Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart - Don Giovanni - Overtüre.ogg
| title = Mozart K. 527
| description = Overture to ''[[Don Giovanni]]'' (1787), one of Mozart's most well-known pieces. (6:49 minutes)
}}
[[File:Gluck's Orphée - title page illustration (lightened and cropped).jpg|left|thumb|upright|Illustration for the score of the original Vienna version of ''[[Orfeo ed Euridice]]'' (published in Paris, 1764)]]
[[Opera seria]] had its weaknesses and critics. The taste for embellishment on behalf of the superbly trained singers, and the use of spectacle as a replacement for dramatic purity and unity drew attacks. [[Francesco Algarotti]]'s ''Essay on the Opera'' (1754) proved to be an inspiration for [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]]'s reforms. He advocated that ''opera seria'' had to return to basics and that all the various elements—music (both instrumental and vocal), ballet, and staging—must be subservient to the overriding drama. Several composers of the period, including [[Niccolò Jommelli]] and [[Tommaso Traetta]], attempted to put these ideals into practice. The first to succeed however, was Gluck. Gluck strove to achieve a "beautiful simplicity". This is evident in his first reform opera, ''[[Orfeo ed Euridice]]'', where his non-virtuosic vocal melodies are supported by simple harmonies and a richer orchestra presence throughout.

Gluck's reforms have had resonance throughout operatic history. Weber, Mozart and Wagner, in particular, were influenced by his ideals. Mozart, in many ways Gluck's successor, combined a superb sense of drama, harmony, melody, and counterpoint to write a series of comedies, notably ''[[Così fan tutte]]'', ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]'', and ''[[Don Giovanni]]'' (in collaboration with [[Lorenzo Da Ponte]]) which remain among the most-loved, popular and well-known operas today. But Mozart's contribution to ''opera seria'' was more mixed; by his time it was dying away, and in spite of such fine works as ''[[Idomeneo]]'' and ''[[La clemenza di Tito]]'', he would not succeed in bringing the art form back to life again.<ref>''Man and Music: the Classical Era'', ed. [[Neal Zaslaw]] (Macmillan, 1989); entries on Gluck and Mozart in ''The Viking Opera Guide''.</ref>

====Bel canto, Verdi and verismo====
[[File:Verdi.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Giuseppe Verdi, by [[Giovanni Boldini]], 1886 (National Gallery of Modern Art, Rome)]]
{{listen
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| style=float:right
| filename = La_Donna_E_Mobile_Rigoletto.ogg
| title = La donna è mobile
| description = [[Enrico Caruso]] sings "[[La donna è mobile]]", from [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s ''[[Rigoletto]]'' (1908)
| filename2 = No Pagliaccio non son.ogg
| title2 = No Pagliaccio non son
| description2 = Aria from [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]]'s ''[[Pagliacci]]''. Performed by Enrico Caruso
}}
The [[bel canto]] opera movement flourished in the early 19th century and is exemplified by the operas of [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]], [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]], [[Gaetano Donizetti|Donizetti]], [[Giovanni Pacini|Pacini]], [[Saverio Mercadante|Mercadante]] and many others. Literally "beautiful singing", ''bel canto'' opera derives from the Italian stylistic singing school of the same name. Bel canto lines are typically florid and intricate, requiring supreme agility and pitch control.

Following the bel canto era, a more direct, forceful style was rapidly popularized by [[Giuseppe Verdi]], beginning with his biblical opera ''[[Nabucco]]''. Verdi's operas resonated with the growing spirit of [[Italian nationalism]] in the post-[[Napoleon]]ic era, and he quickly became an icon of the patriotic movement (although his own politics were perhaps not quite so radical). In the early 1850s, Verdi produced his three most popular operas: ''[[Rigoletto]]'', ''[[Il trovatore]]'' and ''[[La traviata]]''. But he continued to develop his style, composing perhaps the greatest French [[Grand Opera]], ''[[Don Carlos]]'', and ending his career with two [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare-inspired]] works, ''[[Otello]]'' and ''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]'', which reveal how far Italian opera had grown in sophistication since the early 19th century.

After Verdi, the sentimental "realistic" melodrama of [[verismo]] appeared in Italy. This was a style introduced by [[Pietro Mascagni]]'s ''[[Cavalleria rusticana]]'' and [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]]'s ''[[Pagliacci]]'' that came virtually to dominate the world's opera stages with such popular works as [[Giacomo Puccini]]'s ''[[La bohème]]'', ''[[Tosca]]'', and ''[[Madama Butterfly]]''. Later Italian composers, such as [[Luciano Berio|Berio]] and [[Luigi Nono|Nono]], have experimented with [[modernism]].<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 5, 8 and 9. ''Viking Opera Guide'' entry on Verdi.</ref>

===German-language opera===
{{Main|German opera}}
[[File:Rheingold (Ferdinand Leeke).jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration inspired by [[Richard Wagner|Wagner's]] music drama ''Das Rheingold'']]
[[File:RichardWagner.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Richard Wagner in 1871]]
The first German opera was ''Dafne'', composed by [[Heinrich Schütz]] in 1627, but the music score has not survived. Italian opera held a great sway over German-speaking countries until the late 18th century. Nevertheless, native forms developed too. In 1644 [[Sigmund Theophil Staden|Sigmund Staden]] produced the first ''[[Singspiel]]'', a popular form of German-language opera in which singing alternates with spoken dialogue. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, the Theater am Gänsemarkt in [[Hamburg]] presented German operas by [[Reinhard Keiser|Keiser]], [[Telemann]] and [[Handel]]. Yet many of the major German composers of the time, including Handel himself, as well as [[Carl Heinrich Graun|Graun]], [[Johann Adolph Hasse|Hasse]] and later [[Gluck]], chose to write most of their operas in foreign languages, especially Italian.

[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s ''Singspiele'', ''[[Die Entführung aus dem Serail]]'' (1782) and ''[[Die Zauberflöte]]'' (1791) were an important breakthrough in achieving international recognition for German opera. The tradition was developed in the 19th century by [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] with his ''[[Fidelio]]'', inspired by the climate of the [[French Revolution]]. [[Carl Maria von Weber]] established [[German Romanticism|German Romantic]] opera in opposition to the dominance of Italian [[bel canto]]. His ''[[Der Freischütz]]'' (1821) shows his genius for creating a supernatural atmosphere. Other opera composers of the time include [[Marschner]], [[Schubert]], [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]] and [[Lortzing]], but the most significant figure was undoubtedly [[Wagner]].

[[Wagner]] was one of the most revolutionary and controversial composers in musical history. Starting under the influence of [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]] and [[Meyerbeer]], he gradually evolved a new concept of opera as a ''Gesamtkunstwerk'' (a "complete work of art"), a fusion of music, poetry and painting. In his mature music dramas, ''[[Tristan und Isolde]], [[Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg]], [[Der Ring des Nibelungen]]'' and ''[[Parsifal]]'', he abolished the distinction between aria and recitative in favour of a seamless flow of "endless melody". He greatly increased the role and power of the orchestra, creating scores with a complex web of [[leitmotiv]]s, recurring themes often associated with the characters and concepts of the drama; and he was prepared to violate accepted musical conventions, such as [[tonality]], in his quest for greater expressivity. Wagner also brought a new philosophical dimension to opera in his works, which were usually based on stories from [[Germanic paganism|Germanic]] or [[Arthurian]] legend. Finally, Wagner built [[Bayreuth Festspielhaus|his own opera house]] at [[Bayreuth]], exclusively dedicated to performing his own works in the style he wanted.

Opera would never be the same after Wagner and for many composers his legacy proved a heavy burden. On the other hand, [[Richard Strauss]] accepted Wagnerian ideas but took them in wholly new directions. He first won fame with the scandalous ''[[Salome (opera)|Salome]]'' and the dark tragedy ''[[Elektra (opera)|Elektra]]'', in which tonality was pushed to the limits. Then Strauss changed tack in his greatest success, ''[[Der Rosenkavalier]]'', where [[Mozart]] and [[Vienna|Viennese]] [[waltz]]es became as important an influence as Wagner. Strauss continued to produce a highly varied body of operatic works, often with libretti by the poet [[Hugo von Hofmannsthal]], right up until ''[[Capriccio (opera)|Capriccio]]'' in 1942. Other composers who made individual contributions to German opera in the early 20th century include [[Zemlinsky]], [[Hindemith]], [[Kurt Weill]] and the Italian-born [[Ferruccio Busoni]]. The operatic innovations of [[Arnold Schoenberg]] and his successors are discussed in the section on modernism.<ref>General outline for this section from ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 1–3, 6, 8 and 9, and ''The Oxford Companion to Music''; more specific references from the individual composer entries in ''The Viking Opera Guide''.</ref>

===French opera===
{{Main|French opera}}
[[File:Armide Lully by Saint-Aubin.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A performance of Lully's opera ''[[Armide (Lully)|Armide]]'' at the [[Palais-Royal]] in 1761]]
In rivalry with imported Italian opera productions, a separate French tradition was founded by the Italian [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] at the court of [[King Louis XIV]]. Despite his foreign origin, Lully established an [[Académie Royale de Musique|Academy of Music]] and monopolised French opera from 1672. Starting with ''[[Cadmus et Hermione]]'', Lully and his librettist [[Philippe Quinault|Quinault]] created ''[[tragédie en musique]]'', a form in which dance music and choral writing were particularly prominent. Lully's operas also show a concern for expressive [[recitative]] which matched the contours of the French language. In the 18th century, Lully's most important successor was [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]], who composed five ''[[tragédie en musique|tragédies en musique]]'' as well as numerous works in other genres such as [[opéra-ballet]], all notable for their rich orchestration and harmonic daring. After Rameau's death, the German [[Gluck]] was persuaded to produce six operas for the [[Paris|Parisian stage]] in the 1770s. They show the influence of Rameau, but simplified and with greater focus on the drama. At the same time, by the middle of the 18th century another genre was gaining popularity in France: ''[[opéra comique]]''. This was the equivalent of the German [[singspiel]], where arias alternated with spoken dialogue. Notable examples in this style were produced by [[Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny|Monsigny]], [[François-André Danican Philidor|Philidor]] and, above all, [[Grétry]]. During the [[French Revolution|Revolutionary]] period, composers such as [[Méhul]] and [[Cherubini]], who were followers of Gluck, brought a new seriousness to the genre, which had never been wholly "comic" in any case.

By the 1820s, Gluckian influence in France had given way to a taste for Italian [[bel canto]], especially after the arrival of [[Rossini]] in Paris. Rossini's ''[[Guillaume Tell]]'' helped found the new genre of [[Grand Opera]], a form whose most famous exponent was another foreigner, [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]]. Meyerbeer's works, such as ''[[Les Huguenots]]'' emphasised virtuoso singing and extraordinary stage effects. Lighter ''opéra comique'' also enjoyed tremendous success in the hands of [[Boïeldieu]], [[Daniel Auber|Auber]], [[Ferdinand Hérold|Hérold]] and [[Adolphe Adam]]. In this climate, the operas of the French-born composer [[Hector Berlioz]] struggled to gain a hearing. Berlioz's epic masterpiece ''[[Les Troyens]]'', the culmination of the Gluckian tradition, was not given a full performance for almost a hundred years.

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|title=''Carmen'': Chanson du toréador
|description=[[Pasquale Amato]]'s 1911 rendition of the Toréador's song from [[Georges Bizet]]'s ''[[Carmen]]'' (1875).
}}
In the second half of the 19th century, [[Jacques Offenbach]] created [[operetta]] with witty and cynical works such as ''[[Orphée aux enfers]]'', as well as the opera ''[[Les Contes d'Hoffmann]]''; [[Charles Gounod]] scored a massive success with ''[[Faust (opera)|Faust]]''; and [[Bizet]] composed ''[[Carmen]]'', which, once audiences learned to accept its blend of [[Romanticism]] and realism, became the most popular of all opéra comiques. [[Massenet]], [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]] and [[Léo Delibes|Delibes]] all composed works which are still part of the standard repertory. At the same time, the influence of [[Richard Wagner]] was felt as a challenge to the French tradition. Many French critics angrily rejected Wagner's music dramas while many French composers closely imitated them with variable success. Perhaps the most interesting response came from [[Claude Debussy]]. As in Wagner's works, the orchestra plays a leading role in Debussy's unique opera ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'' (1902) and there are no real arias, only recitative. But the drama is understated, enigmatic and completely unWagnerian.

Other notable 20th century names include [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel]], [[Paul Dukas|Dukas]], [[Albert Roussel|Roussel]] and [[Darius Milhaud|Milhaud]]. [[Francis Poulenc]] is one of the very few post-war composers of any nationality whose operas (which include ''[[Dialogues of the Carmelites|Dialogues des Carmélites]]'') have gained a foothold in the international repertory. [[Olivier Messiaen]]'s lengthy sacred drama ''[[Saint François d'Assise]]'' (1983) has also attracted widespread attention.<ref>General outline for this section from ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 1–4, 8 and 9; and ''The Oxford Companion to Music'' (10th ed., 1968); more specific references from the individual composer entries in ''The Viking Opera Guide''.</ref>

===English-language opera===
{{Main|Opera in English}}
[[File:Henry Purcell.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Henry Purcell]]]]
{{Listen|plain=yes|style=float:right|filename=Stay, Prince and hear.ogg|title=Stay, Prince and hear|description=A scene from Purcell's ''[[Dido and Æneas]]''. The witches' messenger, in the form of Mercury himself, attempts to convince Æneas to leave Carthage.}}

In England, opera's antecedent was the 17th century ''jig''. This was an afterpiece which came at the end of a play. It was frequently [[libel]]lous and scandalous and consisted in the main of dialogue set to music arranged from popular tunes. In this respect, jigs anticipate the ballad operas of the 18th century. At the same time, the French [[masque]] was gaining a firm hold at the English Court, with even more lavish splendour and highly realistic scenery than had been seen before. [[Inigo Jones]] became the quintessential designer of these productions, and this style was to dominate the English stage for three centuries. These masques contained songs and dances. In [[Ben Jonson]]'s ''Lovers Made Men'' (1617), "the whole masque was sung after the Italian manner, stilo recitativo".<ref name=IvanhoeSite>[http://www.webrarian.co.uk/ivanhoe/ivan01.html From Webrarian.com's] ''[[Ivanhoe (opera)|Ivanhoe]]'' site.</ref>
The approach of the [[English Commonwealth]] closed theatres and halted any developments that may have led to the establishment of English opera. However, in 1656, the [[dramatist]] Sir [[William Davenant]] produced ''The Siege of Rhodes''. Since his theatre was not licensed to produce drama, he asked several of the leading composers (Lawes, Cooke, Locke, Coleman and Hudson) to set sections of it to music. This success was followed by ''The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru'' (1658) and ''The History of Sir Francis Drake'' (1659). These pieces were encouraged by [[Oliver Cromwell]] because they were critical of Spain. With the [[English Restoration]], foreign (especially French) musicians were welcomed back. In 1673, [[Thomas Shadwell]]'s ''Psyche'', patterned on the 1671 'comédie-ballet' of the same name produced by [[Molière]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]]. [[William Davenant]] produced ''The Tempest'' in the same year, which was the first musical adaption of a [[Shakespeare]] play (composed by Locke and Johnson).<ref name=IvanhoeSite /> About 1683, [[John Blow]] composed ''[[Venus and Adonis (opera)|Venus and Adonis]]'', often thought of as the first true English-language opera.

Blow's immediate successor was the better known [[Henry Purcell]]. Despite the success of his masterwork ''[[Dido and Aeneas]]'' (1689), in which the action is furthered by the use of Italian-style recitative, much of Purcell's best work was not involved in the composing of typical opera, but instead he usually worked within the constraints of the [[semi-opera]] format, where isolated scenes and masques are contained within the structure of a spoken play, such as [[Shakespeare]] in Purcell's ''[[The Fairy-Queen]]'' (1692) and Beaumont and Fletcher in ''The Prophetess'' (1690) and ''Bonduca'' (1696). The main characters of the play tend not to be involved in the musical scenes, which means that Purcell was rarely able to develop his characters through song. Despite these hindrances, his aim (and that of his collaborator [[John Dryden]]) was to establish serious opera in England, but these hopes ended with Purcell's early death at the age of 36.

[[File:Thomas Augustine Arne.png|thumb|upright|left|[[Thomas Arne]]]]
Following Purcell, the popularity of opera in England dwindled for several decades. A revived interest in opera occurred in the 1730s which is largely attributed to [[Thomas Arne]], both for his own compositions and for alerting Handel to the commercial possibilities of large-scale works in English. Arne was the first English composer to experiment with Italian-style all-sung comic opera, with his greatest success being ''[[Thomas and Sally]]'' in 1760. His opera ''[[Artaxerxes (opera)|Artaxerxes]]'' (1762) was the first attempt to set a full-blown [[opera seria]] in English and was a huge success, holding the stage until the 1830s. Although Arne imitated many elements of Italian opera, he was perhaps the only English composer at that time who was able to move beyond the Italian influences and create his own unique and distinctly English voice. His modernized ballad opera, ''Love in a Village'' (1762), began a vogue for pastiche opera that lasted well into the 19th century. [[Charles Burney]] wrote that Arne introduced "a light, airy, original, and pleasing melody, wholly different from that of Purcell or Handel, whom all English composers had either pillaged or imitated".
[[File:The Mikado Three Little Maids.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[The Mikado]]'' (Lithograph)]]
Besides Arne, the other dominating force in English opera at this time was [[George Frideric Handel]], whose ''opera serias'' filled the London operatic stages for decades, and influenced most home-grown composers, like [[John Frederick Lampe]], who wrote using Italian models. This situation continued throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, including in the work of [[Michael William Balfe]], and the operas of the great Italian composers, as well as those of Mozart, Beethoven and Meyerbeer, continued to dominate the musical stage in England.

The only exceptions were [[ballad opera]]s, such as [[John Gay]]'s ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'' (1728), musical [[Victorian burlesque|burlesque]]s, European [[operetta]]s, and late [[Victorian era]] [[light opera]]s, notably the [[Savoy Operas]] of [[W. S. Gilbert]] and [[Arthur Sullivan]], all of which types of musical entertainments frequently spoofed operatic conventions. Sullivan wrote only one grand opera, ''[[Ivanhoe (opera)|Ivanhoe]]'' (following the efforts of a number of young English composers beginning about 1876),<ref name=IvanhoeSite /> but he claimed that even his light operas constituted part of a school of "English" opera, intended to supplant the French operettas (usually performed in bad translations) that had dominated the London stage from the mid-19th century into the 1870s. London's ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' agreed, describing ''[[The Yeomen of the Guard]]'' as "a genuine English opera, forerunner of many others, let us hope, and possibly significant of an advance towards a national lyric stage."''<ref>the Daily Telegraph's review of ''Yeomen'' stated, "''The accompaniments... are delightful to hear, and especially does the treatment of the woodwind compel admiring attention. Schubert himself could hardly have handled those instruments more deftly. ...we have a genuine English opera, forerunner of many others, let us hope, and possibly significant of an advance towards a national lyric stage.'' (quoted at p. 312 in Allen, Reginald (1975). ''The First Night Gilbert and Sullivan''. London: Chappell & Co. Ltd.). Sullivan produced a few light operas in the 1890s that were of a more serious nature than those in the G&S series, including ''[[Haddon Hall (opera)|Haddon Hall]]'' and ''[[The Beauty Stone]]'', but ''[[Ivanhoe (opera)|Ivanhoe]]'' (which ran for 155 consecutive performances, using alternating casts – a record until Broadway's ''[[La bohème]]'') survives as his only [[Grand Opera]].</ref>

In the 20th century, English opera began to assert more independence, with works of [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]] and in particular [[Benjamin Britten]], who in a series of works that remain in standard repertory today, revealed an excellent flair for the dramatic and superb musicality. Today composers such as [[Thomas Adès]] continue to export English opera abroad.<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 1, 3 and 9. ''The Viking Opera Guide'' articles on Blow, Purcell and Britten.</ref> More recently [[Harrison Birtwistle|Sir Harrison Birtwistle]] has emerged as one of Britain's most significant contemporary composers from his first opera ''[[Punch and Judy (opera)|Punch and Judy]]'' to his most recent critical success in [[The Minotaur (opera)|The Minotaur]]. In the first decade of the 21st century, the librettist of an early Birtwistle opera, [[Michael Nyman]], has been focusing on composing operas, including ''[[Facing Goya]]'', ''[[Man and Boy: Dada]]'', and ''[[Love Counts]]''.

Also in the 20th century, American composers like [[Leonard Bernstein]], [[George Gershwin]], [[Gian Carlo Menotti]], [[Douglas Moore]], and [[Carlisle Floyd]] began to contribute English-language operas infused with touches of popular musical styles. They were followed by composers such as [[Philip Glass]], [[Mark Adamo]], [[John Corigliano]], [[Robert Moran]], [[John Coolidge Adams]], and [[Jake Heggie]].

===Russian opera===
{{Main|Russian opera}}
[[File:Feodor Chaliapin as Ivan Susanin.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Feodor Chaliapin]] as [[Ivan Susanin]] in [[Mikhail Glinka|Glinka]]'s ''[[A Life for the Tsar]]'']]
Opera was brought to Russia in the 1730s by the [[Italian opera]]tic [[troupe]]s and soon it became an important part of entertainment for the Russian Imperial Court and [[aristocracy]]. Many foreign composers such as [[Baldassare Galuppi]], [[Giovanni Paisiello]], [[Giuseppe Sarti]], and [[Domenico Cimarosa]] (as well as various others) were invited to Russia to compose new operas, mostly in the [[Italian language]]. Simultaneously some domestic musicians like [[Maksym Berezovsky]] and [[Dmitry Bortniansky]] were sent abroad to learn to write operas. The first opera written in Russian was ''[[Tsefal i Prokris]]'' by the Italian composer [[Francesco Araja]] (1755). The development of Russian-language opera was supported by the Russian composers [[Vasily Pashkevich]], [[Yevstigney Fomin]] and [[Alexey Verstovsky]].

However, the real birth of [[Russian opera]] came with [[Mikhail Glinka]] and his two great operas ''[[A Life for the Tsar]]'' (1836) and ''[[Ruslan and Lyudmila (opera)|Ruslan and Lyudmila]]'' (1842). After him in the 19th century in Russia there were written such operatic masterpieces as ''[[Rusalka (Dargomyzhsky)|Rusalka]]'' and ''[[The Stone Guest (Dargomyzhsky)|The Stone Guest]]'' by [[Alexander Dargomyzhsky]], ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'' and ''[[Khovanshchina]]'' by [[Modest Mussorgsky]], ''[[Prince Igor]]'' by [[Alexander Borodin]], ''[[Eugene Onegin (opera)|Eugene Onegin]]'' and ''[[The Queen of Spades (opera)|The Queen of Spades]]'' by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Pyotr Tchaikovsky]], and ''[[The Snow Maiden]]'' and ''[[Sadko (opera)|Sadko]]'' by [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]]. These developments mirrored the growth of Russian [[nationalism]] across the artistic spectrum, as part of the more general [[Slavophilism]] movement.

In the 20th century the [[tradition]]s of Russian opera were developed by many composers including [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]] in his works ''[[The Miserly Knight]]'' and ''[[Francesca da Rimini (Rachmaninoff)|Francesca da Rimini]]'', [[Igor Stravinsky]] in ''[[The Nightingale (opera)|Le Rossignol]]'', ''[[Mavra]]'', ''[[Oedipus rex (opera)|Oedipus rex]]'', and ''[[The Rake's Progress]]'', [[Sergei Prokofiev]] in ''[[The Gambler (Prokofiev)|The Gambler]]'', ''[[The Love for Three Oranges]]'', ''[[The Fiery Angel (opera)|The Fiery Angel]]'', ''[[Betrothal in a Monastery]]'', and ''[[War and Peace (Prokofiev)|War and Peace]]''; as well as [[Dmitri Shostakovich]] in ''[[The Nose (opera)|The Nose]]'' and ''[[Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)|Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District]]'', [[Edison Denisov]] in ''[[L'écume des jours (opera)|L'écume des jours]]'', and [[Alfred Schnittke]] in ''[[Life with an Idiot]]'' and ''[[Historia von D. Johann Fausten (opera)|Historia von D. Johann Fausten]]''.<ref>Taruskin, Richard: Russia in 'The New Grove Dictionary of Opera', ed. Stanley Sadie (London, 1992); ''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 7–9.</ref>

===Other national operas===
Spain also produced its own distinctive form of opera, known as [[zarzuela]], which had two separate flowerings: one from the mid-17th century through the mid-18th century, and another beginning around 1850. During the late 18th century up until the mid-19th century, Italian opera was immensely popular in Spain, supplanting the native form.

Czech composers also developed a thriving national opera movement of their own in the 19th century, starting with [[Bedřich Smetana]], who wrote eight operas including the internationally popular ''[[The Bartered Bride]]''. [[Antonín Dvořák]], most famous for ''[[Rusalka (opera)|Rusalka]]'', wrote 13 operas; and [[Leoš Janáček]] gained international recognition in the 20th century for his innovative works including ''[[Jenůfa]]'', ''[[The Cunning Little Vixen]]'', and ''[[Káťa Kabanová]]''.

The key figure of Hungarian national opera in the 19th century was [[Ferenc Erkel]], whose works mostly dealt with historical themes. Among his most often performed operas are ''[[Hunyadi László (opera)|Hunyadi László]]'' and ''[[Bánk bán]]''. The most famous modern Hungarian opera is [[Béla Bartók]]'s ''[[Duke Bluebeard's Castle]]''.

The best-known composer of [[Polish opera|Polish national opera]] was [[Stanisław Moniuszko]], most celebrated for the opera ''[[The Haunted Manor|Straszny Dwór]]'' (in English ''The Haunted Manor'').<ref>See the chapter on "Russian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian Opera to 1900" by John Tyrrell in ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'' (1994).</ref> In the 20th century, other operas created by Polish composers included ''[[King Roger]]'' by [[Karol Szymanowski]] and ''Ubu Rex'' by [[Krzysztof Penderecki]].

In 1907 [[Azerbaijan]]i composer [[Uzeyir Hajibeyov]] wrote [[Leyli and Majnun (opera)|Leyli and Majnun]], Azerbaijani, the Caucasian and the Eastern first opera.

===Contemporary, recent, and Modernist trends===
====Modernism====
Perhaps the most obvious stylistic manifestation of modernism in opera is the development of [[atonality]]. The move away from traditional tonality in opera had begun with [[Richard Wagner]], and in particular the [[Tristan chord]]. Composers such as [[Richard Strauss]], [[Claude Debussy]], [[Giacomo Puccini]]{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}, [[Paul Hindemith]] and [[Hans Pfitzner]] pushed Wagnerian harmony further with a more extreme use of chromaticism and greater use of dissonance.

[[File:Schiele - Bildnis des Komponisten Arnold Schönberg . 1917.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Arnold Schoenberg in 1917. Portrait by [[Egon Schiele]].]]
Operatic modernism truly began in the operas of two Viennese composers, [[Arnold Schoenberg]] and his student [[Alban Berg]], both composers and advocates of atonality and its later development (as worked out by Schoenberg), [[dodecaphony]]. Schoenberg's early musico-dramatic works, ''[[Erwartung]]'' (1909, premiered in 1924) and ''[[Die glückliche Hand]]'' display heavy use of chromatic harmony and dissonance in general. Schoenberg also occasionally used [[Sprechstimme]], which he described as: "The voice rising and falling relative to the indicated intervals, and everything being bound together with the time and rhythm of the music except where a pause is indicated".{{Cite quote|date=June 2009}}

The two operas of Schoenberg's pupil Alban Berg, ''[[Wozzeck]]'' (1925) and ''[[Lulu (opera)|Lulu]]'' (incomplete at his death in 1935) share many of the same characteristics as described above, though Berg combined his highly personal interpretation of Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique with melodic passages of a more traditionally tonal nature (quite Mahlerian in character) which perhaps partially explains why his operas have remained in standard repertory, despite their controversial music and plots. Schoenberg's theories have influenced (either directly or indirectly) significant numbers of opera composers ever since, even if they themselves did not compose using his techniques.
[[File:Igor Stravinsky Essays.jpg|thumb|upright|Stravinsky in 1921.]] Composers thus influenced include the Englishman [[Benjamin Britten]], the German [[Hans Werner Henze]], and the Russian [[Dmitri Shostakovich]]. ([[Philip Glass]] also makes use of atonality, though his style is generally described as [[minimalist music|minimalist]], usually thought of as another 20th century development.)

However, operatic modernism's use of atonality also sparked a backlash in the form of [[Neoclassicism (music)|neoclassicism]]. An early leader of this movement was [[Ferruccio Busoni]], who in 1913 wrote the libretto for his neoclassical [[number opera]] ''[[Arlecchino (opera)|Arlecchino]]'' (first performed in 1917).<ref>Chris Walton, "Neo-classical opera" in [[#Cooke2005|Cooke]], p. 108.</ref> Also among the vanguard was the Russian [[Igor Stravinsky]]. After composing music for the [[Diaghilev]]-produced ballets ''[[Petrushka (ballet)|Petrushka]]'' (1911) and ''[[The Rite of Spring]]'' (1913), Stravinsky turned to neoclassicism, a development culminating in his opera-oratorio ''[[Oedipus rex (opera)|Oedipus Rex]]'' (1927).<ref>Stravinsky had already turned away from the modernist trends of his early ballets to produce small-scale works that do not fully qualify as opera, yet certainly contain many operatic elements, including ''[[Renard (Stravinsky)|Renard]]'' (1916: "a burlesque in song and dance") and ''[[Histoire du soldat|The Soldier's Tale]]'' (1918: "to be read, played, and danced"; in both cases the descriptions and instructions are those of the composer). In the latter, the actors declaim portions of speech to a specified rhythm over instrumental accompaniment, peculiarly similar to the older German genre of ''[[Melodrama]]''.</ref> Well after his Rimsky-Korsakov-inspired works ''[[The Nightingale (opera)|The Nightingale]]'' (1914), and ''[[Mavra]]'' (1922), Stravinsky continued to ignore [[serialism|serialist technique]] and eventually wrote a full-fledged 18th century-style [[diatonic]] number opera ''[[The Rake's Progress]]'' (1951). His resistance to serialism (which ended at the death of Schoenberg) proved to be an inspiration for many other composers.<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapter 8; ''The Viking Opera Guide'' articles on Schoenberg, Berg and Stravinsky; Malcolm MacDonald ''Schoenberg'' (Dent,1976); Francis Routh, ''Stravinsky'' (Dent, 1975).</ref>

====Other trends====
A common trend throughout the 20th century, in both opera and general orchestral repertoire, is the use of smaller orchestras as a cost-cutting measure; the grand Romantic-era orchestras with huge string sections, multiple harps, extra horns, and exotic percussion instruments were no longer feasible. As government and private patronage of the arts decreased throughout the 20th century, new works were often commissioned and performed with smaller budgets, very often resulting in chamber-sized works, and short, one-act operas. Many of [[Benjamin Britten]]'s operas are scored for as few as 13 instrumentalists; [[Mark Adamo]]'s two-act realization of ''[[Little Women (opera)|Little Women]]'' is scored for 18 instrumentalists.

Another feature of 20th century opera is the emergence of contemporary historical operas, sometimes known as "headline opera" or "CNN opera" for their ripped-from-the-evening-news aspects. ''[[The Death of Klinghoffer]]'', ''[[Nixon in China (opera)|Nixon in China]]'' and ''[[Doctor Atomic]]'' by [[John Adams (composer)|John Adams]], ''[[Dead Man Walking (opera)|Dead Man Walking]]'' by [[Jake Heggie]], and ''[[Anna Nicole]]'' by [[Mark-Anthony Turnage]] exemplify the dramatisation on stage of events in recent living memory, where characters portrayed in the opera were alive at the time of the premiere performance.

Earlier models of opera generally stuck to more distant history, re-telling contemporary fictional stories (reworkings of popular plays), or mythical/legendary stories.<ref>However, something similar happened in French opera during the [[French Revolution|Revolutionary]] era. One example is [[François Joseph Gossec|Gossec's]] ''Le triomphe de la République'' (1793), depicting the French victory at [[Battle of Valmy|Valmy]] the previous year. Such works were obviously intended as propaganda.</ref>

The Metropolitan Opera in the US reports that the average age of its audience is now 60.<ref>http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/met-backtracks-on-drop-in-average-audience-age/</ref> Many opera companies have experienced a similar trend, and opera company websites are replete with attempts to attract a younger audience. This trend is part of the larger trend of greying audiences for [[classical music]] since the last decades of the 20th century.<ref>General reference for this section: ''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapter 9.</ref> In an effort to attract younger audiences, the Metropolitan Opera offers a student discount on ticket purchases.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metoperafamily.org/metopera/about/education/student.aspx |title=Information about Metropolitan Opera Company student discounts |publisher=Metoperafamily.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-09}}</ref> Major opera companies have been better able to weather the funding cutbacks, because they can afford to hire star singers which draw substantial audiences.

Smaller companies in the US have a more fragile existence, and they usually depend on a "patchwork quilt" of support from state and local governments, local businesses, and fundraisers. Nevertheless, some smaller companies have found ways of drawing new audiences. Opera Carolina offer discounts and happy hour events to the 21- to 40-year-old demographic.<ref>[http://www.operayoungprofessionals.org/ Opera Carolina discount information]</ref> In addition to radio and television broadcasts of opera performances, which have had some success in gaining new audiences, broadcasts of live performances in HD to movie theatres have shown the potential to reach new audiences. Since 2006, the Met has broadcast live performances to several hundred movie screens all over the world.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.metoperafamily.org/metopera/broadcast/hd_events_alternates.aspx|title = On Air & On Line: 2007–08 HD Season|accessdate = 10 April 2008|year = 2007|publisher = The Metropolitan Opera}}</ref>

In the last 20 years or so, a production style known as [[Eurotrash (opera)|Eurotrash]] has taken root in Europe and, to a smaller, extent, in North America. Eurotrash stagings typically change the opera's time and place, are usually sexually explicit (with an emphasis on what might be considered perversion), and may mix costumes from different eras. Directors [[David Alden]] and his twin brother [[Christopher Alden (director)|Christopher Alden]] have taken credit for pioneering what has come to be called the Eurotrash style.

====From musicals back towards opera====
Also by the late 1930s, some [[musical theatre|musicals]] began to be written with a more operatic structure. These works include complex polyphonic ensembles and reflect musical developments of their times. ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' (1935), influenced by jazz styles, and ''[[Candide (operetta)|Candide]]'' (1956), with its sweeping, lyrical passages and farcical parodies of opera, both opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] but became accepted as part of the opera repertory. ''[[Show Boat]]'', ''[[West Side Story (musical)|West Side Story]]'', ''[[Brigadoon (musical)|Brigadoon]]'', ''[[Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (musical)|Sweeney Todd]]'', ''[[Evita (musical)|Evita]]'', ''[[The Light in the Piazza (musical)|The Light in the Piazza]]'', ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' and others tell dramatic stories through complex music and are now sometimes seen in opera houses <ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2003/dec/17/classicalmusicandopera1</ref>. Some musicals, beginning with ''[[The Who's Tommy|Tommy]]'' (1969) and ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]'' (1971) and continuing through ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' (1980), ''[[Rent (musical)|Rent]]'' (1996) and ''[[Spring Awakening]]'' (2006), use various operatic conventions, such as [[through composition]], recitative instead of dialogue, [[leitmotif]]s and dramatic stories told predominantly through rock, pop, and other types of contemporary music including metal.{{Dubious|date=April 2009}}

===Acoustic enhancement with speakers===
A subtle type of sound electronic reinforcement called [[acoustic enhancement]] is used in some concert halls where operas are performed. Acoustic enhancement systems help give a more even sound in the hall and prevent "dead spots" in the audience seating area by "...augment[ing] a hall's intrinsic acoustic characteristics." The systems use "...an array of microphones connected to a computer [which is] connected to an array of loudspeakers." However, as concertgoers have become aware of the use of these systems, debates have arisen, because some "...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of voices/instruments in a given hall should not be altered."<ref>Kai Harada, [http://harada-sound.com/sound/handbook/intro2.html "Why do you need a Sound System?"], harada-sound.com, 2005</ref>

Kai Harada's article "Opera's Dirty Little Secret" states that opera houses began using electronic acoustic enhancement systems in the 1990s "...to compensate for flaws in a venue's acoustical architecture."<ref>Kai Harada, [http://industryclick.com/magazinearticle.asp?releaseid=5643&magazinearticleid=66853&siteid=15&magazineid=138 "Opera's Dirty Little Secret"], ''Entertainment Design'', 1 March 2001</ref> Despite the uproar that has arisen amongst operagoers, Harada points out that none of the major opera houses using acoustic enhancement systems "...use traditional, Broadway-style sound reinforcement, in which most if not all singers are equipped with radio microphones mixed to a series of unsightly loudspeakers scattered throughout the theatre." Instead, most opera houses use the [[sound reinforcement system]] for acoustic enhancement, and for subtle boosting of offstage voices, child singers, onstage dialogue, and sound effects (e.g., church bells in ''[[Tosca]]'' or thunder effects in Wagnerian operas).

==Operatic voices==
Operatic vocal technique evolved, in a time before electronic amplification, to allow singers to produce enough volume to be heard over an orchestra, without the instrumentalists having to substantially compromise their volume.

===Vocal classifications===
Singers and the roles they play are classified by [[voice type]], based on the [[tessitura]], [[vocal weight|agility, power]] and [[timbre]] of their voices. Male singers can be loosely classified by [[vocal range]] as [[bass (voice type)|bass]], [[bass-baritone]], [[baritone]], [[tenor]] and [[countertenor]], and female singers as [[contralto]], [[mezzo-soprano]] and [[soprano]]. (Men sometimes sing in the "female" vocal ranges, in which case they are termed [[sopranist]] or [[countertenor]]. Of these, only the [[countertenor]] is commonly encountered in opera, sometimes singing parts written for [[castrati]] – men neutered at a young age specifically to give them a higher singing range.) Singers are then classified by [[voice type]] – for instance, a soprano can be described as a lyric soprano, [[coloratura]], [[soubrette]], [[spinto]], or dramatic soprano. These terms, although not fully describing a singing voice, associate the singer's voice with the roles most suitable to the singer's vocal characteristics. A particular singer's voice may change drastically over his or her lifetime, rarely reaching vocal maturity until the third decade, and sometimes not until middle age.

===Historical use of voice parts===
:''The following is only intended as a brief overview. For the main articles, see [[soprano]], [[mezzo-soprano]], [[alto]], [[tenor]], [[baritone]], [[bass (voice type)|bass]], [[countertenor]] and [[castrato]]''.

The soprano voice has typically been used as the voice of choice for the female protagonist of the opera since the latter half of the 18th century. Earlier, it was common for that part to be sung by any female voice, or even a [[castrato]]. The current emphasis on a wide vocal range was primarily an invention of the [[Classical period (music)|Classical period]]. Before that, the vocal virtuosity, not range, was the priority, with soprano parts rarely extending above a high [[A (musical note)|A]] ([[George Frideric Handel|Handel]], for example, only wrote one role extending to a high [[C (musical note)|C]]), though the castrato [[Farinelli]] was alleged to possess a top [[D (musical note)|D]] (his lower range was also extraordinary, extending to tenor C). The mezzo-soprano, a term of comparatively recent origin, also has a large repertoire, ranging from the female lead in Purcell's ''Dido and Aeneas'' to such heavyweight roles as Brangäne in Wagner's ''Tristan und Isolde'' (these are both roles sometimes sung by sopranos; there is quite a lot of movement between these two voice-types). For the true contralto, the range of parts is more limited, which has given rise to the insider joke that contraltos only sing "witches, bitches, and [[breeches role|britches]]" roles. In recent years many of the "trouser roles" from the Baroque era, originally written for women, and those originally sung by castrati, have been reassigned to countertenors.

The tenor voice, from the Classical era onwards, has traditionally been assigned the role of male protagonist. Many of the most challenging tenor roles in the repertory were written during the ''bel canto'' era, such as [[Donizetti]]'s sequence of 9 Cs above middle C during ''[[La fille du régiment]]''. With Wagner came an emphasis on vocal heft for his protagonist roles, with this vocal category described as ''Heldentenor''; this heroic voice had its more Italianate counterpart in such roles as Calaf in Puccini's ''Turandot''. Basses have a long history in opera, having been used in ''opera seria'' in supporting roles, and sometimes for comic relief (as well as providing a contrast to the preponderance of high voices in this genre). The bass repertoire is wide and varied, stretching from the comedy of Leporello in ''[[Don Giovanni]]'' to the nobility of Wotan in [[Der Ring des Nibelungen|Wagner's ''Ring Cycle'']]. In between the bass and the tenor is the baritone, which also varies in weight from say, Guglielmo in Mozart's ''Così fan tutte'' to Posa in Verdi's ''Don Carlos''; the actual designation "baritone" was not used until the mid-19th century.

===Famous singers===
[[File:Senesino portrait edited.jpg|thumb|upright|The castrato [[Senesino]], c. 1720]]
Early performances of opera were too infrequent for singers to make a living exclusively from the style, but with the birth of commercial opera in the mid-17th century, professional performers began to emerge. The role of the male hero was usually entrusted to a [[castrato]], and by the 18th century, when Italian opera was performed throughout Europe, leading castrati who possessed extraordinary vocal virtuosity, such as [[Senesino]] and [[Farinelli]], became international stars. The career of the first major female star (or [[prima donna]]), [[Anna Renzi]], dates to the mid-17th century. In the 18th century, a number of Italian sopranos gained international renown and often engaged in fierce rivalry, as was the case with [[Faustina Bordoni]] and [[Francesca Cuzzoni]], who started a fist fight with one another during a performance of a Handel opera. The French disliked castrati, preferring their male heroes to be sung by a [[haute-contre]] (a high tenor), of which [[Joseph Legros]] was a leading example.<ref>''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'' (ed. Parker, 1994), Chapter 11</ref>


Though opera patronage has decreased in the last century in favor of other arts and media (such as musicals, cinema, radio, television and recordings), mass media and the advent of recording have supported the popularity of many famous singers including [[Maria Callas]], [[Enrico Caruso]], [[Kirsten Flagstad]], [[Mario Del Monaco]], [[Risë Stevens]], [[Alfredo Kraus]], [[Franco Corelli]], [[Montserrat Caballé]], [[Joan Sutherland]], [[Birgit Nilsson]], [[Nellie Melba]], [[Rosa Ponselle]], [[Beniamino Gigli]], [[Jussi Björling]], [[Feodor Chaliapin]], and "[[The Three Tenors]]" ([[Luciano Pavarotti]], [[Plácido Domingo]], and [[José Carreras]]).

==Funding of opera==
Outside the US, and especially in Europe, most opera houses receive public subsidies from taxpayers.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_SPJPNP "Special report: Private money for the arts,"] ''The Economist'', 6 August 2001</ref>

For example, in Milan, Italy, 60% of La Scala's annual budget of €115 million is from sales and private donations, with the remaining 40% coming from public funds.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/opera/article7136329.ece | location=London | work=The Times | title=Is it curtains for Italys opera houses | first=Richard | last=Owen | date=26 May 2010}}</ref>
In 2005, La Scala received 25% of Italy's total state subsidy of €464 million for the performing arts.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4381128.stm | work=BBC News | title=Italy facing opera funding crisis | date=27 October 2005 | first=David | last=Willey}}</ref>

==Cinema and internet==
Major opera companies have begun presenting their performances in local cinemas throughout the United States and many other countries. The [[Metropolitan Opera]] began a [[Metropolitan Opera Live in HD|series]] of live [[high-definition video]] transmissions to cinemas around the world in 2006.<ref>[http://www.metopera.org/hdlive Metropolitan Opera] high-definition live broadcast page</ref> In 2007, Met performances were shown in over 424 theaters in 350 U.S. cities. ''[[La bohème]]'' went out to 671 screens worldwide. [[San Francisco Opera]] began prerecorded video transmissions in March 2008. As of June 2008, approximately 125 theaters in 117 U.S. cities carry the showings. The HD video opera transmissions are presented via the same [[Digital cinema|HD digital cinema projectors]] used for major [[Hollywood]] films.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thebiggerpicture.us/opera |title=The Bigger Picture |publisher=Thebiggerpicture.us |date= |accessdate=2010-11-09}}</ref> European opera houses and [[List of opera festivals|festivals]] including the [[Royal Opera, London|Royal Opera]] in London, [[La Scala]] in Milan, the [[Salzburg Festival]], [[La Fenice]] in Venice, and the [[Maggio Musicale Fiorentino|Maggio Musicale]] in Florence have also transmitted their productions to theaters in cities around the world since 2006, including 90 cities in the U.S.<ref>[http://opera.emergingpictures.com Emerging Pictures]</ref><ref>"Where to See Opera at the Movies" sidebar p. W10 in June 21–22, 2008 ''The Wall Street Journal''.</ref>

The emergence of the Internet is also affecting the way in which audiences consume opera. In a first for the genre, in 2009 the British [[Glyndebourne Festival Opera]] company offered an online digital video download of its complete 2007 production of Wagner’s ''[[Tristan und Isolde]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glyndebourne.com/operas/tristan_und_isolde/download |title=Tristan und Isolde – Download Tristan und Isolde |publisher=Glyndebourne |date=2007-08-06 |accessdate=2010-11-09}}</ref>

==See also==
* {{Portal-inline|Opera}}
{{Navbox opera topics}}
{{Navbox performing arts}}

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

;Main sources
* <cite id=Apel1969>Apel, Willi, ed. (1969). ''Harvard Dictionary of Music'', Second Edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. SBN 674375017.</cite>

* <cite id=Cooke2005>Cooke, Mervyn (2005). ''The Cambridge Companion to Twentieth-Century Opera.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78009-8.</cite> See also Google Books [http://books.google.com/books?id=fovWU9Prkj0C&lpg=PA110&ots=gIao4R-VZr&dq=Number%20opera&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q=Number%20opera&f=false partial preview]. Accessed 3 October 2009.

*Silke Leopold, "The Idea of National Opera, c. 1800", ''United and Diversity in European Culture c. 1800'', ed. [[T. C. W. Blanning|Tim Blanning]] and [[Hagen Schulze]] (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 19–34.
*The ''[[New Grove Dictionary of Opera]]'', edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] (1992), 5,448 pages, is the best, and by far the largest, general reference in the English language. ISBN 0-333-73432-7 and ISBN 1-56159-228-5
*''The Viking Opera Guide'', edited by [[Amanda Holden (writer)|Amanda Holden]] (1994), 1,328 pages, ISBN 0-670-81292-7
*''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', ed. Roger Parker (1994)
*''The Oxford Dictionary of Opera'', by [[John Warrack]] and Ewan West (1992), 782 pages, ISBN 0-19-869164-5
*''Opera, the Rough Guide'', by Matthew Boyden et al. (1997), 672 pages, ISBN 1-85828-138-5
*''Opera: A Concise History'', by Leslie Orrey and [[Rodney Milnes]], World of Art, Thames & Hudson

;Other sources
*[[John Louis DiGaetani|DiGaetani, John Louis]]: ''An Invitation to the Opera'', Anchor Books, 1986/91. ISBN 0-385-26339-2.
*MacMurray, Jessica M. and Allison Brewster Franzetti: ''The Book of 101 Opera Librettos: Complete Original Language Texts with English Translations'', Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 1996. ISBN 978-1-884822-79-7
*Simon, Henry W.: ''A Treasury of Grand Opera'', Simon and Schuster, New York, 1946.

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Opera}}
*[http://operabase.com Operabase – Comprehensive opera performances database]
*[http://www.stageagent.com/browse/showtype/opera StageAgent – synopses & character descriptions for most major operas]
*[http://www.opera-opera.com.au/plotind.htm What's it about? – Opera plot summaries]
*[http://operamusique.googlepages.com/ Vocabulaire de l'Opéra] {{Fr icon}}
*[http://opera.stanford.edu/main.html OperaGlass, a resource at Stanford University]
*[http://www.historicopera.com HistoricOpera – historic operatic images]
*[http://www.american.com/archive/2007/july-august-magazine-contents/america2019s-opera-boom "America’s Opera Boom"] By Jonathan Leaf, ''[[The American (magazine)|The American]]'', July/August 2007 Issue
*[http://www.opera-opera.com.au/archives.htm Opera~Opera article archives]
*{{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/o/opera/
|title= A History of Opera
|work=Theatre and Performance
|accessdate= 15 February 2011}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}

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Opera

2012-03-30T07:56:05Z

Rigaudon: Separated into two sentences

{{two other uses|the art form|the browser|Opera (web browser)||Opera (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Palais Garnier.jpg|300px|thumb|The [[Palais Garnier]] of the [[Paris Opéra]], one of the world's most famous [[opera house]]s.]]

'''Opera''' (English plural: ''operas;'' Italian plural: ''opere'') is an [[Performing arts|art form]] in which [[Singing|singer]]s and [[musician]]s perform a [[drama]]tic work combining text (called a [[libretto]]) and [[Sheet music|musical score]], usually in a theatrical [[Set construction|setting]].<ref>Some definitions of opera: "dramatic performance or composition of which music is an essential part, branch of art concerned with this" (''[[Concise Oxford English Dictionary]]''); "any dramatic work that can be sung (or at times declaimed or spoken) in a place for performance, set to original music for singers (usually in costume) and instrumentalists" (Amanda Holden, ''Viking Opera Guide''); "musical work for the stage with singing characters, originated in early years of 17th century" (''[[Pears Cyclopaedia]]'', 1983 ed.).</ref> Opera incorporates many of the elements of spoken theatre, such as [[acting]], [[Theatrical scenery|scenery]], and [[costume]]s and sometimes includes dance. The performance is typically given in an [[opera house]], accompanied by an [[orchestra]] or smaller [[musical ensemble]].

Opera is part of the Western [[classical music]] tradition.<ref>Comparable art forms from various other parts of the world, many of them ancient in origin, are also sometimes called "opera" by analogy, usually prefaced with an adjective indicating the region (for example, [[Chinese opera]]). These independent traditions are not derivative of Western opera, but are rather distinct forms of [[musical theatre]]. Opera is also not the only type of Western musical theatre: in the ancient world, [[Theatre of ancient Greece|Greek drama]] featured singing and instrumental accompaniment; and in modern times, other forms such as the [[musical theatre|musical]] have appeared.</ref> It started in Italy at the end of the 16th century (with [[Jacopo Peri]]'s lost ''[[Dafne]]'', produced in [[Florence]] around 1597) and soon spread through the rest of Europe: [[Heinrich Schütz|Schütz]] in Germany, [[Jean-Baptiste Lully|Lully]] in France, and [[Henry Purcell|Purcell]] in England all helped to establish their national traditions in the 17th century. In the 18th century, Italian opera continued to dominate most of Europe, except France, attracting foreign composers such as [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]]. [[Opera seria]] was the most prestigious form of Italian opera, until [[Christoph Willibald Gluck|Gluck]] reacted against its artificiality with his "reform" operas in the 1760s. Today the most renowned figure of late 18th century opera is [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], who began with opera seria but is most famous for his Italian [[comic opera]]s, especially ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]], [[Don Giovanni]]'', and ''[[Così fan tutte]]'', as well as ''[[The Magic Flute]]'', a landmark in the German tradition.

The first third of the 19th century saw the highpoint of the [[bel canto]] style, with [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]], [[Gaetano Donizetti|Donizetti]] and [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]] all creating works that are still performed today. It also saw the advent of [[Grand Opera]] typified by the works of [[Giacomo Meyerbeer|Meyerbeer]]. The mid-to-late 19th century was a "golden age" of opera, led and dominated by [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] in Germany and [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]] in Italy. The popularity of opera continued through the [[verismo]] era in Italy and contemporary [[French opera]] through to [[Giacomo Puccini|Puccini]] and [[Richard Strauss|Strauss]] in the early 20th century. During the 19th century, parallel operatic traditions emerged in central and eastern Europe, particularly in [[Russian opera|Russia]] and [[Bohemia]]. The 20th century saw many experiments with modern styles, such as [[atonality]] and [[serialism]] ([[Arnold Schoenberg|Schoenberg]] and [[Alban Berg|Berg]]), [[Neoclassicism]] ([[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]]), and [[Minimalism]] ([[Philip Glass]] and [[John Adams (composer)|John Adams]]). With the rise of recording technology, singers such as [[Enrico Caruso]] became known to audiences beyond the circle of opera fans. Operas were also performed on (and written for) radio and television.

==Operatic terminology==
The words of an opera are known as the [[libretto]] (literally "little book"). Some composers, notably [[Richard Wagner]], have written their own libretti; others have worked in close collaboration with their librettists, e.g. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] with [[Lorenzo Da Ponte]]. Traditional opera, often referred to as "[[number opera]]", consists of two modes of singing: [[recitative]], the plot-driving passages sung in a style designed to imitate and emphasize the inflections of speech,<ref>[[#Apel1969|Apel]], p. 718.</ref> and [[aria]] (an "air" or formal song) in which the characters express their emotions in a more structured melodic style. Duets, trios and other ensembles often occur, and choruses are used to comment on the action. In some forms of opera, such as [[Singspiel]], [[opéra comique]], [[operetta]], and [[semi-opera]], the recitative is mostly replaced by spoken dialogue. Melodic or semi-melodic passages occurring in the midst of, or instead of, recitative, are also referred to as [[arioso]]. During the Baroque and Classical periods, recitative could appear in two basic forms: ''secco'' (dry) recitative, accompanied only by ''[[Figured bass|continuo]]'', which was usually a [[harpsichord]] and a cello; or ''accompagnato'' (also known as ''strumentato'') in which the orchestra provided accompaniment. By the 19th century, ''accompagnato'' had gained the upper hand, the orchestra played a much bigger role, and [[Richard Wagner]] revolutionised opera by abolishing almost all distinction between aria and recitative in his quest for what he termed "endless melody". Subsequent composers have tended to follow Wagner's example, though some, such as [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] in his ''[[The Rake's Progress]]'' have bucked the trend. The terminology of the various kinds of operatic voices is described in detail [[#Operatic voices|below]].<ref>General information in this section comes from the relevant articles in ''The Oxford Companion to Music'', by. P.Scholes (10th ed., 1968).</ref>

==History==
===Origins===
{{Main|Origins of opera}}
[[File:Claudio Monteverdi 5.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Claudio Monteverdi]]]]
The word ''opera'' means "work" in Italian (it is the plural of [[Latin]] ''opus'' meaning "work" or "labour") suggesting that it combines the arts of solo and choral singing, declamation, acting and dancing in a staged spectacle. ''[[Dafne]]'' by [[Jacopo Peri]] was the earliest composition considered opera, as understood today. It was written around 1597, largely under the inspiration of an elite circle of literate [[Florence|Florentine]] [[Humanism|humanist]]s who gathered as the "[[Florentine Camerata|Camerata de' Bardi]]". Significantly, ''Dafne'' was an attempt to revive the classical [[Tragedy|Greek drama]], part of the wider revival of antiquity characteristic of the [[Renaissance]]. The members of the Camerata considered that the "chorus" parts of Greek dramas were originally sung, and possibly even the entire text of all roles; opera was thus conceived as a way of "restoring" this situation. ''Dafne'' is unfortunately lost. A later work by Peri, ''[[Euridice (opera)|Euridice]]'', dating from 1600, is the first opera score to have survived to the present day. The honour of being the first opera still to be regularly performed, however, goes to [[Claudio Monteverdi]]'s ''[[L'Orfeo]]'', composed for the court of [[Mantua]] in 1607.<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapter 1; articles on Peri and Monteverdi in ''The Viking Opera Guide''.</ref> The Mantua court of the [[House of Gonzaga|Gonzagas]], employers of Monteverdi, played a significant role in the origin of opera employing not only court singers of the [[concerto delle donne]] (till 1598), but also one of the first actual "opera singers"; [[Madama Europa]].<ref>Karin Pendle Women and music 2001 p65 "From 1587–1600 a Jewish singer cited only as Madama Europa was in the pay of the Duke of Mantua,"</ref>

===Italian opera===
{{Main|Italian opera}}

====The Baroque era====
[[File:Haendel.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[George Frideric Handel]], 1733]]
[[File:Ceskystage.jpg|thumb|Private baroque theatre in [[Český Krumlov]]]]
[[File:Pannini, Giovanni Paolo - Musical Fête - 1747.png|thumb|[[Teatro Argentina]] ([[Giovanni Paolo Panini|Panini]], 1747, [[Musée du Louvre]])]]

Opera did not remain confined to court audiences for long. In 1637, the idea of a "season" ([[Carnival]]) of publicly attended operas supported by ticket sales emerged in Venice. Monteverdi had moved to the city from Mantua and composed his last operas, ''[[Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria]]'' and ''[[L'incoronazione di Poppea]]'', for the Venetian theatre in the 1640s. His most important follower [[Francesco Cavalli]] helped spread opera throughout Italy. In these early Baroque operas, broad comedy was blended with tragic elements in a mix that jarred some educated sensibilities, sparking the first of opera's many reform movements, sponsored by Venice's Arcadian Academy which came to be associated with the poet [[Metastasio]], whose [[Libretto|libretti]] helped crystallize the genre of [[opera seria]], which became the leading form of Italian opera until the end of the 18th century. Once the Metastasian ideal had been firmly established, comedy in Baroque-era opera was reserved for what came to be called [[opera buffa]].

Before such elements were forced out of opera seria, many libretti had featured a separately unfolding comic plot as sort of an "opera-within-an-opera." One reason for this was an attempt to attract members of the growing merchant class, newly wealthy, but still less cultured than the nobility, to the public [[opera house]]s. These separate plots were almost immediately resurrected in a separately developing tradition that partly derived from the [[commedia dell'arte]], a long-flourishing improvisatory stage tradition of Italy. Just as intermedi had once been performed in-between the acts of stage plays, operas in the new comic genre of "intermezzi", which developed largely in Naples in the 1710s and '20s, were initially staged during the intermissions of opera seria. They became so popular, however, that they were soon being offered as separate productions.

''Opera seria'' was elevated in tone and highly stylised in form, usually consisting of ''secco'' recitative interspersed with long ''da capo'' arias. These afforded great opportunity for virtuosic singing and during the golden age of ''opera seria'' the singer really became the star. The role of the hero was usually written for the [[castrato]] voice; castrati such as [[Farinelli]] and [[Senesino]], as well as female [[soprano]]s such as [[Faustina Bordoni]], became in great demand throughout Europe as ''opera seria'' ruled the stage in every country except France. Indeed, Farinelli was the most famous singer of the 18th century. Italian opera set the Baroque standard. Italian libretti were the norm, even when a German composer like [[George Frideric Handel|Handel]] found himself writing for London audiences. Italian libretti remained dominant in the [[classical period (music)|classical period]] as well, for example in the operas of [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], who wrote in Vienna near the century's close. Leading Italian-born composers of [[opera seria]] include [[Alessandro Scarlatti]], [[Antonio Vivaldi|Vivaldi]] and [[Nicola Porpora|Porpora]].<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 1–3.</ref>

====Reform: Gluck, the attack on the Metastasian ideal, and Mozart====
{{listen
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| filename = Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart - Don Giovanni - Overtüre.ogg
| title = Mozart K. 527
| description = Overture to ''[[Don Giovanni]]'' (1787), one of Mozart's most well-known pieces. (6:49 minutes)
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[[File:Gluck's Orphée - title page illustration (lightened and cropped).jpg|left|thumb|upright|Illustration for the score of the original Vienna version of ''[[Orfeo ed Euridice]]'' (published in Paris, 1764)]]
[[Opera seria]] had its weaknesses and critics. The taste for embellishment on behalf of the superbly trained singers, and the use of spectacle as a replacement for dramatic purity and unity drew attacks. [[Francesco Algarotti]]'s ''Essay on the Opera'' (1754) proved to be an inspiration for [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]]'s reforms. He advocated that ''opera seria'' had to return to basics and that all the various elements—music (both instrumental and vocal), ballet, and staging—must be subservient to the overriding drama. Several composers of the period, including [[Niccolò Jommelli]] and [[Tommaso Traetta]], attempted to put these ideals into practice. The first to succeed however, was Gluck. Gluck strove to achieve a "beautiful simplicity". This is evident in his first reform opera, ''[[Orfeo ed Euridice]]'', where his non-virtuosic vocal melodies are supported by simple harmonies and a richer orchestra presence throughout.

Gluck's reforms have had resonance throughout operatic history. Weber, Mozart and Wagner, in particular, were influenced by his ideals. Mozart, in many ways Gluck's successor, combined a superb sense of drama, harmony, melody, and counterpoint to write a series of comedies, notably ''[[Così fan tutte]]'', ''[[The Marriage of Figaro]]'', and ''[[Don Giovanni]]'' (in collaboration with [[Lorenzo Da Ponte]]) which remain among the most-loved, popular and well-known operas today. But Mozart's contribution to ''opera seria'' was more mixed; by his time it was dying away, and in spite of such fine works as ''[[Idomeneo]]'' and ''[[La clemenza di Tito]]'', he would not succeed in bringing the art form back to life again.<ref>''Man and Music: the Classical Era'', ed. [[Neal Zaslaw]] (Macmillan, 1989); entries on Gluck and Mozart in ''The Viking Opera Guide''.</ref>

====Bel canto, Verdi and verismo====
[[File:Verdi.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Giuseppe Verdi, by [[Giovanni Boldini]], 1886 (National Gallery of Modern Art, Rome)]]
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| filename = La_Donna_E_Mobile_Rigoletto.ogg
| title = La donna è mobile
| description = [[Enrico Caruso]] sings "[[La donna è mobile]]", from [[Giuseppe Verdi]]'s ''[[Rigoletto]]'' (1908)
| filename2 = No Pagliaccio non son.ogg
| title2 = No Pagliaccio non son
| description2 = Aria from [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]]'s ''[[Pagliacci]]''. Performed by Enrico Caruso
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The [[bel canto]] opera movement flourished in the early 19th century and is exemplified by the operas of [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]], [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]], [[Gaetano Donizetti|Donizetti]], [[Giovanni Pacini|Pacini]], [[Saverio Mercadante|Mercadante]] and many others. Literally "beautiful singing", ''bel canto'' opera derives from the Italian stylistic singing school of the same name. Bel canto lines are typically florid and intricate, requiring supreme agility and pitch control.

Following the bel canto era, a more direct, forceful style was rapidly popularized by [[Giuseppe Verdi]], beginning with his biblical opera ''[[Nabucco]]''. Verdi's operas resonated with the growing spirit of [[Italian nationalism]] in the post-[[Napoleon]]ic era, and he quickly became an icon of the patriotic movement (although his own politics were perhaps not quite so radical). In the early 1850s, Verdi produced his three most popular operas: ''[[Rigoletto]]'', ''[[Il trovatore]]'' and ''[[La traviata]]''. But he continued to develop his style, composing perhaps the greatest French [[Grand Opera]], ''[[Don Carlos]]'', and ending his career with two [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare-inspired]] works, ''[[Otello]]'' and ''[[Falstaff (opera)|Falstaff]]'', which reveal how far Italian opera had grown in sophistication since the early 19th century.

After Verdi, the sentimental "realistic" melodrama of [[verismo]] appeared in Italy. This was a style introduced by [[Pietro Mascagni]]'s ''[[Cavalleria rusticana]]'' and [[Ruggiero Leoncavallo]]'s ''[[Pagliacci]]'' that came virtually to dominate the world's opera stages with such popular works as [[Giacomo Puccini]]'s ''[[La bohème]]'', ''[[Tosca]]'', and ''[[Madama Butterfly]]''. Later Italian composers, such as [[Luciano Berio|Berio]] and [[Luigi Nono|Nono]], have experimented with [[modernism]].<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 5, 8 and 9. ''Viking Opera Guide'' entry on Verdi.</ref>

===German-language opera===
{{Main|German opera}}
[[File:Rheingold (Ferdinand Leeke).jpg|thumb|upright|Illustration inspired by [[Richard Wagner|Wagner's]] music drama ''Das Rheingold'']]
[[File:RichardWagner.jpg|left|thumb|upright|Richard Wagner in 1871]]
The first German opera was ''Dafne'', composed by [[Heinrich Schütz]] in 1627, but the music score has not survived. Italian opera held a great sway over German-speaking countries until the late 18th century. Nevertheless, native forms developed too. In 1644 [[Sigmund Theophil Staden|Sigmund Staden]] produced the first ''[[Singspiel]]'', a popular form of German-language opera in which singing alternates with spoken dialogue. In the late 17th century and early 18th century, the Theater am Gänsemarkt in [[Hamburg]] presented German operas by [[Reinhard Keiser|Keiser]], [[Telemann]] and [[Handel]]. Yet many of the major German composers of the time, including Handel himself, as well as [[Carl Heinrich Graun|Graun]], [[Johann Adolph Hasse|Hasse]] and later [[Gluck]], chose to write most of their operas in foreign languages, especially Italian.

[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s ''Singspiele'', ''[[Die Entführung aus dem Serail]]'' (1782) and ''[[Die Zauberflöte]]'' (1791) were an important breakthrough in achieving international recognition for German opera. The tradition was developed in the 19th century by [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] with his ''[[Fidelio]]'', inspired by the climate of the [[French Revolution]]. [[Carl Maria von Weber]] established [[German Romanticism|German Romantic]] opera in opposition to the dominance of Italian [[bel canto]]. His ''[[Der Freischütz]]'' (1821) shows his genius for creating a supernatural atmosphere. Other opera composers of the time include [[Marschner]], [[Schubert]], [[Robert Schumann|Schumann]] and [[Lortzing]], but the most significant figure was undoubtedly [[Wagner]].

[[Wagner]] was one of the most revolutionary and controversial composers in musical history. Starting under the influence of [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]] and [[Meyerbeer]], he gradually evolved a new concept of opera as a ''Gesamtkunstwerk'' (a "complete work of art"), a fusion of music, poetry and painting. In his mature music dramas, ''[[Tristan und Isolde]], [[Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg]], [[Der Ring des Nibelungen]]'' and ''[[Parsifal]]'', he abolished the distinction between aria and recitative in favour of a seamless flow of "endless melody". He greatly increased the role and power of the orchestra, creating scores with a complex web of [[leitmotiv]]s, recurring themes often associated with the characters and concepts of the drama; and he was prepared to violate accepted musical conventions, such as [[tonality]], in his quest for greater expressivity. Wagner also brought a new philosophical dimension to opera in his works, which were usually based on stories from [[Germanic paganism|Germanic]] or [[Arthurian]] legend. Finally, Wagner built [[Bayreuth Festspielhaus|his own opera house]] at [[Bayreuth]], exclusively dedicated to performing his own works in the style he wanted.

Opera would never be the same after Wagner and for many composers his legacy proved a heavy burden. On the other hand, [[Richard Strauss]] accepted Wagnerian ideas but took them in wholly new directions. He first won fame with the scandalous ''[[Salome (opera)|Salome]]'' and the dark tragedy ''[[Elektra (opera)|Elektra]]'', in which tonality was pushed to the limits. Then Strauss changed tack in his greatest success, ''[[Der Rosenkavalier]]'', where [[Mozart]] and [[Vienna|Viennese]] [[waltz]]es became as important an influence as Wagner. Strauss continued to produce a highly varied body of operatic works, often with libretti by the poet [[Hugo von Hofmannsthal]], right up until ''[[Capriccio (opera)|Capriccio]]'' in 1942. Other composers who made individual contributions to German opera in the early 20th century include [[Zemlinsky]], [[Hindemith]], [[Kurt Weill]] and the Italian-born [[Ferruccio Busoni]]. The operatic innovations of [[Arnold Schoenberg]] and his successors are discussed in the section on modernism.<ref>General outline for this section from ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 1–3, 6, 8 and 9, and ''The Oxford Companion to Music''; more specific references from the individual composer entries in ''The Viking Opera Guide''.</ref>

===French opera===
{{Main|French opera}}
[[File:Armide Lully by Saint-Aubin.jpg|thumb|300px|left|A performance of Lully's opera ''[[Armide (Lully)|Armide]]'' at the [[Palais-Royal]] in 1761]]
In rivalry with imported Italian opera productions, a separate French tradition was founded by the Italian [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]] at the court of [[King Louis XIV]]. Despite his foreign origin, Lully established an [[Académie Royale de Musique|Academy of Music]] and monopolised French opera from 1672. Starting with ''[[Cadmus et Hermione]]'', Lully and his librettist [[Philippe Quinault|Quinault]] created ''[[tragédie en musique]]'', a form in which dance music and choral writing were particularly prominent. Lully's operas also show a concern for expressive [[recitative]] which matched the contours of the French language. In the 18th century, Lully's most important successor was [[Jean-Philippe Rameau]], who composed five ''[[tragédie en musique|tragédies en musique]]'' as well as numerous works in other genres such as [[opéra-ballet]], all notable for their rich orchestration and harmonic daring. After Rameau's death, the German [[Gluck]] was persuaded to produce six operas for the [[Paris|Parisian stage]] in the 1770s. They show the influence of Rameau, but simplified and with greater focus on the drama. At the same time, by the middle of the 18th century another genre was gaining popularity in France: ''[[opéra comique]]''. This was the equivalent of the German [[singspiel]], where arias alternated with spoken dialogue. Notable examples in this style were produced by [[Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny|Monsigny]], [[François-André Danican Philidor|Philidor]] and, above all, [[Grétry]]. During the [[French Revolution|Revolutionary]] period, composers such as [[Méhul]] and [[Cherubini]], who were followers of Gluck, brought a new seriousness to the genre, which had never been wholly "comic" in any case.

By the 1820s, Gluckian influence in France had given way to a taste for Italian [[bel canto]], especially after the arrival of [[Rossini]] in Paris. Rossini's ''[[Guillaume Tell]]'' helped found the new genre of [[Grand Opera]], a form whose most famous exponent was another foreigner, [[Giacomo Meyerbeer]]. Meyerbeer's works, such as ''[[Les Huguenots]]'' emphasised virtuoso singing and extraordinary stage effects. Lighter ''opéra comique'' also enjoyed tremendous success in the hands of [[Boïeldieu]], [[Daniel Auber|Auber]], [[Ferdinand Hérold|Hérold]] and [[Adolphe Adam]]. In this climate, the operas of the French-born composer [[Hector Berlioz]] struggled to gain a hearing. Berlioz's epic masterpiece ''[[Les Troyens]]'', the culmination of the Gluckian tradition, was not given a full performance for almost a hundred years.

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In the second half of the 19th century, [[Jacques Offenbach]] created [[operetta]] with witty and cynical works such as ''[[Orphée aux enfers]]'', as well as the opera ''[[Les Contes d'Hoffmann]]''; [[Charles Gounod]] scored a massive success with ''[[Faust (opera)|Faust]]''; and [[Bizet]] composed ''[[Carmen]]'', which, once audiences learned to accept its blend of [[Romanticism]] and realism, became the most popular of all opéra comiques. [[Massenet]], [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]] and [[Léo Delibes|Delibes]] all composed works which are still part of the standard repertory. At the same time, the influence of [[Richard Wagner]] was felt as a challenge to the French tradition. Many French critics angrily rejected Wagner's music dramas while many French composers closely imitated them with variable success. Perhaps the most interesting response came from [[Claude Debussy]]. As in Wagner's works, the orchestra plays a leading role in Debussy's unique opera ''[[Pelléas et Mélisande (opera)|Pelléas et Mélisande]]'' (1902) and there are no real arias, only recitative. But the drama is understated, enigmatic and completely unWagnerian.

Other notable 20th century names include [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel]], [[Paul Dukas|Dukas]], [[Albert Roussel|Roussel]] and [[Darius Milhaud|Milhaud]]. [[Francis Poulenc]] is one of the very few post-war composers of any nationality whose operas (which include ''[[Dialogues of the Carmelites|Dialogues des Carmélites]]'') have gained a foothold in the international repertory. [[Olivier Messiaen]]'s lengthy sacred drama ''[[Saint François d'Assise]]'' (1983) has also attracted widespread attention.<ref>General outline for this section from ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 1–4, 8 and 9; and ''The Oxford Companion to Music'' (10th ed., 1968); more specific references from the individual composer entries in ''The Viking Opera Guide''.</ref>

===English-language opera===
{{Main|Opera in English}}
[[File:Henry Purcell.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Henry Purcell]]]]
{{Listen|plain=yes|style=float:right|filename=Stay, Prince and hear.ogg|title=Stay, Prince and hear|description=A scene from Purcell's ''[[Dido and Æneas]]''. The witches' messenger, in the form of Mercury himself, attempts to convince Æneas to leave Carthage.}}

In England, opera's antecedent was the 17th century ''jig''. This was an afterpiece which came at the end of a play. It was frequently [[libel]]lous and scandalous and consisted in the main of dialogue set to music arranged from popular tunes. In this respect, jigs anticipate the ballad operas of the 18th century. At the same time, the French [[masque]] was gaining a firm hold at the English Court, with even more lavish splendour and highly realistic scenery than had been seen before. [[Inigo Jones]] became the quintessential designer of these productions, and this style was to dominate the English stage for three centuries. These masques contained songs and dances. In [[Ben Jonson]]'s ''Lovers Made Men'' (1617), "the whole masque was sung after the Italian manner, stilo recitativo".<ref name=IvanhoeSite>[http://www.webrarian.co.uk/ivanhoe/ivan01.html From Webrarian.com's] ''[[Ivanhoe (opera)|Ivanhoe]]'' site.</ref>
The approach of the [[English Commonwealth]] closed theatres and halted any developments that may have led to the establishment of English opera. However, in 1656, the [[dramatist]] Sir [[William Davenant]] produced ''The Siege of Rhodes''. Since his theatre was not licensed to produce drama, he asked several of the leading composers (Lawes, Cooke, Locke, Coleman and Hudson) to set sections of it to music. This success was followed by ''The Cruelty of the Spaniards in Peru'' (1658) and ''The History of Sir Francis Drake'' (1659). These pieces were encouraged by [[Oliver Cromwell]] because they were critical of Spain. With the [[English Restoration]], foreign (especially French) musicians were welcomed back. In 1673, [[Thomas Shadwell]]'s ''Psyche'', patterned on the 1671 'comédie-ballet' of the same name produced by [[Molière]] and [[Jean-Baptiste Lully]]. [[William Davenant]] produced ''The Tempest'' in the same year, which was the first musical adaption of a [[Shakespeare]] play (composed by Locke and Johnson).<ref name=IvanhoeSite /> About 1683, [[John Blow]] composed ''[[Venus and Adonis (opera)|Venus and Adonis]]'', often thought of as the first true English-language opera.

Blow's immediate successor was the better known [[Henry Purcell]]. Despite the success of his masterwork ''[[Dido and Aeneas]]'' (1689), in which the action is furthered by the use of Italian-style recitative, much of Purcell's best work was not involved in the composing of typical opera, but instead he usually worked within the constraints of the [[semi-opera]] format, where isolated scenes and masques are contained within the structure of a spoken play, such as [[Shakespeare]] in Purcell's ''[[The Fairy-Queen]]'' (1692) and Beaumont and Fletcher in ''The Prophetess'' (1690) and ''Bonduca'' (1696). The main characters of the play tend not to be involved in the musical scenes, which means that Purcell was rarely able to develop his characters through song. Despite these hindrances, his aim (and that of his collaborator [[John Dryden]]) was to establish serious opera in England, but these hopes ended with Purcell's early death at the age of 36.

[[File:Thomas Augustine Arne.png|thumb|upright|left|[[Thomas Arne]]]]
Following Purcell, the popularity of opera in England dwindled for several decades. A revived interest in opera occurred in the 1730s which is largely attributed to [[Thomas Arne]], both for his own compositions and for alerting Handel to the commercial possibilities of large-scale works in English. Arne was the first English composer to experiment with Italian-style all-sung comic opera, with his greatest success being ''[[Thomas and Sally]]'' in 1760. His opera ''[[Artaxerxes (opera)|Artaxerxes]]'' (1762) was the first attempt to set a full-blown [[opera seria]] in English and was a huge success, holding the stage until the 1830s. Although Arne imitated many elements of Italian opera, he was perhaps the only English composer at that time who was able to move beyond the Italian influences and create his own unique and distinctly English voice. His modernized ballad opera, ''Love in a Village'' (1762), began a vogue for pastiche opera that lasted well into the 19th century. [[Charles Burney]] wrote that Arne introduced "a light, airy, original, and pleasing melody, wholly different from that of Purcell or Handel, whom all English composers had either pillaged or imitated".
[[File:The Mikado Three Little Maids.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[The Mikado]]'' (Lithograph)]]
Besides Arne, the other dominating force in English opera at this time was [[George Frideric Handel]], whose ''opera serias'' filled the London operatic stages for decades, and influenced most home-grown composers, like [[John Frederick Lampe]], who wrote using Italian models. This situation continued throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, including in the work of [[Michael William Balfe]], and the operas of the great Italian composers, as well as those of Mozart, Beethoven and Meyerbeer, continued to dominate the musical stage in England.

The only exceptions were [[ballad opera]]s, such as [[John Gay]]'s ''[[The Beggar's Opera]]'' (1728), musical [[Victorian burlesque|burlesque]]s, European [[operetta]]s, and late [[Victorian era]] [[light opera]]s, notably the [[Savoy Operas]] of [[W. S. Gilbert]] and [[Arthur Sullivan]], all of which types of musical entertainments frequently spoofed operatic conventions. Sullivan wrote only one grand opera, ''[[Ivanhoe (opera)|Ivanhoe]]'' (following the efforts of a number of young English composers beginning about 1876),<ref name=IvanhoeSite /> but he claimed that even his light operas constituted part of a school of "English" opera, intended to supplant the French operettas (usually performed in bad translations) that had dominated the London stage from the mid-19th century into the 1870s. London's ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' agreed, describing ''[[The Yeomen of the Guard]]'' as "a genuine English opera, forerunner of many others, let us hope, and possibly significant of an advance towards a national lyric stage."''<ref>the Daily Telegraph's review of ''Yeomen'' stated, "''The accompaniments... are delightful to hear, and especially does the treatment of the woodwind compel admiring attention. Schubert himself could hardly have handled those instruments more deftly. ...we have a genuine English opera, forerunner of many others, let us hope, and possibly significant of an advance towards a national lyric stage.'' (quoted at p. 312 in Allen, Reginald (1975). ''The First Night Gilbert and Sullivan''. London: Chappell & Co. Ltd.). Sullivan produced a few light operas in the 1890s that were of a more serious nature than those in the G&S series, including ''[[Haddon Hall (opera)|Haddon Hall]]'' and ''[[The Beauty Stone]]'', but ''[[Ivanhoe (opera)|Ivanhoe]]'' (which ran for 155 consecutive performances, using alternating casts – a record until Broadway's ''[[La bohème]]'') survives as his only [[Grand Opera]].</ref>

In the 20th century, English opera began to assert more independence, with works of [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]] and in particular [[Benjamin Britten]], who in a series of works that remain in standard repertory today, revealed an excellent flair for the dramatic and superb musicality. Today composers such as [[Thomas Adès]] continue to export English opera abroad.<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 1, 3 and 9. ''The Viking Opera Guide'' articles on Blow, Purcell and Britten.</ref> More recently [[Harrison Birtwistle|Sir Harrison Birtwistle]] has emerged as one of Britain's most significant contemporary composers from his first opera ''[[Punch and Judy (opera)|Punch and Judy]]'' to his most recent critical success in [[The Minotaur (opera)|The Minotaur]]. In the first decade of the 21st century, the librettist of an early Birtwistle opera, [[Michael Nyman]], has been focusing on composing operas, including ''[[Facing Goya]]'', ''[[Man and Boy: Dada]]'', and ''[[Love Counts]]''.

Also in the 20th century, American composers like [[Leonard Bernstein]], [[George Gershwin]], [[Gian Carlo Menotti]], [[Douglas Moore]], and [[Carlisle Floyd]] began to contribute English-language operas infused with touches of popular musical styles. They were followed by composers such as [[Philip Glass]], [[Mark Adamo]], [[John Corigliano]], [[Robert Moran]], [[John Coolidge Adams]], and [[Jake Heggie]].

===Russian opera===
{{Main|Russian opera}}
[[File:Feodor Chaliapin as Ivan Susanin.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Feodor Chaliapin]] as [[Ivan Susanin]] in [[Mikhail Glinka|Glinka]]'s ''[[A Life for the Tsar]]'']]
Opera was brought to Russia in the 1730s by the [[Italian opera]]tic [[troupe]]s and soon it became an important part of entertainment for the Russian Imperial Court and [[aristocracy]]. Many foreign composers such as [[Baldassare Galuppi]], [[Giovanni Paisiello]], [[Giuseppe Sarti]], and [[Domenico Cimarosa]] (as well as various others) were invited to Russia to compose new operas, mostly in the [[Italian language]]. Simultaneously some domestic musicians like [[Maksym Berezovsky]] and [[Dmitry Bortniansky]] were sent abroad to learn to write operas. The first opera written in Russian was ''[[Tsefal i Prokris]]'' by the Italian composer [[Francesco Araja]] (1755). The development of Russian-language opera was supported by the Russian composers [[Vasily Pashkevich]], [[Yevstigney Fomin]] and [[Alexey Verstovsky]].

However, the real birth of [[Russian opera]] came with [[Mikhail Glinka]] and his two great operas ''[[A Life for the Tsar]]'' (1836) and ''[[Ruslan and Lyudmila (opera)|Ruslan and Lyudmila]]'' (1842). After him in the 19th century in Russia there were written such operatic masterpieces as ''[[Rusalka (Dargomyzhsky)|Rusalka]]'' and ''[[The Stone Guest (Dargomyzhsky)|The Stone Guest]]'' by [[Alexander Dargomyzhsky]], ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'' and ''[[Khovanshchina]]'' by [[Modest Mussorgsky]], ''[[Prince Igor]]'' by [[Alexander Borodin]], ''[[Eugene Onegin (opera)|Eugene Onegin]]'' and ''[[The Queen of Spades (opera)|The Queen of Spades]]'' by [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Pyotr Tchaikovsky]], and ''[[The Snow Maiden]]'' and ''[[Sadko (opera)|Sadko]]'' by [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]]. These developments mirrored the growth of Russian [[nationalism]] across the artistic spectrum, as part of the more general [[Slavophilism]] movement.

In the 20th century the [[tradition]]s of Russian opera were developed by many composers including [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]] in his works ''[[The Miserly Knight]]'' and ''[[Francesca da Rimini (Rachmaninoff)|Francesca da Rimini]]'', [[Igor Stravinsky]] in ''[[The Nightingale (opera)|Le Rossignol]]'', ''[[Mavra]]'', ''[[Oedipus rex (opera)|Oedipus rex]]'', and ''[[The Rake's Progress]]'', [[Sergei Prokofiev]] in ''[[The Gambler (Prokofiev)|The Gambler]]'', ''[[The Love for Three Oranges]]'', ''[[The Fiery Angel (opera)|The Fiery Angel]]'', ''[[Betrothal in a Monastery]]'', and ''[[War and Peace (Prokofiev)|War and Peace]]''; as well as [[Dmitri Shostakovich]] in ''[[The Nose (opera)|The Nose]]'' and ''[[Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (opera)|Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District]]'', [[Edison Denisov]] in ''[[L'écume des jours (opera)|L'écume des jours]]'', and [[Alfred Schnittke]] in ''[[Life with an Idiot]]'' and ''[[Historia von D. Johann Fausten (opera)|Historia von D. Johann Fausten]]''.<ref>Taruskin, Richard: Russia in 'The New Grove Dictionary of Opera', ed. Stanley Sadie (London, 1992); ''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapters 7–9.</ref>

===Other national operas===
Spain also produced its own distinctive form of opera, known as [[zarzuela]], which had two separate flowerings: one from the mid-17th century through the mid-18th century, and another beginning around 1850. During the late 18th century up until the mid-19th century, Italian opera was immensely popular in Spain, supplanting the native form.

Czech composers also developed a thriving national opera movement of their own in the 19th century, starting with [[Bedřich Smetana]], who wrote eight operas including the internationally popular ''[[The Bartered Bride]]''. [[Antonín Dvořák]], most famous for ''[[Rusalka (opera)|Rusalka]]'', wrote 13 operas; and [[Leoš Janáček]] gained international recognition in the 20th century for his innovative works including ''[[Jenůfa]]'', ''[[The Cunning Little Vixen]]'', and ''[[Káťa Kabanová]]''.

The key figure of Hungarian national opera in the 19th century was [[Ferenc Erkel]], whose works mostly dealt with historical themes. Among his most often performed operas are ''[[Hunyadi László (opera)|Hunyadi László]]'' and ''[[Bánk bán]]''. The most famous modern Hungarian opera is [[Béla Bartók]]'s ''[[Duke Bluebeard's Castle]]''.

The best-known composer of [[Polish opera|Polish national opera]] was [[Stanisław Moniuszko]], most celebrated for the opera ''[[The Haunted Manor|Straszny Dwór]]'' (in English ''The Haunted Manor'').<ref>See the chapter on "Russian, Czech, Polish and Hungarian Opera to 1900" by John Tyrrell in ''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'' (1994).</ref> In the 20th century, other operas created by Polish composers included ''[[King Roger]]'' by [[Karol Szymanowski]] and ''Ubu Rex'' by [[Krzysztof Penderecki]].

In 1907 [[Azerbaijan]]i composer [[Uzeyir Hajibeyov]] wrote [[Leyli and Majnun (opera)|Leyli and Majnun]], Azerbaijani, the Caucasian and the Eastern first opera.

===Contemporary, recent, and Modernist trends===
====Modernism====
Perhaps the most obvious stylistic manifestation of modernism in opera is the development of [[atonality]]. The move away from traditional tonality in opera had begun with [[Richard Wagner]], and in particular the [[Tristan chord]]. Composers such as [[Richard Strauss]], [[Claude Debussy]], [[Giacomo Puccini]]{{Citation needed|date=March 2012}}, [[Paul Hindemith]] and [[Hans Pfitzner]] pushed Wagnerian harmony further with a more extreme use of chromaticism and greater use of dissonance.

[[File:Schiele - Bildnis des Komponisten Arnold Schönberg . 1917.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Arnold Schoenberg in 1917. Portrait by [[Egon Schiele]].]]
Operatic modernism truly began in the operas of two Viennese composers, [[Arnold Schoenberg]] and his student [[Alban Berg]], both composers and advocates of atonality and its later development (as worked out by Schoenberg), [[dodecaphony]]. Schoenberg's early musico-dramatic works, ''[[Erwartung]]'' (1909, premiered in 1924) and ''[[Die glückliche Hand]]'' display heavy use of chromatic harmony and dissonance in general. Schoenberg also occasionally used [[Sprechstimme]], which he described as: "The voice rising and falling relative to the indicated intervals, and everything being bound together with the time and rhythm of the music except where a pause is indicated".{{Cite quote|date=June 2009}}

The two operas of Schoenberg's pupil Alban Berg, ''[[Wozzeck]]'' (1925) and ''[[Lulu (opera)|Lulu]]'' (incomplete at his death in 1935) share many of the same characteristics as described above, though Berg combined his highly personal interpretation of Schoenberg's twelve-tone technique with melodic passages of a more traditionally tonal nature (quite Mahlerian in character) which perhaps partially explains why his operas have remained in standard repertory, despite their controversial music and plots. Schoenberg's theories have influenced (either directly or indirectly) significant numbers of opera composers ever since, even if they themselves did not compose using his techniques.
[[File:Igor Stravinsky Essays.jpg|thumb|upright|Stravinsky in 1921.]] Composers thus influenced include the Englishman [[Benjamin Britten]], the German [[Hans Werner Henze]], and the Russian [[Dmitri Shostakovich]]. ([[Philip Glass]] also makes use of atonality, though his style is generally described as [[minimalist music|minimalist]], usually thought of as another 20th century development.)

However, operatic modernism's use of atonality also sparked a backlash in the form of [[Neoclassicism (music)|neoclassicism]]. An early leader of this movement was [[Ferruccio Busoni]], who in 1913 wrote the libretto for his neoclassical [[number opera]] ''[[Arlecchino (opera)|Arlecchino]]'' (first performed in 1917).<ref>Chris Walton, "Neo-classical opera" in [[#Cooke2005|Cooke]], p. 108.</ref> Also among the vanguard was the Russian [[Igor Stravinsky]]. After composing music for the [[Diaghilev]]-produced ballets ''[[Petrushka (ballet)|Petrushka]]'' (1911) and ''[[The Rite of Spring]]'' (1913), Stravinsky turned to neoclassicism, a development culminating in his opera-oratorio ''[[Oedipus rex (opera)|Oedipus Rex]]'' (1927).<ref>Stravinsky had already turned away from the modernist trends of his early ballets to produce small-scale works that do not fully qualify as opera, yet certainly contain many operatic elements, including ''[[Renard (Stravinsky)|Renard]]'' (1916: "a burlesque in song and dance") and ''[[Histoire du soldat|The Soldier's Tale]]'' (1918: "to be read, played, and danced"; in both cases the descriptions and instructions are those of the composer). In the latter, the actors declaim portions of speech to a specified rhythm over instrumental accompaniment, peculiarly similar to the older German genre of ''[[Melodrama]]''.</ref> Well after his Rimsky-Korsakov-inspired works ''[[The Nightingale (opera)|The Nightingale]]'' (1914), and ''[[Mavra]]'' (1922), Stravinsky continued to ignore [[serialism|serialist technique]] and eventually wrote a full-fledged 18th century-style [[diatonic]] number opera ''[[The Rake's Progress]]'' (1951). His resistance to serialism (which ended at the death of Schoenberg) proved to be an inspiration for many other composers.<ref>''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapter 8; ''The Viking Opera Guide'' articles on Schoenberg, Berg and Stravinsky; Malcolm MacDonald ''Schoenberg'' (Dent,1976); Francis Routh, ''Stravinsky'' (Dent, 1975).</ref>

====Other trends====
A common trend throughout the 20th century, in both opera and general orchestral repertoire, is the use of smaller orchestras as a cost-cutting measure; the grand Romantic-era orchestras with huge string sections, multiple harps, extra horns, and exotic percussion instruments were no longer feasible. As government and private patronage of the arts decreased throughout the 20th century, new works were often commissioned and performed with smaller budgets, very often resulting in chamber-sized works, and short, one-act operas. Many of [[Benjamin Britten]]'s operas are scored for as few as 13 instrumentalists; [[Mark Adamo]]'s two-act realization of ''[[Little Women (opera)|Little Women]]'' is scored for 18 instrumentalists.

Another feature of 20th century opera is the emergence of contemporary historical operas, sometimes known as "headline opera" or "CNN opera" for their ripped-from-the-evening-news aspects. ''[[The Death of Klinghoffer]]'', ''[[Nixon in China (opera)|Nixon in China]]'' and ''[[Doctor Atomic]]'' by [[John Adams (composer)|John Adams]], ''[[Dead Man Walking (opera)|Dead Man Walking]]'' by [[Jake Heggie]], and ''[[Anna Nicole]]'' by [[Mark-Anthony Turnage]] exemplify the dramatisation on stage of events in recent living memory, where characters portrayed in the opera were alive at the time of the premiere performance.

Earlier models of opera generally stuck to more distant history, re-telling contemporary fictional stories (reworkings of popular plays), or mythical/legendary stories.<ref>However, something similar happened in French opera during the [[French Revolution|Revolutionary]] era. One example is [[François Joseph Gossec|Gossec's]] ''Le triomphe de la République'' (1793), depicting the French victory at [[Battle of Valmy|Valmy]] the previous year. Such works were obviously intended as propaganda.</ref>

The Metropolitan Opera in the US reports that the average age of its audience is now 60. <ref>http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/met-backtracks-on-drop-in-average-audience-age/</ref> Many opera companies have experienced a similar trend, and opera company websites are replete with attempts to attract a younger audience. This trend is part of the larger trend of greying audiences for [[classical music]] since the last decades of the 20th century.<ref>General reference for this section: ''Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', Chapter 9.</ref> In an effort to attract younger audiences, the Metropolitan Opera offers a student discount on ticket purchases.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metoperafamily.org/metopera/about/education/student.aspx |title=Information about Metropolitan Opera Company student discounts |publisher=Metoperafamily.org |date= |accessdate=2010-11-09}}</ref> Major opera companies have been better able to weather the funding cutbacks, because they can afford to hire star singers which draw substantial audiences.

Smaller companies in the US have a more fragile existence, and they usually depend on a "patchwork quilt" of support from state and local governments, local businesses, and fundraisers. Nevertheless, some smaller companies have found ways of drawing new audiences. Opera Carolina offer discounts and happy hour events to the 21- to 40-year-old demographic.<ref>[http://www.operayoungprofessionals.org/ Opera Carolina discount information]</ref> In addition to radio and television broadcasts of opera performances, which have had some success in gaining new audiences, broadcasts of live performances in HD to movie theatres have shown the potential to reach new audiences. Since 2006, the Met has broadcast live performances to several hundred movie screens all over the world.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.metoperafamily.org/metopera/broadcast/hd_events_alternates.aspx|title = On Air & On Line: 2007–08 HD Season|accessdate = 10 April 2008|year = 2007|publisher = The Metropolitan Opera}}</ref>

In the last 20 years or so, a production style known as [[Eurotrash (opera)|Eurotrash]] has taken root in Europe and, to a smaller, extent, in North America. Eurotrash stagings typically change the opera's time and place, are usually sexually explicit (with an emphasis on what might be considered perversion), and may mix costumes from different eras. Directors [[David Alden]] and his twin brother [[Christopher Alden (director)|Christopher Alden]] have taken credit for pioneering what has come to be called the Eurotrash style.

====From musicals back towards opera====
Also by the late 1930s, some [[musical theatre|musicals]] began to be written with a more operatic structure. These works include complex polyphonic ensembles and reflect musical developments of their times. ''[[Porgy and Bess]]'' (1935), influenced by jazz styles, and ''[[Candide (operetta)|Candide]]'' (1956), with its sweeping, lyrical passages and farcical parodies of opera, both opened on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] but became accepted as part of the opera repertory. ''[[Show Boat]]'', ''[[West Side Story (musical)|West Side Story]]'', ''[[Brigadoon (musical)|Brigadoon]]'', ''[[Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street (musical)|Sweeney Todd]]'', ''[[Evita (musical)|Evita]]'', ''[[The Light in the Piazza (musical)|The Light in the Piazza]]'', ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' and others tell dramatic stories through complex music and are now sometimes seen in opera houses <ref>http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2003/dec/17/classicalmusicandopera1</ref>. Some musicals, beginning with ''[[The Who's Tommy|Tommy]]'' (1969) and ''[[Jesus Christ Superstar]]'' (1971) and continuing through ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' (1980), ''[[Rent (musical)|Rent]]'' (1996) and ''[[Spring Awakening]]'' (2006), use various operatic conventions, such as [[through composition]], recitative instead of dialogue, [[leitmotif]]s and dramatic stories told predominantly through rock, pop, and other types of contemporary music including metal.{{Dubious|date=April 2009}}

===Acoustic enhancement with speakers===
A subtle type of sound electronic reinforcement called [[acoustic enhancement]] is used in some concert halls where operas are performed. Acoustic enhancement systems help give a more even sound in the hall and prevent "dead spots" in the audience seating area by "...augment[ing] a hall's intrinsic acoustic characteristics." The systems use "...an array of microphones connected to a computer [which is] connected to an array of loudspeakers." However, as concertgoers have become aware of the use of these systems, debates have arisen, because some "...purists maintain that the natural acoustic sound of voices/instruments in a given hall should not be altered."<ref>Kai Harada, [http://harada-sound.com/sound/handbook/intro2.html "Why do you need a Sound System?"], harada-sound.com, 2005</ref>

Kai Harada's article "Opera's Dirty Little Secret" states that opera houses began using electronic acoustic enhancement systems in the 1990s "...to compensate for flaws in a venue's acoustical architecture."<ref>Kai Harada, [http://industryclick.com/magazinearticle.asp?releaseid=5643&magazinearticleid=66853&siteid=15&magazineid=138 "Opera's Dirty Little Secret"], ''Entertainment Design'', 1 March 2001</ref> Despite the uproar that has arisen amongst operagoers, Harada points out that none of the major opera houses using acoustic enhancement systems "...use traditional, Broadway-style sound reinforcement, in which most if not all singers are equipped with radio microphones mixed to a series of unsightly loudspeakers scattered throughout the theatre." Instead, most opera houses use the [[sound reinforcement system]] for acoustic enhancement, and for subtle boosting of offstage voices, child singers, onstage dialogue, and sound effects (e.g., church bells in ''[[Tosca]]'' or thunder effects in Wagnerian operas).

==Operatic voices==
Operatic vocal technique evolved, in a time before electronic amplification, to allow singers to produce enough volume to be heard over an orchestra, without the instrumentalists having to substantially compromise their volume.

===Vocal classifications===
Singers and the roles they play are classified by [[voice type]], based on the [[tessitura]], [[vocal weight|agility, power]] and [[timbre]] of their voices. Male singers can be loosely classified by [[vocal range]] as [[bass (voice type)|bass]], [[bass-baritone]], [[baritone]], [[tenor]] and [[countertenor]], and female singers as [[contralto]], [[mezzo-soprano]] and [[soprano]]. (Men sometimes sing in the "female" vocal ranges, in which case they are termed [[sopranist]] or [[countertenor]]. Of these, only the [[countertenor]] is commonly encountered in opera, sometimes singing parts written for [[castrati]] – men neutered at a young age specifically to give them a higher singing range.) Singers are then classified by [[voice type]] – for instance, a soprano can be described as a lyric soprano, [[coloratura]], [[soubrette]], [[spinto]], or dramatic soprano. These terms, although not fully describing a singing voice, associate the singer's voice with the roles most suitable to the singer's vocal characteristics. A particular singer's voice may change drastically over his or her lifetime, rarely reaching vocal maturity until the third decade, and sometimes not until middle age.

===Historical use of voice parts===
:''The following is only intended as a brief overview. For the main articles, see [[soprano]], [[mezzo-soprano]], [[alto]], [[tenor]], [[baritone]], [[bass (voice type)|bass]], [[countertenor]] and [[castrato]]''.

The soprano voice has typically been used as the voice of choice for the female protagonist of the opera since the latter half of the 18th century. Earlier, it was common for that part to be sung by any female voice, or even a [[castrato]]. The current emphasis on a wide vocal range was primarily an invention of the [[Classical period (music)|Classical period]]. Before that, the vocal virtuosity, not range, was the priority, with soprano parts rarely extending above a high [[A (musical note)|A]] ([[George Frideric Handel|Handel]], for example, only wrote one role extending to a high [[C (musical note)|C]]), though the castrato [[Farinelli]] was alleged to possess a top [[D (musical note)|D]] (his lower range was also extraordinary, extending to tenor C). The mezzo-soprano, a term of comparatively recent origin, also has a large repertoire, ranging from the female lead in Purcell's ''Dido and Aeneas'' to such heavyweight roles as Brangäne in Wagner's ''Tristan und Isolde'' (these are both roles sometimes sung by sopranos; there is quite a lot of movement between these two voice-types). For the true contralto, the range of parts is more limited, which has given rise to the insider joke that contraltos only sing "witches, bitches, and [[breeches role|britches]]" roles. In recent years many of the "trouser roles" from the Baroque era, originally written for women, and those originally sung by castrati, have been reassigned to countertenors.

The tenor voice, from the Classical era onwards, has traditionally been assigned the role of male protagonist. Many of the most challenging tenor roles in the repertory were written during the ''bel canto'' era, such as [[Donizetti]]'s sequence of 9 Cs above middle C during ''[[La fille du régiment]]''. With Wagner came an emphasis on vocal heft for his protagonist roles, with this vocal category described as ''Heldentenor''; this heroic voice had its more Italianate counterpart in such roles as Calaf in Puccini's ''Turandot''. Basses have a long history in opera, having been used in ''opera seria'' in supporting roles, and sometimes for comic relief (as well as providing a contrast to the preponderance of high voices in this genre). The bass repertoire is wide and varied, stretching from the comedy of Leporello in ''[[Don Giovanni]]'' to the nobility of Wotan in [[Der Ring des Nibelungen|Wagner's ''Ring Cycle'']]. In between the bass and the tenor is the baritone, which also varies in weight from say, Guglielmo in Mozart's ''Così fan tutte'' to Posa in Verdi's ''Don Carlos''; the actual designation "baritone" was not used until the mid-19th century.

===Famous singers===
[[File:Senesino portrait edited.jpg|thumb|upright|The castrato [[Senesino]], c. 1720]]
Early performances of opera were too infrequent for singers to make a living exclusively from the style, but with the birth of commercial opera in the mid-17th century, professional performers began to emerge. The role of the male hero was usually entrusted to a [[castrato]], and by the 18th century, when Italian opera was performed throughout Europe, leading castrati who possessed extraordinary vocal virtuosity, such as [[Senesino]] and [[Farinelli]], became international stars. The career of the first major female star (or [[prima donna]]), [[Anna Renzi]], dates to the mid-17th century. In the 18th century, a number of Italian sopranos gained international renown and often engaged in fierce rivalry, as was the case with [[Faustina Bordoni]] and [[Francesca Cuzzoni]], who started a fist fight with one another during a performance of a Handel opera. The French disliked castrati, preferring their male heroes to be sung by a [[haute-contre]] (a high tenor), of which [[Joseph Legros]] was a leading example.<ref>''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'' (ed. Parker, 1994), Chapter 11</ref>


Though opera patronage has decreased in the last century in favor of other arts and media (such as musicals, cinema, radio, television and recordings), mass media and the advent of recording have supported the popularity of many famous singers including [[Maria Callas]], [[Enrico Caruso]], [[Kirsten Flagstad]], [[Mario Del Monaco]], [[Risë Stevens]], [[Alfredo Kraus]], [[Franco Corelli]], [[Montserrat Caballé]], [[Joan Sutherland]], [[Birgit Nilsson]], [[Nellie Melba]], [[Rosa Ponselle]], [[Beniamino Gigli]], [[Jussi Björling]], [[Feodor Chaliapin]], and "[[The Three Tenors]]" ([[Luciano Pavarotti]], [[Plácido Domingo]], and [[José Carreras]]).

==Funding of opera==
Outside the US, and especially in Europe, most opera houses receive public subsidies from taxpayers.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/displaystory.cfm?story_id=E1_SPJPNP "Special report: Private money for the arts,"] ''The Economist'', 6 August 2001</ref>

For example, in Milan, Italy, 60% of La Scala's annual budget of €115 million is from sales and private donations, with the remaining 40% coming from public funds.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/stage/opera/article7136329.ece | location=London | work=The Times | title=Is it curtains for Italys opera houses | first=Richard | last=Owen | date=26 May 2010}}</ref>
In 2005, La Scala received 25% of Italy's total state subsidy of €464 million for the performing arts.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4381128.stm | work=BBC News | title=Italy facing opera funding crisis | date=27 October 2005 | first=David | last=Willey}}</ref>

==Cinema and internet==
Major opera companies have begun presenting their performances in local cinemas throughout the United States and many other countries. The [[Metropolitan Opera]] began a [[Metropolitan Opera Live in HD|series]] of live [[high-definition video]] transmissions to cinemas around the world in 2006.<ref>[http://www.metopera.org/hdlive Metropolitan Opera] high-definition live broadcast page</ref> In 2007, Met performances were shown in over 424 theaters in 350 U.S. cities. ''[[La bohème]]'' went out to 671 screens worldwide. [[San Francisco Opera]] began prerecorded video transmissions in March 2008. As of June 2008, approximately 125 theaters in 117 U.S. cities carry the showings. The HD video opera transmissions are presented via the same [[Digital cinema|HD digital cinema projectors]] used for major [[Hollywood]] films.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thebiggerpicture.us/opera |title=The Bigger Picture |publisher=Thebiggerpicture.us |date= |accessdate=2010-11-09}}</ref> European opera houses and [[List of opera festivals|festivals]] including the [[Royal Opera, London|Royal Opera]] in London, [[La Scala]] in Milan, the [[Salzburg Festival]], [[La Fenice]] in Venice, and the [[Maggio Musicale Fiorentino|Maggio Musicale]] in Florence have also transmitted their productions to theaters in cities around the world since 2006, including 90 cities in the U.S.<ref>[http://opera.emergingpictures.com Emerging Pictures]</ref><ref>"Where to See Opera at the Movies" sidebar p. W10 in June 21–22, 2008 ''The Wall Street Journal''.</ref>

The emergence of the Internet is also affecting the way in which audiences consume opera. In a first for the genre, in 2009 the British [[Glyndebourne Festival Opera]] company offered an online digital video download of its complete 2007 production of Wagner’s ''[[Tristan und Isolde]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.glyndebourne.com/operas/tristan_und_isolde/download |title=Tristan und Isolde – Download Tristan und Isolde |publisher=Glyndebourne |date=2007-08-06 |accessdate=2010-11-09}}</ref>

==See also==
* {{Portal-inline|Opera}}
{{Navbox opera topics}}
{{Navbox performing arts}}

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

;Main sources
* <cite id=Apel1969>Apel, Willi, ed. (1969). ''Harvard Dictionary of Music'', Second Edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. SBN 674375017.</cite>

* <cite id=Cooke2005>Cooke, Mervyn (2005). ''The Cambridge Companion to Twentieth-Century Opera.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-78009-8.</cite> See also Google Books [http://books.google.com/books?id=fovWU9Prkj0C&lpg=PA110&ots=gIao4R-VZr&dq=Number%20opera&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q=Number%20opera&f=false partial preview]. Accessed 3 October 2009.

*Silke Leopold, "The Idea of National Opera, c. 1800", ''United and Diversity in European Culture c. 1800'', ed. [[T. C. W. Blanning|Tim Blanning]] and [[Hagen Schulze]] (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 19–34.
*The ''[[New Grove Dictionary of Opera]]'', edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] (1992), 5,448 pages, is the best, and by far the largest, general reference in the English language. ISBN 0-333-73432-7 and ISBN 1-56159-228-5
*''The Viking Opera Guide'', edited by [[Amanda Holden (writer)|Amanda Holden]] (1994), 1,328 pages, ISBN 0-670-81292-7
*''The Oxford Illustrated History of Opera'', ed. Roger Parker (1994)
*''The Oxford Dictionary of Opera'', by [[John Warrack]] and Ewan West (1992), 782 pages, ISBN 0-19-869164-5
*''Opera, the Rough Guide'', by Matthew Boyden et al. (1997), 672 pages, ISBN 1-85828-138-5
*''Opera: A Concise History'', by Leslie Orrey and [[Rodney Milnes]], World of Art, Thames & Hudson

;Other sources
*[[John Louis DiGaetani|DiGaetani, John Louis]]: ''An Invitation to the Opera'', Anchor Books, 1986/91. ISBN 0-385-26339-2.
*MacMurray, Jessica M. and Allison Brewster Franzetti: ''The Book of 101 Opera Librettos: Complete Original Language Texts with English Translations'', Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, 1996. ISBN 978-1-884822-79-7
*Simon, Henry W.: ''A Treasury of Grand Opera'', Simon and Schuster, New York, 1946.

==External links==
{{Sister project links|Opera}}
*[http://operabase.com Operabase – Comprehensive opera performances database]
*[http://www.stageagent.com/browse/showtype/opera StageAgent – synopses & character descriptions for most major operas]
*[http://www.opera-opera.com.au/plotind.htm What's it about? – Opera plot summaries]
*[http://operamusique.googlepages.com/ Vocabulaire de l'Opéra] {{Fr icon}}
*[http://opera.stanford.edu/main.html OperaGlass, a resource at Stanford University]
*[http://www.historicopera.com HistoricOpera – historic operatic images]
*[http://www.american.com/archive/2007/july-august-magazine-contents/america2019s-opera-boom "America’s Opera Boom"] By Jonathan Leaf, ''[[The American (magazine)|The American]]'', July/August 2007 Issue
*[http://www.opera-opera.com.au/archives.htm Opera~Opera article archives]
*{{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/o/opera/
|title= A History of Opera
|work=Theatre and Performance
|accessdate= 15 February 2011}}

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Bernard Williams

2012-03-30T07:52:28Z

Rigaudon: /* Opera */ Removed inaccurate claim

{{Other people}}
{{Infobox philosopher

|region = [[Western philosophy]]
|era = [[20th-century philosophy]]
|color = #B0C4DE
|image = BernardWilliams.jpg
|image_size = 200px
|caption =
|alt = Half-length portrait of a man in his fifties with dark hair and a serious expression. He wears a dark sportcoat, light shirt, and dark tie, and his right arm is slung over the back of the sofa he is sitting on.
|name = Bernard Williams
|birth_date = {{birth date|1929|09|21|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Westcliff-on-Sea]], Essex
|death_date = {{death date and age|2003|06|10|1929|09|21|df=y}}
|death_place = Rome
|school_tradition = [[Analytic philosophy]]
|main_interests = [[Moral philosophy]] [[Personal identity (philosophy)|Personal identity]]
|notable_ideas = [[Internalism and externalism#Reasons|Internal v. external reasons for action]]
|influences = [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]{{·}} [[R. M. Hare]]{{·}} [[Philippa Foot]]{{·}} [[John Stuart Mill]]{{·}}[[Isaiah Berlin]]
|influenced = [[Jennifer Hornsby]]{{·}} [[Martha Nussbaum]]{{·}} [[Peter Goldie]]{{·}} [[Myles Burnyeat]]{{·}} [[Susan Wolf]]
}}
{{Portal|Philosophy}}
'''Sir Bernard Arthur Owen Williams''' (21 September 1929 – 10 June 2003) was an English [[Ethics|moral philosopher]], described by ''The Times'' as the most brilliant and most important British moral philosopher of his time.<ref name=Times1>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article1141892.ece "Professor Sir Bernard Williams"], ''The Times'', 14 June 2003.</ref> His publications include ''Problems of the Self'' (1973), ''Moral Luck'' (1981), ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'' (1985), and ''Truth and Truthfulness'' (2002). He was knighted in 1999.

As [[Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy]] at the [[University of Cambridge]] and Deutsch Professor of Philosophy at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], Williams became known internationally for his attempt to reorient the study of moral philosophy to history and culture, politics and psychology, and in particular to the Greeks.<ref name=Telegraph1>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1432917/Professor-Sir-Bernard-Williams.html Professor Sir Bernard Williams] ''The Daily Telegraph'', 14 June 2003.</ref> Described as an analytic philosopher with the soul of a humanist, he saw himself as a synthesist, drawing together ideas from fields that seemed increasingly unable to communicate with one another.<ref name=NYbooks1>McGinn, Colin, [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/article-preview?article_id=16188 "Isn't It the Truth?"] ''The New York Review of Books'', 10 April 2003.</ref> He rejected [[scientism]], and scientific or evolutionary [[reductionism]], calling "morally unimaginative" reductionists "the people I really do dislike." For Williams, complexity was irreducible, beautiful, and meaningful.<ref name=Baker>Baker, Kenneth. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/09/22/RV77987.DTL Bernard Williams: Carrying the torch for truth], ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 22 September 2002.</ref>

He became known as a supporter of women in academia, seeing in women the possibility of a synthesis of reason and emotion that he felt eluded analytic philosophy. The American philosopher [[Martha Nussbaum]] said he was "as close to being a feminist as a powerful man of his generation could be."<ref name=Nussbaum>Nussbaum, Martha. [http://www.bostonreview.net/BR28.5/nussbaum.html "Tragedy and Justice"], ''Boston Review'', October/November 2003.</ref> He was also famously sharp in conversation. Oxford philosopher [[Gilbert Ryle]] once said of him that he "understands what you're going to say better than you understand it yourself, and sees all the possible objections to it, all the possible answers to all the possible objections, before you've got to the end of your sentence."<ref name=Jeffries>Jeffries, Stuart. [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,850062,00.html "The Quest for Truth"] ''The Guardian'', 30 November 2002.</ref>

==Life==
===Early life and education===
Williams was born in [[Westcliff-on-Sea]], Essex, the only son of a civil servant. He was educated at [[Chigwell School]], and read [[Literae Humaniores|Greats]] (Classics) at [[Balliol College, Oxford]], graduating in 1951 with a congratulatory [[first-class honours]] degree,<ref name=Times1/> before spending his year-long [[national service]] in the [[Royal Air Force]] flying [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]]s in Canada.<ref name=Jeffries/> While on leave in New York, he met his future wife, [[Shirley Williams|Shirley Brittain-Catlin]]—daughter of political scientist [[George Catlin (political scientist)|George Catlin]] and novelist [[Vera Brittain]]—who was studying at Columbia University. At the age of 22, after winning a prize fellowship at [[All Souls College, Oxford]] in 1951, Williams returned to England with Shirley to take up the post. They were married in 1955.<ref name=Jeffries/>

===Career===
[[File:Shirley Williams at Birmingham 2010.jpg|right|thumb|180px|alt=A middle-aged, white-haired woman with a dark pullover with flower pattern speaking from a podium.|Williams left Oxford to accommodate the political ambitions of his wife, [[Shirley Williams]].]]
Williams left Oxford to accommodate his wife's rising political ambitions, finding a post first at [[University College London]], where he worked from 1959 until 1964. He was later appointed Professor of Philosophy at [[University of London|Bedford College]], while his wife worked as a journalist for the ''Financial Times''. For 17 years, the couple lived in a large house in Kensington with the literary agent Hilary Rubinstein and his wife. During this time, described by Williams as one of the happiest of his life, the marriage produced a daughter, Rebecca, but the development of his wife's political career kept the couple apart, and the marked difference in their personal values—Williams was a confirmed [[Atheism|atheist]], his wife a devout [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]]—placed a strain on their relationship, which reached breaking point when Williams had an affair with Patricia Law Skinner, then wife of the historian [[Quentin Skinner]]. Williams and Skinner subsequently married and had two sons.<ref name=Jeffries/> Shirley Williams said of her marriage to Williams:

<blockquote>... [T]here was something of a strain that comes from two things. One is that we were both too caught up in what we were respectively doing—we didn't spend all that much time together; the other, to be completely honest, is that I'm fairly judgemental and I found Bernard's capacity for pretty sharp putting-down of people he thought were stupid unacceptable. Patricia has been cleverer than me in that respect. She just rides it. He can be very painful sometimes. He can eviscerate somebody. Those who are left behind are, as it were, dead personalities. Judge not that ye be not judged. I was influenced by Christian thinking, and he would say "That's frightfully pompous and it's not really the point." So we had a certain jarring over that and over Catholicism.<ref name=Jeffries/></blockquote>

[[File:KingsCollegeChapelWest.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Williams spent nearly 20 years at Cambridge, eight of them as Provost of [[King's College, Cambridge|King's]].|alt=Chapel in late Gothic style with a large window between two spires about eight stories tall, behind water and a green. Four people are punting on the water; the punter stands at the back of the boat and holds a long pole. On either side of the chapel are relatively nondescript three-story buildings.]]
Williams conceded that he could be tough. "I like to think that this is usually when I'm confronted with self-satisfaction. In philosophy the thing that irritates me is smugness, particularly scientistic smugness."<ref name=Jeffries/> He was appointed Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy at Cambridge in 1967, vacating the chair to serve as Provost of King's College from 1979 until 1987.<ref name=Times1/> He left England in 1988 to become Deutsch Professor of Philosophy at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], citing the relative prosperity of American academic life, and the so-called "[[brain drain]]" from England of academics moving to the U.S. He told a British newspaper at the time that he could barely afford to buy a house in central London on his salary as an academic. He told ''The Guardian'' in November 2002 that he regretted his departure becoming so public: "I was persuaded that there was a real problem about academic conditions and that if my departure was publicized this would bring these matters to public attention. It did a bit, but it made me seem narky." Bemoaning the challenge of cross-cultural adjustment, he observed "it's harder to live out there with a family than I supposed."<ref name=Jeffries/>

He held several positions at Berkeley (1986–2003) where he was Mills Professor (1986–1988), Sather Classics Lecturer and Sather Professor (1988–1989),<ref>[http://classics.berkeley.edu/people/sathersList.php A List of Sather Professors], University of California, Berkeley, accessed June 14, 2009.</ref> and Monroe Deutsch Professor of Philosophy (1988–2003),<ref name=Cal>[http://www.universityofcalifornia.edu/senate/inmemoriam/bernardaowilliams.htm Bernard A. O. Williams], University of California, accessed June 14, 2009.</ref> and also served, at the same time, as White's Professor of Moral Philosophy at Oxford (1990–1996), eventually becoming a Fellow of All Souls College again in 1997.<ref name=Jeffries/>

===Royal commissions===
Williams served on a number of [[royal commission]]s and government committees. He chaired the [[Committee on Obscenity and Film Censorship]], which reported in 1979 that: "Given the amount of explicit sexual material in circulation and the allegations often made about its effects, it is striking that one can find case after case of sex crimes and murder without any hint at all that pornography was present in the background."<ref name=Telegraph1/> The Committee's report was evidently influenced by the liberal thinking of [[John Stuart Mill]], a philosopher greatly admired by Williams, who used Mill's principle of liberty to develop what he called the "harm condition," whereby "no conduct should be suppressed by law unless it can be shown to harm someone." Williams concluded that pornography could not be shown to be harmful, and that "the role of pornography in influencing society is not very important ... to think anything else is to get the problem of pornography out of proportion with the many other problems that face our society today." The committee reported that, so long as children were protected from seeing it, adults should be free to read and watch pornography as they see fit. Margaret Thatcher's first administration put an end to the liberal agenda on sex, and nearly put an end to Williams's political career too; he was not asked to chair another public committee for almost 15 years.<ref name=Jeffries/> Apart from pornography, he also sat on commissions examining the role of British private schools in 1965–70, drug abuse in 1971, gambling in 1976–78, and social justice in 1993–94. "I did all the major vices," he said.<ref name=Times1/>

===Opera===
Williams was interested in opera from the age of 15, and served on the board of the [[English National Opera]] for 20 years.<ref name=Baker/> A collection of his essays, ''On Opera'', was published in 2006, edited by his widow, Patricia.<ref>Fodor, Jerry. [http://www.the-tls.co.uk/tls/reviews/arts_and_commentary/article727717.ece "Life in tune"], ''The Times Literary Supplement'', January 17, 2007.{{Subscription required}}</ref>

===Honours and death===
Williams was knighted in 1999. He became a fellow of the [[British Academy]] and an honorary member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]].<ref name=Cal/> He was awarded the honorary degree of [[Doctor of Letters]] (Litt.D.) by the University of Cambridge in 2002. He died on 10 June 2003 while on holiday in Rome. He had been suffering from [[multiple myeloma]], a form of cancer. He was survived by his wife, Patricia, their two sons, and a daughter from his first marriage.<ref name=Times1/>

==Work==
===Approach to moral philosophy===
[[File:Nietzsche1882.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Friedrich Nietzsche]], 1844–1900. Williams said he wished he could quote him every twenty minutes.<ref name=OGrady/>|alt=Half-length side portrait of a man in his forties whose chin rests on his right hand. He has a bristling moustache, a prominent nose, and a piercing gaze.]]
In ''Morality: An Introduction to Ethics'' (1972), he wrote that "whereas most moral philosophy at most times has been empty and boring... contemporary moral philosophy has found an original way of being boring, which is by not discussing issues at all." The study of morality, he argued, should be vital and compelling. He wanted to find a moral philosophy that was accountable to psychology, history, politics, and culture. In his rejection of morality as what he called "a peculiar institution," by which he meant a discrete and separable domain of human thought, some people have seen a resemblance to the 19th-century German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Despite at first seeing Nietzsche as a crude reductionist, Williams came to admire him, once remarking that he wished he could quote him every twenty minutes.<ref name=OGrady/>

Although Williams's disdain for reductionism could make him appear a [[Moral relativism|moral relativist]], he argued in ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'' that moral concepts could be "[[Thick concept|thick]]" or "thin". The former—such as courageous or cruel—are about real features of the world, and disputes about them can be resolved objectively.<ref name=OGrady/>

===Critique of utilitarianism===

{{See|Utilitarianism|Act utilitarianism|Rule utilitarianism|Preference utilitarianism|Deontological ethics}}
Williams was particularly critical of utilitarianism, a [[Consequentialism|consequentialist]] position, the simplest version of which is that actions are good only insofar as they promote the greatest happiness of the greatest number.

One of his best-known arguments against utilitarianism centres on Jim, a botanist doing research in a South American country led by a brutal dictator. One day Jim finds himself in the central square of a small town facing 20 Indians who have been randomly captured and tied up as examples of what will happen to rebels. The captain who has arrested the Indians says that if Jim will kill one of them, the others will be released in honour of Jim's status as a guest, but if he does not, all the Indians will be killed.<ref name=Williams1973>Smart, J.J.C. and Williams, Bernard. ''Utilitarianism: For and Against''. Cambridge University Press, 1973, p. 98 ff.</ref> For most consequentialist theories, there is no moral dilemma in a case like this; all that matters is the outcome. ''Simple act utilitarianism'' would therefore favour Jim killing one of the men. Against this, Williams argued that there is a crucial moral distinction between a person being killed by me, and being killed by someone else because of an act or omission of mine. The utilitarian loses that vital distinction, turning us into empty vessels by means of which consequences occur, rather than preserving our status as moral actors and decision-makers. He argued that moral decisions must preserve our psychological identity and integrity.<ref name=Williams1973/>

We do not, in fact, judge actions by their consequences, he argued. To solve parking problems in London, a utilitarian would have to favour threatening to shoot people who parked illegally. If only a few people were shot for this, illegal parking would soon stop; thus the utilitarian calculus could justify the shootings by the happiness the absence of parking problems would bring. Any theory with this as a consequence, Williams argued, should be rejected out of hand, no matter how plausible it feels to argue that we do judge actions by their consequences. In an effort to save the utilitarian account, a rule utilitarian — a version of utilitarianism that promotes not the act, but the rule that tends to lead to the greatest happiness of the greatest number — would ask what rule could be extrapolated from the parking example. If the rule were: "Anyone might be shot over a simple parking offence," the utilitarian would argue that its implementation would bring great unhappiness. For Williams, this argument simply proved his point. We do not need to calculate why threatening to shoot people over parking offences is wrong, he argued, and any system that shows us how to make the calculation is one we should reject. Indeed, we should reject any system that reduces moral decision-making to a few algorithms, because any systematization or reductionism will inevitably distort its complexity.<ref name=Chappell>Chappell, Timothy. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/williams-bernard/ Bernard Williams], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, February 1, 2006.
*Also see Williams, Bernard.''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, 1985, p. 117.</ref>

Williams also coined the term "Government House utilitarianism" as a critique of any system of practical ethics (such as that suggested by [[Henry Sidgwick]]) which kept as distinct those who theorised about the best action in any given circumstance, and those who "unreflectively deployed" their results on a day to day basis.<ref>Williams, Bernard.''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, 1985, chapter 6.</ref>

===Critique of Kantianism===
[[File:Immanuel Kant (painted portrait).jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Immanuel Kant]], 1724–1804. Williams rejected Kant's moral philosophy, arguing that moral principles should not require me to act as though I am someone else.|alt=Head of a man viewed from his upper left so that his brightly lit left forehead, receding hairline, and sharp nose dominate the image. He looks downward with a serious expression. He wears a modestly sized 18th-century-style wig and something small and white at his throat; the rest of his clothing is so black that it merges into the black background.]]
One of the main alternatives to utilitarian theory is the moral philosophy of the 18th-century German philosopher [[Immanuel Kant]]. Williams's work throughout the 1970s and 1980s outlined the basis of his attacks on the twin pillars of utilitarianism and Kantianism.<ref>''Morality: An Introduction to Ethics'' (1972); ''Problems of the Self'' (1973); ''Utilitarianism: For and Against'' with J.J.C. Smart (1973); ''Moral Luck'' (1981); and ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'' (1985).</ref> Martha Nussbaum wrote that his work "denounced the trivial and evasive way in which moral philosophy was being practised in England under the aegis of those two dominant theories".<ref name=Nussbaum/>

Kant's ''[[Critique of Practical Reason]]'' and ''[[Groundwork for the Metaphysic of Morals]]'' expounded a moral system based on what he called the [[categorical imperative]], the best known version of which is: "Act as if the maxim of your action were to become, by an act of [[will (philosophy)|will]], a universal law of nature." This is a binding law, Kant argued, on any rational being with [[free will]]. Williams argued against the categorical imperative in his paper "Persons, character and morality". Morality should not require us to act selflessly, as though we are not who we are in the circumstances in which we presently find ourselves. We should not have to take an impartial view of the world, he argued. Our values, commitments, and desires do make a difference to how we see the world and how we act; and so they should, he said, otherwise we lose our individuality, and thereby our humanity.<ref>Williams, Bernard. ''Moral Luck''. Cambridge University Press, 1981.</ref>

===Reasons for action===
{{See|Internalism and externalism#Moral philosophy}}
Williams's insistence that morality is about people and their real lives, and that acting out of rational [[Rational egoism|self-interest]] and even selfishness are not contrary to moral action, is illustrated in his "internal reasons for action" argument, part of what philosophers call the "internal/external reasons" debate. Philosophers have tried to argue that moral agents can have "external reasons" for performing a moral act; that is, they are able to act for reasons external to their inner mental states. Williams argued that this is meaningless. For something to be a "reason to act," it must be "magnetic"; that is, it must move people to action. But how can something entirely external to us—for example, the proposition that X is good—be "magnetic"? By what process can something external to us move us to act? Williams argued that it cannot. [[Cognition]] is not magnetic. Knowing and feeling are quite separate, he wrote, and a person must ''feel'' before they are moved to act. He argued that reasons for action are always internal, whether based on a desire to act in accordance with upbringing, peer pressure, or similar, and they always boil down to desire.<ref>Williams, Bernard. "Internal Reasons and the Obscurity of Blame", 1989, reprinted in ''Making Sense of Humanity, and other philosophical papers''. Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 35–45.
*Also see Williams, Bernard. "Replies", in Altham, J.E.J & Harrison, Ross (eds.), ''World, Mind and Ethics: Essays on the Ethical Philosophy of Bernard Williams''. Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 185–224.
*And Williams, Bernard. "Postscript: Some Further Notes on Internal and External Reasons", in Millgram E. (ed.) ''Varieties of Practical Reasoning''. MIT Press, 2001, pp. 91–97.</ref>

===Truth===
In his final completed book, ''Truth And Truthfulness: An Essay In Genealogy'' (2002), Williams identifies the two basic values of truth as accuracy and sincerity, and tries to address the gulf between the demand for truth, and the doubt that any such thing exists. The debt to Nietzsche is clear, most obviously in the adoption of a [[genealogy (philosophy)|genealogical method]] as a tool of explanation and critique. Although part of his intention was to attack those he felt denied the value of truth, the book cautions that, to understand it simply in that sense, would be to miss part of its purpose; rather, as Kenneth Baker wrote, it is "Williams' reflection on the moral cost of the intellectual vogue for dispensing with the concept of truth."<ref name=Baker/> ''The Guardian'' wrote in its obituary of Williams that the book is an examination of those who "sneer at any purported truth as ludicrously naive because it is, inevitably, distorted by power, class bias and ideology".<ref name=OGrady>O'Grady, Jane. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2003/jun/13/guardianobituaries.obituaries Professor Sir Bernard Williams] ''The Guardian'', 13 June 2003.</ref>

===Legacy===
Williams did not propose any systematic philosophical theory; indeed, he was suspicious of any such attempt. Alan Thomas writes that his contribution to ethics was an overarching [[scepticism]] about attempts to create a foundation to moral philosophy, explicitly articulated in ''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy'' (1985) and ''Shame and Necessity'' (1993), where he argued that moral theories can never reflect the complexities of life, particularly given the radical pluralism of modern societies.<ref>Thomas, Alan. "Williams, Bernard" in Audi, Robert. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy'', Cambridge University Press, 1999.</ref> [[Jonathan Lear]] writes that Williams wanted to understand human beings as part of the natural world, and that the fundamental starting point of moral reflection had to be the individual perspective, the internal reasons for action. To try to transcend one's point of view, Williams argued, leads only to self-deception.<ref>Lear, Jonathan. [http://home.uchicago.edu/~jlear/docs/Psychoanalysis%20and%20the%20Idea%20of%20a%20Moral%20Psychology.pdf Psychoanalysis and the Idea of a Moral Psychology], ''Inquiry'' 47: 515–522.</ref>

In a [[secular humanism|secular humanist]] tradition, with no appeal to the external moral authority of a god, his ideas strike at the foundation of conventional morality, namely that one sometimes does good even if one does not want to, and can be blamed for a failure to do so. Timothy Chappell writes that, without external reasons for action, it becomes impossible to argue that the same set of moral reasons applies to all agents equally, because an agent's reasons can always be relativised to their particular lives, their internal reasons.<ref name=Chappell/> In cases where someone has no internal reason to do what others see as the right thing, they cannot be blamed for failing to do it, because internal reasons are the only reasons, and blame, Williams wrote, "involves treating the person who is blamed like someone who had a reason to do the right thing but did not do it."<ref>Williams, Bernard. "Internal Reasons and the Obscurity of Blame", 1989, reprinted in ''Making Sense of Humanity, and other philosophical papers''. Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 42.</ref> Chappell writes that learning to be yourself, to be authentic and to act with integrity, rather than conforming to any external moral system, is arguably the fundamental motif of Williams's work.<ref name=Chappell/> "If there's one theme in all my work it's about authenticity and self-expression," Williams said in 2002. "It's the idea that some things are in some real sense really you, or express what you and others aren't ... The whole thing has been about spelling out the notion of inner necessity."<ref name=Jeffries/> He moved moral philosophy away from the Kantian question, "What is my duty?" and back to the issue that mattered to the Greeks: "How should we live?"<ref name=Nussbaum/>

==Publications==
{{Refbegin|2}}
;Books
*''Morality: An Introduction to Ethics''. Cambridge University Press, 1972.
*''Problems of the Self''. Cambridge University Press, 1973.
*(with J. J. C. Smart) ''Utilitarianism: For and Against''. Cambridge University Press, 1973.
*''Descartes: The Project of Pure Inquiry''. Harvester Press, 1978.
*''Moral Luck''. Cambridge University Press, 1981.
*''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, 1985.
*''Shame and Necessity''. University of California Press, 1993.
*''Making Sense of Humanity''. Cambridge University Press, 1995.
* ''The Great Philosophers: Plato''. London: Routledge, 1998.
*''Truth and Truthfulness: An Essay in Genealogy''. Princeton University Press, 2002.

;Papers
*"Pagan Justice and Christian Love", ''Apeiron'' 26.3–4, 1993, pp. 195–207.
*"Cratylus's Theory of Names and Its Refutation", in ''Language'', ed. Stephen Everson, Cambridge University Press, 1994.
*"The Actus Reus of Dr. Caligari", ''Pennsylvania Law Review'' 142, May 1994.
*"Descartes and the Historiography of Philosophy", in ''Reason, Will and Sensation: Studies in Descartes's Metaphysics'', ed. John Cottingham, Oxford University Press, 1994.
*"Acting as the Virtuous Person Acts", in ''Aristotle and Moral Realism'', ed. Robert Heinaman, Westview Press, 1995.
*"Ethics", in ''Philosophy: A Guide Through the Subject'', ed. A. C. Grayling, Oxford University Press, 1995.
*"Identity and Identities", in ''Identity: Essays Based on Herbert Spencer Lectures Given in the University of Oxford'', ed. Henry Harris, Oxford University Press, 1995.
*"Truth in Ethics", ''Ratio'' 8.3, 1995, pp. 227–42.
*"Contemporary Philosophy: A Second Look", in ''The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy''. N. F. Bunnin (ed.), Blackwell, 1996.
*"History, Morality, and the Test of Reflection", in ''The Sources of Normativity''. Onora O'Neill (ed.), Cambridge University Press, 1996.
*"Reasons, Values and the Theory of Persuasion", in ''Ethics, Rationality and Economic Behavior'', ed. Francesco Farina, Frank Hahn and Stafano Vannucci, Oxford University Press, 1996.
*"The Politics of Trust", in ''The Geography of Identity'', ed. Patricia Yeager, University of Michigan Press, 1996.
*"The Women of Trachis: Fictions, Pessimism, Ethics", in ''The Greeks and Us'', R. B. Louden and P. Schollmeier (eds.), Chicago University Press, 1996.
*"Toleration: An Impossible Virtue?" in ''Toleration: An Exclusive Virtue'', ed. David Heyd, Princeton University Press, 1996.
*"Truth, Politics and Self-Deception", ''Social Research'' 63.3 (Fall 1996).
*"Moral Responsibility and Political Freedom", ''Cambridge Law Journal'' 56, 1997.
*"Stoic Philosophy and the Emotions: Reply to Richard Sorabji", in ''Aristotle and After'', R. Sorabji (ed.), ''Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies'' Supplement 68, 1997.
*"Tolerating the Intolerable", in ''The Politics of Toleration''. ed. Susan Mendus, Edinburgh University Press, 1999.
*"Philosophy As a Humanistic Discipline", ''Philosophy'' 75, October 2000, pp. 477–496.
*"Understanding Homer: Literature, History and Ideal Anthropology", in ''Being Humans: Anthropological Universality and Particularity in Transdisciplinary Perspectives''. Neil Roughley, ed. de Gruyter, 2000.

;Posthumously published
*''In the Beginning Was the Deed: Realism and Moralism in Political Argument'', ed. Geoffrey Hawthorn, Princeton University Press, 2005.
*''Philosophy As A Humanistic Discipline'', ed. A. W. Moore, Princeton University Press, 2006.
*''The Sense Of The Past: Essays In The Philosophy Of History'', ed. Myles Burnyeat, Princeton University Press, 2006.
*''On Opera'', Yale University Press, 2006.

{{Refend}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|2}}
*Baker, Kenneth. [http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/chronicle/archive/2002/09/22/RV77987.DTL Bernard Williams: Carrying the torch for truth] An interview with Bernard Williams, ''San Francisco Chronicle'', 22 September 2002.
*Chappell, Timothy. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/williams-bernard/ Bernard Williams], Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, February 1, 2006.
*Fodor Jerry. [http://tls.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,25342-2552013,00.html Life in tune], ''The Times Literary Supplement'', January 17, 2007.
*Jeffries, Stuart). [http://books.guardian.co.uk/review/story/0,12084,850062,00.html The Quest for Truth] ''The Guardian'', 30 November 2002.
*[[Jonathan Lear|Lear, Jonathan]]. [http://home.uchicago.edu/~jlear/docs/Psychoanalysis%20and%20the%20Idea%20of%20a%20Moral%20Psychology.pdf Psychoanalysis and the Idea of a Moral Psychology], ''Inquiry'' 47, 2002, pp. 515–522.
*McGinn, Colin. [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/article-preview?article_id=16188 Isn't It the Truth?] ''The New York Review of Books'', 10 April 2003.
*Nussbaum, Martha. [http://www.bostonreview.net/BR28.5/nussbaum.html Tragedy and Justice] ''Boston Review'', October/November 2003.
*O'Grady, Jane. [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2003/jun/13/guardianobituaries.obituaries Professor Sir Bernard Williams] ''The Guardian'', 13 June 2003.
*Pearson, Richard. [http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A7634-2003Jun17&notFound=true Philosopher Bernard Williams Dies: Weighed Questions of Moral Identify] ''The Washington Post'', 18 June 2003.
*Smart, J.J.C. and Williams, Bernard. ''Utilitarianism: For and Against''. Cambridge University Press, 1973.
*Thomas, Alan. "Williams, Bernard" in Audi, Robert. ''The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy'', Cambridge University Press, 1999.
*Williams, Bernard. ''Moral Luck''. Cambridge University Press, 1981.
*Williams, Bernard.''Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy''. Harvard University Press, 1985.
*Williams, Bernard. "Internal Reasons and the Obscurity of Blame", 1989, reprinted in ''Making Sense of Humanity, and other philosophical papers''. Cambridge University Press, 1995: 35–45.
*Williams, Bernard. "Replies", in Altham, J.E.J & Harrison, Ross (eds.), ''World, Mind and Ethics: Essays on the Ethical Philosophy of Bernard Williams''. Cambridge University Press, 1995.
*Williams, Bernard. "Postscript: Some Further Notes on Internal and External Reasons", in Millgram E. (ed.) ''Varieties of Practical Reasoning''. MIT Press, 2001.
*[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1432917/Professor-Sir-Bernard-Williams.html Professor Sir Bernard Williams] ''The Daily Telegraph'', 14 June 2003.
*[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,60-712787,00.html Professor Sir Bernard Williams] ''The Times'', 14 June 2003.
*[http://economist.com/people/PrinterFriendly.cfm?Story_ID=1875125 Bernard Williams] ''The Economist'', 26 June 2003.
{{Refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|2}}
*[http://educationtalk.guardian.co.uk/WebX?50@@.3ba77186/0 "A live chat with Bernard Williams"], ''GuardianUnlimited'', November 2002.
*Foot, Philippa. "Reasons for Action and Desires", in Raz, Joseph (ed). ''Practical Reasoning,'' Oxford University Press, 1978.
*McGinn, Colin. [http://www.nybooks.com/articles/article-preview?article_id=16188 Isn't it the truth?] ''New York Review of Books'', 10 April 2003.
*Sen, Amartya. ''Ethics and Economics'', Blackwell, 1989.
*Sen, Amartya; Williams, Bernard; and Ratoff Robinson, William (eds.). ''Utilitarianism and Beyond'', Cambridge University Press, 1981.
*Thomas, Alan (ed.). ''Bernard Williams''. Cambridge University Press, 2007.
*Williams, Bernard. [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v24/n20/will03_.html "Why Philosophy Needs History"], ''London Review of Books'', 17 October 2002.
*Williams, Bernard and Alex Voorhoeve. "A Mistrustful Animal: A Conversation with Bernard Williams" in [http://personal.lse.ac.uk/voorhoev/voorhoeve_cover_hb.pdf ''Conversations on Ethics'']. Oxford University Press, 2009.
{{Refend}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-aca}}
{{Succession box
|title = [[King's College, Cambridge|Provost of King's College, Cambridge]]
|years =1979–1987
|before =[[Edmund Leach]]
|after =[[Patrick Bateson]]
}}
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{{Featured article}}

{{Ethics}}

{{Persondata
|NAME = Williams, Bernard Arthur Owen
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Williams, Bernard
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = English academic philosopher
|DATE OF BIRTH = 21 September 1929
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Westcliff-on-Sea]], [[Essex]]
|DATE OF DEATH = 10 June 2003
|PLACE OF DEATH = [[Rome]]
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Williams, Bernard}}
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Musical instrument

2012-03-27T08:47:37Z

Rigaudon: typo

[[File:Attributes of Music.jpg|thumb|300 px|[[Anne Vallayer-Coster]], ''Attributes of Music'', 1770. This [[still life]] painting depicts a variety of musical instruments.]]

A '''musical instrument''' is a device created or adapted for the purpose of making musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces [[sound]] can serve as a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument. The history of musical instruments dates back to the beginnings of human culture. The purpose of early musical instruments was ritual: a hunter might use a [[trumpet]] to signal success on the hunt, or a shaman might use a [[drum]] in a religious ceremony. Cultures later developed the processes of composing and performing [[melody|melodies]] for entertainment. Musical instruments evolved in step with changing applications.

The date and origin of the first device considered to be a musical instrument is disputed. The oldest object that some scholars refer to as a musical instrument, a simple [[flute]], dates back as far as 67,000 years. Solid consensus begins to form about early flutes dating to about 37,000 years old. However, most historians believe that determining a specific time of musical instrument invention is impossible due to the subjectivity of the definition and the relative instability of materials that were used in their construction. Many early musical instruments were made from animal skins, bone, wood, and other non-durable materials.

Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world. However, contact among civilizations resulted in the rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the [[Middle Ages]], instruments from [[Mesopotamia]] could be found in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and Europeans were playing instruments from North Africa. Development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments. By 1400, musical instrument development slowed in many areas and was dominated by the [[Western world|Occident]].

The classification of musical instruments is a discipline in its own right, and many systems of classification have been used over the years. One may classify musical instruments by their effective range or their material composition; however, the most common method, Hornbostel-Sachs, uses the means by which they produce sound. The academic study of musical instruments is called [[organology]].

==Definition and basic operation==

A musical instrument is broadly defined as any device created or adapted for the purpose of making musical sounds. Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by clapping—to using objects to create music from sounds, musical instruments were born.<ref name="Montagu1">{{harvnb|Montagu|2007|pp=1}}</ref> Primitive instruments were probably designed to emulate natural sounds, and their purpose was ritual rather than entertainment. The concept of melody and the artistic pursuit of musical composition were unknown to early players of musical instruments. A player sounding a flute to signal the start of a hunt does so without thought of the modern notion of "making music".<ref name="Rault9">{{harvnb|Rault|2000|pp=9}}</ref>

Musical instruments are constructed in a broad array of styles and shapes, using many different materials. Early musical instruments were made from "found objects" such a shells and plant parts.<ref name="Rault9"/> As instruments evolved, so did the selection and quality of materials. Virtually every material in nature has been used by at least one culture to make musical instruments.<ref name="Rault9"/> One plays a musical instrument by interacting with it in some way—for example, by plucking the strings on a [[string instrument]]. The sounds produced by musical instruments vary in [[timbre]] and [[pitch (music)|pitch]], the principle characteristics by which the human ear perceives musical sounds.

==Archaeology==
Researchers have discovered archaeological evidence of musical instruments in many parts of the world. Some finds are 67,000 years old, however their status as musical instruments is often in dispute. Consensus solidifies about artifacts dated back to around 37,000 years old and later. Only artifacts made from durable materials or using durable methods tend to survive. As such, the specimens found cannot be irrefutably placed as the earliest musical instruments.<ref name="Blades34">{{harvnb|Blades|1992|pp=34}}</ref>

[[File:Image-Divje01.jpg|thumb|Drawing of the Divje Babe flute by Bob Fink]]
In July 1995, Slovenian archaeologist Ivan Turk discovered a bone carving in the northwest region of [[Slovenia]]. The carving, named the [[Divje Babe flute]], features four holes that Canadian musicologist Bob Fink determined could have been used to play four notes of a [[diatonic scale]]. Researchers estimate the flute's age at between 43,400 and 67,000 years, making it the oldest known musical instrument and the only musical instrument associated with the [[Neanderthal]] culture.<ref name="SAS">{{harvnb|Slovenian Academy of Sciences|1997|pp=203–205}}</ref> However, some archaeologists and ethnomusicologists dispute the flute's status as a musical instrument.<ref name="Chase and Nowell">{{harvnb|Chase and Nowell|1998|pp=549}}</ref> German archaeologists have found [[mammoth]] bone and [[swan]] bone flutes dating back to 30,000 to 37,000 years old in the [[Swabian Alps]]. The flutes were made in the [[Upper Paleolithic]] age, and are more commonly accepted as being the oldest known musical instruments.<ref name="CBC">{{harvnb|CBC Arts|2004}}</ref>

Archaeological evidence of musical instruments was discovered in excavations at the Royal Cemetery in the [[Sumer]]ian city of [[Ur]] (see [[Lyres of Ur]]). These instruments include nine [[lyre]]s, two [[harp]]s, a silver double [[flute]], [[sistra]] and [[cymbal]]s, and comprise one of the first ensembles of instruments to be discovered. A set of reed-sounded silver pipes discovered in Ur was the likely predecessor of modern [[bagpipes]].<ref name="collinson">{{harvnb|Collinson|1975|pp=10}}</ref> The cylindrical pipes feature three side-holes that allowed players to produce whole tone scales.<ref name="Campbell82">{{harvnb|Campbell|2004|pp=82}}</ref> These excavations, carried out by [[Leonard Woolley]] in the 1920s, uncovered non-degradable fragments of instruments and the voids left by the degraded segments that, together, have been used to reconstruct them.<ref name="de Schauensee">{{harvnb|de Schauensee|2002|pp=1–16}}</ref> The graves these instruments were buried in have been [[carbon dated]] to between 2600 and 2500 BCE, providing evidence that these instruments were used in Sumeria by this time.<ref name="Moorey">{{harvnb|Moorey|1977|pp=24–40}}</ref>

Archaeologists in the [[Jiahu]] site of central Henan province of China have found flutes made of bones that date back 7,000 to 9,000 years,<ref name=bnl>{{cite web|url=http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/1999/bnlpr092299.html|title=Brookhaven Lab Expert Helps Date Flute Thought to be Oldest Playable Musical Instrument|publisher=[[Brookhaven National Laboratory]]|accessdate=10 February 2011}}</ref> representing some of the "earliest complete, playable, tightly-dated, multinote musical instruments" ever found.<ref name=bnl/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/jiah/hd_jiah.htm|title=Jiahu (ca. 7000–5700 B.C.)|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|accessdate=10 February 2011}}</ref>

A [[cuneiform]] tablet from [[Nippur]] in [[Mesopotamia]] dated to 2000 BCE indicates the names of strings on the lyre and represents the earliest known example of [[music notation]].<ref name="West">{{harvnb|West|1994|pp=161–179}}</ref>

==History==
Scholars agree that there are no completely reliable methods of determining the exact chronology of musical instruments across cultures. Comparing and organizing instruments based on their complexity is misleading, since advancements in musical instruments have sometimes reduced complexity. For example, construction of early [[slit drum]]s involved felling and hollowing out large trees; later slit drums were made by opening bamboo stalks, a much simpler task.<ref name="Sachs60">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=60}}</ref>

[[Curt Sachs]] argued that is misleading to arrange the development of musical instruments by workmanship since all cultures advance at different levels and have access to different materials. For example, contemporary [[anthropology|anthropologists]] attempting to compare musical instruments made by two cultures that existed at the same time but who differed in organization, culture, and handicraft [[Anthropological theories of value|cannot determine which instruments are more "primitive"]].<ref name="Sachs61">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=61}}</ref> Ordering instruments by geography is also partially unreliable, as one cannot determine when and how cultures contacted one another and shared knowledge.

German musicologist [[Curt Sachs]], one of the most prominent musicologists<ref name="Brown">{{harvnb|Brown|2008}}</ref> and musical ethnologists<ref name="Baines37">{{harvnb|Baines|1993|p=37}}</ref> in modern times, proposed that a geographical chronology until approximately 1400 is preferable, however, due to its limited subjectivity.<ref name="Sachs63">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=63}}</ref> Beyond 1400, one can follow the overall development of musical instruments by time period.<ref name="Sachs63"/>

The science of marking the order of musical instrument development relies on archaeological artifacts, artistic depictions, and literary references. Since data in one research path can be inconclusive, all three paths provide a better historical picture.<ref name="Blades34" />

=== Primitive and prehistoric ===
[[File:Two Teponaztli.jpg|thumb|Two [[Aztec]] slit drums, called ''teponaztli''. The characteristic "'''H'''" slits can be seen on the top of the drum in the foreground]]
Until the 19th century AD, European written music histories began with mythological accounts of how musical instruments were invented. Such accounts included [[Jubal (Bible)|Jubal]], descendant of [[Cain]] and "father of all such as handle the harp and the organ", [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]], inventor of the [[Pan flute|pan pipes]], and [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], who is said to have made a dried [[tortoise]] shell into the first [[lyre]]. Modern histories have replaced such mythology with anthropological speculation, occasionally informed by archeological evidence. Scholars agree that there was no definitive "invention" of the musical instrument since the definition of the term "musical instrument" is completely subjective to both the scholar and the would-be inventor. For example, a ''[[Homo habilis]]'' slapping his body could be the makings of a musical instrument regardless of the being's intent.<ref name="Sachs297">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=297}}</ref>

Among the first devices external to the human body that are considered instruments are [[Rattle (percussion instrument)|rattles]], stampers, and various [[drum]]s.<ref name="Blades36">{{harvnb|Blades|1992|pp=36}}</ref> These earliest instruments evolved due to the human motor impulse to add sound to emotional movements such as dancing.<ref name="Sachs26">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=26}}</ref> Eventually, some cultures assigned ritual functions to their musical instruments, using them for hunting and various ceremonies.<ref name="Rault34">{{harvnb|Rault|2000|pp=34}}</ref> Those cultures developed more complex percussion instruments and other instruments such as ribbon reeds, flutes, and trumpets. Some of these labels carry far different connotations from those used in modern day; early flutes and trumpets are so-labeled for their basic operation and function rather than any resemblance to modern instruments.<ref name=Sachs34>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=34–52}}</ref> Among early cultures for whom drums developed ritual, even sacred importance are the [[Chukchi people]] of the [[Russian Far East]], the indigenous people of [[Melanesia]], and many cultures of [[Africa]]. In fact, drums were pervasive throughout every African culture.<ref name="Blades51">{{harvnb|Blades|1992|pp=51}}</ref> One East African tribe, the [[Wahinda]], believed it was so holy that seeing a drum would be fatal to any person other than the sultan.<ref name=Sachs35>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=35}}</ref>

Humans eventually developed the concept of using musical instruments for producing a [[melody]]. Until this time in the evolutions of musical instruments, melody was common only in singing. Similar to the process of [[reduplication]] in language, instrument players first developed repetition and then arrangement. An early form of melody was produced by pounding two stamping tubes of slightly different sizes—one tube would produce a "clear" sound and the other would answer with a "darker" sound. Such instrument pairs also included [[Bullroarer (music)|bullroarers]], slit drums, shell trumpets, and skin drums. Cultures who used these instrument pairs associated genders with them; the "father" was the bigger or more energetic instrument, while the "mother" was the smaller or duller instrument. Musical instruments existed in this form for thousands of years before patterns of three or more tones would evolve in the form of the earliest [[xylophone]].<ref name=Sachs52>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=52–53}}</ref> Xylophones originated in the mainland and archipelago of [[Southeast Asia]], eventually spreading to Africa, the Americas, and Europe.<ref name="Marcuse24">{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|pp=24–28}}</ref> Along with xylophones, which ranged from simple sets of three "leg bars" to carefully tuned sets of parallel bars, various cultures developed instruments such as the [[harp|ground harp]], [[zither|ground zither]], [[musical bow]], and [[Jew's harp|jaw harp]].<ref name=Sachs53>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=53–59}}</ref>

=== Antiquity ===
Images of musical instruments begin to appear in Mesopotamian artifacts in 2800 BC or earlier. Beginning around 2000 BC, [[Sumer]]ian and [[Babylon]]ian cultures began delineating two distinct classes of musical instruments due to [[division of labor]] and the evolving class system. Popular instruments, simple and playable by anyone, evolved differently from professional instruments whose development focused on effectiveness and skill.<ref name=Sachs67>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=67}}</ref> Despite this development, very few musical instruments have been recovered in [[Mesopotamia]]. Scholars must rely on artifacts and [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts written in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] or [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] to reconstruct the early history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia. Even the process of assigning names to these instruments is challenging since there is no clear distinction among various instruments and the words used to describe them.<ref name=Sachs68>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=68–69}}</ref>

Although Sumerian and Babylonian artists mainly depicted ceremonial instruments, historians have been able to distinguish six [[idiophones]] used in early Mesopotamia: concussion clubs, clappers, [[Sistrum|sistra]], bells, cymbals, and rattles.<ref name=Sachs69>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=69}}</ref> Sistra are depicted prominently in a great relief of [[King Amenhotep III|Amenhotep III]],<ref name=Remnant168>{{harvnb|Remnant|1989|p=168}}</ref> and are of particular interest because similar designs have been found in far-reaching places such as [[Tbilisi]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and among the Native American [[Yaqui people|Yaqui]] tribe.<ref name=Sachs70>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=70}}</ref> The people of Mesopotamia preferred stringed instruments to any other, as evidenced by their proliferation in Mesopotamian figurines, plaques, and seals. Innumerable varieties of harps are depicted, as well as lyres and lutes, the forerunner of modern stringed instruments such as the [[violin]].<ref name=Sachs82>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=82}}</ref>

[[File:Egyptian lute players 001.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Ancient Egyptian]] tomb painting depicting lute players, [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th Dynasty]] (c. 1350 BC).]]
Musical instruments used by the Egyptian culture before 2700 BC bore striking similarity to those of Mesopotamia, leading historians to conclude that the civilizations must have been in contact with one another. Sachs notes that Egypt did not possess any instruments that the Sumerian culture did not also possess.<ref name=Sachs86>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=86}}</ref> However, by 2700 BC the cultural contacts seem to have dissipated; the lyre, a prominent ceremonial instrument in Sumer, did not appear in Egypt for another 800 years.<ref name=Sachs86 /> Clappers and concussion sticks appear on Egyptian vases as early as 3000 BC. The civilization also made use of sistra, vertical flutes, double clarinets, arched and angular harps, and various drums.<ref name="Rault71">{{harvnb|Rault|2000|pp=71}}</ref>

Little history is available in the period between 2700 BC and 1500 BC, as Egypt (and indeed, Babylon) entered a long violent period of war and destruction. This period saw the [[Kassites]] destroy the Babylonian empire in Mesopotamia and the [[Hyksos]] destroy the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]]. When the Pharaohs of Egypt conquered Southwest Asia in around 1500 BC, the cultural ties to Mesopotamia were renewed and Egypt's musical instruments also reflected heavy influence from Asiatic cultures.<ref name=Sachs86 /> Under their new cultural influences, the people of the [[New Kingdom]] began using oboes, trumpets, lyres, lutes, castanets, and cymbals.<ref name=Sachs98>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=98–104}}</ref>

In contrast with Mesopotamia and Egypt, professional musicians did not exist in [[Israel]] between 2000 and 1000 BC. While the history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia and Egypt relies on artistic representations, the culture in Israel produced few such representations. Scholars must therefore rely on information gleaned from the [[Bible]] and the [[Talmud]].<ref name=Sachs105>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=105}}</ref> The Hebrew texts mention two prominent instruments associated with [[Jubal (Bible)|Jubal]], ugabs and [[kinnor]]s. These may be translated as pan pipes and lyres, respectively.<ref name=Sachs106>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=106}}</ref> Other instruments of the period included tofs, or frame drums, small bells or jingles called pa'amon, [[shofar]]s, and the trumpet-like hasosra.<ref name=Sachs108>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=108–113}}</ref>

The introduction of a monarchy in Israel during the 11th century BC produced the first professional musicians and with them a drastic increase in the number and variety of musical instruments.<ref name=Sachs114>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=114}}</ref> However, identifying and classifying the instruments remains a challenge due to the lack of artistic interpretations. For example, stringed instruments of uncertain design called nevals and asors existed, but neither archaeology nor etymology can clearly define them.<ref name=Sachs116>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=116}}</ref> In her book ''A Survey of Musical Instruments'', American musicologist Sibyl Marcuse proposes that the nevel must be similar to vertical harp due to its relation to "nabla", the Phoenician term for "harp".<ref name="Marcuse385">{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p=385}}</ref>

In [[Greece]], [[Rome]], and [[Etruria]], the use and development of musical instruments stood in stark contrast to those cultures' achievements in architecture and sculpture. The instruments of the time were simple and virtually all of them were imported from other cultures.<ref name=Sachs128>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=128}}</ref> Lyres were the principal instrument, as musicians used them to honor the gods.<ref name=Sachs129>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=129}}</ref> Greeks played a variety of wind instruments they classified as ''aulos'' (reeds) or ''syrinx'' (flutes); Greek writing from that time reflects a serious study of reed production and playing technique.<ref name=Campbell82/> Romans played reed instruments named ''tibia'' featuring side-holes that could be opened or closed, allowing for greater flexibility in playing modes.<ref name=Campbell83>{{harvnb|Campbell|2004|p=83}}</ref> Other instruments in common use in the region included vertical harps derived from those of the [[Orient]], lutes of Egyptian design, various pipes and organs, and clappers, which were played primarily by women.<ref name=Sachs149>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=149}}</ref>

Evidence of musical instruments in use by early civilizations of [[India]] is almost completely lacking, making it impossible to reliably attribute instruments to the [[Munda languages|Munda]] and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] language-speaking cultures that first settled the area. Rather, the history of musical instruments in the area begins with the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] that emerged around 3000 BC. Various rattles and whistles found among excavated artifacts are the only physical evidence of musical instruments.<ref name=Sachs151>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=151}}</ref> A clay statuette indicates the use of drums, and examination of the [[Indus script]] has also revealed representations of vertical arched harps identical in design to those depicted in Sumerian artifacts. This discovery is among many indications that the Indus Valley and Sumerian cultures maintained cultural contact. Subsequent developments in musical instruments in India occurred with the [[Rigveda]], or religious hymns. These songs used various drums, shell trumpets, harps, and flutes.<ref name=Sachs152>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=152}}</ref> Other prominent instruments in use during the early centuries AD were the [[Snake charming|snake charmer's]] [[double clarinet]], [[bagpipes]], barrel drums, cross flutes, and short lutes. In all, India had no unique musical instruments until the [[Middle Ages]].<ref name=Sachs161>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=161}}</ref>

[[File:Mokugyo.jpg|thumb|A Chinese wooden fish, used in Buddhist recitations]]
Musical instruments such as [[zither]]s appeared in Chinese writings around 12th century BC and earlier.<ref name=Sachs185>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=185}}</ref> Early [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese philosophers]] such as [[Confucius]] (551–479 BC), [[Mencius]] (372–289 BC), and [[Laozi]] shaped the development of musical instruments in China, adopting an attitude toward music similar to that of the Greeks. The Chinese believed that music was an essential part of character and community, and developed a unique system of classifying their musical instruments according to their material makeup.<ref name=Sachs162>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=162–164}}</ref>

[[Idiophones]] were extremely important in Chinese music, hence the majority of early instruments were idiophones. Poetry of the [[Shang Dynasty]] mentions bells, chimes, drums, and globular flutes carved from bone, the latter of which has been excavated and preserved by archaeologists.<ref name=Sachs166>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=166}}</ref> The [[Zhou Dynasty]] introduced percussion instruments such as clappers, troughs, [[wooden fish]], and [[Yu (percussion instrument)|yu]]. Wind instruments such as flute, pan-pipes, pitch-pipes, and mouth organs also appeared in this time period.<ref name=Sachs178>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=178}}</ref> The short lute and various other instruments that spread through many cultures, came into use in China during and after the [[Han Dynasty]].<ref name=Sachs189>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=189}}</ref>

Although civilizations in [[Central America]] attained a relatively high level of sophistication by the eleventh century AD, they lagged behind other civilizations in the development of musical instruments. For example, they had no stringed instruments; all of their instruments were idiophones, drums, and wind instruments such as flutes and trumpets. Of these, only the flute was capable of producing a melody.<ref name=Sachs192>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=192}}</ref> In contrast, [[pre-Columbian]] [[South America]]n civilizations in areas such as modern-day [[Peru]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Chile]] were less advanced culturally but more advanced musically. South American cultures of the time used pan-pipes as well as varieties of flutes, idiophones, drums, and shell or wood trumpets.<ref name=Sachs196>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=196–201}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
During the period of time loosely referred to as the [[Middle Ages]], China developed a tradition of integrating musical influence from other regions. The first record of this type of influence is in 384 AD, when China established a orchestra in its imperial court after a conquest in [[Turkestan]]. Influences from Middle East, Persia, India, Mongolia, and other countries followed. In fact, Chinese tradition attributes many musical instruments from this period to those regions and countries.<ref name=Sachs207>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=207}}</ref> Cymbals and gongs gained popularity, along with more advanced trumpets, clarinets, oboes, flutes, drums, and lutes.<ref name=Sachs218>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=218}}</ref> Some of the first bowed-zithers appeared in China in the 9th or 10th century, influenced by Mongolian culture.<ref name=Sachs216>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=216}}</ref>

India experienced similar development to China in the Middle Ages; however, stringed instruments developed differently to accommodate different styles of music. While stringed instruments of China were designed to produce precise tones capable of matching the tones of chimes, stringed instruments of India were considerably more flexible. This flexibility suited the slides and [[tremolos]] of Hindu music. Rhythm was of paramount importance in Indian music of the time, as evidenced by the frequent depiction of drums in reliefs dating to the Middle Ages. The emphasis on rhythm is an aspect native to Indian music.<ref name=Sachs221>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=221}}</ref> Historians divide the development of musical instruments in medieval India between pre-Islamic and Islamic periods due to the different influence each period provided.<ref name=Sachs222>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=222}}</ref>

In pre-Islamic times, idiophones such hand bells, cymbals, and peculiar instruments resembling gongs came into wide use in Hindu music. The gong-like instrument was a bronze disk that was struck with a hammer instead of a mallet. Tubular drums, stick zithers named [[veena]], short fiddles, double and triple flutes, coiled trumpets, and curved India horns emerged in this time period.<ref name=Sachs223>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=222–228}}</ref> Islamic influences brought new types of drums, perfectly circular or octagonal as opposed to the irregular pre-Islamic drums.<ref name=Sachs229>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=229}}</ref> Persian influence brought oboes and [[sitars]], although Persian sitars had three strings and Indian version had from four to seven.<ref name=Sachs231>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=231}}</ref>

[[File:Traditional indonesian instruments.jpg|thumb|250px|An Indonesian [[metallophone]].]]
Southeast Asian musical innovations include those during a period of Indian influence that ended around 920 AD.<ref name=Sachs236>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=236}}</ref> [[Balinese people|Balinese]] and [[Javanese people|Javanese]] music made use of [[xylophones]] and [[metallophones]], bronze versions of the former.<ref name=Sachs238>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=238–239}}</ref> The most prominent and important musical instrument of Southeast Asia was the gong. While the gong likely originated in the geographical area between [[Tibet]] and [[Burma]], it was part of every category of human activity in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] including [[Java]].<ref name=Sachs240>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=240}}</ref>

The areas of Mesopotamia and the [[Arabian Peninsula]] experiences rapid growth and sharing of musical instruments once they were united by [[Islamic culture]] in the seventh century.<ref name=Sachs246>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=246}}</ref> Frame drums and cylindrical drums of various depths were immensely important in all genres of music.<ref name=Sachs249>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=249}}</ref> Conical oboes were involved in the music that accompanied wedding and circumcision ceremonies. Persian miniatures provide information on the development of [[timpani|kettle drums]] in Mesopotamia that spread as far as Java.<ref name=Sachs250>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=250}}</ref> Various lutes, zithers, [[Hammered dulcimer|dulcimers]], and harps spread as far as [[Madagascar]] to the south and modern-day [[Sulawesi]] to the east.<ref name=Sachs251>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=251–254}}</ref>

Despite the influences of Greece and Rome, most musical instruments in Europe during the Middles Ages came from Asia. The lyre is the only musical instrument that may have been invented in Europe until this period.<ref name=Sachs260>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=260}}</ref> Stringed instruments were prominent in Middle Age Europe. The central and northern regions used mainly lutes, stringed instruments with [[Neck (music)|necks]], while the southern region used lyres, which featured a two-armed body and a crossbar.<ref name="Sachs260"/> Various harps served Central and Northern Europe as far north as Ireland, where the harp eventually became a national symbol.<ref name=Sachs263>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=263}}</ref> Lyres propagated through the same areas, as far east as [[Estonia]].<ref name=Sachs265>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=265}}</ref>

European music between 800 and 1100 became more sophisticated, more frequently requiring instruments capable of [[polyphony]]. The [[Persian people|Persian]] geographer of the 9th century ([[Ibn Khordadbeh]]), mentioned in his lexicographical discussion of music instruments that in the [[Byzantine Empire]] typical instruments included the ''urghun'' ([[Organ (music)|organ]]), ''shilyani'' (probably a type of [[harp]] or [[lyre]]), ''salandj'' (probably a [[bagpipe]]) and the ''[[Byzantine lyra]]'' (Greek: λύρα ~ lūrā).<ref name=Kartomi124>{{harvnb|Kartomi|1990|p=124}}</ref> [[Byzantine lyra|Lyra]] was a [[Medieval music|medieval]] [[pear-shaped]] [[Bow (music)|bowed]] string instrument with three to five [[Strings (music)|strings]], held upright and is an ancestor of most European bowed instruments, including the [[violin]].<ref name=Grillet29>{{harvnb|Grillet|1901|p=29}}</ref>

The [[monochord]] served as a precise measure of the notes of a musical scale, allowing more accurate musical arrangements.<ref name=Sachs269>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=269}}</ref> Mechanical [[Hurdy gurdy|hurdy-gurdies]] allowed single musicians to play more complicated arrangements than a fiddle would; both were prominent folk instruments in the Middle Ages.<ref name=Sachs271>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=271}}</ref><ref name=Sachs274>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=274}}</ref> Southern Europeans played short and long lutes whose pegs extended to the sides, unlike the rear-facing pegs of Central and Northern European instruments.<ref name=Sachs273>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=273}}</ref> Idiophones such as bells and clappers served various practical purposes, such as warning of the approach of a [[Leprosy|leper]].<ref name=Sachs278>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=278}}</ref>

The ninth century revealed the first [[bagpipes]], which spread throughout Europe and had many uses from folk instruments to military instruments.<ref name=Sachs281>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=281}}</ref> The construction of pneumatic [[Organ (music)|organs]] evolved in Europe starting in fifth century [[Spain]], spreading to [[England]] in about 700.<ref name=Sachs284>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=284}}</ref> The resulting instruments varied in size and use from portable organs worn around the neck to large pipe organs.<ref name=Sachs286>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=286}}</ref> Literary accounts of organs being played in English [[Benedictine]] abbeys toward the end of the tenth century are the first references to organs being connected to churches.<ref name=Bicknell13>{{harvnb|Bicknell|1999|p=13}}</ref> Reed players of the Middle Ages were limited to oboes; no evidence of clarinets exists during this period.<ref name=Sachs288>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=288}}</ref>

=== Modern ===
==== Renaissance ====
Musical instrument development was dominated by the [[Western world|Occident]] from 1400 on—indeed, the most profound changes occurred during the [[Renaissance]] period. Instruments took on other purposes than accompanying singing or dance, and performers used them as solo instruments. Keyboards and lutes developed as polyphonic instruments, and composers arranged increasingly complex pieces using more advanced [[tablature]]. Composers also began designing pieces of music for specific instruments.<ref name="Sachs297"/> In the latter half of the sixteenth century, [[orchestration]] came into common practice as a method of writing music for a variety of instruments. Composers now specified orchestration where individual performers once applied their own discretion.<ref name=Sachs298>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=298}}</ref> The polyphonic style dominated popular music, and the instrument makers responded accordingly.<ref name=Sachs351>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=351}}</ref>

[[Image:The Duet c1635 by Saftleven.jpg|thumb|250px|The Duet c. 1635]]
Beginning in about 1400, the rate of development of musical instruments increased in earnest as compositions demanded more dynamic sounds. People also began writing books about creating, playing, and cataloging musical instruments; the first such book was [[Sebastian Virdung|Sebastian Virdung's]] 1511 treatise ''Musica getuscht und angezogen'' (English: ''Music Germanized and Abstracted'').<ref name="Sachs298"/> Virdung's work is noted as being particularly thorough for including descriptions of "irregular" instruments such as hunters' horns and cow bells, though Virdung is critical of the same. Other books followed, including [[Arnolt Schlick|Arnolt Schlick's]] ''Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten'' (English: ''Mirror of Organ Makers and Organ Players'') the same year, a treatise on organ building and organ playing.<ref name=Sachs299>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=299}}</ref> Of the instructional books and references published in the Renaissance era, one is noted for its detailed description and depiction of all wind and stringed instruments, including their relative sizes. This book, the ''Syntagma musicum'' by Michael Praetorius, is now considered an authoritative reference of sixteenth century musical instruments.<ref name=Sachs301>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=301}}</ref>

In the sixteenth century, musical instrument builders gave most instruments, such as the violin, the "classical shapes" they retain today. An emphasis on aesthetic beauty also developed—listeners were as pleased with the physical appearance of an instrument as they were with its sound. Therefore, builders paid special attention to materials and workmanship, and instruments became collectibles in homes and museums.<ref name=Sachs302>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=302}}</ref> It was during this period that makers began constructing instruments of the same type in various sizes to meet the demand of ''consorts'', or ensembles playing works written for these groups of instruments.<ref name=Sachs303>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=303}}</ref>

Instrument builders developed other features that endure today. For example, while organs with multiple keyboards and pedals already existed, the first organs with [[Organ stop|solo stops]] emerged in the early fifteenth century. These stops were meant to produce a mixture of timbres, a development needed for the complexity of music of the time.<ref name=Sachs307>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=307}}</ref> Trumpets evolved into their modern form to improve portability, and players used [[Mute (music)|mutes]] to properly blend into [[chamber music]].<ref name=Sachs328>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=328}}</ref>

==== Baroque ====
[[Image:Stainer.jpg|thumb|250px|Baroque mounted [[Jacob Stainer]] violin from 1658.]]
Beginning in the seventeenth century, composers began creating works of a more emotional style. They felt that a [[Monophony|monophonic]] style better suited the emotional music and wrote musical parts for instruments that would complement the singing human voice.<ref name=Sachs351/> As a result, many instruments that were incapable of larger ranges and dynamics, and therefore were seen as unemotional, fell out of favor. One such instrument was the oboe.<ref name=Sachs352>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=352}}</ref> Bowed instruments such as the violin, [[viola]], [[baryton]], and various lutes dominated popular music.<ref name=Sachs353>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=353–357}}</ref> Beginning in around 1750, however, the lute disappeared from musical compositions in favor of the rising popularity of the [[guitar]].<ref name=Sachs374>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=374}}</ref> As the prevalence of [[string orchestra]]s rose, wind instruments such as the flute, oboe, and bassoon were readmitted to counteract the monotony of hearing only strings.<ref name=Sachs380>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=380}}</ref>

In the mid-seventeenth century, what was known as a hunter's horn underwent transformation into an "art instrument" consisting of a lengthened tube, a narrower bore, a wider bell, and much wider range. The details of this transformation are unclear, but the modern [[Horn (instrument)|horn]] or, more colloquially, French horn, had emerged by 1725.<ref name=Sachs384>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=384}}</ref> The slide trumpet appeared, a variation that includes a long-throated mouthpiece that slid in and out, allowing the player infinite adjustments in [[Pitch (music)|pitch]]. This variation on the trumpet was unpopular due to the difficulty involved in playing it.<ref name=Sachs385>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=385}}</ref> Organs underwent tonal changes in the Baroque period, as manufacturers such as Abraham Jordan of London made the stops more expressive and added devices such as expressive pedals. Sachs viewed this trend as a "degeneration" of the general organ sound.<ref name=Sachs386>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=386}}</ref>

==== Classical and Romantic ====
During the [[Classical period (music)|Classical]] and [[Romantic music|Romantic]] periods of music, lasting from roughly 1750 to 1900, a great deal of musical instruments capable of producing new timbres and higher volume were developed and introduced into popular music. The design changes that broadened the quality of timbres allowed instruments to produce a wider variety of expression. Large orchestras rose in popularity and, in parallel, the composers determined to produce entire orchestral scores that made use of the expressive abilities of modern instruments. Since instruments were involved in collaborations of a much larger scale, their designs had to evolve to accommodate the demands of the orchestra.<ref name=Sachs388>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=388}}</ref>

Some instruments also had to become louder to fill larger halls and be heard over sizable orchestras. Flutes and bowed instruments underwent all manner of modifications and design changes—most of them unsuccessful—in effort to increase their volume. Other instruments underwent changes just to be capable of playing their parts in the scores: trumpets traditionally had a "defective" range—they were incapable of producing certain notes with precision.<ref name=Sachs389>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=389}}</ref> New instruments such as the clarinet, saxophone, and tuba became fixtures in orchestras. Instruments such as the clarinet also grew into entire "families" of instruments capable of different ranges: small clarinets, normal clarinets, bass clarinets, and so on.<ref name=Sachs388/>

Accompanying the changes to timbre and volume was a shift in the typical pitch used to tune instruments. Instruments meant to play together, as in an orchestra, must be tuned to the same standard lest they produce audibly different sounds while playing the same notes. Beginning in 1762, the average [[concert pitch]] began rising from a low of 377 vibrations to a high of 457 in 1880 Vienna.<ref name=Sachs390>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=390}}</ref> Different regions, countries, and even instrument manufacturers preferred different standards, making orchestral collaboration a challenge. Despite even the efforts of two organized international summits attended by noted composers like [[Hector Berlioz]], no standard could be agreed upon.<ref name=Sachs391>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=391}}</ref>

==== Twentieth century to present ====
[[Image:Caravilleiro Stratocaster.jpg|thumb|Headstock of a Fender Stratocaster electric guitar]] The evolution of traditional musical instruments slowed beginning in the twentieth century.<ref name=Remnant183>{{harvnb|Remnant|1989|p=183}}</ref> Instruments like the violin, flute, french horn, harp, and so on are largely the same as those manufactured throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Gradual iterations do emerge; for example, the "New Violin Family" began in 1964 to provide differently sized violins to expand the range of available sounds.<ref name=Remnant70>{{harvnb|Remnant|1989|p=70}}</ref> The slowdown in development was practical response to the concurrent slowdown in orchestra and venue size.<ref name=Sachs445>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=445}}</ref> Despite this trend in traditional instruments, the development of new musical instruments exploded in the twentieth century. The sheer variety of instruments developed overshadows any prior period.<ref name=Remnant183/>

The proliferation of electricity in the twentieth century lead to the creation of an entirely new category of musical instruments: electronic instruments, or [[Electrophone|electrophones]].<ref name=Sachs447>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=447}}</ref> The vast majority of electrophones produced in the first half of the twentieth century were what Sachs called "electromechanical instruments". In other words, they have mechanical parts that produce sound vibrations, and those vibrations are picked up and amplified by electrical components. Examples of electromechanical instruments include organs and electric guitars.<ref name=Sachs447/> Sachs also defined a subcategory of "radioelectric instruments" such as the [[theremin]], which produces music through the player's hand movements around two antennas.<ref name=Sachs448>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=448}}</ref>

The latter half of the twentieth century saw the gradual evolution of [[synthesizers]]s—instruments that artificially produce sound using analog or digital circuits and microchips. In the late 1960s, [[Bob Moog]] and other inventors began an era of development of commercial synthesizers. One of the first of these instruments was the [[Moog synthesizer]].<ref name=Pinch7>{{harvnb|Pinch and Trocco|2004|p=7}}</ref> The modern proliferation of computers and microchips has spawned an entire industry around electronic musical instruments. Since electronic musical instruments may produce sound without human interaction, there is debate in the modern music community as to whether or not computer musicians may be considered instrumentalists.{{cn|date=February 2012}}

==Classification==
{{main|Musical instrument classification}}
There are many different methods of classifying musical instruments. Various methods examine aspects such as the physical properties of the instrument (material, color, shape, etc.), the use for the instrument, the means by which music is produced with the instrument, the [[Range (music)|range]] of the instrument, and the instrument's place in an [[orchestra]] or other ensemble. Most methods are specific to a geographic area or cultural group and were developed to serve the unique classification requirements of the group.<ref name=Montagu210>{{harvnb|Montagu|2007|p=210}}</ref> The problem with these specialized classification schemes is that they tend to break down once they are applied outside of their original area. For example, a system based on instrument use would fail if a culture invented a new use for the same instrument. Scholars recognize Hornbostel-Sachs as the only system that applies to any culture and, more important, provides only possible classification for each instrument.<ref name=Montagu211>{{harvnb|Montagu|2007|p=211}}</ref><ref name=Kartomi176>{{harvnb|Kartomi|1990|p=176}}</ref>

===Ancient systems===
An ancient system named the [[Natya Shastra]], written by the sage [[Bharata Muni]] and dating from between 200 BC and 200 AD, divides instruments into four main classification groups: instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating strings; percussion instruments with skin heads; instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating columns of air; and "solid", or non-skin, percussion instruments.<ref name=Montagu211/> This system was adapted to some degree in 12th-century Europe by Johannes de Muris, who used the terms ''tensibilia'' (stringed instruments), ''inflatibilia'' (wind instruments), and ''percussibilia'' (all percussion instruments).<ref name="Rault190">{{harvnb|Rault|2000|pp=190}}</ref> In 1880, [[Victor-Charles Mahillon]] adapted the Natya Shastra and assigned Greek labels to the four classifications: ''chordophones'' (stringed instruments), ''membranophones'' (skin-head percussion instruments), ''aerophones'' (wind instruments), and ''autophones'' (non-skin percussion instruments).<ref name=Montagu211/>

===Hornbostel-Sachs===
[[Erich von Hornbostel]] and [[Curt Sachs]] adopted Mahillon's scheme and published an extensive new scheme for classification in ''Zeitschrift für Ethnologie'' in 1914. Hornbostel and Sachs used most of Mahillon's system, but replaced the term ''autophone'' with ''idiophone''.<ref name=Montagu211/>

The original Hornbostel-Sachs system classified instruments into four main groups:
* [[Idiophone]]s, which produce sound by vibrating the primary body of the instrument itself; they are sorted into concussion, percussion, shaken, scraped, split, and plucked idiophones, such as [[claves]], [[xylophone]], [[guiro]], [[slit drum]], [[mbira]], and [[Rattle (percussion)|rattle]].<ref name=Marcuse3>{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p= 3}}</ref>
* [[Membranophone]]s, which produce sound by a vibrating a stretched membrane; they may be [[drums]] (further sorted by the shape of the shell), which are struck by hand, with a stick, or rubbed, but [[kazoos]] and other instruments that use a stretched membrane for the primary sound (not simply to modify sound produced in another way) are also considered membranophones.<ref name=Marcuse117>{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p= 117}}</ref>
* [[Chordophone]]s, produce sound by vibrating one or more strings; they are sorted into according to the relationship between the string(s) and the sounding board or chamber. For example, if the strings are laid out parallel to the sounding board and there is no neck, the instrument is a [[zither]] whether it is plucked like an [[autoharp]] or struck with hammers like a [[piano]]. If the instrument has strings parallel to the sounding board or chamber and the strings extend past the board with a neck, then the instrument is a [[lute]], whether the sound chamber is constructed of wood like a [[guitar]] or uses a membrane like a [[banjo]].<ref name=Marcuse177>{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p= 177}}</ref>
* [[Aerophone]]s, produce a sound by with a vibrating column of air; they are sorted into free aerophones such as a [[bullroarer]] or [[whip]], which moves freely through the air, [[flutes]], which cause the air to pass over a sharp edge, reed instruments, which use a vibrating reed, and lip-vibrated aerophones such as [[trumpet]]s, for which the lips themselves function as vibrating reeds.<ref name=Marcuse549>{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p= 549}}</ref>

Sachs later added a fifth category, [[electrophone]]s, such as [[theremin]]s, which produce sound by electronic means.<ref name=Sachs447>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p= 447}}</ref> Within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, but remains widely used by [[ethnomusicology|ethnomusicologists]] and [[organology|organologists]].<ref name="Campbell39">{{harvnb|Campbell|2004|pp=39}}</ref><ref name="Rault190"/>

===Schaeffner===
Andre Schaeffner, a curator at the [[Musée de l'Homme]], disagreed with the Hornbostel-Sachs system and developed his own system in 1932. Schaeffner believed that the pure physics of a musical instrument, rather than its specific construction or playing method, should always determine its classification. (Hornbostel-Sachs, for example, divide aerophones on the basis of sound production, but membranophones on the basis of the shape of the instrument). His system divided instruments into two categories: instruments with solid, vibrating bodies and instruments containing vibrating air.<ref name=Kartomi174>{{harvnb|Kartomi|1990|pp= 174–175}}</ref>

===Range===
{{main|Instrument range}}
Musical instruments are also often classified by their musical range in comparison with other instruments in the same family. This exercise is useful when placing instruments in context of an orchestra or other ensemble.

These terms are named after singing voice classifications:
*[[Soprano]] instruments: [[flute]], [[violin]], [[soprano saxophone]], [[trumpet]], [[clarinet]], [[oboe]], [[piccolo]]
*[[Alto]] instruments: [[alto saxophone]], [[french horn]], [[english horn]], [[viola]]
*[[Tenor]] instruments: [[trombone]], [[tenor saxophone]], [[guitar]]
*[[Baritone]] instruments: [[bassoon]], [[baritone saxophone]], [[bass clarinet]], [[cello]], [[baritone horn]]
*[[Bass (sound)|Bass]] instruments: [[double bass]], [[bass guitar]], [[bass saxophone]], [[tuba]]

Some instruments fall into more than one category: for example, the cello may be considered tenor, baritone or bass, depending on how its music fits into the ensemble, and the trombone may be alto, tenor, baritone, or bass and the French horn, bass, baritone, tenor, or alto, depending on the range it is played in. Many instruments have their range as part of their name: [[soprano saxophone]], [[tenor saxophone]], [[baritone horn]], [[alto flute]], [[bass guitar]], etc. Additional adjectives describe instruments above the soprano range or [[contrabass|below the bass]], for example: [[sopranino saxophone]], [[contrabass clarinet]]. When used in the name of an instrument, these terms are relative, describing the instrument's range in comparison to other instruments of its family and not in comparison to the human voice range or instruments of other families. For example, a bass flute's range is from C3 to F♯6, while a bass clarinet plays about one octave lower.

==Construction==
The materials used in making musical instruments vary greatly by culture and application. Many of the materials have special significance owing to their source or rarity. Some cultures worked substances from the human body into their instruments. In ancient Mexico, for example, the material drums were made from might contain actual human body parts obtained from sacrificial offerings. In New Guinea, drum makers would mix human blood into the adhesive used to attach the [[Acoustic membrane|membrane]].<ref name="Rault184">{{harvnb|Rault|2000|pp=184}}</ref> [[Morus (plant)|Mulberry]] trees are held in high regard in China owing to their mythological significance—instrument makers would hence use them to make zithers. The [[Yakuts]] believe that making drums from trees struck by lightning gives them a special connection to nature.<ref name="Rault185">{{harvnb|Rault|2000|pp=185}}</ref>

Musical instrument construction is a specialized trade that requires years of training, practice, and sometimes an apprenticeship. Most makers of musical instruments specialize in one genre of instruments; for example, a [[luthier]] makes only stringed instruments. Some make only one type of instrument such as a piano. Whatever the instrument constructed, the instrument maker must consider materials, construction technique, and decoration, creating a balanced instrument that is both functional and aesthetically pleasing.<ref name="Rault195">{{harvnb|Rault|2000|pp=195}}</ref> Some builders are focused on a more artistic approach and develop [[experimental musical instrument]]s, often meant for individual playing styles developed by the builder himself.

==User interfaces==
Regardless of how the sound in an instrument is produced, many musical instruments have a keyboard as the user-interface. [[Keyboard instrument]]s are any instruments that are played with a [[musical keyboard]]. Every key generates one or more sounds; most keyboard instruments have extra means ([[Piano#Pedals|pedal]]s for a piano, [[Organ stop|stops]] for an organ) to manipulate these sounds. They may produce sound by wind being fanned ([[organ (music)|organ]]) or pumped ([[accordion]]),<ref name="bicknell">Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "The organ case". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 55–81. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2</ref><ref name="howard">Howard, Rob (2003) An A to Z of the Accordion and related instruments Stockport: Robaccord Publications ISBN 0-9546711-0-4</ref> vibrating strings either hammered ([[piano]]) or plucked ([[harpsichord]]),<ref name="fine">Fine, Larry. The Piano Book, 4th ed. Massachusetts: Brookside Press, 2001. ISBN 1-929145-01-2</ref><ref>Ripin (Ed) et al. ''Early Keyboard Instruments''. New Grove Musical Instruments Series, 1989, PAPERMAC</ref> by electronic means ([[synthesizer]]),<ref name="paradiso">Paradiso, JA. "Electronic music: new ways to play". Spectrum IEEE, 34(2):18–33, Dec 1997.</ref> or in some other way. Sometimes, instruments that do not usually have a keyboard, such as the ''[[glockenspiel]]'', are fitted with one.<ref name="vslglocken">{{cite web|url=http://vsl.co.at/en/70/3196/3204/3208/5760.vsl|title=Glockenspiel: Construction|publisher=Vienna Symphonic Library|accessdate=17 August 2009}}</ref> Though they have no moving parts and are struck by mallets held in the player's hands, they have the same physical arrangement of keys and produce soundwaves in a similar manner.

==See also==
*[[List of musical instruments]]
*[[Folk instrument]]
*[[Experimental musical instrument]]
*[[Music instrument technology]]
*[[Orchestra]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
* {{citation |last=Baines |first=Anthony |title=Brass Instruments: Their History and Development |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1993 |isbn=0486275744}}
* {{citation |last=Bicknell |first=Stephen |title=The History of the English Organ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0521654092}}
* {{citation |last=Blades |first=James |title=Percussion Instruments and Their History |publisher=Bold Strummer Ltd |year=1992 |isbn=0933224613}}
* {{citation |last=Brown |first=Howard Mayer |title=Sachs, Curt |publisher=Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians |year=2008 |url=http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/24256 |accessdate=5 June 2008}}
* {{citation |last1=Campbell |first1=Murray |last2=Greated |first2=Clive A. |last3=Myers |first3=Arnold |title=Musical Instruments: History, Technology, and Performance of Instruments of Western Music |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0198165048}}
* {{citation |last=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |title=Archeologists discover ice age dwellers' flute |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |date=December 30, 2004 |url=http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2004/12/30/flute-prehistoric041230.html |accessdate=7 February 2009}}
* {{citation |last1=Chase |first1=Philip G. |last2=Nowell |first2=April |title=Taphonomy of a Suggested Middle Paleolithic Bone Flute from Slovenia |month=Aug–Oct |year=1998 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=39 |issue=4 |page=549 |doi=10.1086/204771}}
* {{citation |last=Collinson |first=Francis M. |title=The Bagpipe |publisher=Routledge |year=1975 |isbn=0710079133}}
* {{citation |last=de Schauensee |first=Maude |title=Two Lyres from Ur |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology |year=2002 |isbn=092417188X}}
* {{citation |last=Grillet |first=Laurent |title=Les ancetres du violon v.1| year=1901 |publisher=Paris }}
* {{citation |last=Kartomi |first=Margaret J. |title=On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=0226425487}}
* {{citation |last=Marcuse |first=Sibyl |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1975 |isbn=0060127767}}
* {{citation |last=Montagu |first=Jeremy |title=Origins and Development of Musical Instruments |publisher=The Scarecrow Press |year=2007 |isbn=0810856573}}
* {{citation |last=Moorey |first=P.R.S. |title=What Do We Know About the People Buried in the Royal Cemetery? |journal=Expedition |volume=20 |issue=1 |year=1977 |pages=24–40}}
* {{citation |last1=Pinch|first1=Revor |last2=Trocco |first2=Frank |title=Analog Days: The Invention and Impact of the Moog Synthesizer |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780674016170}}
* {{citation |last=Rault |first=Lucie |title=Musical Instruments: A Worldwide Survey of Traditional Music-making |publisher=Thames & Hudson Ltd |year=2000 |isbn=978-0500510353}}
* {{citation |last=Remnant |first=Mary |title=Musical Instruments: An Illustrated History from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Batsford |year=1989 |isbn=0713451696}}.
* {{citation |last=Sachs |first=Curt |title=The History of Musical Instruments |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1940 |isbn=0486452654}}
* {{citation |last=Slovenian Academy of Sciences |title=Early Music |date=April 11, 1997 |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5310 |pages=203–205 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5310.203g }}
* {{citation |last=West |first=M.L. |title=The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts |journal=Music & Letters |volume=75 |issue=2 |date=May 1994 |pages=161–179 |doi=10.1093/ml/75.2.161}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation |last=Wade-Matthews |first=Max |title=Musical Instruments: Illustrated Encyclopedia |publisher=Lorenz |year=2003 |isbn=0754811824}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Musical instruments}}
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/m/musical-instruments/
|title= Musical Instruments
|work=Furniture
|accessdate=1 July 2008}}

* {{cite web |publisher= [[National Museum of American History]]
|url= http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/subject_detail.cfm?key=32&colkey=23
|title= Music & Musical Instruments
|work=More than 5,000 musical instruments of American and European heritage at the Smithsonian
|accessdate=30 September 2008}}

{{Music topics}}
{{Musical instruments in classical music}}
[[Category:Musical instruments| ]]

{{Good article}}

[[af:Musiekinstrument]]
[[als:Musikinstrument]]
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[[ast:Instrumentu musical]]
[[az:Musiqi aləti]]
[[bm:Fɔlifɛn]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ga̍k-khì]]
[[be:Музычны інструмент]]
[[be-x-old:Музычны інструмэнт]]
[[bo:རོལ་ཆ།]]
[[bs:Muzički instrumenti]]
[[br:Benveg-seniñ]]
[[bg:Музикален инструмент]]
[[ca:Instrument musical]]
[[cs:Hudební nástroj]]
[[cy:Offeryn cerdd]]
[[da:Musikinstrument]]
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[[nv:Dilní bee Nidaʼanéhígíí]]
[[et:Muusikainstrument]]
[[el:Μουσικό όργανο]]
[[es:Instrumento musical]]
[[eo:Muzika instrumento]]
[[eu:Musika tresna]]
[[fa:ساز]]
[[fr:Instrument de musique]]
[[fy:Muzykynstrumint]]
[[ga:Uirlis cheoil]]
[[gl:Instrumento musical]]
[[gan:樂器]]
[[gu:સંગીત વાદ્ય]]
[[ko:악기]]
[[hy:Երաժշտական գործիքներ]]
[[hi:वाद्य यन्त्र]]
[[hr:Glazbala]]
[[io:Muzikal instrumento]]
[[id:Alat musik]]
[[is:Hljóðfæri]]
[[it:Strumento musicale]]
[[he:כלי נגינה]]
[[jv:Piranti musik]]
[[kn:ಸಂಗೀತ ವಾದ್ಯ]]
[[ka:მუსიკალური ინსტრუმენტი]]
[[ku:Amûrên muzîkê]]
[[la:Instrumentum musicum]]
[[lv:Mūzikas instruments]]
[[lb:Museksinstrument]]
[[lt:Muzikos instrumentas]]
[[ln:Eyémbeli]]
[[jbo:zgitci]]
[[hu:Hangszer]]
[[ml:സംഗീതോപകരണം]]
[[ms:Alat muzik]]
[[mn:Хөгжмийн зэмсэг]]
[[my:တူရိယာ]]
[[nah:Tlatzotzonalli]]
[[nl:Muziekinstrument]]
[[ja:楽器]]
[[no:Musikkinstrument]]
[[nn:Musikkinstrument]]
[[ps:ساز]]
[[nds:Musikinstrument]]
[[pl:Instrument muzyczny]]
[[pt:Instrumento musical]]
[[ksh:Inßtrumännt (Mussik)]]
[[ro:Instrument muzical]]
[[qu:Waqachina]]
[[ru:Музыкальный инструмент]]
[[stq:Musikinstrumente]]
[[sq:Instrumenti muzikor]]
[[si:සංගීත වාද්‍ය භාණ්ඩ]]
[[simple:Musical instrument]]
[[sk:Hudobný nástroj]]
[[sl:Glasbilo]]
[[ckb:ئامێری مۆسیقا]]
[[sr:Музички инструменти]]
[[sh:Muzički instrumenti]]
[[fi:Soitin]]
[[sv:Musikinstrument]]
[[tl:Kasangkapang pangtugtog]]
[[ta:இசைக்கருவி]]
[[te:సంగీత వాయిద్యం]]
[[th:เครื่องดนตรี]]
[[chr:ᏗᎧᏃᎩᏛ ᎬᏔᏂᏓᏍᏗ]]
[[tr:Çalgı]]
[[uk:Музичний інструмент]]
[[vi:Nhạc cụ]]
[[vls:Muziekinstrument]]
[[zh:乐器]]

Sixteenth note

2012-03-12T23:06:45Z

Rigaudon: Restored spacing

[[image:Sixteenth_notes_and_rest.png|thumb|right|'''Figure 1.''' A sixteenth note with stem facing up, a sixteenth note with stem facing down, and a sixteenth rest.]]

[[image:Sixteenth_note_run.png|thumb|right|'''Figure 2.''' Four sixteenth notes beamed together.]]

In [[music]], a '''sixteenth note''' (American) or '''semiquaver''' (British; also occasionally '''demiquaver''') is a [[note]] played for one sixteenth the duration of a [[whole note]], hence the name. The semiquaver is half of a quaver which is an [[eighth note]].

Sixteenth notes are notated with an oval, filled-in [[note head]] and a straight [[note stem]] with two [[flag (note)|flag]]s. (see Figure 1). A similar symbol is the '''sixteenth rest''' (or '''semiquaver rest'''), which denotes a silence for the same duration. As with all notes with stems, sixteenth notes are drawn with stems to the right of the notehead, facing up, when they are below the middle line of the [[musical staff]]. When they are on or above the middle line, they are drawn with stems on the left of the note head, facing down. Flags are always on the right side of the stem, and curve to the right. On stems facing up, the flags start at the top and curve down; for downward facing stems, the flags start at the bottom of the stem and curve up. When multiple sixteenth notes or eighth notes (or thirty-second notes, etc.) are next to each other, the flags may be connected with a [[Beam (music)|beam]], like the notes in Figure 2. Note the similarities in notating sixteenth notes and [[eighth note]]s. Similar rules apply to smaller divisions such as [[thirty-second note]]s (demisemiquavers) and [[sixty-fourth note]]s (hemidemisemiquavers).

In [[Unicode]], U+266C (♬) is a pair of beamed semiquavers.

The note derives from the ''semifusa'' in [[mensural notation]]. However, ''semifusa'' also designates the modern sixty-fourth note in Spanish.

The name of this note (and rest) in European languages varies greatly:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Language
!note name
!rest name
|-
|Dutch || zestiende noot || zestiende rust
|-
|German || Sechzehntelnote || Sechzehntelpause
|-
|French || double-croche || quart de soupir
|-
|Italian || semicroma || pausa di semicroma
|-
|Spanish || semicorchea || silencio de semicorchea
|-
|Portuguese || semicolcheia || pausa de semicolcheia
|-
|Russian || шестнадцатая нота || шестнадцатая пауза
|-
|Greek|| δέκατο έκτο || παύση δεκάτου έκτου
|}


<div style="clear:both"></div>

==See also==
*[[musical notation]]

{{Musical note values}}

[[Category:Musical notation]]

[[cy:Hannercwafer]]
[[es:Semicorchea]]
[[eu:Erdikortxea]]
[[fr:Double croche]]
[[gl:Semicorchea]]
[[haw:Hua mele hapa ‘umikūmāono]]
[[it:Semicroma]]
[[pl:Szesnastka]]
[[pt:Semicolcheia]]
[[sv:Sextondelsnot]]
[[zh-yue:十六分音符]]
[[zh:十六分音符]]

Giorgos Kyriakakis

2011-10-31T23:25:36Z

Rigaudon: Composer Mendelssohn has double S

'''Giorgos Kyriakakis''' ({{lang-el|Γιώργος Κυριακάκης}}) was born in 1967 in Crete where he took his first music lessons.<ref>[http://www.eem.org.gr/members_detail.asp?id=135&property=biografy Giorgos Kyriakakis, Biography] Greek Composers Union</ref> He studied Composition and Analysis with [http://www.musipedia.gr/index.php/Παπαδάτος_Ιωσήφ Joseph Papadatos] and Byzantine music with [http://www.musicale.gr/afieromata/chrysostom/p1_en_2.html Lykourgos Angelopoulos] at the "Philippos Nakas" Conservatory of Athens. He continued his studies in Composition, Music for the Media, Music of Non-European Cultures with [[Dimitri Terzakis]] and in Electroacoustic Composition with Eckhard Roedger at the "Musikhochschule fuer Musik und Theater Felix Mendelssohn Bartholdy” Leipzig. He has composed works for children's theatre, for the cinema as well as music for solo instruments, chamber ensembles, choir and orchestra. His compositions have been performed in Greece and abroad. His works have been recorded by FMrecords and ARKYS. He is a member of the “Greek Composers' Union” and the “Deutscher Komponistenverband„. Since 2006 he has been elected as Assistant Professor of Composition and Contemporary Music in the département of Music Art and Science, University of Macedonia, Thessaloniki. He was until 2009 a producer of the Greek broadcast (ERA2). His works are being published by [http://www.editiongravis.de/verlag/ Edition Gravis]. He lives and works as a free composer in Berlin.

==List of works==

1. '''Tango per “D”''', for trumpet & piano

2. '''Ialemos''' , for low brass (3 alt horns, trombone, euphonium, tuba)

3. '''Minimal I & II''', for piano

4. '''Trio''', for alto saxophone, piano & e-bass

5. '''Missing…''', for orchestra

6. '''Chrysalis' Transformations''', for brass quintet & piano

7. '''Tiny Suite''', for trumpet, trombone & percussion/1

8. '''En Chordais''' (''In strings''), for string quartet

9. '''Chalkos Echoon''' (''Clinging Cooper''), for chamber ensemble (oboe, clarinet, horn, trumpet, trombone, percussion/1, piano, cello, double bass)

10. '''St' animera''' (''On the day''), for saxophone quartet

11. '''Ainei Ι''', for flute

12. '''Trisdiathlasis''' (''Refraction''), for clarinet, alto saxophone & bassoon

13. '''Lubato variationen''', for mezzo & chamber ensemble (basset horn, trumpet, viola, double bass, percussion/1)

14. '''Proposis ’93''', for low voice, violin, cello & percussion/1

15. '''Invisible Cities''', for chamber ensemble (oboe, clarinet, bass clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, trombone, percussion/1, harpsichord, 2 double basses)

16. '''Antaion''', for trumpet & 4 trombones

17. '''Kantate über die Hoffnung''' (''Cantata for the Hope''), Text: New Testament, for mixed choir & chamber ensemble (flute, oboe, horn, trombone, violin, cello, double bass)

18. '''Sigana''' (''Smoothly''), for clarinet & alto saxophone

19. '''Prophecies''', for soprano, flute, accordion & percussion/1

20. '''Toccata''', for solo key instrument

21. '''The deception of the Thrush''', for orchestra

22. '''Prologue Note or Summary''', Text: G.Skarimbas, for solo voice

23. '''16th Reading: Voices''', Text: K.P.Kavafis, for voice quartet

24. '''Enalion pyr''' (''Sea fire''), for brass quintet

25. '''Epestrefe''' (''Return''), for oboe, clarinet, alto saxophone & bassoon

26. '''Oulaloum Ι''', Text: G.Skarimbas, 5 plus 1 songs, for middle voice & accordion

27. '''Black Midnight''', for flute, clarinet & alto saxophone

28. '''Katedioxan''' (''Chased''), for 6 low string instruments

29. '''Round Midnight''', for solo cello

30. '''Ulysses at the River''', Text: T.Sinopoulos, for children choir, violin, cello & piano

31. '''Hydata''' (''Waters''), for orchestra

32. '''Anagram''', Text: T.S.Eliot, for mixed choir

33. '''Mini to Oktovrio''' (''At the Month of October''), for narrator, psaltis, baritone, children choir, Byzantine choir & chamber ensemble (flute, clarinet, saz, trumpet, tuba, percussion/2, violin, cello, double bass)

34. '''Oulaloum II''', Text: G.Skarimbas, six songs, for low voice & e-guitar

35. '''Persephone''', Text: K.Chatzinakis, five songs for children choir & orchestra

36. '''Seven Summaries''', for any two melodic instruments

37. '''Love Vesper''', for accordion & piano

38. '''Schema''', for accordion

39. '''Schema II''', for saxophone

40. '''Ode β'''', for string orchestra

41. '''Eti deomai sou''' (''Still praying''), Text: G.Skarimbas, for middle voice and key instrument

42. '''North-South-North''', for wind orchestra

43. '''Oinos Tritos''' (''Wine the 3rd''), concerto for alto saxophone & string orchestra

44. '''Orneon Roc''', for violin & guitar

45. ''' Schema III''', for trombone

46. '''…and so she went!''', for students' chamber ensemble (flute, clarinet, alto saxophone, small percussion/1, piano)

47. '''Isabelle in the Garden''', for recorder and accordion

48. '''Five Finger Exercises''', Text: T.S.Eliot, for any voice and any instrument

49. '''Schema IV''', for recorder

50. '''Lygisma''' (''Bending''), for bassoon & piano

51. ''' Schema V''', for violin

52. '''Schema VI''', for clarinet

53. '''Missa Contemplativa''', for middle voice, flute, baritone saxophone & harpsichord

54. '''Jose en Avlida''', for violin, accordion, piano & double bass

55. '''Zibib''', like three bagatelles, for saxophone quartet

56. '''Schema VII''', for piccolo

57. '''Engomia''' (''Laments''), for children choir & brass quintet

58. '''Strophe one''', for any instrument

59. '''Apokopos''', Text: Bergadis, for tenor & chamber orchestra (flute, oboe, clarinet, bassoon, trumpet, trombone, tuba, string quintet)

60. '''Lithino''' (''Made of Stone''), three pieces for guitar

61. '''Helidonisma''' (''Swallow Song''), for 8 violins

62. '''Schema VIII''', for tuba

63. '''Bienhereuse Emilie''', six hymns for st.Emilie de Vialar, for children choir & continuo

64. '''Logismos''' (''Thought''), for flute & piano

65. '''Klotho''', concerto for piano & string orchestra with percussion/1

66. '''Unwinable Nazar''', a musical fairy tale, for narrator & saxophone quartet

67. '''Antigiaerma''', for oboe quartet

68. '''Ouden menei''' (''Nothing remains''), for baritone saxophone & tape or percussion

69. '''Trois Satiens''', for two pianos

70. '''Ode θ΄''', for string orchestra

71. '''Beast West''', for bass flute & accordion

72. '''Pillow stories''', for any two instruments

73. '''Chronos Toutos''' (''These Time''), for saxophone quartet

74. '''Enois''', for mezzo, bassoon, piano & percussion

75. '''Strophe''', for string quartet

76. '''En los barcos''', concertino for violin, piano & orchestra

77. '''Nollendorfstrasse variations''', for any two string instruments

78. '''Sixth hour''', for wind quintet

79. '''Mauricios' nichtingale''', for string orchestra

80. '''Mitos''', for clarinet, cello & piano

81. '''Six aegean games''', for two melodic instruments

82. '''Gloria''', for seven voices a cappella

83. '''Salve Regina''', for seven voices a cappella

==Stage Music==

O.Paz: '''Rapatsinis΄ Garden''' (Zakynthos, 1999)

Euripides: '''Eleni''' (Athens, 2000)

W.Shakespear: '''The Taming of the Screw''' (Athens, 2001)

G.Kyriakakis: '''Ballet Mechanique usw''' (Athens, 2003)

[http://www.imdb.com/name/nm1857470/ F.Rizal], [http://www.katiaengel.com/ K.Engel]: '''Batu Melingkar Api''' (Berlin, 2009)

[http://www.katiaengel.com/ K.Engel]: '''From Distant Times and Places''' (Berlin, 2009)

Miriam Sachs: '''Hades''' (Berlin 2010)

Miriam Sachs: '''Die Gewalt der Musik''' (Mondepulciano/Berlin 2011)

==Film Music==

'''[http://www.myspace.com/video/vid/33085671 Ballet Mechanique]''' (1997)

'''[http://www.myspace.com/video/vid/60638797 A Moment In and Out of Time]''' (2009)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://kyriakakis.de/ kyriakakis.de]
* [http://www.editiongravis.de/verlag/] Edition Gravis
* [http://www.eem.org.gr/ eem.org.gr]
* [http://www.arkys.gr ARKYS]
* [http://www.uom.gr University of Macedonia]
* [http://www.mmb.org.gr Lilian Voudouri Music Library]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Kyriakakis, Giorgos
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES = Κυριακάκης, Γιώργος (Greek)
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Greek Composer
| DATE OF BIRTH = 1967
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Rethymno]], [[Crete]], Greece
| DATE OF DEATH =
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kyriakakis, Giorgos}}
[[Category:21st-century classical composers]]
[[Category:Greek composers]]
[[Category:20th-century classical composers]]
[[Category:1967 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

[[de:Giorgos Kyriakakis]]

Alicia de Larrocha

2011-09-12T16:59:32Z

Rigaudon: Removed traces of image which was deleted a month ago

{{Spanish name|de Larrocha|de la Calle}}'''Alicia de Larrocha y de la Calle''' (23 May 1923{{ndash}}25 September 2009) was a [[Spanish people|Spanish]] [[pianist]] from [[Catalonia]]. One of the great piano legends of the 20th century, [[Reuters]] called her "the greatest Spanish pianist in history",<ref name="Renowned Spanish pianist de Larrocha dead at 86" /> ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' "one of the world's most outstanding pianists"<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86" /> and ''[[The Guardian]]'' "the leading Spanish pianist of her time".<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha obituary">{{cite news|author=Adrian Jack|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/music/2009/sep/26/alicia-de-larrocha-obituary|title=Alicia de Larrocha obituary|date=26 September 2009|accessdate=26 September 2009|publisher=''[[The Guardian]]'' | location=London}}</ref>

She won multiple [[Grammy Award]]s and a [[Prince of Asturias Awards#Arts|Prince of Asturias Award for the Arts]]. She is credited with bringing greater popularity to the compositions of [[Isaac Albéniz]] and [[Enrique Granados]].<ref name="Renowned Spanish pianist de Larrocha dead at 86" /> In 1995, she became the first Spanish artist to win the [[UNESCO]] Prize.<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha obituary" />

==Early life and career==
Alicia de Larrocha was born in [[Barcelona]].<ref name="Pianist Alicia de Larrocha dies" /> She began studying piano with [[Frank Marshall (pianist)|Frank Marshall]] at the age of three. Both her parents were pianists and she was also the niece of pianists.<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86" /><ref name="Pianist Alicia de Larrocha dies" /> Beginning her career at the age of three, she gave her first public performance at the age of five at the [[1929 Barcelona International Exposition|International Exposition]] in Barcelona.<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86" /> She performed her first concert at the age of six at the [[Ibero-American Exposition of 1929|World's Fair]] in [[Seville]] in 1929, and had her orchestral debut at the age of 11. By 1943, her performances were selling out in Spain.<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86" /> She began touring internationally in 1947, and in 1954 toured North America with the [[Los Angeles Philharmonic]]. In 1969, de Larrocha performed in Boston for the [[Peabody Mason Concert]] series.<ref>''The Tech'', 19-Nov-1968, Steven Shladover, "Alicia de Larrocha triumphs", Cambridge</ref>

De Larrocha made numerous recordings of the solo piano repertoire and in particular the works of composers of her native Spain. She is best known for her recordings of the music of [[Manuel de Falla]], [[Enrique Granados]], [[Federico Mompou]], and [[Isaac Albéniz]], as well as her 1967 recordings of [[Antonio Soler]]'s keyboard sonatas. She recorded for Hispavox, CBS/Columbia/Epic, BMG/RCA and London/Decca, winning her first [[Grammy Awards of 1975|Grammy Award in 1975]] and her last one in [[Grammy Awards of 1992|1992]], at the age of almost seventy. She received the [[Prince of Asturias Awards#Arts|Prince of Asturias Award for the Arts]] in 1994.<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86" />

Less than five feet tall and with small hands for a pianist,<ref name="Renowned Spanish pianist de Larrocha dead at 86" /><ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86">{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/arts/article/0,8599,1926385,00.html|title=Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86|date=26 September 2009|accessdate=26 September 2009|publisher=''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]''}}</ref> in her younger years she was nonetheless able to tackle all the big concertos (all five by [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]]'s No. 1, [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]]'s No. 2, [[Sergei Rachmaninoff|Rachmaninoff]]'s Nos. 2 and 3, both of [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel's]], [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev]]'s No. 3, those of [[Arthur Bliss|Bliss]] and [[Aram Khachaturian|Khachaturian]], and many more), as well as the wide spans demanded by the music of Granados, Albéniz and de Falla. She had a "long fifth finger" and a "wide stretch between thumb and index finger" which helped make her more technically gifted.<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha obituary" />

As she grew older she began to play a different style of music; more [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and Beethoven were featured in her recitals and she became a regular guest at the "Mostly Mozart Festival" of the [[Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts]] in New York. In 2001, she was named Honorary Member of the [[Foundation for Iberian Music]] at The City University of New York. De Larrocha retired from public performance in October 2003, aged 80, following a 76-year career.<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86" /><ref name="Pianist Alicia de Larrocha dies">{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/arts/music/story/2009/09/26/delarrocha-obit.html|title=Pianist Alicia de Larrocha dies|date=26 September 2009|accessdate=26 September 2009|publisher=[[CBC News]]}}</ref>

==Death==
Alicia de Larrocha died on 25 September 2009 in [[Quiron Hospital]], [[Barcelona]], aged 86. She had been in declining health since breaking her hip five years previously.<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Pianist, Dies at 86">{{cite news|author=Allan Kozinn|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/26/arts/music/26larrocha.html?_r=3&hp|title=Alicia de Larrocha, Pianist, Dies at 86|date=26 September 2009|accessdate=26 September 2009|publisher=''[[The New York Times]]''}}</ref>
Her husband, the pianist [[Juan Torra]], with whom she had two children, died in 1982.<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86" /><ref name="Alicia de Larrocha obituary" />

Culture Minister [[Ángeles González-Sinde]] described her as "an extraordinary ambassador for Spain".<ref name="Renowned Spanish pianist de Larrocha dead at 86">{{cite news|url=http://www.reuters.com/article/entertainmentNews/idUSTRE58P21420090926|title=Renowned Spanish pianist de Larrocha dead at 86|date=26 September 2009|accessdate=26 September 2009|publisher=[[Reuters]] | first=Jason | last=Webb}}</ref> The [[Barcelona Symphony Orchestra]] had one minute's silence in her memory before their performances on the weekend after her death.<ref name="Renowned Spanish pianist de Larrocha dead at 86" /> ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]''{{'}}s Damian Thompson complimented her "rich legacy" and said she "virtually owned a small chunk of the piano repertoire".<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, the pianist who 'owned' Albeniz and Granados">{{cite news|author=Damian Thompson|url=http://blogs.telegraph.co.uk/culture/damianthompson/100003568/alicia-de-larrocha-the-pianist-who-owned-albeniz-and-granados/|title=Alicia de Larrocha, the pianist who 'owned' Albeniz and Granados|date=26 September 2009|accessdate=26 September 2009|publisher=''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' | location=London}}</ref> ''[[The Baltimore Sun]]''{{'}}s Tim Smith praised the "excellent" obituary she was given by Allan Kozinn in ''[[The New York Times]]''.<ref name="Remembering elegant Spanish pianist pianist Alicia de Larrocha">{{cite web|author=Tim Smith|url=http://weblogs.baltimoresun.com/entertainment/classicalmusic/2009/09/remembering_elegant_spanish_pi.html|title=Remembering elegant Spanish pianist pianist Alicia de Larrocha|date=26 September 2009|accessdate=26 September 2009|publisher=''[[The Baltimore Sun]]''}}</ref>
On 26 September 2009, pianist [[Stephen Hough]] played an encore at Orchestra Hall, [[Minnesota]]. He announced his piece —"Capricho Catalán" by [[Isaac Albéniz|Albéniz]]— and dedicated it to the memory of Alicia de Larrocha. "She was a completely unique artist, with a unique sound and a unique career," Hough said. On 27 September 2009 [[Peter Oundjian]] and the [[Toronto Symphony Orchestra]] dedicated their performance of the [[Symphony No. 2 (Brahms)|Brahms 2nd Symphony]] to Alicia de Larrocha.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009|reason=The TSO did not play on 27 September 2009 – they played on the 24th and on the 26th; see http://www.tso.ca/season/ticket/calendar.cfm?YearMonth=2009,9}} On 3 December 2009, pianist [[Sonya Bach]], in collaboration with the Honorary Consulate of Spain in [[Switzerland]], dedicated a solo recital titled "Remembering Alicia de Larrocha" at Cultural Center Spazio Aperto, [[Bellinzona]], in memory of her late mentor.

==List of awards and nominations==
De Larrocha won several individual awards throughout her lifetime. Her extended discography has been recognized with 14 Grammy nominations (1967, 1971, 1974,1975 (X2), 1977 (X2), 1982 (X2), 1984, 1988, 1990, 1991, 1992) and she won four Grammy Awards. She received honorary degrees from universities in [[Michigan]], [[Middlebury College]], Vermont, and [[Carnegie Mellon University|Carnegie Mellon]].<ref name="Alicia de Larrocha, Renowned Pianist, Dies at 86" /><ref name="Alicia de Larrocha obituary" />

{{awards table}}
|-
| 1960 || ? || [[Grand Prix du Disque]] || {{won}}
|-
| 1974 || Albeniz: Iberia ([[Decca Records|Decca]]) || Grand Prix du Disque || {{won}}
|-
| 1991 || Granados: Goyescas, Allegro De Concierto, Danza Lenta ([[RCA]]) || Grand Prix du Disque || {{won}}
|-
| 1968 || ? || [[Edison Award]] || {{won}}
|-
| 1978 || ? || Edison Award || {{won}}
|-
| 1989 || Albeniz: Iberia (Decca) || Edison Award || {{won}}
|-
| [[Grammy Awards of 1974|1974]] || Albeniz: Iberia (Decca) || [[Grammy Award]] || {{won}}
|-
| [[Grammy Awards of 1975|1975]] || Ravel: Concerto For Left Hand And Concerto For Piano In G; Faure: Fantaisie For Piano And Orchestra (Decca) || Grammy Award || {{won}}
|-
| [[30th Annual Grammy Awards|1988]] || Albeniz: Iberia, Navarra, Suite Espagnola ([[Decca Records|Decca]]) || Grammy Award || {{won}}
|-
| [[Grammy Awards of 1991|1991]] || Granados: Goyescas, Allegro De Concierto, Danza Lenta ([[RCA]])|| Grammy Award || {{won}}
|-
| 1971 || ? || Records of the Year (London) || {{won}}
|-
| 1974 || ? || Records of the Year (London) || {{won}}
|-
| 1979 || Granados: Goyescas (Decca) || Deutsche Schallplattenpreis (Germany) || {{won}}
|-
| 1980 || [[Liszt]]: Piano Sonata in B minor (Decca) || [[Franz Liszt Award]] ([[Budapest]]) || {{won}}
|-
| 1994 || Music by [[Manuel de Falla]] and [[Xavier Montsalvatge]] ([[RCA]]) || [[Japan Record Academy Award]] || {{won}}
|-
| 1978 || — || Musician of the Year - Musical America (magazine) || {{Won| }}
|-
| 1988 || — || Commander of the [[Ordre des Arts et des Lettres]] || {{Won| }}
|-
| 1994 || — || [[Prince of Asturias Awards#Arts|Prince of Asturias Award for the Arts]] || {{Won| }}
|-
| 1995 || — || [[UNESCO]] Prize || {{Won| }}
|-
| 1961 || — || [[Paderewski Memorial Medal]] (London)|| {{Won| }}
|-
{{end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B00E6D71339F930A15752C1A963958260 Interview] from ''[[The New York Times]]''
*[http://www.iclassics.com/aliciadelarrocha/about/ iclassics]
*[http://music.barnesandnoble.com/search/artistbio.asp?z=y&CTR=191560 Barnes and Noble]
* [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/culture-obituaries/music-obituaries/6237139/Alicia-de-Larrocha.html Alicia de Larrocha], ''[[The Daily Telegraph]]'' obituary
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8276446.stm Renowned pianist de Larrocha dies] – BBC News obituary
* [http://www.bbcmusicmagazine.com/news/alicia-de-larrocha-19xx-2009/Alicia-de-Larrocha.html Alicia de Larrocha (1923–2009)] – BBC Music Magazine
* [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/comment/obituaries/article6851526.ece Alicia de Larrocha: pianist] – ''[[The Times]]'' (UK)
* [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703298004574455162221069536.html?mod=googlenews_wsj Alicia de Larrocha, Shy Virtuoso] – ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''
* [http://www.aliciadelarrocha.com/ Alicia de Larrocha: Official Website]

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2010}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=de Larrocha y de la Calle, Alicia
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Spain|Spanish]] [[pianist]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=23 May 1923
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Barcelona]]
|DATE OF DEATH=25 September 2009
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Quiron Hospital]], Barcelona
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Larrocha, Alicia De}}
[[Category:1923 births]]
[[Category:2009 deaths]]
[[Category:Grammy Award winners]]
[[Category:Commandeurs of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres]]
[[Category:Catalan pianists]]
[[Category:Musicians from Barcelona]]
[[Category:Spanish classical pianists]]

[[ca:Alícia de Larrocha i de la Calle]]
[[da:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[de:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[es:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[eu:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[fr:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[it:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[nl:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[ja:アリシア・デ・ラローチャ]]
[[no:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[pl:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[pt:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[ro:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[ru:Ларроча-и-де-ла-Калье, Алисия де]]
[[fi:Alicia de Larrocha]]
[[uk:Алісія де Ларроча]]

A-flat minor

2011-09-11T14:11:12Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 449813147 by 71.236.157.202 (talk)C flat major is relative of A flat minor, and changing title of image makes it not work.

{{See also|G-sharp minor}}
{{Infobox scale
| name=A{{music|flat}} minor
| image_name=C-flat-major_a-flat-minor.svg
| relative=[[C-flat major|C{{music|flat}} major]] enharmonic: [[B major]]
| parallel=[[A-flat major|A{{music|flat}} major]]
| enharmonic=[[G-sharp minor|G{{music|sharp}} minor]]
| first_pitch=A{{music|flat}}
| second_pitch=B{{music|flat}}
| third_pitch=C{{music|flat}}
| fourth_pitch=D{{music|flat}}
| fifth_pitch=E{{music|flat}}
| sixth_pitch=F{{music|flat}}
| seventh_pitch=G{{music|flat}}
}}
'''A-flat minor''' is a [[minor scale]] based on A-flat, consisting of the pitches [[A♭ (musical note)|A{{music|flat}}]], [[B♭ (musical note)|B{{music|flat}}]], [[C♭ (musical note)|C{{music|flat}}]], [[D♭ (musical note)|D{{music|flat}}]], [[E♭ (musical note)|E{{music|flat}}]], [[F♭ (musical note)|F{{music|flat}}]], and [[G♭ (musical note)|G{{music|flat}}]]. For the harmonic minor, the G{{music|flat}} is raised to G{{music|natural}}. Its [[key signature]] has seven flats (''see below:'' [[#Scales and keys|Scales and keys]]).

Its [[Relative key|relative major]] is [[C-flat major]] (or, enharmonically, [[B major]]), and its [[parallel key|parallel major]] is [[A-flat major]]. Its enharmonic equivalent is [[G-sharp minor]].

Changes needed for the melodic and harmonic versions of the scale are written in with accidentals as necessary.

Although A-flat minor occurs in modulation in works in other keys, it is only rarely used as the principal key of a piece of music. Some well-known uses of the key in classical and romantic piano music include:
* the Funeral March in [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]'s [[Piano Sonata No. 12 (Beethoven)|Piano Sonata No. 12]], Op. 26
* an early section of the last movement of Beethoven's [[Piano Sonata No. 31 (Beethoven)|Piano Sonata No. 31]], Op. 110 (although the key signature of this section uses only 6 flats, not 7)
* the Adagio of [[Friedrich Kalkbrenner]]'s Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 127, although it is written with a four-flat key signature and uses accidentals to indicate the minor mode
* [[Johannes Brahms]]'s Fugue for organ (c. 1857)
* [[Max Bruch]]'s [[Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra (Bruch)|Concerto for Two Pianos and Orchestra]], Op. 88a (although at least one two-piano transcription of this uses a 6-flat signature, similarly to the Op. 110 Beethoven example)
* the Evocación from Book I of [[Isaac Albéniz]]'s ''Iberia''
* [[Leoš Janáček]] uses it for his Violin Sonata and the organ solo of his ''[[Glagolitic Mass]]''.
* the opening of [[Igor Stravinsky]]'s ''The Firebird''
* [[Moritz Moszkowski]] used it for his piano etude, opus 72 number 13.
* [[Franz Liszt]]'s original version of [[La Campanella]] from [[Grandes %C3%A9tudes de Paganini]]

It is also used in [[Frederick Loewe]]'s score to the 1956 musical play ''[[My Fair Lady]]''; the Second Servants' Chorus is set in A-flat minor (the preceding and following choruses being a semitone lower and higher respectively).

More often, pieces in a minor mode that have A-flat's pitch as tonic are notated in the [[enharmonic]] key, [[G-sharp minor]], because of G-sharp's appreciably simpler key signature. As a result, only works expressly notated as such may reasonably be considered to be in A-flat minor.



In some scores, the A{{music|flat}} minor key signature in the bass clef is written with the flat for the F on the second line from the top.

==Scales and keys==
{{Circle of fifths}}

==External links==
* [http://www.cisdur.de/e_index.html Overview of Compositions with 7 Accidentals]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Musical keys]]
[[Category:Minor scales]]

[[de:As-Moll]]
[[es:La bemol menor]]
[[et:as-moll]]
[[ja:変イ短調]]
[[pl:as-moll]]
[[sr:Ас-мол]]
[[vi:La giáng thứ]]
[[uk:Ля-бемоль мінор]]
[[zh:降a小調]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:A-Flat Minor}}

Death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

2011-09-08T19:58:42Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 449162291 by 70.168.198.210 (talk) Doesn't make sense

[[File:Mozart drawing Doris Stock 1789.jpg|thumb|A 1789 portrait of Mozart in [[silverpoint]] by [[Dora Stock|Doris Stock]]]]
The composer '''[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]''' died at 1:00 am on [[December 5#Deaths|5 December]] [[1791 in music|1791]] at the age of 35, following a short illness.

==Illness and last days==
Mozart had health problems throughout his life, and suffered at times from [[Mozart and smallpox|smallpox]], [[tonsillitis]], [[bronchitis]], [[pneumonia]], [[typhoid fever]], [[rheumatism]] and [[gum disease]].<ref>For a thorough survey of Mozart's health history, with an M.D.'s proposed diagnoses, see {{harvnb|Davies|1984}}.</ref> His final illness began when he visited [[Prague]] (departing Vienna around 25 August 1791) to supervise the performance of his new opera ''[[La clemenza di Tito]]''. The visit was fairly successful in professional terms,<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|pp=485–486}}</ref> but while in Prague Mozart began to feel seriously ill. His early biographer [[Franz Xaver Niemetschek|Franz Niemetschek]] wrote "he was pale and expression was sad, although his good humour was often shown in merry jest with his friends."<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=487}}</ref>

Following his return to Vienna, Mozart's condition gradually worsened.<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=586}} cites an article in the Berlin ''Musikalisches Wochenblatt'' ("Musical Weekly"), written shortly after Mozart's death.</ref> For a while, he was still able to work. In particular, he completed his [[Clarinet Concerto (Mozart)|Clarinet Concerto]], worked toward the completion of the [[Requiem (Mozart)|Requiem]] (an anonymous commission from [[Franz von Walsegg|Count Walsegg]], who wanted to pass himself off as the composer<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|pp=482–485}}</ref>) and conducted the premiere performance of ''[[The Magic Flute]]'', September 30. But he became increasingly alarmed and despondent about his health, probably even delusional. A famous anecdote from his wife [[Constanze Mozart|Constanze]] is related in Niemetschek's early biography:
:"On his return to Vienna, his indisposition increased visibly and made him gloomily depressed. His wife was truly distressed over this. One day when she was driving in the [[Prater]] with him, to give him a little distraction and amusement, and they were sitting by themselves, Mozart began to speak of death, and declared that he was writing the Requiem for himself. Tears came to the eyes of the sensitive man: 'I feel definitely,' he continued, 'that I will not last much longer; I am sure I have been poisoned. I cannot rid myself of this idea.'"

Constanze had the idea of trying to cheer her husband by persuading him to give up work on the Requiem for a while, and she got him instead to complete the "Freimaurerkantate", [[Köchel catalogue|K.]] 623, composed to celebrate the opening of a new [[Mozart and Freemasonry|Masonic]] temple for Mozart's own lodge.<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=490}}</ref> This strategy actually worked for a time: the cantata was completed and premiered 18 November<ref>{{harvnb|Deutsch|1965|p=413}}</ref> with great success, and Mozart came home feeling "elated" (Solomon). He told Constanze,<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=490}}. The words are as related by Constanze decades later to the visiting English diarist [[Mary Cowden Clarke|Mary Novello]].</ref> "Yes I see I was ill to have had such an absurd idea of having taken poison, give me back the Requiem and I will go on with it."

However, Mozart's worst symptoms soon returned, together with the strong feeling that he was being poisoned. He became bedridden on November 20, suffering from swelling, pain and vomiting.

==Death==
The symptoms of the dying Mozart are described by his early biographer [[Georg Nikolaus von Nissen|Nissen]] (Constanze's second husband), who took many of his details from an account provided him by Constanze's sister, [[Sophie Weber]].<ref name="Borowitz">{{harvnb|Borowitz|1973|pp=265–6}}</ref> Nissen wrote, "[the illness] began with swelling in the hands and feet, which were almost completely immobilized, followed later by sudden vomiting. ... Until two hours before his passing he remained completely conscious."<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=491}}</ref>
His body swelled up so much he could no longer sit up in bed, or even move on his own.<ref name=CornellChronicle>{{harvnb|Crawford|2000}}</ref>

Mozart was comforted by members of his wife's family, with whom he was close. His mother-in-law [[Cäcilia Weber]] and his sister-in-law Sophie made him a night jacket "which he could put on frontways, since on account of his swollen condition he was unable to turn in bed."<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=492}}. Letter of Sophie to Nissen, 1825.</ref>

Mozart died at 1:00 in the morning on 5 December. His wife, family, and friends were distraught; Sophie remembered:
: "I cannot possibly describe the boundless misery of his faithful wife as she threw herself on her knees and implored succour from the Almighty for His aid. She could not tear herself away from him, beg her as I did."<ref>{{harvnb|Deutsch|1965|pp=525–6}}. Quotation from an 1825 letter to Nissen.</ref>

==Funeral==
The funeral arrangements were made by Mozart's friend and patron Baron [[Gottfried van Swieten]]. The [[Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians|Grove Dictionary]] describes his funeral thus: "Mozart was buried in a common grave, in accordance with contemporary Viennese custom, at the [[St. Marx Cemetery]] outside the city on 7 December." If, as later reports say, no mourners attended, that too is consistent with Viennese burial customs at the time; later Jahn (1856) wrote that [[Antonio Salieri|Salieri]], [[Franz Xaver Süssmayr|Süssmayr]], van Swieten and two other musicians were present.<ref>{{harvnb|Jahn|1867|p={{pn|date=September 2010}}|nopp=yes}}</ref> The tale of a storm and snow is false; the day was calm and mild."<ref>{{harvnb|Sadie|1988|loc=§6}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
Constanze soon recovered from her despair and energetically addressed the task of providing financial security for her family (the Mozarts had two young children, and Mozart had died with debts outstanding). She successfully appealed to the [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor]] (11 December 1791) for a [[widow's pension]] (Mozart had served the Emperor in a part-time position as chamber composer), and she organized a series of concerts of Mozart's music, along with the publication of many of her husband's works. These efforts were successful, and in time Constanze became secure, even well-off.<ref name="Solomon 1995, 499">{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=499}}</ref>

The tradition of Mozart biography began soon after the composer's death. [[Friedrich Schlichtegroll]] wrote an early account (based on information from Mozart's sister [[Maria Anna Mozart|Nannerl]]), as did [[Franz Xaver Niemetschek|Franz Niemetschek]] (who worked with Constanze). Much later, Constanze assisted her second husband [[Georg Nikolaus von Nissen]] in a more detailed biography (1826).

Mozart's musical reputation rose quickly following his death; Solomon describes an "unprecedented wave of enthusiasm"<ref name="Solomon 1995, 499" /> for his work, and multiple publishers issued editions of his compositions.

==First-person accounts==
Individuals who were present at the time of Mozart's death eventually committed their memories to writing, either on their own or through interviews by others. The stories they told are not entirely mutually compatible, which may be due in part to some of them not being recorded until the 1820s, when the witnesses' memories might have faded.

[[Benedikt Schack]], Mozart's close friend for whom he wrote the role of Tamino in ''The Magic Flute'', told an interviewer that on the last day of Mozart's life, he participated in a rehearsal of the Requiem in progress:<ref>{{harvnb|Deutsch|1965|pp=536–7}}. The tale appeared in an obituary for Schack, published in the ''[[Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung]]'', issue of July 25, 1827. {{harvnb|Schildkret|2008}}</ref>
:"On the very eve of his death, [Mozart] had the score of the Requiem brought to his bed, and himself (it was two o'clock in the afternoon) sang the alto part; Schack, the family friend, sang the soprano line, as he had always previously done, Hofer, Mozart's brother-in-law, took the tenor, [[Franz Xaver Gerl|Gerl]], later a bass singer at the Mannheim Theater, the bass. They were at the first bars of the Lacrimosa when Mozart began to weep bitterly, laid the score on one side, and eleven hours later, at one o'clock in the morning (of 5 December 1791, as is well known), departed this life."

The tale seems difficult to reconcile with the description of Mozart's physical condition given in other sources; perhaps Schack misremembered the day. Biographer Niemetschek gives a vaguely similar tale, not mentioning a rehearsal:
:"On the day of his death he asked for the score to be brought to his bedside. 'Did I not say before, that I was writing this Requiem for myself?' After saying this, he looked yet again with tears in his eyes through the whole work."<ref>Niemetschek biography, quoted {{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=493}}</ref>

The widely repeated claim that Mozart on his deathbed dictated passages of the Requiem to his pupil [[Franz Xaver Süssmayr|Süssmayr]] (an incident providing a model for later fictional accounts) is strongly discounted by Solomon, who notes that the earliest reference for this claim dates to 1856. However, Sophie Weber did claim to recall the composer giving instructions to Süssmayr.<ref name=S493>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=493}}</ref>

An 1840 letter from the composer [[Ignaz von Seyfried]] says that on his last night Mozart was also mentally occupied with his opera ''The Magic Flute'', which was continuing a very successful run following its premiere on September 30. Mozart is said to have whispered the following to Konstanze, mentioning Konstanze's sister [[Josepha Weber|Josepha Hofer]], the coloratura soprano who premiered the role of the Queen of the Night:
:"Quiet, quiet! Hofer is just taking [[O zittre nicht, mein lieber Sohn|her top F]]; — now my sister-in-law is singing her second aria, '[[Der Hölle Rache kocht in meinem Herzen|Der Hölle Rache]]'; how strongly she strikes and holds the B-flat: 'Hört! hört! hört! der Mutter Schwur'"<ref>English "Hear! hear! hear! a mother's oath". Mozart or Konstanze misremembered exactly what the Queen of the Night sings, which is "Hört, hört, hört, Rachegötter! Hört der Mutter Schwur!" ("Hear, ye gods of revenge!")</ref>

Mozart had heard the opera several times, as he enjoyed taking friends and relatives<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|pp=487–8}}</ref> and would have known in rough terms the times his sister-in-law was singing.

The memories quoted above, which may be romanticized, are commonly repeated in discussion of Mozart's last days. Solomon notes that biographers have often left out the crueler memories.<ref name=S493 /> For instance, he reports another memory of Constanze thus:
:"Constanze Mozart told Nissen that just before the end Mozart asked her what [his physician] Dr. Closset had said. When she answered with a soothing lie, he said, 'It isn't true,' and he was very distressed: 'I shall die, now when I am able to take care of you and the children.<ref>Mozart's financial condition had improved considerably during the year 1791; see {{harvnb|Solomon|1995|loc=ch. 30}}</ref> Ah, now I will leave you unprovided for.' And as he spoke these words, 'suddenly he vomited —it gushed out of him in an arc— it was brown, and he was dead.'"<ref name=S493 />

Mozart's older son [[Karl Thomas Mozart|Karl]], aged seven, was present, and later wrote:
:"Particularly remarkable is in my opinion that fact that a few days before he died, his whole body became so swollen that the patient was unable to make the smallest movement, moreover, there was stench, which reflected an internal disintegration which, after death, increased to the extent that an autopsy was impossible."<ref name=S493 />

==Posthumous diagnoses==
Medicine was in a primitive state in Mozart's day, and it was impossible at the time to determine what had caused the composer's death. The entry for Mozart in the parish register says he died of "severe miliary fever",<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=494}}</ref> which only describes his symptoms ("miliary" means "having millet-sized bumps on the skin"), not the actual disease. Any later efforts to determine what killed Mozart can only rely on reinterpretation of the written record.

The most sensational hypothesis for what killed Mozart, which spread as a rumor after his death, was that he was poisoned by his composer colleague [[Antonio Salieri]]. However, these rumours were likely false; the symptoms that Mozart showed were unlikely indications of poisoning.<ref>For discussion, with references, of the poisoning rumor see {{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=587}}. The ''Norton/Grove Concise Encyclopedia of Music'' states flatly, "He was not poisoned"; see {{harvnb|Sadie|1988}}</ref> Despite denying the allegations, Salieri was greatly affected by the accusation, which contributed to [[nervous breakdown]]s in later life.<ref>{{harvnb|Deutsch|1965|pp=522, 524}}</ref>

Some ascribe Mozart's death to [[malpractice]] on the part of his physician, Dr. Closset. Sophie Weber, in her 1825 account to Nissen, implies as much, though she does not state so directly. Borowitz summarizes:

:When Mozart appeared to be sinking, one of his doctors, Dr. Nikolaus Closset, was sent for and finally located at the theater. However, according to Sophie's account, that drama-lover "had to wait till the piece was over." When he arrived, he ordered cold compresses put on Mozart's feverish brow, but these "provided such a shock that he did not regain consciousness again before he died."<ref name="Borowitz" />

A recent suggestion is that Mozart died, ironically, as a result of his [[hypochondria]] and his predilection to taking patent medicines containing [[antimony]]. In his final days this was compounded by further prescriptions of antimony to relieve the fever he clearly suffered. If this suggestion is correct, he thus unwittingly poisoned himself with antimony.<ref>{{harvnb|Emsley|2005|pp=220–1}}</ref>

Recent studies by a panel of experts have concluded that Mozart died of natural causes. Physicians at the [[University of Maryland, Baltimore]] concluded that Mozart died from [[rheumatic fever]]. Among the physicians was a Mozart scholar, who said that although rheumatic fever was the most likely diagnosis, it will probably never be possible to confirm it as the indisputable cause of death, though it is highly unlikely that Mozart died of unnatural causes.<ref name=CornellChronicle />

In 2009, British, Viennese and Dutch researchers performed an [[Epidemiology|epidemiological research]] combined with a study of other deaths in Vienna at the time of Mozart's death. They concluded that Mozart plausibly died of a [[Streptococcus|streptococcal ]] [[infection]] leading to an [[Nephritic syndrome|acute nephritic syndrome]] caused by poststreptococcal [[glomerulonephritis]]. This disease was also called "Wassersucht" in Austria.<ref>{{harvnb|Zegers|Weigl|Steptoe|2009|pp=274–8}}</ref>

It has been suggested that vitamin D deficiency could have played a role in underlying the medical conditions that led to his death.<ref>W. B. Grant and S. Pilz, ''Vitamin D deficiency contributed to Mozart's death'', Medical Problems of Performing Artists, '''26''' N2, 117 (2011) [http://www.sciandmed.com/mppa/journalviewer.aspx?issue=1192&article=1908 article]</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1093/mq/LIX.2.263
| issn = 0027-4631
| volume = 59
| issue = 2
| pages = 263–284
| last = Borowitz
| first = Albert I.
| title = Salieri and the "Murder" of Mozart
| journal = [[The Musical Quarterly]] {{subscription required}}
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| date = 1973-04
| url = http://mq.oxfordjournals.org/content/LIX/2/263.extract
| oclc = 483432356
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite web
| last = Crawford
| first = Franklin
| title = Experts Rule Out Foul Play in Death of Mozart
| work = [[Cornell Chronicle]]
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| date = 2000-02-17
| url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/chronicle/00/2.17.00/Mozart_death.html
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.2307/963386
| issn = 00274666
| volume = 125
| issue = 1698
| pages = 437–442
| last = Davies
| first = Peter J.
| title = Mozart's Illnesses and Death: 1. The Illnesses, 1756 - 90
| journal = [[The Musical Times]] {{subscription required}}
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| date = 1984-08
| oclc = 484935994
| ref = harv
| jstor = 963386
}}
*{{Cite book
| publisher = [[Stanford University Press]]
| isbn = 9780804702331
| last = Deutsch
| first = Otto Erich
| others = Peter Branscombe, [[Eric Blom]], Jeremy Noble (trans.)
| title = Mozart: A Documentary Biography
| location = [[Stanford]]
| date = 1965
| authorlink = Otto Erich Deutsch
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=e8AtwaddUW4C
| oclc = 8991008
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite book
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| isbn = 0192805991
| last = Emsley
| first = John
| title = Elements of Murder: A History of Poison
| location = Oxford
| year = 2005
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=fjYukUWmC2MC
| oclc = 57380570
| ref = harv
}}
*{{de icon}} {{Cite book
| edition = 2nd
| publisher = [[Breitkopf und Härtel]]
| volume = 1
| last = Jahn
| first = Otto
| title = W.A. Mozart
| date = 1867
| url = http://www.zeno.org/Musik/M/Jahn,+Otto/W.A.+Mozart
| ref = harv
}} See [[s:de:Otto Jahn#Musikwissenschaft|Wikisource]] for more versions.
*{{Cite book
| publisher = [[Macmillan Publishers]]
| isbn = 9780333231111
| editor-last = Sadie
| editor-first = Stanley
| editor-link = Stanley Sadie
| title = The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
| chapter = Mozart
| location = London
| date = 1988
| oclc = 611992375
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite web
| last = Schildkret
| first = David
| title = Still no Rest for the Requiem: An Enigma Reconsidered
| work = Mount Desert Summer Chorale
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| year = 2008
| url = http://www.mountdesertsummerchorale.org/2006_still_no_rest.html
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite book
| edition = 1st
| publisher = [[HarperCollins]]
| isbn = 9780060190460
| last = Solomon
| first = Maynard
| authorlink = Maynard Solomon
| title = Mozart: A Life
| location = [[New York, NY|New York]]
| date = 1995
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=UuEHAQAAMAAJ
| oclc = 31435799
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1059/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00010
| issn = 0003-4819
| volume = 151
| issue = 4
| last = Zegers
| first = Richard H.C.
| last2 = Weigl
| first2 = Andreas
| last3 = Steptoe
| first3 = Andrew
| title = The Death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: An Epidemiologic Perspective
| journal = [[Annals of Internal Medicine]] {{subscription required}}
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| date = 2009-08-18
| url = http://www.annals.org/content/151/4/274.abstract
| oclc = 432055514
| ref = harv
}}

==Further reading==
*{{de icon}} {{Cite book
| publisher = Herrlischen Buchhandlung
| last = Niemetschek
| first = Franz
| title = Leben des K. K. Kapellmeisters Wolfgang Gottlieb Mozart
| date = 1798
| url = http://books.google.ca/books?id=fZ_UAAAAMAAJ
| oclc = 165616753
| ref = harv
| isbn = 3923364768
}}
*{{Cite news
| issn = 0362-4331
| last = Wakin
| first = Daniel J.
| title = After Mozart’s Death, an Endless Coda
| work = [[The New York Times]]
| date = 2010-08-24
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/25/arts/music/25death.html
| ref = harv
}}

{{Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Death of Mozart}}
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:Deaths by person|Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus]]
[[Category:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]
[[Category:1791 in music]]

[[es:Muerte de Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]

Metronome

2011-09-07T20:59:25Z

Rigaudon: esp -> especially

{{other uses}}
[[Image:Metronome Nikko.jpg|Mechanical metronome|thumb|right]]
A '''metronome''' is any device that produces regular, metrical ticks (beats, clicks) — settable in [[Tempo#Beats_per_minute|beats per minute]]. These ticks represent a fixed, regular aural [[pulse (music)|pulse]]; some metronomes also include synchronized visual motion (e.g. pendulum-swing). The metronome dates from the early 19th century, where it was patented by [[Johann Maelzel]] in 1815 as a tool for musicians, under the title ''"Instrument/Machine for the Improvement of all Musical Performance, called Metronome"''.<ref name=maelzel />

In the 20th century and especially today the metronome is generally positively regarded in Europe and [[Western world|Western]] culture. The metronome is used by some musicians for practice in maintaining a consistent [[tempo]] with steady regular beats and it can be used by [[composer]]s, as an approximate way of specifying the tempo.<ref>Yet many consider a metronome as an overly restrictive, unsuitable, and often-misinterpreted way of specifying tempo, since it cannot account for accellerando, rallendando, rubato, rhythmic alteration, spontaneous creative choices in rhythmic nuance etc. Ultimately the timing-details of an expressive '''performance''' cannot be notated with metronome markings. See also: [[Metronome#Criticism_of_metronome_use|Criticism of metronome use]]</ref>

Yet in stark contrasting with this postivistic view, research on the history of the metronome and its influence on performance practice, reveals [[Metronome#Criticism_of_metronome_use|criticisms of metronome use]], and highlights differences of "performance practice" and cultural perception/values between the current modern European/Western society (which values the metronome), and the same society during previous times (beginning of the 19th century and earlier: classical/romantic/baroque [[era]]s etc.).<ref name=bonus /><ref name=hill />

Accordingly, some musicians consider the metronome to be a highly controversial tool in regard to music, with some rejecting the metronome altogether. Some composers considering metronome-tempo-marks to have only little value, or to hinder creative musical interpretation: [[Johannes Brahms]] said: ''"I am of the opinion that metronome marks go for nothing. As far as I know, all composers have, as I, retracted their metronome marks in later years."''<ref>Essentials of Music, READ BOOKS, 2008; ISBN 1443773697</ref>

==Etymology==
The word metronome first appeared in English c.1815 <ref>{{Cite web| title=Oxford English Dictionary online | url=http://dictionary.oed.com | accessdate=2009-01-16}}</ref> and is Greek in origin:

''metron'' = measure, ''nomos'' = regulating

==History==
[[Image:Wittner metronome.jpg|A mechanical wind-up metronome in motion|thumb|right]]

Galileo Galilei first studied and discovered concepts involving the [[pendulum]] in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. In 1696, [[Etienne Loulié]] first successfully used an adjustable pendulum in the construction of the first mechanical metronome; however, his design did not produce any sound and did not include an [[escapement]] with which to keep the pendulum in motion.<ref name="franzmfg.com">{{Cite web| url = http://www.franzmfg.com/history.htm | title = A Brief History of the Metronome | publisher = Franz Manufacturing Company, Inc. | accessdate = 2010-04-02 }}</ref> In order to get the correct pulse with this kind of visual devices, one need to watch the precise moment where the pendulum is exactly vertical, as the left and right positions are constantly changing due to the decreasing amplitude.

The more familiar mechanical musical chronometer was invented by [[Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel]] in [[Amsterdam]] in 1814. Through questionable practice,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=HugqAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA17 The Metronome]; The Harmonicon, Volume 8, 1830</ref> [[Johann Maelzel]], incorporating Winkel's ideas added a scale and called it metronome, started manufacturing the metronome under his own name in 1816: "Maelzel's Metronome". The original text of Maelzel's patent in England (1815) can be downloaded.<ref name=maelzel>[http://books.google.com/books?id=dO80AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA7 Maelzel's patent of the Metronome] The Repertory of patent inventions: and other discoveries and improvements in arts, manufactures, and agriculture ... published by T. and G. Underwood, 1818 ([http://books.google.com/books?id=-b8-AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA7 alternative])</ref>

[[Ludwig van Beethoven]] was the first notable composer to indicate specific metronome markings in his music, in 1817.<ref name="franzmfg.com"/>

==Usage==
Metronomes may be used by [[musician]]s when practicing in order to maintain a constant tempo; by adjusting the metronome, facility can be achieved at varying ''tempi''. Even in pieces that do not require a strictly constant tempo (such as in the case of [[rubato]]), a metronome "marking" is sometimes given by the composer to give an indication of the general tempo intended, found in the [[Sheet music|score]] at the beginning of a piece or movement thereof.

Tempo is almost always measured in [[beats per minute]] (BPM); metronomes can be set to variable tempi, usually ranging from 40 to 208 BPM; another marking denoting metronome tempi is M.M., or Mälzel's Metronome.

More specific uses are given below:
*Learning consistency of tempo and rhythmic beats
*Practicing technique (during drills: setting the metronome progressively to higher speeds; or during performance: exposing slow-downs due to technical difficulties)
*Sheetmusic often has metronome-markings, that show the speed at which the work should be played
*[[Click track]]s: Musicians can separately play the different parts of a word, according to a synchronized click-track (using headphones); and audio-engineers then mix the tracks together, synchronizing the parts at the clicks.
*[[Backing tracks]] are often created with electronic synthesisers and inherently adhere to strict beats

==Types of metronomes==
{{listen|filename=120BPMclicktrack.ogg|title=Click track at 120 BPM|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}
{{listen|filename=50BPMclicktrack.ogg|title=Click track at 50 BPM, subdivided into sixteenth notes|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}

===Mechanical metronomes===
One common type of metronome is the mechanical metronome which uses an adjustable weight on the end of an inverted [[pendulum]] rod to control the tempo: The weight is slid up the pendulum rod to decrease tempo, or down to increase tempo. (The mechanism is also known as a double-weighted pendulum. There is a second, fixed weight on the other side of the pendulum pivot, hidden in the metronome case.) The [[pendulum]] swings back and forth in tempo, while a mechanism inside the metronome produce a clicking sound with each oscillation.

===Electronic metronomes===
[[Image:Electronic-metronome(scale).jpg|200px|thumb|Electronic metronome, Wittner model]]
Most modern metronomes are [[Electronics|electronic]] and use a [[Crystal oscillator|quartz crystal]] to maintain accuracy, comparable to those used in wristwatches. The simplest electronic metronomes have a dial or buttons to control the tempo; some also produce tuning notes, usually around the range of [[A440 (pitch standard)|A440]] (440 [[hertz]]). Sophisticated metronomes can produce two or more distinct sounds. Tones can differ in pitch, volume, and/or timbre to demarcate [[Beat (music)#Downbeat|downbeats]] from other beats, as well as [[Time_signature#Compound_time_signatures|compound]] and [[Time_signature#Complex_time_signatures|complex]] [[time signature]]s. A popular quartz metronome manufacturer is Seiko.

Many [[Synthesizer|electronic musical keyboards]] have built-in metronome functions.

===Software metronomes===
Metronomes now exist in software form, either as stand alone applications or often in [[Music sequencer|music sequencing]] and audio [[Multitrack recording|multitrack]] software packages. In [[recording studio]] applications, such as [[film score|film scoring]], a software metronome is often used to generate a [[click track]] to synchronize musicians.

===Metronome Tracks / Click Tracks===
These days with the growing popularity of iPod and other portable mp3 players, musicians now have the option of using mp3 metronome click tracks instead of a regular metronome. Metronome tracks are a lot more flexible in that they can be made by the musician and can use different sounds and samples instead of just the regular metronome beep we have all become accustomed to. It also means musicians no longer have to carry an additional metronome along to lessons or practice sessions. There are a number of free open-source software programs musicians can use to create their own mp3 metronome tracks - Audacity is one example of such a program.
<ref>http://www.guitarnoise.com/lesson/the-metronome/</ref><ref>http://www.metronometracks.net/tips/the-best-metronomes-online</ref>

==Use of the metronome as an instrument==
Perhaps the most famous, and most direct, use of the metronome as an instrument is [[György Ligeti]]'s 1962 composition, ''[[Poème Symphonique for 100 metronomes]]''.

The clicking sounds of mechanical metronomes have been sometimes used to provide a soft rhythm track without using any [[Percussion instrument|percussion]]. [[Paul McCartney]] did this twice:Once on "Blackbird" in 1968 & once in 1989 on "Distractions" (''[[Flowers in the Dirt]]'') , where McCartney, following the metronome's regular beat, performed the whole rhythm track by hitting various parts of his own body.<ref>''Flowers in the Dirt'' 1993 Reissue CD booklet; credited as "Metronome and body percussion".</ref> Also, in [[Ennio Morricone]]'s theme "Farewell to Cheyenne" (featured on [[Once Upon a Time in the West (soundtrack)|''Once Upon a Time in the West'']]), the steady clip-clop beat is provided by the deliberately distorted and slowed-down sound of a mechanical metronome.<ref>1995 Remastered and Expanded Edition CD booklet liner notes.</ref>

==Views on the metronome==
=== Positive view of the metronome ===
In the 20th century the metronome is usually positively viewed by performers, musicologists (who spend considerable time analyzing metronome markings), teachers and conservatories. The common view is reflected in the following quote:
{{quote|''Because its beat is perfectly steady, the metronome is an excellent practice tool for musicians. Practicing with a metronome is extremely useful for developing and maintaining rhythmic precision, for learning to keep consistent tempos, for countering tendencies to slow down or speed up in specific passages, and for developing evenness and accuracy in rapid passages. Most music teachers consider the metronome indispensable, and most professional musicians, in fact, continue to practice with a metronome throughout their careers.''<ref name="The NPR Classical Music Companion 2005">The NPR Classical Music Companion: An Essential Guide for Enlightened Listening (2005); by Miles Hoffman; published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; ISBN 0618619453</ref>|The NPR Classical Music Companion: An Essential Guide for Enlightened Listening (2005); by Miles Hoffman}}

{{quote|''Often, the metronome by itself may not be enough to learn complex rhythms. However, its importance for all types of practicing and all genres cannot be understated. The infallibility of the machine is a blessing since it removes guesswork; thus, the player can use the metronome to learn to play evenly and to resist the temptation to take extra time when playing a difficult passage. The player must begin with the premise that the metronome is mathematically perfect and categorically correct. From there, s/he must make a personal commitment to play exactly together with this perfect "chamber music partner."''<ref>[http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-05132004-154411/ A Practical Guide To Twentieth-Century Violin Etudes With Performance And Theoretical Analysis]; by Aaron M. Farrell</ref>|A Practical Guide To Twentieth-Century Violin Etudes With Performance And Theoretical Analysis. Doctoral thesis (2004) by Aaron M. Farrell}}

Metronomes are often recommended to students without reservation:
{{quote|''Before a student can be persuaded to use a metronome, he or she has to know why it is important. The most obvious answer is to help keep rhythms even and clean. Another reason is to keep the meter consistent, placing beats in their proper positions in the music. Metronomes can also help a student to find and fix problems. [...] The metronome quickly alerts the player to these problems by suddenly not clicking in time with the player’s beats.''<ref>[http://faculty.ithaca.edu/mauk/docs/makemetronomefriend.pdf Make the Metronome Your Friend] by Professor Dr. Steven Mauk ([http://faculty.ithaca.edu/mauk/docs/ ref])</ref>|"Make the Metronome Your Friend" by Professor Dr. Steven Mauk}}

{{quote|''The objection, sometimes heard, that using a metronome tends to make a player mechanical, is not founded on facts. Indeed, the students who play the most artistically are those who have been the most faithful in the use of their metronome when learning their pieces.''<ref>[http://www.franzmfg.com/mtbook/MTBOOKch2.htm#c41 Metronome Techniques]</ref>|Josephine Menuez, Etude, April, 1932}}

Numerous other quotations in favour of the metronome, can be found in the book Metronome Techniques: [http://www.franzmfg.com/mtbook/MTBOOKch2.htm#chiii-contents Potpourri of quotations].

===Metronome, strict rhythm: modern performance practice===
The quotations above show the importance of the metronome in the 20th century (''"Most music teachers consider the metronome indispensable, and most professional musicians, in fact, continue to practice with a metronome throughout their careers"''<ref name="The NPR Classical Music Companion 2005"/>).

A strict rhythmic performance can be seen as a of Modern performance practice, which - though highly prevalent today - stands in stark contrast, with earlier performance practices.

{{quote|''The traits that distinguish Modern style [...]: unyielding tempo, literal reading of dotting and other rhythmic details, and dissonances left unstressed. [...] Modern style [...]: light, impersonal, mechanical, literal, correct, deliberate, consistent, ''metronomic'', and regular. Modernists look for discipline and line, while they disparge Romantic performance for its excessive rubato, its bluster, its self-indulgent posturing, and its sentimentality. [[Richard Taruskin]] calls Modernism "refuge in order and precision, hostility to subjectivity, to the vagaries of personality." It is characterized by formal clarity, emotional detachment, order, and precision.''<ref name=haynes_page49>[http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Music/MusicHistoryWestern/EarlyMusicMedievalRenaissance/?view=usa&ci=9780195189872 The end of early music: a period performer's history of music for the twenty-first century]; page 49; (Oxford University Press) by Bruce Haynes</ref>|[[Bruce Haynes]]|The end of early music (Oxford University Press)}}

{{quote|''Modern style [...] It does ''not'' usually inflect or shape notes, [...] use agogic accent of placement, add gracing at all generously, or use rubato (tempos are ''metronomic'' and unyielding). [[Sol Babitz]] described it as "sewing machine" style, thinking of the rigidly mechanical rhythmic approach, the four equally stressed 16ths, and the limited flexibility in tempo that often characterizes performances of historical repertoire heard in Modern style.''<ref>[http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/Music/MusicHistoryWestern/EarlyMusicMedievalRenaissance/?view=usa&ci=9780195189872 The end of early music: a period performer's history of music for the twenty-first century]; page 57; (Oxford University Press) by Bruce Haynes</ref>|Bruce Haynes|The end of early music (Oxford University Press)}}

{{quote|''Modern style is the principal performing protocol presently taught in conservatories all over the world.''<ref name=haynes_page49 />|Bruce Haynes|The end of early music (Oxford University Press)}}

{{quote|''Musicians of a hundred years ago, hearing a cross-section of present-day classical performances, would likely be struck by this primary difference between their performance practice and ours: [...] Our performance practice [...] assumes that a predictably regular beat is conscientiously maintained throughout a movement. [...] We compensate our lack of timing flexibility by a very highly developed sense of tone-color and dynamic which, however refined and polished it may be, tends to abstract and de-personalize the music-making, underscoring its "absoluteness". The principle of strict unity of beat within a movement has been part of our understanding and experience of classical music for so many decades now, that today's musicians and listeners can hardly imagine that less than a century ago the "standard" classical repertoire was performed under significantly different assumptions.''<ref name=hill>''"Overcoming Romanticism": On the modernization of twentieth century performance practice'' by [[Robert Hill (musician)|Robert Hill]] (Chapter 3 contribution to [http://www.cambridge.org/us/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521022569 ''Music and Performance During the Weimar Republic'']; Cambridge University Press; November 2005)</ref>|[[Robert Hill (musician)|Robert Hill]]|Music and Performance During the Weimar Republic - Chapter 3: "Overcoming Romanticism": On the modernization of twentieth century performance practice}}

In the early 19th century the metronome was ''not'' used for ticking all through a piece, but only to check the tempo and then set it aside. This is in great contrast with many musicians today:
{{quote|''[...] early nineteenth century [...]. There was little interest in using the metronome to tick all the way through a piece of music. But this is how the device is used by conservatory students today.''|Reflections on American music: the twentieth century and the new millennium : a collection of essays presented in honor of the College Music Society by James R. Heintze (Pendragon Press, 2000)}}

There are writers who draw parallels between today's modern society which is "ordered by the clock" and the metronomic performance practice of today's musicians.<ref name=bonus>[http://etd.ohiolink.edu/view.cgi?acc_num=case1270221548 The Metronomic Performance Practice: A History of Rhythm, Metronomes, and the Mechanization of Musicality]; PhD Thesis by Alexander Bonus (May, 2010)</ref><ref>''Metronomic society: Natural rhythms and human timetables'' (1988) by [[Michael Young (politician)|Michael Young]] - see also [http://books.google.com/books?id=jCQHad8Mr2QC&pg=PA68 review incl. image by Ingram Pinn]</ref>

While this section highlights the modern trends of strict mechanical performance as something widespread in the 20th century and beyond; it is interesting to observe that as early as 1860, there were people who firmly advocated this type of "modern" performance practice:
{{quote|''Correct time is considered indispensable; then why not use the Metronome. Hummel has recommended it in the strongest terms. My regard for it is such, that for twenty-five years or more I never taught a pupil without it. [...] The beginner must only use the mechanical touch, for at least a couple of years. The music chosen for lessons and studies must be free from features, which require or admit expression. No crescendo, diminuendo, accelerando, ritardando, irregular accentuation, ff. pp. sfz. is admissible.''<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=wRVOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA330&dq=beginner Franz Petersilea "On rudimental instruction on the piano"]; translated from Neue Zeitschrift für Musik, Vol. 50, No. 3, 11, 16 by G. A. Schmitt</ref>|Franz Petersilea (ca. 1860)}}

While some welcomed the metronome in the 19th century,<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=Nj43AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA413&dq=metronome New monthly magazine, Volume 66] (1842)</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=vw4AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA214 A musical biography: or, Sketches of the lives and writings of eminent musical characters] (1825)</ref> there were also critical voices, as is shown in the next section.

===Criticism of metronome use===
A metronome only provides a fixed, rigid, relentless pulse; therefore any metronome markings on [[sheet music]] cannot accurately communicate the [[pulse (music)|pulse]], [[swung note|swing]], or [[groove (music)|groove]] of music: The pulse is often not regular;<ref>Justin London. "[http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/45964 Pulse]." In Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online, (accessed July 28, 2008)</ref> e.g. in accelerando, rallentando; or in musical expression as in [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]] ([[Tempo rubato|rubato]], etc.).

Some argue that a metronomic performance stands in conflict with an expressive culturally-aware performance of music, so that a metronome is in this respect a very limited tool. Even such highly rhythmical musical forms as [[Samba]], if performed in correct cultural style, cannot be captured with the beats of a metronome.<ref name="Batista" /><ref>Analyzing the earliest (pre-1930) samba recordings (e.g. Pelo Telefone from 1917), reveals strong differences with many of todays "samba" performances, many of which have a very different - sterile, modernist, metronomic ("corrupted") rhythm.</ref>

A style of performance that is unfailingly regular rhythmically may be criticized as being "metronomic."

Many notable composers, including [[Felix Mendelssohn]], [[Richard Wagner]], [[Giuseppe Verdi]] and [[Johannes Brahms]], have criticised the use of the metronome.<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.whitwellessays.com/docs/DOC_94.doc | title = Thoughts on Tempi | work = Essays on the Origins of Western Music | publisher = David Whitwell }} Quotes from Beethoven, Berlioz, and Liszt are referenced here.</ref>

====Quotations====
{{quote|''... this series of even, perfectly quantized, 16th notes, is no more evocative of [[samba]], than a metronome would be. In fact, this representation neglects what makes up the samba essence in the first place — the swing!''<ref name="Batista">[http://www.webcitation.org/5ko36Sc7j Understanding the Samba Groove] by Pedro Batista ([http://www.geocities.com/sd_au/samba/sambadrums.html original], [http://reocities.com/TimesSquare/metro/9360/samba/sambadrums.html alt.1], [http://web.archive.org/web/20050420182410/http://geocities.com/sd_au/samba/sambadrums.html alt.2])</ref>|''Understanding the Samba Groove'' by Pedro Batista}}
{{quote|''The metronome has no real musical value. I repeat, the metronome has no value whatsoever as an aid to any action or performance that is musical in intention. [...] refer by analogy to the sister art of drawing. Graphic artists understand well enough the essential and generic difference that exists between mechanically-aided drawing on the one hand and freehand on the other. Similarly, musicians ought to distinguish between (1) the sort of timing that results from dull, slavish obedience to the ticking of a soulless machine, and (2) that noble swing and perfect ''control'' of pulsation which comes into our playing after years of practice in treating and training the sense of time as a free, creative human faculty.''<ref>[http://www.jstor.org/stable/913829 The Amateur String Quartet] by James Brown III; The Musical Times, Vol. 68, No. 1014 (Aug. 1, 1927)</ref>|''The Amateur String Quartet'' by James Brown III}}
{{quote|''[...] using the metronome as a constant guide to ramp up the speed or to keep the rhythm. This is one of the worst abuses of the metronome. [...] If over used, it can lead to loss of your internal rhythm, loss of musicality, and bio-physical difficulties from over-exposure to rigid repetition<ref>[http://www.pianopractice.org/ ''Fundamentals of Piano Practice'' - Page 20 (pdf-page 22)]</ref>''|''Fundamentals of Piano Practice'' by Chuan C. Chang}}
{{quote|''A good performance is so full of these minute retardations and accelerations that hardly two measures will occupy exactly the same time. It is notorious that to play with the metronome is to play mechanically - the reason being, of course, that we are then playing by the measure, or rather by the beat, instead of by the [[Musical phrasing|phrase]]. A keen musical instinct revolts at playing even a single measure with the metronome: mathematical exactitude gives us a dead body in place of the living musical organism with its ebb and flow of rhythmical energy. It may therefore be suggested, in conclusion, that the use of the metronome, even to determine the average rate of speed, is dangerous.''<ref>[http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?seq=10&view=image&size=100&id=mdp.39015025416416&u=1&num=33 Source] from [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?view=image;size=100;id=mdp.39015025416416;page=root;seq=37;num=31 ''The Tyranny of the Bar-Line''] by [[Daniel Gregory Mason]]; The New music review and church music review, vol 9 (American Guild of Organists); 1909</ref>|[[Daniel Gregory Mason]]}}
{{quote|''What is ''musical'' rhythm? Perhaps it is the difference between a performance that is stiff and metronomic in its strict adherence to the beat, and a performance that flows with elasticity and flexibility that emanates from the music itself. A rhythmically ''musical'' performance seems to take its cues from stylistic considerations, tempo, [[Musical phrasing|phrasing]], and harmonic structure, as well as form. Sometimes we may not be exactly sure what makes a piece sound rhythmically musical, but we know it when we hear it. It should not surprise us that some children do not know instinctively how to play musically. Many youngsters are surrounded by popular music that is rigid and inflexible in its rhythm, characterized by a relentless beat that is often synthesized or computerized. Even some CDs and MIDI disks especially designed for use with piano teaching materials can encourage students to be overly metronomic in their playing. In general, our students may not be familiar with the idea of subtle nuances of tempo, and may need help understanding this.''<ref>[http://claviercompanion.com/RhythmArticle/Rhythm1.html#anchor64156 How do you teach the difference between counting rhythm and ''musical'' rhythm?]</ref>|Jennifer Merry}}

Numerous other quotations critical of the metronome can be found at [[Q:Metronome|Wikiquote: Metronome]].

==See also==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|metronome}}
*[[Rhythm]]
*''[[Poème Symphonique for 100 metronomes]]''
*[[Beat (music)|Beat]]
*[[Tempo rubato]]

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://etd.ohiolink.edu/view.cgi?acc_num=case1270221548 The Metronomic Performance Practice: A History of Rhythm, Metronomes, and the Mechanization of Musicality]; PhD Thesis by Alexander Evan Bonus



[[Category:Pendulums]]
[[Category:Rhythm]]
[[Category:1815]]

[[an:Metronomo]]
[[ca:Metrònom]]
[[cs:Metronom]]
[[da:Metronom]]
[[de:Metronom]]
[[et:Metronoom]]
[[es:Metrónomo]]
[[fa:مترونوم]]
[[fr:Métronome]]
[[gl:Metrónomo]]
[[ko:메트로놈]]
[[hi:तालमान]]
[[hr:Metronom]]
[[io:Metronomo]]
[[it:Metronomo]]
[[he:מטרונום]]
[[ka:მეტრონომი]]
[[la:Metronomus]]
[[lv:Metronoms]]
[[ms:Metronom]]
[[nl:Metronoom]]
[[nds-nl:Metronoom]]
[[ja:メトロノーム]]
[[no:Metronom]]
[[nn:Metronom]]
[[oc:Metronòm]]
[[pl:Metronom]]
[[pt:Metrônomo]]
[[ru:Метроном]]
[[simple:Metronome]]
[[sk:Metronóm]]
[[sl:Metronom]]
[[sr:Метроном]]
[[fi:Metronomi]]
[[sv:Metronom]]
[[tr:Metronom]]
[[uk:Метроном]]
[[zh-yue:拍節機]]
[[zh:節拍器]]

Louisiana blues

2011-06-28T20:38:53Z

Rigaudon: Spelling

{{Infobox Music genre
|name=Louisiana blues
|color=white
|bgcolor=#0000E1
|stylistic_origins= [[Blues]] - [[Cajun music]] - [[calypso music]] - [[Creole music]] - [[Dixieland]] - [[rhythm and blues]] - [[zydeco]]
|cultural_origins=1940 and 50s [[New Orleans]] and [[Baton Rouge]], [[Louisiana]], US
|instruments=[[Keyboard instrument|Keyboards]] - [[saxophone]] - [[Guitar]] - [[bass guitar]] - [[Drum kit|drums]] - [[harmonica]]
|popularity=1950s and 1960s
|subgenres=[[New Orleans blues]] - [[Swamp blues]]
}}
'''Louisiana blues''' is a genre of [[blues]] music that developed in the period after World War II in the state of Louisiana. It is generally divided into two major sub-genres, with the [[jazz]]-influenced [[New Orleans blues]] based around the city and the slower tempo [[swamp blues]] incorporating influences from [[zydeco]] and [[Cajun music]] from around [[Baton Rouge]]. Major artists in the New Orleans tradition include [[Professor Longhair]] and [[Guitar Slim]] and for swamp blues [[Slim Harpo]] and [[Lightnin' Slim]]. Both genres peaked in popularity in the 1960s and were covered by a number of rock artists. Interest declined in the later 1960s but there have been occasional revivals since the 1970s.

==New Orleans blues==
{{Main|New Orleans blues}}
The blues that developed in the 1940s and 1950s in and around the city of [[New Orleans]] was strongly influenced by jazz and incorporated Caribbean influences, it is dominated by piano and saxophone but has also produced major guitar bluesmen.<ref>{{Citation | last = Cub Coda| title = New Orleans blues | journal = Allmusic | date = | url = http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/new-orleans-blues-d396 | archiveurl =http://www.webcitation.org/5zC4e24Fw| archivedate =4 June 2011}}.</ref> Major figures in the genre include [[Professor Longhair]] and [[Guitar Slim]], who both produced major regional, national R&B chart and even mainstream hits.<ref name=Bogdanov2003AMLouisianBlues>R. Unterberger, "Louisiana blues", in V. Bogdanov, C. Woodstra, S. T. Erlewine, eds, ''All Music Guide to the Blues: The Definitive Guide to the Blues'' (Milwaukee, WI: Backbeat Books, 3rd edn., 2003), ISBN 0-87930-736-6, pp. 687-8.</ref>

==Swamp blues==
{{Main|Swamp blues}}
Swamp blues developed around [[Baton Rouge]] in the 1950s and which reached a peak of popularity in the 1960s. It generally has a slow tempo and incorporates influences from other genres of music, particularly the regional styles of [[zydeco]] and [[Cajun music]].<ref>{{Citation | last = Cub Coda| title = Swamp blues | journal = Allmusic | date = | url = http://www.allmusic.com/explore/style/swamp-blues-d3242 | archiveurl =http://www.webcitation.org/5z4S5GyXA| archivedate =30 May 2011}}.</ref> Its most successful proponents included [[Slim Harpo]] and [[Lightnin' Slim]], who enjoyed a number of [[rhythm and blues]] and national hits and whose work was frequently covered by bands of the [[British Invasion]].<ref name=Bogdanov2003AMLouisianBlues>R. Unterberger, "Louisiana blues", in V. Bogdanov, C. Woodstra, S. T. Erlewine, eds, ''All Music Guide to the Blues: The Definitive Guide to the Blues'' (Milwaukee, WI: Backbeat Books, 3rd edn., 2003), ISBN 0-87930-736-6, pp. 687-8.</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Music of Louisiana]]

{{blues}}
{{Louisianarootsmusic}}

[[Category:Blues music genres]]

[[de:Louisiana Blues]]
[[es:Louisiana blues]]
[[fr:Louisiana blues]]
[[nl:Louisiana blues]]
[[pl:Blues luizjański]]
[[pt:Louisiana blues]]
[[simple:Louisiana blues]]

User talk:74.129.102.131

2011-06-28T20:36:30Z

Rigaudon: /* June 2011 */ new section

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== June 2011 ==

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=|link=]] Welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is welcome to contribute to Wikipedia, at least one of [[Special:Contributions/74.129.102.131|your recent edits]], such as the one you made to [[:Eighth note]], did not appear to be constructive and has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. Please use [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|the sandbox]] for any test edits you would like to make, and read the [[Wikipedia:Welcoming committee/Welcome to Wikipedia|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing constructively to this encyclopedia. Thank you. [[User:Rigaudon|Rigaudon]] ([[User talk:Rigaudon|talk]]) 20:36, 28 June 2011 (UTC)

Eighth note

2011-06-28T20:34:54Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 436730901 by 74.129.102.131 (talk)

{{Redirect|Quaver|the cheese-flavored snack food|Quavers}}
{{Unreferenced|date=December 2009}}
[[image:Eighth notes and rest.svg|thumb|180px|right|'''Figure 1.''' An eighth note with stem facing up, an eighth note with stem facing down, and an eighth rest.]]
[[image:Eighth note run.svg|thumb|right|180px|'''Figure 2.''' Four eighth notes beamed together.]]

An '''eighth note''' (in the US and Canada) or a '''quaver''' (other English-speaking countries) is a [[music]]al [[note]] played for one eighth the duration of a [[whole note]], hence the name.

Eighth notes are notated with an oval, filled-in [[note head]] and a straight [[note stem]] with one [[flag (note)|flag]]. (see Figure 1). A related symbol is the eighth [[Rest (music)|rest]] (or quaver rest), which denotes a silence for the same duration.

In [[Unicode]], the symbols U+266A ({{Unicode|♪}}) and U+266B ({{Unicode|♫}}) are an eighth note and beamed pair of eighth notes respectively. The characters are inherited from the early 1980s [[code page 437]], where they have codes 13 and 14 respectively.

As with all notes with stems, the general rule is that eighth notes are drawn with stems to the right of the notehead, facing up, when they are below the middle line of the [[musical staff]]. When they are on or above the middle line, they are drawn with stems on the left of the note head, facing down. Alternatively, stems are used to indicate voicing or parts; all stems for the upper voice's notes (or "part") are drawn facing up, regardless of their position on the staff. Similarly, stems for the next lower part's notes are down facing down. This makes the voices/parts clear to the player and singer.

Flags are always on the right side of the stem, and curve to the right. On stems facing up, the flag starts at the top and curves down; for downward facing stems, the flags start at the bottom of the stem and curve up. When multiple eighth notes or [[sixteenth note]]s (or [[thirty-second note]]s, etc.) are next to each other, the stems may be connected with a [[Beam (music)|beam]] rather than a flag, like the notes in Figure 2.

Eighth notes in 3/8, 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8 are beamed 3 eighth notes at a time.

==Etymology==
The word ''quaver'' comes from the now archaic use of the verb ''to quaver'' meaning to sing in trills.

The note derives from the ''fusa'' of [[mensural notation]]; however, ''fusa'' is the modern Spanish and Portuguese name for the [[thirty-second note]].

The names of this note (and rest) in European languages vary greatly:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Language
!note name
!rest name
|-
|German || Achtelnote || Achtelpause
|-
|French || croche || demi-soupir
|-
|Italian || croma || pausa di croma
|-
|Spanish || corchea || silencio de corchea
|-
|Portuguese || colcheia || pausa de colcheia
|-
|Polish || ósemka || pauza ósemkowa
|-
|Finnish || Kahdeksasosanuotti || Kahdeksasosatauko
|-
|Turkish || sekizlik nota || sekizlik es
|-
|}

The French name, ''croche'' is from the same source as ''crotchet,'' the British name for the [[quarter note]]. The name derives from ''crochata'' ("hooked"), to apply to the flags of the ''semiminima'' (in white notation) and ''fusa'' (in black notation) in [[mensural notation]]; thus the name came to be used for different notes.

==In popular culture==
{{in popular culture|date=June 2011}}
In the climactic ending of the film ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'', eighth and sixteenth notes are mentioned while trying to communicate with aliens using basic tonal vocabulary.

==See also==
*[[Musical notation]]

{{Musical note values}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Eighth Note}}
[[Category:Musical notation]]

[[an:Corchea]]
[[bg:Осмина нота]]
[[ca:Corxera]]
[[cy:Cwafer]]
[[es:Corchea]]
[[eu:Kortxea]]
[[fr:Croche (musique)]]
[[gl:Corchea]]
[[ko:팔분음표]]
[[haw:Hua mele hapawalu]]
[[it:Croma]]
[[oc:Cròcha (solfegi)]]
[[pl:Ósemka (nuta)]]
[[pt:Colcheia]]
[[sv:Åttondelsnot]]
[[zh-yue:八分音符]]
[[zh:八分音符]]

Eighth note

2011-06-28T20:33:21Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 436732047 by 74.129.102.131 (talk)

{{Redirect|Quaver|the cheese-flavored snack food|Quavers}}
{{Unreferenced|date=December 2009}}
[[image:Eighth notes and rest.svg|thumb|180px|right|'''Figure 1.''' An eighth note with stem facing up, an eighth note with stem facing down, and an eighth rest.]]
[[image:Eighth note run.svg|thumb|right|180px|'''Figure 2.''' Four eighth notes beamed together.]]

An '''eighth note''' (in the US and Canada) or a '''quaver''' (other English-speaking countries) is a [[music]]al [[note]] played for one eighth the duration of a [[whole note]], hence the name squirrel.

Eighth notes are notated with an oval, filled-in [[note head]] and a straight [[note stem]] with one [[flag (note)|flag]]. (see Figure 1). A related symbol is the eighth [[Rest (music)|rest]] (or quaver rest), which denotes a silence for the same duration.

In [[Unicode]], the symbols U+266A ({{Unicode|♪}}) and U+266B ({{Unicode|♫}}) are an eighth note and beamed pair of eighth notes respectively. The characters are inherited from the early 1980s [[code page 437]], where they have codes 13 and 14 respectively.

As with all notes with stems, the general rule is that eighth notes are drawn with stems to the right of the notehead, facing up, when they are below the middle line of the [[musical staff]]. When they are on or above the middle line, they are drawn with stems on the left of the note head, facing down. Alternatively, stems are used to indicate voicing or parts; all stems for the upper voice's notes (or "part") are drawn facing up, regardless of their position on the staff. Similarly, stems for the next lower part's notes are down facing down. This makes the voices/parts clear to the player and singer.

Flags are always on the right side of the stem, and curve to the right. On stems facing up, the flag starts at the top and curves down; for downward facing stems, the flags start at the bottom of the stem and curve up. When multiple eighth notes or [[sixteenth note]]s (or [[thirty-second note]]s, etc.) are next to each other, the stems may be connected with a [[Beam (music)|beam]] rather than a flag, like the notes in Figure 2.

Eighth notes in 3/8, 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8 are beamed 3 eighth notes at a time.

==Etymology==
The word ''quaver'' comes from the now archaic use of the verb ''to quaver'' meaning to sing in trills.

The note derives from the ''fusa'' of [[mensural notation]]; however, ''fusa'' is the modern Spanish and Portuguese name for the [[thirty-second note]].

The names of this note (and rest) in European languages vary greatly:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Language
!note name
!rest name
|-
|German || Achtelnote || Achtelpause
|-
|French || croche || demi-soupir
|-
|Italian || croma || pausa di croma
|-
|Spanish || corchea || silencio de corchea
|-
|Portuguese || colcheia || pausa de colcheia
|-
|Polish || ósemka || pauza ósemkowa
|-
|Finnish || Kahdeksasosanuotti || Kahdeksasosatauko
|-
|Turkish || sekizlik nota || sekizlik es
|-
|}

The French name, ''croche'' is from the same source as ''crotchet,'' the British name for the [[quarter note]]. The name derives from ''crochata'' ("hooked"), to apply to the flags of the ''semiminima'' (in white notation) and ''fusa'' (in black notation) in [[mensural notation]]; thus the name came to be used for different notes.

==In popular culture==
{{in popular culture|date=June 2011}}
In the climactic ending of the film ''[[Close Encounters of the Third Kind]]'', eighth and sixteenth notes are mentioned while trying to communicate with aliens using basic tonal vocabulary.

==See also==
*[[Musical notation]]

{{Musical note values}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Eighth Note}}
[[Category:Musical notation]]

[[an:Corchea]]
[[bg:Осмина нота]]
[[ca:Corxera]]
[[cy:Cwafer]]
[[es:Corchea]]
[[eu:Kortxea]]
[[fr:Croche (musique)]]
[[gl:Corchea]]
[[ko:팔분음표]]
[[haw:Hua mele hapawalu]]
[[it:Croma]]
[[oc:Cròcha (solfegi)]]
[[pl:Ósemka (nuta)]]
[[pt:Colcheia]]
[[sv:Åttondelsnot]]
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User talk:63.247.60.254

2011-06-24T19:03:39Z

Rigaudon: /* June 2011 */

{{sharedip|[[Maine Medical Center]]}}
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{{user contribs|2}}hi there
== November 2009 ==

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==December 2009==
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== end of my (short) time as a wikipedian. ==

i have decided to retire from Wikipedia do to severe health problems.([[thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura]] requiring my spleen to be removed.)as well as some difficulty with making neutral, constructive e edits.other users on the same IP address may continue editing,but i am retiring and will almost certainly not edit wikipedia again.[[Special:Contributions/63.247.60.254|63.247.60.254]] ([[User talk:63.247.60.254#top|talk]]) 20:47, 27 December 2009 (UTC)

== January 2010 ==

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== I have been blocked. ==

I was trying to edit hurricane ike, and it said I have been autoblocked because usernomorebuzzcuts has editied here. What going on?

== January 2011 ==
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== June 2011 ==

[[Image:Information.png|25px|alt=|link=]] Welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is welcome to contribute to Wikipedia, at least one of [[Special:Contributions/63.247.60.254|your recent edits]], such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon_5?diff=436020923 the edit] you made to [[:Maroon 5]] has been reverted, as it appears to be unconstructive. Use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]] for testing; if you believe the edit was constructive, ensure that you provide an informative [[Help:Edit summary|edit summary]]. You may also wish to read the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|introduction to editing]]. Thank you.  [[User:Katieh5584|Katieh5584]] ([[User talk:Katieh5584|talk]]) 18:53, 24 June 2011 (UTC)

[[File:Information.svg|25px|alt=|link=]] Welcome and thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test on the page [[:Musical instrument]] worked, and it has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. If you would like to experiment further, please use the '''[[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]''' instead. Please take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to [[Wikipedia|this encyclopedia]]. Thank you. [[User:Rigaudon|Rigaudon]] ([[User talk:Rigaudon|talk]]) 19:03, 24 June 2011 (UTC)

Musical instrument

2011-06-24T19:02:35Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 436021961 by 63.247.60.254 (talk)

A '''musical instrument''' is a device created or adapted for the purpose of making musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces [[sound]] can serve as a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument. The history of musical instruments dates back to the beginnings of human culture. The academic study of musical instruments is called [[organology]].

The date and origin of the first device of disputed status as a musical instrument dates back as far as 67,000 years old; artifacts commonly accepted to be early flutes date back as far as about 37,000 years old. However, most historians believe determining a specific time of musical instrument invention to be impossible due to the subjectivity of the definition.

Musical instruments developed independently in many populated regions of the world. However, contact among civilizations resulted in the rapid spread and adaptation of most instruments in places far from their origin. By the [[Middle Ages]], instruments from [[Mesopotamia]] could be found in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and Europeans were playing instruments from North Africa. Development in the Americas occurred at a slower pace, but cultures of North, Central, and South America shared musical instruments.

==Definition==
A musical instrument can be broadly defined as any device created or adapted for the purpose of making musical sounds.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} Once humans moved from making sounds with their bodies—for example, by clapping—to using objects to create music from sounds, musical instruments were born.<ref name="Montagu1">{{harvnb|Montagu|2007|pp=1}}</ref>

==Archaeology==
Researchers have discovered archaeological evidence of musical instruments in many parts of the world. Some finds are 67,000 years old, however their status as musical instruments is often in dispute. Consensus solidifies about artefacts dated back to around 37,000 years old and later. Only artefacts made from durable materials or using durable methods tend to survive. As such, the specimens found cannot be irrefutably placed as the earliest musical instruments.<ref name="Blades34">{{harvnb|Blades|1992|pp=34}}</ref>

[[File:Image-Divje01.jpg|thumb|Drawing of disputed flute by Bob Fink]]
In July 1995, Slovenian archaeologist Ivan Turk discovered a bone carving in the northwest region of [[Slovenia]]. The carving, named the [[Divje Babe flute]], features four holes that Canadian musicologist Bob Fink determined could have been used to play four notes of a [[diatonic scale]]. Researchers estimate the flute's age to be between 43,400 and 67,000 years, making it the oldest known musical instrument and the only musical instrument associated with the [[Neanderthal]] culture.<ref name="SAS">{{harvnb|Slovenian Academy of Sciences|1997|pp=203–205}}</ref> However, some archaeologists question the flute's status as a musical instrument.<ref name="Chase and Nowell">{{harvnb|Chase and Nowell|1998|pp=549}}</ref> German archaeologists have found [[mammoth]] bone and [[swan]] bone flutes dating back to 30,000 to 37,000 years old in the [[Swabian Alps]]. The flutes were made in the [[Upper Paleolithic]] age, and are more commonly accepted as being the oldest known musical instruments.<ref name="CBC">{{harvnb|CBC Arts|2004}}</ref>

Archaeological evidence of musical instruments was discovered in excavations at the Royal Cemetery in the [[Sumer]]ian city of [[Ur]] (see [[Lyres of Ur]]). These instruments include nine [[lyre]]s, two [[harp]]s, a silver double [[flute]], [[sistra]] and [[cymbal]]s. A set of reed-sounded silver pipes discovered in Ur was the likely predecessor of modern [[bagpipes]].<ref name="collinson">{{harvnb|Collinson|1975|pp=10}}</ref> The cylindrical pipes feature three side-holes that allowed players to produce whole tone scales.<ref name="Campbell82">{{harvnb|Campbell|2004|pp=82}}</ref> These excavations, carried out by [[Leonard Woolley]] in the 1920s, uncovered non-degradable fragments of instruments and the voids left by the degraded segments which, together, have been used to reconstruct them.<ref name="de Schauensee">{{harvnb|de Schauensee|2002|pp=1–16}}</ref> The graves to which these instruments were related have been [[carbon dated]] to between 2600 and 2500 BCE, providing evidence that these instruments were being used in Sumeria by this time.<ref name="Moorey">{{harvnb|Moorey|1977|pp=24–40}}</ref>

A [[cuneiform]] [[tablet]] from [[Nippur]] in [[Mesopotamia]] dated to 2000 BCE indicates the names of strings on the lyre and represents the earliest known example of [[music notation]].<ref name="West">{{harvnb|West|1994|pp=161–179}}</ref>

==History==
Scholars agree that there are no completely reliable methods of determining the exact chronology of musical instruments across cultures. Comparing and organizing instruments based on their complexity is misleading, since advancements in musical instruments have sometimes reduced complexity. For example, construction of early [[slit drum]]s involved felling and hollowing out large trees; later slit drums were made by opening bamboo stalks, a much simpler task.<ref name="Sachs60">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=60}}</ref> It is likewise misleading to arrange the development of musical instruments by workmanship since all cultures advance at different levels and have access to different materials. For example, anthropologists attempting to compare musical instruments made by two cultures that existed at the same time but who differed in organization, culture, and handicraft cannot determine which instruments are more "primitive".<ref name="Sachs61">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=61}}</ref> Ordering instruments by geography is also partially unreliable, as one cannot determine when and how cultures contacted one another and shared knowledge.

German musicologist [[Curt Sachs]], one of the most prominent musicologists<ref name="Brown">{{harvnb|Brown|2008}}</ref> and musical ethnologists<ref name="Baines37">{{harvnb|Baines|1993|p=37}}</ref> in modern times, proposed that a geographical chronology until approximately 1400 is preferable, however, due to its limited subjectivity.<ref name="Sachs63">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=63}}</ref> Beyond 1400, one can follow the overall development of musical instruments by time period.<ref name="Sachs63"/>

The science of marking the order of musical instrument development relies on archaeological artifacts, artistic depictions, and literary references. Since data in one research path can be inconclusive, all three paths provide a better historical picture.<ref name="Blades34" />

=== Primitive and prehistoric ===
[[File:Two Teponaztli.jpg|thumb|Two [[Aztec]] slit drums, called ''teponaztli''. The characteristic "'''H'''" slits can be seen on the top of the drum in the foreground]]
Until the 19th century AD, European written music histories began with mythological accounts of how musical instruments were invented. Such accounts included [[Jubal (Bible)|Jubal]], descendant of [[Cain]] and "father of all such as handle the harp and the organ", [[Pan (mythology)|Pan]], inventor of the [[Pan flute|pan pipes]], and [[Mercury (mythology)|Mercury]], who is said to have made a dried [[tortoise]] shell into the first [[lyre]]. Modern histories have replaced such mythology with anthropological speculation, occasionally informed by archeological evidence. Scholars agree that there was no definitive "invention" of the musical instrument since the definition of the term "musical instrument" is completely subjective to both the scholar and the would-be inventor. For example, a ''[[Homo habilis]]'' slapping his body could be the makings of a musical instrument regardless of the being's intent.<ref name="Sachs297">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=297}}</ref>

Among the first devices external to the human body considered to be instruments are [[Rattle (percussion)|rattles]], stampers, and various [[drum]]s.<ref name="Blades36">{{harvnb|Blades|1992|pp=36}}</ref> These earliest instruments evolved due to the human motor impulse to add sound to emotional movements such as dancing.<ref name="Sachs26">{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=26}}</ref> Eventually, some cultures assigned ritual functions to their musical instruments. Those cultures developed more complex percussion instruments and other instruments such as ribbon reeds, flutes, and trumpets. Some of these labels carry far different connotations from those used in modern day; early flutes and trumpets are so-labeled for their basic operation and function rather than any resemblance to modern instruments.<ref name=Sachs34>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=34–52}}</ref> Among early cultures for whom drums developed ritual, even sacred importance are the [[Chukchi people]] of the [[Russian Far East]], the indigenous people of [[Melanesia]], and many cultures of [[Africa]]. In fact, drums were pervasive throughout every African culture.<ref name="Blades51">{{harvnb|Blades|1992|pp=51}}</ref> One East African tribe, the [[Wahinda]], believed it was so holy that seeing a drum would be fatal to any person other than the sultan.<ref name=Sachs35>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=35}}</ref>

Humans eventually developed the concept of using musical instruments for producing a [[melody]]. Until this time in the evolutions of musical instruments, melody was common only in singing. Similar to the process of [[reduplication]] in language, instrument players first developed repetition and then arrangement. An early form of melody was produced by pounding two stamping tubes of slightly different sizes—one tube would produce a "clear" sound and the other would answer with a "darker" sound. Such instrument pairs also included [[Bullroarer (music)|bullroarers]], slit drums, shell trumpets, and skin drums. Cultures who used these instrument pairs associated genders with them; the "father" was the bigger or more energetic instrument, while the "mother" was the smaller or duller instrument. Musical instruments existed in this form for thousands of years before patterns of three or more tones would evolve in the form of the earliest [[xylophone]].<ref name=Sachs52>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=52–53}}</ref> Xylophones originated in the mainland and archipelago of [[Southeast Asia]], eventually spreading to Africa, the Americas, and Europe.<ref name="Marcuse24">{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|pp=24–28}}</ref> Along with xylophones, which ranged from simple sets of three "leg bars" to carefully tuned sets of parallel bars, various cultures developed instruments such as the [[harp|ground harp]], [[zither|ground zither]], [[musical bow]], and [[Jew's harp|jaw harp]].<ref name=Sachs53>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=53–59}}</ref>

=== Antiquity ===
Images of musical instruments begin to appear in Mesopotamian artifacts in 2800 BC or earlier. Beginning around 2000 BC, [[Sumer]]ian and [[Babylon]]ian cultures began delineating two distinct classes of musical instruments due to [[division of labor]] and the evolving class system. Popular instruments, simple and playable by anyone, evolved differently from professional instruments whose development focused on effectiveness and skill.<ref name=Sachs67>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=67}}</ref> Despite this development, very few musical instruments have been recovered in [[Mesopotamia]]. Scholars must rely on artifacts and [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] texts written in [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] or [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] to reconstruct the early history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia. Even the process of assigning names to these instruments is challenging since there is no clear distinction among various instruments and the words used to describe them.<ref name=Sachs68>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=68–69}}</ref> Although Sumerian and Babylonian artists mainly depicted ceremonial instruments, historians have been able to distinguish six [[idiophones]] used in early Mesopotamia: concussion clubs, clappers, [[Sistrum|sistra]], bells, cymbals, and rattles.<ref name=Sachs69>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=69}}</ref> Sistra are depicted prominently in a great relief of [[King Amenhotep III|Amenhotep III]],<ref name=Remnant168>{{harvnb|Remnant|1989|p=168}}</ref> and are of particular interest because similar designs have been found in far-reaching places such as [[Tbilisi]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and among the Native American [[Yaqui people|Yaqui]] tribe.<ref name=Sachs70>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=70}}</ref> The people of Mesopotamia preferred stringed instruments to any other, as evidenced by their proliferation in Mesopotamian figurines, plaques, and seals. Innumerable varieties of harps are depicted, as well as lyres and lutes, the forerunner of modern stringed instruments such as the violin.<ref name=Sachs82>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=82}}</ref>

[[File:Egyptianluteplayers.jpg|thumb|left|Ancient Egyptian tomb painting depicting lute players, [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th Dynasty]] (c. 1350 BC)]]
Musical instruments used by the Egyptian culture before 2700 BC bore striking similarity to those of Mesopotamia, leading historians to conclude that the civilizations must have been in contact with one another. Sachs notes that Egypt did not possess any instruments that the Sumerian culture did not also possess.<ref name=Sachs86>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=86}}</ref> However, by 2700 BC the cultural contacts seem to have dissipated; the lyre, a prominent ceremonial instrument in Sumer, did not appear in Egypt for another 800 years.<ref name=Sachs86 /> Clappers and concussion sticks appear on Egyptian vases as early as 3000 BC. The civilization also made use of sistra, vertical flutes, double clarinets, arched and angular harps, and various drums.<ref name=Sachs88>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=88–97}}</ref> Little history is available in the period between 2700 BC and 1500 BC, as Egypt (and indeed, Babylon) entered a long violent period of war and destruction. This period saw the [[Kassites]] destroy the Babylonian empire in Mesopotamia and the [[Hyksos]] destroy the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt]]. When the Pharaohs of Egypt conquered Southwest Asia in around 1500 BC, the cultural ties to Mesopotamia were renewed and Egypt's musical instruments also reflected heavy influence from Asiatic cultures.<ref name=Sachs86 /> Under their new cultural influences, the people of the [[New Kingdom]] began using oboes, trumpets, lyres, lutes, castanets, and cymbals.<ref name=Sachs98>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=98–104}}</ref>

In contrast with Mesopotamia and Egypt, professional musicians did not exist in [[Israel]] between 2000 and 1000 BC. While the history of musical instruments in Mesopotamia and Egypt relies on artistic representations, the culture in Israel produced few such representations. Scholars must therefore rely on information gleaned from the [[Bible]] and the [[Talmud]].<ref name=Sachs105>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=105}}</ref> The Hebrew texts mention two prominent instruments associated with [[Jubal (Bible)|Jubal]], ugabs and [[kinnor]]s. These may be translated as pan pipes and lyres, respectively.<ref name=Sachs106>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=106}}</ref> Other instruments of the period included tofs, or frame drums, small bells or jingles called pa'amon, [[shofar]]s, and the trumpet-like hasosra.<ref name=Sachs108>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=108–113}}</ref> The introduction of a monarchy in Israel during the 11th century BC produced the first professional musicians and with them a drastic increase in the number and variety of musical instruments.<ref name=Sachs114>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=114}}</ref> However, identifying and classifying the instruments remains a challenge due to the lack of artistic interpretations. For example, stringed instruments of uncertain design called nevals and asors existed, but neither archaeology nor etymology can clearly define them.<ref name=Sachs116>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=116}}</ref> In her book ''A Survey of Musical Instruments'', American musicologist Sibyl Marcuse proposes that the nevel must be similar to vertical harp due to its relation to "nabla", the Phoenician term for "harp".<ref name="Marcuse385">{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p=385}}</ref>

In [[Greece]], [[Rome]], and [[Etruria]], the use and development of musical instruments stood in stark contrast to those cultures' achievements in architecture and sculpture. The instruments of the time were simple and virtually all of them were imported from other cultures.<ref name=Sachs128>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=128}}</ref> Lyres were the principal instrument, as musicians used them to honor the gods.<ref name=Sachs129>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=129}}</ref> Greeks played a variety of wind instruments they classified as ''aulos'' (reeds) or ''syrinx'' (flutes); Greek writing from that time reflects a serious study of reed production and playing technique.<ref name=Campbell82/> Romans played reed instruments named ''tibia'' featuring side-holes that could be opened or closed, allowing for greater flexibility in playing modes.<ref name=Campbell83>{{harvnb|Campbell|2004|p=83}}</ref> Other instruments in common use in the region included vertical harps derived from those of the [[Orient]], lutes of Egyptian design, various pipes and organs, and clappers, which were played primarily by women.<ref name=Sachs149>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=149}}</ref>

Evidence of musical instruments in use by early civilizations of [[India]] is almost completely lacking, making it impossible to reliably attribute instruments to the [[Munda languages|Munda]] and [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] language-speaking cultures that first settled the area. Rather, the history of musical instruments in the area begins with the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] that emerged around 3000 BC. Various rattles and whistles found among excavated artifacts are the only physical evidence of musical instruments.<ref name=Sachs151>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=151}}</ref> A clay statuette indicates the use of drums, and examination of the [[Indus script]] has also revealed representations of vertical arched harps identical in design to those depicted in Sumerian artifacts. This discovery is among many indications that the Indus Valley and Sumerian cultures maintained cultural contact. Subsequent developments in musical instruments in India occurred with the [[Rigveda]], or religious hymns. These songs used various drums, shell trumpets, harps, and flutes.<ref name=Sachs152>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=152}}</ref> Other prominent instruments in use during the early centuries AD were the [[Snake charming|snake charmer's]] [[double clarinet]], [[bagpipes]], barrel drums, cross flutes, and short lutes. In all, India had no unique musical instruments until the [[Middle Ages]].<ref name=Sachs161>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=161}}</ref>

[[File:Mokugyo.jpg|thumb|A Chinese wooden fish, used in Buddhist recitations]]
Musical instruments such as zithers appear in [[Chinese literature]] written around 1100 BC and earlier.<ref name=Sachs185>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=185}}</ref> Early [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese philosophers]] such as [[Confucius]] (551–479 BC), [[Mencius]] (372–289 BC), and [[Laozi]] shaped the development of musical instruments in China, adopting an attitude toward music similar to that of the Greeks. The Chinese believed that music was an essential part of character and community, and developed a unique system of classifying their musical instruments according to their material makeup.<ref name=Sachs162>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=162–164}}</ref> [[Idiophones]] were extremely important in Chinese music, hence the majority of early instruments were idiophones. Poetry of the [[Shang Dynasty]] mentions bells, chimes, drums, and globular flutes carved from bone, the latter of which has been excavated and preserved by archaeologists.<ref name=Sachs166>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=166}}</ref> The [[Zhou Dynasty]] introduced percussion instruments such as clappers, troughs, [[wooden fish]], and [[Yu (percussion instrument)|yu]]. Wind instruments such as flute, pan-pipes, pitch-pipes, and mouth organs also appeared in this time period.<ref name=Sachs178>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=178}}</ref> The short lute, a pear-shaped form of a western instrument that spread through many cultures, came into use in China during the [[Han Dynasty]].<ref name=Sachs189>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=189}}</ref>

Although civilizations in [[Central America]] attained a relatively high level of sophistication by the eleventh century AD, they lagged behind other civilizations in the development of musical instruments. For example, they had no stringed instruments; all of their instruments were idiophones, drums, and wind instruments such as flutes and trumpets. Of these, only the flute was capable of producing a melody.<ref name=Sachs192>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=192}}</ref> In contrast, [[pre-Columbian]] [[South America]]n civilizations in areas such as modern-day [[Peru]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Chile]] were less advanced culturally but more advanced musically. South American cultures of the time used pan-pipes as well as varieties of flutes, idiophones, drums, and shell or wood trumpets.<ref name=Sachs196>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=196–201}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
During the period of time loosely referred to as the [[Middle Ages]], China developed a tradition of integrating musical influence obtained by either conquering foreign countries or by being conquered. The first record of this type of influence is in 384 AD, when China established an East Turkestanic orchestra in its imperial court after a conquest in [[Turkestan]]. Influences from India, [[Mongolia]], and other countries followed. In fact, Chinese tradition attributes most musical instruments of the time to those countries.<ref name=Sachs207>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=207}}</ref> Cymbals and gongs gained popularity, along with more advanced trumpets, clarinets, oboes, flutes, drums, and lutes.<ref name=Sachs218>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=218}}</ref> Some of the first bowed zithers appeared in China in the 9th or 10th century, influenced by Mongolian culture.<ref name=Sachs216>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=216}}</ref>

India experienced similar development to China in the Middle Ages; however, stringed instruments developed differently to accommodate different styles of music. While stringed instruments of China were designed to produce precise tones capable of matching the tones of chimes, stringed instruments of India were considerably more flexible. This flexibility suited the slides and [[tremolos]] of Hindu music. Rhythm was of paramount importance in Indian music of the time, as evidenced by the frequent depiction of drums in reliefs dating to the Middle Ages. The emphasis on rhythm is an aspect native to Indian music.<ref name=Sachs221>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=221}}</ref> Historians divide the development of musical instruments in Middle Age India between pre-Islamic and Islamic periods due to the different influence each period provided.<ref name=Sachs222>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=222}}</ref> In pre-Islamic times, idiophones such hand bells, cymbals, and peculiar instruments resembling gongs came into wide use in Hindu music. The gong-like instrument was a bronze disk that was struck with a hammer instead of a mallet. Tubular drums, stick zithers named [[veena]], short fiddles, double and triple flutes, coiled trumpets, and curved India horns emerged in this time period.<ref name=Sachs223>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=222–228}}</ref> Islamic influences brought new types of drums, perfectly circular or octagonal as opposed to the irregular pre-Islamic drums.<ref name=Sachs229>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=229}}</ref> Persian influence brought oboes and [[sitars]], although Persian sitars had three strings and Indian version had from four to seven.<ref name=Sachs231>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=231}}</ref>

[[File:Traditional indonesian instruments.jpg|thumb|left|An Indonesian metallophone]]
Southeast Asian musical innovations include those during a period of Indian influence that ended around 920 AD.<ref name=Sachs236>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=236}}</ref> [[Balinese people|Balinese]] and [[Javanese people|Javanese]] music made use of [[xylophones]] and [[metallophones]], bronze versions of the former.<ref name=Sachs238>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=238–239}}</ref> The most prominent and important musical instrument of Southeast Asia was the gong. While the gong likely originated in the geographical area between [[Tibet]] and [[Burma]], it was part of every category of human activity in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] including [[Java]].<ref name=Sachs240>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=240}}</ref>

[[Javanese music]]

The areas of Mesopotamia and the [[Arabian Peninsula]] experiences rapid growth and sharing of musical instruments once they were united by [[Islamic culture]] in the seventh century.<ref name=Sachs246>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=246}}</ref> Frame drums and cylindrical drums of various depths were immensely important in all genres of music.<ref name=Sachs249>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=249}}</ref> Conical oboes were involved in the music that accompanied wedding and circumcision ceremonies. Persian miniatures provide information on the development of [[timpani|kettle drums]] in Mesopotamia that spread as far as Java.<ref name=Sachs250>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=250}}</ref> Various lutes, zithers, [[Hammered dulcimer|dulcimers]], and harps spread as far as [[Madagascar]] to the south and modern-day [[Sulawesi]] to the east.<ref name=Sachs251>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=251–254}}</ref>

Despite the influences of Greece and Rome, most musical instruments in Europe during the Middles Ages came from Asia. The lyre is the only musical instrument that may have been invented in Europe until this period.<ref name=Sachs260>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=260}}</ref> Stringed instruments were prominent in Middle Age Europe. The central and northern regions used mainly lyres, stringed instruments with [[Neck (music)|necks]], while the southern region used lutes, which featured a two-armed body and a crossbar.<ref name="Sachs260"/> Various harps served Central and Northern Europe as far north as Ireland, where the harp eventually became a national symbol.<ref name=Sachs263>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=263}}</ref> Lyres propagated through the same areas, as far east as [[Estonia]].<ref name=Sachs265>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=265}}</ref> European music between 800 and 1100 became more sophisticated, more frequently requiring instruments capable of [[polyphony]]. The [[Persian people|Persian]] geographer of the 9th century ([[Ibn Khordadbeh]]), mentioned in his lexicographical discussion of music instruments that in the [[Byzantine Empire]] typical instruments included the ''urghun'' ([[Organ (music)|organ]]), ''shilyani'' (probably a type of [[harp]] or [[lyre]]), ''salandj'' (probably a [[bagpipe]]) and the ''[[Byzantine lyra]]'' (Greek: λύρα ~ lūrā) .<ref name=Kartomi124>{{harvnb|Kartomi|1990|p=124}}</ref> [[Byzantine lyra|Lyra]] was a [[Medieval music|medieval]] [[pear-shaped]] [[Bow (music)|bowed]] string instrument with three to five [[Strings (music)|strings]], held upright and is an ancestor of most European bowed instruments, including the [[violin]].<ref name=Grillet29>{{harvnb|Grillet|1901|p=29}}</ref> The [[monochord]] served as a precise measure of the notes of a musical scale, allowing more accurate musical arrangements.<ref name=Sachs269>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=269}}</ref> Mechanical [[Hurdy gurdy|hurdy-gurdies]] allowed single musicians to play more complicated arrangements than a fiddle would; both were prominent folk instruments in the Middle Ages.<ref name=Sachs271>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=271}}</ref><ref name=Sachs274>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=274}}</ref> Southern Europeans played short and long lutes whose pegs extended to the sides, unlike the rear-facing pegs of Central and Northern European instruments.<ref name=Sachs273>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=273}}</ref> Idiophones such as bells and clappers served various practical purposes, such as warning of the approach of a [[Leprosy|leper]].<ref name=Sachs278>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=278}}</ref> The ninth century revealed the first [[bagpipes]], which spread throughout Europe and had many uses from folk instruments to military instruments.<ref name=Sachs281>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=281}}</ref> The construction of pneumatic [[Organ (music)|organs]] evolved in Europe starting in fifth century [[Spain]], spreading to [[England]] in about 700.<ref name=Sachs284>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=284}}</ref> The resulting instruments varied in size and use from portable organs worn around the neck to large pipe organs.<ref name=Sachs286>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=286}}</ref> Literary accounts of organs being played in English [[Benedictine]] abbeys toward the end of the tenth century are the first references to organs being connected to churches.<ref name=Bicknell13>{{harvnb|Bicknell|1999|p=13}}</ref> Reed players of the Middle Ages were limited to oboes; no evidence of clarinets exists during this period.<ref name=Sachs288>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=288}}</ref>

=== Modern ===
==== Renaissance ====
Musical instrument development was dominated by the Western Occident from 1400 on—indeed, the most profound changes occurred during the [[Renaissance]] period. Instruments took on other purposes than accompanying singing or dance, and performers used them as solo instruments. Keyboards and lutes developed as polyphonic instruments, and composers arranged increasingly complex pieces using more advanced [[tablature]]. Composers also began designing pieces of music for specific instruments.<ref name="Sachs297"/> In the latter half of the sixteenth century, [[orchestration]] came into common practice as a method of writing music for a variety of instruments. Composers now specified orchestration where individual performers once applied their own discretion.<ref name=Sachs298>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=298}}</ref> The polyphonic style dominated popular music, and the instrument makers responded accordingly.<ref name=Sachs351>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=351}}</ref>

Beginning in about 1400, the rate of development of musical instruments increased in earnest as compositions demanded more dynamic sounds. People also began writing books about creating, playing, and cataloging musical instruments; the first such book was [[Sebastian Virdung|Sebastian Virdung's]] 1511 treatise ''Musica getuscht und angezogen'' (English: ''Music Germanized and Abstracted'').<ref name="Sachs298"/> Virdung's work is noted as being particularly thorough for including descriptions of "irregular" instruments such as hunters' horns and cow bells, though Virdung is critical of the same. Other books followed, including [[Arnolt Schlick|Arnolt Schlick's]] ''Spiegel der Orgelmacher und Organisten'' (English: ''Mirror of Organ Makers and Organ Players'') the same year, a treatise on organ building and organ playing.<ref name=Sachs299>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=299}}</ref> Of the instructional books and references published in the Renaissance era, one is noted for its detailed description and depiction of all wind and stringed instruments, including their relative sizes. This book, the ''Syntagma musicum'' by Michael Praetorius, is now considered an authoritative reference of sixteenth century musical instruments.<ref name=Sachs301>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=301}}</ref>

In the sixteenth century, musical instrument builders gave most instruments, such as the violin, the "classical shapes" they retain today. An emphasis on aesthetic beauty also developed—listeners were as pleased with the physical appearance of an instrument as they were with its sound. Therefore, builders paid special attention to materials and workmanship, and instruments became collectibles in homes and museums.<ref name=Sachs302>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=302}}</ref> It was during this period that makers began constructing instruments of the same type in various sizes to meet the demand of ''consorts'', or ensembles playing works written for these groups of instruments.<ref name=Sachs303>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=303}}</ref> Instrument builders developed other features that endure today. For example, while organs with multiple keyboards and pedals already existed, the first organs with [[Organ stop|solo stops]] emerged in the early fifteenth century. These stops were meant to produce a mixture of timbres, a development needed for the complexity of music of the time.<ref name=Sachs307>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=307}}</ref> Trumpets evolved into their modern form to improve portability, and players used [[Mute (music)|mutes]] to properly blend into [[chamber music]].<ref name=Sachs328>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=328}}</ref>

==== Baroque ====
Beginning in the seventeenth century, composers began creating works of a more emotional style. They felt that a [[Monophony|monophonic]] style better suited the emotional music and wrote musical parts for instruments that would complement the singing human voice.<ref name=Sachs351/> As a result, many instruments that were incapable of larger ranges and dynamics, and therefore were seen as unemotional, fell out of favor. One such instrument was the oboe.<ref name=Sachs352>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=352}}</ref> Bowed instruments such as the violin, [[viola]], [[baryton]], and various lutes dominated popular music.<ref name=Sachs353>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|pp=353–357}}</ref> Beginning in around 1750, however, the lute disappeared from musical compositions in favor of the rising popularity of the [[guitar]].<ref name=Sachs374>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=374}}</ref> As the prevalence of [[string orchestra]]s rose, wind instruments such as the flute, oboe, and bassoon began to be readmitted to counteract the monotony of hearing only strings.<ref name=Sachs380>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=380}}</ref>

In the mid-seventeenth century, what was known as a hunter's horn underwent transformation into an "art instrument" consisting of a lengthened tube, a narrower bore, a wider bell, and much wider range. The details of this transformation are unclear, but the modern [[Horn (instrument)|horn]] or, more colloquially, French horn, had emerged by 1725.<ref name=Sachs384>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=384}}</ref> The slide trumpet appeared, a variation which includes a long-throated mouthpiece that slid in and out, allowing the player infinite adjustments in pitch. This variation on the trumpet was unpopular due to the difficulty involved in playing it.<ref name=Sachs385>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=385}}</ref> Organs underwent tonal changes in the Baroque period, as manufacturers such as [[Abraham Jordan]] of London made the stops more expressive and added devices such as expressive pedals. Sachs viewed this trend as a "degeneration" of the general organ sound.<ref name=Sachs386>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=386}}</ref>

==== Classical ====
During the Classical period, lasting from roughly 1750 to 1830, a great deal of musical instruments capable of producing new timbres were developed and introduced into popular music. New instruments such as the clarinet, saxophone, and tuba became fixtures in orchestras. Instruments such as the clarinet also grew into entire "families" of instruments capable of different ranges: small clarinets, normal clarinets, bass clarinets, and so on.<ref name=Sachs388>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p=388}}</ref>

==Classification==
{{main|Musical instrument classification}}
There are many different methods of classifying musical instruments. Various methods examine aspects such as the physical properties of the instrument (material, color, shape, etc.), the use for the instrument, the means by which music is produced with the instrument, the [[Range (music)|range]] of the instrument, and the instrument's place in an [[orchestra]] or other ensemble. Most methods are specific to a geographic area or cultural group and were developed to serve the unique classification requirements of the group.<ref name=Montagu210>{{harvnb|Montagu|2007|p=210}}</ref> The problem with these specialized classification schemes is that they tend to break down once they are applied outside of their original area. For example, a system based on instrument use would fail if a culture invented a new use for the same instrument. Scholars recognize Hornbostel-Sachs as the only system that applies to any culture and, more important, provides only possible classification for each instrument.<ref name=Montagu211>{{harvnb|Montagu|2007|p=211}}</ref><ref name=Kartomi176>{{harvnb|Kartomi|1990|p=176}}</ref>

===Ancient systems===
An ancient system named the [[Natya Shastra]], written by the sage [[Bharata Muni]] and dating from between 200 BC and 200 AD, divides instruments into four main classification groups: instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating strings; percussion instruments with skin heads; instruments where the sound is produced by vibrating columns of air; and "solid", or non-skin, percussion instruments. In 1880, [[Victor-Charles Mahillon]] adapted this system and assigned Greek labels to the four classifications: ''chordophones'', ''membranophones'', ''aerophones'', and ''autophones''.<ref name=Montagu211/>

===Hornbostel-Sachs===
[[Erich von Hornbostel]] and [[Curt Sachs]] adopted Mahillon's scheme and published an extensive new scheme for classification in ''Zeitschrift für Ethnologie'' in 1914. Hornbostel and Sachs used most of Mahillon's system, but replaced the term ''autophone'' with ''idiophone''.<ref name=Montagu211/>

The original Hornbostel-Sachs system classified instruments into four main groups:
* [[Idiophone]]s, which would be an instrument that you could hit, strike, shake or scrape – such as the [[xylophone]] and [[Rattle (percussion)|rattle]]. They produce sound by vibrating themselves; they are sorted into concussion, percussion, shaken, scraped, split, and plucked idiophones.<ref name=Marcuse3>{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p= 3}}</ref>
* [[Membranophone]]s, which would be an instrument that uses a stretched skin, or membrane (key word being "stretched")such as [[drum]]s or [[kazoo]]s, produce sound by a vibrating membrane; they are sorted into predrum membranophones, tubular drums, friction idiophones, kettledrums, friction drums, and mirlitons.<ref name=Marcuse117>{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p= 117}}</ref>
* [[Chordophone]]s, which would be an instrument that uses stretched string or cord – such as the [[piano]] or [[cello]], produce sound by vibrating strings; they are sorted into zithers, keyboard chordophones, lyres, harps, lutes, and bowed chordophones.<ref name=Marcuse177>{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p= 177}}</ref>
* [[Aerophone]]s, which would be an instrument that you produce a sound by blowing air into – such as the [[pipe organ]] or [[oboe]], produce sound by vibrating columns of air; they are sorted into free aerophones, flutes, organs, reedpipes, and lip-vibrated aerophones.<ref name=Marcuse549>{{harvnb|Marcuse|1975|p= 549}}</ref>

Sachs later added a fifth category, [[electrophone]]s, such as [[theremin]]s, which produce sound by electronic means.<ref name=Sachs447>{{harvnb|Sachs|1940|p= 447}}</ref> Within each category are many subgroups. The system has been criticised and revised over the years, but remains widely used by [[ethnomusicology|ethnomusicologists]] and [[organology|organologists]].<ref name="Campbell39">{{harvnb|Campbell|2004|pp=39}}</ref>

===Schaeffner===
Andre Schaeffner, a curator at the [[Musée de l'Homme]], disagreed with the Hornbostel-Sachs system and developed his own system in 1932. Schaeffner believed that the physical structure of a musical instrument, rather than its playing method, should determine its classification. His system divided instruments into two categories: instruments with solid, vibrating bodies and instruments containing vibrating air.<ref name=Kartomi174>{{harvnb|Kartomi|1990|pp= 174–175}}</ref>

===Range===
Western instruments are also often classified by their musical range in comparison with other instruments in the same family. These terms are named after singing voice classifications:
*[[Soprano]] instruments: [[flute]], [[violin]], [[soprano saxophone]], [[trumpet]], [[clarinet]], [[oboe]], [[piccolo]]
*[[Alto]] instruments: [[alto saxophone]], [[french horn]], [[english horn]], [[viola]]
*[[Tenor]] instruments: [[trombone]], [[tenor saxophone]], [[guitar]]
*[[Baritone]] instruments: [[bassoon]], [[baritone saxophone]], [[bass clarinet]], [[cello]], [[baritone horn]]
*[[Bass (sound)|Bass]] instruments: [[double bass]], [[bass guitar]], [[bass saxophone]], [[tuba]]

Some instruments fall into more than one category: for example, the cello may be considered tenor, baritone or bass, depending on how its music fits into the ensemble, and the trombone may be alto, tenor, baritone, or bass and the French horn, bass, baritone, tenor, or alto, depending on which range it is played.

Many instruments have their range as part of their name: [[soprano saxophone]], [[tenor saxophone]], [[baritone horn]], [[alto flute]], [[bass guitar]], etc. Additional adjectives describe instruments above the soprano range or [[contrabass|below the bass]], for example: [[sopranino saxophone]], [[contrabass clarinet]].

When used in the name of an instrument, these terms are relative, describing the instrument's range in comparison to other instruments of its family and not in comparison to the human voice range or instruments of other families. For example, a bass flute's range is from C3 to F♯6, while a bass clarinet plays about one octave lower.

==Construction==
Musical instrument construction is a specialized trade that requires years of training, practice, and sometimes an apprenticeship. Most makers of musical instruments specialize in one genre of instruments; for example, a [[luthier]] makes only stringed instruments. Some make only one type of instrument such as a piano. Some builders are focused on a more artistic approach and develop [[experimental musical instrument]]s, often meant for individual playing styles developed by the builder himself.

==User interfaces==
Regardless of how the sound in an instrument is produced, many musical instruments have a keyboard as the user-interface. [[Keyboard instrument]]s are any instruments that are played with a [[musical keyboard]]. Every key generates one or more sounds; most keyboard instruments have extra means ([[Piano#Pedals|pedal]]s for a piano, [[Organ stop|stops]] for an organ) to manipulate these sounds. They may produce sound by wind being fanned ([[organ (music)|organ]]) or pumped ([[accordion]]),<ref name="bicknell">Bicknell, Stephen (1999). "The organ case". In Thistlethwaite, Nicholas & Webber, Geoffrey (Eds.), The Cambridge Companion to the Organ, pp. 55–81. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-57584-2</ref><ref name="howard">Howard, Rob (2003) An A to Z of the Accordion and related instruments Stockport: Robaccord Publications ISBN 0-9546711-0-4</ref> vibrating strings either hammered ([[piano]]) or plucked ([[harpsichord]]),<ref name="fine">Fine, Larry. The Piano Book, 4th ed. Massachusetts: Brookside Press, 2001. ISBN 1-929145-01-2</ref><ref>Ripin (Ed) et al. ''Early Keyboard Instruments''. New Grove Musical Instruments Series, 1989, PAPERMAC</ref> by electronic means ([[synthesizer]]),<ref name="paradiso">Paradiso, JA. "Electronic music: new ways to play". Spectrum IEEE, 34(2):18–33, Dec 1997.</ref> or in some other way. Sometimes, instruments that do not usually have a keyboard, such as the ''[[glockenspiel]]'', are fitted with one.<ref name="vslglocken">{{cite web|url=http://vsl.co.at/en/70/3196/3204/3208/5760.vsl|title=Glockenspiel: Construction|publisher=Vienna Symphonic Library|accessdate=17 August 2009}}</ref> Though they have no moving parts and are struck by mallets held in the player's hands, they have the same physical arrangement of keys and produce soundwaves in a similar manner.

==See also==
*[[List of musical instruments]]
*[[Folk instrument]]
*[[Experimental musical instrument]]
*[[Music instrument technology]]
*[[Orchestra]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
* {{citation |last=Baines |first=Anthony |title=Brass Instruments: Their History and Development |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1993 |isbn=0486275744}}
* {{citation |last=Bicknell |first=Stephen |title=The History of the English Organ |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1999 |isbn=0521654092}}
* {{citation |last=Blades |first=James |title=Percussion Instruments and Their History |publisher=Bold Strummer Ltd |year=1992 |isbn=0933224613}}
* {{citation |last=Brown |first=Howard Mayer |title=Sachs, Curt |publisher=Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians |year=2008 |url=http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/24256 |accessdate=5 June 2008}}
* {{citation |last1=Campbell |first1=Murray |last2=Greated |first2=Clive A. |last3=Myers |first3=Arnold |title=Musical Instruments: History, Technology, and Performance of Instruments of Western Music |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0198165048}}
* {{citation |last=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |title=Archeologists discover ice age dwellers' flute |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |date=December 30, 2004 |url=http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2004/12/30/flute-prehistoric041230.html |accessdate=7 February 2009}}
* {{citation |last1=Chase |first1=Philip G. |last2=Nowell |first2=April |title=Taphonomy of a Suggested Middle Paleolithic Bone Flute from Slovenia |month=Aug–Oct |year=1998 |journal=Current Anthropology |volume=39 |issue=4 |page=549 |doi=10.1086/204771}}
* {{citation |last=Collinson |first=Francis M. |title=The Bagpipe |publisher=Routledge |year=1975 |isbn=0710079133}}
* {{citation |last=de Schauensee |first=Maude |title=Two Lyres from Ur |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology |year=2002 |isbn=092417188X}}
* {{citation |last=Grillet |first=Laurent |title=Les ancetres du violon v.1| year=1901 |publisher=Paris }}
* {{citation |last=Kartomi |first=Margaret J. |title=On Concepts and Classifications of Musical Instruments |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1990 |isbn=0226425487}}
* {{citation |last=Marcuse |first=Sibyl |title=A Survey of Musical Instruments |publisher=Harper & Row |year=1975 |isbn=0060127767}}
* {{citation |last=Montagu |first=Jeremy |title=Origins and Development of Musical Instruments |publisher=The Scarecrow Press |year=2007 |isbn=0810856573}}
* {{citation |last=Moorey |first=P.R.S. |title=What Do We Know About the People Buried in the Royal Cemetery? |journal=Expedition |volume=20 |issue=1 |year=1977 |pages=24–40}}
* {{citation |last=Rault |first=Lucie |title=Musical Instruments: A Worldwide Survey of Traditional Music-making Musical Instruments: A Worldwide Survey of Traditional Music-making |publisher=Thames & Hudson Ltd |year=2000 |isbn=978-0500510353}}
* {{citation |last=Remnant |first=Mary |title=Musical Instruments: An Illustrated History from Antiquity to the Present |publisher=Batsford |year=1989 |isbn=0713451696}}.
* {{citation |last=Sachs |first=Curt |title=The History of Musical Instruments |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1940 |isbn=0486452654}}
* {{citation |last=Slovenian Academy of Sciences |title=Early Music |date=April 11, 1997 |journal=Science |volume=276 |issue=5310 |pages=203–205 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5310.203g }}
* {{citation |last=West |first=M.L. |title=The Babylonian Musical Notation and the Hurrian Melodic Texts |journal=Music & Letters |volume=75 |issue=2 |date=May 1994 |pages=161–179 |doi=10.1093/ml/75.2.161}}

==Further reading==
* {{citation |last=Rault |first=Lucie |title=Musical Instruments: A Worldwide Survey of Traditional Music-making |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2000 |isbn=0500510350}}
* {{citation |last=Wade-Matthews |first=Max |title=Musical Instruments: Illustrated Encyclopedia |publisher=Lorenz |year=2003 |isbn=0754811824}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Musical instruments}}
* {{cite web |publisher= [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]
|url= http://www.vam.ac.uk/page/m/musical-instruments/
|title= Musical Instruments
|work=Furniture
|accessdate=1 July 2008}}

* {{cite web |publisher= [[National Museum of American History]]
|url= http://americanhistory.si.edu/collections/subject_detail.cfm?key=32&colkey=23
|title= Music & Musical Instruments
|work=More than 5,000 musical instruments of American and European heritage at the Smithsonian
|accessdate=30 September 2008}}

{{Music topics}}

[[Category:Musical instruments| ]]

[[af:Musiekinstrument]]
[[ar:آلة موسيقية]]
[[ast:Instrumentu musical]]
[[az:Musiqi aləti]]
[[bm:Fɔlifɛn]]
[[zh-min-nan:Ga̍k-khì]]
[[be:Музычны інструмент]]
[[be-x-old:Музычны інструмэнт]]
[[bo:རོལ་ཆ།]]
[[bs:Muzički instrumenti]]
[[br:Benveg-seniñ]]
[[bg:Музикален инструмент]]
[[ca:Instrument musical]]
[[cs:Hudební nástroj]]
[[cy:Offeryn cerdd]]
[[da:Musikinstrument]]
[[de:Musikinstrument]]
[[nv:Dilní bee Nidaʼanéhígíí]]
[[et:Muusikainstrument]]
[[el:Μουσικό όργανο]]
[[es:Instrumento musical]]
[[eo:Muzika instrumento]]
[[eu:Musika tresna]]
[[fa:ساز]]
[[fr:Instrument de musique]]
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[[gan:樂器]]
[[gu:સંગીત વાદ્ય]]
[[ko:악기]]
[[hi:वाद्य यन्त्र]]
[[hr:Glazbala]]
[[io:Muzikal instrumento]]
[[id:Alat musik]]
[[ia:Instrumento musical]]
[[is:Hljóðfæri]]
[[it:Strumento musicale]]
[[he:כלי נגינה]]
[[kn:ಸಂಗೀತ ವಾದ್ಯ]]
[[ka:მუსიკალური ინსტრუმენტი]]
[[ku:Amûrên muzîkê]]
[[la:Instrumentum musicum]]
[[lv:Mūzikas instruments]]
[[lb:Museksinstrument]]
[[lt:Muzikos instrumentas]]
[[ln:Eyémbeli]]
[[jbo:zgitci]]
[[hu:Hangszer]]
[[ml:സംഗീതോപകരണം]]
[[ms:Alat muzik]]
[[mn:Хөгжмийн зэмсэг]]
[[my:တူရိယာ]]
[[nah:Tlatzotzonalli]]
[[nl:Muziekinstrument]]
[[ja:楽器]]
[[no:Musikkinstrument]]
[[nn:Musikkinstrument]]
[[ps:ساز]]
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[[pt:Instrumento musical]]
[[ksh:Inßtrumännt (Mussik)]]
[[ro:Instrument muzical]]
[[qu:Waqachina]]
[[ru:Музыкальный инструмент]]
[[stq:Musikinstrumente]]
[[sq:Instrumenti muzikor]]
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[[sk:Hudobný nástroj]]
[[sl:Glasbilo]]
[[ckb:ئامێری مۆسیقا]]
[[sr:Музички инструменти]]
[[sh:Muzički instrumenti]]
[[fi:Soitin]]
[[sv:Musikinstrument]]
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Modest Mussorgsky

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{{redirect|Mussorgsky}}

[[File:Modest Musorgskiy, 1870.jpg|thumb|200px|Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky, 1870.]]
'''Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky''' (also spelled Musorgsky, Moussorgsky {{lang-rus|Моде́ст Петро́вич Му́соргский, ''Modest Petrovič Musorgskij''}}) (21 March <nowiki>[</nowiki>[[Old Style and New Style dates|O.S.]] 9 March] 1839, [[Karevo]] – 28 March [O.S. 16 March] 1881, [[Saint Petersburg]]), one of the Russian composers known as '[[The Five]]', was an innovator of [[Music of Russia|Russian music]] in the romantic period. He strove to achieve a uniquely Russian musical identity, often in deliberate defiance of the established conventions of Western music.

Many of his [[List of compositions by Modest Mussorgsky|works]] were inspired by [[History of Russia|Russian history]], [[Russian folklore]], and other [[nationalism|nationalist]] themes. Such works include the opera ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'', the orchestral tone poem ''[[Night on Bald Mountain]]'', and the piano suite ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]''.

For many years Mussorgsky's works were mainly known in versions revised or completed by other composers. Many of his most important compositions have recently come into their own in their original forms, and some of the original scores are now also available.

==Life==
===Early years===
[[File:Mussorgsky young b.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Young Mussorgsky as a cadet in the [[Preobrazhensky Regiment]] of the Imperial Guard.]]
Mussorgsky was born in Karevo, [[Toropets]], [[Pskov Oblast|Pskov region]], [[Imperial Russia]], 400 km (249 miles) south of Saint Petersburg. His wealthy and land-owning family, the noble family of [[Mussorgsky family|Mussorgsky]], is reputedly descended from the first [[Ruthenia]]n ruler, [[Rurik]], through the sovereign princes of [[Smolensk]]. At age six Mussorgsky began receiving piano lessons from his mother, herself a trained pianist. His progress was sufficiently rapid that three years later he was able to perform a [[John Field (composer)|John Field]] concerto and works by [[Franz Liszt]] for family and friends. At 10, he and his brother were taken to Saint Petersburg to study at the elite [[Peterschule]] (St. Peter's School). While there, Modest studied the [[piano]] with the noted [[Anton Gerke]]. In 1852, the 12-year-old Mussorgsky published a piano piece titled "Porte-enseigne Polka" at his father's expense.

Mussorgsky's parents planned the move to Saint Petersburg so that both their sons would renew the family tradition of military service.<ref>Brown, David, ''Mussorgsky: His Life and Works'' (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 3.</ref> To this end, Mussorgsky entered the Cadet School of the Guards at age 13. Sharp controversy had arisen over the educational attitudes at the time of both this institute and its director, a General Sutgof.<ref name = "brown4"/> All agreed the Cadet School could be a brutal place, especially for new recruits.<ref name = "brown5"/> More tellingly for Mussorgsky, it was likely where he began his eventual path to alcoholism.<ref name="brown5">Brown, 5.</ref> According to a former student, singer and composer Nikolai Kompaneisky, Sutgof "was proud when a cadet returned from leave drunk with champagne."<ref>As quoted in Brown, 4</ref>

Music remained important to him, however. Sutgof's daughter was also a pupil of Herke, and Mussorgsky was allowed to attend lessons with her.<ref name="brown4">Brown, 4.</ref> His skills as a pianist made him much in demand by fellow-cadets; for them he would play dances interspersed with his own [[musical improvisation|improvisation]]s.<ref name="brown6">Brown, 6.</ref> In 1856 Mussorgsky – who had developed a strong interest in history and studied German philosophy – successfully graduated from the Cadet School. Following family tradition he received a commission with the [[Preobrazhensky Regiment]], the foremost regiment of the Russian Imperial Guard.<ref name="brown6">Brown, 6.</ref>

=== Maturity ===

In October 1856 the 17-year-old Mussorgsky met the 22-year-old [[Alexander Borodin]] while both men served at a military hospital in Saint Petersburg. The two were soon on good terms.<ref>Brown, 8.</ref> Borodin later remembered,

<blockquote>"''His little uniform was spic and span, close-fitting, his feet turned outwards, his hair smoothed down and greased, his nails perfectly cut, his hands well groomed like a lord's. His manners were elegant, aristocratic: his speech likewise, delivered through somewhat clenched teeth, interspersed with French phrases, rather precious. There was a touch—though very moderate—of [[fop]]pishness. His politeness and good manners were exceptional. The ladies made a fuss of him. He sat at the piano and, throwing up his hands coquettishly, played with extreme sweetness and grace (etc) extracts from ''[[Il trovatore|Trovatore]]'', ''[[La traviata|Traviata]]'', and so on, and around him buzzed in chorus: "Charmant, délicieux!" and suchlike. I met Modest Petrovich three or four times at Popov's in this way, both on duty and at the hospital." <ref>ed. E.Gordeyva, ''M.P. Musorgsky v vospominaniyakh sovremennikov'' [Mussorgsky in the recollections of contemporaries] (Moscow, 1989), 86-87.</ref></blockquote>

[[File:Alexander Dargomyzhsky.jpg|thumb|right|Alexander Dargomyzhsky]]More portentous was Mussorgsky's introduction that winter to [[Alexander Dargomyzhsky]], at that time the most important Russian composer after [[Mikhail Glinka]]. Dargomyzhsky was impressed with Mussorgsky's pianism. As a result, Mussorgsky became a fixture at Dargomyzhsky's soirées. There, critic [[Vladimir Stasov]] later recalled, he began "his true musical life."<ref>Brown, 10.</ref>

Over the next two years at Dargomyzhsky's, Mussorgsky met several figures of importance in Russia's cultural life, among them Stasov, [[César Cui]] (a fellow officer), and [[Mily Balakirev]]. Balakirev had an especially strong impact. Within days he took it upon himself to help shape Mussorgsky's fate as a composer. He recalled to Stasov, "Because I am not a theorist, I could not teach him harmony (as, for instance [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov|Rimsky-Korsakov]] now teaches it) ... [but] I explained to him the form of compositions, and to do this we played through both [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] symphonies [as piano duets] and much else ([[Robert Schumann|Schumann]], [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]], [[Mikhail Glinka|Glinka]], and others), analyzing the form."<ref>Brown, 12-13.</ref> Up to this point Mussorgsky had known nothing but piano music; his knowledge of more radical recent music was virtually non-existent. Balakirev started filling these gaps in Mussorgsky's knowledge.<ref>Brown, 12.</ref>

In 1858, within a few months of beginning his studies with Balakirev, Mussorgsky resigned his commission to devote himself entirely to music.<ref>Brown, 14.</ref> He also suffered a painful crisis at this time. This may have had a spiritual component (in a letter to Balakirev the young man referred to "mysticism and cynical thoughts about the Deity"), but its exact nature will probably never be known. In 1859, the 20-year-old gained valuable theatrical experience by assisting in a production of Glinka's opera ''[[A Life for the Tsar]]'' on the Glebovo estate of a former singer and her wealthy husband; he also met [[Anatoly Lyadov]] and enjoyed a formative visit to Moscow – after which he professed a love of "everything Russian".

In spite of this epiphany, Mussorgsky's music still leaned more toward foreign models; a four-hand piano sonata which he produced in 1860 contains his only movement in [[sonata form]]. Nor is any 'nationalistic' impulse easily discernible in the incidental music for Serov's play ''[[Oedipus in Athens]]'', on which he worked between the ages of 19 and 22 (and then abandoned unfinished), or in the ''Intermezzo in modo classico'' for piano solo (revised and orchestrated in 1867). The latter was the only important piece he composed between December 1860 and August 1863: the reasons for this probably lie in the painful re-emergence of his subjective crisis in 1860 and the purely objective difficulties which resulted from the [[Emancipation reform of 1861|emancipation of the serfs]] the following year – as a result of which the family was deprived of half its estate, and Mussorgsky had to spend a good deal of time in Karevo unsuccessfully attempting to stave off their looming impoverishment.

[[File:Gustave Flaubert.jpg|thumb|left|Gustave Flaubert. Mussorgsky started an opera based on his ''Salammbô'' but did not finish it.]]
By this time, Mussorgsky had freed himself from the influence of Balakirev and was largely teaching himself. In 1863 he began an opera – ''[[Salammbô (Mussorgsky)|Salammbô]]'' – on which he worked between 1863 and 1866 before losing interest in the project. During this period he had returned to Saint Petersburg and was supporting himself as a low-grade civil-servant while living in a six-man 'commune'. In a heady artistic and intellectual atmosphere, he read and discussed a wide range of modern artistic and scientific ideas – including those of the provocative writer [[Nikolay Chernyshevsky|Chernyshevsky]], known for the bold assertion that, in art, "form and content are opposites". Under such influences he came more and more to embrace the ideal of artistic 'realism' and all that it entailed, whether this concerned the responsibility to depict life 'as it is truly lived'; the preoccupation with the lower strata of society; or the rejection of repeating, symmetrical musical forms as insufficiently true to the unrepeating, unpredictable course of 'real life'.

'Real life' affected Mussorgsky painfully in 1865, when his mother died; it was at this point that the composer had his first serious bout of either [[alcoholism]] or [[dipsomania]]. The 26-year-old was, however, on the point of writing his first 'realistic' songs (including 'Hopak' and 'Darling Savishna', both of them composed in 1866 and among his first 'real' publications the following year). 1867 was also the year in which he finished the original orchestral version of his ''[[Night on Bald Mountain]]'' (which, however, Balakirev criticised and refused to conduct, with the result that it was never performed during Mussorgsky's lifetime).

===Peak===
Mussorgsky's career as a civil servant was by no means stable or secure: though he was assigned to various posts and even received a promotion in these early years, in 1867 he was declared 'supernumerary' – remaining 'in service', but receiving no wages. Decisive developments were occurring in his artistic life, however. Although it was in 1867 that Stasov first referred to the '[[The Five|kuchka]]' ('The Five') of Russian composers loosely grouped around Balakirev, Mussorgsky was by then ceasing to seek Balakirev's approval and was moving closer to the older [[Alexander Dargomyzhsky]] .

[[File:Ivan Melnikov.jpg|thumb|left|Ivan Melnikov as the title character in ''Boris Godunov'', 1874.]]
Since 1866 Dargomïzhsky had been working on his opera ''[[The Stone Guest]]'', a version of the ''[[Don Juan]]'' story with a [[Alexander Pushkin|Pushkin]] text that he declared would be set "just as it stands, so that the inner truth of the text should not be distorted", and in a manner that abolished the 'unrealistic' division between [[aria]] and [[recitative]] in favour of a continuous mode of syllabic but lyrically heightened declamation somewhere between the two.

Under the influence of this work (and the ideas of [[Georg Gottfried Gervinus]], according to whom "the highest natural object of musical imitation is emotion, and the method of imitating emotion is to mimic speech"), Mussorgsky in 1868 rapidly set the first eleven scenes of [[Nikolai Gogol]]'s ''[[Marriage (play)|The Marriage]]'' (''Zhenitba''), with his priority being to render into music the natural accents and patterns of the play's naturalistic and deliberately humdrum dialogue. This work marked an extreme position in Mussorgsky's pursuit of naturalistic word-setting: he abandoned it unorchestrated after reaching the end of his 'Act 1', and though its characteristically 'Mussorgskyian' declamation is to be heard in all his later vocal music, the naturalistic mode of vocal writing more and more became merely one expressive element among many.

[[File:Fyodor Komissarshevskiy.jpg|thumb|Fyodor Komissarzhevsky as The Pretender in ''Boris Godunov''.]] A few months after abandoning ''[[Zhenitba (opera)|Zhenitba]]'', the 29-year-old Mussorgsky was encouraged to write an opera on the story of [[Boris Godunov]]. This he did, assembling and shaping a text from Pushkin's play and [[Nikolay Karamzin|Karamzin]]'s history. He completed the large-scale score the following year while living with friends and working for the Forestry Department. In 1871, however, the finished opera was rejected for theatrical performance, apparently because of its lack of any '[[prima donna]]' role. Mussorgsky set to work producing a revised and enlarged 'second version'. During the next year, which he spent sharing rooms with Rimsky-Korsakov, he made changes that went beyond those requested by the theatre. In this version the opera was accepted, probably in May 1872, and three excerpts were staged at the [[Mariinsky Theatre]] in 1873. It is often asserted that in 1872 the opera was rejected a second time, but no specific evidence for this exists.{{Citation needed|date=September 2007}}

By the time of the first production of ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'' in February 1874, Mussorgsky had taken part in the ill-fated ''[[Mlada]]'' project (in the course of which he had made a choral version of his ''[[Night on Bald Mountain]]'') and had begun ''[[Khovanshchina]]''. Though far from being a critical success – and in spite of receiving only a dozen or so performances – the popular reaction in favour of ''Boris'' made this the peak of Mussorgsky's career.

===Decline===
[[File:Mussorgsky Repin.jpg|thumb|left|Detail from [[Ilya Repin]]'s celebrated portrait of Mussorgsky, painted 2–5 March 1881, only a few days before the composer's death]]
From this peak a pattern of decline becomes increasingly apparent. Already the Balakirev circle was disintegrating. Mussorgsky was especially bitter about this. He wrote to [[Vladimir Stasov]], "[T]he mighty ''Koocha'' has degenerated into soulless traitors."<ref>Letter to Vladimir Stasov, 9 October 1875. As quoted in Rimsky-Korsakov, ''My Musical Life'', 154–155, footnote 24.</ref> In drifting away from his old friends, Mussorgsky had been seen to fall victim to 'fits of madness' that could well have been alcoholism-related. His friend [[Viktor Hartmann]] had died, and his relative and recent roommate [[Arseny Golenishchev-Kutuzov]] (who furnished the poems for the song-cycle ''[[Sunless (song cycle)|Sunless]]'' and would go on to provide those for the ''[[Songs and Dances of Death]]'') had moved away to get married.

While alcoholism was Mussorgsky's personal weakness, it was also a behavior pattern considered typical for those of Mussorgsky's generation who wanted to oppose the establishment and protest through extreme forms of behavior.<ref>Volkov, Solomon, tr. Bouis, Antonina W., ''Saint Petersburg: A Cultural History'' (New York: The Free Press, 1995), 87.</ref> One contemporary notes, "an intense worship of Bacchus was considered to be almost obligatory for a writer of that period. It was a showing off, a 'pose,' for the best people of the [eighteen-]sixties." Another writes, "Talented people in Russia who love the simple folk cannot but drink."<ref>Quoted in ''Sovietskaia muzyka'' (Soviet music), 9 (1980), 104. As quoted in Volkov, 87.</ref> Mussorgsky spent day and night in a Saint Petersburg tavern of low repute, the Maly Yaroslavets, accompanied by other bohemian dropouts. He and his fellow drinkers idealized their alcoholism, perhaps seeing it as ethical and aesthetic opposition. This bravado, however, led to little more than isolation and eventual self-destruction.<ref>Volkov, 87.</ref>

For a time Mussorgsky was able to maintain his creative output: his compositions from 1874 include ''Sunless'', the ''Khovanschina'' Prelude, and the piano suite ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]'' (in memory of Hartmann); he also began work on another opera based on Gogol, ''[[The Fair at Sorochyntsi]]'' (for which he produced another choral version of ''Night on Bald Mountain'').

[[File:Musorgsky Grave.jpg|thumb|Grave of Modest Mussorgsky in the [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] of the [[Alexander Nevsky Lavra|Alexander Nevsky Monastery]] in Saint Petersburg.]]
In the years that followed, Mussorgsky's decline became increasingly steep. Although now part of a new circle of eminent personages that included singers, medical men and actors, he was increasingly unable to resist drinking, and a succession of deaths among his closest associates caused him great pain. At times, however, his alcoholism would seem to be in check, and among the most powerful works composed during his last 6 years are the four ''Songs and Dances of Death''. His civil service career was made more precarious by his frequent 'illnesses' and absences, and he was fortunate to obtain a transfer to a post (in the Office of Government Control) where his music-loving superior treated him with great leniency – in 1879 even allowing him to spend 3 months touring 12 cities as a singer's accompanist.

The decline could not be halted, however. In 1880 he was finally dismissed from government service. Aware of his destitution, one group of friends organised a stipend designed to support the completion of ''Khovanschina''; another group organised a similar fund to pay him to complete ''The Fair at Sorochyntsi''. However, neither work was completed (although ''Khovanschina'', in piano score with only two numbers uncomposed, came close to being finished).

In early 1881 a desperate Mussorgsky declared to a friend that there was 'nothing left but begging', and suffered four seizures in rapid succession. Though he found a comfortable room in a good hospital – and for several weeks even appeared to be rallying – the situation was hopeless. [[Ilya Repin|Repin]] painted the famous red-nosed portrait in what were to be the last days of the composer's life: a week after his 42nd birthday, he was dead. He was interred at the [[Tikhvin Cemetery]] of the [[Alexander Nevsky Lavra|Alexander Nevsky Monastery]] in [[Saint Petersburg]].

Mussorgsky, like others of 'The Five', was perceived as extremist by the Emperor and much of his court. This may have been the reason [[Tsar]] [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] personally crossed off ''Boris Godunov'' from the list of proposed pieces for the Imperial Opera in 1888.<ref>Volkov (1995) 106–107.</ref>

==Works==

{{main|List of compositions by Modest Mussorgsky}}
Mussorgsky's works, while strikingly novel, are stylistically [[Romantic music|Romantic]] and draw heavily on Russian musical themes. He has been the inspiration for many Russian composers, including most notably [[Dmitri Shostakovich]] (in his late symphonies) and [[Sergei Prokofiev]] (in his operas).

[[File:Musor statue.jpg|thumb|225px|left|Statue of Mussorgsky near his native village.]]
In 1868/9 he composed the opera ''[[Boris Godunov (opera)|Boris Godunov]]'', about the life of the Russian [[tsar]], but it was rejected by the [[Mariinsky Theatre|Mariinsky Opera]]. Mussorgsky thus edited the work, making a final version in 1874. The early version is considered darker and more concise than the later version, but also more crude. [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov]] re-orchestrated the opera in 1896 and revised it in 1908. The opera has also been revised by other composers, notably Shostakovich, who made two versions, one for film and one for stage.

''[[Khovanshchina]]'', a more obscure opera, was unfinished and unperformed when Mussorgsky died, but it was completed by Rimsky-Korsakov and received its premiere in 1886 in [[Saint Petersburg]]. This opera, too, was revised by Shostakovich. ''[[The Fair at Sorochyntsi]]'', another opera, was left incomplete at his death but a dance excerpt, the [[Gopak]], is frequently performed.

Mussorgsky's most imaginative and frequently performed work is the cycle of [[piano]] pieces describing paintings in sound called ''[[Pictures at an Exhibition]]''. This composition, best known through an orchestral arrangement by [[Maurice Ravel]], was written in commemoration of his friend, the architect [[Viktor Hartmann]].

One of Mussorgsky's most striking pieces is the single-movement orchestral work ''[[Night on Bald Mountain]]''. The work enjoyed broad popular recognition in the 1940s when it was featured, in tandem with [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]]'s '[[Ellens dritter Gesang|Ave Maria]]', in the [[Walt Disney Pictures|Disney]] film ''[[Fantasia (film)|Fantasia]]''.

Among the composer's other works are a number of [[song]]s, including three [[song cycles]]: ''[[The Nursery (song cycle)|The Nursery]]'' (1872), ''[[Sunless (song cycle)|Sunless]]'' (1874) and ''[[Songs and Dances of Death]]'' (1877); plus ''Mephistopheles' Song of the Flea'' and many others. Important early recordings of songs by Mussorgsky were made by tenor [[Vladimir Rosing]] in the 1920s and 30s.<ref>Juynboll, Floris. "Vladimir Rosing", ''The Record Collector'' Vol. 36 No. 3, July, August, September 1991. pg. 194–196</ref> Other recordings have been made by [[Boris Christoff]] between 1951 and 1957 and by [[Sergei Leiferkus]] in 1993.<ref>Kozinn, Allan, [http://books.google.com/books?id=mFus1TXXGX4C&pg=RA1-PA143&lpg=RA1-PA143&dq=mussorgsky+leiferkus&source=bl&ots=vJUUQ8KMkJ&sig=35KwkYakI5bBoeZ5wvXinaoDgdI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=6&ct=result#PRA1-PA143,M1 "The New York Times essential library: classical music: a critic's guide to the 100 most important recordings"] (New York: Times Books, 2004), 143–147. ISBN 0-8050-7070-2</ref>

==Portrait gallery==

<center>
<gallery>
File:Musorgskiy in 1865b.jpg|1865
File:Modest Musorgskiy, 1870.jpg|1870
File:Musorgsky 1874 b.jpg|1874
File:Musorgsky 1876.jpg|1876
File:Mussorgsky Repin.jpg|1881
</gallery>
</center>

==Criticism==
Contemporary opinions of Mussorgsky as a composer and person varied from positive to ambiguous to negative.
Mussorgsky's eventual supporters, Stasov and Balakirev, initially registered strongly negative impressions of the composer. Stasov wrote Balakirev, in an 1863 letter, "I have no use whatever for Mussorgsky. All in him is flabby and dull. He is, I think, a perfect idiot. Were he left to his own devices and no longer under your strict supervision, he would soon run to seed as all the others have done. There is nothing in him."

Balakirev agreed: "Yes, Mussorgsky is little short of an idiot."

Mixed impressions are recorded by [[Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov|Rimsky-Korsakov]] and [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]], colleagues of Mussorgsky who, unlike him, made their living as composers. Both praised his talent while expressing disappointment with his technique. About Mussorgsky's scores Rimsky-Korsakov wrote, "They were very defective, teeming with clumsy, disconnected harmonies, shocking part-writing, amazingly illogical modulations or intolerably long stretches without ever a modulation, and bad scoring. ...what is needed is an edition for practical and artistic purposes, suitable for performances and for those who wish to admire Mussorgsky's genius, not to study his idiosyncrasies and sins against art."

Rimsky-Korsakov's own editions of Mussorgsky's works met with some criticism of their own. Rimsky-Korsakov's student, [[Anatoly Lyadov]], found them to be lacking, writing "It is easy enough to correct Mussorgsky's irregularities. The only trouble is that when this is done, the character and originality of the music are done away with, and the composer's individuality vanishes."

Tchaikovsky, in a letter to his patroness [[Nadezhda von Meck]] was also critical of Mussorgsky: "Mussorgsky you very rightly call a hopeless case. In talent he is perhaps superior to all the [other members of The Five], but his nature is narrow-minded, devoid of any urge towards self-perfection, blindly believing in the ridiculous theories of his circle and in his own genius. In addition, he has a certain base side to his nature which likes coarseness, uncouthness, roughness.... He flaunts ... his illiteracy, takes pride in his ignorance, mucks along anyhow, blindly believing in the infallibility of his genius. Yet he has flashes of talent which are, moreover, not devoid of originality."

Not all of the criticism of Mussorgsky was negative. In a letter to [[Pauline Viardot]], [[Ivan Turgenev]] recorded his impressions of a concert he attended in which he met Mussorgsky and heard two of his songs and excerpts from ''Boris Godunov'' and ''Khovanshchina''): "Today I was invited to have dinner in old Petrov's house: I gave him a copy of your song, which pleased him greatly [...] Petrov still admires you as enthusiastically as in the past. In his drawing-room there's a bust of you, crowned with laurels, which still bears a strong resemblance to you. I also met his wife (the contralto) [Avdotya Vorobyova-Petrova, who created the role of Vanya in Glinka's A Life for the Tsar]. She is sixty years old... After dinner she sang two quite original and touching romances by Musorgsky (the author of Boris Godunov, who was also present), in a voice that is still young and charming and has a very expressive timbre. She sang them wonderfully! I was moved to tears, I assure you. Then Musorgsky played for us and sang, with a rather hoarse voice, some excerpts from his opera and the other one that he is composing now – and the music seemed to me very characteristic and interesting, upon my honour! Old Petrov sang the role of the old profligate and vagabond monk [Varlaam's song about Ivan the Terrible] – it was splendid! I am starting to believe that there really is a future in all of this. Outwardly, Musorgsky reminds one of Glinka – it is just that his nose is all red (unfortunately, he is an alcoholic), he has pale but beautiful eyes, and fine lips which are squeezed into a fat face with flabby cheeks. I liked him: he is very natural and unaffected, and does not put on any airs. He played us the introduction to his second opera [Khovanshchina]. It is a bit Wagnerian, but full of feeling and beautiful. Forward, forward! Russian artists!!

Western perceptions of Mussorgsky changed with the European premiere of ''Boris Godunov'' in 1908. Before the premiere, he was regarded as an eccentric in the west. Critic [[Edward Dannreuther]], wrote, in the 1905 edition of ''The Oxford History of Music'', "Mussorgsky, in his vocal efforts, appears wilfully eccentric. His style impresses the Western ear as barbarously ugly."

However, after the premiere, views on Mussorgsky's music have drastically changed. [[Gerald Abraham]], a musicologist, and an authority on Mussorgsky: "As a musical translator of words and all that can be expressed in words, of psychological states, and even physical movement, he is unsurpassed; as an absolute musician he was hopelessly limited, with remarkably little ability to construct pure music or even a purely musical texture."

==Media==
{{listen
| filename = Modest Mussorgsky - night on bald mountain.ogg
| title = Night on Bald Mountain
| description = Performed by the Skidmore College Orchestra. Courtesy of [http://www.musopen.com Musopen]
| format = [[ogg]]
| filename2 = Modest Mussorgsky - Pictures at an Exhibition, movement 1.ogg
| title2 = Pictures at an Exhibition (first part of three)
| description2 = Arrangement for two pianos
| format2 = [[Ogg]]
| filename3 = Modest Mussorgsky - Pictures at an Exhibition, movement 2.ogg
| title3 = Pictures at an Exhibition (second part of three)
| description3 = Arrangement for two pianos
| format3 = [[Ogg]]
| filename4 = Modest Mussorgsky - Pictures at an Exhibition, movement 3.ogg
| title4 = Pictures at an Exhibition (third part of three)
| description4 = Arrangement for two pianos
| format4 = [[Ogg]]
}}

:''See [[Pictures at an Exhibition]] for an orchestral version of the work.''

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|2}}

==References==
*Brown, David, ''Mussorgsky: His Life and Works'' (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). ISBN 0-19-816587-0.
*Volkov, Solomon, tr. Bouis, Antonina W., Saint Petersburg: A Cultural History (New York: The Free Press, 1995)

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commonscat}}
*{{IMSLP|id=Mussorgsky,_Modest_Petrovich|cname=Mussorgsky}}
*{{WIMA|idx=Mussorgsky|name=Modest Mussorgsky}}
*{{MutopiaComposer|MussorgskyM}}
*[http://myspacetv.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=vids.individual&videoid=12098301 Tableaux d'une exposition Transcription pour contrebasse seule par Mauricio ROMERO]
*[http://www.turgenevmusica.info/en/musorgsky.html Turgenev and Mussorgsky] (with music samples)
*[http://webshop.mcn.nl/portal/catalog/mcn_productlist.php?work=324525 '''Sunless''' score for voice and orchestra, orchestration by Theo Verbey]

{{Persondata 
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[[Category:Russian composers]]
[[Category:Opera composers]]
[[Category:Romantic composers]]
[[Category:Rurikids]]
[[Category:1839 births]]
[[Category:1881 deaths]]
[[Category:Alcohol-related deaths in Russia]]
[[Category:The Five]]

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Classical period (music)

2011-03-13T19:22:18Z

Rigaudon: Sorry. Undoing my revert - IP had already self-reverted.

{{History of European art music}}
The dates of the '''Classical Period''' in Western music are generally accepted as being between about 1750 and 1830. However, the term ''[[classical music]]'' is used colloquially to describe a variety of Western musical styles from the ninth century to the present, and especially from the sixteenth or seventeenth to the nineteenth. This article is about the specific period from 1750 to 1830.<ref>*[[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Kennedy, Michael]] (2006), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4</ref>

The Classical period falls between the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] and the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] periods. The best known [[composer]]s from this period are [[Joseph Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], and [[Franz Schubert]]; other notable names include [[Luigi Boccherini]], [[Muzio Clementi]], [[Antonio Soler]], [[Antonio Salieri]], [[François Joseph Gossec]], [[Johann Stamitz]], [[Carl Friedrich Abel]], [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]], and [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]]. Ludwig van Beethoven is also sometimes regarded either as a Romantic composer or a composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic; [[Franz Schubert]] is also something of a transitional figure, as are [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]], [[Mauro Giuliani]], [[Friedrich Kuhlau]], [[Fernando Sor]], [[Luigi Cherubini]], [[Jan Ladislav Dussek]], and [[Carl Maria von Weber]]. The period is sometimes referred to as the era of ''Viennese Classic'' or ''Classicism'' ({{lang-de|Wiener Klassik}}), since Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven all worked at some time in [[Vienna]], and Franz Schubert was born there.

== Classicism ==
In the middle of the 18th century , Europe began to move toward a new style in [[architecture]], literature, and the arts, generally known as [[Classicism]], which sought to emulate the ideals of [[Classical antiquity]] and especially those of [[Classical Greece]].<ref>Kamien, Roger. Music: An Appreciation. 6th. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2008. Print.</ref> While still tightly linked to the court culture and absolutism, with its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, the new style was also a cleaner style —one that favored clearer divisions between parts, brighter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than complexity. The remarkable development of ideas in "natural philosophy" had established itself in the public consciousness with [[Isaac Newton|Newton's]] physics taken as a paradigm: structures should be well-founded in [[axiom]]s and be both well-articulated and orderly. This taste for structural clarity worked its way into the world of music, moving away from the layered [[polyphony]] of the Baroque period, towards a style where a [[melody]] over a subordinate [[harmony]] —a combination called [[homophony]]— was preferred.<ref>Kamien, Roger. Music: An Appreciation. 6th. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2008. Print.</ref> This meant that the playing of [[Chord (music)|chords]], even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part, became a much more prevalent feature of music. This, in turn, made the [[tonality|tonal]] structure of works [[counterpoint|more audible]].

The new style was also pushed forward by changes in the economic order and in social structure. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility became the primary patrons of instrumental music, and there was a rise in the public taste for comic [[opera]]. This led to changes in the way music was performed, the most crucial of which was the move to standard instrumental groups and the reduction in the importance of the ''[[basso continuo|continuo]]'' — the harmonic fill beneath the music, often played by several instruments. One way to trace this decline of the continuo and its [[figured bass|figured]] chords is to examine the decline of the term ''[[obbligato]]'', meaning a mandatory instrumental part in a work of [[chamber music]]. In the Baroque world, additional instruments could be optionally added to the continuo; in the Classical world, all parts were noted specifically, though not always ''notated'', as a matter of course, so the word "obbligato" became redundant. By 1800, the term was practically extinct.
{{Classicism}}
The changes in economic situation also had the effect of altering the balance of availability and quality of musicians. While in the late Baroque a major composer would have the entire musical resources of a town to draw on, the forces available at a hunting lodge were smaller and more fixed in their level of ability. This was a spur to having primarily simple parts to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso group, a spur to writing spectacular, idiomatic parts for certain instruments, as in the case of the [[Mannheim orchestra]]. In addition, the appetite for a continual supply of new music, carried over from the Baroque, meant that works had to be performable with, at best, one rehearsal. Indeed, even after 1790 Mozart writes about "the rehearsal", with the implication that his concerts would have only one.

Since polyphonic texture was no longer the main focus of music (excluding the development section) but rather a single melodic line with accompaniment, there was greater emphasis on notating that line for [[Dynamics (music)|dynamics]] and phrasing. The simplification of texture made such instrumental detail more important, and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such as attention-getting opening fanfares, the funeral march rhythm, or the minuet genre, more important in establishing and unifying the tone of a single movement.

Forms such as the concerto and sonata were more heavily defined and given more specific rules, whereas the symphony was created in this period (this is popularly attributed to Joseph Haydn). The ''concerto grosso'' (a concerto for more than one musician) began to be replaced by the ''solo concerto'' (a concerto featuring only one soloist), and therefore began to place more importance on the particular soloist's ability to show off. There were, of course, some ''concerto grossos'' that remained, the most famous of which being Mozart's [[Sinfonia Concertante for Violin, Viola and Orchestra (Mozart)|Sinfonia Concertante for Violin and Viola in E flat Major]].

== Main characteristics ==
Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than [[Baroque]] music and is less complex. It is mainly [[homophonic]] <ref>Blume, Friedrich. Classic and Romantic Music: A Comprehensive Survey. New York: W.W. Norton . & Company, 1970. Print.</ref> — melody above chordal accompaniment (but [[counterpoint]] is by no means forgotten, especially later in the period).
Variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before. Variety of keys, melodies, rhythms and dynamics (using [[wikt:crescendo|crescendo]], [[wikt:diminuendo|diminuendo]] and [[wikt:sforzando|sforzando]]), along with frequent changes of mood and timbre were more commonplace in the Classical period than they had been in the Baroque. Melodies tended to be shorter than those of Baroque music, with clear-cut phrases and clearly marked [[Cadence (music)|cadences]]. The [[Orchestra]] increased in size and range; the [[harpsichord]] continuo fell out of use, and the [[woodwind]] became a self-contained section. As a solo instrument, the [[harpsichord]] was replaced by the [[piano]] (or [[fortepiano]]). Early piano music was light in texture, often with [[Alberti bass]] accompaniment, but it later became richer, more sonorous and more powerful.

Importance was given to instrumental music — the main kinds were [[sonata]], trio, [[string quartet]], [[symphony]], [[concerto]], [[serenade]] and [[divertimento]]. [[Sonata form]] developed and became the most important form. It was used to build up the first movement of most large-scale works, but also other movements and single pieces (such as [[overture]]s).

==History==
===The Baroque/Classical transition c. 1730–1760===
{{See also|History of sonata form}}
At first the new style took over Baroque forms —the ternary ''[[da capo aria]]'' and the ''[[sinfonia]]'' and ''[[concerto]]''— but composed with simpler parts, more notated ornamentation and more emphatic division into sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together, and the basic layouts changed. Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. The [[Italy|Italian]] composer [[Domenico Scarlatti]] was an important figure in the transition from Baroque to Classical. His unique compositional style is strongly related to that of the early Classical period. He is best known for composing more than five hundred one-movement keyboard sonatas. Another important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisational ornament and focused on the points of [[Modulation (music)|modulation]] and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he enabled powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. To highlight these episodes he used changes in instrumentation, melody, and [[Musical mode|mode]]. Among the most successful composers of his time, Gluck spawned many emulators, one of whom was [[Antonio Salieri]]. Their emphasis on accessibility brought huge successes in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios, and choruses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance and hence enjoyed greatest success in the public estimation.

The phase between the Baroque and the rise of the Classical, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and "worldview", goes by many names. It is sometimes called ''[[Galant]]'', ''[[Rococo]]'', or ''pre-Classical'', or at other times ''early Classical''{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}. It is a period where some composers still working in the Baroque style flourish, though sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present — Bach, Handel, and Telemann all composed well beyond the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C.P.E. Bach]] was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form.

===Circa 1750–1775===
{{See also|Symphony}}
[[File:Haydnportrait.jpg|thumb|[[Joseph Haydn]] (1732 - 1809). Depicts Haydn ca. 1770]]
By the late 1750s there were flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim, and Paris; dozens of symphonies were composed and there were "bands" of players associated with theatres. Opera or other vocal music was the feature of most musical events, with concertos and "symphonies" (arising from the ''[[overture]]'') serving as instrumental interludes and introductions for operas and church services. Over the course of the Classical period, "symphonies" and concertos developed and were presented independently of vocal music. The "normal" ensemble—a body of strings supplemented by winds—and movements of particular rhythmic character were established by the late 1750s in Vienna. However, the length and weight of pieces was still set with some Baroque characteristics: individual movements still focused on one ''affect'' or had only one sharply contrasting middle section, and their length was not significantly greater than Baroque movements. There was not yet a clearly enunciated theory of how to compose in the new style. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.

Many consider this breakthrough to have been made by C.P.E. Bach, Gluck, and several others. Indeed, C.P.E. Bach and Gluck are often considered to be founders of the Classical style.

The first great master of the style was the composer [[Joseph Haydn]]. In the late 1750s he began composing symphonies, and by 1761 he had composed a triptych (''Morning'', ''Noon'', and ''Evening'') solidly in the "contemporary" mode. As a vice-[[Kapellmeister]] and later Kapellmeister, his output expanded: he composed over forty symphonies in the 1760s alone. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.

While some suggest that he was overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it would be difficult to overstate Haydn's centrality to the new style, and therefore to the future of Western art music as a whole. At the time, before the pre-eminence of Mozart or Beethoven, and with Johann Sebastian Bach known primarily to connoisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music that set him above all other composers except perhaps George Friedrich Handel. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned — earning him the titles "father of the [[symphony]]," and "father of the [[string quartet]]."

One of the forces that worked as an impetus for his pressing forward was the first stirring of what would later be called ''[[Romanticism]]'' — the ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'', or "storm and stress" phase in the arts, a short period where obvious emotionalism was a stylistic preference. Haydn accordingly wanted more dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealing melodies, with sharpened character and individuality. This period faded away in music and literature: however, it influenced what came afterward and would eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in later decades.

The [[Symphony No. 45 (Haydn)|''Farewell Symphony'']], No. 45 in F{{music|sharp}} Minor, exemplifies Haydn's integration of the differing demands of the new style, with surprising sharp turns and a long adagio to end the work. In 1772, Haydn completed his Opus 20 set of six string quartets, in which he deployed the polyphonic techniques he had gathered from the previous era to provide structural coherence capable of holding together his melodic ideas. For some this marks the beginning of the "mature" Classical style, where the period of reaction against the complexity of the late Baroque began to be replaced with a period of integration of elements of both Baroque and Classical styles.

===Circa 1775–1790===
{{See also|Musical development}}
[[File:Mozart (unfinished) by Lange 1782.jpg|thumb|Unfinished portrait of Mozart by his brother-in-law [[Joseph Lange]]]]
Haydn, having worked for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far more resources and scope for composing than most and also the ability to shape the forces that would play his music. This opportunity was not wasted, as Haydn, beginning quite early on his career, sought to press forward the technique of building ideas in music. His next important breakthrough was in the Opus 33 string quartets (1781), where the melodic and the harmonic roles segue among the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear what is melody and what is harmony. This changes the way the ensemble works its way between dramatic moments of transition and climactic sections: the music flows smoothly and without obvious interruption. He then took this integrated style and began applying it to orchestral and vocal music.

Haydn's gift to music was a way of composing, a way of structuring works, which was at the same time in accord with the governing aesthetic of the new style. However, a younger contemporary, [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], brought his genius to Haydn's ideas and applied them to two of the major genres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto. Whereas Haydn spent much of his working life as a court composer, Mozart wanted public success in the concert life of cities. This meant opera, and it meant performing as a virtuoso. Haydn was not a virtuoso at the international touring level; nor was he seeking to create operatic works that could play for many nights in front of a large audience. Mozart wanted both. Moreover, Mozart also had a taste for more chromatic chords (and greater contrasts in harmonic language generally), a greater love for creating a welter of melodies in a single work, and a more Italianate sensibility in music as a whole. He found, in Haydn's music and later in his study of the polyphony of Bach, the means to discipline and enrich his gifts.

Mozart rapidly came to the attention of Haydn, who hailed the new composer, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. In Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource; the learning relationship moved in two directions.

Mozart's arrival in Vienna in 1780 brought an acceleration in the development of the Classical style. There Mozart absorbed the fusion of Italianate brilliance and Germanic cohesiveness which had been brewing for the previous 20 years. His own taste for brilliances, rhythmically complex melodies and figures, long cantilena melodies, and virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. It is at this point that war and inflation halted a trend to larger orchestras and forced the disbanding or reduction of many theatre orchestras. This pressed the Classical style inwards: towards seeking greater ensemble and technical challenge — for example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using thirds to highlight the melody taken by them. This process placed a premium on chamber music for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings.

It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a higher standard of composition. By the time Mozart arrived at age 25, in 1781, the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence in the 1750s of the early Classical style. By the end of the 1780s, changes in performance practice, the relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had become established in the composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this decade Mozart composed his most famous operas, his six late symphonies which helped to redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti which still stand at the pinnacle of these forms.

One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style that Mozart and Haydn had formed is [[Muzio Clementi]], a gifted virtuoso pianist who tied with Mozart in a musical "duel" before the emperor in which they each improvised and performed their compositions. Clementi's sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in [[London]] during the 1780s. Also in London at this time was [[Jan Ladislav Dussek]], who, like Clementi, encouraged piano makers to extend the range and other features of their instruments, and then fully exploited the newly opened possibilities. The importance of London in the Classical period is often overlooked, but it served as the home to the [[Broadwood and Sons|Broadwood's]] factory for piano manufacturing and as the base for composers who, while less notable than the "Vienna School", had a decisive influence on what came later. They were composers of many fine works, notable in their own right. London's taste for virtuosity may well have encouraged the complex passage work and extended statements on tonic and dominant.

===Circa 1790–1830===
When Haydn and Mozart began composing, symphonies were played as single movements —before, between, or as interludes within other works— and many of them lasted only ten or twelve minutes; instrumental groups had varying standards of playing, and the continuo was a central part of music-making. In the intervening years, the social world of music had seen dramatic changes: international publication and touring had grown explosively, concert societies were beginning to be formed, notation had been made more specific, more descriptive, and schematics for works had been simplified (yet became more varied in their exact working out). In 1790, just before Mozart's death, with his reputation spreading rapidly, Haydn was poised for a series of successes, notably his late oratorios and "London" symphonies. Composers in [[Paris]], [[Rome]], and all over Germany turned to Haydn and Mozart for their ideas on form.

The moment was again ripe for a dramatic shift. During the 1790s, there emerged of a new generation of composers, born around 1770, who, while they had grown up with the earlier styles, found in the recent works of Haydn and Mozart a vehicle for greater expression. In 1788 [[Luigi Cherubini]] settled in Paris and in 1791 composed ''Lodoiska'', an opera that rose him to fame. Its style is clearly reflective of the mature Haydn and Mozart, and its instrumentation gave it a weight that had not yet been felt in the [[grand opera]]. His contemporary [[Étienne Méhul]] extended instrumental effects with his 1790 opera ''Euphrosine et Coradin'', from which followed a series of successes.

The most fateful of the new generation was [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], who launched his numbered works in 1794 with a set of three piano trios, which remain in the repertoire. Somewhat younger than the others, though equally accomplished because of his youthful study under Mozart and his native virtuosity, was [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]]. Hummel studied under Haydn as well; he was a friend to Beethoven and [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]] and a teacher to [[Franz Liszt]]. He concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in London in 1791 and 1792 generated the composition and publication in 1793 of three piano sonatas, opus 2, which idiomatically used Mozart's techniques of avoiding the expected cadence, and Clementi's sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso figuration. Taken together, these composers can be seen as the vanguard of a broad change in style and the center of music. They studied one another's works, copied one another's gestures in music, and on occasion behaved like quarrelsome rivals.

The crucial differences with the previous wave can be seen in the downward shift in melodies, increasing durations of movements, the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn as paradigmatic, the greater use of keyboard resources, the shift from "vocal" writing to "pianistic" writing, the growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity, and the increasing importance of varying accompanying figures to bring "texture" forward as an element in music. In short, the late Classical was seeking a music that was internally more complex. The growth of concert societies and amateur orchestras, marking the importance of music as part of middle-class life, contributed to a booming market for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as examplars. Hummel, Beethoven, and Clementi were all renowned for their improvising.


Direct influence of the Baroque continued to fade: the [[figured bass]] grew less prominent as a means of holding performance together, the performance practices of the mid 18th century continued to die out. However, at the same time, complete editions of Baroque masters began to become available, and the influence of Baroque style continued to grow, particularly in the ever more expansive use of brass. Another feature of the period is the growing number of performances where the composer was not present. This led to increased detail and specificity in notation; for example, there were fewer "optional" parts that stood separately from the main score.

The force of these shifts became apparent with Beethoven's 3rd Symphony, given the name ''Eroica'', which is Italian for "heroic", by the composer. As with Stravinsky's ''[[The Rite of Spring]]'', it may not have been the first in all of its innovations, but its aggressive use of every part of the Classical style set it apart from its contemporary works: in length, ambition, and harmonic resources.

==Classical influence on later composers==
{{See also|Tonality}}
Musical eras seldom disappear at once; instead, features are replaced over time, until the old is simply felt as "old-fashioned". The Classical style did not "die" so much as transform under the weight of changes.

One crucial change was the shift towards harmonies centering around "flatward" keys: shifts in the [[subdominant]] direction. In the Classical style, major key was far more common than minor, chromaticism being moderated through the use of "sharpward" modulation, and sections in the minor mode were often merely for contrast. Beginning with Mozart and Clementi, there began a creeping colonization of the subdominant region. With Schubert, subdominant moves flourished after being introduced in contexts in which earlier composers would have confined themselves to dominant shifts. This introduced darker colors to music, strengthened the minor mode, and made structure harder to maintain. Beethoven contributed to this by his increasing use of the [[Interval (music)|fourth]] as a consonance, and modal ambiguity — for example, the opening of the D Minor Symphony.

[[Franz Schubert]], [[Carl Maria von Weber]], and [[John Field (composer)|John Field]] are among the most prominent in this generation of "Classical Romantics", along with the young [[Felix Mendelssohn]]. Their sense of form was strongly influenced by the Classical style, and they were not yet "learned" (imitating rules which were codified by others), but they directly responded to works by Beethoven, Mozart, Clementi, and others, as they encountered them. The instrumental forces at their disposal were also quite "Classical" in number and variety, permitting similarity with Classical works.

However, the forces destined to end the hold of the Classical style gathered strength in the works of each of these composers. The most commonly cited one is harmonic innovation. However, also important is the increasing focus on having a continuous and rhythmically uniform accompanying figuration: [[Piano Sonata No. 14 (Beethoven)|Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata]] was the model for hundreds of later pieces — where the shifting movement of a rhythmic figure provides much of the drama and interest of the work, while a melody drifts above it. Greater knowledge of works, greater instrumental expertise, increasing variety of instruments, the growth of concert societies, and the unstoppable domination of the piano —which created a huge audience for sophisticated music— all contributed to the shift to the "Romantic" style.

Drawing the line exactly is impossible: there are sections of Mozart's works which, taken alone, are indistinguishable in harmony and orchestration from music written 80 years later, and composers continue to write in normative Classical styles into the 20th century. Even before Beethoven's death, composers such as [[Louis Spohr]] were self-described Romantics, incorporating, for example, more extravagant [[chromaticism]] in their works. However, generally the fall of Vienna as the most important musical center for orchestral composition is felt to be the occasion of the Classical style's final eclipse, along with its continuous organic development of one composer learning in close proximity to others. [[Franz Liszt]] and [[Frédéric Chopin]] visited Vienna when young, but they then moved on to other vistas. Composers such as [[Carl Czerny]], while deeply influenced by Beethoven, also searched for new ideas and new forms to contain the larger world of musical expression and performance in which they lived.

Renewed interest in the formal balance and restraint of 18th century classical music led in the early 20th century to the development of so-called [[Neoclassicism (music)|Neoclassical]] style, which numbered [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] and [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev]] among its proponents, at least at certain times in their careers.

==See also==
*[[List of Classical era composers]]
*[[:Category:Classical era composers]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*[[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Kennedy, Michael]] (2006), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4

== Further reading ==
* [[Charles Rosen|Rosen, Charles]] (1972 expanded 1997) - ''The Classical Style''. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393040203 (expanded edition with CD, 1997)
* Downs, Philip G. (1992) - ''Classical Music: The Era of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven'', 4th vol of ''Norton Introduction to Music History''. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 039395191X (hardcover).
* Lihoreau, Tim; [[Stephen Fry|Fry, Stephen]] (2004) - ''[[Stephen Fry's Incomplete and Utter History of Classical Music]]''. Boxtree. ISBN 978-0752225340
* Taruskin, Richard (2005, rev. Paperback version 2009) - ''Oxford History of Western Music''. Oxford University Press (USA). ISBN 978-0195169799 (Hardback), ISBN 978-0195386301 (Paperback)
* [[Barbara Russano Hanning|Hanning, Barbara Russano]]; Grout, Donald Jay (1998 rev. 2006)- ''Concise History of Western Music''. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393928039 (hardcover).
* Grout, Donald Jay; Palisca, Claude V. (1996) - ''A History of Western Music'', Fifth Edition. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393969045 (hardcover).

==External links==

*[http://www.pandora.com/stations/6672675f7fb045b7f26487c4563584383d02505b8421c31b Pandora Radio: Classical Period]
*[http://www.classical.net/ Classical Net] — Classical Music Reference Site
*[http://www.musiclassical.com Directories of composers and performers of classical.music]
*[http://dme.mozarteum.at/DME/nma/start.php?l=2 NMA (Neue Mozart-Ausgabe) Online] — Mozart's scores
*{{IMSLP|id=Classical_composers|cname=various classical composers}}

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[[Category:Classical music era| ]]
[[Category:Classicism]]
[[Category:Austrian music history]]

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[[ca:Classicisme musical]]
[[cs:Klasicismus (hudba)]]
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[[es:Música del Clasicismo]]
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[[fr:Musique de la période classique]]
[[ko:고전파 음악]]
[[id:Zaman Klasik (Musik)]]
[[it:Classicismo (musica)]]
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Classical period (music)

2011-03-13T19:20:05Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 418655716 by 83.70.254.127 (talk) Incorrect info

{{History of European art music}}
The dates of the '''Classical Period''' in Western music are generally accepted as being between about 1750 and 1830. However, the term ''[[classical music]]'' is used colloquially to describe a variety of Western musical styles from the 18th century to the present, and especially from the sixteenth or seventeenth to the nineteenth. This article is about the specific period from 1750 to 1830.<ref>*[[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Kennedy, Michael]] (2006), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4</ref>

The Classical period falls between the [[Baroque music|Baroque]] and the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] periods. The best known [[composer]]s from this period are [[Joseph Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], and [[Franz Schubert]]; other notable names include [[Luigi Boccherini]], [[Muzio Clementi]], [[Antonio Soler]], [[Antonio Salieri]], [[François Joseph Gossec]], [[Johann Stamitz]], [[Carl Friedrich Abel]], [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach]], and [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]]. Ludwig van Beethoven is also sometimes regarded either as a Romantic composer or a composer who was part of the transition to the Romantic; [[Franz Schubert]] is also something of a transitional figure, as are [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]], [[Mauro Giuliani]], [[Friedrich Kuhlau]], [[Fernando Sor]], [[Luigi Cherubini]], [[Jan Ladislav Dussek]], and [[Carl Maria von Weber]]. The period is sometimes referred to as the era of ''Viennese Classic'' or ''Classicism'' ({{lang-de|Wiener Klassik}}), since Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, and Ludwig van Beethoven all worked at some time in [[Vienna]], and Franz Schubert was born there.

== Classicism ==
In the middle of the 18th century , Europe began to move toward a new style in [[architecture]], literature, and the arts, generally known as [[Classicism]], which sought to emulate the ideals of [[Classical antiquity]] and especially those of [[Classical Greece]].<ref>Kamien, Roger. Music: An Appreciation. 6th. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2008. Print.</ref> While still tightly linked to the court culture and absolutism, with its formality and emphasis on order and hierarchy, the new style was also a cleaner style —one that favored clearer divisions between parts, brighter contrasts and colors, and simplicity rather than complexity. The remarkable development of ideas in "natural philosophy" had established itself in the public consciousness with [[Isaac Newton|Newton's]] physics taken as a paradigm: structures should be well-founded in [[axiom]]s and be both well-articulated and orderly. This taste for structural clarity worked its way into the world of music, moving away from the layered [[polyphony]] of the Baroque period, towards a style where a [[melody]] over a subordinate [[harmony]] —a combination called [[homophony]]— was preferred.<ref>Kamien, Roger. Music: An Appreciation. 6th. New York, NY: McGraw Hill, 2008. Print.</ref> This meant that the playing of [[Chord (music)|chords]], even if they interrupted the melodic smoothness of a single part, became a much more prevalent feature of music. This, in turn, made the [[tonality|tonal]] structure of works [[counterpoint|more audible]].

The new style was also pushed forward by changes in the economic order and in social structure. As the 18th century progressed, the nobility became the primary patrons of instrumental music, and there was a rise in the public taste for comic [[opera]]. This led to changes in the way music was performed, the most crucial of which was the move to standard instrumental groups and the reduction in the importance of the ''[[basso continuo|continuo]]'' — the harmonic fill beneath the music, often played by several instruments. One way to trace this decline of the continuo and its [[figured bass|figured]] chords is to examine the decline of the term ''[[obbligato]]'', meaning a mandatory instrumental part in a work of [[chamber music]]. In the Baroque world, additional instruments could be optionally added to the continuo; in the Classical world, all parts were noted specifically, though not always ''notated'', as a matter of course, so the word "obbligato" became redundant. By 1800, the term was practically extinct.
{{Classicism}}
The changes in economic situation also had the effect of altering the balance of availability and quality of musicians. While in the late Baroque a major composer would have the entire musical resources of a town to draw on, the forces available at a hunting lodge were smaller and more fixed in their level of ability. This was a spur to having primarily simple parts to play, and in the case of a resident virtuoso group, a spur to writing spectacular, idiomatic parts for certain instruments, as in the case of the [[Mannheim orchestra]]. In addition, the appetite for a continual supply of new music, carried over from the Baroque, meant that works had to be performable with, at best, one rehearsal. Indeed, even after 1790 Mozart writes about "the rehearsal", with the implication that his concerts would have only one.

Since polyphonic texture was no longer the main focus of music (excluding the development section) but rather a single melodic line with accompaniment, there was greater emphasis on notating that line for [[Dynamics (music)|dynamics]] and phrasing. The simplification of texture made such instrumental detail more important, and also made the use of characteristic rhythms, such as attention-getting opening fanfares, the funeral march rhythm, or the minuet genre, more important in establishing and unifying the tone of a single movement.

Forms such as the concerto and sonata were more heavily defined and given more specific rules, whereas the symphony was created in this period (this is popularly attributed to Joseph Haydn). The ''concerto grosso'' (a concerto for more than one musician) began to be replaced by the ''solo concerto'' (a concerto featuring only one soloist), and therefore began to place more importance on the particular soloist's ability to show off. There were, of course, some ''concerto grossos'' that remained, the most famous of which being Mozart's [[Sinfonia Concertante for Violin, Viola and Orchestra (Mozart)|Sinfonia Concertante for Violin and Viola in E flat Major]].

== Main characteristics ==
Classical music has a lighter, clearer texture than [[Baroque]] music and is less complex. It is mainly [[homophonic]] <ref>Blume, Friedrich. Classic and Romantic Music: A Comprehensive Survey. New York: W.W. Norton . & Company, 1970. Print.</ref> — melody above chordal accompaniment (but [[counterpoint]] is by no means forgotten, especially later in the period).
Variety and contrast within a piece became more pronounced than before. Variety of keys, melodies, rhythms and dynamics (using [[wikt:crescendo|crescendo]], [[wikt:diminuendo|diminuendo]] and [[wikt:sforzando|sforzando]]), along with frequent changes of mood and timbre were more commonplace in the Classical period than they had been in the Baroque. Melodies tended to be shorter than those of Baroque music, with clear-cut phrases and clearly marked [[Cadence (music)|cadences]]. The [[Orchestra]] increased in size and range; the [[harpsichord]] continuo fell out of use, and the [[woodwind]] became a self-contained section. As a solo instrument, the [[harpsichord]] was replaced by the [[piano]] (or [[fortepiano]]). Early piano music was light in texture, often with [[Alberti bass]] accompaniment, but it later became richer, more sonorous and more powerful.

Importance was given to instrumental music — the main kinds were [[sonata]], trio, [[string quartet]], [[symphony]], [[concerto]], [[serenade]] and [[divertimento]]. [[Sonata form]] developed and became the most important form. It was used to build up the first movement of most large-scale works, but also other movements and single pieces (such as [[overture]]s).

==History==
===The Baroque/Classical transition c. 1730–1760===
{{See also|History of sonata form}}
At first the new style took over Baroque forms —the ternary ''[[da capo aria]]'' and the ''[[sinfonia]]'' and ''[[concerto]]''— but composed with simpler parts, more notated ornamentation and more emphatic division into sections. However, over time, the new aesthetic caused radical changes in how pieces were put together, and the basic layouts changed. Composers from this period sought dramatic effects, striking melodies, and clearer textures. The [[Italy|Italian]] composer [[Domenico Scarlatti]] was an important figure in the transition from Baroque to Classical. His unique compositional style is strongly related to that of the early Classical period. He is best known for composing more than five hundred one-movement keyboard sonatas. Another important break with the past was the radical overhaul of opera by [[Christoph Willibald Gluck]], who cut away a great deal of the layering and improvisational ornament and focused on the points of [[Modulation (music)|modulation]] and transition. By making these moments where the harmony changes more focal, he enabled powerful dramatic shifts in the emotional color of the music. To highlight these episodes he used changes in instrumentation, melody, and [[Musical mode|mode]]. Among the most successful composers of his time, Gluck spawned many emulators, one of whom was [[Antonio Salieri]]. Their emphasis on accessibility brought huge successes in opera, and in vocal music more widely: songs, oratorios, and choruses. These were considered the most important kinds of music for performance and hence enjoyed greatest success in the public estimation.

The phase between the Baroque and the rise of the Classical, with its broad mixture of competing ideas and attempts to unify the different demands of taste, economics and "worldview", goes by many names. It is sometimes called ''[[Galant]]'', ''[[Rococo]]'', or ''pre-Classical'', or at other times ''early Classical''{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}}. It is a period where some composers still working in the Baroque style flourish, though sometimes thought of as being more of the past than the present — Bach, Handel, and Telemann all composed well beyond the point at which the homophonic style is clearly in the ascendant. Musical culture was caught at a crossroads: the masters of the older style had the technique, but the public hungered for the new. This is one of the reasons [[Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach|C.P.E. Bach]] was held in such high regard: he understood the older forms quite well and knew how to present them in new garb, with an enhanced variety of form.

===Circa 1750–1775===
{{See also|Symphony}}
[[File:Haydnportrait.jpg|thumb|[[Joseph Haydn]] (1732 - 1809). Depicts Haydn ca. 1770]]
By the late 1750s there were flourishing centers of the new style in Italy, Vienna, Mannheim, and Paris; dozens of symphonies were composed and there were "bands" of players associated with theatres. Opera or other vocal music was the feature of most musical events, with concertos and "symphonies" (arising from the ''[[overture]]'') serving as instrumental interludes and introductions for operas and church services. Over the course of the Classical period, "symphonies" and concertos developed and were presented independently of vocal music. The "normal" ensemble—a body of strings supplemented by winds—and movements of particular rhythmic character were established by the late 1750s in Vienna. However, the length and weight of pieces was still set with some Baroque characteristics: individual movements still focused on one ''affect'' or had only one sharply contrasting middle section, and their length was not significantly greater than Baroque movements. There was not yet a clearly enunciated theory of how to compose in the new style. It was a moment ripe for a breakthrough.

Many consider this breakthrough to have been made by C.P.E. Bach, Gluck, and several others. Indeed, C.P.E. Bach and Gluck are often considered to be founders of the Classical style.

The first great master of the style was the composer [[Joseph Haydn]]. In the late 1750s he began composing symphonies, and by 1761 he had composed a triptych (''Morning'', ''Noon'', and ''Evening'') solidly in the "contemporary" mode. As a vice-[[Kapellmeister]] and later Kapellmeister, his output expanded: he composed over forty symphonies in the 1760s alone. And while his fame grew, as his orchestra was expanded and his compositions were copied and disseminated, his voice was only one among many.

While some suggest that he was overshadowed by Mozart and Beethoven, it would be difficult to overstate Haydn's centrality to the new style, and therefore to the future of Western art music as a whole. At the time, before the pre-eminence of Mozart or Beethoven, and with Johann Sebastian Bach known primarily to connoisseurs of keyboard music, Haydn reached a place in music that set him above all other composers except perhaps George Friedrich Handel. He took existing ideas, and radically altered how they functioned — earning him the titles "father of the [[symphony]]," and "father of the [[string quartet]]."

One of the forces that worked as an impetus for his pressing forward was the first stirring of what would later be called ''[[Romanticism]]'' — the ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'', or "storm and stress" phase in the arts, a short period where obvious emotionalism was a stylistic preference. Haydn accordingly wanted more dramatic contrast and more emotionally appealing melodies, with sharpened character and individuality. This period faded away in music and literature: however, it influenced what came afterward and would eventually be a component of aesthetic taste in later decades.

The [[Symphony No. 45 (Haydn)|''Farewell Symphony'']], No. 45 in F{{music|sharp}} Minor, exemplifies Haydn's integration of the differing demands of the new style, with surprising sharp turns and a long adagio to end the work. In 1772, Haydn completed his Opus 20 set of six string quartets, in which he deployed the polyphonic techniques he had gathered from the previous era to provide structural coherence capable of holding together his melodic ideas. For some this marks the beginning of the "mature" Classical style, where the period of reaction against the complexity of the late Baroque began to be replaced with a period of integration of elements of both Baroque and Classical styles.

===Circa 1775–1790===
{{See also|Musical development}}
[[File:Mozart (unfinished) by Lange 1782.jpg|thumb|Unfinished portrait of Mozart by his brother-in-law [[Joseph Lange]]]]
Haydn, having worked for over a decade as the music director for a prince, had far more resources and scope for composing than most and also the ability to shape the forces that would play his music. This opportunity was not wasted, as Haydn, beginning quite early on his career, sought to press forward the technique of building ideas in music. His next important breakthrough was in the Opus 33 string quartets (1781), where the melodic and the harmonic roles segue among the instruments: it is often momentarily unclear what is melody and what is harmony. This changes the way the ensemble works its way between dramatic moments of transition and climactic sections: the music flows smoothly and without obvious interruption. He then took this integrated style and began applying it to orchestral and vocal music.

Haydn's gift to music was a way of composing, a way of structuring works, which was at the same time in accord with the governing aesthetic of the new style. However, a younger contemporary, [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], brought his genius to Haydn's ideas and applied them to two of the major genres of the day: opera, and the virtuoso concerto. Whereas Haydn spent much of his working life as a court composer, Mozart wanted public success in the concert life of cities. This meant opera, and it meant performing as a virtuoso. Haydn was not a virtuoso at the international touring level; nor was he seeking to create operatic works that could play for many nights in front of a large audience. Mozart wanted both. Moreover, Mozart also had a taste for more chromatic chords (and greater contrasts in harmonic language generally), a greater love for creating a welter of melodies in a single work, and a more Italianate sensibility in music as a whole. He found, in Haydn's music and later in his study of the polyphony of Bach, the means to discipline and enrich his gifts.

Mozart rapidly came to the attention of Haydn, who hailed the new composer, studied his works, and considered the younger man his only true peer in music. In Mozart, Haydn found a greater range of instrumentation, dramatic effect and melodic resource; the learning relationship moved in two directions.

Mozart's arrival in Vienna in 1780 brought an acceleration in the development of the Classical style. There Mozart absorbed the fusion of Italianate brilliance and Germanic cohesiveness which had been brewing for the previous 20 years. His own taste for brilliances, rhythmically complex melodies and figures, long cantilena melodies, and virtuoso flourishes was merged with an appreciation for formal coherence and internal connectedness. It is at this point that war and inflation halted a trend to larger orchestras and forced the disbanding or reduction of many theatre orchestras. This pressed the Classical style inwards: towards seeking greater ensemble and technical challenge — for example, scattering the melody across woodwinds, or using thirds to highlight the melody taken by them. This process placed a premium on chamber music for more public performance, giving a further boost to the string quartet and other small ensemble groupings.

It was during this decade that public taste began, increasingly, to recognize that Haydn and Mozart had reached a higher standard of composition. By the time Mozart arrived at age 25, in 1781, the dominant styles of Vienna were recognizably connected to the emergence in the 1750s of the early Classical style. By the end of the 1780s, changes in performance practice, the relative standing of instrumental and vocal music, technical demands on musicians, and stylistic unity had become established in the composers who imitated Mozart and Haydn. During this decade Mozart composed his most famous operas, his six late symphonies which helped to redefine the genre, and a string of piano concerti which still stand at the pinnacle of these forms.

One composer who was influential in spreading the more serious style that Mozart and Haydn had formed is [[Muzio Clementi]], a gifted virtuoso pianist who tied with Mozart in a musical "duel" before the emperor in which they each improvised and performed their compositions. Clementi's sonatas for the piano circulated widely, and he became the most successful composer in [[London]] during the 1780s. Also in London at this time was [[Jan Ladislav Dussek]], who, like Clementi, encouraged piano makers to extend the range and other features of their instruments, and then fully exploited the newly opened possibilities. The importance of London in the Classical period is often overlooked, but it served as the home to the [[Broadwood and Sons|Broadwood's]] factory for piano manufacturing and as the base for composers who, while less notable than the "Vienna School", had a decisive influence on what came later. They were composers of many fine works, notable in their own right. London's taste for virtuosity may well have encouraged the complex passage work and extended statements on tonic and dominant.

===Circa 1790–1830===
When Haydn and Mozart began composing, symphonies were played as single movements —before, between, or as interludes within other works— and many of them lasted only ten or twelve minutes; instrumental groups had varying standards of playing, and the continuo was a central part of music-making. In the intervening years, the social world of music had seen dramatic changes: international publication and touring had grown explosively, concert societies were beginning to be formed, notation had been made more specific, more descriptive, and schematics for works had been simplified (yet became more varied in their exact working out). In 1790, just before Mozart's death, with his reputation spreading rapidly, Haydn was poised for a series of successes, notably his late oratorios and "London" symphonies. Composers in [[Paris]], [[Rome]], and all over Germany turned to Haydn and Mozart for their ideas on form.

The moment was again ripe for a dramatic shift. During the 1790s, there emerged of a new generation of composers, born around 1770, who, while they had grown up with the earlier styles, found in the recent works of Haydn and Mozart a vehicle for greater expression. In 1788 [[Luigi Cherubini]] settled in Paris and in 1791 composed ''Lodoiska'', an opera that rose him to fame. Its style is clearly reflective of the mature Haydn and Mozart, and its instrumentation gave it a weight that had not yet been felt in the [[grand opera]]. His contemporary [[Étienne Méhul]] extended instrumental effects with his 1790 opera ''Euphrosine et Coradin'', from which followed a series of successes.

The most fateful of the new generation was [[Ludwig van Beethoven]], who launched his numbered works in 1794 with a set of three piano trios, which remain in the repertoire. Somewhat younger than the others, though equally accomplished because of his youthful study under Mozart and his native virtuosity, was [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel]]. Hummel studied under Haydn as well; he was a friend to Beethoven and [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]] and a teacher to [[Franz Liszt]]. He concentrated more on the piano than any other instrument, and his time in London in 1791 and 1792 generated the composition and publication in 1793 of three piano sonatas, opus 2, which idiomatically used Mozart's techniques of avoiding the expected cadence, and Clementi's sometimes modally uncertain virtuoso figuration. Taken together, these composers can be seen as the vanguard of a broad change in style and the center of music. They studied one another's works, copied one another's gestures in music, and on occasion behaved like quarrelsome rivals.

The crucial differences with the previous wave can be seen in the downward shift in melodies, increasing durations of movements, the acceptance of Mozart and Haydn as paradigmatic, the greater use of keyboard resources, the shift from "vocal" writing to "pianistic" writing, the growing pull of the minor and of modal ambiguity, and the increasing importance of varying accompanying figures to bring "texture" forward as an element in music. In short, the late Classical was seeking a music that was internally more complex. The growth of concert societies and amateur orchestras, marking the importance of music as part of middle-class life, contributed to a booming market for pianos, piano music, and virtuosi to serve as examplars. Hummel, Beethoven, and Clementi were all renowned for their improvising.


Direct influence of the Baroque continued to fade: the [[figured bass]] grew less prominent as a means of holding performance together, the performance practices of the mid 18th century continued to die out. However, at the same time, complete editions of Baroque masters began to become available, and the influence of Baroque style continued to grow, particularly in the ever more expansive use of brass. Another feature of the period is the growing number of performances where the composer was not present. This led to increased detail and specificity in notation; for example, there were fewer "optional" parts that stood separately from the main score.

The force of these shifts became apparent with Beethoven's 3rd Symphony, given the name ''Eroica'', which is Italian for "heroic", by the composer. As with Stravinsky's ''[[The Rite of Spring]]'', it may not have been the first in all of its innovations, but its aggressive use of every part of the Classical style set it apart from its contemporary works: in length, ambition, and harmonic resources.

==Classical influence on later composers==
{{See also|Tonality}}
Musical eras seldom disappear at once; instead, features are replaced over time, until the old is simply felt as "old-fashioned". The Classical style did not "die" so much as transform under the weight of changes.

One crucial change was the shift towards harmonies centering around "flatward" keys: shifts in the [[subdominant]] direction. In the Classical style, major key was far more common than minor, chromaticism being moderated through the use of "sharpward" modulation, and sections in the minor mode were often merely for contrast. Beginning with Mozart and Clementi, there began a creeping colonization of the subdominant region. With Schubert, subdominant moves flourished after being introduced in contexts in which earlier composers would have confined themselves to dominant shifts. This introduced darker colors to music, strengthened the minor mode, and made structure harder to maintain. Beethoven contributed to this by his increasing use of the [[Interval (music)|fourth]] as a consonance, and modal ambiguity — for example, the opening of the D Minor Symphony.

[[Franz Schubert]], [[Carl Maria von Weber]], and [[John Field (composer)|John Field]] are among the most prominent in this generation of "Classical Romantics", along with the young [[Felix Mendelssohn]]. Their sense of form was strongly influenced by the Classical style, and they were not yet "learned" (imitating rules which were codified by others), but they directly responded to works by Beethoven, Mozart, Clementi, and others, as they encountered them. The instrumental forces at their disposal were also quite "Classical" in number and variety, permitting similarity with Classical works.

However, the forces destined to end the hold of the Classical style gathered strength in the works of each of these composers. The most commonly cited one is harmonic innovation. However, also important is the increasing focus on having a continuous and rhythmically uniform accompanying figuration: [[Piano Sonata No. 14 (Beethoven)|Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata]] was the model for hundreds of later pieces — where the shifting movement of a rhythmic figure provides much of the drama and interest of the work, while a melody drifts above it. Greater knowledge of works, greater instrumental expertise, increasing variety of instruments, the growth of concert societies, and the unstoppable domination of the piano —which created a huge audience for sophisticated music— all contributed to the shift to the "Romantic" style.

Drawing the line exactly is impossible: there are sections of Mozart's works which, taken alone, are indistinguishable in harmony and orchestration from music written 80 years later, and composers continue to write in normative Classical styles into the 20th century. Even before Beethoven's death, composers such as [[Louis Spohr]] were self-described Romantics, incorporating, for example, more extravagant [[chromaticism]] in their works. However, generally the fall of Vienna as the most important musical center for orchestral composition is felt to be the occasion of the Classical style's final eclipse, along with its continuous organic development of one composer learning in close proximity to others. [[Franz Liszt]] and [[Frédéric Chopin]] visited Vienna when young, but they then moved on to other vistas. Composers such as [[Carl Czerny]], while deeply influenced by Beethoven, also searched for new ideas and new forms to contain the larger world of musical expression and performance in which they lived.

Renewed interest in the formal balance and restraint of 18th century classical music led in the early 20th century to the development of so-called [[Neoclassicism (music)|Neoclassical]] style, which numbered [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]] and [[Sergei Prokofiev|Prokofiev]] among its proponents, at least at certain times in their careers.

==See also==
*[[List of Classical era composers]]
*[[:Category:Classical era composers]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
*[[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Kennedy, Michael]] (2006), ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 985 pages, ISBN 0-19-861459-4

== Further reading ==
* [[Charles Rosen|Rosen, Charles]] (1972 expanded 1997) - ''The Classical Style''. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0393040203 (expanded edition with CD, 1997)
* Downs, Philip G. (1992) - ''Classical Music: The Era of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven'', 4th vol of ''Norton Introduction to Music History''. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 039395191X (hardcover).
* Lihoreau, Tim; [[Stephen Fry|Fry, Stephen]] (2004) - ''[[Stephen Fry's Incomplete and Utter History of Classical Music]]''. Boxtree. ISBN 978-0752225340
* Taruskin, Richard (2005, rev. Paperback version 2009) - ''Oxford History of Western Music''. Oxford University Press (USA). ISBN 978-0195169799 (Hardback), ISBN 978-0195386301 (Paperback)
* [[Barbara Russano Hanning|Hanning, Barbara Russano]]; Grout, Donald Jay (1998 rev. 2006)- ''Concise History of Western Music''. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393928039 (hardcover).
* Grout, Donald Jay; Palisca, Claude V. (1996) - ''A History of Western Music'', Fifth Edition. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393969045 (hardcover).

==External links==

*[http://www.pandora.com/stations/6672675f7fb045b7f26487c4563584383d02505b8421c31b Pandora Radio: Classical Period]
*[http://www.classical.net/ Classical Net] — Classical Music Reference Site
*[http://www.musiclassical.com Directories of composers and performers of classical.music]
*[http://dme.mozarteum.at/DME/nma/start.php?l=2 NMA (Neue Mozart-Ausgabe) Online] — Mozart's scores
*{{IMSLP|id=Classical_composers|cname=various classical composers}}

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Leoš Janáček

2011-03-13T17:14:00Z

Rigaudon: /* Early life */ Rm comma

{{about|the Czech composer|people with the same surname|Janáček (surname)}}
[[Image:Janacek.jpg|200px|thumb|upright|Leoš Janáček]]
'''Leoš Janáček''' ({{IPA-cs|ˈlɛoʃ ˈjanaːtʃɛk|-|Cs-Leos Janacek.ogg}}) (baptised '''Leo Eugen Janáček''') (July 3, 1854 – August 12, 1928), was a [[Czech people|Czech]] [[composer]], [[Music theory|musical theorist]], [[Folkloristics|folklorist]], publicist and teacher. He was inspired by [[Moravian traditional music|Moravia]]n and all [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] folk music to create an original, modern musical style.<ref name=autogenerated11>Sehnal and Vysloužil (2001), p. 175 {{cs icon}}</ref> Until 1895 he devoted himself mainly to folkloristic research and his early musical output was influenced by contemporaries such as [[Antonín Dvořák]].<ref name="autogenerated11"/> His later, mature works incorporate his earlier studies of national folk music in a modern, highly original synthesis, first evident in the opera ''[[Jenůfa]]'', which was premiered in 1904 in Brno.<ref>Sehnal and Vysloužil (2001), p. 183 {{cs icon}}</ref> The success of ''Jenůfa'' (often called the "Moravian national opera") at Prague in 1916 gave Janáček access to the world's great opera stages.<ref>Sehnal and Vysloužil (2001), p. 184 {{cs icon}}</ref><ref>Sehnal and Vysloužil (2001), p. 185 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček's later works are his most celebrated. They include the symphonic poem [[Sinfonietta (Janáček)|Sinfonietta]], the [[Oratorio|oratorial]] ''[[Glagolitic Mass]]'', the rhapsody ''[[Taras Bulba (rhapsody)|Taras Bulba]]'', string quartets, other chamber works and operas. He is considered to rank with Antonín Dvořák and [[Bedřich Smetana]], as one of the most important Czech composers.<ref name="autogenerated11"/><ref>Československý hudební slovník osob a institucí I. (1963), p. 559 {{cs icon}}</ref>

==Biography==
===Early life===
[[Image:Janacek with wife.jpg|thumb|upright|Leoš Janáček with his wife in 1881]]
Leoš Janáček, son of schoolmaster Jiří (1815–1866), and Amalie, (née Grulich) Janáček (1819–1884), was born in [[Hukvaldy]], [[Moravia]], (then part of the [[Austrian Empire]]).<ref name=autogenerated1>Drlíková (2004), p. 7</ref> He was a gifted child in a family of limited means, and showed an early musical talent in choral singing. His father wanted him to follow the family tradition, and become a teacher, but deferred to Janáček's obvious musical abilities. In 1865 young Janáček enrolled as a ward of the foundation of the [[Abbey of St. Thomas in Brno]], where he took part in choral singing under [[Pavel Křížkovský]] and occasionally played the [[Organ (music)|organ]].<ref name="autogenerated1" /> One of his classmates, František Neumann, later described Janáček as an ''"excellent pianist, who played [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] symphonies perfectly in a piano duet with a classmate, under Křížkovský's supervision"''.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 24 {{cs icon}}</ref> Křížkovský found him a problematic and wayward student but recommended his entry to the Prague Organ School.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 29 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček later remembered Křížkovský as a great conductor and teacher.

Janáček originally intended to study piano and organ but eventually devoted himself to composition. He wrote his first vocal compositions while choirmaster of the ''Svatopluk Artisan's Association'' (1873–76).<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 13</ref> In 1874 he enrolled at the [[Prague]] organ school, under [[František Zdeněk Skuherský|František Skuherský]] and František Blažek.<ref name=autogenerated13>Černušák (1963), p. 557 {{cs icon}}</ref> His student days in Prague were impoverished; with no piano in his room, he had to make do with a keyboard drawn on his tabletop.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 32 {{cs icon}}</ref> His criticism of Skuherský's performance of the Gregorian mass was published in the March 1875 edition of the journal ''Cecilie'' and led to his expulsion from the school - but Skuherský relented, and on 24 July 1875 Janáček graduated with the best results in his class.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 31 {{cs icon}}</ref> On his return to Brno he earned a living as a music teacher, and [[Conducting|conducted]] various amateur [[choir]]s. From 1876 he taught music at Brno's Teachers Institute. Among his pupils there was Zdenka Schulzová, daughter of Emilian Schulz, the Institute director. She was later to be Janáček's wife.<ref name="autogenerated13"/> In 1876 he also became a piano student of Amálie Wickenhauserová-Nerudová, with whom he co-organized chamber concertos and performed in concerts over the next two years. In February, 1876, he was voted choirmaster of the ''Beseda brněnská'' Philharmonic Society. Apart from an interruption from 1879 to 1881, he remained its choirmaster and conductor until 1888.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 19 {{cs icon}}</ref>

From October 1879 to February 1880 he studied [[piano]], organ, and composition at the [[Felix Mendelssohn College of Music and Theatre|Leipzig Conservatory]]. While there, he composed ''Thema con variazioni'' for piano in B flat, subtitled ''Zdenka's Variations''.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 27</ref><ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 29</ref> Dissatisfied with his teachers (among them [[Oskar Paul]] and [[Leo Grill]]), and denied a studentship with [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]] in Paris, Janáček moved on to the [[University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna|Vienna Conservatory]] where from April to June 1880 he studied composition with [[Franz Krenn]].<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 45 {{cs icon}}</ref> He concealed his opposition to Krenn's neo-romanticism, but he quit [[Joseph Dachs]]'s classes and further piano study when he was criticised for his piano style and technique.<ref>Štědroň, (1946), p. 55 {{cs icon}}</ref> He submitted a violin sonata (now lost) to a Vienna Conservatory competition, but the judges rejected it as ''"too academic"''.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 57 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček left the conservatory in June, 1880, disappointed despite Franz Krenn's very complimentary personal report.<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 48 {{cs icon}}</ref> He returned to [[Brno]]<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 31</ref> where on 13 July 1881, he married his young pupil Zdenka Schulzová.<ref name=autogenerated2>Drlíková (2004), p. 33</ref>

Janáček was appointed director of the organ school, and held this post until 1919, when the school became the Brno Conservatory.<ref name="autogenerated2" /> In the mid 1880s Janáček began composing more systematically. Among other works, he created the ''Four male-voice choruses'' (1886), dedicated to Antonín Dvořák, and his first opera, ''Šárka'' (1887-8).<ref name=autogenerated4>Vysloužil, p. 224 {{cs icon}}</ref> During this period he began to collect and study folk music, songs and dances. In the early months of 1887 he sharply criticized the comic opera ''The Bridegrooms'', by Czech composer [[Karel Kovařovic]], in a ''Hudební listy'' journal review: ''"Which melody stuck in your mind? Which motif? Is this dramatic opera? No, I would write on the poster: "Comedy performed together with music", since the music and the libretto aren't connected to each other"''.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 111-112 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček's review apparently led to mutual dislike and later professional difficulties when Kovařovic, as director of the [[National Theatre (Prague)|National Theatre in Prague]], refused to stage Janáček's opera ''Jenůfa''.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 112 {{cs icon}}</ref><ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 41</ref>

From the early 1890s, Janáček led the mainstream of folklorist activity in [[Moravia]] and [[Silesia]], using a repertoire of folksongs and dances in orchestral and piano arrangements. Most of his achievements in this field were published in 1899-1901 though his interest in folklore would be lifelong.<ref name=autogenerated3>Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního folkloru, p. 380</ref> His compositional work was still influenced by the declamatory, dramatic style of [[Bedřich Smetana|Smetana]] and Dvořák. He expressed very negative opinions on German neo-classicism and especially on [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] in the ''Hudební listy'' journal, which he founded in 1884.<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 62</ref> The death of his second child, Vladimír, in 1890 was followed by an attempted opera, ''Beginning of the Romance'' (1891) and the [[cantata]] ''Amarus'' (1897).

===Later years and masterworks===

In the first decade of the 20th century Janáček composed choral church music including ''Otčenáš'' (Our Father, 1901), ''Constitutes'' (1903) and ''Ave Maria'' (1904). In 1901 the first part of his piano cycle ''On an Overgrown Path'' was published, and gradually became one of his most frequently performed works.<ref>Zahrádka, Jiří (2006), p. XI</ref> In 1902 Janáček visited [[Russia]] twice. On the first occasion he took his daughter Olga to [[St.Petersburg]], where she stayed to study Russian. Only three months later, he returned to St. Petersburg with his wife because Olga was very ill. They took her back to Brno, but her health was worsening. Janáček expressed his painful feelings for his daughter in a new work, his opera ''Jenůfa'', in which the suffering of his daughter became Jenůfa's.<ref name=autogenerated8>{{cite web |url=http://www.leosjanacek.com/biography.htm |title=Janáček: a brief biography |accessdate=2008-09-15 |last=Plumley |first=Gavin |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=}}</ref> When Olga died in February 1903, Janáček dedicated ''Jenůfa'' to her memory. The opera was performed in Brno in 1904, with reasonable success, but Janáček felt this was no more than a provincial achievement. He aspired to recognition by the more influential Prague opera, but ''Jenůfa'' was refused there (twelve years passed before its first performance in Prague).<ref>{{cite book |title=Káťa Kabanová |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink=John Tyrrell |coauthors= |year=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521298539 |page=2 |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=dpJScle5-RgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Janacek }}</ref> Dejected and emotionally exhausted, Janáček went to [[Luhačovice]] spa to recover. There he met Kamila Urválková, whose love story supplied the theme for his next opera, ''Osud'' (Destiny).
[[Image:Jenůfa - the only well-preserved page of the score.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The only preserved page of the autograph manuscript of Janáček's ''Jenůfa'']]
In 1905 Janáček attended a demonstration in support of a Czech university in Brno, where the violent death of František Pavlík (a young joiner) at the hands of the police inspired his ''1. X. 1905'' piano sonata.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 67</ref> The incident led him to further promote the anti-German and anti-Austrian ethos of the ''Russian Circle'', which he had co-founded in 1897<ref>Černušák (1963), p. 558 {{cs icon}}</ref> and which would be officially banned by the Austrian police in 1915.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 81</ref> In 1906 he approached the Czech poet [[Petr Bezruč]], with whom he later collaborated, composing several choral works based on Bezruč's poetry. These included ''Kantor Halfar'' (1906), ''Maryčka Magdónova'' (1908), and ''Sedmdesát tisíc'' (1909). Janáček's life in the first decade of the 20th century was complicated by personal and professional difficulties. He still yearned for artistic recognition from Prague.<ref>Vysloužil,p. 225 {{cs icon}}</ref> He destroyed some of his works - others remained unfinished. Nevertheless, he continued composing, and would create several remarkable choral, chamber, orchestral and operatic works, the most notable being the 1914 Cantata ''Věčné evangelium'' (The Eternal Gospel), ''Pohádka'' (Fairy tale) for violoncello and piano (1910), the 1912 piano cycle ''V mlhách'' (In the Mist) and his first symphonic poem ''Šumařovo dítě'' (A Fiddler's Child). His fifth opera, ''Výlet pana Broučka do měsíce'', composed from 1908 to 1917, has been characterized as the most "purely Czech in subject and treatment" of all Janáček's operas.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://oq.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/6/3/86 | last=Shawe-Taylor | first=Desmond | title=The Operas of Leoš Janáček | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association | volume=session | pages=49–64 | series=85th | date=1958-1959 | accessdate=2007-10-18}}</ref>

In 1916 he started what would be a long professional and personal relationship with theatre critic, dramatist and translator [[Max Brod]].<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 83</ref>
<ref>C Susskind, ''Janáček and Brod''. Yale University Press, 1985, ISBN 0-300-03420-2</ref> In the same year ''Jenůfa'', revised by Kovařovic, was finally accepted by the National Theatre; its performance in Prague (1916) was a great success, and brought Janáček his first acclaim. He was 62. Following the Prague première, he began a relationship with singer Gabriela Horváthová, which led to his wife Zdenka's attempted suicide and their "informal" divorce.<ref name="autogenerated8"/><ref>Thema con variazioni, p. 8 {{cs icon}}</ref>
A year later (1917) he met [[Kamila Stösslová]], a young married woman 38 years his junior, who was to inspire him for the remaining years of his life. He conducted an obsessive and (on his side at least), passionate correspondence with her, of nearly 730 letters.<ref name=autogenerated6>Drlíková (2004), p. 99</ref> From 1917 to 1919, deeply inspired by Stösslová, he composed ''The Diary of One Who Disappeared''. As he completed its final revision, he began his next 'Kamila' work, the opera ''Káťa Kabanová''.
[[Image:Kamila Stösslová in 1917.jpg|thumb|upright|250px|Kamila Stösslová with her son Otto in 1917]]
In 1920 Janáček retired from his post as director of the Brno Conservatory, but continued to teach until 1925.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 91</ref> In 1922 he attended a lecture by the Indian philosopher-poet [[Rabindranath Tagore]], and used a Tagore poem as the basis for the chorus ''The Wandering Madman''. Later that year he encountered the [[Microtonal music|microtonal]] works of [[Alois Hába]]. In the early 1920s Janáček completed his opera ''The Cunning Little Vixen'', which had been inspired by a serialized novella in the newspaper [[Lidové noviny]].

In Janáček's 70th year (1924) his biography was published by Max Brod, and he was interviewed by [[Olin Downes]] for the ''[[New York Times]]''.<ref name="autogenerated6" /> In 1925 he retired from teaching, but continued composing and was awarded the first honorary doctorate to be given by [[Masaryk University]] in Brno. In the spring of 1926 he created the monumental orchestral work ''Sinfonietta'', which rapidly gained wide critical acclaim. In the same year he went to England at the invitation of [[Rosa Newmarch]]. A number of his works were performed in London, including his first string quartet, the wind sextet ''Youth'', and his violin sonata.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 109</ref> Shortly after, and still in 1926, he started to compose a setting to an [[Old Church Slavonic]] text. The result was the large-scale orchestral ''Glagolitic Mass''. Janáček was an atheist, and critical of the organised Church, but religious themes appear frequently in his work. The ''Glagolitic Mass'' was partly inspired by the suggestion by a clerical friend, and partly by Janáček's wish to celebrate the anniversary of Czechoslovak independence. In 1927 - the year of ''Sinfonietta's'' first performances in New York, Berlin and Brno - he began to compose his final operatic work, ''From the House of the Dead'', the third Act of which was found on his desk after his death. In January 1928 he began his second string quartet, the ''"Intimate Letters"'', his "manifesto on love". Meanwhile, ''Sinfonietta'' was performed in London, Vienna and Dresden. In his later years, the still-active Janáček became an international celebrity. He became a member of the [[Akademie der Künste|Prussian Academy of Arts]] in Berlin in 1927, along with [[Arnold Schönberg]] and [[Paul Hindemith]].<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 113</ref><ref name="Vyslouil">Vysloužil,p. 227 {{cs icon}}</ref> His operas and other works were finally performed at the world stages, though ''From the House of the Dead'' was first performed posthumously. In August 1928 he took an excursion to [[Štramberk]] with Kamila Stösslová and her son Otto, but caught a chill, which developed into pneumonia. He died on the 12th August 1928 in [[Ostrava]], at the sanatorium of Dr. L. Klein. He was given a large public funeral, to music from the last scene of his ''Cunning Little Vixen'', and was buried in the Field of Honour at the Central Cemetery, Brno.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 119</ref>

==Personality==
[[File:Oga Janáčková 2509.jpg|thumb|upright|200px|Olga Janáčková]]
Janáček's life was filled by work. He led the ''organ school'', was a Professor at the ''teachers institute'' and gymnasium in Brno, collected his "speech tunes" and was composing. From an early age he presented himself as an individualist and his firmly formulated opinions often led to conflict. He unhesitatingly criticized his teachers, who considered him a defiant and anti-authoritarian student. His own students found him strict and uncompromising. [[Vilém Tauský]], one of his pupils, described his encounters with Janáček as somewhat distressing for someone unused to his personality, and noted that Janáček's characteristically staccato speech rhythms were reproduced in some of his operatic characters.<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 16</ref> In 1881, Janáček gave up his leading role with the ''Beseda brněnská'', as a response to criticism, but a rapid decline in ''"Beseda"'''s performance quality led to his recall in 1882.<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 57 {{cs icon}}</ref>

His married life, settled and calm in its early years, became increasingly tense and difficult following the death of his daughter, Olga. Years of effort in obscurity took their toll, and almost ended his ambitions as a composer.: ''"I was beaten down"'', he wrote later; ''"my own students gave me advices, how to compose, how to speak through orchestra"''.<ref>Přibáňová (2007), p. 8 {{cs icon}}</ref> Success in 1916 - when [[Karel Kovařovic]] finally decided to perform ''Jenůfa'' in Prague - brought its own problems. Janáček grudgingly resigned himself to the changes forced upon his work. Its success brought him into Prague's music scene and the attentions of soprano Gabriela Horvátová, who guided him through Prague society. Janáček was enchanted by her. On his return to Brno, he appears not to have concealed his new passion from Zdenka, who responded by attempting suicide. Janáček was furious with Zdenka and tried to instigate a divorce, but lost interest in Horvátová. Zdenka, anxious to avoid the public scandal of formal divorce, persuaded him to settle for an "informal" divorce. From then on, until Janáček's death, they would live separate lives in the same household.

In 1917 he began his lifelong, inspirational and unrequited passion for [[Kamila Stösslová]], who neither sought nor rejected his devotion.<ref name=autogenerated14>Přibáňová (2007), p. 9 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček pleaded for first-name terms in their correspondence. In 1927 she finally agreed and signed herself ''"Tvá Kamila"'' (Your Kamila) in a letter, which Zdenka found. This revelation provoked a furious quarrel between Zdenka and Janáček, though their living arrangements did not change - Janáček seems to have persuaded her to stay.<ref name="autogenerated14"/> In 1928, the year of his death, Janáček confessed his intention to publicise his feelings for Stösslová. [[Max Brod]] had to dissuade him.<ref name=autogenerated15>Přibáňová (2007), p. 10 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček's contemporaries and collaborators described him as mistrustful and reserved, but capable of obsessive passion for those he loved. His overwhelming passion for Stösslová was sincere but verged upon self-destruction.<ref name="autogenerated15"/> Their letters remain an important source for Janáček's artistic intentions and inspiration. His letters to his long-suffering wife are, by contrast, mundanely descriptive. Zdenka seems to have destroyed all hers to Janáček. Only a few postcards survive.<ref name="autogenerated15"/>

==Style==

In 1874 Janáček became friends with [[Antonín Dvořák]], and began composing in a relatively traditional [[romantic music|romantic]] style. After his opera ''[[Šárka (Janáček)|Šárka]]'' (1887–1888), his style absorbed elements of [[Moravia]]n and [[Slovakia|Slovak]] [[folk music]].

His musical assimilation of the [[rhythm]], [[pitch contour]] and inflections of normal Czech speech helped create the very distinctive vocal [[melody|melodies]] of his opera ''[[Jenůfa]]'' (1904), whose 1916 success in Prague was to be the turning point in his career. In ''Jenůfa'', Janáček developed and applied the concept of ''"speech tunes"'' to build a unique musical and dramatic style quite independent of "Wagnerian" dramatic method. He studied the circumstances in which ''"speech tunes"'' changed, the psychology and temperament of speakers and the coherence within speech, all of which helped render the dramatically truthful roles of his mature operas, and became one of the most significant markers of his style.<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 91-92</ref> Janáček took these stylistic principles much farther in his vocal writing than [[Modest Mussorgsky]], and thus anticipates the later work of [[Béla Bartók]].<ref name=autogenerated5>Samson 1977</ref> The stylistic basis for his later works originates in the period of 1904-1918, but Janáček composed the majority of his output - and his best known works - in the last decade of his life.<ref name="Vyslouil" />

Much of Janáček's work displays great originality and individuality. It employs a vastly expanded view of [[tonality]], uses unorthodox chord spacings and structures, and often, [[Musical mode|modality]]: "there is no music without [[key (music)|key]]. [[Atonality]] abolishes definite key, and thus tonal [[modulation (music)|modulation]]....Folksong knows of no atonality."<ref>Hollander 1963</ref> Janáček features [[accompaniment]] figures and patterns, with (according to Jim Samson) "the on-going movement of his music...similarly achieved by unorthodox means; often a discourse of short, 'unfinished' [[phrase (music)|phrases]] comprising constant repetitions of short [[motif (music)|motifs]] which gather momentum in a cumulative manner." <ref name="autogenerated5" /> Janáček named these motifs "sčasovka" in his theoretical works. "Sčasovka" has no strict English equivalent, but [[John Tyrrell]], a leading specialist on Janáček's music, describes it as ''"a little flash of time, almost a kind of musical capsule, which Janáček often used in slow music as tiny swift motifs with remarkably characteristic rhythms that are supposed to pepper the musical flow."''<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 13</ref> Janáček's use of these repeated motifs demonstrates a remote similarity to minimalist composers (Sir Charles Mackerras called Janáček ''"the first minimalist composer"'').<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.leosjanacek.com/glagolitic.htm |title=Mša glagolskaja |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher=Leoš Janáček (Gavin Plumley's site) |date=}}</ref>

==Legacy==

Janáček belongs to a wave of 20th century composers who sought greater realism and greater connection with everyday life, combined with a more all-encompassing use of musical resources. His operas in particular demonstrate the use of "speech"-derived melodic lines, folk and traditional material, and complex modal musical argument. Janáček's works are still regularly performed around the world, and are generally considered popular with audiences. He would also inspire later composers in his homeland, as well as music theorists, among them [[Jaroslav Volek]], to place modal development alongside [[harmony]] of importance in music.
[[Image:Leos Janacek relief.jpg|thumb|upright|Janáček relief, by Julius Pelikán]]

The operas of his mature period, ''[[Jenůfa]]'' (1904), ''[[Káťa Kabanová]]'' (1921), ''[[The Cunning Little Vixen]]'' (1924), ''[[The Makropulos Affair (opera)|The Makropulos Affair]]'' (1926) and ''[[From the House of the Dead]]'' (after a [[The House of the Dead (novel)|novel by Dostoyevsky]] and premiered posthumously in 1930) are considered his finest works.<ref>Kundera (2004), p. 43</ref> The [[Australia]]n [[Conducting|conductor]] Sir [[Charles Mackerras]] has become particularly closely associated with them.

His chamber music, while not especially voluminous, includes works which are generally considered to be "in the standard repertory" as 20th century classics, particularly his two [[string quartet]]s: [[String Quartet No. 1 (Janáček)|Quartet No. 1, "The Kreutzer Sonata"]] inspired by [[The Kreutzer Sonata|the Tolstoy novel]], and the [[String Quartet No. 2 (Janáček)|Quartet No. 2, "Intimate Letters"]]. [[Milan Kundera]] called these compositions the peak of Janáček's output.<ref name="Kundera 1996, p. 180">Kundera (1996), p. 180</ref>

At the [[Frankfurt am Main]] Festival of Modern Music in 1927 [[Ilona Štěpánová-Kurzová]] performed the world premiere of Janáček's lyrical [[Concertino (Janáček)|Concertino]] for piano, two violins, viola, clarinet, French horn and bassoon; the Czech premiere took place in [[Brno]] on February 16, 1926. A comparable chamber work for an even more unusual set of instruments, the [[Capriccio (Janáček)|Capriccio]] for piano left hand, flute, two trumpets, three trombones and tenor tuba, was written for pianist [[Otakar Hollmann]], who lost the use of his right hand during [[World War I]]. After its premiere in Prague on March 2, 1928, it gained considerable acclaim in the musical world.

Other well known pieces by Janáček include the ''[[Sinfonietta (Janáček)|Sinfonietta]]'', the ''[[Glagolitic Mass]]'' (the text written in [[Old Church Slavonic]]), and the rhapsody ''[[Taras Bulba (rhapsody)|Taras Bulba]]''. These pieces and the above mentioned five late operas were all written in the last decade of Janáček's life.

Janáček established a school of composition in Brno. Among his notable pupils were [[Jan Kunc]], [[Václav Kaprál]], [[Vilém Petrželka]], [[Jaroslav Kvapil (composer)|Jaroslav Kvapil]], [[Osvald Chlubna]], [[Břetislav Bakala]], and [[Pavel Haas]]. Most of his students neither imitated nor developed Janáček's style, which left him no direct stylistic descendants. According to Milan Kundera, Janáček developed a personal, modern style in relative isolation from contemporary modernist movements but was in close contact with developments in modern European music. His path towards the innovative "modernism" of his later years was long and solitary, and he achieved true individuation as a composer around his 50th year.<ref name="Kundera 1996, p. 180"/><ref>Kundera (2004), p. 70 {{cs icon}}</ref>

Sir Charles Mackerras, the Australian conductor who has helped promote Janáček's works on the world's opera stages, described his style as ''"... completely new and original, different from anything else ... and impossible to pin down to any one style"''.<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 7-8</ref> According to Mackerras, his use of whole-tone scale differs from that of [[Claude Debussy|Debussy]], his folk music inspiration is absolutely dissimilar from Dvořák's and Smetana's, and his characteristically complex rhythms differ from the techniques of the young [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]].<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 8</ref>

French conductor and composer [[Pierre Boulez]], who interpreted Janáček's operas and orchestral works, called his music surprisingly modern and fresh: ''"Its repetitive pulse varies through changes in rhythm, tone and direction."'' He described his opera ''From the House of the Dead'' as ''"primitive, in the best sense, but also extremely strong, like the paintings of Léger, where the rudimentary character allows a very vigorous kind of expression".''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.musicweb-international.com/sandh/2007/Jan-Jun07/janacek3105.htm |title=Janáček, From the House of the Dead |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher= |date=}}</ref>

Janáček's life has featured in several films. In 1974 Eva Marie Kaňková made a short documentary ''Fotograf a muzika'' (The Photographer and the Music) about the Czech photographer [[Josef Sudek]] and his relationship to Janáček's work.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nostalghia.cz/dvd/txt/sudek_kf.php |title=Recenze DVD: Josef Sudek |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher=Nostalghia.cz |date=}}</ref> In 1986 the Czech director [[Jaromil Jireš]] made ''Lev s bílou hřívou'' (Lion with the White Mane), which showed the amorous inspiration behind Janáček's works.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.csfd.cz/film/4837-lev-s-bilou-hrivou/ |title=Lev s bílou hřívou |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher=Česká a slovenská filmová databáze |date=}} {{cs icon}}</ref> [[In Search of Janáček]] is a Czech documentary directed in 2004 by Petr Kaňka, made to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Janáček's birth. An animated cartoon version of ''[[The Cunning Little Vixen]]'' was made in 2003 by the [[BBC]], with music performed by the [[Deutsches Symphonie-Orchester Berlin]] and conducted by [[Kent Nagano]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.musicweb-international.com/classrev/2003/july03/Janacek_vixen_Cartoon.htm |title=Leoš Janáček: The Cunning Little Vixen |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher=music web-international.com |date=}}</ref> A rearrangement of the opening of the ''Sinfonietta'' was used by the progressive rock band [[Emerson, Lake & Palmer]] for its song ''Knife-Edge'' on their debut album.

==Criticism==
[[File:Janáček, Kovařovic, kunc507.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Leoš Janáček, Karel Kovařovic and Jan Kunc in Summer, 1917]]
Czech musicology at the beginning of the 20th century was strongly influenced by Romanticism, in particular by the styles of Wagner and Smetana. Performance practises were conservative, and actively resistant to stylistic innovation. During his lifetime, Janáček reluctantly conceded to Karel Kovařovic's instrumental rearrangement of ''Jenůfa'', most noticeably in the finale, in which Kovařovic added a more 'festive' sound of trumpets and French horns, and doubled some instruments to support Janáček's "poor" instrumentation.<ref>Ort (2005) p. 60 {{cs icon}}</ref> The score of ''Jenůfa'' was later restored by Charles Mackerras, and is now performed according to Janáček's original intentions.

Another important Czech musicologist, [[Zdeněk Nejedlý]], a great admirer of Smetana and later a communist Minister of Culture, condemned Janáček as an author who could accumulate a lot of material, but was unable to do anything with it. He called Janáček's style "unanimated", and his operatic duets "only speech melodies", without polyphonic strength.<ref>Ort (2005), p. 63 {{cs icon}}</ref> Nejedlý considered Janáček rather an amateurish composer, whose music did not conform to the style of Smetana. According to Charles Mackerras, he tried to professionally destroy Janáček.<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 9</ref> Josef Bartoš, the Czech aesthetician and music critic, called Janáček a "musical eccentric" who clung tenaciously to an imperfect, improvising style, but Bartoš appreciated some elements of Janáček's works and judged him more positively than Nejedlý.<ref>Fenomén Janáček včera a dnes (2004), p. 219-220</ref>

Janáček's friend and collaborator [[Václav Talich]], former chief-conductor of the [[Czech Philharmonic]], sometimes adjusted Janáček's scores, mainly for their instrumentation and dynamics; some critics sharply attacked him for doing so.<ref>{{cite album-notes |title=Taras Bulba, Ripening |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček; Josef Suk |year=2005 |notestitle=Janáček Carves with a Knife; Suk Draws with the Most Delicate Pen |url= |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |page=8 |format=CD |publisher=Supraphon |publisherid=SU-3823-2 |location=Prague |mbid= }}</ref> Talich re-orchestrated ''Taras Bulba'' and the Suite from ''Cunning Little Vixen'' justifying the latter with the claim that ''"it was not possible to perform it in the [[Prague National Theatre]] unless it was entirely re-orchestrated"''. Talich's rearrangement rather emasculated the specific sounds and contrasts of Janáček's original, but was the standard version for many years.<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 11</ref> Charles Mackerras started to research Janáček's music in 1960s, and gradually restored the composer's distinctive scoring. The critical edition of Janáček's scores is published by the Czech ''Editio Janáček''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.editiojanacek.com/en/ |title=Editio Janáček |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work=|publisher=Editio Janáček |date=}}</ref>

==Inspiration==

Janáček's style and thematic inspiration make use of several fundamental sources.

'''Folklore'''

Janáček was deeply influenced by folklore, and by [[Moravian folk music]] in particular, but not by the pervasive, idealized 19th century romantic folklore variant. He took a realistic, descriptive and analytic approach to the material.<ref name=autogenerated9>{{cite album-notes |title=Moravian Folk Poetry in Songs (Pecková, Kušnjer, Lapšanský) |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček |year=1994 |notestitle= |url= |first=Miloš |last=Štědroň |authorlink= |coauthors=(transl. Ivan Vomáčka) |page=8 |format=CD |publisher=[[Supraphon]] |publisherid=112214-2233 |location=Prague |mbid= }} {{cs icon}} {{en icon}}</ref> Janáček partly composed the original piano accompaniments to more than 150 folk songs, respectful of their original function and context,<ref>{{cite book |title=Moravská lidová poezie v písních (foreword) |last=Janáček |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1994 |publisher=Bärenreiter Editio Supraphon |location=Prague |isbn= |pages= |url= }} H 4570 {{cs icon}} {{de icon}}</ref> and partly used folk inspiration in his own works, especially in his mature compositions.<ref name="autogenerated9"/> His work in this area was not stylistically imitative; instead, he developed a new and original musical aesthetic based on a deep study of the fundamentals of folk music.<ref name="autogenerated9"/> Through his systematic notation of folk songs as he heard them, Janáček developed an exceptional sensitivity to the melodies and rhythms of speech, from which he compiled a collection of distinctive segments he called ''"speech tunes"''.<ref name="autogenerated9"/> He used these "essences" of spoken language in his vocal and instrumental works. The roots of his style, marked by the lilts of human speech, emerge from the world of folk music.<ref name="autogenerated9"/>

'''Russia'''

Janáček's deep and lifelong affection for Russia and Russian culture represents another important element of his musical inspiration.<ref name=autogenerated10>{{cite album-notes |title=Katya Kabanova ([[Prague National Theatre]], Jaroslav Krombholc) |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček |year= |notestitle= |url= |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |page=6 |format=CD |publisher=Supraphon |publisherid=108016-2612 |location=Prague |mbid= }}</ref> In 1888 he attended the Prague performance of [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]'s music, and met the older composer. Janáček profoundly admired Tchaikovsky, and particularly appreciated his highly developed musical thought in connection with the use of Russian folk motifs.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 132 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček's Russian inspiration is especially apparent in his later chamber, symphonic and operatic output.<ref name="autogenerated10"/> He closely followed developments in Russian music from his early years, and in 1896, following his first visit of Russia, he founded a ''Russian Circle'' in Brno. Janáček read Russian authors in their original language. Their literature offered him an enormous and reliable source of inspiration, though this did not blind him to the problems of Russian society.<ref name="autogenerated10"/> He was twenty-two years old when he wrote his first composition based on a Russian theme: a melodrama, ''"Death"'', set to [[Mikhail Lermontov|Lermontov's]] poem. In his later works, he often used literary models with sharply contoured plots.<ref name="autogenerated10"/> In 1910 Zhukovsky's ''Tale of Tsar Berendei'' inspired him to write the ''Fairy Tale for Cello and Piano''. He composed the rhapsody ''Taras Bulba'' (1918) to [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol's]] short story, and five years later, in 1923, completed his first string quartet, inspired by [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy´s]] ''[[The Kreutzer Sonata|Kreutzer Sonata]]''. Two of his later operas were based on Russian themes: ''Káťa Kabanová'', composed in 1921 to [[Aleksandr Ostrovsky|Ostrovsky's]] play, ''The Storm'': and his last work, ''From the House of the Dead'', which transformed [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky|Dostoyevsky's]] vision of the world into an exciting collective drama.<ref>{{cite album-notes |title=Katya Kabanova ([[Prague National Theatre]], Jaroslav Krombholc) |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček |year= |notestitle= |url= |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |page=7 |format=CD |publisher=Supraphon |publisherid=108016-2612 |location=Prague |mbid= }}</ref>

Janáček always deeply admired Antonín Dvořák, to whom he dedicated some of his works. He rearranged part of Dvořák's [[Moravian Duets]] for mixed choir with original piano accompaniment. In the early years of the 20th century, Janáček became increasingly interested in the music of other European composers. His opera ''Destiny'' was a response to another significant and famous work in contemporary Bohemia - [[Louise (opera)|Louise]], by the French composer [[Gustave Charpentier]].<ref>Tyrrell (1991-2), p. 108 {{cs icon}}</ref> The influence of [[Giacomo Puccini]] is apparent particularly in Janáček's later works, for example in his opera ''Káťa Kabanová''. Although he carefully observed developments in European music, his operas remained firmly connected with Czech and Slavic themes.<ref>Tyrrell (1991-2), p. 156</ref>

==Music theorist==
'''Musicology'''

Janáček created his music theory works, essays and articles over a period of fifty years, from 1877 to 1927. He wrote and edited the ''Hudební listy'' journal, and contributed to many specialist music journals, such as ''Cecílie'', ''Hlídka'' and ''Dalibor''. He also completed several extensive studies, as ''Úplná nauka o harmonii'' (The Complete Harmony Theory), ''O skladbě souzvukův a jejich spojův'' (On the Construction of Chords and Their Connections) and ''Základy hudebního sčasování'' (Basics of Music ''"sčasování"'').<ref>Teoretické dílo, p. 677</ref> In his essays and books, Janáček examined various musical topics, forms, melody and harmony theories, dyad and triad chords, counterpoint (or ''"opora"'', meaning "support") and devoted himself to the study of the mental composition.<ref>Teoretické dílo, p. 677-678</ref> His theoretical works stress the Czech term "sčasování", Janáček's specific word for rhythm, which has relation to time ("čas" in Czech), and the handling of time in music composition.<ref>Teoretické dílo, p. 676</ref> He distinguished several types of rhythm (''sčasovka''): ''"znící"'' (sounding) - meaning any rhythm, ''"čítací"'' (counting) - meaning smaller units measuring the course of rhythm; and ''"scelovací"'' (summing) - a long value comprising the length of a rhythmical unit.<ref>Teoretické dílo, p. 676-677</ref> Janáček used the combination of their mutual action widely in his own works.

'''Other writing'''

Leoš Janáček's literary legacy represents an important illustration of his life, public work and art between 1875 and 1928. He contributed not only to music journals, but wrote essays, reports, reviews, feuilletons, articles and books. His work in this area comprises around 380 individual items.<ref>Literární dílo, p. Iiii</ref> His writing changed over time, and appeared in many genres. Nevertheless, the critical and theoretical sphere remained his main area of interest.

==Folk music research==
[[Image:Janáček collecting folksongs.jpg|thumb|upright|250px|Janáček collecting folksongs on 19 August 1906 in [[Strání]]]]
Janáček came from a region characterized by its deeply rooted [[folk culture]], which he explored as a young student under Pavel Křížkovský.<ref name=autogenerated7>Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního folkloru, p. 381</ref> His meeting with the folklorist and dialectologist [[František Bartoš (folklorist)|František Bartoš]] (1837–1906) was decisive in his own development as a folklorist and composer, and led to their collaborative and systematic collections of folk songs.<ref name="autogenerated7"/> Janáček became an important collector in his own right, especially of [[Lach dialects|Lachian]], [[Moravian Slovakia]]n, [[Moravian Wallachia]]n and [[Slovakia]]n songs. From 1879, his collections included transcribed speech intonations.<ref>Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního folkloru, p. 382</ref> He was one of the organizers of the ''Czech-Slavic Folklore Exhibition'', an important event in Czech culture at the end of 19th century. From 1905 he was President of the newly instituted ''Working Committee for Czech National Folksong in Moravia and Silesia'', a branch of the Austrian institute ''Das Volkslied in Österreich'' (Folksong in Austria), which was established in 1902 by the Viennese publishing house [[Universal Edition]]. Janáček was a pioneer and propagator of [[ethnography|ethnographic]] photography in Moravia and Silesia.<ref>Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního folkloru, p. 383</ref> In October, 1909 he acquired an [[Thomas Edison|Edison]] phonograph and became one of the first to use phonographic recording as a folklore research tool. Several of these recording sessions have been preserved, and were reissued in 1998.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gnosis.cz/GBrno/detail.php?nid=GM010&ntyp=1 |title=Nejstarší nahrávky moravského a slovenského zpěvu 1909-1912 |accessdate=2008-09-23 |work= |publisher=Gnosis Brno |date= }} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}} {{cs icon}}</ref>

==Selected works==
For the complete list see ''[[List of compositions by Leoš Janáček]]''.

===Operas===

Leoš Janáček counts among the first opera composers who used prose for his libretti, not verse.<ref>Kundera (2004), p. 54</ref> He even wrote his own libretti to his last three operas. His libretti were translated into German by [[Max Brod]].

* ''[[Šárka (Janáček)|Šárka]]'', libretto by [[Julius Zeyer]] (1887)
* ''[[Počátek Románu]]'', "The Beginning of a Romance", libretto by Jaroslav Tichý after [[Gabriela Preissová]] (1894)
* ''[[Jenůfa|Její pastorkyňa]]'', "Her Stepdaughter", known in the English-speaking world as ''Jenůfa'', libretto by the composer after Gabriela Preissová (1904)
* ''[[Destiny (Janáček)|Osud]]'', "Destiny", libretto by Fedora Bartošová (1904)
* ''[[The Excursions of Mr. Broucek on the Moon and in the 15th Century|Výlety páně Broučkovy]]'', "The Excursions of Mr. Broucek", libretto by [[Viktor Dyk]] and František Sarafínský Procházka (1920)
* ''[[Káťa Kabanová]]'', "Katya Kabanova", libretto by Vincenc Cervinka, after [[Aleksandr Ostrovsky]]'s The Storm (1921)
* ''[[The Cunning Little Vixen|Příhody lišky Bystroušky]]'', "The Cunning Little Vixen", libretto by the composer (1924)
* ''[[The Makropulos Affair (opera)|Věc Makropulos]]'', "The Makropoulos Affair", libretto by the composer, after [[Karel Čapek]] (1926)
* ''[[From the House of the Dead|Z mrtvého domu]]'', "From the House of the Dead", libretto by the composer, after [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]] (1927)

===Orchestral===

The early orchestral works are influenced by Romantic style, and especially by orchestral works of Dvořák. In his later works, created after 1900, Janáček found his own, original expression.

*''Suite for Strings''
*''[[Lachian Dances]]''
*''Moravian Dances''
*''Suite for Orchestra'' ([[1891]])
*''Jealousy'' ({{lang-cs|Žárlivost}}), overture for Orchestra ([[1894]])
*''The Fiddler's Child'' (1912–14)
*''[[Taras Bulba (rhapsody)|Taras Bulba]]'' (1918)
*''Dunaj (Danube) Symphony'' (1923–25)
*''[[Sinfonietta (Janáček)|Sinfonietta]]'' (1926)
*''[[The Wandering of a Little Soul]]'' (violin concerto), (1926–27)

===Vocal and choral===

Janáček's choral works, known particularly in the Czech Republic, are considered extremely complicated. He wrote several choruses to the words of Czech poet [[Petr Bezruč]].

*''Lord, have mercy'' (1896)
*''Amarus'' (1897)
*''Otče náš'' (''The Lord's Prayer''. 1901. 5-movement work for tenor solo, chorus, harp, and organ.)
*''Elegy on the death of daughter Olga'' (1903)
*''Kantor Halfar'' (Teacher Halfar) (1906)
*''Maryčka Magdónova'' (1908)
*''Sedmdesát tisíc'' (Seventy Thousand) (1909)
*''The Eternal Gospel'' (1914)
*''[[The Diary of One Who Disappeared]]'' (1919)
*''[[Glagolitic Mass]]'' (1926)

===Chamber and instrumental===

His string quartets became a standard repertoire of 20th century classical music, other notable chamber works are often written with unusual instrumentation.

*[[Pohádka (Janáček)|''Pohádka'' (Fairy Tale), for cello and piano]] (1910)
*[[Violin Sonata (Janáček)|Violin Sonata]] (1914)
*[[String Quartet No. 1 (Janáček)|String Quartet No. 1, ''Kreutzer Sonata'']] (1923)
*[[Youth (wind sextet)|Youth]] (1924), wind sextet
*[[Concertino (Janáček)|''Concertino'' for piano and chamber ensemble]] (1925)
*[[Capriccio (Janáček)|Capriccio for piano (left hand) and wind ensemble]] (1926)
*[[String Quartet No. 2 (Janáček)|String Quartet No. 2, ''Intimate Letters'']] (1928)

===Piano===

Janáček composed his major piano works in a relatively short period of twelve years, from 1901 to 1912. His early ''Thema con variazioni'' (subtitled ''Zdenka's variations'') is a student work composed to the styles of famous composers.

*''[[1. X. 1905]]'' (Piano Sonata) (1905)
*''[[On an Overgrown Path]]'', Books 1 and 2 (1901–1911)
*''[[In the Mists]]'' (1912)

==Selected writings==

'''Theoretical works'''
*''O dokonalé představě dvojzvuku'' (On the Perfect Image of Dyad Chord) (1885–1886)
*''Bedřich Smetana o formách hudebních'' (Bedřich Smetana: On Music Forms) (1886)
*''O představě tóniny'' (On an Idea of Key) (1886–1887)
*''O vědeckosti nauk o harmonii'' (On Scientism of Harmony Theories) (1887)
*''O trojzvuku'' (On a Triad) (1887–1888)
*''Slovíčko o kontrapunktu'' (A Word on Counterpoint) (1888)
*''Nový proud v teorii hudební'' (New Stream in Music Theory) (1894)
*''O skladbě souzvukův a jejich spojův'' (On the Construction of Chords and Their Progressions) (1896)
*''Moderní harmonická hudba'' (Modern Harmonic Music) (1907)
*''Můj názor o sčasování (rytmu)'' (My Opinion of "sčasování" (Rhythm)) (1907)
*''Z praktické části o sčasování (rytmu)'' (On "sčasování" From practice) (1908)
*''Váha reálních motivů'' (The Weight of Real Motifs) (1910)
*''O průběhu duševní práce skladatelské'' (On the Course of Mental Compositional Work) (1916)
*''Úplná nauka o harmonii'' (Harmony Theory) (1920)

==Media==
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| description =
| format = [[Ogg]]
| filename2 = Janacek.ogg
| title2 = Postludium for Organ
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{{-}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček: Years of a Life. A two-volume biography of the composer |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink=John Tyrrell (musicologist) |coauthors= |year=2006/7 |publisher=Faber and Faber |location=[[London]]|isbn= 0571175384 (Volume 1), 0571236677 (Volume 2) |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Music in Transition: A Study of Tonal Expansion and Atonality, 1900–1920 |last=Samson |first=Jim |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1977 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |location=[[New York]] |isbn=0393021939 |pages=67 |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Leoš Janáček, Život a dílo v datech a obrazech / Chronology of his life and work |last=Drlíková |first=Eva |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2004|publisher=Opus Musicum |location=Brno |isbn=80-903211-1-9 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}} {{en icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček |last=Hollander |first=Hans |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1963 |publisher= |location=London |isbn= |pages=119 |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=The Operas of Leoš Janáček |last=Chisholm |first=Erik |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1971 |publisher= |location= |isbn=0080128548 |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního fokloru I |last=Procházková |first=Jarmila |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2006 |publisher=Etnologický ústav AV ČR, Doplněk |location=Prague, Brno |isbn=80-85010-83-6 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}} (notes based on English summary)
*{{cite book |title=Hudební slovník pro každého II |last=Vysloužil |first=Jiří |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2001 |publisher=Lípa |location=Vizovice |isbn=80-86093-23-9 |pages= |url= }}{{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Teoretické dílo, Series I/Volume 2-1 |last=Janáček |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors=ed. Leoš Faltus, Eva Drlíková, Svatava Přibáňová, Jiří Zahrádka |year=2007 |publisher=Editio Janáček |location=Brno |isbn=978-80-904-052-0-2 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}} (notes based on English summary)
*{{cite book |title=Literární dílo, Series I/Volume 1-1 |last=Janáček |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors=ed. Eva Drlíková, Theodora Straková |year=2003 |publisher=Editio Janáček |location=Brno |isbn=978-80-238-7250-7 |pages= |url= }}{{cs icon}} (notes based on English summary)
*{{cite book |title=Můj Janáček |last=Kundera |first=Milan |authorlink=Milan Kundera |coauthors= |year=2004 |publisher=Atlantis |location=Brno |isbn=80-7108-256-2 |pages= |url= }}{{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Thema con variazioni. Leoš Janáček, korespondence s manželkou Zdeňkou a dcerou Olgou |last=(ed.) Přibáňová |first=Svatava |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |publisher=Editio Bärenreiter |location=Prague |isbn=978-80-86385-36-5 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Dějiny hudby na Moravě. Vlastivěda moravská|last=Sehnal |first=Jiří |authorlink= |coauthors=Vysloužil, Jiří |year=2001 |publisher=Muzejní a vlastivědná společnost |location=Brno |isbn=80-7275-021-6 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Československý hudební slovník I. (A-L) |last=Černušák |first=Gracián (ed.) |authorlink= |coauthors=Štědroň, Bohumír; Nováček, Zdenko (ed.) |year=1963 |publisher=Státní hudební vydavatelství |location=Prague |isbn= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček ve vzpomínkách a dopisech |last=Štědroň |first=Bohumír |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1946 |publisher=Topičova edice |location=Prague |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Pozdní divoch. Láska a život Leoše Janáčka v operách a dopisech |last=Ort |first=Jiří |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |publisher=Mladá fronta |location=Prague |isbn=80-204-1256-5 |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Janáčkův život |last=Firkušný |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |publisher= |location=Prague |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Po zarostlém chodníčku (On an Overgrown Path). Urtext |last=Janáček |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors=Zahrádka, Jiří (preface); Peters-Gráfová, Sarah (transl.) |year=2006 |publisher=Editio [[Bärenreiter]] |location=Prague |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} BA 9502. ISMN M-2601-0365-8
*{{cite book |title=Fenomén Janáček včera a dnes. Sborník z mezinárodní hudebněvědné konference|last=Collective of editors |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2004 |publisher=Brno Conservatory |location=Brno |isbn=80-87005-00-7 |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Česká opera |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1991-2 |publisher=Opus Musicum |location=Brno |isbn=80-900314-1-2 |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Testaments Betrayed |last=Kundera |first=Milan |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1996 |publisher=Faber and Faber |location=London |isbn=0-571-17337-3 |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite album-notes |title=The Cunning Little Vixen, Sinfonietta, Schluck und Jau, Jealousy... |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček (Czech Philharmonic Orchestra, Charles Mackerras) |year=2003 |notestitle=My Life With Janáček's Music (Sir Charles Mackerras in conversation with the Janáček specialist John Tyrrell)|url=http://www.supraphon.cz/cs/katalog/databaze-titulu/detail-titulu/?idtitulu=2004649 |first=John |last=Tyrrell |authorlink= |coauthors=Mackerras, Charles |page=13 |format=CD |publisher=Supraphon |publisherid=SU 3739-2 |location=Prague |mbid= }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*Zemanová, Mirka. Janáček. London: John Murray, 2002; Boston: Northwestern University, 2002.
*Zemanová, Mirka. Uncollected Essays on Music. London: Marion Boyars, 1992 | Janáček's essays on music, translated into English.
*{{cite book |title=Janáček's works. A catalogue of the music and writings of Leoš Janáček |last=Simeone |first=Nigel |authorlink= |coauthors=Tyrrell, John; Němcová, Alena |year=1997 |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford |isbn= 9780198164463|page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=XsgpuebI1vYC&dq=leos+janacek&printsec=frontcover }}
*{{cite book |title=Intimate Letters: Leoš Janáček to Kamila Stösslová |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |publisher=Faber and Faber |location=London |isbn=978-0571225101 |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=My life with Janáček - The Memoirs of Zdenka Janáčková |last=Tyrrell |first=John (ed.) |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |publisher= |location=London |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček's operas - A documentary account |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1992 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=069109148X |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček and His World |last=Beckerman |first=Michael (ed.) |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=New York |isbn=0691116768 |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Janacek as Theorist |last=Beckerman |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= |publisher=Pendragon Press |location=[[Stuyvesant, New York]] |isbn=0945193033 |page=1994 |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Leoš Janáček: a biography |last=Vogel |first=Jaroslav |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1997 |publisher=Academia |location=Prague |isbn=8020006222 |page= |pages= |url= }}
* Štědroň, Miloš (1998). ''Leoš Janáček a hudba 20. století''. Brno: Nadace Universitas Masarykiana. ISBN 80-210-1917-4.

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Leoš Janáček}}
{{Commonscat}}
* [http://www.leosjanacek.com A detailed site on Leoš Janáček created by Gavin Plumley]
* [http://www.bsmny.org/features/janacek Piano music of Leoš Janáček: An Exploration for Students of All Ages], an online feature from [http://www.bsmny.org Bloomingdale School of Music] (January, 2008
* {{IMSLP|id=Jan%C3%A1%C4%8Dek%2C_Leo%C5%A1|cname=Leoš Janáček}}
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=9595213 Leoš Janáček on Find-A-Grave]
* {{Imdb name|0418443|Leos Janáček}}
* [http://www.pytheasmusic.org/janacek.html Leoš Janáček at Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music]
* [http://www.editiojanacek.com/en/ Editio Janáček]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Janacek, Leos
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 3 July 1854
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 12 August 1928
| PLACE OF DEATH =
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Janacek, Leos}}
[[Category:1854 births]]
[[Category:1928 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Frýdek-Místek District]]
[[Category:Czech folk-song collectors]]
[[Category:Czech composers]]
[[Category:20th-century classical composers]]
[[Category:Opera composers]]
[[Category:People from Austrian Silesia]]
[[Category:People from Brno]]
[[Category:Felix Mendelssohn College of Music and Theatre alumni]]
[[Category:Romantic composers]]
[[Category:Composers for pipe organ]]

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Death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

2011-01-30T20:06:09Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 411020791 by 72.68.94.224 (talk) Unsourced and unlikely

[[File:Mozart drawing Doris Stock 1789.jpg|thumb|250px|A 1789 portrait of Mozart in [[silverpoint]] by [[Dora Stock|Doris Stock]]]]
The composer '''[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]''' died at 1:00 am on [[December 5#Deaths|5 December]] [[1791 in music|1791]] at the age of 35, following a short illness.

==Illness and last days==
Mozart had health problems throughout his life, and suffered at times from [[Mozart and smallpox|smallpox]], [[tonsillitis]], [[bronchitis]], [[pneumonia]], [[typhoid fever]], [[rheumatism]] and [[gum disease]].<ref>For a thorough survey of Mozart's health history, with an M.D.'s proposed diagnoses, see {{harvnb|Davies|1984}}.</ref> His final illness began when he visited [[Prague]] (departing Vienna around 25 August 1791) to supervise the performance of his new opera ''[[La clemenza di Tito]]''. The visit was fairly successful in professional terms,<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|pp=485–486}}</ref> but while in Prague Mozart began to feel seriously ill. His early biographer [[Franz Xaver Niemetschek|Franz Niemetschek]] wrote "he was pale and expression was sad, although his good humour was often shown in merry jest with his friends."<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=487}}</ref>

Following his return, Mozart's condition gradually worsened.<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=586}} cites an article in the Berlin ''Musikalisches Wochenblatt'' ("Musical Weekly"), written shortly after Mozart's death.</ref> For a while, he was still able to work. In particular, he completed his [[Clarinet Concerto (Mozart)|Clarinet Concerto]], worked toward the completion of the [[Requiem (Mozart)|Requiem]] (an anonymous commission from [[Franz von Walsegg|Count Walsegg]], who wanted to pass himself off as the composer<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|pp=482–485}}</ref>) and conducted the premiere performance of ''[[The Magic Flute]]'', September 30. But he became increasingly alarmed and despondent about his health, probably even delusional. A famous anecdote from his wife [[Constanze Mozart|Constanze]] is related in Niemetschek's early biography:
:"On his return to Vienna, his indisposition increased visibly and made him gloomily depressed. His wife was truly distressed over this. One day when she was driving in the [[Prater]] with him, to give him a little distraction and amusement, and they were sitting by themselves, Mozart began to speak of death, and declared that he was writing the Requiem for himself. Tears came to the eyes of the sensitive man: 'I feel definitely,' he continued, 'that I will not last much longer; I am sure I have been poisoned. I cannot rid myself of this idea.'"

Constanze had the idea of trying to cheer her husband by persuading him to give up work on the Requiem for a while, and she got him instead to complete the "Freimaurerkantate", [[Köchel catalogue|K.]] 623, composed to celebrate the opening of a new [[Mozart and Freemasonry|Masonic]] temple for Mozart's own lodge.<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=490}}</ref> This strategy actually worked for a time: the cantata was completed and premiered 18 November<ref>{{harvnb|Deutsch|1965|p=413}}</ref> with great success, and Mozart came home feeling "elated" (Solomon). He told Constanze,<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=490}}. The words are as related by Constanze decades later to the visiting English diarist [[Mary Cowden Clarke|Mary Novello]].</ref> "Yes I see I was ill to have had such an absurd idea of having taken poison, give me back the Requiem and I will go on with it."

However, Mozart's worst symptoms soon returned, together with the strong feeling that he was being poisoned. He became bedridden on November 20, suffering from swelling, pain and vomiting.

==Death==
The symptoms of the dying Mozart were described by his early biographer [[Georg Nikolaus von Nissen|Nissen]] (Constanze's second husband), who took many of his details from an account provided him by Constanze's sister, [[Sophie Weber]].<ref>{{harvnb|Borowitz|1973|pp=265–6}}</ref> Nissen wrote, "[the illness] began with swelling in the hands and feet, which were almost completely immobilized, followed later by sudden vomiting. ... Until two hours before his passing he remained completely conscious."<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=491}}</ref>
His body swelled up so much he could no longer sit up in bed, or even move on his own.<ref name=CornellChronicle>{{harvnb|Crawford|2000}}</ref>

Mozart was comforted by members of his wife's family, with whom he was close. His mother-in-law [[Cäcilia Weber]] and his sister-in-law Sophie made him a night jacket "which he could put on frontways, since on account of his swollen condition he was unable to turn in bed."<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=492}}. Letter of Sophie to Nissen, 1825.</ref>

Mozart died at 1:00 in the morning on 5 December. His wife, family, and friends were distraught; Sophie remembered:
: "I cannot possibly describe the boundless misery of his faithful wife as she threw herself on her knees and implored succour from the Almighty for His aid. She could not tear herself away from him, beg her as I did."<ref>{{harvnb|Deutsch|1965|pp=525–6}}. Quotation from an 1825 letter to Nissen.</ref>

==Funeral==
The funeral arrangements were made by Mozart's friend and patron Baron [[Gottfried van Swieten]]. The [[Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians|Grove Dictionary]] describes his funeral thus: "Mozart was buried in a common grave, in accordance with contemporary Viennese custom, at the [[St. Marx Cemetery]] outside the city on 7 December." If, as later reports say, no mourners attended, that too is consistent with Viennese burial customs at the time; later Jahn (1856) wrote that [[Antonio Salieri|Salieri]], [[Franz Xaver Süssmayr|Süssmayr]], van Swieten and two other musicians were present.<ref>{{harvnb|Jahn|1867|p={{pn|date=September 2010}}|nopp=yes}}</ref> The tale of a storm and snow is false; the day was calm and mild."<ref>{{harvnb|Sadie|1988|loc=§6}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
Constanze soon recovered from her despair and energetically addressed the task of providing financial security for her family (the Mozarts had two young children, and Mozart had died with debts outstanding). She successfully appealed to the [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor]] (11 December 1791) for a [[widow's pension]] (Mozart had served the Emperor in a part-time position as chamber composer), and she organized a series of concerts of Mozart's music, along with the publication of many of her husband's works. These efforts were successful, and in time Constanze became secure, even well-off.<ref name="Solomon 1995, 499">{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=499}}</ref>

The tradition of Mozart biography began soon after the composer's death. [[Friedrich Schlichtegroll]] wrote an early account (based on information from Mozart's sister [[Maria Anna Mozart|Nannerl]]), as did [[Franz Xaver Niemetschek|Franz Niemetschek]] (who worked with Constanze). Much later, Constanze assisted her second husband [[Georg Nikolaus von Nissen]] in a more detailed biography (1826).

Mozart's musical reputation rose quickly following his death; Solomon describes an "unprecedented wave of enthusiasm"<ref name="Solomon 1995, 499" /> for his work, and multiple publishers issued editions of his compositions.

==First-person accounts==
Individuals who were present at the time of Mozart's death eventually committed their memories to writing, either on their own or through interviews by others. The stories they told are not entirely mutually compatible, which may be due in part to some of them not being recorded until the 1820s, when the witnesses' memories might have faded.

[[Benedikt Schack]], Mozart's close friend for whom he wrote the role of Tamino in ''The Magic Flute'', told an interviewer that on the last day of Mozart's life, he participated in a rehearsal of the Requiem in progress:<ref>{{harvnb|Deutsch|1965|pp=536–7}}. The tale appeared in an obituary for Schack, published in the ''[[Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung]]'', issue of July 25, 1827. {{harvnb|Schildkret|2008}}</ref>
:"On the very eve of his death, [Mozart] had the score of the Requiem brought to his bed, and himself (it was two o'clock in the afternoon) sang the alto part; Schack, the family friend, sang the soprano line, as he had always previously done, Hofer, Mozart's brother-in-law, took the tenor, [[Franz Xaver Gerl|Gerl]], later a bass singer at the Mannheim Theater, the bass. They were at the first bars of the Lacrimosa when Mozart began to weep bitterly, laid the score on one side, and eleven hours later, at one o'clock in the morning (of 5 December 1791, as is well known), departed this life."

The tale seems difficult to reconcile with the description of Mozart's physical condition given in other sources; perhaps Schack misremembered the day. Biographer Niemetschek gives a vaguely similar tale, not mentioning a rehearsal:
:"On the day of his death he asked for the score to be brought to his bedside. 'Did I not say before, that I was writing this Requiem for myself?' After saying this, he looked yet again with tears in his eyes through the whole work."<ref>Niemetschek biography, quoted {{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=493}}</ref>

The widely repeated claim that Mozart on his deathbed dictated passages of the Requiem to his pupil [[Franz Xaver Süssmayr|Süssmayr]] (an incident providing a model for later fictional accounts) is strongly discounted by Solomon, who notes that the earliest reference for this claim dates to 1856. However, Sophie Weber did claim to recall the composer giving instructions to Süssmayr.<ref name=S493>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=493}}</ref>

An 1840 letter from the composer [[Ignaz von Seyfried]] says that on his last night Mozart was also mentally occupied with his opera ''The Magic Flute'', which was continuing a very successful run following its premiere on September 30. Mozart is said to have whispered the following to Konstanze, mentioning Konstanze's sister [[Josepha Weber|Josepha Hofer]], the coloratura soprano who premiered the role of the Queen of the Night:
:"Quiet, quiet! Hofer is just taking [[O zittre nicht, mein lieber Sohn|her top F]]; — now my sister-in-law is singing her second aria, '[[Der Hölle Rache kocht in meinem Herzen|Der Hölle Rache]]'; how strongly she strikes and holds the B-flat: 'Hört! hört! hört! der Mutter Schwur'"<ref>English "Hear! hear! hear! a mother's oath". Mozart or Konstanze misremembered exactly what the Queen of the Night sings, which is "Hört, hört, hört, Rachegötter! Hört der Mutter Schwur!" ("Hear, ye gods of revenge!")</ref>

Mozart had heard the opera several times, as he enjoyed taking friends and relatives<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|pp=487–8}}</ref> and would have known in rough terms the times his sister-in-law was singing.

The memories quoted above, which may be romanticized, are commonly repeated in discussion of Mozart's last days. Solomon notes that biographers have often left out the crueler memories.<ref name=S493 /> For instance, he reports another memory of Constanze thus:
:"Constanze Mozart told Nissen that just before the end Mozart asked her what [his physician] Dr. Closset had said. When she answered with a soothing lie, he said, 'It isn't true,' and he was very distressed: 'I shall die, now when I am able to take care of you and the children.<ref>Mozart's financial condition had improved considerably during the year 1791; see {{harvnb|Solomon|1995|loc=ch. 30}}</ref> Ah, now I will leave you unprovided for.' And as he spoke these words, 'suddenly he vomited —it gushed out of him in an arc— it was brown, and he was dead.'"<ref name=S493 />

Mozart's older son [[Karl Thomas Mozart|Karl]], aged seven, was present, and later wrote:
:"Particularly remarkable is in my opinion that fact that a few days before he died, his whole body became so swollen that the patient was unable to make the smallest movement, moreover, there was stench, which reflected an internal disintegration which, after death, increased to the extent that an autopsy was impossible."<ref name=S493 />

==Posthumous diagnoses==
Medicine was in a primitive state in Mozart's day, and it was impossible at the time to determine what had caused the composer's death. The entry for Mozart in the parish register says he died of "severe miliary fever",<ref>{{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=494}}</ref> which only describes his symptoms ("miliary" means "having millet-sized bumps on the skin"), not the actual disease. Any later efforts to determine what killed Mozart can only rely on reinterpretation of the written record.

The most sensational hypothesis for what killed Mozart, which spread as a rumor after his death, was that he was poisoned by his composer colleague [[Antonio Salieri]]. However, these rumours were likely false; the symptoms that Mozart showed were unlikely indications of poisoning.<ref>For discussion, with references, of the poisoning rumor see {{harvnb|Solomon|1995|p=587}}. The ''Norton/Grove Concise Encyclopedia of Music'' states flatly, "He was not poisoned"; see {{harvnb|Sadie|1988}}</ref> Despite denying the allegations, Salieri was greatly affected by the accusation, which contributed to [[nervous breakdown]]s in later life.<ref>{{harvnb|Deutsch|1965|pp=522, 524}}</ref>

Some ascribe Mozart's death to [[malpractice]] on the part of his physician, Dr. Closset. Sophie Weber, in her 1825 account to Nissen, implies as much, though she does not state so directly. Borowitz summarizes:

:When Mozart appeared to be sinking, one of his doctors, Dr. Nikolaus Closset, was sent for and finally located at the theater. However, according to Sophie's account, that drama-lover "had to wait till the piece was over." When he arrived, he ordered cold compresses put on Mozart's feverish brow, but these "provided such a shock that he did not regain consciousness again before he died."<ref>{{harvnb|Borowitz|1973|pp=265–6}}</ref>

A recent suggestion is that Mozart died, ironically, as a result of his [[hypochondria]] and his predilection to taking patent medicines containing [[antimony]]. In his final days this was compounded by further prescriptions of antimony to relieve the fever he clearly suffered. If this suggestion is correct, he thus accidentally poisoned himself with antimony.<ref>{{harvnb|Emsley|2005|pp=220–1}}</ref>

Recent studies by a panel of experts have concluded that Mozart died of natural causes. Physicians at the [[University of Maryland, Baltimore]] concluded that Mozart died from [[rheumatic fever]]. Among the physicians was a Mozart scholar, who said that although rheumatic fever was the most likely diagnosis, it will probably never be possible to confirm it as the indisputable cause of death, though it is highly unlikely that Mozart died of unnatural causes.<ref name=CornellChronicle />

In 2009, British, Viennese and Dutch researchers performed an [[Epidemiology|epidemiological research]] combined with a study of other deaths in Vienna at the time of Mozart's death. They concluded that Mozart plausibly died of a [[Streptococcus|streptococcal ]] [[infection]] leading to an [[Nephritic syndrome|acute nephritic syndrome]] caused by poststreptococcal [[glomerulonephritis]]. This disease was also called "Wassersucht" in Austria.<ref>{{harvnb|Zegers|Weigl|Steptoe|2009|pp=274–8}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
*{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1093/mq/LIX.2.263
| issn = 0027-4631
| volume = 59
| issue = 2
| pages = 263–284
| last = Borowitz
| first = Albert I.
| title = Salieri and the "Murder" of Mozart
| journal = [[The Musical Quarterly]] {{subscription required}}
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| date = 1973-04
| url = http://mq.oxfordjournals.org/content/LIX/2/263.extract
| oclc = 483432356
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite web
| last = Crawford
| first = Franklin
| title = Experts Rule Out Foul Play in Death of Mozart
| work = [[Cornell Chronicle]]
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| date = 2000-02-17
| url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/chronicle/00/2.17.00/Mozart_death.html
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.2307/963386
| issn = 00274666
| volume = 125
| issue = 1698
| pages = 437–442
| last = Davies
| first = Peter J.
| title = Mozart's Illnesses and Death: 1. The Illnesses, 1756 - 90
| journal = [[The Musical Times]] {{subscription required}}
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| date = 1984-08
| url = http://www.jstor.org/stable/963386
| oclc = 484935994
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite book
| publisher = [[Stanford University Press]]
| isbn = 9780804702331
| last = Deutsch
| first = Otto Erich
| others = Peter Branscombe, [[Eric Blom]], Jeremy Noble (trans.)
| title = Mozart: A Documentary Biography
| location = [[Stanford]]
| date = 1965
| authorlink = Otto Erich Deutsch
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=e8AtwaddUW4C
| oclc = 8991008
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite book
| publisher = [[Oxford University Press]]
| isbn = 0192805991
| last = Emsley
| first = John
| title = Elements of Murder: A History of Poison
| location = Oxford
| year = 2005
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=fjYukUWmC2MC
| oclc = 57380570
| ref = harv
}}
*{{de icon}} {{Cite book
| edition = 2nd
| publisher = [[Breitkopf und Härtel]]
| volume = 1
| last = Jahn
| first = Otto
| title = W.A. Mozart
| date = 1867
| url = http://www.zeno.org/Musik/M/Jahn,+Otto/W.A.+Mozart
| ref = harv
}} See [[s:de:Otto Jahn#Musikwissenschaft|Wikisource]] for more versions.
*{{Cite book
| publisher = [[Macmillan Publishers]]
| isbn = 9780333231111
| editor-last = Sadie
| editor-first = Stanley
| editor-link = Stanley Sadie
| title = The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians
| chapter = Mozart
| location = London
| date = 1988
| oclc = 611992375
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite web
| last = Schildkret
| first = David
| title = Still no Rest for the Requiem: An Enigma Reconsidered
| work = Mount Desert Summer Chorale
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| year = 2008
| url = http://www.mountdesertsummerchorale.org/2006_still_no_rest.html
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite book
| edition = 1st
| publisher = [[HarperCollins]]
| isbn = 9780060190460
| last = Solomon
| first = Maynard
| authorlink = Maynard Solomon
| title = Mozart: A Life
| location = [[New York, NY|New York]]
| date = 1995
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=UuEHAQAAMAAJ
| oclc = 31435799
| ref = harv
}}
*{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1059/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00010
| issn = 0003-4819
| volume = 151
| issue = 4
| last = Zegers
| first = Richard H.C.
| last2 = Weigl
| first2 = Andreas
| last3 = Steptoe
| first3 = Andrew
| title = The Death of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: An Epidemiologic Perspective
| journal = [[Annals of Internal Medicine]] {{subscription required}}
| accessdate = 2010-09-29
| date = 2009-08-18
| url = http://www.annals.org/content/151/4/274.abstract
| oclc = 432055514
| ref = harv
}}

==Further reading==
*{{de icon}} {{Cite book
| publisher = Herrlischen Buchhandlung
| last = Niemetschek
| first = Franz
| title = Leben des K. K. Kapellmeisters Wolfgang Gottlieb Mozart
| date = 1798
| url = http://books.google.ca/books?id=fZ_UAAAAMAAJ
| oclc = 165616753
| ref = harv
| isbn = 3923364768
}}
*{{Cite news
| issn = 0362-4331
| last = Wakin
| first = Daniel J.
| title = After Mozart’s Death, an Endless Coda
| work = [[The New York Times]]
| date = 2010-08-24
| url = http://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/25/arts/music/25death.html
| ref = harv
}}

{{Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus}}

[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:Deaths by person]]
[[Category:Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Death]]
[[Category:1791 in music]]

[[es:Muerte de Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]

Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)

2011-01-30T19:39:32Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 411003955 by 92.251.60.58 (talk) Please give a source for that title

{{About|the composition|the German poem|Ode to Joy|the EU and Council of Europe adaptation|European Anthem}}
[[Image:Ninth Symphony original.png|thumb|200 px|A page from Beethoven's manuscript of the 9th Symphony.]]

The '''Symphony No. 9 in D minor, [[Opus number|Op.]] 125''' is the final complete [[symphony]] of [[Ludwig van Beethoven]]. Completed in 1824, the symphony is one of the best known works of the Western classical repertoire,<ref name=NCookblurb>''Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 (Cambridge Music Handbooks)'', Nicholas Cook, Cambridge University Press (24 Jun 1993), product description (blurb).</ref> and has been adapted for use as the [[European Anthem]]. It is considered by critics to be one of Beethoven's masterpieces<ref>''The Symphony'', ed. Ralph Hill, Pelican Books (1949), pg.114</ref><ref>''Symphony No. 6 in F Major'', Op. 68 Pastorale (Schott), ed. Max Unger, pg. vii</ref> and one of the greatest musical compositions ever written.<ref name=NCookblurb/>

The symphony was the first example of a major composer using voices in a symphony (thus making it a [[choral symphony]]). The words are sung during the final movement by four vocal soloists and a [[chorus]]. They were taken from the "[[Ode to Joy]]", a poem written by [[Friedrich Schiller]] in 1785 and revised in 1803, with additions made by the composer.

==History==
===Composition===
[[Image:Beethoven.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Ludwig van Beethoven in 1820. Beethoven was completely deaf when he composed his ninth symphony.]]

The [[Philharmonic Society of London]] originally commissioned the symphony in 1817. Beethoven started the work in 1818 and finished early in 1824. However, both the words and notes of the symphony have sources dating from earlier in Beethoven's career.

The title of Schiller's poem "An die Freude" is literally translated as "To Joy", but is normally called the ''"[[Ode to Joy]]"''. It was written in 1785 and first published the following year in the poet's own literary journal, ''Thalia''. Beethoven had made plans to set this poem to music as far back as 1793, when he was 22 years old.

Beethoven's sketchbooks show that bits of musical material that ultimately appeared in the symphony were written in 1811, and 1817.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

In addition, the symphony also emerged from other pieces by Beethoven that, while completed works in their own right, are also in some sense sketches for the future symphony. The [[Choral Fantasy (Beethoven)|Choral Fantasy]] Opus. 80 (1808), basically a piano concerto movement, brings in a chorus and vocal soloists near the end to form the climax. As in the Ninth Symphony, the vocal forces sing a theme first played instrumentally, and this theme is highly reminiscent of the corresponding theme in the Ninth Symphony (for a detailed comparison, see [[Choral Fantasy (Beethoven)|Choral Fantasy]]). Going further back, an earlier version of the Choral Fantasy theme is found in the song "Gegenliebe" ("Returned Love"), for piano and high voice, which dates from before 1795.<ref>Hopkins (1981, 249)</ref>

The theme for the scherzo can be traced back to a [[fugue]] written in 1815.

The introduction for the vocal part of the symphony caused many difficulties for Beethoven. Beethoven's friend [[Anton Schindler]], later said: "When he started working on the fourth movement the struggle began as never before. The aim was to find an appropriate way of introducing Schiller's ode. One day he [Beethoven] entered the room and shouted 'I got it, I just got it!' Then he showed me a sketchbook with the words 'let us sing the ode of the immortal Schiller'".{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} However, Beethoven did not retain this version, and kept rewriting until he had found its final form, with the words "O Freunde, nicht diese Töne" ("O friends, not these sounds").

===Premiere===
Beethoven was eager to have his work played in [[Berlin]] as soon as possible after finishing it, since he thought that musical taste in Vienna was dominated by Italian composers such as [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]]. When his friends and financiers heard this, they urged him to premiere the symphony in [[Vienna]].

The Ninth Symphony was premiered on May 7, 1824 in the [[Kärntnertortheater]] in Vienna, along with the ''[[Consecration of the House Overture]]'' and the first three parts of the ''[[Missa Solemnis (Beethoven)|Missa Solemnis]]''. This was the composer's first on-stage appearance in twelve years; the hall was packed. The [[soprano]] and [[alto]] parts were interpreted by two famous young singers: [[Henriette Sontag]] and [[Caroline Unger]].

Although the performance was officially directed by [[Michael Umlauf]], the theatre's [[Kapellmeister]], Beethoven shared the stage with him. However, two years earlier, Umlauf had watched as the composer's attempt to conduct a [[dress rehearsal]] of his opera ''[[Fidelio]]'' ended in disaster. So this time, he instructed the singers and musicians to ignore the totally deaf Beethoven. At the beginning of every part, Beethoven, who sat by the stage, gave the [[tempo]]s. He was turning the pages of his [[sheet music|score]] and beating time for an [[orchestra]] he could not hear.

There are a number of anecdotes about the premiere of the Ninth. Based on the testimony of the participants, there are suggestions that it was under-rehearsed (there were only two full rehearsals) and rather scrappy in execution. On the other hand, the premiere was a great success. In any case, Beethoven was not to blame, as violinist [[Josef Böhm]] recalled: "Beethoven directed the piece himself; that is, he stood before the lectern and gesticulated furiously. At times he rose, at other times he shrank to the ground, he moved as if he wanted to play all the instruments himself and sing for the whole chorus. All the musicians minded his rhythm alone while playing".

When the audience applauded—testimonies differ over whether at the end of the [[scherzo]] or the whole symphony—Beethoven was several measures off and still conducting. Because of that, the [[contralto]] Caroline Unger walked over and turned Beethoven around to accept the audience's cheers and applause. According to one witness, "the public received the musical hero with the utmost respect and sympathy, listened to his wonderful, gigantic creations with the most absorbed attention and broke out in jubilant applause, often during sections, and repeatedly at the end of them." The whole audience acclaimed him through [[standing ovation]]s five times; there were handkerchiefs in the air, hats, raised hands, so that Beethoven, who could not hear the applause, could at least see the ovation gestures.

At that time, it was customary that the Imperial couple be greeted with three ovations when they entered the hall. The fact that five ovations were received by a private person who was not even employed by the state, and moreover, was a musician (a class of people who had been perceived as lackeys at court), was in itself considered almost indecent. Police agents present at the concert had to break off this spontaneous explosion of ovations. Beethoven left the concert deeply moved.

The repeat performance on May 23 in the great hall of the Fort was, however, poorly attended.


===Editions===
The [[Breitkopf & Härtel]] edition dating from 1864 has been used widely by orchestras.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britac.ac.uk/pubs/review/02-99b/24-delmar.html|publisher=British Academy Review|author=Del Mar, Jonathan|authorlink=Jonathan Del Mar|year=1999|month=July–December|title=Jonathan Del Mar, New Urtext Edition: Beethoven Symphonies 1-9|accessdate=2007-11-13}}</ref> In 1997 [[Bärenreiter]] published an edition by [[Jonathan Del Mar]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.baerenreiter.com/html/lvb/index.html|title=Ludwig van Beethoven The Nine Symphonies The New Bärenreiter Urtext Edition|accessdate=2007-11-13}}</ref> According to Del Mar, this edition corrects nearly 3000 mistakes in the Breitkopf edition, some of which were remarkable.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://benjaminzander.com/news/detail.asp?id=158|title=Beethoven 9 The fundamental reappraisal of a classic|author=Zander, Benjamin|authorlink=Benjamin Zander|accessdate=2007-11-13}}</ref> Professor [[David Benjamin Levy|David Levy]], however, criticized this edition in [[Beethoven Forum]], saying that it could create "quite possibly false" traditions.<ref>{{cite web|url =http://bf.press.uiuc.edu/10.1/delmar.html|title=Concerning the Review of the Urtext Edition of Beethoven's Ninth Symphony|accessdate=2007-11-13}}</ref> Breitkopf also published a new edition by [[Peter Hauschild]] in 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.breitkopf.com/downloads/kataloge/pdf_en/33_Beeth_Symph_en.pdf|title=Beethoven The Nine Symphonies}}{{Dead link|date=November 2009}}</ref>

While many of the modifications in the newer editions make minor alterations to dynamics and articulation, both editions change the orchestral lead-in to the final statement of the choral theme in the fourth movement (IV: m525 m542). The newer versions alter the articulation of the horn calls, creating syncopation that no longer relates to the previous motive. The new [[Breitkopf & Härtel]] and [[Bärenreiter]] make this alteration differently, but the result is a reading that is different from what was commonly accepted based on the 1864 Breitkopf edition. While both [[Breitkopf & Härtel]] and [[Bärenreiter]] consider their editions the most accurate versions available—labeling them [[Urtext edition]]s—their conclusions are not universally accepted. In his monograph "Beethoven—the ninth symphony", Professor [[David Benjamin Levy|David Levy]] describes the rationale for these changes and the danger of calling the editions Urtext.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}

==Instrumentation==
The symphony is scored for the following orchestra. These are by far the largest forces needed for any Beethoven symphony; at the premiere, Beethoven augmented them further by assigning two players to each wind part.

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
{{col-break}}
;[[Woodwind]]s:
:[[Piccolo]] (fourth movement only)
:2 [[Flute]]s
:2 [[Oboe]]s
:2 [[Clarinet]]s in A, B flat and C
:2 [[Bassoon]]s
:[[Contrabassoon]] (fourth movement only)
{{col-break}}
;[[Brass instrument|Brass]]:
:2 [[Horn (instrument)|Horns]] (1 and 2) in D and B flat
:2 [[Horn (instrument)|Horns]] (3 and 4) in B flat (bass), B flat and E flat
:2 [[Trumpet]]s in D and B flat
:3 [[Trombone]]s (alto, tenor, and bass, second and fourth movements only)

;[[Percussion]]:
:[[Timpani]]
:[[Bass Drum]] (fourth movement only)
:[[triangle (instrument)|Triangle]] (fourth movement only)
:[[Cymbal]]s (fourth movement only)
{{col-break}}
;[[Vocal Music|Voice]]s:
(all voices fourth movement only)
:[[Soprano]] solo
:[[Alto]] solo
:[[Tenor]] solo
:[[Baritone]] solo

:SATB [[Choir]] (Tenor briefly divides)

;[[String section|Strings]]:
:[[Violin]]s I, II
:[[Viola]]s
:[[Cello]]s
:[[Double bass]]es
{{col-end}}

==Form==
The symphony is in four movements, marked as follows:
# Allegro ma non troppo, un poco [[maestoso]]
# Scherzo: Molto [[vivace]] - Presto
# Adagio molto e [[cantabile]] - Andante Moderato - Tempo Primo - Andante Moderato - Adagio - Lo Stesso Tempo
# [[Recitative]]: (Presto – Allegro ma non troppo – Vivace – Adagio cantabile – Allegro assai – Presto: ''O Freunde'') – Allegro assai: ''Freude, schöner Götterfunken'' – Alla marcia – Allegro assai vivace: ''Froh, wie seine Sonnen'' – Andante maestoso: ''Seid umschlungen, Millionen!'' – Adagio ma non troppo, ma divoto: ''Ihr, stürzt nieder'' – Allegro energico, sempre ben [[marcato]]: (''Freude, schöner Götterfunken'' – ''Seid umschlungen, Millionen!'') – Allegro ma non tanto: ''Freude, Tochter aus Elysium!'' – Prestissimo, Maesteoso, Prestissimo: ''Seid umschlungen, Millionen!''

Beethoven changes the usual pattern of [[Classical music era|Classical]] symphonies in placing the [[scherzo]] movement before the slow movement (in symphonies, slow movements are usually placed before scherzi). This was the first time that he did this in a symphony, although he had done so in some previous works (including the [[string quartet|quartets]] Op. 18 no. 5, the "Archduke" [[piano trio]] Op. 97, the [[Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)|"Hammerklavier"]] piano sonata Op. 106). [[Haydn]], too, had used this arrangement in a number of works.

===First movement===
Allegro ma non troppo, un poco [[maestoso]]. Duration approx. 15 mins.

The first movement is in [[sonata form]], and the mood is often stormy. The opening theme, played ''pianissimo'' over string tremolos, so much resembles the sound of an [[orchestra]] tuning, many commentators have suggested that was Beethoven's inspiration. But from within that musical limbo emerges a theme of power and clarity which will drive the entire movement. Later, at the outset of the [[Recapitulation (music)|recapitulation]] section, it returns ''fortissimo'' in D major, rather than the opening's D minor. The introduction also employs the use of the mediant to tonic relationship which further distorts the tonic key until it is finally played by the bassoon in the lowest possible register.

The coda employs the [[chromatic fourth]] interval.

===Second movement===
Scherzo: Molto vivace - Presto. Duration approx. 10 mins.

The second movement, a [[scherzo]], is also in D minor, with the opening theme bearing a passing resemblance to the opening theme of the first movement, a pattern also found in the [[Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)|Hammerklavier]] piano sonata, written a few years earlier. It uses propulsive rhythms and a [[timpani]] solo. At times during the piece Beethoven directs that the beat should be one downbeat every three bars, perhaps because of the very fast pace of the majority of the movement which is written in triple time, with the direction ''ritmo di tre battute'' ("rhythm of three bars"), and one beat every four bars with the direction ''ritmo di quattro battute'' ("rhythm of four bars").

Beethoven had been criticised before for failing to adhere to standard form for his compositions. He used this movement to answer his critics. Normally, scherzi are written in triple time. Beethoven wrote this piece in triple time, but it is punctuated in a way that, when coupled with the speed of the metre, makes it sound as though it is in quadruple time.

While adhering to the standard ternary design of a dance movement (scherzo-trio-scherzo, or minuet-trio-minuet), the scherzo section has an elaborate internal structure: it is a complete sonata form. Within this sonata form, the first group of the exposition starts out with a [[fugue]].

The contrasting trio section is in D major and in duple (cut) time. The trio is the first time the [[trombone]]s play in the work.

===Third movement===
Adagio molto e cantabile - Andante Moderato - Tempo Primo - Andante Moderato - Adagio - Lo Stesso Tempo. Duration approx. 16 mins.



The lyrical slow movement, in B flat major, is in a loose [[variation (music)|variation]] form, with each pair of variations progressively elaborating the rhythm and melody. The first variation, like the theme, is in 4/4 time, the second in 12/8. The variations are separated by passages in 3/4, the first in D major, the second in G major. The final variation is twice interrupted by episodes in which loud fanfares for the full orchestra are answered by double-stopped octaves played by the first violins alone. A prominent [[horn (instrument)|horn]] solo is assigned to the fourth player. [[Trombone]]s are [[tacet]] for the movement.

===Fourth movement===
Presto; Allegro molto assai (Alla marcia); Andante maestoso; Allegro energico, sempre ben marcato. Duration approx. 24 mins.

The famous choral finale is Beethoven's musical representation of Universal Brotherhood. American pianist and music author [[Charles Rosen]] has characterized it as a symphony within a symphony, the view which will be followed below. It is important to note that many other writers have interpreted its form in different terms, including two of the greatest analysts of the twentieth century, [[Heinrich Schenker]] and [[Donald Tovey]]. In Rosen's view, it contains four movements played without interruption.<ref>Rosen, Charles. "The Classical Style: Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven". page 440. New York: Norton, 1997.</ref> This "inner symphony" follows the same overall pattern as the Ninth Symphony as a whole. The scheme is as follows:

*First "movement": theme and variations with slow introduction. Main theme which first appears in the cellos and basses is later "recapitulated" with voices.
*Second "movement": 6/8 scherzo in military style (begins at "Alla marcia," words "Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen"), in the "[[Turkish music (style)|Turkish style]]". Concludes with 6/8 variation of the main theme with chorus.
*Third "movement": slow meditation with a new theme on the text "Seid umschlungen, Millionen!" (begins at "[[Andante]] maestoso")
*Fourth "movement": [[fugue|fugato]] finale on the themes of the first and third "movements" (begins at "[[Allegro (music)|Allegro]] energico")

The movement has a thematic unity, in which every part may be shown to be based on either the main theme, the "Seid umschlungen" theme, or some combination of the two.

The first "movement within a movement" itself is organized into sections:

*An introduction, which starts with a stormy ''[[Presto (music)|Presto]]'' passage. It then briefly quotes all three of the previous movements in order, each dismissed by the cellos and basses which then play in an instrumental foreshadowing of the vocal [[recitative]]. At the introduction of the main theme, the cellos and basses take it up and play it through.
*The main theme forms the basis of a series of [[variation (music)|variations]] for orchestra alone.
*The introduction is then repeated from the ''Presto'' passage, this time with the bass soloist singing the recitatives previously suggested by cellos and basses.
*The main theme again undergoes variations, this time for vocal soloists and chorus.

====Vocal parts====
Words written by Beethoven (not [[Ode to Joy|Schiller]]) are shown in italics.
{|
|-
|
:'''German original'''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://raptusassociation.org/ode1785.html|title=Beethoven Foundation - Schiller's "An die Freude" and Authoritative Translation}}</ref>
|
:'''English translation'''
|-
|
:''O Freunde, nicht diese Töne!''
:''Sondern laßt uns angenehmere an stimmen,''
:''und freudenvollere.''
:''Freude!'' (men's chorus: ''Freude!'' )
:''Freude!'' (chorus again: ''Freude!'' )
|
:''Oh friends, not these tones!''
:''Rather, let us raise our voices in more pleasing''
:''And more joyful sounds!''
:''Joy! (Joy!)''
:''Joy! (Joy!)''
|-
|
:Freude, schöner Götterfunken*
:Tochter aus Elysium,
:Wir betreten feuertrunken,
:Himmlische, dein Heiligtum!
:Deine Zauber binden wieder
:''Was die Mode streng geteilt'';
:''Alle Menschen werden Brüder,''
:Wo dein sanfter Flügel weilt.
|
:Joy, beautiful spark of divinity*
:Daughter of [[Elysium]],
:We enter, drunk with fire,
:Into your sanctuary, heavenly (daughter)!
:Your magic reunites
:''What custom strictly divided.''
:''All men become brothers,
:Where your gentle wing rests.
|-
|
:Wem der große Wurf gelungen,
:Eines Freundes Freund zu sein;
:Wer ein holdes Weib errungen,
:Mische seinen Jubel ein!
:Ja, wer auch nur eine Seele
:Sein nennt auf dem Erdenrund!
:Und wer's nie gekonnt, der stehle
:Weinend sich aus diesem Bund!
|
:Whoever has had the great fortune
:To be a friend's friend,
:Whoever has won a devoted wife,
:Join in our jubilation!
:Indeed, whoever can call even one soul,
:His own on this earth!
:And whoever was never able to, must creep
:Tearfully away from this band!
|-
|
:Freude trinken alle Wesen
:An den Brüsten der Natur;
:Alle Guten, alle Bösen
:Folgen ihrer Rosenspur.
:Küße gab sie uns und Reben,
:Einen Freund, geprüft im Tod;
:Wollust ward dem Wurm gegeben,
:Und der Cherub steht vor Gott.
:''Vor Gott!''
|
:Joy all creatures drink
:At the breasts of nature;
:All good, all bad
:Follow her trail of roses.
:Kisses she gave us, and wine,
:A friend, proved in death;
:Pleasure was given to the worm,
:And the cherub stands before God.
:''Before God!''
|-
|
:Froh, wie seine Sonnen fliegen
:Durch des Himmels prächt'gen Plan,
:Laufet, Brüder, eure Bahn,
:Freudig, wie ein Held zum Siegen.
|
:Glad, as His suns fly
:Through the Heaven's glorious design,
:Run, brothers, your path,
:Joyful, as a hero to victory.
|-
|
:Seid umschlungen, Millionen!
:Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt!
:Brüder, über'm Sternenzelt
:Muss ein lieber Vater wohnen.
:Ihr stürzt nieder, Millionen?
:Ahnest du den Schöpfer, Welt?
:Such' ihn über'm Sternenzelt!
:Über Sternen muss er wohnen.
|
:Be embraced, millions!
:This kiss for the whole world!
:Brothers, above the starry canopy
:Must a loving Father dwell.
:Do you bow down, millions?
:Do you sense the Creator, world?
:Seek Him beyond the starry canopy!
:Beyond the stars must He dwell.
|-
|
:''Finale repeats the words:''
:Seid umschlungen, Millionen!
:Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt!
:Brüder, über'm Sternenzelt
:Muss ein lieber Vater wohnen.
:Seid umschlungen,
:Diesen Kuß der ganzen Welt!
:Freude, schöner Götterfunken
:Tochter aus Elysium,
:Freude, schöner Götterfunken
:''Götterfunken!''
|
:''Finale repeats the words:''
:Be embraced, you millions!
:This kiss for the whole world!
:Brothers, beyond the star-canopy
:Must a loving Father dwell.
:Be embraced,
:This kiss for the whole world!
:Joy, beautiful spark of divinity,
:Daughter of Elysium,
:Joy, beautiful spark of divinity
:''Divinity!''
|}

The full libretto including repetitions can be found on German Wikisource.<ref name="dew">Wikisource, de.wikisource.org, web: [http://de.wikisource.org/wiki/An_die_Freude_%28Beethoven%29 WS-Freude].</ref>

In the near ending, it is, "''Freude, Tochter aus Elysium''", and also in the near ending, "''Wir betreten feuertrunken, Himmlische, dein Heiligtum!''", is omitted, then the choir sings the last four lines of the main theme, where they stop at, "''Alle Menschen''", before the slow part when the soloists sing for one last time the song of joy.

In the ending climax, the chorus softens quietly on the word "''Götterfunken''". Then, the orchestra descends chords in arpeggio form, and in slow ''[[maestoso]]'' tempo, the full chorus sings, ''"Tochter aus Elysium, Freude, schöner Götterfunken, Götterfunken!"''.<ref name=dew/> The symphony ends with the orchestra playing the final section in [[prestissimo]] tempo.

The vocal part of Beethoven's 9th Symphony thus ends with the final word<ref name=dew/> "''Götterfunken''" (literally, "Godly-spark").

==Influence==
Many later composers of the Romantic period and beyond were influenced specifically by Beethoven's Ninth Symphony.

At Easter 1831 [[Richard Wagner]] completed a piano arrangement of Beethoven's 9th symphony. Wagner had to decide which instrumental lines in the original had to be omitted since the pianist cannot play all the orchestral parts, thus giving his reduction a personal signature.

An important theme in the finale of Johannes Brahms' [[Symphony No. 1 (Brahms)|Symphony No. 1 in C minor]] is related to the "Ode to Joy" theme from the last movement of Beethoven's Ninth symphony. When this was pointed out to [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]], he is reputed to have retorted "Any ass can see that!", which suggests the imitation was intentional. Brahms's first symphony was, at times, both praised and derided as "Beethoven's Tenth".<ref>[http://www.kennedy-center.org/calendar/?fuseaction=composition&composition_id=2650 Symphony No. 1 in C minor, Op. 68]. The Kennedy Center, 2006</ref>

[[Anton Bruckner]] used the [[chromatic fourth]] in his [[Symphony No. 3 (Bruckner)|third symphony]] in much the same way that Beethoven used it in the first movement's coda.

Similarly, [[Gustav Mahler]] echoes the texture and mood of the first movement's opening in the opening of his [[Symphony No. 1 (Mahler)|first symphony]].

In the opening notes of the third movement of his [[Symphony No. 9 (Dvořák)|Symphony No. 9]] (The "New World"), [[Antonín Dvořák]] pays homage to the [[scherzo]] of this symphony with his falling fourths and timpani strokes.<ref>[[Michael Steinberg (music critic)|Steinberg, Michael]]. "The Symphony: a listeners guide". page 153. Oxford University Press, 1995.</ref>

The hymn, "[[Joyful, Joyful We Adore Thee]]", with words written in 1907 by [[Henry van Dyke]], is sung to the "Ode to Joy" tune and is included in many hymnals, although not in the original key of D major.

Beethoven's Ninth Symphony was an influence on the development of the [[compact disc]]. [[Philips]], the company that had started the work on the new audio format, originally planned for a CD to have a diameter of 11.5 cm, the width of the then popular [[compact cassette]], while [[Sony]] planned a 10 cm diameter, even more compact but enough for one hour of music. However, according to a Philips website, [[Norio Ohga]] insisted in 1979 that the CD be able to contain a complete performance of the Ninth Symphony: {{quote|The longest known performance lasted 74 minutes. This was a mono recording made during the [[Bayreuth Festival|Bayreuther Festspiele]] in 1951 and conducted by [[Wilhelm Furtwängler]]. This therefore became the playing time of a CD. A diameter of 12 centimeters was required for this playing time.<ref>[http://web.archive.org/web/20080129201342/www.research.philips.com/newscenter/dossier/optrec/beethoven.html Optical Recording: Beethoven's Ninth Symphony of greater importance than technology (cache)], Philips</ref>}}
That said, the true story might have been less romantic: [[Kees Immink]], Philips' chief engineer, who developed the CD, recalls that a commercial [[tug-of-war]] between the development partners led to a settlement in a neutral 12-cm diameter format. The 1951 performance of the Ninth Symphony by Furtwängler was brought forward as the perfect excuse for the change.<ref name="ferguscassidy">{{cite news | url = http://www.ferguscassidy.ie/ethos-23-Oct-2005.html | title = Great Lengths | last = Cassidy | first = Fergus | format = reprint | publisher = ''[[Sunday Tribune]]'' | date = 2005-10-23| accessdate = 2007-12-21}}</ref><ref name=Immink2>{{cite journal|url=http://www.exp-math.uni-essen.de/~immink/pdf/beethoven.htm|title=Shannon, Beethoven, and the Compact Disc|author=Kees A. Schouhamer Immink|journal=IEEE Information Theory Newsletter|pages=42–46|year=2007|accessdate=2007-12-12}}</ref>

==Performance challenges==
===Duration===
Lasting more than an hour, the Ninth was an exceptionally long symphony for its time. Like much of Beethoven's later music, his Ninth Symphony is demanding for all the performers, including the choir and soloists.

===Metronome markings===
As with all of his symphonies, Beethoven has provided his own [[metronome]] markings for the Ninth Symphony, and as with all of his [[metronome]] markings, there is controversy among conductors regarding the degree to which they should be followed. Historically, conductors have tended to take a slower tempo than Beethoven marked for the slow movement, and a faster tempo for the military march section of the finale. Conductors in the [[historically informed performance]] movement, notably [[Roger Norrington]], have used Beethoven's suggested tempos, to mixed reviews.

====Ritard/a tempo at the end of the first movement====
Many conductors move the "a tempo" in m.511 of the first movement to measure m.513 to coincide with the "Funeral March".

===Re-orchestrations and alterations===
A number of conductors have made alterations in the instrumentation of the symphony.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}

====Mahler's retouching====
[[Gustav Mahler]] revised the orchestration of the Ninth to make it sound like what he believed Beethoven would have wanted if given a modern orchestra.<ref>[[Natalie Bauer-Lechner|Bauer-Lechner, Natalie]]: ''Erinnerungen an Gustav Mahler'', page 131. E.P. Tal & Co. Verlag, 1923</ref> For example, since the modern orchestra has larger string sections than in Beethoven's time, Mahler doubled various wind and brass parts to preserve the balance between strings on the one hand and winds and brass on the other.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

====Horn and trumpet alterations====
Beethoven's writing for horns and trumpets throughout the symphony (mostly the 2nd horn and 2nd trumpet) is sometimes altered by performers to avoid large leaps (those of a 12th or more), as leaps of this sort are very difficult to perform on brass instruments and may be consistently and flawlessly executed only by highly proficient musicians.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}} {{Clarify|date=October 2010}}

====Flute and first violin alterations====
In the first movement, at times the first violins and flute have ascending 7th leaps within mostly descending melodic phrases. Some conductors alter the register of these passages to create a single descending scale (examples: measure 143 in the flute, m. 501 in the first violins).{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}{{Clarify|date=October 2010}}

====2nd bassoon doubling basses in the finale====
Beethoven's indication that the 2nd bassoon should double the basses in measures 115-164 of the finale was not included in the Breitkopf parts, though it was included in the score.<ref>Del Mar, Jonathan (1981) ''Orchestral Variations: Confusion and Error in the Orchestral Repertoire'' London: Eulenburg Books, p. 43</ref>

==Notable performances and recordings==
{{Ref improve section|date=November 2009}}

The first recording of the Symphony appears to the one conducted by Bruno Seidler-Winkler in 1923. The soloists are Ethel Hansa, Eleanor Schlosshauer, Eugen Transky & Albert Fisher, with the Berlin State Opera Chorus and the New Symphony Orchestra of Berlin. It was issued on Grammaphon 69607-69613, and was recently re-issued at www.historic-recordings.co.uk

Other early recordings include two by Albert Coates, and one by Frieder Weissmann.

[[Wilhelm Furtwängler]] conducted the [[Berlin Philharmonic]] on April 19, 1942 in a performance of the work, on the eve of [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]]'s 53rd birthday. This is now available as a semi-private recording.

The [[London Philharmonic Choir]] débuted on 15 May 1947 performing the Ninth Symphony with the [[London Philharmonic Orchestra]] under the baton of [[Victor De Sabata]] at the [[Royal Albert Hall]].<ref name='debut'>{{cite journal | doi=10.2307/933316 | url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/933316 | title= London Concerts | journal=The Musical Times | volume= 88 |issue = 1250 | author=Anon. | month=April| year=1947 | accessdate=28 January 2010 | pages=139 | publisher=Musical Times Publications Ltd.}}</ref>

In 1951 Furtwängler and the [[Bayreuth Festival]] Orchestra reopened the Bayreuth Festival with a performance of the symphony, after the Allies temporarily suspended the Festival following the Second World War. This historically important recording is available exclusively on [http://www.orfeo-international.de/pages/cd_c754081b_e.html ORFEO]<ref name=PhilBeet>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.marantzphilips.nl/The_cd_laser
|title=Beethoven's Ninth Symphony of greater importance than technology
|author=Philips
|accessdate=2007-02-09
}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.aes.org/historical/store/oralhistory/?code=OHP-016-DVD
|title=AES Oral History Project: Kees A.Schouhamer Immink
|author=AES
|accessdate=2008-07-29
}}</ref>

After rejecting many performances that he conducted, [[Arturo Toscanini]] approved the release of the 1952 LP studio recording of the symphony he made for [[RCA Victor]]. Soloists were [[Jan Peerce]] (tenor), [[Eileen Farrell]] (soprano), [[Nan Merriman]] (mezzo) and [[Norman Scott (bass)]], with the [[Robert Shaw Chorale]], and Toscanini conducting the [[NBC Symphony Orchestra]]. This version has been used by [[NBC News]] for ''[[The Huntley-Brinkley Report]]'' (the second movement played over the closing credits).

The first stereo recording of the Ninth Symphony was by [[Ferenc Fricsay]] conducting the Berlin Philharmonic in 1958.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

Political significance has attached to Beethoven's Ninth: [[Leonard Bernstein]] conducted a version of the 9th, with "Freiheit" ("Freedom") replacing "Freude" ("Joy"), to celebrate the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] during Christmas 1989.<ref>Morin (2002), p. 98</ref> This concert was performed by an orchestra and chorus made up of many nationalities: from [[Germany]], the [[Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra]] and Chorus, the Chorus of the [[Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra (East Berlin)|Berlin Radio Symphony Orchestra]], and members of the [[Sächsische Staatskapelle Dresden]]; from the [[Soviet Union]], members of the Orchestra of the [[Kirov Theatre]], from the [[United Kingdom]], members of the [[London Symphony Orchestra]]; from the [[United States|USA]], members of the [[New York Philharmonic]], and from [[France]], members of the [[Orchestre de Paris]]. Soloists were [[June Anderson]], soprano, [[Sarah Walker (opera singer)|Sarah Walker]], mezzo-soprano, [[Klaus König]], tenor, and [[Jan-Hendrik Rootering]], bass.<ref name="Naxos 2072038">{{cite web |url=http://www.naxos.com/catalogue/item.asp?item_code=2072038 |title=Ode To Freedom - Beethoven: Symphony No. 9 (NTSC)|accessdate=2006-11-26 |author=Naxos |authorlink=Naxos Records |year=2006 |work=Naxos.com Classical Music Catalogue}} This is the publisher's catalogue entry for a DVD of Bernstein's Christmas 1989 "Ode to Freedom" concert.</ref>

Bernstein made his first recording of the Beethoven Ninth in 1964 with the New York Philharmonic, for [[Columbia Masterworks]], with soloists [[Martina Arroyo]] (soprano), [[Regina Safarty]] (mezzo), [[Nicholas di Virgilio]] (tenor), Norman Scott (bass), and the [[Juilliard]] Chorus. It was later reissued on CD. It was the first of three complete recordings of the Ninth that Bernstein made. He made his second recording of the piece with the [[Vienna Philharmonic]] for [[Deutsche Grammophon]], in 1979. This second one featured [[Gwyneth Jones]] (soprano), [[Hanna Schwarz]] (mezzo), [[René Kollo]], and [[Kurt Moll]] (bass), with the chorus of the [[Vienna State Opera]].<ref>http://www.leonardbernstein.com/disc_other.php?disc_other_php=&disc_other.php=&page=8</ref>

[[Seiji Ozawa]] conducted the Nagano Winter Orchestra as well as seven choirs in six countries on five continents, performed the Fourth Movement in its entirety, for the [[1998 Winter Olympic Games]] during the finale of the Opening Ceremony. The chorus locations being New York City, Berlin, Cape Point, Sydney, and Beijing, with two in Nagano: the Tokyo Opera Singers and the audience at Nagano Olympic Stadium.

[[Daniel Barenboim]], who had recorded the work twice before, conducted the [[West-Eastern Divan (orchestra)|West-Eastern Divan]] (a youth orchestra of Israel and Arab musicians, which he co-founded) in concert in Berlin on 27 August 2006.

There have been various attempts to record the Ninth to come closer to what Beethoven's contemporaries would have heard, such as recording the Ninth with period instruments. [[Roger Norrington]] conducting the [[London Classical Players]] recorded it with period instruments for a 1987 release by EMI Records (rereleased in 1997 under the Virgin Classics label). [[Benjamin Zander]] made a 1992 recording of the Ninth with the [[Boston Philharmonic|Boston Philharmonic Orchestra]] and noted soprano Dominique Labelle (who first performed the work with Robert Shaw), following Beethoven's own metronome markings. Twelve years later after Norrington, [[Philippe Herreweghe]] recorded the Ninth with his [[period instruments|period-instrument]] [[Orchestre des Champs-Élysées]] and his [[Collegium Vocale Gent|Collegium Vocale]] chorus for [[Harmonia Mundi]] in 1999. Sir [[John Eliot Gardiner]] recorded his [[period instruments|period-instrument]] version of the Ninth Symphony,<ref>Talli Makell, "Ludwig van Beethoven" in ''Classical Music: The Listener's Companion'' ed. Alexander J. Morin (San Francisco: Backbeat Books, 2002), p. 99</ref> conducting his [[Monteverdi Choir]] and [[Orchestre Révolutionnaire et Romantique]] in 1992. It was first released by [[Deutsche Grammophon]] in 1994 on their early music Archiv Produktion label as part of his complete cycle of the Beethoven symphonies. His soloists included [[Luba Orgonasova]], [[Anne Sofie von Otter]], [[Anthony Rolfe Johnson]] and [[Gilles Cachemaille]]. An additional [[period instruments|period-instrument]] recording by [[Christopher Hogwood]] and the [[Academy of Ancient Music]] was released in 1997 under the label [[Éditions de l'Oiseau-Lyre]].

[[Franz Liszt]] arranged the whole symphony for piano, and that arrangement has been recorded by [[Konstantin Scherbakov]]. [[Richard Wagner]] arranged the orchestral parts for piano, retaining vocal soloists and choir, and this has been recorded by [[Noriko Ogawa]] with the [[Bach Collegium Japan]] directed by [[Masaaki Suzuki]].

At 79 minutes, one of the longest Ninths recorded is [[Karl Böhm]]'s, conducting the [[Vienna Philharmonic]] in 1981 with [[Jessye Norman]] and [[Plácido Domingo]] among the soloists. {{Citation needed|date=November 2009}}

One of the first recordings to incorporate many of [[Jonathan Del Mar]]'s corrections was by Sir [[Charles Mackerras]], as the first symphony in his [[EMI]] cycle of the Beethoven symphonies with the [[Royal Liverpool Philharmonic|Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra]] and the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Choir in 1991. His soloists included [[Bryn Terfel]], [[Della Jones]], Joan Rodgers and Peter Bronder. Mackerras later re-recorded the Ninth for his second recorded cycle of Beethoven symphonies for [[Hyperion Records]], live at the 2006 [[Edinburgh Festival]], this time with the [[Philharmonia Orchestra]]. [[David Zinman]]'s 1997 recording with the [[Tonhalle Orchester Zürich|Zürich Tonhalle Orchestra]] was a modern instrument recording that used the [[Bärenreiter|Baerenreiter]] edition edited by Jonathan Del Mar.

[[Osmo Vänskä]], conducting the [[Minnesota Orchestra]], recorded the symphony as part of a cycle all of the [[Beethoven]] Symphonies. Released on the [[BIS Records|BIS]] label, it included soloists Helena Juntunen, Katarina Karnéus, Daniel Norman and Neal Davies, as well as the Minnesota Chorale. It received a positive critical reception, including a [[Grammy Award]] nomination in the Best Orchestral Performance category.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.minnesotaorchestra.org/about/news_story.cfm?id_news=29316236
|title= MINNESOTA ORCHESTRA EARNS GRAMMY AWARD NOMINATION FOR BEETHOVEN’S NINTH SYMPHONY CD
|author=Minnesota Orchestra
}}</ref>

==Anthem==
During the division of [[Germany]] in the [[Cold War]], the Ode to Joy segment of the symphony was also played in lieu of an anthem at the [[Olympic Games]] for the [[Unified Team of Germany]] between 1956 and 1968. In 1972, the musical backing (without the words) was adopted as the [[Anthem of Europe]] by the [[Council of Europe]] and subsequently by the [[European Communities]] (now the [[European Union]]) in 1985.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/anthem/index_en.htm
|title=The European Anthem
|publisher=Europa
}}</ref> In 1985, the [[European Union]] chose Beethoven's music as the EU anthem.<ref>[http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/anthem/index_en.htm EUROPA - The EU at a glance - The European Anthem]</ref> When [[Kosovo]] declared independence in 2008, it lacked an anthem, so for the independence ceremonies it used Ode to Joy, in recognition of the European Union's role in its independence. It has since adopted [[Europe (anthem)|its own anthem]]. Additionally, the ''Ode to Joy'' was adopted as the [[national anthem]] of [[Rhodesia]] in 1974 as ''[[Rise O Voices of Rhodesia]]''.

==New Years tradition in Japan==
The Symphony No. 9, with accompanying chorus, is traditionally performed throughout Japan during its [[Japanese New Year|New Year's celebrations]]. In December 2009, for example, there were 55 performances of the symphony by various major orchestras and choirs in Japan.<ref>Brasor, Philip, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fm20101224r1.html Japan makes Beethoven's Ninth No. 1 for the holidays]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 24 December 2010, p. 20, retrieved on 24 December 2010; Uranaka, Taiga, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn19991201a5.html Beethoven concert to fete students' wartime sendoff]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 1 December 1999, retrieved on 24 December 2010.</ref>

The Ninth was introduced to Japan by German prisoners-of-war held in Japan during [[World War I]]. Japanese orchestras, notably the [[NHK Symphony Orchestra]], began performing the symphony in 1925. During [[World War II]], the [[Empire of Japan|Imperial government]] promoted performances of the symphony, including on New Year's eve, to encourage alliegence to Japanese nationalism. The symphony was considered appropriate in this regard because [[Nazi Germany]] was an ally of Japan. After the war, orchestras and choruses, undergoing economic hard times during the reconstruction of Japan, promoted performances of the piece around New Years because of the popularity of the music with the public. In the 1960s, performances of the symphony at New Years became more widespread, including participation by local choirs and orchestras, and established the tradition which continues to this day.<ref>Brasor, Philip, "[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/fm20101224r1.html Japan makes Beethoven's Ninth No. 1 for the holidays]", ''[[Japan Times]]'', 24 December 2010, p. 20, retrieved on 24 December 2010.</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
===Books and scholarly articles===
*[[Esteban Buch|Buch, Esteban]], ''Beethoven's Ninth: A Political History'' Translated by Richard Miller, ''ISBN 0-226-07824-8'' (University Of Chicago Press)[http://www.press.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/hfs.cgi/00/15634.ctl Esteban Buch: Beethoven's Ninth]
*Hopkins, Antony (1981) ''The Nine Symphonies of Beethoven''. London: Heinemann.
*[[David Benjamin Levy|Levy, David Benjamin]], "Beethoven: the Ninth Symphony," revised edition (Yale University Press, 2003).
*[[James Parsons|Parsons, James]], “‘''Deine Zauber binden wieder''’: Beethoven, Schiller, and the Joyous Reconciliation of Opposites,” ''Beethoven Forum'' (2002) 9/1, 1–53.
*[[Harvey Sachs|Sachs, Harvey]] (2010), ''The Ninth: Beethoven and the World in 1824'', [[Faber]].
**'Treads warily, accurately and responsibly round the great unsleeping beast', [[The Daily Telegraph]], July 3, 2010.
*[[Richard Taruskin|Taruskin, Richard]], "Resisting the Ninth", in his ''Text and Act: Essays on Music and Performance'' (Oxford University Press, 1995).

==External links==
{{Commons category}}

===Audio===
*[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5487727 Christoph Eschenbach conducting the Philadelphia Orchestra]
*[http://w3.rz-berlin.mpg.de/cmp/beethoven_sym9.html Sound samples and other info from the Classical Music Pages]

===Video===
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yqff1F0Ijn0 Wilhelm Furtwängler conducting the Berlin Philharmonic on April 19, 1942, on the eve of Hitler's 53rd birthday]

===Scores, manuscripts and text===
*Schott Musik International 31st and last publisher of Beethoven & copyright holder [http://www.r-ds.com/opera/hoffmann/schott.htm OperaResource - RealHoffmann, A Brief History of Schott]
*{{IMSLP2 | id=Symphony_No.9_%28Beethoven%2C_Ludwig_van%29 | cname=9th symphony (PDF) }}
*{{Cantorion|pieces/147/Symphony_No._9|''Symphony No. 9''}}
*[http://beethoven.staatsbibliothek-berlin.de/beethoven/de/sinfonien/9/1/1.html Original manuscript] (site in German)
* The William and Gayle Cook Music Library at the Indiana University School of Music's has posted a [http://www.dlib.indiana.edu/variations/scores/cab4188/index.html score] for the symphony.
*[http://edboyden.org/beet9.html Text/libretto, with translation, in English and German]
*{{MUSEDATA|id=beethoven/sym-9|title=Symphony No. 9}}

===Other material===
*[http://europa.eu/abc/symbols/anthem/index_en.htm EU official page about the anthem]
*Analysis of the [http://www.all-about-beethoven.com/symphony9.html Beethoven Symphony No. 9] on the [http://www.all-about-beethoven.com All About Ludwig van Beethoven] Page
*[http://www.wnyc.org/shows/soundcheck/episodes/12282004 A guided tour of Beethoven's 9th Symphony] by Rob Kapilow on [[WNYC]]'s ''Soundcheck''
*[http://www.kennedy-center.org/calendar/index.cfm?fuseaction=composition&composition_id=2761 Program note from the Kennedy Center] with more information about the symphony's finale as it might have been, and is
*[http://wsu.edu/~brians/hum_303/beethoven.html Analysis] for students (with timings) of the final movement, at [[Washington State University]]
*{{Cite journal |last= Hinton|first=Stephen |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |month= Summer|title=Not "Which" Tones? The Crux of Beethoven's Ninth |journal=19th-Century Music |volume= 22|issue= 1 |pages=61–77 |id= |url= http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0148-2076(199822)22%3A1%3C61%3AN%22TTCO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-7|accessdate= 2007-11-13 |quote=|doi=10.1525/ncm.1998.22.1.02a00040 }}
*[http://followingtheninth.com Filmmaker Kerry Candaele's film ''Following the Ninth,'' about The Ninth Symphony]
*[http://beethovenbragg.com/ Site about Beethoven Billy Bragg Ninth Concert in Los Angeles, August 2009]

{{Beethoven symphonies}}


[[Category:Choral symphonies|Beethoven 9]]
[[Category:1824 compositions]]
[[Category:Anthems]]
[[Category:Memory of the World Register|Beethoven]]
[[Category:Romantic symphonies|Beethoven 09]]
[[Category:Symphonies by Ludwig van Beethoven|09]]
[[Category:Works commissioned by the Royal Philharmonic Society]]



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Leoš Janáček

2011-01-05T00:35:15Z

Rigaudon: /* Later years and masterworks */ Date of Olga's death

{{about|the Czech composer|people with the same surname|Janáček (surname)}}
[[Image:Janacek.jpg|200px|thumb|upright|Leoš Janáček]]
'''Leoš Janáček''' ({{IPA-cs|ˈlɛoʃ ˈjanaːtʃɛk|-|Cs-Leos Janacek.ogg}}) (baptised '''Leo Eugen Janáček''') (July 3, 1854 – August 12, 1928), was a [[Czech people|Czech]] [[composer]], [[Music theory|musical theorist]], [[Folkloristics|folklorist]], publicist and teacher. He was inspired by [[Moravian traditional music|Moravia]]n and all [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] folk music to create an original, modern musical style.<ref name=autogenerated11>Sehnal and Vysloužil (2001), p. 175 {{cs icon}}</ref> Until 1895 he devoted himself mainly to folkloristic research and his early musical output was influenced by contemporaries such as [[Antonín Dvořák]].<ref name="autogenerated11"/> His later, mature works incorporate his earlier studies of national folk music in a modern, highly original synthesis, first evident in the opera ''[[Jenůfa]]'', which was premiered in 1904 in Brno.<ref>Sehnal and Vysloužil (2001), p. 183 {{cs icon}}</ref> The success of ''Jenůfa'' (often called the "Moravian national opera") at Prague in 1916 gave Janáček access to the world's great opera stages.<ref>Sehnal and Vysloužil (2001), p. 184 {{cs icon}}</ref><ref>Sehnal and Vysloužil (2001), p. 185 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček's later works are his most celebrated. They include the symphonic poem [[Sinfonietta (Janáček)|Sinfonietta]], the [[Oratorio|oratorial]] ''[[Glagolitic Mass]]'', the rhapsody ''[[Taras Bulba (rhapsody)|Taras Bulba]]'', string quartets, other chamber works and operas. He is considered to rank with Antonín Dvořák and [[Bedřich Smetana]], as one of the most important Czech composers.<ref name="autogenerated11"/><ref>Československý hudební slovník osob a institucí I. (1963), p. 559 {{cs icon}}</ref>

==Biography==
===Early life===
[[Image:Janacek with wife.jpg|thumb|upright|Leoš Janáček with his wife in 1881]]
Leoš Janáček, son of schoolmaster Jiří (1815–1866), and Amalie, (née Grulichová) Janáček (1819–1884), was born in [[Hukvaldy]], [[Moravia]], (then part of the [[Austrian Empire]]).<ref name=autogenerated1>Drlíková (2004), p. 7</ref> He was a gifted child in a family of limited means, and showed an early musical talent in choral singing. His father wanted him to follow the family tradition, and become a teacher, but deferred to Janáček's obvious musical abilities. In 1865 young Janáček enrolled as a ward of the foundation of the [[Abbey of St. Thomas in Brno]], where he took part in choral singing under [[Pavel Křížkovský]] and occasionally played the [[Organ (music)|organ]].<ref name=autogenerated1>Drlíková (2004), p. 7</ref> One of his classmates, František Neumann, later described Janáček as an ''"excellent pianist, who played [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] symphonies perfectly in a piano duet with a classmate, under Křížkovský's supervision"''.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 24 {{cs icon}}</ref> Křížkovský found him a problematic and wayward student but recommended his entry to the Prague Organ School.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 29 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček later remembered Křížkovský as a great conductor and teacher.

Janáček originally intended to study piano and organ but eventually devoted himself to composition. He wrote his first vocal compositions while choirmaster of the ''Svatopluk Artisan's Association'' (1873–76).<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 13</ref> In 1874 he enrolled at the [[Prague]] organ school, under [[František Zdeněk Skuherský|František Skuherský]] and František Blažek.<ref name=autogenerated13>Černušák (1963), p. 557 {{cs icon}}</ref> His student days in Prague were impoverished; with no piano in his room, he had to make do with a keyboard drawn on his tabletop.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 32 {{cs icon}}</ref> His criticism of Skuherský's performance of the Gregorian mass was published in the March 1875 edition of the journal ''Cecilie'' and led to his expulsion from the school - but Skuherský relented, and on 24 July 1875 Janáček graduated with the best results in his class.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 31 {{cs icon}}</ref> On his return to Brno he earned a living as a music teacher, and [[Conducting|conducted]] various amateur [[choir]]s. From 1876 he taught music at Brno's Teachers Institute. Among his pupils there was Zdenka Schulzová, daughter of Emilian Schulz, the Institute director. She was later to be Janáček's wife.<ref name="autogenerated13"/> In 1876 he also became a piano student of Amálie Wickenhauserová-Nerudová, with whom he co-organized chamber concertos and performed in concerts over the next two years. In February, 1876, he was voted choirmaster of the ''Beseda brněnská'' Philharmonic Society. Apart from an interruption from 1879 to 1881, he remained its choirmaster and conductor until 1888.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 19 {{cs icon}}</ref>

From October 1879 to February 1880 he studied [[piano]], organ, and composition at the [[Felix Mendelssohn College of Music and Theatre|Leipzig Conservatory]]. While there, he composed ''Thema con variazioni'' for piano in B flat, subtitled ''Zdenka's Variations''.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 27</ref><ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 29</ref> Dissatisfied with his teachers (among them [[Oskar Paul]] and [[Leo Grill]]), and denied a studentship with [[Camille Saint-Saëns|Saint-Saëns]] in Paris, Janáček moved on to the [[University of Music and Performing Arts, Vienna|Vienna Conservatory]] where from April to June 1880 he studied composition with [[Franz Krenn]].<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 45 {{cs icon}}</ref> He concealed his opposition to Krenn's neo-romanticism, but he quit [[Joseph Dachs]]'s classes and further piano study when he was criticised for his piano style and technique.<ref>Štědroň, (1946), p. 55 {{cs icon}}</ref> He submitted a violin sonata (now lost) to a Vienna Conservatory competition, but the judges rejected it as ''"too academic"''.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 57 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček left the conservatory in June, 1880, disappointed despite Franz Krenn's very complimentary personal report,.<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 48 {{cs icon}}</ref> He returned to [[Brno]]<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 31</ref> where on 13 July 1881, he married his young pupil Zdenka Schulzová.<ref name=autogenerated2>Drlíková (2004), p. 33</ref>

Janáček was appointed director of the organ school, and held this post until 1919, when the school became the Brno Conservatory.<ref name=autogenerated2>Drlíková (2004), p. 33</ref> In the mid 1880s Janáček began composing more systematically. Among other works, he created the ''Four male-voice choruses'' (1886), dedicated to Antonín Dvořák, and his first opera, ''Šárka'' (1887-8).<ref name=autogenerated4>Vysloužil, p. 224 {{cs icon}}</ref> During this period he began to collect and study folk music, songs and dances. In the early months of 1887 he sharply criticized the comic opera ''The Bridegrooms'', by Czech composer [[Karel Kovařovic]], in a ''Hudební listy'' journal review: ''"Which melody stuck in your mind? Which motif? Is this dramatic opera? No, I would write on the poster: "Comedy performed together with music", since the music and the libretto aren't connected to each other"''.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 111-112 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček's review apparently led to mutual dislike and later professional difficulties when Kovařovic, as director of the [[National Theatre (Prague)|National Theatre in Prague]], refused to stage Janáček's opera ''Jenůfa''.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 112 {{cs icon}}</ref><ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 41</ref>

From the early 1890s, Janáček led the mainstream of folklorist activity in [[Moravia]] and [[Silesia]], using a repertoire of folksongs and dances in orchestral and piano arrangements. Most of his achievements in this field were published in 1899-1901 though his interest in folklore would be lifelong.<ref name=autogenerated3>Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního folkloru, p. 380</ref> His compositional work was still influenced by the declamatory, dramatic style of [[Bedřich Smetana|Smetana]] and Dvořák. He expressed very negative opinions on German neo-classicism and especially on [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]] in the ''Hudební listy'' journal, which he founded in 1884.<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 62</ref> The death of his second child, Vladimír, in 1890 was followed by an attempted opera, ''Beginning of the Romance'' (1891) and the [[cantata]] ''Amarus'' (1897).

===Later years and masterworks===

In the first decade of the 20th century Janáček composed choral church music including ''Otčenáš'' (Our Father, 1901), ''Constitutes'' (1903) and ''Ave Maria'' (1904). In 1901 the first part of his piano cycle ''On an Overgrown Path'' was published, and gradually became one of his most frequently performed works.<ref>Zahrádka, Jiří (2006), p. XI</ref> In 1902 Janáček visited [[Russia]] twice. On the first occasion he took his daughter Olga to [[St.Petersburg]], where she stayed to study Russian. Only three months later, he returned to St. Petersburg with his wife because Olga was very ill. They took her back to Brno, but her health was worsening. Janáček expressed his painful feelings for his daughter in a new work, his opera ''Jenůfa'', in which the suffering of his daughter became Jenůfa's.<ref name=autogenerated8>{{cite web |url=http://www.leosjanacek.com/biography.htm |title=Janáček: a brief biography |accessdate=2008-09-15 |last=Plumley |first=Gavin |coauthors= |date= |work= |publisher=}}</ref> When Olga died in February 1903, Janáček dedicated ''Jenůfa'' to her memory. The opera was performed in Brno in 1904, with reasonable success, but Janáček felt this was no more than a provincial achievement. He aspired to recognition by the more influential Prague opera, but ''Jenůfa'' was refused there (twelve years passed before its first performance in Prague).<ref>{{cite book |title=Káťa Kabanová |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink=John Tyrrell |coauthors= |year=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=0521298539 |page=2 |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=dpJScle5-RgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Janacek }}</ref> Dejected and emotionally exhausted, Janáček went to [[Luhačovice]] spa to recover. There he met Kamila Urválková, whose love story supplied the theme for his next opera, ''Osud'' (Destiny).
[[Image:Jenůfa - the only well-preserved page of the score.jpg|thumb|left|200px|The only preserved page of the autograph manuscript of Janáček's ''Jenůfa'']]
In 1905 Janáček attended a demonstration in support of a Czech university in Brno, where the violent death of František Pavlík (a young joiner) at the hands of the police inspired his ''1. X. 1905'' piano sonata.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 67</ref> The incident led him to further promote the anti-German and anti-Austrian ethos of the ''Russian Circle'', which he had co-founded in 1897<ref>Černušák (1963), p. 558 {{cs icon}}</ref> and which would be officially banned by the Austrian police in 1915.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 81</ref> In 1906 he approached the Czech poet [[Petr Bezruč]], with whom he later collaborated, composing several choral works based on Bezruč's poetry. These included ''Kantor Halfar'' (1906), ''Maryčka Magdónova'' (1908), and ''Sedmdesát tisíc'' (1909). Janáček's life in the first decade of the 20th century was complicated by personal and professional difficulties. He still yearned for artistic recognition from Prague.<ref>Vysloužil,p. 225 {{cs icon}}</ref> He destroyed some of his works - others remained unfinished. Nevertheless, he continued composing, and would create several remarkable choral, chamber, orchestral and operatic works, the most notable being the 1914 Cantata ''Věčné evangelium'' (The Eternal Gospel), ''Pohádka'' (Fairy tale) for violoncello and piano (1910), the 1912 piano cycle ''V mlhách'' (In the Mist) and his first symphonic poem ''Šumařovo dítě'' (A Fiddler's Child). His fifth opera, ''Výlet pana Broučka do měsíce'', composed from 1908 to 1917, has been characterized as the most "purely Czech in subject and treatment" of all Janáček's operas.<ref>{{cite journal | url=http://oq.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/6/3/86 | last=Shawe-Taylor | first=Desmond | title=The Operas of Leoš Janáček | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Musical Association | volume=85th session | pages=49–64 | date=1958-1959 | accessdate=2007-10-18}}</ref>

In 1916 he started what would be a long professional and personal relationship with theatre critic, dramatist and translator [[Max Brod]].<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 83</ref>
<ref>C Susskind, ''Janáček and Brod''. Yale University Press, 1985, ISBN 0-300-03420-2</ref> In the same year ''Jenůfa'', revised by Kovařovic, was finally accepted by the National Theatre; its performance in Prague (1916) was a great success, and brought Janáček his first acclaim. He was 62. Following the Prague première, he began a relationship with singer Gabriela Horváthová, which led to his wife Zdenka's attempted suicide and their "informal" divorce.<ref name="autogenerated8"/><ref>Thema con variazioni, p. 8 {{cs icon}}</ref>
A year later (1917) he met [[Kamila Stösslová]], a young married woman 38 years his junior, who was to inspire him for the remaining years of his life. He conducted an obsessive and (on his side at least), passionate correspondence with her, of nearly 730 letters.<ref name=autogenerated6>Drlíková (2004), p. 99</ref> From 1917 to 1919, deeply inspired by Stösslová, he composed ''The Diary of One Who Disappeared''. As he completed its final revision, he began his next 'Kamila' work, the opera ''Káťa Kabanová''.
[[Image:Kamila Stösslová in 1917.jpg|thumb|upright|250px|Kamila Stösslová with her son Otto in 1917]]
In 1920 Janáček retired from his post as director of the Brno Conservatory, but continued to teach until 1925.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 91</ref> In 1922 he attended a lecture by the Indian philosopher-poet [[Rabindranath Tagore]], and used a Tagore poem as the basis for the chorus ''The Wandering Madman''. Later that year he encountered the [[Microtonal music|microtonal]] works of [[Alois Hába]]. In the early 1920s Janáček completed his opera ''The Cunning Little Vixen'', which had been inspired by a serialized novella in the newspaper [[Lidové noviny]].

In Janáček's 70th year (1924) his biography was published by Max Brod, and he was interviewed by [[Olin Downes]] for the ''[[New York Times]]''.<ref name=autogenerated6>Drlíková (2004), p. 99</ref> In 1925 he retired from teaching, but continued composing and was awarded the first honorary doctorate to be given by [[Masaryk University]] in Brno. In the spring of 1926 he created the monumental orchestral work ''Sinfonietta'', which rapidly gained wide critical acclaim. In the same year he went to England at the invitation of [[Rosa Newmarch]]. A number of his works were performed in London, including his first string quartet, the wind sextet ''Youth'', and his violin sonata.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 109</ref> Shortly after, and still in 1926, he started to compose a setting to an [[Old Church Slavonic]] text. The result was the large-scale orchestral ''Glagolitic Mass''. Janáček was an atheist, and critical of the organised Church, but religious themes appear frequently in his work. The ''Glagolitic Mass'' was partly inspired by the suggestion by a clerical friend, and partly by Janáček's wish to celebrate the anniversary of Czechoslovak independence. In 1927 - the year of ''Sinfonietta's'' first performances in New York, Berlin and Brno - he began to compose his final operatic work, ''From the House of the Dead'', the third Act of which was found on his desk after his death. In January 1928 he began his second string quartet, the ''"Intimate Letters"'', his "manifesto on love". Meanwhile, ''Sinfonietta'' was performed in London, Vienna and Dresden. In his later years, the still-active Janáček became an international celebrity. He became a member of the [[Akademie der Künste|Prussian Academy of Arts]] in Berlin in 1927, along with [[Arnold Schönberg]] and [[Paul Hindemith]].<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 113</ref><ref>Vysloužil,p. 227 {{cs icon}}</ref> His operas and other works were finally performed at the world stages, though ''From the House of the Dead'' was first performed posthumously. In August 1928 he took an excursion to [[Štramberk]] with Kamila Stösslová and her son Otto, but caught a chill, which developed into pneumonia. He died on the 12th August 1928 in [[Ostrava]], at the sanatorium of Dr. L. Klein. He was given a large public funeral, to music from the last scene of his ''Cunning Little Vixen'', and was buried in the Field of Honour at the Central Cemetery, Brno.<ref>Drlíková (2004), p. 119</ref>

==Personality==
[[File:Oga Janáčková 2509.jpg|thumb|upright|200px|Olga Janáčková]]
Janáček's life was filled by work. He led the ''organ school'', was a Professor at the ''teachers institute'' and gymnasium in Brno, collected his "speech tunes" and was composing. From an early age he presented himself as an individualist and his firmly formulated opinions often led to conflict. He unhesitatingly criticized his teachers, who considered him a defiant and anti-authoritarian student. His own students found him strict and uncompromising. [[Vilém Tauský]], one of his pupils, described his encounters with Janáček as somewhat distressing for someone unused to his personality, and noted that Janáček's characteristically staccato speech rhythms were reproduced in some of his operatic characters.<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 16</ref> In 1881, Janáček gave up his leading role with the ''Beseda brněnská'', as a response to criticism, but a rapid decline in ''"Beseda"'''s performance quality led to his recall in 1882.<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 57 {{cs icon}}</ref>

His married life, settled and calm in its early years, became increasingly tense and difficult following the death of his daughter, Olga. Years of effort in obscurity took their toll, and almost ended his ambitions as a composer.: ''"I was beaten down"'', he wrote later; ''"my own students gave me advices, how to compose, how to speak through orchestra"''.<ref>Přibáňová (2007), p. 8 {{cs icon}}</ref> Success in 1916 - when [[Karel Kovařovic]] finally decided to perform ''Jenůfa'' in Prague - brought its own problems. Janáček grudgingly resigned himself to the changes forced upon his work. Its success brought him into Prague's music scene and the attentions of soprano Gabriela Horvátová, who guided him through Prague society. Janáček was enchanted by her. On his return to Brno, he appears not to have concealed his new passion from Zdenka, who responded by attempting suicide. Janáček was furious with Zdenka and tried to instigate a divorce, but lost interest in Horvátová. Zdenka, anxious to avoid the public scandal of formal divorce, persuaded him to settle for an "informal" divorce. From then on, until Janáček's death, they would live separate lives in the same household.

In 1917 he began his lifelong, inspirational and unrequited passion for [[Kamila Stösslová]], who neither sought nor rejected his devotion.<ref name=autogenerated14>Přibáňová (2007), p. 9 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček pleaded for first-name terms in their correspondence. In 1927 she finally agreed and signed herself ''"Tvá Kamila"'' (Your Kamila) in a letter, which Zdenka found. This revelation provoked a furious quarrel between Zdenka and Janáček, though their living arrangements did not change - Janáček seems to have persuaded her to stay.<ref name="autogenerated14"/> In 1928, the year of his death, Janáček confessed his intention to publicise his feelings for Stösslová. [[Max Brod]] had to dissuade him.<ref name=autogenerated15>Přibáňová (2007), p. 10 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček's contemporaries and collaborators described him as mistrustful and reserved, but capable of obsessive passion for those he loved. His overwhelming passion for Stösslová was sincere but verged upon self-destruction.<ref name="autogenerated15"/> Their letters remain an important source for Janáček's artistic intentions and inspiration. His letters to his long-suffering wife are, by contrast, mundanely descriptive. Zdenka seems to have destroyed all hers to Janáček. Only a few postcards survive.<ref name="autogenerated15"/>

==Style==

In 1874 Janáček became friends with [[Antonín Dvořák]], and began composing in a relatively traditional [[romantic music|romantic]] style. After his opera ''[[Šárka (Janáček)|Šárka]]'' (1887–1888), his style absorbed elements of [[Moravia]]n and [[Slovakia|Slovak]] [[folk music]].

His musical assimilation of the [[rhythm]], [[pitch contour]] and inflections of normal Czech speech helped create the very distinctive vocal [[melody|melodies]] of his opera ''[[Jenůfa]]'' (1904), whose 1916 success in Prague was to be the turning point in his career. In ''Jenůfa'', Janáček developed and applied the concept of ''"speech tunes"'' to build a unique musical and dramatic style quite independent of "Wagnerian" dramatic method. He studied the circumstances in which ''"speech tunes"'' changed, the psychology and temperament of speakers and the coherence within speech, all of which helped render the dramatically truthful roles of his mature operas, and became one of the most significant markers of his style.<ref>Firkušný (2005), p. 91-92</ref> Janáček took these stylistic principles much farther in his vocal writing than [[Modest Mussorgsky]], and thus anticipates the later work of [[Béla Bartók]].<ref name=autogenerated5>Samson 1977</ref> The stylistic basis for his later works originates in the period of 1904-1918, but Janáček composed the majority of his output - and his best known works - in the last decade of his life.<ref>Vysloužil, p. 227 {{cs icon}}</ref>

Much of Janáček's work displays great originality and individuality. It employs a vastly expanded view of [[tonality]], uses unorthodox chord spacings and structures, and often, [[Musical mode|modality]]: "there is no music without [[key (music)|key]]. [[Atonality]] abolishes definite key, and thus tonal [[modulation (music)|modulation]]....Folksong knows of no atonality."<ref>Hollander 1963</ref> Janáček features [[accompaniment]] figures and patterns, with (according to Jim Samson) "the on-going movement of his music...similarly achieved by unorthodox means; often a discourse of short, 'unfinished' [[phrase (music)|phrases]] comprising constant repetitions of short [[motif (music)|motifs]] which gather momentum in a cumulative manner." <ref name=autogenerated5>Samson 1977</ref> Janáček named these motifs "sčasovka" in his theoretical works. "Sčasovka" has no strict English equivalent, but [[John Tyrrell]], a leading specialist on Janáček's music, describes it as ''"a little flash of time, almost a kind of musical capsule, which Janáček often used in slow music as tiny swift motifs with remarkably characteristic rhythms that are supposed to pepper the musical flow."''<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 13</ref> Janáček's use of these repeated motifs demonstrates a remote similarity to minimalist composers (Sir Charles Mackerras called Janáček ''"the first minimalist composer"'').<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.leosjanacek.com/glagolitic.htm |title=Mša glagolskaja |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher=Leoš Janáček (Gavin Plumley's site) |date=}}</ref>

==Legacy==

Janáček belongs to a wave of 20th century composers who sought greater realism and greater connection with everyday life, combined with a more all-encompassing use of musical resources. His operas in particular demonstrate the use of "speech"-derived melodic lines, folk and traditional material, and complex modal musical argument. Janáček's works are still regularly performed around the world, and are generally considered popular with audiences. He would also inspire later composers in his homeland, as well as music theorists, among them [[Jaroslav Volek]], to place modal development alongside [[harmony]] of importance in music.
[[Image:Leos Janacek relief.jpg|thumb|upright|Janáček relief, by Julius Pelikán]]

The operas of his mature period, ''[[Jenůfa]]'' (1904), ''[[Káťa Kabanová]]'' (1921), ''[[The Cunning Little Vixen]]'' (1924), ''[[The Makropulos Affair (opera)|The Makropulos Affair]]'' (1926) and ''[[From the House of the Dead]]'' (after a [[The House of the Dead (novel)|novel by Dostoyevsky]] and premiered posthumously in 1930) are considered his finest works.<ref>Kundera (2004), p. 43</ref> The [[Australia]]n [[Conducting|conductor]] Sir [[Charles Mackerras]] has become particularly closely associated with them.

His chamber music, while not especially voluminous, includes works which are generally considered to be "in the standard repertory" as 20th century classics, particularly his two [[string quartet]]s: [[String Quartet No. 1 (Janáček)|Quartet No. 1, "The Kreutzer Sonata"]] inspired by [[The Kreutzer Sonata|the Tolstoy novel]], and the [[String Quartet No. 2 (Janáček)|Quartet No. 2, "Intimate Letters"]]. [[Milan Kundera]] called these compositions the peak of Janáček's output.<ref name="Kundera 1996, p. 180">Kundera (1996), p. 180</ref>

At the [[Frankfurt am Main]] Festival of Modern Music in 1927 [[Ilona Štěpánová-Kurzová]] performed the world premiere of Janáček's lyrical [[Concertino (Janáček)|Concertino]] for piano, two violins, viola, clarinet, French horn and bassoon; the Czech premiere took place in [[Brno]] on February 16, 1926. A comparable chamber work for an even more unusual set of instruments, the [[Capriccio (Janáček)|Capriccio]] for piano left hand, flute, two trumpets, three trombones and tenor tuba, was written for pianist [[Otakar Hollmann]], who lost the use of his right hand during [[World War I]]. After its premiere in Prague on March 2, 1928, it gained considerable acclaim in the musical world.

Other well known pieces by Janáček include the ''[[Sinfonietta (Janáček)|Sinfonietta]]'', the ''[[Glagolitic Mass]]'' (the text written in [[Old Church Slavonic]]), and the rhapsody ''[[Taras Bulba (rhapsody)|Taras Bulba]]''. These pieces and the above mentioned five late operas were all written in the last decade of Janáček's life.

Janáček established a school of composition in Brno. Among his notable pupils were [[Jan Kunc]], [[Václav Kaprál]], [[Vilém Petrželka]], [[Jaroslav Kvapil (composer)|Jaroslav Kvapil]], [[Osvald Chlubna]], [[Břetislav Bakala]], and [[Pavel Haas]]. Most of his students neither imitated nor developed Janáček's style, which left him no direct stylistic descendants. According to Milan Kundera, Janáček developed a personal, modern style in relative isolation from contemporary modernist movements but was in close contact with developments in modern European music. His path towards the innovative "modernism" of his later years was long and solitary, and he achieved true individuation as a composer around his 50th year.<ref name="Kundera 1996, p. 180"/><ref>Kundera (2004), p. 70 {{cs icon}}</ref>

Sir Charles Mackerras, the Australian conductor who has helped promote Janáček's works on the world's opera stages, described his style as ''"... completely new and original, different from anything else ... and impossible to pin down to any one style"''.<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 7-8</ref> According to Mackerras, his use of whole-tone scale differs from that of [[Claude Debussy|Debussy]], his folk music inspiration is absolutely dissimilar from Dvořák's and Smetana's, and his characteristically complex rhythms differ from the techniques of the young [[Igor Stravinsky|Stravinsky]].<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 8</ref>

French conductor and composer [[Pierre Boulez]], who interpreted Janáček's operas and orchestral works, called his music surprisingly modern and fresh: ''"Its repetitive pulse varies through changes in rhythm, tone and direction."'' He described his opera ''From the House of the Dead'' as ''"primitive, in the best sense, but also extremely strong, like the paintings of Léger, where the rudimentary character allows a very vigorous kind of expression".''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.musicweb-international.com/sandh/2007/Jan-Jun07/janacek3105.htm |title=Janáček, From the House of the Dead |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher= |date=}}</ref>

Janáček's life has featured in several films. In 1974 Eva Marie Kaňková made a short documentary ''Fotograf a muzika'' (The Photographer and the Music) about the Czech photographer [[Josef Sudek]] and his relationship to Janáček's work.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nostalghia.cz/dvd/txt/sudek_kf.php |title=Recenze DVD: Josef Sudek |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher=Nostalghia.cz |date=}}</ref> In 1986 the Czech director [[Jaromil Jireš]] made ''Lev s bílou hřívou'' (Lion with the White Mane), which showed the amorous inspiration behind Janáček's works.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.csfd.cz/film/4837-lev-s-bilou-hrivou/ |title=Lev s bílou hřívou |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher=Česká a slovenská filmová databáze |date=}} {{cs icon}}</ref> [[In Search of Janáček]] is a Czech documentary directed in 2004 by Petr Kaňka, made to celebrate the 150th anniversary of Janáček's birth. An animated cartoon version of ''[[The Cunning Little Vixen]]'' was made in 2003 by the [[BBC]], with music performed by the [[Deutsches Symphonie-Orchester Berlin]] and conducted by [[Kent Nagano]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.musicweb-international.com/classrev/2003/july03/Janacek_vixen_Cartoon.htm |title=Leoš Janáček: The Cunning Little Vixen |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work= |publisher=music web-international.com |date=}}</ref> A rearrangement of the opening of the ''Sinfonietta'' was used by the progressive rock band [[Emerson, Lake & Palmer]] for its song ''Knife-Edge'' on their debut album.

==Criticism==
[[File:Janáček, Kovařovic, kunc507.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Leoš Janáček, Karel Kovařovic and Jan Kunc in Summer, 1917]]
Czech musicology at the beginning of the 20th century was strongly influenced by Romanticism, in particular by the styles of Wagner and Smetana. Performance practises were conservative, and actively resistant to stylistic innovation. During his lifetime, Janáček reluctantly conceded to Karel Kovařovic's instrumental rearrangement of ''Jenůfa'', most noticeably in the finale, in which Kovařovic added a more 'festive' sound of trumpets and French horns, and doubled some instruments to support Janáček's "poor" instrumentation.<ref>Ort (2005) p. 60 {{cs icon}}</ref> The score of ''Jenůfa'' was later restored by Charles Mackerras, and is now performed according to Janáček's original intentions.

Another important Czech musicologist, [[Zdeněk Nejedlý]], a great admirer of Smetana and later a communist Minister of Culture, condemned Janáček as an author who could accumulate a lot of material, but was unable to do anything with it. He called Janáček's style "unanimated", and his operatic duets "only speech melodies", without polyphonic strength.<ref>Ort (2005), p. 63 {{cs icon}}</ref> Nejedlý considered Janáček rather an amateurish composer, whose music did not conform to the style of Smetana. According to Charles Mackerras, he tried to professionally destroy Janáček.<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 9</ref> Josef Bartoš, the Czech aesthetician and music critic, called Janáček a "musical eccentric" who clung tenaciously to an imperfect, improvising style, but Bartoš appreciated some elements of Janáček's works and judged him more positively than Nejedlý.<ref>Fenomén Janáček včera a dnes (2004), p. 219-220</ref>

Janáček's friend and collaborator [[Václav Talich]], former chief-conductor of the [[Czech Philharmonic]], sometimes adjusted Janáček's scores, mainly for their instrumentation and dynamics; some critics sharply attacked him for doing so.<ref>{{cite album-notes |title=Taras Bulba, Ripening |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček; Josef Suk |year=2005 |notestitle=Janáček Carves with a Knife; Suk Draws with the Most Delicate Pen |url= |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |page=8 |format=CD |publisher=Supraphon |publisherid=SU-3823-2 |location=Prague |mbid= }}</ref> Talich re-orchestrated ''Taras Bulba'' and the Suite from ''Cunning Little Vixen'' justifying the latter with the claim that ''"it was not possible to perform it in the [[Prague National Theatre]] unless it was entirely re-orchestrated"''. Talich's rearrangement rather emasculated the specific sounds and contrasts of Janáček's original, but was the standard version for many years.<ref>Tyrrell; Mackerras (2003), p. 11</ref> Charles Mackerras started to research Janáček's music in 1960s, and gradually restored the composer's distinctive scoring. The critical edition of Janáček's scores is published by the Czech ''Editio Janáček''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.editiojanacek.com/en/ |title=Editio Janáček |accessdate=8 January 2009 |work=|publisher=Editio Janáček |date=}}</ref>

==Inspiration==

Janáček's style and thematic inspiration make use of several fundamental sources.

'''Folklore'''

Janáček was deeply influenced by folklore, and by [[Moravian folk music]] in particular, but not by the pervasive, idealized 19th century romantic folklore variant. He took a realistic, descriptive and analytic approach to the material.<ref name=autogenerated9>{{cite album-notes |title=Moravian Folk Poetry in Songs (Pecková, Kušnjer, Lapšanský) |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček |year=1994 |notestitle= |url= |first=Miloš |last=Štědroň |authorlink= |coauthors=(transl. Ivan Vomáčka) |page=8 |format=CD |publisher=[[Supraphon]] |publisherid=112214-2233 |location=Prague |mbid= }} {{cs icon}} {{en icon}}</ref> Janáček partly composed the original piano accompaniments to more than 150 folk songs, respectful of their original function and context,<ref>{{cite book |title=Moravská lidová poezie v písních (foreword) |last=Janáček |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1994 |publisher=Bärenreiter Editio Supraphon |location=Prague |isbn= |pages= |url= }} H 4570 {{cs icon}} {{de icon}}</ref> and partly used folk inspiration in his own works, especially in his mature compositions.<ref name="autogenerated9"/> His work in this area was not stylistically imitative; instead, he developed a new and original musical aesthetic based on a deep study of the fundamentals of folk music.<ref name="autogenerated9"/> Through his systematic notation of folk songs as he heard them, Janáček developed an exceptional sensitivity to the melodies and rhythms of speech, from which he compiled a collection of distinctive segments he called ''"speech tunes"''.<ref name="autogenerated9"/> He used these "essences" of spoken language in his vocal and instrumental works. The roots of his style, marked by the lilts of human speech, emerge from the world of folk music.<ref name="autogenerated9"/>

'''Russia'''

Janáček's deep and lifelong affection for Russia and Russian culture represents another important element of his musical inspiration.<ref name=autogenerated10>{{cite album-notes |title=Katya Kabanova ([[Prague National Theatre]], Jaroslav Krombholc) |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček |year= |notestitle= |url= |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |page=6 |format=CD |publisher=Supraphon |publisherid=108016-2612 |location=Prague |mbid= }}</ref> In 1888 he attended the Prague performance of [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky|Tchaikovsky]]'s music, and met the older composer. Janáček profoundly admired Tchaikovsky, and particularly appreciated his highly developed musical thought in connection with the use of Russian folk motifs.<ref>Štědroň (1946), p. 132 {{cs icon}}</ref> Janáček's Russian inspiration is especially apparent in his later chamber, symphonic and operatic output.<ref name="autogenerated10"/> He closely followed developments in Russian music from his early years, and in 1896, following his first visit of Russia, he founded a ''Russian Circle'' in Brno. Janáček read Russian authors in their original language. Their literature offered him an enormous and reliable source of inspiration, though this did not blind him to the problems of Russian society.<ref name="autogenerated10"/> He was twenty-two years old when he wrote his first composition based on a Russian theme: a melodrama, ''"Death"'', set to [[Mikhail Lermontov|Lermontov's]] poem. In his later works, he often used literary models with sharply contoured plots.<ref name="autogenerated10"/> In 1910 Zhukovsky's ''Tale of Tsar Berendei'' inspired him to write the ''Fairy Tale for Cello and Piano''. He composed the rhapsody ''Taras Bulba'' (1918) to [[Nikolai Gogol|Gogol's]] short story, and five years later, in 1923, completed his first string quartet, inspired by [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy´s]] ''[[The Kreutzer Sonata|Kreutzer Sonata]]''. Two of his later operas were based on Russian themes: ''Káťa Kabanová'', composed in 1921 to [[Aleksandr Ostrovsky|Ostrovsky's]] play, ''The Storm'': and his last work, ''From the House of the Dead'', which transformed [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky|Dostoyevsky's]] vision of the world into an exciting collective drama.<ref>{{cite album-notes |title=Katya Kabanova ([[Prague National Theatre]], Jaroslav Krombholc) |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček |year= |notestitle= |url= |first= |last= |authorlink= |coauthors= |page=7 |format=CD |publisher=Supraphon |publisherid=108016-2612 |location=Prague |mbid= }}</ref>

Janáček always deeply admired Antonín Dvořák, to whom he dedicated some of his works. He rearranged part of Dvořák's [[Moravian Duets]] for mixed choir with original piano accompaniment. In the early years of the 20th century, Janáček became increasingly interested in the music of other European composers. His opera ''Destiny'' was a response to another significant and famous work in contemporary Bohemia - [[Louise (opera)|Louise]], by the French composer [[Gustave Charpentier]].<ref>Tyrrell (1991-2), p. 108 {{cs icon}}</ref> The influence of [[Giacomo Puccini]] is apparent particularly in Janáček's later works, for example in his opera ''Káťa Kabanová''. Although he carefully observed developments in European music, his operas remained firmly connected with Czech and Slavic themes.<ref>Tyrrell (1991-2), p. 156</ref>

==Music theorist==
'''Musicology'''

Janáček created his music theory works, essays and articles over a period of fifty years, from 1877 to 1927. He wrote and edited the ''Hudební listy'' journal, and contributed to many specialist music journals, such as ''Cecílie'', ''Hlídka'' and ''Dalibor''. He also completed several extensive studies, as ''Úplná nauka o harmonii'' (The Complete Harmony Theory), ''O skladbě souzvukův a jejich spojův'' (On the Construction of Chords and Their Connections) and ''Základy hudebního sčasování'' (Basics of Music ''"sčasování"'').<ref>Teoretické dílo, p. 677</ref> In his essays and books, Janáček examined various musical topics, forms, melody and harmony theories, dyad and triad chords, counterpoint (or ''"opora"'', meaning "support") and devoted himself to the study of the mental composition.<ref>Teoretické dílo, p. 677-678</ref> His theoretical works stress the Czech term "sčasování", Janáček's specific word for rhythm, which has relation to time ("čas" in Czech), and the handling of time in music composition.<ref>Teoretické dílo, p. 676</ref> He distinguished several types of rhythm (''sčasovka''): ''"znící"'' (sounding) - meaning any rhythm, ''"čítací"'' (counting) - meaning smaller units measuring the course of rhythm; and ''"scelovací"'' (summing) - a long value comprising the length of a rhythmical unit.<ref>Teoretické dílo, p. 676-677</ref> Janáček used the combination of their mutual action widely in his own works.

'''Other writing'''

Leoš Janáček's literary legacy represents an important illustration of his life, public work and art between 1875 and 1928. He contributed not only to music journals, but wrote essays, reports, reviews, feuilletons, articles and books. His work in this area comprises around 380 individual items.<ref>Literární dílo, p. Iiii</ref> His writing changed over time, and appeared in many genres. Nevertheless, the critical and theoretical sphere remained his main area of interest.

==Folk music research==
[[Image:Janáček collecting folksongs.jpg|thumb|upright|250px|Janáček collecting folksongs on 19 August 1906 in Strání]]
Janáček came from a region characterized by its deeply rooted [[folk culture]], which he explored as a young student under Pavel Křížkovský.<ref name=autogenerated7>Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního folkloru, p. 381</ref> His meeting with the folklorist and dialectologist [[František Bartoš (folklorist)|František Bartoš]] (1837–1906) was decisive in his own development as a folklorist and composer, and led to their collaborative and systematic collections of folk songs.<ref name="autogenerated7"/> Janáček became an important collector in his own right, especially of [[Lach dialects|Lachian]], [[Moravian Slovakia]]n, [[Moravian Wallachia]]n and [[Slovakia]]n songs. From 1879, his collections included transcribed speech intonations.<ref>Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního folkloru, p. 382</ref> He was one of the organizers of the ''Czech-Slavic Folklore Exhibition'', an important event in Czech culture at the end of 19th century. From 1905 he was President of the newly instituted ''Working Committee for Czech National Folksong in Moravia and Silesia'', a branch of the Austrian institute ''Das Volkslied in Österreich'' (Folksong in Austria), which was established in 1902 by the Viennese publishing house [[Universal Edition]]. Janáček was a pioneer and propagator of [[ethnography|ethnographic]] photography in Moravia and Silesia.<ref>Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního folkloru, p. 383</ref> In October, 1909 he acquired an [[Thomas Edison|Edison]] phonograph and became one of the first to use phonographic recording as a folklore research tool. Several of these recording sessions have been preserved, and were reissued in 1998.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://gnosis.cz/GBrno/detail.php?nid=GM010&ntyp=1 |title=Nejstarší nahrávky moravského a slovenského zpěvu 1909-1912 |accessdate=2008-09-23 |work= |publisher=Gnosis Brno |date= }} {{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}} {{cs icon}}</ref>

==Selected works==
For the complete list see ''[[List of compositions by Leoš Janáček]]''.

===Operas===

Leoš Janáček counts among the first opera composers who used prose for his libretti, not verse.<ref>Kundera (2004), p. 54</ref> He even wrote his own libretti to his last three operas. His libretti were translated into German by [[Max Brod]].

* ''[[Šárka (Janáček)|Šárka]]'', libretto by [[Julius Zeyer]] (1887)
* ''[[Počátek Románu]]'', "The Beginning of a Romance", libretto by Jaroslav Tichý after [[Gabriela Preissová]] (1894)
* ''[[Jenůfa|Její pastorkyňa]]'', "Her Stepdaughter", known in the English-speaking world as ''Jenůfa'', libretto by the composer after Gabriela Preissová (1904)
* ''[[Destiny (Janáček)|Osud]]'', "Destiny", libretto by Fedora Bartošová (1904)
* ''[[The Excursions of Mr. Broucek on the Moon and in the 15th Century|Výlety páně Broučkovy]]'', "The Excursions of Mr. Broucek", libretto by [[Viktor Dyk]] and František Sarafínský Procházka (1920)
* ''[[Káťa Kabanová]]'', "Katya Kabanova", libretto by Vincenc Cervinka, after [[Aleksandr Ostrovsky]]'s The Storm (1921)
* ''[[The Cunning Little Vixen|Příhody lišky Bystroušky]]'', "The Cunning Little Vixen", libretto by the composer (1924)
* ''[[The Makropulos Affair (opera)|Věc Makropulos]]'', "The Makropoulos Affair", libretto by the composer, after [[Karel Čapek]] (1926)
* ''[[From the House of the Dead|Z mrtvého domu]]'', "From the House of the Dead", libretto by the composer, after [[Fyodor Dostoyevsky]] (1927)

===Orchestral===

The early orchestral works are influenced by Romantic style, and especially by orchestral works of Dvořák. In his later works, created after 1900, Janáček found his own, original expression.

*''Suite for Strings''
*''[[Lachian Dances]]''
*''Moravian Dances''
*''Suite for Orchestra'' ([[1891]])
*''Jealousy'' ({{lang-cs|Žárlivost}}), overture for Orchestra ([[1894]])
*''The Fiddler's Child'' (1912–14)
*''[[Taras Bulba (rhapsody)|Taras Bulba]]'' (1918)
*''Dunaj (Danube) Symphony'' (1923–25)
*''[[Sinfonietta (Janáček)|Sinfonietta]]'' (1926)
*''[[The Wandering of a Little Soul]]'' (violin concerto), (1926–27)

===Vocal and choral===

Janáček's choral works, known particularly in the Czech Republic, are considered extremely complicated. He wrote several choruses to the words of Czech poet [[Petr Bezruč]].

*''Lord, have mercy'' (1896)
*''Amarus'' (1897)
*''Otče náš'' (''The Lord's Prayer''. 1901. 5-movement work for tenor solo, chorus, harp, and organ.)
*''Elegy on the death of daughter Olga'' (1903)
*''Kantor Halfar'' (Teacher Halfar) (1906)
*''Maryčka Magdónova'' (1908)
*''Sedmdesát tisíc'' (Seventy Thousand) (1909)
*''The Eternal Gospel'' (1914)
*''[[The Diary of One Who Disappeared]]'' (1919)
*''[[Glagolitic Mass]]'' (1926)

===Chamber and instrumental===

His string quartets became a standard repertoire of 20th century classical music, other notable chamber works are often written with unusual instrumentation.

*[[Pohádka (Janáček)|''Pohádka'' (Fairy Tale), for cello and piano]] (1910)
*[[Violin Sonata (Janáček)|Violin Sonata]] (1914)
*[[String Quartet No. 1 (Janáček)|String Quartet No. 1, ''Kreutzer Sonata'']] (1923)
*[[Youth (wind sextet)|Youth]] (1924), wind sextet
*[[Concertino (Janáček)|''Concertino'' for piano and chamber ensemble]] (1925)
*[[Capriccio (Janáček)|Capriccio for piano (left hand) and wind ensemble]] (1926)
*[[String Quartet No. 2 (Janáček)|String Quartet No. 2, ''Intimate Letters'']] (1928)

===Piano===

Janáček composed his major piano works in a relatively short period of twelve years, from 1901 to 1912. His early ''Thema con variazioni'' (subtitled ''Zdenka's variations'') is a student work composed to the styles of famous composers.

*''[[1. X. 1905]]'' (Piano Sonata) (1905)
*''[[On an Overgrown Path]]'', Books 1 and 2 (1901–1911)
*''[[In the Mists]]'' (1912)

==Selected writings==

'''Theoretical works'''
*''O dokonalé představě dvojzvuku'' (On the Perfect Image of Dyad Chord) (1885–1886)
*''Bedřich Smetana o formách hudebních'' (Bedřich Smetana: On Music Forms) (1886)
*''O představě tóniny'' (On an Idea of Key) (1886–1887)
*''O vědeckosti nauk o harmonii'' (On Scientism of Harmony Theories) (1887)
*''O trojzvuku'' (On a Triad) (1887–1888)
*''Slovíčko o kontrapunktu'' (A Word on Counterpoint) (1888)
*''Nový proud v teorii hudební'' (New Stream in Music Theory) (1894)
*''O skladbě souzvukův a jejich spojův'' (On the Construction of Chords and Their Progressions) (1896)
*''Moderní harmonická hudba'' (Modern Harmonic Music) (1907)
*''Můj názor o sčasování (rytmu)'' (My Opinion of "sčasování" (Rhythm)) (1907)
*''Z praktické části o sčasování (rytmu)'' (On "sčasování" From practice) (1908)
*''Váha reálních motivů'' (The Weight of Real Motifs) (1910)
*''O průběhu duševní práce skladatelské'' (On the Course of Mental Compositional Work) (1916)
*''Úplná nauka o harmonii'' (Harmony Theory) (1920)

==Media==
{{listen
| filename = Janacek - nase pisen.ogg
| title = Naše píseň; (''Our Song'')
| description =
| format = [[Ogg]]
| filename2 = Janacek.ogg
| title2 = Postludium for Organ
| description2 =
| format2 = [[ogg]]
}}
{{-}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}

==References==
{{refbegin|2}}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček: Years of a Life. A two-volume biography of the composer |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink=John Tyrrell (musicologist) |coauthors= |year=2006/7 |publisher=Faber and Faber |location=[[London]]|isbn= 0571175384 (Volume 1), 0571236677 (Volume 2) |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Music in Transition: A Study of Tonal Expansion and Atonality, 1900–1920 |last=Samson |first=Jim |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1977 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Company |location=[[New York]] |isbn=0393021939 |pages=67 |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Leoš Janáček, Život a dílo v datech a obrazech / Chronology of his life and work |last=Drlíková |first=Eva |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= 2004|publisher=Opus Musicum |location=Brno |isbn=80-903211-1-9 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}} {{en icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček |last=Hollander |first=Hans |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1963 |publisher= |location=London |isbn= |pages=119 |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=The Operas of Leoš Janáček |last=Chisholm |first=Erik |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1971 |publisher= |location= |isbn=0080128548 |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Janáčkovy záznamy hudebního a tanečního fokloru I |last=Procházková |first=Jarmila |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2006 |publisher=Etnologický ústav AV ČR, Doplněk |location=Prague, Brno |isbn=80-85010-83-6 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}} (notes based on English summary)
*{{cite book |title=Hudební slovník pro každého II |last=Vysloužil |first=Jiří |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2001 |publisher=Lípa |location=Vizovice |isbn=80-86093-23-9 |pages= |url= }}{{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Teoretické dílo, Series I/Volume 2-1 |last=Janáček |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors=ed. Leoš Faltus, Eva Drlíková, Svatava Přibáňová, Jiří Zahrádka |year=2007 |publisher=Editio Janáček |location=Brno |isbn=978-80-904-052-0-2 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}} (notes based on English summary)
*{{cite book |title=Literární dílo, Series I/Volume 1-1 |last=Janáček |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors=ed. Eva Drlíková, Theodora Straková |year=2003 |publisher=Editio Janáček |location=Brno |isbn=978-80-238-7250-7 |pages= |url= }}{{cs icon}} (notes based on English summary)
*{{cite book |title=Můj Janáček |last=Kundera |first=Milan |authorlink=Milan Kundera |coauthors= |year=2004 |publisher=Atlantis |location=Brno |isbn=80-7108-256-2 |pages= |url= }}{{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Thema con variazioni. Leoš Janáček, korespondence s manželkou Zdeňkou a dcerou Olgou |last=(ed.) Přibáňová |first=Svatava |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2007 |publisher=Editio Bärenreiter |location=Prague |isbn=978-80-86385-36-5 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Dějiny hudby na Moravě. Vlastivěda moravská|last=Sehnal |first=Jiří |authorlink= |coauthors=Vysloužil, Jiří |year=2001 |publisher=Muzejní a vlastivědná společnost |location=Brno |isbn=80-7275-021-6 |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Československý hudební slovník I. (A-L) |last=Černušák |first=Gracián (ed.) |authorlink= |coauthors=Štědroň, Bohumír; Nováček, Zdenko (ed.) |year=1963 |publisher=Státní hudební vydavatelství |location=Prague |isbn= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček ve vzpomínkách a dopisech |last=Štědroň |first=Bohumír |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1946 |publisher=Topičova edice |location=Prague |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Pozdní divoch. Láska a život Leoše Janáčka v operách a dopisech |last=Ort |first=Jiří |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |publisher=Mladá fronta |location=Prague |isbn=80-204-1256-5 |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Janáčkův život |last=Firkušný |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |publisher= |location=Prague |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Po zarostlém chodníčku (On an Overgrown Path). Urtext |last=Janáček |first=Leoš |authorlink= |coauthors=Zahrádka, Jiří (preface); Peters-Gráfová, Sarah (transl.) |year=2006 |publisher=Editio [[Bärenreiter]] |location=Prague |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }} BA 9502. ISMN M-2601-0365-8
*{{cite book |title=Fenomén Janáček včera a dnes. Sborník z mezinárodní hudebněvědné konference|last=Collective of editors |first= |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2004 |publisher=Brno Conservatory |location=Brno |isbn=80-87005-00-7 |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Česká opera |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1991-2 |publisher=Opus Musicum |location=Brno |isbn=80-900314-1-2 |page= |pages= |url= }} {{cs icon}}
*{{cite book |title=Testaments Betrayed |last=Kundera |first=Milan |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1996 |publisher=Faber and Faber |location=London |isbn=0-571-17337-3 |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite album-notes |title=The Cunning Little Vixen, Sinfonietta, Schluck und Jau, Jealousy... |albumlink= |bandname=Leoš Janáček (Czech Philharmonic Orchestra, Charles Mackerras) |year=2003 |notestitle=My Life With Janáček's Music (Sir Charles Mackerras in conversation with the Janáček specialist John Tyrrell)|url=http://www.supraphon.cz/cs/katalog/databaze-titulu/detail-titulu/?idtitulu=2004649 |first=John |last=Tyrrell |authorlink= |coauthors=Mackerras, Charles |page=13 |format=CD |publisher=Supraphon |publisherid=SU 3739-2 |location=Prague |mbid= }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*Zemanová, Mirka. Janáček. London: John Murray, 2002; Boston: Northwestern University, 2002.
*Zemanová, Mirka. Uncollected Essays on Music. London: Marion Boyars, 1992 | Janáček's essays on music, translated into English.
*{{cite book |title=Janáček's works. A catalogue of the music and writings of Leoš Janáček |last=Simeone |first=Nigel |authorlink= |coauthors=Tyrrell, John; Němcová, Alena |year=1997 |publisher=Clarendon |location=Oxford |isbn= 9780198164463|page= |pages= |url=http://books.google.com/?id=XsgpuebI1vYC&dq=leos+janacek&printsec=frontcover }}
*{{cite book |title=Intimate Letters: Leoš Janáček to Kamila Stösslová |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2005 |publisher=Faber and Faber |location=London |isbn=978-0571225101 |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=My life with Janáček - The Memoirs of Zdenka Janáčková |last=Tyrrell |first=John (ed.) |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1998 |publisher= |location=London |isbn= |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček's operas - A documentary account |last=Tyrrell |first=John |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1992 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton |isbn=069109148X |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Janáček and His World |last=Beckerman |first=Michael (ed.) |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=New York |isbn=0691116768 |page= |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Janacek as Theorist |last=Beckerman |first=Michael |authorlink= |coauthors= |year= |publisher=Pendragon Press |location=[[Stuyvesant, New York]] |isbn=0945193033 |page=1994 |pages= |url= }}
*{{cite book |title=Leoš Janáček: a biography |last=Vogel |first=Jaroslav |authorlink= |coauthors= |year=1997 |publisher=Academia |location=Prague |isbn=8020006222 |page= |pages= |url= }}
* Štědroň, Miloš (1998). ''Leoš Janáček a hudba 20. století''. Brno: Nadace Universitas Masarykiana. ISBN 80-210-1917-4.

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Leoš Janáček}}
{{Commonscat}}
* [http://www.leosjanacek.com A detailed site on Leoš Janáček created by Gavin Plumley]
* [http://www.bsmny.org/features/janacek Piano music of Leoš Janáček: An Exploration for Students of All Ages], an online feature from [http://www.bsmny.org Bloomingdale School of Music] (January, 2008
* {{IMSLP|id=Jan%C3%A1%C4%8Dek%2C_Leo%C5%A1|cname=Leoš Janáček}}
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=9595213 Leoš Janáček on Find-A-Grave]
* {{Imdb name|0418443|Leos Janáček}}
* [http://www.pytheasmusic.org/janacek.html Leoš Janáček at Pytheas Center for Contemporary Music]
* [http://www.editiojanacek.com/en/ Editio Janáček]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Janacek, Leos
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 3 July 1854
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 12 August 1928
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Janacek, Leos}}
[[Category:1854 births]]
[[Category:1928 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Frýdek-Místek District]]
[[Category:Czech folk-song collectors]]
[[Category:Czech composers]]
[[Category:20th-century classical composers]]
[[Category:Opera composers]]
[[Category:People from Austrian Silesia]]
[[Category:People from Brno]]
[[Category:Felix Mendelssohn College of Music and Theatre alumni]]
[[Category:Romantic composers]]
[[Category:Composers for pipe organ]]

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[[fa:لئوش یاناچک]]
[[fr:Leoš Janáček]]
[[ko:레오시 야나체크]]
[[hr:Leoš Janáček]]
[[it:Leóš Janáček]]
[[he:לאוש יאנאצ'ק]]
[[hu:Leoš Janáček]]
[[nl:Leoš Janáček]]
[[ja:レオシュ・ヤナーチェク]]
[[no:Leoš Janáček]]
[[pl:Leoš Janáček]]
[[pt:Leoš Janáček]]
[[ru:Яначек, Леош]]
[[simple:Leoš Janáček]]
[[sk:Leoš Janáček]]
[[sl:Leoš Janáček]]
[[sr:Леош Јаначек]]
[[sh:Леош Јаначек]]
[[fi:Leoš Janáček]]
[[sv:Leoš Janáček]]
[[tr:Leoš Janáček]]
[[uk:Леош Яначек]]
[[zh:莱奥什·雅纳切克]]

In the Mists

2011-01-05T00:31:06Z

Rigaudon: Olga died nine years earlier. Need to substantiate claim that this work is "often called" impressionistic.

'''In the Mists''' (V mlhách) is a piano cycle by [[Czechs|Czech]] composer [[Leoš Janáček]], the last of his more substantial solo works for the instrument. It was composed in 1912, some years after Janáček had suffered the death of his daughter Olga and while his operas were still being rejected by the [[Prague]] opera houses. All four parts of the cycle are anchored in "misty" keys with five or six flats; characteristic of the cycle are the frequent changes of meter. Atmosphere of the cycle is often referred to{{By whom}} as impressionist, with the influence of [[Claude Debussy]]. The première took place on December 7, 1913, when [[Marie Dvořáková]] played it at a concert organized by the choral society Moravan in the Moravian town of [[Kroměříž]].

== Structure ==

The cycle consists of four parts:

*I. Andante
*II. Molto adagio
*III. Andantino
*IV. Presto

== Recordings ==

*Janáček: Piano Sonata 1.X.1905 • In the Mists etc. (Leif Ove Andsnes) CD 2000 EMI Records Ltd 7243 5 61839 2 6
*Leos Janácek: A Recollection. (András Schiff) CD 2001 Ecm Records B000059X1W
*Janáček: Complete Piano Works. (Jan Jiraský) CD ArcoDiva 2004. UP 0071-2132
*Janáček: Piano Works. (Josef Páleníček) CD Supraphon 2005. SU 3812-2
*Janácek: Piano Works.(Håkon Austbø) CD Brilliant Classics B0009IW8RG
*In The Mists. (Ivana Gavrić) CD 2010 Champs Hill Records CHRCD009

== Sources ==

*Janáček, Leoš: V mlhách. Urtext. Praha: Editio Bärenreiter Praha,2005. BA 9500

{{classical-composition-stub}}

[[Category:Compositions by Leoš Janáček]]
[[Category:Solo piano pieces]]
[[Category:1912 compositions]]

[[es:En la niebla (Janáček)]]
[[ja:霧の中で]]

Harp

2011-01-05T00:16:25Z

Rigaudon: /* Latin America */ Removed someone's (invisible) signature

{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox Instrument
|name=Harp
|image=Harp.png
|image_capt=A medieval harp (left) and a single-action pedal harp
|background=string
|hornbostel_sachs=322-5
|hornbostel_sachs_desc=Composite [[chordophone]] sounded by the [[pizzicato|bare fingers]]
|developed=Antiquity
|range= [[File:Range of harp.JPG|150px|center]]<div align=center>(modern pedal harp)<ref>Dave Black and Tom Gerou, "Essential Dictionary of Orchestration." Alfred Publishing Co. ISBN 0-7390-0021-7</ref></div>
|midi=046/047 (Orchestral Harp)
|related=
* [[Chang (instrument)|Chang]]
* [[Çeng]]
* [[Konghou]]
* [[Lyre]]
}}

The '''harp''' is a multi-[[stringed instrument]] which has the plane of its strings positioned [[perpendicular]] to the [[Sounding board|soundboard]]. It is classified as a chordophone by the Harvard Dictionary of Music and only types of harps are in that class of instruments with plucked strings. All harps have a neck, [[resonator]], and [[strings (music)|strings]]. Some, known as ''frame harps'', also have a forepillar; those lacking the forepillar are referred to as ''open harps''. Depending on its size (which varies considerably), a harp may be played while held in the lap or while it stands on the floor. Harp strings are made of [[nylon]], [[Catgut|gut]], [[wire]], or [[silk]] on certain instruments. A person who plays the harp is called a '''harpist''' or '''harper'''. Folk musicians often use the term "harper", whereas classical musicians use "harpist".{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Various types of harps are found in [[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[North America|North]], and [[South America]], and in [[Asia]]. In antiquity, harps and the closely related [[lyre|lyres]] were very prominent in nearly all cultures. The oldest harps found thus far have been uncovered in ruins from ancient Sumer. The harp also predominant in the hands of medieval bards, troubadors and minnesingers, as well as throughout the Spanish Empire. Harps continued to grow in popularity through improvements in their design and construction through the beginning of the 20th century.

The [[aeolian harp]] (wind harp), the [[autoharp]], and all forms of the lyre and [[Kithara]] are not harps because their strings are not perpendicular to the soundboard; they are part of the [[zither]] family of instruments along with the [[piano]] and [[harpsichord]]. In blues music, the [[harmonica]] is casually referred to as a "Blues harp" or "harp", but it is a [[free reed]] wind instrument, not a stringed instrument, and is therefore not an actual harp.

==Origins==
[[File:Egyptian harp.jpg|right|thumb|200px|An [[History of ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] harp on display in the [[British Museum]].]]

Harps were most likely independently invented in many parts of the world in remote [[prehistory]].{{Clarify|date=August 2009}} The harp's origins might lie in the sound of a plucked hunter's [[bow (weapon)|bow]]-string or the strings of a loom.

A type of harp called a 'bow harp' is nothing more than a bow like a hunter's, with a resonating vessel such as a [[gourd]] fixed somewhere along its length. To allow a greater number of strings, harps were later made from two pieces of wood attached at the ends: this type is known as the 'angle harp'.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}They can also come in different colours.

The oldest depictions of harps without a forepillar are from 4000 BC in [[Egypt]]{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}}(see [[Music of Egypt]]) the sumerian harp of Ur 3500 BC,and 3000 BC in [[Persia]] (see [[Music of Iran]]).{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} Other ancient names for harps include [[magadis]] and [[sambuca (musical instrument)|sambuca]]. The ''[[Kanun (instrument)|kanun]]'' is a descendant of the ancient Egyptian harp and was introduced to Europe by the [[Moors]] during the [[Middle Ages]] but is like the beforementioned Aeolian harp not a harp but a member of the zither family.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

==Structure and mechanism==
Harps are roughly triangular and are usually made primarily of wood. The lower ends of the strings are fastened to the inside of the sounding-board, which is the outer surface of the resonating cavity. The body is hollow and resonates, projecting sound both toward the player through openings, and outward through the highly flexible sounding board. The crossbar, or neck, contains the mechanism or levers which determine the pitch alteration (sharps and flats) for each string. The upper ends of the strings are attached to pins in holes drilled through the neck. The longest side, the column, encloses the rods controlling the mechanism of a pedal harp. At the base are seven pedals, which activate the rods when they are downwardly pressed. The modern sophisticated instrument spanning 6½ octaves in virtually all keys was perfected by the 19th-century French maker [[Sébastien Érard]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Lever harps do not have pedals or rods. Instead they use a shortening lever on the neck for each individual string which must be activated manually in order to shorten the string and raise the tone a half step. Thus, a string tuned to natural may be played in sharp, but not flat. A string tuned to flat may be played in natural, but not sharp. Lever harps are considerably lighter in weight than pedal harps and are smaller in size and number of strings. Lever harps are popular for playing folk music and are most commonly called folk harps.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The [[harp lute]] or [[dital harp]] adapts the lever tuning system to a fretted instrument in the lute or guitar family.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Development and history in Europe==
[[File:Wartburg-Harfe.JPG|right|thumb|200px|A medieval European harp (the Wartburg harp) with buzzing bray pins.]]
Angle harps and bow harps continue to be used up to the present day. In Europe, however, a further development took place{{When|date=October 2009}}: adding a third structural member, the pillar, to support the far ends of the arch and sound box. The 'Triangular Frame harp' is depicted in manuscripts and sculpture from about the 8th century AD, especially in North-West Europe, although specific nationalistic claims to the invention of the triangular frame harp cannot be substantiated.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} The graceful curve of the harp's neck is a result of the proportional shortening of the basic triangular form so that the strings are equidistant. If the strings were proportionately distanced, the strings would be farther and farther apart.

European harps in [[medieval]] and [[Renaissance]] times usually had a bray pin fitted to make a buzzing sound when a string was plucked. By the [[baroque]] period, in Italy and Spain, more strings were added to allow for chromatic notes; these were usually in a second line of strings. At the same time{{When|date=October 2009}} single-row diatonic harps continued to be played.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The first primitive form of pedal harps were developed in the Tyrol region of Austria. Hochbrucker was the next to design an improved pedal mechanism, followed in succession by Krumpholtz, Nadermann, and the Erard company, who came up with the double mechanism. In Germany in the second half of the 17th century, diatonic single-row harps were fitted with manually turned hooks which fretted individual strings to raise their pitch by a half step. In the 18th century, a link mechanism was developed connecting these hooks with pedals, leading to the invention of the single-action pedal harp. Later, a second row of hooks was installed along the neck to allow for the double-action pedal harp, capable of raising the pitch of a string by either one or two half steps. The idea was even extended to triple-action harps, but these were never common. The double-action pedal harp remains the normal form of the instrument in the Western classical orchestra. There was a chromatic harp developed in the late 19th century that only found a small number of proponents, and was mainly taught in Belgium. {{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Latin America==
In [[Latin America]], harps are widely but sparsely distributed, except in certain regions where the harp traditions are very strong. Such important centers include [[Mexico]], [[Andes]], [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], and [[Paraguay]]. They are derived from the [[Baroque]] harps that were brought from [[Spain]] during the colonial period.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Detailed features vary from place to place. Paraguayan harps and harp music have gained a worldwide reputation, with international influences alongside folk traditions. Mexican "jarocha" harp music of Veracruz has also gained some international recognition, evident in the popularity of "la bamba". In southern Mexico (Chiapas), there is a very different indigenous style of harp music. Travel between the ports of Veracruz and Venezuela afforded an opportunity for transmission of harp traditions between these areas.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

In Venezuela, there are two distinct traditions, the ''arpa llanera'' and the ''arpa central'' (or ''arpa mirandina''). The modern Venezuelan arpa llanera has 32 strings of nylon (originally, gut). The arpa central is strung with wire in the higher register.
An authoritative source in Spanish is Fernando Guerrero Briceno, ''El Arpa en Venezuela'' (The Harp in Venezuela).{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The style of music and the manner of construction are differentiated from one region to another.{{Clarify|date=October 2009}}{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Paraguayan harps have a wide and deep soundbox which tapers to the top. Like Baroque harps, but unlike modern Western harps, they do not stand upright when unattended. The harp is Paraguay's national instrument. It has about 36 strings. Its spacing is narrower and tension lighter than that of modern Western harps. It is played mostly with the fingernails.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Africa==
[[File:MangbetuHarp.jpg|right|thumb|200px]]
[[image:Magpetu vona.jpg|right|thumb|200px|thumb|A Mangbetu man playing an Mangbetu Harp.]]

There are many different kinds of harp in Africa. They do not have forepillars and so are either bow harps or angle harps. As well as true harps such as [[Mauritania]]'s [[ardin]], there are a number of instruments that are difficult to classify, often being labelled [[harp-lute]]s. Another term for them is spike harps. The West African [[Kora (instrument)|kora]] is the best known. The strings run from a string arm to a 'spike' and the resonating chamber is attached to the base of the spike.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Asia==
[[File:Bishapur zan.jpg|right|thumb|200px]]

In Asia, there are very few harps today, though the instrument was popular in ancient times; in that continent, zithers such as [[China]]'s [[guzheng]] and ''[[guqin]]'' and [[Japan]]'s ''[[koto (musical instrument)|koto]]'' predominate. However, a few harps exist, the most notable being [[Burma]]'s ''[[Saung|saung-gauk]]'', which is considered the national instrument in that country. There was an ancient Chinese harp called ''konghou''; the name is used for a modern Chinese instrument which is being revived. [[Turkey]] had a nine-string harp called the ''[[çeng]]'' that has also fallen out of use.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Modern European and American instruments==
===Playing style of the European-derived instrument===
Most European-derived harps have a single row of strings with strings for each note of the C Major [[Scale (music)|scale]] (over several [[octave]]s).

Harpists are aided in telling which strings they are playing because all ''F strings are black or blue'' and all ''C strings are red'', and the wire strings are silver or bronze if C or F.

The instrument rests between the knees of the harpist and along their right shoulder. The Welsh [[Triple Harp|triple harp]] and early Irish and Scottish harps, however, are traditionally placed on the left shoulder (in order to have it over the heart).{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The first four fingers of each hand are used to pluck the strings; the little fingers are too short and cannot reach the correct position without distorting the position of the other fingers, although on some folk harps with light tension, closely spaced strings, they may occasionally be used. Plucking with varying degrees of force creates [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]]. Depending on finger position on the string, different tones can be produced: a full sound in the middle of the string, and a nasal, guitar-like sound at the very bottom of the string. Tone is also affected by the skin of the harpist, how much oil and moisture it contains, and the amount of thickening by callous formation and its surface texture.

===Concert harp===
{{Main|Pedal harp}}
The '''concert harp''' is large and technically modern, designed for classical music and played solo, as part of chamber ensembles, and in symphony orchestras as well as in popular commercial music. It typically has six and a half octaves (46 or 47 strings), weighs about {{convert|80|lb|kg st}}, is approximately {{convert|1.8|m}} high, has a depth of {{convert|1.2|m}}, and is {{convert|55|cm}} wide at the bass end of the soundboard. The notes range from three octaves below middle C (or the D above) to three and a half octaves above, usually ending on G. Using [[octave designations]], the range is C1 or D1 to G7. At least one manufacturer gives the harp a 48th string, a high A.

{{listen|filename=Glissando Imprecision for 2 Harps.ogg|title=Tudor Tulok - Glissando Imprecision for 2 Harps.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

[[File:Double Chromatic Harp 1890.jpg|thumb|left|Double chromatic harp, ca. 1890]]
The concert harp is a pedal harp. [[Pedal harp]]s use the mechanical action of pedals to change the [[pitch (music)|pitches]] of the strings. There are seven pedals, each affecting the tuning of all strings of one letter-name, and each pedal is attached to a rod or cable within the column of the harp, which then connects with a mechanism within the neck. When a pedal is moved with the foot, small discs at the top of the harp rotate. The discs are studded with two pegs that pinch the string as they turn, shortening the vibrating length of the string. The pedal has three positions. In the top position no pegs are in contact with the string and all notes are [[Flat (music)|flat]]; thus the harp's native tuning is to the scale of [[C flat major|C-flat major]].

[[File:Harp pedal.svg|thumb|right|The tip of a string is shown in blue. Points in contact with the string are shown in red. Points not in contact with the string are in green.]]
In the middle position the top wheel pinches the string, resulting in a [[Natural (music)|natural]], giving the scale of [[C major]] if all pedals are set in the middle position. In the bottom position another wheel is turned, shortening the string again to create a [[Sharp (music)|sharp]], giving the scale of [[C-sharp major]] if all pedals are set in the bottom position. Many other scales, both diatonic and synthetic, can be obtained by adjusting the pedals differently from each other; also, many chords in traditional harmony can be obtained by adjusting pedals so that some notes are [[enharmonic]] equivalents of others, and this is central to harp technique. In each position the pedal can be secured in a notch so that the foot does not have to keep holding it in the correct position.

This mechanism is called the double-action pedal system, invented by [[Sébastien Érard]] in 1810. Earlier pedal harps had a single-action mechanism that allowed strings to play sharpened notes. [[Lyon and Healy]], [[Camac Harps]], Venus Harps, and other manufacturers also make electric pedal harps. The '''[[electric harp]]''' is a concert harp with piezoelectric pickups at the base of each string and an amplifier. Electric harps can be a blend of electric and acoustic, with the option of using an amplifier or playing the harp just like a normal pedal harp, or can be entirely electric, lacking a soundbox and being mute without an amplifier.

The tension of the strings on the sound board is roughly equal to 10 [[kilonewton|kN]] (a ton-force) or 2,000 pounds. The lowest strings are made of copper or silver-over-silk over steel, the lower-middle strings of [[gut (from sheep or cows)]] and the upper-middle or highest of nylon.

====Technique====
The harp is played with the fingertips, with force from the hand and arm, and ultimately the upper body. The fingertips are drawn in to meet the palm of the hand, thus releasing the string from whatever pressure was placed upon it by the fingers. The fingers are naturally curved or rounded as they touch the strings, and the thumb is gently curved as the tip rises to the string as an arc from its base, this is called plucking. There are differing schools of technique for playing the harp. The largest are the various French schools, and there are specific Russian schools, Viennese and other schools from differing regions of Europe. One is called the Attl technique after Kajetan Attl, in which apparently only the uppermost parts of the fingers move and the hand is largely still. There is a St. Petersburg school (more than one) in Russia in which the thumbs are moved in a circular fashion rather than in and out toward the hand.

The differences between the French schools lie in the posture of the arms, the shape of the hand and the musical aesthetics. The traditional French schooling calls for the right arm to be lightly rested against the harp using the wrist to sometimes bring the hand only away from the string. The left arm moves more freely. The hands are more-or-less rounded, though the thumb is usually in a low position relative to the hand. Finger technique and control are the emphasis of the technical approach, with extensive use of exercises and etudes to develop this. Musical choices tend to be conservative, and centered in the harp music of the 19th century, a continuation, if you will, of the salon tradition of harp playing. Two very influential 20th-century teachers of this approach were Henriette Renie and Marcel Grandjany. Grandjany's pupils have sometimes added to their technique the habit of having the knuckle joints curved inward rather than outward, optionally or always, as M. Grandjany's fingers were wont to do.

The other major French school is the Salzedo school, developed by [[Carlos Salzedo]], who studied with [[Alphonse Hasselmans]] at the Paris Conservatoire. Also a virtuoso pianist, he informed his harp playing with what came naturally as a crossover from his piano training. This resulted in a more curved hand, more free movements of the arms, a more wide range of dynamics and tone colors in his playing, which was exceptionally brilliant. He emphasized brilliance and speed in playing. He was also a dedicated modernist, oriented to contemporary music and ideas, and in the forefront of the same. He was an inspiring teacher, and his students filled many important teaching, solo and orchestral positions in the United States and elsewhere. He has come to be seen as American because he was exported to America to serve Arturo Toscanini as harpist at the Metropolitan Opera, and based his later career in the U.S. He helped to design two important harps, the Style 11 and the Salzedo model of Lyon and Healy harps. As an innovative performer and composer, he was of great influence on the direction of harp music composing. His own music began in a fluent late-Romantic style, then a unique Impressionist style and a modernist style unlike any other composer. In fact, he was more imitated by composers than imitative.

====Use in music====
The harp found its early orchestral use in concerti by many baroque and classical composers (Handel, J. C. Bach, Mozart, Albrechtsberger, Schenck, Dussek, Spohr) and in the opera houses of London, Paris and Berlin and most other capitals. It began to be used in symphonic music by Hector Berlioz but he found performances frustrating in such countries as Germany where qualified harpists and harps were few to be found. Franz Liszt was seminal in finding uses for the harp in his orchestral music, and Mendelssohn and Schubert used it in theatrical music or oratorios. The French and Russian Romantic composer particularly expanded its symphonic use. In opera, the Italian composers used it regularly, and Puccini was a particular master of its expressive and coloristic use. Debussy can be said to have put the harp on the map in his many works that use one or more harps. Tchaikovsky also was of great influence, followed by Rimsky-Korsakov, Richard Strauss and Wagner. The greatest influence on use of the harp has always been the availability of fine harps and skilled players, and the great increase of them in the U.S. of the 20th century resulted in its spread into popular music.

The first harpist known to play jazz was Casper Reardon, a pioneer in the world of "hot" music.
Florence Wightman was likely the first to have her own radio series of recitals on several networks in the 1930s.

Many passages for solo harp can be found in 19th century ballet music, particularly in scores for the ballets staged for the [[Mariinsky Theatre]] of [[St. Petersburg]], where the harpist [[Albert Zabel]] played in the orchestra. In ballet, the harp was utilized to a great extent in order to embellish the dancing of the [[ballerina]]. Elaborate cadenzas were composed by [[Tchaikovsky]] for his ballets ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' and ''[[The Sleeping Beauty (ballet)|The Sleeping Beauty]]''; as well as [[Alexander Glazunov]] for his score for the ballet ''[[Raymonda]]''. In particular, the scores of [[Riccardo Drigo]] contained many pieces for harp in such works as ''[[The Talisman (ballet)|Le Talisman]]'' (1889), ''[[Le Réveil de Flore]]'' (1894) and ''[[Harlequinade (ballet)|Les Millions d'Arlequin]]'' (1900). [[Cesare Pugni]] wrote extensively for the harp as well—his ballet ''[[Éoline, ou La Dryade]]'' included music written for harp to accompany the ballerina's numerous variations and enhance the atmosphere of the ballet's many fantastical scenes. [[Ludwig Minkus]] was celebrated for his harp cadenzas, most notably the ''Variation de la Reine du jour'' from his ballet ''La Nuit et le Jour'' (1881), the elaborate ''[[entr'acte]]'' composed for Albert Zabel from his ballet ''Roxana'' (1878), and numerous passages found in his score for the ballet ''[[La Bayadère]]'', which in some passages were used to represent a [[veena]] which was used on stage as a prop.

The French ballet composers were no slouches in the harp department, either. Delibes made excellent use of it, as did Gounod and Massenet in their music.

There is a prominent harp part in "She's Leaving Home" by [[The Beatles]] in their 1967 album ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''. In the 1970s, a harp was common in popular music, and can be heard in such hits as [[Cher]]'s "[[Dark Lady (song)|Dark Lady]]" and the intro of "[[Gypsies, Tramps & Thieves]]". Most often this was played by Los Angeles studio harpist [[Gayle Levant]], who has played on hundreds of recordings. In current pop music, the harp appears relatively rarely. [[Joanna Newsom]], [[Dee Carstensen]], [[Darian Scatton]], [[Habiba Doorenbos]], and [[Jessa Callen]] of [[Callen Sisters|The Callen Sisters]] have separately established images as harp-playing singer-songwriters with signature harp and vocal sounds. [[Canada|Canadian]] [[singer-songwriter]] [[Sarah McLachlan]] plays the harp in her 2006 holiday album, [[Wintersong]]. In Hong Kong, a notable example of harp in pop music is the song '''[[Tin Shui Walled City]]''' (天水圍城) performed by [[Hacken Lee]] with harp played by Korean harpist [[Jung Kwak]] (Harpist K).

Harp use has recently expanded in the "alternative" music world of commercial popular music. A pedal harpist, [[Ricky Rasura]], is a member of the "symphonic pop" band, [[The Polyphonic Spree]]. Also, [[Björk]] sometimes features acoustic and electric harp in her work, often played by [[Zeena Parkins]]. Philadelphia based Indie Pop Band [[Br'er]] uses a pedal harp as the foundation for their cinematic live sets. [[Art in America (band)|Art in America]] was the first known rock band featuring a pedal harp to appear on a major record label, and released only one record, in 1983. The pedal harp was also present in the [[Michael Kamen]] and [[Metallica]] concert and album, [[S&M (album)|S&M]], as part of the [[San Francisco Symphony]] orchestra. R&B singer [[Maxwell (musician)|Maxwell]] featured harpist [[Gloria Agostini]] in 1997 on his cover of [[Kate Bush]]'s "This Woman's Work". On his 7th solo album [[Finding Forever]], [[Hip- Hop]] artist [[Common (artist)|Common]] features harpist [[Brandee Younger]] on the introductory track, followed by a [[Dorothy Ashby]] [[Sampling (music)|sample]] from her 1969 recording of [[By the Time I Get to Phoenix]]. Some Celtic-pop crossover bands and artists such as [[Clannad (musical group)|Clannad]] and [[Loreena McKennitt]] include folk harps, following [[Alan Stivell]]'s work. Recently [[Florence Welch]] has begun to incorporate harps into her songs, notably on "Rabbit Heart (Raise It Up)".The Webb Sisters from UK use different size harps in almost all their material during live performances.

See the [[List of compositions for harp]] for the names of some notable pieces from the classical repertoire.

====Harp Players====
The most prominent 20th-century concert harpists have been Carlos Salzedo, Nicanor Zabaleta, Mildred Dilling, Susann McDonald, Heidi Lehwalder, Henriette Renie, Marcel Grandjany, Lucile Lawrence, Alice Chalifoux, Florence Wightman, and Susanna Mildonian, to name some of the most well-known performers. Perhaps one of the most memorable harpists of the 20th century was the actor and movie star [[Harpo Marx]], whose stage name was taken from his proficiency with the instrument.

Other famous harpists include [[Giuliana Albisetti]], [[Clelia Gatti Aldrovandi]], [[Claudia Antonelli]], [http://www.roarkbarron.com Roark Barron], [[Lucia Bova]], [[Osian Ellis]], [[Alice Giles]], [[Felix Godefroid]], [[Maria Vittoria Grossi]], [[Alphonse Hasselmans]], [[Ursula Holliger]], [[Pierre Jamet]], [[Alfredo Kastner]], [[Johann Baptist Krumpholtz]], [[Judy Loman]], [[Ludovico]], [[Maria Antonietta d'Asburgo-Lorena regina di Francia]], [[François-Josef Naderman]], [[Jean-Henry Naderman]], [[Şirin Pancaroğlu]]. [[Elias Parish-Alvars]], [[John Parry]], [[Laura Peperara]], [[Marie Thérèse Petrini]], [[Franz Petrini]], [[Fabrice Pierre]], [[Francis Pierre]], [[Franz Poenitz]], [[Francesco Pollini]], [[Roslyn Rensch]], [[Marisa Robles]], [[Dorette Scheidler Spohr]], [[Anne-Marie Steckler]] (M.me Krumpholtz), [[Luigi Maurizio Tedeschi]], [[Marcel Tournier]], [[Mirella Vita]], [[Albert Heinrich Zabel]], [[Elena Zaniboni]].<ref>Bova 2008, pp. 607-617</ref>

[[File:Joanna Newsom at The Sage.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Harpist [[Joanna Newsom]] onstage in 2007]]

===Folk, lever, and Celtic instruments===

[[File:Celtic harps.JPG|right|thumb|200px|[[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem Village]] [[Reenactor|re-enactors]] playing Celtic harps]]


The '''folk harp''' or '''Celtic harp''' is small to medium-sized and usually designed for traditional music; it can be played solo or with small groups. It is prominent in Welsh, Breton, Irish, Scottish and other Celtic cultures within traditional or folk music and as a social and political symbol. Often the folk harp is played by beginners who wish to move on to the pedal harp at a later stage, or by musicians who simply prefer the smaller size or different sounds. [[Alan Stivell]], with his father [[Jord Cochevelou]] (who recreated the Breton Celtic harp), were at the origin of the revival of the Celtic harp (in the 70s).<ref name=ReferenceA/>

The folk or lever harp ranges in size from two octaves to six octaves, and uses levers or blades to change pitch. The most common size has 34 strings: Two octaves below middle C and two and a half above (ending on A), although folk or lever harps can usually be found with anywhere from 19 to 40 strings. The strings are generally made of nylon, gut, carbon fiber or fluorocarbon, or wrapped metal, and are plucked with the fingers using a similar technique to the pedal harp.

Folk harps with levers installed have a lever close to the top of each string; when it is engaged, it shortens the string so its pitch is raised a semitone, resulting in a sharped note if the string was a natural, or a natural note if the string was a flat. Lever harps are often tuned to the key C or E-flat. Using this scheme, the major keys of E-flat, B-flat, F, C, G, D, A, and E can be reached by changing lever positions, rather than re-tuning any strings. Many smaller folk harps are tuned in C or F, and may have no levers, or levers on the F and C strings only, allowing a narrower range of keys. Blades and hooks perform almost the same function as levers, but use a different mechanism. The most common type of lever is either the Camac or Truitt lever although Loveland levers are still used by some makers.

One of the attendant problems with lever harps is the potential loss of quality when the levers are used. The Teifi semi tone developed by Allan Shiers is a development from traditional mechanisms and nips up the string with two forks similarly to a concert harp. The semi tone is double locking for a full clear sound and does not wear the string. It is machined from solid brass and hardened steel and is adjustable by an eccentric roller to suit any gauge of string. In addition, the whole unit can be moved up or down to affect perfect pitch and string alignment. The lever arms are coloured for ease of note recognition and two sizes are made to suit treble, mid and bass.

[[Alan Stivell]] is a well-known crossover and Celtic harpist. He first recorded an [[Extended play|EP]] record, "Musique Gaélique," in 1959, then an [[LP album|LP]] in 1964 called "Telenn Geltiek " (available in CD). Following these, he has released 21 other albums including his harps, from 1970 until now (the last one is "Explore" - 2006- ). He also recorded some albums especially dedicated to the harp: the famous [[Renaissance of the Celtic Harp]] (1972), "Harpes du Nouvel Age" (1985), and "Beyond Words" (2002). He helped to promote developments in [[Electro-acoustic]] and [[Electric harps]].<ref name=ReferenceA>JT Koch (ed). Celtic Culture. A Historical Encyclopaedia ABC-CLIO 2006 pp 1627-1628</ref>

====Electric instruments====
{{Main|Electric harp}}

Amplified (electro-acoustic) and solid body [[electric harp|electric lever harps]] are produced by many harpmakers at this time, such as Lyon and Healy Harps out of Chicago, Salvi Harps out of Italy, and [[Camac Harps]] out of France.

The [[Laser harp]] is also not a stringed instrument; it is a harp-shaped electronic instrument with laser beams where harps have strings.

===Wire-strung instruments ("clàrsach" or "cláirseach")===
{{Main|Clàrsach}}
[[File:Monifeithpictishharper.jpg|150px|thumb|The harper on the Monifeith Pictish stone, Scotland, 700 - 900 AD]]
[[File:Irish harp-Maedoc.jpg|200px|thumb|Maedoc book-cover, Ireland, circa 1000 AD]]
[[File:Celtic harp dsc05425.jpg|thumb|170px|The Scottish medieval ''clàrsach'' 'Queen Mary harp' ''''''Clàrsach na Banrigh Màiri''', (c.1400) <ref>Caldwell, D.H. (ed). ''Angels Nobles and Unicorns: Art and Patronage in Medieval Scotland''. Edinburgh: NMS, 1982</ref> now in the [[Museum of Scotland]], is a one of only three surviving medieval Gaelic harps.]]
The [[Gaels|Gaelic]] triangular, wire-strung harp has always been known by the feminine term [[cruit]] but by 1204 was certainly known by the masculine term 'clàr' (board) and, by the 14th century, by the feminine form of 'clàr', i.e., 'clàirseach/clàrsach'. ([[Scottish Gaelic language|Gd.]])

Clàirseach/clàrsach is a compound word, feminine in gender and composed of the masculine word 'clàr' (board/harp) and the feminising suffix '-search/-sach'. The suggestion that it is composed of the elements 'clàr' (board) and 'shoileach' (willow) is a much less likely explanation as i) the 'clàr shoileach' term is masculine in gender, taking the masculine form of the definite article, and ii) the /s/ phoneme is absent (replaced by an /h/ phoneme) and therefore the /l/ phoneme would be more likely to form part of any contraction (e.g., clàirleach).

The origins of the Gaelic triangular harp go back at least to the first millennium. There are several stone carvings of triangular harps from the 10th century, many of which have simple triangular shapes, generally with straight pillars, straight string arms or necks, and soundboxes. There is stone carving evidence that the lyre and/or perhaps a non-triangular harp were present in Ireland {{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} during the first millennium. Evidence for the triangular harp in Gaelic/[[Picts|Pictish]] Scotland dates from the 9th century.<ref>"The Origins of the Clairsach or Irish Harp", ''Musical Times'', Vol. 53, No 828 (Feb 1912), pp 89-92.</ref>

The harp was the most popular musical instrument in later medieval Scotland and Ireland and Gaelic poets portrayed their Pictish counterparts as very much like themselves.<ref>Forsyth, "Evidence of a lost Pictish Source", pp. 27–28.</ref>

{{cquote|Scotland, because of her affinity and intercourse [with Ireland], tries to imitate Ireland in music and strives in emulation. Ireland uses and delights in two instruments only, the harp namely, and the tympanum. Scotland uses three, the harp, the tympanum and the crowd. In the opinion, however, of many, Scotland has by now not only caught up on Ireland, her instructor, but already far outdistances her and excels her in musical skill. Therefore, [Irish] people now look to that country as the fountain of the art.}}<div align=right>—[[Giraldus Cambrensis|Gerald of Wales]]<ref>Gerald of Wales, "Topographia Hibernica", 94; tr. John O’ Meary, ''The History and Topography of Ireland'', (London, 1982).</ref></div>

The harp played by the Gaels of Scotland and Ireland between the 11th and 19th centuries was certainly wire-strung. The [[Ireland|Irish]] [[Maedoc Book Shrine]] dates from the 11th century, and clearly shows a harper with a triangular framed harp including a "T-Section" in the pillar. The [[Irish language|Irish]] word ''lamhchrann'' came into use at an unknown date to indicate this pillar which would have supplied the bracing to withstand the tension of a wire-strung harp.

''The Irish and Highland Harps'' by Robert Bruce Armstrong is an excellent book describing these ancient harps. There is historical evidence that the types of wire used in these harps are [[iron]], [[brass]], [[silver]], and [[gold]]. Three pre-16th century examples survive today; the [[Trinity College Harp|Brian Boru Harp]] in [[Trinity College, Dublin]], and the [[Queen Mary Harp|Queen Mary]] and [[Lamont Harp]]s, both in [[Scotland]].

One of the largest and most complete collections of 17th century harp music is the work of [[Turlough O'Carolan]], a blind, itinerant Irish harper and composer. At least 220 of his compositions survive to this day.

Since the 1970s, the tradition has been revived. [[Alan Stivell]]'s [[Renaissance de la Harpe Celtique]] (perhaps the best-seller harp album in the world), using mainly the bronze strung harp, and his tours, have brought the instrument into the ears and the love of many people.<ref name=ReferenceA/> [[Ann Heymann]] has revived the ancient tradition and technique by playing the instrument as well as studying Bunting's original manuscripts in the library of Queens University, Belfast. Katie Targett-Adams ( KT-A) is currently leading the modern day crossover movement for the clarsach, performing to mainstream audiences across the globe, notably China. Other high profile players include Patrick Ball, Cynthia Cathcart, Alison Kinnaird, Bill Taylor, Siobhán Armstrong and others.

As performers have become interested in the instrument, harp makers ("[[luthiers]]") such as Jay Witcher, David Kortier, Ardival Harps, Joël Herrou and others have begun building wire-strung harps. The traditional wire materials are used, however iron has been replaced by [[steel]] and the modern phosphor bronze has been added to the list. The phosphor bronze and brass are most commonly used. Steel tends to be very abrasive to the nails. Silver and gold are used to get high density materials into the bass courses of high quality clàrsachs to greatly improve their tone quality. In the period, no sharping devices were used. Harpers had to re-tune strings to change keys. This practice is reflected by most of the modern luthiers, yet some allow provisions for either levers or blades.

===Multi-course===
A '''multi-course harp''' is a harp with more than one [[row]] of strings. A harp with only one row of strings is called a '''single-course harp.'''

[[File:Double harp.JPG|right|thumb|150px|Double harp]]
A '''double-strung harp''' consists of two rows of [[diatonic]] strings one on either side of the neck. These strings may run parallel to each other or may converge so the bottom ends of the strings are very close together. Either way, the strings that are next to each other are tuned to the same note. Double-strung harps often have levers either on every string or on the most commonly sharped strings, for example C and F. Having two sets of strings allows the harpist's left and right hands to occupy the same range of notes without having both hands attempt to play the same string at the same time. It also allows for special effects such as repeating a note very quickly without stopping the sound from the previous note.

A '''[[triple harp]]''' features three rows of parallel strings, two outer rows of [[Diatonic scale|diatonic]] strings, and a center row of [[Chromatic scale|chromatic]] strings. To play a sharp, the harpist reaches in between the strings in either outer row and plucks the center row string. Like the double-strung harp, the two outer rows of strings are tuned the same, but the triple-strung harp has no levers. This harp originated in [[Italy]] in the 16th century as a low headed instrument, and towards the end of 17th century it arrived in [[Wales]] where it developed a high head and larger size. It established itself as part of Welsh tradition and became known as the '''Welsh harp''' (''telyn deires'', "three-row harp"). The traditional design has all of the strings strung from the left side of the neck, but modern neck designs have the two outer rows of strings strung from opposite sides of the neck to greatly reduce the tendency for the neck to roll over to the left.

[[File:Cross harp.JPG|right|thumb|150px|Cross-strung harp]]
The '''[[cross-strung harp]]''' consists of one row of diatonically tuned strings and another row of chromatic notes. These strings cross approximately in the middle of the string without touching. Traditionally the diatonic row runs from the right (as seen by someone sitting at the harp) side of the neck to the left side of the sound board. The chromatic row runs from the left of the neck to the right of the sound board. The diatonic row has the normal string coloration for a harp, but the chromatic row may be black. The chromatic row is not a full set of strings. It is missing the strings between the Es and Fs in the diatonic row and between the Bs and Cs in the diatonic row. In this respect it is much like a piano. The diatonic row corresponds to the white keys and the chromatic row to the black keys. Playing each string in succession results in a complete chromatic scale.

An alternate form of the cross-strung, the [[6-plus-6-instruments|6-plus-6]] or isomorphic cross-strung, has 6 strings on each side of the cross instead of 5 on one and 7 on the other. This configuration is less intuitive to someone coming from a piano/organ background, but more intuitive to someone with a guitar/violin or other chromatic or whole-tone instrument background because it utilizes a [[chromatic scale]] or [[wholetone scale]]. This configuration gives the entire octave in only 6 strings per side, making more efficient use of the size of the instrument.

==As a symbol==
===Political===
[[File:1e ire.png|frame|right|The [[Irish euro coins|Irish €1 coin]]]]

{{See also|Coat of Arms of Ireland|Coat of arms of Montserrat|Royal Standard of the United Kingdom|Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom}}
The harp has been used as a political symbol of [[Ireland]] for centuries. Its origin is from the time of [[Brian Boru]], a famous 'High King' of the whole island of Ireland who played the harp. In Celtic society every [[clan]] would have a resident harp player who would write songs ("planxties") in honour of the leader. The harp was adopted as a symbol and representation of the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] from 1542. It was used to symbolize Ireland in the [[Royal Standard (United Kingdom)|Royal Standard]] of King [[James I of England|James VI/I]] of Scotland, England and Ireland in 1603 and continued to feature on all [[England|English]] and [[United Kingdom]] Royal Standards ever since, though the style of harp used differed on some Royal Standards. It was also used on the [[Commonwealth Jack]] of [[Oliver Cromwell]], issued in 1649 and on the [[Protectorate Jack]] issued in 1658 as well as on the Lord Protector's Standard issued on the succession of [[Richard Cromwell]] in 1658. The harp is also traditionally used on the [[Flag of Leinster|flag]] of [[Leinster]].

Since 1922, the government of [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] has used a similar left-facing harp, based on the [[Trinity College Harp]] in the [[Trinity College Library, Dublin|Library]] of [[Trinity College Dublin]] as its state symbol. It first appeared on the [[Great Seal of the Irish Free State]], which in turn was replaced by the [[coat of arms]], the [[Presidential Standard (Ireland)|Irish Presidential Standard]] and the [[Official Seal of the President of Ireland|Presidential Seal]] in the [[1937]] [[Constitution of Ireland]]. The harp appears on various other official state seals and documents as well as the Irish [[passport]]. The harp has also appeared on [[Irish coinage]] from the [[Middle Ages]] to the current Irish imprints of the [[Euro]] coins.

A [[South Asia]]n version of a harp known in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as a 'yaal', is the symbol of [[Jaffna|City of Jaffna]], [[Sri Lanka]], whose legendary root originates from a harp player.

===Corporate===
The harp is also used extensively as a [[corporate logo]] — both [[Private company|private]] and [[government]] organisations. For instance; Ireland's most famous drink, [[Guinness]], also uses a harp, facing right and also less detailed than the state arms. This was the second London-registered [[trademark]] in the 1860s, but was not used until the 1870s, when it was placed on bottles of stout exported to Britain, in the hope that British consumers would associate the drink with wholesome Irish agricultural produce. It was adopted on Guinness products in Ireland from the 1890s, for a different reason; to remind supporters of the growing nationalist movement that Guinness was Irish.<ref>Dennison & McDonagh ''Guinness 1886-1939'' (London 1992) passim.</ref> A simplified harp was adopted in the 1990s.

Relatively new organizations also use the harp, but often modified to reflect a [[motif (art)|theme]] relevant to their organization, for instance; Irish airline [[Ryanair]] uses a modified harp, and the Irish [[State Examinations Commission]] uses it with an [[educational]] theme.

The harp is also used as the logo for League of Ireland football team Finn Harps, who are Donegal's senior soccer club.

Other organizations in Ireland use the harp, but not always prominently; these include the [[National University of Ireland]] and the associated [[University College Dublin]], and the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]]. In [[Northern Ireland]] the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]] and [[Queen's University of Belfast]] use the harp as part of their identity.

==See also==
* [[Harp guitar]]
* [[Kora (instrument)|Kora]]
* [[Plucked string instruments]]
* Jaffna, a city in Northern [[Sri Lanka]] named after the Harp

===Related categories===
* [[:Category:Harpists|Harpists]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Additional sources==
* [[Lucia Bova]], ''[http://www.luciabova.it/arpa_moderna.htm L'arpa moderna]. La scrittura e la notazione, lo strumento e il repertorio dal '500 alla contemporaneità'', preface by Luis de Pablo, Suvini Zerboni, Milano, 2008. ISBN 978-88-900691-4-7
* "The Anglo Saxon Harp", ''Spectrum'', Vol. 71, No.2 (Apr., 1996), pp 290–320.
* "The Origins of the Clairsach or Irish Harp", ''Musical Times'', Vol. 53, No 828 (Feb 1912), pp 89–92.
* Alasdair Ross discusses that all the Scottish harp figures were copied from foreign drawings and not from life, in "'Harps of Their Owne Sorte'? A Reassessment of Pictish Chordophone Depictions", ''Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies 36'', Winter 1998.
* ''Snyder's Medieval Art'', 2nd ed, p. 32. Luttikhuizen and Verkerk.
* Courteau, Mona-Lynn. "Harp". In J. Shepherd, D. Horn, D. Laing, P. Oliver and P. Wicke (Eds.), ''The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World'', Vol. 2, 2003, pp. 427–437.
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Montagu |first=Jeremy |editor=Alison Latham |encyclopedia=[[The Oxford Companion to Music]] |title=Harp |year=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=London |isbn=0198662122 |oclc=59376677 |pages=564}}
* Rensch, Roslyn (2007/1989). ''Harps and Harpists'', revised (2nd) edition. Indiana University. ISBN 0-253-34903-6.

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Harp}}
{{Commons category|Harps}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Harp}}
* [http://www.harpspectrum.org/ Harp Spectrum] - general information about the harp
* [http://www.harpmusicfest.com] - classical harp festival
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u8Ww-Iwa6iY Video] - short video showing the parts of the lever harp
* [http://www.yourharpist.com/harpworks.html Your harpist] - Information on harps full with diagram and parts labeled.
* [http://www.harpfestival.nl The first International Harp Competition & Festival, the Netherlands] will take place in Utrecht 23-27 of March 2010.
* [http://musical-instruments.toptenreviews.com/harp-stores/index.html Comparative information on harps]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_Bennett_(Harpist)|Stephanie Bennett]

===Celtic harp===
* [http://www.earlygaelicharp.info/ earlygaelicharp.info] - information about early Irish and Scottish harps
* [http://www.calumcille.com/ Gaelic Modes] Information about Gaelic harp harmony and modes
* [http://www.asni.net/harplore.html Asni: harp lore] - descriptions of several types of historical European harps (with sound samples)
* [http://www.celticharper.com/main.html The Celtic Harp Page] - information on Celtic and other types of harps
* [http://www.myharpsdelight.com/ My Harp's Delight] - learning to play the Celtic harp, tips and techniques, buying a harp
* [http://adventuresinmusic.biz/Archives/Interviews/celticharp.htm "Tears, Laughter, Magic" - An Interview with Master Celtic Harp Builder Timothy Habinski on AdventuresInMusic.biz, 2007]
* [http://www.alisonvardy.com/harp-info/harp-amplification-series.htm Celtic Harp Amplification Series] - using microphones and guitar amplifiers with folk harps
* [http://www.markwoodstrings.com Markwood Strings]-information on installing harp strings, harp string installation guide

[[Category:Composite chordophones]]
[[Category:Harps]]
[[Category:Irish musical instruments]]
[[Category:National symbols of Ireland]]
[[Category:Celtic musical instruments]]

[[als:Harfe]]
[[ar:قيثار]]
[[an:Harpa]]
[[be-x-old:Арфа]]
[[bs:Harfa]]
[[br:Telenn]]
[[bg:Арфа]]
[[ca:Arpa]]
[[cs:Harfa]]
[[cy:Telyn]]
[[da:Harpe]]
[[de:Harfe]]
[[et:Harf]]
[[el:Άρπα]]
[[es:Arpa]]
[[eo:Harpo]]
[[eu:Harpa]]
[[fa:چنگ (ساز)]]
[[fr:Harpe]]
[[fy:Harp]]
[[ga:Cláirseach]]
[[gd:Clàrsach]]
[[gl:Arpa]]
[[xal:Ятх]]
[[ko:하프]]
[[hr:Harfa]]
[[io:Harpo]]
[[id:Harpa]]
[[it:Arpa]]
[[he:נבל]]
[[ka:არფა (მუსიკალური საკრავი)]]
[[lb:Harf]]
[[lt:Arfa]]
[[hu:Hárfa]]
[[nl:Harp (tokkelinstrument)]]
[[ja:ハープ]]
[[no:Harpe]]
[[nn:Harpe]]
[[oc:Arpa classica]]
[[pl:Harfa]]
[[pt:Harpa]]
[[ro:Harpă]]
[[ru:Арфа]]
[[simple:Harp]]
[[sk:Harfa]]
[[sl:Harfa]]
[[sr:Харфа]]
[[sh:Harfa]]
[[fi:Harppu]]
[[sv:Harpa]]
[[tl:Kudyapi]]
[[ta:யாழ்]]
[[th:ฮาร์ป]]
[[tr:Arp]]
[[uk:Арфа]]
[[wa:Harpe]]
[[zh:豎琴]]

Harp

2011-01-05T00:13:39Z

Rigaudon: Rv test

{{Other uses}}
{{Infobox Instrument
|name=Harp
|image=Harp.png
|image_capt=A medieval harp (left) and a single-action pedal harp
|background=string
|hornbostel_sachs=322-5
|hornbostel_sachs_desc=Composite [[chordophone]] sounded by the [[pizzicato|bare fingers]]
|developed=Antiquity
|range= [[File:Range of harp.JPG|150px|center]]<div align=center>(modern pedal harp)<ref>Dave Black and Tom Gerou, "Essential Dictionary of Orchestration." Alfred Publishing Co. ISBN 0-7390-0021-7</ref></div>
|midi=046/047 (Orchestral Harp)
|related=
* [[Chang (instrument)|Chang]]
* [[Çeng]]
* [[Konghou]]
* [[Lyre]]
}}

The '''harp''' is a multi-[[stringed instrument]] which has the plane of its strings positioned [[perpendicular]] to the [[Sounding board|soundboard]]. It is classified as a chordophone by the Harvard Dictionary of Music and only types of harps are in that class of instruments with plucked strings. All harps have a neck, [[resonator]], and [[strings (music)|strings]]. Some, known as ''frame harps'', also have a forepillar; those lacking the forepillar are referred to as ''open harps''. Depending on its size (which varies considerably), a harp may be played while held in the lap or while it stands on the floor. Harp strings are made of [[nylon]], [[Catgut|gut]], [[wire]], or [[silk]] on certain instruments. A person who plays the harp is called a '''harpist''' or '''harper'''. Folk musicians often use the term "harper", whereas classical musicians use "harpist".{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Various types of harps are found in [[Africa]], [[Europe]], [[North America|North]], and [[South America]], and in [[Asia]]. In antiquity, harps and the closely related [[lyre|lyres]] were very prominent in nearly all cultures. The oldest harps found thus far have been uncovered in ruins from ancient Sumer. The harp also predominant in the hands of medieval bards, troubadors and minnesingers, as well as throughout the Spanish Empire. Harps continued to grow in popularity through improvements in their design and construction through the beginning of the 20th century.

The [[aeolian harp]] (wind harp), the [[autoharp]], and all forms of the lyre and [[Kithara]] are not harps because their strings are not perpendicular to the soundboard; they are part of the [[zither]] family of instruments along with the [[piano]] and [[harpsichord]]. In blues music, the [[harmonica]] is casually referred to as a "Blues harp" or "harp", but it is a [[free reed]] wind instrument, not a stringed instrument, and is therefore not an actual harp.

==Origins==
[[File:Egyptian harp.jpg|right|thumb|200px|An [[History of ancient Egypt|ancient Egyptian]] harp on display in the [[British Museum]].]]

Harps were most likely independently invented in many parts of the world in remote [[prehistory]].{{Clarify|date=August 2009}} The harp's origins might lie in the sound of a plucked hunter's [[bow (weapon)|bow]]-string or the strings of a loom.

A type of harp called a 'bow harp' is nothing more than a bow like a hunter's, with a resonating vessel such as a [[gourd]] fixed somewhere along its length. To allow a greater number of strings, harps were later made from two pieces of wood attached at the ends: this type is known as the 'angle harp'.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}They can also come in different colours.

The oldest depictions of harps without a forepillar are from 4000 BC in [[Egypt]]{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}}(see [[Music of Egypt]]) the sumerian harp of Ur 3500 BC,and 3000 BC in [[Persia]] (see [[Music of Iran]]).{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}} Other ancient names for harps include [[magadis]] and [[sambuca (musical instrument)|sambuca]]. The ''[[Kanun (instrument)|kanun]]'' is a descendant of the ancient Egyptian harp and was introduced to Europe by the [[Moors]] during the [[Middle Ages]] but is like the beforementioned Aeolian harp not a harp but a member of the zither family.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

==Structure and mechanism==
Harps are roughly triangular and are usually made primarily of wood. The lower ends of the strings are fastened to the inside of the sounding-board, which is the outer surface of the resonating cavity. The body is hollow and resonates, projecting sound both toward the player through openings, and outward through the highly flexible sounding board. The crossbar, or neck, contains the mechanism or levers which determine the pitch alteration (sharps and flats) for each string. The upper ends of the strings are attached to pins in holes drilled through the neck. The longest side, the column, encloses the rods controlling the mechanism of a pedal harp. At the base are seven pedals, which activate the rods when they are downwardly pressed. The modern sophisticated instrument spanning 6½ octaves in virtually all keys was perfected by the 19th-century French maker [[Sébastien Érard]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Lever harps do not have pedals or rods. Instead they use a shortening lever on the neck for each individual string which must be activated manually in order to shorten the string and raise the tone a half step. Thus, a string tuned to natural may be played in sharp, but not flat. A string tuned to flat may be played in natural, but not sharp. Lever harps are considerably lighter in weight than pedal harps and are smaller in size and number of strings. Lever harps are popular for playing folk music and are most commonly called folk harps.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The [[harp lute]] or [[dital harp]] adapts the lever tuning system to a fretted instrument in the lute or guitar family.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Development and history in Europe==
[[File:Wartburg-Harfe.JPG|right|thumb|200px|A medieval European harp (the Wartburg harp) with buzzing bray pins.]]
Angle harps and bow harps continue to be used up to the present day. In Europe, however, a further development took place{{When|date=October 2009}}: adding a third structural member, the pillar, to support the far ends of the arch and sound box. The 'Triangular Frame harp' is depicted in manuscripts and sculpture from about the 8th century AD, especially in North-West Europe, although specific nationalistic claims to the invention of the triangular frame harp cannot be substantiated.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} The graceful curve of the harp's neck is a result of the proportional shortening of the basic triangular form so that the strings are equidistant. If the strings were proportionately distanced, the strings would be farther and farther apart.

European harps in [[medieval]] and [[Renaissance]] times usually had a bray pin fitted to make a buzzing sound when a string was plucked. By the [[baroque]] period, in Italy and Spain, more strings were added to allow for chromatic notes; these were usually in a second line of strings. At the same time{{When|date=October 2009}} single-row diatonic harps continued to be played.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The first primitive form of pedal harps were developed in the Tyrol region of Austria. Hochbrucker was the next to design an improved pedal mechanism, followed in succession by Krumpholtz, Nadermann, and the Erard company, who came up with the double mechanism. In Germany in the second half of the 17th century, diatonic single-row harps were fitted with manually turned hooks which fretted individual strings to raise their pitch by a half step. In the 18th century, a link mechanism was developed connecting these hooks with pedals, leading to the invention of the single-action pedal harp. Later, a second row of hooks was installed along the neck to allow for the double-action pedal harp, capable of raising the pitch of a string by either one or two half steps. The idea was even extended to triple-action harps, but these were never common. The double-action pedal harp remains the normal form of the instrument in the Western classical orchestra. There was a chromatic harp developed in the late 19th century that only found a small number of proponents, and was mainly taught in Belgium. {{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Latin America==
In [[Latin America]], harps are widely but sparsely distributed, except in certain regions where the harp traditions are very strong. Such important centers include [[Mexico]], [[Andes]], [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], and [[Paraguay]]. They are derived from the [[Baroque]] harps that were brought from [[Spain]] during the colonial period.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Detailed features vary from place to place. Paraguayan harps and harp music have gained a worldwide reputation, with international influences alongside folk traditions. Mexican "jarocha" harp music of Veracruz has also gained some international recognition, evident in the popularity of "la bamba". In southern Mexico (Chiapas), there is a very different indigenous style of harp music. Travel between the ports of Veracruz and Venezuela afforded an opportunity for transmission of harp traditions between these areas.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

In Venezuela, there are two distinct traditions, the ''arpa llanera'' and the ''arpa central'' (or ''arpa mirandina''). The modern Venezuelan arpa llanera has 32 strings of nylon (originally, gut). The arpa central is strung with wire in the higher register.
An authoritative source in Spanish is Fernando Guerrero Briceno, ''El Arpa en Venezuela'' (The Harp in Venezuela).{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The style of music and the manner of construction are differentiated from one region to another.{{Clarify|date=October 2009}}{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

Paraguayan harps have a wide and deep soundbox which tapers to the top. Like Baroque harps, but unlike modern Western harps, they do not stand upright when unattended. The harp is Paraguay's national instrument. It has about 36 strings. Its spacing is narrower and tension lighter than that of modern Western harps. It is played mostly with the fingernails.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}


==Africa==
[[File:MangbetuHarp.jpg|right|thumb|200px]]
[[image:Magpetu vona.jpg|right|thumb|200px|thumb|A Mangbetu man playing an Mangbetu Harp.]]

There are many different kinds of harp in Africa. They do not have forepillars and so are either bow harps or angle harps. As well as true harps such as [[Mauritania]]'s [[ardin]], there are a number of instruments that are difficult to classify, often being labelled [[harp-lute]]s. Another term for them is spike harps. The West African [[Kora (instrument)|kora]] is the best known. The strings run from a string arm to a 'spike' and the resonating chamber is attached to the base of the spike.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Asia==
[[File:Bishapur zan.jpg|right|thumb|200px]]

In Asia, there are very few harps today, though the instrument was popular in ancient times; in that continent, zithers such as [[China]]'s [[guzheng]] and ''[[guqin]]'' and [[Japan]]'s ''[[koto (musical instrument)|koto]]'' predominate. However, a few harps exist, the most notable being [[Burma]]'s ''[[Saung|saung-gauk]]'', which is considered the national instrument in that country. There was an ancient Chinese harp called ''konghou''; the name is used for a modern Chinese instrument which is being revived. [[Turkey]] had a nine-string harp called the ''[[çeng]]'' that has also fallen out of use.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

==Modern European and American instruments==
===Playing style of the European-derived instrument===
Most European-derived harps have a single row of strings with strings for each note of the C Major [[Scale (music)|scale]] (over several [[octave]]s).

Harpists are aided in telling which strings they are playing because all ''F strings are black or blue'' and all ''C strings are red'', and the wire strings are silver or bronze if C or F.

The instrument rests between the knees of the harpist and along their right shoulder. The Welsh [[Triple Harp|triple harp]] and early Irish and Scottish harps, however, are traditionally placed on the left shoulder (in order to have it over the heart).{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

The first four fingers of each hand are used to pluck the strings; the little fingers are too short and cannot reach the correct position without distorting the position of the other fingers, although on some folk harps with light tension, closely spaced strings, they may occasionally be used. Plucking with varying degrees of force creates [[dynamics (music)|dynamics]]. Depending on finger position on the string, different tones can be produced: a full sound in the middle of the string, and a nasal, guitar-like sound at the very bottom of the string. Tone is also affected by the skin of the harpist, how much oil and moisture it contains, and the amount of thickening by callous formation and its surface texture.

===Concert harp===
{{Main|Pedal harp}}
The '''concert harp''' is large and technically modern, designed for classical music and played solo, as part of chamber ensembles, and in symphony orchestras as well as in popular commercial music. It typically has six and a half octaves (46 or 47 strings), weighs about {{convert|80|lb|kg st}}, is approximately {{convert|1.8|m}} high, has a depth of {{convert|1.2|m}}, and is {{convert|55|cm}} wide at the bass end of the soundboard. The notes range from three octaves below middle C (or the D above) to three and a half octaves above, usually ending on G. Using [[octave designations]], the range is C1 or D1 to G7. At least one manufacturer gives the harp a 48th string, a high A.

{{listen|filename=Glissando Imprecision for 2 Harps.ogg|title=Tudor Tulok - Glissando Imprecision for 2 Harps.|format=[[Ogg]]}}

[[File:Double Chromatic Harp 1890.jpg|thumb|left|Double chromatic harp, ca. 1890]]
The concert harp is a pedal harp. [[Pedal harp]]s use the mechanical action of pedals to change the [[pitch (music)|pitches]] of the strings. There are seven pedals, each affecting the tuning of all strings of one letter-name, and each pedal is attached to a rod or cable within the column of the harp, which then connects with a mechanism within the neck. When a pedal is moved with the foot, small discs at the top of the harp rotate. The discs are studded with two pegs that pinch the string as they turn, shortening the vibrating length of the string. The pedal has three positions. In the top position no pegs are in contact with the string and all notes are [[Flat (music)|flat]]; thus the harp's native tuning is to the scale of [[C flat major|C-flat major]].

[[File:Harp pedal.svg|thumb|right|The tip of a string is shown in blue. Points in contact with the string are shown in red. Points not in contact with the string are in green.]]
In the middle position the top wheel pinches the string, resulting in a [[Natural (music)|natural]], giving the scale of [[C major]] if all pedals are set in the middle position. In the bottom position another wheel is turned, shortening the string again to create a [[Sharp (music)|sharp]], giving the scale of [[C-sharp major]] if all pedals are set in the bottom position. Many other scales, both diatonic and synthetic, can be obtained by adjusting the pedals differently from each other; also, many chords in traditional harmony can be obtained by adjusting pedals so that some notes are [[enharmonic]] equivalents of others, and this is central to harp technique. In each position the pedal can be secured in a notch so that the foot does not have to keep holding it in the correct position.

This mechanism is called the double-action pedal system, invented by [[Sébastien Érard]] in 1810. Earlier pedal harps had a single-action mechanism that allowed strings to play sharpened notes. [[Lyon and Healy]], [[Camac Harps]], Venus Harps, and other manufacturers also make electric pedal harps. The '''[[electric harp]]''' is a concert harp with piezoelectric pickups at the base of each string and an amplifier. Electric harps can be a blend of electric and acoustic, with the option of using an amplifier or playing the harp just like a normal pedal harp, or can be entirely electric, lacking a soundbox and being mute without an amplifier.

The tension of the strings on the sound board is roughly equal to 10 [[kilonewton|kN]] (a ton-force) or 2,000 pounds. The lowest strings are made of copper or silver-over-silk over steel, the lower-middle strings of [[gut (from sheep or cows)]] and the upper-middle or highest of nylon.

====Technique====
The harp is played with the fingertips, with force from the hand and arm, and ultimately the upper body. The fingertips are drawn in to meet the palm of the hand, thus releasing the string from whatever pressure was placed upon it by the fingers. The fingers are naturally curved or rounded as they touch the strings, and the thumb is gently curved as the tip rises to the string as an arc from its base, this is called plucking. There are differing schools of technique for playing the harp. The largest are the various French schools, and there are specific Russian schools, Viennese and other schools from differing regions of Europe. One is called the Attl technique after Kajetan Attl, in which apparently only the uppermost parts of the fingers move and the hand is largely still. There is a St. Petersburg school (more than one) in Russia in which the thumbs are moved in a circular fashion rather than in and out toward the hand.

The differences between the French schools lie in the posture of the arms, the shape of the hand and the musical aesthetics. The traditional French schooling calls for the right arm to be lightly rested against the harp using the wrist to sometimes bring the hand only away from the string. The left arm moves more freely. The hands are more-or-less rounded, though the thumb is usually in a low position relative to the hand. Finger technique and control are the emphasis of the technical approach, with extensive use of exercises and etudes to develop this. Musical choices tend to be conservative, and centered in the harp music of the 19th century, a continuation, if you will, of the salon tradition of harp playing. Two very influential 20th-century teachers of this approach were Henriette Renie and Marcel Grandjany. Grandjany's pupils have sometimes added to their technique the habit of having the knuckle joints curved inward rather than outward, optionally or always, as M. Grandjany's fingers were wont to do.

The other major French school is the Salzedo school, developed by [[Carlos Salzedo]], who studied with [[Alphonse Hasselmans]] at the Paris Conservatoire. Also a virtuoso pianist, he informed his harp playing with what came naturally as a crossover from his piano training. This resulted in a more curved hand, more free movements of the arms, a more wide range of dynamics and tone colors in his playing, which was exceptionally brilliant. He emphasized brilliance and speed in playing. He was also a dedicated modernist, oriented to contemporary music and ideas, and in the forefront of the same. He was an inspiring teacher, and his students filled many important teaching, solo and orchestral positions in the United States and elsewhere. He has come to be seen as American because he was exported to America to serve Arturo Toscanini as harpist at the Metropolitan Opera, and based his later career in the U.S. He helped to design two important harps, the Style 11 and the Salzedo model of Lyon and Healy harps. As an innovative performer and composer, he was of great influence on the direction of harp music composing. His own music began in a fluent late-Romantic style, then a unique Impressionist style and a modernist style unlike any other composer. In fact, he was more imitated by composers than imitative.

====Use in music====
The harp found its early orchestral use in concerti by many baroque and classical composers (Handel, J. C. Bach, Mozart, Albrechtsberger, Schenck, Dussek, Spohr) and in the opera houses of London, Paris and Berlin and most other capitals. It began to be used in symphonic music by Hector Berlioz but he found performances frustrating in such countries as Germany where qualified harpists and harps were few to be found. Franz Liszt was seminal in finding uses for the harp in his orchestral music, and Mendelssohn and Schubert used it in theatrical music or oratorios. The French and Russian Romantic composer particularly expanded its symphonic use. In opera, the Italian composers used it regularly, and Puccini was a particular master of its expressive and coloristic use. Debussy can be said to have put the harp on the map in his many works that use one or more harps. Tchaikovsky also was of great influence, followed by Rimsky-Korsakov, Richard Strauss and Wagner. The greatest influence on use of the harp has always been the availability of fine harps and skilled players, and the great increase of them in the U.S. of the 20th century resulted in its spread into popular music.

The first harpist known to play jazz was Casper Reardon, a pioneer in the world of "hot" music.
Florence Wightman was likely the first to have her own radio series of recitals on several networks in the 1930s.

Many passages for solo harp can be found in 19th century ballet music, particularly in scores for the ballets staged for the [[Mariinsky Theatre]] of [[St. Petersburg]], where the harpist [[Albert Zabel]] played in the orchestra. In ballet, the harp was utilized to a great extent in order to embellish the dancing of the [[ballerina]]. Elaborate cadenzas were composed by [[Tchaikovsky]] for his ballets ''[[The Nutcracker]]'' and ''[[The Sleeping Beauty (ballet)|The Sleeping Beauty]]''; as well as [[Alexander Glazunov]] for his score for the ballet ''[[Raymonda]]''. In particular, the scores of [[Riccardo Drigo]] contained many pieces for harp in such works as ''[[The Talisman (ballet)|Le Talisman]]'' (1889), ''[[Le Réveil de Flore]]'' (1894) and ''[[Harlequinade (ballet)|Les Millions d'Arlequin]]'' (1900). [[Cesare Pugni]] wrote extensively for the harp as well—his ballet ''[[Éoline, ou La Dryade]]'' included music written for harp to accompany the ballerina's numerous variations and enhance the atmosphere of the ballet's many fantastical scenes. [[Ludwig Minkus]] was celebrated for his harp cadenzas, most notably the ''Variation de la Reine du jour'' from his ballet ''La Nuit et le Jour'' (1881), the elaborate ''[[entr'acte]]'' composed for Albert Zabel from his ballet ''Roxana'' (1878), and numerous passages found in his score for the ballet ''[[La Bayadère]]'', which in some passages were used to represent a [[veena]] which was used on stage as a prop.

The French ballet composers were no slouches in the harp department, either. Delibes made excellent use of it, as did Gounod and Massenet in their music.

There is a prominent harp part in "She's Leaving Home" by [[The Beatles]] in their 1967 album ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]''. In the 1970s, a harp was common in popular music, and can be heard in such hits as [[Cher]]'s "[[Dark Lady (song)|Dark Lady]]" and the intro of "[[Gypsies, Tramps & Thieves]]". Most often this was played by Los Angeles studio harpist [[Gayle Levant]], who has played on hundreds of recordings. In current pop music, the harp appears relatively rarely. [[Joanna Newsom]], [[Dee Carstensen]], [[Darian Scatton]], [[Habiba Doorenbos]], and [[Jessa Callen]] of [[Callen Sisters|The Callen Sisters]] have separately established images as harp-playing singer-songwriters with signature harp and vocal sounds. [[Canada|Canadian]] [[singer-songwriter]] [[Sarah McLachlan]] plays the harp in her 2006 holiday album, [[Wintersong]]. In Hong Kong, a notable example of harp in pop music is the song '''[[Tin Shui Walled City]]''' (天水圍城) performed by [[Hacken Lee]] with harp played by Korean harpist [[Jung Kwak]] (Harpist K).

Harp use has recently expanded in the "alternative" music world of commercial popular music. A pedal harpist, [[Ricky Rasura]], is a member of the "symphonic pop" band, [[The Polyphonic Spree]]. Also, [[Björk]] sometimes features acoustic and electric harp in her work, often played by [[Zeena Parkins]]. Philadelphia based Indie Pop Band [[Br'er]] uses a pedal harp as the foundation for their cinematic live sets. [[Art in America (band)|Art in America]] was the first known rock band featuring a pedal harp to appear on a major record label, and released only one record, in 1983. The pedal harp was also present in the [[Michael Kamen]] and [[Metallica]] concert and album, [[S&M (album)|S&M]], as part of the [[San Francisco Symphony]] orchestra. R&B singer [[Maxwell (musician)|Maxwell]] featured harpist [[Gloria Agostini]] in 1997 on his cover of [[Kate Bush]]'s "This Woman's Work". On his 7th solo album [[Finding Forever]], [[Hip- Hop]] artist [[Common (artist)|Common]] features harpist [[Brandee Younger]] on the introductory track, followed by a [[Dorothy Ashby]] [[Sampling (music)|sample]] from her 1969 recording of [[By the Time I Get to Phoenix]]. Some Celtic-pop crossover bands and artists such as [[Clannad (musical group)|Clannad]] and [[Loreena McKennitt]] include folk harps, following [[Alan Stivell]]'s work. Recently [[Florence Welch]] has begun to incorporate harps into her songs, notably on "Rabbit Heart (Raise It Up)".The Webb Sisters from UK use different size harps in almost all their material during live performances.

See the [[List of compositions for harp]] for the names of some notable pieces from the classical repertoire.

====Harp Players====
The most prominent 20th-century concert harpists have been Carlos Salzedo, Nicanor Zabaleta, Mildred Dilling, Susann McDonald, Heidi Lehwalder, Henriette Renie, Marcel Grandjany, Lucile Lawrence, Alice Chalifoux, Florence Wightman, and Susanna Mildonian, to name some of the most well-known performers. Perhaps one of the most memorable harpists of the 20th century was the actor and movie star [[Harpo Marx]], whose stage name was taken from his proficiency with the instrument.

Other famous harpists include [[Giuliana Albisetti]], [[Clelia Gatti Aldrovandi]], [[Claudia Antonelli]], [http://www.roarkbarron.com Roark Barron], [[Lucia Bova]], [[Osian Ellis]], [[Alice Giles]], [[Felix Godefroid]], [[Maria Vittoria Grossi]], [[Alphonse Hasselmans]], [[Ursula Holliger]], [[Pierre Jamet]], [[Alfredo Kastner]], [[Johann Baptist Krumpholtz]], [[Judy Loman]], [[Ludovico]], [[Maria Antonietta d'Asburgo-Lorena regina di Francia]], [[François-Josef Naderman]], [[Jean-Henry Naderman]], [[Şirin Pancaroğlu]]. [[Elias Parish-Alvars]], [[John Parry]], [[Laura Peperara]], [[Marie Thérèse Petrini]], [[Franz Petrini]], [[Fabrice Pierre]], [[Francis Pierre]], [[Franz Poenitz]], [[Francesco Pollini]], [[Roslyn Rensch]], [[Marisa Robles]], [[Dorette Scheidler Spohr]], [[Anne-Marie Steckler]] (M.me Krumpholtz), [[Luigi Maurizio Tedeschi]], [[Marcel Tournier]], [[Mirella Vita]], [[Albert Heinrich Zabel]], [[Elena Zaniboni]].<ref>Bova 2008, pp. 607-617</ref>

[[File:Joanna Newsom at The Sage.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Harpist [[Joanna Newsom]] onstage in 2007]]

===Folk, lever, and Celtic instruments===

[[File:Celtic harps.JPG|right|thumb|200px|[[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem Village]] [[Reenactor|re-enactors]] playing Celtic harps]]


The '''folk harp''' or '''Celtic harp''' is small to medium-sized and usually designed for traditional music; it can be played solo or with small groups. It is prominent in Welsh, Breton, Irish, Scottish and other Celtic cultures within traditional or folk music and as a social and political symbol. Often the folk harp is played by beginners who wish to move on to the pedal harp at a later stage, or by musicians who simply prefer the smaller size or different sounds. [[Alan Stivell]], with his father [[Jord Cochevelou]] (who recreated the Breton Celtic harp), were at the origin of the revival of the Celtic harp (in the 70s).<ref name=ReferenceA/>

The folk or lever harp ranges in size from two octaves to six octaves, and uses levers or blades to change pitch. The most common size has 34 strings: Two octaves below middle C and two and a half above (ending on A), although folk or lever harps can usually be found with anywhere from 19 to 40 strings. The strings are generally made of nylon, gut, carbon fiber or fluorocarbon, or wrapped metal, and are plucked with the fingers using a similar technique to the pedal harp.

Folk harps with levers installed have a lever close to the top of each string; when it is engaged, it shortens the string so its pitch is raised a semitone, resulting in a sharped note if the string was a natural, or a natural note if the string was a flat. Lever harps are often tuned to the key C or E-flat. Using this scheme, the major keys of E-flat, B-flat, F, C, G, D, A, and E can be reached by changing lever positions, rather than re-tuning any strings. Many smaller folk harps are tuned in C or F, and may have no levers, or levers on the F and C strings only, allowing a narrower range of keys. Blades and hooks perform almost the same function as levers, but use a different mechanism. The most common type of lever is either the Camac or Truitt lever although Loveland levers are still used by some makers.

One of the attendant problems with lever harps is the potential loss of quality when the levers are used. The Teifi semi tone developed by Allan Shiers is a development from traditional mechanisms and nips up the string with two forks similarly to a concert harp. The semi tone is double locking for a full clear sound and does not wear the string. It is machined from solid brass and hardened steel and is adjustable by an eccentric roller to suit any gauge of string. In addition, the whole unit can be moved up or down to affect perfect pitch and string alignment. The lever arms are coloured for ease of note recognition and two sizes are made to suit treble, mid and bass.

[[Alan Stivell]] is a well-known crossover and Celtic harpist. He first recorded an [[Extended play|EP]] record, "Musique Gaélique," in 1959, then an [[LP album|LP]] in 1964 called "Telenn Geltiek " (available in CD). Following these, he has released 21 other albums including his harps, from 1970 until now (the last one is "Explore" - 2006- ). He also recorded some albums especially dedicated to the harp: the famous [[Renaissance of the Celtic Harp]] (1972), "Harpes du Nouvel Age" (1985), and "Beyond Words" (2002). He helped to promote developments in [[Electro-acoustic]] and [[Electric harps]].<ref name=ReferenceA>JT Koch (ed). Celtic Culture. A Historical Encyclopaedia ABC-CLIO 2006 pp 1627-1628</ref>

====Electric instruments====
{{Main|Electric harp}}

Amplified (electro-acoustic) and solid body [[electric harp|electric lever harps]] are produced by many harpmakers at this time, such as Lyon and Healy Harps out of Chicago, Salvi Harps out of Italy, and [[Camac Harps]] out of France.

The [[Laser harp]] is also not a stringed instrument; it is a harp-shaped electronic instrument with laser beams where harps have strings.

===Wire-strung instruments ("clàrsach" or "cláirseach")===
{{Main|Clàrsach}}
[[File:Monifeithpictishharper.jpg|150px|thumb|The harper on the Monifeith Pictish stone, Scotland, 700 - 900 AD]]
[[File:Irish harp-Maedoc.jpg|200px|thumb|Maedoc book-cover, Ireland, circa 1000 AD]]
[[File:Celtic harp dsc05425.jpg|thumb|170px|The Scottish medieval ''clàrsach'' 'Queen Mary harp' ''''''Clàrsach na Banrigh Màiri''', (c.1400) <ref>Caldwell, D.H. (ed). ''Angels Nobles and Unicorns: Art and Patronage in Medieval Scotland''. Edinburgh: NMS, 1982</ref> now in the [[Museum of Scotland]], is a one of only three surviving medieval Gaelic harps.]]
The [[Gaels|Gaelic]] triangular, wire-strung harp has always been known by the feminine term [[cruit]] but by 1204 was certainly known by the masculine term 'clàr' (board) and, by the 14th century, by the feminine form of 'clàr', i.e., 'clàirseach/clàrsach'. ([[Scottish Gaelic language|Gd.]])

Clàirseach/clàrsach is a compound word, feminine in gender and composed of the masculine word 'clàr' (board/harp) and the feminising suffix '-search/-sach'. The suggestion that it is composed of the elements 'clàr' (board) and 'shoileach' (willow) is a much less likely explanation as i) the 'clàr shoileach' term is masculine in gender, taking the masculine form of the definite article, and ii) the /s/ phoneme is absent (replaced by an /h/ phoneme) and therefore the /l/ phoneme would be more likely to form part of any contraction (e.g., clàirleach).

The origins of the Gaelic triangular harp go back at least to the first millennium. There are several stone carvings of triangular harps from the 10th century, many of which have simple triangular shapes, generally with straight pillars, straight string arms or necks, and soundboxes. There is stone carving evidence that the lyre and/or perhaps a non-triangular harp were present in Ireland {{Citation needed|date=July 2008}} during the first millennium. Evidence for the triangular harp in Gaelic/[[Picts|Pictish]] Scotland dates from the 9th century.<ref>"The Origins of the Clairsach or Irish Harp", ''Musical Times'', Vol. 53, No 828 (Feb 1912), pp 89-92.</ref>

The harp was the most popular musical instrument in later medieval Scotland and Ireland and Gaelic poets portrayed their Pictish counterparts as very much like themselves.<ref>Forsyth, "Evidence of a lost Pictish Source", pp. 27–28.</ref>

{{cquote|Scotland, because of her affinity and intercourse [with Ireland], tries to imitate Ireland in music and strives in emulation. Ireland uses and delights in two instruments only, the harp namely, and the tympanum. Scotland uses three, the harp, the tympanum and the crowd. In the opinion, however, of many, Scotland has by now not only caught up on Ireland, her instructor, but already far outdistances her and excels her in musical skill. Therefore, [Irish] people now look to that country as the fountain of the art.}}<div align=right>—[[Giraldus Cambrensis|Gerald of Wales]]<ref>Gerald of Wales, "Topographia Hibernica", 94; tr. John O’ Meary, ''The History and Topography of Ireland'', (London, 1982).</ref></div>

The harp played by the Gaels of Scotland and Ireland between the 11th and 19th centuries was certainly wire-strung. The [[Ireland|Irish]] [[Maedoc Book Shrine]] dates from the 11th century, and clearly shows a harper with a triangular framed harp including a "T-Section" in the pillar. The [[Irish language|Irish]] word ''lamhchrann'' came into use at an unknown date to indicate this pillar which would have supplied the bracing to withstand the tension of a wire-strung harp.

''The Irish and Highland Harps'' by Robert Bruce Armstrong is an excellent book describing these ancient harps. There is historical evidence that the types of wire used in these harps are [[iron]], [[brass]], [[silver]], and [[gold]]. Three pre-16th century examples survive today; the [[Trinity College Harp|Brian Boru Harp]] in [[Trinity College, Dublin]], and the [[Queen Mary Harp|Queen Mary]] and [[Lamont Harp]]s, both in [[Scotland]].

One of the largest and most complete collections of 17th century harp music is the work of [[Turlough O'Carolan]], a blind, itinerant Irish harper and composer. At least 220 of his compositions survive to this day.

Since the 1970s, the tradition has been revived. [[Alan Stivell]]'s [[Renaissance de la Harpe Celtique]] (perhaps the best-seller harp album in the world), using mainly the bronze strung harp, and his tours, have brought the instrument into the ears and the love of many people.<ref name=ReferenceA/> [[Ann Heymann]] has revived the ancient tradition and technique by playing the instrument as well as studying Bunting's original manuscripts in the library of Queens University, Belfast. Katie Targett-Adams ( KT-A) is currently leading the modern day crossover movement for the clarsach, performing to mainstream audiences across the globe, notably China. Other high profile players include Patrick Ball, Cynthia Cathcart, Alison Kinnaird, Bill Taylor, Siobhán Armstrong and others.

As performers have become interested in the instrument, harp makers ("[[luthiers]]") such as Jay Witcher, David Kortier, Ardival Harps, Joël Herrou and others have begun building wire-strung harps. The traditional wire materials are used, however iron has been replaced by [[steel]] and the modern phosphor bronze has been added to the list. The phosphor bronze and brass are most commonly used. Steel tends to be very abrasive to the nails. Silver and gold are used to get high density materials into the bass courses of high quality clàrsachs to greatly improve their tone quality. In the period, no sharping devices were used. Harpers had to re-tune strings to change keys. This practice is reflected by most of the modern luthiers, yet some allow provisions for either levers or blades.

===Multi-course===
A '''multi-course harp''' is a harp with more than one [[row]] of strings. A harp with only one row of strings is called a '''single-course harp.'''

[[File:Double harp.JPG|right|thumb|150px|Double harp]]
A '''double-strung harp''' consists of two rows of [[diatonic]] strings one on either side of the neck. These strings may run parallel to each other or may converge so the bottom ends of the strings are very close together. Either way, the strings that are next to each other are tuned to the same note. Double-strung harps often have levers either on every string or on the most commonly sharped strings, for example C and F. Having two sets of strings allows the harpist's left and right hands to occupy the same range of notes without having both hands attempt to play the same string at the same time. It also allows for special effects such as repeating a note very quickly without stopping the sound from the previous note.

A '''[[triple harp]]''' features three rows of parallel strings, two outer rows of [[Diatonic scale|diatonic]] strings, and a center row of [[Chromatic scale|chromatic]] strings. To play a sharp, the harpist reaches in between the strings in either outer row and plucks the center row string. Like the double-strung harp, the two outer rows of strings are tuned the same, but the triple-strung harp has no levers. This harp originated in [[Italy]] in the 16th century as a low headed instrument, and towards the end of 17th century it arrived in [[Wales]] where it developed a high head and larger size. It established itself as part of Welsh tradition and became known as the '''Welsh harp''' (''telyn deires'', "three-row harp"). The traditional design has all of the strings strung from the left side of the neck, but modern neck designs have the two outer rows of strings strung from opposite sides of the neck to greatly reduce the tendency for the neck to roll over to the left.

[[File:Cross harp.JPG|right|thumb|150px|Cross-strung harp]]
The '''[[cross-strung harp]]''' consists of one row of diatonically tuned strings and another row of chromatic notes. These strings cross approximately in the middle of the string without touching. Traditionally the diatonic row runs from the right (as seen by someone sitting at the harp) side of the neck to the left side of the sound board. The chromatic row runs from the left of the neck to the right of the sound board. The diatonic row has the normal string coloration for a harp, but the chromatic row may be black. The chromatic row is not a full set of strings. It is missing the strings between the Es and Fs in the diatonic row and between the Bs and Cs in the diatonic row. In this respect it is much like a piano. The diatonic row corresponds to the white keys and the chromatic row to the black keys. Playing each string in succession results in a complete chromatic scale.

An alternate form of the cross-strung, the [[6-plus-6-instruments|6-plus-6]] or isomorphic cross-strung, has 6 strings on each side of the cross instead of 5 on one and 7 on the other. This configuration is less intuitive to someone coming from a piano/organ background, but more intuitive to someone with a guitar/violin or other chromatic or whole-tone instrument background because it utilizes a [[chromatic scale]] or [[wholetone scale]]. This configuration gives the entire octave in only 6 strings per side, making more efficient use of the size of the instrument.

==As a symbol==
===Political===
[[File:1e ire.png|frame|right|The [[Irish euro coins|Irish €1 coin]]]]

{{See also|Coat of Arms of Ireland|Coat of arms of Montserrat|Royal Standard of the United Kingdom|Royal Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom}}
The harp has been used as a political symbol of [[Ireland]] for centuries. Its origin is from the time of [[Brian Boru]], a famous 'High King' of the whole island of Ireland who played the harp. In Celtic society every [[clan]] would have a resident harp player who would write songs ("planxties") in honour of the leader. The harp was adopted as a symbol and representation of the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] from 1542. It was used to symbolize Ireland in the [[Royal Standard (United Kingdom)|Royal Standard]] of King [[James I of England|James VI/I]] of Scotland, England and Ireland in 1603 and continued to feature on all [[England|English]] and [[United Kingdom]] Royal Standards ever since, though the style of harp used differed on some Royal Standards. It was also used on the [[Commonwealth Jack]] of [[Oliver Cromwell]], issued in 1649 and on the [[Protectorate Jack]] issued in 1658 as well as on the Lord Protector's Standard issued on the succession of [[Richard Cromwell]] in 1658. The harp is also traditionally used on the [[Flag of Leinster|flag]] of [[Leinster]].

Since 1922, the government of [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] has used a similar left-facing harp, based on the [[Trinity College Harp]] in the [[Trinity College Library, Dublin|Library]] of [[Trinity College Dublin]] as its state symbol. It first appeared on the [[Great Seal of the Irish Free State]], which in turn was replaced by the [[coat of arms]], the [[Presidential Standard (Ireland)|Irish Presidential Standard]] and the [[Official Seal of the President of Ireland|Presidential Seal]] in the [[1937]] [[Constitution of Ireland]]. The harp appears on various other official state seals and documents as well as the Irish [[passport]]. The harp has also appeared on [[Irish coinage]] from the [[Middle Ages]] to the current Irish imprints of the [[Euro]] coins.

A [[South Asia]]n version of a harp known in [[Tamil language|Tamil]] as a 'yaal', is the symbol of [[Jaffna|City of Jaffna]], [[Sri Lanka]], whose legendary root originates from a harp player.

===Corporate===
The harp is also used extensively as a [[corporate logo]] — both [[Private company|private]] and [[government]] organisations. For instance; Ireland's most famous drink, [[Guinness]], also uses a harp, facing right and also less detailed than the state arms. This was the second London-registered [[trademark]] in the 1860s, but was not used until the 1870s, when it was placed on bottles of stout exported to Britain, in the hope that British consumers would associate the drink with wholesome Irish agricultural produce. It was adopted on Guinness products in Ireland from the 1890s, for a different reason; to remind supporters of the growing nationalist movement that Guinness was Irish.<ref>Dennison & McDonagh ''Guinness 1886-1939'' (London 1992) passim.</ref> A simplified harp was adopted in the 1990s.

Relatively new organizations also use the harp, but often modified to reflect a [[motif (art)|theme]] relevant to their organization, for instance; Irish airline [[Ryanair]] uses a modified harp, and the Irish [[State Examinations Commission]] uses it with an [[educational]] theme.

The harp is also used as the logo for League of Ireland football team Finn Harps, who are Donegal's senior soccer club.

Other organizations in Ireland use the harp, but not always prominently; these include the [[National University of Ireland]] and the associated [[University College Dublin]], and the [[Gaelic Athletic Association]]. In [[Northern Ireland]] the [[Police Service of Northern Ireland]] and [[Queen's University of Belfast]] use the harp as part of their identity.

==See also==
* [[Harp guitar]]
* [[Kora (instrument)|Kora]]
* [[Plucked string instruments]]
* Jaffna, a city in Northern [[Sri Lanka]] named after the Harp

===Related categories===
* [[:Category:Harpists|Harpists]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Additional sources==
* [[Lucia Bova]], ''[http://www.luciabova.it/arpa_moderna.htm L'arpa moderna]. La scrittura e la notazione, lo strumento e il repertorio dal '500 alla contemporaneità'', preface by Luis de Pablo, Suvini Zerboni, Milano, 2008. ISBN 978-88-900691-4-7
* "The Anglo Saxon Harp", ''Spectrum'', Vol. 71, No.2 (Apr., 1996), pp 290–320.
* "The Origins of the Clairsach or Irish Harp", ''Musical Times'', Vol. 53, No 828 (Feb 1912), pp 89–92.
* Alasdair Ross discusses that all the Scottish harp figures were copied from foreign drawings and not from life, in "'Harps of Their Owne Sorte'? A Reassessment of Pictish Chordophone Depictions", ''Cambrian Medieval Celtic Studies 36'', Winter 1998.
* ''Snyder's Medieval Art'', 2nd ed, p. 32. Luttikhuizen and Verkerk.
* Courteau, Mona-Lynn. "Harp". In J. Shepherd, D. Horn, D. Laing, P. Oliver and P. Wicke (Eds.), ''The Continuum Encyclopedia of Popular Music of the World'', Vol. 2, 2003, pp. 427–437.
*{{cite encyclopedia |last=Montagu |first=Jeremy |editor=Alison Latham |encyclopedia=[[The Oxford Companion to Music]] |title=Harp |year=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=London |isbn=0198662122 |oclc=59376677 |pages=564}}
* Rensch, Roslyn (2007/1989). ''Harps and Harpists'', revised (2nd) edition. Indiana University. ISBN 0-253-34903-6.

==External links==
{{wikiquote|Harp}}
{{Commons category|Harps}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Harp}}
* [http://www.harpspectrum.org/ Harp Spectrum] - general information about the harp
* [http://www.harpmusicfest.com] - classical harp festival
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u8Ww-Iwa6iY Video] - short video showing the parts of the lever harp
* [http://www.yourharpist.com/harpworks.html Your harpist] - Information on harps full with diagram and parts labeled.
* [http://www.harpfestival.nl The first International Harp Competition & Festival, the Netherlands] will take place in Utrecht 23-27 of March 2010.
* [http://musical-instruments.toptenreviews.com/harp-stores/index.html Comparative information on harps]
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_Bennett_(Harpist)|Stephanie Bennett]

===Celtic harp===
* [http://www.earlygaelicharp.info/ earlygaelicharp.info] - information about early Irish and Scottish harps
* [http://www.calumcille.com/ Gaelic Modes] Information about Gaelic harp harmony and modes
* [http://www.asni.net/harplore.html Asni: harp lore] - descriptions of several types of historical European harps (with sound samples)
* [http://www.celticharper.com/main.html The Celtic Harp Page] - information on Celtic and other types of harps
* [http://www.myharpsdelight.com/ My Harp's Delight] - learning to play the Celtic harp, tips and techniques, buying a harp
* [http://adventuresinmusic.biz/Archives/Interviews/celticharp.htm "Tears, Laughter, Magic" - An Interview with Master Celtic Harp Builder Timothy Habinski on AdventuresInMusic.biz, 2007]
* [http://www.alisonvardy.com/harp-info/harp-amplification-series.htm Celtic Harp Amplification Series] - using microphones and guitar amplifiers with folk harps
* [http://www.markwoodstrings.com Markwood Strings]-information on installing harp strings, harp string installation guide

[[Category:Composite chordophones]]
[[Category:Harps]]
[[Category:Irish musical instruments]]
[[Category:National symbols of Ireland]]
[[Category:Celtic musical instruments]]

[[als:Harfe]]
[[ar:قيثار]]
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[[ca:Arpa]]
[[cs:Harfa]]
[[cy:Telyn]]
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[[fy:Harp]]
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[[gl:Arpa]]
[[xal:Ятх]]
[[ko:하프]]
[[hr:Harfa]]
[[io:Harpo]]
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[[it:Arpa]]
[[he:נבל]]
[[ka:არფა (მუსიკალური საკრავი)]]
[[lb:Harf]]
[[lt:Arfa]]
[[hu:Hárfa]]
[[nl:Harp (tokkelinstrument)]]
[[ja:ハープ]]
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[[pt:Harpa]]
[[ro:Harpă]]
[[ru:Арфа]]
[[simple:Harp]]
[[sk:Harfa]]
[[sl:Harfa]]
[[sr:Харфа]]
[[sh:Harfa]]
[[fi:Harppu]]
[[sv:Harpa]]
[[tl:Kudyapi]]
[[ta:யாழ்]]
[[th:ฮาร์ป]]
[[tr:Arp]]
[[uk:Арфа]]
[[wa:Harpe]]
[[zh:豎琴]]

Ginette Martenot

2011-01-05T00:02:46Z

Rigaudon: Updated URLs

'''Ginette Martenot''' (1902–1996) was a [[France|French]] [[pianist]] and expert and leading performer<ref>Orton, Richard, and Davies, Hugh. "Ondes martenot". [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com Grove Music Online] (subscription access)</ref> on the twentieth-century [[electronic musical instrument|electronic instrument]] the [[ondes Martenot]], which was invented by her brother [[Maurice Martenot|Maurice]]. At the age of sixteen, she entered the [[Paris Conservatory]], where she studied [[counterpoint]] and [[fugue]] with the composer [[Arthur Honegger]]. She gave the first performance (and subsequently made recordings) as solo ondist in [[Olivier Messiaen|Messiaen's]] [[Turangalîla-Symphonie]], with [[Yvonne Loriod]] taking the solo piano part.

Martenot taught the composer [[Serge Nigg]].<ref>Massin, Brigitte. "Nigg, Serge". [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com Grove Music Online] (subscription access)</ref>

==External links==
*[http://pagesperso-orange.fr/idea.martenot/martenot.htm Ginette Martenot] (in French)

===References===
<references/>

{{Persondata 
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Martenot, Ginette}}
[[Category:1902 births]]
[[Category:1996 deaths]]
[[Category:French musicians]]

{{France-musician-stub}}

[[fr:Ginette Martenot]]

Stewart Macpherson

2011-01-05T00:01:22Z

Rigaudon: /* Source */ Updated URL

{{For|those of a similar name|Stewart McPherson (disambiguation)}}
'''(Charles) Stewart Macpherson''' (29 March 1865 - 27 March 1941) was an English musician of Scottish descent. He was born in [[Liverpool]], and studied at the [[Royal Academy of Music]] in [[London]]. In 1887, he joined the RAM staff, and taught [[harmony]] and [[Musical composition|composition]]. He founded the Music Teachers' Association in 1908, and was its chairman until 1923. From 1925 to 1927, he was dean of the Faculty of Music in the [[University of London]].

Macpherson was primarily a [[music educator]], and is remembered for such textbooks as ''Practical Harmony'' (1894), ''Form in Music'' (1908), and ''Melody and Harmony'' (1920). Also a composer, he wrote a Symphony in C (1880), a Mass in D (1898), and a ''Concerto alla fantasia'' for violin and orchestra (1904).

He died in the English capital London, on 27 March 1941.

==Writings==
*''Practical Harmony'' (1894)
*''Practical Counterpoint'' (1900)
*''The Rudiments of Music'' (1903)
*''Questions and Exercises upon the Rudiments of Music'' (1907)
*''Form in Music'' (1908)
*''Music and its Appreciation'' (1910)
*''The Appreciative Aspects of Music-Study'' (1910)
*''Studies in Phrasing and Form'' (1911)
*''Modern Ideas in the Teaching of Harmony'' (1912)
*''Aural Culture based upon Musical Appreciation'' (1912–21, with E. Read)
*''Ear-Training and the Teaching of the Minor Mode'' (1913)
*''The Musical Education of the Child'' (1915)
*''Melody and Harmony'' (1920)
*''The Appreciation Class'' (1923)
*''Studies in the Art of Counterpoint'' (1928)
*''A Simple Introduction to the Principles of Tonality'' (1929)
*''A Commentary on … the Forty-Eight Preludes and Fugues (Das Wohltemperirte Klavier) of Johann Sebastian Bach'' (1934–7)
*''Cameos of Musical History'' (1937)

==Source==
*Shaw, Watkins. "Macpherson, (Charles) Stewart". [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com Grove Music Online] (subscription access)

{{Persondata 
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| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
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| DATE OF BIRTH = 29 March 1865
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 27 March 1941
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Macpherson, Stewart}}
[[Category:1865 births]]
[[Category:1941 deaths]]
[[Category:British music educators]]
[[Category:English composers]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Royal Academy of Music]]

{{UK-composer-stub}}

Charles Herbert Kitson

2011-01-05T00:00:37Z

Rigaudon: /* Sources and external links */ Updated URL

'''Charles Herbert Kitson''' (13 November 1874 – 13 May 1944) was an English [[organist]], teacher, and [[music educator]], author of several books on [[harmony]] and [[counterpoint]]. He was born in [[Leyburn]], [[Yorkshire]], and attended school in [[Ripon]]. Intending originally to take [[holy orders]], he took his BA (1896) and MA (1904) at [[University of Cambridge|Cambridge]], where he was [[organ scholar]] of [[Selwyn College, Cambridge|Selwyn College]].<ref>{{Venn|id=KT893CH|name=Kitson, Charles Herbert}}</ref> Between those dates, he also took the BMus (1897) and DMus (1902) degrees at [[University of Oxford|Oxford]], as an [[external degree|external student]].

After teaching at [[Haileybury and Imperial Service College|Haileybury]] and [[St Edmund's School, Canterbury]], he became organist of St John the Baptist, Leicester. His first important post was as organist at [[Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin|Christ Church Cathedral]] in [[Dublin]], in 1913 - a post which he held until 1920. During his stay in Dublin, he became professor of music at [[University College, Dublin]], in 1915.

In 1920, he resigned both posts, and returned to [[England]], settling in [[London]], where he joined the staff of the [[Royal College of Music]]. The same year, he succeeded [[Percy Buck]] as Professor of Music at [[Trinity College, Dublin]] - a non-residential post, from which he retired in 1935. Among his notable pupils are [[Arwel Hughes]], [[Herbert Sanders]], [[Robert Still]], [[Michael Tippett]], and [[S. Drummond Wolff]].

He died in London in 1944.

==Writings==
*''The Art of Counterpoint, and its Application as a Decorative Principle'' (1907)
*''The Evolution of Harmony (1914)
*''Elementary Harmony'' (three volumes, 1920–26)
*''Additional Exercises to Elementary Harmony'' (1926)
*''Contrapuntal harmony for beginners'' (1931)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources and external links==
*Shaw, Watkins. "Kitson, Charles Herbert". [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com Grove Music Online] (subscription access)
*[http://www.cccdub.ie/music/staff/organists/organist/1913/kitson-charles.html Entry for Kitson at Christ Church Cathedral website]
*[http://www.aim25.ac.uk/cgi-bin/search2?coll_id=5690&inst_id=25 AIM25 entry for Kitson]

{{Persondata 
| NAME = Kitson, Charles Herbert
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
| SHORT DESCRIPTION =
| DATE OF BIRTH = 13 November 1874
| PLACE OF BIRTH =
| DATE OF DEATH = 13 May 1944
| PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kitson, Charles Herbert}}
[[Category:1874 births]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:British music educators]]
[[Category:English organists]]
[[Category:People from Richmondshire (district)]]
[[Category:Alumni of Selwyn College, Cambridge]]

Heinrich Dorn

2011-01-04T23:59:53Z

Rigaudon: /* Sources */ Updated URL

[[File:Heinrich-Dorn.jpg|thumb]]

'''Heinrich Ludwig Egmont Dorn''' (14 November 1804{{ndash}}10 January 1892) was a [[Germans|German]] [[conducting|conductor]], [[composer]], and [[journalist]]. He was born in [[Königsberg]] (now known as Kaliningrad), where he studied [[piano]], [[singing]], and composition. Later, he studied in Berlin with [[Ludwig Berger (composer)|Ludwig Berger]], [[Bernhard Klein]], and [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]]. His first [[opera]], ''Rolands Knappen'', was produced in 1826, and was a success. Around this time, he became co-editor of the ''Berliner allgemeine Muzikzeitung''.

Dorn became well known as a conductor of opera, and held theatre posts at Königsberg (1828), [[Leipzig]] (1829–32), [[Hamburg]] (1832), [[Riga]] (1834–43), and [[Cologne]] (1844–8). In 1849, he became co-conductor, with [[Wilhelm Taubert]], of the [[Berlin Hofoper]] - a post he held until 1869.

Dorn taught [[counterpoint]] to the young [[Robert Schumann]], and was a friend of [[Franz Liszt]]. He was a harsh critic of [[Richard Wagner]], but was persuaded to conduct the opera ''[[Tannhäuser (opera)|Tannhäuser]]'', in 1855. He also wrote an opera ''Die Nibelungen'', based on the [[Nibelungenlied]], in 1853, many years before Wagner completed ''[[Der Ring des Nibelungen]]''.

Dorn died in Berlin in 1892.

==Writings==
*''Spontini in Deutschland'' (Leipzig, 1830)
*''Aus meinem Leben'' (Berlin, 1870–77)
*''Das provisorische Statut der Königlichen Akademie der Künste in Berlin'' (Berlin, 1875)

==Compositions==
*''Rolands Knappen'' (1826)
*''Der Zauberer und das Ungetüm'' (1827)
*''Die Bettlerin'' (1828)
*''Abu Kara'' (c. 1831)
*''Der Schöffe von Paris'' (1838)
*''Das Banner von England'' (1841)
*''Die Nibelungen'' (1854)
*''Ein Tag in Russland'' (1856)
*''Gewitter bei Sonnenschein'' (1865)
*''Der Botenläufer von Pirna'' (1865)

==Sources==
*Robert Eitner: [http://mdz10.bib-bvb.de/~db/bsb00008406/images/index.html?seite=37 Dorn, Heinrich]. ''Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie'' (ADB). Volume 48, Duncker & Humblot, Leipzig 1904, p 35–37. {{de icon}}
*Willi Kahl: [http://mdz10.bib-bvb.de/~db/0001/bsb00016320/images/index.html?nativeno=79 Dorn, Heinrich]. ''Neue Deutsche Biographie'' (NDB). Volume 4, Duncker & Humblot, Berlin 1959, p. 79. {{de icon}}
*Peck Leverett, Adelyn, and Fifield, Christopher. [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com "Heinrich Dorn". Grove Music Online] (subscription access).

{{Persondata 
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Dorn, Heinrch Ludwig Egmont}}
[[Category:1804 births]]
[[Category:1892 deaths]]
[[Category:German conductors (music)]]
[[Category:German composers]]
[[Category:Opera composers]]
[[Category:People from Königsberg]]

[[cs:Heinrich Dorn]]
[[de:Heinrich Dorn]]
[[fr:Heinrich Dorn]]
[[pl:Heinrich Dorn]]
[[ru:Дорн, Генрих]]

Percy Buck

2011-01-04T23:58:34Z

Rigaudon: /* External links */ Updated URL

'''Sir Percy Carter Buck''' (25 March 1871 – 3 October 1947) was an English [[music educator]], [[writer]], [[organist]], and [[composer]]. He was born in [[London]], and studied at the [[Royal College of Music]]. He was the church organist at [[Worcester College, Oxford]] (1891–4), [[Wells Cathedral]] (1896–9), and [[Bristol Cathedral]] (1899–1901). He was then appointed as director of music at [[Harrow School]], and held that post until 1927. From 1910 to 1920, he was Professor of Music at [[Trinity College, Dublin]]; this was a non-residential post.

In 1925, Buck became the King Edward Professor of Music in the [[University of London]]; he was also teaching at the Royal College of Music. From 1927 to 1936, he was music adviser to the London County Council. He received a knighthood in 1937, on retiring from his post of Professor in London.

Buck's compositions include a [[piano quintet]], a [[string quintet]], a [[violin sonata]], a [[piano quartet]], three organ sonatas, and several piano pieces and songs. He edited ''The English Psalter'' (London, 1925) with Charles Macpherson. The manuscripts of his early works were destroyed during the [[Second World War]]. He is possibly best remembered for his ''Oxford Song Book'' (1929), and his ''Psychology for Musicians'' (1944).

==Writings==
*''The Organ: a Complete Method for the Study of Technique and Style'' (London, 1909)
*''Unfigured Harmony'' (Oxford, 1911)
*''Organ Playing'' (London, 1912)
*''Acoustics for Musicians'' (Oxford, 1918)
*''The Scope of Music'' (Oxford, 1924)
*''A History of Music'' (London, 1929)
*''Psychology for Musicians'' (London, 1944)

==External links==
*Colles, H.C., and Turner, Malcolm. "Buck, Sir Percy (Carter)". [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com Grove Music Online] (subscription access).
*[http://home.golden.net/~malton/Choir/buck/acp62/buck62.htm Chant 62]
*{{IMSLP|id=Buck, Percy Carter}}


{{Persondata
|NAME = Buck, Percy
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
|SHORT DESCRIPTION = English music educator, writer, organist and composer
|DATE OF BIRTH = 25 March 1871
|PLACE OF BIRTH = [[London]]
|DATE OF DEATH = 3 October 1947
|PLACE OF DEATH =
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Buck, Percy}}
[[Category:1871 births]]
[[Category:1947 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of the Royal College of Music]]
[[Category:British music educators]]
[[Category:English composers]]
[[Category:English classical organists]]
[[Category:Cathedral organists]]

Ludwig Berger (composer)

2011-01-04T23:57:52Z

Rigaudon: /* Source */ Updated URL

{{Expand German|Ludwig Berger (Komponist)|date=January 2011}}

'''Carl Ludwig Heinrich Berger''' (18 April 1777 – 16 February 1839) was a German [[pianist]], [[composer]], and piano teacher. He was born in [[Berlin]], and spent his youth in [[Templin]] and [[Frankfurt]], where he studied both [[flute]] and [[piano]]. Later, he studied composition with [[Joseph Augustin Gürrlich|J. A. Gürrlich]] in Berlin. He became friendly with the composer [[Muzio Clementi|Clementi]], and visited him in [[Russia]], where he stayed for eight years. While in Russia, he married, but was widowed in less than a year. During the [[Napoleonic wars]], he fled to [[London]], where his piano performances were well received. He returned to Berlin in 1815, and lived there for the rest of his life. A nervous disorder in his arm led to the end of his career as a piano virtuoso, and he built a reputation as a teacher, numbering [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]], [[Wilhelm Taubert|Taubert]], [[Adolf von Henselt|Henselt]], [[Heinrich Dorn|Dorn]], and [[August Wilhelm Bach]] among his more distinguished pupils.

Berger wrote over 160 solo songs (for instance in 1816/17 a song-cycle "Die schöne Müllerin" based on a parlor game), as well as a piano concerto, seven piano sonatas, twenty-nine studies, and several didactic piano works.

He died in Berlin in 1839.

==Source==
*Kershaw, Richard, and Musgrave, Michael. "Berger, Ludwig". [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com Grove Music Online] (subscription access).

==External links==
*{{IMSLP|id=Berger, Ludwig|cname=Ludwig Berger}}
*The Ludwig Berger article at [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Berger_(Komponist) German Wikipedia].


{{Persondata
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|ALTERNATIVE NAMES =
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|DATE OF BIRTH = 18 April 1777
|PLACE OF BIRTH = Berlin
|DATE OF DEATH = 16 February 1839
|PLACE OF DEATH = Berlin
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Berger, Ludwig}}
[[Category:1777 births]]
[[Category:1839 deaths]]
[[Category:German composers]]
[[Category:German classical pianists]]
{{Germany-composer-stub}}

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[[sv:Ludwig Berger (kompositör)]]

Nocturne

2011-01-04T23:53:51Z

Rigaudon: Debussy's inspiration from Whistler is sourced. Not sure about other artists following suit, though.

{{otheruses4||the ancient form of Christian night prayer|Nocturns|other uses|Nocturne (disambiguation)|and|Nocturnes (disambiguation)}}

{{Refimprove|date=October 2007}}

A '''nocturne''' (from the [[French language|French]] which meant ''nocturnal,'' from Latin ''nocturnus''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/nocturne|title=Nocturne Definition from the Free Merriam-webster Dictionary|work=[[Merriam-Webster|Merriam-webster.com]]}}</ref>) is usually a [[musical composition]] that is inspired by, or evocative of, the [[night]]. Historically, nocturne is a very old term applied to night [[Liturgy of the Hours|Offices]] and, since the Middle Ages, to divisions in the [[Canonical hours|canonical hour]] of [[Matins]].

The name ''nocturne'' was first applied to pieces in the eighteenth century, when it indicated an ensemble piece in several movements, normally played for an evening party and then laid aside. Sometimes it carried the [[Italian language|Italian]] equivalent, ''notturno'', such as [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]]'s quadraphonic Notturno in D, K.286, written for four lightly echoing separated ensembles of paired horns with strings, and his ''Serenata Notturna'', K. 239. At this time, the piece was not necessarily evocative of the night, but might merely be intended for performance at night, much like a [[serenade]].

In its more familiar form as a single-movement [[character piece]] usually written for solo [[piano]], the nocturne was cultivated primarily in the nineteenth century. The first nocturnes to be written under the specific title were by the [[Ireland|Irish]] [[composer]] [[John Field (composer)|John Field]], generally viewed as the father of the Romantic nocturne that characteristically features a [[cantabile]] melody over an [[arpeggio|arpeggiated]], even guitar-like accompaniment. However, the most famous exponent of the form was [[Frédéric Chopin]], who wrote [[Nocturnes (Chopin)|21 of them]]. One of the most famous pieces of nineteenth-century salon music was the "Fifth Nocturne" of [[Ignace Leybach]], who is now otherwise forgotten. Later composers to write nocturnes for the piano include [[Gabriel Fauré]], [[Alexander Scriabin]], [[Erik Satie]] (1919), [[Francis Poulenc]] (1929), as well as [[Peter Sculthorpe]]. In the movement entitled 'The Night's Music' <ref>Maurice J. E. Brown, in The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, (ed. Sadie), :London, MacMillan, 1980 (1995), Vol. 13, ISBN 0333231112
ISBN 978-0333231111 pp. 258-59.</ref> ('Musiques nocturnes' in French) of ''[[Out of Doors (Bartók)|Out of Doors]]'' for solo piano (1926), [[Béla Bartók]] imitated the sounds of nature. It contains quiet, eerie, blurred cluster-chords and imitations of the twittering of birds and croaking of nocturnal creatures, with lonely melodies in contrasting sections. American composer [[Lowell Liebermann]] has written ten Nocturnes for piano. Other notable nocturnes from the 20th century include those from [[Michael Glenn Williams]], [[Samuel Barber]] and [[Robert Helps]].

Other examples of nocturnes include the one for [[orchestra]] from [[Felix Mendelssohn]]'s [[incidental music]] for ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' (1848), the [[Nocturnes (Debussy)|set of three]] for orchestra and female [[choir]] by [[Claude Debussy]] (who also wrote one for solo piano) and the first movement of the [[Violin Concerto No. 1 (Shostakovich)|Violin Concerto No. 1]] (1948) by [[Dmitri Shostakovich]]. French composer Erik Satie composed a series of five small nocturnes. These were however, far different from those of Field and Chopin.

Nocturnes are generally thought of as being tranquil, often expressive and lyrical, and sometimes rather gloomy, but in practice pieces with the name ''nocturne'' have conveyed a variety of moods: the second of Debussy's orchestral ''Nocturnes'', "Fêtes", for example, is very lively.

The word was later used by [[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]] in the title of a number of his [[painting]]s, consistent with his theory that fine art should essentially be concerned with the beautiful arrangement of colors in harmony. Debussy's nocturnes were inspired by Whistler's paintings.<ref>"Nocturnes", in ''[http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com The Oxford Companion to Music]''</ref>

==Principal composers of nocturnes==

* [[John Field (composer)|John Field]]: 18 for solo piano
* [[Frédéric Chopin]]: 21 for solo piano - [[Nocturnes (Chopin)]]
* [[Robert Schumann]]: 4 ''[[Nachtstücke]]''
* [[Franz Liszt]]: 1 for solo piano entitled ''En reve'' ("In a dream" or "While dreaming")
* [[Ignace Leybach]]: now known only for his "Fifth Nocturne"
* [[Gabriel Fauré]]: 13 for solo piano
* [[Claude Debussy]]: 3 for orchestra and choir, one for solo piano.
* [[Erik Satie]]: 5 for solo piano (1919)
* [[Francis Poulenc]]: 8 for solo piano (1929)

==See also==
* ''[[Nocturne: Blue and Gold – Old Battersea Bridge]]'' by Whistler (painted c.1872–5)
* [[Nocturnes (Chopin)]]
* Nocturne of Shadow, a song from ''The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time''

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* [[Harrison Slater|Wignall, Harrison James]], "Mozart and the 'Duetto Notturno' Tradition", ''Mozart-Jahrbuch'', 1993.
* [[Harrison Slater|Wignall, Harrison James]], "Duetto notturno", ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', (ed. Sadie), London, MacMillan, 2000.
* [http://www.cso.org/main.taf?p=5,5,4,30 Mozart's Notturno in D, K.286: Chicago Symphony Orchestra program notes]

[[Category:Western classical music styles]]

[[bg:Ноктюрно]]
[[ca:Nocturn]]
[[cy:Nocturne]]
[[da:Nocturne]]
[[de:Nocturne (Musik)]]
[[es:Nocturno]]
[[eo:Nokturno]]
[[fa:نوکتورن]]
[[fr:Nocturne (musique)]]
[[ko:녹턴]]
[[io:Nokturno]]
[[it:Notturno (musica)]]
[[he:נוקטורן]]
[[lv:Noktirne]]
[[hu:Nocturne]]
[[nl:Nocturne]]
[[ja:夜想曲]]
[[no:Nokturne]]
[[pl:Nokturn (muzyka)]]
[[pt:Noturno (música)]]
[[ru:Ноктюрн]]
[[simple:Nocturne]]
[[sr:Ноктурно]]
[[fi:Nokturno]]
[[sv:Nocturne]]
[[th:น็อคเทิร์น]]
[[uk:Ноктюрн]]
[[zh:夜曲]]

Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Log/2010 December 21

2011-01-04T23:44:35Z

Rigaudon: /* Category:Musical forms */ keep

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=== December 21 ===
==== Category:Islands of Richmond, British Columbia ====
<div class="boilerplate metadata vfd" style="background:#bff9fc; margin:0 auto; padding:0 10px 0 10px; border:1px solid #AAAAAA;">
:''The following is an archived discussion concerning one or more categories. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on an appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''

:''The result of the discussion was:'' '''delete.'''--[[User:Mike Selinker|Mike Selinker]] ([[User talk:Mike Selinker|talk]]) 04:19, 29 December 2010 (UTC)

:[[:Category:Islands of Richmond, British Columbia]] - {{lc1|Islands of Richmond, British Columbia}} 
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' '''Delete'''. This was nominated at [[WP:CFDS]] for renaming to its present name, but a user [[Wikipedia_talk:Categories_for_discussion#Richmond_BC_islands|has suggested]] that perhaps it should be deleted. A copy of the previous discussion is in the drop-down box. I have no objection to deletion. [[User:Good Olfactory|Good Ol’factory]] [[User talk:Good Olfactory|(talk)]] 23:56, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
{{collapse top|copy of discussion from [[WT:CFD]]}}
I know this cat's been around since 2007, but I just don't see the point of it. It's true that Richmond is ''ALL'' islands, and perhaps unusual in that regard, when you stop to think about it, at least in Canada.....but there's already [[:Category:Islands of the Fraser River]] and there is no equivalent parallel to be had for classifying ''islands'' by ''municipality''. It also sets a bad precedent, as (despite my opposition to using RD categories for landforms etc) someone is going to come along and create, e.g. [[:Category:Islands of the Regional District of Nanaimo]] (those are already all in [[:Category:Gulf Islands]]) RDs are technically municipalities, by law, but we don't think of them that way at all....the essential point is this is a lone-wolf category....and I really can't think of another "X landform of Y municipality" category - not any one that should survive anyway (there may be [[:Category:Waterbodies of Burnaby]] or some such; but it's a different matter when the ''entire municipality'' is islands; it's not the same with scattered lakes through a mainland municipality; the Richmond category ''itself'' is an islands category. I think it's 19 or 28 major islands, including one (Annacis) which is shared with Delta) and another (Lulu) which is partly in New Wesminster.....and it may be that the in/of naming issue/guideline is in a special case here, because Richmond is ''made out of'' these islands - they ''are'' Richmond.....[[User:Skookum1|Skookum1]] ([[User talk:Skookum1|talk]]) 04:38, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
:I can totally see where you are coming from on this, but I think you might answer your own question. Isn't it precisely ''because'' Richmond is all islands that is category is especially worthwhile? I realize that Richmond is not an considered archipelago, but it is effectively (albeit not officially) the name for a group of islands. Yes, [[:Category:Islands of the Fraser River]], but Islands of Richmond could easily be a subcategory. I'm not determined here, but I'm not sure that eliminating it would be beneficial. Even if you delete this category, all of these articles should surely be included in [[:Category:Richmond, British Columbia]] - doesn't it make sense for them to have their own category, rather than crowd that municipal category? - [[User:Themightyquill|TheMightyQuill]] ([[User talk:Themightyquill|talk]]) 10:03, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
{{collapse bottom}}
::It's the precedent that bothers me. [[:Category:Mountains of Mission, British Columbia]] (there are in fact about seven or eight, not sure if Blue Mountain's summit is in Mission, Crickmer's is...of for that matter [[:Category:Landforms of Greater Vancouver]] or [[:Category:Landforms of Abbotsford, British Columbia]] (about seven, again) and so on. But the workable geo-unit for that is [[:Category:Landforms of the Lower Mainland]], which isn't restricted to unnatural and rather abstract geometric boundaries the way municipalities are; [[:Category:Mountains of the Lower Mainland]] makes a lot of sense; there's also this other issue that the [[:Category:Islands of the Fraser Estuary]] aren't all in Richmond; some are in Delta, a few are in New West (the distinction between the estuary and the rest of the delta sorta starts at the big bend by New West/Surrey/Coq; the [[Fraser Delta]] itself is reckoned to begin up around Agassiz-Rosedale; Douglas I/Barnston I/Pitt confluence aren't in the estuary, even though Pitt Lake is tidal (the tidal bore reaches to the Mission Bridge); Vancouver may have some along the North Arm, I'm not sure, Burnaby may also. My reservations have to do with classifying landforms etc by political units; it's a sorting system......there's some science fiction story somewhere, maybe it's ''[[Rollerball]]'', where one of the characters, visiting an archive, complains/explains that nobody writes history or geography any more, they just keep on finding new ways to classify things, and new ways to stack books (figuratively speaking, the books were isolated servers; nobody looked at them anymore, but they were all sorted really well....). There's also Kafka's parable about ''The Building of the City'', which is a propos, but I won't bother dragging this out. Then there's, ahem, [[:Category:Shopping malls on Lulu Island]] (or would that have to be "of Lulu Island"?). Frankly, what needs to be done with these islands is to write each of tehm up more fully, to do the research on them (there can be quite a bit, if people would look) instead of finding new and better ways to label/sort them....There's a bit of a reflexive-context issue for me here; it sounds to me, knowing what Richmond is, that it would be sorta like [[:Category:Islands of the Islands Trust]] (again, the [[:Category:Gulf Islands|Gulf Islands]] category, pretty much identical (the [[Islands Trust]] article has long been in need of doing). And rather than, say, [[:Category:Islands of Greater Victoria]] be less suitable than [[:Category:Islands of the Strait of Juan de Fuca]] and [[:Category:Islands of Haro Strait]] (a typical BC usage, by the way, would be "of the Haro Strait" or "of the Haro Straits"); not all are in municipalities, y'see, and while they're offshore from Greater Victoria, are they part of it? Tricky question; easier to stick with the geo-unit. If it survives (I rather like "in Richmond" rather than "of", given the context; it should be explained in the lede of the category page that Richmond is entirely island, though a couple of those islands are shared with other municipalities. And no, this category ''shouldn't'' be a subcat of [[:Category:Islands of the British Columbia Coast]] (that ''should'' exist, not sure if it does...yet), as despite a recent discussion, at length, these are ''not'' offshore islands, they're estuarial. And they all need more geological/geographic/biome writeups (there's more than are in the category at present; various unwritten articles yet)....[[User:Skookum1|Skookum1]] ([[User talk:Skookum1|talk]]) 05:52, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
::Yeah, I totally see where you are coming from precedent-wise, but if I read you correctly, I think you see the value in an exception here. I wish there was a name for the islands.. if there was any precedent to call them "The Richmond Islands" our task would be easy. Whether it's islands ''in'' or ''of'' Richmond doesn't matter to me. - [[User:Themightyquill|TheMightyQuill]] ([[User talk:Themightyquill|talk]]) 18:54, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
----
:''The above is preserved as an archive of the discussion. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''</div>

==== Watersheds by political boundaries ====
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Vermont]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Connecticut]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Kentucky]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Iowa]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Louisiana]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Maryland]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Mississippi]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Missouri]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Virginia]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of West Virginia]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Wisconsin]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Arkansas]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Alabama]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Colorado]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Delaware]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Washington, D.C.]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Georgia (U.S. state)]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Illinois]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Indiana]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Minnesota]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Nevada]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of New Jersey]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of New Mexico]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of New York]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Ohio]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Oregon]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Pennsylvania]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Watersheds of Tennessee]] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' '''Merge'''. Watersheds are geographic in nature and not based (generally) on political boundaries. Is it defining for the [[Hudson River Watershed]] to be categorized in Vermont especially when you consider that only 3% is in Vermont? Or how about in Connecticut where only 1% of the watershed lies. How about the [[Hudson–Hoosic Watershed]] where the most important fact seems to be what congressional districts overlay the watershed? I'll be adding more categories as I look at the other contents. Also consider if a watershed enters 33 states, is it defining for any of those states? I could probably make an argument to leave these basins at the continental level, but I suspect that would not fly. [[User:Vegaswikian|Vegaswikian]] ([[User talk:Vegaswikian|talk]]) 23:27, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Support''', merging all [cat:watersheds of state xyz] to [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States]]. Question: also revise with a [Cat:Watersheds/Basins of the Pacific/Atlantic] as applicable to have general continental location/direction ?—[[User:Look2See1|Look2See1]] [[User talk:Look2See1|t a l k →]] 05:01, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
**If you think there is support to move all of these to be continental level, go for it. In going through the state categories, I think that there are more state categories then actual watershed categories and articles. This may be a case when you delete the extra levels of categories that you can see what is really there and how best to organize the contents. [[User:Vegaswikian|Vegaswikian]] ([[User talk:Vegaswikian|talk]]) 06:15, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''comment'''. I think it was agreed here[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Categories_for_discussion/Log/2010_December_7#Category:Watersheds|here] that watersheds should be drainage basins. The proposed category would be better split into east and west coasts e.g. [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States eastern coast]], [[:Category:Watersheds of the United States western coast]] or something. [[User:Twiceuponatime|Twiceuponatime]] ([[User talk:Twiceuponatime|talk]]) 09:32, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
**My understanding from the maps in several articles, [[:File:Basin New.png]], is that North America has 3 top level drainage basins. So one logical alternative would be to create the NA category and then subcategories for the major drainages. Once that is done, if there is a need for additional detail, more subcategories can be created. But the current structure is not logical. [[User:Vegaswikian|Vegaswikian]] ([[User talk:Vegaswikian|talk]]) 03:38, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
***We seem then to be talking about two entirely different subjects. See below. [[User:Hmains|Hmains]] ([[User talk:Hmains|talk]]) 18:49, 25 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''comment'''. Whether term 'Watersheds' or 'Drainage basins' is used is for more knowledgeable editors than I to determine. Re: Vegaswikian - see value of deleting the extra levels of categories, and see the remains. Perhaps then a limited few [Category:River xyz] can then be used for significant/environmentally sensitive U.S. rivers' watershed components: such as for [[:Category:Columbia River]] and [[:Category:Colorado River]]? Re: Twiceuponatime - Would a version of [Cat:W.sheds/D.basins east of Continental Divide] and [Cat:W.s./D.b. west of C.Divide], regardless of endorheic basin or ocean exit, cover east-west location without multitude off micro-child categories? —[[User:Look2See1|Look2See1]] [[User talk:Look2See1|t a l k →]] 02:12, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Major Comment'''--A ''WATERSHED'' is not defined as '''Geographic''' by the nominator. A watershed is '''hydrologic''', by definition, and only defined by run-off-(i.e.-geography, [[water divide]], [[drainage basin]]s, mountain ridge lines, etc.),----- from water/rain/snow-etc brought on by weather events. '''The resultant is''' '''''geographic''''', and consequently a 1 percent in a state is a REALITY, or a NON-reality. (If you put 1 or 3 percent in a state, (one is NIT-picking), and not every person would include it in a category. (and if you worry about 1 per cent, then one has to go further to 1/3 or 1/5th of a percent,etc,etc) '''AND'''-if you figured out complexities: a '''Spring''' could appear in a Watershed, but most of its source water could come underground, (geologic) from source areas beyond a ''surface, [[water divide]]''. (it would still be in the "watershed", because it is supplyiing water to the watershed.)--[[User:Mmcannis|Mmcannis]] ([[User talk:Mmcannis|talk]]) 12:03, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
**Is there a better phrase to use in the introduction? [[User:Vegaswikian|Vegaswikian]] ([[User talk:Vegaswikian|talk]]) 19:30, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''do not change''' There are many watersheds/drainage basins/whatever in the US that are not connected to any other. Having major watersheds in the US does not mean that others are just a part of the major ones. Many US rivers that are not tributaries of major rivers flow directly to the oceans or lakes. Each of those rivers has a watershed--the land area from which the water collects to form the river. I think the above discussion is getting very confused. When I created these state watershed categories, I moved the articles from the state level landform categories. They are part of the state geography; most are only in one state--not withstanding the Missiissippi and a few other major multi-state rivers and their watersheds. Even those watersheds that are in mutliple states are still in each state and should be accounted for in each state. Readers would expect no less when the look from the state level down. [[User:Hmains|Hmains]] ([[User talk:Hmains|talk]]) 03:33, 24 December 2010 (UTC)
**I disagree with that approach. State boundaries and the boundaries of geographical entities bear no relation to each other and should not be cross-linked via categories. I do agree that the state articles need to explain where they lie in relation to landform features but that should be in the main text as a direct link for that article. [[User:Twiceuponatime|Twiceuponatime]] ([[User talk:Twiceuponatime|talk]]) 09:17, 24 December 2010 (UTC)
***'That approach' is long-standing among all landforms of the US states and I suppose countries as well. The categories are a reference/navigation inventory of what lies within the state's countries (partial or whole), regardless of the boundary of the landform itself. Thus, a mountain sitting on a state border is categorized in both states' landforms, which means both states' geography. This seems very reasonable on its face as helpful to the reader. We are dealing with categories here, not articles; navigation aids, not content details. [[User:Hmains|Hmains]] ([[User talk:Hmains|talk]]) 18:57, 25 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Information''' There is a new cfd [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Categories_for_discussion/Log/2010_December_23#Category:Basins_of_the_Gulf_of_Mexico here] which refers to [[:Category:Drainage basins of the Gulf of Mexico]] – perhaps some of the above should be merged to that category. That category is a sub-cat of [[:Category:Watersheds of North America]] which probably should be the main category here. [[User:Twiceuponatime|Twiceuponatime]] ([[User talk:Twiceuponatime|talk]]) 09:17, 24 December 2010 (UTC)

==== Category:Victims of the French Revolution ====
<div class="boilerplate metadata vfd" style="background:#bff9fc; margin:0 auto; padding:0 10px 0 10px; border:1px solid #AAAAAA;">
:''The following is an archived discussion concerning one or more categories. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on an appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''

:''The result of the discussion was:'' '''rename to [[:People killed in the French Revolution]].'''--[[User:Mike Selinker|Mike Selinker]] ([[User talk:Mike Selinker|talk]]) 04:19, 29 December 2010 (UTC)
:[[:Category:Victims of the French Revolution]] - {{lc1|Victims of the French Revolution}} 
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' Per the December 13th CFD on Victims of French political repressions, this category should probably be deleted as well. [[User:Eldamorie|Eldamorie]] ([[User talk:Eldamorie|talk]]) 18:04, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Keep''' That these individuals were killed as part of the French Revolution and the [[Reign of Terror]] is a strong defining characteristic of the individuals included and serves as an effective means of navigation across the common articles. [[User:Alansohn|Alansohn]] ([[User talk:Alansohn|talk]]) 18:16, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Rename''' to [[:Category:People killed in the French Revolution]]. The term "victim" is loaded and brings unwelcome POV baggage, and since most of the articles in the category refer to people killed the simple solution is to use the neutral word "killed" and remove any articles which do not relate to killings. --[[User:BrownHairedGirl|BrownHairedGirl]] [[User_talk:BrownHairedGirl|(talk)]] • ([[Special:Contributions/BrownHairedGirl|contribs]]) 19:34, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

* '''Keep''' This augmented category embraces not only people guillotined and died in prisons but also people sunk in Loire, executed by fire, starved to dead by revolutionists etc. [[User:Mathiasrex|Mathiasrex]] ([[User talk:Mathiasrex|talk]]) 08:01, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Rename''' to [[:Category:People killed in the French Revolution]]. "Victims" is simply an unnecessary emotive phrase. Those who died in prison, were sunk in the Loire, were executed by fire, and were starved to death may all be accurately described as "people killed in the French Revolution". [[User:Good Olfactory|Good Ol’factory]] [[User talk:Good Olfactory|(talk)]] 08:52, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Rename''' to [[:Category:People killed in the French Revolution]]. The category contains a subcat for people executed. This wider category appears to be for people killed in other ways. [[User:Peterkingiron|Peterkingiron]] ([[User talk:Peterkingiron|talk]]) 17:05, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Rename''' per bhg et al [[User:Johnbod|Johnbod]] ([[User talk:Johnbod|talk]]) 17:56, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
----
:''The above is preserved as an archive of the discussion. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''</div>

==== Transport operators ====
<div class="boilerplate metadata vfd" style="background:#bff9fc; margin:0 auto; padding:0 10px 0 10px; border:1px solid #AAAAAA;">
:''The following is an archived discussion concerning one or more categories. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on an appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''

:''The result of the discussion was:'' '''withdrawn by nominator.''' I've put all the "operators" categories in a new [[:Category:Transport operators by country]], and given "Transport companies" categories to any which didn't have them.--[[User:Mike Selinker|Mike Selinker]] ([[User talk:Mike Selinker|talk]]) 21:41, 2 January 2011 (UTC)
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Transport operators]] to [[:Category:Transport companies]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Transport operators in London]] to [[:Category:Transport companies based in London]]
:'''Propose renaming''' [[:Category:Transport operators of Germany]] to [[:Category:Transport companies of Germany]]
:'''Propose renaming''' [[:Category:Transport operators of Hong Kong]] to [[:Category:Transport companies of Hong Kong]]
:'''Propose renaming''' [[:Category:Transport operators of Scotland]] to [[:Category:Transport companies of Scotland]]
:'''Propose renaming''' [[:Category:Transport operators of Singapore]] to [[:Category:Transport companies of Singapore]]
:'''Propose renaming''' [[:Category:Transport operators of South Africa]] to [[:Category:Transport companies of South Africa]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Transport operators of South Korea]] to [[:Category:Transport companies of South Korea]]
:'''Propose renaming''' [[:Category:Transport operators of Turkey]] to [[:Category:Transport companies of Turkey]]
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Transport operators of the United Kingdom]] to [[:Category:Transport companies of the United Kingdom]]
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' '''Rename'''. Matching all other country-based subcategories of [[:Category:Transport companies by country]]. These categories are holdovers from a classification scheme attempted and apparently abandoned in 2006 and 2007. The [[:Category:Transport companies]] categories are not so overstuffed that they need this confusing layer of middle management. For most locations listed above, there is no equivalent "Transport companies" category, and there should be.--[[User:Mike Selinker|Mike Selinker]] ([[User talk:Mike Selinker|talk]]) 15:39, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Oppose'''. In many parts of Great Britain, buses were run until [[Bus deregulation in Great Britain|deregulation in 1986]] by local-authority-controlled entities which were not companies. It is misleading and inaccurate to apply the the "companies" label to them. --[[User:BrownHairedGirl|BrownHairedGirl]] [[User_talk:BrownHairedGirl|(talk)]] • ([[Special:Contributions/BrownHairedGirl|contribs]]) 16:03, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Agree''' with above comment, which still applies in UK and other urban areas (eg London Transport). Many other countries, similarly, have public transport. Therefore '''Oppose''' as non-worldwide, misleading and preventing accurate categorisation. [[User:Redheylin|Redheylin]] ([[User talk:Redheylin|talk]]) 16:47, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Oppose''' There are two problems with this. First, a 'transport operator' may be organized differently than as a company, for instance as a public agency, which are not normally called companies. Secondly, the term 'transport company' could mean quite of lot of things which are not considered 'operators'. Just take a look at [[:Category:Transport companies]], where there are for instance classification societies, leasing companies, ground handling companies, insurance companies, and vehicle manufacturing companies. [[:Category:Transport operators]] is a subcategory of transport companies. [[User:Arsenikk|Arsenikk]] [[User_talk:Arsenikk|(talk)]] 17:00, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Reverse merge''' where the target exists. Bus operators are or were frequently public sector organisations which were not "companies". [[User:Peterkingiron|Peterkingiron]] ([[User talk:Peterkingiron|talk]]) 17:07, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
**All good points, which I had not considered. OK, new plan: [[:Category:Transport operators]] gets a new category called [[:Category:Transport operators by country]]. All the above categories except the supercategory go in there, and are deleted from [[:Category:Transport companies by country]]. The transport operators category from each country also gets a new category called [[:Category: Transport companies of (X)]]. Does that make sense to folks? If so, I'll withdraw this nomination and implement that.--[[User:Mike Selinker|Mike Selinker]] ([[User talk:Mike Selinker|talk]]) 21:24, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

----
:''The above is preserved as an archive of the discussion. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''</div>

==== Bus transportation in the United States ====

Nominating for renaming:
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in the United States]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in the United States]]
{{collapse top|And its subcategories:}}
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Alabama]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Alabama]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Alaska]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Alaska]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Arizona]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Arizona]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Arkansas]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Arkansas]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in California]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in California]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Colorado]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Colorado]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Connecticut]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Connecticut]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Delaware]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Delaware]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Washington, D.C.]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Washington, D.C.]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Florida]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Florida]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Georgia (U.S. state)]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Georgia (U.S. state)]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Hawaii]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Hawaii]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Idaho]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Idaho]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Illinois]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Illinois]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Indiana]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Indiana]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Iowa]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Iowa]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Kansas]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Kansas]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Kentucky]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Kentucky]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Louisiana]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Louisiana]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Maine]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Maine]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Maryland]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Maryland]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Massachusetts]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Massachusetts]]
** [[:Category:Bus transportation in the Boston area]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in the Boston area]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Michigan]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Michigan]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Minnesota]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Minnesota]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Mississippi]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Mississippi]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Missouri]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Missouri]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Montana]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Montana]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Nebraska]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Nebraska]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Nevada]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Nevada]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in New Hampshire]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in New Hampshire]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in New Jersey]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in New Jersey]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in New Mexico]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in New Mexico]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in New York]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in New York]]
** [[:Category:Surface transportation in Greater New York]] to [[:Category:Surface transport in Greater New York]]
** [[:Category:Bus transportation in New York City]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in New York City]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in North Carolina]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in North Carolina]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in North Dakota]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in North Dakota]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Ohio]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Ohio]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Oklahoma]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Oklahoma]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Oregon]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Oregon]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Pennsylvania]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Pennsylvania]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Rhode Island]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Rhode Island]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in South Carolina]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in South Carolina]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in South Dakota]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in South Dakota]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Tennessee]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Tennessee]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Texas]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Texas]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Utah]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Utah]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Vermont]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Vermont]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Virginia]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Virginia]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Washington (U.S. state)]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Washington (U.S. state)]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in West Virginia]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in West Virginia]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Wisconsin]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Wisconsin]]
* [[:Category:Bus transportation in Wyoming]] to [[:Category:Bus transport in Wyoming]]
{{collapse bottom}}
* '''Reason''': Change "transportation" to "transport" per [[Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Log/2010 November 29#Category:Transportation]]. [[User:Od Mishehu|עוד מישהו]] [[User talk:Od Mishehu|Od Mishehu]] 14:12, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Rename, but...''' we haven't come to any consensus that USA transportation categories should become transport categories. That may need to be discussed on a more expansive level first.--[[User:Mike Selinker|Mike Selinker]] ([[User talk:Mike Selinker|talk]]) 15:46, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Keep all'''. To quote from the previous discussion, "For national categories, the appropriate national variety of English is and should continue to be preserved."- [[User:choster|choster]] ([[User_talk:Choster|talk]]) 18:03, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*Without question, '''Keep'''. This nomination shows the folly in allowing the previous rename to happen, and the follow on that was not discussed! Hundreds of categories were renamed to an unnatural form for most Americans. Now we want to continue this by changing the categories that cover the US? It's about time we stop changing category names from one form of English to the other at the higher levels or in mass nominations. [[User:Vegaswikian|Vegaswikian]] ([[User talk:Vegaswikian|talk]]) 19:26, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

* '''Keep''', obviously, per [[:Category:Transportation in the United States]]. The previous cfd has no bearing on country subcategories, where local usage should prevail, as always. [[User:Occuli|Occuli]] ([[User talk:Occuli|talk]]) 01:01, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''keep''' This is local US usage. But such nominations should be expected as some editors who continue to try to eliminate American English from the category structure from the top on down. [[User:Hmains|Hmains]] ([[User talk:Hmains|talk]]) 05:33, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
**That sounds suspiciously like an assumption of bad faith, Hmains. [[User:Good Olfactory|Good Ol’factory]] [[User talk:Good Olfactory|(talk)]] 04:36, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
***Which I agree has no place or point here and does not advance the discussion Sorry about that. [[User:Hmains|Hmains]] ([[User talk:Hmains|talk]]) 05:03, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

==== Category:WikiProject Science Fiction categories ====
:'''Propose renaming''' [[:Category:WikiProject Science Fiction categories]] to [[:Category:Category-Class Science Fiction articles]]
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' '''Rename'''. Convention of [[:Category:Category-Class articles]], also the category should be applied to the category talk page rather than the category itself. [[User:Tim!|Tim!]] ([[User talk:Tim!|talk]]) 09:51, 11 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Oppose''' these are not categories that are processed through the WikiProject banner (otherwise all the contents would be talk pages), it is a category of categories. It does '''not''' lie in the [[:Category:Category-Class articles]] category tree. [[Special:Contributions/65.94.44.124|65.94.44.124]] ([[User talk:65.94.44.124|talk]]) 06:22, 12 December 2010 (UTC)
** Read the nomination, I said it should be move to the talk pages. [[User:Tim!|Tim!]] ([[User talk:Tim!|talk]]) 10:34, 12 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' if they are to be bannered into "Category-Class Science Fiction articles" then the wikiproject banner needs to be applied to the various categories, which is not a function of CfD. Indeed, there already exists a [[:Category:Category-Class science fiction articles]] . [[Special:Contributions/65.94.44.124|65.94.44.124]] ([[User talk:65.94.44.124|talk]]) 06:25, 12 December 2010 (UTC)
** This category should simply be deleted then. [[User:Tim!|Tim!]] ([[User talk:Tim!|talk]]) 10:34, 12 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' - It is not populated with WikiProject categories utilized by WikiProject Science Fiction. Rather, it is populated with a random set of article space Science Fiction categories. Its usage is not consistent with the other categories listed at [[:Category:WikiProject Science fiction]]. No one at the WikiProject has noticed, so I doubt it will be missed. -- [[User:Uzma Gamal|Uzma Gamal]] ([[User talk:Uzma Gamal|talk]]) 09:21, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
<hr style="width:55%;" />
:'''[[WP:RELIST|Relisted]] to generate a more thorough discussion so a clearer consensus may be reached.''' Please add new comments below this notice. Thanks, [[User:Od Mishehu|עוד מישהו]] [[User talk:Od Mishehu|Od Mishehu]] 13:35, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
**'''Comment''' so WPSF wasn't even notified their category was under discussion?? [[Special:Contributions/65.95.13.158|65.95.13.158]] ([[User talk:65.95.13.158|talk]]) 06:25, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

==== Category:Shipping authorities ====
:'''Propose renaming''' [[:Category:Shipping authorities]] to [[:Category:Maritime transport authorities]]
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' [[Shipping]] refers primarily to transport of any cargo (not just by water), while this category contains agencies solely related to maritime transport. Although "shipping" is sometimes used for ship transport, it is an inaccurate and ambiguous term, while "maritime transport" is accurate and unambiguous. [[User:Arsenikk|Arsenikk]] [[User_talk:Arsenikk|(talk)]] 12:17, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' I notice now that I, as the nominator, am also the creator of the category. [[User:Arsenikk|Arsenikk]] [[User_talk:Arsenikk|(talk)]] 12:19, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
* '''Rename''' per nom (and the creator should apologise profusely to the nominator for being such a nuisance). [[User:Occuli|Occuli]] ([[User talk:Occuli|talk]]) 12:56, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
* '''Rename''' per nom. __[[User:Meco|meco]] ([[User talk:Meco|talk]]) 15:27, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
* '''Rename''' per nom, ''provided'' that it is accepted that the adjective "maritime" will still allow the inclusion of the authorities related to freshwater shipping, such as on the [[Great Lakes]]. --[[User:BrownHairedGirl|BrownHairedGirl]] [[User_talk:BrownHairedGirl|(talk)]] • ([[Special:Contributions/BrownHairedGirl|contribs]]) 15:53, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
** My intention of this article renaming is to retain any fresh-water systems in the category. If necessary, a note could be made in the category. See also below. [[User:Arsenikk|Arsenikk]] [[User_talk:Arsenikk|(talk)]] 13:27, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Comment''' See note on differing USA usage of term "shipping" in entry below - this usage refers to a time when all freight was "shipped" to the US and then held in "stores" (UK; shops). The term "shipping" refers only to ships in all other English-speaking areas. In this case the change will lessen and not create confusion. [[User:Redheylin|Redheylin]] ([[User talk:Redheylin|talk]]) 16:11, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''comment''' In some other places, it has recently been noted that [[:maritime]] refers only the sea or ocean and not to lakes or rivers and WP is way wrong in the ways that it already uses maritime to categorize any body of water. Will this just make things worse? Are there lake/river authorities that will consequenty have to be removed from this category? Where will they go? [[User:Hmains|Hmains]] ([[User talk:Hmains|talk]]) 05:38, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
**According to the ''[[Shorter Oxford English Dictionary]]'', 'maritime' refers to [simplified] 'of the sea', while [[sea]] can both refer to a saline body of water, or any body of water, saline or fresh. There is no specific mentions of 'maritime' referring explicitly to saline waters. It is possible other dictionaries disagree, but personally I have always used the term 'maritime' independent of the salinity. [[User:Arsenikk|Arsenikk]] [[User_talk:Arsenikk|(talk)]] 13:27, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
*** Maybe 'sea' can apply to any body of water but that must certainly be a rare usage. Most generally, 'sea' is used as an equivalent of 'ocean' or as part of an ocean. Rarely is 'sea' used to reference to a lake or river, which is what is relevant here. There are a few lakes in the world that are named 'Sea', but they are still lakes and not maritine. [[User:Hmains|Hmains]] ([[User talk:Hmains|talk]]) 03:39, 24 December 2010 (UTC)

==== Category:Freight ====
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Freight]] to [[:Category:Shipping]]
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' [[:Category:Freight]] is completely redundant to [[:Category:Shipping]], as freight and shipping are the same [shipping refers to "freight transport", not "ship transport". The nominated category was created this April and contained about ten articles, none of which belonged in the top-level article about shipping/freight, and the category now only contains images. [[User:Arsenikk|Arsenikk]] [[User_talk:Arsenikk|(talk)]] 12:13, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

* '''Comment''' – most of the images would be better placed within [[:Category:Rail freight transport]]. [[:Category:Freight]] should be left as a redirect to [[:Category:Shipping]]. [[User:Occuli|Occuli]] ([[User talk:Occuli|talk]]) 12:53, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Comment''' "Shipping" is only synonymous with "freight" in the USA. In the UK, the BBC bulletin that begins "Attention all shipping" does not refer to freighters but to - shipping ("ships collectively" - Chambers Eng. Dic.) BTW, the word "freight" is barely used outside the USA (ie by the majority of the Anglophonic world) The freight of a ship or aeroplane is called "cargo", a "freight train" is a "goods train" and by road the word "haulage" is most frequently used. [[User:Redheylin|Redheylin]] ([[User talk:Redheylin|talk]]) 16:06, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Comment''' As a UK resident "freight" to me is a noun (i.e. the cargo) and not a verb (i.e. the movement of it). All of the contents of the category are images of [[Dudley Freightliner Terminal]] (now closed) and probably should be in [[:Category:Disused railway goods stations in the United Kingdom]]. [[User:Twiceuponatime|Twiceuponatime]] ([[User talk:Twiceuponatime|talk]]) 09:46, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Oppose''' Goods may be freighted on a railway truck, a canal barge, or a river-going barge, none of which are "shipping", save in the loosest sense. [[User:Peterkingiron|Peterkingiron]] ([[User talk:Peterkingiron|talk]]) 17:09, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''comment''' why is a category soley composed of images here in the mainspace instead of in WP Commons (where image collections go)? [[User:Hmains|Hmains]] ([[User talk:Hmains|talk]]) 03:46, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Transfer to Commons''' "Shipping" is hopelessly ambiguous, and the whole sector should be refactored around "Freight" for all goods transport matters. Open to another term for this too. But the contents here are all of one freight terminal, which is no use to anyone. One could rename to "Images of Dudley Freightliner terminal" or something, but commons is better. [[User:Johnbod|Johnbod]] ([[User talk:Johnbod|talk]]) 17:58, 23 December 2010 (UTC)
*Move contents to commons and '''Delete'''. There are all images that could be moved. So cleanup and the problem goes away. [[User:Vegaswikian|Vegaswikian]] ([[User talk:Vegaswikian|talk]]) 19:36, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

==== Category:Clube de Regatas do Flamengo captains ====
<div class="boilerplate metadata vfd" style="background:#bff9fc; margin:0 auto; padding:0 10px 0 10px; border:1px solid #AAAAAA;">
:''The following is an archived discussion concerning one or more categories. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on an appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''

:''The result of the discussion was:'' '''merge.'''--[[User:Mike Selinker|Mike Selinker]] ([[User talk:Mike Selinker|talk]]) 04:19, 29 December 2010 (UTC)
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Clube de Regatas do Flamengo captains]] to [[:Category:Clube de Regatas do Flamengo players]]
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' '''Merge'''. The category and its parent holder categories for association football captains were [[Wikipedia:Categories_for_discussion/Log/2010_December_11#Category:Football_captains_in_Brazil_by_club|recently discussed]]. The parents were deleted as overcategorization, but this one was not because the category was not tagged for merging or deletion. I propose upmerging this category for the reasons discussed previously. [[User:Good Olfactory|Good Ol’factory]] [[User talk:Good Olfactory|(talk)]] 10:34, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
* '''Merge''' per previous discussion. [[User:Occuli|Occuli]] ([[User talk:Occuli|talk]]) 12:57, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
----
:''The above is preserved as an archive of the discussion. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''</div>

==== Category:Notable paddleboarders ====
<div class="boilerplate metadata vfd" style="background:#bff9fc; margin:0 auto; padding:0 10px 0 10px; border:1px solid #AAAAAA;">
:''The following is an archived discussion concerning one or more categories. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on an appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''

:''The result of the discussion was:'' '''rename.'''--[[User:Mike Selinker|Mike Selinker]] ([[User talk:Mike Selinker|talk]]) 04:22, 29 December 2010 (UTC)
:'''Propose renaming''' [[:Category:Notable paddleboarders]] to [[:Category:Paddleboarders]]
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' '''Rename'''. I propose dropping the word "Notable". All WP articles are (presumably) about notable topics, so categories omit the term. [[User:Good Olfactory|Good Ol’factory]] [[User talk:Good Olfactory|(talk)]] 09:25, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Support''' clear-cut case, per nom. [[User:Arsenikk|Arsenikk]] [[User_talk:Arsenikk|(talk)]] 12:19, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Rename''' per nom. [[User:Occuli|Occuli]] ([[User talk:Occuli|talk]]) 12:58, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Rename''' per nom. If a paddleboarder is not notable, the article should be deleted. --[[User:BrownHairedGirl|BrownHairedGirl]] [[User_talk:BrownHairedGirl|(talk)]] • ([[Special:Contributions/BrownHairedGirl|contribs]]) 15:47, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
----
:''The above is preserved as an archive of the discussion. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the category's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this section.''</div>

==== Category:Musical forms ====
:'''Propose merging''' [[:Category:Musical forms]] to [[:Category:Musical form]]
:'''Nominator's rationale:''' This category seems redundant. If anyone can find a good reason for having two separate categories for this, please let me know. [[User:Nat682|Nat682]] ([[User talk:Nat682|talk]]) 05:19, 21 December 2010 (UTC)
*'''Support''' the merging, '''but''' please use the plural category as the target (unless form is somehow used as plural). [[User:Arsenikk|Arsenikk]] [[User_talk:Arsenikk|(talk)]] 12:21, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

* '''Keep both''' – [[:Category:Musical forms]] is (or should be) a list category containing various articles about specific musical forms. [[:Category:Musical form]] should be a topic category containing articles related to musical form. If we inspect some of the subcats of [[:Category:Musical form]], it is clear that they do not fit in [[:Category:Musical forms]] (eg ballet might well be a musical form, but [[Tribute (ballet)]] (in a subcat of [[:Category:Musical form]]) is a ballet, not a musical form). Some of the top-level articles in [[:Category:Musical form]] should be moved to the subcat [[:Category:Musical forms]]. [[User:Occuli|Occuli]] ([[User talk:Occuli|talk]]) 13:24, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Delete''' or '''merge'''. [[Musical form]] concerns the abstract structures upon which music may be constructed (e.g. "Sonata form" is used for sonatas, symphonies and concerti - see article and citations) It is analogous to "proportion" and "composition" in the visual arts and, likewise, its plural form is more or less meaningless. However it has often been wrongly taken as synonymous with "genres" and "styles", resulting in a mess. The category only exists now because one non-negotiating editor insisted on repopulating it. The "Form" category presently contains all articles on defined musical forms and is in this sense "plural" - without these it would be empty. The category "Forms" is therefore redundant and confusing. Ballet is NOT a definite musical form (it is, like opera, defined by its dramatic or narrative form, which varies from ballet to ballet - similarly plays and novels have no consistent structure) and mistaken categorisations do not affect the matter. Please get rid of it. [[User:Redheylin|Redheylin]] ([[User talk:Redheylin|talk]]) 15:39, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Keep both''' but some renaming and distinction may be in order. [[User:Redheylin|Redheylin]]'s move of [[List of musical forms]] to [[List of western art-music genres by era]] is in contradiction to [[musical genre]], which accurately represents the sense of the word but which completely omits— correctly— the structural dimension to which "form" is applied. [[Symphony]], [[concerto grosso]], [[aria]]: these are forms, and they need to be included in [[:Category:Musical forms]], and they will be parent articles for the subcategories of [[:Category:Compositions by musical form]]. However, there is another set of words which deal with music structure in a more general sense, and these would go in [[:Category:Musical form]]; for example, [[:Category:Formal sections in music analysis]] fall here. Maybe this category needs a less confusing name, but unfortunately the terms are confusing and there is only so much one can do. [[User:Mangoe|Mangoe]] ([[User talk:Mangoe|talk]]) 17:14, 21 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Comment on the above''' I refer the user above to the authorities given in the lede of the article [[Musical form]] and, further, to the two editors at [[Talk:List of musical forms]] who have commented;

#"I raise a substantial objection to much of the material in this list. There is a difference between a musical "form" and a musical "type." A "form" describes the structure of a piece or a movement."

#"This article erroneously mixes genre and form together. For instance, the term symphony (genre) describes a large, multi-movement work for orchestra but says nothing about the form of each of the movements."

Since these views have not been contradicted and are in line with the mentioned authoritative sources, and since the words "genre" and "style" are in use for non-formal types of musical composition, there is a consensus for the (irrelevant) mentioned move as well as the (relevant) delete and, as I mentioned, the use of the word "forms" can only create confusion in this case. If [[User:Mangoe]] can provide authoritative sources for his personal view of things he may post them here and then may proceed to edit the page [[Musical form]]. Otherwise I'd like to remind him (once again) that [[WP:OR]] has no more place upon this page than elsewhere in Wikipedia and invite him to bring his opinion into line with a definition that has remained the consensus accepted by wikipedia music article editors for some time, for the simple reason that it is accepted by all notable authorities. A !vote based on [[WP:OR]] cannot negate or invalidate such a consensus and, therefore, should be disregarded here. Re his particular remarks, a symphony and a concerto are examples of [[Sonata]] form, while an [[Aria]] is an example of [[Ternary]] form. Concerto, symphony and aria are not forms in themselves. Thanks. [[User:Redheylin|Redheylin]] ([[User talk:Redheylin|talk]]) 06:40, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

:It seems to me that there is no hope for this but to dive into Grove's and cite every last bit of this out. "Genre" here is patently a problematic term, and "solving" the problem by taking one kind of "type" and stuffing it into "genre" is simply going to recreate the problem somewhere else when most of the world understands "genre" to mean something entirely different and in fact rather nontechnical and vague.

:Also I can appreciate that some of the "types" now under "forms" do not represent cases of the same. The argument that needs to drive this, though, is not that things are miscategorized, but that "forms" do not exist! Hmmmm.... and while we're at it, here's the 1879 Groves: ''"The concerto form is founded upon that of the Sonata (which see)<nowiki>[....]</nowiki>"'' (Vol. I, p. 387). Clearly not the most up-to-date reference, but it does put forth the notion of '''a''' form, and includes the concerto within that class. Would you care to cite the current edition? [[User:Mangoe|Mangoe]] ([[User talk:Mangoe|talk]]) 13:43, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Rename''' or '''Merge''': I would like to state that "musical form" and "musical forms" have too similar of names and can lead to confusion. What exactly separates musical form from musical forms? The mere existence of these categories does not establish that. [[User:Backtable|Backtable ]][[User talk:Backtable|Speak to me]][[Special:Contributions/Backtable|concerning my deeds.]] 07:50, 22 December 2010 (UTC)
:* It is the standard throughout category space to use [[:Category:Foo]] to denote the topic category (Foo-related articles) and the subcat [[:Category:Foos]] (articles about individual Foos). Eg [[:Category:Opera]], subcat [[:Category:Operas]]. [[User:Occuli|Occuli]] ([[User talk:Occuli|talk]]) 11:28, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Keep both''': [[User:Redheylin|Redheylin]] rightly points to the distinction clearly set forth in the lede of the article [[Musical form]], and [[User:Occuli|Occuli]]'s explanation of the standards of Wikipedia category space turn this into a no-brainer. Music theorists make a sharp distinction between "forms" in the sense of well-established and widely used patterns (such as rondo, sonata-allegro, da capo aria, or virelai) and "form" in the sense of the forces within the music that cause these patterns as well as non-standard ones to emerge from that music. But [[User:Mangoe|Mangoe]] has already said this in different words. There is, however, a problem with colloquial usage, as others have pointed out here, but the issue of "genre" (such as the piano trio, anthem, or serenade) or "type" (not a well-defined musical term, BTW) on the one hand versus "form" on the other is not really the issue here, and should be saved for a separate discussion.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 17:07, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Keep both''', in strong agreement with both Jerome Kohl and Occuli's various comments above—although it seems (on cursory assessment) that both categories will need some attention and recategorization. /[[User:Ninly|ninly]]([[User talk:Ninly|talk]]) 20:49, 22 December 2010 (UTC)

*Mangoe; "I can appreciate that some of the "types" now under "forms" do not represent cases of the same." Mangoe - if you had seen that category before the several days' work I spent on it I am sure you'd appreciate much more the confusion historically caused by use of the term "forms" - a confusion that still exists at [[:Category:Song forms]] to a lesser extent and that is, unfortunately, creeping back into the category under discussion. So, while I appreciate the validity of [[User:Occuli]]'s explanation, I am more aware of the over-categorisation issue and the potential confusion caused by the term, as highlighted by the proposer, by [[User:Backtable]] and the editors I quoted above. Having taken the step of contacting editors involved with music articles I abide by their views and shall seek the necessary discussion proposed by [[User:Jerome Kohl]] and try to ensure that the category under discussion, if it survives, does not degenerate once again into a mess of genres and styles without defined formal characteristics, brought about by a colloquial usage that, I think it is true to say, is increasingly deprecated by notable authorities. I appreciate your having recourse to authorities: the case of the concerto is borderline since it has some unique formal character such as the use of [[Ritornello]], which IS a form. I divided [[Musical form]] into three formal levels in order to diminish such problems (whereby, if we were to be awkward, each and every piece has a slightly different formal structure) and to confine the concept of musical form to accepted terms for overall structural approaches such as binary, ternary and so forth. This approach has proved remarkably durable - with the exception of the category under discussion! [[User:Redheylin|Redheylin]] ([[User talk:Redheylin|talk]]) 01:35, 23 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Comment''' - Looking through the articles in Category:Musical form, I only noticed a few that were ''about'' musical form, the rest were ''examples'' of musical forms. Obviously, the actual musical forms should be moved to Category:Musical forms, but should we really have a separate category for just a few articles? --01:46, 24 December 2010 (UTC)

*Keep - the average user searching for this type of info.(like a high school kid etc) might appreciate it organized so logically into a category - here is an example of musical forms at yale being organised in such a way. I found an example here: see library.yale.edu/cataloging/music/glossary.htm--[[User:Kary247|Kary247]] ([[User talk:Kary247|talk]]) 15:12, 28 December 2010 (UTC)

*'''Keep both''' per Jerome Kohl. Some tidying of the categories would be in order, though. [[User:Rigaudon|Rigaudon]] ([[User talk:Rigaudon|talk]]) 23:44, 4 January 2011 (UTC)

User talk:94.192.80.166

2010-11-03T23:08:14Z

Rigaudon: Inversions

== Inversions ==

Thank you for pointing out the error in the in [[Inversion (music)]] article. I have fixed the caption, but I don't think it's possible to alter the name of a file. It would have to be uploaded again, with the correct title. [[User:Rigaudon|Rigaudon]] ([[User talk:Rigaudon|talk]]) 23:08, 3 November 2010 (UTC)

Inversion (music)

2010-11-03T23:04:41Z

Rigaudon: /* Inversions */ Anon was correct to try and change it - but name of file can't be changed, only caption.

{{For|non-musical meanings of 'inversion'|Inversion (disambiguation)}}

[[Image:Inversion example.png|thumb|250px|right|Inversion example from Bach's ''Well-Tempered Clavier''<ref>Schuijer (2008), p.66.</ref> {{audio|Inversion example top.mid|Play top}} {{audio|Inversion example bottom.mid|Play bottom}}. The melody on the first line starts on A, while the melody on the second line is identical except that it stars on E and when the first melody goes up the second goes down an equal number of diatonic steps, and when the first goes down the second goes up an equal number of steps.]]

In [[music theory]], the word '''''inversion''''' has several meanings. There are inverted ''chords'', inverted ''melodies'', inverted ''intervals'', and (in [[counterpoint]]) inverted ''voices''. The concept of inversion also plays a role in [[musical set theory]].

==Inverted intervals==
[[Image:Complement trad.png|thumb|right|250px|Interval [[complement (music)|complementation]]: P4 + P5 = P8]]

An [[interval (music)|interval]] is inverted by raising or lowering either of the notes one [[octave]], so that both retain their names ([[pitch class]]) and the one which was higher is now lower and vice versa, changing the perspective or relation between the pitch classes. For example, the inversion of an interval consisting of a C with an E above it is an E with a C above it - to work this out, the C may be moved up, the E may be lowered, or both may be moved. (The only exception to the "swap" rule is that a ''[[diminished unison]]'' is the inversion of an ''[[augmented octave]]'' but the higher note is still higher.)

[[File:interval inversions.gif|right|frame|Interval inversions]]

Under inversion, perfect intervals remain perfect, major intervals become minor and the reverse, augmented intervals become diminished and the reverse. (Double diminished intervals become double augmented intervals, and the reverse.) Traditional interval names add together to make nine: seconds become sevenths and the reverse, thirds become sixes and the reverse, and fourths become fifths and the reverse. Thus a perfect fourth becomes a perfect fifth, an augmented fourth becomes a diminished fifth, and a [[simple interval]] (that is, one that is narrower than an octave) and its inversion, when added together, will equal an octave. See also [[complement (music)]].

{|border=1 CELLSPACING=0 align=left
!colspan=2|Interval quality under inversion
|-
|Perfect
|Perfect
|-
|Major
|Minor
|-
|Augmented
|Diminished
|}

{|border=1 CELLSPACING=0 align=center
!colspan=2|Interval name under inversion
|-
|Unison
|Octave
|-
|Second
|Seventh
|-
|Third
|Sixth
|-
|Fourth
|Fifth
|}

==Inverted chords==
[[Image:Rustington3.png|thumb|right|320px|Figure 1: the closing phrase of the hymn-setting ''Rustington'' by the English composer [[Hubert Parry]] (1848–1918),<ref>Adapted from Measures 14–16, Parry H (1897) "Rustington". In: ''The Australian hymn book: harmony edition'', 1977, p. 492.</ref> showing all three positions of the C major chord.<ref>The root-position triad at the end has no 5th above the root. This is common at [[cadence (music)|cadence]]s as a consequence of the [[voice leading]].).</ref> See [[#Figured bass|figured bass]] below for a description of the numerical symbols.]]
A chord's ''inversion'' describes the relationship of its bass to the other tones in the chord. For instance, a C major [[Triad (music)|triad]] contains the tones C, E and G; its inversion is determined by which of these tones is used as the bottom note in the chord.

The term ''inversion'' is often used to categorically refer to the different possibilities, although it may also be restricted to only those chords where the bass note is not also the [[Root (music)|root]] of the chord (see [[#Root position|root position]] below). In texts that make this restriction, the term ''position'' may be used instead to refer to all of the possibilities as a category.

===Root position===
{{main|Root (chord)}}
A [[root (chord)|root-position]] chord {{audio|Major triad on C.mid|Play}} is sometimes known as the ''parent chord'' of its inversions. For example, C is the root of a C major triad and is in the bass when the triad is in root position; the 3rd and the 5th of the triad are sounded above the bass. Thus, a root-position chord is also known as a <math>{}^5_3</math> chord.

[[Image:Major triad on F in root position.png|thumb|right|90px|Root position F major chord {{audio|Major triad on F in root position.mid|Play}}.]]
[[Image:c triad.svg]]

The following chord is also a C major triad in root position, since the root is still in the bass. The rearrangement of the notes above the bass into different octaves (here, the note E) and the doubling of notes (here, G), is known as [[voicing (music)|voicing]].

[[Image:C triad with doubling.svg]]

===Inversions===
[[Image:Root position and first inversion chords over C bass.png|thumb|right|350px|Root position and second inversion chords over C bass {{audio|Major triad on C.mid|Play root position C major chord}} or {{audio|Major triad on F in second inversion.mid|Play second inversion F major chord}}. Chord roots in red.]]

In an inverted [[chord (music)|chord]], the [[Root (chord)|root]] is not in the [[bass note|bass]] (i.e., is not the lowest note). The inversions are numbered in the order their bass tones would appear in a closed root position chord (from bottom to top).

In the first inversion of a C major triad {{audio|Major triad on C in first inversion.mid|Play}}, the bass is E—the 3rd of the triad—with the 5th and the root stacked above it (the root now shifted an octave higher), forming the intervals of a 3rd and a 6th above the inverted bass of E, respectively. A first-inversion triad is also known as a <math>{}^6_3</math> chord.

[[Image:Major_triad_on_F_in_first_inversion.png|right|90px|thumb|First inversion F major chord.]]
[[Image:Chord Inv2.svg]]

In the second inversion {{audio|Major triad on C in second inversion.mid|Play}}, the bass is G—the [[fifth (chord)|5th]] of the triad—with the root and the 3rd above it (both again shifted an octave higher), forming a 4th and a 6th above the (inverted) bass of G, respectively. A second-inversion triad is also known as a <math>{}^6_4</math> chord. This inversion can be either [[Consonance_and_dissonance|consonant or dissonant]], and analytical notation sometimes treats it differently depending on the harmonic and voice-leading context in which it occurs (''e.g. see [[#Cadential six-four chord|Cadential six-four chord]] below'').

[[Image:Major_triad_on_F_in_second_inversion.png|right|90px|thumb|Second inversion F major chord.]]
[[Image:Chord Inv3.svg]]

Third inversions exist only for chords of four or more tones, such as 7th chords. In a third-inversion chord {{audio|Dominant seventh in C in third inversion.mid|Play}}, the 7th of the chord is in the bass position. For example, a C major 7th chord in third inversion consists of B in the bass position, with C, E and G above it— being intervals of a 2nd, 4th and 6th above the (inverted) bass of B, respectively. ({{audio|Dominant seventh in C in first inversion.mid|Play 1st inversion G7}}, {{audio|Dominant seventh in C in second inversion.mid|Play 2nd inversion G7}}, {{audio|Dominant seventh in C in third inversion.mid|Play 3rd inversion G7}})

[[Image:Dominant_seventh_on_F_in_third_inversion.png|right|90px|thumb|Third inversion F7 chord {{audio|Dominant_seventh_on_F_in_third_inversion.mid|Play}}.]]
[[Image:Third inversion chord in C.png|90px]]

===Notating root position and inversions===
====Figured bass====
[[Image:Figured Bass Inversions 1 and 2.png|thumb|float|right|210px|Figure 2: the common chord positions and their corresponding figured-bass notation in abbreviated form]]
{{main|Figured bass}}
Figured bass is notation convention used to specify chord inversion, in which [[Arabic numerals]] (figures) are written (placed vertically, in descending numerical order) below the bass note of each chord in a [[chord progression|harmonic progression]], expressing the intervals resulting from the voices above it (usually assuming [[octave equivalence]]).

For example, in root-position triad C-E-G, the intervals above bass note C are a 3rd and a 5th, giving the figures <math>{}^5_3</math>. If this triad were inverted (e.g. E-G-C), the figures ( <math>{}^6_3</math> ) would apply, due to the intervals of third and sixth appearing above bass note E. Figured bass is similarly applied to [[seventh chord|7th chord]]s, which have four tones.

Certain arbitrary conventions of abbreviation (and sometimes non-abbreviation) exist in the use of figured bass. In chords whose bass notes appear without symbols, <math>{}^5_3</math> position is to be understood by default. First-inversion triads ( <math>{}^6_3</math> ) are customarily abbreviated as <math>{}^6_{}</math>, i.e. presence of the 3rd is understood. Second-inversion triads ( <math>{}^6_4</math> ) are not abbreviated. Root-position seventh-chords, i.e. 7-5-3, are abbreviated as <math>{}^7_{}</math>. First inversion seventh-chords 6-5-3, are abbreviated as <math>{}^6_5</math>. Second inversion seventh-chords 6-4-3, are abbreviated as <math>{}^4_3</math>. Third inversion seventh-chords 6-4-2 are abbreviated as <math>{}^4_2</math>.

Figured bass numerals express distinct intervals in a chord only as they relate to the bass voice. They make no reference to the key of the progression (unlike roman-numeral harmonic analysis); They do not express intervals ''between'' pairs of upper voices themselves (for example, in a C-E-G triad, figured bass is unconcerned with the interval relationship E-G); They do not express tones in upper voices which double, or are unison with, the bass note. However, the figures are often used on their own (without the bass) in music theory simply to specify a chord's inversion. This is the basis for the terms given above such as "<math>{}^6_4</math> chord"; similarly, in [[Diatonic function|harmonic analysis]] the term <math>I{}^6_{}</math> refers to a tonic triad in first inversion.

====Popular-music notation====
{{main|Slash chord}}
A notation for chord inversion often used in [[Popular music|popular]] music is to write the name of a chord followed by a forward slash and then the name of the bass note. For example, the C chord above, in first inversion (i.e., with E in the bass) may be notated as ''C/E''. This notation works even when a note not present in a triad is the bass; for example, ''F/G'' is a way of notating a particular approach to voicing a G11th chord (G–F–A–C). (This is quite different from analytical notations of ''[[Diatonic functionality|function]]''; e.g., the use of ''IV/V'' or ''S/D'' to represent the subdominant of the dominant).

====Lower-case letters====
Lower-case letters may be placed after a chord symbol to indicate root position or inversion.<ref>{{Citation | last = Lovelock | first = William | author-link = William Lovelock | year = 1981 | title = The Rudiments of Music | place = London | publisher = Bell & Hyman | isbn = 0713507446 | page = ? }}.</ref> Hence, in the key of C major, the C major chord below in first inversion may be notated as ''Ib'', indicating ''chord I, first inversion''. (Less commonly, the root of the chord is named, followed by a lower-case letter: ''Cb''). If no letter is added, the chord is assumed to be in root inversion, as though ''A'' had been inserted.

====Arabic numerals====
A less common notation is to place the number ''1'', ''2'' or ''3'' etc. after a chord to indicate that it is in first, second, or third inversion respectively. The C chord above in root position is notated as ''C'', and in first inversion as ''C1''.{{Fact|date=November 2007}} (This notation is quite different from the Arabic numerals placed after note names to indicate the octave of a tone, typically used in acoustical contexts; for example, ''C4'' is often used to mean the single tone [[middle C]], and ''C3'' the tone an octave below it.)

{{anchor|Cadential six-four chord}}
===Cadential six-four chord (or Appoggiatura six-four chord)===
[[Image:Common Cadential Progression Alt.png|thumb|float|right|150px|Figure 3: a cadential <math>{}_4^6</math> progression<ref>Adapted from [[Walter Piston|Piston W]] (1962) ''Harmony'', 3rd ed., NY, Norton, p. 96.</ref>]]
The cadential <math>{}^6_4</math> (Figure 3) is a common harmonic device {{audio|Common cadential progression.mid|Play}} that can be analyzed in two contrasting ways: the first labels it as a second-inversion chord; the second treats it instead as part of a horizontal progression involving [[voice leading]] above a stationary bass.

#In the first designation, the cadential <math>{}^6_4</math> chord features the progression: <math>I{}^6_4, V, I</math>. Most older harmony textbooks use this label, and it can be traced back to the early 19th century<ref>[[Gottfried Weber|Weber]], ''Theory of musical composition,'' p. 350, quoted in Beach, D (1967) "The functions of the six-four chord in tonal music", ''Journal of Music Theory'', 11(1), p. 8</ref>.
#In the second designation, this chord is not considered an inversion of a tonic triad<ref>{{Citation | last = Aldwell | first = Edward | author-link = Edward Aldwell | last2 = Schachter | first2 = Carl | author2-link = Carl Schachter | year = 1989 | title = Harmony and Voice Leading | edition = 2 | place = San Diego, Toronto | publisher = [[Harcourt Brace Jovanovich]] | isbn = 0155315196 | oclc = 19029983 | page = 263 | quote = The chord does not act as an inversion of I 5/3; it serves neither to extend it nor to substitute for it. }} {{LCC|MT50 A444 1989}}.</ref> but as a dissonance resolving to a consonant dominant harmony.<ref>{{Citation | last = Forte | first = Allen | author-link = Allen Forte | year = 1974 | title = Tonal Harmony in Concept and Practice | edition = 2 | place = NY | publisher = Holt, Rinehart and Winston | isbn = 0030774950 | page = 68 }}.</ref> This is notated as <math>V{}^{6-5}_{4-3}, I</math>, in which the <math>{}^6_4</math> is not the inversion of the <math>V{}^{}_{}</math> chord, but a dissonance that resolves to <math>V{}^5_3</math> (that is, <math>V{}^{6-5}_{4-3}, V</math>). This function is very similar to the resolution of a 4–3 [[Suspension (music)|suspension]]. Several modern textbooks prefer this conception of the cadential <math>{}^6_4</math>, which can also be traced back to the early 19th century.<ref>Arnold, F.T. ''The art of accompaniment from a thorough-bass'', Vol. 1, p. 314. ISBN 0486431886. quoted in Beach, David (1967). "The functions of the six-four chord in tonal music", p.7, ''Journal of Music Theory'', 11(1).</ref>

==Counterpoint==

Contrapuntal inversion requires that two [[melody|melodies]], having accompanied each other once, do it again with the melody that had been in the high voice now in the low, and vice versa. Also called "double counterpoint" (if two voices are involved) or "triple counterpoint" (if three), themes that can be developed in this way are said to involve themselves in "invertible counterpoint." The action of changing the voices is called "textural inversion".

Invertible counterpoint can occur at various intervals, usually the octave (8va), less often at the 10th or 12th. To calculate the interval of inversion, add the intervals by which each voice has moved and subtract one. For example: If motive A in the high voice moves down a 6th, and motive B in the low voice moves up a 5th, in such a way as to result in A and B having exchanged registers, then the two are in double counterpoint at the 10th ((6+5)–1 = 10).

Invertible counterpoint achieves its highest expression in the four canons of [[J.S. Bach]]'s [[Art of Fugue]], with the first canon at the octave, the second canon at the 10th, the third canon at the 12th, and the fourth canon in augmentation and contrary motion. Other exemplars can be found in the fugues in [http://www2.nau.edu/tas3/wtc/ii16.html#movie G minor] and [http://www2.nau.edu/tas3/wtc/ii21.html#movie B-flat major] [external Shockwave movies] from Book II of Bach's [[Well-Tempered Clavier]], both of which contain invertible counterpoint at the octave, 10th, and 12th.

==Inverted melodies==
[[Image:RahmaninovPaganiniInverzija-eng.PNG|thumb|300px|Figure 4: Inversion of the melody in Rachmaninoff's ''[[Rhapsody on a Theme by Paganini]]'']]
When applied to [[melody|melodies]], the ''inversion'' of a given melody is the melody turned upside-down. For instance, if the original melody has a rising major third (see [[interval (music)|interval]]), the inverted melody has a falling major third (or perhaps more likely, in tonal music, a falling ''minor'' third, or even some other falling interval). Similarly, in [[twelve-tone technique]], the ''inversion'' of the [[tone row]] is the so-called ''prime series'' turned upside-down, and is designated '''''T'''''''n'''''''I'''''. See m. 24 of Bach's [http://www2.nau.edu/tas3/wtc/ii04.html#movie C#m fugue] [external Shockwave movie], ''Well-Tempered Clavier 2,'' for an example of the subject in its melodic inversion.

{{quote|Given a certain prime set, with general element pi,j; under the inversion operation, pi,j→I(pi, 12 - j); that is, each element of the prime set is mapped into an element with identical order number but with set number the complement (mod.12) [''sic''] of the original set number.|Babbitt 1992, 16<ref>Schuijer, Michiel (2008). ''Analyzing Atonal Music'', p.67. ISBN 978-1-58046-270-9.</ref>}}

{{quote|each element p of [a given set] P is associated with one and only one inverse element s equals p' in [the universal set] S.|Forte 1964, 144<ref>Schuijer (2008), p.69.</ref>}}

{{quote|For each u and v in S (v may possibly equal u), we shall define an operation Iv/u, which we shall call 'u/v inversion.'... ...[W]e conceive any sample s and its inversion I(s) [...] as balanced about the given u and v in a certain intervallic proportion. I(s) bears to v an intervallic relationship which is the inverse of the relation that s bears to u.|Lewin 1987, 50<ref>Schuijer (2008), p.72.</ref>}}

==Inversional equivalency==

'''Inversional equivalency''' or '''inversional symmetry''' is the concept that [[interval (music)|interval]]s, [[chord (music)|chord]]s, and other sets of pitches are the same when inverted. It is similar to [[enharmonic equivalency]] and [[octave equivalency]] and even [[transpositional equivalency]]. Inversional equivalency is used little in [[tonal]] theory, though it is assumed a set which may be inverted onto another are remotely in common. However, taking them to be identical or near-identical is only assumed in musical set theory.

All sets of pitches with inversional symmetry have a '''center''' or '''axis of inversion'''. For example, the set C–E–F–F♯–G–B has one center at the dyad F and F♯ and another at the tritone, B/C, if listed F♯–G–B–C–E–F. For C–E♭–E–F♯–G–B♭ the center is F and B if listed F♯–G–B♭–C–E♭–E.<ref>{{Citation | last = Wilson | first = Paul | author-link = Paul Wilson | year = 1992 | title = The Music of Béla Bartók | isbn = 0-300-05111-5 | pages = 10–11 }}.</ref>.

=={{anchor|Transpositional inversion}}Musical set theory==
{{main|set (music)}}
In [[musical set theory]] inversion may be usefully thought of as the compound operation ''transpositional inversion'', which is the same sense of inversion as in the [[Inversion (music)#Inverted melodies|Inverted melodies]] section above, with transposition carried out after inversion. Pitch inversion by an ordered pitch interval may be defined as:
*<math> T^p_nI(x) = -x+n </math>
which equals
*<math> T^p_nI(x) = n-x </math>
First invert the pitch or pitches, ''x'' = −''x'', then transpose, −''x'' + ''n''.

[[Pitch class]] inversion by a pitch class interval may be defined as:
*<math>T_nI(x)=-x+n \pmod{12}\,</math>

Inversion about a [[#Pitch axis|pitch axis]] is a compound operation much like set theory's transpositional inversion, however in pitch axis inversion the transposition may be chromatic or diatonic transposition.

==Pitch axis==
{{about|the central pitch of an inverted melody|the most important pitch of certain types of chord progressions|pitch axis theory}}

[[Image:Pitch axis inversion.png|thumb|right|350px|Pitch axis inversions of "[[Twinkle Twinkle Little Star|Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star]]" about C and A {{audio|Pitch axis inversion.png|Play}}.]]

In [[jazz theory]], a '''pitch axis''' is the center about which a melody is inverted<ref>Pease, Ted (2003). ''Jazz Composition: Theory and Practice'', p.152. ISBN 0876390017.</ref>.

The "pitch axis" works in the context of the compound operation [[transpositional inversion]], where [[transposition (music)|transposition]] is carried out after inversion, however unlike [[musical set theory]] the transposition may be chromatic or diatonic transposition. Thus if D-A-G (P5 up, M2 down) is inverted to D-G-A (P5 down, M2 up) the "pitch axis" was or will be D. However, if it is inverted to C-F-G the pitch axis is G while if the pitch axis is A, the melody will invert to E-A-B.

Note that the notation of octave position may determine how many lines and spaces appears to share the axis. The pitch axis of D-A-G and its inversion A-D-E will either appear to be between C/B{{music|natural}} or the single pitch F.

==History==
In the theories of [[Jean-Philippe Rameau|Rameau]] (1722), chords in different positions were considered functionally equivalent. However, theories of counterpoint before Rameau spoke of different intervals in different ways, such as the ''regola delle terze e seste'' ("rule of sixths and thirds") which required the resolution of imperfect consonances to perfect ones, and would not propose a similarity between <math>{}^6_4</math> and <math>{}^5_3</math> sonorities, for instance.

==See also==
* [[Voicing (music)]]
* [[Pitch axis theory]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Musical techniques]]
[[Category:Music theory]]
[[Category:Harmony]]

[[ca:Inversió (música)]]
[[de:Umkehrung]]
[[et:Pööre (muusika)]]
[[es:Inversión (música)]]
[[eo:Inversigo (muziko)]]
[[fr:Renversement]]
[[it:Rivolto]]
[[nl:Omkering (muziek)]]
[[pl:Inwersja (muzyka)]]
[[pt:Inversão (música)]]
[[sv:Omvändning (musik)]]
[[uk:Обернення інтервалу]]
[[zh:转位]]

Flautist

2010-11-02T08:18:21Z

Rigaudon: Does anyone confuse the two?

A '''flautist''' is a musician who plays an instrument in the [[flute]] family. See [[List of flautists]].

The choice of "flautist" (from the [[Italian language|Italian]] ''flautista'', from ''flauto,'' and adopted due to eighteenth century [[List of English words of Italian origin|Italian influence]]) versus "flutist" is the source of dispute among players of the instrument. "Flutist" is the earlier term in the English language, dating from at least 1603 (the earliest quote cited by the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''), while "flautist" is not recorded before 1860, when it was used by [[Nathaniel Hawthorne]] in ''[[The Marble Faun]].'' While the print version of the ''OED'' does not indicate any regional preference for either form, the online ''Compact OED'' characterizes "flutist" as an American usage.<ref>{{cite web | title=flutist | work=Compact Oxford English Dictionary | url=http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/flutist?view=uk | accessdate=September 16, 2005}}</ref>

Richard Rockstro, in his three-volume treatise ''The Flute''<ref>Richard Shepherd Rockstro, ''The Flute'' (Fritz Knuf - Buren, The Netherlands, 1986[1890])</ref> written in England in 1890, uses "flute-player." He also uses "fluteist" and the less popular "flutomater".

The American player and writer Nancy Toff, in her ''The Flute Book'', devotes more than a page to the subject, commenting that she is asked "Are you a flutist or a flautist?" on a weekly basis. She prefers "flutist": "Ascribe my insistence either to a modest lack of pretension or to etymological evidence; the result is the same." Toff, who is also an editor for Oxford University Press [http://www.us.oup.com/us/information/editors/scholarly.popular/nancy.toff/?view=usa], describes in some detail the etymology of words for "flute," comparing ''OED'', Fowler's ''[[Modern English Usage]]'', Evans' ''[[Dictionary of Contemporary American Usage]]'', and Copperud's ''[[American Usage and Style: The Consensus]]'' before arriving at her conclusion.<ref>Nancy Toff, ''The Flute Book'' (Scribners, 1985), "Flutist or Flautist?" pp. xiv-xv</ref>

The first edition of the OED lists ''fluter'' as dating from circa 1400 and ''Fowler's Modern English Usage''<ref>''Fowler's Modern English Usage'' (Oxford University Press, 1965) "flautist, fluter, flutist" p. 201</ref> states that "there seems no good reason" why ''flautist'' should have prevailed over ''fluter'' or ''flutist''. However, according to ''Webster's Dictionary of English Usage'',<ref>''Webster's Dictionary of English Usage'' (Merriam-Webster Inc., 1989), "flautist, flutist" p. 452)</ref> ''flautist'' is the preferred term in British English, and while both terms are used in American English ''flutist'' is "by far the more common choice."

[[James Galway]] summed up the way he feels about "flautist," saying, "I am a flute player not a flautist. I don't have a flaut and I've never flauted."<ref>[http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,,2230184,00.html "On the first day of Christmas my true love asked of me..." Christmas quiz, Observer Magazine]</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://homepage.mac.com/johnwion/orchestra.html Orchestral Principal Flutists (flute players)]
* [http://www.mostlywind.co.uk/famflaut.html Famous players (may have to navigate)]

[[Category:Flautists| ]]
[[Category:Occupations in music]]

{{Link GA|da}}
[[da:Fløjtenist]]
[[de:Liste von Flötisten]]
[[es:Flautista]]
[[fr:Flûtiste]]
[[is:Flautuleikari]]
[[la:Tibicina]]
[[ja:フルート奏者]]
[[qu:Sinru qillqa: Ancha riqsisqa pitu waqachiq]]
[[ru:Список флейтистов]]
[[sl:Flavtist]]
[[tr:Flütçüler listesi]]

Alma Mahler

2010-11-01T12:54:08Z

Rigaudon: /* Biography */ Changed wording a little

{{cleanup|date=July 2010}}
{{Refimprove|date=July 2010}}
[[Image:Hist alma mahler.jpg|thumb|Alma Mahler (1909)]]
'''Alma Maria Mahler Gropius Werfel''' (born '''Schindler''') (31 August 1879 – 11 December 1964) was a [[Vienna|Viennese-born]] socialite well known in her youth for her beauty and vivacity. She became the wife, successively, of composer [[Gustav Mahler]], architect [[Walter Gropius]], and novelist [[Franz Werfel]], as well as the consort of several other prominent men. Musically active in her teens, she was the composer of at least seventeen songs. In later years her salon became an important feature of the artistic scene, first in Vienna, then in [[Los Angeles]].

==Biography==
Alma Schindler was born in [[Vienna]], [[Austria]] (then [[Austria-Hungary]]), to the prominent landscape painter [[Emil Jakob Schindler]] and his wife [[Anna von Bergen]], in 1879. Although Alma later claimed to have grown up in a privileged environment, the family was only moderately successful. After her father's death (1892), her mother married her late husband's former pupil [[Carl Moll]], who was a co-founder of the [[Vienna Secession]].
[[Image:Gustav Mahler 1909.jpg|thumb|right|Gustav Mahler]]
Alma's lively social interactions in her youth included friendships with the artists of the [[Vienna Secession]], among them [[Gustav Klimt]]. As a young woman she had a series of flirtations, including Klimt, theater director [[Max Burckhard]] and composer [[Alexander von Zemlinsky]].

On 9 March 1902 she married Gustav Mahler, who was nineteen years her senior and the director of the Vienna Court Opera. With him she had two daughters, Maria Anna (1902–1907), who died of [[scarlet fever]] or [[diphtheria]], and [[Anna Mahler|Anna]] (1904–1988), who later became a sculptor. The terms of Alma's marriage with Gustav were that she would forgo her own interest in composing. Artistically stifled herself, she embraced her role as a loving wife and supporter of Gustav's music. However, later in their marriage, after becoming severely depressed in the wake of Maria's death, she began an affair with the young architect [[Walter Gropius]] (later head of the [[Bauhaus]]), whom she met during a rest at a spa. Following the emotional crisis in their marriage after Gustav's discovery of the affair, Gustav began to take a serious interest in Alma's musical compositions, regretting his earlier dismissive attitude. Upon his urging, and under his guidance, she prepared five of her songs for publication (they were issued in 1910, by Gustav's own publisher, Universal Edition). After this turbulent period in their marriage, Alma and Gustav traveled to New York, where Gustav was seasonally engaged as a conductor. In February, 1911, he fell severely ill with an infection related to a heart defect that had been diagnosed several years earlier. He died in May, shortly after their return to Vienna.

After Mahler's death, Alma did not immediately resume contact with Gropius. Between 1912 and 1914 she had a tumultuous affair with the artist [[Oskar Kokoschka]], who created many works inspired by his relationship with her, including, perhaps most famously, his painting ''Bride of the Wind.'' Kokoschka's intense possessiveness wore on Alma, and the emotional vicissitudes of the relationship tired them both. With the coming of [[World War I]], Kokoschka enlisted in the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]], and Alma subsequently distanced herself from him and resumed contact with Gropius, who was also serving in combat at that time. She and Gropius married in 1915 during one of his military leaves. They had a daughter together, Manon Gropius (1916–1935), who died of [[polio]] at the age of 18. (Composer [[Alban Berg]] wrote his ''[[Violin Concerto (Berg)|Violin Concerto]]'' in memory of her.) While Gropius's military duties were still keeping him absent, Alma met and began an affair with [[Prague]]-born poet and writer [[Franz Werfel]] in the fall of [[1917]]. She became pregnant and gave birth to a son, Martin Carl Johannes Gropius (1918–1919). Gropius at first believed that the child was his, but Alma's ongoing affair with Werfel was soon exposed.

Within a year, they agreed to a divorce. In the meantime, Martin, who had been born prematurely, developed hydrocephalus and died at the age of ten months. Alma's divorce from Gropius became final in 1920. She and Werfel began openly living together from that point on. However, she postponed marrying Werfel until 1929, after which she styled herself "Alma Mahler-Werfel".

In 1938, following the ''[[Anschluss]],'' Alma and Werfel, who was Jewish, were forced to flee [[Austria]] for [[France]]; they maintained a household in Sanary-sur-Mer, on the French Riviera, from summer 1938 until spring 1940. With the [[Germany|German]] invasion and occupation of [[France]] during [[World War II]], and the deportation of Jews and political adversaries to [[Nazi concentration camps]], the couple were no longer safe in France and frantically sought to secure their emigration to the United States. In [[Marseille]] they were contacted by [[Varian Fry]], an American journalist and emissary of the [[Emergency Rescue Committee]], a private American relief organization that came to the aid of many refugee intellectuals and artists at that time. Since exit visas could not be obtained, Fry arranged for the Werfels to journey on foot across the [[Pyrenees]] into [[Spain]], in order to evade the [[Vichy French]] border officials. From Spain, Alma and Franz traveled on to [[Portugal]] and then boarded a ship for [[New York City]]. Eventually they settled in [[Los Angeles]], where Werfel, who had already enjoyed moderate renown in the U.S. as an author, achieved a huge popular success with his novel ''[[The Song of Bernadette (novel)|The Song of Bernadette]],'' which was made into a [[The Song of Bernadette (film)|1943 film]] starring [[Jennifer Jones (actor)|Jennifer Jones]], and the science fiction novel, ''Star of the Unborn'', published after his death. Werfel, who had experienced serious heart problems throughout their exile, died of a heart attack in California in 1945.

In 1946 Mahler-Werfel became a U.S. citizen. Several years later she moved to [[New York City]], where she remained a major cultural figure. [[Leonard Bernstein]], who was a great champion of Gustav Mahler's music, stated in his [[Charles Eliot Norton lectures]] of 1973 that Alma had attended some of his rehearsals. Bernstein considered her to be a "living" link to both Mahler and [[Alban Berg]], having not had the chance to meet either man since he was of a later generation.

Alma Mahler-Werfel died in 1964.

==Posthumous reputation==
Her much-married state was made sport of in [[Tom Lehrer]]'s song "Alma." He also commented gleefully on how her newspaper obituary had a lengthy list of her many gentleman callers.

In ''[[Mahler (film)|Mahler]]'' (1974) by director [[Ken Russell]], [[Gustav Mahler]] while on his last train journey, remembers the important events of his life - his relationship with his wife, the death of his brother and of his young daughter, his trouble with the muses, and more. In the film, Alma was played by [[Georgina Hale]], and Gustav was played by [[Robert Powell]].

In 1996, Israeli writer [[Joshua Sobol]] and Austrian director [[Paulus Manker]] created the polydrama ''[[Alma (play)|Alma]]''. It played in Vienna for six successive seasons, and toured to [[Venice]], [[Lisbon]], [[Los Angeles]], [[Petronell]], [[Berlin]] and [[Semmering]] — all places where Mahler-Werfel had lived. The scenes of Mahler-Werfel's life were performed simultaneously on all floors and in all rooms of a special building. The guests were invited to abandon the immobilized position of a spectator in a conventional drama, replace it with the mobile activity of a traveller, and watch a "theatrical journey". Each audience member chose the events, the path, and the person to follow after each event, thus constructing her or his personal version of the "Polydrama."

A treatment of Mahler-Werfel's life is presented in the 2001 [[Bruce Beresford]] film ''[[Bride of the Wind]]''. In the film, Alma was played by [[Australia]]n actress [[Sarah Wynter]]. [[Gustav Mahler]] was portrayed by British actor [[Jonathan Pryce]]. French actor [[Vincent Perez]] protrayed Oskar Kokoschka.

[[Martin Chervin]] wrote a one-woman play about her first marriage called ''Myself, Alma Mahler''. In 1998 extracts from her diaries were published, covering the years from 1898 to 1902, up until the point she married Mahler. The 2001 novel ''[[The Artist's Wife]]'' by [[Max Phillips]] has her tell her own story from the [[afterlife]], concentrating on her complicated relationships.

Less amusing is the story of her two books on Mahler and their impact on 'Mahler studies'. As an articulate, well-connected and influential woman who outlived her first husband by more than 50 years, Mahler-Werfel was for decades the main authority on the mature Mahler's values, character and day-to-day behaviour, and her various publications quickly became the central source material for Mahler scholars and music-lovers alike. Unfortunately, as scholars investigated the picture she painted of Mahler and her relationship with him, her accounts have increasingly been revealed as unreliable, false and misleading. Nevertheless, the deliberate distortions have had a significant influence upon several generations of scholars, interpreters and music-lovers. Citing the serious contradictions between Alma's accounts and other evidence, including her own diaries, several historians and biographers have begun to speak of the "[[Alma Problem]]". According to [[Hugh Wood]], <blockquote>"Often she is the only witness, and the biographer has to depend on her while doubting with every sentence her capacity for telling the truth. Everything that passed through her hands must be regarded as tainted"<ref>[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article4429303.ece ]{{Dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref></blockquote>

==Composer==
[[Image:YoungAlmaMahler.jpg|thumb|Alma Mahler]]

Alma played piano from childhood and in her memoirs reports that she first attempted composing at age 9. She studied composition with [[Josef Labor]] beginning in 1895. She met [[Alexander von Zemlinsky]] in early 1900, began composition lessons with him that fall, and continued as his student until her engagement with Gustav Mahler (December 1901), after which she ceased composing. Up until that time, she had composed/sketched many Lieder, and also worked on instrumental pieces as well as a segment of an opera. She may have resumed composing after 1910, at least sporadically, but the chronology of her songs is difficult to establish because she did not date her manuscripts.

Only a total of 17 songs by her survive. Fourteen were published during her lifetime, in three publications dated 1910, 1915, and 1924; it is unclear whether she continued composing at all after her last publication. The works appeared under the name 'Alma Maria Schindler-Mahler'; the cover of the 1915 set was illustrated by Oskar Kokoschka. Three additional songs were discovered in manuscript posthumously; two of them were published in the year 2000, and one remains unpublished. Her personal papers, including music manuscripts, are held at the [[University of Pennsylvania]], and at the Austrian National Library in Vienna.

These songs are regularly performed and recorded. Orchestral versions of the accompaniments have been produced by [[David Matthews|David]] and [[Colin Matthews]], and [[Jorma Panula]].

==Works==
'''Five Songs for voice & piano''' (published 1910): 
(i) ''Die stille Stadt'' ('The Quiet Town'; Dehmel) 
(ii) ''In meines Vaters Garten'' ('In My Father's Garden'; Hartleben) 
(iii) ''Laue Sommernacht'' ('Mild Summer's Night'; Falke) 
(iv) ''Bei dir ist es traut'' ('With You It Is Pleasant'; Rilke) 
(v) ''Ich wandle unter Blumen'' ('I Stroll Among Flowers'; Heine) 

'''Four Songs for voice & piano''' (published 1915): 
(i) ''Licht in der Nacht'' ('Light in the Night'; Bierbaum) 
(ii) ''Waldseligkeit'' ('Woodland Bliss'; Dehmel) 
(iii) ''Ansturm'' ('Storm'; Dehmel) 
(iv) ''Erntelied'' ('Harvest Song'; Falke) 

'''Five Songs for voice and piano''' (published 1924): 
(i) ''Hymne'' ('Hymn'; Novalis) 
(ii) ''Ekstase'' ('Ecstasy'; Otto Julius Bierbaum) 
(iii) ''Der Erkennende'' ('The Recognizer'; Franz Werfel) 
(iv) ''Lobgesang'' ('Song of Praise'; Dehmel ) 
(v) ''Hymne an die Nacht'' ('Hymn to the Night'; Novalis) 

'''Posthumously published''' (2000): 
''Leise weht ein erstes Blühn'' ('Softly Drifts a First Blossom'; Rilke ), for voice & piano (unpublished) 
''Kennst du meine Nächte?'' ('Do You Know My Nights?'; unknown author), for voice & piano (unpublished) 

[one further unpublished song apparently exists]

==References==

<references />
*Alma Mahler, ''My Life, My Loves: Memoirs of Alma Mahler'' Vermilon Books, reprint edition (February 1989) ISBN 0-312-02540-8
*''Alma Mahler-Werfel, Diaries 1898-1902'' (ed. and translator, [[Antony Beaumont]] and Susanne Rode-Breymann) [[Faber and Faber]] (1 February 1999) ISBN 0-571-19340-4
''
*Gustav Mahler, Letters to his Wife [1901-11]''. Edited by [[Henry-Louis de La Grange]] and Günther Weiss, in Collaboration with Knud Martner. First complete edition, revised and transted by Antony Beaumont (Faber and Faber, London 2004)
*Karen Monson, ''Alma Mahler: Muse to Genius: From Fin-de-Siècle Vienna to Hollywood's Heyday'' (1983)
*Susanne Rode-Breymann, ''Die Komponistin Alma Mahler-Werfel'' (Hanover, 1999)

==External links==
{{commons}}
* [http://www.alma-mahler.at/engl/presscorner/soundfiles.html Alma Mahler's voice]
* [http://www.alma-mahler.at/engl/almas_life/almas_life.html Biographical sketch and pictures]
* [http://www.geocities.com/al6an6erg/manon.html Photograph of Manon Gropius] ([http://www.webcitation.org/5kmXMCEho Archived] 2009-10-25)
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=4473 Find A Grave: Alma Mahler Gropius Werfel]
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hH4J8CIBc7Q song "Alma"] by [[Tom Lehrer]]
* {{dmoz|Arts/Music/Composition/Composers/M/Mahler,_Alma_Schindler|Mahler, Alma Schindler}}

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[[Category:1964 deaths]]
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[[Category:Austrian painters]]
[[Category:Austrian composers]]
[[Category:Women composers]]
[[Category:Austrian diarists]]
[[Category:Austrian immigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States]]
[[Category:American people of Austrian descent]]
[[Category:People from Vienna]]

{{Link FA|de}}

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[[da:Alma Maria Schindler]]
[[de:Alma Mahler-Werfel]]
[[el:Άλμα Μάλερ]]
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[[he:אלמה מאהלר]]
[[la:Alma Mahler-Werfel]]
[[lb:Alma Mahler-Werfel]]
[[hu:Alma Maria Mahler-Werfel]]
[[nl:Alma Mahler-Werfel]]
[[ja:アルマ・マーラー]]
[[no:Alma Mahler]]
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Cantique de Jean Racine

2010-11-01T12:06:26Z

Rigaudon: Moved footnote ref

'''''Cantique de Jean Racine''''' ([[opus number|Op.]] 11) is a work for mixed [[choir|chorus]] and [[piano]] or [[organ (music)|organ]] by [[Gabriel Fauré]]. Written by the nineteen year old composer in [[1864 in music|1864-5]], the piece won Fauré the first prize when he graduated from the [[École Niedermeyer]] and was first performed the following year on August 4, 1866, with accompaniment of strings and organ. It was first published around 1875 or 1876 (Schoen, Paris, as part of the series'' Echo des Maîtrises'') and appeared in a version for orchestra (possibly by the composer) in 1906. The accompaniment has also been arranged for [[String section|strings]] and [[harp]] by [[John Rutter]].

The text, "Verbe égal au Trés-Haut", is a paraphrase by [[Jean Racine]] (''Hymnes traduites du Bréviaire romain'', 1688) of the [[Ambrose|pseudo-ambrosian]] [[Vespers#Symbolism: the Hymns|hymn]] for Tuesday [[matins]], ''Consors paterni luminis''.

{{listen|filename=CantiqueDeJeanRacine.ogg|title=Cantique de Jean Racine|description=|format=[[Ogg]]}}

:''Verbe égal au Très-Haut, notre unique espérance,
:''Jour éternel de la terre et des cieux,
:''De la paisible nuit nous rompons le silence :
:''Divin sauveur, jette sur nous les yeux.

:''Répands sur nous le feu de ta grâce puissante ;
:''Que tout l'enfer fuie au son de ta voix ;
:''Dissipe ce sommeil d'une âme languissante
:''Qui la conduit à l'oubli de tes lois!

:''Ô Christ ! sois favorable à ce peuple fidèle,
:''Pour te bénir maintenant assemblé ;
:''Reçois les chants qu'il offre à ta gloire immortelle,
:''Et de tes dons qu'il retourne comblé.

Here is the original Latin text:<ref>Breviarum romanum ex decreto sacrosancti Concilii tridentini restitutum Summorum Pontificorum cura recognitum, 1961</ref>

:''Consors paterni luminis,
:''Lux ipse lucis et dies,
:''Noctem canendo rumpimus:
:''Assiste postulantibus.

:''Aufer tenebras mentium,
:''Fuga catervas dæmonum,
:''Expelle somnolentiam
:''Ne pigritantes obruat.

:''Sic, Christe, nobis omnibus
:''Indulgeas credentibus,
:''Ut prosit exorantibus
:''Quod præcinentes psallimus.

:''Sit, Christe, rex piissime,
:''Tibi Patrique gloria
:''Cum Spiritu Paraclito
:''In sempiterna sæcula.
:''Amen.

The last verse (or doxology) has a variant:

:''Praesta, Pater Piissime,
:''Patrique, compar Unice,
:''Cum Spiritu Paraclito
:''Regnans per omne saeculum.
:''Amen.

== External links ==
<references/>
*[http://www.choirs.org.uk/prognotes/faure%20cantique.htm Program notes by John Bawden, director of the Fareham Philhamonic Choir]
*Free scores, and complete text in French, with English translation, of [[choralwiki:Cantique de Jean Racine, Op. 11 (Gabriel Fauré)|this work]] in the [[Choral Public Domain Library|Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)]]
* {{IMSLP2|id=Cantique_de_Jean_Racine%2C_Op.11_%28Faur%C3%A9%2C_Gabriel%29|cname=Cantique de Jean Racine}}
* [http://socrates.free.fr/musique.html Background and links in French]
* [http://www.preces-latinae.org/thesaurus/Hymni/Consors.html Consors paterni luminis]
* [http://youtu.be/HlF4OZxIEkA Cantique de Jean Racine Conductor: Tiago Tengan]

[[Category:Compositions by Gabriel Fauré]]
[[Category:Choral compositions]]
[[Category:1865 compositions]]

[[es:Cantique de Jean Racine (Fauré)]]
[[fr:Cantique de Jean Racine]]
[[nl:Cantique de Jean Racine]]
[[ja:ラシーヌの雅歌]]

User talk:173.169.183.88

2010-10-18T16:27:28Z

Rigaudon: ←Created page with '{{subst:uw-test1|Franz Liszt}} ~~~~'

[[File:Information.svg|25px]] Welcome and thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test on the page [[:Franz Liszt]] worked, and it has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. Please take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to [[Wikipedia|this encyclopedia]]. If you would like to experiment further, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]] instead. Thank you. [[User:Rigaudon|Rigaudon]] ([[User talk:Rigaudon|talk]]) 16:27, 18 October 2010 (UTC)

Franz Liszt

2010-10-18T16:26:18Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 391466132 by 173.169.183.88 (talk)

{{Redirect|Liszt|other persons with the name|Liszt (surname)}}
{{MergeFrom|Anna Liszt|date=July 2010}}
{{Eastern name order|Liszt Ferenc}}

[[File:Franz Liszt by Adolphe Braun c1860-1877.jpg|thumb|Portrait by Adolphe Braun, circa 1860–1877.]]
'''Franz Liszt''' ({{lang-hu|'''Ferencz Liszt''', in modern use '''Ferenc Liszt'''}},<ref group="note">Liszt's Hungarian passport spelled his given name as "Ferencz". An orthographic reform of the Hungarian language in 1922 changed the letter "cz" to simply "c" in all words, except in surnames which led to the use of "Ferenc" a long time after his death.</ref> from 1859 to 1867 officially '''Franz Ritter von Liszt''')<ref group="note">Franz Liszt was created a [[Ritter]] by Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Francis Joseph I.]] in 1859, but never used the title in public. The title was necessary to marry the Princess of Sayn-Wittgenstein without her losing her privileges, but after the marriage fell through, Liszt transferred the title to his uncle Eduard in 1867. Eduard's son was [[Franz von Liszt]].</ref> (October 22, 1811{{ndash}}July 31, 1886) was a [[Hungarian people|Hungarian]]<ref>Walker, ''New Grove 2''</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Franz Liszt|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/343394/Franz-Liszt|date=2008|accessdate=24 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Franz Liszt|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Liszt-Fr.html|encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]|accessdate=25 November 2008}}</ref> [[composer]], [[virtuoso]] [[pianist]] and teacher.

Liszt became renowned throughout Europe during the 19th century for his great skill as a performer. He was said by his contemporaries to have been the most technically advanced pianist of his age and perhaps the greatest pianist of all time.<ref>An indication of this can be found in: Saffle: ''Liszt in Germany'', p. 209. Regarding the 1840s Saffle wrote, "no one disputed seriously that he [Liszt] was the greatest living pianist, probably the greatest pianist of all time." Since Saffle gave no sources, his statement can only be taken as his own point of view.</ref> He was also an important and influential composer, a notable piano teacher, a conductor who contributed significantly to the modern development of the art, and a benefactor to other composers and performers, notably [[Richard Wagner]], [[Hector Berlioz]], [[Camille Saint-Saëns]], [[Edvard Grieg]] and [[Alexander Borodin]].

As a composer, Liszt was one of the most prominent representatives of the "[[New German School|Neudeutsche Schule]]" ("New German School"). He left behind an extensive and diverse body of work, in which he influenced his forward-looking contemporaries and anticipated some 20th-century ideas and trends. Some of his most notable contributions were the invention of the [[symphonic poem]], developing the concept of [[thematic transformation]] as part of his experiments in [[musical form]] and making radical departures in [[harmony]].<ref>Searle, ''New Grove'', 11:28–29.</ref>

==Life==
{{Main|Life of Franz Liszt}}
[[File:Blava 2007-3-28-37.jpg|thumb|Memorial tablet at the Leopold de Pauli Palace in [[Bratislava]] commemorating Liszt's concert there in 1820, aged 9]]

===Early life===
The earliest known male ancestor of Franz Liszt is his great-grandfather, Sebastian List, who as one of the thousands of [[German language|German]]-speaking migrant serfs entered [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] from [[Lower Austria]] in the first half of the 18th century, and died in 1793 in [[Rajka]], [[Moson County]].<ref>[[Alan Walker (musicologist)|Walker]], ''Franz Liszt: The Virtuoso Years, 1811–1847'', pp. 33–34</ref> Liszt's grandfather was an overseer on several [[House of Esterházy|Esterházy]] estates; he could play the piano, violin and organ.<ref>Walker, ''Franz Liszt: The Virtuoso Years, 1811–1847'', p. 34</ref> The Liszt clan dispersed throughout Austria and Hungary and gradually lost touch with one another.<ref>Walker, ''Franz Liszt: The Virtuoso Years, 1811–1847'', p. 35</ref>

Franz Liszt was born to [[Anna Liszt|Marie Anna Lager]] and [[Adam Liszt]] on October 22, 1811, in the village of [[Raiding, Austria|Raiding]] ({{lang-hu|Doborján}}) in [[Sopron County]].<ref group="note">He often said throughout his life he was Magyar; he never once claimed he was French or German. He constantly referred to Hungary as his homeland. When later in his life he gave charity concerts in the country, he sometimes appeared wearing national dress. (Walker, Franz Liszt: The Virtuoso Years, 1811–1847, p. 48)</ref> Liszt's father played the piano, violin, cello, and guitar. He had been in the services of [[House_of_Esterházy#Prince_Nikolaus_II_.5BMikl.C3.B3s_Ferdin.C3.A1nd.5D_.281765.E2.80.931833.29|Prince Nikolaus II Esterházy]] and knew [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel|Hummel]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] personally. At age six, Franz Liszt began listening attentively to his father's piano playing as well as to show an interest in both sacred and [[Romani music]]. Adam began teaching him the piano at age seven, and Franz Liszt began composing in an elementary manner when he was eight. He appeared in concerts at Sopron and [[Bratislava|Pozsony]] in October and November 1820 at age 9. After the concerts, a group of wealthy Hungarians offered to finance Franz's musical education abroad.[6]

In Vienna, Liszt received piano lessons from [[Carl Czerny]], who in his own youth had been a student of Beethoven and Hummel. He also received lessons in composition from [[Antonio Salieri]], who was then music director of the Viennese court. His public debut in Vienna on December 1, 1822, at a concert at the "Landständischer Saal," was a great success. He was greeted in Austrian and Hungarian aristocratic circles and also met Beethoven and [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]].<ref>At a second concert on April 13, 1823, Beethoven was reputed to have kissed Liszt on the forehead. While Liszt himself told this story later in life, this incident may have occurred on a different occasion. Regardless, Liszt regarded it as a form of artistic christening. Searle, ''New Grove'', 11:29.</ref> In spring 1823, when the one year's leave of absence came to an end, Adam Liszt asked Prince Esterházy in vain for two more years. Adam Liszt therefore took his leave of the Prince's services. At the end of April 1823, the family for the last time returned to Hungary. At end of May 1823, the family went to [[Vienna]] again.

Towards the end of 1823 or early 1824 Liszt's first published composition appeared in print, a [[Variation on a Waltz by Diabelli]] (now S. 147), which was Variation 24 in Part II of ''[[Vaterländischer Künstlerverein]]''. This anthology, commissioned by Diabelli, included 50 variations on his waltz by 50 different composers (Part II), Part I being taken up by Beethoven's 33 variations on the same theme, which are now better known as the ''[[Diabelli Variations]]'', Op. 120.

===Adolescence in Paris===
After his father's death Liszt returned to Paris; for the next five years he was to live with his mother in a small apartment. He gave up touring. To earn money, Liszt gave lessons in piano playing and composition, often from early morning until late at night. His students were scattered across the city and he often had to cross long distances. Because of this, Liszt kept uncertain hours and also took up smoking and drinking—all habits he would continue throughout his life.<ref name="seng1130">Searle, ''New Grove'', 11:30.</ref><ref>Walker, ''Virtuoso Years'', 131.</ref>

The following year he fell in love with one of his pupils, Caroline de Saint-Cricq, the daughter of [[Charles X of France|Charles X]]'s minister of commerce. However, her father insisted that the affair be broken off. Liszt again fell ill (there was even an obituary notice of him printed in a Paris newspaper), and he underwent a long period of religious doubts and pessimism. He again stated a wish to join the Church but was dissuaded this time by his mother. He had many discussions with the [[Hugues Felicité Robert de Lamennais|Abbé de Lamennais]], who acted as his spiritual father, and also with [[Chrétien Urhan]], a German-born violinist who introduced him to the [[Saint-Simonianism|Saint-Simonists]].<ref name="seng1130" /> Urhan also wrote music that was anti-classical and highly subjective, with titles such as ''Elle et moi, La Salvation angélique'' and ''Les Regrets'', and may have whetted the young Liszt's taste for musical romanticism. Equally important for Liszt was Urhan's earnest championship of Schubert, which may have stimulated his own lifelong devotion to that composer's music.<ref>Walker, ''Virtuoso Years'', 137–8.</ref>

During this period Liszt read widely to overcome his lack of a general education, and he soon came into contact with many of the leading authors and artists of his day, including [[Victor Hugo]], [[Alphonse de Lamartine|Lamartine]] and [[Heinrich Heine]]. He composed practically nothing in these years. Nevertheless, the July Revolution of 1830 inspired him to sketch a Revolutionary Symphony based on the events of the "three glorious days," and he took a greater interest in events surrounding him. He met [[Hector Berlioz]] on December 4, 1830, the day before the premiere of the ''[[Symphonie fantastique]]''. Berlioz's music made a strong impression on Liszt, especially later when he was writing for orchestra. He also inherited from Berlioz the diabolic quality of many of his works.<ref name="seng1130" />
[[File:NiccoloPaganini.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Niccolò Paganini]]. His playing inspired Liszt to become as great a virtuoso.]]

===Paganini===
After attending an April 20, 1832 concert for charity, for the victims of a Parisian cholera epidemic, by [[Niccolò Paganini]],<ref>The date is known from Liszt's pocket calendar.</ref> Liszt became determined to become as great a virtuoso on the piano as Paganini was on the violin. Paris in the 1830s had become the nexus for pianistic activities, with dozens of pianists dedicated to perfection at the keyboard. Some, such as [[Sigismond Thalberg]] and [[Alexander Dreyschock]], focused on specific aspects of technique (e.g. the "three-hand effect" and octaves, respectively). While it was called the "flying trapeze" school of piano playing, this generation also solved some of the most intractable problems of piano technique, raising the general level of performance to previously unimagined heights. Liszt's strength and ability to stand out in this company was in mastering all the aspects of piano technique cultivated singly and assiduously by his rivals.<ref>Walker, ''Virtuoso Years'', 161–7.</ref>

In 1833 he made transcriptions of several works by Berlioz, including the ''Symphonie fantastique''. His chief motive in doing so, especially with the ''Symphonie'', was to help the poverty-stricken Berlioz, whose symphony remained unknown and unpublished. Liszt bore the expense of publishing the transcription himself and played it many times to help popularise the original score.<ref>Walker, ''Virtuoso Years'', 180.</ref> He was also forming a friendship with a third composer who influenced him, [[Frédéric Chopin]]; under his influence Liszt's poetic and romantic side began to develop.<ref name="seng1130" />

===With Countess Marie d'Agoult===
In 1833, Liszt began his relationship with the Countess [[Marie d'Agoult]]. In addition to this, at the end of April 1834 he made the acquaintance of [[Hugues Felicité Robert de Lamennais|Felicité de Lamennais]]. Under the influence of both, Liszt's creative output exploded. In 1834 Liszt debuted as a mature and original composer with his piano compositions ''Harmonies poétiques et religieuses'' and the set of three ''Apparitions''. These were all poetic works which contrasted strongly with the fantasies he had written earlier.<ref name="seng1830">Searle, ''New Grove'', 18:30.</ref>
[[File:Barabas-liszt.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Franz Liszt, portrait by [[Miklós Barabás]], 1847]]
In 1835 the countess left her husband and family to join Liszt in Geneva; their daughter Blandine was born there on December 18. Liszt taught at the newly founded Geneva Conservatory, wrote a manual of piano technique (later lost)<ref>For more details see: Bory: ''Une retraite romantique'', pp. 50ff</ref> and contributed essays for the Paris ''Revue et gazette musicale''. In these essays, he argued for the raising of the artist from the status of a servant to a respected member of the community.<ref name="seng1130" />

For the next four years Liszt and the countess lived together, mainly in Switzerland and Italy, where their daughter, [[Cosima Wagner|Cosima]], was born in [[Como]], with occasional visits to Paris. On May 9, 1839 Liszt and the countess's only son, Daniel, was born, but that autumn relations between them became strained. Liszt heard that plans for a [[Beethoven Monument, Bonn|Beethoven monument in Bonn]] were in danger of collapse for lack of funds, and pledged his support. Doing so meant returning to the life of a touring virtuoso. The countess returned to Paris with the children, while Liszt gave six concerts in Vienna, then toured Hungary.<ref name="seng1130" />

===Touring virtuoso===
[[File:Franz Liszt by Herman Biow- 1843.png|thumb||Liszt in 1843]]
For the next eight years Liszt continued to tour Europe, spending holidays with the countess and their children on the island of [[Nonnenwerth]] on the Rhine in summers 1841 and 1843. In spring 1844 the couple finally separated. This was Liszt's most brilliant period as a concert pianist. Honours were showered on him and he was adulated everywhere he went.<ref name="seng1130" /> Since Liszt often appeared three or four times a week in concert, it could be safe to assume that he appeared in public well over a thousand times during this eight-year period. Moreover, his great fame as a pianist, which he would continue to enjoy long after he had officially retired from the concert stage, was based mainly on his accomplishments during this time.<ref>Walker, ''Virtuoto Years'', 285.</ref>

After 1842 "[[Lisztomania (phenomenon)|Lisztomania]]" swept across Europe. The reception Liszt enjoyed as a result can only be described as hysterical. Women fought over his silk handkerchiefs and velvet gloves, which they ripped to shreds as souvenirs. Helping fuel this atmosphere was the artist's mesmeric personality and stage presence. Many witnesses later testified that Liszt's playing raised the mood of audiences to a level of mystical ecstasy.<ref>Walker, ''Virtuoso Years'', 289.</ref>

Adding to his reputation was the fact that Liszt gave away much of his proceeds to charity and humanitarian causes. In fact, Liszt had made so much money by his mid-forties that virtually all his performing fees after 1857 went to charity. While his work for the Beethoven monument and the Hungarian National School of Music are well known, he also gave generously to the building fund of Cologne Cathedral, the establishment of a ''Gymnasium'' at Dortmund, and the construction of the Leopold Church in Pest. There were also private donations to hospitals, schools and charitable organizations such as the Leipzig Musicians Pension Fund. When he found out about the Great Fire of Hamburg, which raged for three weeks during May 1842 and destroyed much of the city, he gave concerts in aid of the thousands of homeless there.<ref>Walker, ''Virtuoso Years'', 290.</ref>

===Liszt in Weimar===
In February 1847, Liszt played in Kiev. There he met the Princess [[Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein]], who dominated most of the rest of his life. She persuaded him to concentrate on composition, which meant giving up his career as a travelling virtuoso. After a tour of the Balkans, Turkey and Russia that summer, Liszt gave his final concert for pay at Elisavetgrad in September. He spent the winter with the princess at her estate in Woronince.<ref>Searle, ''New Grove'', 11:31.</ref> By retiring from the concert platform at 35, while still at the height of his powers, Liszt succeeded in keeping the legend of his playing untarnished.<ref>Walker, ''Virtuoso Years'', 442.</ref>

[[File:Franz Liszt 1858.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Liszt in 1858 by [[Franz Hanfstaengl]]]]
The following year, Liszt took up a long-standing invitation of Grand Duchess [[Grand Duchess Maria Pavlovna of Russia (1786–1859)|Maria Pavlovna of Russia]] to settle at [[Weimar]], where he had been appointed ''[[Kapellmeister]] Extraordinaire'' in 1842, remaining there until 1861. During this period he acted as conductor at court concerts and on special occasions at the theatre. He gave lessons to a number of pianists, including the great virtuoso [[Hans von Bülow]], who married Liszt's daughter [[Cosima Wagner|Cosima]] in 1857 (years later, she would marry [[Richard Wagner]]). He also wrote articles championing [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]] and Wagner. Finally, Liszt had ample time to compose and during the next 12 years revised or produced those orchestral and choral pieces upon which his reputation as a composer mainly rests. His efforts on behalf of Wagner, who was then an exile in Switzerland, culminated in the first performance of ''[[Lohengrin (opera)|Lohengrin]]'' in 1850.

Princess Carolyne lived with Liszt during his years in Weimar. She eventually wished to marry Liszt, but since she had been previously married and her husband, Russian military officer Prince Nikolaus zu Sayn-Wittgenstein-Ludwigsburg (1812–1864), was still alive, she had to convince the Roman Catholic authorities that her marriage to him had been invalid. After huge efforts and a monstrously intricate process, she was temporarily successful (September 1860). It was planned that the couple would marry in Rome, on October 22, 1861, Liszt's 50th birthday. Liszt having arrived in Rome on October 21, 1861, the Princess nevertheless declined, by the late evening, to marry him. It appears that both her husband and the Czar of Russia had managed to quash permission for the marriage at the Vatican. The Russian government also impounded her several estates in the Polish Ukraine, which made her later marriage to anybody unfeasible.

===Liszt in Rome===
[[File:Liszt-1870.jpg|thumb|upright|Liszt, photo by Franz Hanfstaengl, June 1867.]]
The 1860s were a period of great sadness in Liszt's private life. On December 13, 1859, he lost his son Daniel, and on September 11, 1862, his daughter Blandine also died. In letters to friends, Liszt afterwards announced that he would retreat to a solitary living. He found it at the monastery ''Madonna del Rosario'', just outside Rome, where on June 20, 1863, he took up quarters in a small, Spartan apartment. He had on June 23, 1857, already joined a [[Franciscan]] order.<ref>See the document in: Burger: ''Lebenschronik in Bildern'', p. 209.</ref>

On April 25, 1865, he received the [[tonsure]] at the hands of Cardinal [[Hohenlohe]]. Following this he was sometimes called the ''[[Abbé]]'' Liszt. He received the four minor orders on July 31, 1865, [[Ostiarius|porter]], [[lector]], [[exorcist]], and [[acolyte]]. On August 14, 1879 he was made an honorary [[canon (priest)|canon]] of [[Albano Laziale|Albano]].<ref>Alan Walker, ''Liszt, Franz'' in [[Oxford Music Online]]</ref> The title 'Abbé', the French equivalent of 'Father', is a courtesy title often given in the 18th Century to men in minor orders; Liszt was never a [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|priest]]. (''Abbé'' can also mean [[abbot]], but that definition does not apply here at all.)

At some occasions, Liszt took part in Rome's musical life. On March 26, 1863, at a concert at the ''Palazzo Altieri'', he directed a programme of sacred music. The "Seligkeiten" of his "Christus-Oratorio" and his "Cantico del Sol di Francesco d'Assisi", as well as [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn's]] "Die Schöpfung" and works by [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]], Beethoven, Jornelli, [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]] and Palestrina were performed. On January 4, 1866, Liszt directed the "Stabat mater" of his "Christus-Oratorio", and on February 26, 1866, his "[[Dante Symphony]]". There were several further occasions of similar kind, but in comparison with the duration of Liszt's stay in Rome, they were exceptions. Bódog Pichler, who visited Liszt in 1864 and asked him for his future plans, had the impression that Rome's musical life was not satisfying for Liszt.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}}

===Threefold life===
Liszt was invited back to Weimar in 1869 to give master classes in piano playing. Two years later he was asked to do the same in Budapest at the Hungarian [[Franz Liszt Academy of Music|Music Academy]]. From then until the end of his life he made regular journeys between Rome, Weimar and Budapest, continuing what he called his "vie trifurquée" or threefold existence. It is estimated that Liszt travelled at least 4000 miles a year during this period in his life—an exceptional figure given his advancing age and the rigours of road and rail in the 1870s.<ref name="wang214781">[[Alan Walker (musicologist)|Walker]], ''New Grove 2'', 14:781.</ref>

===Last years===
[[File:Franz Liszt by Nadar, March 1886.png|thumb|left|Liszt a few months before his death. Photo by [[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]].]]
On July 2, 1881, Liszt fell down the stairs of the Hotel in Weimar. Though friends and colleagues had noted swelling in Liszt's feet and legs when he had arrived in Weimar the previous month, Liszt had up to this point been in reasonably good health, and his body had retained the slimness and suppleness of earlier years. The accident, which immobilised him for eight weeks, changed this. A number of ailments manifested—[[dropsy]], [[asthma]], [[insomnia]], a [[cataract]] of the left eye and chronic heart disease. The last-mentioned eventually contributed to Liszt's death. He became increasingly plagued with feelings of desolation, despair and death—feelings which he expressed in his [[Late works of Franz Liszt|works from this period]]. As he told [[Lina Ramann]], "I carry a deep sadness of the heart which must now and then break out in sound."<ref>[[Alan Walker (musicologist)|Walker]]: ''Final Years''.</ref>

He died in Bayreuth, Germany, on July 31, 1886, at age 74, officially as a result of [[pneumonia]] which he may have contracted during the [[Bayreuth Festival]] hosted by his daughter Cosima. Questions have been posed as to whether [[medical malpractice]] played a direct part in Liszt's demise.<ref>Walker: ''Final Years'', p. 508, p. 515 with n. 18).</ref>

Composer [[Camille Saint-Saëns]], an old friend, whom Liszt had once called "the greatest organist in the world" dedicated his [[Symphony No. 3 (Saint-Saëns)|Symphony No. 3 "Organ Symphony"]] to Liszt; it had premiered in London only a few weeks before his death.

==Liszt as pianist==
===Performing style===
There are few, if any, good sources that give an impression of how Liszt really sounded from the 1820s. [[Carl Czerny]] claimed Liszt was a natural who played according to feeling, and reviews of his concerts especially praise the brilliance, strength and precision in his playing. At least one also mentions his ability to absolutely never change tempo,<ref>Review of a concert in Marseilles on April 11, 1826, reprinted in ''Eckhardt, Maria: Liszt à Marseille, in: Studia Musicologica Academiae Scientarum Hungaricae 24'' (1982), p. 165</ref> which may be due to his father's insistence that he practice with a metronome.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}} His repertoire at this time consisted primarily of pieces in the style of the brilliant Viennese school, such as concertos by [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel|Hummel]] and works by his former teacher Czerny, and his concerts often included a chance for the boy to display his prowess in improvisation.

[[File:Liszt at the Piano.JPG|thumb|350px|''Franz Liszt Fantasizing at the Piano'' (1840), by [[Josef Danhauser|Danhauser]], commissioned by [[Conrad Graf]]. The imagined gathering shows seated [[Alfred de Musset]] or [[Alexandre Dumas, père]], [[George Sand]], Franz Liszt, [[Marie d'Agoult]]; standing [[Hector Berlioz]] or [[Victor Hugo]], [[Niccolò Paganini]], [[Gioachino Rossini]]; a bust of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] on the grand piano (a "Graf"), a portrait of [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]] on the wall, a statue of [[Joan of Arc]] on the far left.<ref>[http://books.google.com.au/books?id=wQ8d0S8BkEsC&pg=PA83 ''After the golden age: romantic pianism and modern performance''] by Kenneth Hamilton, p. 83, [[Oxford University Press]] 2008, ISBN 9780195178265</ref><ref>[http://www.mozartpiano.com/articles/liszt.php "Liszt at the Piano"] by Edward Swenson, June 2006</ref><ref>[http://bpkgate.picturemaxx.com/preview.php?IMGID=00009759 ''Franz Liszt, am Flügel phantasierend''] at [[Prussian Cultural Heritage Foundation|Stiftung Preußischer Kulturbesitz]]</ref>]]
Following the death of Liszt's father in 1827 and his hiatus from the life as a touring virtuoso, it is likely Liszt's playing gradually developed a more personal style. One of the most detailed descriptions of his playing from this time comes from the winter of 1831/1832, during which he was earning a living primarily as a teacher in Paris. Among his pupils were Valerie Boissier, whose mother Caroline kept a careful diary of the lessons. From her we learn that:
<blockquote>
"M. Liszt's playing contains abandonment, a liberated feeling, but even when it becomes impetuous and energetic in his fortissimo, it is still without harshness and dryness. [...] [He] draws from the piano tones that are purer, mellower and stronger than anyone has been able to do; his touch has an indescribable charm. [...] He is the enemy of affected, stilted, contorted expressions. Most of all, he wants truth in musical sentiment, and so he makes a psychological study of his emotions to convey them as they are. Thus, a strong expression is often followed by a sense of fatigue and dejection, a kind of coldness, because this is the way nature works."
</blockquote>

Possibly influenced by Paganini's showmanship, once Liszt began focusing on his career as a pianist again his emotionally vivid presentations of the music were rarely limited to mere sound. His facial expression and gestures at the piano would reflect what he played, for which he was sometimes mocked in the press.<ref>For example, see: Duverger, ''Franz Liszt'', p. 140.</ref> Also noted was the extravagant liberties he could take with the text of a score at this time. Berlioz tells us how Liszt would add cadenzas, tremolos and trills when playing the first movement of Beethoven's Moonlight Sonata, and created a dramatic scene by changing the tempo between Largo and Presto.<ref>See Berlioz's essay about Beethoven's Trios and Sonatas, in: ''Musikalische Streifzüge'', transl. Ely Ellès, Leipzig 1912, pp. 52ff</ref> In his ''Baccalaureus letter'' to George Sand from the beginning of 1837, Liszt admitted that he had done so for the purpose of gaining applause, and promised to follow both the letter and the spirit of a score from then on. It has been debated to what extent he realized his promise, however. By July 1840 the British newspaper ''The Times'' could still report
<blockquote>
"His performance commenced with Händel's Fugue in E minor, which was played by Liszt with an avoidance of everything approaching to meretricious ornament, and indeed scarcely any additions, except a multitude of ingeniously contrived and appropriate harmonies, casting a glow of colour over the beauties of the composition, and infusing into it a spirit which from no other hand it ever received."</blockquote>

===Repertoire===
During his years as a travelling virtuoso Liszt performed an enormous amount of music throughout Europe,<ref>Comp.: Walker: ''Virtuoso Years'', pp. 445ff</ref> but his core repertoire always centered around his own compositions, paraphrases and transcriptions. Studying Liszt's German concerts between 1840 and 1845, the five most frequently played pieces were the ''Grand Galop chromatique'', [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]]'s ''[[Der Erlkönig|Erlkönig]]'' (in Liszt's transcription), ''Réminiscences de Don Juan'', ''Réminiscences de Robert le Diable'', and ''Réminiscences de Lucia de Lammermoor''.<ref>Comp.: Saffle: ''Liszt in Germany'', pp. 187ff</ref> Among the works by other composers we find compositions like [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]]'s ''[[Invitation to the Dance (Weber)|Invitation to the Dance]]'', [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]] [[Mazurkas (Chopin)|mazurkas]], études by composers like [[Ignaz Moscheles]], Chopin and [[Ferdinand Hiller]], but also major works by Beethoven, Weber and Hummel, and from time to time even selections from Bach, Handel and Scarlatti.

Most of the concerts at this time were shared with other artists, and as a result Liszt also often accompanied singers, participated in chamber music, or performed works with an orchestra in addition to his own solo part. Frequently played works include Weber's Konzertstück, Beethoven's Emperor Concerto and Choral Fantasy, and Liszt's reworking of the Hexameron for piano and orchestra. His chamber music repertoire included Hummel's Septet, Beethoven's Archduke Trio and Kreutzer Sonata, and a large selection of songs by composers like Rossini, Donizetti, Beethoven and especially Schubert. At some concerts Liszt could not find musicians to share the program with, and consequently was among the first to give solo piano recitals in the modern sense of the word. The term was coined by the publisher Frederick Beale, who suggested it for Liszt's concert at the [[Hanover Square Rooms]] in London on June 9, 1840,<ref>Walker: ''Virtuoso Years'', p. 356</ref> even though Liszt had given concerts all by himself already by March 1839.<ref>Comp.: Óváry: Ferenc Liszt, p. 147.</ref>

==Musical works==
{{Main|Musical works of Franz Liszt}}
{{See also|List of compositions by Franz Liszt (S.1 – S.350)|List of compositions by Franz Liszt (S.351 – S.999)}}
[[File:Liszt.jpg|thumb|upright|The sound of the fountains of the famous garden of [[Villa d'Este]] inspired Liszt to write a piano piece called "Jeux d'eau à la Villa d'Este". The villa and the portrait of the composer can be seen in the same image made by [[István Orosz]]]]

Liszt was a prolific composer. His composition career has a clear arch that follows his changing professional and personal life.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} Liszt is best known for his piano music, but he wrote extensively for many media. Because of his background as a forefront technical piano virtuoso, Liszt's piano works are often marked by their difficulty. Liszt is very well known as a programmatic composer, or an individual who bases his compositional ideas in extra-musical things such as a poetry or painting. Liszt is credited with the creation of the [[Symphonic Poem]] which is a programmatic orchestral work that generally consists of a single movement.

Liszt's compositional style delved deeply into issues of unity both within and across movements. For this reason, in his most famous and virtuosic works, he is an archetypal Romantic composer. Liszt pioneered the technique of [[thematic transformation]], a method of development which was related to both the existing variation technique and to the new use of the Leitmotif by [[Richard Wagner]].

===Piano Music===

The largest and best known portion of Liszt's music is his original piano work. His thoroughly revised masterwork, "[[Années de pèlerinage]]" ("Years of Pilgrimage") includes arguably his most provocative and stirring pieces. This set of three suites ranges from the virtuosity of the Suisse Orage (Storm) to the subtle and imaginative visualizations of artworks by [[Michelangelo]] and [[Raphael]] in the second set. Années contains some pieces which are loose transcriptions of Liszt's own earlier compositions; the first "year" recreates his early pieces of "Album d'un voyageur", while the second book includes a resetting of his own song transcriptions once separately published as "Tre sonetti di Petrarca" ("Three sonnets of Petrarch"). The relative obscurity of the vast majority of his works may be explained by the immense number of pieces he composed, and the level of technical difficulty which was present in much of his composition.

Liszt's piano works are usually divided into two classes. On the one hand, there are "original works", and on the other hand "transcriptions", "paraphrases" or "fantasies" on works by other composers. Examples for the first class are works such as the piece ''Harmonies poétiques et religieuses'' of May 1833 and the [[Piano Sonata (Liszt)|''Piano Sonata in B minor'']] (1853). Liszt's transcriptions of [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]] songs, his fantasies on operatic melodies, and his piano arrangements of symphonies by [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]] and [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] are examples for the second class. As special case, Liszt also made piano arrangements of his own instrumental and vocal works. Examples of this kind are the arrangement of the second movement "Gretchen" of his ''Faust Symphony'' and the first "Mephisto Waltz" as well as the "[[Liebesträume]] No. 3" and the two volumes of his "Buch der Lieder".

===Transcriptions===

Liszt's composing music on music, being taken as such, was nothing new. Nevertheless, Liszt invested a particular kind of creativity. Instead of just overtaking original melodies and harmonies, he ameliorated them. In case of his fantasies and transcriptions in Italian style, there was a problem which was by Wagner addressed as "Klappern im Geschirr der Perioden".<ref>While "Klappern" is "rattling" or "clattering" and "Geschirr" is "dishes", "Klappern im Geschirr" is a German idiom with meaning, a thing was not properly made. Being taken literally, it can be imagined as a badly made cupboard in which the dishes are clattering when opening or closing a door.</ref> Composers such as [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]] and [[Gaetano Donizetti|Donizetti]] knew that certain forms, usually periods of eight measures, were to be filled with music. Occasionally, while the first half of a period was composed with inspiration, the second half was added with mechanical routine. Liszt corrected this by modifying the melody, the bass and—in cases—the harmonies.

Many of Liszt's results were remarkable. The ''Sonnambula-fantasy'' for example, a concert piece full of charming melodies, could certainly not have been composed either by Bellini or by Liszt alone. Outstanding examples are also the ''Rigoletto-Paraphrase'' and the ''Faust-Walzer''. The most delicate harmonies in parts of those pieces were not invented by [[Giuseppe Verdi|Verdi]] and [[Charles Gounod|Gounod]], but by Liszt. [[Hans von Bülow]] admitted, that Liszt's transcription of his ''Dante Sonett'' "Tanto gentile" was much more refined than the original he himself had composed.<ref>Compare his letter to Louise von Welz of December 13, 1875, in: Bülow, Hans von: ''Briefe'', Band 5, ed. Marie von Bülow, Leipzig 1904, p. 321.</ref> Liszt's transcriptions of Schubert songs, his fantasies on operatic melodies, and his piano arrangements of symphonies by Berlioz and Beethoven are other well known examples of piano transcriptions.{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}}

Liszt was the second pianist (after [[Friedrich Kalkbrenner|Kalkbrenner]]) to [[Beethoven Symphonies (Liszt)|transcribe Beethoven's symphonies for the piano]]. He usually performed them for audiences that would probably never have an opportunity to hear the orchestral version.

===Original songs===
Franz Liszt composed about six dozen original [[song]]s with [[piano]] accompaniment. In most cases the lyrics were in German or French, but there are also some songs in Italian and Hungarian and one song in English. Liszt began with the song "Angiolin dal biondo crin" in 1839, and by 1844 had composed about two dozen songs. Some of them had been published as single pieces. In addition, there was an 1843–1844 series "Buch der Lieder". The series had been projected for three volumes, consisting of six songs each, but only two volumes appeared.

Although Liszt's early songs are seldom sung, they show him in much better light than works such as the paraphrase "[[Gaudeamus igitur]]" and the ''[[Galop]]'' after Bulhakow, both composed in 1843. The transcriptions of the two volumes of the "[[Buch der Lieder]]" can be counted among Liszt's finest piano works.<ref>Alan Walker, in: ''Virtuoso Years'', p. 368, gives an example from "Die [[Lorelei]]". While Walker claims Liszt had with this stolen from the future of music, especially from Wagner's ''[[Tristan und Isolde|Tristan]]'', he overlooked that his example was from Liszt's second transcription of the song, [[List of compositions by Franz Liszt (S.351 – S.999)|S. 369]], composed in 1860 after Liszt had already received the first act of Wagner's opera.</ref> However, the contemporaries had much to criticise with regard to the style of the songs. Further critical remarks can be found in Peter Raabe's ''Liszts Schaffen''.

Today, Liszt's songs are nearly entirely forgotten. As an exception, most frequently the song "Ich möchte hingehen" is cited. It is because of a single bar, most resembling the [[Tristan chord|opening motif]] of Wagner's ''[[Tristan und Isolde]]''. While it is commonly claimed that Liszt wrote that motif ten years before Wagner started work on his masterpiece,<ref>For example, comp: Raabe: ''Liszts Schaffen'', p. 127, and Walker: ''Virtuoso Years'', p. 408.</ref> it has turned out that this is not true: the original version of "[[Ich möchte hingehn]]" was composed in 1844 or 1845. There are four manuscripts, and only a single one, a copy by August Conradi, contains the said bar with the ''Tristan'' motif. It is on a paste-over in Liszt's hand. Since in the second half of 1858 Liszt was preparing his songs for publication, and he just at that time received the first act of Wagner's ''Tristan'', it is most likely that the version on the paste-over was a [[Musical quotation|quotation]] from Wagner.<ref>Compare the discussion in: Mueller, Rena Charin: ''Liszt's "Tasso" Sketchbook: Studies in Sources and Revisions'', Ph. D. dissertation, New York University 1986, p. 118ff.</ref> This is not to say, the motif was originally invented by Wagner. An earlier example can be found in bar 100 of Liszt's ''[[Ballade No.2 in B minor]]'' for piano, composed in 1853.<ref>Still earlier examples from works of Machaut, Gesualdo, [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] and [[Louis Spohr|Spohr]] can be found in: Vogel, Martin: ''Der [[Tristan chord|Tristan-Akkord]] und die Krise der modernen Harmonie-Lehre'', Düsseldorf 1962.</ref>

===Programme music===
[[File:Liszt Ferenc Kalocsa.jpg|thumb|A statue of Liszt|upright]]
Liszt, in some of his works, supported the idea of [[Program music|programme music]] – that is, music intended to evoke extra-musical ideas. By contrast, [[absolute music]] (a radical new idea in the 19th century world of music) stands for itself and is intended to be appreciated without any particular reference to the outside world.

Liszt's own point of view regarding programme music can for the time of his youth be taken from the preface of the ''Album d'un voyageur'' (1837). According to this, a landscape could evoke a certain kind of mood. Since a piece of music could also evoke a mood, a mysterious resemblance with the landscape could be imagined. In this sense the music would not paint the landscape, but it would match the landscape in a third category, the mood.

In July 1854 Liszt wrote his essay about Berlioz and ''[[Harold en Italie|Harold in Italy]]'' that stated that not all music was programme music. If, in the heat of a debate, a person would go so far as to claim the contrary, it would be better to put all ideas of programme music aside. But it would be possible to take means like harmony, modulation, rhythm, instrumentation and others to let a musical motif endure a fate.In any case, a programme should only be added to a piece of music if it was necessarily needed for an adequate understanding of that piece.

Still later, in a letter to Marie d'Agoult of November 15, 1864, Liszt wrote:
:"Without any reserve I completely subscribe to the rule of which you so kindly want to remind me, that those musical works which are in a general sense following a programme must take effect on imagination and emotion, independent of any programme. In other words: All beautiful music must be first rate and always satisfy the absolute rules of music which are not to be violated or prescribed".<ref>Translated from French, after: Liszt-d'Agoult: ''Correspondance II'', p. 411.</ref>

===Symphonic poems===
[[File:Wilhelm von Kaulbach 001.jpg|thumb|''Die Hunnenschlacht'', as painted by [[Wilhelm von Kaulbach]], which in turn inspired one of Liszt's symphonic poems.]]
{{See also|Symphonic poems (Liszt)}}
A symphonic poem or tone poem is a piece of [[orchestra]]l music in one movement in which some extramusical program provides a narrative or illustrative element. This program may come from a [[Poetry|poem]], a story or [[novel]], a [[painting]], or another source. The term was first applied by Liszt to his 13 one-movement orchestral works in this vein. They were not pure [[symphony|symphonic movements]] in the classical sense because they dealt with descriptive subjects taken from [[mythology]], Romantic literature, recent history or imaginative fantasy. In other words, these works were programmatic rather than abstract.<ref>Kennedy, 711.</ref> The form was a direct product of [[Romanticism]] which encouraged literary, pictorial and dramatic associations in music. It developed into an important form of [[program music]] in the second half of the 19th century.<ref name="sp1233">Spencer, P., 1233</ref>

The first 12 symphonic poems were composed in the decade 1848–58 (though some use material conceived earlier); one other, ''Von der Wiege bis zum Grabe'' (''From the Cradle to the Grave''), followed in 1882. Liszt's intent, according to [[Hugh Macdonald|Hugh MacDonald]] in the ''[[Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians|New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (1980)]]'', was for these single-movement works "to display the traditional logic of symphonic thought."<ref>MacDonald, ''New Grove (1980)'', 18:429.</ref> That logic, embodied in [[sonata form]] as [[musical development]], was traditionally the unfolding of latent possibilities in given themes in [[rhythm]], [[melody]] and [[harmony]], either in part or in their entirety, as they were allowed to combine, separate and contrast with one another.<ref>Cooper, 29.</ref> To the resulting sense of struggle Beethoven had added an intensity of feeling and the involvement of his audiences in that feeling, beginning from the [[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|''Eroica'' Symphony]] to use the elements of the craft of music—[[melody]], [[Bass (sound)|bass]], [[counterpoint]], rhythm and harmony—in a new synthesis of elements toward this end.<ref name="temperley18455">Temperley, ''New Grove (1980)'', 18:455.</ref>

Liszt attempted in the symphonic poem to extend this revitalization of the nature of musical discourse and add to it the Romantic ideal of reconciling classical formal principles to external literary concepts. To this end, he combined elements of [[overture]] and [[symphony]] with descriptive elements, approaching symphonic first movements in form and scale.<ref name="sp1233" /> While showing extremely creative amendments to sonata form, Liszt used compositional devices such as [[cyclic form]], [[leitmotif|motifs]] and [[thematic transformation]] to lend these works added coherence.<ref>[[Humphrey Searle|Searle]], "Orchestral Works," 281; [[Alan Walker (musicologist)|Walker]], ''Weimar'', 357.</ref> Their composition proved daunting, requiring a continual process of creative experimentation that included many stages of composition, rehearsal and revision to reach a version where different parts of the musical form seemed balanced.<ref name="ww304">Walker, ''Weimar'', 304.</ref>

===Late works===

{{See also|Late works of Franz Liszt}}
[[File:liszt-vanity-fair.jpg|thumb|upright|Liszt as caricatured in 1886 by ''[[Vanity Fair (British magazine 1868-1914)|Vanity Fair]]'s ''[[Leslie Ward|'Spy']]]]
With some works from the end of the Weimar years Liszt drifted more and more away from the musical taste of his time. An early example is the melodrama "Der traurige Mönch" ("The sad monk") after a poem by [[Nikolaus Lenau]], composed in the beginning of October 1860. While in the 19th century harmonies were usually considered as major or minor triads to which [[consonance and dissonance|dissonances]] could be added, Liszt took the [[augmented triad]] as central chord.

More examples can be found in the third volume of Liszt's ''Années de Pèlerinage''. "Les Jeux d'Eaux à la Villa d'Este" ("The Fountains of the [[Villa d'Este]]"), composed in September 1877, foreshadows the [[impressionism]] of pieces on similar subjects by [[Claude Debussy|Debussy]] and [[Maurice Ravel|Ravel]]. However, other pieces such as the "Marche funèbre, En mémoire de Maximilian I, Empereur du Mexique" ("Funeral march, In memory of Maximilian I, Emperor of Mexico")<ref>The inscription "In magnis et voluisse sat est" ("In great things, to have wished them is sufficient") had in Liszt's youth been correlated with his friend Felix Lichnowski.</ref> composed in 1867 are without stylistic parallel in the 19th and 20th centuries.

At a later stage Liszt experimented with "forbidden" things such as parallel 5ths in the "Csárdás macabre"<ref>Liszt wrote to the cover of the manuscript, "Darf man solch ein Ding schreiben oder anhören?" ("Is it allowed to write such a thing or to listen to it?")</ref> and [[atonality]] in the ''[[Bagatelle sans tonalité]]'' ("Bagatelle without Tonality"). In the last part of his "2de Valse oubliée" ("2nd Forgotten waltz") Liszt composed that he could not find a lyrical melody.{{Clarify|date=September 2008}} Pieces like the "2nd Mephisto-Waltz" are shocking with nearly endless repetitions of short motives. Also characteristic are the "Via crucis" of 1878, as well as ''Unstern!'', ''[[Nuages gris]]'', and the two works entitled ''[[La lugubre gondola]]'' of the 1880s.

==Literary works==
Besides his musical works, Liszt wrote essays about many subjects. Most important for an understanding of his development is the article series "De la situation des artistes" ("On the situation of the artists") which 1835 was published in the Parisian ''Gazette musicale''. In winter 1835–36, during Liszt's stay in [[Geneva]], about half a dozen further essays followed. One of them which should have been published under the name "Emm Prym" was about Liszt's own works. It was sent to Maurice Schlesinger, editor of the ''Gazette musicale''. Schlesinger, however, following an advice of Berlioz, did not publish it.<ref>See the letter by Berlioz to Liszt of April 28, 1836, in: Berlioz, Hector: Correspondance générale II, 1832–1842, éditée sous la direction de Pierre Citron, Paris 1975, p. 295.</ref> In the beginning of 1837, Liszt published a review of some piano works of [[Sigismond Thalberg]]. The review evoked a huge scandal.<ref>For example, see Liszt's letter to J. W. von Wasielewski of January 9, 1857, in: La Mara (ed.): [http://www.fullbooks.com/Letters-of-Franz-Liszt-Volume-1--From-Paris6.html ''Liszts Briefe, Band 1'', translated by Constance Bache], No. 171.</ref> Liszt also published a series of writings titled "Baccalaureus letters", ending in 1841.

During the Weimar years, Liszt wrote a series of essays about operas, leading from [[Christoph Willibald Gluck|Gluck]] to [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]]. Besides, Liszt wrote essays about Berlioz and the symphony ''[[Harold en Italie|Harold in Italy]]'', [[Robert Schumann|Robert]] and [[Clara Schumann]], [[John Field (composer)|John Field's]] nocturnes, songs of [[Robert Franz]], a planned [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]] foundation at Weimar, and other subjects. In addition to these essays, Liszt wrote a book about [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]] as well as a book about the [[Romani people|Romanis]] (Gypsies) and their music in Hungary.

While all of those literary works were published under Liszt's name, it is not quite clear which parts of them he had written himself. It is known from his letters that during the time of his youth there had been collaboration with Marie d'Agoult. During the Weimar years it was the Princess Wittgenstein who helped him. In most cases the manuscripts have disappeared so that it is difficult to decide which of Liszt's literary works actually were works of his own. However, until the end of his life it was Liszt's point of view that it was he who was responsible for the contents of those literary works.

Liszt also worked until at least 1885 on a treatise for modern harmony. Pianist Arthur Friedheim, who also served as Liszt's personal secretary, remembered seeing it among Liszt's papers at Weimar. Liszt told Friedheim that the time was not yet ripe to publish the manuscript, titled ''Sketches for a Harmony of the Future''. Unfortunately, this treatise has been lost.

==Legacy==

Although there was a period in which many considered Liszt's works "flashy" or superficial, it is now held that many of Liszt's compositions such as ''Nuages gris'', ''Les jeux d'eaux a la vill d'Este'', etc., which contain parallel fifths, the whole-tone scale, parallel diminished and augmented triads, and unresolved dissonances, anticipated and influenced twentieth century music like that of Debussy, Ravel and Bartok.<ref>Elie Siegmeister, in ''The New Music Lover's Handbook''; Harvey House 1973, pg.222</ref>

===Liszt's students===
====Early students====
Liszt was one of the most noted teachers of the 19th century. This part of his career commenced after his father's death in August 1827. For the purpose of earning his own and his mother's living, Liszt gave lessons in composition and piano playing. According to a letter to Monsieur de Mancy on December 23, 1829, he was so full of lessons that each day, from half-past eight in the morning till 10 at night, he had scarcely breathing time.<ref>See: La Mara (ed.) [http://www.fullbooks.com/Letters-of-Franz-Liszt-Volume-1--From-Paris1.html ''Liszts Briefe'', Band 1, translated to English by Constance Bache], No. 2.</ref> Most of Liszt's students of this period were amateurs, but there were also some who made a professional career. An example of the first kind is Valerie Boissier, the later Comtesse de Gasparin. Examples of the second kind are Pierre Wolff and Hermann Cohen. During winter 1835–36 they were Liszt's colleagues at the Conservatoire at [[Geneva]]. Wolff then went to [[Saint Petersburg]].

Cohen, who from [[George Sand]] received the nickname "Puzzi", developed into a very successful pianist. Of Jewish origin, he was baptized on August 28, 1847. On this day he experienced what he called an "apparition" of Christ, Mary and the saints in an "ecstasy of love". A year later he became novice of a Carmelite convent. When on October 7, 1850, he was professed, he took the name Père Augstin-Marie du Très Saint Sacrament ("Pater Augustin-Mary of the Holiest Sacrament"). On April 19, 1851, he was ordained as priest. In spring 1862 he met Liszt in [[Rome]]. After colloquies with Pater Augustin, Liszt decided that he would himself become ecclesiastic.<ref>More details will be found in: Cross: ''"Puzzi" Revisited: A new Look at Hermann Cohen'', in the ''Journal of the American Liszt Society'', Volume 36 / July – December 1994, p. 19ff.''</ref>

During the years of his tours Liszt gave only few lessons. Examples of students from this period are Johann Nepumuk Dunkl and Wilhelm von Lenz. Dunkl received lessons from Liszt during winter 1839–40. He had introduced himself by playing [[Sigismond Thalberg|Thalberg's]] Fantasy Op. 6 on melodies from [[Giacomo Meyerbeer|Meyerbeer's]] opera "Robert le diable". Liszt later called him a "Halbschüler" ("half-student"). Lenz, from St. Petersburg, had met Liszt already at the end of 1828. In summer 1842 he was in Paris again where he received further lessons from Liszt. He was merely an amateur with a repertoire of pieces such as Chopin's Nocturne Op. 9/2. In spring 1844, in Dresden, Liszt met the young [[Hans von Bülow]], his later son in law. Bülow's repertoire included Thalberg's Fantasy "La Donna del Lago" Op. 40 and Liszt's ''Sonnambula-Fantasy''.

====Later students====
Since Liszt had settled in Weimar, the number of those who received lessons from him was steadily increasing. Until his death in 1886 there would have been several hundred people who in some sense may have been regarded as his students. August Göllerich published a voluminous catalogue of them.<ref>See: Göllerich: ''Liszt'', pp. 131ff. According to Göllerich's note, his catalogue was the most complete one which until then existed.</ref> In a note he added the remark that he had taken the connotation "student" in its widest sense. As consequence, his catalogue includes names of pianists, violinists, cellists, harpists, organists, composers, conductors, singers and even writers. Another catalogue was prepared by Carl Lachmund. In Lachmund's catalogue his own wife's name, missing in Göllerich's catalogue, is included. She had successfully persuaded Liszt to listen to her playing the harp. After she had played a single piece, without Liszt saying a word about it, she was nominated as Liszt's student by her husband.

The following catalogue by Ludwig Nohl, headed with "Die Hauptschüler Liszts" ("Liszt's main students"), was approved in September 1881 and, with regard to the order of the names, corrected, by Liszt.<ref>See: Nohl: ''Liszt'', pp. 112ff. The book includes the facsimile of a letter by Liszt to Nohl of September 29, 1881, in which Liszt approved the catalogue. Liszt's letter also includes his suggestions with tegard to the order of the names.</ref>
{|cellpadding="3"
|[[Hans von Bülow]]||[[Carl Tausig]]||[[Franz Bendel]]||[[Martin Krause]]
|-
|[[Hans Bronsart von Schellendorff|Hans von Bronsart]]||[[Karl Klindworth]]||Alexander Winterberger
|-
|[[Julius Reubke]]||Theodor Ratzenberger||Robert Pflughaupt
|-
|Friedrich Altschul||Nicolaus Neilissoff||[[Carl Baermann]]||
|-
|[[Dionys Pruckner]]||Ferdinand Schreiber||Louis Rothfeld
|-
|Antal Siposs||George Leitert||Julius Richter
|-
|Louis Jungmann||[[William Mason (composer)|William Mason]]||Max Pinner
|-
|[[Juliusz Zarębski]]||[[Giovanni Sgambati]]||Carlo Lippi
|-
|Siegfried Langaard||[[Karl Pohlig]]||[[Arthur Friedheim]]
|-
|Louis Marek||Eduard Reuss||Bertrand Roth
|-
|Berthold Kellermann||Carl Stasny||Josef Wieniawsky
|-
|[[Hans Bronsart von Schellendorff|Ingeborg Starck-Bronsart]]||[[Sophie Menter|Sophie Menter-Popper]]||Sophie Pflughaupt
|-
|Aline Hundt||[[Max Erdmannsdörfer|Pauline Fichtner-Erdmannsdörfer]]||Ahrenda Blume
|-
|Anna Mehlig||[[Vera Timanova]]||Martha Remmert
|-
|Sara Magnus-Heinze||Dora Petersen||Ilonka Ravacz
|-
|Cäcilia Gaul||Marie Breidenstein||Amy Fay
|}

In 1886 a similar catalogue would have been much longer, including names such as [[Eugen d'Albert]], [[Walter Bache]], Carl Lachmund, [[Moriz Rosenthal]], [[Emil von Sauer|Emil Sauer]], [[Alexander Siloti]], [[Conrad Ansorge]], William Dayas, August Göllerich, [[Bernhard Stavenhagen]], [[August Stradal]], [[István Thomán]] and others.

Nohl's catalogue was by far not complete, and this even when the restriction to the period since the Weimar years is neglected. Of Liszt's Hungarian students, for example, only Antal Siposs and Ilonka Ravasz were mentioned. Siposs had become Liszt's student in 1858 in Weimar, after Liszt had heard him playing at a concert and invited him. In 1861 Siposs returned to Budapest, where in 1875 he founded a music school.<ref>See: Prahács: ''Briefe aus ungarischen Sammlungen'', p. 362, n. 1 to letter 263.</ref> Ilonka Ravasz was since winter 1875–76 one of Liszt's most gifted students at the newly founded Royal Academy for Music at Budapest. Astonishingly, the names of Aladár Juhász and Károly Aggházy are missing in Nohl's catalogue, although both had been among Liszt's favourite students at the Hungarian Academy.

Also missing are the names of Agnes Street-Klindworth and Olga Janina. Agnes Street-Klindworth had in 1853 arrived in Weimar, where she received lessons in piano playing from Liszt and lessons in composition from Peter Cornelius. Until 1861 she was Liszt's secret mistress. Olga Janina had joined the circle around Liszt in 1869 in Rome. According to Liszt's impression, she had rare and admirable musical talents.<ref>See his letter to Olga Janina of May 17, 1871, in: Bory, Robert: ''Diverses lettres inédites de Liszt'', in: ''Schweizerisches Jahrbuch für Musikwissenschaft'' 3 (1928), p. 22.</ref> In his presence, she performed his piano concertos in E-flat and A Major as well as further examples of his works.

Unfortunately, Olga Janina fell in love with Liszt. They had a short affair, until in spring 1871—on Liszt's initiative—they separated. Olga went to America, but in spring 1873 returned to Budapest. In a telegram to Liszt she had announced that she would kill him. After three adventurous days together with Liszt in an apartment in Budapest she left.<ref>Some details will be found in: Legány: ''Ferenc Liszt and His Country, 1869–1873''.</ref> Together with Liszt's student Franz Servais she first went to Belgium where she gave concerts which were brilliant successes. She then, together with Servais, went to Italy.

During the 1870s Olga Janina wrote several scandalous books about Liszt, among them the novel ''Souvenirs d'une Cosaque'', published under the pseudonym "Robert Franz". In Göllerich's catalogue of Liszt's students she is registered as "Janina, Olga, Gräfin (Marquise Cezano) (Genf)". Thus she may have changed her name and moved to Geneva. Taking the preface of her ''Souvenirs d'une Cosaque'' literally, she had first moved from Italy to Paris where she had lived in poverty. The last paragraph of the preface can be read as a dedication to Liszt.

Besides Liszt's master students there was a crowd of those who could at best reach only moderate abilities.<ref>On June 17, 1880, it was Hans von Bülow, who gave the lesson instead of Liszt. He tried to get rid of those with minor abilities, but in vain. A couple of days later they went weeping to Liszt and were accepted again; see: Ramann: ''Lisztiana'', p. 151, n. 55.</ref> In such cases, Liszt's lessons changed nothing.<ref>For example, see: Stradal: ''Erinnerungen an Franz Liszt'', pp. 157f.</ref> However, also several of Liszt's master students were disappointed about him.<ref>See: Stradal: ''Erinnerungen an Franz Liszt'', p. 158.</ref> An example is Eugen d'Albert, who in the end was on nearly hostile terms with Liszt.<ref>For example, see: Ramann: ''Lisztiana'', p. 341.</ref> The same must be said of [[Felix Draeseke]] who had joined the circle around Liszt at Weimar in 1857, and who during the first half of the 1860s had been one of the most prominent representatives of the [[New German School]]. In Nohl's catalogue he is not even mentioned. Also Hans von Bülow, since the 1860s, had more and more drifted towards a direction which was not only different from Liszt's, but opposite to it

According to August Stradal, some of Liszt's master students had claimed that [[Anton Rubinstein]] was a better teacher than Liszt.<ref>See his ''Erinnerungen an Franz Liszt'', p. 158.</ref> It might have been meant as allusion to Emil Sauer, who had in [[Moscow]] studied with [[Nikolai Rubinstein]]. During a couple of months in summers 1884 and 1885 he studied with Liszt at Weimar. When he arrived for the first time, he already was a virtuoso of strongest calibre who shortly before had made a concert tour through Spain. The question of whether there was any change in his playing after he had studied with Liszt remains open. According to his autobiography ''Meine Welt'', he had found it imposing when Arthur Friedheim was thundering Liszt's ''Lucrezia-Fantasy''. Regarding Liszt's playing a Beethoven Sonata, however, he wrote, Liszt had at least given a good performance as actor. As his opinion, Sauer had told his fellow students that Anton Rubinstein was a greater composer than Liszt.<ref>See: Steinbeck: ''Liszt's approach to piano playing'', p. 70.</ref> In Sauer's own compositions, a piano concerto, two sonatas, about two and a half dozen Etudes and several concert pieces, no influence of Liszt as composer of the 1880s can be recognized.

===Liszt's teaching approach===
Liszt offered his students little technical advice, expecting them to "wash their dirty linen at home," as he phrased it. Instead, he focused on musical interpretation with a combination of anecdote, metaphor and wit. He advised one student tapping out the opening chords of Beethoven's [[Piano Sonata No. 21 (Beethoven)|''Waldstein'' Sonata]], "Do not chop beefsteak for us." To another who blurred the rhythm in Liszt's ''Gnomenreigen'' (usually done by playing the piece too fast in the composer's presence): "There you go, mixing salad again." Liszt also wanted to avoid creating carbon copies of himself; rather, he believed in preserving artistic individuality.<ref name="wang214780">Walker, ''New Grove 2'', 14:780.</ref>

There were some pieces which Liszt famously refused to hear at his masterclasses. Among them were [[Carl Tausig]]'s transcription of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]]'s organ [[Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565|Toccata and Fugue in D minor]], and [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]]'s [[Scherzo No. 2 (Chopin)|Scherzo No. 2 in B-flat minor]]. Liszt also did not like to hear his own Polonaise No. 2 in E Major, as it was overplayed and frequently badly played.

Liszt did not charge for lessons. He was troubled when German newspapers published details of pedagogue [[Theodor Kullak]]'s will, revealing that Kullak had generated more than one million marks from teaching. "As an artist, you do not rake in a million marks without performing some sacrifice on the altar of Art," Liszt told his biographer [[Lina Ramann]]. However, [[Carl Czerny]] charged an expensive fee for lessons and even dismissed [[Stephen Heller]] when he was unable to afford to pay for his lessons. Interestingly, Liszt spoke very fondly of his former teacher, to whom he dedicated his [[Transcendental Etudes]]. He wrote the ''Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung'', urging Kullak's sons to create an endowment for needy musicians, as Liszt himself frequently did.<ref name="wang214781" />

In the summer of 1936, Hungarian-French music critic [[Emil Haraszti]] published a two-part essay on Liszt, entitled ''Liszt á Paris'' in the publication ''[[:fr:La Revue musicale|La Revue musicale]]''. In 1937 he published ''Deux Franciscians: Adam et Franz Liszt'' and in December of that year published ''La Probleme Liszt''. The essay, which is a deep exploration of the musicality of Liszt, established Haraszti as one of the foremost Liszt scholars of his generation.<ref>[http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lCw4cxHmpgYC&pg=PA19&lpg=PA19&dq=Emil+Haraszti&source=bl&ots=Y8H0zcmfZm&sig=ZU0kUOQiaEFvSW7mC5yE5jnkIrY&hl=en&ei=MkuESpRiw8j5BqrR1J8C&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=6#v=onepage&q=Emil%20Haraszti&f=false Franz Liszt, Volume 1]</ref>

===Royal Academy of Music at Budapest===
Since the early 1860s there were attempts of some of Liszt's Hungarian contemporaries to have him settled with a position in Hungary. In January 1862, in Rome, Liszt received a letter by Baron Gábor Prónay, since 1850 President of a Conservatory in Pest. Baron Prónay offered Liszt the position as President. When in 1867 the Conservatory became "Ungarisches National Konservatorium" ("Hungarian National Conservatory"), Baron Prónay still tried to persuade Liszt to take the leadership.<ref>See: Prahács: ''Briefe aus ungarischen Sammlungen'', n.3 to letter 122.</ref> Liszt, however, in letters to Baron Prónay and further ones of his Hungarian contemporaries explained that his career as virtuoso and as conductor had finally ended. If he took a position in Hungary, it would be solely for the purpose of spreading his own compositions, his Oratorios and his symphonic works. Besides, as soon as he left Rome, it was his duty to spend some months of the year in Weimar. The Grand Duc had for several times asked for it.<ref>For example, see Liszt's letter of November 10, 1862, to Mihály Mosonyi, in: Prahács: ''Briefe aus ungarischen Sammlungen'', pp. 112ff. A similar letter to Baron Prónay of November 9, 1862, is solely available in a translation to Hugarian, in ''Zenlap'' of November 27, 1862, p. 69f.</ref>

In 1871 the Hungarian Prime Minister [[Gyula Andrássy]] made a new attempt. In a writing of June 4, 1871, to the Hungarian King<ref>In 1867 the Austrian Emperor [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph I]] had been crowned as Hungarian King.</ref> he demanded an annual rent of 4,000 Gulden and the rank of a "Königlicher Rat" ("Councellor of the King") for Liszt, who in return would permanently settle in Budapest, directing the orchestra of the National Theatre as well as music schools and further musical institutions. With decision of June 13, 1871, the King agreed.<ref>See: Prahács: ''Briefe aus ungarischen Sammlungen'', p. 353, n. 1 to letter 221.</ref> By that time there were also plans of the foundation of a Royal Academy for Music at Budapest, of which the Hungarian state should be in charge. The Royal Academy is not to be confused with the National Conservatory which still existed. The National Conservatory, of which the city Budapest was in charge, was until his death in 1875 directed by Baron Prónay. His successor was Count Géza Zichy.

The plan of the foundation of the Royal Academy was in 1871 refused by the Hungarian Parliament, but a year later the Parliament agreed. Liszt was ordered to take part in the foundation. In March 1875 he was nominated as President. According to his wishes, the Academy should have been opened not earlier than in late autumn 1876. However, the Academy was officially opened already on November 14, 1875. Since it was Liszt's opinion that his colleagues [[Ferenc Erkel|Franz Erkel]], the director, [[Kornél Ábrányi]] and [[Robert Volkmann]] could quite well do this job without him, he was absent. He arrived on February 15, 1876, in Budapest. On March 2 he started giving lessons, and on March 30 he left. The main purpose of his coming to Budapest had been a charity concert on March 20 in favour of the victims of a flood.

In November 1875, 38 students had passed the entrance examinations. 21 of them wanted to study piano playing, the others composition. Details of the entrance examinations are known from an account by Károly Swoboda (Szabados), one of Liszt's first students at the Royal Academy.<ref>See: Prahács: ''Franz Liszt und die Budapester Musikakademie'', p. 61.</ref> According to this, candidates for a piano class had to play a single piano piece of their own choice. It could be a sonata movement by Mozart, Clementi or Beethoven. The candidates then had to sight read an easy further piece. Candidates for a composition class had to reproduce and continue a given melody of 4, 5 or 8 bars, after Volkmann had played it for about half a dozen times to them. Besides, they had to put harmonies to a given bass which was written on a table.

After Liszt had arrived, he selected 8 students for his class for advanced piano playing. To these came Áladár Juhász as the most outstanding one. As exception, he was to study piano playing only with Liszt.<ref>Liszt later tried to install Juhász with a position at the Academy, but for some resons Juhász drifted towards a different path; see: Prahács (ed.): ''Briefe aus ungarischen Sammlungen'', p. 405f, n. 5 to letter 439.</ref> The others were matriculated as students of Erkel, since it was him from whom they would receive their lessons during Liszt's absence. Erkel also gave lessons in specific matters of Hungarian music. Volkmann gave lessons in composition and instrumentation. Ábrányi gave lessons in music aesthetics and harmony theory. Liszt had wished that there should have been a class for sacral music, led by Franz Xaver Witt. He had also wished that Hans von Bülow should take a position as piano professor. However, neither Witt nor Bülow agreed.

In spite of the conditions under which Liszt had in June 1871 been appointed as "Königlicher Rat", he neither directed the orchestra of the National Theatre, nor did he permanently settle in Hungary.<ref>As consequence, there were complaints from the side of the Hungarian Parliament, according to which Liszt's appointment had been a mistake.</ref> As usual case, he arrived in mid-winter in Budapest. After one or two concerts of his students by the beginning of spring he left. He never took part in the final examinations, which were in summer of every year. Most of his students were still matriculated as students of either Erkel or later Henrik Gobbi. Some of them joined the lessons which he gave in summer in Weimar. In winter, when he was in Budapest, some students of his Weimar circle joined him there.

Judging from the concert programs of Liszt's students at Budapest, the standard resembled that of an advanced masterclass of our days. There was a difference, however, with regard to the repertoire. Most works as played at the concerts were works of composers of the 19th century, and many of the composers are now forgotten. As rare exceptions, occasionally a piece of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]] or [[George Frideric Handel|Händel]] was played. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]] and [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], but also [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]] and [[Carl Maria von Weber|Weber]], were missing. Of [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]] only a comparatively small selection of his works was played. In typical cases Liszt himself was merely represented with his transcriptions.

The actual abilities Liszt's students at Budapest and the standard of their playing can only be guessed. Liszt's lessons of winter 1877–78 were in letters to Lina Ramann described by Auguste Rennebaum, herself Liszt's student at the Royal Academy. According to this, there had been some great talents in Liszt's class. However, the abilities of the majority had been very poor.<ref>See: Ramann: ''Lisztiana'', p. 125.</ref> August Stradal, who visited Budapest in 1885 and 1886, took the same point of view.<ref>See his ''Erinnerungen an Franz Liszt'', p. 46.</ref> In contrast to this, Deszö Legány claimed, much in Stradal's book was nonsense, taken from Stradal's own fantasy.<ref>See the critical notes in his ''Ferenc Liszt and His Country, 1874–1886''.</ref> Legány's own reliability, however, is not beyond doubt since many of his attempts of whitewashing Liszt and—even more—the Hungarian contemporaries are too obvious. Margit Prahács shared and supported Stradal's view. Her quotations from the contemporary Hungarian press show that much of Stradal's critique had been true. Concerning Liszt's relation with his Hungarian contemporaries at the end of his life, for example, in spring 1886 the journal ''Zenelap'' wrote:
:"It is solely in Budapest, where musicians are wandering on such high clouds that they hardly take notice when Liszt is among them."<ref>Translated from German after: Prahács: ''Franz Liszt und die Budapester Musikakademie'', p. 91.</ref>

In 1873, at the occasion of Liszt's 50th anniversary as performing artist, the city Budapest had installed a "Franz Liszt Stiftung" ("Franz Liszt Foundation"). The foundation was destined to provide stipends of 200 Gulden for three students of the Academy who had shown excellent abilities and especially had achieved progress with regard to Hungarian music. Every year it was Liszt alone who could decide which one of the students should receive the money. He gave the total sum of 600 Gulden either to a single student or to a group of three or more of them, not asking whether they were actually matriculated at the Academy.

It was also Liszt's habit to declare all students who took part in his lessons as his private students. As consequence, nearly none of them paid any charge at the Academy. Since the Academy needed the money, there was a ministerial order of February 13, 1884, according to which all those who took part in Liszt's lessons had to pay an annual charge of 30 Gulden. However, Liszt did not respect this, and in the end the Minister resigned. In fact, the Academy was still the winner, since Liszt gave much money from his taking part in charity concerts.

The lessons in specific matters of Hungarian music turned out as problematic enterprise, since there were different opinions, exactly what Hungarian music actually was. In 1881 a new edition of Liszt's book about the Romanis and their music in Hungary appeared. According to this, Hungarian music was identical with the music as played by the Hungarian Romanis. Liszt had also claimed, Semitic people, among them the Romanis, had no genuine creativity. For this reason, according to Liszt's book, they only adopted melodies from the country where they lived. After the book had appeared, Liszt was in Budapest accused for a presumed spreading of anti-Semitic ideas.<ref>Liszt was as composer boycotted by the Budapest Philharmonic Society. On October 22, 1881, his 70th birthday, for example, they gave a concert where exclusively works by Brahms, directed by Brahms himself, were played. Liszt afterwards refused to attend any further concert of the Philharmonic Society.</ref> In the following year no students at all wanted to be matriculated for lessons in Hungarian music. According to the issue of July 1, 1886, of the journal ''Zenelap'', this subject at the Hungarian Academy had already a long time ago been dropped.

In 1886 there was still no class for sacral music, but there were classes for solo and chorus singing, piano, violin, cello, organ and composition. The number of students had grown to 91 and the number of professors to 14. Since the winter of 1879–80, the Academy had its own building. On the first floor there was an apartment where since the winter of 1880–81 Liszt lived during his stays in Budapest. His last stay was from January 30 to March 12, 1886. After Liszt's death Janós Végh, since 1881 vice-president, became president. No earlier than 40 years later the Academy was renamed to "Franz Liszt Akademie". Until then, due to world war I, Liszt's Europe and also his Hungary had died. Mainly, the only connection between Franz Liszt and the "Franz Liszt Akademie" was the name.

===Liszt School of Music Weimar===
On June 24, 1872, the composer and conductor [[:de:Carl Müllerhartung|Karl Müller-Hartung]] founded an "Orchesterschule" ("Orchestra School") at Weimar. Although Liszt and Müller-Hartung were on friendly terms, Liszt took no active part in that foundation. The "Orchesterschule" later developed to a conservatory which still exists and is now called "[[Hochschule für Musik "Franz Liszt", Weimar]]".

==See also==
* [[:Category:Compositions by Franz Liszt|Compositions by Franz Liszt]]
* [[War of the Romantics]]
* [[Cross motif]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Bibliography==
* ed. Abraham, Gerald, ''Music of Tchaikovsky'' (New York, [[W. W. Norton & Company]], 1946). ISBN n/a.
** Cooper, Martin, "The Symphonies"
* Bory, Robert: ''Une retraite romantique en Suisse, Liszt et la Comtesse d'Agoult'', Lausanne 1930.
* Burger, Ernst: ''Franz Liszt, Eine Lebenschronik in Bildern und Dokumenten'', München 1986.
* Demko, Miroslav: ''Franz Liszt compositeur Slovaque'', L´Age d´Homme, Suisse 2003.
* Ehrhardt, Damien (éd.): ''Franz Liszt – Musique, médiation, interculturalité'' ([http://www.klincksieck.com/livre/?GCOI=22520100111740&fa=sommaire Etudes germaniques] 63/3, 2008).
* Franz, Robert (i. e. Janina, Olga): ''Souvenirs d'une Cosaque'', Deuxième édition, Paris 1874.
* Göllerich, August: ''Musikerbiographien, Achter Band, Liszt, Zweiter Theil'', Reclam, Leipzig, without date (1887–88).
* Gibbs, Christopher H. and Gooley, Dana. Franz Liszt and his World. (Princeton : Princeton University Press, 2006.)
* Hamburger, Klara (ed.): ''Franz Liszt, Beiträge von ungarischen Autoren'', Budapest 1978.
* ed. Hamilton, Kenneth, ''The Cambridge Companion to Liszt'' (Cambridge and New York: [[Cambridge University Press]], 2005). ISBN 0-521-64462-3 (paperback).
** Shulstad, Reeves, "Liszt's symphonic poems and symphonies"
* Jerger, Wilhelm (ed.): ''The Piano Master Classes of Franz Liszt 1884–1886, Diary Notes of August Göllerich'', translated by Richard Louis Zimdars, [[Indiana University Press]] 1996.
* ed. Latham, Alison, ''The Oxford Companion to Music'' (Oxford and New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 2002). ISBN 0-19-866212-2
** Spencer, Piers, "Symphonic poem [tone-poem]"
* Legány, Deszö: ''Franz Liszt, Unbekannte Presse und Briefe aus Wien 1822–1886'', Wien 1984.
* Legány, Dezsö: ''Ferenc Liszt and His Country, 1869–1873'', Occidental Press, Budapest 1983.
* Legány, Dezsö: ''Ferenc Liszt and His Country, 1874–1886'', Occidental Press, Budapest 1992.
* Liszt, Franz: ''Briefwechsel mit seiner Mutter'', edited and annotated by Klara Hamburger, Eisenstadt 2000.
* Liszt, Franz and d'Agoult, Marie: ''Correspondence'', ed. Daniel Ollivier, ''Tome I: 1833–1840'', Paris 1933, ''Tome II: 1840–1864'', Paris 1934.
* Motta, Cesare Simeone: Liszt Viaggiatore Europeo, Moncalieri, 2000 (ISBN 8877600586)
* Nohl, Ludwig: ''Musikerbiographien, Vierter Band, Liszt, Erster Theil'', Reclam, Leipzig, without date (1881–82).
* Ollivier, Daniel: ''Autour de Mme d'Agoult et de Liszt'', Paris 1941.
* Prahács, Margit (ed.): ''Franz Liszt, Briefe aus ungarischen Sammlungen, 1835–1886'', Budapest 1966.
* Prahács, Margit: ''Franz Liszt und die Budapester Musikakademie'', in: Hamburger (ed.): ''Franz Liszt, Beiträge von ungarischen Autoren'', pp. 49ff.
* Raabe, Peter: ''Liszts Schaffen'', Cotta, Stuttgart und Berlin 1931.
*Ramann, Lina: ''Lisztiana, Erinnerungen an Franz Liszt in Tagebuchblättern, Briefen und Dokumenten aus den Jahren 1873–1886/87'', ed. Arthur Seidl, text revision by Friedrich Schnapp, Mainz 1983.
* Rellstab, Ludwig: ''Franz Liszt'', Berlin 1842.
* [[Charles Rosen|Rosen, Charles]]. The Romantic Generation. Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1995.
* ed [[Stanley Sadie|Sadie, Stanley]], ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, First Edition'' (London: Macmillian, 1980). ISBN 0-333-23111-2
** [[Hugh Macdonald|MacDonald, Hugh]], "Symphonic poem," "Transformation, thematic"
** [[Humphrey Searle|Searle, Humphrey]], "Liszt, Franz"
** Temperley, Nicholas, "Symphony: II. 19th century"
* Saffle, Michael: ''Liszt in Germany, 1840–1845'', ''Franz Liszt Studies Series No.2'', Pendragon Press, Stuyvesant, NY, 1994.
* Sauer, Emil: ''Meine Welt'', Stuttgart 1901.
* Steinbeck, Arne: ''Franz Liszt's approach to piano playing'', Ph.D. dissertation, [[University of Maryland, College Park]] 1971.
* Stradal, August: ''Erinnerungen an Franz Liszt'', Bern, Leipzig 1929.
* [[Alan Walker (musicologist)|Walker, Alan]]: ''Franz Liszt, The Virtuoso Years (1811–1847)'', revised edition, [[Cornell University Press]] 1987.
*Walker, Alan: ''Franz Liszt, The Final Years (1861–1886)'', Cornell University Press 1997.
*Walker, Alan: Article ''Liszt, Franz'', in: Sadie, Stanley (ed.), ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Second Edition'', London 2001).
* Walker, Alan et al. "[http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/48265pg28 Liszt, Franz."] Grove Music Online. Oxford Music Online. 20 November 2009. {{Subscription}}
* Watson, Derek: ''Liszt'', Schirmer Books, 1989, ISBN 0-02-872705-3

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource1911Enc|Liszt, Franz}}
* {{dmoz|Arts/Music/Composition/Composers/L/Liszt,_Franz_Joseph}}
* {{IMSLP | id=Liszt%2C_Franz | cname=Franz Liszt}}
* {{WIMA|idx=Liszt}}
* {{ChoralWiki}}
* {{gutenberg author| id=Franz+Liszt | name=Franz Liszt}}
* {{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-79048}}
*{{MutopiaComposer|LisztF}}
* [http://www.load.cd/sheetmusic/294_franz_liszt/ Printable scores by Franz Liszt]
* [http://www.zeno.org//Musik/M/Ramann,+Lina/Franz+Liszt Lina Ramann's classical Liszt biography] at [http://www.Zeno.org Zeno.org]
* [http://home.earthlink.net/~marnest/discliszt.html The Students of Liszt on Record and Reproducing Piano Roll] by Mark Arnest
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PVni1vngD-c Franz Liszt], written and directed by James a. Fitzpatrick; fictional 11-minute 1925 film short about Franz Liszt; Liszt's music performed by [[Nathaniel Shilkret]]'s Orchestra.
{{Franz Liszt}}
{{Romanticism}}


{{Persondata
|NAME= Liszt, Franz
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= [[Composer]], [[conducting|conductor]], [[pedagogue]], [[pianist]]
|DATE OF BIRTH= October 22, 1811
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Raiding (Austria)|Doborján]]/[[Burgenland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary]]
|DATE OF DEATH= July 31, 1886
|PLACE OF DEATH=Bayreuth, Germany
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Liszt, Franz}}
[[Category:Franz Liszt| ]]
[[Category:Romantic composers]]
[[Category:Hungarian people of Austrian descent]]
[[Category:Hungarian classical organists]]
[[Category:Hungarian classical pianists]]
[[Category:Hungarian composers]]
[[Category:Hungarian Germans]]
[[Category:Composers for pipe organ]]
[[Category:Organ improvisers]]
[[Category:Hungarian Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Franciscans]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)]]
[[Category:People from Oberpullendorf District]]
[[Category:1811 births]]
[[Category:1886 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century Hungarian people]]
[[Category:Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society]]

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[[zh-classical:李斯特]]
[[zh:弗朗茨·李斯特]]

Clara Schumann

2010-10-18T13:21:57Z

Rigaudon: /* Music of Clara Schumann */ Fixed name of publisher

[[Image:clara s.jpg|right|thumb|Sketch of Clara Wieck Schumann]]

'''Clara Schumann''' (''[[née]]'' '''Clara Josephine Wieck'''; 13 September 1819 – 20 May 1896) was a [[Germany|German]] musician and composer, considered one of the most distinguished [[piano|pianists]] of the [[Romantic music|Romantic era]]. She exerted her influence over a 61-year concert career, changing the format and repertoire of the piano recital and the tastes of the listening public.
Her husband was the composer [[Robert Schumann]]. She and her husband encouraged [[Johannes Brahms]], and she was the first pianist to give public performances of some of Brahms' works, notably the [[Variations and Fugue on a Theme by Handel]].

== Early life ==
[[File:Clara Wieck im Alter von 15 Jahren.jpg|thumb|left|Clara Wieck, from an 1835 lithograph]]
Clara Josephine Wieck was born in [[Leipzig]] on 13 September 1819 to [[Friedrich Wieck|Friedrich]] and Marianne Wieck (''née'' Tromlitz).<ref name="Hall">Hall.</ref> Her parents divorced when she was four years old; Clara was raised by her father.<ref name="Hall" /> In March 1828, at the age of eight, the young Clara Wieck performed at the [[Leipzig]] home of Dr. Ernst Carus, director of a mental hospital at [[Colditz Castle]], and met another gifted young pianist invited to the musical evening named [[Robert Schumann]], nine years older than she. Schumann admired Clara's playing so much that he asked permission from his mother to discontinue his studies of the law, which had never interested him much, and take music lessons with Clara's father, Friedrich Wieck. While taking lessons, he took rooms in the Wieck household, staying about a year.

In 1830, at the age of eleven, Clara left on a concert tour to [[Paris]] via other European cities, accompanied by her father. She gave her first solo concert at the Leipzig [[Gewandhaus]]. In [[Weimar]], she performed a bravura piece by [[Henri Herz]] for [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], who presented her with a medal with his portrait and a written note saying, "For the gifted artist Clara Wieck." During that tour, [[Niccolò Paganini]] was in Paris, and he offered to appear with her.<ref name=joseph>Joseph Braunstein, Liner notes for [[Michael Ponti]]'s recording of Clara Schumann's Piano Concerto No. 1 in A minor, Op. 7</ref> However, her Paris recital was poorly attended as many people had fled the city due to an outbreak of [[cholera]].<ref name=joseph/>

{| class="toccolours" style="float: right; margin-left: 0em; margin-right: 0em; font-size: 85%; background:#F0E68C; color:black; width:23em; max-width: 25%;" cellspacing="5"
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The appearance of this artist can be regarded as epoch-making.... In her creative hands, the most ordinary passage, the most routine motive acquires a significant meaning, a color, which only those with the most consummate artistry can give.
|-
| style="text-align: left;" | An anonymous music critic, writing of Clara Wieck's 1837–1838 Vienna recitals<ref name="Nancya249" />
|}
At the age of 18, Clara Wieck performed a series of recitals in [[Vienna]] from December 1837 to April 1838.<ref name="Nancya249">Reich (1986), 249.</ref> Austria's leading dramatic poet, [[Franz Grillparzer]], wrote a poem entitled "Clara Wieck and Beethoven" after hearing Wieck perform the ''[[Piano Sonata No. 23 (Beethoven)|Appassionata]]'' Sonata during one of these recitals.<ref name="Nancya249" /> Wieck performed to sell-out crowds and laudatory critical reviews; Benedict Randhartinger, a friend of [[Franz Schubert]], gave Wieck an autograph copy of Schubert's ''Erlkönig'', inscribing it "To the celebrated artist, Clara Wieck."<ref name="Nancya249" /> [[Frédéric Chopin]] described her playing to [[Franz Liszt]], who came to hear one of Wieck's concerts and subsequently "praised her extravagantly in a letter that was published in the Parisian ''Revue et Gazette Musicale'' and later, in translation, in the Leipzig journal ''Neue Zeitschrift für Musik''."<ref name="Nancya250">Reich (1986), 250.</ref> On 15 March, Wieck was named a ''Königliche und Kaiserliche Kammervirtuosin'' ("Royal and Imperial Chamber Virtuoso"), [[Austria]]'s highest musical honor.<ref name="Nancya250" />

In her early years her repertoire, selected by her father, was showy and popular, in the style common to the time, with works by [[Friedrich Kalkbrenner|Kalkbrenner]], [[Adolf von Henselt|Henselt]], [[Sigismond Thalberg|Thalberg]], Herz, [[Johann Peter Pixis|Pixis]], [[Carl Czerny|Czerny]], and her own compositions. As she matured, however, becoming more established and planning her own programs, she began to play works by the new Romantic composers, such as Chopin, [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]] and, of course, Robert Schumann, as well as the great, less showy, more "difficult" composers of the past, such as [[Alessandro Scarlatti|Scarlatti]], [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]], and Schubert. She also frequently appeared in chamber music recitals of works by [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]], Mozart, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Schumann, and Brahms.<ref name=joseph/>

==Marriage==
Robert Schumann had been attracted to Clara since she was fifteen. By the time she was seventeen, Schumann was in love with her. The next year (1837), Schumann asked her father Friedrich for Clara's hand in marriage, but he refused.

During the next year (Clara's nineteenth), Friedrich did everything he ever could to prevent her from marrying Schumann, forcing the lovers to take him to court. During this period Schumann, inspired by his love for Wieck, wrote many of his most famous [[lied]]er. They eventually married on September 12, 1840. She continued to perform and compose after the marriage even as she raised seven children, an eighth child having died in infancy. In the various tours on which she accompanied her husband, she extended her own reputation beyond Germany, and her efforts to promote his works gradually made his work accepted throughout Europe.

In 1853, [[Johannes Brahms]], aged twenty, met Clara and Robert in Leipzig and immediately impressed both of them with his talent. Brahms became a lifelong friend to Clara, sustaining her through the illness of Robert, asking for her advice about new compositions, even caring for her young children while she went on tour. They remained good friends up until Clara's death, however there is no historic evidence that their relationship was ever more than just friendship.

==Later career==
Clara Schumann's reputation brought her into contact with the leading musicians of the day, including [[Felix Mendelssohn|Mendelssohn]], [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]], and [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]]. She also met [[violin]]ist [[Joseph Joachim]] who became one of her frequent performance partners.
[[Image:Clara Schumann, pianist and wife of Robert Schumann.jpg|thumb|right|Clara Schumann, "One of the most soulful and famous pianists of the day," said [[Edvard Grieg]].]]
Clara Schumann often took charge of the finances and general household affairs due to Robert's mental instability. Part of her responsibility included making money, which she did by giving concerts, although she continued to play throughout her life not only for the income, but because she was a concert artist by training and by nature. Robert, while admiring her talent, wanted a traditional wife to bear children and make a happy home, which in his eyes and the eyes of society were in direct conflict with the life of a performer. Furthermore, while she loved touring, Robert hated it.

After Robert's death (July 29, 1856), Clara devoted herself principally to the interpretation of his works. But when she first visited England in 1856 largely through the good offices of [[William Sterndale Bennett]], the English composer and friend of her late husband, the critics received Robert's music with a chorus of disapproval. She returned to [[London]] in 1865 and continued her visits annually, with the exception of four seasons, until 1882. She also appeared there each year from 1885 to 1888.

She played a particular role in restoring Brahms's [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Brahms)|D minor concerto]] to the general repertory; it had fallen out of favour after its premiere, and was only rehabilitated in the 1870s, thanks mainly to the efforts of Clara Schumann and Brahms himself.<ref name=joseph/>

She was initially interested in the works of Liszt, but later developed an outright hostility to him. She ceased to play any of his works; she suppressed her husband's dedication to Liszt of his ''[[Fantasie in C (Schumann)|Fantasie in C major]]'' when she published Schumann's complete works; and she refused to attend a Beethoven centenary festival in Vienna in 1870 when she heard that Liszt and [[Richard Wagner]] would be participating.<ref name=joseph/>

She was particularly scathing of Wagner. Of ''[[Tannhäuser (opera)|Tannhäuser]]'', she said that he "wears himself out in atrocities"; she described ''[[Lohengrin (opera)|Lohengrin]]'' as "horrible"; and she wrote that ''[[Tristan und Isolde]]'' was "the most repugnant thing I have ever seen or heard in all my life".<ref name=joseph/>

In 1878 she was appointed teacher of the piano at the [[Hoch Conservatory]] in [[Frankfurt am Main]], a post she held until 1892, and in which she contributed greatly to the improvement of modern piano playing technique.

She held [[Anton Bruckner]], whose [[Symphony No. 7 (Bruckner)|7th Symphony]] she heard in 1885, in very low esteem. She wrote to Brahms, describing it as "a horrible piece". But she was more impressed with [[Richard Strauss]]'s early Symphony in F minor in 1887.<ref name=joseph/>

Clara Schumann played her last public concert in [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]] on March 12, 1891. The last work she played was Brahms's ''[[Variations on a Theme by Haydn]]'', in the piano-duet version.

She suffered a stroke on March 26, 1896, dying on May 20, at age 77. She is buried at [[Bonn]]'s ''Alter Friedhof'' (Old Cemetery) with her husband.

She was portrayed onscreen by [[Katharine Hepburn]] in the 1947 film ''[[Song of Love (film)|Song of Love]]'', in which [[Paul Henreid]] played [[Robert Schumann]] and [[Robert Walker]] starred as a young [[Johannes Brahms]].

==Legacy==
Although for many years after her death Clara Schumann was not widely recognized as a composer, as a pianist she made an impression which lasts until today. She was one of the first pianists to perform from memory, making that the standard for concertizing. Trained by her father to play by ear and to memorize, she gave public performances from memory as early as age thirteen, a fact noted as something exceptional by her reviewers.<ref>Reich, Nancy B., ''Clara Schumann, The Artist and The Woman''. Revised edition. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2001, pp. 271-2. ISBN 0801486378.</ref>

She was also instrumental in changing the kind of programs expected of concert pianists. In her early career, before her marriage to Robert, she played what was then customary, mainly bravura pieces designed to showcase the artist's technique, often in the form of arrangements or variations on popular themes from operas, written by virtuosos such as Thalberg, Herz, or Henselt. And, as it was also customary to play one's own compositions, she included at least one of her own works in every program, works such as her Variations on a Theme by Bellini (Op. 8) and her popular Scherzo (Op. 10). However, after settling into married life, probably under the influence of Robert, her performances focused almost exclusively on more serious music by Bach, Beethoven, Mozart, Schubert, Mendelssohn, Chopin, and Schumann.<ref>Litzmann, Berthold, ''Clara Schumann: An Artist's Life Based on Material Found in Diaries and Letters'', Vol. I, Litzmann Press, 2007, p.316, ISBN 1406759066, ISBN 978-1406759068. </ref>

Clara Schumann's influence has reached us as well through her teaching, which emphasized a singing tone and expression, with technique entirely subordinated to the intentions of the composer. One of her students, [[Mathilde Verne]], carried her teaching to [[England]] where she taught, among others, [[Solomon (pianist)|Solomon]]; while another of her students, [[Carl Friedberg]], carried the tradition to the [[Juilliard School]] in [[United States|America]], where his students included [[Malcolm Frager]] and [[Bruce Hungerford]].<ref>Reich, Nancy B., ''Clara Schumann, The Artist and The Woman''. Revised edition. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 2001, pp. 254. ISBN 0801486378.</ref>

And, of course, Clara was instrumental in getting the works of Robert Schumann recognized, appreciated and added to the repertoire. She promoted him tirelessly, beginning when his music was unknown or disliked, when the only other important figure in music to play Schumann occasionally was Liszt, and continuing until the end of her long career.

==Character==
Clara Schumann was the main breadwinner for her family through giving concerts and teaching, and she did most of the work of organizing her own concert tours. She refused to accept charity when a group of musicians offered to put on a benefit concert for her. In addition to raising her own large family, when one of her children became incapacitated, she took on responsibility for raising her grandchildren. During the [[May Uprising in Dresden]] in 1849, she famously walked into the city through the front lines, defying a pack of armed men who confronted her, rescued her children, then walked back out of the city through the dangerous areas again.

Her family life was punctuated by tragedy. Four of her eight children and her husband predeceased her, and her husband and one of her sons ended their lives in insane asylums. Her first son Emil died in 1847, aged only one. Her husband Robert had a mental collapse, attempted suicide in 1854, and was committed to an insane asylum for the last two years of his life. In 1872 her daughter Julie died, leaving two small children. In 1879, her son Felix, aged 25, died. Her son Ludwig suffered from mental illness, like his father, and, in her words, had to be "buried alive" in an institution. Her son Ferdinand died at the age of 43 and she was required to raise his children. She herself became deaf in later life and she often needed a wheelchair.<ref name=joseph/>

== Music of Clara Schumann ==
As part of the broad musical education given her by her father, Clara Wieck learned to compose, and from childhood to middle age she produced a good body of work. At age fourteen she wrote her first piano concerto, with some help from Robert Schumann, and performed it at age sixteen at the Leipzig Gewandhaus with Mendelssohn conducting.

As she grew older, however, she lost confidence in herself as a composer, writing, "I once believed that I possessed creative talent, but I have given up this idea; a woman must not desire to compose — there has never yet been one able to do it. Should I expect to be the one?" In fact, Wieck-Schumann composed nothing after the age of thirty-six.

Today her compositions are increasingly performed and recorded. Her works include songs, piano pieces, a piano concerto, a [[piano trio]], choral pieces, and three Romances for violin and piano. Inspired by her husband's birthday, the three Romances were composed in 1853 and dedicated to [[Joseph Joachim]], who performed them for [[George V of Hanover]]. He declared them a "marvellous, heavenly pleasure."

Wieck-Schumann was the authoritative editor of her husband's works for the publishing firm of [[Breitkopf & Härtel]].

==Quotations==

<blockquote>"Clara has composed a series of small pieces, which show a musical and tender ingenuity such as she has never attained before. But to have children, and a husband who is always living in the realm of imagination, does not go together with composing. She cannot work at it regularly, and I am often disturbed to think how many profound ideas are lost because she cannot work them out."  <div align=right>—Robert Schumann in the joint diary of Robert and Clara Schumann.</div></blockquote>

<blockquote>"Composing gives me great pleasure...there is nothing that surpasses the joy of creation, if only because through it one wins hours of self-forgetfulness, when one lives in a world of sound." <div align=right>—Clara Schumann.</div></blockquote>

==Works==
Clara Schumann's published works are listed below by date of publication. Twenty-five additional unpublished or lost works may be found in Reich, Nancy B., ''Clara Schumann, The Artist and The Woman'', appendix.

*1831· ''Quatre Polonaises pour le pianoforte'', Op. 1.
*1832· ''9 Caprices en forme de valse pour le piano'', Op. 2. Dedicated to Madame Henriette Foerster, née Weicke.
*1833· ''Romance variée pour le piano'', Op. 3 (C major). Dedicated to Monsieur Robert Schumann.
*1834· ''Walzer fűr Gesang und Klavier.'' Song with text by Johann Peter Lyser. Published in collection ''Lyser's Liedersammlung''.
*1835· ''Valses romantiques pour le piano'', Op. 4. Dedicated to Madame Emma Eggers née Garlichs. The Valses were orchestrated but none of the instrumental parts survive.
*1835· ''Quatre pieces caractéristiques'', Op. 5 (1. ''Le Sabbat''; 2. ''Caprice à la Boléro''; 3. ''Romance'': 4. ''Ballet des Revenants''). Dedicated to Mademoiselle Sophie Kaskel.
*1836· ''6 Soirées musicales'', Op. 6 (1. Toccatina in A minor; 2. Nocturne in F Major; 3. Mazurka in G minor; 4. Ballade in D minor; 5. Mazurka in G major; 6. Polonaise in A minor). Dedicated to Madame Henriette Voigt.
*1836· Piano Concerto in A minor, Op. 7: ''Premier concert pour le piano-forte avec accompagnement d'orchestre (ou de quintour)''. (1 Allegro maestoso; 2 Romanze. Andante non troppo con grazia; 3 Finale. Allegro non troppo; allegro molto). Dedicated to Monsieur Louis Spohr. A draft exists of the last movement, orchestrated by Robert Schumann and in Schumann's hand.
*1837· ''Variations de concert pour le pianoforte, sur la Cavatine du Pirate, de Bellini'', Op. 8. Dedicated to Monsieur Adolph Henselt.
*1838· Impromptu in G major. ''Souvenir de Vienne''.
*1839· Scherzo No. 1 in D minor, Op. 10.
*1840· ''Trois Romances pour le pianoforte'', Op. 11 (1. E-flat minor, Andante; 2. G minor. Andante; 3. A major, Moderato). Dedicated to Monsieur Robert Schumann.
*1841· ''Am Strande''. Song with text by Robert Burns. Published in ''Neue Zeitung für Musik'', July 1841.
*1841· 3 songs: ''Zwőlf Gedichte aus F. Rűckert's Liebesfrűling fűr Gesang und pianoforte von Robert und Clara Schumann'', Op. 12: 2. ''Er ist gekommen in Sturm und Regen''; 4. ''Liebst du um Schönheit''; 11. ''Warum willst du and’re Fragen?'' (these were published as part of Robert Schumann's ''Gedichte aus ''Liebesfrühling'', Op. 37)
*1841· ''Die gute Nacht, die ich dir sage''.
*1842· Piano Sonata in G minor (1. Allegro; 2. Adagio con espressione e ben legato; 3. Scherzo; Trio; 4 Rondo).
*1843· 6 songs: ''Sechs lieder mit begleitung des pianoforte'', Op. 13: 1. ''Ihr Bildnis. Ich stand in dunklen Träumen''; 2. ''Sie liebten sich beide''; 3. ''Liebeszauber''; 4. ''Der Mond kommt still gegangen''; 5. ''Ich hab’in deinem Auge''; 6. ''Die stille Lotusblume''. Dedicated to Queen Caroline Amalie of Denmark.
*1843· ''O weh des Scheidens, das er tat''.
*1844· Impromptu in E major (published in ''Album du gaulois'', 1885).
*1845· Scherzo No. 2 in C minor, Op. 14: ''Deuxième scherzo pour le pianoforte'', Op. 14. Dedicated to Madame Tutein née Siboni.
*1845· ''Quatre pièces fugitives'', Op. 15 (1. F major, Larghetto; 2. A minor, In poco agitato; 3. D major, Andante espressivo; 4. G major, Scherzo). Dedicated to Marie Wieck. Scherzo originally composed for unpublished Sonatine.
*1845· 3 Preludes and Fugues: ''III Praeludien und fugen für das pianoforte'', Op. 16: (1. G minor; 2. B-flat major or B major; 3. D minor).
*1847· Piano Trio in G minor: ''Trio fur pianoforte, violine und violoncello'', Op. 17: (1. Allegro moderato; 2. Scherzo. Tempo di menuetto; 3. Andante; 4. Allegretto). Some emendations on autograph seem to be by Robert Schumann.
*1848· ''Mein Stern ("O du mein Stern")''. Song with text by Friederike Serre.
*1854· Variations on a Theme of Robert Schumann: ''Variationen für das pianoforte über ein thema von Robert Schumann'', Op. 20. Dedicated to Robert Schumann.
*1855· ''Drei romanzen für pianoforte'', Op. 21. Dedicated to Johannes Brahms.
*1855· ''Drei romanzen für pianoforte und violine'', Op. 22. Dedicated to Joseph Joachim.
*1855· ''Sechs lieder aus jucunde von Hermann Rollet'', Op. 23 (1. ''Was weinst du, Blümein?''; 2. An einem lichten Morgen''; 3. Geheimes Flüstern''; 4. Auf einem grünem Hügel''; 5. Das ist ein tag''; 6. O lust, O lust''. Dedicated to Livia Frege.
*1885· ''Impromptu''. Published in ''Album du Galois''.
*1870· ''Cadenzas (2) for Beethoven Piano Concerto in G Major, op. 58''.
*1870· ''Cadenzas for Beethoven Piano Concerto in C Minor, op. 37''.
*1891· ''Cadenzas (2) for Mozart Piano Concerto in D Minor (K. 466)''.
*1977· ''Romanze für Clavier''. Published in Clara Schumann, ''Romantische Klaviermusik'', vol. 2.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==

* Boyd, Melinda. "Gendered Voices: The 'Liebesfrüling' Lieder of Robert and Clara Schumann." ''19th-Century Music'' 23 (Autumn 1999): 145–162.
* Gould, John. "What Did They Play? The Changing Repertoire of the Piano Recital from the Beginnings to 1980." ''The Musical Times'' 146 (Winter 2005): 61–76.
* Hall, George. "Schumann, Clara (Josephine)." ''The Oxford Companion to Music'' [n.d.]. Accessed through Grove Music Online on 30 June 2009.
* Kopiez, Reinhard, Andreas C. Lehmann and Janina Klassen. "Clara Schumann's collection of playbills: A historiometric analysis of life-span development, mobility, and repertoire canonization." ''Poetics'', Volume 37, Issue 1, February 2009: 50–73.
* Litzmann, Berthold. ''Clara Schumann: An Artist's Life''. New York: [[Da Capo Press]], 1979. ISBN 0306795825.
* Poundie, L. "Their Paths, Her Ways: Comparison of Text Settings by Clara Schumann and Other Composers." ''Women and Music — A Journal of Gender and Culture'' 6 (2002): 11ff. Accessed through the International Index to Music Periodicals on 29 June 2009.
* Rattalino, Piero. ''Schumann. Robert & Clara''. Varese: Zecchini Editore, 2002. ISBN 8887203148.
* Reich, Nancy B. "Clara Schumann." In ''Women Making Music: The Western Art Tradition, 1150–1950''. Urbana and Chicago: [[University of Illinois Press]], 1986. ISBN 025201246.
* Reich, Nancy B. ''Clara Schumann, The Artist and The Woman''. Revised edition. Ithaca, New York: [[Cornell University Press]], 2001. ISBN 0801486378.
* Reich, Susanna. ''Clara Schumann: Piano Virtuoso''. 1999. Reprint. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2005. ISBN 0618551603.

==External links==
* [http://kreusch-sheet-music.net/eng/?page=show&query=Clara%20Schumann&order=op Kreusch-sheet-music.net] - Free Scores by Clara Schumann
* {{IMSLP|id=Schumann, Clara|cname=Clara Schumann}}
* [http://members.chello.nl/c.vandervloed/Clara.htm Complete works of Clara Schumann-Wieck].
* [http://www.goldenwattle.net Goldenwattle.net] - Play about Clara Schumann
*[http://klassik.s-fahl.de/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=212%3Aclara-schumann-impromptu&catid=15%3A19th-century&Itemid=39&lang=de Clara Schumann: Impromptu op.9 "Soirée de Vienne"]
* March in Es dur, for piano duet, Clara Schumann's last work in [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_nLQmdVsf8 Youtube.com]



{{Persondata
|NAME= Schumann, Clara
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Schumann, Clara Josephine Wieck; Wieck, Clara
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=German musician, [[pianist]] composer
|DATE OF BIRTH=September 13, 1819
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Leipzig]], [[Saxony]]
|DATE OF DEATH=May 20, 1896
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Schumann, Clara}}
[[Category:Robert Schumann|Clara]]
[[Category:German classical pianists]]
[[Category:German composers]]
[[Category:Romantic composers]]
[[Category:Women classical composers]]
[[Category:Child classical musicians]]
[[Category:Honorary Members of the Royal Philharmonic Society]]
[[Category:Music from Leipzig]]
[[Category:People from Leipzig]]
[[Category:People from the Kingdom of Saxony]]
[[Category:19th-century German people]]
[[Category:Deaths from stroke]]
[[Category:1896 deaths]]
[[Category:1819 births]]

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Set theory (music)

2010-10-16T22:02:50Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 391119207 by 86.0.194.200 (talk)

[[Image:Z-relation Z17 example.png|thumb|right|350px|Example of [[#Z-relation|Z-relation]] on two pitch sets analyzable as or derivable from Z17 (Schuijer 2008, p.99), with intervals between pitch classes labeled for ease of comparison between the two sets and their common interval vector, 212320.]]

'''Musical set theory''' provides concepts for categorizing [[music]]al objects and describing their relationships. Many of the notions were first elaborated by [[Howard Hanson]] (1960) in connection with [[tonality|tonal]] music, and then mostly developed in connection with [[atonal]] music by theorists such as [[Allen Forte]] (1973), drawing on the work in [[twelve-tone technique|twelve-tone]] theory of [[Milton Babbitt]]. The concepts of set theory are very general and can be applied to tonal and atonal styles in any [[equal temperament|equally-tempered]] tuning system, and to some extent more generally than that. Musical set theory deals with collections ([[set (music)]] and [[permutation (music)]]) of [[pitch (music)|pitches]] and [[pitch class]]es, which may be ordered or unordered ([[order (mathematics)]]), and which can be related by musical operations such as transposition, inversion, and complementation. The methods of musical set theory are sometimes applied to the analysis of [[rhythm]] as well.

==Mathematical set theory versus musical set theory==
Although musical set theory is often thought to involve the application of mathematical [[set theory]] to music, there are numerous differences between the methods and terminology of the two. For example, musicians use the terms [[transposition (music)|transposition]] and [[Inversion (music)|inversion]] where mathematicians would use [[translation (geometry)|translation]] and [[reflection (mathematics)|reflection]]. Furthermore, musicians talk about "ordered sets" where mathematicians would talk about [[permutations and combinations|permutations]], [[sequence]]s or [[tuple]]s.

Moreover, musical set theory is more closely related to [[group theory]] and [[combinatorics]] than to mathematical set theory, which concerns itself with such matters as, for example, various sizes of infinitely large sets. In combinatorics, an unordered subset of ''n'' objects, such as pitch classes, is called a [[Permutations and combinations|combination]], and an ordered subset a ''permutation''. Musical set theory is best regarded as a field that is not so much related to mathematical set theory, as an application of combinatorics to music theory with its own vocabulary. The main connection to mathematical set theory is the use of [[naive set theory|the vocabulary of set theory]] to talk about finite sets.

==Set and set types==
{{Main|Set (music)}}

The fundamental concept of musical set theory is the (musical) set, which is an unordered collection of [[pitch classes]] (Rahn 1980, 27). More exactly, a pitch-class set is a numerical representation consisting of distinct integers (i.e., without duplicates) (Forte 1973, 3). The elements of a set may be manifested in music as [[simultaneity (music)|simultaneous]] chords, successive tones (as in a melody), or both.{{Citation needed|date=January 2010}} Notational conventions vary from author to author, but sets are typically enclosed in curly braces: {} (Rahn 1980, 28), or square brackets:[] (Forte 1973, 3). Some theorists use angle brackets <math>\langle \rangle</math> to denote ordered sequences (Rahn 1980, 21 & 134), while others distinguish ordered sets by separating the numbers with spaces (Forte 1973, 60–61). Thus one might notate the unordered set of pitch classes 0, 1, and 2 (e.g., C, C{{Music|#}}, and D, or E, F, and F{{Music|#}}) as {0,1,2}. The ordered sequence C-C{{Music|#}}-D would be notated <math>\langle 0,1,2 \rangle</math> or (0,1,2). C is not always considered to be zero; for example, a piece (whether tonal or atonal) with a clear pitch center of F might be most usefully analyzed with F set to zero (in which case {0,1,2} would represent F, F{{Music|#}} and G). (For the use of numbers to represent notes, see [[pitch class]].)

Though set theorists usually consider sets of equal-tempered pitch classes, it is possible to consider sets of pitches, non-equal-tempered pitch classes,{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} rhythmic onsets, or "beat classes" (Warburton 1988, 148; Cohn 1992, 149).

Two-element sets are called [[dyad (music)|dyad]]s, three-element sets [[trichord]]s (occasionally [[triad]]s, though this is easily confused with the traditional meaning of the word). Sets of higher cardinalities are called [[tetrachord]]s (or tetrads), [[pentachord]]s (or pentads), [[hexachord]]s (or hexads), heptachords (heptads or, sometimes, mixing Latin and Greek roots, "septachords"—e.g., Rahn 1980, 140), octachords (octads), nonachords (nonads), decachords (decads), undecachords, and, finally, the dodecachord.

==Basic operations==
The basic operations that may be performed on a set are [[transposition (music)|transposition]] and [[inversion (music)|inversion]]. Sets related by transposition or inversion are said to be ''transpositionally related'' or ''inversionally related,'' and to belong to the same [[set class]]. Since transposition and inversion are [[isometry|isometries]] of pitch-class space, they preserve the intervallic structure of a set, and hence its musical character. This can be considered the central postulate of musical set theory. In practice, set-theoretic musical analysis often consists in the identification of non-obvious transpositional or inversional relationships between sets found in a piece.

Some authors consider the operations of [[complement (music)|complementation]] and [[multiplication (music)|multiplication]] as well. (The complement of set X is the set consisting of all the pitch classes not contained in X (Forte 1973, 73–74).) However, since complementation and multiplication are not isometries of pitch-class space, they do not necessarily preserve the musical character of the objects they transform. Other writers, such as Allen Forte, have emphasized the [[Z-relation]] which obtains between two sets sharing the same total interval content, or [[interval vector]], but which are not transpositionally or inversionally equivalent (Forte 1973, 21). Another name for this relationship, used by Howard Hanson (1960), is "isomeric" (Cohen 2004, 33).

Operations on ordered sequences of pitch classes also include transposition and inversion, as well as [[Permutation (music)|retrograde and rotation]]. Retrograding an ordered sequence reverses the order of its elements. Rotation of an ordered sequence is equivalent to [[cyclic permutation]].

Transposition and inversion can be represented as elementary arithmetic operations. If ''x'' is a number representing a pitch class, its transposition by ''n'' semitones is written T''n'' = ''x'' + ''n'' (mod12). Inversion corresponds to [[Reflection (mathematics)|reflection]] around some fixed point in [[pitch class space]]. If "x" is a pitch class, the inversion with [[index number]] n is written I''n'' = ''n'' - ''x'' (mod12).

==Equivalence relation==

"For a relation in set ''S'' to be an [[equivalence relation]] [in [[algebra]]], it has to satisfy three conditions: it has to be [[reflexive relation|reflexive]] [...], [[Symmetry in mathematics|symmetrical]] [...], and [[transitive relation|transitive]] [...]."(Schuijer 2008, p.29-30) "Indeed, an informal notion of equivalence has always been part of music theory and analysis. PC set theory, however, has adhered to formal definitions of equivalence."(Schuijer 2008, p.85)

==Transpositional and inversional set classes==
Two transpositionally related sets are said to belong to the same transpositional set class (T''n''). Two sets related by transposition or inversion are said to belong to the same transpositional/inversional set class (inversion being written T''n''I or I''n''). Sets belonging to the same transpositional set class are very similar-sounding; while sets belonging to the same transpositional/inversional set class are fairly similar sounding. Because of this, music theorists often consider set classes to be basic objects of musical interest.

There are two main conventions for naming equal-tempered set classes. One, known as the [[Forte number]], derives from Allen Forte, whose ''The Structure of Atonal Music'' (1973), is one of the first works in musical set theory. Forte provided each set class with a number of the form ''c''-''d'', where ''c'' indicates the cardinality of the set and ''d'' is the ordinal number (Forte 1973, 12). Thus the chromatic trichord {0, 1, 2} belongs to set-class 3-1, indicating that it is the first three-note set class in Forte's list (Forte 1973, 179–81). The augmented trichord {0, 4, 8}, receives the label 3-12, which happens to be the last trichord in Forte's list.

The primary criticisms of Forte's nomenclature are: (1) Forte's labels are arbitrary and difficult to memorize, and it is in practice often easier simply to list an element of the set class; (2) Forte's system assumes equal temperament and cannot easily be extended to include diatonic sets, pitch sets (as opposed to pitch-class sets), [[multisets]] or sets in other tuning systems; (3) Forte's original system considers inversionally related sets to belong to the same set-class.This means that, for example a major triad and a minor triad are considered the same set. Western tonal music for centuries has regarded major and minor as significantly different. Therefore there is a limitation in Forte's theory.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} However, the theory was not created to fill a vacuum in which existing theories inadequately explained tonal music. Rather, Forte's theory is used to explain atonal music, where the composer has invented a system where the distinction between {0, 4, 7} (called 'major' in tonal theory) and its inversion {0, 8, 5} (called 'minor' in tonal theory) may not be relevant.

The second notational system labels sets in terms of their [[normal form]], which depends on the concept of ''normal order''. To put a set in ''normal order,'' order it as an ascending scale in pitch-class space that spans less than an octave. Then permute it cyclically until its first and last notes are as close together as possible. In the case of ties, minimize the distance between the first and next-to-last note. (In case of ties here, minimize the distance between the first and next-to-next-to-last note, and so on.) Thus {0, 7, 4} in normal order is {0, 4, 7}, while {0, 2, 10} in normal order is {10, 0, 2}. To put a set in [[normal form]], begin by putting it in normal order, and then transpose it so that its first pitch class is 0 (Rahn 1980, 33–38). Mathematicians and computer scientists most often order combinations using either alphabetical ordering, binary (base two) ordering, or [[Gray coding]], each of which lead to differing but logical normal forms.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}

Since transpositionally related sets share the same normal form, normal forms can be used to label the T''n'' set classes.

To identify a set's T''n''/I''n'' set class:
* Identify the set's T''n'' set class.
* Invert the set and find the inversion's T''n'' set class.
* Compare these two normal forms to see which is most "left packed."
The resulting set labels the initial set's T''n''/I''n'' set class.

==Symmetry==
The number of distinct operations in a system that map a set into itself is the set's [[degree (mathematics)|degree]] of [[symmetry]] (Rahn 1980, 90). Every set has at least one symmetry, as it maps onto itself under the identity operation T''0'' (Rahn 1980, 91). Transpositionally symmetric sets map onto themselves for T''n'' where ''n'' does not equal 0. Inversionally symmetric sets map onto themselves under T''n''I. For any given T''n''/T''n''I type all sets will have the same degree of symmetry. The number of distinct sets in a type is 24 (the total number of operations, transposition and inversion, for n = 0 through 11) divided by the degree of symmetry of T''n''/T''n''I type.

Transpositionally symmetrical sets either divide the octave evenly, or can be written as the union of equally-sized sets that themselves divide the octave evenly. Inversionally-symmetrical chords are invariant under reflections in pitch class space. This means that the chords can be ordered cyclically so that the series of intervals between successive notes is the same read forward or backward. For instance, in the cyclical ordering (0, 1, 2, 7), the interval between the first and second note is 1, the interval between the second and third note is 1, the interval between the third and fourth note is 5, and the interval between the fourth note and the first note is 5. One obtains the same sequence if one starts with the third element of the series and moves backward: the interval between the third element of the series and the second is 1; the interval between the second element of the series and the first is 1; the interval between the first element of the series and the fourth is 5; and the interval between the last element of the series and the third element is 5. Symmetry is therefore found between T0 and T2I, and there are 12 sets in the T''n''/T''n''I equivalence class (Rahn 1980, 148).

==See also==
* [[Identity (music)]]
* [[Pitch interval]]
* [[Tonnetz]]
* [[Transformational music theory]]

==References==
* Cohen, Allen Laurence. 2004. ''Howard Hanson in Theory and Practice''. Contributions to the Study of Music and Dance 66. Westport, Conn. and London: Praeger. ISBN 0313321353.
* Cohn, Richard. 1992. "Transpositional Combination of Beat-Class Sets in Steve Reich's Phase-Shifting Music". ''Perspectives of New Music'' 30, no. 2 (Summer): 146–77.
* Forte, Allen (1973). ''The Structure of Atonal Music''. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-01610-7 (cloth) ISBN 0-300-02120-8 (pbk).
* [[Howard Hanson|Hanson, Howard]] (1960). ''Harmonic Materials of Modern Music: Resources of the Tempered Scale''. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
* Rahn, John (1980). ''Basic Atonal Theory''. New York: Schirmer Books; London and Toronto: Prentice Hall International. ISBN 0-02-873160-3.
*Schuijer, Michael (2008). ''Analyzing Atonal Music: Pitch-Class Set Theory and Its Contexts''. ISBN 978-1-58046-270-9.
* Warburton, Dan. 1988. "A Working Terminology for Minimal Music". ''Intégral'' 2:135–59.

==Further reading==
*[[Elliott Carter|Carter, Elliott]] (2002). ''Harmony Book'', edited by Nicholas Hopkins and John F. Link. New York: Carl Fischer. ISBN 0825845947.
* [[David Lewin|Lewin, David]] (1993). ''Musical Form and Transformation: Four Analytic Essays''. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-05686-9. Reprinted, with a foreword by Edward Gollin, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 9780195317121
* Lewin, David (1987). ''Generalized Musical Intervals and Transformations''. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03493-8. Reprinted, New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 9780195317138
* Morris, Robert (1987). ''Composition With Pitch-Classes: A Theory of Compositional Design''. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-03684-1.
* [[George Perle|Perle, George]] (1996). ''Twelve-Tone Tonality'', second edition, revised and expanded. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20142-6. (First edition 1977, ISBN 0-520-03387-6)
* Straus, Joseph N. (2005). ''Introduction to Post-Tonal Theory'', 3rd edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0-13-189890-6.

==External links==
*Tucker, Gary (2001) [http://www.mta.ca/faculty/arts-letters/music/pc-set_project/pc-set_new/ "A Brief Introduction to Pitch-Class Set Analysis"], ''Mount Allison University Department of Music''.
*Nick Collins [http://www.sonic.mdx.ac.uk/research/nickpitch.html "Uniqueness of pitch class spaces, minimal bases and Z partners"], ''Sonic Arts''.
* [http://www.lsu.edu/faculty/jperry/virtual_textbook/20th_c_pitch_theory.htm "Twentieth Century Pitch Theory: Some Useful Terms and Techniques"], ''Form and Analysis: A Virtual Textbook''.
*Solomon, Larry (2005). [http://solomonsmusic.net/setheory.htm "Set Theory Primer for Music"], ''SolomonMusic.net''.
*Kelley, Robert T (2001). [http://www.robertkelleyphd.com/atnltrms.htm "Introduction to Post-Functional Music Analysis: Post-Functional Theory Terminology"], ''RobertKelleyPhd.com''.
*Kelley (2002). [http://www.robertkelleyphd.com/12-tone.htm "Introduction to Post-Functional Music Analysis: Set Theory, The Matrix, and the Twelve-Tone Method"].
* [http://www.flexatone.net/athenaSCv.html "SetClass View (SCv)"], ''Flexatone.net''. An athenaCL netTool for on-line, web-based pitch class analysis and reference.
*Tomlin, Jay. [http://www.jaytomlin.com/music/settheory/help.html "All About {Musical} Set Theory"], ''JayTomlin.com''.
** [http://www.jaytomlin.com/music/settheory/ "Java Set Theory Machine"] or Calculator
*Helmberger, Andreas (2006). [http://www.andreas-helmberger.de/projekte/pcsetcalculator.aspx "Projekte: Pitch Class Set Calculator"], ''www.Andreas-Helmberger.de''. {{de icon}}
* [http://dactyl.som.ohio-state.edu/Gibson/research.summary.html "Pitch-Class Set Theory and Perception"], ''Ohio-State.edu''. {{Dead link|date=September 2010}}
* [http://creativelab.kiev.ua/eng/index_eng.htm "Colors are sounds: How to See the Music"], ''Creativelab''. The method for transformation of music into an image.
* [http://www.composertools.com/Tools/ "Software Tools for Composers"], ''ComposerTools.com''. Javascript PC Set calculator, two-set relationship calculators, and theory tutorial.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Set Theory (Music)}}
[[Category:Musical set theory|*]]

Symphony

2010-10-16T21:49:14Z

Rigaudon: Rv to Antandrus. Last edit introduced funny characters and removed section header.

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In Western [[classical music]], a '''symphony''' is an extended [[musical composition]], scored almost always for [[orchestra]]. "Symphony" does not necessarily imply a specific form, though most are composed according to the [[Sonata#The_sonata_idea_or_principle|sonata principle]]. Many symphonies are [[tonality|tonal]] works in four [[movement (music)|movements]] with the first in [[sonata form]], which is often described by music theorists as the structure of a "[[Classical period (music)|classical]]" symphony, although many symphonies by the acknowledged classical masters of the form, [[Joseph Haydn]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], and [[Ludwig van Beethoven]] do not conform to this model.

==History of the form==
===Origins===
The word ''symphony'' derives from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''{{polytonic|συμφωνία}}'', meaning "agreement or concord of sound", "concert of vocal or instrumental music", from ''{{polytonic|σύμφωνος}}'', "harmonious" (''Oxford English Dictionary''). This Greek word was used to describe an instrument mentioned in the Book of Daniel once identified by scholars as a bagpipe (this is identified as the root of the name of the Italian [[zampogna]]) ([http://www.oldandsold.com/articles22/music-bible-8.shtml Stainer and Galpin 1914], {{Page needed|date=November 2009}}). However, more recent scholarly opinion points out that the word in the Book of Daniel is ''siphonia'' (from Greek ''siphon'', reed), and concludes that the bagpipe did not exist at so early a time, though the name of the "zampogna" could still have been derived from this word (Marcuse 1975, 501 & 597). In late Greek and medieval theory, the word was used for [[Consonance and dissonance|consonance]], as opposed to ''diaphonia'', which was the word for dissonance (Brown 2001). In the Middle Ages and later, the Latin form ''symphonia'' was used to describe various instruments, especially those capable of producing more than one sound simultaneously (Brown 2001). [[Isidore of Seville]] was the first to use the word symphonia as the name of a two-headed drum, and from ca. 1155 to 1377 the French form ''symphonie'' was the name of the ''organistrum'' or [[hurdy-gurdy]]. In late medieval England, ''symphony'' was used in both of these senses, whereas by the sixteenth century it was equated with the [[appalachian dulcimer|dulcimer]]. In German, ''Symphonie'' was a generic term for [[spinet]]s and [[virginals]] from the late 16th century to the 18th century (Marcuse 1975, 501). In the sense of "sounding together," the word begins to appear in the titles of some works by 16th- and 17th-century composers including [[Giovanni Gabrieli]] (''Sacrae symphoniae'', 1597, and ''Symphoniae sacrae, liber secundus'', 1615), [[Adriano Banchieri]] (''Eclesiastiche sinfonie'', 1607), [[Lodovico Grossi da Viadana]] (''Sinfonie musicali'', 1610), and [[Heinrich Schütz]] (''Symphoniae sacrae'', 1629).

In the 17th century, for most of the Baroque period, the terms ''symphony'' and ''sinfonia'' were used for a range of different compositions, including instrumental pieces used in [[operas]], [[sonatas]] and [[concertos]]—usually part of a larger work. The ''opera sinfonia'', or ''Italian overture'' had, by the 18th century, a standard structure of three contrasting movements: fast, slow, fast and dance-like. It is this form that is often considered as the direct forerunner of the orchestral symphony. The terms "overture", "symphony" and "sinfonia" were widely regarded as interchangeable for much of the 18th century.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}}

Another important progenitor of the symphony was the ''ripieno concerto''—a relatively little-explored form resembling a [[concerto]] for [[string instrument|strings]] and [[figured bass|continuo]], but with no solo instruments. The earliest-known ripieno concerti are by [[Giuseppe Torelli]] (his set of six, opus five, 1698). Perhaps the best-known ripieno concerto is [[Johann Sebastian Bach]]'s ''[[Brandenburg Concerto No. 3 (Bach)|Brandenburg Concerto No. 3]]''.

===18th-century symphony===


Early symphonies, in common with both ''overtures'' and ''ripieno concertos'', have three movements, in the [[tempi]] quick-slow-quick. However, unlike the ripieno concerto, which uses the usual [[ritornello]] form of the concerto, at least the first movement of these symphonies is in [[binary form]]. They are distinguishable from Italian overtures in that they were written to stand on their own in concert performances, rather than to introduce a stage work, although a piece originally written as an ''overture'' was sometimes later used as a ''symphony'', and vice versa.

Symphonies at this time, whether for concert, opera, or church use, were not considered the major works on a program: often, as with concerti, they were divided up between other works, or drawn from suites or overtures. Vocal music was dominant, and symphonies provided preludes, interludes, and postludes.

The "Italian" style of symphony, often used as overture and entr'acte in opera houses, became a standard '''three movement form''': a fast movement, a slow movement, and then another fast movement. [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s early symphonies are in this layout. The early three-movement form was eventually replaced by a four-movement layout, through the addition of an additional middle movement (Prout 1895, 249), which was dominant in the latter part of the 18th century and most of the 19th century. This symphonic form was influenced by Germanic practice, and would come to be associated with the "classical style" of Haydn and Mozart. "Normative macro-symphonic form may be defined as the four-movement form, in general, employed in the later symphonies of Haydn and Mozart, and in those of Beethoven" (Jackson 1999, 26).

The normal '''four-movement form''' became, then (Jackson 1999, 26; Stein 1979, 106):
# an opening sonata or [[tempo|allegro]]
# a slow movement, such as [[adagio]]
# a [[minuet]] with trio or "Beethoven four-movement solo sonata": [[scherzo]]
# an allegro, [[rondo]], or sonata

Variations on this layout were common, for instance the order of the middle two movements, or the addition of a slow introduction to the first movement. Older composers such as Haydn and Mozart restricted their use of the four-movement form to orchestral or multi-instrument chamber music such as quartets, though since Beethoven solo sonatas are as often written in four as in three movements (Prout 1895, 249). Tchaikovsky's Third Symphony has a five-movement form through the addition of an "Alla tedesca" 'movement' between the first and the second (Jackson 1999, 26).

The composition of early symphonies was centred on [[Vienna]] and [[Mannheim]]. Early exponents of the form in Vienna included [[Georg Christoph Wagenseil]], [[Wenzel Raimund Birck]] and Georg Monn, while the [[Mannheim school]] included Johann Stamitz.

Later significant Viennese composers of symphonies include [[Johann Baptist Vanhal]], [[Karl Ditters von Dittersdorf]] and [[Leopold Hoffmann]]. The most important symphonists of the latter part of the 18th century are [[Joseph Haydn]], who wrote at least 108 symphonies over the course of 36 years (Webster and Feder 2001), and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart]], who wrote at least 56 symphonies in 24 years (Eisen and Sadie 2001).

===19th-century symphony===
With the rise of established professional orchestras, the symphony assumed a more prominent place in concert life between approximately 1790 and 1820.

Beethoven dramatically expanded the symphony. His [[Symphony No. 3 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 3]] (the ''Eroica''), has a scale and emotional range that sets it apart from earlier works. His [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 5]] is arguably the most famous symphony ever written. His [[Symphony No. 9 (Beethoven)|Symphony No. 9]] takes the unprecedented step (for a symphony) of including parts for vocal soloists and choir in the last movement, making it a [[choral symphony]] (however, a minor composer, [[Daniel Steibelt]] had written a piano concerto with a choral finale four years earlier, in 1820). [[Hector Berlioz]], who coined the term "choral symphony," built on this concept in his "dramatic symphony" ''[[Roméo et Juliette (symphony)|Roméo et Juliette]]'' while explaining his intent in the five-paragraph introduction in that work's score (Berlioz 1857, 1). In Beethoven's [[Symphony No. 6 (Beethoven)|Pastoral Symphony]], a program work, the composer inserted a "storm" section before the final movement; Berlioz's ''[[Symphonie fantastique]]'', a work famous for its exceptional [[orchestration]] is also a programme work and has both a march and a [[waltz]] and five movements instead of the customary four.

Notable early-romantic symphonists include Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn, and Schumann. Late-romantic symphonists include Bruckner, Brahms, Tchaikovsky, and Dvořák.

By the end of the 19th century, some [[France|French]] [[organist]]s (e.g., [[Charles-Marie Widor]]) named some of their organ compositions ''symphony'': Their instruments (many built by [[Aristide Cavaillé-Coll]]) allowed an orchestral approach (Thomson 2001).

===20th-century symphony===
At the beginning of the 20th century, [[Gustav Mahler]] wrote long, large-scale symphonies (his [[Symphony No. 8 (Mahler)|eighth]] is nicknamed the "Symphony of a Thousand" because of the forces required to perform it). The 20th century also saw further diversification in the style and content of works that composers labeled ''symphonies'' (Anon. 2008). Some composers, including [[Dmitri Shostakovich]], [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]] and [[Carl Nielsen]], continued to write in the traditional four-movement form, while other composers took different approaches: [[Jean Sibelius]]' ''[[Symphony No. 7 (Sibelius)|Symphony No. 7]]'', his last, is in one movement, whereas [[Alan Hovhaness]]'s Symphony No. 9, ''Saint Vartan'' (1949–50) is in twenty-four.

There remained, however, certain tendencies: symphonies were still, almost always, orchestral works. Designating a work a "symphony" still implied a degree of sophistication and seriousness of purpose. The word ''[[sinfonietta]]'' came into use to designate a work that was "lighter" than a symphony, such as [[Prokofiev]]'s [[Sinfonietta (Prokofiev)|Sinfonietta]].

There have also been diversification in the size of orchestra required. While Mahler's symphonies call for extravagant resources, [[Arnold Schoenberg]]'s Chamber Symphony No. 1 and [[John Coolidge Adams]]'s Chamber Symphony are scored for chamber groups.

In the 20th- and early-21st-century symphonies have been written for [[Concert band|wind ensemble]] and [[Concert band|band]]. Notable examples are [[Paul Hindemith]]'s [[Symphony in B-flat for Band]] (1951) (Hansen 2005, 95), and [[Alan Hovhaness]]'s Symphonies Nos. 4, 7, 14, and 23, which are symphonic works for school and college wind bands.

==Media==
{{Commons category|Symphonies}}
{{listen
| style = float:none; clear:none
| filename = Ludwig van Beethoven - Symphonie 5 c-moll - 1. Allegro con brio.ogg
| title = Symphony 5, movement 1
| description = [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Ludwig van Beethoven's 5th Symphony]], 1st movement
| format = [[Ogg]]
| filename2 = Ludwig van Beethoven - Symphonie 5 c-moll - 2. Andante con moto.ogg
| title2 = Symphony 5, movement 2
| description2 = [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Ludwig van Beethoven's 5th Symphony]], 2nd movement
| format2 = [[Ogg]]
| filename3 = Ludwig van Beethoven - Symphonie 5 c-moll - 3. Allegro.ogg
| title3 = Symphony 5, movement 3
| description3 = [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Ludwig van Beethoven's 5th Symphony]], 3rd movement
| format3 = [[Ogg]]
| filename4 = Ludwig van Beethoven - Symphonie 5 c-moll - 4. Allegro.ogg
| title4 = Symphony 5, movement 4
| description4 = [[Symphony No. 5 (Beethoven)|Ludwig van Beethoven's 5th Symphony]], 4th movement
| format4 = [[Ogg]]
}}

==See also==
* [[Choral symphony]]
{{Symphonies by number and name}}

==Sources==
* Anon. 2008. "[http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/opr/t237/e10019 Symphony]." ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 2nd ed. rev., edited by [[Michael Kennedy (music critic)|Michael Kennedy]], associate editor Joyce Bourne. Oxford Music Online (Accessed 24 July 2008) (Subscription access)
* Berlioz, Hector. 1857. ''Roméo et Juliette: Sinfonie dramatique: avec choeurs, solos de chant et prologue en récitatif choral, op. 17''. Partition de piano par Th. Ritter. Winterthur: J. Rieter-Biedermann.
* Brown, Howard Mayer. 2001. "Symphonia". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (professor of music)|John Tyrrell]]. London: Macmillan Publishers.
* Bukofzer, Manfred F. 1947. ''Music in the Baroque Era: From Monteverdi to Bach''. New York: W. W. Norton.
* Eisen, Cliff, and Stanley Sadie. 2001. "Mozart (3): (Johann Chrysostum) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (professor of music)|John Tyrrell]]. London: Macmillan.
* Hansen, Richard K. 2005. ''The American Wind Band: A Cultural History''. Chicago, Ill: GIA Publications. ISBN 1579994679.
* Jackson, Timothy L. 1999. ''Tchaikovsky, Symphony no. 6 (Pathétique)''. Cambridge Music Handbooks. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 052164111X (cloth); ISBN 0521646766 (pbk).
* Marcuse, Sybil. 1975. ''Musical Instruments: A Comprehensive Dictionary''. Revised edition. The Norton Library. New York: W. W. Norton. ISBN 0-393-00758-8.
* Newman, William S. 1972. ''The Sonata in the Baroque Era''. New York: W. W. Norton.
* Prout, Ebenezer. 1895. ''Applied Forms: A Sequel to 'Musical Form''', third edition. Augener's Edition, no. 9183. London: Augener. Facsimile reprint, New York: AMS Press, 1971. ISBN 0404051383
* Schubert, Giselher. 2001. "Hindemith, Paul." ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (professor of music)|John Tyrrell]]. London: Macmillan.
* Stainer, John, and Francis W Galpin. 1914. "[http://www.oldandsold.com/articles22/music-bible-7.shtml Wind Instruments - Sumponyah; Sampunia; Sumphonia; Symphonia]". In ''The Music of the Bible, with Some Account of the Development of Modern Musical Instruments from Ancient Types'', new edition. London: Novello and Co.; New York: H.W. Gray Co.
* Stein, Leon. 1979. ''Structure & Style: The Study and Analysis of Musical Forms'', expanded edition. Princeton, N.J.: Summy-Birchard Music. ISBN 0874871646.
* Tarr, Edward H. 1974. Unpaginated editorial notes to his edition of Giuseppe Torelli, ''Sinfonia a 4, G. 33, in C major''. London: Musica Rara.
* Thomson, Andrew. 2001. "Widor, Charles-Marie(-Jean-Albert)", 2. Works. ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (professor of music)|John Tyrrell]]. London: Macmillan.
* Webster, James, and Georg Feder. 2001. "Haydn, (Franz) Joseph". ''The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians'', second edition, edited by [[Stanley Sadie]] and [[John Tyrrell (professor of music)|John Tyrrell]]. London: Macmillan.

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc}}
* [http://www.kylegann.com/Symphony.html A Chronology of the Symphony 1730-2005] A list of selected major symphonies composed 1800-2005, with composers of 18th century symphonies
* [http://library.thinkquest.org/22673/index.html The Symphony - Interactive Guide]
* [http://ttle.perso.neuf.fr/Symphonies/symphonistes_a-d.htm A fairly detailed list of symphonists, mostly active after 1800 - Part 1]
* [http://ttle.perso.neuf.fr/Symphonies/symphonistes_e-j.htm A fairly detailed list of symphonists, mostly active after 1800 - Part 2]
* [http://ttle.perso.neuf.fr/Symphonies/symphonistes_k-o.htm A fairly detailed list of symphonists, mostly active after 1800 - Part 3]
* [http://ttle.perso.neuf.fr/Symphonies/symphonistes_p-z.htm A fairly detailed list of symphonists, mostly active after 1800 - Part 4]

[[Category:Sonatas]]

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F-sharp minor

2010-10-08T21:02:18Z

Rigaudon: Undid revision 389538272 by 141.114.232.174 (talk) Unsourced opinion

{{Infobox Scale|
| image_name=A_Major_key_signature.png
| scale_name=F{{music|sharp}} minor
| relative=[[A major]]
| parallel=[[F-sharp major|F{{music|sharp}} major]]
| first_pitch=F{{music|sharp}}
| second_pitch=G{{music|sharp}}
| third_pitch=A
| fourth_pitch=B
| fifth_pitch=C{{music|sharp}}
| sixth_pitch=D
| seventh_pitch=E
}}
'''F-sharp minor''' is a [[minor scale]] based on F-sharp, consisting of the pitches [[F♯ (musical note)|F{{music|sharp}}]], [[G♯ (musical note)|G{{music|sharp}}]], [[A (musical note)|A]], [[B (musical note)|B]], [[C♯ (musical note)|C{{music|sharp}}]], [[D (musical note)|D]], and [[E (musical note)|E]]. For the [[harmonic minor]], the E is raised to E{{music|sharp}} (F{{music|natural}}). Its [[key signature]] has three sharps (''see below:'' [[#Scales and keys|Scales and keys]]).

Its [[relative key|relative major]] is [[A major]], and its [[parallel key|parallel major]] is [[F-sharp major]].

Changes needed for the melodic and harmonic versions of the scale are written in with accidentals as necessary.

__TOC__

Very few symphonies are written in this key, [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]]'s ''[[Symphony No. 45 (Haydn)|Farewell Symphony]]'' being one famous example. [[George Frederick Bristow]] and [[Dora Pejačević]] also wrote symphonies in this key.

The few concerti written in this key are usually premiere concerti written for the composer himself to play, including [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]]'s [[Piano Concerto No. 1 (Rachmaninoff)|Piano Concerto No. 1]], [[Alexander Scriabin]]'s [[Piano Concerto (Scriabin)|Piano Concerto]], [[Henryk Wieniawski]]'s [[Violin Concerto No. 1 (Wieniawski)|Violin Concerto No. 1]] and [[Henri Vieuxtemps]]'s [[Violin Concerto No. 2 (Vieuxtemps)|Violin Concerto No. 2]].

[[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s only composition in this key is the second movement to his [[Piano Concerto No. 23 (Mozart)|Piano Concerto No. 23]] in [[A major]].

The third (slow) movement from [[Beethoven]]'s [[Piano Sonata No. 29 (Beethoven)|Hammerklavier Sonata]] is set in F-sharp minor.

Many piano pieces have been written in F-sharp minor. For example, 2 of [[Chopin]]'s 52 [[mazurka]]s, and 1 of his [[nocturne]]s are in this key, though he seems to have preferred the related key [[C-sharp minor]]. Of course, 2 preludes and fugues from [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J. S. Bach]]'s ''[[Well-Tempered Clavier]]'' are in F-sharp minor. [[Scriabin]]'s [[Piano Sonata No. 3 (Scriabin)|Piano Sonata No. 3]] is also in this key.

Both [[Max Reger|Reger]]'s and [[Michael Tippett|Tippett]]'s second string quartets are in this key, as is Shostakovich's seventh string quartet.

F-sharp minor is a fairly common key in [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]] music and [[death metal]] and often used in verses or chorus relative to A major in a muted fashion. A common metal power chord progression would be F# 5, A 5, B 5, E 5, F# 5 or simply muting E 5 and F# 5 back and forth, E being the 7th note in the [[Aeolian mode|Aeolian]] (Natural) F# minor scale but used as a chord (E5) below the root chord of F# 5. The [[Ozzy Osbourne]] song ''[[Crazy Train]]'' for instance begins in F# minor before moving into its relative A major for the verses, from F# to E to F# to D to E and then A.

== Characteristics ==
* F sharp minor has been described as 'light red' by [[Harry Farjeon]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}
* [[Johann Mattheson]], in 1713, wrote "F{{music|sharp}} minor, although it leads to great distress, nevertheless is more languid and love-sick than lethal. Moreover, it has something abandoned, singular, and misanthropic about it." On a similar theme, Harry Farjeon wrote that it is the key that Mendelssohn uses when being passionate.{{Citation needed|reason=These are great quotes, but I'd like to read the work they're from. Please cite your sources|date=July 2010}}
* It is generally believed to be melancholy and gloomy.
* ''We cannot well accompany the Devil in any key but F{{music|sharp}} minor'' – Anon. 1828
*Heavy metal guitarist [[Michael Angelo Batio]] has cited this key and F sharp [[phrygian dominant]] as his favourite. He has described F sharp minor as a "demonic" key, giving a dark, evil sound.

== Scales and keys ==
{{Circle of fifths}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
* A. Morris, "Symphonies, Numbers And Keys" in ''Bob's Poetry Magazine'', [http://bobspoetry.com/Bobs03Mr.pdf III.3], 2006.

{{DEFAULTSORT:F-Sharp Minor}}
[[Category:Musical keys]]
[[Category:Minor scales]]

[[ca:Fa sostingut menor]]
[[de:Fis-Moll]]
[[et:Fis-moll]]
[[es:Fa sostenido menor]]
[[eo:F♯-minoro]]
[[nl:Fis mineur]]
[[ja:嬰ヘ短調]]
[[pl:Fis-moll]]
[[pt:Fá sustenido menor]]
[[ru:Фа-диез минор]]
[[simple:F-sharp minor]]
[[sr:Фис-мол]]
[[uk:Фа-дієз мінор]]
[[vi:Fa thăng thứ]]
[[zh:升f小調]]