Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

User:Sir Vicious/monobook.js

2008-08-27T00:23:42Z

Sir Vicious:

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User talk:70.105.169.238

2008-08-27T00:09:39Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Vandalism on Taco Bell. (TW)

== June 2008 ==

[[Image:Information.png|25px]] Welcome to Wikipedia. The [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alprazolam?diff=221637104 recent edit] you made to [[:Alprazolam]] has been reverted, as it appears to be unconstructive. Use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]] for testing; if you believe the edit was constructive, ensure that you provide an informative [[Help:Edit summary|edit summary]]. You may also wish to read the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|introduction to editing]]. Thanks.  [[User:Gail|Gail]] ([[User talk:Gail|talk]]) 11:56, 25 June 2008 (UTC)

== August 2008 ==
[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] Welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is welcome to make constructive contributions to Wikipedia, at least one of your recent edits{{#if:Taco Bell|, such as the one you made to [[:Taco Bell]],}} did not appear to be constructive and has been removed. Please use [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|the sandbox]] for any test edits you would like to make, and take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Welcoming committee/Welcome to Wikipedia|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing constructively to this encyclopedia. {{#if:|{{{2}}}|Thank you.}} [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] ([[User talk:Sir Vicious|talk]]) 00:09, 27 August 2008 (UTC)
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Taco Bell

2008-08-27T00:09:13Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 70.105.169.238. (TW)

{{article issues|refimprove=August 2007|tooshort=June 2008}}
{{Infobox_Company |
| company_name = Taco Bell Corp.
| company_slogan = Think outside the bun
| company_logo = [[Image:Taco Bell logo.svg|center|150px|Corporate logo of Taco Bell]]
| company_type = Wholly owned subsidiary
| foundation = [[March 21]], [[1962]] ([[Downey, California]])
| location = [[Irvine, California]], [[United States]]
| key_people = [[Glen Bell]] (founder) Greg Creed (president/CEO) 
| num_employees = 175,000+
| industry = [[Fast Food]]
| products = [[Taco]]s, [[burrito]]s, and other [[Mexican cuisine]]-related [[fast food]]
| revenue = {{profit}}$1.8 billion [[United States dollar|USD]] (2005)
| parent = [[Yum! Brands]]
| homepage = [http://www.tacobell.com tacobell.com]
|}}
'''Taco Bell Corp.''', a subsidiary of [[Yum! Brands, Inc.]], is a Mexican-style [[fast food restaurant]] chain based in [[Irvine, California]], [[United States]]. The restaurant has locations primarily in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]], but also operates outlets in several other markets.

==Corporate profile==
=== History ===
[[Image:TacoBellWausau.JPG|right|thumb|200px|Taco Bell's original restaurant design with their first logo sign.]]
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2008}}
After experimenting with alternative food items, Glen Bell opened three Taco-Tia stands between 1954 and 1955, which he later sold to his partners. He then opened the first Taco Bell in [[Downey, California]] on [[March 21]], [[1962]].

The first Taco Bell franchise was sold in 1964 and the company became [[Initial public offering|public]] in 1969. In 1978, the chain was sold to [[PepsiCo]]. The chain was spun off along with Pepsi's other [[fast food]] [[restaurant]] holdings as [[Tricon Global Restaurants]] in [[1997|October 1997]]. Tricon became [[Yum! Brands]] in May 2002.

===General operations===

[[Image:Taco Bell Headquarters Irvine.jpg|250px|thumb|left|Taco Bell's headquarters in Irvine, California]]

Smaller Taco Bell outlets, offering a reduced version of the menu, appear in [[shopping mall|malls]], [[airport terminal]]s, university and military base [[dining hall]]s, [[department store]]s, [[hotel]]s, [[gas station]]s, and other locations. Some [[school lunch]] programs also offer Taco Bell items under the Taco Bell Express branding.

The Taco Bell name is also used under license by [[Kraft Foods]], which offers a line of taco shells, spices, salsa, and other Mexican foods (including full meal kits) featuring the Taco Bell Home Originals name in [[supermarket]]s nationwide.

[[As of 2005]], there are 5,845 Taco Bell restaurants in the [[United States of America|United States]], including 1,252 company-owned locations, 3,803 franchisees, and 790 licenses. There is a 3% drop in branches compared with 2001.<ref>[PDF]Yum! Brands. ''Worldwide System Restaurants Full-year 2005'', located at [http://www.yum.com/investors/media/units_ww.pdf http://www.yum.com/investors/media/units_ww.pdf], assessed [[13 December]] [[2006]].</ref> Internationally there are 243 locations, 201 franchisees and 42 licensees, which adds up to growth of 2% since 2001.<ref>Ibid.</ref>

Over the last several years, [[Yum! Brands, Inc.]] has been co-locating its various restaurant franchises ([[KFC]], [[Long John Silver's]], [[A&W Restaurants|A&W]], and [[Pizza Hut]]).

==Results==
*As of 2007 Taco Bell is the best-performing brand of [[Yum Brands]], having [[United States Dollar|USD]]1.8 billion sales for company-owned stores in the [[United States of America|United States]] (compounded annual growth rate of 6% from 2001), and sales of USD4.4 billion for franchisees and licensees in the United States (compounded annual growth rate of 3% from 1999).

Taco Bell also has the largest sales per [[system unit]] in [[Yum]]!, having USD 1.17 million sales per system unit, excluding licensees.<ref>[PDF] Yum!Brands 2007 Annual report.</ref>

===Co-branding===
[[Image:Tacobellkfcrestaurants.jpg|thumb|right|200px|A Co-branded Taco Bell and KFC]]

Many Taco Bell Express brand outlets can be found in [[suburban]] [[strip mall]]s, often adjacent to other Yum!-brand eateries, most notably [[Pizza Hut]], [[Kentucky Fried Chicken]] or [[Long John Silvers]].

===Lawsuit===
A lawsuit filed in 1998 by [[Joseph Shields]] and [[Thomas Rinks]] alleged Taco Bell failed to pay them for use of the Chihuahua character they created. The men alleged that Taco Bell had breached payment on a contract after they worked with the restaurant chain for a year to develop the talking Chihuahua for use in marketing. The talking Chihuahua became a hit with the first advertisement, in which the character bypasses a female Chihuahua for a Taco Bell taco and declares: "Yo quiero Taco Bell." The two men received $30.1 million, plus an addition of $11.4 million in interest.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/2003-06-04-taco-bell-lawsuit_x.htm USATODAY.com - Chihuahua idea men win Taco Bell suit]</ref> Taco Bell said it would appeal the verdict.

[[50 Cent]], whose real name is [[Curtis Jackson]], filed a federal lawsuit against Taco Bell on July 23, 2008. The suit claims that his name was used in a print ad asking him to change his name to 79 Cent, 89 Cent or 99 Cent as a part of the "Why Pay More?" campaign. 50 Cent was not aware of the ad until it came out, while fake letters containing the name change request were sent to the news media for promotional purposes. He is seeking $4 million in damages. <ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/entertainment/sns-ap-people-50-cent-taco-bell,0,6789630.story | title="50 Cent sues Taco Bell, saying it used his name in 99 Cent ad without permission" | author=Maull, Samuel | publisher=Associated Press | date=2008-07-24 | accessdate=2008-07-24}}</ref>

===Acquisitions===
*In 1984, Taco Bell acquired [[Pup 'N' Taco]].
*In 1986, Taco Bell acquired the Faux-Mex [[Chain store|restaurant chain]] known as [[Zantigo]], known for their Chilito, a chili-cheese burrito. The Chilito was added to the Taco Bell menu. The name was later quietly changed to ''Chili Cheese Burrito'' after comedian [[Paul Rodriguez]] pointed out the negative connotations of the word ''chilito'' (a slang word for [[penis]]) in [[Mexican Spanish|Mexican Spanish dialect]].{{Fact|date=September 2007}} 

===Border Bell===
In 1997, PepsiCo experimented with a new "fresh grill" concept, opening at least one Border Bell restaurant in [[Mountain View, California]] on El Camino Real ([[California State Route 82|SR 82]]). In addition to a subset of the regular Taco Bell menu, Border Bell offered Mexican-inspired items like those available from [[Chevys Fresh Mex]] restaurants (then owned by PepsiCo), such as Chevys signature sweet corn [[tamalito]] pudding and a fresh salsa bar.<ref>[http://www.flickr.com/photos/imipolex/557747612/ Image of promotional Border Bell menu]</ref> Close to the time that PepsiCo spun off its restaurant business in 1997, the Border Bell in Mountain View was closed and converted to a Taco Bell restaurant, which is still open as of 2008.

==Products==
[[Image:Former Taco Bell Logo.png|220px|thumb|Taco Bell logo used from 1985 to 1994]]‎
===Taco Bell menu===

* [[Taco]]s
* [[Burrito]]s
* [[Gordita]]s
* [[Chalupa]]s
* [[Nacho]]s
* [[Quesadilla]]s
* [[Taquito]]s
* [[Mexican pizza]]

Taco Bell's dessert options include the [[Caramel apple|Caramel Apple]] [[Empanada]] and [[Cinnamon Twists]]. Sides include nachos, pintos and cheese, and a cup of rice which used to come with a double portion of rice, [[red sauce]], cheese, and formerly [[green onion]], though this ingredient is no longer carried after an [[2006 North American E. coli outbreak|''E. coli'' scare]]. As of 2008, Taco Bell has removed the red sauce and cheese from the sides of rice.

===Big Bell Value menu===
In the late-1980s, Taco Bell commonly advertised its "59, 79, 99" pricing plan, in which nearly everything on the menu was either 59¢, 79¢, or 99¢.

[[Image:crunch.jpg|thumb|Taco Bell's Crunchwrap Supreme]]
Despite Taco Bell's relatively cheap per-item pricing, it never had a true value menu until the mid-2000s. The menu features several items generally priced below $2.00. The introduction of the value menu also brought new items to the restaurant's offerings, notably items made with potatoes and Taco Bell's third dessert, the Caramel Apple Empanada. (Cinnamon Crispas, triangular fried flour tortilla shells, were offered until being replaced by Cinnamon Twists.) The Cheesy Bean and Rice Burrito recently replaced the Bean Burrito Especial, which was removed because of its small [[profit margin]]. However, the Bean Burrito Especial is still on The Big Bell Value Menu in some markets in the western markets in addition to the Cheesy Bean and Rice Burrito. Also of note is that half of the menu is not truly new, as Beef Combo Burritos, Cheesy Bean and Rice Burritos, Double Decker Tacos, and both Spicy Chicken items had been on the regular menu before, as permanent or limited time only items.

The Big Bell Value Menu (usually) includes:
*Grande Soft Taco: two 6" tortillas with nacho cheese in between, a double portion of beef, then lettuce and cheese
*Double Decker Taco: beans on a 6" tortilla wrapped around a crunchy taco with beef, lettuce, and cheese
*Cheesy Bean and Rice Burrito: beans, rice, nacho cheese, 3-cheese blend, jalapeño sauce, and fiesta salsa
*Beef Combo Burrito: beans, a double portion of beef, red sauce, cheese, and onion
*Beef & Potato Burrito: beef, red sauce, potatoes, and sour cream
*Spicy Chicken Burrito: spicy chicken, rice, creamy jalapeño sauce, and fiesta salsa
*Spicy Chicken Soft Taco: spicy chicken (1.5 oz), lettuce (.5 oz), fiesta salsa (.5 oz.)
*Cheesy Fiesta Potatoes: warm nacho cheese, cool sour cream, golden fried potatoes
*Caramel Apple Empanada: warm caramel sauce and apple chunks

===Why Pay More Value Menu===
In May 2008, a new value meal called Why Pay More Value Menu debuted. This new value menu contains some of the items from the previous value menu as well as a variety of new ones. <ref>[http://www.chainleader.com/article/CA6561211.html|Taco Bell Gives Consumers More Variety for Less Money with New 79-89-99 Why Pay More Value Menu (Press Release)]</ref>

The menu setup is as follows:

79¢ Items:
* Melted Three Cheese Rollup (New): flour tortilla with a blend of three cheeses
* Triple Layer Nachos (New): nacho chips with Taco Bell's Red Sauce, beans and nacho cheese sauce
* Cinnamon Twists

89¢ Items:
* Crunchy Taco
* Soft Taco
* Cheesy Double Beef Burrito (New): flour tortilla with two portions of beef, Mexican rice and nacho cheese sauce

99¢ Items:
* Big Taste Taco (New): flour tortilla with beef, lettuce, crunchy Red Strips, cheddar cheese and Creamy Jalapeño Sauce
* Bean Burrito
* 1/2 lb. Cheesy Bean and Rice Burrito
* Caramel Apple Empanada

=== Frutista Freeze ===

In May of 2008, a new frozen drink called Frutista Freeze debuted. The two flavors are Mango Strawberry and Strawberry; both are topped with real strawberries.

http://www.tacobell.com/frutistafreeze/

=== Big Bell Box Meal ===
In April 2008, Taco Bell introduced the Big Bell Box Meal that includes a Bacon Club Chalupa, Beef Crunchy Taco, Bean Burrito, and Cinnamon Twists served in a box with a large drink for $4.99.

http://www.tacobell.com/bigbox/

Launched with broadcast TV advertising in April 2008 featuring comedic radio personality Adam Corolla who prompts viewers to "eat like a man" and that they "deserve a meal made for men."

===Promotional/discontinued items===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2008}}
* 7-Layer Crunchwrap (still available in some locations)
* Bacon Cheeseburger Burrito
* Bacon Cheeseburger Taco Supreme
* The Bell-Beefer - a taco like hamburger with a hamburger bun, taco meat, cheese, tomato, and lettuce.
* BLT Chicken Soft Taco
* Border Ices - Tropical flavored ice pops
* The Cheesarito
* The Cheesy Beefy Melt
* Cheesy Gordita Crunch (still available in some locations)
* Chicken Caesar Grilled Stuft Burrito
* Chicken and Steak Grilled Taquitos (now on permanent menu)
* Chicken Enchilada Grilled Stuft Burrito
* Chicken Fajita Burrito
* Chili Cheese Nachos Bellgrande
* Club Chalupa (first released in 2004, currently on a second run in spring of 2008. Now labeled as the "Bacon Club Chalupa" however the ingredients are the same.
* Crunchwrap Supreme (now on permanent menu)
* [[Enchirito]] (now on permanent menu -- had been discontinued for years and brought back recently, albeit with a slightly different preparation)
* Extreme Cheese and Beef Quesadilla
* [[Good Humor]]'s [[Choco Taco]] was also offered for a short while
* Grande Quesadilla
* [[Fritos]] Burrito - a burrito filled with spicy chili, cheddar cheese, and [[Fritos]] corn chips
* Nacho Crunch Grilled Stuft Burrito
* Taco Bellgrande
* Ultimate Chalupa - Chalupa with chicken or steak, sour cream, lettuce, guacamole, 3 cheese blend, and fiesta salsa
* Volcano Burrito (a special promotion in conjunction with the 1995 film ''[[Congo (film)|Congo]]'')
* Zesty Nachos

In 1991, Taco Bell launched a Fiesta menu which had smaller sized versions of four their popular menu items: the taco, soft taco, bean burrito and tostada. Each item was approximately 40% smaller than the normal versions and cost $.39 each.

In the early-1990s, Taco Bell changed its menu due to pressure concerning the nutritional value of items labeled "Lite". It was believed the term ''lite'' was vague or possibly deceptive. Many items were dropped entirely from the menu, such as the "Taco Lite", a [[frying|fried]] flour [[tortilla]] shell with lean [[beef]], [[Diet food|fat free]] [[sour cream]], [[lettuce]], reduced fat [[cheese]], and [[tomatoes]]. Some items were altered to change the nutritional values, such as the removal of [[black olives]] from the list of ingredients, in an effort to reduce sodium.
[[Image:Tacobellsunnyvale.jpg|240px|thumb|left|Taco Bell's current restaurant design]]
In early 1994, Taco Bell transformed the familiar rainbow logo, in favor of a simpler pink/purple combo logo in an effort to revitalize their almost 20 year old logo. This was done after a movie placement tie-in with ''[[Demolition Man (film)|Demolition Man]]''. In the sci-fi story Taco Bell is the only remaining restaurant chain in the world. The Taco Bell is portrayed in the futuristic purple/pink design.

===Reduction of trans fats===
As of April, 2007, Taco Bell has switched to zero [[trans fat]] per serving frying oil in all of its US single-branded locations.<ref>[http://www.yum.com/nutrition/menu.asp?brandID_Abbr=5_TB TB Nutrition Calculator]</ref>

This has greatly reduced the levels of trans fats in most Taco Bell menu items, but they are still not completely free of trans fats.

==="Fresco Menu"===

In 2003, Taco Bell launched the "fresco style" menu. <ref>[http://www.hispanicprwire.com/news.php?l=in&id=1481&cha=4 Hispanic PR Wire - Taco Bell 'Fresco Style' Cuts the Fat, Not the Flavor; Company Announces New Option for Health-Conscious Consumers]</ref> By ordering something fresco style, the item's cheese and/or sauce is replaced by the chain's fiesta salsa. Using this option cuts the fat in the product in half in some cases. <ref>[http://www.dottisweightlosszone.com/Restaurants/tacobell.html Taco Bell]</ref>

In January 2008, Taco Bell launched an entire Fresco menu. The Fresco Menu has 9 items with less than 9 fat grams and feature a freshly prepared Fiesta Salsa. The Fiesta Salsa is a zesty mix of diced tomatoes, white onions and cilantro that replaces the cheese and sauce and adds only five calories per serving and no fat.

http://www.tacobell.com/fresco/

The Fresco Menu includes the following items:

* Fresco Crunchy Taco - 8 grams of fat - 150 calories
* Fresco BURRITO SUPREME[R] - Chicken - 8 grams of fat - 330 calories
* Fresco BURRITO SUPREME[R] - Steak - 8 grams of fat - 330 calories
* Fresco Bean Burrito - 7 grams of fat - 330 calories
* Fresco Fiesta Burrito - Chicken - 8 grams of fat - 330 calories
* Fresco Soft Taco - 7 grams of fat - 180 calories
* Fresco Zesty Chicken BORDER BOWL[R] - 8 grams of fat - 350 calories
* Fresco Grilled Steak Soft Taco - 4.5 grams of fat - 160 calories
* Fresco Ranchero Chicken Soft Taco - 4 grams of fat - 170 calories

==Advertising==
In 1995, [[Shaquille O'Neal]] and [[Hakeem Olajuwon]] appeared in a series of commercials promoting the Double Decker Taco, which would become a permanent menu item.

On [[April 1]], [[1996]], Taco Bell took out a full-page advertisement in ''[[The New York Times]]'' announcing that they had purchased the [[Liberty Bell]] to "reduce the country's debt" and renamed it to "the [[Taco Liberty Bell]]." Thousands of people who did not immediately understand the press release as an [[April Fool's Day]] [[hoax]] protested.

In March of 2001, Taco Bell announced a promotion to coincide with the re-entry of the [[Mir space station]]. They towed a large target out into the Pacific Ocean, announcing that if the target was hit by a falling piece of Mir, every person in the United States would be entitled to a free Taco Bell taco. The company bought a sizable insurance policy for this "gamble."<ref>[http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=4152 Taco Bell press release] [[March 19]], [[2001]]</ref> No piece of the station struck the target.

In 2003, [[Costa Rican]] Taco Bell franchises temporarily marketed their tacos as "Tacos ticos", because for Costa Ricans, the word "taco" refers to what is known in [[Mexico]] as a [[flauta]]. ("Tico" is a colloquial term for natives of Costa Rica.){{fact|date=July 2008|See discussion page [Glane23]}}

In 2004, a local Taco Bell franchisee bought the [[naming rights]] to the former Boise State Pavilion in [[Boise]], [[Idaho]] and renamed the stadium the [[Taco Bell Arena]]. [http://www.sde.state.id.us/webdocs/DailyEdNews/2004%20July-Dec%20Archive/04-10-26_Tuesday.htm]

In the summer of 2004, PepsiCo and Taco Bell introduced [[Mountain Dew Baja Blast]]. The tropical-lime flavored drink is exclusive to Taco Bell stores. Along with this, Taco Bell introduced its [[Mountain Dew]] "Viva Variety!" promotional campaign, where the advertising on the soft drink fountain shows three cups of Mountain Dew—one regular, one Code Red and one Baja Blast.

In 2007 Taco Bell offered the "Steal a Base, Steal a Taco" promotion—if any player from either team stole a base in the 2007 [[World Series]] the company would give away free tacos to everyone in America in a campaign similar to the Mir promotion.<ref>[http://www.forbes.com/2007/10/29/taco-bell-baseball-face-markets-cx_mr_1029autofacescan02.html Taco Bell's Big Enchilada - Forbes.com]</ref> After Jacoby Ellsbury of the Boston Red Sox stole a base, the company paid out this promotion on October 30, 2007.
[[Image:2672186206 04a6903000.jpg?v=0.jpg|240px|thumb|right|Taco Bell location in [[Aliso Viejo, CA]]]]

Added to the official menu in early 2007, the Grilled Taquito is Taco Bell's latest permanent product. Some of their most recent "limited time only" items have included the Ultimate [[Chalupa]] (chalupa with chicken or steak, sour cream, lettuce, [[guacamole]], three-cheese blend, and fiesta salsa), and the Nacho Crunch Grilled Stuft [[Burrito]].

A commercial in May 2008 features two men at the speaker in the Taco Bell drive-thru, for the 89-cent burrito promo. They start rapping about the burrito to an employee named Stephanie. In response to the popular commercial, some people actually went to Taco Bells and did the rap.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}

After each [[Portland Trail Blazers]] home game held at the [[Rose Garden Arena]] in which the [[Portland Trailblazers|Blazers]] scored at least 100 points, everyone that attended the game would receive a coupon for a free chalupa from Taco Bell. This tradition started sometime before 2003.

===Promotional partners===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
;[[20th Century Fox]]
* [[the X-Files (film)|X-Files]] (1998)
* [[Casper Meets Wendy]] (1998)
* [[Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace]] (1999)
* [[Digimon: The Movie]] (2000)
* [[Planet of the Apes]] (2001)
* [[Star Wars Episode II: Attack of the Clones]] (2002)

;[[Disney]]/[[Pixar]]/[[Hollywood Pictures]]
* [[Oliver & Company]] (1988)
* [[D3: The Mighty Ducks]] (1996)
* [[Kazaam]] (1996)
* [[Gone in Sixty Seconds (2000 film)|Gone in Sixty Seconds]] (2000)

;[[Mattel]]
* [[Barbie]] (1991)
* [[Vertibird]] (1994)

;[[Paramount]]
* [[Congo (film)|Congo]] (1995)
* [[Popeye (film)|Popeye]] (1980)
* [[Pee-wee's Big Adventure]] (1985)
* [[Mission: Impossible (film)|Mission: Impossible]] (1996)
* [[Lara Croft: Tomb Raider]] (2001)

{{col-2}}
;[[Sony Pictures]]
* [[Ghostbusters]] (1984)
* [[The Care Bears Movie]] (1989)
* [[The Karate Kid, Part II]] (1986)
* [[Ghostbusters II]] (1989)
* [[Godzilla (1998 film)|Godzilla]] (1998)
* [[The Adventures of Elmo in Grouchland]] (1999)
* [[Stuart Little]] (1999)
* [[Charlie's Angels (film)|Charlie's Angels]] (2000)
* [[Stuart Little 2]] (2002)

;[[Universal Studios]]
* [[Hulk (film)|Hulk]] (2003)

;[[Warner Bros.]]
* Batman (1989)
* [[Demolition Man (film)|Demolition Man]] (1993) (International markets only)
* [[Jack Frost]] (1998)

;Others
* [[The Real Ghostbusters]] (1986)
* [[Attack of the Killer Tomatoes: The Animated Series]] (1990)
* [[Barney & Friends]] (1993)
* [[Animaniacs]] (1994)
* [[The Magic School Bus]] (1995)
* [[Spawn (film)|Spawn]] (1997)
* [[Rescue Heroes]] (1999)
* [[Medabots]] (2001)
* [[Voyage of the Unicorn]] (2001)
{{col-end}}

===Slogans===
{{Unreferencedsection|date=May 2008}}

*Taca-taca-taca-taca-taca-taca Taco Bell! (1974-1983)
*Ooh! What a difference Taco Bell makes! (1977-1980)
*Make a run for the border.
*Nothing ordinary about it.
*The Cure for the Common Meal.
*It's Deliciously Different. (1980-1983)
*Just Made for You. (1983-1987)
*Hello Taco Bell! (1987-1997)
*Cross the Border. (1989-1994)
*Fetch that food! ''DONG! [imitates bell ringing]''
*You can munch it! So good!
*Taste that food! (bell sound)
*Change Is Good.
*Want some? (1996-1999)
*Yo quiero [I want] Taco Bell. (1996-1997)
*Zesty!
*Spice Up The Night. (For Taco Bell's late night day part) (1999-2001)
*Good To Go (Paired with various Crunchwrap promotions) (2000-2005)
*Fourthmeal (Term developed to help promote Late Night day part. Fourthmeal is the fourth meal of the day eaten late at night. In other words, any Taco Bell food eaten after dinner and before breakfast.)
*I'm Full! (For the ''Big Bell Value Menu'')
*Opportunity doesn't knock, it rings a bell (For employment brochure inside Taco Bell)
*Think outside the bun. (2001-present)
*You Need Fourthmeal.
*Feed the Beat (Established in 2006 and engaged up-and-coming indie rock bands and supported them on their journey to become a breakthrough band.)

===Mascots===
Taco Bell has not had many mascots to this date. In 1995, they introduced two mascots to promote the Taco Bell kids' meal, the [[The Ren and Stimpy Show|Ren and Stimpy-esque]] Nacho and Dog. Nacho is a crazy cat who gets all his knowledge of the world by watching [[television]] and is obsessed with [[Mexican food]]. Dog is a dog who is more well-behaved than Nacho and gets all his knowledge of the world by reading books. They were dropped in mid-1997.

In September 1997, the [[Taco Bell chihuahua]] was introduced. He spoke the line in commercials for their wildly popular "Yo quiero Taco Bell" campaign. In the [[Spanish language]], ''yo quiero'' means ''I want'' . The little dog's [[Pseudonym|real name]] was "[[Taco Bell chihuahua|Gidget]]", but that was never publicized in the [[Advertising campaign|ad campaign]]. The character was [[Voice actor|voiced]] by [[comedian]], and cartoon voice-over artist, [[Carlos Alazraqui]] of ''[[Reno 911!]]'' and ''[[Rocko's Modern Life]]''. By 1998, the [[Taco Bell chihuahua]] was known as the biggest commercial star on the planet, but his popularity dropped significantly by 2000. As of the early-2000s, Taco Bell has gone away from the chihuahua and instead has promoted its [[Value Menu|value menu]] through "I'm Full!!" commercials and used "Think outside the bun" as its slogan. Gidget did, however, make a cameo in a 2002 [[Geico]] commercial where he met Geico's spokes-gecko. That commercial continued to air through 2004.

In the early 2000s, Taco Bell's [[hot sauce]] packets (Mild, Hot, and Fire) got a major makeover. The restaurant decided to implement a scheme that would make the condiments a [[conversation piece]]; quotes change regularly, and Taco Bell has created a contest to have patrons enter their ideas.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tacobell.com/ourcompany/press/2004_05_19.htm |title=Taco Bell Press|accessdate=2007-05-03 }}</ref>

==Global locations==

;Australia
Taco Bell first opened stores in [[Australia]] in the early 1980's under the name 'Taco Amigo' because the trademark rights for 'Taco Bell' were already used by another company (Similar to the [[Burger King]] situation which led to Australian stores being named [[Hungry Jacks]]) the venture failed and stores closed down shortly afterwards.

Taco Bell returned to Australia in late 1998, this time under Taco Bell branding, and opened handful of stores in [[Sydney]], many of which were multi-store restaurants formally standalone [[KFC]] or [[Pizza Hut]] locations. The venture only had moderate success, and eventually some standalone Taco Bell restaurants were 'split' to offer KFC as well. The Taco Bell dog was used in commercials with promotions such as 99 cent tacos used to encourage customers to try the chain. However, Sydneysiders never really warmed to the concept of Mexican fast food and Taco Bell closed its last outlet in December 2003. Former Taco Bell sites were rebranded as KFC or Pizza Hut.

;China
[[Image:Taco Bell-China-Logo.png|200px|thumb|right|Taco Bell Grande's Logo]]In 2003, [[Yum! Brands]] introduced the Taco Bell brand into [[People's Republic of China]]. [[China|The Chinese]] Taco Bell restaurants are not fast-food restaurants like other Taco Bell restaurants are. Instead, they are full-service restaurants called '''Taco Bell Grande''' that are more analogous to a Mexican grill in the [[United States]]. In addition to the usual taco and burritos, Taco Bell Grande also serves other Mexican cuisine like [[albóndigas]] (meatball soup), [[tomatillo]] [[Chicken|grilled chicken]], [[fajita]]s, and [[Alcoholic beverage|alcoholic drinks]] such as [[Margarita]]s. Currently the chain has three restaurants in China, two in [[Shenzhen]] and one in [[Shanghai]].
{{clear}}

;Canada
In [[Canada]], Taco Bell locations are quite common. The menu varies only slightly from the American counterpart. Most notably, Canadian locations sell [[French fries]]. The [[Fries Supreme]], French fries topped with ground beef, cheese, sour cream, and green onions is one of the more popular side-orders.

;United Kingdom
Currently, there are only two Taco Bell locations in England, both operated by [[AAFES]] on air bases [[RAF Mildenhall]] and [[RAF Lakenheath]]. They are not accessible to the general public.

The [[United Kingdom]] was the first European country with a Taco Bell, in 1986 a location was opened in [[London]] on [[Coventry Street]] (between [[Leicester Square]] and [[Piccadilly Circus]]) followed by a second location in [[Earls Court]] near the Earls Court [[London Underground|Underground]] Station. No other stores were opened and both closed in the mid 1990's, today the Coventry Street site is occupied by a branch of the sit-down restaurant chain [[TGI Friday's]]. In 1994 the university food provider [[Compass Group|Compass New Famous Foods]] announced plans to open stores in its [[university]] and [[college]] sites, only one store was opened in [[Birmingham University]], no other stores were opened and the Birmingham site is now closed.<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.caterersearch.com/Articles/2001/07/26/26065/yankee-retreat.html Yankee retreat - 26 July 2001 - CatererSearch]</ref><ref>[http://www.caterersearch.com/Articles/1994/09/29/7345/compass-pilots-taco-bell-unit.html Compass pilots Taco Bell unit - 29 September 1994 - CatererSearch]</ref> There has been speculation that Taco Bell could return to the UK because of the success of supermarket brands like [[Old El Paso]], growing tourism travel to [[Mexico]] and [[Florida]] and popular American TV shows which promote Mexican food.<ref name="autogenerated1" />

;Germany
Currently, there are no public Taco Bell locations in major German cities. AAFES does operate several locations at major US bases in southern Germany. These secure locations are located at: Ramstein Air Base near Kaiserslautern, Mannheim Gartenstadt, Heidelberg Shopping Center, Schweinfurt Ledward Barracks, Grafenwöhr PX Complex/Shopping Center, Baumholder and Wiesbaden Hainerberg. After 9/11, access for non-military customers was severely restricted.<ref>[http://www.fastfoodkids.de/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=24]</ref>

;Iceland
[[Iceland]] is currently the only country in Europe to have publicly accessible Taco Bell. It is operated as a part of [[KFC]] establishment in [[Hafnarfjörður]], suburb of [[Reykjavík]]. It was established in late 2006, after the departure of US Navy from [[Naval Air Station Keflavik]].

;Japan
Taco Bell is located on most Joint Japan/US Naval Bases like [[NAF Atsugi]], [[U.S. Fleet Activities Sasebo]], and [[U.S. Fleet Activities Yokosuka|Yokosuka Naval Base]]. On Okinawa alone, there are 4 Taco Bell locations. One is at [[Kadena Air Base]] with the [[US Air Force]]. The remaining three are located with the [[US Marine Corps]] at [[Camp Foster]], [[Camp Schwab]], and [[Camp Hansen]]. Taco Bell Express, a smaller food-court variant, is also found at [[Misawa Air Base]] and [[Yokota Air Base]]. As with the other international locations on Military bases, access to the general public is restricted. Only Military personnel, dependents, and Contract personnel both DoD and Civilian and their authorized guests have access to them.

;Mexico
After a failed attempt to enter the market in 1992 that finished with all the restaurants closing 2 years later, in September 2007 Taco Bell returned to the country. The first restaurant in the northern city of [[Monterrey]] is part of a plan to open between 8 and 10 more locations in 2008 and eventually reach 300 stores.<ref>"http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9e0ce1dc123ff936a35755c0a964958260"</ref><ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21209104/ Taco Bell makes a run across the border - Food Inc. - MSNBC.com]</ref>

;Philippines
In 2004, Taco Bell opened three restaurants in [[Manila]], [[Philippines]].

;Singapore
Currently there are a few [[KFC]] outlets in Singapore that also sell Taco Bell meals, for example, the Hougang KFC Taco Bell outlet in Heartland Mall, Hougang South, beside [[Kovan MRT Station]] along Upper Serangoon Road. There is also the new 3-in-1 freedom of choice outlets, serving Pizza Hut/Taco Bell/KFC such as the branch in [[Funan DigitaLife Mall]] on North Bridge Road. However there are no restaurants selling only Taco Bell merchandise.

;South Korea
There is a Taco Bell located on [[Yongsan Garrison]] in Seoul, Korea for use of on-base personnel.

;Spain
There is a Taco Bell/KFC outlet located on [[Naval Station Rota]] for use of personnel with authorization to be on-base. This is the only Taco Bell located in the [[Iberian Peninsula]].

==Controversies==
In 2000, it was discovered that Taco Bell used corn that was not approved for human consumption in at least some of its taco shells [http://archives.cnn.com/2000/FOOD/news/09/18/biotech.corn.reut/index.html].

In 2007, a Taco Bell/KFC store in Manhattan was overrun by rats [http://money.cnn.com/2007/02/23/news/companies/taco_bell/].

==See also==
*[[Priszm]]
*[[Taco Bell chihuahua]]
*[[Enchirito]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Commons |Category:Taco Bell |Taco Bell}}
*[http://www.tacobell.com Official site].
*[http://www.tacobell.ca Canadian website].
* {{Is icon}} [http://www.tacobell.is/ Icelandic Website]
*[http://www.tacobellking.com Taco Bell King, N.C. Website]
*[http://www.newsday.com/features/food/ny-bzdama065004571dec06,0,4605860.story?coll=ny-foodday-print Lessons In Taco Bell Trouble Newsday.com]
*[http://www.newsday.com/news/local/longisland/ny-licoli1208,0,6765331.story?coll=ny-sports-columnists Family Files Suit Against Taco-Bell - Newsday.com]
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cru_m7Y1dAU Viva Gorditas! Video of the Taco Bell Chihuahua]
*[http://www.forbes.com/infoimaging/feeds/ap/2006/12/07/ap3236728.html Taco-Bell Sued By Sick Boy With E-Coli - FORBES]
*[http://www.cdc.gov/ecoli/2006/december/120806.htm Information from FDA]
*[http://www.donateyourtaco.com DonateYourTaco.com].
*[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0EIN/is_2008_April_30/ai_n25364000]

{{Yum!}}

[[Category:Taco Bell| ]]
[[Category:Fast-food franchises]]
[[Category:Fast-food chains of Canada]]
[[Category:Fast-food chains of the United States]]
[[Category:Restaurants in Orange County, California]]
[[Category:Fast-food Mexican restaurants]]
[[Category:Retail companies established in 1962]]
[[Category:Companies based in Irvine, California]]

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Mitrovica, Kosovo

2008-08-27T00:05:34Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 84.22.40.66. (TW)

{{Infobox Settlement
|official_name = Mitrovica / MitrovicëКосовска Митровица, ''Kosovska Mitrovica''
|image_skyline = Mitrovica bridge.JPG
|image_caption = Bridge over the [[Ibar River|Ibar]], which divides the city in two.
|image_flag =
|image_flag_size = 130px
|image_map = Mitrovicë 2006.PNG
|leader_name = Mursel Ibrahimi
|area_km2 = 350
|elevation_m =
|population_total = 110.310 |population_footnotes =[http://www.sharri.net/admin/editor/downloads/komunat/mitrovica.pdf]
|population_as_of = 1998
|population_density_km2 = 315
|postal_code = 40000
|area_code = +381 28
|subdivision_type =
|subdivision_name =
|subdivision_type2 =
|subdivision_name2 =
|timezone = [[Central European Time|CET]] |utc_offset =+1
|website = [http://www.mitrovica-komuna.org/ Municipality of Mitrovica]|
|footnotes =
}}
'''Kosovska Mitrovica''' or '''Mitrovica''' ([[Albanian language|Albanian]]: ''Mitrovica'' or ''Mitrovicë'', [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: Косовска Митровица, ''Kosovska Mitrovica'') is a city and [[Municipalities of Kosovo|municipality]] in northern [[Kosovo]]. It is the administrative centre of the [[District of Kosovska Mitrovica|homonymous district]].

Since the end of the [[Kosovo War]] of 1999 it has been [[divided city|divided]] between an [[Albanians|ethnic-Albanian]]-majority south and an [[Serbs|ethnic-Serb]]-majority north (the whole city, however, has an Albanian majority).

==Name==
The city is known as ''Kosovska Mitrovica '' (Косовска Митровица) in [[Serbian language|Serbian]] {{Audio|KosovskaMitrovica.ogg|listen}} and ''Mitrovica'' or ''Mitrovicë'' in [[Albanian language|Albanian]]. After [[Josip Broz Tito|Tito]]'s death, when the constitutive parts of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] had to have one place named each with the word 'Tito's' or 'Tito' in it, the city was also known as ''Titova Mitrovica'' (Титова Митровица) in Serbian or ''Mitrovica e Titos'' in Albanian.

First mentioned in the 15th century, the town developed around the church of St. Demetrius, and as a result, was named after the saint.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}

==History==
===Early history===
The city is one of the oldest known settlements in Kosovo, being first mentioned in written documents during the [[Middle Ages]]. The name ''Mitrovica'' comes from the [[14th century]], from [[Saint Demetrius|Saint Demetrius of Thessaloniki]],{{Fact|date=February 2007}} but there are some other legends on the origin of its name.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} Near Mitrovica is the medieval fortress of [[Zvečan]], which played an important role during the [[Kingdom of Serbia]] under [[House of Nemanjić|Nemanjić]] rule.

Under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] rule Mitrovica was a typical small Oriental city. Rapid development came in the 19th century after [[lead ore]] was discovered and mined in the region, providing what has historically been one of Kosovo's largest industries.

===Mitrovica during and after the Kosovo War===

Both the town and municipality were badly affected by the 1999 [[Kosovo War]]. According to the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]], the area had been the scene of guerrilla activity by the [[Kosovo Liberation Army]] (KLA) prior to the war. It came under the command of [[NATO]]'s French sector; 7,000 French troops are stationed in the western sector with their headquarters in Mitrovica. They were reinforced with a contingent of 1,200 troops from the [[United Arab Emirates]], and a small number of Danish troops.

In the aftermath of the war, the town became a symbol of Kosovo's ethnic divisions. The badly damaged southern half of the town was repopulated by an estimated 50,000 Albanians. Their numbers have since grown with the arrival of refugees from destroyed villages in the countryside.{{Fact|date=April 2007}} Most of the approximately 6,000 Roma fled to Serbia. In the north, some 8-10,000 Kosovo Serbs remained in their homes, with 2,000 Kosovo Albanians and 1,700 Muslim Slavs living in discrete enclaves on the north bank of the [[Ibar River|Ibar]] river. Almost all of the Serbs living on the south bank were displaced to the north. In [[2003]] the city had an estimated total population of 75,600 and the municipality's population is estimated to be some 105,000.

{{Disputed-section|Disputed|date=March 2008}}
{{POV|date=December 2007}}

Mitrovica became the focus for ethnic clashes between the two communities, exacerbated by the presence of nationalist extremists on both sides. The bridges linking the two sides of the town were guarded by armed groups determined to prevent incursions by the other side. Because of the tense situation in the town, [[Kosovo Force|KFOR]] troops and the [[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo|UNMIK]] police were stationed there in large numbers to head off trouble. However, violence and harassment was often directed against members of the "wrong" ethnic community on both sides of the river, necessitating the presence of troops and police checkpoints around individual areas of the city and even in front of individual buildings.

On [[March 17]], [[2004]], the drowning of one Albanian child in the river prompted major ethnic violence in the town and a Serbian teenager was killed. Demonstrations by thousands of angry Albanians and Serbs mobilised to stop them crossing the river degenerated into rioting and gunfire, leaving at eight Albanians dead and at least 300 injured. The bloodshed sparked off the worst [[unrest in Kosovo]] seen since the end of the 1999 war.

The local prison was the scene of an international incident on [[April 18]], [[2004]] when [[Ahmad Mustafa Ibrahim]], a Jordanian policeman working as a UN prison guard, opened fire on a group of UN police officers leaving a class, killing three. [http://www.kosovo.net/news/archive/2004/April_18/5.html]

===Kosovo independence===
Tensions rose considerably in the city of Mitrovica after the [[2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|Kosovo declared independence]] on February 17, 2008. Some 150 Kosovo Serb police officers refused to take orders from the ethnic Albanian authorities and were suspended.

Serb protesters prevented ethnic Albanian court employees from crossing the bridge over the Ibar River. UN police raided and seized the courthouse on March 14 using tear gas against Serbs and leaving some of them wounded.

The explosion of a hand-grenade injured several UN and NATO staff on March 17; UN forces were later withdrawn from the northern part of Mitrovica.<ref>BBC, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7300015.stm Peacekeepers hurt in Kosovo blast], 17.03.08</ref>

In response, the Serbian minority has formed the [[Community Assembly of Kosovo and Metohija]] in the city.

==Demographics==

Before the 1999 Kosovo War, the municipality had a population estimated by the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] to comprise some 116,500 people, 81% of them Kosovo [[Albanians|Albanian]], 10% [[Serbs|Serb]] and the remainder other nationalities (notably [[Romani people|Roma]]). Most of the non-Albanians lived in the town of Mitrovica, which had a population of 68,000 – 71% Kosovo Albanian, with approximately 9,000 Serbs and 10,141 other nationalities. Kosovo Albanians lived throughout the city, but most Serbs lived in the north side, divided from the predominantly Albanian south side by the [[Ibar River]].

{|border="2" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="3" rules="all" width="80%" style="clear:all; margin:5px 0 0em 0em; border-style: solid; border-width: 1px; border-collapse:collapse; font-size:85%; empty-cells:show"
|colspan="14" align=center style="background:#778899; color:white"|'''Ethnic Composition, Including IDPs'''
|-
|- bgcolor="#FFEBCD"
!Year/Population
!Albanians
! %
!Serbs
! %
!Bosniaks
! %
!Roma/Ashkali
! %
!Turks
! %
!Total
|- bgcolor="#fffaf0"
|1961||34,481|| 57.55% ||21,533||35.94|||| ||||||||||59,913
|- bgcolor="#f5f5f5"
|1991||82,837|| 78 ||10,698||10.2||5,205|| 4.96||4,851||4.63||431||0.41||
|- bgcolor="#fffaf0"
|1998 ||95,231|| 81.74||10,447||8.96|| || || || || || ||
|- bgcolor="#f5f5f5"
|Current figure ||N/A || || N/A || ||2,000 ||1.76||545 || 0.48|| 600 ||0.53||
|-
|colspan="14" align=center style="background:#dcdcdc;"|Source: 1991 census: FRY Institute of Statistics and UNHCR statistics of 1998/OSCE estimates. It is noted that the 1991 census was highly politicised and is thus unreliable. Ref: [[OSCE]] [http://www.osce.org/documents/html/pdftohtml/1198_en.pdf.html ]{{Dead link|url=http://www.osce.org/documents/html/pdftohtml/1198_en.pdf.html|date=January 2008}} '''
|}

== Culture and education ==
Serbian faculties of the [[University of Priština]] were relocated to Mitrovica from [[Priština]] in 1999.

== Sports ==
Mitrovica is home the football clubs [[FK Partizan Kosovska Mitrovica|FK Partizan]] , [[KF Trepça]] and [[KF Trepça'89]].

==See also==
*[[Kosovo Serb enclaves]]
*[[Roma in Mitrovica Camps]]
*[[New bridge in Kosovska Mitrovica]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==

*[http://kosmitrovica.blog.co.yu/blog/kosmitrovica/generalna/2007/08/06/grad-koji-brani-srbiju Kosovska Mitrovica Live]
* [http://www.osce.org/item/1191.html OSCE:Profile of Mitrovicë / Mitrovica]
* [http://www.reliefweb.int/mapc/eur_bal/reg/mitrovinca_mar00.html HCIC, Mitrovica Situation] - HCIC, UNHCR, WEU, KFOR (22 Mar 2000)
*[http://www.reliefweb.int/mapc/eur_bal/reg/mitrovince.html Mitrovica Situation] - HCIC, UNHCR, WEU, KFOR (24 Feb 2000)
* [http://www.forcedmigration.org/video/mitrovica/ Mitrovica: North and South of a Divided City] Video about displacement and reconstruction in Mitrovica.
*[http://www.kosovo.net/pogrom_march/mitrovica_stsava/page_01.htm Burning of St. Sava church in south Mitrovica 17 March]
*[http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1811795,00.html Postcard from Mitrovica: Almost Mellow at Kosovo's Front-Line Cafe] by [[Andrew Purvis]] on ''[[TIME Magazine]]'', June 4, 2008
*[http://www.esiweb.org/index.php?lang=en&id=156&document_ID=50 ESI report: People Or Territory? A Proposal For Mitrovica (16 February 2004]

{{Municipalities of the Republic of Kosovo}}
{{Geolinks-cityscale|42.89|20.87}}

[[Category:Cities, towns and villages in Kosovo]]
[[Category:Divided cities]]

[[bs:Kosovska Mitrovica]]
[[bg:Косовска Митровица]]
[[cs:Mitrovica]]
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[[es:Kosovska Mitrovica]]
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[[ko:미트로비차]]
[[hr:Kosovska Mitrovica]]
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User:Sir Vicious/monobook.js

2008-08-26T23:59:07Z

Sir Vicious:

importScript('User:Lupin/recent2.js');

User:Sir Vicious/monobook.js

2008-08-26T23:52:38Z

Sir Vicious: ← Blanked the page

User talk:76.114.248.104

2008-03-09T22:41:47Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Editing tests on Physical chemistry. (TW)

== March 2008 ==
[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] Welcome, and thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test {{#if:Physical chemistry|on the page [[:Physical chemistry]]}} worked, and it has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. Please take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to [[Wikipedia|this encyclopedia]]. If you would like to experiment further, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. {{#if:|{{{2}}}|Thank you.}} [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] ([[User talk:Sir Vicious|talk]]) 22:41, 9 March 2008 (UTC)

Physical chemistry

2008-03-09T22:41:31Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 76.114.248.104. (TW)

'''Physical chemistry''', is the application of [[physics]] to macroscopic, microscopic, atomic, subatomic, and particulate phenomena in chemical systems<ref name="quanta_physical_chem_1" /> within the field of [[chemistry]] traditionally using the principles, practices and concepts of [[thermodynamics]], [[quantum chemistry]], [[statistical mechanics]] and [[kinetics]].<ref name="quanta_physical_chem_2">'''Quantum Chemistry''' (p3 - "PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY"), states that "We can divide physical chemistry into four areas: thermodynamics, quantum chemistry, statistical mechanics and kinetics".</ref> It is mostly defined as a large field of chemistry, in which several sub-concepts are applied; the inclusion of quantum mechanics is used to illustrate the application of physical chemistry to atomic and particulate chemical interaction or experimentation.<ref name="quanta_physical_chem_1">'''Physical Chemistry''' (p3 - "PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY"), states that the field of physical chemistry is concerned with the microscopic and the macroscopic phenomenon which are mostly concerned with thermodynamics, and kinetics; the field of atomic and particulate interaction being included is implied with the inclusion of quantum chemistry.</ref>

Physical chemistry is mostly referred to as a macromolecular doctrine, as the majority of the principles on which physical chemistry was founded are composed entirely of macromolecular concepts, such as [[colloids]].<ref name="phys_chem_macro_1">'''Physical Chemistry of Macromolecules''' (p1 - "INTRODUCTION"), defines the formation of physical chemistry as being between macromolecules and colloids in modern physical chemistry. Also defines the "fierce battles" in the 1900s between the inclusion of colloids AS macromolecules.</ref>

The relationships that physical chemistry tries to resolve include the effects of:
#[[Intermolecular forces]] on the physical properties of materials ([[plasticity]], [[tensile strength]], [[surface tension]] in [[liquid]]s).
#[[Chemical kinetics|Reaction kinetics]] on the [[Reaction rate|rate of a reaction]].
#The identity of ions on the electrical conductivity of materials.

== History ==
The term "physical chemistry" was probably first introduced by [[Mikhail Lomonosov]] in [[1752]], when he presented a lecture course entitled "A Course in True Physical Chemistry" (Russian: «Курс истинной физической химии») before the students of [[Petersburg University]].

The foundation of modern physical chemistry is thought to have been laid in [[1876]] by [[Josiah Willard Gibbs]] after the publishing of his paper, ''[[On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances]]'', which contained several of the cornerstones of physical chemistry, such as [[Gibbs free energy|Gibbs energy]], [[chemical potential]]s, [[Gibbs phase rule]] <ref>Josiah Willard Gibbs, 1876, "[[On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances]]", ''Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Sciences''</ref> and subsequent naming and accreditation of enthalpy to [[Heike Kamerlingh Onnes]] and to [[macromolecular]] processes. {{Fact|date=February 2007}}

The first [[scientific journal]] for publications specifically in the field of physical chemistry was the German journal, [[Zeitschrift für physikalische Chemie]], founded in [[1887]] by [[Wilhelm Ostwald]] and [[Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff]].

== Notes ==
<references />

== References ==
# Levine, I. N. (1978). ''Physical Chemistry'' McGraw-Hill publishing ISBN 0-07-037418-X
# [[Peter Atkins|Atkins, P.W.]] (1978). ''Physical Chemistry'' [[Oxford University Press]] ISBN 0-7167-3539-X
# Berry, S. R., Rice, S. A, Ross, J. (2000). ''Physical Chemistry'' 2nd ed. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-510589-3
# Hunter, R. J. (1993) ''Introduction to Modern Colloid Science'' Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-855386-2
# Hiemenz, P. C., Rajagopalan, R., (1997). ''Principles of Colloid and Surface Chemistry'' Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. ISBN 0-8247-9397-8
# Moore, W.J. (1963). ''Physical Chemistry'' 4th ed. Longman publishers/London/Prentice Hall, NJ.

==See also==
=== Sub-topics ===
* [[Photochemistry]]
* [[Thermochemistry]]
* [[Chemical kinetics]]
* [[Quantum chemistry]]
* [[Electrochemistry]]
* [[Surface chemistry]]
* [[Solid state chemistry|Solid-state chemistry]]
* [[spectroscopy]]
* [[Materials science]]
* [[Molecular modelling]]

=== Publications ===
* [[List of important publications in chemistry#Physical chemistry|Important publications in physical chemistry(chemistry)]],
* [[list of important publications in physics#Physical chemistry|Important publications in physical chemistry(physics)]]

{{BranchesofChemistry}}

[[Category:Physical chemistry| ]]

[[af:Fisiese chemie]]
[[ar:كيمياء فيزيائية]]
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User talk:71.231.154.198

2008-03-09T22:36:13Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Editing tests on Organism. (TW)

== March 2008 ==
[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] Welcome, and thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test {{#if:Organism|on the page [[:Organism]]}} worked, and it has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. Please take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to [[Wikipedia|this encyclopedia]]. If you would like to experiment further, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. {{#if:|{{{2}}}|Thank you.}} [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] ([[User talk:Sir Vicious|talk]]) 22:36, 9 March 2008 (UTC)

Organism

2008-03-09T22:35:44Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 71.231.154.198. (TW)

{{Refimprove|date=July 2007}}
{{Taxobox | color = limegreen
| name = '''Life on Earth'''
| fossil_range = Late [[Hadean]] - Recent
| image = EscherichiaColi NIAID.jpg
| image_width = 240px
| image_caption = These ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' cells provide an example of a [[prokaryote|prokaryotic]] [[microorganism]]
| unranked_classis = [[Life on Earth]] (''Gaeabionta'')
|subdivision_ranks = [[Domain (biology)|Domain]]s and [[Kingdom (biology)|Kingdom]]s
| subdivision =
*[[Nanobes]] [[non-life|?]]
*[[Non-cellular life|Acytota]] [[Paraphyly|*]][[Polyphyly|*]][[non-life|?]]
*[[Cellular life|Cytota]]
**[[Bacteria]] [[Paraphyly|*]]
**[[Neomura]]
***[[Archaea]]
***[[Eukaryota]]
****[[Bikonta]]
*****[[Apusozoa]]
*****[[Rhizaria]]
*****[[Excavata]]
*****[[Archaeplastida]]
******[[Rhodophyta]]
******[[Glaucophyta]]
******'''[[Plantae]]'''
*****[[Heterokontophyta]]
*****[[Haptophyta]]
*****[[Cryptophyta]]
*****[[Alveolata]]
****[[Unikonta]]
*****[[Amoebozoa]]
*****[[Opisthokonta]]
******[[Choanozoa]]
******'''[[Fungi]]'''
******'''[[Animalia]]'''
}}
[[Image:Ericoid mycorrhizal fungus.jpg|thumb|right|200px|An ericoid mycorrhizal [[fungus]]]]
{{Redirect|Life on Earth||Life on Earth (TV series)}}
In [[biology]], an '''organism''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] '''''οργανισμός''''' - organismos, from [[Ancient Greek]] ''όργανον'' - organon "organ, instrument, tool") is an individual [[life|living]] system (such as animal, plant, fungus or micro-organism). In at least some form, all organisms are capable of reacting to stimuli, reproduction, growth and maintenance as a stable whole (after FAO<ref name=FAO>{cite http://www.fao.org/biotech/find-formalpha-n.asp </ref>). An organism may be [[unicellular]] or made up, like humans, of many billions of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s divided into specialized [[tissues]] and [[organs]].

Based on cell type, organisms may be divided into the [[prokaryote|prokaryotic]] and [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] groups. The prokaryotes are generally considered to represent two separate [[Three-domain system|domains]], called the [[Bacterium|Bacteria]] and [[Archaea]], which are not closer to one another than to the eukaryotes. The gap between prokaryotes and eukaryotes is widely considered a major missing link in [[evolutionary history of life|evolutionary history]]. Eukaryotic organisms, with a membrane-bounded [[cell nucleus]], also contain [[organelle]]s, namely [[mitochondria]] and (in plants) [[plastid]]s, generally considered to be derived from [[endosymbiotic theory|endosymbiotic]] bacteria. A similar [[symbiogenesis]] hypothesis has been proposed involving the origins of the cell nucleus, it is described as [[viral eukaryogenesis]]. [[Fungi]], [[animals]] and [[plants]] are examples of species that are eukaryotes. More recently a [[clade]], [[Neomura]], has been proposed, by [[Thomas Cavalier-Smith]], which groups together the [[Archaea]] and [[Eukarya]]. Cavalier-Smith also proposed that the Neomura evolved from [[Bacteria]], more precisely from [[Actinobacteria]]{{Fact|date=December 2007}}.

The phrase ''[[multicellular organism|complex organism]]'' describes any organism with more than one [[cell (biology)|cell]].

==Semantics==
The word "'''''organism'''''" may broadly be defined as ''an assembly of molecules that function as a more or less stable whole and has the properties of life.'' However, many sources, lexical and scientific, add conditions that are problematic to defining the word.

The [[Oxford English Dictionary]] defines an organism as "[an] individual animal, plant, or single-celled life form"<ref name=OED>{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary | edition=online | year=2004 | title=organism}}</ref> This definition problematically excludes non-animal and plant multi-cellular [[life form]]s such as some [[fungi]] and [[protista]]. Less controversially, perhaps, it excludes [[virus]]es and theoretically-possible man-made [[alternative biochemistry|non-organic life]] forms.

[[Chambers Online Reference]] provides a much broader definition: "any living structure, such as a plant, animal, fungus or bacterium, capable of growth and reproduction"<ref name=Chambers>{{cite encyclopedia | encyclopedia=Chambers 21st Century Dictionary | edition=online | year=1999 | title=organism}}</ref>. The definition "any [[life]] form capable of independent reproduction, [[biological matter|organic]] or otherwise" would encompass all cellular life, as well as the possibility of synthetic life capable of independent reproduction, but would exclude viruses, which are dependent on the biochemical machinery of a host cell for reproduction. Some may use a definition that would also include viruses.{{Fact|date=February 2008}}

In multicellular life the word "organism" usually describes the whole hierarchical assemblage of systems (for example [[circulatory system|circulatory]], [[digestive system|digestive]], or [[reproductive system|reproductive]]) themselves collections of [[organ (anatomy)|organ]]s; these are, in turn, collections of tissues, which are themselves made of [[cell (biology)|cell]]s. In some multicellular organisms, including plants, and the nematode ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]'', individual cells may remain capable of independent reproduction and of differentiating into a new multicellular organism. Such cells are said to be [[totipotent]].[[Image:Fungi in Borneo.jpg|thumb|left|A [[polypores]] [[mushroom]] has [[parasitic]] relationship with this [[Birch Tree]]]]

[[Image:Herpes simpex virus.jpg|125px|thumb|right|Herpes simplex virus]]
===Viruses===
[[Virus]]es are not typically considered to be organisms because they are incapable of "independent" [[reproduction]] or [[metabolism]]. This controversy is problematic, though, since some [[parasite]]s and [[endosymbiont]]s are also incapable of independent life. Although viruses have [[enzyme]]s and molecules characteristic of living organisms, they are incapable of reproducing outside a [[cell (biology)|host cell]] and most of their metabolic processes require a host and its 'genetic machinery.'

===Superorganism===
{{main|Superorganism}}
A superorganism is an organism consisting of many organisms. This is usually meant to be a social [[Units of measurement|unit]] of [[eusociality|eusocial]] animals, where [[division of labour]] is highly specialized and where individuals are not able to survive by themselves for extended periods of time. [[Ant]]s are the most well known example of such a superorganism. [[Thermoregulation]], a feature usually exhibited by individual organisms, does not occur in individuals or small groups of [[honeybee]]s of the species ''[[Apis mellifera]]''. When these bees pack together in clusters of between 5000 and 40000, the colony can thermoregulate.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Southwick
| first = Edward E.
| year = 1983
| title = The honey bee cluster as a homeothermic superorganism
| journal = Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology
| volume = 75A
| issue = 4
| pages = 741–745
| doi =10.1016/0300-9629(83)90434-6
| url =http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MiamiImageURL&_imagekey=B6T2P-4867WXH-110-2&_cdi=4924&_user=4385511&_check=y&_orig=search&_coverDate=12%2F31%2F1983&_qd=1&view=c&wchp=dGLbVlz-zSkWW&md5=d23bd1cec870de7f5a44f8a2f367ed9c&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
| format = PDF
| accessdate = 2006-07-20
}}</ref> [[James Lovelock]], with his "[[Gaia Theory]]" has paralleled the work of [[Vladimir Vernadsky]], who suggested the whole of the [[biosphere]] in some respects can be considered as a superorganism.
[[Image:Elephant-ear-sponge.jpg|thumb|left|A [[sea sponge]] is a very simple type of [[multicellular organism]]]]
The concept of superorganism is under dispute, as many [[biology|biologists]] maintain that in order for a social unit to be considered an organism by itself, the individuals should be in permanent physical connection to each other, and its [[evolution]] should be governed by selection to the whole society instead of individuals. While it's generally accepted that the society of eusocial animals is a unit of [[natural selection]] to at least some extent, most [[evolutionist]]s claim that the individuals are still the primary units of selection.

The question remains "What is to be considered ''the [[individualism|individual]]''?". [[Darwinism|Darwinians]] like [[Richard Dawkins]] suggest that the individual selected is the "[[Selfish Gene]]". Others believe it is the whole genome of an organism. [[E.O. Wilson]] has shown that with ant-colonies and other social [[insects]] it is the breeding entity of the colony that is selected, and not its individual members. This could apply to the bacterial members of a [[stromatolite]], which, because of genetic sharing, in some way comprise a single [[gene pool]]. Gaian theorists like [[Lynn Margulis]] would argue this applies equally to the [[symbiogenesis]] of the bacterial underpinnings of the whole of the Earth.

It would appear, from computer [[simulation]]s like [[Daisyworld]] that biological [[natural selection|selection]] occurs at multiple levels simultaneously.

It is also argued that humans are actually a superorganism that includes microorganisms such as [[bacteria]]. It is estimated that "the human intestinal microbiota is composed of 1013 to 1014 microorganisms whose collective [[genome]] ("[[microbiome]]") contains at least 100 times as many genes as our own[...] Our microbiome has significantly enriched metabolism of [[glycan]]s, [[amino acid]]s, and [[xenobiotic]]s; [[methanogenesis]]; and 2-methyl-D-erythritol 4-phosphate pathway–mediated biosynthesis of vitamins and [[isoprenoid]]s. Thus, humans are superorganisms whose metabolism represents an amalgamation of microbial and human attributes." <ref>Gill S. R., et al. ''Science'', ''312'', 1355-1359 ('''2006'''). http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1124234</ref>.

==Organizational terminology==
All organisms are classified by the science of [[alpha taxonomy]] into either [[taxa]] or [[clades]].

Taxa are ranked groups of organisms which run from the general ([[domain (biology)|domain]]) to the specific ([[species]]). A broad scheme of ranks in hierarchical order is:

* [[Domain (biology)|Domain]]
* [[Kingdom (biology)|Kingdom]]
* [[Phylum]]
* [[Class (biology)|Class]]
* [[Order (biology)|Order]]
* [[Family (biology)|Family]]
* [[Genus]]
* [[Species]]

To give an example, ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' is the [[Latin binomial]] equating to modern humans. All members of the species ''sapiens'' are, at least in theory, genetically able to interbreed. Several species may belong to a genus, but the members of different species within a genus are unable to interbreed to produce fertile offspring. [[Homo (genus)|Homo]], however, only has one surviving species (sapiens); ''[[Homo erectus]]'', ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'', &c. having become extinct thousands of years ago. Several genera belong to the same family and so on up the hierarchy. Eventually, the relevant kingdom ([[Animalia]], in the case of humans) is placed into one of the three domains depending upon certain genetic and structural characteristics.

All living organisms known to science are given classification by this system such that the species within a particular family are more closely related and genetically similar than the species within a particular phylum.

[[Image:Blue crab on market in Piraeus - Callinectes sapidus Rathbun 20020819-317.jpg|thumb|200 px|A [[crab]] is an example of an organism.]]
==Chemistry==
Organisms are complex chemical systems, organized in ways that promote reproduction and some measure of sustainability or survival. The molecular phenomena of chemistry are fundamental in understanding organisms, but it is a philosophical error (reductionism) to reduce organismal biology to mere chemistry. It is generally the phenomena of entire organisms that determine their fitness to an environment and therefore the survivability of their DNA based genes.

Organisms clearly owe their origin, metabolism, and many other internal functions to chemical phenomena, especially the chemistry of large organic molecules. Organisms are complex systems of [[chemical compound]]s which, through interaction with each other and the environment, play a wide variety of roles.

Organisms are semi-closed chemical systems. Although they are individual units of life (as the definition requires) they are not closed to the environment around them. To operate they constantly take in and release energy. [[Autotroph]]s produce usable energy (in the form of organic compounds) using light from the sun or inorganic compounds while [[heterotroph]]s take in organic compounds from the environment.

The primary [[chemical element]] in these compounds is [[carbon]]. The physical properties of this element such as its great affinity for bonding with other small atoms, including other carbon atoms, and its small size makes it capable of forming multiple bonds, make it ideal as the basis of organic life. It is able to form small compounds containing three atoms (such as [[carbon dioxide]]) as well as large chains of many thousands of atoms which are able to store data ([[nucleic acid]]s), hold cells together and transmit information ([[protein]]).

===Macromolecules===
The compounds which make up organisms may be divided into [[macromolecule]]s and other, smaller molecules. The four groups of macromolecule are [[nucleic acid]]s, [[protein]]s, [[carbohydrate]]s and [[lipid]]s. Nucleic acids (specifically [[deoxyribonucleic acid]], or DNA) store genetic data as a sequence of [[nucleotide]]s. The particular sequence of the four different types of nucleotides ([[adenine]], [[cytosine]], [[guanine]], and [[thymine]]) dictate the many characteristics which constitute the organism. The sequence is divided up into [[codon]]s, each of which is a particular sequence of three nucleotides and corresponds to a particular [[amino acid]]. Thus a sequence of DNA codes for a particular protein which, due to the chemical properties of the amino acids of which it is made, [[protein folding|folds]] in a particular manner and so performs a particular function.

The following functions of protein have been recognized:

# [[Enzymes]], which catalyze all of the reactions of metabolism;
# Structural proteins, such as [[tubulin]], or [[collagen]];
# Regulatory proteins, such as [[transcription factors]] or cyclins that regulate the cell cycle;
# Signaling molecules or their receptors such as some [[hormones]] and their receptors;
# Defensive proteins, which can include everything from [[antibodies]] of the [[immune system]], to toxins (e.g., [[dendrotoxin]]s of snakes), to proteins that include unusual amino acids like [[canavanine]].

Lipids make up the [[phospholipid membrane|membrane]] of cells which constitutes a barrier, containing everything within the cell and preventing compounds from freely passing into, and out of, the cell. In some multi-cellular organisms they serve to store energy and mediate communication between cells. Carbohydrates also store and transport energy in some organisms, but are more easily broken down than lipids.

==Structure==
All organisms consist of monomeric units called [[cell (biology)|cell]]s; some contain a single cell ([[unicellular]]) and others contain many units ([[multicellular]]). Multicellular organisms are able to specialize cells to perform specific functions, a group of such cells is [[biological tissue|tissue]] the four basic types of which are [[epithelium]], [[nervous tissue]], [[muscle|muscle tissue]] and [[connective tissue]]. Several types of tissue work together in the form of an [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] to produce a particular function (such as the pumping of the blood by the [[heart]], or as a barrier to the environment as the [[skin]]). This pattern continues to a higher level with several organs functioning as an [[organ system]] to allow for [[reproductive system|reproduction]], [[digestive system|digestion]], &c. Many multicelled organisms comprise of several organ systems which coordinate to allow for life.

===The cell===
The [[cell theory]], first developed in 1839 by [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden|Schleiden]] and [[Theodor Schwann|Schwann]], states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells; all cells come from preexisting cells; all vital functions of an organism occur within cells, and cells contain the [[genetics|hereditary information]] necessary for regulating cell functions and for transmitting information to the next generation of cells.

There are two types of cells, eukaryotic and prokaryotic. Prokaryotic cells are usually singletons, while eukaryotic cells are usually found in multi-cellular organisms. Prokaryotic cells lack a [[nuclear membrane]] so [[DNA]] is unbound within the cell, eukaryotic cells have nuclear membranes.

All cells, whether [[prokaryotic]] or [[eukaryotic]], have a [[cell membrane|membrane]], which envelopes the cell, separates its interior from its environment, regulates what moves in and out, and maintains the [[cell potential|electric potential of the cell]]. Inside the membrane, a [[salt]]y [[cytoplasm]] takes up most of the cell volume. All cells possess [[DNA]], the hereditary material of [[gene]]s, and [[RNA]], containing the information necessary to [[gene expression|build]] various [[protein]]s such as [[enzyme]]s, the cell's primary machinery. There are also other kinds of [[biomolecule]]s in cells.

All cells share several abilities<ref name="AlbertsCh1">[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=%22all+cells%22+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+372023%5Buid%5D&rid=mboc4.section.4#23 The Universal Features of Cells on Earth] in Chapter 1 of ''[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Search&db=books&doptcmdl=GenBookHL&term=cell+biology+AND+mboc4%5Bbook%5D+AND+373693%5Buid%5D&rid=mboc4 Molecular Biology of the Cell]'' fourth edition, edited by Bruce Alberts (2002) published by Garland Science.</ref>:

* Reproduction by [[cell division]] ([[binary fission]], [[mitosis]] or [[meiosis]]).
* Use of [[enzyme]]s and other [[protein]]s [[genetic code|coded for]] by [[DNA]] [[gene]]s and made via [[messenger RNA]] intermediates and [[ribosome]]s.
* [[Metabolism]], including taking in raw materials, building cell components, converting [[energy]], [[molecule]]s and releasing [[by-product]]s. The functioning of a cell depends upon its ability to extract and use chemical energy stored in organic molecules. This energy is derived from [[metabolic pathway]]s.
* Response to external and internal [[Signal transduction|stimuli]] such as changes in temperature, [[pH]] or nutrient levels.
* Cell contents are contained within a [[Cell membrane|cell surface membrane]] that contains proteins and a [[lipid bilayer]].

==Life span==
One of the basic parameters of organism is its [[life span]]. Some animals live as short as one day, while some plants can live thousands of years. [[Senescence|Aging]] is important when determining life span of most organisms, bacterium, a virus or even a [[prion]].

==Evolution==
{{seealso|Common descent|Origin of life}}
[[Image:Phylogenetic tree.svg|thumb|350px|left|A hypothetical [[phylogenetic tree]] of all extant organisms, based on 16S [[non-coding RNA|rRNA]] [[gene]] sequence data, showing the evolutionary history of the [[Three-domain system|three domains of life]], [[bacteria]], [[archaea]] and [[eukaryote]]s. Originally proposed by [[Carl Woese]].]]

In biology, the theory of [[universal common descent]] proposes that all organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor or ancestral gene pool.

Evidence for common descent may be found in traits shared between all living organisms. In Darwin's day, the evidence of shared traits was based solely on visible observation of morphologic similarities, such as the fact that all birds have wings, even those which do not fly. Today, there is strong evidence from genetics that all organisms have a common ancestor. For example, every living cell makes use of [[nucleic acid]]s as its genetic material, and uses the same twenty [[amino acid]]s as the building blocks for [[protein]]s. The universality of these traits strongly suggests common ancestry.

The "Last Universal Ancestor" is the name given to the [[hypothetical]] [[unicellular|single cellular]] [[organisms|organism]] or single cell that gave rise to all [[life on Earth]] 3.9 to 4.1 billion years ago; however, this hypothesis has since been refuted on many grounds. For example, it was once thought that the [[genetic code]] was universal (see: [[universal genetic code]]), but differences in the genetic code and differences in how each organism translates nucleic acid sequences into proteins, provide support that there never was any "last universal common ancestor." Back in the early 1970s, evolutionary biologists thought that a given piece of [[DNA]] specified the same [[protein subunit]] in every living thing, and that the genetic code was thus universal. Since this is something unlikely to happen by chance, it was interpreted as evidence that every organism had [[inherited]] its genetic code from a single common ancestor, aka., the "Last Universal Ancestor." In 1979, however, exceptions to the code were found in mitochondria, the tiny energy factories inside cells. Biologists subsequently found exceptions in [[bacteria]] and in the [[Cell nucleus|nuclei]] of [[algae]] and single-celled animals. It is now clear that the genetic code is not the same in all living things, and that it does not provide powerful evidence that all living things evolved on a single tree of life.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Edwards|first=Mark|url=http://www.arn.org/docs/pbsevolution/pbsfalseclaim091001.htm|title=PBS Charged with "False Claim" on "Universal Genetic Code.|journal=Science, TV Review, & Education Writers|date=2001|accessdate=2007-03-20}}</ref> Further support that there is no "Last Universal Ancestor" has been provided over the years by [[Horizontal gene transfer#Evolutionary theory|Lateral gene transfer]] in both [[prokaryote]] and [[eukaryote]] single cell organisms. This is why [[phylogenetic trees]] cannot be rooted, why almost all phylogenetic trees have different branching structures, particularly near the base of the tree, and why many organisms have been found with [[codons]] and sections of their [[DNA sequence]] that are unrelated to any other species.

Information about the early development of life includes input from the fields of geology and [[planetary science]]. These sciences provide information about the history of the Earth and the changes produced by life. However, a great deal of information about the early Earth has been destroyed by geological processes over the course of time.
 

===History of life===


{{main|Timeline of evolution}}

The [[chemical evolution]] from [[Catalyst|self-catalytic chemical reactions]] to [[life]] (see [[Origin of life]]) is not a part of biological evolution, but it is unclear at which point such increasingly complex sets of reactions became what we would consider, today, to be living organisms.

[[Image:Stromatolites.jpg|right|thumb|280px|[[Precambrian]] [[stromatolite]]s in the Siyeh Formation, [[Glacier National Park (U.S.)|Glacier National Park]]. In 2002, William Schopf of [[University of California, Los Angeles|UCLA]] published a controversial paper in the journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' arguing that formations such as this possess 3.5 billion year old [[fossil]]ized [[algae]] microbes. If true, they would be the earliest known life on earth.]]

Not much is known about the earliest developments in life. However, all existing organisms share certain traits, including cellular structure and [[genetic code]]. Most scientists interpret this to mean all existing organisms share a common ancestor, which had already developed the most fundamental cellular processes, but there is no [[scientific consensus]] on the relationship of the three domains of life ([[Archaea]], [[Bacterium|Bacteria]], [[Eukaryota]]) or the [[origin of life]]. Attempts to shed light on the earliest history of life generally focus on the behavior of [[macromolecule]]s, particularly [[RNA]], and the behavior of [[complex system]]s.

The emergence of oxygenic [[photosynthesis]] (around 3 billion years ago) and the subsequent emergence of an oxygen-rich, non-reducing atmosphere can be traced through the formation of [[Banded iron formation|banded iron]] deposits, and later [[red bed]]s of iron oxides. This was a necessary prerequisite for the development of [[aerobic respiration|aerobic]] [[cellular respiration]], believed to have emerged around 2 billion years ago.

In the last billion years, simple multicellular plants and animals began to appear in the oceans. Soon after the emergence of the first animals, the [[Cambrian explosion]] (a period of unrivaled and remarkable, but brief, organismal diversity documented in the fossils found at the [[Burgess Shale]]) saw the creation of all the major body plans, or [[phylum (biology)|phyla]], of modern animals. This event is now believed to have been triggered by the development of the [[Homeobox|Hox genes]]. About 500 million years ago, [[plant]]s and [[fungi]] colonized the land, and were soon followed by [[arthropod]]s and other animals, leading to the development of land [[ecosystem]]s with which we are familiar.

The evolutionary process may be exceedingly slow. Fossil evidence indicates that the diversity and complexity of modern life has developed over much of the [[history of Earth|history of the earth]]. [[geology|Geological]] evidence indicates that the Earth is approximately [[Age of the Earth|4.6 billion years old]]. Studies on guppies by David Reznick at the University of California, Riverside, however, have shown that the rate of evolution through natural selection can proceed 10 thousand to 10 million times faster than what is indicated in the fossil record.<ref>Evaluation of the Rate of Evolution in Natural Populations of Guppies (Poecilia reticulata) "[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=9072971&query_hl=2]"</ref>. Such comparative studies however are invariably biased by disparities in the time scales over which evolutionary change is measured in the laboratory, field experiments, and the fossil record.

===Horizontal gene transfer, and the history of life===
The ancestry of living organisms has traditionally been reconstructed from morphology, but is increasingly supplemented with phylogenetics - the reconstruction of phylogenies by the comparison of genetic (DNA) sequence.

"Sequence comparisons suggest recent [[horizontal gene transfer|horizontal transfer]] of many [[gene]]s among diverse [[species]] including across the boundaries of [[phylogenetic]] 'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes." <ref>Oklahoma State - [http://opbs.okstate.edu/~melcher/MG/MGW3/MG334.html Horizontal Gene Transfer]</ref>

Biologist Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research", therefore "biologists [should] use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use [the] metaphor of a net to visualize the rich exchange and cooperative effects of HGT among microbes." <ref>[http://www.esalenctr.org/display/confpage.cfm?confid=10&pageid=105&pgtype=1 esalenctr.org]</ref>

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/944790.stm BBCNews: 27 September, 2000, When slime is not so thick] Citat: "...It means that some of the lowliest creatures in the plant and animal kingdoms, such as slime and amoeba, may not be as primitive as once thought...."
** [http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=4742 SpaceRef.com, July 29, 1997: Scientists Discover Methane Ice Worms On Gulf Of Mexico Sea Floor]
*** [http://www.science.psu.edu/iceworms/iceworms.html The Eberly College of Science: Methane Ice Worms discovered on Gulf of Mexico Sea Floor] download Publication quality photos
** [http://www.sb-roscoff.fr/Ecophy/PDF/00-Fisher-NatWis.pdf Artikel, 2000: Methane Ice Worms: Hesiocaeca methanicola. Colonizing Fossil Fuel Reserves]
** [http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=339 SpaceRef.com, May 04, 2001: Redefining "Life as We Know it"] ''Hesiocaeca methanicola'' In 1997, Charles Fisher, professor of biology at Penn State, discovered this remarkable creature living on mounds of methane ice under half a mile of ocean on the floor of the Gulf of Mexico.
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/2585235.stm BBCNews, 18 December, 2002, 'Space bugs' grown in lab] Citat: "...''Bacillus simplex'' and ''Staphylococcus pasteuri''...''Engyodontium album''...The strains cultured by Dr Wainwright seemed to be resistant to the effects of UV - one quality required for survival in space...."
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/3003946.stm BBCNews, 19 June, 2003, Ancient organism challenges cell evolution] Citat: "..."It appears that this organelle has been conserved in evolution from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, since it is present in both,"..."
* [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/bi04syllabsu03.html Interactive Syllabus for General Biology - BI 04, Saint Anselm College, Summer 2003]
* [http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/j/s/jsf165/Bio110.html Jacob Feldman: Stramenopila]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Root NCBI Taxonomy entry: root] (rich)
* [http://www.anselm.edu/homepage/jpitocch/genbios/surveybi04.html Saint Anselm College: Survey of representatives of the major Kingdoms] Citat: "...Number of [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]]s has not been resolved...Bacteria present a problem with their diversity...[[Protista]] present a problem with their diversity...",
* [http://www.species2000.org/ Species 2000 Indexing the world's known species]. Species 2000 has the objective of enumerating all known species of plants, animals, fungi and microbes on Earth as the baseline dataset for studies of global biodiversity. It will also provide a simple access point enabling users to link from here to other data systems for all groups of organisms, using direct species-links.
* [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/enviro/EnviroRepublish_828525.htm The largest organism in the world may be a fungus carpeting nearly 10 square kilometers of an Oregon forest, and may be as old as 10500 years.]
* [http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html The Tree of Life].
*[http://www.scribd.com/doc/1016/Life-from-birth-to-death/ Frequent questions from kids about life and their answers]

{{Composition}}

[[Category:Life]]
[[Category:Organisms| ]]

[[ar:متعضية]]
[[ast:Ser vivu]]
[[zh-min-nan:Seng-bu̍t]]
[[bg:Организъм]]
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[[da:Organisme]]
[[de:Lebewesen]]
[[et:Organism]]
[[el:Οργανισμός (βιολογία)]]
[[es:Ser vivo]]
[[eo:Organismo]]
[[fa:سازواره‌]]
[[fr:Organisme vivant]]
[[gl:Organismo]]
[[ko:생물]]
[[hr:Organizam]]
[[id:Organisme]]
[[ia:Organismo]]
[[is:Lífvera]]
[[it:Organismo vivente]]
[[he:יצור]]
[[jv:Organisme]]
[[kn:ಸಾವಯವ]]
[[lv:Organisms]]
[[lb:Liewewiesen]]
[[lt:Organizmas]]
[[jbo:jmive]]
[[hu:Élőlény]]
[[mk:Организам]]
[[mg:Zavamanan'aina]]
[[nl:Organisme]]
[[ja:生物]]
[[no:Organisme]]
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[[oc:Organisme vivent]]
[[pl:Organizm]]
[[pt:Organismo]]
[[ro:Organism]]
[[qu:Kawsaq]]
[[ru:Организм]]
[[scn:Organismu]]
[[simple:Organism]]
[[sr:Организам]]
[[su:Organisme]]
[[fi:Eliö]]
[[sv:Organism]]
[[ta:உயிரினம்]]
[[te:జీవి]]
[[th:สิ่งมีชีวิต]]
[[vi:Sinh vật]]
[[tr:Organizma]]
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[[yi:ארגאניסם]]
[[zh-yue:生物]]
[[zh:生物]]

User talk:159.134.147.9

2008-03-09T22:34:20Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Using improper humor on Crane (bird). (TW)

== March 2008 ==
[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] [[Wikipedia:Introduction|Welcome]], and thank you for your attempt to lighten up Wikipedia. However, this is an encyclopedia and the articles are intended to be serious, so please don't make joke edits{{#if:Crane (bird)|, as you did to [[:Crane (bird)]]}}. Readers looking for serious articles will not find them amusing. If you'd like to experiment with editing, try the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]], where you can write (almost) whatever you want. {{#if:|{{{2}}}|}} [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] ([[User talk:Sir Vicious|talk]]) 22:34, 9 March 2008 (UTC)

Crane (bird)

2008-03-09T22:34:04Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 159.134.147.9 identified as vandalism to last revision by Eubot. (TW)

{{Taxobox
| name = Cranes
| image = Sarus_cranecropped.jpg
| image_width = 200px
| image_caption = [[Sarus Crane|Indian Sarus Crane]] ''Grus antigone antigone''
| regnum = [[Animal]]ia
| phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]]
| classis = [[Aves]]
| ordo = [[Gruiformes]]
| familia = '''Gruidae'''
| familia_authority = [[Nicholas Aylward Vigors|Vigors]], [[1825]]
| subdivision_ranks = [[Genus|Genera]]
| subdivision =
*''[[Grus (bird)|Grus]]''
*''[[Anthropoides]]''
*''[[Balearica]]''
*''[[Bugeranus]]''
}}

'''Cranes''' are large, long-legged and long-necked [[bird]]s of the order [[Gruiformes]], and family '''Gruidae'''. Unlike the similar-looking but unrelated [[heron]]s, cranes fly with necks outstretched, not pulled back. Most have elaborate and noisy courting displays or "dances". While folklore often states that cranes mate for life, recent scientific research indicates that these birds do change mates over the course of their (considerable) lifetimes (Hayes 2005). Some species and/or populations of cranes [[bird migration|migrate]] over long distances, while some do not migrate at all. Cranes are gregarious, forming large flocks where their numbers are sufficient.

Most species of cranes are at least threatened, if not critically endangered, within their range. The plight of the [[Whooping Crane]]s of North America inspired some of the first [[United States|US]] legislation to protect [[endangered species]].

They are opportunistic feeders that change their diet according to the season and their own nutrient requirements. They eat a range of items from suitably sized small [[rodent]]s, [[fish]], [[amphibian]]s, and [[insects]], to [[cereal|grain]], [[Berry|berries]], and [[plant]]s. (The [[cranberry]] is so-named for its flowers' resemblance to the neck and head of the crane.)

There are representatives of this group on all the continents except [[Antarctica]] and [[South America]].

== Systematics ==
[[Image:Grey Crowned Crane.jpg|thumb|202px|[[Grey Crowned Crane]], ''Balearica regulorum'']]
There are 15 living [[species]] of cranes in 4 [[genus|genera]]:

'''[[subfamily|SUBFAMILY]] BALEARICINAE''' - crowned cranes
* '''Genus ''[[Balearica]]'''''
** [[Black Crowned Crane]], ''Balearica pavonina''
** [[Grey Crowned Crane]], ''Balearica regulorum''
'''SUBFAMILY GRUINAE''' - typical cranes
* '''Genus ''[[Grus (bird)|Grus]]'''''
** [[Common Crane]], ''Grus grus'', also known as the '''Eurasian Crane'''
** [[Sandhill Crane]], ''Grus canadensis''
** [[Whooping Crane]], ''Grus americana''
** [[Sarus Crane]], ''Grus antigone''
** [[Brolga]], ''Grus rubicunda''
** [[Siberian Crane]], ''Grus leucogeranus''
** [[White-naped Crane]], ''Grus vipio''
** [[Hooded Crane]], ''Grus monacha''
** [[Black-necked Crane]], ''Grus nigricollis''
** [[Red-crowned Crane]], ''Grus japonensis''
* '''Genus ''[[Anthropoides]]'''''
** [[Blue Crane]], ''Anthropoides paradisea''
** [[Demoiselle Crane]], ''Anthropoides virgo''
* '''Genus ''[[Bugeranus]]'''''
** [[Wattled Crane]], ''Bugeranus carunculatus''

The [[fossil]] record of cranes leaves much to be desired. Apparently, the subfamilies were well distinct by the Late [[Eocene]] (around 35 [[mya (unit)|mya]]). The present genera are apparently some 20 mya old. [[Biogeography]] of known fossil and the living taxa of cranes suggests that the group is probably of ([[Laurasia]]n?) Old World origin. The extant diversity at the genus level is centered on (eastern) [[Africa]], making it all the more regrettable that no decent fossil record exists from there. On the other hand, it is peculiar that numerous fossils of [[Ciconiiformes]] are documented from there; these birds presumably shared much of their [[habitat]] with cranes back then already.

Fossil genera are tentatively assigned to the present-day subfamilies:

'''Balearicinae'''
*''[[Geranopsis]]'' (Hordwell Late Eocene - Early Oligocene of England)
'''Gruinae'''
* ''[[Palaeogrus]]'' (Middle Eocene of Germany and Italy - Middle Miocene of France)
* ''[[Pliogrus]]'' (Early Pliocene of Eppelsheim, Germany)
* ''[[Camusia]]'' (Late Miocene of Menorca, Mediterranean)
* ''"Grus" conferta'' (Late Miocene/Early Pliocene of Contra Costa County, USA) - see Miller & Sibley (1942)
'''Sometimes considered Gruidae'''
* ''[[Eobalearica]]'' (Ferghana Late? Eocene of Ferghana, Uzbekistan)
* ''[[Probalearica]]'' (Late Oligocene? - Middle Pliocene of Florida, USA, France?, Moldavia and Mongolia) - A ''[[nomen dubium]]''?
* ''[[Aramornis]]'' (Sheep Creek Middle Miocene of Snake Creek Quarries, USA)

The supposed ''Grus prentici'' is not a true crane; it was eventually placed in the genus ''[[Paragrus]]'' (Lambrecht 1933:520).

== Cranes in popular culture ==
[[Image:PC280527.JPG|thumb|300px|Sandhill Crane]]
*In [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]]'s TV series ''[[Prison Break]]'', the protagonist ([[Michael Scofield]]) leaves paper folded cranes at important places in his attempt to arrange escape from prison for himself and his older brother ([[Lincoln Burrows]]). Late in the first season it becomes clear that Lincoln used to leave paper cranes by Michael's bedside when they were kids, and that the crane supposedly stands for 'a familial obligation' and 'watching out for your own'.

*On ''[[The Future Is Wild]]'', a large bird known as the [[great blue windrunner]] is a fictional descendant of cranes.

*On [[The Decemberists]] CD ''[[The Crane Wife]]'', they have 2 songs creating a story about a crane wife.

* On ''[[Northern Exposure]]'', at the end of Season 4 Episode 7 'The Bad Seed' Characters [[Chris Stevens (Northern Exposure)|Chris Stevens]] and [[Ed Chigliak]], dance with a Crane.

In the Power Ranger Movie, Kimberly gained the power of the crane

In the 1939 movie [[The Wizard of Oz (1939 film)|''The Wizard of Oz'']], a bizarre rumor that one of the Munchkins hanged himself in the forest set is easily disproved by close inspection of the scene. The supposed body, swinging from a tree branch in the forest set, is actually a live crane in the background. It can be seen as the characters exit the forest near the Tin Man's cottage.

=== Myth and lore ===
[[Image:Pine, Plum and Cranes.jpg|thumb|right|230px|''Pine, Plum and Cranes'', 1759 AD, by Shen Quan (1682—1760). Hanging scroll, ink and colour on silk. The [[Palace Museum]], [[Beijing]].]]
The cranes' beauty and their spectacular mating dances have made them highly symbolic birds in many cultures with records dating back to ancient times. Crane mythology is widely spread and can be found in areas such as the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]], South [[Arabian peninsula|Arabia]], [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Japan]] and in the Native American cultures of North America. In northern [[Hokkaidō]], the women of the [[Ainu people]], whose culture is more [[Siberia]]n than Japanese, performed a crane dance that was captured in [[1908]] in a photograph by [[Arnold Genthe]]. In [[Korea]], a crane dance has been performed in the courtyard of the Tongdosa Temple since the [[Silla Dynasty]] (646 CE).

In [[Mecca]], in pre-Islamic South Arabia, the goddesses [[Allat]], [[Uzza]], and [[Manah]], who were believed to be daughters of and intercessors with [[Allah]], were called the "three exalted cranes" (''gharaniq'', an obscure word on which 'crane' is the usual [[Gloss (transliteration)|gloss]]). See [[Satanic Verses|The Satanic Verses]] for the best-known story regarding these three goddesses.

The [[Greek language|Greek]] for crane is ''Γερανος'' (''Geranos''), which gives us the [[Cranesbill]], or hardy geranium. The crane was a bird of omen. In the tale of [[Ibycus]] and the cranes, a thief attacked Ibycus (a poet of the 6th century BCE) and left him for dead. Ibycus called to a flock of passing cranes, who followed the murderer to a theater and hovered over him until, stricken with guilt, he confessed to the crime.

[[Pliny the Elder]] wrote that cranes would appoint one of their number to stand guard while they slept. The sentry would hold a stone in its claw, so that if it fell asleep it would drop the stone and waken.

[[Image:cranes japan.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A pair of [[Red-crowned Crane]]s in the [[Tokyo Zoo]].]]

[[Aristotle]] describes the migration of cranes in [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.8.viii.html The History of Animals], adding an account of their fights with Pygmies as they wintered near the source of the Nile. He describes as untruthful an account that the crane carries a [[touchstone]] inside it that can be used to test for gold when vomited up. ''(This second story is not altogether implausible, as cranes might ingest appropriate gizzard stones in one locality and regurgitate them in a region where such stone is otherwise scarce)''

Also, the word "[[pedigree]]" comes from the [[Old French]] phrase, "pie de grue", which means "foot of a crane", as the pedigree diagram looks similar to the branches coming out of a crane's foot.

[[Image:EOS 6346 raw2.jpg|thumb|left|300px|The "Turtle carry crane on its back" statue in [[Văn Miếu]]- Temple of Literature in [[Hà Nội]], [[Vietnam]].]]

A crane is considered auspicious in [[China]], [[Korea]], [[Japan]] and [[Vietnam]]. It is one of the symbols of longevity and is often represented with other symbols of long life, such as pine, bamboo, and the tortoise. Vietnamese people consider crane and dragon to be symbols of their culture. In feudal Japan the crane was protected by the ruling classes and fed by the peasants. When the feudal system was abolished in the Meiji era of the 19th century, the protection of cranes was lost. With effort they have been brought back from the brink of extinction. Japan has named one of their [[satellites]] ''tsuru'' (crane, the bird). According to tradition, if one folds 1000 [[origami]] cranes one's wish for health will be granted. Since the death of [[Sadako Sasaki]] this applies to a wish for peace as well.

Also, traditional [[China|Chinese]] 'heavenly cranes' (''tian-he'') or 'blessed cranes' (''xian-he'') were messengers of wisdom. Legendary [[Tao]]ist sages were transported between heavenly worlds on the backs of cranes.

==See also==
*[[International Crane Foundation]]

== References ==
* '''Hayes''', M.A. (2005): ''Divorce and extra-pair paternity as alternative mating strategies in monogamous sandhill cranes''. MS thesis, University of South Dakota, Vermilion, S.D.. 86 p. PDF fulltext at the [http://www.savingcranes.org/conservation/our_projects/program.cfm?id=35 International Crane Foundation's Library]

* '''Lambrecht''', Kálmán (1933): ''Handbuch der Palaeornithologie''. Gebrüder Bornträger, Berlin.

* '''Miller''', Alden H. & '''Sibley''', Charles G. (1942): A New Species of Crane from the Pliocene of California. ''[[Condor (journal)|Condor]]'' '''44''': 126-127. [http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Condor/files/issues/v044n03/p0126-p0127.pdf PDF fulltext]

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Gruidae}}
* [http://www.savingcranes.org/ Saving Cranes website (ICF)]
* [http://home.nikocity.de/craneworld/index_en.htm Craneworld website]
* [http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/familia.phtml?idFamilia=43 Gruidae videos] on the Internet Bird Collection
* [http://www.metacafe.com/watch/291919/the_scofields_crane//R/ffd_201 Origami crane]
*[http://www.xeno-canto.org/browse.php?query=gruidae Crane sounds] on xeno-canto.org
*[http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/bioscicranes/ ''Cranes of the World,'' by Paul Johnsgard]
=== Myth and Lore links ===
*[http://www.blueroebuck.com/crane.htm Crane mythologies]. Not selective, a starting point
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20041010053428/http://www.yscity.or.kr/yangsan-city/sub_1doc/e_sub/sub4/main_01_4.htm Crane Dance at the Tongdosa Temple] ([[Internet Archive|archive]] link, was [[Dead link|dead]])
*[http://rosella.apana.org.au/~mlb/cranes/lore.htm#Family Thousand Cranes] lore.

[[Category:Gruidae|*]]

[[af:Kraanvoël]]
[[bg:Жеравови]]
[[da:Traner]]
[[de:Kraniche]]
[[es:Gruidae]]
[[eo:Gruo]]
[[fa:درنا]]
[[fr:Gruidae]]
[[fy:Kraanfûgels]]
[[ko:두루미과]]
[[hr:Ždralovi]]
[[io:Gruo]]
[[id:Burung Jenjang]]
[[it:Gruidae]]
[[he:עגוריים]]
[[sw:Korongo (Gruidae)]]
[[lt:Gerviniai]]
[[li:Kroenekrane]]
[[hu:Darufélék]]
[[ml:സാരസം]]
[[nl:Kraanvogels]]
[[ja:ツル]]
[[no:Traner]]
[[nn:Tranefamilien]]
[[pl:Żurawie (ptaki)]]
[[pt:Gruidae]]
[[ru:Журавли]]
[[scn:Grua]]
[[simple:Crane (bird)]]
[[sv:Tranor]]
[[ta:கொக்கு]]
[[tr:Turnagiller]]
[[zh-yue:鶴科]]
[[zh:鹤科]]

Kite shield

2008-03-09T22:30:58Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted to revision 197096078 by VoABot II. (TW)

[[Image:Harold dead bayeux tapestry.png|thumb|right|Soldiers carrying kite shields, from the [[Bayeux Tapestry]]]]

A '''kite shield''' was a distinct type of [[shield]] from the 10th–12th centuries. It was either a reverse teardrop shape or later on, flat-topped. The tapering point extended down to either a distinct or rounded point. Believed to be an evolution of the simple [[round shield]] purely to guard one whole flank of a rider when in combat, the shield gained popularity amongst professional soldiers as it allowed them to guard their foreleg when in a mêlée. It was either flat in section, or featured a gradual curve, to better fit the contour of the human torso, much in the style of a [[Scutum (shield)|scutum]].

The shield is most closely associated with the [[Normans]], who were one of the first cultures to use it widely, and can be seen throughout the [[Bayeux Tapestry]].

The kite shield was an evolution in the development of shields, representing a change in the popular circular shape which had been dominant in Europe since at least 500 AD. The shield was still in widespread use throughout the 12th century, and is illustrated in art such as on the small [[Carlton-in-Lindrick knight]] figurine, but began to be phased out at the end of that century, and had largely disappeared by the 14th century as limb armour became more efficient, and therefore less leg cover was required of shields. Modifications to the kite shield occurred gradually, the top first being truncated, then the tail shortened and the resultant smaller shield that developed is referred to as a [[heater shield]].

== Structure ==

The kite shield predominantly features [[enarmes]], leather straps used to grip the shield tight to the arm. Unlike a [[shield boss|boss]], or centralised grip, this allows a greater degree of weight distribution along the arm, rather than the weight pulling on the wrist. Kite shields were strapped in a variety of different patterns, such as a simple left-right grip (where the left side strap is looser than the right, thus allowing an arm to be slid in and then grip the right strap), top-bottom (the same configuration but with the loose strap below the tight strap) and various cross-bracing (where two straps meet in an ''x'' shape). All these types of grips have appeared on various [[illuminated manuscript]]s, and it appears to have been a matter of preference which was used.

The shield sometimes featured a boss, a large domed metal centrepiece, but is has been generally accepted that, unlike on earlier shields where this was a form of grip, it was merely decorative. It is also taken that a large number of kite shields featured no boss, and this was also a matter of preference.
The shield was usually made from stout but light wood, such as [[Tilia|lime]], and faced in either [[leather]] or toughened fabric, such as [[canvas]]. Most shields featured some form of reinforced rim, generally toughened leather, although some historians believe the rims on certain shields would have been constructed from metal.

It could also be slung across the back with a [[guige]] strap when not in use.

[[Category:Medieval shields]]

[[simple:Kite shield]]

Kite shield

2008-03-09T22:30:31Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 98.28.96.165 identified as vandalism to last revision by 75.67.147.202. (TW)

User talk:74.237.188.38

2008-03-09T22:26:02Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Editing tests on Civil rights movement. (TW)

== March 2008 ==
[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] Welcome, and thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test {{#if:Civil rights movement|on the page [[:Civil rights movement]]}} worked, and it has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. Please take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to [[Wikipedia|this encyclopedia]]. If you would like to experiment further, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. {{#if:|{{{2}}}|Thank you.}} [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] ([[User talk:Sir Vicious|talk]]) 22:26, 9 March 2008 (UTC)

Civil rights movements

2008-03-09T22:25:44Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted good faith edits by 74.237.188.38. (TW)

Historically, the '''civil rights movement''' was a concentrated period of time around the world of approximately one [[generation]] ([[1960]]-[[1980]]) wherein there was much worldwide [[civil unrest]] and popular rebellion. The process of moving toward [[equality]] under the [[law]] was long and tenuous in many countries, and most of these movements did not achieve or fully achieve their objectives. In its later years, the civil rights movement took a sharp turn to the [[radical left]] in many cases.

==Civil Rights Movement in Northern Ireland==
[[Image:Bloody Sunday Mural Bogside 2004 SMC.jpg|right|230px|thumb|[[Bloody Sunday (1972)]] [[memorial]] [[mural]]]]
[[Northern Ireland]] saw the formation of the Campaign for Social Justice in [[Belfast]] in 1964, followed by the [[Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association]] (NICRA) in 1967. It consciously modelled itself on the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement in the United States]]. The largely [[Catholic]] membership demanded the repeal of the Special Powers Acts of 1922, 1933, and 1943, and an end to the discrimination by the [[Ulster Unionist Party]] [[Parliament of Northern Ireland|government]]. The [[British government]] responded with a policy of [[internment]] without trial of suspected republicans which provoked a [[civil disobedience]] campaign. For more than three hundred people, the internment lasted several years. In 1978, in a case brought by the government of the [[Republic of Ireland]] against the government of the [[United Kingdom]], the [[European Court of Human Rights]] ruled that the interrogation techniques approved for use by the British army on internees in 1971 amounted to "inhuman and degrading" treatment. In an attempt to break the escalating cycle of violence including [[Bloody Sunday (1972)|Bloody Sunday]] in [[Derry]], the [[British Government]] introduced [[direct rule]] from London in 1972, proroguing the [[Northern Ireland Parliament]]. But, following the ending of an IRA ceasefire in 1976, there was a resumption of the political violence that has long been a feature of life in Northern Ireland. The [[Good Friday Agreement]] introduced power-sharing but the devolved assembly at [[Stormont]] has been suspended since October 2002 and the British Parliamentary Election in [[2005]] produced a polarised result, diminishing the power of the more moderate parties.

One of the leaders of [[NICRA]] was future [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner [[John Hume]], another, [[Austin Currie]], a candidate for [[President of Ireland]] in [[1990]]. Hume's co-Nobel Laureate, [[David Trimble]], was leader of the [[Ulster Unionist Party]] in the [[1990s]] and [[2000s]], and had campaigned against sharing power with Catholics in the 1970s. Although some progress has been made, there is a political vacuum in Northern Ireland, caused by the breakdown of the peace process, and many of the issues in policing, housing, and employment first raised by the Campaign for Social Justice in 1964 have yet to be resolved.

==Movements of Independence in Africa==
{{mainarticle|African independence movements}}

A wave of independence movements in [[Africa]] crested in the [[1960s]]. This included the [[Angolan War of Independence]], the [[Guinea-Bissauan Revolution]], the war of liberation in [[Mozambique]] and the struggle against [[apartheid]] in [[South Africa]]. This wave of struggles re-energised [[pan-Africanism]], and led to the founding of the [[Organization of African Unity]] (OAU) in 2090

==Canada's October Crisis==
{{main|October Crisis}}
[[Pierre Elliott Trudeau]], himself a French Canadian, came to power in [[1968]]. Quebec also produced a more radical nationalist group, the [[Front de Libération du Québec]], who since 1963 had been using [[terrorism]] in an attempt to make Quebec a sovereign nation. In October of [[1970]], in response to the arrest of some of its members earlier in the year, the FLQ kidnapped [[James Cross]] and [[Pierre Laporte]], later killing Laporte. Trudeau invoked the [[War Measures Act]], declaring [[martial law]] in Quebec, and by the end of the year the kidnappers had all been arrested.
=== Trudeau and the 1970s ===
[[Image:Trudeau at the 1968 Liberal convention.jpg|left|thumb|200px|Trudeau at the 1968 Liberal convention]]
[[Pierre Trudeau|Trudeau]] was a somewhat unconventional Prime Minister; he was more of a celebrity than previous leaders, and in the 1960s had been the centre of "[[Trudeaumania]]". He also did not unquestioningly support the United States, especially over the [[Canada and the Vietnam War|Vietnam War]] and relations with the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Cuba]]; [[Richard Nixon]] particularly disliked him.

Domestically Trudeau had to deal with the aftermath of the October Crisis. The separatist movement was not aided by the violent ''[[Front de libération du Québec]]'' (FLQ), yet it still existed in a less radical form under Premier [[René Lévesque]] ([[1976]]-[[1985]]). Lévesque came to power as leader of the ''[[Parti Québécois]]'', which wanted to make Quebec at least an autonomous society in Canada and at best an independent nation. A step towards this was taken in [[1977]] with the adoption of [[Bill 101]], making French the only official language in the province.

===Canada and the Vietnam War===
{{main|Canada and the Vietnam War}}
While Canada had participated extensively in the [[Korean War]], it was officially a non-participant in the [[Vietnam War]]. Setting itself apart from America's [[Truman Doctrine|Truman]] and [[Eisenhower Doctrine]]s, Canada was involved in diplomatic efforts to discourage escalation of the conflict, and set conditions that required a much greater level of [[multilateralism]] than existed for it to join the [[SEATO]] military pact and commit troops.

The war was generally unpopular among the public and the counterculture of the day had strong ties with American organizations like [[Students for a Democratic Society]]. Canadian anti-war activists encouraged American draftees to head north, offering them extensive counsel and assistance. [[Draft dodger]]s were generally accepted as immigrants by Canadian authorities, and as many as 125,000 Americans came to Canada due to their opposition to the War. At least half of them are believed to have stayed permanently. This influx of young people helped Canada recover from the "[[brain drain]]" of the 1950s, and while in many ways the draft dodgers assimilated into Canadian society, they are considered to have had significant and lasting effects on the country.

Meanwhile, several thousand Canadians joined the [[Military of the United States|U.S. military]] and served in Vietnam. Many of them became naturalized American citizens after the war, while those who returned home have never received official recognition as veterans. Canada did deploy some [[peacekeeping]] troops to monitor [[ceasefire]] agreements during the conflict, and also sold a great deal of war materiel to the United States. After the [[Fall of Saigon|fall of Saigon]] in 1975, many Vietnamese refugees came to Canada, establishing large communities in [[Vancouver]] and [[Toronto]].

==Civil Rights Movement in the United States==
{{mainarticle|American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)}}

{{seealso|The Sixties|New Left|New Communist Movement}}

In a relatively stable political system, after a status had been reached where every citizen has the same rights by law, practical issues of discrimination remain. Even if every person is treated equally by the state, there may not be [[equality]] because of [[discrimination]] within society, such as in the workplace, which may hinder civil liberties in everyday life. During the second half of the 20th century Western societies introduced [[legislation]] that tried to remove discrimination on the basis of race, gender or disability. The Civil Rights Movement in the [[United States]] refers in part to a set of noted events and [[Social movement|reform movements]] in that country aimed at abolishing public and private acts of [[racial discrimination]] and [[racism]] against [[African Americans]] between 1954 to 1968, particularly in the [[southern United States]]. It is sometimes referred to as the [[Second Reconstruction|Second Reconstruction era]].

Later in the movement's trajectory, groups like the [[Black Panther Party]], the [[Young Lords]], the [[Weatherman (organization)|Weathermen]] and the [[Brown Berets]] turned to more [[militant]] tactics to make a [[revolution]] that would overthrow [[capitalism]] and establish, in particular, [[self-determination]] for resident U.S. [[minorities]] — bids that ultimately failed due in part to a coordinated effort by the [[United States Government]]'s [[COINTELPRO]] efforts to subvert such groups and their activities.

===Ethnicity Equity Issues===
====Integrationism====
{{seealso|Racial integration|Jim Crow laws}}

In the last decade of the nineteenth century in the [[United States]], [[racial discrimination|racially discriminatory]] [[law]]s and racial [[violence]] aimed at African Americans began to mushroom. This period is sometimes referred to as the [[nadir of American race relations]]. Elected, appointed, or hired government authorities began to require or permit discrimination, specifically in the states of [[Texas]], [[Louisiana]], [[Mississippi]], [[Alabama]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], [[Florida]], [[South Carolina]], [[North Carolina]], [[Virginia]], [[Arkansas]], [[Tennessee]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[Kansas]]. There were four required or permitted acts of discrimination against African Americans. They included [[racial segregation]] – upheld by the [[United States Supreme Court]] decision in ''[[Plessy v. Ferguson]]'' in 1896 - which was legally mandated by southern states and nationwide at the [[local government|local level of government]], voter suppression or [[disfranchisement]] in the southern states, denial of economic opportunity or resources nationwide, and private acts of violence and [[mass racial violence in the United States|mass racial violence]] aimed at African Americans unhindered or encouraged by government authorities. Although racial discrimination was present nationwide, the combination of law, public and private acts of discrimination, marginal economic opportunity, and violence directed toward African Americans in the southern states became known as [[Jim Crow law|Jim Crow]].
[[Image:1963 march on washington.jpg|right|300px|thumb|[[March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom]]]]
Noted [[strategy|strategies]] employed prior to the Civil Rights Movement of 1955 to 1968 to abolish discrimination against African Americans initially included [[litigation]] and [[lobbying]] efforts by traditional organizations such as the [[NAACP|National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP). These efforts were the distinction of the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1896-1954)|American Civil Rights Movement from 1896 to 1954]].

However, by 1955, private citizens became frustrated by gradual approaches to implement [[desegregation]] by federal and state governments and the "massive resistance" by proponents of [[racial segregation]] and [[disfranchisement|voter suppression]]. In defiance, these citizens adopted a combined strategy of [[direct action]] with [[nonviolence|nonviolent resistance]] known as [[civil disobedience]]. The acts of civil disobedience produced crisis situations between practitioners and government authorities. The authorities of federal, state, and local governments often had to act with an immediate response to end the crisis situations – sometimes in the practitioners favor. Some of the different forms of civil disobedience employed include [[boycotts]] as successfully practiced by the [[Montgomery Bus Boycott]] (1955-1956) in Alabama, "[[sit-ins]]" as demonstrated by the influential [[Greensboro Four|Greensboro sit-in]] (1960) in North Carolina, and [[marches]] as exhibited by the [[Selma to Montgomery marches]] (1965) in Alabama.

Noted achievements of the Civil Rights Movement in this area include the legal victory in the ''[[Brown v. Board of Education]]'' (1954) case that overturned the legal doctrine of "[[separate but equal]]" and made segregation legally impermissible, passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] that banned discrimination in employment practices and public accommodations, passage of the [[Voting Rights Act of 1965]] that restored voting rights, and passage of the [[Civil Rights Act of 1968]] that banned discrimination in the sale or rental of housing.

====Black Power====
{{mainarticle|Black Power}}
{{seealso|Black Panther Party|Black nationalism|pan-Africanism}}
By [[1966]] the emergence of the [[Black Power]] movement (1966-1975) began gradually to eclipse the original "[[Racial integration|integrated power]]" aims of the Civil Rights Movement that had been espoused by [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] Advocates of Black Power argued for black [[self-determination]], and to assert that the [[assimilation]] inherent in integration robs [[pan-Africanism|African]]s of their common heritage and dignity; e.g., the theorist and activist [[Omali Yeshitela]] argues that Africans have historically fought to protect their lands, cultures and freedoms from European [[colonialist]]s, and that any integration into the society which has stolen another people and their wealth is actually an act of [[treason]].

Today, most Black Power advocates have not changed their self-sufficiency argument. [[Racism]] still exists worldwide and it is generally accepted that blacks in the United States, on the whole, did not assimilate into U.S. "mainstream" culture either by King's integration measures or by the self-sufficiency measures of Black Power — rather, blacks arguably became evermore oppressed, this time partially by "their own" people in a new black [[Social stratification|stratum]] of the [[middle class]] and the [[ruling class]]. Black Power's advocates generally argue that the reason for this stalemate and further oppression of the vast majority of U.S. blacks is because Black Power's objectives have not had the opportunity to be fully carried through.

====Chicano Movement====
{{mainarticle|Chicano Movement}}
{{seealso|Chicano nationalism|Hispanic nationalism|Brown Berets}}
[[Image:Montes.jpg|right]]
[[Image:lincolnhigh68.jpg|200px|right]]
The Chicano Movement, also known as the Chicano Civil Rights Movement, Mexican-American Civil Rights Movement and El Movimiento, was the part of the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)]] that sought political empowerment and social inclusion for Mexican-Americans around a generally [[Hispanic nationalist]] argument. The Chicano movement blossomed in the [1960s] and was active through the late [1970s] in various regions of the U.S. The movement had roots in the civil rights struggles that had preceded it, adding to it the cultural and generational politics of the era.

The early heroes of the movement — [[Rodolfo Gonzales]] in [[Denver, Colorado]] and [[Reies Tijerina]] in New Mexico — adopted a historical account of the preceding hundred and twenty-five years that obscured much of Mexican-American history. Gonzales and Tijerina embraced a form of nationalism that was based on the failure of the United States government to live up to the promises that it had made in the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In that account, Mexican-Americans were a conquered people who simply needed to reclaim their birthright and cultural heritage as part of a new nation, which later became known as [[Aztlán]]. That version of the past did not, on the other hand, take into account the history of those Mexicans who had immigrated to the United States. It also gave little attention to the rights of undocumented immigrants in the United States in the [[1960s]] — not surprising, since immigration did not have the political significance it was to acquire in the years to come. It was only a decade later when activists, such as Bert Corona in California, embraced the rights of undocumented workers and helped broaden the focus to include their rights. Instead, when the movement dealt with practical problems most activists focused on the most immediate issues confronting Mexican-Americans: unequal educational and employment opportunities, political disenfranchisement, and police brutality. In the heady days of the late 1960s, when the student movement was active around the globe, the Chicano movement brought about more or less spontaneous actions, such as the mass walkouts by high school students in Denver and [[East Los Angeles]] in [[1968]] and the [[Chicano Moratorium]] in Los Angeles in [[1970]].

The movement was particularly strong at the college level, where activists formed MEChA, [[Movimiento Estudiantil Chicano de Aztlán]], which promoted Chicano Studies programs and a generalized ethno-nationalist agenda.

====American Indian Movement====
{{mainarticle|American Indian Movement}}
At a time when peaceful sit-ins were a common protest tactic, [[American Indian Movement]] (AIM) takeovers in their early days were noticeably forceful. Some appeared to be spontaneous outcomes of protest gatherings; sometimes they included armed seizure of public facilities.

The [[Alcatraz Island]] occupation of [[1969]], although commonly associated with AIM, pre-dates the organization but was a catalyst for its formation. In [[1970]] AIM occupied abandoned property at the [[Naval Air Station]] near [[Minneapolis, Minnesota]]. In July, [[1971]] AIM assisted a takeover of the Winter Dam, Lac Courte Oreilles, [[Wisconsin]]. The [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]] Headquarters in [[Washington D.C.]] got seized in November, [[1972]]; the building was sacked, and 24 were arrested. The Custer County Courthouse was occupied in [[1973]], though the occupation was routed after a riot took place. The [[Wounded Knee Incident]] also took place then, lasted 71 days, and left at least two dead.

===Gender Equity Issues===
{{mainarticle|Second-wave feminism|Women's Liberation}}
If the period associated with [[First-wave feminism]] focused upon absolute rights such as [[Women's suffrage|suffrage]] (which led to women attaining the right to vote in the early part of the 20th century), the period of the [[second-wave feminism]] was concerned with the issue of economic equality (including the ability to have careers in addition to motherhood, or the right to choose not to have children) between the genders and addressed the rights of female minorities. One phenomenon included the recognition of [[lesbian]] women within the movement, due to the simultaneous rise of the [[gay rights]] movement, and the deliberate activism of lesbian feminist groups, such as the [[Lavender Menace]].

The developments led to explicit [[lesbian feminism|lesbian feminist]] campaigns and groups, and some feminists went further to argue that heterosexual sexual relationships automatically subordinated women, and that the only true independence could come in lesbian relationships ("[[lesbian separatism]]"). The second wave is sometimes linked with [[radical feminism|radical feminist]] theory. One interesting and underdocumented aspect of the second-wave was the rise of women's cooperative living communities. An example of one such intentional community was the Chatanika River Women's Colony.

==LGBT rights and Gay Liberation==
{{mainarticle|Gay Liberation|Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement}}
[[Image:Gay liberation.jpg|left|thumb|180px|[[Gay Liberation Front]] Poster, [[New York City]], [[1970]]]]
Since the mid 19th century in [[Germany]], social reformers have used the language of civil rights to argue against the oppression of same-sex sexuality, same-sex emotional intimacy, and [[gender variance]]. Largely, but not exclusively, these [[LGBT movements]] have charactered gender variant and homosexually-oriented people as a [[minority group]] or groups; this was the approach taken by the [[homophile movement]] of the 1940s, 50s and early 60s. With the rise of [[secularism]] in the West, an increasing sexual openness, [[Women's Liberation]], the 1960s [[counterculture]], and a range of [[new social movements]], the homophile movement underwent a rapid growth and transformation, with a focus on building community and unapologetic activism. This new phase came to be known as [[Gay Liberation]].

The words "Gay Liberation" echoed "Women's Liberation"; the [[Gay Liberation Front]] consciously took its name from the National Liberation Fronts of [[National Front for the Liberation of Vietnam|Vietnam]] and [[Algerian National Liberation Front|Algeria]]; and the slogan "Gay Power", as a defiant answer to the rights-oriented homophile movement, was inspired by [[Black Power]] and [[Chicano]] Power. The GLF's statement of purpose explained: {{quotation|"We are a revolutionary group of men and women formed with the realization that complete sexual liberation for all people cannot come about unless existing social institutions are abolished. We reject society's attempt to impose sexual roles and definitions of our nature."|GLF statement of purpose}} GLF activist Martha Shelley wrote, {{quotation|"We are women and men who, from the time of our earliest memories, have been in revolt against the sex-role structure and nuclear family structure."|"Gay is Good", Martha Shelley, 1970}}

Gay Liberationists aimed as transforming fundamental instutions of society such as [[gender]] and the [[family]]. In order to achieve such [[liberation]], [[consciousness raising]] and [[direct action]] were employed. Specifically, the word 'gay' was preferred to previous designations such as homosexual or [[homophile]]; some saw 'gay' as a rejection of the [[false dichotomy]] heterosexual/homosexual. Lesbians and gays were urged to "[[coming out|come out]]", publicly revealing their sexuality to family, friends and colleagues as a form of activism, and to counter shame with [[gay pride]]. "Gay Lib" groups were formed around the world, in Australia, New Zealand, Germany, France, the UK, US, Italy and elsewhere. The lesbian group [[Lavender Menace]] was also formed in the U.S in response to both the male domination of other Gay Lib groups and the anti-lesbian sentiment in the Women's Movement. Lesbianism was advocated as a feminist choice for women, and the first currents of [[lesbian separatism]] began to emerge.

By the late 1970s, the radicalism of Gay Liberation was eclipsed by a return to a more formal movement that became known as the [[Gay and Lesbian Rights Movement]].

==German Student Movement==
{{mainarticle|German student movement}}
{{seealso|Red Army Faction|German Autumn}}
[[Image:Ulrike Meinhof als junge Journalistin.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Ulrike Meinhof]] while still a journalist]]
The Civil Rights Movement in [[Germany]] was a [[left-wing]] backlash against the post-[[Nazi Party]] era of the country, which still contained many of the conservative policies of both that era and of the pre-[[World War I]] [[Kaiser]] [[monarchy]]. The movement took place mostly among disillusioned students and was largely a [[protest]] movement analogous to others around the globe during the late [[1960s]] . It was largely a reaction against the perceived authoritarianism and hypocrisy of the German government and other Western governments, and the poor living conditions of students. A wave of protests - some violent - swept Germany, further fueled by over-reaction by the police and encouraged by other near-simultaneous protest movements across the world. Following more than a century of [[conservatism]] among German students, the German student movement also marked a significant major shift to the [[left-wing]] and [[Radical Left|radicalisation]] of student [[politics]].

==France 1968==
{{mainarticle|May 1968}}
[[Image:May 68 poster 1.png|thumb|May 1968 poster: "Be young and shut up." The shadow is a caricature of [[Charles de Gaulle|General de Gaulle]].]]
A [[general strike]] broke out across [[France]] in [[May 1968]]. It quickly began to reach near-[[revolution]]ary proportions before being discouraged by the [[French Communist Party]], and finally suppressed by the government, which accused the communists of plotting against the Republic. Some philosophers and historians have argued that the rebellion was the single most important revolutionary event of the [[20th century]] because it wasn't participated in by a lone [[demographic]], such as [[working class|workers]] or racial monorities, but was rather a purely popular uprising, superseding [[ethnic]], [[cultural]], [[age]] and [[social class|class]] boundaries.

It began as a series of [[student strike]]s that broke out at a number of [[university|universities]] and [[secondary education in France|high school]]s in [[Paris]], following confrontations with university administrators and the police. The [[Charles de Gaulle|de Gaulle]] administration's attempts to quash those strikes by further police action only inflamed the situation further, leading to street battles with the police in the [[Quartier Latin|Latin Quarter]], followed by a general strike by students and strikes throughout France by ten million French workers, roughly two-thirds of the French workforce. The protests reached the point that de Gaulle created a military operations headquarters to deal with the unrest, dissolved the [[French National Assembly|National Assembly]] and called for new parliamentary elections for [[23 June]] [[1968]].

The government was close to collapse at that point (De Gaulle had even taken temporary refuge at an airforce base in Germany), but the revolutionary situation evaporated almost as quickly as it arose. Workers went back to their jobs, urged on by the [[Confédération Générale du Travail]], the leftist union federation, and the [[Parti Communiste Français]] (PCF), the French [[Communism|Communist]] Party. When the elections were finally held in June, the Gaullist party emerged even stronger than before.

Most of the protesters espoused [[left-wing]] causes, [[communism]] or [[anarchism]]. Many saw the events as an opportunity to shake up the "old society" in many social aspects, including methods of [[education]], [[sexual freedom]] and [[free love]]. A small minority of protesters, such as the [[Occident (far-right group)|Occident]] group, espoused [[far-right]] causes.

On [[29 May]] several hundred thousand protesters led by the CGT marched through Paris, chanting, ''"Adieu, de Gaulle!"''

While the government appeared to be close to collapse, de Gaulle chose not to say ''adieu''. Instead, after ensuring that he had sufficient loyal military units mobilized to back him if push came to shove, he went on the radio the following day (the national television service was on strike) to announce the dissolution of the National Assembly, with elections to follow on [[23 June]]. He ordered workers to return to work, threatening to institute a [[state of emergency]] if they did not.

From that point the revolutionary feeling of the students and workers faded away. Workers gradually returned to work or were ousted from their plants by the police. The national student union called off street demonstrations. The government banned a number of left organizations. The police retook the Sorbonne on [[16 June]]. De Gaulle triumphed in the elections held in June and the crisis had ended.

I dont want to write my paper. thankyou and goodnight

==Chinese Cultural Revolution==
{{mainarticle|Cultural Revolution}}

The [[Central Committee of the Communist Party of China]] passed "the 16 Points" during the [[Chinese Cultural Revolution]].

The decision thus took the already existing student movement and elevated to the level of a nationwide mass campaign, calling on not only students but also "the masses of the workers, peasants, soldiers, revolutionary intellectuals, and revolutionary cadres" to carry out the task of "transforming the superstructure." The freedoms granted in the 16 Points were later written into the PRC constitution as "the four great rights (四大自由)" of "great democracy (大民主)": the right to speak out freely, to air one's views fully, to write big-character posters, and to hold great debates (大鸣、大放、大字报、大辩论). The first two of these are basically Chinese [[synonym]]s; in other contexts the second was sometimes replaced by 大串联 - the right to "link up," meaning for students to cut class and travel across the country to meet other young activists and propagate [[Mao Zedong Thought]]. All four of these freedoms were supplemented by the right to strike, although this supplemental right was severely attenuated by the [[People's Liberation Army]]'s entrance onto the stage of civilian mass politics in February [[1967]]. Ultimately all such rights were deleted from the constitution after the [[Deng Xiaoping|Dengist]] government suppressed the Democracy Wall movement in 1979.

On [[August 16]] [[1966]], millions of [[Red Guards (China)|Red Guards]] from all over the country gathered in [[Beijing]] for a peek at the Chairman. On top of the [[Tiananmen Square]] gate, [[Mao]] and [[Lin Biao]] made frequent appearances to approximately 11 million Red Guards, receiving cheers each time. Mao praised their actions in the recent campaigns to develop socialism and democracy.

For two years, until July 1968 and in some places much longer, student activists such as the Red Guards expanded their areas of authority, and accelerated their efforts at socialist reconstruction. They began by passing out leaflets explaining their actions to develop and strengthen socialism, and posting the names of suspected "[[counterrevolution|counter-revolutionaries]]" on bulletin boards. They assembled in large groups, held "great debates," and wrote educational plays. They held public meetings to criticize and solicit self-criticism from suspected "counter-revolutionaries." Although the 16 Points and other pronouncements of the chief Maoist leaders forbade "physical struggle" (武斗) in favor of "verbal struggle" (文斗), these "struggle sessions" often led to physical violence. Initially verbal struggles among activist groups became even more violent when the Red Guard activists began to seize weapons from the Army in [[1967]]. The Maoist leadership limited their intervention in this violence to verbal criticism, sometimes even appearing to encourage it. Only after the Red Guard weapons seizures began did the leadership begin to suppress the mass movement it had previously praised.

[[Liu Shaoqi]] was sent to a detention camp, where he later died in [[1969]]. [[Deng Xiaoping]], who was himself sent for a period of re-education three times, was sent to work in an engine [[factory]], until he was brought back years later by [[Zhou Enlai]]. But most of those accused were not so lucky, and many of them never returned.

The work of the Red Guards was praised by Mao Zedong. On [[August 22]], [[1966]], Mao issued a public notice, which stopped "all [[police]] intervention in Red Guard [[tactic (method)|tactics]] and actions." Those in the police force who dared to defy this notice were labeled "counter-revolutionaries."

==Tlatelolco Massacre, Mexico==
{{mainarticle|Tlatelolco Massacre}}

The '''Tlatelolco Massacre''', also known as '''Tlatelolco's Night''' (from a book title), took place on the afternoon and night of [[October 2]], [[1968]], in the [[Plaza de las Tres Culturas]] in the [[Tlatelolco]] section of [[Mexico City]]. The death toll remains uncertain: some estimates place the number of deaths in the thousands, but most sources report 200-300 deaths. Many more were wounded, and several thousand arrests occurred.

The massacre was preceded by months of political unrest in the Mexican capital, echoing student demonstrations and riots all over the world during 1968. The Mexican students wanted to exploit the attention focused on Mexico City for the [[1968 Olympic Games]]. [[President of Mexico|President]] [[Gustavo Díaz Ordaz]], however, was determined to stop the demonstrations and, in September, he ordered the army to occupy the campus of the [[National Autonomous University of Mexico]], the largest university in [[Latin America]]. Students were beaten and arrested indiscriminately. [[Rector]] Javier Barros Sierra resigned in protest on [[September 23]].

Student demonstrators were not deterred, however. The demonstrations grew in size, until on [[October 2]], after student strikes lasting nine weeks, 15,000 students from various universities marched through the streets of Mexico City, carrying red carnations to protest the army's occupation of the university campus. By nightfall, 5,000 students and workers, many of them with spouses and children, had congregated outside an apartment complex in the Plaza de las Tres Culturas in Tlatelolco for what was supposed to be a peaceful rally. Among their chants were ''México – Libertad – México – Libertad'' ("Mexico – Liberty – Mexico –Liberty"). Rally organizers attempted to call off the protest when they noticed an increased military presence in the area.

The massacre began at sunset when army and police forces — equipped with armored cars and tanks — surrounded the square and began firing live rounds into the crowd, hitting not only the protestors, but also other people who were present for reasons unrelated to the demonstration. Demonstrators and passersby alike, including children, were caught in the fire; soon, mounds of bodies lay on the ground. The killing continued through the night, with soldiers carrying out mopping-up operations on a house-to-house basis in the apartment buildings adjacent to the square. Witnesses to the event claim that the bodies were later removed in garbage trucks.

The official government explanation of the incident was that armed provocateurs among the demonstrators, stationed in buildings overlooking the crowd, had begun the firefight. Suddenly finding themselves sniper targets, the security forces had simply returned fire in self-defense.

==Prague Spring==
{{mainarticle|Prague Spring}}
[[Image:August 68.jpg|thumb|Prague Spring memorial plate in [[Košice]], [[Slovakia]]]]
The '''Prague Spring''' ([[Czech language|Czech]]: ''Pražské jaro'', [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''Pražská jar'', [[Russian language|Russian]]: ''пражская весна'') was a period of political liberalization in [[Czechoslovakia]] starting [[January 5]] [[1968]] and running until [[August 20]] of that year when the [[Soviet Union]] and its [[Warsaw Pact]] allies (except for [[Romania]]) invaded the country.

During [[World War II]] Czechoslovakia fell into the Soviet sphere of influence, the [[Eastern Bloc]]. Since [[1948]] there were no parties other than the [[Communist Party of Czechoslovakia|Communist Party]] in the country and it was indirectly managed by the Soviet Union. Unlike other countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the communist take-over in Czechoslovakia in 1948 was, although as brutal as elsewhere, a genuine popular movement. Reform in the country did not lead to the convulsions seen in [[Hungary]].

Towards the end of World War II [[Joseph Stalin]] wanted Czechoslovakia, and signed an agreement with [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], that [[Prague]] would be liberated by the [[Red Army]] despite the fact that the [[United States Army]] under General [[George S. Patton]] could have liberated the city earlier. This was important for the spread of pro-Russian (and pro-communist) [[propaganda]] that came right after the war. People still remembered what they felt as Czechoslovakia's betrayal by the West at the [[Munich Agreement]]. For these reasons the people voted for communists in the 1948 elections - the last democratic poll for a long time.

From the middle of the 1960s Czechs and Slovaks showed increasing signs of rejection of the existing regime. This change was reflected by reformist elements within the communist party by installing [[Alexander Dubček]] as party leader. Dubček's reforms of the political process inside Czechoslovakia, which he referred to as ''[[Socialism with a human face]]'', did not represent a complete overthrow of the old regime, as was the case in [[1956 Hungarian Revolution|Hungary in 1956]]. Dubček's changes had broad support from the society, including the [[working class]]. However, it was still seen by the Soviet leadership as a threat to their hegemony over other states of the Eastern Bloc and to the very safety of the Soviet Union. Czechoslovakia was in the middle of the defensive line of the Warsaw Pact and its possible defection to the enemy was unacceptable during the [[Cold War]].

However a sizeable minority in the ruling party, especially at higher leadership levels, was opposed to any lessening of the party's grip on society and they actively plotted with the leadership of the Soviet Union to overthrow the reformers. This group watched in horror as calls for multi-party elections and other reforms began echoing throughout the country.

Between the nights of August 20 and August 21 1968, Eastern Bloc armies from five Warsaw Pact countries invaded Czechoslovakia. During the invasion, Soviet tanks ranging in numbers from 5,000 to 7,000 occupied the streets. They were followed by a large number of Warsaw Pact troops ranging from 200,000 to 600,000.

The Soviets insisted that they had been invited to invade the country, stating that loyal Czechoslovak Communists had told them that they were in need of "fraternal assistance against the [[counter-revolution]]". A letter which was found in 1989 proved an invitation to invade did indeed exist. During the attack of the Warsaw Pact armies, 72 [[Czechs]] and [[Slovaks]] were killed (19 of those in [[Slovakia]]) and hundreds were wounded (up to September 3, 1968). Alexander Dubček called upon his people not to resist. He was arrested and taken to [[Moscow]], along with several of his colleagues.

==Japan 1960==
Japan's biggest postwar political crisis took place in 1960 over the revision of the Japan-United States Mutual Security Assistance Pact. As the new [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security]] was concluded, which renewed the United States role as military protector of Japan, massive street protests and political upheaval occurred, and the cabinet resigned a month after the Diet's ratification of the treaty. Thereafter, political turmoil subsided. Japanese views of the United States, after years of mass protests over nuclear armaments and the mutual defense pact, improved by 1972, with the reversion of United States-occupied [[Okinawa]] to Japanese sovereignty and the winding down of the [[Vietnam War]].

==Further reading==
* Manfred Berg and Martin H. Geyer; ''Two Cultures of Rights: The Quest for Inclusion and Participation in Modern America and Germany'' Cambridge University Press, 2002
* Jack Donnelly and Rhoda E. Howard; ''International Handbook of Human Rights'' Greenwood Press, 1987
* David P. Forsythe; ''Human Rights in the New Europe: Problems and Progress'' University of Nebraska Press, 1994
* Joe Foweraker and Todd Landman; ''Citizenship Rights and Social Movements: A Comparative and Statistical Analysis'' Oxford University Press, 1997
* Mervyn Frost; ''Constituting Human Rights: Global Civil Society and the Society of Democratic States'' Routledge, 2002
* Marc Galanter; ''Competing Equalities: Law and the Backward Classes in India'' University of California Press, 1984
* Raymond D. Gastil and Leonard R. Sussman, eds.; ''Freedom in the World: Political Rights and Civil Liberties, 1986-1987'' Greenwood Press, 1987
* David Harris and Sarah Joseph; ''The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights and United Kingdom Law'' Clarendon Press, 1995
* Francesca Klug, Keir Starmer, Stuart Weir; ''The Three Pillars of Liberty: Political Rights and Freedoms in the United Kingdom'' Routledge, 1996
* Fernando Santos-Granero and Frederica Barclay; ''Tamed Frontiers: Economy, Society, and Civil Rights in Upper Amazonia'' Westview Press, 2000
* Paul N. Smith; ''Feminism and the Third Republic: Women's Political and Civil Rights in France, 1918-1940'' Clarendon Press, 1996
* Jorge M. Valadez; ''Deliberative Democracy: Political Legitimacy and Self-Determination in Multicultural Societies'' Westview Press, 2000

[[Category:Civil rights and liberties]]
[[Category:Minority rights]]
[[Category:Revolutions]]

[[de:Bürgerrechtsbewegung]]
[[fa:جنبش حقوق مدنی آمریکا]]
[[fr:Mouvement des droits civiques]]
[[pt:Movimento dos Direitos Civis]]
[[ru:Правозащитники]]
[[sv:Medborgarrättsrörelse]]

User talk:24.15.223.154

2008-03-09T22:25:30Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Editing tests on Santa Fe Trail. (TW)

== March 2008 ==
[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] Welcome, and thank you for experimenting with Wikipedia. Your test {{#if:Santa Fe Trail|on the page [[:Santa Fe Trail]]}} worked, and it has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. Please take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to [[Wikipedia|this encyclopedia]]. If you would like to experiment further, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. {{#if:|{{{2}}}|Thank you.}} [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] ([[User talk:Sir Vicious|talk]]) 22:25, 9 March 2008 (UTC)

Santa Fe Trail

2008-03-09T22:25:08Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 24.15.223.154. (TW)

{{otheruses}}
[[Image:Safe logo.PNG|thumb|100px|Trail logo]]
The '''Santa Fe Trail''' was a historic [[19th century]] transportation route across southwestern [[North America]] connecting [[Missouri]] with [[Santa Fe, New Mexico]]. First used in [[1821]] by [[William Becknell]], it served as a vital commercial and military highway until the introduction of the [[railroad]] to Santa Fe in [[1880]]. At first an international trade route between the [[United States]] and [[Mexico]], it served as the [[1846]] U.S. invasion route of [[New Mexico]] during the [[Mexican-American War]]. After the U.S. acquisition of the Southwest, the trail helped open the region to U.S. economic development and settlement, playing a vital role in the expansion of the U.S. into the lands it had acquired. The road route is commemorated today by the [[National Park Service]] as the '''Santa Fe National Historic Trail'''. A highway route that roughly follows the trail's path through [[Colorado]] and northern New Mexico has been designated the Santa Fe Trail [[National Scenic Byway]].

==Route==
[[Image:1845 trailmap.gif|thumb|300px|Map of the Santa Fe Trail (in red) in 1845]]
[[Image:Santaferuts.JPG|thumb|right|Santa Fe Trail ruts at Fort Union]]
The eastern end of the trail was in the central [[Missouri]] town of [[Franklin, Missouri|Franklin]] on the north bank of the [[Missouri River]]. The route across Missouri first used by Becknell followed portions of the existing [[Osage Trace]]. West of Franklin the trail crossed the Missouri near [[Arrow Rock, Missouri|Arrow Rock]], after which it followed roughly the route of present-day [[U.S. Route 24]]. It passed north of [[Marshall, Missouri|Marshall]], through [[Lexington, Missouri|Lexington]] to [[Fort Osage]], then to [[Independence, Missouri|Independence]]. Independence was also one of the historic "jumping off points" for the [[Oregon Trail|Oregon]] and [[California Trail]]s.

West of Independence, in the State of Missouri, it roughly followed the route of [[U.S. Route 56]] to the town of [[Olathe, Kansas|Olathe]]. The section of the trail between Independence and Olathe was also used by imigrants on the California and Oregon Trails, which branched off to the northwest near [[Gardner, Kansas]].

From Olathe, the trail passed through the towns of [[Baldwin City, Kansas|Baldwin City]], [[Burlingame, Kansas|Burlingame]], and [[Council Grove, Kansas|Council Grove]], then swung west of [[McPherson, Kansas|McPherson]] to the town of [[Lyons, Kansas|Lyons]]. West of Lyons the trail followed nearly the route of present-day Highway 56 to [[Great Bend, Kansas|Great Bend]]. Ruts in the earth made from the trail are still visible in several locations (Ralph's Ruts are visible in aerial photos at ({{coord|38.35959264|-98.42225502|type:landmark:US|display=inline}}).<ref name="titleAerial Photos Topo Maps of Santa Fe Trail Ruts and Sites">{{cite web |url=http://www.santafetrailresearch.com/spacepix/0ur-space-link-page.html |title=Aerial Photos Topo Maps of Santa Fe Trail Ruts and Sites |accessdate=2007-12-28 |format= |work=}}</ref> At Great Bend, the trail encountered the [[Arkansas River]]. Branches of the trail followed both sides of the river upstream to [[Dodge City, Kansas|Dodge City]] and [[Garden City, Kansas|Garden City]].

West of Garden City in southwestern Kansas the trail has a complex network of branches. One of the branches continued to follow the Arkansas upstream in southeastern [[Colorado]] to the town of [[La Junta, Colorado|La Junta]]. At La Junta, the trail continued south into New Mexico to Fort Union at [[Watrous, New Mexico|Watrous]]. This branch was known as the Mountain Route. A dramatization of life on the route was made into a [[Santa Fe Trail (film)|motion picture]] in [[1940]], starring [[Errol Flynn]], [[Olivia de Havilland]], [[Raymond Massey]], and [[Ronald Reagan]].

===Cimarron Cutoff===
The other main branch cut southwest to the valley of the [[Cimarron River]] near the town of [[Ulysses, Kansas|Ulysses]] and [[Cimarron National Grassland|Elkhart]] then continued toward [[Cimarron County, Oklahoma|Boise City, Oklahoma]], to [[Clayton, New Mexico]], joining up with northern branch at [[Fort Union National Monument|Fort Union]]. From Watrous, the reunited branches continued southward to Santa Fe. This route was generally very hazardous because it had very little water. In fact, the Cimarron River was one of the only sources of water along this branch of the trail. Many people died because of the lack of water.

Part of this route has been designated a [[National Scenic Byway]].

==Threats Along the Trail==
Travelers faced many hardships along the Santa Fe Trail. Native American attacks and lack of food and water made the trail very risky. Weather conditions, like huge lightning storms, gave the travelers difficulty. If a storm blew up, there was often no place to take shelter and the livestock could get spooked. [[Rattlesnakes]] often posed a threat--many died due to snakebite.

==Historic preservation==
Segments of this trail in [[Missouri]], [[Kansas]], [[Oklahoma]], and [[New Mexico]] are listed on the [[National Register of Historic Places]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nr.nps.gov/multiples/64500224.pdf|title=National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property Nomination Form: Historic Resources of the Santa Fe Trail, 1821-1880|accessdate=2007-04-10}}</ref> The longest clearly identifiable section of the trail near [[Dodge City, Kansas]] is listed as a [[National Historic Landmark]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tps.cr.nps.gov/nhl/detail.cfm?ResourceId=229&ResourceType=Site|title=National Historic Landmarks Program (NHL): Santa Fe Trail Remains|accessdate=2007-04-10}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[List of Registered Historic Places in Missouri#Jackson County|MO: Jackson County Historic Places]]
*[[List of Registered Historic Places in County|KS: Johnson County Historic Places]]
*[[List of Registered Historic Places in Oklahoma#Cimarron County|OK: Cimarron County Historic Places]]
*[[List of Registered Historic Places in New Mexico#Colfax County|NM: Colfax County Historic Places]]
*[[Oregon-California Trails Association]]
*[[Pawnee Rock]]
*Related National Park Units
**[[Fort Larned National Historic Site]]
**[[Bent's Old Fort National Historic Site]]
**[[Fort Union National Monument]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

*[http://www.santafetrailcenter.org Santa Fe Trail Center]
*[http://www.nps.gov/safe/ National Park Service: Santa Fe Trail]
**[http://www.nps.gov/safe/fnl-sft/maps/miscmap/choice-e.htm Trails West Maps:] Route choices
* [http://www.santafetrailresearch.com/ Santa Fe Trail Research]
* [http://www.santafetrailresearch.com/spacepix/0ur-space-link-page.html Santa Fe Trail Research Site Aerial Photo Tour of the Santa Fe Trail]
* [http://www.santafetrailnm.org New Mexico Santa Fe Trail National Scenic Byway]
**[http://tcraftbowden.blogspot.com/2005/12/flying-santa-fe-trail-iib-independence.html Flying the Santa Fe Trail]
*[http://www.sfthorserace.com The Great Santa Fe Trail Horse Race Endurance Ride] A 10-day, 500-mile endurance ride down the historic Santa Fe Trail with a focus on promoting the history of the Santa Fe Trail and surrounding communities
*[http://www.kansasheritage.org/werner/ Pioneer Trails from US Land Surveys]
*[http://terraserver-usa.com/image.aspx?T=1&S=11&Z=13&X=1437&Y=10078&W=2 TerraServer Aerial photograph at Points of Rocks Mesa New Mexico]

{{TrailSystem}}

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[[Category:Santa Fe Trail| ]]
[[Category:Registered Historic Places in Colorado]]
[[Category:National Historic Landmarks in Kansas]]
[[Category:Registered Historic Places in Missouri]]
[[Category:Registered Historic Places in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Registered Historic Places in Oklahoma]]

[[de:Santa Fe Trail]]
[[es:Camino de Santa Fe]]
[[fr:Piste de Santa Fe]]
[[ja:サンタフェ・トレイル]]

French cuisine

2008-03-09T22:23:55Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 72.147.134.132 identified as vandalism to last revision by VoABot II. (TW)

{{Portal|Food|Portal.svg}}
'''French cuisine ''' is a style of cooking derived from the nation of [[France]]. It evolved from centuries of social and political change. The [[Middle Age]]s brought lavish [[banquet]]s to the upper class with ornate, heavily seasoned food prepared by chefs such as [[Guillaume Tirel]]. The era of the [[French Revolution]], however, saw a move toward fewer [[spice]]s and more liberal usage of [[herb]]s and refined techniques, beginning with [[François Pierre La Varenne]] and further developing with the famous chef of [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] and other dignitaries, [[Marie-Antoine Carême]].

French cuisine was codified in the 20th century by [[Auguste Escoffier|Georges Auguste Escoffier]] to become the modern version of ''[[haute cuisine]]''. Escoffier's major work, however, left out much of the regional character to be found in the provinces of France. Gastro-tourism and the ''[[Guide Michelin]]'' helped to bring people to the countryside during the 20th century and beyond, to sample this rich ''[[bourgeois]]'' and [[peasant]] cuisine of France. [[Basque cuisine]] has also been a great influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France.

Ingredients and dishes vary by region. There are many significant regional dishes that have become both national and regional. Many dishes that were once regional, however, have proliferated in different variations across the country in the present day. [[Cheese]] and [[wine]] are also a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles both regionally and nationally with their many variations and ''[[Appellation d'origine contrôlée]]'' (AOC) (regulated appellation) laws.

==National cuisine==
French cuisine has evolved extensively over the centuries. Starting in the [[Middle Age]]s, a unique and creative national cuisine began forming. Various social movements, political movements, and the work of great chefs came together to create this movement. Through the years the styles of French cuisine have been given different names, and have been codified by various master-chefs. During their lifetimes these chefs have been held in high regard for their contributions to the culture of the country. The national cuisine developed primarily in the city of Paris with the chefs to French royalty, but eventually it spread throughout the country and was even exported overseas.

===History===
====Middle Ages====
[[Image:Les Très Riches Heures du duc de Berry Janvier.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[John, Duke of Berry|John]], [[Duke of Berry]] enjoying a grand meal. The Duke is sitting with a [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinal]] at the high table, under a luxurious [[baldachin|baldaquin]], in front of the fireplace, tended to by several servants including a [[meat carving|carver]]. On the table to the left of the Duke is a golden [[salt cellar]], or ''nef'', in the shape of a ship; illustration from ''[[Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry]]'', ca 1410.]]
In French [[medieval cuisine]], [[banquet]]s were common among the [[aristocracy]]. Multiple courses would be prepared, but served in a style called ''service en confusion'', or all at once. Food was generally eaten by hand, [[meat]]s being sliced off large pieces held between the thumb and two fingers. The [[sauce]]s of the time were highly seasoned and thick, and heavily flavored [[Mustard (condiment)|mustard]]s were used. [[Pie]]s were also a common banquet item, with the crust serving primarily as a container, rather than as food itself, and it was not until the very end of the [[Late Middle Ages]] that the [[shortcrust pastry|shortcrust]] pie was developed. Meals often ended with an ''issue de table'', which later evolved into the modern [[dessert]], and typically consisted of [[dragees]] (in the Middle Ages meaning spiced lumps of hardened [[sugar]] or [[honey]]), aged cheese and spiced wine, such as [[hypocras]].<ref>Wheaton, 1-7.</ref>

The ingredients of the time varied greatly according to the seasons and the [[church]] calendar, and many items were preserved with salt, spices, honey, and other preservatives. Late spring, summer, and fall afforded abundance, while winter meals were more sparse. [[Livestock]] was [[Slaughter (livestock)|slaughtered]] at the beginning of winter. Beef was often [[salted]], while [[pork]] was salted and [[smoked]]. [[Bacon]] and [[sausage]]s would be smoked in the chimney, while the tongue and [[ham]]s were [[brine]]d and dried. [[Cucumber]]s would be brined as well, while greens would be packed in jars with salt. Fruits, nuts and root vegetables would be boiled in honey for preservation. [[Whale]], [[dolphin]] and [[porpoise]] were considered to be fish, so during [[Lent]] the salted meats of these sea mammals were eaten.<ref>Wheaton, 9-12.</ref>

Artificial freshwater ponds, often called ''stews'' held [[carp]], [[pike (fish)|pike]], [[tench]], [[bream]], [[eel]], and other fish. Poultry was kept in special yards, with [[pigeon]] and [[squab]] being reserved for the elite. Game was highly prized, but relatively rare, and included [[venison]], [[wild boar]], [[hare]], [[rabbit]], and birds. Kitchen gardens provided herbs including some such as [[tansy]], [[rue]], [[pennyroyal]], and [[hyssop]] which are rarely used today. Spices were treasured and very expensive at that time — they included [[Black pepper|pepper]], [[cinnamon]], [[clove]]s, [[nutmeg]], and [[mace (spice)|mace]]. Some spices used then, but no longer today in French cuisine are cubebs, long pepper (both from vines similar to black pepper), [[grains of paradise]], and galengale. Sweet-sour flavors were commonly added to dishes by the use of [[vinegar]]s and ''[[verjus]]'' combined with sugar (for the affluent) or honey. A very common form of food preparation was to finely cook, pound and strain mixtures into fine pastes and mushes, something believed to be highly beneficial to the ability to make use of nutrients.<ref>Wheaton, 13-15.</ref>

Visual display was highly prized. Brilliant colors were obtained by the addition of, for example, juices from [[spinach]] and the green part of [[leek]]s. Yellow came from [[saffron]] or [[egg yolk]], while red came from [[sunflower]], and purple came from ''Crozophora tinctoria'' or ''Heliotropium europaeum''. Gold and [[silver leaf]] were placed on food surfaces and brushed with egg whites. Elaborate and showy dishes were the result, such as ''tourte parmerienne'' which was a pastry dish made to look like a castle with chicken-drumstick turrets coated with [[gold leaf]]. One of the grandest showpieces of the time was roast [[swan]] or [[peafowl|peacock]] sewn back into its skin with feathers intact; the feet and beak being [[gilded]] with gold. To deal with the fact that both these birds are tough, stringy, and of a rather unpleasant flavor, the skin and feathers could be kept and filled with the cooked, minced and seasoned flesh of tastier birds, like goose or chicken.<ref>Wheaton, 15-16.</ref>

The most well known French chef of the Middle Ages was [[Guillaume Tirel]], also known as [[Taillevent]]. Taillevent worked in numerous royal kitchens during the 14th century. His first position was as a kitchen boy in 1326. He was chef to [[Philip VI]], then the [[Dauphin of France|Dauphin]] who was son of [[John II]]. The Dauphin became [[Charles V]] in 1364, with Taillevent as his chief cook. His career spanned sixty-six years, and upon his death he was buried in grand style between his two wives. His tombstone represents him in armor, holding a shield with three cooking pots, ''marmites'', on it.<ref>Wheaton, 18-21.</ref>

[[Image:Leshalles.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Les Halles]] market.]]

====''Ancien régime''====
During the ''[[ancien régime]]'' [[Paris]] was the central hub of culture and economic activity, and as such the most highly skilled culinary craftsmen were to be found there. Markets in Paris such as ''[[Les Halles]]'', ''la Mégisserie'', those found along ''[[Rue Mouffetard]]'', and similar smaller versions in other cities were very important to the distribution of food. Those that gave French produce its characteristic identity were regulated by the [[guild]] system, which developed in the [[Middle Ages]]. In Paris, the guilds were regulated by city government as well as by the French crown. A guild restricted those in a given branch of the culinary industry to operate only within that field.<ref>Wheaton, 71-72.</ref>

There were two basic groups of guilds — first, those that supplied the raw materials; [[butcher]]s, [[fishmonger]]s, [[grain]] merchants, and [[gardener]]s. The second group were those that supplied prepared foods; [[baker]]s, [[pastry chef|pastrycook]]s, saucemakers, poulterers, and [[caterer]]s. There were also guilds that offered both raw materials and prepared food, such as the ''[[charcuterie|charcutiers]]'' and ''rôtisseurs'' (purveyors of roasted meat dishes). They would supply cooked meat pies and dishes as well as raw meat and poultry. This caused issue with butchers and poulterers, who sold the same raw materials.<ref>Wheaton, 72-73.</ref> The guilds also served as a training ground for those within the industry. The degrees of assistant-cook, full-fledged cook and master chef were conferred. Those who reached the level of master chef were of considerable rank in their individual industry, and enjoyed a high level of income as well as economic and job security. At times, those who worked in the royal kitchens did fall under the guild hierarchy, but it was necessary to find them a parallel appointment based on their skills after leaving the service of the royal kitchens. This was not uncommon as the Paris cooks' guild regulations allowed for this movement.<ref>Wheaton, 73.</ref>

During the 15th and 16th centuries, French cuisine assimilated many new food items from the [[New World]]. Although they were slow to be adopted, records of banquets show [[Catherine de' Medici]] serving sixty-six turkeys at one dinner.<ref>Wheaton, 81.</ref> The dish called [[cassoulet]] has its roots in the New World discovery of [[haricot bean]]s, which are central to the dish's creation but had not existed outside of the New World until its exploration by [[Christopher Columbus]].<ref>Wheaton, 85.</ref>

====17th Century - Early 18th Century====
France's famous ''[[Haute cuisine]]'' — literally "high cuisine" — has its foundations during the 17th century with a chef named [[François Pierre La Varenne|La Varenne]]. As author of works such as ''Cvisinier françois'', he is credited with publishing the first true French cookbook. His book includes the earliest known reference to [[roux]] using pork fat. The book contained two sections, one for meat days, and one for [[fasting]]. His recipes marked a change from the style of cookery known in the Middle Ages, to new techniques aimed at creating somewhat lighter dishes, and more modest presentations of pies as individual pastries and turnovers. La Varenne also published a book on pastry in 1667 entitled ''Le Parfait confitvrier'' (republished as ''Le Confiturier françois'') which similarly updated and codified the emerging haute cuisine standards for desserts and pastries.<ref>Wheaton, 114-120.</ref>

Another chef, [[François Massialot]], wrote ''Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois'' in 1691, during the reign of [[Louis XIV]]. The book contains menus served to the royal courts in 1690. Massialot worked mostly as a freelance cook, and was not employed by any particular household. Massialot and many other royal cooks received special privileges by association with the French royalty. They were not subject to the regulation of the guilds, therefore they could cater weddings and banquets without restriction. His book is the first to list recipes alphabetically, perhaps a forerunner of the first culinary dictionary. It is in this book that a [[marinade]] is first seen in print, with one type for poultry and feathered game while a second is for fish and shellfish. No quantities are listed in the recipes, which suggests that Massialot was writing for trained cooks.<ref>Wheaton, 149-154.</ref>

The successive updates of ''Le Cuisinier roïal et bourgeois'' include important refinements such as adding a glass of wine to [[fish stock]]. Definitions were also added to the 1703 edition. The [[1712]] edition, retitled ''Le Nouveau cuisinier royal et bourgeois'', was increased to two volumes, and was written in a more elaborate style with extensive explanations of technique. Additional smaller preparations are included in this edition as well, leading to lighter preparations, and adding a third course to the meal. [[Ragout]], a stew still central to French cookery, makes its first appearance as a single dish in this edition as well; prior to that it was listed as a garnish.<ref>Wheaton, 155.</ref>

[[Image:M-A-Careme.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Marie-Antoine Carême]].]]

====Late 18th century - 19th century====
The [[French Revolution|Revolution]] was integral to the expansion of French cuisine, because it effectively abolished the guilds. This meant that any one chef could now produce and sell any culinary item he wished. [[Marie-Antoine Carême]] was born in 1784, five years before the onset of the [[French Revolution|Revolution]]. He spent his younger years working at a ''[[Pastry|pâtisserie]]'' until being discovered by [[Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord]] who would later cook for the French emperor [[Napoleon Bonaparte]]. Prior to his employment with Talleyrand, Carême had become known for his ''pièces montèes'', which were extravagant constructions of pastry and sugar architecture.<ref>Mennell, 144-145.</ref>

More important to Carême's career was his contribution to the refinement of French cuisine. The basis for his style of cooking came from his sauces, which he named [[mother sauce]]s. Often referred to as [[fonds]], meaning ''foundations'', these base sauces, ''[[espagnole]]'', ''[[velouté]]'', and ''[[béchamel]]'' are still known today. Each of these sauces would be made in large quantities in his kitchen as they were then capable of forming the basis of multiple derivatives. Carême had over one hundred sauces in his repertoire. Also, in his writings, soufflés appear for the first time. Although many of his preparations today seem extremely extravagant, it must be remembered that he simplified and codified an even more complex cuisine that had existed beforehand. Central to his codification of the cuisine were ''Le Maître d'hôtel français'' (1822), ''Le Cuisinier parsien'' (1828) and ''L'Art de la cuisine française au dix-neuvième siècle'' ([[1833]]-5).<ref>Mennell, 144-148.</ref>

====Late 19th century - Early 20th century====
[[Georges Auguste Escoffier]] is commonly acknowledged as the central figure to the modernization of ''[[haute cuisine]]'' and organizing what would become the national cuisine of France. His influence began with the rise of some of the great hotels in Europe and [[Americas|America]] during the 1880s - 1890s. The [[Savoy Hotel]] owned by [[César Ritz]] was an early hotel Escoffier worked at, but much of his influence came during his management of the kitchens in the [[Carlton]] from 1898 until 1921. He created a system of ''parties'' called the [[brigade system]], which separated the professional kitchen into five separate stations. These five stations included the ''[[garde manger]]'' that prepared cold dishes; the ''entremettier'' prepared soups, vegetables and desserts; the ''rôtisseur'' prepared roasts, grilled and fried dishes; the ''[[saucier]]'' prepared sauces; and the ''pâtissier'' prepared all pastry items. This system meant that instead of one person preparing a dish on their own, now multiple cooks would prepare the different components for the dish. An example used is ''oeufs à la plat Meyerbeer'', the prior system would take up to fifteen minutes to prepare the dish, while in the new system, the eggs would be prepared by the ''entremettier'', kidney grilled by the ''rôtisseur'', truffle sauce made by the ''saucier'' and thus the dish could be prepared in a much shorter time and served quickly in the popular restaurants.<ref>Mennell, 157-159.</ref>

Escoffier also simplified and organized the modern menu and structure of the meal. He published a series of articles in professional journals which outlined the sequence and then finally published his ''Livre des menus'' in 1912. This type of service embraced the ''service á la russe'' (serving meals in separate courses on individual plates) which Félix Urbain Dubois had made popular in the 1860s. Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of ''[[Le Guide Culinaire]]'' in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French cookery. The book was a collaboration with Philéas Gilbert, E. Fetu, A. Suzanne, B. Reboul, Ch. Dietrich, A. Caillat and others. The significance of this is to illustrate the universal acceptance by multiple high-profile chefs to this new style of cooking.<ref>Mennell, 159-160.</ref>

''Le Guide Culinaire'' deemphasized the use of heavy sauces and leaned toward lighter ''[[fumet]]s'' which are the essence of flavor taken from fish, meat and vegetables. This style of cooking looked to create garnishes, sauces thats function was to add to the flavor of the dish, not hide flavors which the heavy sauces and ornate garnishes of the past had. Escoffier took inspiration for his work from personal recipes in addition to recipes from Carême, Dubois and ideas from Taillevent's ''Viander'', which had a modern version published in 1897. A second source for recipes came from existing peasant dishes that were translated into the refined techniques of haute cuisine. Expensive ingredients would replace the common ingredients making the dishes much less humble. The third source of recipes was Escoffier himself who invented many new dishes, such as ''[[pêche Melba]]'' and ''[[crêpes Suzette]]''.<ref>Mennell, 160-162.</ref> Escoffier updated ''Le Guide Culinaire'' four times during his lifetime, noting in the foreword to the book’s first edition that even with its 5,000 recipes the book should not be considered an “exhaustive” text and that even if it was at the point when he wrote the book, “it would no longer be so tomorrow, because progress marches on each day."<ref>Escoffier, Foreword.</ref>

====Mid 20th century - Late 20th century====
[[Image:Paul Bocuse.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[[Paul Bocuse]].]]
The term ''[[nouvelle cuisine]]'' has been used many times in the history of French cuisine. This description was seen in the 1740s of the cuisine from Vincent La Chapelle, François Marin and Menon and even during the 1880s and 1890s to describe Escoffier's cooking. The term came up again however during the 1960s used by two authors [[Henri Gault]] and [[Christian Millau]] to describe the cooking of [[Paul Bocuse]], [[Jean Troisgro]] and [[Pierre Troisgro]], [[Michel Guérard]], [[Roger Vergé]] and [[Raymond Oliver]]. These chefs were working toward rebelling from the "orthodoxy" of [[Escoffier]]'s cuisine. Some of the chefs were students of [[Fernand Point]] at the ''[[Pyramide]]'' in [[Vienne]] and had left to open their own restaurants. Gault and Millau "discovered the formula" contained in ten characteristics of this new style of cooking.<ref>Mennell, 163-164.</ref>

The first characteristic was a rejection of excessive complication in cooking. Second, the cooking times for most fish, seafood, game birds, veal, green vegetables and ''pâtés'' was greatly reduced in an attempt to preserve the natural flavors. Steaming was an important trend from this characteristic. The third characteristic was that the cuisine was made with the freshest possible ingredients. Fourth, large menus were abandoned in favor of shorter menus. Fifth, strong marinades for meat and game ceased to be used. Sixth, they stopped using heavy sauces such as ''[[espagnole]]'' and ''[[béchamel]]'' thickened with flour based ''[[roux]]'', in favor of seasoning their dishes with fresh herbs, quality butter, lemon juice, and vinegar. Seventh, they used regional dishes for inspiration instead of ''haute cuisine'' dishes. Eighth, new techniques were embraced and modern equipment was often used, Bocuse even used microwave ovens. Ninth, the chefs paid close attention to the dietary needs of their guests through their dishes. Tenth and finally, the chefs were extremely inventive and created new combinations and pairings.<ref>Mennell, 163-164.</ref>

Some have speculated that a contributor to ''nouvelle cuisine'' was [[World War II]] when animal protein was in short supply during the [[Germany|German]] occupation.<ref>Hewitt, 109-110</ref> No matter what the origins were, by the mid-1980s some food writers stated that the style of cuisine had reached exhaustion and many chefs began returning to the ''haute cuisine'' style of cooking, although much of the lighter presentations and new techniques remained.<ref>Mennell, 163-164.</ref>

===Common dishes found on a national level===
There are many dishes that are considered part of the nation's national cuisine today. Many come from [[haute cuisine]] in the fine-dining realm, but others are regional dishes that have become a norm across the country. Below are lists of a few of the more common dishes available in [[France]] on a national level.

*[[List of French dishes#Common breads|Common breads found on a national level]]
*[[List of French dishes#Common savory dishes|Common savory dishes found on a national level]]
*[[List of French dishes#Common desserts and pastries|Common desserts and pastries found on a national level]]
*[[List of French dishes#Common canned food unique to France|Common canned food found on the national level]]

==Regional cuisine==
[[Image:France departements regions narrow.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The 22 [[regions of France|regions]] and 96 [[departments of France|departments]] of [[metropolitan France]] include [[Corsica]] (''Corse'', lower right). Paris area is expanded (inset at left).]]

French regional cuisine is characterized by its extreme diversity and style. Traditionally, each region of [[France]] has its own distinctive cuisine accepted by both its bourgeoisie and peasants and other general citizenry of the regions.

===Paris • Ile-de-France===
[[Paris]] and Ile-de-France are central regions where almost anything from the country is available as all train lines meet in the city. Over 5,000 restaurants exist in Paris and almost any cuisine can be had here. High-quality [[Michelin Guide]] rated restaurants proliferate here.<ref>Dominé, 13.</ref>

===Champagne • Lorraine• Alsace===
Game and ham are popular in [[Champagne, France|Champagne]] as well as the special sparkling wine simply known as ''[[Champagne (wine)|Champagne]]''. Fine fruit preserves are known from [[Lorraine (region)|Lorraine]] as well as the famous Quiche Lorraine. [[Alsace]] is heavily influenced by the German food culture as such the wines and beers made in the area are very similar to the style of bordering Germany.<ref>Dominé, 55</ref>

* [[List of French dishes#Lorraine|List of dishes unique to Lorraine]]
* [[List of French dishes#Alsace|List of dishes unique to Alsace]]

===Nord • Pas de Calais • Picardy • Normandy • Brittany===
The coastline supplies many [[crustacean]]s, [[sea bass]], [[monkfish]], [[herring]]. Normandy has top quality seafood like [[scallop]]s and [[sole]], while [[Brittany]] has a supply of lobster, crayfish and mussels. [[Normandy]] is also home to a large population of apple trees, which is used in dishes as well as [[cider]] and [[calvados]]. The northern areas of this region especially [[Nord (department)|Nord]], grow ample amounts of wheat, sugar beet and chicory. Thick stews are found often in these northern areas as well. The produce of these northern regions is also considered some of the best in the country including cauliflower and artichokes. Buckwheat grows widely in Brittany as well and is used in the region's ''[[galette]]s'' called ''jalet'', which is where this dish originated.<ref>Dominé, 93.</ref>

* [[List of French dishes#Nord-Pas-de-Calais (Artois, Flanders, Hainaut)-Picardy|List of dishes unique Nord-Pas-de-Calais (Artois, Flanders, Hainaut)-Picardy]]
* [[List of French dishes#Normandy|List of dishes unique to Normandy]]
* [[List of French dishes#Brittany|List of dishes unique to Brittany]]

===The Loire Valley • Central France===
High quality fruits come from [[Loire Valley|the Loire Valley]] and central France, including cherries grown for the liqueur ''[[Guignolet]]'' and the ''Belle Angevine'' pears. The strawberries and melons are also of high quality. Fish are seen in the cuisine as well as wild game, lamb, calves, [[Charolais cattle]], ''Géline'' fowl, and high quality goat cheeses. Young vegetables are used often in the cuisine as are the specialty mushrooms of the region, ''champignons de Paris''. Vinegars from [[Orléans]] are a specialty ingredient used as well.<ref>Dominé, 129,132.</ref>

* [[List of French dishes#Loire Valley/Central France|List of dishes unique to Loire Valley/Central France]]

===Burgundy • Franche-Comté===
[[Burgundy]] is well known for its wines. [[pike (fish)|Pike]], [[perch]], river crabs, [[snail]]s, poultry from [[Bresse]], [[Charolais]] beef or game, [[redcurrant]]s, [[blackcurrant]]s, honey cake, [[Chaource]] and [[Epoisses cheese]] are all specialties of the local cuisine of both Burgundy and [[Franche-Comté]]. ''[[Kir (cocktail)|Kir]]'' and ''[[Crème de Cassis]]'' are popular liquors made from the blackcurrants. Dijon mustard is also a specialty of Burgundy cuisine. Oils are used in the cooking here, types include nut oils and [[rapeseed]] oil. Smoked meat and specialties are produced in the [[Jura]]<ref>Dominé, 153,156,166,185.</ref>

* [[List of French dishes#Burgundy|List of dishes unique to Burgundy]]

===Lyon • Rhône-Alpes===
Fruit and young vegetables are popular in the cuisine from the [[Rhône valley]]. Poultry from [[Bresse]], guinea fowels from Drôme and fish from the Dombes lakes and mountain in [[Rhône-Alpes]] streams are key to the cuisine as well. [[Lyon]] and [[Savoy]] supply high quality sausages while the [[Alpine region|Alpine]] regions supply their specialty cheeses like [[Abondance]], [[Reblochon]], [[Tomme]] and [[Vacherin]]. ''Mères lyonnaises'' are a particular type of restaurateur relegated to this region that are the regions bistro. Celebrated chefs from this region include [[Fernand Point]], [[Paul Bocuse]], the Troisgros brothers and Alain Chapel. The [[Chartreuse Mountains]] are in this region, and the famous liquor [[Chartreuse (liquor)|Chartreuse]] is produced in a monastery there.<ref>Dominé, 197,230.</ref>

* [[List of French dishes#Rhône-Alpes|List of dishes unique to Rhône-Alpes]]

===Poitou-Charentes • Limousin===
Oysters come from the Oléron-Marennes basin while mussels come from the Bay of Aiguillon. High quality produce comes from the regions hinterland. Goat cheese is of high quality in this region and in the [[Vendée]] is grazing ground for ''Parthenaise'' cattle, while poultry is raised in [[Challans]]. [[Poitou]] and [[Charente]] purportedly produce the best butter and cream in France. [[Cognac (drink)|Cognac]] is also produced in the region along the [[Charente River]]. [[Limousin (region)|Limousin]] is home to the high quality [[Limousin (cattle)|Limousin cattle]] as well as high quality sheep. The woodlands offer game, high quality mushrooms. The southern area around [[Brive]] draws its cooking influence from [[Périgord]] and [[Auvergne (region)|Auvergne]] to produce a robust cuisine.<ref>Dominé, 237.</ref>

===Bordeaux • Perigord • Gascony • Pays Basque===
{{main|Basque cuisine}}
[[Bordeaux]] is well known for its wine, as it is throughout the southwest of France with certain areas offering specialty grapes for its wines. Fishing is popular in the region for the cuisine, especially the [[Pays Basque]] deep-sea fishing of the [[North Sea]], trapping in the [[Garonne]] and stream fishing in the [[Pyrenees]]. The Pyrenees also support top quality lamb such as the ''"Agneau de Pauillac"'' as well as high quality sheep cheeses. Beef cattle in the region include the ''[[Blonde d'Aquitaine]]'', ''Boeuf de Challose'', ''Bazardaise'', and ''Garonnaise''. High quality free-range chickens, [[turkey]], [[pigeon]], [[capon]], [[goose]] and [[duck]] prevail in the region as well. [[Gascony]] and [[Perigord]] cuisines includes high quality ''[[paté]]s'', ''[[terrine]]s'', ''[[confit]]s'' and ''magrets''. This is one of the regions famous for its production of [[foie gras]] or fattened goose or duck liver. The cuisine of the region is often heavy and farm based. [[Armagnac (drink)|Armagnac]] is also from this region as are high quality prunes from [[Agen]].<ref>Dominé, 259, 295.</ref>

===Toulouse • Quercy • Aveyron===
[[Gers]] in this region offers high quality poultry, while La Montagne Noire and Lacaune area offers high quality hams and dry sausages. White corn is planted heavily in the area both for use in fattening the ducks and geese for [[foie gras]] as well as the production of ''millas'', a cornmeal porridge. [[Haricot bean]]s are also grown in this area, which are central to the dish ''[[Cassoulet]]''. The finest sausage in France is commonly acknowledged to be the ''saucisse de Toulouse'', which also finds its way into their version of ''Cassoulet'' of [[Toulouse]]. The [[Cahors]] area produces a high quality specialty "black wine" as well as high-quality [[truffle]]s and mushrooms. This region also produces milk-feed lamb. Unpasteurized [[ewe]]'s milk is used to produce the [[Roquefort]] in [[Aveyron]], while [[Cantal]] is produced in [[Laguiole]]. The [[Salers]] cattle produce quality milk for cheese as well as beef items. The volcanic soils create flinty cheeses and superb lentils. Mineral waters are produced in high volume in this region as well.<ref>Dominé, 313.</ref>

* [[List of French dishes#Aveyron|List of dishes unique to Aveyron]]
* [[List of French dishes#Toulousain|List of dishes unique to Toulouse]]

===Roussillon • Languedoc • Cévennes===
Restaurants are popular in the area known as ''[[Le Midi]]''. Oysters come from the Etang de Thau, to be served in the restaurants of Bouzigues, Meze, and [[Sète]]. Mussels are commonly seen here in addition to fish specialties of Sète, ''Bourride'', ''Tielles'' and ''Rouille de seiche''. Also in the [[Languedoc]] ''jambon cru'', sometimes known as ''jambon de montagne'' is produced. High quality ''[[Roquefort]]'' comes from the ''brebis'' (sheep) on the [[Larzac]] plateau. The [[Cévennes|Les Cévennes]] area offers mushrooms, chestnuts, berries, honey, lamb, game, sausages, ''pâtés'' and goat cheeses. [[Catalan people|Catalan]] influence can be seen in the cuisine here with dishes like ''brandade'' made from a purée of dried [[cod]] which is then wrapped in [[Chard|mangold]] leaves. Snails are also plentiful and are prepared in a specific ''Catalan'' style known as a ''cargolade''. [[Wild boar]] can also be found in the more mountainous regions of the ''Midi''.<ref>Dominé, 349,360.</ref>

* [[List of French dishes#Languedoc|List of dishes unique to Languedoc]]

===Provence • Côte d'Azur===
The [[Provence]] and [[Côte d'Azur]] region is rich in quality citrus, vegetables and fruits and herbs, the region is one of the largest supplier of all these ingredients in France. The region also produces the largest amount of olives and thus creates superb [[olive oil]]. [[Lavender]] is used in many dishes found in the ''Haute Provence''. Other important herbs in the cuisine include [[thyme]], [[Common sage|sage]], [[rosemary]], [[basil]], [[savory]], [[fennel]], [[marjoram]], [[tarragon]], [[oregano]], and [[bay leaf]] Honey is another prized ingredient in the region. Seafood proliferates in this area in all areas. Goat cheeses, air-dried sausage, lamb, and beef are also popular here. Garlic and anchovies can be seen in many of the sauces in the region and [[Pastis]] can be found in many of the bistros of the area. The cuisine uses a large amount of vegetables for lighter preparations. Truffles are commonly seen in Provence during the winter. Rice can be found growing in [[Camargue]] which is the most-northerly rice growing area in Europe, with [[red rice]] being a specialty.<ref>Dominé, 387,403,404,410,416.</ref>

* [[List of French dishes#Provence/Côte d'Azur|List of dishes unique to Provence/Côte d'Azur]]

===Corsica===
[[Domestic goat|Goat]]s and [[Domestic sheep|sheep]] proliferate on the island of [[Corsica]], and kids and lamb are used to prepare dishes such as ''stufato'', ''[[ragout]]s'' and roasts. Cheeses are also produced with ''[[brocciu]]'' being the most popular. [[Chestnut]]s, growing in the Castagniccia forest, are used to produce flour which in turn is used to make [[bread]], [[cake]]s and [[polenta]]. The forest also provides acorns which are used to feed the pigs which provide most of the protein for the island's cuisine. As Corse is an island, fresh fish and seafood are common in the cuisine as well. The islands pork is used to make fine hams, sausage and other unique items including ''[[coppa]]'' (dried rib cut), ''lonzu'' (dried pork fillet), ''figatella'', ''salumu'' (a dried sausage) ''salcietta'', ''Panzetta'', [[bacon]], ''figarettu'' (smoked and dried liverwurst) and ''prisuttu'' (farmer's ham). [[Clementine]]s (hold an AOC designation), [[Nectarine]]s and [[fig]]s are grown there and candied [[citron]] is used in [[nougat]]s, cakes, while and the aforementioned brocciu and chestnuts are also used in desserts. Corse also offers a variety of fruit wines and liqueurs, including ''[[Cap Corse]]'', ''Cédratine'', ''Bonapartine'', ''liquer de myrte'', ''vins de fruit'', ''Rappu'', and ''[[eau-de-vie]] de châtaigne''.<ref>Dominé, 435,441,442.</ref>

==Specialties by season==
French cuisine varies according to the season. In summer, salads and fruit dishes are popular because they're refreshing and the produce is inexpensive and abundant. Greengrocers prefer to sell their fruit and vegetables at lower prices if needed, rather than see them rot in the heat. At the end of summer, [[mushroom]]s become plentiful and appear in stews everywhere in France. The [[hunting]] season starts in September and runs through February. Game of all kinds is eaten, often in very elaborate dishes that celebrate the success of the hunt. Shellfish are at their peak as winter turns to spring, and [[oysters]] appear in restaurants in large quantities.

With the advent of deep-freeze and the air-conditioned ''[[hypermarché]]'', these seasonal variations are less marked than hitherto, but they are still observed because in some cases it's the law. [[Crayfish]], for example, have a very short season and it's illegal to take them outside that time.<ref>Imported crayfish are unrestricted, and many arrive from [[Pakistan]].</ref> Moreover, they do not survive freezing very well.

==Ingredients==
[[Image:Foie gras DSC00180.jpg|thumb|150px|An entire foie gras (partly prepared for a [[terrine]]).]]
[[Image:Escargot p1150449.jpg|thumb|150px|Escargot cooked with garlic and parsley butter in a shell (with a [[2 cent euro coins|€0.02 coin]] as scale).]]
[[Image:Truffe coupée.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Black Périgord Truffle.]]
[[Image:Horsemeatsandwich.jpg|thumb|150px|Smoked and salted horse meat on a sandwich.]]
[[Image:Fleur de sel2.jpg|thumb|150px|The famous ''[[fleur de sel]]'' from [[Guérande]].]]
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;"> French regional cuisines use locally grown vegetables, such as:
* [[potato]]es
* [[Green beans|haricot verts]] (A type of [[France|French]] [[green bean]])
* [[carrot]]s
* [[Leek (vegetable)|leeks]]
* [[turnip]]s
* ''[[aubergine]]'' ([[eggplant]])
* ''[[courgette]]'' ([[zucchini]])
* [[Mushroom]]s, [[oyster mushroom]]s, cèpes ([[porcini]])
* Truffles ([[Tuber (genus)]])
* [[shallots]]
Common fruits include:
* [[Orange (fruit)|oranges]]
* [[tomato]]es
* [[tangerine]]s
* [[peach]]es
* [[apricot]]s
* [[apple]]s
* [[pear]]s
* [[plum]]s
* [[cherry]]
* [[strawberry]]
* [[raspberry]]
* [[redcurrant]]
* [[blackberry]]
* [[grape]]
* [[blackcurrant]]
Meats consumed include:
* [[chicken]]
* [[squab]]
* [[turkey (bird)|turkey]]
* [[duck]]
* [[goose]]
* [[foie gras]]
* [[beef]]
* [[veal]]
* [[pork]]
* [[Lamb (food)|mutton]] and [[lamb (food)|lamb]]
* [[rabbit]]
* [[quail]]
* [[horse meat|horse]]
* [[frog legs|frog's legs]]
* ''[[escargot]]'' (snails)

Eggs are fine quality and often eaten as:
* [[omelette]]
* hard-boiled with [[mayonnaise]]
* [[Scrambled eggs|Scrambled]] plain or ''[[haute cuisine]]'' preparation
Fish and seafood commonly consumed include:
* [[cod]]
* [[sardine]]s, canned and fresh
* [[tuna]], canned and fresh
* [[salmon]]
* [[trout]]
* [[mussels]]
* [[herring]]
* [[oysters]]
* [[shrimp]]
* [[calamari]]

Herbs and Seasonings vary by region and include:
* ''[[fleur de sel]]''
* ''[[herbes de Provence]]''
* [[tarragon]]
* [[rosemary]]
* [[marjoram]]
* [[lavender]]
* [[thyme]]
* [[fennel]]
* [[Common sage|sage]]

</div>
Fresh fruit and vegetables, as well as fish and meat can be purchased either from [[supermarket]]s or specialty shops. Street markets are held on certain days in most localities; some towns have a more permanent covered market enclosing food shops, especially meat and fish retailers. These have better shelter than the periodic street markets.

==Structure of meals==
===Breakfast===
[[Image:Croissant.jpg|thumb|Cafés often offer [[Croissant]]s for breakfast.]]
''Le petit déjeuner'' (breakfast) is often a quick meal consisting of bread, butter and jam, eggs or ham along with coffee or tea. Children often drink hot chocolate along with their breakfast. Breakfast of some kind is always served in cafés opening early in the day.

===Lunch===
''Le déjeuner'' (lunch) was once a two hour mid-day meal but has recently seen a trend toward the one hour lunch break. In some smaller towns the two hour lunch may still be customary. Sunday lunches are often longer and are taken with the family.<ref>Steele, 82.</ref> Restaurants normally open for lunch at 12:00pm and close at 2:30pm. Many restaurants close on Saturday and Monday during lunch.<ref>Foder's, 342.</ref>
In large cities a majority of working people and students eat their lunch at a corporate or school [[cafeteria]], which normally serve complete meals as described above; it is therefore not usual for students to bring their own lunch food. It is common for [[white-collar worker]]s to be given lunch vouchers as part of their employee benefits. These can be used in most restaurants, supermarkets and [[traiteur (culinary profession)|traiteurs]]; however workers having lunch in this way typically do not eat all three dishes of a traditional lunch due to price and time considerations. In smaller cities and towns, some working people leave their workplaces to return home for lunch, generating four rush hours during the day. Finally, an also popular alternative especially among [[blue-collar worker]]s is to lunch on a [[sandwich]] possibly followed with a dessert; both dishes can be found ready-made at bakeries and supermarkets for budget prices. The common folk often has meat and vegetables, and for dessert they have fruits and cake.

===Dinner===
''Le dîner'' (dinner) often consists of three courses, ''hors d'oeuvre'' or ''entrée'' (introductory course often soup), ''plat principal'' (main course), and a cheese course or dessert, sometimes with a salad offered before the cheese or dessert. Yogurt may replace the cheese course, while a normal everyday dessert would be fresh fruit. The meal is often accompanied by bread, wine and [[mineral water]]. Wine consumption has been dropping recently in young people. Fruit juice consumption has risen from 25.6% in 1996 to 31.6% in 2002. Main meat courses are often served with vegetables along with rice or pasta.<ref>Steele, 82.</ref> Restaurants often open at 7:30pm for dinner and stop taking orders between the hours of 10:00pm and 11:00pm. Many restaurants close for dinner on Sundays.<ref>Foder's, 342.</ref>

===Drink===
Traditionally, France has been a culture of [[wine]] consumption. While this characteristic has lessened with time, even today, many French people drink wine daily. The consumption of low-quality wines during meals has been greatly reduced. [[Beer]] is especially popular with the young. Other popular alcoholic drinks include [[pastis]], an [[aniseed]] flavoured beverage drunk diluted with cold water, or [[cider]].

The legal alcohol purchase age is 16. Usually, parents tend to prohibit their children from consuming alcohol before these children reach their early teens. Students and young adults are known to drink heavily during parties, but usually drunkenness is not displayed in public. Public consumption of alcohol is legal, but driving under the influence can result in severe penalties.

==Dining out==
===History of the restaurant===
The modern restaurant has its origins in French culture. Prior to the late 18th century, diners who wished to "dine out" would visit their local [[guild]] member's [[kitchen]] and have their meal prepared for them. However, guild members were limited to producing whatever their guild registry delegated them to.<ref>Spang, 8-10.</ref> These guild members offered food in their own homes to steady clientele that appeared day-to-day but at set times. The guest would be offered the meal [[table d'hôte]], which is a meal offered at a set price with very little choice of dishes, sometimes none at all.<ref>Spang, 30-31.</ref>

The first steps toward the modern restaurant were locations that offered ''restorative'' [[bouillon]]s, or ''restaurants'' — these words being the origin of the name restaurant. This step took place during the 1760's - [[1770]]'s. These locations were open at all times of the day, featuring ornate [[tableware]] and reasonable prices. These locations were meant more as meal replacements for those who had "lost their appetites and suffered from jaded palates and weak chests."<ref>Spang, 34-35.</ref>

In 1782 Antoine Beauvilliers, [[pastry chef]] to the future [[Louis XVIII]], opened one of the most popular restaurants of the time — the ''Grande Taverne de Londres'' — in the arcades of the [[Palais-Royal]]. Other restaurants were opened by chefs of the time who were leaving the failing monarchy of France, in the period leading up to the French Revolution. It was these restaurants that expanded upon the limited menus of decades prior, and led to the full restaurants that were completely legalized with the advent of the French Revolution and abolition of the guilds. This and the substantial discretionary income of the [[French Directory]]'s ''[[nouveau riche]]'' helped keep these new restaurants in business.<ref>Spang, 140-144.</ref>

===Places to dine out===
*[[Restaurant]] - Over 5,000 in [[Paris]] alone, with varying levels of prices and menus. Open at certain times of the day, and normally closed one day of the week. Patrons select items from a printed [[menu]]. Some offer regional menus, while others offer a modern styled menu. By law, a prix-fixe menu must be offered, although high-class restaurants may try to conceal the fact. Few French restaurants cater to [[vegetarian]]s. The [[Guide Michelin]] rates many of the better restaurants in this category.<ref name="A_ch_1">Dominé, 30.</ref>
*''[[Bistro|Bistro(t)]]'' - Often smaller than a restaurant and many times using chalk board or verbal menus. Many feature a regional cuisine. Notable dishes include [[coq au vin]], [[pot-au-feu]], [[confit de canard]], calves' [[liver]] and [[entrecôte]].<ref name="A_ch_1"/>
*''Bistrot à Vin'' - Similar to ''[[caberet]]s'' or ''[[tavern]]es'' of the past in France. Some offer inexpensive alcoholic drinks, while others take pride in offering a full range of vintage [[Appellation (wine)|AOC]] wines. The foods in some are simple, including sausages, ham and cheese, while others offer dishes similar to what can be found in a bistro.<ref name="A_ch_1"/>
[[Image:Bouchon leTablier.jpg|right|thumb|250px|A bouchon, ''Le tablier'' (the apron), in Vieux Lyon.]]
*''[[Bouchon]]'' - Found in [[Lyon]], they produce traditional Lyonnaise cuisine, such as sausages, duck pâté or roast pork. The dishes can be quite fatty, and heavily oriented around meat. There are about twenty officially certified traditional bouchons, but a larger number of establishments describing themselves using the term.<ref>Boudou</ref>
*''[[Brasserie]]'' - French for [[brewery]], these establishments were created in the 1870's by refugees from [[Alsace-Lorraine]]. These establishments serve beer, but most serve wines from [[Alsace]] such as [[Riesling]], [[Sylvaner]], and [[Gewürztraminer]]. The most popular dishes are [[Sauerkraut]] and [[Seafood]] dishes.<ref name="A_ch_1"/> In general, a brasserie is open all day, offering the same menu.<ref>''Les brasseries ont toujours l'avantage d'offrir un service continu tout au long de la journée, d'accueillir les clients après le spectacle et d'être ouvertes sept jours sur sept, quand les restaurants ferment deux jours et demi par semaine.'' (''Brasseries have the advantage of offering uninterrupted service all day, seven days a week, and of being open for the after-theatre crowd, whereas restaurants are closed two and a half days of the week'') — (Jean-Claude Ribaut in ''[[Le Monde]]'', 8 feb 2007)</ref>
*''[[Café]]'' - Primarily locations for [[coffee]] and alcoholic drinks. Tables and chairs are usually set outside, and prices marked up somewhat ''en terrasse''. The limited foods sometimes offered include [[croque-monsieur]], [[salad]]s, ''moules-frites'' ([[mussels]] and ''[[pommes frites]]'') when in season. ''Cafés'' often open early in the morning and shut down around nine at night.<ref name="A_ch_1"/>
*''Salon de Thé'' - These locations are more similar to cafés in the rest of the world. These tearooms often offer a selection of cakes and do not offer alcoholic drinks. Many offer simple [[snack]]s, [[salad]]s, and [[sandwich]]es. [[Tea]]s, [[hot chocolate]], and chocolat à l'ancienne (a popular chocolate drink) offered as well. These locations often open just prior to noon for lunch and then close late afternoon.<ref name="A_ch_1"/>
*''[[Bar (establishment)|Bar]]'' - Based on the [[United States|American]] style, many were built at the beginning of the 20th century. These locations serve [[cocktail]]s, [[whiskey]], [[pastis]] and other alcoholic drinks.<ref name="A_ch_1"/>
*''Estaminet'' - Typical of the [[Nord-Pas-de-Calais]] region, these small bars/restaurants used to be a central place for farmers, mine or textile workers to meet and socialize. Alongside the usual beverages (beers, liquors...), one could order basic regional dishes, as well as play various indoor games. These estaminets almost disappeared, but are now considered a part of Nord-Pas-de-Calais history, and therefore preserved and promoted..

===Kitchen and dining room staff===
Larger restaurants and hotels in France employ extensive staff and are commonly referred to as either the ''kitchen brigade'' for the kitchen staff or ''dining room brigade'' system for the dining room staff. This system was created by [[Georges Auguste Escoffier]] This structured team system delegates responsibilities to different individuals that specialize in certain tasks. The following is a list of positions held both in the kitchen and dining rooms brigades in France.<ref name="A_ch_2">Dominé, 32.</ref>

====Kitchen brigade====
[[Image:Cooks 050918 154402.jpg|thumb|Cooks at work.]]
*''[[Chef de cuisine]]'' (Kitchen chef) - Responsible for overall management of kitchen. They supervise staff, create menus and new recipes with the assistance of the restaurant manager, make purchases of raw food items, trains apprentices and maintains a sanitary and hygiene environment for the preparation of food.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Sous-chef de cuisine'' (Deputy kitchen chef) - Receives orders directly from the ''chef de cuisine'' for the management of the kitchen and often represents the ''chef de cuisine'' when he or she is not present.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Chef de partie'' (Senior chef) - Responsible for managing a given station in the kitchen where they specialize in preparing particular dishes. Those that work in a lesser station are commonly referred to as a ''demi-chef''.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Cuisinier'' (Cook) - This position is an independent one where they usually prepare specific dishes in a station. They may also be referred to as a ''cuisinier de partie''.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Commis'' (Junior cook) - Also works in a specific station, but reports directly to the ''chef de partie'' and takes care of the tools for the station.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Apprenti(e)'' (Apprentice) - Many times they are students gaining theoretical and practical training in school and work experience in the kitchen. They perform preparatory work and/or cleaning work.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Plongeur'' (Dishwasher) - Cleans dishes and utensils and may be entrusted with basic preparatory job.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Marmiton'' (Pot and pan washer) - In larger restaurants takes care of all the pots and pans instead of the ''plongeur''.<ref name="A_ch_3">Dominé, 33.</ref>
*''[[Saucier]]'' (Saucemaker/Sauté cook) - Prepares [[sauce]]s, warm ''[[hors d'oeuvres]]'', completes meat dishes and in smaller restaurants may work on fish dishes and prepares sautéed items. This is one of the most respected positions in the kitchen brigade.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Rôtisseur'' (Roast cook) - Manages a team of cooks that roasts, broils and deep fries dishes.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Grillardin'' (Grill cook) - In a larger kitchen this person prepares the grilled foods instead of the ''rôtisseur''.<ref name="A_ch_4">The Culinary Institute of America, 8.</ref>
*''Friturier'' (Fry cook) - In larger kitchens this person prepares fried foods instead of the ''rôtisseur''.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Poissonnier'' (Fish cook) - Prepares fish and seafood dishes.<ref name="A_ch_3"/>
*''Entremetier'' (Entrée preparer) - Prepares soups and other dishes not involving meat or fish, including vegetable dishes and egg dishes.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Potager'' (soup cook) - In larger kitchens this person reports to the ''entremetier'' and prepares the soups.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Legumier'' (Vegetable cook) - In larger kitchen this person also reports to the ''entremetier'' and prepares the vegetable dishes.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''[[Garde manger]]'' (Pantry supervisor) - responsible for preparation of cold ''[[hors d'oeuvres]]'', prepares salads, organizes large buffet displays and prepares [[charcuterie]] items.<ref name="A_ch_2"/>
*''Tournant'' (Spare hand/ roundsman) - Moves throughout kitchen assisting other positions in kitchen
*''[[Pâtissier]]'' (Pastry cook) - Prepares desserts and other meal end sweets and for location without a ''boulanger'' also prepares breads and other baked items. They may also prepare pasta for the restaurant.<ref name="A_ch_3"/>
*''Confiseur'' - Prepares candies and ''[[petit four]]s'' in larger restaurants instead of the ''pâtissier''.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Glacier'' - Prepares frozen and cold deserts in larger restaurants instead of the ''pâtissier''.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Décorateur'' - Prepares show pieces and specialty cakes in larger restaurants instead of the ''pâtissier''.<ref name="A_ch_4">The Culinary Institute of America, 8,9.</ref>
*''[[Boulanger]]'' (Baker) - Prepares bread, cakes and breakfast pastries in larger restaurants instead of the ''pâtissier''.<ref name="A_ch_3"/>
*''[[Boucher]]'' (Butcher) - butchers meats, poultry and sometimes fish. May also be in charge of breading meat and fish items.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Aboyeur'' (Announcer/ expediter) - Takes orders from dining room and distributes them to the various stations. This position may also be performed by the ''sous-chef de partie''.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Communard'' - Prepares the meal served to the restaurant staff.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Garçon de cuisine'' - Performs preparatory and auxiliary work for support in larger restaurants.<ref name="A_ch_3"/>

====Dining room brigade====
*''Directeur de la restauration'' (General manager) - Oversees economic and administrative duties for all food related business in large hotels or similar facilities including multiple restaurants, bars, catering and other events.<ref name="A_ch_5">Dominé, 33.</ref>
*''Directeur de restaurant'' ([[Restaurant manager]]) - Responsible for the operation of the restaurant dining room which includes managing staff, hiring and firing staff, training of staff and economic duties of the such matters. In larger establishments there may be an assistant to this position who would replace this person in their absence.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Maître d'hotel'' - Welcomes guests, and seats them at tables. They also supervise the service staff. It is this person that commonly deals with complaints and verifies patron bills.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Chef de salle'' - Commonly in charge of service for the full dining room in larger establishments, this position can be combined into the ''maître d'hotel'' position.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Chef de rang'' - The dining room is separated into sections called ''rangs''. Each ''rang'' is supervised by this person to coordinate service with the kitchen.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Demi-chef de rang'' or ''commis de rang'' - (Back waiter) - Clears plates between courses if there is no ''commis débarrasseur'', fills water glasses and assists the ''chef de rang''.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Commis débarrasseur'' - Clears plates between courses and the table at the end of the meal.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Commis de suite'' - In larger establishments, this person brings the different courses from the kitchen to the table.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Chef d'étage'' (Captain) - Explains the menu to the guest and answers any questions. This person often performs the tableside food preparations. This position may be combined with the ''chef de rang'' in smaller establishment.<ref name="A_ch_4"/>
*''Chef de vin'' or ''[[Sommelier]]'' (Wine waiter) - Manages wine cellar by purchasing and organizing as well as preparing the wine list. This person also advises the guest on wine choices and serves it. Larger establishments will have a team of sommeliers that are managed by the ''chef sommelier'' or ''chef caviste''.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Serveur de restaurant'' (Waiter) - This position found in smaller establishments performs the multiple duties of various positions in the larger restaurants in the service of food and drink to the guest.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Responsable de bar'' or ''Chef de bar'' (Bar manager) - Manages the bar in a restaurant which includes ordering and creating drink menus, they also over see the hiring, training and firing of barmen. Also manages multiple bars in a hotel or other similar establishment.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Barman'' (Bartender) - Serves alcoholic drinks to guests.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Dame du vestiaire'' - Coat room attendant who receives and returns guests coats and hats.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>
*''Voituriers'' (Valet) - Parks guests cars and retrieves them upon the guest exiting the restaurant.<ref name="A_ch_5"/>

==Notes==
{{Reflist|3}}

==Works cited==
*Boudou, Evelyne and Jean-Marc Boudou. ''Les bonnes recettes des bouchons lyonnais''. Seyssinet : Libris, 2003. ISBN 978-2847990027
*Dominé, André (ed.). ''Culinaria France''. Cologne: Könemann Verlagsgesellschaft mbh, 1998. ISBN 978-3833111297
*Escoffier, Georges Auguste. ''Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery''. Translated by H. L. Cracknell and R.J. Kaufmann. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2002. ISBN 978-0471290162
*Foder's. ''See It. France''. 2nd edition. New York:Foder's Travel Publications, 2006.
*Hewitt, Nicholas. ''The Cambridge Companion to Modern French Culture''. Cambridge: The Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0521794657
*Mennel, Stephan. ''All Manners of Food: eating and taste in England and France from the Middle Ages to the present''. 2nd ed., Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1996. ISBN 978-0252064906
*Spang Rebecca L., ''The Invention of the Restaurant.'' 2nd ed., Harvard University Press, 2001. ISBN 978-0674006850
*Steele, Ross. ''The French Way''. 2nd edition. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2006.
*The Culinary Institute of America. ''The Professional Chef''. 8th ed. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, INC, 2006. ISBN 978-0764557347
*Wheaton, Barbara Ketcham. ''Savoring the Past: The French Kitchen and Table from 1300 to 1789''. New York: First Touchstone, 1996. ISBN 978-0684818573

==See also==
{{cookbook}}
{{commonscat|Cuisine of France}}
*''[[Larousse Gastronomique]]''
*''[[Le Répertoire de la Cuisine]]''
*[[French paradox]]
*[[List of recipes]]
*[[List of French cheeses]]

==External links==
* [http://frenchfood.about.com French Recipes and Food]Huge list of authentic French recipes for every skill level, regional foods, and cooking techniques.
* [http://www.mediterrasian.com/cuisine_of_month_provence.htm Provençal Cuisine Guide and Recipes]
* [http://www.normandie-heritage.com/spip.php?rubrique92 Traditionnal Normandy Cuisine]
* [http://www.cp-pc.ca/english/france/eating.html Eating the French way]
* [http://www.aftouch-cuisine.com The regional French food]
* [http://www.mediterranean-lifestyles.com/0080000001_France_French_Cooking_Cuisine_Recipes_000_Vicarious_Travel_through_Dish_and_Desert_MnPg.html Mediterranean Lifestyles: French Cooking] historical and cultural review of French cuisine
* [http://www.chezjim.com/books/one_recipe.html One Recipe, Several Centuries] - French recipes across several centuries for three French desserts

{{cuisine}}
{{Mediterranean cuisine}}

[[Category:French cuisine|*]]

[[af:Franse kookkuns]]
[[da:Fransk madlavning]]
[[de:Französische Küche]]
[[et:Prantsuse köök]]
[[es:Gastronomía de Francia]]
[[eo:Franca kuirarto]]
[[fr:Cuisine française]]
[[it:Cucina francese]]
[[he:המטבח הצרפתי]]
[[hu:A francia gasztronómia]]
[[nl:Franse keuken]]
[[ja:フランス料理]]
[[pl:Kuchnia francuska]]
[[pt:Culinária da França]]
[[ru:Французская кухня]]
[[fi:Ranskalainen keittiö]]
[[sv:Franska köket]]
[[vi:Ẩm thực Pháp]]
[[uk:Французька кухня]]
[[zh:法国烹饪]]

User talk:66.172.251.182

2008-03-09T22:22:04Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Vandalism on Harlem Renaissance. (TW)

== March 2008 ==
[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] Welcome to Wikipedia. Although everyone is welcome to make constructive contributions to Wikipedia, at least one of your recent edits{{#if:Harlem Renaissance|, such as the one(s) you made to [[:Harlem Renaissance]],}} did not appear to be constructive and has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. Please use [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|the sandbox]] for any test edits you would like to make, and take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Welcoming committee/Welcome to Wikipedia|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to this encyclopedia. {{#if:|{{{2}}}|Thank you.}} [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] ([[User talk:Sir Vicious|talk]]) 22:22, 9 March 2008 (UTC)

Harlem Renaissance

2008-03-09T22:21:25Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 66.172.251.182 identified as vandalism to last revision by Proofreader77. (TW)

{{refimprove|date=December 2007}}
{{AfricanAmerican}}
The '''Harlem Renaissance''' was also known as the "New Negro Movement", named after the anthology ''[[The New Negro]]'', edited by [[Alain LeRoy Locke|Alain Locke]] in [[1925]]. Centered in the [[Harlem]] neighborhood of [[New York City]], the movement impacted urban centers throughout the United States. Across the cultural spectrum (literature, drama, music, visual art, dance) and also in the realm of social thought (sociology, historiography, philosophy), artists and intellectuals found new ways to explore the historical experiences of black America and the contemporary experiences of black life in the urban [[Northern United States|North]]. Challenging white paternalism and racism, African-American artists and intellectuals rejected merely imitating the styles of Europeans and white Americans and instead celebrated black dignity and creativity. Asserting their freedom to express themselves on their own terms as artists and intellectuals, they explored their identities as black Americans, celebrating the black culture that had emerged out of slavery and their cultural ties to Africa.

The Harlem Renaissance had a profound impact not only on African-American culture but also on the cultures of the [[African diaspora]] as a whole. [[British African-Caribbean community|Afro-Caribbean]] artists and intellectuals from the [[British West Indies]] were part of the movement. Moreover, many French-speaking black writers from African and Caribbean colonies who lived in [[Paris]] were also influenced by the Harlem Renaissance.

Historians disagree as to when the Harlem Renaissance began and ended. It is unofficially recognized to have spanned from about [[1919]] until the early or mid [[1930s]], although its ideas lived on much longer. The zenith of this "flowering of Negro literature", as [[James Weldon Johnson]] preferred to call the Harlem Renaissance, is placed between [[1924]] (the year that [[Opportunity magazine]] hosted a party for black writers where many white publishers were in attendance) and [[1929]] (the year of the [[stock market]] crash and then resulting [[Great Depression]]).

== Origins ==

The Harlem Renaissance grew out of the changes that had taken place in the black community since the abolition of slavery, and which had been accelerated as a consequence of the First World War. It can also be seen as specifically African-American response to and expression of the great social and cultural change taking place in America in the early 20th century under the influence of industrialization and the emergence of a new mass culture. Contributing factors that led to the rise of the Harlem Renaissance included the great migration of African Americans to the northern cities and the First World War. Factors leading to the decline of this era include the Great Depression.

The Harlem Renaissance reflected social and intellectual transformations in the African-American community that had taken place since the late 19th century. At the end of the Civil War, the vast majority of African Americans had been enslaved and lived in the South. Immediately after the end of slavery, the emancipated African Americans began to strive for civic participation, political equality and economic and cultural self-determination. The failure of [[Reconstruction]] resulted in the establishment of a [[white supremacist]] regime of [[Jim Crow laws| Jim Crow]] in the South, which through Jim Crow laws and through [[lynching]] denied African Americans civil and political rights, and undergirded their economic exploitation as [[share cropping|share croppers]] and laborers. As life in the South became increasingly difficult, African Americans increasingly migrated North.
Most of the participants in the African-American literary movement descended from a generation that had lived through the gains and losses of [[Reconstruction]] after the [[American Civil War]], and often their parents or grandparents had been slaves. Many participants in the Harlem Renaissance were part of the [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] out of the South into the black neighborhoods of the North and Midwest regions of the United States, where African-American sought a better standard of living and relief from the institutionalized racism in the South. Others were Africans and people of African descent from racially stratified communities in the [[Caribbean]] who had come to the United States hoping for a better life. Uniting most of them was their convergence in [[Harlem]], [[New York City]].

===Development of African American Community in Harlem===

By the turn of the twentieth century, the African American community had established a middle class, especially in the cities. Harlem, in New York City, became a center of this expanding black middle class. In the nineteenth century, the district had been built as an exclusive suburb for the white middle class and upper middle class, with stately houses, grand avenues and amenities such as the [[Polo Grounds]] and an opera house. During the enormous influx of European immigrants in the late nineteenth century, the once exclusive district was abandoned by the native white middle-class. Harlem became a black neighborhood in the early 1900s. In 1910, a large block along 135th Street and Fifth Avenue was bought by various African-American realtors and a church group. Many more African Americans arrived during the First World War. Due to the war, the migration of laborers from Europe virtually ceased, while the war effort resulted in a massive demand for unskilled industrial labor. The Great Migration brought hundreds of thousands of African Americans to cities like Chicago, Philadelphia, Cleveland, and New York City.

The Great Migration greatly expanded black communities, creating a greater market for black culture and [[Jazz]] and [[Blues]], the black music of the South, came to the North with the migrants and was played in the nightclubs and hotspots of Harlem. At the same time, whites were becoming increasingly fascinated by black culture. A number of white artists and patrons began to view blacks and black culture less condescendingly, and began to offer blacks access to "mainstream" publishers and art venues.

Despite the increasing popularity of black culture in white circles, virulent white racism continued to impact African American communities even in the North. After the end of World War I, many African American soldiers (who fought in segregated units like the [[Harlem Hellfighters]]) came home to a nation that often did not respect their accomplishments. [[Mass racial violence in the United States|Race riots]] and other civil uprisings occurred throughout the US during the [[Red Summer of 1919]].

===New Intellectual and Activist Movements Emerge===

Despite the occurrence of racist mob violence even in the North, the relative political freedom there nonetheless allowed African-Americans to organize themselves politically and intellectually. In the first two decades of the twentieth century, during the so-called [[nadir of American race relations]], the Northern black middle class began to set up and support a number of political movements. These movements, with a new political agenda advocating racial equality, struggled against the white racism which pervaded not only the Jim Crow regime of the South but also affected blacks in the North. Championing the agenda were the [[National Urban League]] and the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP), lead by black historian and [[sociology|sociologist]] [[W.E.B. DuBois]], struggled against racial segregation and lynchings. Du Bois rejected the accomodationist philosophy of [[Booker T. Washington]]. This more activist agenda, which celebrated black culture, was also reflected in the efforts of [[Jamaica|Jamaican-born]] [[black nationalism|black nationalist]] [[Marcus Garvey]], whose populist Afrocentric [[Back to Africa movement]] inspired racial pride among working-class blacks in the [[United States of America|United States]] in the [[1920s]]. All these movements had their headquarters in New York City. African-Americans in Harlem also established and contributed to numerous magazines and newspapers, such as ''Crisis'', edited by Du Bois for the NAACP, ''Opportunity'', edited by sociologist [[Charles S. Johnson]] for the NUL, [[The Messenger]], edited by socialists [[A. Philip Randolph]] and [[Chandler Owen]], and Marcus Garvey's [[Negro World]].

===An Explosion of Culture in Harlem===

[[African-American]] literature and arts had begun a steady development just before the turn of the century. In the performing arts, black [[musical theatre]] featured such accomplished artists as songwriter [[Bob Cole (composer)|Bob Cole]] and composer [[J. Rosamond Johnson]] (brother of writer [[James Weldon Johnson]]). [[Jazz]] and [[blues]] music by legends such as Clyde Livingston, moved with black populations from the South and Midwest into the bars and cabarets of Harlem.

In literature, the poetry of [[Paul Laurence Dunbar]] and the fiction of [[Charles W. Chesnutt]] in the late [[1890s]] were among the earliest works of African-Americans to receive national recognition. By the end of [[World War I]] the [[fiction]] of [[James Weldon Johnson]] and the poetry of [[Claude McKay]] anticipated the [[literature]] that would follow in the [[1920s]] by describing the reality of black life in [[United States of America|America]] and the struggle for racial identity.

The first stage of what was later called the Harlem Renaissance started in the late 1910s. 1917 saw the premiere of ''Three Plays for a Negro Theatre''. These plays, written by white playwright [[Ridgely Torrence]], featured black actors conveying complex human emotions and yearnings, and thus rejected the stereotypes of the [[blackface]] and [[minstrel show]] traditions. James Weldon Johnson in 1917 called these premiere of these plays "the most important single event in the entire history of the Negro in the American Theatre."<ref>''The Norton Anthology of African American Literature'', Norton, New York, 1997, p. 931</ref> Another landmark came in 1919, when Claude McKay published his militant sonnet ''If We Must Die''. Although the poem never alludes to race, to black readers it sounded a note of defiance in the face of racism and the white racist violence of the nation-wide race riots and lynchings taking place at the time. By the end of the First World War, the fiction of James Weldon Johnson and the poetry of [[Claude McKay]] was describing the reality of contemporary black life in America and the struggle for black cultural self-definition, anticipating the characteristics of the Harlem Renaissance.

In the early [[1920s]], a number of literary works signaled the new creative energy in African-American literature. [[Claude McKay|Claude McKay's]] volume of poetry, ''Harlem Shadows'' ([[1922]]), became one of the first works by a black writer to be published by a mainstream, national publisher . ''Cane'' (1923), by [[Jean Toomer]], was an experimental [[novel]] that combined [[poetry]] and [[prose]] in documenting the life of American blacks in the rural South and urban North. ''Confusion'' ([[1924]]), the first [[novel]] by writer and editor [[Jessie Fauset]], depicted [[middle class]] life among black Americans from a woman's perspective.

With these early works as the foundation, three events between [[1924]] and [[1926]] launched the Harlem Renaissance. First, on [[21 March]] [[1924]], [[Charles S. Johnson]] of the [[National Urban League]] hosted a dinner to recognize the new literary talent in the black community and to introduce the young writers to [[New York|New York's]] white literary establishment. As a result of this dinner, the ''[[Survey Graphic]]'', a [[magazine]] of [[social analysis]] and [[criticism]] that was interested in [[cultural pluralism]], produced a Harlem issue in [[March]] [[1925]]. Devoted to defining the [[aesthetics|aesthetic]] of black [[literature]] and [[art]], the Harlem issue featured work by black writers and was edited by black [[philosophy|philosopher]] and literary scholar [[Alain Locke]]. Later that year Locke expanded the special issue into an anthology, ''The New Negro''. The second event was the publication of ''Nigger Heaven'' ([[1926]]) by white novelist [[Carl Van Vechten]]. The book was a spectacularly popular exposé of Harlem life. Although the book offended some members of the black community, its coverage of both the elite and the baser sides of Harlem helped create a ''Negro vogue'' that drew thousands of sophisticated New Yorkers, black and white, to Harlem's exotic and exciting nightlife and stimulated a national market for African-American [[literature]] and [[music]]. Finally, in the Autumn of [[1926]] a group of young black writers produced their own literary [[magazine]], ''[[Fire!!]]'' With ''Fire!!'' a new generation of young writers and artists, including [[Langston Hughes]], [[Wallace Thurman]], and [[Zora Neale Hurston]], emerged as an alternative group within the Renaissance.

===The Apollo Theater===

While the [[Savoy Ballroom]], on [[Lenox Avenue]], was a renowned venue for [[swing dancing]], and [[jazz]] and was immortalized in a popular song of the era, ''Stompin' At The Savoy'', the [[Apollo Theater]] has been the most lasting legacy of the Harlem Renaissance. Opened on [[125th Street (Manhattan)|125th Street]] on [[26 January]] [[1934]], in a former [[burlesque]] house, it has remained a symbol of African-American culture. As one of the most famous clubs for popular music in the United States, many figures from the Harlem Renaissance found a venue for their talents and a start to their careers.

The careers of [[Billie Holiday]], [[Ella Fitzgerald]] and [[James Brown (musician)|James Brown]], and later [[Michael Jackson]] and [[Lauryn Hill]], were launched at the Apollo.

The club fell into a decline in the [[1960s]] but was revived in [[1983]] through city, state, and federal grant money. It is now operated by a non-profit organization, the Apollo Theater Foundation Inc., and reportedly draws 1.3 million visitors annually. It is the home of ''[[Showtime at the Apollo]]'', a nationally syndicated [[variety show]] showcasing new talent.

===End of an Era===

A number of factors contributed to the decline of the Harlem Renaissance by the mid-[[1930s]]. The [[Great Depression]] of the [[1930s]] increased the [[economics|economic]] pressure on all sectors of life. Organizations such as the [[National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] and the [[Urban League]], which had actively promoted the Renaissance in the [[1920s]], shifted their interests to economic and social issues in the [[1930s]]. Many influential black writers and literary promoters, including [[Langston Hughes]], [[James Weldon Johnson]], [[Charles S. Johnson]], and [[W.E.B. DuBois]], left [[New York City]] in the early [[1930s]], most relocating to [[France]]. Finally, the [[Harlem Riot]] of [[1935]]—set off in part by the growing economic hardship of the [[Great Depression|Depression]] and mounting tension between the black community and the white shop-owners in Harlem who profited from that community—shattered the notion of Harlem as the ''Mecca'' of the New Negro. In spite of these problems the Renaissance did not disappear overnight. Almost one-third of the books published during the Renaissance appeared after [[1929]].

==Characteristics and Themes==

Characterizing the Harlem Renaissance was an overt racial pride that came to be represented in the idea of the [[New Negro]] who through intellect, the production of literature, art, and music could challenge the pervading [[racism]] and [[stereotypes]] of that era to promote [[Progressivism|progressive]] or [[socialist]] politics, and [[racial integration|racial]] and [[social integration]]. The creation of art and literature would serve to "uplift" the race.

There would be no uniting form singularly characterizing the art that emerged out of the Harlem Renaissance. Rather, it encompassed a wide variety of cultural elements and styles, including a [[Pan-Africanist]] perspective, "high-culture" and the "low-culture or low-life," from the traditional form of music to the blues and jazz, traditional and new experimental forms in literature like [[modernism]], and in poetry, for example, the new form of [[jazz poetry]]. This duality would eventually result in a number of African American artists of the Harlem Renaissance coming into conflict with conservatives in the black intelligentsia who would take issue with certain depictions of black life in whatever medium of the arts.
Some common themes that were represented in the Harlem Renaissance were the influence of the experience of slavery and the African-American folk traditions that emerged from it on black identity, the effects of institutional racism, the dilemmas inherent in performing and writing for elite white audiences, and the question of how to convey the experience of modern black life in the urban North.

The Harlem Renaissance was one of primarily African American involvement and an interpersonal support system of black patrons, black owned businesses and publications. However, it also depended on the patronage of white Americans, such as [[Carl Van Vechten]] and [[Charlotte Osgood Mason]], who provided various forms of assistance, opening doors which otherwise would have remained closed to the publicizing of their work outside of the black American community. This support often took the form of [[patronage]] or [[publication]]. Then, there were those whites interested in so-called "[[primitive]]" cultures, as many whites viewed black American culture at that time, and wanted to see this "[[primitivism]]" in the work coming out of the Harlem Renaissance. Other interpersonal dealings between whites and blacks can be categorized as exploitative because of the desire to capitalize on the "[[fad]]", and "fascination" of the African American being in "vogue". This vogue of the African American would extend to [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]], as in [[Porgy and Bess]], and into music where in many instances white band leaders would defy racist attitude to include the best and the brightest African American stars of music and song.

For blacks, their art was a way to prove their [[human race|humanity]] and demand for [[racial equality|equality]]. For a number of whites, preconceived prejudices were challenged and overcome. Corresponding with the Harlem Renaissance was the beginning of mainstream publishing. Many authors began to publish novels, magazines and newspapers during this time. Publishers began to attract a great amount of attention from the nation at large. Some famous authors during this time included [[Jean Toomer]], [[Jessie Fauset]], [[Claude McKay]], [[Zora Neale Hurston]], [[James Weldon Johnson]] and [[Alain Locke]] and [[Eric D. Walrond]] as well as [[Langston Hughes]].

The Harlem Renaissance would help lay the foundation of the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|Civil Rights Movement]]. Moreover, many black artists coming into their own creativity after this literary movement would take inspiration from it.

No common literary style, artistic style or [[political ideology]] defined the Harlem Renaissance. What united participants was their sense of taking part in a common endeavor and their commitment to giving artistic expression to the African-American experience. Some common themes existed, such as an interest in the roots of the 20th-century African-American experience in [[Africa]] and the American South, and a strong sense of racial pride and desire for social and political [[equality]]. But the most characteristic aspect of the Harlem Renaissance was the [[diversity]] of its expression.

The diverse literary expression of the Harlem Renaissance ranged from [[Langston Hughes|Langston Hughes's]] weaving of the rhythms of African-American [[music]] into his poems of [[ghetto]] life, as in The ''Weary Blues'' ([[1926]]), to [[Claude McKay|Claude McKay's]] use of the [[sonnet]] form as the vehicle for his impassioned poems attacking racial violence, as in ''If We Must Die'' ([[1919]]). McKay also presented glimpses of the glamour and the grit of Harlem life in the above-mentioned ''Harlem Shadows''. [[Countee Cullen]] used both [[African]] and [[Europe]]an images to explore the African roots of black American life. In the poem ''Heritage'' ([[1925]]), for example, Cullen discusses being both a [[Christianity|Christian]] and an African, yet not belonging fully to either tradition. ''Quicksand'' ([[1928]]), by novelist [[Nella Larsen]], offered a powerful [[psychology|psychological]] study of an African American woman's loss of identity.

[[Diversity]] and [[experimentation]] also flourished in the [[performing arts]] and were reflected in the blues singing of [[Bessie Smith]] and in jazz [[music]]. [[Jazz]] ranged from the marriage of [[blues]] and [[ragtime]] by [[piano|pianist]] [[Jelly Roll Morton]] to the instrumentation of bandleader [[Louis Armstrong]] and the orchestration of composer [[Duke Ellington]]. In the [[visual arts]], [[Aaron Douglas]] adopted a deliberately "[[primitivism|primitive]]" style and incorporated African images in his paintings and illustrations

However, the Renaissance was more than a literary or artistic movement, it possessed a certain sociological development—particularly through a new racial consciousness—through racial integration, as seen the [[Back to Africa]] movement led by [[Marcus Garvey]]. However, [[W.E.B DuBois|W.E.B DuBois's]] notion of "twoness", first introduced in ''[[The Souls of Black Folk]]'' ([[1903]]), explored a divided awareness of one's identity which provided a unique critique of the social ramifications of this racial consciousness.

==Impact of the Harlem Renaissance==
===A New Black Identity===
[[Image:LangstonHughes.jpg|thumb|Langston Hughes, novelist and poet, photographed by [[Carl Van Vechten]], 1936]]

The Harlem Renaissance was successful in that it brought the Black experience clearly within the corpus of [[United States of America|American]] [[cultural history]]. Not only through an explosion of [[culture]], but on a [[sociology|sociological]] level, the legacy of the Harlem Renaissance is that it redefined how America, and the world, viewed the African-American population. The migration of southern Blacks to the north changed the image of the African-American from rural, undereducated peasants to one of urban, cosmopolitan sophistication. This new identity lead to a greater social consciousness, and African-Americans became players on the world stage, expanding intellectual and social contacts internationally.

The progress—both symbolic and real—during this period, became a point of reference from which the African-American community gained a spirit of [[self-determination]] that provided a growing sense of both [[Black urbanity]] and [[Black nationalism|Black militancy]] as well as a foundation for the community to build upon for the [[Civil Rights]] struggles in the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]].

The urban setting of rapidly developing Harlem provided a venue for African-Americans of all backgrounds to appreciate the variety of Black life and culture. Through this expression, the Harlem Renaissance encouraged the new appreciation of folk roots and culture. For instance, folk materials and spirituals provided a rich source for the artistic and intellectual imagination and it freed the Blacks from the establishment of past condition. Through sharing in these cultural experiences, a consciousness sprung forth in the form of a united racial identity.

===Criticism of the Movement===

Many critics point out that the Harlem Renaissance could not escape its [[history]] and [[culture]] in its attempt to create a new one, or sufficiently separate itself from the foundational elements of White, European culture. Often Harlem intellectuals, while proclaiming a new [[race|racial consciousness]], resorted to mimicry of their White counterparts by adopting their clothing, sophisticated manners and etiquette. This abandonment of the authentic culture of their African roots was seen as hypocritical, and intellectuals who engaged in such mimicry earned the epithet "dicky niggers" from disillusioned blacks. This could be seen as a reason by which the artistic and cultural products of the Harlem Renaissance did not overcome the presence of White-American values, and did not reject these values. In this regard, the creation of the "New Negro" as the Harlem intellectuals sought, was considered a failure.

The Harlem Renaissance appealed to a mixed audience. The [[literature]] appealed to the [[African-American]] [[middle class]] and to whites. Magazines such as ''The Crisis'', a monthly journal of the [[NAACP]], and ''Opportunity'', an official publication of the [[National Urban League]], employed Harlem Renaissance writers on their editorial staffs; published poetry and short stories by black writers; and promoted African-American literature through articles, reviews, and annual literary prizes. As important as these literary outlets were, however, the Renaissance relied heavily on white publishing houses and white-owned magazines. In fact, a major accomplishment of the Renaissance was to push open the door to mainstream white periodicals and publishing houses, although the relationship between the Renaissance writers and white publishers and audiences created some controversy. [[W.E.B. DuBois]] did not oppose the relationship between black writers and white publishers, but he was critical of works such as [[Claude McKay|Claude McKay's]] bestselling [[novel]] ''Home to Harems'' ([[1928]]) for appealing to the "prurient demand[s]" of white readers and publishers for portrayals of black "licentiousness."{{fact|date=February 2008}} [[Langston Hughes]] spoke for most of the writers and artists when he wrote in his essay ''The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain'' ([[1926]]) that black art intend to express themselves freely, no matter what the black public or white public thought.

African American musicians and other performers also played to mixed audiences. Harlem's cabarets and clubs attracted both Harlem residents and white New Yorkers seeking out Harlem nightlife. Harlem's famous [[Cotton Club]], where [[Duke Ellington]] performed, carried this to an extreme, by providing black entertainment for exclusively white audiences. Ultimately, the more successful black musicians and entertainers who appealed to a mainstream audience moved their performances downtown.

Certain aspects of the Harlem Renaissance were accepted without question, without debate, and without scrutiny. One of these was the future of the "New Negro." Artists and intellectuals of the Harlem Renaissance echoed the American [[progressivism]] in its faith in democratic reform, in its belief in art and literature as agents of change, and in its almost uncritical belief in itself and its future. This progressivist worldview rendered Black intellectuals—just as their White counterparts— totally unprepared for the rude shock of the [[Great Depression]], and the Harlem Renaissance ended abruptly because of naive assumptions about the centrality of culture, unrelated to [[economics|economic]] and social realities.

However, what emerges as a chief criticism of the Harlem Renaissance is that while African-American culture became absorbed into the mainstream American culture, a strange separation emerged of the Black community from American culture. As African-Americans with roots in this country dating to beginning of the North American slave trade in the early [[17th Century]], their [[worldview]] is distinctly native. Blacks, unlike other immigrants, had no immediate past, [[history]] and [[culture]] to celebrate as they were separated by generations from their roots in [[Africa]]. But the positive implications of American nativity have never been fully appreciated by them. It seems too simple: the Afro-American's [[history]] and [[culture]] is American, more completely so than most other [[ethnicity|ethnic groups]] within the United States.

===Influence on Culture Today===

The Harlem Renaissance changed forever the dynamics of [[African-American]] [[art]]s and [[literature]] in the [[United States of America|United States]]. The writers that followed in the [[1930s]] and [[1940s]] found that publishers and the public were more open to [[African-American literature]] than they had been at the beginning of the century. Furthermore, the existence of the body of African-American literature from the period inspired writers such as [[Ralph Ellison]] and [[Richard Wright]] to pursue literary careers in the late [[1930s]] and the [[1940s]], even if they defined themselves against the various ideologies and literary practices of the Renaissance. The outpouring of African-American literature of the [[1980s]] and [[1990s]] by such writers as [[Alice Walker]] and [[Toni Morrison]] also had its roots in the writing of the Harlem Renaissance. The influence of the Harlem Renaissance themes and the richness of African-American culture has also been expressed through new media, as is seen in the films of director [[Spike Lee]].

The influence of the Harlem Renaissance was not confined to the [[United States of America|United States]]. Writers [[Claude McKay]], [[Langston Hughes]], and [[Countee Cullen]], actor and musician [[Paul Robeson]], dancer [[Josephine Baker]], and others traveled to [[Europe]] and attained a popularity abroad that rivaled or surpassed what they achieved in the United States. The founders of the ''[[Négritude]]'' movement in the [[French Caribbean]] traced their ideas directly to the influence of [[Langston Hughes|Hughes]] and [[Claude McKay|McKay]]. South African writer [[Peter Abrahams]] cited his youthful discovery of the anthology ''The New Negro'' as the event that turned him toward a career as a writer. For thousands of blacks around the world, the Harlem Renaissance was proof that whites did not hold a monopoly on [[literature]] and [[culture]].

==Notable Figures and their Works==
===Novels===
* [[Sherwood Anderson]] — ''Dark Laughter'' ([[1925]])
* [[Jessie Fauset|Jessie Redmon Fauset]] — ''There is Confusion'' ([[1924]]), ''Plum Bun'' ([[1928]]), ''The Chinaberry Tree'' ([[1931]]), ''Comedy, American Style'' ([[1933]])
* [[Rudolph Fisher]] — ''The Walls of Jericho'' ([[1928]]), ''The Conjure Man Dies'' ([[1932]])
* [[Langston Hughes]] — ''Not Without Laughter'' ([[1930]])
* [[Zora Neale Hurston]] — ''Jonah's Gourd Vine'' ([[1934]]), ''Their Eyes Were Watching God'' ([[1937]])
* [[Nella Larsen]] — ''Quicksand'' ([[1928]]), ''Passing'' ([[1929]])
* [[Claude McKay]] — ''Home to Harlem'' ([[1927]]), ''Banjo'' ([[1929]]), ''Gingertown'' ([[1931]]), ''Banana Bottom'' ([[1933]])
* [[George Schuyler]] — ''Black No More'' ([[1930]]), ''Slaves Today'' ([[1931]])
* [[Wallace Thurman]] — ''The Blacker the Berry'' ([[1929]]), ''Infants of the Spring'' ([[1932]]), ''Interne'' ([[1932]])
* [[Jean Toomer]] — ''Cane'' ([[1923]])
* [[Carl Van Vechten]] — ''Nigger Heaven'' ([[1926]])
* [[Eric Walrond]] — ''Tropic Death'' ([[1926]])
* [[Walter White]] — ''The Fire in the Flint'' ([[1924]]), ''Flight'' ([[1926]])

===Drama===
* [[Charles Gilpin]], actor
* [[Eugene O'Neill]], playwright—''Emperor Jones'', ''All God's Chillun Got Wings''
* [[Paul Robeson]]

===Poetry===
* [[Langston Hughes]], poet
* [[Jessie Fauset]], editor, poet, essayist and novelist
* [[Countee Cullen]], poet — ''The Black Christ and Other Poems'' ([[1929]])
* [[Claude McKay]], poet
* [[James Weldon Johnson]], poet
* [[Arna Bontemps]], poet
* [[Richard Bruce Nugent]], poet

==Popular entertainment==
{{portalpar|African American|AmericaAfrica.png}}
*[[Cotton Club]]
*[[Apollo Theater]]
*[[Black Swan Records]]
*[[Small's Paradise]]
*[[Connie's Inn]]
*[[Speakeasy|Speakeasies]]
*[[Rent party]]

==Musicians/Composers==
*[[Nora Douglas Holt Ray]]
*[[Billie Holiday]]
*[[Duke Ellington]]
*[[Count Basie]]
*[[Louis Armstrong]]
*[[Eubie Blake]]
*[[Bessie Smith]]
*[[Fats Waller]]

==See also==
*[[African American literature]]
*[[Roaring Twenties]]
*"[[New Negro]]"
*"[[Niggerati]]"

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Andrews, William L.; Foster, Frances S.; Harris, Trudier eds. ''The Concise Oxford Companion To African American Literature''. New York: Oxford Press, 2001. ISBN 1-4028-9296-9
* Bean, Annemarie. ''A Sourcebook on African-American Performance: Plays, People, Movements''. London: Routledge, 1999; pp. vii + 360.
* [[William Greaves|Greaves, William]]' documentary [[From These Roots (documentary)|From These Roots]].
* Huggins, Nathan. ''Harlem Renaissance''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]], 1973. ISBN 0-19-501665-3
* Hutchinson, George. ''The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White''. New York: [[Belknap Press]], 1997. ISBN 0-674-37263-8
* Lewis, David Levering, ed. ''The Portable Harlem Renaissance Reader''. New York: [[Viking Penguin]], 1995. ISBN 0-14-017036-7
* Lewis, David Levering. ''When Harlem Was in Vogue''. New York: Penguin, 1997. ISBN 0-14-026334-9
* Watson, Steven. ''The Harlem Renaissance: Hub of African-American Culture, 1920-1930''. New York: [[Pantheon Books]], 1995. ISBN 0-679-75889-5

{{Aafooter}}
{{US topics}}

[[Category:Harlem Renaissance| ]]
[[Category:Harlem, New York]]
[[Category:Literary movements]]
[[Category:African American literature]]

[[da:Harlem Renaissance]]
[[de:Harlem Renaissance]]
[[es:Renacimiento de Harlem]]
[[eu:Harlemgo Pizkundea]]
[[fa:رنسانس هارلم]]
[[fr:Renaissance de Harlem]]
[[ja:ハーレム・ルネサンス]]
[[ru:Гарлемский ренессанс]]
[[simple:Harlem Renaissance]]
[[tg:Эҳёи Ҳарлем]]

User talk:122.162.63.123

2007-09-03T20:19:16Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Page blanking, removal of content or templates on Metasploit Project. using TW

== September 2007 ==
{{{icon|[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] }}}Welcome to Wikipedia. It might not have been your intention, but your recent contribution removed content from [[:Metasploit Project]]. Please be careful when editing pages and do not remove content from Wikipedia without a good reason, which should be specified in the [[Help:Edit summary|edit summary]]. Take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Welcome|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to this encyclopedia. If you would like to experiment again, please use the [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|sandbox]]. Thank you. [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] 20:19, 3 September 2007 (UTC)

Metasploit

2007-09-03T20:17:36Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 122.162.63.123 identified as vandalism to last revision by Guy Harris. using TW

{{Infobox_Software
|name = Metasploit Framework
|logo =
|caption = "You'll [[Pwn]] Great, I Guarantee It!"
|screenshot = [[Image:Msf3-hashdump small.jpg|screenshot]]
|developer = Metasploit LLC
|latest_release_version = 3.0
|latest_release_date = [[March 27]], [[2007]]
|latest_preview_version = 3.1-dev
|latest_preview_date = [[March 27]], [[2007]]
|operating_system = [[Cross-platform]]
|genre = [[Computer security|Security]]
|license = [http://metasploit.com/svn/framework3/trunk/documentation/LICENSE Metasploit Framework License]
|website = [http://www.metasploit.com/ www.metasploit.com]
}}
{{Portal|Free software}}
The '''Metasploit Project''' is an [[open source software|open source]] [[computer security]] project which provides information about [[vulnerability (computer science)|security vulnerabilities]] and aids in penetration testing and [[Intrusion-detection system|IDS signature]] development.
Its most well-known sub-project is the '''Metasploit Framework''', a tool for developing and executing [[Exploit (computer security)|exploit]] code against a remote target machine. Other important sub-projects include the Opcode Database, [[shellcode]] archive, and security research.

Created using the Perl scripting language, the Metasploit Framework was then completely rewritten in the [[Ruby programming language]]. It is most notably known for releasing some of the most technically sophisticated [[Exploit (computer security)|exploits]] to public [[vulnerability (computer science)|security vulnerabilities]]. In addition it is a powerful tool for third party security researchers to investigate potential vulnerabilities.

Like comparable commercial products such as Immunity's [[CANVAS]] or Core Security Technology's [[Core Impact]], Metasploit can be used by administrators to test the vulnerability of computer systems in order to protect them, or by [[Black hat|Black Hat hackers]] and [[script kiddie]]s to break into remote systems. Like many information security tools, Metasploit can be used for both legitimate and unauthorized activities.

Metasploit's emerging position as the defacto vulnerability development framework has led in recent times to the release of [[vulnerability (computer science)|software vulnerability]] advisories often accompanied by a third party Metasploit exploit module that highlights the exploitability, risk, and remediation steps of that particular bug.<ref name="VMwareNAT">{{cite news | url = http://archives.neohapsis.com/archives/vulnwatch/2005-q4/0074.html| title = ACSSEC-2005-11-25-0x1 VMWare Workstation 5.5.0 <= build-18007 GSX Server Variants And Others | date = [[December 20]], [[2005]]}}</ref><ref name="MOKB-11-11-2006">{{cite news | url = http://projects.info-pull.com/mokb/MOKB-11-11-2006.html| title = Month of Kernel Bugs - Broadcom Wireless Driver Probe Response SSID Overflow| date = [[November 11]], [[2006]]}}</ref> The Metasploit 3.0 (Ruby language) beta is also beginning to include [[fuzzing]] tools, to discover software vulnerabilities in the first instance, rather than merely writing exploits for currently public bugs. This new avenue has been seen with the integration of the [[lorcon]] wireless (802.11) toolset into Metasploit 3.0 in November, 2006.

==Metasploit Framework==
The basic steps for exploiting a system using the Framework include -
# Choosing and configuring an ''[[exploit (computer security)|exploit]]'' (code that enters a target system by taking advantage of one of its [[software bug|bugs]]; about 200 different exploits for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], [[Unix]]/[[Linux]] and [[Mac OS X]] systems are included);
# Checking whether the intended target system is susceptible to the chosen exploit (optional);
# Choosing and configuring a ''[[payload]]'' (code that will be executed on the target system upon successful entry, for instance a remote shell or a [[Virtual Network Computing|VNC server]]);
# Choosing the encoding technique to encode the payload so that the [[Intrusion-prevention system]] will not catch the encoded payload and also Using the Secure [[SSL]] connection in exploiting the Remote host is another advantage in metasploit.
# Executing the exploit.

This modularity of allowing to combine any exploit with any payload is the major advantage of the Framework: it facilitates the tasks of attackers, exploit writers, and payload writers.

The current stable version of the Metasploit Framework (v3.0) is written in the [[Ruby programming language]]. The previous version 2.7, was implemented in [[Perl]]. It runs on all versions of Unix (including Linux and Mac OS X), and also on Windows using the [[Cygwin]] framework. It includes two [[command line interface]]s and a web-based interface. The web interface is intended to be run from the attacker's computer; a demo version can be tried out at http://www.metasploit.com:55555. The Metasploit Framework can be extended to use external add-ons in multiple languages.

To choose exploit and payload, some information about the target system is needed such as operating system version and installed network services. This information can be gleaned with [[port scanning]] and [[OS fingerprinting]] tools such as [[nmap]]. [[Nessus (software)|Nessus]] can in addition detect the target system's [[vulnerability (computer science)|vulnerabilities]].

==Opcode Database==
The Opcode Database is an important resource for writers of new exploits. [[Buffer overflow]] exploits on Windows often require precise knowledge of the position of certain machine language [[opcode]]s in the attacked program or included [[dynamic-link library|DLLs]]. These positions differ in the various versions and patch-levels of a given operating system, and they are all documented and conveniently searchable in the Opcode Database. This allows to write buffer overflow exploits which work across different versions of the target operating system.

==Shellcode Database==
The Shellcode database contains the payloads (also known as [[shellcode]]s) used by the Metasploit Framework. These are written in [[assembly language]] and full [[source code]] is available.

==Trivia==
* The Metasploit Project began as a portable network game.
* The Metasploit website was started in the summer of 2003.

==Notable Contributors==
The Metasploit Framework is run as a loosely open source project (see further the Framework v3.0 License), with high quality and relevant code contributions accepted on an ad-hoc basis. For the majority, third party contributions are for specific exploits or exploitation techniques.

A list of contributors is below:
* [[H. D. Moore]] (Primary author)
* Matt Miller (Skape)
* spoonm
* y0
* Kevin Finisterre
* [[David Litchfield]]
* Brian Caswell
* Alexander Sotirov (Solar Eclipse)
* Rhys Kidd
* Pusscat
* Nicolas Pouvesle
* Lance M. Havok (LMH)
* Jacopo Cervini (acaro)

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.metasploit.com/ The Metasploit Project] official website
*[http://freshmeat.net/projects/msf/ Freshmeat project page]
*''[http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/originalContent/0,289142,sid14_gci1135581,00.html Powerful payloads: The evolution of exploit frameworks]'', searchsecurity.com, [[2005-10-20]]
*[http://metasploit.com/projects/Framework/docs/Metasploit_Framework_Web_Interface_Tutorial.pdf Step-by-step tutorial], attacking a remote system with the web interfacing
*[http://www.syngress.com/book_catalog/327_SSPC/sample.pdf Chapter 12: Writing Exploits III] from ''Sockets, Shellcode, Porting & Coding: Reverse Engineering Exploits and Tool Coding for Security Professionals'' by James C. Foster (ISBN 1-59749-005-9). Written by Vincent Liu, chapter 12 explains how to use Metasploit to develop a buffer overflow exploit from scratch.

[[Category:Hacking (computer security)]]
[[Category:Free security software]]
[[Category:Free software projects]]

[[de:Metasploit]]
[[es:Metasploit]]

Vietnam War

2007-08-13T10:14:20Z

Sir Vicious: Unicoded

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{fixHTML|beg}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Vietnam War
|partof=the [[Cold War]]
|image=[[Image:Burning Viet Cong base camp.jpg|300px|Vietnamese village after an attack]]
|caption=''Viet Cong'' base camp after U.S. attack
|date= 1959<ref>There was a slow build-up to this war from 1954 onwards, with different parties joining combat at various stages; however, the Hanoi Politburo did not make the decision to go to war in the South until 1959.</ref> – [[April 30]] [[1975]]
|place=[[Southeast Asia]]
|casus=Unification of Vietnam (North Vietnam) [[Containment Policy]] and [[Domino Theory]] (United States)
|territory=Dissolution of South Vietnam and reunification of Vietnam
|result=Reunification of [[Vietnam]] under the rule of the [[Communist Party of Vietnam]] Communist rule in [[Laos]] and rise to power of [[Cambodia]]'s [[Khmer Rouge]] Defeat for the United States and allies, victory for North Vietnam and allies.
|combatant1=
{{flagicon|South Vietnam}} [[South Vietnam]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[United States]] {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[South Korea]] {{flagicon|Thailand}} [[Kingdom of Thailand]] {{flagicon|Australia}} [[Australia]] {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[New Zealand]] {{flagicon|Philippines}} [[Philippines]]
|combatant2=
{{flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[North Vietnam]] {{flagicon|Republic of South Vietnam}} [[Vietcong]] {{flagicon|China}} [[People's Republic of China|China]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1955}} [[Soviet Union]] {{flagicon|North Korea}} [[North Korea]]
|strength1=~1,200,000 (1968)
|strength2=~520,000 (1968) 
|commander1 = {{flagicon|South Vietnam}} [[Nguyen Van Thieu]] {{flagicon|South Vietnam}} [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[John F. Kennedy]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Lyndon Johnson]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Robert McNamara]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[William Westmoreland]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Richard Nixon]] {{flagicon|USA}} [[Creighton Abrams]] | commander2 = {{flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Ho Chi Minh]] {{flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Le Duan]] {{flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Nguyen Chi Thanh]] {{flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Vo Nguyen Giap]] {{flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Van Tien Dung]] {{flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Tran Van Tra]]

|casualties1={{flagicon|South Vietnam}} South Vietnam dead: ~250,000 wounded: ~1,170,000 {{flagicon|USA}} U.S. dead: 58,209 2,000 missing wounded: 305,000<ref>
[http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/00367.pdf ''Summers Jr, Harry G; ''Vietnam War Almanac'' (1985: New York: Facts on File Publications, 1985) p. 113, cited in Record, Jeffrey & Terrill, Andrew W.; ''Iraq and Vietnam: Differences, Similarities and Insights'', (2004: Strategic Studies Institute)]</ref> {{flagicon|South Korea}} South Korea dead: 4,900 wounded: 11,000 {{flagicon|Australia}} Australia dead: 520 wounded: 2,400* {{flagicon|New Zealand}} New Zealand dead: 37 wounded: 187 '''Total dead: ~314,000 Total wounded: ~1,490,000'''

|casualties2={{flagicon|North Vietnam}} [[Image:FNL Flag.svg|22px|border]] North Vietnam and NLF dead and missing: ~1,100,000[http://militaryhistory.about.com/od/vietnamwar/p/VietnamBrief.htm][http://www.vietquoc.com/0008ART.HTM] [http://www.newsweekly.com.au/articles/2000jun3_books1.html][http://www.strategicstudiesinstitute.army.mil/pdffiles/00367.pdf] wounded: ~600,000+[http://www.mekong.net/cambodia/deaths.htm] {{flagicon|China}} People's Republic of China dead: 1,446 wounded: 4,200 '''Total dead: ~1,101,000''' '''Total wounded: ~604,000+'''

|casualties3='''Vietnamese civilian dead''': 2,000,000–5,100,000* '''Cambodian civilian dead''': ~700,000* '''Laotian civilian dead''': ~50,000* 
 * = approximations, see [[#Casualties|Casualties]] below 
For more information on casualties see [[Vietnam War casualties]]
}}
{{fixHTML|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Indochina Wars}}
{{fixHTML|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Vietnam War}}
{{fixHTML|end}}

The '''Vietnam War''', also known as the '''Second [[Indochina Wars|Indochina War]]''', the '''American War in Vietnam''' and the '''Vietnam Conflict''', occurred from [[1959]] to [[April 30]], [[1975]] in [[Vietnam]]. The war was fought between the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] (North Vietnam) and the [[United States]]-supported [[Republic of Vietnam]] (South Vietnam). The result of the war was defeat of the Southern and American forces, and unification of Vietnam under the [[communism|communist]] government of the North.

The U.S. deployed large numbers of troops to South Vietnam between the end of the [[First Indochina War]] in 1954, and 1973. Some U.S. allies also contributed forces. U.S. military advisers first became involved in Vietnam in 1950, assisting French colonial forces. In 1956, these advisers assumed full responsibility for training the [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]]. President [[John F. Kennedy]] increased America's troop numbers from 500 to 16,000. Large numbers of combat troops were dispatched by President [[Lyndon Johnson]] beginning in 1965. Almost all U.S. military personnel departed after the [[Paris Peace Accords]] of 1973. The last American troops left the country on [[April 30]] [[1975]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/april/30/newsid_2498000/2498441.stm BBC News: On this Day in 1975: Saigon surrenders]</ref>

At various stages the conflict involved clashes between small units patrolling the mountains and jungles, amphibious operations, [[guerrilla]] attacks on the villages, and cities and large-scale conventional battles. U.S. aircraft also conducted massive aerial bombing, targeting North Vietnam's cities, industries and logistical networks. [[Cambodia]] and [[Laos]] were drawn into the conflict. Large quantities of [[chemical defoliants]] were sprayed from the air, in an effort to reduce the cover available to the enemy.

The Vietnam War concluded on [[30 April]] [[1975]], with the [[Fall of Saigon]].

__TOC__

==Names for the conflict==
Various names have been applied to the conflict and these have shifted over time, although '''Vietnam War''' is the most commonly used title in English. It has been variously called the '''Second Indochina War''', the '''Vietnam Conflict''', the '''Vietnam War''', and, in [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], '''Chiến tranh Việt Nam''' (The Vietnam War) or '''Kháng chiến chống Mỹ''' (Resistance War against America).

#'''Second Indochina War:''' places the conflict into context with other distinctive, but related, and contiguous conflicts in Southeast Asia. Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia are seen as the battlegrounds of a larger Indochinese conflict that began at the end of World War II and lasted until communist victory in 1975. This conflict can be viewed in terms of the demise of colonialism and its after-effects during the Cold War.
#'''Vietnam Conflict:''' largely a U.S. designation, it acknowledges that the U.S. Congress never declared war on North Vietnam. Legally, the President used his constitutional discretion—supplemented by supportive resolutions in Congress—to conduct what was said to be a "police action".
#'''Vietnam War:''' the most commonly used designation in English, it suggests that the location of the war was exclusively within the borders of North and South Vietnam, failing to recognize its wider context.
#'''Resistance War against the Americans to Save the Nation:''' the term favored by North Vietnam (and after North Vietnam's victory over South Vietnam, by Vietnam as a whole); it is more of a slogan than a name, and its meaning is self-evident. Its usage has been abolished in recent years as the government of Vietnam seeks better relations with the U.S. Official Vietnamese publications now refer to the conflict generically as "Chiến tranh Việt Nam" (Vietnam War).

==Background to 1949==
From [[110 BC]] to [[938]] AD (with the exception of brief periods), much of present-day Vietnam was part of [[China]]. After gaining independence, Vietnam went through a long period of resisting outside aggression. In 1789, one of the most celebrated feats of arms in Vietnamese history occurred, when [[Tay Son dynasty|Quang Trung]] launched a surprise attack against the [[China|Chinese]] garrison of [[Hanoi]] during the [[Tet]] celebrations. By 1802, centuries of internal feuding between the Trinh and Nguyen lords ended when Emperor [[Gia Long]] unified what is now modern Vietnam under the [[Nguyen dynasty]].<ref>Dennis J. Duncanson. ''Government and Revolution in Vietnam.'' Oxford, UK. Oxford University Press, 1968, p. 53.</ref>The French gained control of [[Indochina]] ([[French Indochina]] included Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam) during a series of colonial wars, from 1859 to 1885. At the [[Versailles Conference]] in 1919, [[Ho Chi Minh]] (a pseudonym meaning the Enlightener) requested that a Vietnamese delegation be present to work toward independence for Vietnam. He hoped that U.S. President [[Woodrow Wilson]] would support the effort. But he was sorely disappointed and Indochina's status remained unchanged.

During the [[World War II|Second World War]], the [[puppet state|puppet government]] of [[Vichy France]] cooperated with [[Imperial Japanese forces]]. Vietnam was under [[de facto]] [[Imperial Japan|Japanese]] control, although the French continued to serve as the day-to-day administrators.

In 1941 the Communist-dominated national resistance group called the "League for the Independence of Vietnam" (better known as the [[Viet Minh]]) was formed.<ref>Sexton, Michael "War for the Asking" 1981</ref> Ho Chi Minh returned to Vietnam and quickly assumed the leadership. He had been a [[Comintern]] agent since the 1920s, but as the leader of an independent Vietnamese communist party, Ho freed himself from Moscow's control.<ref>Peter Church, ed. ''A Short History of South-East Asia.''Singapore. John Wiley & Sons, 2006, p. 190.</ref> He maintained good relations with the Soviets, however. The [[Viet Minh]] began to craft a strategy to seize control of the country at the end of the war. Ho appointed [[Vo Nguyen Giap]] as his military commander.

Ho Chi Minh's [[guerrillas]] were given funding and training by the United States [[Office of Strategic Services]] (the precursor of the [[Central Intelligence Agency]]). These teams worked behind enemy lines in Indochina, giving support to indigenous resistance groups. The Viet Minh provided valuable intelligence on Japanese troop movements and rescued downed American pilots. [[The Pentagon]], however, viewed Indochina as a sideshow to the more important theatre of the Pacific. In 1944, the Japanese overthrew the Vichy French administration and humiliated its colonial officials in front of the Vietnamese population. The Japanese began to encourage nationalism and granted Vietnam nominal independence. On [[March 11]] [[1945]], Emperor [[Bao Dai]] declared the independence within the [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]].

Following the Japanese surrender, Vietnamese nationalists, communists, and other groups hoped to take control of the country. The Japanese army transferred power to the [[Viet Minh]]. Emperor [[Bao Dai]] abdicated. On [[2 September]] [[1945]], Hồ Chí Minh declared independence from France, in what became known as the [[August Revolution]]. U.S. Army officers stood beside him on the podium.<ref name="Demma">Demma. [http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/history/marshall/military/vietnam/short.history/chap_28.txt "The U.S. Army in Vietnam."] ''American Military History''</ref> In an exultant speech, before a huge audience in [[Hanoi]], Ho cited the U.S. [[United States Declaration of Independence|Declaration of Independence]]:

"'All men are created equal. They are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.' This immortal statement was made in the Declaration of Independence of the United States of America in 1776 … We … solemnly declare to the world that Vietnam has the right to be a free and independent country. The entire Vietnamese people are determined … to sacrifice their lives and property in order to safeguard their independence and liberty."<ref>Ho Chi Minh. "Vietnam Declaration of Independence," ''Selected Works.'' Hanoi. Foreign Language Publishing House, (1960-1962), vol. 3, pp 17-21.</ref>

Ho hoped that America would ally itself with a Vietnamese nationalist movement, communist or otherwise. He based this hope in part on speeches by U.S. President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] opposing a revival of European [[colonialism]]. As well, he was counting on a long series of anti-colonial U.S. pronouncements, stretching back to the [[American War of Independence]]. Indeed, Ho Chi Minh told an [[Office of Strategic Services|OSS]] officer that he would welcome "a million American soldiers … but no French."<ref name="Karnow 163">Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 163.</ref> Power politics, however, intervened. The U.S. changed its position. It was recognized that France would play a crucial role in deterring communist ambitions in continental Europe. Thus, its colonial aspirations could not be ignored.

The new government only lasted a few days. At the [[Potsdam Conference]] the allies decided that Vietnam would be occupied jointly by China and Britain, who would supervise the disarmament and repatriation of Japanese forces.<ref name="Karnow 163"/> The Chinese army arrived a few days after Hồ's declaration of independence. Ho Chi Minh's government effectively ceased to exist. The Chinese took control of the area north of the 16th parallel. British forces arrived in the south in October. The French prevailed upon them to turn over control.

French officials immediately sought to reassert control. They negotiated with the Chinese Nationalists. By agreeing to give up its concessions in China, the French persuaded the Chinese to allow them to return to the north and negotiate with the Viet Minh. In the meantime, Hồ took advantage of the negotiations to kill competing nationalist groups. He was anxious for the Chinese to leave. "The last time the Chinese came," he remarked, "they stayed one thousand years … I prefer to smell French shit for five years, rather than eat Chinese dung for the rest of my life."<ref> quoted in ''The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decisionmaking in Vietnam.'' Gravel, ed. Boston. Beacon Press, 1971, vol. 1, pp 49–50. </ref> After negotiations collapsed over the formation of a government within the new [[French Union]], the French bombarded [[Haiphong]]. In December 1946, they reoccupied [[Hanoi]]. Several telegrams were sent by Ho Chi Minh to [[President Truman]] asking for U.S. support. But they were ignored. Ho and the Việt Minh fled into the mountains to start an [[insurgency]], marking the beginning of the [[First Indochina War]]. After the defeat of the [[Nationalist Chinese]] by the Communists in the [[Chinese Civil War]], Chairman [[Mao Zedong]] provided direct military assistance to the Viet Minh. On the eve of the war, Ho Chi Minh had warned a French official that "you can kill ten of my men for every one I kill of yours, but even at those odds, you will lose and I will win".<ref>Karnow, ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 20</ref> A long and bloody struggle ensued, with French military casualties exceeding those of the U.S. during its involvement.

The [[Pentagon Papers]] characterize the U.S. position at the time as ambivalent. On the one hand, the U.S. wished to persuade France to consider [[decolonization]], while ultimately leaving the timetable up to them. During the war, Roosevelt had consistently stalled French demands for U.S. help in recolonizing Indochina. "France has milked it for one hundred years," he wrote. "The people of IndoChina are entitled to something better than that."<ref>Franklin D. Roosevelt. "Franklin Roosevelt Memorandum to Cordell Hull."''Major Problems in American Foreign Policy.'' Lexington, M.A. D.C. Heath and Company, 1995, vol. II, p. 198.</ref> After the war, the French argued that it was consistent with the principles of the new [[United Nations]] that some degree of autonomy should be granted to Indochina. France, however, claimed that it could do so only after it regained control.

Much hinged on the perception of Hồ's allegiances. In the wake of the Second World War, it was recognized that the [[Soviet Union]] would henceforth be a serious competitor to the West. America viewed the Soviet Union and its allies as a bloc. As far as Washington was concerned, the entire communist world was controlled by Moscow.<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 378.</ref> In spite of Hồ's pleas for U.S. recognition,<ref> Ho Chi Minh sent no fewer than eight letters and telegrams to President Truman between October, 1945 and February 1946. Ho urged Truman to support Vietnamese independence. He was ignored.</ref> the U.S. gradually came to the conclusion that he was under Moscow's control. This perception suited the French. As Secretary of State, [[Dean Acheson]] noted, "the U.S. came to the aid of the French … because we needed their support for our policies in regard to [[NATO]] … The French blackmailed us. At every meeting … they brought up Indochina … but refused to tell me what they hoped to accomplish or how. Perhaps they didn't know."<ref>quoted in Chester L. Cooper. ''The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam.'' New York, NY. Dodd, Mead, 1970, pp 55–56.</ref>

==Exit of the French, 1950–1954==
{{main|First Indochina War|International Control Commission|The United States and the Vietnam War#Timeline: Harry S. Truman and the Vietnam War (1945–1953)|The United States and the Vietnam War#Timeline: Dwight D. Eisenhower and the Vietnam War (1953–1961)}}
[[Image:Gen.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]], 1954.]]
In 1950, the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] and China recognized each other diplomatically. The [[Soviet Union]] quickly followed suit. President [[Harry S. Truman]] countered by recognizing the French [[puppet government]] of Vietnam. Washington feared that Hanoi was now a pawn of Communist China and by extension, Moscow. This flew in the face of the long historical antipathy between the two nations, of which the U.S. seems to have been completely ignorant.<ref name ="McNamara 377">McNamara, ''Argument Without End'' pp 377-79</ref> As Doan Huynh commented, "Vietnam a part of the Chinese expansionist game in Asia? For anyone who knows the history of Indochina, this is incomprehensible."<ref name="McNamara 377"/> Nevertheless, Chinese support was very important to the Viet Minh's success and China largely supported the Vietnamese Communists through the end of the war.

The outbreak of the [[Korean War]] in 1950 marked a decisive turning point. From the perspective of many in Washington, what had been a colonial war in Indochina was transformed into another example of communist expansionism directed by the [[Kremlin]].<ref>''Pentagon Papers'', Gravel, ed, Chapter 2, 'U.S. Involvement in the Franco-Viet Minh War', p. 54.</ref>

In 1950, the U.S. [[Military Assistance and Advisory Group]] (MAAG) arrived to screen French requests for aid, advise on strategy and train Vietnamese soldiers.<ref>Herring, George C.: "America's Longest War", p. 18.</ref> By 1954, the U.S. had supplied 300,000 small arms and spent one billion dollars in support of the French military effort. The Eisenhower administration was shouldering 80 percent of the cost of the war.<ref>Zinn, "A People's History of the United States", p. 471.</ref> The Viet Minh received crucial support from the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[People's Republic of China]]. Chinese support in the Border Campaign of 1950 allowed supplies to come from China into Vietnam. Throughout the conflict, U.S. intelligence estimates remained skeptical of French chances of success.<ref>''The Pentagon Papers.'' Gravel, ed. vol. 1, pp 391–404.</ref>

The [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu]] marked the end of French involvement in Indochina. The Viet Minh and their mercurial commander [[Vo Nguyen Giap]] handed the French a stunning military defeat. On May 7, 1954, the [[French Union]] garrison surrendered. At the [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Conference]] the French negotiated a ceasefire agreement with the Viet Minh. Independence was granted to [[Cambodia]], [[Laos]] and [[Vietnam]]. As a U.S. Army study noted, France lost the war primarily because it "neglected to cultivate the loyalty and support of the Vietnamese people." <ref name="Demma"/>

Vietnam was temporarily partitioned at the 17th parallel, and under the terms of the Geneva Convention, civilians were to be given the opportunity to freely move between the two provisional states. Nearly one million northerners (mainly Catholics) fled south in "understandable terror" of [[Ho Chi Minh]]'s new regime.<ref>1 PENTAGON PAPERS (The Senator Gravel Edition), 248 (Boston, Beacon Press, 1971)</ref> It is estimated that as many as two million more would have left had they not been stopped by the Viet Minh.<ref>Robert Turner, VIETNAMESE COMMUNISM: ITS ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT, 102 (Stanford Ca: Hoover Institution Press, 1975)</ref> In the north, the Viet Minh established a [[socialist state]], the [[Democratic Republic of Vietnam]] and engaged in a land reform program in which the mass killing of perceived "class enemies" occurred. Ho Chi Minh later apologized. In the south a non-communist state was established under the Emperor [[Bao Dai]], a former puppet of the French and the Japanese. [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] became his Prime Minister. In addition to the Catholics flowing south, up to 90,000 Viet Minh fighters went north for "regroupment" as envisioned by the Geneva Accords. However, in contravention of the Accords, the Viet Minh left roughly 5000-10,000 [[cadre]]s in South Vietnam as a “politico-military substructure within the object of its [[irredentism]].”<ref>1 PENTAGON PAPERS (The Senator Gravel Edition), 247, 328 (Boston, Beacon Press, 1971)</ref> At the close of one war, the Viet Minh were preparing for the next. More than 400,000 civilians and soldiers had died during the nine year conflict.
[[Image:Ngo Dinh Diem at Washington - ARC 542189.gif|thumb|right|President [[Eisenhower]] and Secretary of State [[John Foster Dulles]] greet President [[Ngo Dinh Diem]] in Washington.]]

==The Diem era, 1955–1963==
{{main|Ngo Dinh Diem}}
As dictated by the [[Geneva Conference]] of 1954, the partition of Vietnam was meant to be only temporary, pending national elections on July 20, 1956. Much like [[Korea]], the agreement stipulated that the two military zones were to be separated by a temporary demarcation line (known as the [[Demilitarized Zone]] or [[DMZ]]). The United States, alone among the great powers, refused to sign the Geneva agreement.<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' p. 60.</ref> The President of South Vietnam, [[Ngo Dinh Diem]], declined to hold elections. This called into question the United States' commitment to democracy in the region, but also raised questions about the legitimacy of any election held in the communist-run North. President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] expressed U.S. fears when he wrote that, in 1954, "80 per cent of the population would have voted for the Communist Ho Chi Minh" over Emperor Bao Dai.<ref>Dwight D. Eisenhower. ''Mandate for Change.'' Garden City, NJ. Doubleday & Company, 1963, p. 372.</ref><ref>[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent11.htm Pentagon Papers]</ref> However, this wide popularity was expressed before Ho's disasterous land reform program and a peasant revolt in Ho's home province which had to be bloodily suppressed.

The cornerstone of U.S. policy was the [[Domino Theory]]. This argued that if South Vietnam fell to communist forces, then all of [[South East Asia]] would follow. Popularized by the [[Eisenhower]] administration<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' p. 19.</ref>, some argued that if communism spread unchecked, it would follow them home by first reaching [[Hawaii]] and follow to the West Coast of the United States. It was better, therefore, to fight communism in Asia, rather than on American soil. Thus, the [[Domino Theory]] provided a powerful motive for the American creation of a client state in southern Vietnam.<ref>John F. Kennedy. "America's Stakes in Vietnam." Speech to the American Friends of Vietnam, June, 1956.</ref> The theory underpinned American policy in Vietnam for five presidencies.<ref> Truman, Eisenhower, Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon.</ref> Another important motive was the preservation of U.S. credibility and prestige.

The United States pursued a policy of [[containment]]. Following the [[NATO]] model, Washington established the [[Southeast Asia Treaty Organization]] ([[SEATO]]) to counter communist expansion in the region. The policy of [[containment]] was first suggested by [[George F. Kennan]] in the 1947 [[X Article]], published anonymously in [[Foreign Affairs]] and remained U.S. policy for the next quarter of a century.

===Rule===
[[Ngo Dinh Diem]] was chosen by the U.S. to lead the South Vietnam. A devout [[Roman Catholic]], he was fervently anti-communist and was "untainted" by any connection to the French. He was one of the few prominent Vietnamese nationalist who could claim both attributes. Historian Luu Doan Huynh notes, however, that "Diem represented narrow and extremist nationalism coupled with autocracy and nepotism."<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' p. 200–201.</ref>

The new American patrons were almost completely ignorant of Vietnamese culture. They knew little of the language or long history of the country.<ref name="McNamara 377"/> There was a tendency to assign American motives to Vietnamese actions and Diem himself warned that it was an illusion to believe that blindly copying Western methods would solve Vietnamese problems.<ref name="McNamara 377"/>

In April and June of 1955, Diem (against U.S. advice) cleared the decks of any political opposition by launching military operations against the [[Cao Dai]] religious sect, the Buddhist [[Hoa Hao]], and the [[Binh Xuyen]] organized crime group (which was allied with members of the secret police and some military elements). Diem accused these groups of harboring Communist agents. As broad based opposition to his harsh tactics mounted, Diem increasingly sought to blame the communists.<ref>Robert K. Brigham [http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/history/index.html ''Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History'']</ref>

Beginning in the summer of 1955, he launched the 'Denounce the Communists' campaign, during which communists and other anti-government elements were arrested, imprisoned, tortured or executed. Opponents were labeled [[Viet Cong]] by the regime to demean their nationalist credentials. During this period refugees moved across the demarcation line in both directions. Around 52,000 Vietnamese civilians moved from south to north. 450,000 people, primarily Catholics, traveled from the north to south, in aircraft and ships provided by France and the U.S.<ref>John Prados, 'The Numbers Game: How Many Vietnamese Fled South In 1954?', ''The VVA Veteran'', January/February 2005; accessed 2007-01-21[http://web.archive.org/web/20060527190340/http://www.vva.org/TheVeteran/2005_01/feature_numbersGame.htm]</ref> CIA propaganda efforts increased the outflow with slogans such as "the Virgin Mary is going South." The northern refugees were meant to give Diem a strong anti-communist constituency.<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 238.</ref>

{{main|1955 South Vietnamese election}}
In a referendum on the future of the monarchy, Diem [[electoral fraud|rigged]] the poll which was supervised by his brother [[Ngo Dinh Nhu]] and received "98.2 percent" of the vote, including "133 percent" in [[Saigon]]. His American advisers had recommended a more modest winning margin of "60 to 70 percent." Diem, however, viewed the election as a test of authority.<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 239.</ref> On October 26, 1955, Diem declared the new Republic of Vietnam, with himself as president.<ref>Gerdes (ed.) ''Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War'' p. 19.</ref> The creation of the Republic of Vietnam was largely due to the Eisenhower administration's desire for an anti-communist state in the region.<ref> Robert K. Brigham. ''Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History.''[http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/history/index.html]</ref> Colonel [[Edward Lansdale]], a CIA officer, became an important advisor to the new president.

As a wealthy Catholic, Diem was viewed by many ordinary Vietnamese as part of the old elite that had helped the French rule Vietnam. The majority of Vietnamese people were Buddhist. So his attack on the Buddhist community only served to deepen mistrust. Diem's [[human rights]] abuses increasingly alienated the population.

In May, Diem undertook a ten day state visit of the U.S. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support. A parade in [[New York City]] was held in his honor. Although Diem was openly praised, in private [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[John Foster Dulles]] conceded that he had been selected because there were no better alternative.<ref name="Karnow 230">Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 230.</ref>

===Violence Begins 1956-1960===

In 1956 one of the leading communists in the south, [[Le Duan]], returned to Hanoi to urge the [[Vietnam Workers' Party]] to take a firmer stand on the reunification of Vietnam under Communist leadership. But Hanoi (then in a severe economic crisis) hesitated in launching a full-scale military struggle. The northern Communists feared U.S. intervention and believed that conditions in South Vietnam were not yet ripe for a people's revolution. However, in December of 1956, [[Ho Chi Minh]] authorized the Viet Minh cadres still in South Vietnam to begin a low level [[insurgency]].<ref>James Olson and Randy Roberts, WHERE THE DOMINO FELL: AMERICA AND VIETNAM, 1945-1990, 67 (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1991)(Ho Chi Minh ordered, "Do not engage in military operations; that will lead to defeat. Do not take land from a peasant. Emphasize nationalism rather than communism. Do not antagonize anyone if you can avoid it. Be selective in your violence. If an assassination is necessary, use a knife, not a rifle or grenade. It is too easy to kill innocent bystanders with guns and bombs, and accidental killing of the innocent bystanders will alienate peasants from the revolution. Once an assassination has taken place, make sure peasants know why the killing occurred.”)</ref> In North Vietnamese political theory, the action was a subset of "political struggle" called "armed propoganda,"<ref>Vo Nguyen Giap, The Political and Military Line of Our Party, in THE MILITARY ART, 179-80</ref> and consisted mostly in [[kidnapping]]s and [[terrorism|terrorist attacks]]. Four hundred government officials were assassinated in 1957 alone, and the violence gradually increased. While the terror was originally aimed at local government officials, it soon broadened to include other symbols of the ''status quo'', such as school teachers, health workers, agricultural officials, etc.<ref>PENTAGON PAPERS GRAVEL , 335.</ref> One estimate purports that by 1958, 20% of South Vietnam's village chiefs had been murdered by the insurgents.<ref>PENTAGON PAPERS GRAVEL,337.</ref> What was sought was a method of completely destroying government control in South Vietnam's rural villages in order to be replaced by a Viet Cong [[shadow government]].<ref>''See'' Mark Moyar, The War Against the Viet Cong Shadow Governmnet, in THE REAL LESSONS OF THE VIETNAM WAR (John Norton Moore and Robert Turner eds., 2002) 151-67.</ref> Finally, in January 1959, under pressure from southern cadres who were being targeted by Diem's secret police, the north's Central Committee issued a secret resolution authorizing an "armed struggle." This authorized the southern Viet Minh (or [[Viet Cong]]) to begin large scale operations against the South Vietnamese military. In response, Diem enacted tough new anti-communist laws. However, North Vietnam now supplied troops and supplies in earnest, and the infiltration of men and weapons from the north began along the [[Ho Chi Minh Trail]].

Observing the increasing unpopularity of the Diem regime, on [[December 12]], [[1960]], Hanoi authorized the creation of the [[National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam]] (NLF). The NLF was made up of two distinct groups: nationalists and communists. While there were many non-communist members of the NLF, they were subject to party control and increasingly side-lined as the conflict continued. The principal objective of the NLF was to seize political power through a popular [[insurrection]]—military operations were secondary.<ref name="Demma"/> The NLF emphasized patriotism, honesty and good government, while promising the [[Vietnamese reunification|reunification]] of Vietnam and an end to American influence.

Successive American administrations, as Robert McNamara and others have noted, over-estimated the control that Hanoi had over the NLF.<ref name="McNamara 377"/> Diem's paranoia, repression, and incompetence progressively angered large segments of the population of South Vietnam.<ref>U.S. Department of Defense, ''U.S.-Vietnam Relations'', vol. 2, p. 2.</ref> Thus, many maintain that the origins of the anti-government violence were homegrown, rather than inspired by Hanoi.<ref>U.S. Department of Defense, ''U.S.-Vietnam Relations'', vol. 2, pp 28-30.</ref> However, as historian Douglas Pike pointed out, “today, no serious historian would defend the thesis that North Vietnam was not involved in the Vietnam war from the start...To maintain this thesis today, one would be obliged to deal with the assertion of Northern involvement that have poured out of Hanoi since the end of the war."<ref>Douglas Pike, The Origins of the War: Competing Perceptions in THE VIETNAM DEBATE: A FRESH LOOK AT THE ARGUMENTS 83-89, 86 (John Norton Moore ed., 1990).</ref>

==John Kennedy's escalation and Americanization, 1960–1963==
{{Main|Strategic Hamlet Program}}
[[John F. Kennedy]] won the 1960 U.S. presidential election. In his inaugural address, Kennedy made the ambitious pledge to "pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and success of liberty."<ref>The Avalon Project at Yale Law School. ''Inaugural Address of John F. Kenndy.'' Available online at: http.//www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/inaug/kennedy.htm</ref> In May, 1961, Vice-President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] visited Saigon and enthusiastically declared Diem the "Winston Churchill of Asia."<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 267.</ref> Asked why he had made the comment, Johnson replied, "Shit! Diem's the only boy we got out there. "<ref name="Karnow 230"/> Johnson assured Diem of more aid, in order to mold a fighting force that could resist the communists.

Kennedy's policy towards South Vietnam rested on the assumption that Diem and his forces must ultimately defeat the guerrillas on their own. He was against the deployment of American combat troops and observed that "to introduce U.S. forces, in large numbers there today, while it might have an initially favorable military impact would almost certainly lead to adverse political and, in the long run, adverse military consequences."<ref>U.S. Department of Defense, ''U.S.-Vietnam Relations,'' vol. 3, pp 1-2.</ref>

The quality of the South Vietnamese military, however, remained poor. Bad leadership, corruption and political interference all played a part in emasculating the [[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]] (ARVN). The frequency of [[guerrilla]] attacks rose, as the insurgency gathered steam. Hanoi's support for the NLF played a significant role. But South Vietnamese governmental incompetence was at the core of the crisis.<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' p. 369. </ref> [[Maxwell Taylor]] and [[Walt Rostow]] recommended that U.S. troops be sent to South Vietnam disguised as flood relief workers. Kennedy rejected the idea, but increased military assistance yet again. In April, 1962, [[John Kenneth Galbraith]] warned Kennedy of the "danger we shall replace the French as a colonial force in the area and bleed as the French did."<ref>John Kenneth Galbraith. "Memorandum to President Kennedy from John Kenneth Galbraith on Vietnam, 4 April 1962." ''The Pentagon Papers.'' Gravel. ed. Boston, Mass. Beacon Press, 1971, vol. 2. pp 669–671.</ref> By mid-1962, the number of U.S. military advisers in South Vietnam had risen from 700 to 12,000.

The [[Strategic Hamlet Program]] had been initiated in 1961. This joint U.S.-South Vietnamese program attempted to resettle the rural population into fortified camps. The aim was to isolate the population from the insurgents, provide education and health care and strengthen the government's hold over the countryside. The Strategic Hamlets, however, were quickly infiltrated by the guerrillas. The peasants resented being uprooted from their ancestral villages. The government refused to undertake land reform, which left farmers paying high rents to a few wealthy landlords. Corruption dogged the program and intensified opposition. Government officials were targeted for assassination. The Strategic Hamlet Program collapsed two years later.

On [[July 23]], 1962, fourteen nations, including, China, South Vietnam, the Soviet Union, North Vietnam and the United States, signed an agreement promising the neutrality of Laos.<ref>International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos[http://www.answers.com/topic/international-agreement-on-the-neutrality-of-laos-35k.]</ref>
[[Image:SVN1.jpg|thumb|right|South Vietnam, Military Regions, 1967.]]

===Coup and assassinations===
{{see also|The United States and the Vietnam War#Timeline: John F. Kennedy and Vietnam (1961–1963)| The United States and the Vietnam War#Kennedy and Vietnam}}
Some policy-makers in Washington began to conclude that Diem was incapable of defeating the communists and might even make a deal with Ho Chi Minh. He only seemed concerned with fending off coups. As [[Robert F. Kennedy]] noted, "Diem wouldn't make even the slightest concessions. He was difficult to reason with …"<ref> Live interview by John Bartlow Martin. ''Was Kennedy Planning to Pull out of Vietnam?'' New York, NY. John F. Kennedy Library, 1964, Tape V, Reel 1.</ref> During the summer of 1963 U.S. officials began discussing the possibility of a regime change. The [[State Department]] was generally in favor of encouraging a [[coup]]. The [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] and [[CIA]] were more alert to the destabilizing consequences of such an act, and wanted to continue applying pressure for reforms.

Chief among the proposed changes was the removal of Diem's younger brother [[Ngo Dinh Nhu]]. Nhu controlled the secret police and was seen as the man behind the Buddhist repression. As Diem's most powerful adviser, Nhu had become a hated figure in South Vietnam. His continued influence was unacceptable to the Kennedy administration. Eventually, the administration concluded that Diem was unwilling to change.

The CIA was in contact with generals planning to remove Diem. They were told that the United States would support such a move. President Diem was overthrown and executed, along with his brother, on November 2, 1963. When he was informed, [[Maxwell Taylor]] remembered that Kennedy "rushed from the room with a look of shock and dismay on his face."<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 326.</ref> He had not approved Diem's murder. The U.S. ambassador to South Vietnam, [[Henry Cabot Lodge, Jr.]], invited the coup leaders to the embassy and congratulated them. Ambassador Lodge informed Kennedy that "the prospects now are for a shorter war".<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 327.</ref>

Following the coup chaos ensued. Hanoi took advantage of the situation and increased its support for the guerrillas. South Vietnam entered a period of extreme political instability, as one military government toppled another in quick succession. Increasingly, each new regime was viewed as a puppet of the Americans. For whatever the failings of Diem, his credentials as a nationalist had been impeccable.<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' p. 328.</ref>

Kennedy increased the number of U.S. military advisers to 16,300 to cope with rising [[guerrilla]] activity. The advisers were embedded at every level of the South Vietnamese armed forces. They were, however, almost completely ignorant of the political nature of the [[insurgency]]. The insurgency was a political power struggle, in which military engagements were not the main goal.<ref name="Demma"/> The Kennedy administration sought to refocus U.S. efforts on [[pacification]] and "winning over the hearts and minds" of the population. The military leadership in Washington, however, was hostile to any role for U.S. advisers other than conventional troop training.<ref>Douglas Blaufarb. ''The Counterinsurgency Era.'' New York, NY. Free Press, 1977, p. 119.</ref> General [[Paul Harkins]], the commander of U.S. forces in South Vietnam, confidently predicted victory by Christmas 1963.<ref>George C. Herring. ''America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975.'' Boston, Mass. McGraw Hill, 1986, p. 103</ref> The [[CIA]] was less optimistic, however, warning that "the Viet Cong by and large retain de facto control of much of the countryside and have steadily increased the overall intensity of the effort".<ref>''Foreign Relation of the United States, Vietnam, 1961-1963.'' Washington, DC. Government Printing Office, 1991, vol. 4., p. 707.</ref>

In a conversation with [[Nobel Peace Prize]] winner and Canadian Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]], Kennedy sought his advice. "Get out," Pearson replied. "That's a stupid answer," shot back Kennedy. "Everyone knows that. The question is: How do we get out?"<ref>quoted in Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. ''Robert Kennedy and His Times.'' New York, NY. Ballantine, 1978, p. 767.</ref> Ironically, Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, just three weeks after Diem.

Kennedy had introduced helicopters to the war and created a joint U.S.-South Vietnamese Air Force, staffed with American pilots. He also sent in the [[United States Army Special Forces|Green Berets]]. He was succeeded by Vice-President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], who reaffirmed America's support of South Vietnam. By the end of the year Saigon had received $500 million in military aid, much of which was lost to corruption.

==The United States goes to war, 1964–1968==
{{details|The United States and the Vietnam War#Americanization}}
{{see also|Opposition to the Vietnam War|Gulf of Tonkin Incident}}
{{cquote2|You can kill ten of our men for every one we kill of yours. But even at those odds, you will lose and we will win.|[[Ho Chi Minh]]}}
{|align=center
|[[Image:Bombing in Vietnam.jpg|left|thumb|upright=0.682|A U.S. EB-66 Destroyer and four F-105 Thunderchiefs dropping bombs on North Vietnam.]]
|[[Image:Vietcongsuspect.jpg|right|thumb|A Marine from 1st Battalion, 3rd Marines, moves a Viet Cong suspect to the rear during a search and clear operation held by the battalion 15 miles west of Da Nang Air Base.]]
|[[Image:Vietconghuntcrop.jpg|right|thumb|A U.S. soldier searches a village for [[National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam|NLF]]/[[Vietcong]].]]
|}
On [[August 2]] [[1964]], the [[USS_Maddox_%28DD-731%29|U.S.S. Madox]] was attacked by torpedo boats in the Gulf of Tonkin. The destroyer was on an intelligence mission along North Vietnam's coast. A second attack was reported two days later on the [[USS_Turner_Joy_%28DD-951%29|U.S.S. Turner Joy]] and U.S.S Maddox in the same area. The circumstances of the attack were murky. [[Lyndon Johnson]] commented to his Undersecretary of State, George Ball, that "those sailors out there may have been shooting at flying fish."<ref>Gerdes (ed.) ''Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War'' p. 26.</ref> The second attack led to retaliatory air strikes and prompted Congress to approve the [[Gulf of Tonkin Resolution]]. The resolution gave the president power to conduct military operations in South East Asia without declaring war. It was later revealed that the second attack was questionable. "The Gulf of Tonkin incident," writes Louise Gerdes, "is an oft-cited example of the way in which Johnson misled the American people to gain support for his foreign policy in Vietnam."<ref>Gerdes (ed.) ''Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War'' p. 25.</ref> George C. Herring argues, however, that McNamara and [[the Pentagon]] "did not knowingly lie about the alleged attacks, but they were obviously in a mood to retaliate and they seem to have selected from the evidence available to them those parts that confirmed what they wanted to believe."<ref>Herring, George C.: "America's Longest War", p. 121</ref>
[[Image:Vietconginterrogation.jpg|thumb|right|An NLF/Viet Cong suspect captured during an attack on an [[United States|American]] outpost near the [[Cambodia]]n border, is interrogated.]]

In 1959 an estimated force of 5,000 [[guerrillas]] were operating in South Vietnam.<ref name="Demma"/> By 1964 that number had risen to 100,000.<ref name="Demma"/> It is generally accepted that ten soldiers are needed to deal with one [[insurgent]]. <ref name="Demma"/> Thus, the total number of U.S. troops in 1964 needed to defeat the insurgents exceeded the entire strength of the United States Army.<ref name="Demma"/>

The [[National Security Council]] recommended a three-stage escalation of the bombing of North Vietnam. On March 2, 1965, following an attack on a U.S. Marine barracks at [[Pleiku]], [[Operation Flaming Dart]] and [[Operation Rolling Thunder]] commenced. The bombing campaign, which would ultimately last three years, was intended to force North Vietnam to cease its support for the NLF by threatening to destroy North Vietnam's air defenses and industrial infrastructure. As well, it was aimed at bolstering the morale of the South Vietnamese.<ref name = "Tilford 89">Earl L. Tilford, ''Setup: What the Air Force did in Vietnam and Why''. Maxwell Air Force Base AL: Air University Press, 1991, p. 89.</ref> Between March 1965 and November 1968, [[Operation Rolling Thunder]] deluged the north with a million tons of missiles, rockets and bombs.<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 468.</ref> Bombing was not restricted to North Vietnam. Other aerial campaigns, such as [[Operation Commando Hunt]], targeted different parts of the [[NLF]] and [[PAVN]] infrastructure. These included the [[Ho Chi Minh Trail]], which ran through Laos and Cambodia. The objective of forcing North Vietnam to stop its support for the [[NLF]], however, was never reached. As one officer noted "this is a political war and it calls for discriminate killing. The best weapon … would be a knife … The worst is an airplane."<ref>Lt. Colonel John Paul Vann[http://www.answers.com/topic/john-paul-vann-44k]</ref> The [[Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force]] [[Curtis LeMay]], however, had long advocated saturation bombing in Vietnam and wrote of the Communists that "we're going to bomb them back into the Stone Age".<ref>[http://www.giga-usa.com/quotes/authors/curtis_e_lemay_a001.htm Gen. Curtis E LeMay]</ref>

===Escalation and ground war===
[[Image:Hồ_Chí_Minh_Official_Picture.jpg|thumb|right|200px|North Vietnamese leader [[Ho Chi Minh]]]]
After several attacks, it was decided that [[U.S. Air Force]] bases needed more protection. The South Vietnamese military seemed incapable of providing security. On 8 March 1965, 3,500 [[United States Marines]] were dispatched to South Vietnam. This marked the beginning of the American ground war. U.S. public opinion overwhelmingly supported the deployment.<ref>Pew Research Center note, (Oct 2002) [http://www.people-press.org/commentary/display.php3?AnalysisID=57 ''Generations Divide Over Military Action in Iraq'']</ref> Public opinion, however, was based on the premise that Vietnam was part of a global struggle against communism. In a statement similar to that made to the French, almost two decades earlier, Ho Chi Minh warned that if the Americans "want to make war for twenty years then we shall make war for twenty years. If they want to make peace, we shall make peace and invite them to afternoon tea."<ref> Ho Chi Minh. ''Letter to Martin Niemoeller.'' December, 1966. quoted in Marilyn B. Young. ''The Vietnam Wars: 1945–1990.'' New York, NY. Harper, 1991, p. 172.</ref> As former First Deputy Foreign Minister, Tran Quang Co, noted, the primary goal of the war was to reunify Vietnam and secure its independence. The policy of the [[DRV]] was not to topple other non-communist governments in South East Asia.<ref>McNamara, ''Argument Without End'' p. 48</ref>

The Marines' assignment was defensive. The initial deployment of 3,500 in March, increased to nearly 200,000, by December.<ref name ="McNamara 349">McNamara, ''Argument Without End'' pp 349-51</ref> The U.S. military had long been schooled in offensive warfare. Regardless of political policies, U.S. commanders were institutionally and psychologically unsuited to a defensive mission.<ref name="McNamara 349"/> In May, ARVN forces suffered heavy losses at the [[Battle of Binh Gia]]. They were again defeated in June, at the [[Battle of Dong Xoai]]. Desertion rates were increasing and morale plummeted. General [[William Westmoreland]] informed Admiral [[Grant Sharp]], commander of U.S. Pacific forces, that the situation was critical.<ref name="McNamara 349"/> He said, "I am convinced that U.S. troops with their energy, mobility, and firepower can successfully take the fight to the NLF."<ref>U.S. Department of Defense, ''U.S.-Vietnam Relations'' vol. 4, p. 7</ref> With this recommendation, Westmoreland was advocating an aggressive departure from America's defensive posture and the sidelining of the South Vietnamese. By ignoring ARVN units, the U.S. commitment became open ended.<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' p. 353</ref> Westmoreland outlined a three point plan to win the war:

"Phase 1. Commitment of U.S. (and other free world) forces necessary to halt the losing trend by the end of 1965.

Phase 2. U.S. and allied forces mount major offensive actions to seize the initiative to destroy guerrilla and organized enemy forces. This phase would be concluded when the enemy had been worn down, thrown on the defensive, and driven back from major populated areas.

Phase 3. If the enemy persisted, a period of twelve to eighteen months following Phase 2 would be required for the final destruction of enemy forces remaining in remote base areas."<ref>U.S. Department of Defense, ''U.S.-Vietnam Relations'' vol. 5, pp 8-9.</ref>

The plan was approved by Johnson and marked a profound departure from the previous administration's insistence that the government of South Vietnam was responsible for defeating the guerrillas. Westmoreland predicted victory by the end of 1967.<ref>U.S. Department of Defense, ''U.S.-Vietnam Relations'' vol. 4, pp 117–119. and vol. 5, pp 8–12.</ref> Johnson did not, however, communicate this change in strategy to the media. Instead he emphasized continuity.<ref> ''Public Papers of the Presidents, 1965.'' Washington, DC. Government Printing Office, 1966, vol. 2, pp 794–799.</ref> U.S. policy now depended on matching the North Vietnamese and the NLF in a contest of [[attrition]] and [[morale]]. The opponents were locked in a cycle of [[escalation]].<ref name="McNamara 353">McNamara ''Argument Without End'' pp 353–354.</ref> The idea that the government of South Vietnam could manage its own affairs was shelved.<ref name="McNamara 353"/>

[[Operation Starlite]] was the first major ground operation by U.S. troops and proved largely successful. U.S. soldiers engaged in [[search-and-destroy]] missions. Learning from their defeats, the NLF began to engage in small-unit [[guerrilla warfare]], instead of conventional American-style warfare. This allowed them to control the pace of the fighting, engaging in battle only when they believed they had a decisive advantage. The [[guerrillas]] benefited from familiar terrain, a degree of popular support and from the fact the U.S. troops were unable to tell friend from foe. Control over a certain portion of the population gave the guerrillas access to manpower, intelligence and financial resources.

Despite calls from [[the Pentagon]] to do so, [[Lyndon Johnson]] refused to mobilize Reserve units. He feared a political backlash. This led to larger [[conscription in the united states|draft]] call ups and the extension of some tours of duty. It also put a heavy strain on U.S. forces committed to other parts of the world.

The average U.S. serviceman was nineteen years old. This compares with twenty-six years of age for those who participated in [[World War II]]. Soldiers served a one year tour of duty. The one year tour of duty deprived units of experienced leadership. As one observer noted "we were not in Vietnam for 10 years, but for one year 10 times."<ref>John Paul Vann. ''John Paul Vann: Information from Answers.com.'' at [http://www.answers.com/topic/john-paul-vann-44k]</ref> As a result, training programs were shortened. Some [[Non-commissioned officer|NCO's]] were referred to as "[[Shake 'N' Bake]]" to highlight their accelerated training. Unlike soldiers in WWII and Korea, there were no secure rear areas in which to get rest and relaxation (R'n'R). American troops were vulnerable to attack everywhere they went.
[[Image:HCMT.jpg|thumb|right|The Ho Chi Minh Trail running through Laos, 1967.]]
Under the command of General [[William C. Westmoreland|Westmoreland]], the U.S. increased its troop commitment to more than 553,000 servicemen by 1969. Westmoreland performed a [[logistical]] miracle, building a complex series of bases, ports, airstrips, medical facilities, fuel depots, warehouse, roads and bridges from scratch. A third world nation, South Vietnam was inundated with manufactured goods. As Stanley Karnow writes, "the main PX, located in the [[Saigon]] suburb of [[Cholon]], was only slightly smaller than the [[New York]] [[Bloomingdale's]] …"<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 453.</ref> The American build-up transformed the economy and had a profound impact on South Vietnamese society. A huge surge in corruption was witnessed. The country was also flooded by civilian specialists from every conceivable field to advise the South Vietnamese government and improve its performance.

Washington encouraged its [[SEATO]] allies to contribute troops. [[Australia]], [[New Zealand]], the [[Republic of Korea]], [[Thailand]], and the [[Philippines]]<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 566.</ref> all agreed to send troops. Major allies, however, notably [[European]] nations, [[Canada]] and [[Great Britain]] declined Washington's troop requests.<ref> Peter Church. ed. ''A Short History of South-East Asia.'' Singapore, John Wiley & Sons, 2006, p. 193.</ref> The U.S. and its allies mounted complex operations, such as operations [[Operation Masher/White Wing|Masher]], [[Operation Attleboro|Attleboro]], [[Operation Cedar Falls|Cedar Falls]], and [[Operation Junction City|Junction City]]. However, the communist insurgents remained elusive and demonstrated great [[tactical]] flexibility.
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Meanwhile, the political situation in South Vietnam began to stabilize somewhat with the coming to power of Vice President [[Nguyen Cao Ky]] and President [[Nguyen Van Thieu]] in 1967. Thieu, mistrustful and indecisive, remained president until 1975.<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 706.</ref> This ended a long series of military [[juntas]] that had begun with Diem's assassination. The relative calm allowed the ARVN to collaborate more effectively with its allies and become a better fighting force.

The Johnson administration employed a "policy of minimum candor"<ref name="Karnow 18">Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 18.</ref> in its dealings with the media. Military information officers sought to manage media coverage, by emphasizing stories which portrayed progress in the war. Over time, this policy damaged the public trust in official pronouncements. As the media's coverage of the war and that of [[the Pentagon]] diverged, a so-called [[credibility gap]] developed.<ref name="Karnow 18"/>

In October 1967 a large anti-war demonstration was held on the steps of [[the Pentagon]]. Some protesters were heard to chant, "Hey, hey, LBJ (Lyndon Baines Johnson)! How many kids did you kill today?" One reason for the increase in the [[opposition to the Vietnam War]] was larger [[conscription in the united states|draft]] quotas.

===The Tet Offensive===
[[Image:Nguyen.jpg|thumb|right|National Chief of Police [[Nguyen Ngoc Loan]], executes an NLF officer in Saigon during the Tet Offensive.]]
Having lured General Westmoreland's forces into the hinterland at [[Battle of Khe Sanh|Khe Sanh]] in [[Quang Tri Province]],<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' pp 363-365</ref> in January 1968, the PAVN and NLF broke the truce that had traditionally accompanied the [[Tết|Tet (Lunar New Year)]] holiday. They launched the surprise [[Tet Offensive]] in the hope of sparking a national uprising. Over 100 cities were attacked, including assaults on General Westmoreland's headquarters and the U.S. embassy in [[Saigon]].

Although the U.S. and South Vietnamese were initially taken aback by the scale of the urban offensive, they responded quickly and effectively, decimating the ranks of the NLF. In the former capital city of [[Huế]], the NLF captured the Imperial Citadel and much of the city, [[Massacre at Huế|executing nearly 3,000 residents]], and leading to the month-long [[Battle of Hue|Battle of Huế]]. After the war, North Vietnamese officials acknowledged that the Tet Offensive had, indeed, caused grave damage to NLF forces. But the offensive had another, unintended consequence.

General Westmoreland had become the public face of the war. He was featured on the cover of ''Time'' magazine three times and was named 1965's Man of the Year.<ref name="Time">"The Guardians at the Gate," ''Time: The Weekly Newsmagazine'' January 7, 1966, vol. 87, no.1. </ref> ''Time'' described him as "the sinewy personification of the American fighting man … (who) directed the historic buildup, drew up the battle plans, and infused the … men under him with his own idealistic view of U.S. aims and responsibilities."<ref name="Time"/>

In November 1967 Westmoreland spearheaded a public relations drive for the Johnson administration to bolster flagging public support.<ref name ="Witz">Witz ''The Tet Offensive: Intelligence Failure in War'' pp 1–2</ref> In a speech before the [[National Press Club]] he said that a point in the war had been reached "where the end comes into view."<ref> Larry Berman. ''Lyndon Johnson's War.'' New York, W.W. Norton, 1991, p. 116. </ref> Thus, the public was shocked and confused when Westmoreland's predictions were trumped by Tet.<ref name ="Witz"/> The American media, which had been largely supportive of U.S. efforts, rounded on the Johnson administration, for what had become an increasing [[credibility gap]]. Despite its military failure, the Tet Offensive became a political victory and ended the career of President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]], who declined to run for re-election. Johnson's approval rating slumped from 48% to 36%.<ref name ="Witz"/> As James Witz noted, Tet "contradicted the claims of progress … made by the Johnson administration and the military."<ref name ="Witz"/> The Tet Offensive was the turning point in America's involvement in the Vietnam War. It had a profound impact on domestic support for the conflict. The offensive constituted an intelligence failure on the scale of Pearl Harbor.<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History.'' p. 556.</ref><ref>Harold P. Ford. ''CIA and the Vietnam Policymakers'' pp 104–123.</ref> Journalist [[Peter Arnett]] quoted an unnamed officer, saying of [[Ben Tre]] that "it became necessary to destroy the village in order to save it" (though the authenticity of this quote is disputed).<ref>[http://www.jewishworldreview.com/cols/charen040103.asp "Peter Arnett: Whose Man in Baghdad?"], [[Mona Charen]], ''Jewish World Review'', April 1, 2003</ref> Westmoreland became Chief of Staff of the Army in March, just as all resistance was finally subdued. The move was technically a promotion. However, his position had become untenable, because of the offensive and because his request for 200,000 additional troops had been leaked to the media. "Westy" was succeeded by his deputy [[Creighton Abrams]], a commander less inclined to public media pronouncements.

On May 10, 1968, despite low expectations, [[Paris Peace Accords|peace talks]] began between the U.S. and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. Negotiations stagnated for five months, until Johnson gave orders to halt the bombing of North Vietnam. The [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] candidate, Vice-President [[Hubert Humphrey]], was running against [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] former Vice-President [[Richard Nixon]]. Through an intermediary, Nixon advised Saigon to refuse to participate in the talks until after elections, claiming that he would give them a better deal once elected. Thieu obliged, leaving almost no progress made by the time Johnson left office.

As historian Robert Dallek writes, "Lyndon Johnson's escalation of the war in Vietnam divided Americans into warring camps … cost 30,000 American lives by the time he left office, (and) destroyed Johnson's presidency …"<ref>Gerdes (ed.) ''Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War'' p. 27.</ref> His refusal to send more U.S. troops to Vietnam was Johnson's admission that the war was lost. As Secretary of Defense, Robert McNamara noted, "the dangerous illusion of victory by the United States was therefore dead."<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' pp 366–367.</ref>

==Vietnamization and American withdrawal, 1969–1973==
{{Details|The United States and the Vietnam War#Vietnamization and American Withdrawal, 1969–1974}}
[[Image:Vietnampropaganda.png|thumb|right|Propaganda leaflets urging the defection of NLF/Viet Cong and North Vietnamese to the side of the Government of Vietnam]]
During the [[U.S. Presidential Election, 1968|1968 presidential election]], [[Richard M. Nixon]] promised "peace with honor". His plan was to build up the [[ARVN]], so that they could take over the defense South Vietnam (the [[Nixon Doctrine]]). The policy became known as "[[Vietnamization]]", a term criticized by [[Robert K. Brigham]] for implying that, to that date, only Americans had been dying in the conflict.<ref>Robert K. Brigham. ''Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History.''[http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/history/index.html]</ref> Vietnamization had much in common with the policies of the Kennedy administration. One important difference, however, remained. While Kennedy insisted that the South Vietnamese fight the war themselves, he attempted to limit the scope of the conflict. In pursuit of a withdrawal strategy, Richard Nixon was prepared to employ a variety of tactics, including widening the war.
[[Image:Deadmanandchild.jpg|thumb|Dead man and child shot and killed by US Army soldiers. Photo by [[Ronald L. Haeberle]] Photos like this of the My Lai massacre provoked international outrage and weakened support for the war at home]]
Nixon also pursued negotiations. [[Creighton Abrams]] shifted to smaller operations, aimed at NLF logistics, with better use of firepower and more cooperation with the ARVN. There was increased openness with the media. Nixon also began to pursue [[détente]] with the Soviet Union and [[Sino-American relations#rapprochement|rapprochement with China]]. This policy helped to decrease global tensions. [[Détente]] led to nuclear arms reduction on the part of both [[superpowers]]. But Nixon was disappointed that China and the Soviet Union continued to supply the North Vietnamese with aid. In September, 1969, Ho Chi Minh died at the age of seventy-nine.

The anti-war movement was gaining strength in the US. Nixon appealed to the "Silent Majority" of Americans to support the war. But revelations of the [[My Lai Massacre]], in which U.S. forces went on a rampage and killed civilians, including women and children, provoked national and international outrage.

Prince [[Norodom Sihanouk]] had proclaimed the neutrality of Cambodia since 1955. "We are neutral," he noted, "in the same way Switzerland and Sweden are neutral."<ref>Prince Norodom Sihanouk. "Cambodia Neutral: The Dictates of Necessity." ''Foreign Affairs.'' New York, NY. Council on Foreign Relations, 1958, pp 582–583.</ref> The PAVN/NLF, however, used Cambodian soil as a base. Sihanouk tolerated their presence, because he wished to avoid being drawn into a wider regional conflict. Under pressure from Washington, however, he changed this policy in 1969. The PAVN/NLF were no longer welcome. President Nixon took the opportunity to launch a massive secret bombing campaign, called [[Operation Menu]], against their sanctuaries along the border. This violated a long succession of pronouncements from Washington supporting Cambodian neutrality. Richard Nixon wrote to Prince Sihanouk in April, 1969, assuring him that the United States respected "the sovereignty, neutrality and territorial integrity of the Kingdom of Cambodia …"<ref>quoted in ''Nonaligned Foreign Policy.''[http://www.countrystudies.us/cambodia/18.htm-14k]</ref> Over 14 months, however, approximately 2,750,000 tons of bombs were dropped, more than the total dropped by the Allies in [[World War II]]. The bombing was hidden from the American public. In 1970, Prince [[1970 Cambodian coup|Sihanouk was deposed]] by pro-American general [[Lon Nol]]. The country's borders were closed, and the U.S. and ARVN launched [[Cambodian Incursion|incursions into Cambodia]] to attack PAVN/NLF bases and buy time for South Vietnam. The coup against Sihanouk and U.S. bombing, destabilized Cambodia, and increased support for the [[Khmer Rouge]].

The invasion of Cambodia sparked nationwide U.S. protests. [[Kent State shootings|Four students were killed by National Guardsmen]] at [[Kent State University]] during a protest in [[Ohio]], which provoked public outrage in the United States. The reaction to the incident by the Nixon administration was seen as callous and indifferent, providing additional impetus for the anti-war movement. Nixon was taken to [[Camp David]] for his own safety. <ref>Joe Angio. ''Nixon a Presidency Revealed.'' Television Documentary, The History Channel, Feb 15, 2007.</ref>

In 1971 the [[Pentagon Papers]] were leaked to the [[New York Times]]. The top-secret history of U.S. involvement in Vietnam, commissioned by the Department of Defense, detailed a long series of public deceptions. The [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] ruled that its publication was legal.<ref>''The Pentagon Papers Case.''[http://www.usinfo.state.gov/journals/itdhr/0297/ijde/goodsb1.htm -4k-]</ref>

The ARVN launched [[Operation Lam Son 719]], aimed at cutting the Ho Chi Minh trail in Laos. The offensive was a clear violation of Laotian neutrality<ref>International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos[http://www.answers.com/topic/international-agreement-on-the-neutrality-of-laos-35k]</ref>, which neither side respected in any event. Laos had long been the scene of a [[Secret War]]. After meeting resistance, ARVN forces retreated in a confused rout. They fled along roads littered with their own dead. When they ran out of fuel, soldiers abandoned their vehicles and attempted to barge their way on to American choppers sent to evacuate the wounded. Many ARVN soldiers clung to helicopter skids in a desperate attempt to save themselves. U.S. aircraft had to destroy abandoned equipment, including tanks, to prevent them from falling into enemy hands. Half of the invading ARVN troops were either captured or killed. The operation was a fiasco and represented a clear failure of [[Vietnamization]]. As Karnow noted "the blunders were monumental … The (South Vietnamese) government's top officers had been tutored by the Americans for ten or fifteen years, many at training schools in the United States, yet they had learned little."<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' pp 644–645.</ref>

In 1971 Australia and New Zealand withdrew their soldiers. The U.S. troop count was further reduced to 196,700, with a deadline to remove another 45,000 troops by February 1972. As peace protests spread across the United States, disillusionment grew in the ranks. Drug use increased, race relations grew tense and the number of soldiers disobeying officers rose. [[Frag (military)|Fragging]], or the murder of unpopular officers with fragmentation grenades, increased.

[[Image:EASTER.jpg|thumb|right||The Nguyen Hue Offensive, 1972, part of the Easter offensive.]]
Vietnamization was again tested by the [[Easter Offensive]] of 1972, a massive conventional invasion of South Vietnam. The PAVN/NLF quickly overran the northern provinces and in co-ordination with other forces, attacked from Cambodia, threatening to cut the country in half. U.S. troop withdrawals continued. But American airpower came to the rescue with [[Operation Linebacker]] and the offensive was halted. However, it became clear that without American airpower South Vietnam could not survive. The last remaining American ground troops were withdrawn in August. But a force of civilian and military advisers remained in place.

The war was the central issue of the [[U.S. Presidential Election, 1972|1972 presidential election]]. Nixon's opponent, [[George McGovern]], campaigned on a platform of withdrawal from Vietnam. Nixon's National Security Adviser, [[Henry Kissinger]], continued secret negotiations with North Vietnam's [[Le Duc Tho]]. In October 1972, they reached an agreement. However, South Vietnamese President Thieu demanded massive changes to the peace accord. When North Vietnam went public with the agreement's details, the Nixon administration claimed that the North was attempting to embarrass the President. The negotiations became deadlocked. Hanoi demanded new changes. To show his support for South Vietnam and force Hanoi back to the negotiating table, Nixon ordered [[Operation Linebacker II]], a massive bombing of Hanoi and Haiphong. The offensive destroyed much of the remaining economic and industrial capacity of North Vietnam. Simultaneously Nixon pressured Thieu to accept the terms of the agreement, threatening to conclude a [[bilateral]] peace deal and cut off American aid. Popularly known as the [[Christmas Bombings]], [[Operation Linebacker II]] provoked a fresh wave of anti-war demonstrations.

[[Image:KDT.jpg|thumb|right|Le Duc Tho and Henry Kissinger (fourth and fifth from the left, respectively).]]
On 15 January 1973, Nixon announced the suspension of offensive action against North Vietnam. The [[Paris Peace Accords]] on 'Ending the War and Restoring Peace in Vietnam' were signed on 27 January, 1973, officially ending direct U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War. A cease-fire was declared across South Vietnam, but North Vietnamese forces were allowed to remain on South Vietnamese territory. U.S. [[POW]]s were released. The agreement guaranteed the territorial integrity of Vietnam and, like the [[Geneva Conference]] of 1954, called for national elections in the north and south. The [[Paris Peace Accords]] stipulated a sixty day period for the total withdrawal of U.S. forces. "This article," noted Peter Church, "proved … to be the only one of the Paris Agreements which was fully carried out."<ref> Peter Church, ed. ''A Short History of South-East Asia.'' Singapore. John Wiley & Sons, 2006, pp 193–194. </ref>

The ARVN was supplied with hundreds of millions of dollars of new equipment. It became the fourth largest fighting force in the world. Nixon promised Thieu that he would use airpower to support his government. The growing [[Watergate scandal]] and an American public tired of the war, however, made it impossible to keep his promise. The balance of power shifted decisively in North Vietnam's favor.

==South Vietnamese government stands alone, 1974–1975==
===Total U.S. withdrawal===
{{See also|Watergate scandal}}
As Stanley Karnow noted, Americans "turned against the war long before America's political leaders did."<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 24.</ref> Doubts began surfacing in Congress. In December 1974, it passed the [[Foreign Assistance Act of 1974]], which cut off all military funding to the South Vietnamese government. The act fixed the numbers of U.S. military personnel allowed in Vietnam: 4000 within six months of enactment and 3000 within one year.<ref> Congressional Research Service. ''Congressional Use of Funding Cutoffs Since 1970 Involving U.S. Military Forces and Overseas Deployments.'' January 10, 2001, p. 2.[http://www.fas.org/man/crs/RS20775.pdf]</ref> Robert McNamara writes that " there is no evidence that the South Vietnamese would ever have been able to accomplish on their own what they failed to achieve with massive American assistance. The level of congressional funding was irrelevant … The Nixon administration, like the Johnson administration before it, could not give the South Vietnamese the essential ingredient for success: genuine indigenous political legitimacy."<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' pp 367–368.</ref> Richard Nixon resigned due to the [[Watergate Scandal]]. President [[Gerald Ford]] signed the act into law.

By 1975 the South Vietnamese Army was much larger on paper than its opponent. However, they faced a well-organized, highly determined and well-funded North Vietnam. Much of the North's material and financial support came from the communist bloc. Within South Vietnam, there was increasing chaos. The withdrawal of the American military had compromised an economy dependent on U.S. financial support and the presence of large numbers of U.S. troops. Along with the rest of the non-oil exporting world, South Vietnam suffered from the price shocks caused by the [[1973 oil crisis|Arab oil embargo]] and the subsequent global recession.

Between the signing of the 1973 [[Paris Peace Accord]] and late 1974 both antagonists had been satisfied with minor land-grabs. The North Vietnamese, however, were growing impatient with the Thieu regime, which remained intransigent in its opposition to national elections. Hanoi was also concerned that the U.S. would, once again, support its former ally if large scale operations were resumed.

By late 1974, the Politburo gave its permission for a limited VPA offensive from Cambodia into Phuoc Long Province. The strike was designed to solve local logistical problems, gauge the reaction of Saigon forces and determine if the U.S. would return to the fray. In late December and early January the offensive kicked off and Phuoc Long Province quickly fell to the VPA. There was considerable relief when American air power did not return. The speed of this success forced the Politburo to reassess the situation. It was decided that operations in the Central Highlands would be turned over to General [[Van Tien Dung]] and that Pleiku should be seized, if possible. Before he left for the south, General Van was addressed by First Party Secretary Le Duan: "Never have we had military and political conditions so perfect or a strategic advantage as great as we have now."<ref>Clark Dougan, David Fulgham et al., ''The Fall of the South.'' Boston: Boston Publishing Company, 1985, p. 22.</ref>

===Campaign ''275''===
On 10 March, 1975, General Dung launched ''Campaign 275'', a limited offensive into the Central Highlands, supported by tanks and heavy artillery. The target was [[Ban Me Thuot]], in Daklak Province. If the town could be taken, the provincial capital of [[Pleiku]] and the road to the coast would be exposed for a planned campaign in 1976. The ARVN proved incapable of resisting the onslaught and its forces collapsed on 11 March. Once again, Hanoi was surprised by the speed of their success. Van now urged the Politburo to allow him to seize Pleiku immediately and then turn his attention to [[Kontum]]. He argued that with two months of good weather remaining until the onset of the monsoon, it would be irresponsible to not take advantage of the situation.

President [[Nguyen Van Thieu]], a former general, now made a strategic blunder. Fearful that his forces would be cut off in the north by the attacking communists, Thieu ordered a retreat. The president declared this to be a "lighten the top and keep the bottom" strategy. But in what appeared to be a repeat of [[Operation Lam Son 719]], the withdrawal soon turned into a bloody rout. While the bulk of ARVN forces attempted to flee, isolated units fought desperately. ARVN General Phu abandoned Pleiku and Kontum and retreated toward the coast, in what became known as the "column of tears". As the ARVN tried to disengage from the enemy, refugees mixed in with the line of retreat. The poor condition of roads and bridges, damaged by years of conflict and neglect, slowed Phu's column. As the North Vietnamese forces approached, panic set in. Often abandoned by their officers, the soldiers and civilians were shelled incessantly. The retreat degenerated into a desperate scramble for the coast. By 1 April the "column of tears" was all but annihilated. It marked one of the poorest examples of a strategic withdrawal in modern military history.

On 20 March, Thieu reversed himself and ordered Hue, Vietnam's third-largest city, be held at all costs. Thieu's contradictory orders confused and demoralized his officer corp. As the North Vietnamese launched their attack, panic set in and ARVN resistance withered. On 22 March, the VPA opened the siege of Hue. Civilians flooded the airport and the docks hoping for any mode of escape. Some even swam out to sea to reach boats and barges anchored offshore. In the confusion, routed ARVN soldiers fired on civilians to make way for their retreat. On 31 March, after a three-day battle, Hue fell. As resistance in Hue collapsed, North Vietnamese rockets rained down on [[Da Nang]] and its airport. By the 28 March, 35,000 VPA troops were poised to attack the suburbs. By the 30th, 100,000 leaderless ARVN troops surrendered as the VPA marched victoriously through Da Nang. With the fall of the city, the defense of the Central Highlands and Northern provinces came to an end.

===Final North Vietnamese offensive===
{{details|Ho Chi Minh Campaign|the final North Vietnamese offensive}}
With the northern half of the country under their control, the Politburo ordered General Van to launch the final offensive against Saigon. The operational plan for the [[Ho Chi Minh Campaign]] called for the capture of Saigon before 1 May. Hanoi wished to avoid the coming monsoon and prevent any redeployment of ARVN forces defending the capital. Northern forces, their morale boosted by their recent victories, rolled on, taking Nha Trang, Cam Ranh, and Da Lat.

On 7 April, three North Vietnamese divisions [[battle of Xuan Loc|attacked Xuan-loc]], 40 miles (64 km) east of Saigon. The next day a rogue South Vietnamese pilot bombed the presidential palace in Saigon. No one was injured. The North Vietnamese met fierce resistance at Xuan-loc from the [[ARVN 18th Division]]. For two bloody weeks, severe fighting raged as the ARVN defenders, in a last-ditch effort, tried to block their advance. By 21 April, however, the exhausted garrison surrendered. An embittered and tearful President Thiệu resigned on the same day, declaring that the United States had betrayed South Vietnam. He left for [[Taiwan]] on 25 April, leaving control of the government in the hands of General [[Duong Van Minh]]. At the same time, North Vietnamese tanks had reached [[Bien Hoa]] and turned towards Saigon, brushing aside isolated ARVN units along the way.

By the end of April, the Army of the Republic of South Vietnam had collapsed on all fronts. Thousand of refugees streamed southward, ahead of the main communist onslaught. On the 27th, 100,000 North Vietnamese troops encircled Saigon. The city was defended by about 30,000 ARVN troops. To hasten a collapse and foment panic, the VPA shelled the airport and forced its closure. With the air exit closed, large numbers of civilians found that they had no way out.

===Fall of Saigon===
[[Image:vietnamescape.jpg|The End of the War|thumb|right|Vietnamese civilians scramble to board an [[Air America]] helicopter during Operation Frequent Wind.]]
{{main|Fall of Saigon|Operation Frequent Wind}}
Chaos, unrest, and panic ensued as hysterical South Vietnamese officials and civilians scrambled to leave Saigon. Martial law was declared. American helicopters began evacuating South Vietnamese, U.S. and foreign nationals from various parts of the city and from the U.S. embassy compound. [[Operation Frequent Wind]] had been delayed until the last possible moment, because of U.S. Ambassador [[Graham Martin]]'s belief that Saigon could be held and that a political settlement could be reached. [[Operation Frequent Wind]] was arguably the largest helicopter evacuation in history. It began on April 29, in an atmosphere of desperation, as hysterical crowds of Vietnamese vied for limited seats. Martin pleaded with the Washington to dispatch $700 million in emergency aid to bolster the regime and help it mobilize fresh military reserves. But American public opinion had long soured on this conflict halfway around the world.

In the U.S., South Vietnam was now perceived as doomed. President [[Gerald Ford]] gave a televised speech on April 23, declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. aid. [[Operation Frequent Wind]] continued around the clock, as North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon. The song "[[White Christmas (song)|White Christmas]]" was broadcast, as the final signal for withdrawal. In the early morning hours of 30 April, the last [[U.S. Marines]] evacuated the embassy by helicopter, as civilians swamped the perimeter and poured into the grounds. Many of them had been employed by the Americans and were now left to their fate.

On April 30, 1975, VPA troops overcame all resistance, quickly capturing key buildings and installations. A tank crashed through the gates of the Presidential Palace and at 11:30 a.m. local time the NLF flag was raised above it. Thieu's successor, President [[Duong Van Minh]] attempted to surrender, but VPA Colonel Bui Quang Than informed him that he had nothing left to surrender. Minh then issued his last command, ordering all South Vietnamese troops to lay down their arms.

==Aftermath==
{{main|Mayagüez Incident|Socialist Republic of Vietnam|Democratic Kampuchea|Third Indochina War|Reeducation camp|boat people}}
[[Phnom Penh]], the capital of [[Cambodia]], fell to the [[Khmer Rouge]] on [[April 17]], [[1975]]. The last official American military action in South East Asia occurred on [[15 May]] [[1975]]. Forty-one U.S. military personnel were killed when the Khmer Rouge seized a U.S. merchant ship, the [[SS Mayagüez]]. The episode became known as the [[Mayagüez incident]].

The [[Pathet Lao]] overthrew the royalist government of [[Laos]] in December, 1975. They established the [[Lao People's Democratic Republic]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/la.html#history CIA World Factbook]</ref>

Hundreds of thousands of South Vietnamese officials, particularly ARVN officers, were imprisoned in [[reeducation camp]]s after the Communist takeover.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} Tens of thousands died and many fled the country after being released. Up to two million civilians left the country, and as many as half of these [[boat people]] perished at sea.{{Fact|date=June 2007}}

On [[July 2]], [[1976]], the [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] was declared. In 1977, President [[Jimmy Carter]] issued a pardon for nearly 10,000 [[draft dodger]]s.<ref>[http://www.usdoj.gov/pardon/carter_proclamation.htm By The President Of The United Sates Of America, ''A Proclamation Granting Pardon For Violations Of The Selective Services Act, August 4, 1964 To March 28, 1973.'' January 21, 1977.]</ref>

After repeated border clashes in 1978, Vietnam invaded [[Democratic Kampuchea]] (Cambodia) and ousted the Khmer Rouge. As many as two million died during the [[Khmer Rouge]] [[genocide]].

Vietnam began to repress its ethnic Chinese minority. Thousand fled and the exodus of the [[boat people]] began. In 1979, China invaded Vietnam in retaliation for its invasion of Cambodia, known as the [[Third Indochina War]] or the [[Sino-Vietnamese War]]. Chinese forces were repulsed.<ref>[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=358806 Zhang Xiaoming "China's 1979 War With Vietnam: A Reassessment," ''China Quarterly.'' Issue no. 184, December, 2005.]</ref>

The dire predictions of a generation did not come to fruition. Since [[Thailand]] and other South East Asian nations did not fall to systematic Vietnamese aggression, the [[Domino Theory]], so widely trumpeted, was said to have been an illusion. Vietnam, without the presence of the United States, showed itself to be of little economic or strategic value to anyone.<ref>Schell ''The Time of Illusion'' p. 361.</ref> 

At home, a generation of Americans struggled to absorb the lessons of military intervention without clear motives or objectives.<ref>Gerdes (ed). ''Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War'' pp 14–15.</ref> As General [[Maxwell Taylor]], one of the principal architects of the war noted "first, we didn't know ourselves. We thought that we were going into another [[Korean war]], but this was a different country. Secondly, we didn't know our [[South Vietnamese]] allies … And we knew less about [[North Vietnam]]. Who was [[Ho Chi Minh]]? Nobody really knew. So, until we know the enemy and know our allies and know ourselves, we'd better keep out of this kind of dirty business. It's very dangerous."<ref>Karnow ''Vietnam: A History'' p. 23.</ref><ref>Taylor paraphrases Sun Tzu, ''[[The Art of War]]'', Samuel B. Griffith, trans. Oxford, UK. Oxford University Press, 1963.</ref>

In the decades since end of the conflict, discussions have ensued as to whether America's defeat was a political rather than military defeat. Some have suggested that "the responsibility for the ultimate failure of this policy [America's defeat in Vietnam] lies not with the men who fought, but with those in Congress..."<ref>http://www.vietnamwar.com/presidentnixonsrole.htm</ref> Alternatively, the official history of the [[United States Army]] noted that "[[military tactics|tactics]] have often seemed to exist apart from larger issues, [[strategies]], and objectives. Yet in Vietnam the Army experienced [[military tactics|tactical]] success and [[strategic]] failure … The … Vietnam War('s) … legacy may be the lesson that unique historical, political, cultural, and social factors always impinge on the military … Success rests not only on military progress but on correctly analyzing the nature of the particular conflict, understanding the enemy's strategy, and assessing the strengths and weaknesses of allies. A new humility and a new sophistication may form the best parts of a complex heritage left to the Army by the long, bitter war in Vietnam."<ref>see the conclusion in [http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/history/marshall/military/vietnam/short.history/chap_28.txt Demma's "The U.S. Army in Vietnam."]</ref> US Secretary of State [[Henry Kissinger]] wrote in a secret memo to President [[Gerald Ford]] that "in terms of military tactics, we cannot help draw the conclusion that our armed forces are not suited to this kind of war. Even the Special Forces who had been designed for it could not prevail."<ref>Henry A. Kissinger. ''Lessons of Vietnam.'' Secret Memoranda to The President of the United States, May 12, 1975, p. 3.[http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/exhibits/vietnam/750512a.htm]</ref> Even Secretary of Defense [[Robert McNamara]] concluded that "the achievement of a military victory by U.S. forces in Vietnam was indeed a dangerous illusion."<ref>McNamara ''Argument Without End'' p. 368.</ref>

Doubts surfaced as to the effectiveness of large scale, sustained bombing. As [[Chief of Staff of the United States Army]] [[Harold K. Johnson]] noted, "if anything came out of Vietnam, it was that air power couldn't do the job.<ref name="Buzzano">Quoted in Bob Buzzano. [http://www.commondreams.org/views/041700-106.htm "25 Years After The End Of Vietnam War: Myths Keep Us From Coming To Terms With Vietnam,"] ''The Baltimore Sun Times,'' April 17, 2000.</ref> Even [[General William Westmoreland]] admitted that the bombing had been ineffective. As he remarked, "I still doubt that the North Vietnamese would have relented."<ref name="Buzzano"/> The inability to bomb Hanoi to the bargaining table also illustrated another U.S miscalculation. The North's leadership was composed of hardened communists who had been fighting for independence for thirty long years. They had successfully defeated the French and their tenacity as both nationalists and communists was formidable.

The loss of the war called into question U.S. Army doctrine. Marine Corps [[Victor Krulak|General Victor Krulak]] heavily criticised Westmoreland's [[attrition warfare|attrition]] strategy, calling it "wasteful of American lives … with small likelihood of a successful outcome."<ref name="Buzzano"/> As well, doubts surfaced about the ability of the military to train foreign forces.<ref name="Demma"/> The defeat also raised disturbing questions about the quality of the advice that was given to successive [[United States Presidents]] by [[the Pentagon]].<ref name="Demma"/>

As the number of troops in Vietnam increased, the financial burden of the war grew. One of the rarely mentioned consequences of the war were the budget cuts to President Johnson's [[Great Society]] programs. As defense spending and inflation grew, Johnson was forced to raise taxes. The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]], however, refused to vote for the increases unless a $6 billion cut was made to the administration's social programs.

Almost 3 million Americans served in Vietnam. Between 1965 and 1973 the United States spent $120 billion on the war. This resulted in a large federal budget deficit. The war demonstrated that no power, not even a superpower, has unlimited strength and resources. But perhaps most significantly, the Vietnam War illustrated that political will, as much as material might, is a decisive factor in the outcome of conflicts.

==Other countries' involvement==
===Soviet Union===
The [[Soviet Union]] supplied North Vietnam with medical supplies, arms, tanks, planes, helicopters, artillery, ground-air missiles and other military equipment. Hundreds of military advisors were sent to train the Vietnamese army. Soviet pilots acted as a training cadre and many flew combat missions as "volunteers".{{Facts|date=May 2007}} Fewer than a dozen Soviet citizens lost their lives in this conflict. After the war, Moscow became Hanoi's main ally.

===China===
[[People's Republic of China|China]]'s involvement in the Vietnam War began in 1949, when the communists took over the country. The [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC) provided material and technical support to the Vietnamese communists. In the summer of 1962, [[Mao Zedong]] agreed to supply Hanoi with 90,000 rifles and guns free of charge. After the launch of [[Operation Rolling Thunder]], [[China]] sent anti-aircraft units and engineering battalions to North Vietnam to repair the damage caused by American bombing, rebuild roads, railroads and to perform other engineering works. This freed North Vietnamese army units for combat in the South. Between 1965 and 1970 over 320,000 Chinese soldiers served in North Vietnam. The peak was 1967, when 170,000 served there. Although Chinese assistance was accepted gladly, the North Vietnamese remained distrustful of their larger neighbour. This was due to the historical antipathy between the two nations. China emerged as the principle backer of the [[Khmer Rouge]]. [[The People's Republic of China]] briefly launched an invasion of Vietnam in 1979, in retaliation for its invasion of Cambodia to depose the [[Khmer Rouge]]. In April 2006, a ceremony was held in Vietnam to honor the almost 1,500 [[People's Liberation Army|Chinese]] soldiers who were killed in the Vietnam War.

===North Korea===
As a result of a decision of the [[Korean Workers' Party]] in October 1966, in early 1967, [[North Korea]] sent a fighter squadron to North Vietnam to back up the North Vietnamese 921st and 923rd fighter squadrons defending Hanoi. They stayed through 1968, and 200 pilots were reported to have served.<ref>Asia Times, August 18 2006, Richard M Bennett [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Korea/HH18Dg02.html Missiles and madness</ref> In addition, at least two anti-aircraft artillery regiments were sent as well. North Korea also sent weapons, ammunition and two million sets of uniforms to their comrades in North Vietnam.<ref>Merle Pribbenow, 'The 'Ology War: technology and ideology in the defense of Hanoi, 1967' ''Journal of Military History'' 67:1 (2003) p. 183.</ref> [[Kim Il Sung]] is reported to have told his pilots to "fight in the war as if the Vietnamese sky were their own".<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1427367.stm| date= 7 July, 2001| title=N Korea admits Vietnam war role| first= Caroline| last= Gluck| publisher=BBC News| accessdate=2006-10-19}}; also see {{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/696970.stm| date=31 March, 2000| title=North Korea fought in Vietnam War| publisher=BBC News| accessdate=2006-10-19}}; also see {{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1435540.stm| date= 12 July, 2001| title=North Korea honours Vietnam war dead| publisher=BBC News| accessdate=2006-10-19}}</ref>

===South Korea===
The [[South Korea]] had the second-largest contingent of foreign troops in South Vietnam after the United States. South Korea dispatched its first troops in 1964. Large combat battalions began arriving a year later. South Korean troops developed a reputation for ruthlessness.<ref>[http://www.militaryphotos.net/forums/archive/index.php/t-8704.html-31k-]</ref> Approximately 320,000 South Korean soldiers were sent to Vietnam. As with the United States, soldiers served one year. The maximum number of South Korean troops peaked at 50,000. More than 5,000 South Koreans were killed and 11,000 were injured in the war. All troops were withdrawn in 1973.

===Philippines===
Some 1,450 troops were dispatched to South Vietnam. They were primarily engaged in medical and other civilian pacification projects. These forces operated under the designation PHLCAAG or Philippines Civil Affairs Assistance Group.

===Australia and New Zealand===
{{main|Military history of Australia during the Vietnam War|New Zealand in the Vietnam War}}
[[Image:New Zealand forces with Viet Cong prisoners during the Vietnam War.jpg|thumb|right|New Zealand soldiers with NLF/Viet Cong prisoners.]]
As U.S. allies under the [[ANZUS|ANZUS Treaty]], Australia and New Zealand sent ground troops to Vietnam. Both nations had gained valuable experience in counterinsurgency and jungle warfare during the [[Malayan Emergency]]. Geographically close to Asia, they subscribed to the Domino Theory of communist expansion and felt that their national security would be threatened if communism spread further in Southeast Asia. Australia's peak commitment was 7,672 combat troops, New Zealand's 552 and most of these soldiers served in the [[1st Australian Task Force]] which was based in Phuoc Tuy Province. Australia re-introduced conscription to expand its army in the face of significant public opposition to the war. Like the U.S., Australia began by sending advisers to Vietnam, the number of which rose steadily until 1965, when combat troops were committed. New Zealand began by sending a detachment of engineers and an artillery battery, and then started sending Special Forces and regular infantry. [[Non-U.S. recipients of U.S. gallantry awards|Several Australian and New Zealand units]] were awarded U.S. unit citations for their service in South Vietnam. The ANZUS forces were cohesive and well-disclipined.

===Thailand===
[[Thailand|Thai]] Army formations, including the "Queen's Cobra" battalion saw action in South Vietnam between 1965 and 1971. Thai forces saw much more action in the covert war in [[Laos]] between 1964 and 1972. There, Thai regular formations were heavily outnumbered by the irregular "volunteers" of the [[CIA]]-sponsored Police Aerial Reconnaissance Units or PARU, who carried out reconnaissance activities on the western side of the [[Ho Chi Minh Trail]]. The activities of these personnel remain one of the great unknown stories of the South East Asian conflict.

===Canada===
{{main|Canada and the Vietnam War}}
[[Canadian]], [[India]]n and [[Poland|Polish]] troops formed the [[International Control Commission]], which was supposed to monitor the 1954 ceasefire agreement. The Canadian government also lent diplomatic assistance to the United States to establish contact with the North Vietnamese regime. The government of Prime Minister [[Lester B. Pearson]] resisted considerable U.S. pressure to send troops to Vietnam. Although not a major arms supplier, Canadian-made military hardware was used in Vietnam, including large amounts of [[Agent Orange]] manufactured by [[Dow Chemical]]. Most [[Canadian]]s who served in the Vietnam War were members of the [[United States]] military with estimated numbers ranging from 30,000 to 40,000. Many became U.S. citizens upon returning from [[Vietnam]] or were dual citizens prior to joining the military.<ref>[http://www.mystae.com/reflections/vietnam/canada.html Canadians in Vietnam]</ref> The Canadian government gave [[political asylum]] to significant numbers of American [[deserters]] and [[draft dodgers]] during the conflict. Canada hosted 30,000–90,000 Americans seeking asylum. A large number returned to the United States after a pardon was issued by President [[Jimmy Carter]]. The remainder, roughly half, chose to stay in Canada.

==Use of chemical defoliants==
One of the most controversial aspects of the of the U.S. military effort in South East Asia was the widespread use of [[herbicides]] between 1961 and 1971 . They were used to defoliate large parts of the countryside. These chemicals continue to change the landscape, cause diseases and birth defects, and poison the food chain.

Early in the American military effort it was decided that, since PAVN/NLF were hiding their activities under triple-canopy jungle, a useful first step might be to defoliate certain areas. This was especially true of growth surrounding bases (both large and small) in what became known as [[Operation Ranch Hand]]. Corporations like [[Dow Chemical]] and [[Monsanto]] were given the task of developing herbicides for this purpose. The defoliants (which were distributed in drums marked with color-coded bands) included the [[Rainbow Herbicides]] [[Agent Pink]], [[Agent Green]], [[Agent Purple]], [[Agent Blue]], [[Agent White]], and, most famously, the [[dioxin]]-contaminated [[Agent Orange]]. About 12 million gallons (45 000 000 L) of Agent Orange were sprayed over Southeast Asia during the American involvement. A prime area of ''Ranch Hand'' operations was in the [[Mekong Delta]], where the U.S. Navy patrol boats were vulnerable to attack from the undergrowth at the water's edge.

[[Image:Defoliation agent spraying.jpg|thumb|right|U.S. helicopter spraying chemical defoliants in the Mekong Delta, South Vietnam.]]
In 1961–1962, the Kennedy administration authorized the use of chemicals to destroy rice crops. Between 1961 and 1967, the U.S. Air Force sprayed 20 million U.S. gallons (75 700 000 L) of concentrated herbicides over 6 million acres (24 000 km²) of crops and trees, affecting an estimated 13 percent of South Vietnam's land. In 1997, an article published by ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported that up to half a million children were born with dioxin-related deformities, and that the birth defects in southern Vietnam were fourfold those in the north.{{Fact|date=June 2007}} A 1967 study by the [[Agronomy]] Section of the Japanese Science Council concluded that 3.8 million acres (15 000 km²) of foliage had been destroyed, possibly also leading to the deaths of 1,000 peasants and 13,000 pieces of livestock.

As of 2006, the Vietnamese government estimates that there are over 4,000,000 victims of [[dioxin]] poisoning in Vietnam, although the United States government denies any conclusive scientific links between Agent Orange and the Vietnamese victims of dioxin poisoning. In some areas of southern Vietnam dioxin levels remain at over 100 times the accepted international standard.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/12/AR2006111201065.html Anthony Failoa, ''In Vietnam, Old Foes Take Aim at War's Toxic Legacy'', Washington Post, November 13, 2006]</ref>

The U.S. Veterans Administration has listed [[prostate cancer]], [[lung cancer|respiratory cancer]]s, [[multiple myeloma]], [[type II diabetes]], [[Hodgkin's lymphoma|Hodgkin’s disease]], [[Non-Hodgkin lymphoma|non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma]], [[soft tissue sarcoma]], [[chloracne]], [[porphyria cutanea tarda]], [[peripheral neuropathy]], and [[spina bifida]] in children of veterans exposed to Agent Orange. Although there has been much discussion over whether the use of these defoliants constituted a violation of the laws of war, it must be noted that the defoliants were not considered weapons, since exposure to them did not lead to immediate death or even incapacitation.

==Casualties==
{{confusing|date=August 2007}}
{{Main|Vietnam War casualties}}
The number of military and civilian deaths from 1959 to 1975 is debated. To illustrate the problem, below are three reference works by three or more authors listing casualty figures. What is remarkable about them is that the only ones that seem to match are the ones that must be, at best, approximations. None of the figures include the members of South Vietnamese forces killed in the final campaign. Nor do they include the Royal Lao Armed Forces, thousands of Laotian and Thai irregulars, or Laotian civilians who all perished in that peculiar conflict. They do not include the tens of thousands of Cambodians killed during the civil war or the estimated one and one-half to two million that perished in the genocide that followed Khmer Rouge victory

Documents declassified by the Vietnamese government in 1995 revealed that 5.1 million people died during the Hanoi's conflict with the United States. Four million civilians died in the North and South. Total military casualties were put at 1.1 million and 600,000 wounded. Hanoi concealed the figures during the war to avoid demoralizing the population.<ref>[http://www.rjsmith.com/kia_tbl.html ''Agence France Press,'' 3 April, 1995]</ref>

==In popular culture==
The Vietnam war has been featured heavily in television and films. The war also influenced a generation of [[music]]ians and song writers. The musical [[Miss Saigon]] focuses on the end of the war and its aftermath.

==See also==
*[[History of Vietnam]]
*[[History of Laos]]
*[[History of Cambodia]]
*[[Democratic Kampuchea]]
*[[Vietnam]]
*[[Vietnam People's Army]]
*[[Army of the Republic of Vietnam]]
*[[Vietnam War casualties]]
*[[Boat people]]
*[[Kit Carson Scouts]]
*[[Phoenix Program]]
*[[Tiger Force]]
*[[Laotian Civil War]]
*[[Opposition to the Vietnam War]]
*[[Vietnam Veterans against the War]]
*[[Winter Soldier Investigation]]
*[[Canada and the Vietnam War]]
*[[Military history of the United States]]
**[[Cold War]]
**[[Military history]]
**[[United States Air Force In South Vietnam]]
**[[United States Air Force In Thailand]]
*[[Weapons of the Vietnam War]]
*[[Aircraft losses of the Vietnam War]]
*[[Cu Chi tunnels]]
*[[Indochina Wars]]
*[[Prisoner-of-war camp]]
*[[Military Assistance Command, Vietnam Studies and Observations Group]]
*[[Operation Bolo]]
*[[Badger army ammunition plant|Badger Army Ammunition Plant]]

==Lists==
{{main|Vietnam War (lists)}}
*[[Vietnam War (lists)#Major military operations of the Vietnam War with launching dates|Major Operations during the Vietnam War]]
*[[Vietnam War (lists)#Major battles of the Vietnam War|Major Battles during the Vietnam War]]
*[[Vietnam War (lists)#Major Air Campaigns of the Vietnam War|Major Air Campaigns]]
*[[Vietnam War (lists)#Common military medals of the Vietnam War|Common Military Medals]]
*[[Vietnam War (lists)#Anti-war publications in the US forces|Anti-War publications]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==
===Secondary sources===
*Anderson, David L. ''Columbia Guide to the Vietnam War'' (2004).
*Baker, Kevin. "Stabbed in the Back! The past and future of a right-wing myth," ''Harper's Magazine'' (June, 2006) [http://www.harpers.org/StabbedInTheBack.html]
*Angio, Joe. ''Nixon a Presidency Revealed'' (2007) The History Channel television documentary
*Berman, Larry. ''Lyndon Johnson's War: The Road to Stalemate'' (1991).
*Blaufarb, Douglas. ''The Counterinsurgency Era'' (1977) a history of the Kennedy Administration's involvement in South Vietnam.
*Brigham, Robert K. ''Battlefield Vietnam: A Brief History'' a PBS interactive website
*Buzzanco, Bob. "25 Years After End of Vietnam War: Myths Keep Us From Coming To Terms With Vietnam," ''The Baltimore Sun'' (April 17, 2000) [http://www.commondreams.org/views/041700-106.htm]
*Church, Peter ed. ''A Short History of South-East Asia'' (2006).
*Cooper, Chester L. ''The Lost Crusade: America in Vietnam'' (1970) a Washington insider's memoir of events.
*Demma, Vincent H. "The U.S. Army in Vietnam." ''American Military History'' (1989) the official history of the United States Army. Available [http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/history/marshall/military/vietnam/short.history/chap_28.txt online]
*Duiker, William J. ''The Communist Road to Power in Vietnam'' (1996).
*Duncanson, Dennis J. ''Government and Revolution in Vietnam'' (1968).
*Fincher, Ernest Barksdale, ''The Vietnam War'' (1980).
*Ford, Harold P. ''CIA and the Vietnam Policymakers: Three Episodes, 1962–1968.'' (1998).
*Gerdes, Louise I. ed. ''Examining Issues Through Political Cartoons: The Vietnam War'' (2005).
*Hammond, William. ''Public Affairs: The Military and the Media, 1962–1968'' (1987); ''Public Affairs: The Military and the Media, 1068–1973'' (1995). full-scale history of the war by U.S. Army; much broader than title suggests.
*Herring, George C''. America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950–1975'' (4th ed 2001), most widely used short history.
*Hitchens, Christopher. ''The Vietnam Syndrome''.
*Karnow, Stanley. ''Vietnam: A History'' (1983), popular history by a former foreign correspondent; strong on Saigon's plans.
*Kutler, Stanley ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War'' (1996).
*Lewy, Guenter. ''America in Vietnam'' (1978), defends U.S. actions.
*McMahon, Robert J. ''Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War: Documents and Essays'' (1995) textbook.
*McNamara, Robert, James Blight, Robert Brigham, Thomas Biersteker, Herbert Schandler, ''Argument Without End: In Search of Answers to the Vietnam Tragedy'', (Public Affairs, 1999).
*Moise, Edwin E. ''Historical Dictionary of the Vietnam War'' (2002).
*Moss, George D. ''Vietnam'' (4th ed 2002) textbook.
*Moyar, Mark. ''Triumph Forsaken: The Vietnam War, 1954–1965,'' (Cambridge University Press; 412 pages; 2006). A revisionist history that challenges the notion that U.S. involvement in Vietnam was misguided; defends the validity of the domino theory and disputes the notion that Ho Chi Minh was, at heart, a nationalist who would eventually turn against his Communist Chinese allies.
*Palmer, Bruce, Jr. ''The Twenty-Five Year War'' (1984), narrative military history by a senior U.S. general.
*Schell, Jonathan. ''The Time of Illusion'' (1976).
*Schulzinger, Robert D. ''A Time for War: The United States and Vietnam, 1941–1975'' (1997).
*Spector, Ronald. ''After Tet: The Bloodiest Year in Vietnam'' (1992), very broad coverage of 1968.
*Tucker, Spencer. ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War'' (1998) 3 vol. reference set; also one-volume abridgement (2001).
*Witz, James J. ''The Tet Offensive: Intelligence Failure in War'' (1991).
*Young, Marilyn, B. ''The Vietnam Wars: 1945–1990.'' (1991).
*Xiaoming, Zhang. "China's 1979 War With Vietnam: A Reassessment," ''China Quarterly.'' Issue no. 184, (December, 2005) [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=358806]

===Primary sources===
*Anonymous. ''We Had to Destroy it in Order to Save it.''[http://www.everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=116917-28k] infamous quote from unidentified U.S. officer, illustrating the illogic which is sometime part of war.
*Carter, Jimmy. ''By The President Of The United States Of America, A Proclamation Granting Pardon For Violations Of The Selective Service Act, August 4, 1964 To March 28, 1973'' (January 21, 1977) [http://www.usdoj.gov/pardon/carter_proclamation.htm]
*Central Intelligence Agency. "Laos," ''CIA World Factbook'' [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/la.html#history]
*Eisenhower, Dwight D. ''Mandate for Change.'' (1963) a presidential political memoir
*Ho, Chi Minh. "Vietnam Declaration of Independence," ''Selected Works.'' (1960-1962) selected writings
*''Inaugural Address of John F. Kennedy.'' (1961)
*''International Agreement on the Neutrality of Laos.'' (1962)
*LeMay, General Curtis E. and Kantor, MacKinley. ''Mission with LeMay'' (1965) autobiography of controversial former Chief of Staff of the United States Air Force
*Kissinger, United States Secretary of State Henry A. "Lessons on Vietnam," (1975) secret memoranda to U.S. President Ford [http://www.ford.utexas.edu/library/exhibits/vietnam/750512a.htm]
*McMahon, Robert J. ''Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War: Documents and Essays'' (1995) textbook
*Kim A. O'Connell, ed. ''Primary Source Accounts of the Vietnam War'' (2006)
*McCain, John. ''Faith of My Fathers: A Family Memoir'' (1999) the Senator was a POW
*Marshall, Kathryn. ''In the Combat Zone: An Oral History of American Women in Vietnam, 1966–1975'' (1987)
*Martin, John Bartlow. ''Was Kennedy Planning to Pull out of Vietnam?'' (1964) oral history for the John F. Kennedy Library, tape V, reel 1.
*Myers, Thomas. ''Walking Point: American Narratives of Vietnam'' (1988)
*Major General Spurgeon Neel. ''Medical Support of the U.S. Army in Vietnam 1965–1970'' (Department of the Army 1991) official medical history; [http://history.amedd.army.mil/booksdocs/vietnam/medicalsupport/frameindex.html online complete text]
*Roosevelt, Franklin D. "Franklin Roosevelt Memorandum to Cordell Hull." (1995) in ''Major Problems in American Foreign Policy''
*''Public Papers of the Presidents, 1965'' (1966) official documents of U.S. presidents.
*Schlesinger, Arthur M. Jr.''Robert Kennedy and His Times.'' (1978) a first hand account of the Kennedy administration by one of his principle advisors
*Sinhanouk, Prince Norodom. "Cambodia Neutral: The Dictates of Necessity." ''Foreign Affairs.'' (1958) describes the geopolitical situation of Cambodia
*Sun Tzu. ''The Art of War.'' (1963), ancient military treatise
*Tang, Truong Nhu. ''A Vietcong Memoir'' (1985), revealing account by senior NLF official
*Terry, Wallace, ed. ''Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans'' (1984)
*''The Pentagon Papers'' (Gravel ed. 5 vol 1971); combination of narrative and secret documents compiled by Pentagon. [http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent1.html excerpts]
*U.S. Department of State. ''Foreign Relations of the United States'' (multivolume collection of official secret documents) [http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/vol_i/index.html vol 1: 1964]; [http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/vol_ii/index.html vol 2: 1965]; [http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/vol_ii/index.html vol 3: 1965]; [http://www.state.gov/www/about_state/history/vol_iv/index.html vol 4: 1966];
*U.S. Department of Defense and the House Committee on Armed Services.''U.S.-Vietnam Relations, 1945–1967.'' Washington, DC. Department of Defense and the House Committee on Armed Services, 1971, 12 volumes.
*Vann, John Paul [http://www.answers.com/topix/john-paul-vann-44k ''Quotes from Answers.com''] Lt. Colonel, U.S. Army, DFC, DSC, advisor to the ARVN 7th Division, early critic of the conduct of the war.

===Further reading===
{{further|[[Vietnam War (lists)#Further reading]]}}
{{further|[[Vietnam War (lists)#Fiction]]}}
{{further|[[Vietnam War (lists)#Non-fiction]]}}
{{further|[[Vietnam War (lists)#History texts]]}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Vietnam War}}

*[http://www.ibiblio.org/pub/academic/history/marshall/military/vietnam/short.history/chap_28.txt The U.S. Army in Vietnam] the official history of the United States Army
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/vietnam/timeline/ Vietnam war timeline] comprehensive timeline of the Vietnam War
*[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/vietnam.htm Documents Relating to American Foreign Policy-Vietnam] primary sources on U.S. involvement in Vietnam
*[http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/pentagon/pent1.html Complete text of the Gravel Edition of the Pentagon Papers] with supporting documents, maps, and photos
*[http://www.pbs.org/battlefieldvietnam/history/index.html Battlefield Vietnam] PBS interactive site
*[http://tigger.uic.edu/~rjensen/vietnam.html Vietnam War Bibliography] covers online and published resources
*[http://www.datesofhistory.com/Vietnam-War,-2nd-China.general.html China Vietnam War Chronology]
*[http://www.datesofhistory.com/Russia-War,-2nd-USA.general.html Russia Vietnam War Chronology]
*[http://www.datesofhistory.com/Vietnam-War,-2nd-USA.general.html USA Vietnam War Chronology]
*[http://www.datesofhistory.com/Vietnam-War,-2nd-Vietnam.general.html Vietnam Vietnam War Chronology]
*[http://siwmfilm.net/Vietnam_War/Military_Casualty_Information.html U.S. Casualty Statistics]
*[http://www.rjsmith.com/kia_tbl.html Casualties - U.S. vs NVA/VC]
*[http://www.militaryhistoryonline.com/vietnam/vietnamization/default.aspx The Effects of Vietnamization on the Republic of Vietnam's Armed Forces, 1969–1972]
*[http://www.pinkyshow.org/archives/episodes/060809/060809_vietnamwar.html The American War: the U.S. in Vietnam—a ''Pinky Show'' online video]
*[http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/pacificaviet/ UC Berkeley Library Social Activism Sound Recording Project: Anti-Vietnam War Protests]

{{Cold War}}
{{American conflicts}}
[[Category:Vietnam War| ]]
[[Category:Civil wars]]
[[Category:Cold War]]
[[Category:Guerrilla wars]]
[[Category:Operations involving special forces]]
[[Category:Second Indochina War]]
[[Category:Wars of independence]]
[[Category:Wars involving Vietnam]]
[[Category:Wars involving the United States]]
[[Category:Wars involving China]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Philippines]]
[[Category:Military history of Australia]]
[[Category:Wars involving New Zealand]]
[[Category:Wars involving Korea]]
[[Category:Wars involving Thailand]]

{{Link FA|es}}

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User:Sir Vicious/monobook.js

2007-08-06T08:50:44Z

Sir Vicious:

John Curtin

2007-08-06T08:49:01Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 220.236.146.54 identified as vandalism to last revision by Timeshift9. using TW

{{otherpeople4|the Australian Prime Minister|the California state senator|John Curtin (U.S. Politician)}}
{{Infobox Prime Minister
| name=Rt Hon John Curtin
| image=JohnCurtin.jpg
| order=14th [[Prime Minister of Australia]]
 Elections: [[Australian general election, 1937|1937]], [[Australian general election, 1940|1940]], [[Australian general election, 1943|1943]]
| term_start =[[7 October]], [[1941]]
| term_end =[[5 July]], [[1945]]
| predecessor =[[Arthur Fadden]]
| successor =[[Frank Forde]]
| birth_date =[[8 January]], [[1885]]
| birth_place =[[Creswick, Victoria|Creswick]], [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]], [[Australia]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1945|7|5|1885|1|8|df=yes}}
| death_place =[[Canberra]], [[Australian Capital Territory|ACT]]
| party=[[Australian Labor Party|Labor]]
}}
'''John Joseph Curtin''' ([[8 January]], [[1885]] – [[5 July]], [[1945]]), Australian politician and 14th [[Prime Minister of Australia]], led Australia when the Australian mainland came under direct military threat during the Japanese advance in [[World War II]]. He is widely regarded as one of the country's greatest Prime Ministers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=14|title=John Curtin|work=National Archives of Australia|accessdate=2007-04-21}}</ref> General [[Douglas MacArthur]] said that Curtin was "one of the greatest of the wartime statesmen".<ref>General Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences, Heinemann, London, 1967. Page 258.</ref> His Prime Ministerial predecessor, [[Arthur Fadden]] of the [[National Party of Australia|Country Party]] wrote: "I do not care who knows it but in my opinion there was no greater figure in Australia public life in my lifetime than Curtin."<ref>Foreword by R.J. Hawke to John Curtin - Saviour of Australia, Norman E Lee, Longman Cheshire, 1983. Page 83</ref>

==Militant youth==
[[Image:JohnCurtin1908.JPG|thumb|100px|left|John Curtin in 1908]][[Image:Curtin1910.jpg|thumb|100px|left|John Curtin in 1914]]
Curtin was born in [[Creswick, Victoria|Creswick]] in central [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]. (His name is sometimes shown as "John Joseph Ambrose Curtin". He chose the name "Ambrose" as a Catholic confirmation name at around age 14, but this was never part of his legal name. He left the Catholic faith as a young man, and also dropped the "Joseph" from his name.)

His father was a police officer of Irish descent. He had some primary education, but by the age of twelve he was working in a factory in [[Melbourne]]. He soon became active in both the [[Australian Labor Party]] and the [[Victorian Socialist Party]], a [[Marxist]] group. He wrote for radical and socialist newspapers as "Jack Curtin".

In 1911 Curtin was employed as secretary of the Timberworkers' Union, and during [[World War I]] he was a militant anti-conscriptionist. He was the Labor candidate for [[Division of Balaclava|Balaclava]] in 1914. He was briefly imprisoned for refusing to attend a compulsory medical examination, even though he knew he would fail the exam due to his very poor eyesight. The strain of this period led him to drink heavily, a vice which blighted his career for many years. In 1917 he married Elsie Needham, the sister of a Labor Senator.

==Labor politician==
Curtin moved to Perth in 1918 to become editor of the ''Westralian Worker'', the official trade union newspaper. He enjoyed the less pressured life of [[Western Australia]] and his political views gradually moderated. He stood for Parliament several times before winning the federal seat of [[Division of Fremantle|Fremantle]] in [[1928]]. He expected to be chosen as a minister in [[James Scullin]]'s Labor cabinet when it was formed in [[1929]], but disapproval of his drinking kept him on the back bench. He lost his seat in [[1931]], but won it back three years later.

When Scullin resigned as Labor leader in [[1935]], Curtin was unexpectedly elected (by just one vote) to succeed him. The left wing and trade union group in the Caucus backed him because his better known rival, [[Frank Forde]], had supported the economic policies of the Scullin administration. This group also made him promise to give up drinking, which he did. He made little progress against [[Joseph Lyons]]' government (which was returned to office at the [[1937]] election by a comfortable margin); but after Lyons' death in [[1939]], Labor's position improved. Curtin fell only a few seats short of winning the [[1940]] election.

==Wartime leader==
[[Image:curtinmacarthur.jpg|thumb|270px|Curtin with Douglas MacArthur]]

Curtin refused [[Robert Menzies]]' offer to form a wartime "national government," partly because he feared it would split the Labor Party. In October 1941 the two independent MPs who had been keeping the conservatives (led first by Menzies, then by Sir [[Arthur Fadden]]) in power since 1940 switched their support to Labor, and Curtin became Prime Minister.

On [[December 8]], the [[Pacific War]] broke out. Curtin took several crucial decisions. On [[26 December]], the [[The Herald (Australia)|''Melbourne Herald'']] published a [[New Year]]'s message from Curtin, who wrote: "[w]ithout any inhibitions of any kind, I make it clear that Australia looks to America, free of any pangs as to our traditional links or kinship with the United Kingdom." This was received badly in Australia, the UK and US;<ref>[http://www.awm.gov.au/events/conference/2002/edwards.htm Peter Edwards, "Another look at Curtin and MacArthur" (Australian War Memorial)] Access date: 20/04/06.</ref> it angered [[Winston Churchill]], and [[Franklin D. Roosevelt|President Roosevelt]] said it "smacked of panic". The article nevertheless achieved the effect of drawing attention to the [[Proposed Japanese invasion of Australia during World War II|possibility that Australia would be invaded by Japan]].

Curtin formed a close working relationship with the Allied Supreme Commander in the [[South West Pacific Area (command)|South West Pacific Area]], General [[Douglas MacArthur]]. Curtin realised that Australia would be ignored unless it had a strong voice in Washington, and he wanted that voice to be MacArthur's. He gave control of Australian forces to MacArthur, directing Australian commanders to treat MacArthur's orders as coming from the Australian government.

[[Image:John and Elsie Curtin.jpg|left|thumb|Wife Elsie Curtin (nee Needham) standing next to John.]]The Australian government had agreed that the Australian Army's [[I Corps (Australia)|I Corps]] — centred on the [[6th Division (Australia)|6th]] and [[7th Division (Australia)|7th Infantry Divisions]] — would be transferred from [[North Africa]] to the [[American-British-Dutch-Australian Command]], in the [[Netherlands East Indies]]. In February, following the [[Battle of Singapore|fall of Singapore]] and the loss of the [[8th Division (Australia)|8th Division]], Churchill attempted to divert I Corps to reinforce British troops in [[Burma]], without Australian approval. Curtin insisted that it return to Australia, although he agreed that the main body of the 6th Division could garrison [[Ceylon]].

The Japanese threat was underlined on [[February 19]], when Japan [[Bombing of Darwin|bombed Darwin]], the first of many [[Japanese air attacks on Australia, 1942-43|air raids on northern Australia]].
[[Image:johncurtin.jpg|right|thumb|John Curtin]]
By the end of 1942, the results of the battles of [[battle of the Coral Sea|the Coral Sea]], [[Battle of Milne Bay|Milne Bay]] and on the [[Kokoda Track campaign|Kokoda Track]] had averted the perceived threat of invasion. In August, Curtin led Labor to its greatest election victory up until that time.

Curtin also expanded the terms of the Defence Act, so that conscripted [[Australian Army Reserve|Militia]] soldiers could be deployed outside Australia to "such other territories in the South-west Pacific Area as the Governor-General proclaims as being territories associated with the defence of Australia."<ref>[http://www.naa.gov.au/fsheets/fs162.html National Archives of Australia: National service and war, 1939–45]</ref> This met opposition from most of Curtin's old friends on the left, and from many of his colleagues, led by [[Arthur Calwell]]. This was despite Curtin furiously opposing conscription during [[World War I]], and again in 1939 when it was introduced by the [[Robert Menzies|Menzies]] government.

The stress of this bitter battle inside his own party took a great toll on Curtin's health, never robust even at the best of times. He suffered all his life from stress-related illnesses, and he also smoked heavily. In 1944, when he travelled to Washington and London for meetings with Roosevelt, Churchill and other Allied leaders, he already had heart disease, and in early 1945 his health deteriorated still more obviously. On [[July 5]], [[1945]], at the age of 60, Curtin died: the second Australian Prime Minister to die in office within six years. He was buried at [[Karrakatta Cemetery]] in [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]]. MacArthur said of Curtin that "the preservation of Australia from invasion will be his immemorial monument".

He was succeeded as Prime Minister by [[Frank Forde]] (briefly) then, after a party ballot, by [[Ben Chifley]].

==Legacy==
[[Image:John Curtin grave.JPG|left|thumb|150px|John Curtin's grave at [[Karrakatta Cemetery]].]]
[[Image:John Curtin, Fremantle, Western Australia.jpg|right|thumb|150px|John Curtin statue at Fremantle Town Hall.]]
Curtin is credited with leading the [[Australian Labor Party]] to it's best federal election success in history, on a record 55.09% of the primary senate vote at the [[Australian general election, 1943|1943 election]].

His early death and the sentiments it aroused have given Curtin a unique place in Australian political history. Successive Labor leaders, particularly [[Bob Hawke]] and [[Kim Beazley]], have sought to build on the Curtin tradition of "patriotic Laborism". Even some political conservatives pay at least formal homage to the Curtin legend.

Curtin is commemorated by [[Curtin University of Technology]] in Perth, [[John Curtin College of the Arts]] in [[Fremantle, Western Australia|Fremantle]] the [[John Curtin School of Medical Research]] in Canberra and the [http://john.curtin.edu.au/ John Curtin Prime Ministerial Library]. On [[14 August]] [[2005]], [[Victory over Japan Day|V-P]] Day, a bronze [[List of statues in Western Australia|statue]] of Curtin was unveiled by Premier [[Geoff Gallop]] in front of Fremantle Town Hall.
{{-}}

==Popular culture==
* In the 1984 mini series ''[[The Last Bastion]]'', Curtin was portrayed by [[Michael Blakemore]].
* In the 1986 film ''[[Death of a Soldier]]'', he was portrayed by [[Terence Donovan (actor)|Terence Donovan]].
* In the 2000 film ''[[Pozieres (film)|Pozieres]]'', he was portrayed by [[David Ross Paterson]].
* In the 2007 film ''[[Curtin (2007 film)|Curtin]]'', he was portrayed by [[William McInnes]].

==See also==
*[[First Curtin Ministry]]
*[[Second Curtin Ministry]]
*[[Military history of Australia during World War II]]

==Further reading==
*Lloyd Ross, ''John Curtin'', MacMillan Company of Australia, 1977, ISBN 0 522 84734 X
*S.J. Butlin and C.B. Schedvin, ''War Economy 1942–1945,'' Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1997
*David Day, ''Curtin: A Life'', Harper Collins, 1999
*[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=108661368 John Edwards, ''Curtin's Gift: Reinterpreting Australia's Greatest Prime Minister'', Allen & Unwin, 2005]
*Bob Wurth, "Saving Australia: Curtin’s secret peace with Japan".

===Primary sources===
* D. Black, ''In His Own Words: John Curtin's Speeches and Writings,'' Paradigm Books, Curtin University, Perth 1995

===References===
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://primeministers.naa.gov.au/meetpm.asp?pmId=14 John Curtin] - Australia's Prime Ministers / National Archives of Australia
* [http://john.curtin.edu.au/ John Curtin Prime Ministerial Library] / Curtin University of Technology, Western Australia

{{start box}}
{{succession box one to two | title1=[[Australian Labor Party|Leader of the Labor Party]] | before=[[James Scullin]] | after1=[[Ben Chifley]] | years1=1935–1945 | title2=[[Opposition (Australia)|Leader of the Opposition]] | after2=[[Arthur Fadden]] | years2=1935–1941}}
{{succession box | title=[[Prime Minister of Australia]] | before=[[Arthur Fadden]] | after=[[Frank Forde]] | years=1941–1945}}
{{end box}}

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{{AustraliaFederalLaborLeader}}

[[Category:1885 births|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:1945 deaths|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Australian Labor Party politicians|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Australian Leaders of the Opposition|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Australian people of World War II|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Australian Roman Catholics|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Burials at Karrakatta Cemetery|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Irish Australians|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Members of the Australian House of Representatives|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Members of the Australian House of Representatives for Fremantle|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Members of the Cabinet of Australia|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Australia|Curtin, John]]
[[Category:World War II political leaders|Curtin, John]]

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[[zh:约翰·卡廷]]

Feces

2007-08-06T08:45:32Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 58.163.64.218 identified as vandalism to last revision by ElKevbo. using TW

[[Image:Hestemøj.jpg|thumb|right|Horse feces]]'''Feces''', '''faeces''', or '''fæces''' (see [[American and British English spelling differences|spelling differences]]) is a waste product from an animal's [[gastrointestinal tract|digestive tract]] expelled through the [[anus]] (or [[cloaca]]) during ''[[defecation]]''. The word ''faeces'' is the plural of the [[Latin]] word ''fæx'' meaning "dregs". There is no singular form in the English language, making it a [[plurale tantum]]. <ref>http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=3400</ref>

==Ecology==
[[Image:Kasuar fg1.jpg|right|thumb|[[Cassowary|Cassowaries]] disperse seeds via their feces.]]
After an animal has digested material, the remains of it is [[excreted]] from its body as waste. Though it is lower in energy than the food it came from, feces may still contain a large amount of energy, often 50% of that of the original food.<ref name=Campbell>''Biology'' (4th edition) N.A.Campbell (Benjamin Cummings NY, 1996) ISBN 0-8053-1957-3</ref> This means that of all food eaten, a significant amount of energy remains for the decomposers of ecosystems. Many organisms feed on feces, from bacteria to fungi to insects such as [[dung beetle]]s, which can [[sensory system|sense]] odors from long distances.<ref>Heinrich, B., and G. A. Bartholomew (1979) The ecology of the African dung beetle. ''[[Scientific American]]'' 241: 146-156</ref> Some may specialize in feces, while others may eat other foods as well. Feces serve not only as a basic food, but also a supplement to the usual diet of some animals. This is known as [[coprophagia]], and occurs in various animal species such as young elephants eating their mother's feces to gain essential [[gut flora]], or by other animals such as monkeys.

Feces are also an important as a [[signalling theory|signal]]. [[Kestrel]]s for instance are able to detect the feces of their prey (which reflect [[ultraviolet]]), allowing them to identify areas where there are large numbers of voles, for example. This adaptation is essential in [[prey detection]], as voles are expert at hiding from such predators.<ref>Viitala, J., E. Korpimäki, Polakangas, P., Koivula, M. (1995) Attraction of kestrels to vole scent marks visible in ultraviolet light. ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' 373:423-425</ref> Some caterpillars even shoot their feces away from themselves in an explosive burst, helping them to avoid predators taking advantage of the [[olfactory]] signal it creates. In a non-predatory example, dominant [[wildebeest]] bulls defend [[territory (animal)|territories]] marked with feces and [[pheromone]]s produced by scent glands.

[[Seed]]s may also be found in feces. Animals which eat [[fruit]] are known as [[frugivore]]s. The advantage in having fruit for a plant is that animals will eat the fruit and unknowingly disperse the seed in doing so. This mode of [[seed dispersal]] is highly successful, as seeds dispersed around the base of a plant are unlikely to succeed and are often subject to heavy [[seed predation|predation]]. Provided the seed can withstand the pathway through the digestive system, it is not only likely to be far away from the parent plant, but is even provided with its own fertilizer.

Organisms which subsist on dead organic matter or ''[[detritus]]'' are known as [[detritivore]]s, and play an important role in ecosystems by recycling organic matter back into a simpler form which plants and other [[autotroph]]s may once again absorb. This cycling of matter is known as the [[biogeochemical cycle]]. To maintain nutrients in soil it is therefore important that feces return to the area from which they came, which is not always the case in human society where food may be transported from rural areas to urban populations and then feces disposed of into a river or sea.

== Human feces ==
{{main|Human feces}}

In humans, defecation may occur (depending on the individual and the circumstances) from once every two or three days to several times a day. Hardening of the feces may cause prolonged interruption in the routine and is called [[constipation]].

[[Human]] fecal matter varies significantly in appearance, depending on diet and health. Normally it is semisolid, with a [[mucus]] coating. Its brown coloration comes from a combination of [[bile]] and [[bilirubin]], which comes from dead [[red blood cells]].

In newborn babies, fecal matter is initially yellow/green after the [[meconium]]. This coloration comes from the presence of [[bile]] alone. In time, as the body starts expelling bilirubin from dead red blood cells, it acquires its familiar brown appearance, unless the baby is breast feeding, in which case it remains soft, pale yellowish, and not-unpleasantly scented until the baby begins to eat significant amounts of other food.

Throughout the life of an ordinary human, one may experience many types of feces. A "green" stool is from rapid transit of feces through the intestines (or the consumption of certain blue or green food dyes in quantity), and "clay-like" appearance to the feces is the result of a lack of bilirubin.

[[Bile]] overload is very rare, and not a health threat. Problems as simple as serious [[diarrhea]] can cause blood in one's stool, turning it black. Black stools caused by blood usually indicate a problem in the intestines (the black blood is digested), whereas red streaks of blood in stool are usually caused by bleeding in the rectum or anus.

Food may sometimes make an appearance in the feces. Common undigested foods found in human feces are seeds, nuts, corn and beans, mainly because of their high [[Dietary fiber]] content.

=== Bristol Stool Scale ===
Consistency and shape of stools may be classified medically according to the [[Bristol Stool Scale]].

[[Pica (disorder)|Pica]], a disorder where non-food items are eaten, can cause unusual stool. [[Intestinal parasite]]s and their [[ova]] (eggs) can sometimes be visible to the naked [[eye]].

== Odor ==
[[Image:Hydrogen-sulfide-3D-vdW.png|right|thumb|100px|The [[molecule]] hydrogen sulfide contributes to the smell of feces.]]
The distinctive [[odor]] of feces is due to [[bacterial]] action. [[Gut flora]] produce compounds such as [[indole]], [[skatole]], and [[thiol]]s ([[sulfur]] containing compounds), as well as the inorganic gas [[hydrogen sulfide]]. These are the same compounds that are responsible for the odor of [[flatulence]]. Consumption of foods with spices may result in the spices being undigested and adding to the odor of feces. Certain commercial products exist that claim to reduce the odor of feces{{Fact|date=June 2007}}. The perceived bad odor of feces has been hypothesized to be a deterrent for humans, as consumption or touching it may result in sickness or infection. {{Fact|date=June 2007}} Of course, human perception of the odor is a [[subjectivity|subjective]] matter; for an animal that eats feces, it might well smell wonderful.

== Personal hygiene ==
For [[personal hygiene]], several companies market toilet tissue or wipes for babies and campers. {{Fact|date=June 2007}}

== Pets ==
Several companies market [[carpet]] cleaning products aimed at pet owners. However pet feces can be cleaned with just [[dishwashing detergent]] or liquid [[soap]]. <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.paw-rescue.org/PAW/PETTIPS/DogTip_Cleaning.php |title=Cleaning Tips |publisher=The Partnership for Animal Welfare}}</ref>

== Uses ==
The feces of animals is often used as [[fertilizer]]; see [[manure]].
Some animal feces, especially those of the [[camel]], [[bison]] and [[cow]], is used as fuel when dried out.<ref>[http://www.stcwa.org.au/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=798&Itemid=134 Dried Camel Dung as fuel]</ref>
Animal Dung, besides being used as fuel, is occasionally used as a cement to make [[adobe]] [[mud brick]] huts <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/technical/fs34d.htm |title=Your Home Technical Manual - 3.4d Construction Systems - Mud Brick (Adobe) |accessdate=2007-07-09}}</ref> or even in throwing sports such as Cow Pat throwing or Camel Dung throwing contests.<ref>[http://www.abc.net.au/news/newsitems/200307/s900527.htm Dung Throwing contests]</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Bristol Stool Scale]]
*[[Cloaca (art)]]
*[[Ecological sanitation]]
*''[[Everyone Poops]]''
*[[Night soil]]

==Bibliography==
*''Fecal Matters in Early Modern Literature and Art: Studies in Scatology''. J Persels, R Ganim - 2004 [http://books.google.it/books?vid=ISBN0754641163&id=0GKUQ-5o3qkC]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* ''History of Shit'' by Dominique Laporte. ISBN 0-262-62160-6

==External links==
{{commons|Feces}}
*[http://www.heptune.com/poop.html A FAQ site on feces]
* [http://www.mcevoy.demon.co.uk/Medicine/Pathology/Biochem/Liver/Biochem.html Liver biochemistry]
* [http://www.medfriendly.com/feces.html MedFriendly's Article on Feces]
* [http://www.poopthebook.com Poop Culture: How America is Shaped by its Grossest National Product] ISBN 1-932-59521-X

[[Category:animal physiology]]
[[Category:Feces| ]]
[[Category:Waste]]

[[bg:Изпражнения]]
[[cs:Výkal]]
[[da:Afføring]]
[[de:Kot]]
[[es:Heces]]
[[eo:Feko]]
[[fa:مدفوع]]
[[fr:Matière fécale]]
[[hr:Izmet]]
[[io:Feko]]
[[id:Tinja]]
[[iu:ᐊᖏᐋᕐᓂᖅ/angiaarniq]]
[[it:Feci]]
[[he:צואה]]
[[la:Faeces]]
[[lt:Išmatos]]
[[nl:Ontlasting]]
[[ja:糞]]
[[no:Avføring]]
[[pl:Kał]]
[[pt:Fezes]]
[[qu:Aka]]
[[ru:Кал]]
[[simple:Feces]]
[[sk:Výkal]]
[[sr:Измет]]
[[su:Tai]]
[[fi:Uloste]]
[[sv:Avföring]]
[[ta:மலம்]]
[[vi:Phân]]
[[yi:צואה]]
[[zh:糞便]]

User:Sir Vicious/monobook.js

2007-08-06T08:40:11Z

Sir Vicious:

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User:Sir Vicious

2007-08-06T08:34:48Z

Sir Vicious:

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User:Sir Vicious/monobook.js

2007-08-06T08:32:54Z

Sir Vicious:

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Ancient Greek coinage

2007-08-06T08:20:55Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 219.89.32.100 identified as vandalism to last revision by STBotD.

{{unreferenced|date=April 2007}}
{{Numismatics}}

The history of '''[[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greek]] coinage''' can be divided (along with most other Greek art forms), into three periods, the Archaic, the Classical and the [[Hellenistic Greece|Hellenistic]]. The Archaic period extends from the introduction of coinage to the Greek world in about [[600 BCE]] until the [[Persian Wars]] in about [[480 BCE]]. The Classical period then began, and lasted until the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]] in about [[330 BC]], which began the Hellenistic period, extending until the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] absorption of the Greek world in the 1st century BCE. The Greeks cities continued to produce their own coins for several more centuries under Roman rule, called [[Roman provincial coins]].

==Archaic period==
[[Coin]]s were invented in the Kingdom of [[Lydia]], in what is now western [[Turkey]] in about 650-600 BCE (they were independently invented in [[China]] and [[India]] in about [[600 BCE]]). An important source of the metal used in these coins was the river [[Pactolus]] close to [[Sardis]] where there were alluvial deposits of gold mixed with as much as 40% silver and some copper; such a gold-silver mix is called ([[electrum]]). The earliest coins were made of electrum with a standardized 55% gold, 45 silver and 1-2% copper concentration and had either no design or a some apparently random surface striations on one side and a punch impression on the other. Electrum coinage spread to the independent city states of [[Ionia]] on the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] coast within a few decades.

The first bimetallic currency of pure gold and silver coins was introduced during the reign of King [[Croesus]] in [[Sardis]] (561-547 BCE) using a design of a lion or a lion and bull on one side; the other side remained a punch mark. By this time, coinage had spread to Greece proper and to the many Greek colonies spread from the [[Black Sea]] to [[Sicily]] and southern Italy ([[Magna Graecia]]).

In the "Archaic period" coins were fairly crude by later standards. They were mostly small disk-shaped lumps of [[gold]], [[silver]], or [[bronze]], stamped with a geometric design or symbol to indicate its city of origin. As coining techniques improved, coins became more standardized as flat circular objects and the convention of putting a representation of the patron deity of the issuing city became established. Animal symbols such as the bees (sacred to [[Artemis]]) of [[Ephesus]], turtles of [[Aegina]], or the owl (sacred to [[Athena]]) of [[Athens]] were also widely used.

The Greek world was divided into at least a hundred self-governing cities and towns (in [[Greek language|Greek]], ''poleis''), and most of these issued their own coins. Some coins circulated widely beyond their ''polis'', indicating that they were being used in inter-city trade; the first example appears to have been the silver [[drachm]] of Aegina. As such coins circulated more widely, coins of other cities came increasingly to be minted to the same weight standard (the weight standard of the Aeginetan [[drachma]] was 6.1 g) although marked with the symbols of the issuing city. This is rather like today's [[Euro]] coins, which are recognisably from a particular country, but usable all over the [[Euro zone]].

Different weight standards co-existed; these may well have indicated different trade alliances. In about [[510 BC]] Athens began producing a fine silver ''[[tetradrachm]]'' (four drachm) coin. As Athens and Aegina were hostile, this was minted to a different weight standard, the "Attic" standard drachm of 4.3 g. Over time, Athens' plentiful supply of silver from the mines at [[Laurion]] and its increasing dominance in trade made this the pre-eminent standard. Tetradrachms on this weight standard continued to be a widely used coin (often the most widely used) through the classical period, by Alexander, and by the Hellenistic monarchs.

The word ''[[drachm]]'' means "a handful". Drachmae could be divided into six ''[[obol]]s'' (from the Greek word for a spit of iron).

==Classical period==
[[Image:Attic-fig209.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Tetradrachm of Athens, fifth century BCE. On the obverse, a portrait of [[Athena]], patron goddess of the city. On the reverse, the owl of Athens]]
The "Classical period" saw Greek coinage reach a high level of technical and aesthetic quality. Larger cities now produced a range of fine silver and gold coins, most bearing a portrait of their patron god or goddess, or a legendary hero, on one side, and a symbol of the city on the other. Some coins employed a visual pun: coins from [[Rhodes]] featured a rose, since the Greek word for rose is ''rhodon''. The use of inscriptions on coins also began, usually the name of the issuing city. The wealthy cities of Sicily produced some especially fine coins. The large silver ''[[decadrachm]]'' (ten drachm) coin from [[Syracuse, Italy|Syracuse]] is regarded by many collectors as the finest coin produced in the ancient world, perhaps ever.

The use of coins for [[propaganda]] purposes was a Greek invention. Coins are valuable, durable and pass through many hands. In an age without newspapers or other mass media, they were an ideal way of disseminating a political message. The first such coin was a commemorative ''decadrachm'' issued by Athens following the Greek victory in the Persian Wars. On these coins the owl of Athens was depicted facing the viewer with wings outstretched, holding a spray of olive leaves. The message was that Athens was powerful and victorious, but peace-loving.

==Hellenistic period==
[[Image:EucratidesStatere.jpg|thumb|150px|Gold 20-[[stater]] of [[Eucratides I]], the largest gold coin ever minted in Antiquity.]]
The '''Hellenistic period''' was characterised by the spread of Greek culture across a large part of the known world. Greek-speaking kingdoms were established in [[Egypt]] and [[Syria]], and for a time also in [[Iran]] and as far east as what is now [[Afghanistan]] and northwestern [[India]]. Greek traders spread Greek coins across this vast area, and the new kingdoms soon began to produce their own coins. Because these kingdoms were much larger and wealthier than the Greek city states of the classical period, their coins tended to be more mass-produced, as well as larger, and more frequently in gold. They often lacked the aesthetic delicacy of coins of the earlier period.

[[Image:AmyntasCoin.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Double decadrachm of the [[Indo-Greek]] ruler [[Amyntas]] (ruled 95-90 BCE): the largest silver coin of Antiquity.]]
Still, some of the [[Greco-Bactrian]] coins, and those of their successors in India, the [[Indo-Greeks]], are considered the finest examples of [[Greek coins|Greek numismatic art]] with "a nice blend of realism and idealization", including the largest coins to be minted in the Hellenistic world: the largest gold coin was minted by [[Eucratides]] (reigned [[171 BCE|171]]–[[145 BCE]]), the largest silver coin by the Indo-Greek king [[Amyntas]] (reigned c. [[95 BCE|95]]–[[90 BCE]]). The portraits "show a degree of individuality never matched by the often bland depictions of their royal contemporaries further West" (Roger Ling, "Greece and the Hellish World").

The most striking new feature of Hellenistic coins was the use of portraits of living people, namely of the kings themselves. This practice had begun in Sicily, but was disapproved of by other Greeks as showing [[hubris]] (pride). But the kings of [[Ptolemaic Egypt]] and [[Seleucid Syria]] had no such scruples, and issued magnificent gold coins adorned with their own portraits, with the symbols of their state on the reverse. The names of the kings were frequently inscribed on the coin as well. This established a pattern for coins which has persisted ever since: a portrait of the king, usually in profile and striking a heroic pose, on the obverse, with his name beside him, and a coat of arms or other symbol of state on the reverse.

==Minting==
All Greek coins were hand-made, rather than milled as modern coins are. The design for the obverse was carved (in reverse) into a block of stone or iron. The design of the reverse was carved into another. The blank gold or silver disk, heated to make it soft, was then placed between these two blocks and the upper block struck hard with a hammer, "punching" the design onto both sides of the coin.

This is a fairly crude technique and produces a high failure rate, so the high technical standards achieved by the best Greek coins - perfect centering of the image on the disk, even relief all over the coin, sharpness of edges - is a remarkable testament to Greek perfectionism.

==Ancient Greek coins today==
The best Greek coins are rare and expensive, and many can only be seen in museums, of which the [[National Numismatic Museum]] in Athens, the [[British Museum]] and the [[American Numismatic Society]] are among the finest. An active market in both high quality and common ancient Greek coins exists, dominated by on-line auction houses in the United States and Europe. Moreover, hoards of Greek coins are still being found in Europe and the Middle East, and many of the coins in these hoards find their way onto the market, often via the [[Internet]]. Coins are the only art form from the Ancient world which are common enough and durable enough to be within the reach of ordinary collectors.

==See also==
{{portalpar|Numismatics|United States penny, obverse, 2002.jpg}}
*[[Art of Ancient Greece]]
*[[Seleucid coinage]]
*[[Indian coinage]] for Bactria and descendant coinage.

==Further reading==
*Head, Barclay V. (1911), ''Historia Numorum; A Manual of Greek Numismatics'',Oxford: Clarendon Press.
*Jenkins, H.K. (1990), ''Ancient Greek Coins'', Seaby, ISBN 1-85264-014-6
*Kayhan, Muharram & Konuk, Koray (2003), ''From Kroisos to Karia; Early Anatolian Coins from the Muharrem Kayhan Collection'', ISBN 975-8070-61-4
*Kraay, Colin M. (1976), ''Archaic and Classical Greek Coins'', New York: Sanford J. Durst, ISBN 0-915262-75-4.
*Ramage, Andrew and Craddock, Paul (2000), ''King Croesus' Gold; Excavations at Sardis and the History of Gold Refining'', Trustees of the British Museum, ISBN 0-7141-0888-X.
*Rutter N. K, Burnett A. M., Crawford M. H., Johnston A. E.M., Jessop Price M (2001), ''Historia Numorum Italy'', London: The British Museum Press, ISBN 0-7141-1801-X.
*Seltman, Charles (1933), ''Greek Coins'', London: Methuen & Co., Ltd.
*Thompson M., Mørkholm O., Kray C. M. (eds): An Inventory of Greek Coin Hoards, ('''IGCH'''). New York, 1973
* Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum:
** American Numismatic Society: The Collection of the American Numismatic Society, New York

==External links==
{{commons|Ancient Greek coins|Ancient Greek coinage}}

* [http://www.amnumsoc.org/inc/ International Numismatic Commission]
* [http://www.britac.ac.uk/ The British Academy]
* [http://www.sylloge-nummorum-graecorum.org/ Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum in UK]
* [http://www.amnumsoc.org/search American Numismatic Society]
* [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/browser?object=coin ''Perseus'' Project at Tuft University]
* [http://www.numismatics.org/search/index.html American Numismatic Society] a search engine for Greek coins
* [http://www.wildwinds.com Wildwinds: a database for Greek and Roman coins - includes images ]
*[http://www.coinarchives.com CoinArchives.com: A large database of coins previously sold at auction - includes images and prices]
*[http://www.culture.gr/2/21/214/21401m/e21401m.html National Numismatic Museum, Athens]
*[http://www.snible.org/coins/hn/ Historia Numorum: A Manual of Greek Numismatics]
*[http://www.coins.gr/hellenum/ Hellenic Numismatic Society]
*[http://www.fleur-de-coin.com/currency/greekcoinshistory.asp?sec=4 History of the Greek coins] And presentation of the Greek modern coins
[[Category:Coins]]
[[Category:Ancient Greece]]
[[Category:Ancient currencies]]
[[Category:Coins of ancient Greece]]

[[de:Altgriechische Währung]]
[[es:Monedas de Grecia]]
[[it:Monetazione greca]]

User talk:83.105.79.19

2007-08-06T08:20:19Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Vandalism on José Bosingwa.

== August 2007 ==
{{{icon|[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] }}}Welcome to Wikipedia. Although we invite everyone to contribute constructively to our encyclopedia, at least one of your recent edits, such as the one you made to [[:José Bosingwa]], was not constructive and has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. Please use [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|the sandbox]] for any test edits you would like to make, and take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to this encyclopedia. Thank you. [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] 08:20, 6 August 2007 (UTC)

José Bosingwa

2007-08-06T08:20:09Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 83.105.79.19 identified as vandalism to last revision by Jonaldinho2004.

{{Football player infobox
| playername = Bosingwa
| image =
| fullname = José Bosingwa da Silva
| height = 1.83 m
| nickname = ZéBo
| dateofbirth = {{birth date and age|1982|08|24}}
| cityofbirth = [[Kinshasa]]
| countryofbirth = [[DR Congo]]
| currentclub = [[FC Porto]]
| clubnumber = 12
| position = [[Defender (football)|Right-back]]
| youthyears =
| youthclubs =
| years = 2000-01 2001-03 2003-current
| clubs = Freamunde [[Boavista FC]] [[FC Porto]]
| caps(goals) = 11 (0) 41 (0) 79 (2)
| nationalyears = ? - 2004 2007-
| nationalteam = [[Portugal national under-21 football team|Portugal U-21 / Olympics]] [[Portugal national football team|Portugal]]
| nationalcaps(goals) = 2 (0)
| pcupdate = July 2006
| ntupdate = June 2, 2007
}}
'''José Bosingwa da Silva''' (born [[August 24]], [[1982]] in [[Kinshasa]]) is a [[football (soccer)|football]] player from [[Portugal]]. He currently plays for portuguese giants [[FC Porto]].

Bosingwa has previously played for [[Boavista FC]], Porto's local rivals. On July 22nd he was strongly linked in various newspapers to be moving to [[Aston Villa]] in the English Premier League for a fee in the region of £3 million. <ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/football/gossip_and_transfers/6910495.stm|publisher=BBC.co.uk|title=Sunday's gossip|}}</ref>

==Honours==
* [[Portuguese Liga|Superliga (Portuguese Championship)]]: [[2003-04 in Portuguese football|2003/04]], [[2005-06 in Portuguese football|2005/06]] and 2006/07
* [[Portuguese Cup]]: 2005/06
* [[SuperCup Cândido de Oliveira]]: 2004/05, 2006/2007
* [[FIFA Intercontinental Cup]]: 2004
* [[UEFA Champions League]]: [[UEFA Champions League 2003-04|2003/04]]
* [[UEFA Champions League]]: [[UEFA Champions League 2009-10|2009/10]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==

*[http://www.portugoal.net www.PortuGOAL.net | | The definitive Portuguese football site] (Player Profile Section)

{{FC Porto Squad}}
{{Portugal-footy-bio-stub}}

[[Category:1982 births|Bosingwa, Jose]]
[[Category:Living people|Bosingwa, Jose]]
[[Category:Portuguese footballers|Bosingwa, Jose]]
[[Category:Boavista players|Bosingwa, Jose]]
[[Category:FC Porto players|Bosingwa, Jose]]
[[Category:Footballers at the 2004 Summer Olympics|Bosingwa, Jose]]
[[Category:Olympic footballers of Portugal|Bosingwa, Jose]]
[[Category:Portuguese of Congo-Kinshasa descent|Bosingwa, Jose]]
[[Category:Portugal international footballers|Bosingwa, Jose]]

[[nl:José Bosingwa]]
[[pt:José Bosingwa]]

Kavanagh (surname)

2007-08-06T08:19:14Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 74.104.132.78 identified as vandalism to last revision by 86.42.198.63.

'''Kavanagh''' or '''Kavanaugh''' is a surname, of Irish origin, and may refer to:

==Kavanaugh==
* [[Brett Kavanaugh]]
* [[Jon Kavanaugh]]
* [[Ken Kavanaugh]]
* [[Kyle Kavanaugh]]
* [[Walter Kavanaugh]]
* [[William M. Kavanaugh]]
* [[Adam Kavanagh]]

[[Category:Irish surnames]]
{{surname|Kavanagh}}

Kavanagh

2007-08-06T08:18:32Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 74.104.132.78 identified as vandalism to last revision by Chris the speller.

'''Kavanagh''' or '''Kavanaugh''' may refer to:

People with the surname '''Kavanagh''' or '''Kavanaugh''':
*[[Kavanagh (surname)]]

In '''places''':
* [[Kavanagh, Alberta]], a hamlet in Canada

'''Other''':
* ''[[Kavanagh QC]]'', a television series

==See also==
* [[Kavanagh College]], in Dunedin, New Zealand
* [[Cavanagh]]

{{disambig}}

User talk:74.104.132.78

2007-08-06T08:17:54Z

Sir Vicious: General note: Vandalism on Holt.

== August 2007 ==
{{{icon|[[Image:Information.svg|25px]] }}}Welcome to Wikipedia. Although we invite everyone to contribute constructively to our encyclopedia, at least one of your recent edits, such as the one you made to [[:Holt]], was not constructive and has been [[Help:Reverting|reverted]] or removed. Please use [[Wikipedia:Sandbox|the sandbox]] for any test edits you would like to make, and take a look at the [[Wikipedia:Introduction|welcome page]] to learn more about contributing to this encyclopedia. Thank you. [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] 08:17, 6 August 2007 (UTC)

Holt

2007-08-06T08:17:35Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 74.104.132.78 identified as vandalism to last revision by Ken Gallager.

{{wiktionarypar2|holt|Holt}}
{{TOCright}}
'''Holt''' may mean:

==Places:==

===In Sweden===

*Döderhult, a parish in [[Småland]]
*Hults Bruk, an iron forge near [[Norrköping]]
*[[Hultsfred]], in Småland, site of the famous [[Hultsfred Festival]], a music festival
*Hult a community in [[Eksjö]] Commune
*[[Råshult]], Småland, birthplace of [[Carl von Linné]]
n) s*[[Älmhult]], Småland, site of the first [[IKEA]] store

===In Norway===

* [[Holt, Norway|Holt]], previously a municipality, now part of [[Tvedestrand]], notable for an old church

===In Australia===

* [[Holt, Australian Capital Territory]]
* [[Division of Holt]], an electoral district in the [[Australian House of Representatives]] in [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]]

===In Denmark===

*Holte, a municipality in Søllerud Commune, [[Copenhagen]] county. The city hall of Søllerud, located in Holte is designed by [[Arne Jacobsen]]

===In Iceland===

*[[Skálholt]], the first bishopric of medieval Iceland and the site of a cathedral

===In the United Kingdom===
*[[Holt, Dorset]]
*[[Holt, Wiltshire]]
*[[Holt, Worcestershire]]
*[[Holt, Wales|Holt]] (Borough of [[Wrexham]])
*[[Holt, Norfolk]]
*A wooded area

===In the United States===

*[[Holt, Alabama]]
*[[Holt, Florida]]
*[[Holt, Michigan]]
*[[Holt, Minnesota]]
*[[Holt County, Missouri]]
*[[Holt County, Nebraska]]
*[[Holtville, Alabama]]
*[[Holtville, California]]
*[[Hult Center for the Performing Arts]], Oregon

===In The Netherlands===

*[[Holt, Overijssel]]

==People:==
See [[Holt (surname)]] for a list of people with the surname Holt

==Animals:==
Holt can also be the name of a woodland animal home, usually referenced in relation to a [[Fox|fox]].

==Companies:==

*The publishing company [[Holt, Rinehart and Winston]]
*Canadian department store [[Holt Renfrew]]
*[[Hult International Business School]]
*The Construction Photography company [http://www.holtcivils.com Christopher Holt LTD ]

{{disambig}}

[[de:Holt]]
[[fr:Holt]]
[[nl:Holt]]
[[ja:ホルト]]
[[pl:Holt]]

Solomon Islands

2007-08-06T08:16:18Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 1 edit by 58.168.88.127 identified as vandalism to last revision by SieBot.

{{Infobox Country
|native_name = Solomon Islands
|common_name = the Solomon Islands
|image_flag = Flag of the Solomon Islands.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Solomon Islands.png
|image_map = LocationSolomonIslands.png
|national_motto = "To Lead is to Serve"
|national_anthem = ''[[God Save Our Solomon Islands]]''
|royal_anthem = ''[[God Save the Queen]]''
|official_languages = [[English language|English]]
|capital = [[Honiara]]
|latd=9 |latm=28 |latNS=S |longd=159 |longm=49 |longEW=E
|largest_city = capital
|government_type = [[Constitutional monarchy]]
|leader_title1 = [[Monarch of the Solomon Islands|Queen]]
|leader_name1 = [[Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom|Elizabeth II]]
|leader_title2 = [[Governor-General of the Solomon Islands|Governor-General]]
|leader_name2 = [[Nathaniel Waena]]
|leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name3 = [[Manasseh Sogavare]]
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|established_event1 = from the [[United Kingdom|UK]]
|established_date1 = [[7 July]] [[1978]]
|area_rank = 142nd
|area_magnitude = 1 E10
|area = 28,896
|areami² = 11,157 
|percent_water = 3.2%
|population_estimate = 478,000
|population_estimate_rank = 170th
|population_estimate_year = July 2005
|population_census =
|population_census_year =
|population_density = 17
|population_densitymi² = 43 
|population_density_rank = 189th
|GDP_PPP = $911 million 
|GDP_PPP_rank = 171st
|GDP_PPP_year = 2005
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,894
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 146th
|HDI = {{loss}} 0.592
|HDI_rank = 128th
|HDI_year = 2004
|HDI_category = medium
|currency = [[Solomon Islands dollar]]
|currency_code = SBD
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +11
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|cctld = [[.sb]]
|calling_code = 677
}}
The '''Solomon Islands''' is a nation in [[Melanesia]], east of [[Papua New Guinea]], consisting of nearly one thousand islands. Together they cover a land mass of 28,400 [[square kilometre]]s (10,965 [[Square mile|sq mi]]). The capital is [[Honiara]], located on the island of [[Guadalcanal]].

The Solomon Islands are believed to have been inhabited by Melanesian people for thousands of years. The [[United Kingdom]] established a protectorate over the Solomon Islands in the 1890s. Some of the most bitter fighting of [[World War II]] occurred in the [[Solomon Islands campaign]] of 1942-45, including the [[Battle of Guadalcanal]]. Self-government was achieved in 1976 and independence two years later. The country remains a [[Commonwealth Realm]].

Since 1998 ethnic violence, government misconduct and crime have undermined stability and civil society. In June 2003 an [[Australia]]n-led multinational force, the [[Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands]] (RAMSI), arrived to restore peace and disarm ethnic militias.

The [[North Solomon Islands]] are divided between the independent Solomon Islands and [[Bougainville Province]] in [[Papua New Guinea]].

==History==
{{main|History of the Solomon Islands}}
[[Image:Solomon Islands canoe.jpg|left|thumb|220px|Solomon Island Warriors with Spears in Ornamented War Canoe]]

It is believed that [[East Papuan languages|Papuan]] speaking settlers began to arrive around 30,000 BC. [[Austronesia]]n speakers arrived circa 4,000 BC also bringing cultural elements such as the [[outrigger canoe]]. It is between 1,200 and 800 BC that the ancestors of the [[Polynesia]]ns, the [[Lapita]] people, arrived from the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] with their characteristic [[ceramics]].<ref>[Kirch, Patrick Vinton; On the Road of the Winds [http://books.google.com/books?id=qQ0ApgIOPtEC&dq=on+the+road+of+the+winds&pg=PP1&ots=Xau5vtVLvU&sig=d68IBljvyU7n45mBsKx8yFjOE0E&prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fhl%3Den%26q%3Don%2Bthe%2Broad%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bwinds%26btnG%3DGoogle%2BSearch&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title#PPP6,M1]; University of California Press, 2002, [[ISBN 0-520-23461-8]]</ref> The first European to discover the islands was the Spanish navigator, [[Álvaro de Mendaña de Neira]] coming from el Peru in [[1568]].

Missionaries began visiting the Solomons in the mid-19th century. They made little progress at first, because "[[blackbirding]]" (the often brutal recruitment of laborers for the sugar plantations in [[Queensland]] and [[Fiji]]) led to a series of reprisals and massacres. The evils of the labor trade prompted the [[United Kingdom]] to declare a protectorate over the southern Solomons in 1893. This was the basis of the '''British Solomon Islands Protectorate'''. In 1898 and 1899, more outlying islands were added to the protectorate; in 1900 [[Bougainville Province|the remainder of the archipelago]], an area previously under German jurisdiction, was transferred to British administration apart from the islands of [[Buka Island|Buka]] and [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]] which remained under German administration as part of German New Guinea (until they were occupied by Australia in [[1914]], after the commencement of World War I). Traditional trade and social intercourse between the western Solomon islands of Mono and Alu (the Shortlands) and the traditional societies in the south of Bougainville, however, continued without hindrance. Under the protectorate, missionaries settled in the Solomons, converting most of the population to Christianity.

====World War II====
In the early 20th century, several British and Australian firms began large-scale [[coconut]] planting. Economic growth was slow, however, and the islanders benefited little.{{Fact|date=February 2007}} With the outbreak of World War II, most planters and traders were evacuated to Australia, and most cultivation ceased. Some of the most intense fighting of [[World War II]] occurred in the Solomons. The most significant of the Allied Forces' operations against the [[Japanese Imperial]] Forces was launched on [[August 7]] [[1942]] with simultaneous naval bombardments and amphibious landings on the Florida Islands at Tulagi and Red Beach on [[Guadalcanal]]. The [[Battle of Guadalcanal]] became an important and bloody campaign fought in the Pacific War as the Allies began to repulse Japanese expansion. Of strategic importance during the war were the [[coastwatchers]] operating in remote locations, often on Japanese held islands, providing early warning and intelligence of Japanese naval, army and aircraft movements during the campaign. Sergeant-Major [[Jacob Vouza]] was a notable [[Coastwatchers|coastwatcher]] who after capture refused to divulge Allied information in spite of interrogation and torture by Japanese Imperial forces. He was awarded the highest award for bravery by the Americans. Islanders [[Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana]] would be noted by [[National Geographic]] for being the first to find the shipwrecked [[John F. Kennedy]] and his crew of the [[PT-109]]. They suggested using a coconut to write a rescue message for delivery by dugout canoe, which was later kept on his desk when he became the president of the United States.[[Image:US tanks in Guadalcanal.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The U.S. employment of tanks in Guadalcanal was hampered by the nature of the terrain]]

===Independence movement===
Following the end of World War II, the British colonial government returned. The capital was moved from [[Tulagi]] to [[Honiara]] to take advantage of the infrastructure left behind by the U.S. military. A revolutionary movement known as [[Maasina Ruru]] helped to organize and focus a mass campaign of [[civil disobedience]] and strikes across the islands. There was much disorder and the leaders were jailed in late-[[1948]]. Throughout the [[1950s]], other indigenous dissident groups appeared and disappeared without gaining strength. In [[1960]], an advisory council of Solomon Islanders was superseded by a legislative council, and an executive council was created as the protectorate's policymaking body. The council was given progressively more authority. In [[1974]], a new constitution was adopted establishing a parliamentary democracy and ministerial system of government. In mid-[[1975]], the name Solomon Islands officially replaced that of British Solomon Islands Protectorate.

On [[January 2]], [[1976]], the Solomons became self-governing, and independence followed on [[July 7]], [[1978]], the first post-independence government was elected in August [[1980]]. The series of governments formed from there on have not performed to upgrade and build the country. Following the [[1997]] election of [[Bartholomew Ulufa'alu]] the political situation in the Solomons began to deteriorate. Governance was slipping as the performance of the police and other government agencies deteriorated due to what is commonly known as "the tensions".

===The Tensions===
Commonly referred to as ''the tensions'' or ''the ethnic tension'', the initial civil unrest was mainly characterised by fighting between the [[Isatabu Freedom Movement]] (also known as the Guadalcanal Revolutionary Army) and the [[Malaita Eagle Force]] (as well as the [[Marau Eagle Force]]). (Although much of the conflict was between Guales and Malaitans, [http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/melanesia/working_papers/tarcisiusworkingpaper.htm Kabutaulaka (2001)] and Dinnen (2002) argue that the 'ethnic conflict' label is an oversimplification). For detailed discussions of The Tensions, see also Fraenkel (2004) and Moore (2004).

In late 1998, militants on the island of Guadalcanal commenced a campaign of intimidation and violence towards Malaitan settlers. During the next year, thousands of Malaitans fled back to Malaita or to the capital Honiara (which, although situated on Guadalcanal, is predominantly populated by Malaitans and Solomon Islanders from other provinces). In 1999, the [[Malaita Eagle Force]] (MEF) was established in response.

The reformist government of [[Bartholomew Ulufa'alu]] struggled to respond to the complexities of this evolving conflict. In late 1999, the government declared a four month state of emergency. There were also a number of attempts at reconciliation ceremonies but to no avail. He also requested assistance from Australia and New Zealand in 1999 but this was rejected.

In June 2000, Ulufa'alu was kidnapped by militia members of the [[Malaita Eagle Force|MEF]] who felt that although he was a Malaitan, he was not doing enough to protect their interests. Ulufa'alu subsequently resigned in exchange for his release. [[Manasseh Sogavare]], who had earlier been Finance Minister in Ulufa'alu's government but had subsequently joined the opposition, was elected as Prime Minister by 23-21 over Rev. Leslie Boseto. However Sogavare's election was immediately shrouded in controversy because six MPs (thought to be supporters of Boseto) were unable to attend parliament for the crucial vote (Moore 2004, n.5 on p.174).

[[Image:IriquoisHenderson.jpg|thumbnail|250px|[[New Zealand]]'s air force returns to Henderson field as part of the RAMSI force]] In [[October 2000]], the [[Townsville Peace Agreement]] [http://www.commerce.gov.sb/Gov/Peace_Agreement.htm], was signed by the Malaita Eagle Force, elements of the IFM and the Solomon Islands Government. This was closely followed by the Marau Peace agreement in February 2001, signed by the Marau Eagle Force, the Isatabu Freedom Movement, the Guadalcanal Provincial Government and the Solomon Islands Government. However, a key Guale militant leader, Harold Keke, refused to sign the Agreement causing a split with the Guale groups. Subsequently, Guale signatories to the Agreement led by Andrew Te'e joined with the Malaitan-dominated police to form the 'Joint Operations Force'. During the next two years the conflict moved to the Weathercoast of Guadalcanal as the Joint Operations unsuccessfully attempted to capture Keke and his group.

New elections in December 2001 brought Sir [[Allan Kemakeza]] into the Prime Minister’s chair with the support of his People's Alliance Party and also the Association of Independent Members. Law and order deteriorated as the nature of the conflict shifted: there was continuing violence on the Weathercoast whilst militants in Honiara increasingly turned their attention to crime and extortion. The Department of Finance would often be surrounded by armed men when funding was due to arrive. In December 2002, Finance Minister Laurie Chan resigned after being forced at gunpoint to sign a cheque made out to some of the militants. Conflict also broke out in Western Province between locals and Malaitan settlers. Renegade members of the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) were invited in as a protection force but ended up causing as much trouble as they prevented.

The prevailing atmosphere of lawlessness, widespread extortion and ineffective police prompted a formal request by the Solomon Islands Government for outside help. With the country bankrupt and the capital in chaos, the request was unanimously supported in Parliament.

In July 2003, Australian and Pacific Island police and troops arrived in the Solomon Islands under the auspices of the Australian-led [[Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands]] (RAMSI). A sizable international security contingent of 2,200 police and troops, led by [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], and with representatives from about 20 other Pacific nations began arriving the next month under [[Operation Helpem Fren]]. Since this time some commentators have considered the country a [[failed state]].<ref>[http://www.pacificislands.cc/pina/pinadefault.php?urlpinaid=9609 Solomon Is: Failed State or Not Failed State?] October 29, 2003. ''Pacific Magazine'' URL Accessed 2006-05-04</ref>

In April 2006 allegations that the newly elected Prime Minister [[Snyder Rini]] had used bribes from Chinese businessmen to buy the votes of members of Parliament led to mass rioting in the capital [[Honiara]]. A deep underlying resentment against the minority Chinese business community led to much of Chinatown in the city being destroyed. Tensions had also been increased by the belief that large sums of money were being exported to China. [[People's Republic of China|China]] sent chartered aircraft to evacuate hundreds of Chinese who fled to avoid the riots. Evacuation of Australian and British citizens was on a much smaller scale. Further Australian, New Zealand and Fijian troops were dispatched to try to quell the unrest. Rini eventually resigned before facing a motion of no-confidence in Parliament, and Parliament elected [[Manasseh Sogavare]] as Prime Minister.

'''Further reading'''
* Dinnen (2002) ‘Winners and losers: politics and disorder in the Solomon Islands 2000-2002’, ''The Journal of Pacific History'', Vol.37, No.3, pp.285-98.
* Fraenkel, J (2004) ''The Manipulation of Custom: from uprising to intervention in the Solomon Islands'', Pandanus Books, Sydney
* Moore, C (2004) ''Happy Isles in Crisis: the historical hauses for a failing state in Solomon Islands'', 1998-2004, Asia Pacific Press, Canberra
* Kabutaulaka, T (2001) [http://rspas.anu.edu.au/papers/melanesia/working_papers/tarcisiusworkingpaper.htm ‘Beyond ethnicity: the political economy of the Guadalacanal crisis in Solomon Islands’], SSGM Working Paper 01/1

===Sport===
The [[Solomon Islands national football team]] made history by becoming the first team to beat [[New Zealand]] into qualifying for a play-off spot against [[Australia]] for qualification to the [[World Cup 2006]]. They were soundly beaten 7-0 in Australia and 2-1 at home.

===2007 earthquake and tsunami===
{{main|2007 Solomon Islands earthquake and tsunami}}

On [[2 April]], [[2007]], the Solomon Islands were struck by a major earthquake followed by a large [[tsunami]]. Initial reports indicated that the tsunami, which mainly affected the small island of [[Gizo]], was several metres in height (perhaps as high as 10 metres (39 ft) according to some reports, 5 metres (16 1/3 ft) according to the Foreign Office). The tsunami was triggered by an 8.1 magnitude earthquake, with an epicenter 217 miles (349 km) northwest of the island's capital, [[Honiara]], at exactly Lat -8.453 Long 156.957 and at a depth of 10 kilometres (6.2 miles).<ref>[http://www.breakinglegalnews.com/entry/Solomon-Islands-earthquake-and-tsunami "Solomon Islands earthquake and tsunami"], Breaking Legal News - International, 04-03-2007</ref>

According to the United States Geologic Survey the earthquake struck at 20:39:56 UTC on Sunday, 1 April 2007. Since the initial event and up until 22:00:00 UTC on Wednesday, 4 April 2007, more than 44 aftershocks of a magnitude of 5.0 or greater were recorded in the region.

The death toll from the resulting tsunami was at least 52 people, and the tsunami destroyed more than 900 homes and has left thousands of people homeless.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6520461.stm "Aid reaches tsunami-hit Solomons"], ''BBC News'', 2007-04-03</ref>

Land thrust from the quake has extended out from the shoreline of one island, [[Ranongga]], by up to 70 meters (230 ft) according to local residents.<ref>[http://www.physorg.com/news95163840.html Quake lifts Solomons island metres from the sea]</ref> This has left many once pristine coral reefs exposed on the newly formed beaches.

==Politics==
{{main|Politics of the Solomon Islands}}
The Solomon Islands are a [[constitutional monarchy]] and have a [[parliamentary system]] of government. The [[Monarch of the Solomon Islands]] is the [[head of state]]; she is represented by the [[Governor-General of the Solomon Islands|Governor-General]] who is chosen by the [[Parliament]] for a five-year term. There is a [[unicameral]] parliament of 50 members, elected for four-year terms. However, Parliament may be dissolved by majority vote of its members before the completion of its term. Parliamentary representation is based on single-member constituencies. Suffrage is universal for citizens over age 18. The [[head of government]] is the [[Prime Minister of the Solomon Islands|Prime Minister]], who is elected by Parliament and chooses the other members of the [[cabinet]]. Each ministry is headed by a cabinet member, who is assisted by a [[permanent secretary]], a career public servant, who directs the staff of the ministry.

Solomon Islands governments are characterized by weak political parties (see [[List of political parties in Solomon Islands]]) and highly unstable parliamentary coalitions. They are subject to frequent votes of no confidence, and government leadership changes frequently as a result. Cabinet changes are common.

Land ownership is reserved for Solomon Islanders. The law provides that resident expatriates, such as the Chinese and [[Kiribati]], may obtain citizenship through naturalization. Land generally is still held on a family or village basis and may be handed down from mother or father according to local custom. The islanders are reluctant to provide land for nontraditional economic undertakings, and this has resulted in continual disputes over land ownership.

No military forces are maintained by the Solomon Islands, although a police force of nearly 500 includes a border protection unit. The police also are responsible for fire service, disaster relief, and maritime surveillance. The police force is headed by a commissioner, appointed by the governor-general and responsible to the prime minister. On [[27 December]] [[2006]], the Solomon Islands Government said it had taken steps to prevent the country's Australian police chief from returning to the Pacific nation. On [[12 January]] [[2007]], Australia replaced its top diplomat expelled from the Solomon Islands for political interference in a conciliatory move aimed at easing a four-month dispute between the two countries.

On 11 July 2007, the Solomon Islands swore [[Julian Moti]] in as their Attorney General. Moti is currently wanted in Australia for child-related sex offences. Australian Prime Minister [[John Howard]] called the move "quite extraordinary". Australia's Foreign Minister [[Alexander Downer]] has described the country as the "laughing stock" of the civilised world.<ref>[http://www.worldnewsaustralia.com.au/region.php?id=138352&region=1], ''SBS World News'', 2007-07-11</ref>

==Provinces==
[[Image:SolomonIslandsMap.png|260px|thumb|Map of the Solomon Islands]]
{{main|Provinces of the Solomon Islands}}
For local government, the country is divided into 10 administrative areas, of which nine are provinces administered by elected provincial assemblies, and the 10th is the town of Honiara, administered by the Honiara Town Council.
*[[Central Province (Solomon Islands)|Central]]
*[[Choiseul Province|Choiseul]]
*[[Guadalcanal Province|Guadalcanal]]
*[[Honiara]], Town
*[[Isabel Province|Isabel]]
*[[Makira-Ulawa Province|Makira-Ulawa]]
*[[Malaita Province|Malaita]]
*[[Rennell and Bellona]]
*[[Temotu Province|Temotu]]
*[[Western Province (Solomon Islands)|Western]]

==Foreign relations==
{{main|Foreign relations of the Solomon Islands}}
Solomon Islands is a member of the [[United Nations]], [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], [[South Pacific Commission]], [[South Pacific Forum]], [[International Monetary Fund]], and the European Economic Community/African, Caribbean, Pacific Group (EEC/ACP)/(Lome Convention).

The political stage of the Solomon Islands is further influenced by its diplomatic importance to [[Foreign relations of Taiwan|the Republic of China on Taiwan]] and [[Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China|the People's Republic of China]]. The Solomon Islands gives [[diplomatic recognition]] to the ROC, recognizing it as the sole-legitimate Government of all of China, giving Taiwan vital votes in the [[United Nations]]. Lucrative investments, political funding and preferential loans from both the ROC and PRC are increasingly manipulating the political landscape of the Solomon Islands.

Relations with [[Papua New Guinea]], which had become strained because of an influx of refugees from the [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]] rebellion and attacks on the northern islands of the Solomon Islands by elements pursuing Bougainvillean rebels, have been repaired. A peace accord on Bougainville confirmed in 1998 has removed the armed threat, and the two nations regularized border operations in a 2004 agreement.

==Military==
Although the locally-recruited [[British Solomon Islands Protectorate Defence Force]] was part of [[Allies of World War II|Allied]] forces taking part in fighting in the Solomons during World War II, the country has not had any regular military forces since independence. The various paramilitary elements of the Royal Solomon Islands Police (RSIP) were disbanded in 2003 following the intervention of the Regional Assistance Mission to the Solomon Islands (RAMSI), and the RSIP was disarmed. RAMSI has a small military detachment headed by an Australian commander with responsibilities for assisting the police element of RAMSI in internal and external security. The RSIP still operates two patrol boats (RSIPV Auki and RSIPV Lata) which constitute the navy of the Solomon Islands.

In the long-term it is anticipated that the RSIP will resume the defense role. The police force is headed by a commissioner, appointed by the [[governor general]] and responsible to the prime minister.

The police budget of the Solomon Islands has been strained due to a four-year [[civil war]]. Following [[Cyclone Zoe]]'s strike on the islands of [[Tikopia]] and [[Anuta]] in December 2002, Australia had to provide the Solomon Islands government with 200,000 Solomons ($50,000 Australian) for fuel and supplies for the patrol boat Lata to sail with relief supplies. (Part of the work of [[RAMSI]] includes assisting the Solomon Islands Government to stabilise its budget.)

==Geography==
{{main|Geography of the Solomon Islands}}

[[Image:Solomon Isles.jpg|left|thumb|300px|The Florida Islands from the air. Photo by Jim Lounsbury]]

The Solomon Islands is a wide island nation that lies East of [[Papua New Guinea]] and consists of many islands: [[Choiseul Island|Choiseul]], the [[Shortland Islands]]; the [[New Georgia Islands]]; [[Santa Isabel Island|Santa Isabel]]; the [[Russell Islands]]; [[Nggela]] (the [[Florida Islands]]); [[Malaita]]; [[Guadalcanal (Pacific Ocean island)|Guadalcanal]]; [[Sikaiana]]; [[Maramasike]]; [[Ulawa]]; [[Uki]]; [[Makira]] ([[San Cristobal (Solomon Islands)|San Cristobal]]); [[Santa Ana (Solomon Islands)|Santa Ana]]; [[Rennell and Bellona]]; the [[Santa Cruz Islands]] and three remote, tiny outliers, [[Tikopia]], [[Anuta]], and [[Fatutaka]]. The distance between the westernmost and easternmost islands is about 1,500 kilometres (930 [[Mile|mi]]). The Santa Cruz Islands (of which [[Tikopia]] is part), are situated north of [[Vanuatu]] and are especially isolated at more than 200 kilometres (120 mi) from the other islands. [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]] is geographically part of the Solomon Islands, but politically [[Papua New Guinea]].

The islands' ocean-equatorial climate is extremely humid throughout the year, with a mean temperature of 27° C (80° F) and few extremes of temperature or weather. June through August is the cooler period. Though seasons are not pronounced, the northwesterly winds of November through April bring more frequent rainfall and occasional squalls or cyclones. The annual rainfall is about 3050mm (120 in).

The Solomon Islands [[archipelago]] is part of two distinct [[terrestrial ecoregion]]s. Most of the islands are part of the [[Solomon Islands rain forests]] ecoregion, which also includes the islands of [[Bougainville Island|Bougainville]] and Buka, which are part of [[Papua New Guinea]], these forests have come under pressure from forestry activities. The [[Santa Cruz Islands]] are part of the [[Vanuatu rain forests]] ecoregion, together with the neighboring archipelago of [[Vanuatu]]. Soil quality ranges from extremely rich volcanic (there are [[volcano]]es with varying degrees of activity on some of the larger islands) to relatively infertile limestone. More than 230 varieties of orchids and other tropical flowers brighten the landscape.

The islands contain several active and dormant volcanoes. Tinakula and Kavachi volcanoes are the most active.

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of the Solomon Islands}}

Its per capita GDP of $600 ranks Solomon Islands as a lesser developed nation, and more than 75% of its labor force is engaged in subsistence and fishing. Most manufactured goods and petroleum products must be imported. Until 1998, when world prices for tropical timber fell steeply, timber was Solomon Islands main export product, and, in recent years, Solomon Islands forests were dangerously overexploited. Other important cash crops and exports include [[copra]] and [[palm oil]]. In 1998 Ross Mining of Australia began producing gold at [[Gold Ridge]] on Guadalcanal. Minerals exploration in other areas continued. However in the wake of the ethnic violence in June 2000, exports of palm oil and gold ceased while exports of timber fell. The islands are rich in undeveloped [[mineral]] resources such as [[lead]], [[zinc]], [[nickel]], and [[gold]].

Exploitation of Solomon Islands' fisheries also offers prospects for export and domestic economic expansion. However, a Japanese joint venture, Solomon Taiyo Ltd., which operated the only fish cannery in the country, closed in mid-2000 as a result of the ethnic disturbances. Though the plant has reopened under local management, the export of tuna has not resumed. Negotiations are underway which may lead to the eventual reopening of the Gold Ridge mine and the major oil-palm plantation.

Tourism, particularly diving, is an important service industry for Solomon Islands. Growth in that industry is hampered, however, by lack of infrastructure and transportation limitations.

The Solomon Islands Government was insolvent by 2002. Since the RAMSI intervention in 2003, the government has recast its budget, and has taken a hard look at priorities. It has consolidated and renegotiated its domestic debt and with Australian backing, is now seeking to renegotiate its foreign obligations. Principal aid donors are Australia, New Zealand, the European Union, Japan, and the Republic of China.

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of the Solomon Islands}}
[[As of 2006]] the majority 552,438 people on the Solomon Islands are ethnically [[Melanesian]] (94.5%), [[Polynesian]] (3%) and [[Micronesian]] (1.2%) are the two other significant groups.<ref>CIA World Factbook. [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bp.html Country profile: Solomon Islands] URL Accessed 2006-10-21</ref>

There were 74 languages spoken in the Solomon Islands, although four of these are extinct.<ref>Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=Solomon+Islands Solomon Islands] in ''Ethnologue: Languages of the World'', Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International</ref> On the central islands, [[Melanesian languages]] (predominantly of the [[Southeast Solomonic languages|Southeast Solomonic group]]) are spoken, on the outliers [[Rennell]] and [[Bellona]] to the south, [[Tikopia]], [[Anuta]] and [[Fatutaka]] to the far east, [[Sikaiana]] to the north east, and Luaniua ([[Ontong Java Atoll]], Lord Howe Atoll) to the north, [[Polynesian languages]]. Immigrant populations of Gilbertese ([[Kiribati|i-Kiribati]]) and [[Tuvalu]]ans speak [[Micronesian languages]]. While [[English language|English]] is the official language, only 1-2% of the population speak English; the [[lingua franca]] is Solomons [[Pijin]].

==Religion==
The religion of Solomon Islands is about 97% [[Christianity|Christian]] with following denominations: the Anglican [[Church of the Province of Melanesia|Church of Melanesia]] 32.8%, [[Roman Catholic]] 19%, [[South Seas Evangelical Church]] 17%, [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventist]] 11.2%, [[United Church in Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands|United Church]] 10.3%, Christian Fellowship Church 2.4%, other Christian 4.4%. The remaining 2.9% practice indigenous religious beliefs and other faiths such as [[The Baha'i Faith]] and [[Islam]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.intercultures.ca/cil-cai/country_overview-en.asp?print=1&ISO=SB&lvl=8|title=Country Insights: Solomon Islands|author=Centre for Intercultural Learning, Foreign Affairs Canada|accessdate=2007-04-18}}</ref>

==Culture==
[[Image:Malaitan Chief.jpg|thumb|200px|Malaitan Chief. Photo by Jim Lounsbury]]
{{main|Culture of the Solomon Islands}}

In the traditional culture of the Solomon Islands, age-old customs are handed down from one generation to the next, allegedly from the ancestral spirits themselves, to form the cultural values to Solomon Islands.

Radio is the most influential type of media in the Solomons Islands due to language differences and illiteracy.<ref>BBC News. [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1249307.stm Country profile: Solomon Islands] URL Accessed 2006-05-04</ref> the [[Solomon Islands Broadcasting Corporation]] (SIBC) operates public radio services, including the national stations ''[[Radio Happy Isles]]'' and ''[[Wantok FM]]'', and the provincial stations ''[[Radio Happy Lagoon]]'' and ''[[Radio Temotu]]''. There is one commercial station, [[PAOA FM]], that broadcasts in the Solomons. There is one daily newspaper ''Solomon Star (www.solomonstarnews.com)'', 2 weekly papers ''Solomons Voice'' and ''Solomon Times'', and 2 monthly papers ''Agrikalsa Nius'' and the ''Citizen's Press''. There are no TV services based in the Solomon Islands, although satellite TV stations can be received. There is free-to-air access to [[ABC Asia Pacific]] (from Australia's ABC) and [[BBC World]].
{{see also|Music of the Solomon Islands}}

==Travel==
For information on bushwalking, mountain biking, camping, kayaking, surfing and village stays in each of the [[provinces of the Solomon Islands|provinces of Solomons]], see the [http://www.exploringsolomons.wikispaces.com/ Exploring Solomons] wiki.

==References==
<div class=references-small><references/></div>

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|Solomon Islands}}
''This article incorporates public domain text from the websites of the United States Department of State & [[The World Factbook|CIA World Factbook]].''
* [http://www.pmc.gov.sb/ Department of Prime Minister and Cabinet]
* [http://www.commerce.gov.sb/ Department of Commerce, Industries and Employment]
* [http://ramsi.org/ Regional Assistance Mission to Solomon Islands (RAMSI)]
* [http://www.peoplefirst.net.sb/ The People First Network, PFnet] from the Ministry of Provincial Government and Rural Development
* [http://www.solomonstarnews.com/ The Solomon Star] daily newspaper
* [http://www.solomontimes.com/ Solomon Times] online newspaper
* [http://honours.homestead.com/solo.html Medals and awards of the Solomon Islands]
* [http://anglicanhistory.org/oceania/ History of Anglicanism in Oceania]
* [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14138b.htm 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia - ''Solomon Islands'']
* [http://www.exploringsolomons.wikispaces.com/ Exploring Solomons] Travel Wiki with information on bushwalking, mountain biking, camping, kayaking, surfing and village stays
* [http://www.pbase.com/marsuitor/solomon_islands_2003 Some photos from the Solomon Islands] Online gallery on Pbase.com
{{Solomon Islands topics}}
{{Countries and territories of Oceania}}
{{Former German colonies}}
{{Austronesian-speaking}}
{{Commonwealth of Nations}}

[[Category:Solomon Islands| ]]
[[Category:Melanesia]]
[[Category:Oceanian countries]]
[[Category:Island countries]]
[[Category:Archipelagoes]]
[[Category:Divided regions]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Constitutional monarchies]]
[[Category:Least Developed Countries]]



[[ar:جزر سليمان]]
[[an:Islas Salomón]]
[[frp:Iles Salomon]]
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[[ca:Illes Salomó]]
[[cv:Соломон Утравĕсем]]
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[[ur:جزائر سولومون]]
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[[zh:所罗门群岛]]

Ho Chi Minh City

2007-06-25T09:48:19Z

Sir Vicious:

{{redirect|Saigon}}

{{Infobox City
|official_name = Ho Chi Minh City
|other_name = Formerly Saigon (Vietnamese: Sài Gòn) still used by residents
|native_name = Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh 
|nickname =
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|image_map = LocationVietnamHoChiMinh.png
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|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = Vietnam
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|government_type =Municipality
|leader_title =CPV HCMC Committee Secretary:
|leader_name =Lê Thanh Hải
|leader_title1 = People's Council Chairwoman:
|leader_name1 =Phạm Phương Thảo
|leader_title2 =People's Committee Chairman:
|leader_name2 =Lê Hoàng Quân
|leader_title3 =
|leader_name3 =
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|established_title = Founded
|established_date = 1698
|established_title2 = Renamed
|established_date2 = 1976
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|unit_pref =Imperial 
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|area_total = 2095
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|population_as_of = Mid-2005
|population_footnotes =
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|settlement_type =Municipality 
|population_total = 6239938
|population_density = 2978
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|latd=10 |latm=45 |lats= |latNS=N
|longd=106 |longm=40|longs= |longEW=E
|elevation_footnotes = 
|elevation = 19
|elevation_ft = 63
|postal_code_type = 
|postal_code =
|area_code =+84 (8)
|website = http://www.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/
|footnotes =
}} 
[[Image:Saigonskyline1.JPG|thumb|right|300px|City skyline]]
'''Ho Chi Minh City''' ([[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh {{audio|Thanh Pho Ho Chi Minh.ogg|pronunciation}}) is the largest [[city]] in [[Vietnam]] and is located near the [[Mekong River]] delta. Under the name '''Prey Nokor''' ([[Khmer language|Khmer]]: [[Image:PreyNokor.png|50px]]), it was the main port of [[Cambodia]], before being annexed by the Vietnamese in the [[17th century]]. Under the name '''Saigon''' (Vietnamese: Sài Gòn; {{audio|Saigon.ogg|pronunciation}}), it was the [[capital]] of the French colony of [[Cochinchina]], and later of the independent state of [[South Vietnam]] from [[1954]] to [[1975]]. In 1975, Saigon was merged with the surrounding province of Gia Định and renamed Ho Chi Minh City (although the name ''Saigon'' is still frequently used).

The city center is situated on the banks of the [[Saigon River]], 60 km from the [[South China Sea]] [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html] and 1760 km (1094 mi) south of [[Hanoi]].

The metropolitan area which consists of Ho Chi Minh city metro area, [[Bien Hoa]], [[Thu Dau Mot]] and surrounding towns has more than 9 million people,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} making it the largest metropolitan area in [[Vietnam]] and [[Indochina]].

==Origin of the name==
===Original Khmer name===
The city was known by its original Khmer inhabitants as '''Prey Nokor''' ([[Image:PreyNokor.png|50px]]). Prey Nokor means "forest city", or "forest land" in [[Khmer language|Khmer]] (Prey = "forest"; [[Nokor]] = "city, land", from [[Sanskrit]] ''nagara'').
The name Prey Nokor is still the name used in Cambodia today, as well as the name used by the [[Khmer Krom]] minority living in the delta of the Mekong.

===Traditional Vietnamese name===
After Prey Nokor was settled by Vietnamese refugees from the north, in time it became known as '''Sài Gòn'''. There is much debate about the origins of the Vietnamese name Sài Gòn, whose etymology is analyzed below.

It should be noted, however, that before the French colonization, the official Vietnamese name of Saigon was '''{{Unicode|Gia Định}}''' ([[chu nom]]: 嘉定). In [[1862]], the French discarded this official name and adopted the name "Saigon", which had always been the popular name.

From an orthographic point of view, the Vietnamese name Sài Gòn is written in two words, which is the traditional convention in Vietnamese spelling. Some people, however, write the name of the city as SàiGòn or Sàigòn in order to save space or give it a more westernized look.
====Sino-Vietnamese etymology====
A frequently heard etymology is that Sài is a Chinese loan word ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 柴, pronounced {{Unicode|chái}} in [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]) meaning "firewood, lops, twigs; palisade", while Gòn is another Chinese loan word (Chinese: 棍, pronounced gùn in Mandarin) meaning "stick, pole, bole", and whose meaning evolved into "cotton" in Vietnamese (''bông gòn'', literally "cotton stick", i.e. "cotton plant", then shortened to ''gòn'').

Some people say that this name originated from the many cotton plants that the [[Khmer people]] had planted around Prey Nokor, and which can still be seen at Cây Mai temple and surrounding areas.<ref>Trương Vĩnh Ký, "Souvenirs historiques sur Saïgon et ses environs", in ''Excursions et Reconnaissances'', Imprimerie Coloniale, Saïgon, 1885.</ref>

Another explanation is that the etymological meaning "twigs" (Sài) and "boles" (Gòn) refers to the dense and tall forest that once existed around the city, a forest to which the Khmer name Prey Nokor already referred.

Chinese people in Vietnam and in China do not use the name 柴棍 (pronounced Chaai-Gwan in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] and Cháigùn in [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]), although etymologically speaking it is the Chinese name from which the Vietnamese name Sài Gòn is derived (if the theory here is correct). Instead, they call the city 西貢 (pronounced Sai-Gung in Cantonese and {{Unicode|Xīgòng}} in Mandarin), which is a mere phonetic [[transliteration]] of the name "Saigon".

====Khmer etymology====
Another etymology often proposed is that "Saigon" comes from "Sai Con", which would be the [[transliteration]] of the Khmer word ''prey kor'' ([[Image:PreyKor.png|40px]]) meaning "forest of [[kapok]] trees" (''prey'' = forest; ''kor'' = kapok tree). The Khmer word ''prey kor'' should not be confused with the Khmer name "Prey Nokor" discussed above (''kor'' is a Khmer word meaning "kapok tree", while ''nokor'' is a Khmer word of Sanskrit origin meaning "city, land").

This Khmer etymology theory is quite interesting given the Khmer context that existed when the first Vietnamese settlers arrived in the region. However, it fails to completely explain how Khmer "''prey''" led to Vietnamese "Sài", since these two syllables appear phonetically quite distinct.

====Cantonese etymology====
A less likely etymology was offered by Vương Hồng Sển, a Vietnamese scholar in the early 20th century, who asserted that ''Sài Gòn'' had its origins in the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] name of [[Cholon]] (Vietnamese: [[quoc ngu]] {{Unicode|Chợ Lớn}}; [[chu nom]] [[Image:Cholon.png|30px]]) , the Chinese district of Saigon. The Cantonese (and original) name of Cholon is "Tai-Ngon" (堤岸), which means "embankment" (French: ''quais''). The theory posits that "Sài Gòn" derives from "Tai-Ngon".

===Current Vietnamese name===
On May 1, 1975, after the fall of [[South Vietnam]], the now ruling communist government [[Geographical renaming|renamed the city]] after the [[pseudonym|alias]] of their leader [[Ho Chi Minh]] ([[chu nom]]: 胡志明). The official name is now ''Thành {{Unicode|phố Hồ}} Chí Minh'' (''Thành {{Unicode|phố}}'' means "city"), often abbreviated TPHCM. In English this is translated as '''Ho Chi Minh City''', abbreviated HCMC, and in [[French language|French]] it is translated as '''Hô Chi Minh Ville''' (the [[circumflex]] is sometimes omitted), abbreviated HCMV. Still, the old name Sài Gòn/Saigon is widely used by Vietnamese and is found in company names, book titles and sometimes on airport departure boards (the code for [[Tan Son Nhat International Airport]] is SGN). The district 1 (downtown) is still called Saigon.

==History==
Ho Chi Minh City began as a small fishing village known as Prey Nokor. The area that the city now occupies was originally [[swamp]]land, and was inhabited by [[Khmer people]] for centuries before the arrival of the Vietnamese.

In [[1623]], King [[Chey Chettha II]] of Cambodia ([[1618]]-[[1628]]) allowed Vietnamese refugees fleeing the Trinh-Nguyen civil war in Vietnam to settle in the area of Prey Nokor, and to set up a custom house at Prey Nokor. Increasing waves of Vietnamese settlers, which the Cambodian kingdom, weakened because of war with Thailand, could not impede, slowly Vietnamized the area. In time, Prey Nokor became known as Saigon.

In [[1698]], [[Nguyen Huu Canh]], a Vietnamese noble, was sent by the Nguyen rulers of [[Hue (city)|Huế]] to establish Vietnamese administrative structures in the area, thus detaching the area from Cambodia, which was not strong enough to intervene. He is often credited with the expansion of Saigon into a significant settlement. A large [[Vauban]] citadel called [[Gia Dinh]] has been built, which was later destroyed by the French over [[the Battle of Chi Hoa]].

Conquered by [[France]] in [[1859]], the city was influenced by the French during their colonial occupation of Vietnam, and a number of classical [[Western civilization|Western]]-style buildings in the city reflect this, so much so that Saigon was called "the Pearl of the Far East" (''Hòn ngọc Viễn Đông'') or "Paris in the Orient" (''Paris Phương Đông'').

In [[1954]], the French were defeated by the Communist [[Viet Minh]] in the [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu|Battle of Điện Biên Phủ]], and withdrew from Vietnam. Rather than recognizing the Communists as the new government, they gave their backing to a government established by Emperor [[Bao Dai|Bảo Đại]]. Bảo Đại had set up Saigon as his capital in [[1950]]. At that time Saigon and the city of [[Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City|Cholon]] (Chợ Lớn), which was inhabited primarily by Vietnamese Chinese, were combined into one administrative unit, called the Capital of Saigon (''Đô Thành Sài Gòn'' in Vietnamese). When Vietnam was officially partitioned into [[North Vietnam]] (the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and [[South Vietnam]] (the Republic of Vietnam), the southern government, led by President [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm]], retained Saigon as its capital.

At the conclusion of the [[Vietnam War]], on [[April 30]] [[1975]], the city came under the control of the [[North Vietnamese Army|Vietnam People's Army]]. In the [[United States|U.S.]] this event is commonly called the "[[Fall of Saigon]]," while the communist [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] call it the "[[Fall of Saigon|Liberation of Saigon]]."

In [[1976]], upon the establishment of the unified communist [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]], the city of Saigon (including Cholon), the province of Gia Ðịnh and 2 suburban districts of two other nearby provinces were combined to create Hồ Chí Minh City in honour of the late communist leader [[Hồ Chí Minh]]. The former name ''Saigon'' is still widely used by many Vietnamese, especially in informal contexts. Generally, the term ''Saigon'' refers only to the urban districts of Hồ Chí Minh City. The word "Saigon" can also be found on shop signs all over the country, even in Hanoi.

Today, the city's core is still adorned with wide elegant boulevards and historic French colonial buildings. The most prominent structures in the city center are [[Reunification Hall]] (''Dinh Thống Nhất''), City Hall (''Uy ban Nhan dan Thanh pho''), City Theater (''Nha hat Thanh pho''), City Post Office (''Buu dien Thanh pho''), Revolutionary Museum (''Bao tang Cach mang''), State Bank Office (''Ngan hang Nha nuoc''), City People's Court (''Toa an Nhan dan Thanh pho'') and Notre-Dame Cathedral (''Nhà thờ Đức Bà'').

Ho Chi Minh City is home to a well-established ethnic Chinese population. [[Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City|Cholon]], now known as District 5 and the parts of Districts 6, 10 and 11, serves as its [[Chinatown]].

With a population now exceeding 7 million (registered residents plus migrant workers), Ho Chi Minh City is in need of vast increase in public infrastructure. To meet this need, the city and central governments have embarked on an effort to develop new urban centers. The two most prominent projects are the Thu Thiem city center in District 2 and the [[Phu My Hung]] New City Center in District 7 (as part of the [[Saigon South]] project) where various international schools such as Saigon South International (The American School), the Japanese school, Australia's [[Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology]], the Taiwan and Korea schools are located).

==Geography and climate==
Ho Chi Minh City is located at 10°45'N, 106°40'E in the southeastern region of Vietnam, 1,760 km (1,094 miles) south of [[Hanoi]]. The average elevation is 19 meters (63 feet) above sea level. It borders [[Tay Ninh]] and [[Binh Duong]] provinces to the north, [[Dong Nai]] and [[Ba Ria-Vung Tau]] provinces to the east, [[Long An]] Province to the west and the [[South China Sea]] to the south with a coast of 15 km in length. The city covers an area of 2,095 km² (809 sq. mi) (0.63% of the surface of Vietnam), extending up to [[Cu Chi]] (20 km from the Cambodian border), and down to [[Can Gio]] on the East Sea coast. The distance from the northernmost point (Phu My Hung Commune, Cu Chi District) to the southernmost one (Long Hoa Commune, Can Gio District) is 102 km, and from the easternmost point (Long Binh Ward, District Nine) to the westernmost one (Binh Chanh Commune, Binh Chanh District) is 47 km.

The city has a tropical climate, with an average humidity of 75%. A year is divided into 2 distinct seasons: The rainy season with an average rainfall of about 1,800 mm annually (about 150 rainy days per year), which usually begins in May and ends in late November. The dry season lasts from December to April. The average temperature is 28 °C (Celsius), the highest temperature sometimes reaches 39 °C around noon in late April, while the lowest may fall below 16 °C in the early mornings of late December.

==Political and administrative system==
[[Image:HCMC Reunification Palace.jpg|250px|thumb|Reunification Palace]]
[[Image:HCM-City Rathaus.JPG|250px|thumb|[[Ho Chi Minh City Hall]]]]

Hồ Chí Minh City is a municipality that exists at the same level as [[Provinces of Vietnam|Vietnam's provinces]]. As such, it has a similar political structure to its provinces, with a People's Council of 95 elected deputies, and a People's Committee of 13 members chosen by the council, being the principal local governmental entities. The ''People's Council Chairman'' is the top governmental official while the ''People's Committee Chairman'' is the top executive of the city, instead of a single [[mayor]] position as in other cities in the world. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) leads all political-economic-social activities in the country, therefore the ''CPV HCMC Committee Secretary'' is really the highest ranking leader of the city.

The municipality has been divided into twenty-four administrative divisions since December 2003. Five of these {Area: 1,601 km²} are designated as ''suburban districts'' ("Huyện" in Vietnamese), covering the urbanized - farmland around the city which is included in the municipality's official boundaries. These districts are named Nhà Bè, Cần Giờ, Hóc Môn, Củ Chi, and Bình Chánh. The remaining nineteen divisions {Area: 494 km²} are found in the city itself. Only seven of these nineteen ''inner districts'' ("Quận" in Vietnamese) have names (Tân Bình, Bình Thạnh, Phú Nhuận, Thủ Dức, Bình Tân, Tân Phú and Gò Vấp) - the remainder are simply numbered from one to twelve. Each inner district is sub-divided into many wards ("Phường" in Vietnamese), while a suburban district usually consists of many communes and townships ("Xã" and "Thị trấn" in Vietnamese). Since December 2006, Ho Chi Minh City has had 259 wards, 58 communes and 5 townships (see List of HCMC administrative units below).

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|-alin=center size=120%
!colspan=4| List of HCMC Administrative Units
|-
! Name of district (since December 2003)
! Sub-division units (since December 2006)
! Area (km²) (since December 2006)
! Population as of the October 1, 2004 Census
! Population as of Mid 2005
|-
| colspan=4 | ''Inner Districts:''
|-
| District 1 || 10 wards || 7.73 || 198,032|| 199,899
|-
| District 2 || 11 wards || 49.74 || 125,136|| 126,084
|-
| District 3 || 14 wards || 4.92 || 201,122|| 199,297
|-
| District 4 || 15 wards || 4.18 || 180,548|| 185,268
|-
| District 5 || 15 wards || 4.27 || 170,367|| 192,157
|-
| District 6 || 14 wards || 7.19 || 241,379|| 243,416
|-
| District 7 || 10 wards || 35.69 || 159,490|| 163,608
|-
| District 8 || 16 wards || 19.18 || 360,722|| 366,251
|-
| District 9 || 13 wards || 114 || 202,948|| 207,696
|-
| District 10 || 15 wards || 5.72 || 235,231|| 235,370
|-
| District 11 || 16 wards || 5.14 || 224,785|| 225,908
|-
| District 12 || 11 wards || 52.78 || 290.129|| 299,306
|-
| [[Go Vap District]] || 16 wards || 19.74 || 452,083|| 468,468
|-
| [[Tan Binh District]] || 15 wards ||22.38 || 397,569|| 394,281
|-
| [[Tan Phu District]] || 11 wards || 16.06 || 366,399|| 372,519
|-
| [[Binh Thanh District]] || 20 wards || 20.76 || 423,896|| 435,300
|-
| [[Phu Nhuan District]] || 15 wards || 4.88 || 175,293|| 175,716
|-
| [[Thu Duc District]] || 12 wards || 47.76 || 336,571|| 346,329
|-
| [[Binh Tan District]] || 10 wards || 51.89 || 398,712|| 403,643
|-
| '''Total Inner Districts''' || '''259 wards''' || '''494.01''' || '''5,140,412'''|| '''5,240,516'''
|-
| colspan=4 | ''Suburban Districts:''
|-
| [[Cu Chi District]] || 20 communes and 1 township || 434.50 || 288,279|| 296,032
|-
| [[Hoc Mon District]] || 11 communes and 1 township || 109.18 || 245,381|| 251,812
|-
| [[Binh Chanh District]] || 15 communes and 1 township || 252.69 || 304,168|| 311,702
|-
| [[Nha Be District]] || 6 communes and 1 township || 100.41 || 72,740|| 73,432
|-
| [[Can Gio District]] || 6 communes and 1 township || 704.22 || 66,272|| 66,444
|-
| '''Total Suburban Districts''' || '''58 communes and 5 townships''' || '''1,601''' || '''976,839''' || '''999,422'''
|-
| '''Whole City''' || '''259 wards, 58 communes and 5 townships''' || '''2,095.01''' || '''6,117,251''' || '''6,239,938'''
|}

==Demographics==
The population of Ho Chi Minh City, as of the October 1, 2004 Census, was 6,117,251 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,140,412 residents and 5 suburban districts had 976,839 inhabitants). In the middle of 2005 the city's population was estimated to be 6,239,938 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,240,516 residents and 5 suburban districts had 999,422 inhabitants), or about 7.4% of the total population of Vietnam; making it the highest population-concentrated city in the country. As an administrative unit, its population is also the largest at the provincial level. As the largest economic and financial hub of Vietnam, HCMC has attracted more and more immigrants from other Vietnamese provinces in recent years; therefore, its population is growing rapidly. From 1999 - 2004, the city population has increased by about 200,000 people per year.

The majority of the population are ethnic Vietnamese ([[Kinh]]) at about 90%. Other ethnic minorities include Chinese ([[Hoa]]) with 8%, (the largest Chinese community in Vietnam) and other minorities (Khmer, Cham, Nung, Rhade) 2%.
The inhabitants of Ho Chi Minh City are usually known as "Saigonese" in English, "Saigonnais" in French and "dân Sài Gòn" in Vietnamese.

The [[Kinh]] speak Vietnamese with their respective regional accents: Southern (about 50%), Northern (30%) and Central Vietnam (20%); while the [[Hoa]] speak Cantonese, [[Teochew (dialect)|Teochew]] (Chaozhou), [[Hokkien language|Hokkien]], [[Hainanese (linguistics)|Hainanese]] and [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]] dialects of Chinese (only a few speak Mandarin Chinese). A varying degree of English is spoken especially in the tourism and commerce sectors where dealing with foreign nationals is a necessity, so English has become a de facto second language for some Saigonese.

According to some researchers the religious breakup in HCMC is as follows: [[Buddhism]] (all sects) 50%, [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 12%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 2%, others ([[Cao Dai]], [[Hoa Hao]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]]) 2%, and no religion or unknown 34%.

==Economy==
Saigon is the most important economic center in Vietnam. Saigon accounts for a big percentage of Vietnam's economy. Some 300,000 businesses, including many large enterprises, are involved in high-tech, electronic, processing and light industries, also in construction, building materials and agro-products. Investors are still pouring in money into the city.Currently, the city has 15 industrial parks (IP) and export-processing zones (EPZ), in addition to the [[Quang Trung Software Park]] and the [[Sai Gon Hi-tech Park]] (SHTP). Intel invested about 1 billion dollar factory in the city.There are 171 medium and large scale markets, tens of supermarket chains, dozens of luxury shopping malls and many modern fashion or beauty centers. There are many malls and shopping plazas developing in the city. Over 50 banks with hundreds of branches and about 20 insurance companies are situated inside the city. The first Stock Exchange of Vietnam was opened in the city in 2001 and is today one of Asia's best performing Stock Markets.

In 2005, the city's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was estimated at USD 11.6 billion, or about USD 1,850 per capita, (up 12.2% on 2004) and accounting for 20% GDP of the country. The GDP calculating Parity Purchasing Power method (PPP), attained USD 56 billion, or about USD 8,900 per capita (approximately 3.5 times higher than the country's average). The city's Industrial Product Value was USD 5.6 billion, equivalent to 30% of the whole nation. Export - Import Turnover through HCMC ports took USD 29 billion, or 40% of the national total. Ho Chi Minh City has also contributed about 30% to the national budget's revenue annually.

==Education==
[[Image:Vn-hcmmap.jpg|220px|left|thumb|Map showing all the University sites in Ho Chi Minh City]]

Higher education in Saigon is quite developed, concentrating about 50 universities and colleges with a total of over 300,000 students in such places as:
[[Ho Chi Minh City National University]] with 35,000 students, the most important university in the Southern Region, consisting of 6 main member schools: The University of Natural Sciences (formerly Saigon College of Sciences); The University of Social Sciences and Humanities (formerly Saigon College of Letters); The University of Polytechnic (formerly Phu Tho National Institute of Technology); The International University, Faculty of Economics and the newly-established University of Information Technology.

Some other important higher education establishments include: HCMC University of Pedagogy, University of Economics, [http://www.hcmuarc.edu.vn/ University of Architecture], [http://www.yds.edu.vn/ University of Medicine and Pharmacy], [http://www.hcmuaf.edu.vn/english/index.html Nong Lam University] (formerly University of Agriculture and Forestry), [http://www.hcmulaw.edu.vn University of Law], [http://www.hcmute.edu.vn/ University of Technical Education], University of Banking, University of Transport, University of Industry, Open University, University of Sports and Physical Education, University of Fine Art, University of Culture and the Conservatory of Music.

The [[RMIT]] University with about 2,000 students, the unique foreign-invested higher-education unit in Vietnam at the present, was founded in 2002 by the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) of Australia.

==Public Health==
The health care system of the city is relatively developed with a chain of about 100 publicly owned hospitals or medical centers and dozens of privately owned clinics. The health care is the best in the Indochina area. These establishments are equipped with state-of-the-art medical equipment. The 1,400 bed Chợ Rẫy Hospital, upgraded by Japanese aid and the French-sponsored Institute of Cardiology, are among the top medical facilities in [[Indochina]]. The Hoa Hao Medical Diagnosis Center (Medic) and FV Hospital have recently attracted many clients, including foreigners, because of their good quality of service and modern equipment. Patients come from cities in nearby provinces and Cambodia as well. The hospitals with close to international standards quality are:

* Centre Medical International
* [[Cho Ray Hospital]], the largest hospital in Ho Chi Minh City
* Columbia Asia Medical Center
* Family Medical Practice
* Franco-Vietnamese Hospital
* Gia Dinh Clinic
* Grand Dentistry
* International SOS
* OSCAT/AEA Vietnam Company
* Saigon Clinic

==Transportation==
[[Vietnam Airlines]] is the national carrier of Vietnam. The airline currently operates a modern fleet of Western-built aircraft, including ATR72, Airbus 320 & 321, Boeing 777, Fokker 100's and the 787 in the near future. It operates over 20 domestic routes and to 39 international destinations. Vietnam's second airline, Pacific Airlines, is using a leased fleet of Boeing 737s and A320s. [[Tan Son Nhat International Airport]], a joint civilian and military airport, is located 4 mi / 7 km north of the center (District 1) of Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). Taxi and bus services are available for travel to and from the airport and within the city. Because of the rapid growing number of air-passengers and Tan Son Nhat Airport's proximity to the center of the city, the Vietnamese Government has prepared to build a new international airport near Long Thanh Township, Dong Nai Province about 25 mi / 40 km to the northeast.

While most of the city's 11,000 taxis are metered and usually in good condition, not many drivers can speak English well. Some drivers refuse to use their meters in order to obtain a higher fare. Visitors should exercise vigilance when using motorcycle taxis (xe ôm) or three-wheeled [[cycle rickshaw]]s (xích lô), as they may sometimes leave passengers vulnerable.

[[Image:HCM-City Verkehr.JPG|200px|left|thumb|Street packed with motorbikes]]
Generally speaking, Ho Chi Minh city's road system is not in good condition - some of its streets are riddled with potholes. This is especially true of the city's numerous back streets and alleyways, which are sometimes little more than dirt paths. Traveling by bus is the only public transport available although the city is seeking financing sources for implementing metro (subway) and elevated train projects, including the [[Ho Chi Minh City Metro]] planned for completion in 2020. Recently, the number of motorcycles has increased to about 3 million. There are also over 500,000 automobiles, packing the city's arterial roads and making traffic congestion and air pollution common problems. If [[Beijing]] is "the City of Bicycles", then Ho Chi Minh City may be called "the City of Motorbikes". Visitors shouldn't consider the city's streets as dangerous due to the motorists' general behaviour of dodging pedestrians. In general most people follow traffic rules and enforcement of traffic law is improving. However, drivers can still be seen driving the wrong way up a one way street or ignoring red lights.

The city is the main hub of the Trans-Vietnam Railroad. Passengers can travel to [[Hanoi]] and the Chinese border, about 1,212 mi/1,950 km to the north. There are many harbours along the Saigon and [[Dong Nai]] Rivers, such as: Saigon Port, Newport, Ben nghe Port and VICT Port. They account for the annual 40% export-import cargo output of Vietnam.

From Saigon, one can travel to many places in Southern Vietnam and to Cambodia by road or waterway. The city is linked to the Central Highlands by National Highways 14 and 20, to the Central Coast and the north by National Highway 1 and to the [[Mekong River Delta]] by National Highways 1 and 50. Two expressways are being built to connect HCMC to [[Can Tho]], the capital of the Mekong River Delta, and to [[Dau Giay]] Township, [[Dong Nai]] Province, 70 km to the northeast.

==Media, Culture and Entertainment==
[[Image:Ben-Thanh-Markets.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ben Thanh Markets.]]
[[Image:Saigon-Architecture.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Typical Saigon Architecture.]]
[[Image:Fine-Arts-Museum.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Entrance to the Fine Arts Museum.]]
The city's media is the most developed in the country. At present, HCMC has 5 daily newspapers: Sai Gon Giai Phong (Liberated Saigon) and its Chinese, investment and finance, sports, evening and weekly editions, Tuoi Tre (Youth); the highest circulation newspaper in Vietnam; Nguoi Lao Dong (Labourer); The Thao (Sports) and the Saigon Times Daily, the business newspaper in English, and over 30 other newspapers and magazines. HCMC Television (HTV) is the second largest television network in the nation, just behind the national Vietnam Television (VTV), broadcasting 24/7 on 7 different channels (using analog and digital technology). The Voice of HCMC People is also the largest radio station in the Southern region. The major international TV channels are provided through two cable networks (SCTV and HTVC), with over 500,000 subscribers or satellite TVs.

The city has over 1.7 million fixed telephones and about 3.6 million cellular phones (the latter growing annually by 20%). The Internet, especially through ADSL connections, is also rapidly expanding with over 1,200,000 subscribers and around 4 million frequent users.

The city has hundreds of printing and publishing houses, many bookstores and a widespread network of public and school libraries. The HCMC General Library with over 1.5 mìllion books, is a beautiful architectural building, among the greatest in Vietnam. One can visit the Museum of History, the Museum of Revolution, the Museum of Southern Women, the Museum of Southeastern's Armed Forces, the Museum of Fine Art, the Gallery for War Remnants, the Nha Rong Memorial House, the Ben Duoc Relic of Underground Tunnels and many private art galleries. Besides the Municipal Theatre, there are other great places of entertainment such as: the Bến Thành and Hòa Bình Theaters and the Lan Anh Music Stage. The Đầm Sen Tourist and Cultural Park, Suoi Tien Cultural Park and the Can Gio Eco beach resort are three recreational sites inside the city which are popular with visitors.

Visitors can also enjoy various non-local cuisines, from Japanese sushi to Texas barbecue. There is many Pho chains in the city to enjoy and is very cheap. The city has hundreds of ranked hotels with over 18,000 rooms, including ten luxury 5 star hotels. However, backpacking travelers can easily get cheap menus and rooms in the "Western Quarter" on [[Pham Ngu Lao street]] in District 1.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Ho Chi Minh City}}
* [http://www.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/ Official website] (in Vietnamese and English)
* [http://www2.hcm.ciren.gov.vn/jvnwebgis Ho Chi Minh City Map]
* [http://www.vietnam-culture.com/photogallery-31-1/Old-Saigon.aspx Old Saigon photos- Ho Chi Minh City]
* [http://www.relaxindochina.com/hochiminh_vietnam.htm Travel Ho Chi Minh City Guide]

*{{wikitravel}}

{{Geolinks-cityscale|10.7696|106.6855}}

{{Vietnam}}
[[Category:Ho Chi Minh City]]
[[Category:Cities in Vietnam]]

{{Link FA|no}}

[[ar:مدينة هوشي منه]]
[[bg:Хо Ши Мин (град)]]
[[ca:Ciutat Ho Chi Minh]]
[[cs:Ho Či Minovo město]]
[[da:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[de:Ho-Chi-Minh-Stadt]]
[[es:Ciudad Ho Chi Minh]]
[[fr:Hô-Chi-Minh-Ville]]
[[ga:Cathair Ho Chi Minh]]
[[gl:Saigón]]
[[ko:호찌민 시]]
[[id:Kota Ho Chi Minh]]
[[is:Ho Chi Minh borg]]
[[it:Ho Chi Minh (Città)]]
[[he:הו צ'י מין סיטי]]
[[lv:Hošimina]]
[[lt:Hošiminas]]
[[hu:Ho Si Minh-város]]
[[nl:Ho Chi Minhstad]]
[[ja:ホーチミン (市)]]
[[no:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[nn:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[pl:Ho Chi Minh (miasto)]]
[[pt:Cidade de Ho Chi Minh]]
[[ro:Ho Şi Min (oraş)]]
[[ru:Хошимин]]
[[simple:Hồ Chí Minh City]]
[[sk:Hočiminovo Mesto]]
[[sl:Hošiminh]]
[[fi:Ho Chi Minhin kaupunki]]
[[sv:Ho Chi Minh-staden]]
[[th:โฮจิมินห์ซิตี]]
[[vi:Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh]]
[[zh:胡志明市]]

Vietnam

2007-06-24T07:57:47Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 2 edits by 61.68.150.16 identified as vandalism to last revision by MartinBot.

{{Infobox Country or territory
|native_name = ''{{lang|vi|Cộng hòa Xã hội Chủ nghĩa Việt Nam}}''
|conventional_long_name = Socialist Republic of Vietnam
|common_name = Vietnam
|image_flag = Flag of Vietnam.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Vietnam.png
|symbol_type = Coat of arms
|image_map = LocationVietnam.svg
|national_motto = {{lang|vi|''Độc lập - Tự do - Hạnh phúc''}} "Independence - Freedom - Happiness"
|national_anthem = ''[[Tiến Quân Ca]]''
|official_languages = [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
|capital = [[Hanoi]]
|latd=21 |latm=2 |latNS=N |longd=105 |longm=51 |longEW=E
|largest_city = [[Ho Chi Minh City]]
|government_type = [[Socialist republic]]{{smallsup|1}}
|leader_title1 = [[President of Vietnam|President]]
|leader_name1 = {{lang|vi|[[Nguyễn Minh Triết]]}}
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Vietnam|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = {{lang|vi|[[Nguyễn Tấn Dũng]]}}
|sovereignty_type = [[History of Vietnam#Post World War II Period|Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = from [[France]]
|established_event1 = Date
|established_date1 = [[September 2]] [[1945]]
|established_event2 = Recognized
|established_date2 = [[1954]]
|area_rank = 65th
|area_magnitude = 1 E9
|area = 331,689
|areami² = 128,065
|percent_water = 1.3
|population_estimate = 85,238,000
|population_estimate_year = July 2005
|population_estimate_rank = 13th
|population_census = 76,323,173
|population_census_year = 1999
|population_density = 253
|population_densitymi² = 655
|population_density_rank = 46th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2005
|GDP_PPP = $251.8 billion 
|GDP_PPP_rank = 36th
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $3,025
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 123rd
|HDI_year = 2004
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.709
|HDI_rank = 109th
|HDI_category = medium
|Gini = 37
|Gini_year = 2002
|Gini_rank = 59th
|Gini_category = medium
|currency = {{lang|vi|[[Vietnamese đồng|đồng]]}} (₫)
|currency_code = VND
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = +7
|time_zone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST = +7
|cctld = [[.vn]]
|calling_code = 84
|footnote1 = According to the official name and 1992 Constitution.
}}

'''Vietnam''' ({{lang-vi|Việt Nam}}), officially the '''Socialist Republic of Vietnam''', is the easternmost nation on the [[Indochina|Indochinese]] [[Peninsula]]. It borders [[People's Republic of China|China]] to the north, [[Laos]] to the northwest, and [[Cambodia]] to the southwest. On the country's east coast lies the [[South China Sea]]. With a [[population]] of over 85 million, Vietnam is the [[list of countries by population|13th]] most populous country in the world. The country is listed among the "[[Next Eleven]]" economies; according to government figures [[gross domestic product|GDP]], growth was 8.17% in 2006, the [[List of countries by GDP (real) growth rate|second fastest]] growth rate among countries in [[East Asia]] and the fastest in [[Southeast Asia]].

== History ==

{{main|History of Vietnam}}

=== Pre-Dynastic era ===
The area now known as Vietnam has been inhabited since [[Paleolithic]] times, and some archaeological sites in Thanh Hoa Province reportedly date back several thousand years. Archaeologists link the beginnings of Vietnamese civilization to the late [[Neolithic]], early [[Bronze Age]], Phung-nguyen culture, which was centered in Vinh Phu Province of contemporary Vietnam from about 2000 to 1400 [[Common Era|BCE]]. By about 1200 [[Common Era|BCE]], the development of wet-[[rice]] cultivation and bronze casting in the [[Ma River]] and [[Red River]] plains led to the development of the [[Dong Son]] culture, notable for its elaborate bronze drums. The bronze weapons, tools, and drums of Dongsonian sites show a Southeast Asian influence that indicates an indigenous origin for the bronze-casting technology. Many small, ancient [[copper]] [[mine]] sites have been found in northern Vietnam. Some of the similarities between the Dong Sonian sites and other Southeast Asian sites include the presence of boat-shaped coffins and burial jars, stilt dwellings, and evidence of the customs of betel-nut-chewing and teeth-blackening.

The legendary [[Hồng Bàng Dynasty]] of the [[Hùng Vương|Hùng kings]] is considered by many Vietnamese as the first Vietnamese state, known as Văn Lang. In [[257 BCE]], Thục Phán defeated the last Hùng king and consolidated the Lạc Việt tribes with his Âu Việt tribes, forming Âu Lạc and proclaiming himself [[An Dương Vương]]. In [[207 BCE]], a Chinese general named [[Zhao Tuo]] defeated An Dương Vương and consolidated Âu Lạc into [[Nanyue]]. In [[111 BCE]], the Chinese [[Han Dynasty]] consolidated Nanyue into their empire.

For the next thousand years, Vietnam was mostly under Chinese rule. Early independence movement such as those of the [[Trung Sisters|Trưng Sisters]] and of [[Trieu Thi Trinh|Lady Triệu]] were only briefly successful. It was independent as Vạn Xuân under the Anterior Ly Dynasty between [[544]] and [[602]]. By the early 10th century, Vietnam had gained autonomy, but not independence, under the Khúc family.

=== Dynastic era ===
[[Image:bachdang.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Battle of Bach Dang river. Silk painting by Năng Hiển.]]
In 938 [[Common Era|CE]], a Vietnamese lord named [[Ngo Quyen|Ngô Quyền]] defeated Chinese forces at the [[Battle of Bach Dang River (938)|Bạch Đằng River]] and gained independence after 10 centuries under Chinese control. Renamed as Đại Việt, the nation went through a golden era during the [[Lý Dynasty|Lý]] and [[Trần Dynasty|Trần]] Dynasties. During the rule of the Trần Dynasty, Đại Việt repelled three [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam]]. Following the brief [[Hồ Dynasty]], Vietnamese independence was briefly interrupted by the Chinese [[Ming Dynasty]], but was restored by [[Le Loi|Lê Lợi]], the founder of the [[Lê Dynasty]]. [[Feudalism]] in Vietnam reached its zenith in the Lê Dynasty of the [[15th century]], especially during the reign of Emperor [[Le Thanh Tong|Lê Thánh Tông]]. Between the [[11th century|11th]] and [[18th century|18th]] centuries, the Vietnamese expanded southward in a process known as {{lang|vi|nam tiến}} (''southward expansion''). They eventually conquered the kingdom of [[Champa]] and part of the [[Khmer Empire]].

Towards the end of the Lê Dynasty, civil strife engulfed much of Vietnam. First, the Chinese-supported [[Mạc Dynasty]] challenged the Lê Dynasty's power. After the Mạc Dynasty was defeated, the Lê Dynasty was reinstalled, but with no actual power. Power was divided between the [[Trịnh Lords]] in the North and the [[Nguyễn Lords]] in the South, who engaged in a [[Trịnh-Nguyễn War|civil war]] for more than a hundred years. The civil war ended when the [[Tay Son|Tây Sơn]] brothers defeated both and established their new dynasty. However, their rule did not last long and they were defeated by the remnants of the Nguyễn Lords with the help of the French, who established the [[Nguyễn Dynasty]].

=== French colonialism ===
Vietnam's independence ended in the mid-[[1800s]], when the country was colonized by the [[French colonial empires|French]]. The French administration imposed significant political and cultural changes on Vietnamese society. A Western-style system of modern education was developed, and [[Christianity]] was introduced into Vietnamese society. Developing a [[plantation economy]] to promote the exports of [[tobacco]], [[indigo]], [[tea]] and [[coffee]], the French largely ignored increasing calls for self-government and civil rights. A nationalist political movement soon emerged, with leaders such as [[Phan Boi Chau]], [[Phan Chu Trinh]], Emperor [[Ham Nghi]] and [[Ho Chi Minh]] calling for independence. However, the French maintained dominant control of their colonies until [[World War II]], when the Japanese war in the Pacific triggered the invasion of Indochina. The natural resources of Vietnam were exploited for the purposes of Japan's military campaigns into [[Burma]], the [[Malay Peninsula]] and [[India]].

{{main|First Indochina War}}
In the final years of the war, a forceful nationalist insurgency emerged under [[Ho Chi Minh]], committed to independence and [[communism]]. Following the defeat of Japan, nationalist forces fought French colonial forces in the First Indochina War that lasted from 1945 to 1954. The French suffered a major defeat at the [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu]] and shortly afterwards withdrew from the country. The countries that fought the [[Vietnam War]] divided the country at the 17th parallel into [[North Vietnam]] and [[South Vietnam]] during the [[Geneva Conference (1954)|Geneva Accords]].

=== Vietnam War ===
{{main|Vietnam War}}
The [[communist]]-held [[North Vietnam]] was opposed by the [[United States]] which had sided with the French colonists in the [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu]]. Disagreements soon emerged over the organizing of elections and reunification, and the U.S. began increasing its contribution of military advisers. The disputed [[Gulf of Tonkin Incident]] was the immediate reason the U.S. cited for its military assault on North Vietnamese military installations and the gradual deployment of more than 500,000 troops into South Vietnam. U.S. forces were soon embroiled in a [[guerrilla war]] with the [[Viet Cong]], the insurgents who were indigenous to South Vietnam. North Vietnamese forces unsuccessfully attempted to overrun the South during the 1968 [[Tet Offensive]] and the war soon spread into neighboring Laos and Cambodia, both of which the United States bombed.

The extent of the U.S. bombing of Cambodia has become known only recently. "In 1975, Pol Pot's genocidal Khmer Rouge forces took power in Cambodia after a massive U.S. bombing campaign there. New information reveals that Cambodia was bombed far more heavily during the Vietnam War than previously believed — and that the bombing began not under Richard Nixon, but under [[Lyndon Johnson]]." Maps and a database of bombing by the U.S. Air Force of Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam was created from data the United States provided in an effort to help locate unexploded ordnance left behind
during the U.S. carpet bombing of the region.[http://japanfocus.org/products/topdf/2420]

With its own casualties mounting, the U.S. began transferring combat roles to the South Vietnamese military in a process the U.S. called {{lang|en|[[Vietnamization]]}}. The effort had mixed results. The [[Paris Peace Accords]] on [[January 27]], [[1973]] formally recognized the sovereignty of both sides. Under the terms of the accords all American combat troops were withdrawn by [[March 29]] [[1973]]. Limited fighting continued, but all major fighting ended until the North once again sent troops to the South on [[April 30]], [[1975]]. South Vietnam briefly became the [[Republic of South Vietnam]], under military occupation by North Vietnam, before being officially reunified with the North under communist rule as the ''Socialist Republic of Vietnam'' on [[July 2]] [[1976]].

=== Postwar ===
Upon taking control, the Vietnamese communists banned other political parties, arrested people believed to have collaborated with the U.S. and sent them to [[reeducation camp]]s. The government also embarked on a mass campaign of [[collectivization]] of farms and factories. Reconstruction of the war-ravaged country was slow and serious humanitarian and economic problems confronted the communist regime. Millions of people [[boat people|fled the country]] in crudely-built boats, creating an international humanitarian crisis<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3ebf9bad0.pdf
|author=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]]
|title=The State of The World's Refugees 2000 - Chapter 4: Flight from Indochina
|accessdate=2007-04-06
}}: Three million fled Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos combined; close to a million Vietnamese were helped by the UNHCR.</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://archives.cbc.ca/IDD-1-69-524/life_society/boat_people/
|author=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]]
|title=Boat people: A Refugee Crisis
|accessdate=2007-04-06
}}</ref>. In 1978, the Vietnamese Army [[Cambodian-Vietnamese War|invaded Cambodia]] to remove the [[Khmer Rouge]] from power. This action worsened relations with China, which launched a [[Sino-Vietnamese War|brief incursion into northern Vietnam]] in 1979. This conflict caused Vietnam to rely even more heavily on Soviet economic and military aid.

=== Đổi Mới ===
In a historic shift in [[1986]], the Communist Party of Vietnam implemented [[free-market]] reforms known as {{lang|vi|[[Doi Moi|Đổi Mới]]}} (''Renovation''). With the authority of the state remaining unchallenged, private ownership of farms and companies, deregulation and foreign investment were encouraged. The [[economy of Vietnam]] has achieved rapid growth in agricultural and industrial production, construction and housing, exports, and foreign investment. It is now one of the fastest growing economies in the world. See Economy section for more detail.

== Government and politics ==
{{main|Politics of Vietnam}}
The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is a [[single-party state]]. A new [[Constitution of Vietnam|state constitution]] was approved in [[April 1992]], replacing the 1975 version. The central role of the Communist Party was reasserted in all organs of government, politics and society. Only political organizations affiliated with or endorsed by the Communist Party are permitted to contest elections. These include the [[Vietnamese Fatherland Front]], workers and trade unionist parties. Although the state remains officially committed to [[socialism]] as its defining creed, the ideology's importance has substantially diminished since the 1990s. The [[President of Vietnam]] is the titular [[head of state]] and the nominal [[commander in chief]] of the [[military of Vietnam]], chairing the Council on National Defense and Security. The [[Prime Minister of Vietnam]] is the [[head of government]], presiding over a [[council of ministers]] composed of 3 deputy prime ministers and the heads of 26 ministries and commissions.

The [[National Assembly of Vietnam]] is the [[unicameral]] [[legislature]] of the government, composed of 498 members. It is superior to both the executive and judicial branches. All members of the council of ministers are derived from the National Assembly. The [[Supreme People's Court of Vietnam]], which is the highest [[court of appeal]] in the nation, is also answerable to the National Assembly. Beneath the Supreme People's Court stand the [[Provincial Municipal Courts of Vietnam|provincial municipal courts]] and the [[Local Courts of Vietnam|local courts]]. [[Military Courts of Vietnam|Military courts]] are also a powerful branch of the judiciary with special jurisdiction in matters of national security. All organs of Vietnam's government are largely controlled by the Communist Party. Most government appointees are members of the party. The General Secretary of the Communist Party is perhaps one of the most important political leaders in the nation, controlling the party's national organization and state appointments, as well as setting policy.

The [[Vietnam People's Army]] is the official name for the three military services of Vietnam, which is organized on the lines of China's [[People's Liberation Army]]. The VPA is further subdivided into the Vietnamese People's Ground Forces (including Strategic Rear Forces and Border Defense Forces), the [[Vietnam People's Navy]], the [[Vietnam People's Air Force]] and the [[coast guard]]. Through Vietnam's recent history, the VPA has actively been involved in Vietnam's workforce to develop the economy of Vietnam, in order to coordinate national defense and the economy. The VPA is involved in such areas as industry, agriculture, forestry, fishery and telecommunications. The total strength of the VPA is close to 500,000 soldiers. The government also organizes and maintains provincial militias and police forces. The role of the military in public life has steadily weakened since the 1980s.

== Administrative divisions ==
{{main|Provinces of Vietnam}}
The capital of Vietnam is [[Hanoi]] (it had served as the capital of [[French Indochina]] and North Vietnam), and the largest and most populous city is [[Ho Chi Minh City]] (formerly known as [[Saigon]]). Vietnam is subdivided into [[Provinces of Vietnam|59 provinces and 5 province-level cities]], which are further subdivided into [[district]]s and [[municipalities]]. Provincial governments are expected to be subordinate to the central government. Often, the Vietnamese government groups the various provinces into eight regions:[[Tay Bac|Northwest]], [[Dong Bac|Northeast]], [[Red River Delta]], [[Bac Trung Bo|North Central Coast]], [[Nam Trung Bo|South Central Coast]], [[Tay Nguyen|Central Highland]], [[Dong Nam Bo|Southeast]], [[Dong Bang Song Cuu Long|Mekong River Delta]].

== Geography and climate ==
[[Image:Vm-map.png|thumb|left|150px|Map of Vietnam]]
{{main|Geography of Vietnam}}
Vietnam extends approximately 331,688 km² (128,066 [[square mile|sq mi]]) in area. The area of the country running along its international boundaries is 4,639 km (2,883 [[mile|mi]]). The topography consists of hills and densely forested mountains, with level land covering no more than 20%. Mountains account for 40% of the area, with smaller hills accounting for 40% and tropical forests 42%. The northern part of the country consists mostly of highlands and the [[Red River (Vietnam)|Red River Delta]]. [[Fan Si Pan|Phan Xi Păng]], located in [[Lao Cai province|Lào Cai province]], is the highest mountain in Vietnam at 3,143 m (10,312 [[foot (unit of length)|ft]]). The south is divided into coastal lowlands, [[Annamite Chain]] peaks, extensive forests, and poor soil. Comprising five relatively flat plateaus of basalt soil, the highlands account for 16% of the country's arable land and 22% of its total forested land. [[Image:Ha Long Bay with boats.jpg|thumb|300px|right|[[Ha Long Bay]], a [[World Heritage Site]]]]

The delta of the Red River (also known as the {{lang|vi|Sông Hồng}}), a flat, triangular region of 3,000 square kilometers, is smaller but more intensely developed and more densely populated than the Mekong River Delta. Once an inlet of the Gulf of Tonkin, it has been filled in by the enormous alluvial deposits of the rivers over a period of millennia, and it advances one hundred meters into the Gulf annually. The Mekong delta, covering about 40,000 square kilometers, is a low-level plain not more than three meters above sea level at any point and criss-crossed by a maze of canals and rivers. So much sediment is carried by the Mekong's various branches and tributaries that the delta advances sixty to eighty meters into the sea every year.

Vietnam has a tropical monsoon climate, with humidity averaging 84% throughout the year. However, because of differences in latitude and the marked variety of topographical relief, the climate tends to vary considerably from place to place. During the winter or dry season, extending roughly from November to April, the monsoon winds usually blow from the northeast along the China coast and across the Gulf of Tonkin, picking up considerable moisture; consequently the winter season in most parts of the country is dry only by comparison with the rainy or summer season. The average annual temperature is generally higher in the plains than in the mountains and plateaus.

== Economy ==
{{main|Economy of Vietnam}}
The Vietnam War destroyed much of the economy of Vietnam. Upon taking power, the Government created a [[command economy]] in the nation. [[Collectivization]] of farms, factories and economic capital was implemented, and millions of people were put to work in government programs. For many decades, Vietnam's economy was plagued with inefficiency and corruption in state programs, poor quality and underproduction and restrictions on economic activities and trade. It also suffered from the trade embargo from the United States and most of Europe after the Vietnam War. Subsequently, the trade partners of the Communist blocs began to erode. In [[1986]], the Sixth Party Congress introduced significant economic reforms with [[market economy]] elements as part of a broad economic reform package called "[[doi moi|đổi mới]]" (''Renovation''). Private ownership was encouraged in industries, commerce and agriculture. Vietnam achieved around 8% annual [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] growth from 1990 to 1997 and continued at around 7% from 2000 to [[2005]], making it the world's second-fastest growing economy. Simultaneously, [[foreign investment]] grew threefold and [[savings|domestic savings]] quintupled. Manufacturing, [[information technology]] and high-tech industries form a large and fast-growing part of the national economy. Vietnam is a relative new-comer to the oil business, but today it is the third-largest oil producer in Southeast Asia with output of 400,000 barrels per day. Vietnam is one of Asia's most open economies: two-way trade is around 160% of GDP, more than twice the ratio for China and over four times India's (source: The Economist)

[[Image:Hoi An Lantern Shop.jpg|right|thumb|Workshop in [[Hoi An]], 2001.]]
Vietnam is still a relatively poor country with GDP of US$280.2 billion (est., [[2006]], source: Economist Intelligence unit). This translates to ~US$3,300 per capita. Inflation rate was estimated at 7.5% per year in 2006. The spending power of the public has noticeably increased.
Deep poverty, defined as a percent of the population living under $1 per day, has declined significantly and is now smaller than that of China, India, and the Philippines.
As a result of several [[land reform]] measures, Vietnam is now the largest producer of [[cashew]] nuts with a one-third global share and second-largest [[rice]] exporter in the world. Vietnam has the highest percent of land use for permanent crops, 6.93%, of any nation in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Besides rice, key exports are [[coffee]], [[tea]], [[rubber]], and fishery products. However, agriculture's share of economic output has declined, falling as a share of GDP from 42% in 1989 to 20% in 2006, as production in other sectors of the economy has risen. According to the CIA World Fact Book, the unemployment rate in Vietnam is one of the lowest in the world at 2%, trailing behind only [[Azerbaijan]], [[Cuba]], [[Iceland]], [[Andorra]] and [[Liechtenstein]]. Among other steps taken in the process of transitioning to a market economy, Vietnam in July 2006 updated its intellectual property legislation to comply with [[TRIPS]]. Vietnam was accepted into the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]] on November 7, 2006. Vietnam's chief trading partners include Japan, [[Australia]], ASEAN countries, the U.S. and Western European countries.

== Transportation ==
[[Image:Hai Van Pass Vietnam.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hai Van Pass.]]
{{main|Transportation in Vietnam}}
The modern transport network of Vietnam was originally developed under French rule for the purpose of raw materials harvesting, and reconstructed and extensively modernized following the Vietnam War. The road system is the most popular form of transportation in the country. Vietnam’s road system includes national roads administered by the central level; provincial roads managed by the provincial level; district roads managed by the district level; urban roads managed by cities and towns; and commune roads managed by the commune level.

[[Bicycle]]s and motorcycles remain the most popular forms of road transport in Vietnam's cities, towns, and villages. Public bus operated by private companies is the main long distance travel means by many people. Traffic congestion is a serious problem in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City as the city's roads struggle to cope with the booming numbers of automobiles. There are also more than 17,000 kilometers of navigable [[waterway]]s, which play a significant role in rural life owing to the extensive network of rivers in Vietnam.

The nation has seven developed ports and harbors at [[Cam Ranh]], [[Da Nang]], [[Hai Phong]], [[Ho Chi Minh City]], [[Hong Gai]], [[Qui Nhon]], and [[Nha Trang]].

== Demography ==
{{main|Demography of Vietnam}}

=== Population ===
{{main|Ethnic groups in Vietnam}}
Recent census estimates the population of Vietnam at beyond 84 million. [[Vietnamese people]], also called "Viet" or "Kinh", account for 86.2 percent of the population. Their population is concentrated in the [[alluvial fans|alluvial deltas]] and coastal plains of the country. A homogeneous social and ethnic majority group, the Kinh exert political and economic control. There are more than 54 ethnic minorities throughout the country, but the Kinh are purveyors of the dominant culture. Most ethnic minorities, such as the [[Muong]], a closely related ethnic of the Kinh, are found mostly in the highlands covering two-thirds of the territory . The Hoa (ethnic Chinese) and [[Khmer Krom]] are mainly lowlanders. The largest ethnic minority groups include the Hmong, Dao, Tay, Thai, Nung.

=== Languages ===
{{main|Vietnamese language}}
According to official figures, 86.2% of the population speak [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] as a native language. In its early history, Vietnamese writing used [[Chinese characters]]. In the [[13th century]], the Vietnamese developed their own set of characters called [[Chu Nom|Chữ nôm]]. The celebrated epic {{lang|vi|[[The Tale of Kieu|Đoạn trường tân thanh]]}} ({{lang|vi|Truyện Kiều}} or {{lang|en|The Tale of Kieu}}) by [[Nguyen Du|Nguyễn Du]] was written in Chữ nôm. During the French colonial period, [[Quoc Ngu|Quốc ngữ]], the romanised Vietnamese alphabet representation of spoken Vietnamese, which was developed in 17th century by [[Jesuit]] [[Alexandre De Rhodes]] and several other [[catholic]] [[missionary|missionaries]], became popular and brought literacy to the masses.

Various other languages are spoken by the several minority groups in Vietnam. The most common of these are [[Tai languages|Tày]], [[Muong language|Mường]], [[Khmer language|Khmer]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Nung language|Nùng]], [[Hmong language|H'Mông]]. The [[French language]], a legacy of colonial rule, is still spoken by some older Vietnamese as a second language, but is losing its popularity. [[Russian language|Russian]] — and to a much lesser extent [[Czech language|Czech]] or [[Polish language|Polish]] — is sometimes known among those whose families had ties with the [[Soviet bloc]]. In recent years, [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[English language|English]] have become the most popular foreign languages, with English study being obligatory in most schools.

=== Religions ===
{{main|Religion in Vietnam}}
For much of Vietnamese history, [[Mahayana Buddhism]], [[Taoism]] and [[Confucianism]] have strongly influenced the religious and cultural life of the people. About 86% of Vietnamese practice Buddhism even though they do not practice on a regular basis.{{Fact|date=May 2007}} About 7% of the population are Roman
Catholic. Christianity was introduced by French colonists, and to a lesser extent during the presence of American forces. There is a substantial following of [[Roman Catholicism]] and [[Protestantism]] amongst the [[Cao Dai|Cao Đài]], and [[Hoa Hao|Hòa Hảo]] communities. The largest Protestant churches are the [[Evangelical Church of Vietnam]] and the [[Montagnard Evangelical Church]].

Vietnam has great reservation towards Roman Catholicism. This mistrust originated during the French colonial time when several members of the Catholic church had collaborated with the French colonists as espionage agents to suppress the Vietnamese independence movement. Membership of [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] and [[Bashi]] [[Islam]] is usually accredited to the ethnic [[Cham people|Cham]] minority, but there are also a few ethnic Vietnamese adherents of Islam in the southwest. The Vietnamese government has been criticized for its religious violations. However, due to recent improvements in freedom of religion, the United States government no longer considers Vietnam a [[Country of Particular Concern]].

Practically all Vietnamese people, regardless of their religious background (including [[Catholic]] or Buddhist), practice [[Ancestor Worship]], although this may not be strictly considered a religion.

=== Education ===
{{main|Education in Vietnam}}
Vietnam has an extensive state-controlled network of schools, colleges and universities. General education in Vietnam is imparted in 5 categories: [[Kindergarten]], [[elementary school]]s, [[middle school]]s, [[high school]]s, and college/university. Courses are taught mainly in Vietnamese. A large number of public schools have been organized across cities, towns and villages with the purpose of raising the national literacy rate. There are a large number of specialist colleges, established to develop a diverse and skilled national workforce. A large number of Vietnam's most acclaimed universities are based in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Facing serious crises, Vietnam's education system is under a holistic reform launched by the government. In Vietnam, education from age 6 to 11 is free and mandatory. Education above these ages is costly, therefore many families can't afford to send their children to school.

== Culture ==
{{main|Culture of Vietnam}}
[[Image:Van mieu 1.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The [[Văn Miếu]] (Temple of Literature).]]
Over thousands of years, the culture of Vietnam has been strongly influenced by neighboring China. Due to Vietnam's long association with [[China]], Vietnamese culture remains strongly [[Confucianism|Confucian]] with its emphasis on filial duty. Education and self-betterment are highly valued. Historically, passing the imperial [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|Mandarin]] exams was the only means for Vietnamese people to socially advance themselves.

In the socialist era, the cultural life of Vietnam has been deeply influenced by government-controlled media and the cultural influences of socialist programs. For many decades, foreign cultural influences were shunned and emphasis placed on appreciating and sharing the culture of communist nations such as the Soviet Union, China, [[Cuba]] and others. Since the 1990s, Vietnam has seen a greater exposure to Southeast Asian, European and American culture and media.
[[Image:Hanoi Oper.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The [[Hanoi Opera House]] is an example of French Colonial architecture in Vietnam.]]

One of the most popular Vietnamese traditional garments is the "{{lang|vi|[[Áo dài|Áo Dài]]}}", worn often for special occasions such as weddings or festivals. White Áo dài is the required uniform for girls in many high schools across Vietnam. Áo Dài was once worn by both genders but today it is worn mainly by females, except for certain important traditional culture-related occasions where some men do wear it.

[[Cuisine of Vietnam|Vietnamese cuisine]] uses very little oil and many vegetables. The main dishes are often based on [[rice]], [[soy sauce]], and [[fish sauce]]. Its characteristic flavors are sweet (sugar), spicy ([[serrano pepper]]s), sour (lime), [[umami]] (fish sauce), and flavored by a variety of mint and basil.

[[Vietnamese music]], is slightly different according to three regions: {{lang|vi|Bắc}} or North, {{lang|vi|Trung}} or Central, and {{lang|vi|Nam}} or South. Northern classical music is Vietnam's oldest and is traditionally more formal. Vietnamese classical music can be traced to the Mongol invasions, when the Vietnamese captured a Chinese [[opera]] troupe. Central classical music shows the influences of Champa culture with its melancholic melodies. Southern music exudes a lively [[laissez-faire]] attitude.

''See also [[Vietnamese art]], [[Vietnamese theatre|theatre]], [[Vietnamese dance|dance]], and [[Vietnamese literature|literature]]

[[Football (soccer)]] is the most popular sport in Vietnam. Sports and games such as [[badminton]], [[tennis]], [[ping pong]], and [[chess]] are also popular with large segments of the population. [[Volleyball]], especially women volleyball, is watched by a fairly large number of Vietnamese. The (expatriate Vietnamese) community forms a prominent part of Vietnamese cultural life, introducing Western sports, films, music and other cultural activities in the nation.

Vietnam is home to a small film industry, but the works from its counterparts in South Korea, [[Hong Kong]], France, the U.S. enjoy greater popularity and circulation.

Among countless other traditional Vietnamese occasions, the [[traditional Vietnamese wedding]] is one of the most important. Regardless of [[westernization]], many of the age-old customs in a Vietnamese wedding continue to be celebrated by both Vietnamese in Vietnam and overseas, often combining both western and eastern elements.

=== Media ===
The [[Voice of Vietnam]] is the official state-run radio broadcasting services that cover the nation. [[Vietnam Television]] is the national television broadcasting company. As Vietnam moved toward a free-market economy with its doi moi measures, the government has relied on the print media to keep the public informed about its policies. The measure has had the effect of almost doubling the numbers of [[newspaper]]s and magazines since 1996 . Vietnam is putting considerable effort into modernization and expansion of its telecommunication system, but its performance continues to lag behind that of its more modern neighbors.

=== Tourism ===
Vietnam's number of visitors for tourism and vacation has increased steadily over the past ten years. About 3.56 million international guests visited Vietnam in 2006, an increase of 3.7% from 2005. The country is investing capital into the coastal regions that are already popular for their beaches and boat tours. Hotel staff and tourism guides in these regions speak a good amount of English.

== International rankings ==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Organisation
! Survey
! Ranking
|-
| [[Heritage Foundation]]/''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''
| [[Index of Economic Freedom#Current ratings|Index of Economic Freedom]]
| 142 out of 157
|-
| ''[[The Economist]]''
| [http://www.economist.com/theworldin/international/displayStory.cfm?story_id=3372495&d=2005 Worldwide Quality-of-life Index, 2005]
| 61 out of 111
|-
| [[Reporters Without Borders]]
| [[Reporters Without Borders#Worldwide press freedom index|Worldwide Press Freedom Index]]
| 155 out of 167
|-
| [[Transparency International]]
| [[Corruption Perceptions Index]]
| 111 out of 163
|-
| [[United Nations Development Programme]]
| [[List of countries by Human Development Index|Human Development Index]]
| 109 out of 177
|-
| [[World Economic Forum]]
| [[Global Competitiveness Report]]
| 77 out of 125
|}

== See also ==
{{Vietnam topics}}

==Sources and notes==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
* Herring, George C''. America's Longest War: The United States and Vietnam, 1950-1975'' (4th ed 2001), most widely used short history.
*Jahn GC. 2006. The Dream is not yet over. In: P. Fredenburg P, Hill B, editors. Sharing rice for peace and prosperity in the Greater Mekong Subregion. Victoria, (Australia): Sid Harta Publishers. p 237-240
*Karrnow, Stanley. ''Vietnam: A History''. ''Penguin (Non-Classics)''; 2nd edition ([[June 1]], [[1997]]). ISBN 0-14-026547-3
* McMahon, Robert J. ''Major Problems in the History of the Vietnam War: Documents and Essays'' (1995) textbook
* Tucker, Spencer. ed. ''Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War'' (1998) 3 vol. reference set; also one-volume abridgment (2001)
</div>

== External links ==
=== Government ===
* [http://www.vietnam.gov.vn/en/ Portal of the Government of Vietnam]
* [http://www.cpv.org.vn/index_e.html Communist Party of Vietnam]
* [http://www.na.gov.vn/english/index.html National Assembly]: the Vietnamese legislative body
* [http://www.gso.gov.vn/default_en.aspx?tabid=491 General Statistics Office]
* [http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/ Ministry of Foreign Affairs]

=== Media ===
==== State-run ====
* [http://www.vov.org.vn/?lang=2 Voice of Vietnam]: State radio broadcaster
* [http://www.vtv.org.vn/en/ Vietnam Television]: State television broadcaster
* [http://www.vnagency.com.vn/Home/tabid/117/Default.aspx Vietnam News Agency]: Official state news agency
* [http://www.nhandan.com.vn/english ''Nhân Dân''] (''[[Nhân Dân|The People]])'': Official Communist Party newspaper
* [http://www.qdnd.vn/army/home.qdnd ''Quân đội Nhân Dân'']: Newspaper of the People's Army
* [http://english.vietnamnet.vn/ Vietnam Net]: Largest Vietnamese portal, run by the government-owned Vietnam Post and Telecommunication Corporation
* [http://www.hanoimoi.com.vn/ ''Hà Nội Mới''] (''New Hanoi''): run by the Hanoi Communist Party {{vi icon}}
* [http://www.saigon-gpdaily.com.vn/ ''Sài Gòn Giải Phóng''] (''Liberated Saigon''): run by the Ho Chi Minh City Communist Party

==== Non state-run ====
While all media in Vietnam must be sponsored by a Communist Party organization and be registered with the government, the following media sources have less government control than others.
* [http://www.vnexpress.net/ VnExpress]: Popular online newspaper {{vi icon}}
* [http://www.tuoitre.com.vn ''Tuổi Trẻ''] (''Youth''): Daily newspaper with highest circulation, affiliated with the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth Organization of Ho Chi Minh City {{vi icon}}
* [http://www.thanhniennews.com/ ''Thanh Niên''] (''Youth''): Major daily newspaper, affiliated with the Vietnam National Youth Federation
* [http://www.laodong.com.vn/ ''Lao Động''] (''Labour''): Major daily newspaper, affiliated with the Vietnam General Confederation of Labour (the sole labour union in Vietnam) {{vi icon}}
* [http://www.tienphongonline.com.vn ''Tiền Phong''] (''Vanguard''): Major daily newspaper, affiliated with the Ho Chi Minh Communist Youth organization {{vi icon}}
* [http://www.vneconomy.com.vn/eng/ Vietnam Economic Times] - for foreign investors
* [http://www.baotructuyen.com/ ''Báo trực tuyến''] - Vietnam Online News {{vi icon}}

=== Overviews ===
* [http://www2.hcm.ciren.gov.vn/cirengis VietNam Map]
*Book [http://www.atlan.org/book/ Atlantis, the lost continent finally found]
*Book [http://www.amazon.com/Eden-East-Drowned-Continent-Southeast/dp/0753806797 Eden in the East: The Drowned Continent of Southeast Asia ]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1243338.stm BBC - Country profile: ''Vietnam'']
* [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/vm.html CIA World Factbook - ''Vietnam'']
* [http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=140&edition=7&ccrpage=31&ccrcountry=140 Freedom House "Countries at the Crossroads" report - ''Vietnam'']: information on government accountability, civil liberties, rule of law, and anticorruption efforts
* [http://www.britannica.com/nations/Vietnam Encyclopaedia Britannica - ''Vietnam'']
* [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/Vietnam/ Open Directory Project - ''Vietnam''] directory category
* [http://www.state.gov/p/eap/ci/vm/ US State Department - ''Vietnam''] includes Background Notes, Country Study and major reports
* [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/vntoc.html US Library of Congress - ''Country Study: Vietnam'']
* [http://www.mofa.gov.vn/en/tt_vietnam/ Information about Vietnam]: from the Vietnamese Ministry of Foreign Affair
* [http://perso.numericable.fr/patrickgu Le Viêt Nam, aujourd'hui]: News concerning Vietnam (English & French)
* [http://www.business-anti-corruption.dk/normal.asp?pageid=148 Business Anti-Corruption Portal] Vietnam Country Profile
* [http://photosvietnam.com/ Vietnam Photos] The Travel Photos Gallery in all part of Vietnam
* [http://www.vietnamartist.com/Vietnamese-Art.aspx Vietnamese Art Traditions,History,Pioneers and Contemporary Artists]
 {{Subdivisions of Vietnam}}
{{Template group
|title = Geographic locale
|list =
{{Countries and territories of Southeast Asia}}
{{Countries of Asia}}
{{Countries and territories of East Asia}}
}}
{{Template group
|title = International membership
|list =
{{Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)}}
{{East Asia Summit (EAS)}}
{{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}}
{{Communist states}}
{{Austroasiatic-speaking}}
{{Sino-Tibetan-speaking}}
{{World Trade Organization (WTO)}}
}}




[[Category:Vietnam| ]]
[[Category:ASEAN members|Vietnam]]
[[Category:Communist states|Vietnam]]
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{{Link FA|de}}


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Talk:CURL

2007-06-15T02:38:09Z

Sir Vicious: Name of cURL's author?

curl is

== Move? ==

I think this article should be called [[CURL utility]] (or something like that). It would be consistant with [[Curl Programming Language]]. It seems a mistake to have two articles different, only by case (this and [[Curl]]. Does anybody agree? Without agreement, I won't touch it. --[[User:Thivierr|rob]] 21:33, 29 July 2005 (UTC)

: '''cURL''' is the name of the program and should be the name of the article. --[[User:Pmsyyz|Pmsyyz]] 07:07, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

::Well, the article name is not '''cURL''' (no article can start with lower-case), it's [[CURL]], which is close, but not the same as [[Curl]], which is completely unrelated. I find that confusing, but I guess nobody else does. So, I guess we'll keep the approach of disambiguating the term at the top of each article, which will work as long as there are no more curls in the world. --[[User:Thivierr|rob]] 11:13, 1 August 2005 (UTC)

:::I'm contemplating starting an article on CURL, once the Consortium of University Research Libraries but now apparently Consortium of Research Libraries in the British Isles ([http://www.curl.ac.uk/]). I'll probably call it something like CURL (organisation). At the very least, this is going to need an italic link at the top of the [[CURL]] and [[Curl]] pages, but I think I may do a disambiguation page. Any comments (here or on my Talk page)?
:::--[[User:GuillaumeTell|GuillaumeTell]] 23:05, 2 March 2006 (UTC)

== Too Technical ==

{{Technical (expert)}}

A stopgap method to make the article somewhat more accessible to non-technical readers (without vastly re-writing everything) is to hyperlink each jargon term in the article to an article which is more accessible. For example, a non-technical reader does not know what [[Language_binding|bindings]] means in the context of this article, so I hyperlinked it. [[User:Teratornis|Teratornis]] 21:35, 9 June 2006 (UTC)

:I hyperlinked every jargon term in the article that I could find a suitable Wikipedia article for. I think this makes the article accessible to more people; heck, it makes the article more accessible to me. In general, when someone does not understand a passage of text, that means he or she does not know what some of the words mean. There are some pretty good articles describing most of the jargon terms in this article, and that should help someone new to the material get a foot in the door. I also added an Examples section with one simple command example (following the [[Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_%28command-line_examples%29|Wikipedia:Manual of Style (command-line examples)]]); would other cURL users please add more. [[User:Teratornis|Teratornis]] 18:27, 11 June 2006 (UTC)

Sure, but if you are reading such page, you should know (as a basic) what are those protocols, operating systems, and other technical words. They are basic in the computer science world.

:Sir, you fail at life and as a person for your arrogance. A reader could arrive at this page from ANYWHERE. They may have no idea what any of the "basic technical words" mean. [[User:Alphax|[ælfəks]]] 07:57, 9 November 2006 (UTC)

== This page seems like plagerism ==

Almost all of this page is cut and pasted directly from the cURL tutorial. I read that, and came here looking for more. There's nothing more here. I thought wikipedia had original information.

== Scripting HTTP Requests Using Curl ==

I've removed the section on the grounds that it's [http://curl.haxx.se/docs/httpscripting.html plagiarism] , and that Wikipedia is [[WP:NOT|not a how-to]]. See the original document at http://curl.haxx.se/docs/httpscripting.html. [[User:BCube|bCube]].[[User talk:BCube|talk]]([[Special:Contributions/BCube|contribs]]); 00:06, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

== Please don't remove information you know is accurate from Wikipedia. ==

BCube, you are arguing that Wikipedia should have less information! The section "Scripting HTTP Requests Using Curl" is the minimum information necessary to use cURL. If it is too technical for you, then cURL is too technical for you. There are many subjects in Wikipedia that are too technical for someone. For example, the article on Testosterone says that the IUPAC name is 17b-hydroxy-4-androsten-3-one. Will you remove that because you don't understand it? [[User:Futurepower(R)|Futurepower(R)]] 02:49, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

== Not Plagiarism: Edited with the encouragement of the author. ==

The section "Scripting HTTP Requests Using Curl" was posted with the permission of the author. The Wikipedia version was edited in many ways to make it more clear. You should not accuse someone of plagiarism if you have not communicated with the author. [[User:Futurepower(R)|Futurepower(R)]] 02:50, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

== Wikipedia has a lot of information that is available elsewhere. ==

The fact that the same information is available elsewhere is not an argument against it appearing in Wikipedia. It is valuable to have section "Scripting HTTP Requests Using Curl" in Wikipedia because then knowledgeable people can add to the information without having to ask the author of cURL. [[User:Futurepower(R)|Futurepower(R)]] 02:50, 6 November 2006 (UTC)

== Yes, the name of the Wikipedia article about cURL should be changed. ==

I suggest the new name should be "CURL network utility". The disambiguation section for the name CURL should be retained, but point to the new computer utility name. Futurepower(R), 02:26, 6 November 2006 (UTC)
:A better one: "cURL (software)" - [[User:PGSONIC|PGSONIC]] 22:56, 21 March 2007 (UTC)

== Name of cURL's author? ==

Shouldn't we at least mention that the author and lead developer of cURL is Daniel Stenberg? He is also one of the many developers for the [[Rockbox]] project, opensource firmware for many mp3 players. I think at least we could give the man some credit for his good works.

Enigmail

2007-06-09T11:00:09Z

Sir Vicious:

[[Image:SignedAndEncryptedMessage.png|thumb|300px|Signed and encrypted email with Mozilla Thunderbird and Enigmail (screenshot)]]
{{Firefox TOC}}
'''Enigmail''' provides [[public key]] e-mail encryption. It is an [[List of Firefox extensions|extension]] for versions of the [[Mozilla Application Suite]], [[SeaMonkey]] [[internet suite]] and [[Mozilla Thunderbird]] running on [[Microsoft Windows]] or [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]]s. Actual [[cryptography|cryptographic]] functionality is handled by [[GNU Privacy Guard]].

Both '''Enigmail''' and '''GNU Privacy Guard''' are [[Free Software|free]] [[open-source software]].

Enigmail's current [[version]] number is 0.95.0 as of April 2007.

==See also==

{{Portal|free software|Floss logos.svg}}
{{Portal|Cryptography|Key-crypto-sideways.svg}}

* [[Pretty Good Privacy]]
* [[List of Firefox extensions]]

==External links==
*[https://addons.mozilla.org/extensions/moreinfo.php?application=thunderbird&category=Privacy%20and%20Security&numpg=10&id=71 Enigmail at Mozilla Update]
*[http://enigmail.mozdev.org/ Enigmail home page]
*[http://dudu.dyn.2-h.org/gpg-enigmail-howto Illustrated how-to for Linux and Windows]
*[http://www.gredil.net/w/index.php/Secure_e-mail Another Thunderbird/GnuPG/Enigmail howto]
*[http://www.gnupg.org/ GNU Privacy Guard]

[[Category:Cryptographic software]]
[[Category:Mozilla extensions]]
[[Category:PGP]]
[[Category:Free e-mail software]]

{{software-stub}}

[[ca:Enigmail]]
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[[de:Enigmail]]
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[[pt:Enigmail]]

GNU Privacy Guard

2007-06-09T10:27:41Z

Sir Vicious: /* See also */

{{Infobox_Software
|name = GNU Privacy Guard
|logo =
|caption =
|screenshot = [[Image:GnuPG_logo_2006.png|The GNU Privacy Guard logo]]
|developer = [[GNU Project]]
|latest_release_version = 2.0.4
|latest_release_date = [[May 9]], [[2007]]
|operating_system = Cross-platform
|genre = Privacy
|license = [[GNU General Public License|GPL]]
|website = [http://www.gnupg.org/ www.gnupg.org]
}}
The '''GNU Privacy Guard''' ('''GnuPG''' or '''GPG''') is a [[free software]] replacement for the [[Pretty Good Privacy|PGP]] suite of [[cryptography|cryptographic]] software, released under the [[GNU General Public License]]. It is a part of the [[Free Software Foundation]]'s [[GNU]] software project, and has received major funding from the [[Germany|German]] government. GnuPG is completely compliant with [http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2440.txt RFC 2440], the [[Internet Engineering Task Force|IETF]] standard for [[OpenPGP]]. Current versions of PGP (and Veridis' Filecrypt) are interoperable with GnuPG and other OpenPGP-compliant systems. Although some older versions of PGP are also interoperable, not all features of newer software are supported by the older software.

==History==
GnuPG was initially developed by [[Werner Koch]]. Version 1.0.0 was released on [[September 7]], [[1999]]. The German Federal Ministry of Economics and Technology funded the documentation and the port to [[Microsoft Windows]] in 2000.

Because GnuPG is an OpenPGP standard compliant system, the history of OpenPGP is of importance. It was designed to interoperate with [[Pretty Good Privacy|PGP]], the email encryption protocol developed by [[Phil Zimmermann]]. See [[Pretty Good Privacy|PGP]] for more information.

Version 2.0 was released [[November 13]], [[2006]]. The old stable 1.x branch, whose last version is 1.4.7 will be continued in parallel with the new GnuPG 2 series, because there were significant changes in the architecture of the program which will not fit every purpose.<ref>[http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2006q4/000239.html GnuPG-2.0 released], Werner Koch, [[November 13]] [[2006]]</ref>

==Usage==
GnuPG is stable, production-quality software. It is frequently included in free [[operating system]]s, such as [[FreeBSD]], [[OpenBSD]], and [[NetBSD]] and nearly all distributions of [[Linux|GNU/Linux]].

GnuPG can be compiled for numerous operating systems. Cross compilation is not a trivial exercise, at least in part because security provisions vary with operating system and adapting to them is often tricky. High quality compilers should routinely produce executables which will interoperate correctly with other GnuPG implementations. Pre-compiled installations are available for popular operating systems including [[Microsoft Windows]] and [[Mac OS X]].

Although the basic GnuPG program has a [[command line interface]], there exist various [[front-end]]s that provide it with a [[graphical user interface]]. For example, GnuPG encryption support has been integrated into [[KMail]] and [[Novell Evolution|Evolution]], the graphical [[e-mail client]]s found in the most popular [[Linux]] desktops [[KDE]] and [[GNOME]]. They also offer graphical GnuPG front-ends ([[Seahorse (software)|Seahorse]] for GNOME, [[KGPG]] for KDE). For [[Mac OS X]], the [http://macgpg.sourceforge.net/ Mac GPG project] provides a number of [[Aqua (user interface)|Aqua]] front-ends for OS integration of encryption and [[key management]] as well as GnuPG installations via familiar [[Installer (Mac OS X)|Installer]] [[Software package|packages]]. [[Instant messaging]] applications such as [[Psi (instant messaging client)|Psi]] and [[Fire (instant messaging client)|Fire]] can automatically secure messages when GnuPG is installed and configured. Web-based software such as [[Horde (Software)|Horde]] also makes use of it. The cross-platform [[plugin]] [[Enigmail]] provides GnuPG support for [[Mozilla Thunderbird]] and [[SeaMonkey]]. In the same line, [[Enigform]] provides GnuPG support for [[Mozilla Firefox]].

Recently, [[G10 Cod]]e and [[Intevation]] have released [[Gpg4win]], a package of software that includes GnuPG for Windows, [[WinPT]], [[Gnu Privacy Assistant]], and GnuPG plug-ins for [[Windows Explorer]] and [[Microsoft Outlook|Outlook]]. These tools are wrapped in a standard Windows installer, making it trivial for GnuPG to be installed and used on almost any recent Windows system.

[[Image:PGP form.png|thumb|[[Plaintext]] and [[GnuPG]]-generated [[cyphertext]]]]

==Process==
GnuPG encrypts messages using asymmetric keypairs individually generated by GnuPG users. The resulting public keys can be exchanged with other users in a variety of ways, such as Internet [[key server (cryptographic)|key server]]s. They must always be exchanged carefully to prevent identity spoofing by corrupting public key ↔ 'owner' identity correspondences. It is also possible to add a cryptographic digital signature to a message, so the message integrity and sender can be verified, if a particular correspondence relied upon has not been corrupted.

GnuPG does not use patented or otherwise restricted software or algorithms, including the [[International Data Encryption Algorithm|IDEA]] encryption algorithm which has been present in PGP almost from the beginning. Instead, it uses a variety of other, non-patented algorithms such as [[CAST5]], [[Triple DES]], [[Advanced Encryption Standard|AES]], [[Blowfish (cipher)|Blowfish]] and [[Twofish]]. It is still possible to use IDEA in GnuPG by downloading a plugin for it, however this may require getting a license for some uses in some countries in which IDEA is patented.

GnuPG is a hybrid encryption software program in that it uses a combination of conventional [[symmetric-key algorithm|symmetric-key cryptography]] for speed, and [[public-key cryptography]] for ease of secure key exchange, typically by using the recipient's public key to encrypt a session key which is only used once. This mode of operation is part of the OpenPGP standard and has been part of PGP from its first version.

==Problems==
The OpenPGP standard specifies several methods of [[digital signature|digitally signing]] messages. Due to an error in a change to GnuPG intended to make one of those methods more efficient, a security vulnerability was introduced.<ref>[http://www.di.ens.fr/~pnguyen Phong Q. Nguyen] [http://www.di.ens.fr/~pnguyen/pub.html#Ng04 "Can We Trust Cryptographic Software? Cryptographic Flaws in GNU Privacy Guard v1.2.3." EUROCRYPT 2004: 555–570]</ref> It affects only one method of digitally signing messages, only for some releases of GnuPG (1.0.2 through 1.2.3), and there were less than 1000 such keys listed on the key servers.<ref>[http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2003q4/000160.html GnuPG's ElGamal signing keys compromised] Werner Koch, [[November 27]], [[2003]]</ref> Most people did not use this method, and were in any case discouraged from doing so, so the damage caused (if any, and none has been publicly reported) would appear to have been minimal. Support for this method has been removed from GnuPG versions released after this discovery (1.2.4 and later). Two further vulnerabilities were discovered in early 2006; the first being that scripted uses of GnuPG for signature verification may result in false positives,<ref>[http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2006q1/000211.html False positive signature verification in GnuPG] Werner Koch, [[February 15]], [[2006]]</ref> the second that non-MIME messages were vulnerable to the injection of data which while not covered by the digital signature, would be reported as being part of the signed message.<ref>[http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2006q1/000218.html GnuPG does not detect injection of unsigned data], Werner Koch, [[March 9]] [[2006]]</ref> In both cases updated versions of GnuPG were made available at the time of the announcement.

GnuPG is a command-line based system, that is not written as an [[Application programming interface|API]] which can be incorporated into other software. [[GPGME]] is an API wrapper around GnuPG which [[parsing|parses]] the output of GnuPG, and various graphical front-ends based on GPGME have been created. This currently requires an out-of-process call to the GnuPG executable for many GPGME API calls. Because GPGME makes use of a special GnuPG interface designed for machine use, a stable and maintainable API between the components is given. Possible security problems in an application do not propagate to the actual crypto code due to the process barrier.

Other software wraps the command line in a [[Perl]] script (e.g. [[gpg-dialog]]) that is menu based and more user friendly.

==See also==
{{Portal|Free software}}
{{Portal|Cryptography}}
*[[E-mail privacy]]
*[[Pretty Good Privacy]]
*[[Key signing party]]
*[[Asymmetric key algorithm]]
*[[Cryptosystem]]
*[[Enigmail]] – A [[Mozilla Thunderbird]] and [[SeaMonkey]] [[Extension (Mozilla)|extension]] which allows signing and encryption of e-mails.
*[[Enigform]] A Firefox extension with the aim of encrypting HTTP with GPG.

==References==
<div class="references-small">
<references/>
</div>

==External links==
===Software===
* [http://www.gnupg.org/ GNU Privacy Guard website]
* [http://macgpg.sourceforge.net/ Mac GPG Project]
* [http://www.gpg4win.org/ GnuPG for Windows homepage]
* [http://www.symbolictools.de/public/pocketconsole/applications/gnupg/ GnuPG for Pocket PC]
* [http://directory.fsf.org/GPGME.html FSF page on GPGME] — [[Library (computer science)|software library]] designed to integrate GnuPG with other applications
* [http://freshmeat.net/projects/gnupg/ Freshmeat project page]
* [http://developer.kde.org/~kgpg/ KGpg] — KDE front-end
* [http://firegpg.tuxfamily.org Firegpg, a gpg front-end for firefox.]
* [http://enigform.mozdev.org Firefox Extension to sign HTTP requests]
* [http://freshmeat.net/projects/maopenpgp Apache Auth module to verify signed HTTP requests]
* [http://gnupg-pkcs11.sourceforge.net gnupg-pkcs11] - [[PKCS11|PKCS#11]] [[Smartcard]] support to GnuPG

===Tutorials===
* [http://cryptnet.net/fdp/crypto/keysigning_party/en/keysigning_party.html GnuPG Keysigning Party HOWTO]
* [http://lists.gnupg.org/pipermail/gnupg-announce/2003q4/000160.html GnuPG's ElGamal signing keys compromised]
* [http://www.wasuvi.com/?page_id=2368 A thorough graphical tutorial on GPG with Apple's Mac OS X Mail.app]
* [http://dudu.dyn.2-h.org/gpg-enigmail-howto Graphical tutorial for Windows, Linux and others] – email-oriented tutorial, using [[Enigmail]], and [[Mozilla]] or [[Mozilla Thunderbird]] e-mail clients.
* [http://www.linux.ie/articles/tutorials/gpgandmutt.php GPG and Mutt]
* [http://www.somacon.com/p107.php Short two page tutorial on en/decrypting files using public keys]
* [http://www.linuxconfig.org/index.php/GNUPG_-_command_line_tutorial GNUPG quick command line tutorial]

{{GNU}}

[[Category:PGP]]
[[Category:GNU project software|Privacy Guard]]
[[Category:Cryptographic software]]

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[[zh:GnuPG]]

Talk:Vietnam

2007-06-09T10:01:02Z

Sir Vicious: /* I hate the word "costume" */

{{WikiProject Southeast Asia|class=B}}
{{WP:Countries|B}}
{{oldpeerreview}}
{{unreferenced|date=August 2006}}
{{FAOL|German|de:Vietnam}}
{{WP1.0|v0.5=pass|class=B|category=Geography|VA=yes}}

{{archive box|
*[[/Archive 1|Archive 1]] - 2002 - 2006
*[[/Archive 2|Archive 2]] - 2005 - 2006
*[[/Archive 3|Archive 3]] - 2006 - March, 2007
*[[/Move 1|Move 1]] - 2006 Move discussion
}}

==Wildlife==

Sorry to bring up the topic again, but it would be interesting, given that in the 1990s alone, 3 new mammals discovred in VietNam: saola, giant and Truong Son muntjac, . Not only that, there are very spectacular species like the critically endangered [[Javan rhino]], the [[gaur]]:

http://youtube.com/watch?v=-QMHbdw0a9k

http://www.arkive.org/species/GES/mammals/Bos_frontalis/Bos_frontalis_00.html

http://vietnamnews.vnanet.vn/2004-06/23/Stories/23.htm

and wild [[water buffalo]], which apart from VietNam, can only be found in India

http://youtube.com/watch?v=KG7tgRN2UNc

And most recently, the discovery of giant wild buffalo in VietNam:

http://www.laodong.com.vn/Home/khoahoc/2007/1/20926.laodong

All that makes VietNam the biggest hotspot for wildlife in the world for the last decade. So I think it's a chracteristics worthwhile mentioning.

== Religion ==

sorry but I just gotta bring up the religion topic again (and yes, I've read the last discussion) but it still doesn't seem to have been resolved.
from what I understand, there could be 2 reasons for that govmt figure with such a high rate for "athiests". 1 is some ppl claim the govmt considers all who identify as practicers of more than 1 religion (that is that triple religion thing) to be aethiests.
the other possibility is that a lot of vietnamese have historically considered themselves to be buddhist, but they dont practice all of the strict rites and stuff that's required - and only visit the temple/pagoda like once or twice a year <--and so maybe the govmt only considers strict purveyors of buddhism to be "buddhist". the reason i doubt the govmt figures so much is simply growing up i always thought it was obvious vietnam was a historically buddhist country????? how could the catholic and buddhist figures be that close to each other? [[User:Justakemeout|Justakemeout]] 18:41, 6 April 2007 (UTC)

== Doi Moi Statements (in History Section) ==

*Originally, this section contained these statements...
:"It is now one of the fastest growing economies in the world. However, '''this growth does little for the development of the country[citation needed]''', and '''Vietnam still ranks as one of the poorest nations in the world'''. This is due primarily to the '''fact that much of the money gained from the growth does not trickle down to the people. Politically, reforms have not occurred. The Communist Party of Vietnam retains control over all organs of government."'''

*Before I begin my comments, I would like to mention that I am Vietnamese-American and do have my own biases when it comes to how Vietnam is portrayed. However, I will try to remain as impartial as possible.
*I hope I am not stepping over anyone's toes, but I believe that these opinions about the current economic situation in Vietnam are not necessary. Not only do they contradict what is written down in the Economy section of Vietnam, they contain clear bias that is not necessary in Wikipedia.
*Though the Economy section itself is not as adequately sighted as I would prefer (I will try to fix that in the future), it does contain facts that can be easily reserached and reference. Being Vietnamese, I read a lot about my home country and I have come across most of the facts mentioned in the Economy section during my readings.
*However, I am fairly certain that it will be very difficult to find SCHOLARLY REFERNCES to verify the above quote that was made. Of course, everybody is free to have their own opinions. I am not a fan of the Communist Party in Vietnam. However, Wikipedia is not the place to voice your concerns about how the Communist Party is running Vietnam.
*Furthermore, despite the Communist Party's repression of many political liberties that we in the U.S. take as given, it is fairly undeniable that they have led Vietnam to large growth figures over the past 20 years (since 1986, when doi moi was enacted).
*WARNING - THIS CONTAINS MY BIAS ... South Korea itself when through violent political repression to achieve their amazing 40 years of economic growth. Vietnam is following a similar path. It may not be perfect ... in fact, it is nowhere near perfect. However, the economy is growing, the people are getting richer (relatively), and living standards are improving. Vietnam is not the United States, and it has a long way to go before it does. However, to attempt to belittle Vietnam's economic growth by voicing personal distates for the Communist Party is not necessary.
+Therefore, for the sake of NPOV for this article, I will remove these statements and in the next couple of days, attempt to integrate more neutral statemnts (with sources), if the Wikipedia community feels this is necessary.
[[User:Bngo|BNgo]] 05:58, 1 May 2007 (UTC)

== I hate the word "costume" ==

... especially when it's being used to describe another nation's ''garment'':
<blockquote>
One of the most popular Vietnamese traditional costumes is the "Áo Dài"
</blockquote>

It serves only to further estrange a cultural aspect of the country. So I changed it to the appropriate word "garment."

: I agree, good call. [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] 08:07, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

The Vietnamese history section of the article reflects the Vietnamese government's interpretation of history that does not reflect historical fact.
The Vietnamese were historically a small group of Viet-Muong tribes along the Red River that includes the area of Ha Noi, today. Over the 2,000 years from the first conquest by the Han Chinese in 206 B.C.E. to modern times, the country actually expanded as an empire, conquering several small kingdoms and liquidating their populations, and even seeking to expand into China (under Ly Thuong Kiet in the 12th century). The policy of imperial expansion into the south, "nam tien", has been a recurrent historical theme and such expansion led to the conquest of the Cham empire (now considered the area of "Central Vietnam" but at times extending close to the Red River, and the area of "South Vietnam" that was land taken from the Khmer Angkorian empire. Land was also taken from kingdoms to the west (some from Lao) and north, such as from the 11th century Tay Nung empire of Dai Nung. This expansion and the underlying cultural differences need to be understood as part of the context of the Vietnam-American war and of the geopolitical expansion of Vietnam into much of what now remains of Cambodia and Laos, in the 19th century.
[[User:81.183.152.79|81.183.152.79]] 12:13, 5 June 2007 (UTC) June 5, 2007

: Hi, I recognized only a few events that you list since I'm not at all knowledgeable about the topic. If you feel like it please contribute, but do cite sources so people can check up on. Thanks. [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] 10:01, 9 June 2007 (UTC)

== "The extent of the U.S. bombing of Cambodia ..." ==

This paragraph seems a bit odd and out of place. [[User:Danhicks|drh]] 16:25, 7 June 2007 (UTC)

Ho Chi Minh City

2007-06-09T09:51:46Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted to revision 136530665 by 203.160.1.47; revert irrelevant and subjective edit.

{{redirect|Saigon}}

{{Infobox City
|official_name = Ho Chi Minh City
|other_name = Formerly Saigon (Vietnamese: Sài Gòn) still used by residents
|native_name = Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh 
|nickname =
|motto =
|image_skyline =
|imagesize =
|image_caption =
|image_flag =
|flag_size =
|image_seal =
|seal_size =
|image_shield =
|shield_size =
|city_logo =
|citylogo_size =
|image_map = LocationVietnamHoChiMinh.png
|mapsize =
|map_caption =
|pushpin_map = 
|pushpin_label_position = 
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = Vietnam
|subdivision_type1 =
|subdivision_name1 =
|subdivision_type2 =
|subdivision_name2 =
|subdivision_type3 =
|subdivision_name3 =
|subdivision_type4 =
|subdivision_name4 =
|government_type =Municipality
|leader_title =CPV HCMC Committee Secretary:
|leader_name =Lê Thanh Hải
|leader_title1 = People's Council Chairwoman:
|leader_name1 =Phạm Phương Thảo
|leader_title2 =People's Committee Chairman:
|leader_name2 =Lê Hoàng Quân
|leader_title3 =
|leader_name3 =
|leader_title4 =
|leader_name4 =
|established_title = Founded
|established_date = 1698
|established_title2 = Renamed
|established_date2 = 1976
|established_title3 = 
|established_date3 =
|area_magnitude =
|unit_pref =Imperial 
|area_footnotes =
|area_total = 2095
|area_land =
|area_water =
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|MetroArea_sq_mi =
|population_as_of = Mid-2005
|population_footnotes =
|population_note =
|settlement_type =Municipality 
|population_total = 6239938
|population_density = 2978
|population_density_mi2 =
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|timezone =
|utc_offset = +7
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|latd=10 |latm=45 |lats= |latNS=N
|longd=106 |longm=40|longs= |longEW=E
|elevation_footnotes = 
|elevation = 19
|elevation_ft = 63
|postal_code_type = 
|postal_code =
|area_code =+84 (8)
|website = http://www.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/
|footnotes =
}} 
'''Ho Chi Minh City''' ([[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh {{audio|Thanh Pho Ho Chi Minh.ogg|pronunciation}}) is the largest [[city]] in [[Vietnam]] and is located near the [[Mekong River]] delta. Under the name '''Prey Nokor''' ([[Khmer language|Khmer]]: [[Image:PreyNokor.png|50px]]), it was a [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]] of [[Cambodia]] before being annexed by the Vietnamese in the [[16th century]]. Known as '''Saigon''' (Sài Gòn)
({{audio|Saigon.ogg|pronunciation}}) until the end of the [[Vietnam War]], it was the [[capital]] of the [[France|French]] [[colony]] of [[Cochinchina]], and later of the former state of [[South Vietnam]] from [[1954]] to [[1975]]. In 1975, Saigon was merged with the surrounding province of Gia Định and renamed Ho Chi Minh City (although the name ''Saigon'' is still frequently used).

The city center is situated on the banks of the [[Saigon River]], 60 km from the [[South China Sea]] [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html] and 1760 km (1094 mi) south of [[Hanoi]].

The metropolitan area which consists of Ho Chi Minh city metro area, [[Bien Hoa]], [[Thu Dau Mot]] and surrounding towns has more than 9 million people,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} making it the largest metropolitan area in [[Vietnam]] and [[Indochina]].
[[Image:Saigonskyline1.JPG|thumb|right|300px|City skyline]] Ho Chi Minh City is growing at a fast rate and sets to an International city and hub of Southeast Asia by 2020.
==Origin of the name==
===Traditional Vietnamese name===
After Prey Nokor was settled by Vietnamese migrating from the north, it became known as '''Sài Gòn'''. There is much debate about the origins of the Vietnamese name Saigon, the etymology of which is analyzed below.

Before [[France|French]] colonization, the Vietnamese name of Saigon was '''Gia Ðịnh'''. In [[1862]], the French discarded this official name and adopted "Saïgon", which had always been popular as Sài Gòn.

From an orthographic point of view, the Vietnamese name Sài Gòn is written in two words, which is the traditional convention in Vietnamese spelling. Some people, however, write the name of the city as SàiGòn or Sàigòn in order to save space or give it a more westernized look.

====Vietnamese etymology====
A frequently heard etymology is that Sài is a Chinese loan word ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 柴, pronounced {{Unicode|chái}} in [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]) meaning "firewood, logs, twigs; palisade", while Gòn is another Chinese loan word (Chinese: 棍, pronounced gùn in Mandarin) meaning "stick, pole, bole", and whose meaning evolved into "cotton" in Vietnamese (''bông gòn'', literally "cotton flower", i.e. "cotton plant", then shortened to ''gòn'').

Some people say that this name originated from the many cotton plants that the [[Khmer people]] had planted around Prey Nokor, and which can still be seen at Cây Mai temple and the surrounding areas.<ref>Trương Vĩnh Ký, "Souvenirs historiques sur Saïgon et ses environs", in ''Excursions et Reconnaissances'', Imprimerie Coloniale, Saïgon, 1885.</ref>

Another explanation is that the etymological meaning "twigs" (Sài) and "boles" (Gòn) refers to the dense and tall forest that once existed around the city, a forest to which the [[Khmer]] name Prey Nokor already referred.

Chinese people in Vietnam and in China do not use the name (pronounced Chaai-Gwan in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] and Cháigùn in [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]), although etymologically speaking it is the Chinese name from which the Vietnamese name Sài Gòn is derived (if the theory here is correct). Instead, they call the city(pronounced Sai-Gung in Cantonese and {{Unicode|Xīgòng}} in Mandarin), which is a mere phonetic transliteration of the name "Saigon".

====Khmer etymology====
Another etymology often proposed is that "Saigon" comes from "Sai Con", which would be the translation of the Khmer words ''prey kor'' ([[Image:PreyKor.png|40px]]) meaning "forest of [[kapok]] trees" (''prey'' = forest; ''kor'' = kapok tree). The Khmer word ''prey kor'' should not be confused with the Khmer name "Prey Nokor" discussed above (''kor'' is a Khmer word meaning "kapok tree", while ''nokor'' is a Khmer word of Sanskrit origin meaning "city, land").

This Khmer etymology theory is quite interesting given the Khmer context that existed when the first Vietnamese settlers arrived in the region. However, it fails to completely explain how Khmer "''prey''" led to Vietnamese "Sài", since these two syllables appear phonetically quite distinct.

====Cantonese etymology====
A less likely etymology was offered by Vương Hồng Sển, a Vietnamese scholar in the early 20th century, who asserted that ''Sài Gòn'' had its origins in the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] name of [[Cholon]] (Vietnamese: [[quốc ngữ]] {{Unicode|Chợ Lớn}}; [[chữ nôm]] [[Image:Cholon.png|30px]]), the Chinese district of Saigon. The Cantonese (and original) name of Cholon is "Tai-Ngon" (堤岸), which means "embankment". The theory posits that "Sài Gòn" derives from "Tai-Ngon".

===Current Vietnamese name===
On May 1, 1975, after the fall of [[South Vietnam]], the now ruling communist government [[Geographical renaming|renamed the city]] after the [[pseudonym|alias]] of their leader [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]]. The official name is now ''Thành {{Unicode|phố (meaning city) Hồ}} Chí Minh'', often abbreviated TPHCM. In English this is translated as '''Ho Chi Minh City''', abbreviated HCMC, and in [[French language|French]] it is translated as '''Hô Chi Minh Ville''' (the [[circumflex]] is sometimes omitted), abbreviated HCMV. Still, the old name Sài Gòn/Saigon is widely used by Vietnamese and is found in company names, book titles and sometimes on airport departure boards (the code for [[Tan Son Nhat International Airport]] is SGN). The district 1 (downtown) is still called Saigon.

==History==
Ho Chi Minh City began as a small fishing village known as Prey Nokor. The area that the city now occupies was originally [[swamp]]land, and was inhabited by [[Khmer people]] for centuries before the arrival of the Vietnamese.

In [[1623]], King [[Chey Chettha II]] of Cambodia ([[1618]]-[[1628]]) allowed Vietnamese refugees fleeing the Trinh-Nguyen civil war in Vietnam to settle in the area of Prey Nokor, and to set up a custom house at Prey Nokor. Increasing waves of Vietnamese settlers, which the Cambodian kingdom, weakened because of war with Thailand, could not impede, slowly Vietnamized the area. In time, Prey Nokor became known as Saigon.

In [[1698]], [[Nguyen Huu Canh]], a Vietnamese noble, was sent by the Nguyen rulers of [[Hue (city)|Huế]] to establish Vietnamese administrative structures in the area, thus detaching the area from Cambodia, which was not strong enough to intervene. He is often credited with the expansion of Saigon into a significant settlement. A large [[Vauban]] citadel called [[Gia Dinh]] has been built, which was later destroyed by the French over [[the Battle of Chi Hoa]].

Conquered by [[France]] in [[1859]], the city was influenced by the French during their colonial occupation of Vietnam, and a number of classical [[Western civilization|Western]]-style buildings in the city reflect this, so much so that Saigon was called "the Pearl of the Far East" (''Hòn ngọc Viễn Đông'') or "Paris in the Orient" (''Paris Phương Đông'').

In [[1954]], the French were defeated by the Communist [[Viet Minh]] in the [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu|Battle of Điện Biên Phủ]], and withdrew from Vietnam. Rather than recognizing the Communists as the new government, they gave their backing to a government established by Emperor [[Bao Dai|Bảo Đại]]. Bảo Đại had set up Saigon as his capital in [[1950]]. At that time Saigon and the city of [[Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City|Cholon]] (Chợ Lớn), which was inhabited primarily by Vietnamese Chinese, were combined into one administrative unit, called the Capital of Saigon (''Đô Thành Sài Gòn'' in Vietnamese). When Vietnam was officially partitioned into [[North Vietnam]] (the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and [[South Vietnam]] (the Republic of Vietnam), the southern government, led by President [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm]], retained Saigon as its capital.

At the conclusion of the [[Vietnam War]], on [[April 30]] [[1975]], the city came under the control of the [[North Vietnamese Army|Vietnam People's Army]]. In the [[United States|U.S.]] this event is commonly called the "[[Fall of Saigon]]," while the communist [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] call it the "[[Fall of Saigon|Liberation of Saigon]]."

In [[1976]], upon the establishment of the unified communist [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]], the city of Saigon (including Cholon), the province of Gia Ðịnh and 2 suburban districts of two other nearby provinces were combined to create Hồ Chí Minh City in honour of the late communist leader [[Hồ Chí Minh]]. The former name ''Saigon'' is still widely used by many Vietnamese, especially in informal contexts. Generally, the term ''Saigon'' refers only to the urban districts of Hồ Chí Minh City. The word "Saigon" can also be found on shop signs all over the country, even in Hanoi.

Today, the city's core is still adorned with wide elegant boulevards and historic French colonial buildings. The most prominent structures in the city center are [[Reunification Hall]] (''Dinh Thống Nhất''), City Hall (''Uy ban Nhan dan Thanh pho''), City Theater (''Nha hat Thanh pho''), City Post Office (''Buu dien Thanh pho''), Revolutionary Museum (''Bao tang Cach mang''), State Bank Office (''Ngan hang Nha nuoc''), City People's Court (''Toa an Nhan dan Thanh pho'') and Notre-Dame Cathedral (''Nhà thờ Đức Bà'').

Ho Chi Minh City is home to a well-established ethnic Chinese population. [[Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City|Cholon]], now known as District 5 and the parts of Districts 6, 10 and 11, serves as its [[Chinatown]].

With a population now exceeding 7 million (registered residents plus migrant workers), Ho Chi Minh City is in need of vast increase in public infrastructure. To meet this need, the city and central governments have embarked on an effort to develop new urban centers. The two most prominent projects are the Thu Thiem city center in District 2 and the [[Phu My Hung]] New City Center in District 7 (as part of the [[Saigon South]] project) where various international schools such as Saigon South International (The American School), the Japanese school, Australia's [[Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology]], the Taiwan and Korea schools are located).

==Geography and climate==
Ho Chi Minh City is located at 10°45'N, 106°40'E in the southeastern region of Vietnam, 1,760 km (1,094 miles) south of [[Hanoi]]. The average elevation is 19 meters (63 feet) above sea level. It borders [[Tay Ninh]] and [[Binh Duong]] provinces to the north, [[Dong Nai]] and [[Ba Ria-Vung Tau]] provinces to the east, [[Long An]] Province to the west and the [[South China Sea]] to the south with a coast of 15 km in length. The city covers an area of 2,095 km² (809 sq. mi) (0.63% of the surface of Vietnam), extending up to [[Cu Chi]] (20 km from the Cambodian border), and down to [[Can Gio]] on the East Sea coast. The distance from the northernmost point (Phu My Hung Commune, Cu Chi District) to the southernmost one (Long Hoa Commune, Can Gio District) is 102 km, and from the easternmost point (Long Binh Ward, District Nine) to the westernmost one (Binh Chanh Commune, Binh Chanh District) is 47 km.

The city has a tropical climate, with an average humidity of 75%. A year is divided into 2 distinct seasons: The rainy season with an average rainfall of about 1,800 mm annually (about 150 rainy days per year), which usually begins in May and ends in late November. The dry season lasts from December to April. The average temperature is 28 °C (Celsius), the highest temperature sometimes reaches 39 °C around noon in late April, while the lowest may fall below 16 °C in the early mornings of late December.

==Political and administrative system==
[[Image:HCMC Reunification Palace.jpg|250px|thumb|Reunification Palace]]
[[Image:HCM-City Rathaus.JPG|250px|thumb|[[Ho Chi Minh City Hall]]]]

Hồ Chí Minh City is a municipality that exists at the same level as [[Provinces of Vietnam|Vietnam's provinces]]. As such, it has a similar political structure to its provinces, with a People's Council of 95 elected deputies, and a People's Committee of 13 members chosen by the council, being the principal local governmental entities. The ''People's Council Chairman'' is the top governmental official while the ''People's Committee Chairman'' is the top executive of the city, instead of a single [[mayor]] position as in other cities in the world. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) leads all political-economic-social activities in the country, therefore the ''CPV HCMC Committee Secretary'' is really the highest ranking leader of the city.

The municipality has been divided into twenty-four administrative divisions since December 2003. Five of these {Area: 1,601 km²} are designated as ''suburban districts'' ("Huyện" in Vietnamese), covering the urbanized - farmland around the city which is included in the municipality's official boundaries. These districts are named Nhà Bè, Cần Giờ, Hóc Môn, Củ Chi, and Bình Chánh. The remaining nineteen divisions {Area: 494 km²} are found in the city itself. Only seven of these nineteen ''inner districts'' ("Quận" in Vietnamese) have names (Tân Bình, Bình Thạnh, Phú Nhuận, Thủ Dức, Bình Tân, Tân Phú and Gò Vấp) - the remainder are simply numbered from one to twelve. Each inner district is sub-divided into many wards ("Phường" in Vietnamese), while a suburban district usually consists of many communes and townships ("Xã" and "Thị trấn" in Vietnamese). Since December 2006, Ho Chi Minh City has had 259 wards, 58 communes and 5 townships (see List of HCMC administrative units below).

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|-alin=center size=120%
!colspan=4| List of HCMC Administrative Units
|-
! Name of district (since December 2003)
! Sub-division units (since December 2006)
! Area (km²) (since December 2006)
! Population as of the October 1, 2004 Census
! Population as of Mid 2005
|-
| colspan=4 | ''Inner Districts:''
|-
| District 1 || 10 wards || 7.73 || 198,032|| 199,899
|-
| District 2 || 11 wards || 49.74 || 125,136|| 126,084
|-
| District 3 || 14 wards || 4.92 || 201,122|| 199,297
|-
| District 4 || 15 wards || 4.18 || 180,548|| 185,268
|-
| District 5 || 15 wards || 4.27 || 170,367|| 192,157
|-
| District 6 || 14 wards || 7.19 || 241,379|| 243,416
|-
| District 7 || 10 wards || 35.69 || 159,490|| 163,608
|-
| District 8 || 16 wards || 19.18 || 360,722|| 366,251
|-
| District 9 || 13 wards || 114 || 202,948|| 207,696
|-
| District 10 || 15 wards || 5.72 || 235,231|| 235,370
|-
| District 11 || 16 wards || 5.14 || 224,785|| 225,908
|-
| District 12 || 11 wards || 52.78 || 290.129|| 299,306
|-
| [[Go Vap District]] || 16 wards || 19.74 || 452,083|| 468,468
|-
| [[Tan Binh District]] || 15 wards ||22.38 || 397,569|| 394,281
|-
| [[Tan Phu District]] || 11 wards || 16.06 || 366,399|| 372,519
|-
| [[Binh Thanh District]] || 20 wards || 20.76 || 423,896|| 435,300
|-
| [[Phu Nhuan District]] || 15 wards || 4.88 || 175,293|| 175,716
|-
| [[Thu Duc District]] || 12 wards || 47.76 || 336,571|| 346,329
|-
| [[Binh Tan District]] || 10 wards || 51.89 || 398,712|| 403,643
|-
| '''Total Inner Districts''' || '''259 wards''' || '''494.01''' || '''5,140,412'''|| '''5,240,516'''
|-
| colspan=4 | ''Suburban Districts:''
|-
| [[Cu Chi District]] || 20 communes and 1 township || 434.50 || 288,279|| 296,032
|-
| [[Hoc Mon District]] || 11 communes and 1 township || 109.18 || 245,381|| 251,812
|-
| [[Binh Chanh District]] || 15 communes and 1 township || 252.69 || 304,168|| 311,702
|-
| [[Nha Be District]] || 6 communes and 1 township || 100.41 || 72,740|| 73,432
|-
| [[Can Gio District]] || 6 communes and 1 township || 704.22 || 66,272|| 66,444
|-
| '''Total Suburban Districts''' || '''58 communes and 5 townships''' || '''1,601''' || '''976,839''' || '''999,422'''
|-
| '''Whole City''' || '''259 wards, 58 communes and 5 townships''' || '''2,095.01''' || '''6,117,251''' || '''6,239,938'''
|}

==Demographics==
The population of Ho Chi Minh City, as of the October 1, 2004 Census, was 6,117,251 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,140,412 residents and 5 suburban districts had 976,839 inhabitants). In the middle of 2005 the city's population was estimated to be 6,239,938 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,240,516 residents and 5 suburban districts had 999,422 inhabitants), or about 7.4% of the total population of Vietnam; making it the highest population-concentrated city in the country. As an administrative unit, its population is also the largest at the provincial level. As the largest economic and financial hub of Vietnam, HCMC has attracted more and more immigrants from other Vietnamese provinces in recent years; therefore, its population is growing rapidly. From 1999 - 2004, the city population has increased by about 200,000 people per year.

The majority of the population are ethnic Vietnamese ([[Kinh]]) at about 90%. Other ethnic minorities include Chinese ([[Hoa]]) with 8%, (the largest Chinese community in Vietnam) and other minorities (Khmer, Cham, Nung, Rhade) 2%.
The inhabitants of Ho Chi Minh City are usually known as "Saigonese" in English, "Saigonnais" in French and "dân Sài Gòn" in Vietnamese.

The [[Kinh]] speak Vietnamese with their respective regional accents: Southern (about 50%), Northern (30%) and Central Vietnam (20%); while the [[Hoa]] speak Cantonese, [[Teochew (dialect)|Teochew]] (Chaozhou), [[Hokkien language|Hokkien]], [[Hainanese (linguistics)|Hainanese]] and [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]] dialects of Chinese (only a few speak Mandarin Chinese). A varying degree of English is spoken especially in the tourism and commerce sectors where dealing with foreign nationals is a necessity, so English has become a de facto second language for some Saigonese.

According to some researchers the religious breakup in HCMC is as follows: [[Buddhism]] (all sects) 50%, [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 12%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 2%, others ([[Cao Dai]], [[Hoa Hao]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]]) 2%, and no religion or unknown 34%.

==Economy==
Ho Chi Minh City is the most important economic center in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh city accounts for a big percentage of Vietnam's economy. Some 300,000 businesses, including many large enterprises, are involved in high-tech, electronic, processing and light industries, also in construction, building materials and agro-products. Investors are still pouring in money into the city.Currently, the city has 15 industrial parks (IP) and export-processing zones (EPZ), in addition to the [[Quang Trung Software Park]] and the [[Sai Gon Hi-tech Park]] (SHTP). Intel invested about 1 billion dollar factory in the city.There are 171 medium and large scale markets, tens of supermarket chains, dozens of luxury shopping malls and many modern fashion or beauty centers. There are many malls and shopping plazas developing in the city. Over 50 banks with hundreds of branches and about 20 insurance companies are situated inside the city. The first Stock Exchange of Vietnam was opened in the city in 2001 and is today one of Asia's best performing Stock Markets.

In 2005, the city's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was estimated at USD 11.6 billion, or about USD 1,850 per capita, (up 12.2% on 2004) and accounting for 20% GDP of the country. The GDP calculating Parity Purchasing Power method (PPP), attained USD 56 billion, or about USD 8,900 per capita (approximately 3.5 times higher than the country's average). The city's Industrial Product Value was USD 5.6 billion, equivalent to 30% of the whole nation. Export - Import Turnover through HCMC ports took USD 29 billion, or 40% of the national total. Ho Chi Minh City has also contributed about 30% to the national budget's revenue annually.

==Education==
[[Image:Vn-hcmmap.jpg|220px|left|thumb|Map showing all the University sites in Ho Chi Minh City]]

Higher education in Ho Chi Minh City is quite developed, concentrating about 50 universities and colleges with a total of over 300,000 students in such places as:
[[Ho Chi Minh City National University]] with 35,000 students, the most important university in the Southern Region, consisting of 6 main member schools: The University of Natural Sciences (formerly Saigon College of Sciences); The University of Social Sciences and Humanities (formerly Saigon College of Letters); The University of Polytechnic (formerly Phu Tho National Institute of Technology); The International University, Faculty of Economics and the newly-established University of Information Technology.

Some other important higher education establishments include: HCMC University of Pedagogy, University of Economics, [http://www.hcmuarc.edu.vn/ University of Architecture], [http://www.yds.edu.vn/ University of Medicine and Pharmacy], [http://www.hcmuaf.edu.vn/english/index.html Nong Lam University] (formerly University of Agriculture and Forestry), [http://www.hcmulaw.edu.vn University of Law], [http://www.hcmute.edu.vn/ University of Technical Education], University of Banking, University of Transport, University of Industry, Open University, University of Sports and Physical Education, University of Fine Art, University of Culture and the Conservatory of Music.

The [[RMIT]] University with about 2,000 students, the unique foreign-invested higher-education unit in Vietnam at the present, was founded in 2002 by the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) of Australia.

==Public Health==
The health care system of the city is relatively developed with a chain of about 100 publicly owned hospitals or medical centers and dozens of privately owned clinics. The health care is the best in the Indochina area. These establishments are equipped with state-of-the-art medical equipment. The 1,400 bed Chợ Rẫy Hospital, upgraded by Japanese aid and the French-sponsored Institute of Cardiology, are among the top medical facilities in [[Indochina]]. The Hoa Hao Medical Diagnosis Center (Medic) and FV Hospital have recently attracted many clients, including foreigners, because of their good quality of service and modern equipment. Patients come from cities in nearby provinces and Cambodia as well. The hospitals with close to international standards quality are:

* Centre Medical International
* [[Cho Ray Hospital]], the largest hospital in Ho Chi Minh City
* Columbia Asia Medical Center
* Family Medical Practice
* Franco-Vietnamese Hospital
* Gia Dinh Clinic
* Grand Dentistry
* International SOS
* OSCAT/AEA Vietnam Company
* Saigon Clinic

==Transportation==
[[Vietnam Airlines]] is the national carrier of Vietnam. The airline currently operates a modern fleet of Western-built aircraft, including ATR72, Airbus 320 & 321, Boeing 777, Fokker 100's and the 787 in the near future. It operates over 20 domestic routes and to 39 international destinations. Vietnam's second airline, Pacific Airlines, is using a leased fleet of Boeing 737s and A320s. [[Tan Son Nhat International Airport]], a joint civilian and military airport, is located 4 mi / 7 km north of the center (District 1) of Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). Taxi and bus services are available for travel to and from the airport and within the city. Because of the rapid growing number of air-passengers and Tan Son Nhat Airport's proximity to the center of the city, the Vietnamese Government has prepared to build a new international airport near Long Thanh Township, Dong Nai Province about 25 mi / 40 km to the northeast.

While most of the city's 11,000 taxis are metered and usually in good condition, not many drivers can speak English well. Some drivers refuse to use their meters in order to obtain a higher fare. Visitors should exercise vigilance when using motorcycle taxis (xe ôm) or three-wheeled [[cycle rickshaw]]s (xích lô), as they may sometimes leave passengers vulnerable.

[[Image:HCM-City Verkehr.JPG|200px|left|thumb|Street packed with motorbikes]]
Generally speaking, Ho Chi Minh city's road system is not in good condition - some of its streets are riddled with potholes. This is especially true of the city's numerous back streets and alleyways, which are sometimes little more than dirt paths. Traveling by bus is the only public transport available although the city is seeking financing sources for implementing metro (subway) and elevated train projects, including the [[Ho Chi Minh City Metro]] planned for completion in 2020. Recently, the number of motorcycles has increased to about 3 million. There are also over 500,000 automobiles, packing the city's arterial roads and making traffic congestion and air pollution common problems. If [[Beijing]] is "the City of Bicycles", then Ho Chi Minh City may be called "the City of Motorbikes". Visitors shouldn't consider the city's streets as dangerous due to the motorists' general behaviour of dodging pedestrians. In general most people follow traffic rules and enforcement of traffic law is improving. However, drivers can still be seen driving the wrong way up a one way street or ignoring red lights.

The city is the main hub of the Trans-Vietnam Railroad. Passengers can travel to [[Hanoi]] and the Chinese border, about 1,212 mi/1,950 km to the north. There are many harbours along the Saigon and [[Dong Nai]] Rivers, such as: Saigon Port, Newport, Ben nghe Port and VICT Port. They account for the annual 40% export-import cargo output of Vietnam.

From Saigon, one can travel to many places in Southern Vietnam and to Cambodia by road or waterway. The city is linked to the Central Highlands by National Highways 14 and 20, to the Central Coast and the north by National Highway 1 and to the [[Mekong River Delta]] by National Highways 1 and 50. Two expressways are being built to connect HCMC to [[Can Tho]], the capital of the Mekong River Delta, and to [[Dau Giay]] Township, [[Dong Nai]] Province, 70 km to the northeast.

==Media, Culture and Entertainment==
[[Image:Ben-Thanh-Markets.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ben Thanh Markets.]]
[[Image:Saigon-Architecture.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Typical Saigon Architecture.]]
[[Image:Fine-Arts-Museum.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[Entrance to the Fine Arts Museum.]]
The city's media is the most developed in the country. At present, HCMC has 5 daily newspapers: Sai Gon Giai Phong (Liberated Saigon) and its Chinese, investment and finance, sports, evening and weekly editions, Tuoi Tre (Youth); the highest circulation newspaper in Vietnam; Nguoi Lao Dong (Labourer); The Thao (Sports) and the Saigon Times Daily, the business newspaper in English, and over 30 other newspapers and magazines. HCMC Television (HTV) is the second largest television network in the nation, just behind the national Vietnam Television (VTV), broadcasting 24/7 on 7 different channels (using analog and digital technology). The Voice of HCMC People is also the largest radio station in the Southern region. The major international TV channels are provided through two cable networks (SCTV and HTVC), with over 500,000 subscribers or satellite TVs.

The city has over 1.7 million fixed telephones and about 3.6 million cellular phones (the latter growing annually by 20%). The Internet, especially through ADSL connections, is also rapidly expanding with over 1,200,000 subscribers and around 4 million frequent users.

The city has hundreds of printing and publishing houses, many bookstores and a widespread network of public and school libraries. The HCMC General Library with over 1.5 mìllion books, is a beautiful architectural building, among the greatest in Vietnam. One can visit the Museum of History, the Museum of Revolution, the Museum of Southern Women, the Museum of Southeastern's Armed Forces, the Museum of Fine Art, the Gallery for War Remnants, the Nha Rong Memorial House, the Ben Duoc Relic of Underground Tunnels and many private art galleries. Besides the Municipal Theatre, there are other great places of entertainment such as: the Bến Thành and Hòa Bình Theaters and the Lan Anh Music Stage. The Đầm Sen Tourist and Cultural Park, Suoi Tien Cultural Park and the Can Gio Eco beach resort are three recreational sites inside the city which are popular with visitors.

Visitors can also enjoy various non-local cuisines, from Japanese sushi to Texas barbecue. There is many Pho chains in the city to enjoy and is very cheap. The city has hundreds of ranked hotels with over 18,000 rooms, including ten luxury 5 star hotels. However, backpacking travelers can easily get cheap menus and rooms in the "Western Quarter" on [[Pham Ngu Lao street]] in District 1.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Ho Chi Minh City}}
* [http://www.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/ Official website] (in Vietnamese and English)
* [http://www2.hcm.ciren.gov.vn/jvnwebgis Ho Chi Minh City Map]
* [http://www.vietnam-culture.com/photogallery-31-1/Old-Saigon.aspx Old Saigon photos- Ho Chi Minh City]
* [http://www.relaxindochina.com/hochiminh_vietnam.htm Travel Ho Chi Minh City Guide]

*{{wikitravel}}

{{Geolinks-cityscale|10.7696|106.6855}}

{{Vietnam}}
[[Category:Ho Chi Minh City]]
[[Category:Cities in Vietnam]]

{{Link FA|no}}
[[ar:مدينة هوشي منه]]
[[bg:Хо Ши Мин (град)]]
[[ca:Ciutat Ho Chi Minh]]
[[cs:Ho Či Minovo město]]
[[da:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[de:Ho-Chi-Minh-Stadt]]
[[es:Ciudad Ho Chi Minh]]
[[fr:Hô-Chi-Minh-Ville]]
[[ga:Cathair Ho Chi Minh]]
[[gl:Saigón]]
[[ko:호찌민 시]]
[[id:Kota Ho Chi Minh]]
[[is:Ho Chi Minh borg]]
[[it:Ho Chi Minh (Città)]]
[[he:הו צ'י מין סיטי]]
[[lv:Hošimina]]
[[lt:Hošiminas]]
[[hu:Ho Si Minh-város]]
[[nl:Ho Chi Minhstad]]
[[ja:ホーチミン (市)]]
[[no:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[nn:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[ug:Saygon]]
[[pl:Ho Chi Minh (miasto)]]
[[pt:Cidade de Ho Chi Minh]]
[[ro:Ho Şi Min (oraş)]]
[[ru:Хошимин]]
[[simple:Hồ Chí Minh City]]
[[sk:Hočiminovo Mesto]]
[[sl:Hošiminh]]
[[fi:Ho Chi Minhin kaupunki]]
[[sv:Ho Chi Minh-staden]]
[[th:โฮจิมินห์ซิตี]]
[[vi:Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh]]
[[zh:胡志明市]]

Ho Chi Minh City

2007-05-29T03:12:58Z

Sir Vicious: moved picture to the right

{{redirect|Saigon}}

{{Infobox City
|official_name = Ho Chi Minh City
|other_name = Formerly Saigon (Vietnamese: Sài Gòn) still used by most residents
|native_name = Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh 
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|government_type =Municipality
|leader_title =CPV HCMC Committee Secretary:
|leader_name =Lê Thanh Hải
|leader_title1 = People's Council Chairwoman:
|leader_name1 =Phạm Phương Thảo
|leader_title2 =People's Committee Chairman:
|leader_name2 =Lê Hoàng Quân
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|established_title = Founded
|established_date = 1698
|established_title2 = Renamed
|established_date2 = 1976
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'''Ho Chi Minh City''' ([[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh {{audio|Thanh Pho Ho Chi Minh.ogg|pronunciation}}) is the largest [[city]] in [[Vietnam]] and is located near the [[Mekong River]] delta. Under the name '''Prey Nokor''' ([[Khmer language|Khmer]]: [[Image:PreyNokor.png|50px]]), it was a [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]] of [[Cambodia]] before being annexed by the Vietnamese in the [[16th century]]. Known as '''Saigon''' (Sài Gòn)
({{audio|Saigon.ogg|pronunciation}}) until the end of the [[Vietnam War]], it was the [[capital]] of the [[France|French]] [[colony]] of [[Cochinchina]], and later of the former state of [[South Vietnam]] from [[1954]] to [[1975]]. In 1975, Saigon was merged with the surrounding province of Gia Định and renamed Ho Chi Minh City (although the name ''Saigon'' is still frequently used).

The city center is situated on the banks of the [[Saigon River]], 60 km from the [[South China Sea]] [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html] and 1760 km (1094 mi) south of [[Hanoi]].

The metropolitan area which consists of Ho Chi Minh city metro area, [[Bien Hoa]], [[Thu Dau Mot]] and surrounding towns has more than 9 million people,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} making it the largest metropolitan area in [[Vietnam]] and [[Indochina]].
[[Image:Saigonskyline1.JPG|thumb|right|300px|City skyline]] Ho chi minh city is growing at a fast rate and sets to an International city and hub of Southeast Asia by 2020.
==Origin of the name==
===Traditional Vietnamese name===
After Prey Nokor was settled by Vietnamese migrating from the north, it became known as '''Sài Gòn'''. There is much debate about the origins of the Vietnamese name Saigon, the etymology of which is analyzed below.

Before [[France|French]] colonization, the Vietnamese name of Saigon was '''Gia Ðịnh'''. In [[1862]], the French discarded this official name and adopted "Saïgon", which had always been popular as Sài Gòn.

From an orthographic point of view, the Vietnamese name Sài Gòn is written in two words, which is the traditional convention in Vietnamese spelling. Some people, however, write the name of the city as SàiGòn or Sàigòn in order to save space or give it a more westernized look.

====Vietnamese etymology====
A frequently heard etymology is that Sài is a Chinese loan word ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 柴, pronounced {{Unicode|chái}} in [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]) meaning "firewood, logs, twigs; palisade", while Gòn is another Chinese loan word (Chinese: 棍, pronounced gùn in Mandarin) meaning "stick, pole, bole", and whose meaning evolved into "cotton" in Vietnamese (''bông gòn'', literally "cotton flower", i.e. "cotton plant", then shortened to ''gòn'').

Some people say that this name originated from the many cotton plants that the [[Khmer people]] had planted around Prey Nokor, and which can still be seen at Cây Mai temple and the surrounding areas.<ref>Trương Vĩnh Ký, "Souvenirs historiques sur Saïgon et ses environs", in ''Excursions et Reconnaissances'', Imprimerie Coloniale, Saïgon, 1885.</ref>

Another explanation is that the etymological meaning "twigs" (Sài) and "boles" (Gòn) refers to the dense and tall forest that once existed around the city, a forest to which the [[Khmer]] name Prey Nokor already referred.

Chinese people in Vietnam and in China do not use the name (pronounced Chaai-Gwan in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] and Cháigùn in [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]), although etymologically speaking it is the Chinese name from which the Vietnamese name Sài Gòn is derived (if the theory here is correct). Instead, they call the city(pronounced Sai-Gung in Cantonese and {{Unicode|Xīgòng}} in Mandarin), which is a mere phonetic transliteration of the name "Saigon".

====Khmer etymology====
Another etymology often proposed is that "Saigon" comes from "Sai Con", which would be the translation of the Khmer words ''prey kor'' ([[Image:PreyKor.png|40px]]) meaning "forest of [[kapok]] trees" (''prey'' = forest; ''kor'' = kapok tree). The Khmer word ''prey kor'' should not be confused with the Khmer name "Prey Nokor" discussed above (''kor'' is a Khmer word meaning "kapok tree", while ''nokor'' is a Khmer word of Sanskrit origin meaning "city, land").

This Khmer etymology theory is quite interesting given the Khmer context that existed when the first Vietnamese settlers arrived in the region. However, it fails to completely explain how Khmer "''prey''" led to Vietnamese "Sài", since these two syllables appear phonetically quite distinct.

====Cantonese etymology====
A less likely etymology was offered by Vương Hồng Sển, a Vietnamese scholar in the early 20th century, who asserted that ''Sài Gòn'' had its origins in the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] name of [[Cholon]] (Vietnamese: [[quốc ngữ]] {{Unicode|Chợ Lớn}}; [[chữ nôm]] [[Image:Cholon.png|30px]]), the Chinese district of Saigon. The Cantonese (and original) name of Cholon is "Tai-Ngon" (堤岸), which means "embankment". The theory posits that "Sài Gòn" derives from "Tai-Ngon".

===Current Vietnamese name===
On May 1, 1975, after the fall of [[South Vietnam]], the now ruling communist government [[Geographical renaming|renamed the city]] after the [[pseudonym|alias]] of their leader [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]]. The official name is now ''Thành {{Unicode|phố (meaning city) Hồ}} Chí Minh'', often abbreviated TPHCM. In English this is translated as '''Ho Chi Minh City''', abbreviated HCMC, and in [[French language|French]] it is translated as '''Hô Chi Minh Ville''' (the [[circumflex]] is sometimes omitted), abbreviated HCMV. Still, the old name Sài Gòn/Saigon is widely used by Vietnamese and is found in company names, book titles and sometimes on airport departure boards (the code for [[Tan Son Nhat International Airport]] is SGN). The district 1 (downtown) is still called Saigon.

==History==
Ho Chi Minh City began as a small fishing village known as Prey Nokor. The area that the city now occupies was originally [[swamp]]land, and was inhabited by [[Khmer people]] for centuries before the arrival of the Vietnamese.

In [[1623]], King [[Chey Chettha II]] of Cambodia ([[1618]]-[[1628]]) allowed Vietnamese refugees fleeing the Trinh-Nguyen civil war in Vietnam to settle in the area of Prey Nokor, and to set up a custom house at Prey Nokor. Increasing waves of Vietnamese settlers, which the Cambodian kingdom, weakened because of war with Thailand, could not impede, slowly Vietnamized the area. In time, Prey Nokor became known as Saigon.

In [[1698]], [[Nguyen Huu Canh]], a Vietnamese noble, was sent by the Nguyen rulers of [[Hue (city)|Huế]] to establish Vietnamese administrative structures in the area, thus detaching the area from Cambodia, which was not strong enough to intervene. He is often credited with the expansion of Saigon into a significant settlement. A large [[Vauban]] citadel called [[Gia Dinh]] has been built, which was later destroyed by the French over [[the Battle of Chi Hoa]].

Conquered by [[France]] in [[1859]], the city was influenced by the French during their colonial occupation of Vietnam, and a number of classical [[Western civilization|Western]]-style buildings in the city reflect this, so much so that Saigon was called "the Pearl of the Far East" (''Hòn ngọc Viễn Đông'') or "Paris in the Orient" (''Paris Phương Đông'').

In [[1954]], the French were defeated by the Communist [[Viet Minh]] in the [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu|Battle of Điện Biên Phủ]], and withdrew from Vietnam. Rather than recognizing the Communists as the new government, they gave their backing to a government established by Emperor [[Bao Dai|Bảo Đại]]. Bảo Đại had set up Saigon as his capital in [[1950]]. At that time Saigon and the city of [[Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City|Cholon]] (Chợ Lớn), which was inhabited primarily by Vietnamese Chinese, were combined into one administrative unit, called the Capital of Saigon (''Đô Thành Sài Gòn'' in Vietnamese). When Vietnam was officially partitioned into [[North Vietnam]] (the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and [[South Vietnam]] (the Republic of Vietnam), the southern government, led by President [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm]], retained Saigon as its capital.

At the conclusion of the [[Vietnam War]], on [[April 30]] [[1975]], the city came under the control of the [[North Vietnamese Army|Vietnam People's Army]]. In the [[United States|U.S.]] this event is commonly called the "[[Fall of Saigon]]," while the communist [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] call it the "[[Fall of Saigon|Liberation of Saigon]]."

In [[1976]], upon the establishment of the unified communist [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]], the city of Saigon (including Cholon), the province of Gia Ðịnh and 2 suburban districts of two other nearby provinces were combined to create Hồ Chí Minh City in honour of the late communist leader [[Hồ Chí Minh]]. The former name ''Saigon'' is still widely used by many Vietnamese, especially in informal contexts. Generally, the term ''Saigon'' refers only to the urban districts of Hồ Chí Minh City. The word "Saigon" can also be found on shop signs all over the country, even in Hanoi.

Today, the city's core is still adorned with wide elegant boulevards and historic French colonial buildings. The most prominent structures in the city center are [[Reunification Hall]] (''Dinh Thống Nhất''), City Hall (''Uy ban Nhan dan Thanh pho''), City Theater (''Nha hat Thanh pho''), City Post Office (''Buu dien Thanh pho''), Revolutionary Museum (''Bao tang Cach mang''), State Bank Office (''Ngan hang Nha nuoc''), City People's Court (''Toa an Nhan dan Thanh pho'') and Notre-Dame Cathedral (''Nhà thờ Đức Bà'').

Ho Chi Minh City is home to a well-established ethnic Chinese population. [[Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City|Cholon]], now known as District 5 and the parts of Districts 6, 10 and 11, serves as its [[Chinatown]].

With a population now exceeding 7 million (registered residents plus migrant workers), Ho Chi Minh City is in need of vast increase in public infrastructure. To meet this need, the city and central governments have embarked on an effort to develop new urban centers. The two most prominent projects are the Thu Thiem city center in District 2 and the [[Phu My Hung]] New City Center in District 7 (as part of the [[Saigon South]] project) where various international schools such as Saigon South International (The American School), the Japanese school, Australia's [[Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology]], the Taiwan and Korea schools are located).

==Geography and climate==
Ho Chi Minh City is located at 10°45'N, 106°40'E in the southeastern region of Vietnam, 1,760 km (1,094 miles) south of [[Hanoi]]. The average elevation is 19 meters (63 feet) above sea level. It borders [[Tay Ninh]] and [[Binh Duong]] provinces to the north, [[Dong Nai]] and [[Ba Ria-Vung Tau]] provinces to the east, [[Long An]] Province to the west and the [[South China Sea]] to the south with a coast of 15 km in length. The city covers an area of 2,095 km² (809 sq. mi) (0.63% of the surface of Vietnam), extending up to [[Cu Chi]] (20 km from the Cambodian border), and down to [[Can Gio]] on the East Sea coast. The distance from the northernmost point (Phu My Hung Commune, Cu Chi District) to the southernmost one (Long Hoa Commune, Can Gio District) is 102 km, and from the easternmost point (Long Binh Ward, District Nine) to the westernmost one (Binh Chanh Commune, Binh Chanh District) is 47 km.

The city has a tropical climate, with an average humidity of 75%. A year is divided into 2 distinct seasons: The rainy season with an average rainfall of about 1,800 mm annually (about 150 rainy days per year), which usually begins in May and ends in late November. The dry season lasts from December to April. The average temperature is 28 °C (Celsius), the highest temperature sometimes reaches 39 °C around noon in late April, while the lowest may fall below 16 °C in the early mornings of late December.

==Political and administrative system==
[[Image:HCMC Reunification Palace.jpg|250px|thumb|Reunification Palace]]
[[Image:HCM-City Rathaus.JPG|250px|thumb|[[Ho Chi Minh City Hall]]]]

Hồ Chí Minh City is a municipality that exists at the same level as [[Provinces of Vietnam|Vietnam's provinces]]. As such, it has a similar political structure to its provinces, with a People's Council of 95 elected deputies, and a People's Committee of 13 members chosen by the council, being the principal local governmental entities. The ''People's Council Chairman'' is the top governmental official while the ''People's Committee Chairman'' is the top executive of the city, instead of a single [[mayor]] position as in other cities in the world. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) leads all political-economic-social activities in the country, therefore the ''CPV HCMC Committee Secretary'' is really the highest ranking leader of the city.

The municipality has been divided into twenty-four administrative divisions since December 2003. Five of these {Area: 1,601 km²} are designated as ''suburban districts'' ("Huyện" in Vietnamese), covering the urbanized - farmland around the city which is included in the municipality's official boundaries. These districts are named Nhà Bè, Cần Giờ, Hóc Môn, Củ Chi, and Bình Chánh. The remaining nineteen divisions {Area: 494 km²} are found in the city itself. Only seven of these nineteen ''inner districts'' ("Quận" in Vietnamese) have names (Tân Bình, Bình Thạnh, Phú Nhuận, Thủ Dức, Bình Tân, Tân Phú and Gò Vấp) - the remainder are simply numbered from one to twelve. Each inner district is sub-divided into many wards ("Phường" in Vietnamese), while a suburban district usually consists of many communes and townships ("Xã" and "Thị trấn" in Vietnamese). Since December 2006, Ho Chi Minh City has had 259 wards, 58 communes and 5 townships (see List of HCMC administrative units below).

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|-alin=center size=120%
!colspan=4| List of HCMC Administrative Units
|-
! Name of district (since December 2003)
! Sub-division units (since December 2006)
! Area (km²) (since December 2006)
! Population as of the October 1, 2004 Census
! Population as of Mid 2005
|-
| colspan=4 | ''Inner Districts:''
|-
| District 1 || 10 wards || 7.73 || 198,032|| 199,899
|-
| District 2 || 11 wards || 49.74 || 125,136|| 126,084
|-
| District 3 || 14 wards || 4.92 || 201,122|| 199,297
|-
| District 4 || 15 wards || 4.18 || 180,548|| 185,268
|-
| District 5 || 15 wards || 4.27 || 170,367|| 192,157
|-
| District 6 || 14 wards || 7.19 || 241,379|| 243,416
|-
| District 7 || 10 wards || 35.69 || 159,490|| 163,608
|-
| District 8 || 16 wards || 19.18 || 360,722|| 366,251
|-
| District 9 || 13 wards || 114 || 202,948|| 207,696
|-
| District 10 || 15 wards || 5.72 || 235,231|| 235,370
|-
| District 11 || 16 wards || 5.14 || 224,785|| 225,908
|-
| District 12 || 11 wards || 52.78 || 290.129|| 299,306
|-
| [[Go Vap District]] || 16 wards || 19.74 || 452,083|| 468,468
|-
| [[Tan Binh District]] || 15 wards ||22.38 || 397,569|| 394,281
|-
| [[Tan Phu District]] || 11 wards || 16.06 || 366,399|| 372,519
|-
| [[Binh Thanh District]] || 20 wards || 20.76 || 423,896|| 435,300
|-
| [[Phu Nhuan District]] || 15 wards || 4.88 || 175,293|| 175,716
|-
| [[Thu Duc District]] || 12 wards || 47.76 || 336,571|| 346,329
|-
| [[Binh Tan District]] || 10 wards || 51.89 || 398,712|| 403,643
|-
| '''Total Inner Districts''' || '''259 wards''' || '''494.01''' || '''5,140,412'''|| '''5,240,516'''
|-
| colspan=4 | ''Suburban Districts:''
|-
| [[Cu Chi District]] || 20 communes and 1 township || 434.50 || 288,279|| 296,032
|-
| [[Hoc Mon District]] || 11 communes and 1 township || 109.18 || 245,381|| 251,812
|-
| [[Binh Chanh District]] || 15 communes and 1 township || 252.69 || 304,168|| 311,702
|-
| [[Nha Be District]] || 6 communes and 1 township || 100.41 || 72,740|| 73,432
|-
| [[Can Gio District]] || 6 communes and 1 township || 704.22 || 66,272|| 66,444
|-
| '''Total Suburban Districts''' || '''58 communes and 5 townships''' || '''1,601''' || '''976,839''' || '''999,422'''
|-
| '''Whole City''' || '''259 wards, 58 communes and 5 townships''' || '''2,095.01''' || '''6,117,251''' || '''6,239,938'''
|}

==Demographics==
The population of Ho Chi Minh City, as of the October 1, 2004 Census, was 6,117,251 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,140,412 residents and 5 suburban districts had 976,839 inhabitants). In the middle of 2005 the city's population was estimated to be 6,239,938 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,240,516 residents and 5 suburban districts had 999,422 inhabitants), or about 7.4% of the total population of Vietnam; making it the highest population-concentrated city in the country. As an administrative unit, its population is also the largest at the provincial level. As the largest economic and financial hub of Vietnam, HCMC has attracted more and more immigrants from other Vietnamese provinces in recent years; therefore, its population is growing rapidly. From 1999 - 2004, the city population has increased by about 200,000 people per year.

The majority of the population are ethnic Vietnamese ([[Kinh]]) at about 90%. Other ethnic minorities include Chinese ([[Hoa]]) with 8%, (the largest Chinese community in Vietnam) and other minorities (Khmer, Cham, Nung, Rhade) 2%.
The inhabitants of Ho Chi Minh City are usually known as "Saigonese" in English, "Saigonnais" in French and "dân Sài Gòn" in Vietnamese.

The [[Kinh]] speak Vietnamese with their respective regional accents: Southern (about 50%), Northern (30%) and Central Vietnam (20%); while the [[Hoa]] speak Cantonese, [[Teochew (dialect)|Teochew]] (Chaozhou), [[Hokkien language|Hokkien]], [[Hainanese (linguistics)|Hainanese]] and [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]] dialects of Chinese (only a few speak Mandarin Chinese). A varying degree of English is spoken especially in the tourism and commerce sectors where dealing with foreign nationals is a necessity, so English has become a de facto second language for some Saigonese.

According to some researchers the religious breakup in HCMC is as follows: [[Buddhism]] (all sects) 50%, [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 12%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 2%, others ([[Cao Dai]], [[Hoa Hao]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]]) 2%, and no religion or unknown 34%.

==Economy==
Ho Chi Minh City is the most important economic center in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh city accounts for a big percentage of Vietnam's economy. Some 300,000 businesses, including many large enterprises, are involved in high-tech, electronic, processing and light industries, also in construction, building materials and agro-products. Investors are still pouring in money into the city.Currently, the city has 15 industrial parks (IP) and export-processing zones (EPZ), in addition to the [[Quang Trung Software Park]] and the [[Sai Gon Hi-tech Park]] (SHTP). Intel invested about 1 billion dollar factory in the city.There are 171 medium and large scale markets, tens of supermarket chains, dozens of luxury shopping malls and many modern fashion or beauty centers. There are many malls and shopping plazas developing in the city. Over 50 banks with hundreds of branches and about 20 insurance companies are situated inside the city. The first Stock Exchange of Vietnam was opened in the city in 2001 and is today one of Asia's best performing Stock Markets.

In 2005, the city's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was estimated at USD 11.6 billion, or about USD 1,850 per capita, (up 12.2% on 2004) and accounting for 20% GDP of the country. The GDP calculating Parity Purchasing Power method (PPP), attained USD 56 billion, or about USD 8,900 per capita (approximately 3.5 times higher than the country's average). The city's Industrial Product Value was USD 5.6 billion, equivalent to 30% of the whole nation. Export - Import Turnover through HCMC ports took USD 29 billion, or 40% of the national total. Ho Chi Minh City has also contributed about 30% to the national budget's revenue annually.

==Education==
[[Image:Vn-hcmmap.jpg|220px|left|thumb|Map showing all the University sites in Ho Chi Minh City]]

Higher education in Ho Chi Minh City is quite developed, concentrating about 50 universities and colleges with a total of over 300,000 students in such places as:
[[Ho Chi Minh City National University]] with 35,000 students, the most important university in the Southern Region, consisting of 6 main member schools: The University of Natural Sciences (formerly Saigon College of Sciences); The University of Social Sciences and Humanities (formerly Saigon College of Letters); The University of Polytechnic (formerly Phu Tho National Institute of Technology); The International University, Faculty of Economics and the newly-established University of Information Technology.

Some other important higher education establishments include: HCMC University of Pedagogy, University of Economics, [http://www.hcmuarc.edu.vn/ University of Architecture], [http://www.yds.edu.vn/ University of Medicine and Pharmacy], [http://www.hcmuaf.edu.vn/english/index.html Nong Lam University] (formerly University of Agriculture and Forestry), [http://www.hcmulaw.edu.vn University of Law], [http://www.hcmute.edu.vn/ University of Technical Education], University of Banking, University of Transport, University of Industry, Open University, University of Sports and Physical Education, University of Fine Art, University of Culture and the Conservatory of Music.

The [[RMIT]] University with about 2,000 students, the unique foreign-invested higher-education unit in Vietnam at the present, was founded in 2002 by the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) of Australia.

==Public Health==
The health care system of the city is relatively developed with a chain of about 100 publicly owned hospitals or medical centers and dozens of privately owned clinics. The health care is the best in the Indochina area. These establishments are equipped with state-of-the-art medical equipment. The 1,400 bed Chợ Rẫy Hospital, upgraded by Japanese aid and the French-sponsored Institute of Cardiology, are among the top medical facilities in [[Indochina]]. The Hoa Hao Medical Diagnosis Center (Medic) and FV Hospital have recently attracted many clients, including foreigners, because of their good quality of service and modern equipment. Patients come from cities in nearby provinces and Cambodia as well. The hospitals with close to international standards quality are:

* Centre Medical International
* [[Cho Ray Hospital]], the largest hospital in Ho Chi Minh City
* Columbia Asia Medical Center
* Family Medical Practice
* Franco-Vietnamese Hospital
* Gia Dinh Clinic
* Grand Dentistry
* International SOS
* OSCAT/AEA Vietnam Company
* Saigon Clinic

==Transportation==
[[Vietnam Airlines]] is the national carrier of Vietnam. The airline currently operates a modern fleet of Western-built aircraft, including ATR72, Airbus 320 & 321, Boeing 777, Fokker 100's and the 787 in the near future. It operates over 20 domestic routes and to 39 international destinations. Vietnam's second airline, Pacific Airlines, is using a leased fleet of Boeing 737s and A320s. [[Tan Son Nhat International Airport]], a joint civilian and military airport, is located 4 mi / 7 km north of the center (District 1) of Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). Taxi and bus services are available for travel to and from the airport and within the city. Because of the rapid growing number of air-passengers and Tan Son Nhat Airport's proximity to the center of the city, the Vietnamese Government has prepared to build a new international airport near Long Thanh Township, Dong Nai Province about 25 mi / 40 km to the northeast.

While most of the city's 11,000 taxis are metered and usually in good condition, not many drivers can speak English well. Some drivers refuse to use their meters in order to obtain a higher fare. Visitors should exercise vigilance when using motorcycle taxis (xe ôm) or three-wheeled [[cycle rickshaw]]s (xích lô), as they may sometimes leave passengers vulnerable.

[[Image:HCM-City Verkehr.JPG|200px|left|thumb|Street packed with motorbikes]]
Generally speaking, Ho Chi Minh city's road system is not in good condition - some of its streets are riddled with potholes. This is especially true of the city's numerous back streets and alleyways, which are sometimes little more than dirt paths. Traveling by bus is the only public transport available although the city is seeking financing sources for implementing metro (subway) and elevated train projects, including the [[Ho Chi Minh City Metro]] planned for completion in 2020. Recently, the number of motorcycles has increased to about 3 million. There are also over 400,000 automobiles, packing the city's arterial roads and making traffic congestion and air pollution common problems. If [[Beijing]] is "the City of Bicycles", then Ho Chi Minh City may be called "the City of Motorbikes". Visitors shouldn't consider the city's streets as dangerous due to the motorists' general behaviour of dodging pedestrians. In general most people follow traffic rules and enforcement of traffic law is improving. However, drivers can still be seen driving the wrong way up a one way street or ignoring red lights.

The city is the main hub of the Trans-Vietnam Railroad. Passengers can travel to [[Hanoi]] and the Chinese border, about 1,212 mi/1,950 km to the north. There are many harbours along the Saigon and [[Dong Nai]] Rivers, such as: Saigon Port, Newport, Ben nghe Port and VICT Port. They account for the annual 40% export-import cargo output of Vietnam.

From Saigon, one can travel to many places in Southern Vietnam and to Cambodia by road or waterway. The city is linked to the Central Highlands by National Highways 14 and 20, to the Central Coast and the north by National Highway 1 and to the [[Mekong River Delta]] by National Highways 1 and 50. Two expressways are being built to connect HCMC to [[Can Tho]], the capital of the Mekong River Delta, and to [[Dau Giay]] Township, [[Dong Nai]] Province, 70 km to the northeast.

==Media, Culture and Entertainment==
[[Image:Ben-Thanh-Markets.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ben Thanh Markets.]]
[[Image:Saigon-Architecture.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Typical Saigon Architecture.]]
[[Image:Fine-Arts-Museum.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[Entrance to the Fine Arts Museum.]]
The city's media is the most developed in the country. At present, HCMC has 5 daily newspapers: Sai Gon Giai Phong (Liberated Saigon) and its Chinese, investment and finance, sports, evening and weekly editions, Tuoi Tre (Youth); the highest circulation newspaper in Vietnam; Nguoi Lao Dong (Labourer); The Thao (Sports) and the Saigon Times Daily, the business newspaper in English, and over 30 other newspapers and magazines. HCMC Television (HTV) is the second largest television network in the nation, just behind the national Vietnam Television (VTV), broadcasting 24/7 on 7 different channels (using analog and digital technology). The Voice of HCMC People is also the largest radio station in the Southern region. The major international TV channels are provided through two cable networks (SCTV and HTVC), with over 500,000 subscribers or satellite TVs.

The city has over 1.2 million fixed telephones and about 3 million cellular phones (the latter growing annually by 20%). The Internet, especially through ADSL connections, is also rapidly expanding with over 800,000 subscribers and around 3 million frequent users.

The city has hundreds of printing and publishing houses, many bookstores and a widespread network of public and school libraries. The HCMC General Library with over 1.5 mìllion books, is a beautiful architectural building, among the greatest in Vietnam. One can visit the Museum of History, the Museum of Revolution, the Museum of Southern Women, the Museum of Southeastern's Armed Forces, the Museum of Fine Art, the Gallery for War Remnants, the Nha Rong Memorial House, the Ben Duoc Relic of Underground Tunnels and many private art galleries. Besides the Municipal Theatre, there are other great places of entertainment such as: the Bến Thành and Hòa Bình Theaters and the Lan Anh Music Stage. The Đầm Sen Tourist and Cultural Park, Suoi Tien Cultural Park and the Can Gio Eco beach resort are three recreational sites inside the city which are popular with visitors.

Visitors can also enjoy various non-local cuisines, from Japanese sushi to Texas barbecue. There is many Pho chains in the city to enjoy and is very cheap. The city has hundreds of ranked hotels with over 18,000 rooms, including ten luxury 5 star hotels. However, backpacking travelers can easily get cheap menus and rooms in the "Western Quarter" on [[Pham Ngu Lao street]] in District 1.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Ho Chi Minh City}}
* [http://www.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/ Official website] (in Vietnamese and English)
* [http://www2.hcm.ciren.gov.vn/jvnwebgis Ho Chi Minh City Map]
* [http://www.vietnam-culture.com/photogallery-31-1/Old-Saigon.aspx Old Saigon photos- Ho Chi Minh City]
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Geolinks-cityscale|10.7696|106.6855}}

{{Vietnam}}
[[Category:Ho Chi Minh City]]
[[Category:Cities in Vietnam]]

{{Link FA|no}}
[[ar:مدينة هوشي منه]]
[[bg:Хо Ши Мин (град)]]
[[ca:Ciutat Ho Chi Minh]]
[[cs:Ho Či Minovo město]]
[[da:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[de:Ho-Chi-Minh-Stadt]]
[[es:Ciudad Ho Chi Minh]]
[[fr:Hô-Chi-Minh-Ville]]
[[ga:Cathair Ho Chi Minh]]
[[gl:Saigón]]
[[ko:호찌민 시]]
[[id:Kota Ho Chi Minh]]
[[is:Ho Chi Minh borg]]
[[it:Ho Chi Minh (Città)]]
[[he:הו צ'י מין סיטי]]
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[[hu:Ho Si Minh-város]]
[[nl:Ho Chi Minhstad]]
[[ja:ホーチミン (市)]]
[[no:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[nn:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[ug:Saygon]]
[[pl:Ho Chi Minh (miasto)]]
[[pt:Cidade de Ho Chi Minh]]
[[ro:Ho Şi Min (oraş)]]
[[ru:Хошимин]]
[[simple:Hồ Chí Minh City]]
[[sk:Hočiminovo Mesto]]
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[[fi:Ho Chi Minhin kaupunki]]
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[[th:โฮจิมินห์ซิตี]]
[[vi:Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh]]
[[zh:胡志明市]]

Ho Chi Minh City

2007-05-29T03:09:07Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 3 edits by 24.57.85.33 identified as vandalism to last revision by 125.234.10.232.

{{redirect|Saigon}}

{{Infobox City
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|leader_title =CPV HCMC Committee Secretary:
|leader_name =Lê Thanh Hải
|leader_title1 = People's Council Chairwoman:
|leader_name1 =Phạm Phương Thảo
|leader_title2 =People's Committee Chairman:
|leader_name2 =Lê Hoàng Quân
|leader_title3 =
|leader_name3 =
|leader_title4 =
|leader_name4 =
|established_title = Founded
|established_date = 1698
|established_title2 = Renamed
|established_date2 = 1976
|established_title3 = 
|established_date3 =
|area_magnitude =
|unit_pref =Imperial 
|area_footnotes =
|area_total = 2095
|area_land =
|area_water =
|TotalArea_sq_mi =
|LandArea_sq_mi =
|WaterArea_sq_mi =
|area_water_percent =
|area_urban =
|UrbanArea_sq_mi =
|area_metro =
|MetroArea_sq_mi =
|population_as_of = Mid-2005
|population_footnotes =
|population_note =
|settlement_type =Municipality 
|population_total = 6239938
|population_density = 2978
|population_density_mi2 =
|population_metro =
|population_density_metro_km2 =
|population_density_metro_mi2 =
|population_urban =
|population_density_urban_km2 =
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|timezone =
|utc_offset = +7
|timezone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|latd=10 |latm=45 |lats= |latNS=N
|longd=106 |longm=40|longs= |longEW=E
|elevation_footnotes = 
|elevation = 19
|elevation_ft = 63
|postal_code_type = 
|postal_code =
|area_code =+84 (8)
|website = http://www.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/
|footnotes =
}} 
'''Ho Chi Minh City''' ([[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh {{audio|Thanh Pho Ho Chi Minh.ogg|pronunciation}}) is the largest [[city]] in [[Vietnam]] and is located near the [[Mekong River]] delta. Under the name '''Prey Nokor''' ([[Khmer language|Khmer]]: [[Image:PreyNokor.png|50px]]), it was a [[hamlet (place)|hamlet]] of [[Cambodia]] before being annexed by the Vietnamese in the [[16th century]]. Known as '''Saigon''' (Sài Gòn)
({{audio|Saigon.ogg|pronunciation}}) until the end of the [[Vietnam War]], it was the [[capital]] of the [[France|French]] [[colony]] of [[Cochinchina]], and later of the former state of [[South Vietnam]] from [[1954]] to [[1975]]. In 1975, Saigon was merged with the surrounding province of Gia Định and renamed Ho Chi Minh City (although the name ''Saigon'' is still frequently used).

The city center is situated on the banks of the [[Saigon River]], 60 km from the [[South China Sea]] [http://earth-info.nga.mil/gns/html/cntry_files.html] and 1760 km (1094 mi) south of [[Hanoi]].

The metropolitan area which consists of Ho Chi Minh city metro area, [[Bien Hoa]], [[Thu Dau Mot]] and surrounding towns has more than 9 million people,{{Fact|date=February 2007}} making it the largest metropolitan area in [[Vietnam]] and [[Indochina]].
[[Image:Saigonskyline1.JPG|thumb|left|300px|City skyline]] Ho chi minh city is growing at a fast rate and sets to an International city and hub of Southeast Asia by 2020.
==Origin of the name==
===Traditional Vietnamese name===
After Prey Nokor was settled by Vietnamese migrating from the north, it became known as '''Sài Gòn'''. There is much debate about the origins of the Vietnamese name Saigon, the etymology of which is analyzed below.

Before [[France|French]] colonization, the Vietnamese name of Saigon was '''Gia Ðịnh'''. In [[1862]], the French discarded this official name and adopted "Saïgon", which had always been popular as Sài Gòn.

From an orthographic point of view, the Vietnamese name Sài Gòn is written in two words, which is the traditional convention in Vietnamese spelling. Some people, however, write the name of the city as SàiGòn or Sàigòn in order to save space or give it a more westernized look.

====Vietnamese etymology====
A frequently heard etymology is that Sài is a Chinese loan word ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 柴, pronounced {{Unicode|chái}} in [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]) meaning "firewood, logs, twigs; palisade", while Gòn is another Chinese loan word (Chinese: 棍, pronounced gùn in Mandarin) meaning "stick, pole, bole", and whose meaning evolved into "cotton" in Vietnamese (''bông gòn'', literally "cotton flower", i.e. "cotton plant", then shortened to ''gòn'').

Some people say that this name originated from the many cotton plants that the [[Khmer people]] had planted around Prey Nokor, and which can still be seen at Cây Mai temple and the surrounding areas.<ref>Trương Vĩnh Ký, "Souvenirs historiques sur Saïgon et ses environs", in ''Excursions et Reconnaissances'', Imprimerie Coloniale, Saïgon, 1885.</ref>

Another explanation is that the etymological meaning "twigs" (Sài) and "boles" (Gòn) refers to the dense and tall forest that once existed around the city, a forest to which the [[Khmer]] name Prey Nokor already referred.

Chinese people in Vietnam and in China do not use the name (pronounced Chaai-Gwan in [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] and Cháigùn in [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]]), although etymologically speaking it is the Chinese name from which the Vietnamese name Sài Gòn is derived (if the theory here is correct). Instead, they call the city(pronounced Sai-Gung in Cantonese and {{Unicode|Xīgòng}} in Mandarin), which is a mere phonetic transliteration of the name "Saigon".

====Khmer etymology====
Another etymology often proposed is that "Saigon" comes from "Sai Con", which would be the translation of the Khmer words ''prey kor'' ([[Image:PreyKor.png|40px]]) meaning "forest of [[kapok]] trees" (''prey'' = forest; ''kor'' = kapok tree). The Khmer word ''prey kor'' should not be confused with the Khmer name "Prey Nokor" discussed above (''kor'' is a Khmer word meaning "kapok tree", while ''nokor'' is a Khmer word of Sanskrit origin meaning "city, land").

This Khmer etymology theory is quite interesting given the Khmer context that existed when the first Vietnamese settlers arrived in the region. However, it fails to completely explain how Khmer "''prey''" led to Vietnamese "Sài", since these two syllables appear phonetically quite distinct.

====Cantonese etymology====
A less likely etymology was offered by Vương Hồng Sển, a Vietnamese scholar in the early 20th century, who asserted that ''Sài Gòn'' had its origins in the [[Cantonese (linguistics)|Cantonese]] name of [[Cholon]] (Vietnamese: [[quốc ngữ]] {{Unicode|Chợ Lớn}}; [[chữ nôm]] [[Image:Cholon.png|30px]]), the Chinese district of Saigon. The Cantonese (and original) name of Cholon is "Tai-Ngon" (堤岸), which means "embankment". The theory posits that "Sài Gòn" derives from "Tai-Ngon".

===Current Vietnamese name===
On May 1, 1975, after the fall of [[South Vietnam]], the now ruling communist government [[Geographical renaming|renamed the city]] after the [[pseudonym|alias]] of their leader [[Ho Chi Minh|Hồ Chí Minh]]. The official name is now ''Thành {{Unicode|phố (meaning city) Hồ}} Chí Minh'', often abbreviated TPHCM. In English this is translated as '''Ho Chi Minh City''', abbreviated HCMC, and in [[French language|French]] it is translated as '''Hô Chi Minh Ville''' (the [[circumflex]] is sometimes omitted), abbreviated HCMV. Still, the old name Sài Gòn/Saigon is widely used by Vietnamese and is found in company names, book titles and sometimes on airport departure boards (the code for [[Tan Son Nhat International Airport]] is SGN). The district 1 (downtown) is still called Saigon.

==History==
Ho Chi Minh City began as a small fishing village known as Prey Nokor. The area that the city now occupies was originally [[swamp]]land, and was inhabited by [[Khmer people]] for centuries before the arrival of the Vietnamese.

In [[1623]], King [[Chey Chettha II]] of Cambodia ([[1618]]-[[1628]]) allowed Vietnamese refugees fleeing the Trinh-Nguyen civil war in Vietnam to settle in the area of Prey Nokor, and to set up a custom house at Prey Nokor. Increasing waves of Vietnamese settlers, which the Cambodian kingdom, weakened because of war with Thailand, could not impede, slowly Vietnamized the area. In time, Prey Nokor became known as Saigon.

In [[1698]], [[Nguyen Huu Canh]], a Vietnamese noble, was sent by the Nguyen rulers of [[Hue (city)|Huế]] to establish Vietnamese administrative structures in the area, thus detaching the area from Cambodia, which was not strong enough to intervene. He is often credited with the expansion of Saigon into a significant settlement. A large [[Vauban]] citadel called [[Gia Dinh]] has been built, which was later destroyed by the French over [[the Battle of Chi Hoa]].

Conquered by [[France]] in [[1859]], the city was influenced by the French during their colonial occupation of Vietnam, and a number of classical [[Western civilization|Western]]-style buildings in the city reflect this, so much so that Saigon was called "the Pearl of the Far East" (''Hòn ngọc Viễn Đông'') or "Paris in the Orient" (''Paris Phương Đông'').

In [[1954]], the French were defeated by the Communist [[Viet Minh]] in the [[Battle of Dien Bien Phu|Battle of Điện Biên Phủ]], and withdrew from Vietnam. Rather than recognizing the Communists as the new government, they gave their backing to a government established by Emperor [[Bao Dai|Bảo Đại]]. Bảo Đại had set up Saigon as his capital in [[1950]]. At that time Saigon and the city of [[Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City|Cholon]] (Chợ Lớn), which was inhabited primarily by Vietnamese Chinese, were combined into one administrative unit, called the Capital of Saigon (''Đô Thành Sài Gòn'' in Vietnamese). When Vietnam was officially partitioned into [[North Vietnam]] (the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and [[South Vietnam]] (the Republic of Vietnam), the southern government, led by President [[Ngo Dinh Diem|Ngô Đình Diệm]], retained Saigon as its capital.

At the conclusion of the [[Vietnam War]], on [[April 30]] [[1975]], the city came under the control of the [[North Vietnamese Army|Vietnam People's Army]]. In the [[United States|U.S.]] this event is commonly called the "[[Fall of Saigon]]," while the communist [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]] call it the "[[Fall of Saigon|Liberation of Saigon]]."

In [[1976]], upon the establishment of the unified communist [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]], the city of Saigon (including Cholon), the province of Gia Ðịnh and 2 suburban districts of two other nearby provinces were combined to create Hồ Chí Minh City in honour of the late communist leader [[Hồ Chí Minh]]. The former name ''Saigon'' is still widely used by many Vietnamese, especially in informal contexts. Generally, the term ''Saigon'' refers only to the urban districts of Hồ Chí Minh City. The word "Saigon" can also be found on shop signs all over the country, even in Hanoi.

Today, the city's core is still adorned with wide elegant boulevards and historic French colonial buildings. The most prominent structures in the city center are [[Reunification Hall]] (''Dinh Thống Nhất''), City Hall (''Uy ban Nhan dan Thanh pho''), City Theater (''Nha hat Thanh pho''), City Post Office (''Buu dien Thanh pho''), Revolutionary Museum (''Bao tang Cach mang''), State Bank Office (''Ngan hang Nha nuoc''), City People's Court (''Toa an Nhan dan Thanh pho'') and Notre-Dame Cathedral (''Nhà thờ Đức Bà'').

Ho Chi Minh City is home to a well-established ethnic Chinese population. [[Cholon, Ho Chi Minh City|Cholon]], now known as District 5 and the parts of Districts 6, 10 and 11, serves as its [[Chinatown]].

With a population now exceeding 7 million (registered residents plus migrant workers), Ho Chi Minh City is in need of vast increase in public infrastructure. To meet this need, the city and central governments have embarked on an effort to develop new urban centers. The two most prominent projects are the Thu Thiem city center in District 2 and the [[Phu My Hung]] New City Center in District 7 (as part of the [[Saigon South]] project) where various international schools such as Saigon South International (The American School), the Japanese school, Australia's [[Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology]], the Taiwan and Korea schools are located).

==Geography and climate==
Ho Chi Minh City is located at 10°45'N, 106°40'E in the southeastern region of Vietnam, 1,760 km (1,094 miles) south of [[Hanoi]]. The average elevation is 19 meters (63 feet) above sea level. It borders [[Tay Ninh]] and [[Binh Duong]] provinces to the north, [[Dong Nai]] and [[Ba Ria-Vung Tau]] provinces to the east, [[Long An]] Province to the west and the [[South China Sea]] to the south with a coast of 15 km in length. The city covers an area of 2,095 km² (809 sq. mi) (0.63% of the surface of Vietnam), extending up to [[Cu Chi]] (20 km from the Cambodian border), and down to [[Can Gio]] on the East Sea coast. The distance from the northernmost point (Phu My Hung Commune, Cu Chi District) to the southernmost one (Long Hoa Commune, Can Gio District) is 102 km, and from the easternmost point (Long Binh Ward, District Nine) to the westernmost one (Binh Chanh Commune, Binh Chanh District) is 47 km.

The city has a tropical climate, with an average humidity of 75%. A year is divided into 2 distinct seasons: The rainy season with an average rainfall of about 1,800 mm annually (about 150 rainy days per year), which usually begins in May and ends in late November. The dry season lasts from December to April. The average temperature is 28 °C (Celsius), the highest temperature sometimes reaches 39 °C around noon in late April, while the lowest may fall below 16 °C in the early mornings of late December.

==Political and administrative system==
[[Image:HCMC Reunification Palace.jpg|250px|thumb|Reunification Palace]]
[[Image:HCM-City Rathaus.JPG|250px|thumb|[[Ho Chi Minh City Hall]]]]

Hồ Chí Minh City is a municipality that exists at the same level as [[Provinces of Vietnam|Vietnam's provinces]]. As such, it has a similar political structure to its provinces, with a People's Council of 95 elected deputies, and a People's Committee of 13 members chosen by the council, being the principal local governmental entities. The ''People's Council Chairman'' is the top governmental official while the ''People's Committee Chairman'' is the top executive of the city, instead of a single [[mayor]] position as in other cities in the world. The Communist Party of Vietnam (CPV) leads all political-economic-social activities in the country, therefore the ''CPV HCMC Committee Secretary'' is really the highest ranking leader of the city.

The municipality has been divided into twenty-four administrative divisions since December 2003. Five of these {Area: 1,601 km²} are designated as ''suburban districts'' ("Huyện" in Vietnamese), covering the urbanized - farmland around the city which is included in the municipality's official boundaries. These districts are named Nhà Bè, Cần Giờ, Hóc Môn, Củ Chi, and Bình Chánh. The remaining nineteen divisions {Area: 494 km²} are found in the city itself. Only seven of these nineteen ''inner districts'' ("Quận" in Vietnamese) have names (Tân Bình, Bình Thạnh, Phú Nhuận, Thủ Dức, Bình Tân, Tân Phú and Gò Vấp) - the remainder are simply numbered from one to twelve. Each inner district is sub-divided into many wards ("Phường" in Vietnamese), while a suburban district usually consists of many communes and townships ("Xã" and "Thị trấn" in Vietnamese). Since December 2006, Ho Chi Minh City has had 259 wards, 58 communes and 5 townships (see List of HCMC administrative units below).

{| border="2" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"
|-alin=center size=120%
!colspan=4| List of HCMC Administrative Units
|-
! Name of district (since December 2003)
! Sub-division units (since December 2006)
! Area (km²) (since December 2006)
! Population as of the October 1, 2004 Census
! Population as of Mid 2005
|-
| colspan=4 | ''Inner Districts:''
|-
| District 1 || 10 wards || 7.73 || 198,032|| 199,899
|-
| District 2 || 11 wards || 49.74 || 125,136|| 126,084
|-
| District 3 || 14 wards || 4.92 || 201,122|| 199,297
|-
| District 4 || 15 wards || 4.18 || 180,548|| 185,268
|-
| District 5 || 15 wards || 4.27 || 170,367|| 192,157
|-
| District 6 || 14 wards || 7.19 || 241,379|| 243,416
|-
| District 7 || 10 wards || 35.69 || 159,490|| 163,608
|-
| District 8 || 16 wards || 19.18 || 360,722|| 366,251
|-
| District 9 || 13 wards || 114 || 202,948|| 207,696
|-
| District 10 || 15 wards || 5.72 || 235,231|| 235,370
|-
| District 11 || 16 wards || 5.14 || 224,785|| 225,908
|-
| District 12 || 11 wards || 52.78 || 290.129|| 299,306
|-
| [[Go Vap District]] || 16 wards || 19.74 || 452,083|| 468,468
|-
| [[Tan Binh District]] || 15 wards ||22.38 || 397,569|| 394,281
|-
| [[Tan Phu District]] || 11 wards || 16.06 || 366,399|| 372,519
|-
| [[Binh Thanh District]] || 20 wards || 20.76 || 423,896|| 435,300
|-
| [[Phu Nhuan District]] || 15 wards || 4.88 || 175,293|| 175,716
|-
| [[Thu Duc District]] || 12 wards || 47.76 || 336,571|| 346,329
|-
| [[Binh Tan District]] || 10 wards || 51.89 || 398,712|| 403,643
|-
| '''Total Inner Districts''' || '''259 wards''' || '''494.01''' || '''5,140,412'''|| '''5,240,516'''
|-
| colspan=4 | ''Suburban Districts:''
|-
| [[Cu Chi District]] || 20 communes and 1 township || 434.50 || 288,279|| 296,032
|-
| [[Hoc Mon District]] || 11 communes and 1 township || 109.18 || 245,381|| 251,812
|-
| [[Binh Chanh District]] || 15 communes and 1 township || 252.69 || 304,168|| 311,702
|-
| [[Nha Be District]] || 6 communes and 1 township || 100.41 || 72,740|| 73,432
|-
| [[Can Gio District]] || 6 communes and 1 township || 704.22 || 66,272|| 66,444
|-
| '''Total Suburban Districts''' || '''58 communes and 5 townships''' || '''1,601''' || '''976,839''' || '''999,422'''
|-
| '''Whole City''' || '''259 wards, 58 communes and 5 townships''' || '''2,095.01''' || '''6,117,251''' || '''6,239,938'''
|}

==Demographics==
The population of Ho Chi Minh City, as of the October 1, 2004 Census, was 6,117,251 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,140,412 residents and 5 suburban districts had 976,839 inhabitants). In the middle of 2005 the city's population was estimated to be 6,239,938 (of which 19 inner districts had 5,240,516 residents and 5 suburban districts had 999,422 inhabitants), or about 7.4% of the total population of Vietnam; making it the highest population-concentrated city in the country. As an administrative unit, its population is also the largest at the provincial level. As the largest economic and financial hub of Vietnam, HCMC has attracted more and more immigrants from other Vietnamese provinces in recent years; therefore, its population is growing rapidly. From 1999 - 2004, the city population has increased by about 200,000 people per year.

The majority of the population are ethnic Vietnamese ([[Kinh]]) at about 90%. Other ethnic minorities include Chinese ([[Hoa]]) with 8%, (the largest Chinese community in Vietnam) and other minorities (Khmer, Cham, Nung, Rhade) 2%.
The inhabitants of Ho Chi Minh City are usually known as "Saigonese" in English, "Saigonnais" in French and "dân Sài Gòn" in Vietnamese.

The [[Kinh]] speak Vietnamese with their respective regional accents: Southern (about 50%), Northern (30%) and Central Vietnam (20%); while the [[Hoa]] speak Cantonese, [[Teochew (dialect)|Teochew]] (Chaozhou), [[Hokkien language|Hokkien]], [[Hainanese (linguistics)|Hainanese]] and [[Hakka (linguistics)|Hakka]] dialects of Chinese (only a few speak Mandarin Chinese). A varying degree of English is spoken especially in the tourism and commerce sectors where dealing with foreign nationals is a necessity, so English has become a de facto second language for some Saigonese.

According to some researchers the religious breakup in HCMC is as follows: [[Buddhism]] (all sects) 50%, [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] 12%, [[Protestantism|Protestant]] 2%, others ([[Cao Dai]], [[Hoa Hao]], [[Islam]], [[Hinduism]]) 2%, and no religion or unknown 34%.

==Economy==
Ho Chi Minh City is the most important economic center in Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh city accounts for a big percentage of Vietnam's economy. Some 300,000 businesses, including many large enterprises, are involved in high-tech, electronic, processing and light industries, also in construction, building materials and agro-products. Investors are still pouring in money into the city.Currently, the city has 15 industrial parks (IP) and export-processing zones (EPZ), in addition to the [[Quang Trung Software Park]] and the [[Sai Gon Hi-tech Park]] (SHTP). Intel invested about 1 billion dollar factory in the city.There are 171 medium and large scale markets, tens of supermarket chains, dozens of luxury shopping malls and many modern fashion or beauty centers. There are many malls and shopping plazas developing in the city. Over 50 banks with hundreds of branches and about 20 insurance companies are situated inside the city. The first Stock Exchange of Vietnam was opened in the city in 2001 and is today one of Asia's best performing Stock Markets.

In 2005, the city's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was estimated at USD 11.6 billion, or about USD 1,850 per capita, (up 12.2% on 2004) and accounting for 20% GDP of the country. The GDP calculating Parity Purchasing Power method (PPP), attained USD 56 billion, or about USD 8,900 per capita (approximately 3.5 times higher than the country's average). The city's Industrial Product Value was USD 5.6 billion, equivalent to 30% of the whole nation. Export - Import Turnover through HCMC ports took USD 29 billion, or 40% of the national total. Ho Chi Minh City has also contributed about 30% to the national budget's revenue annually.

==Education==
[[Image:Vn-hcmmap.jpg|220px|left|thumb|Map showing all the University sites in Ho Chi Minh City]]

Higher education in Ho Chi Minh City is quite developed, concentrating about 50 universities and colleges with a total of over 300,000 students in such places as:
[[Ho Chi Minh City National University]] with 35,000 students, the most important university in the Southern Region, consisting of 6 main member schools: The University of Natural Sciences (formerly Saigon College of Sciences); The University of Social Sciences and Humanities (formerly Saigon College of Letters); The University of Polytechnic (formerly Phu Tho National Institute of Technology); The International University, Faculty of Economics and the newly-established University of Information Technology.

Some other important higher education establishments include: HCMC University of Pedagogy, University of Economics, [http://www.hcmuarc.edu.vn/ University of Architecture], [http://www.yds.edu.vn/ University of Medicine and Pharmacy], [http://www.hcmuaf.edu.vn/english/index.html Nong Lam University] (formerly University of Agriculture and Forestry), [http://www.hcmulaw.edu.vn University of Law], [http://www.hcmute.edu.vn/ University of Technical Education], University of Banking, University of Transport, University of Industry, Open University, University of Sports and Physical Education, University of Fine Art, University of Culture and the Conservatory of Music.

The [[RMIT]] University with about 2,000 students, the unique foreign-invested higher-education unit in Vietnam at the present, was founded in 2002 by the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT) of Australia.

==Public Health==
The health care system of the city is relatively developed with a chain of about 100 publicly owned hospitals or medical centers and dozens of privately owned clinics. The health care is the best in the Indochina area. These establishments are equipped with state-of-the-art medical equipment. The 1,400 bed Chợ Rẫy Hospital, upgraded by Japanese aid and the French-sponsored Institute of Cardiology, are among the top medical facilities in [[Indochina]]. The Hoa Hao Medical Diagnosis Center (Medic) and FV Hospital have recently attracted many clients, including foreigners, because of their good quality of service and modern equipment. Patients come from cities in nearby provinces and Cambodia as well. The hospitals with close to international standards quality are:

* Centre Medical International
* [[Cho Ray Hospital]], the largest hospital in Ho Chi Minh City
* Columbia Asia Medical Center
* Family Medical Practice
* Franco-Vietnamese Hospital
* Gia Dinh Clinic
* Grand Dentistry
* International SOS
* OSCAT/AEA Vietnam Company
* Saigon Clinic

==Transportation==
[[Vietnam Airlines]] is the national carrier of Vietnam. The airline currently operates a modern fleet of Western-built aircraft, including ATR72, Airbus 320 & 321, Boeing 777, Fokker 100's and the 787 in the near future. It operates over 20 domestic routes and to 39 international destinations. Vietnam's second airline, Pacific Airlines, is using a leased fleet of Boeing 737s and A320s. [[Tan Son Nhat International Airport]], a joint civilian and military airport, is located 4 mi / 7 km north of the center (District 1) of Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon). Taxi and bus services are available for travel to and from the airport and within the city. Because of the rapid growing number of air-passengers and Tan Son Nhat Airport's proximity to the center of the city, the Vietnamese Government has prepared to build a new international airport near Long Thanh Township, Dong Nai Province about 25 mi / 40 km to the northeast.

While most of the city's 11,000 taxis are metered and usually in good condition, not many drivers can speak English well. Some drivers refuse to use their meters in order to obtain a higher fare. Visitors should exercise vigilance when using motorcycle taxis (xe ôm) or three-wheeled [[cycle rickshaw]]s (xích lô), as they may sometimes leave passengers vulnerable.

[[Image:HCM-City Verkehr.JPG|200px|left|thumb|Street packed with motorbikes]]
Generally speaking, Ho Chi Minh city's road system is not in good condition - some of its streets are riddled with potholes. This is especially true of the city's numerous back streets and alleyways, which are sometimes little more than dirt paths. Traveling by bus is the only public transport available although the city is seeking financing sources for implementing metro (subway) and elevated train projects, including the [[Ho Chi Minh City Metro]] planned for completion in 2020. Recently, the number of motorcycles has increased to about 3 million. There are also over 400,000 automobiles, packing the city's arterial roads and making traffic congestion and air pollution common problems. If [[Beijing]] is "the City of Bicycles", then Ho Chi Minh City may be called "the City of Motorbikes". Visitors shouldn't consider the city's streets as dangerous due to the motorists' general behaviour of dodging pedestrians. In general most people follow traffic rules and enforcement of traffic law is improving. However, drivers can still be seen driving the wrong way up a one way street or ignoring red lights.

The city is the main hub of the Trans-Vietnam Railroad. Passengers can travel to [[Hanoi]] and the Chinese border, about 1,212 mi/1,950 km to the north. There are many harbours along the Saigon and [[Dong Nai]] Rivers, such as: Saigon Port, Newport, Ben nghe Port and VICT Port. They account for the annual 40% export-import cargo output of Vietnam.

From Saigon, one can travel to many places in Southern Vietnam and to Cambodia by road or waterway. The city is linked to the Central Highlands by National Highways 14 and 20, to the Central Coast and the north by National Highway 1 and to the [[Mekong River Delta]] by National Highways 1 and 50. Two expressways are being built to connect HCMC to [[Can Tho]], the capital of the Mekong River Delta, and to [[Dau Giay]] Township, [[Dong Nai]] Province, 70 km to the northeast.

==Media, Culture and Entertainment==
[[Image:Ben-Thanh-Markets.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Ben Thanh Markets.]]
[[Image:Saigon-Architecture.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Typical Saigon Architecture.]]
[[Image:Fine-Arts-Museum.jpg|thumb|200px|right|[Entrance to the Fine Arts Museum.]]
The city's media is the most developed in the country. At present, HCMC has 5 daily newspapers: Sai Gon Giai Phong (Liberated Saigon) and its Chinese, investment and finance, sports, evening and weekly editions, Tuoi Tre (Youth); the highest circulation newspaper in Vietnam; Nguoi Lao Dong (Labourer); The Thao (Sports) and the Saigon Times Daily, the business newspaper in English, and over 30 other newspapers and magazines. HCMC Television (HTV) is the second largest television network in the nation, just behind the national Vietnam Television (VTV), broadcasting 24/7 on 7 different channels (using analog and digital technology). The Voice of HCMC People is also the largest radio station in the Southern region. The major international TV channels are provided through two cable networks (SCTV and HTVC), with over 500,000 subscribers or satellite TVs.

The city has over 1.2 million fixed telephones and about 3 million cellular phones (the latter growing annually by 20%). The Internet, especially through ADSL connections, is also rapidly expanding with over 800,000 subscribers and around 3 million frequent users.

The city has hundreds of printing and publishing houses, many bookstores and a widespread network of public and school libraries. The HCMC General Library with over 1.5 mìllion books, is a beautiful architectural building, among the greatest in Vietnam. One can visit the Museum of History, the Museum of Revolution, the Museum of Southern Women, the Museum of Southeastern's Armed Forces, the Museum of Fine Art, the Gallery for War Remnants, the Nha Rong Memorial House, the Ben Duoc Relic of Underground Tunnels and many private art galleries. Besides the Municipal Theatre, there are other great places of entertainment such as: the Bến Thành and Hòa Bình Theaters and the Lan Anh Music Stage. The Đầm Sen Tourist and Cultural Park, Suoi Tien Cultural Park and the Can Gio Eco beach resort are three recreational sites inside the city which are popular with visitors.

Visitors can also enjoy various non-local cuisines, from Japanese sushi to Texas barbecue. There is many Pho chains in the city to enjoy and is very cheap. The city has hundreds of ranked hotels with over 18,000 rooms, including ten luxury 5 star hotels. However, backpacking travelers can easily get cheap menus and rooms in the "Western Quarter" on [[Pham Ngu Lao street]] in District 1.

==External links==
{{commonscat|Ho Chi Minh City}}
* [http://www.hochiminhcity.gov.vn/ Official website] (in Vietnamese and English)
* [http://www2.hcm.ciren.gov.vn/jvnwebgis Ho Chi Minh City Map]
* [http://www.vietnam-culture.com/photogallery-31-1/Old-Saigon.aspx Old Saigon photos- Ho Chi Minh City]
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Geolinks-cityscale|10.7696|106.6855}}

{{Vietnam}}
[[Category:Ho Chi Minh City]]
[[Category:Cities in Vietnam]]

{{Link FA|no}}
[[ar:مدينة هوشي منه]]
[[bg:Хо Ши Мин (град)]]
[[ca:Ciutat Ho Chi Minh]]
[[cs:Ho Či Minovo město]]
[[da:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[de:Ho-Chi-Minh-Stadt]]
[[es:Ciudad Ho Chi Minh]]
[[fr:Hô-Chi-Minh-Ville]]
[[ga:Cathair Ho Chi Minh]]
[[gl:Saigón]]
[[ko:호찌민 시]]
[[id:Kota Ho Chi Minh]]
[[is:Ho Chi Minh borg]]
[[it:Ho Chi Minh (Città)]]
[[he:הו צ'י מין סיטי]]
[[lv:Hošimina]]
[[lt:Hošiminas]]
[[hu:Ho Si Minh-város]]
[[nl:Ho Chi Minhstad]]
[[ja:ホーチミン (市)]]
[[no:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[nn:Ho Chi Minh-byen]]
[[ug:Saygon]]
[[pl:Ho Chi Minh (miasto)]]
[[pt:Cidade de Ho Chi Minh]]
[[ro:Ho Şi Min (oraş)]]
[[ru:Хошимин]]
[[simple:Hồ Chí Minh City]]
[[sk:Hočiminovo Mesto]]
[[sl:Hošiminh]]
[[fi:Ho Chi Minhin kaupunki]]
[[sv:Ho Chi Minh-staden]]
[[th:โฮจิมินห์ซิตี]]
[[vi:Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh]]
[[zh:胡志明市]]

Exchange-traded fund

2007-05-24T21:39:58Z

Sir Vicious: Reverted 2 edits by 65.249.18.4 to last revision by Pmsyyz.

'''Exchange-traded funds''' (or '''ETFs''') are open ended mutual funds that can be traded at any time throughout the course of the day. Typically, ETFs try to replicate a [[stock market index]] such as the [[S&P 500]] ([http://finance.google.com/finance?q=INDEXSP%3A.INX .INX]) or the [[Hang Seng Index]], a [[market sector]] such as energy or technology, or a [[commodity]] such as [[gold]] or [[petroleum]]; However, as ETFs proliferated in 2006 from under one hundred in number to almost four hundred by the end of the year, the trend has been away from these simpler index-tracking funds to intellidexes and other proprietary groupings of stocks.

The legal structure and makeup varies around the world, however the major common features include:
*An exchange listing and ability to trade continually;
*They are [[Index fund|index-linked]] rather than [[Active management|actively managed]];
*Through dynamic and quantitative strategies, these can be [[Enhanced Indexing|dynamic rather than static indexing strategies]]
*The ability to handle contributions and redemptions on an ''in-kind'' basis (typically in large blocks of shares only); and
*Their 'value' (but not necessarily the price at which they trade—they can trade at a 'premium' or 'discount' to the 'underlying' assets' value) [[Derivative (finance)|derives]] from the value of the 'underlying' [[assets]] comprising the fund.

These qualities provide ETFs with some significant advantages compared with traditional [[open-end fund|open-ended]] [[Collective investment scheme|collective investments]]. The ETF structure allows for a diversified, low cost, low turnover index investment. This appeals to both institutional and retail investors both for long term holding and for selling short and hedging strategies.

==Index basis==
Many current U.S. ETFs are based on some index; for example, SPDRs (Standard & Poor's Depository Receipts, or "Spiders") are based on the [[S&P 500]] index. The index is generally determined by an independent company; for example, Spiders are run by [[State Street Corporation|State Street]], while the S&P 500 is calculated by [[Standard & Poor's]]. Sometimes, a proprietary index is used.

Although the [[United States Securities and Exchange Commission|SEC]] states that an ETF is "a type of investment company whose investment objective is to achieve the same return as a particular market index," this is no longer reality. The development of investment structures has progressed more quickly than the SEC's website.

A series of ETFs introduced by ProShares in 2006 - 2007 no longer follow the traditional definition. These funds, while correlating to the performance of the S&P 500, NASDAQ 100, DJIA, and S&P 400 Midcap, do not attempt to merely achieve the same return as the underlying index. These forty funds attempt to either achieve the daily performance of the designated benchmark times two, times negative one, or times negative two. They are ETFs with integrated leverage.

Another example of an innovative ETF that has broken the classic mold is the oil futures ETF: USO. This ETF tracks the performance of the Western Texas Intermediate light sweet crude. This is not a benchmark, but a traded commodity.

Rydex has taken a different direction and worked with S&P to create new, equal-weight benchmarks for their proprietary benchmarks. These "benchmarks" are rebalanced quarterly.

==Creation and redemption of shares==
Rather than the fund manager dealing directly with shareholders, [[institutional investor]]s will create a portfolio of shares identical to the ETF and loan them to the fund manager. The portfolio is then incorporated in the ETF and ETF shares are created. Typically a ''creation unit'' consists of 50,000 shares.

ETF shares are sold and resold freely among large investors on the open market. If they purchase a sufficient amount of shares, the investor can exchange one full creation unit of ETF shares for the underlying shares of stock. The ETF creation unit is then destroyed and the underlying stocks are delivered out of the trust.

The attraction of this method of dealing for the ETF fund manager is that the institutional investors cover the dealing costs in purchasing the required shares to make up the portfolio. The reason they are willing to do this is the profit they can make by [[arbitrage]] based on the trading price of shares on the secondary market. Shares will trade at a premium to net asset value if demand is high and at a discount to net asset value if demand is low. These market drivers provide the efficiency for the ETF managers as the bulk buying power of the institutional investors allows them to avoid the expense of mass share creation and deletion.

==Actively managed ETF==
People have talked about 'actively managed ETF' for a long time{{Fact|date=February 2007}}, based somewhat on analogy with [[mutual fund]]s. Others feel that such a thing is contradictory and nonsensical. Some have sought to bring the much older (and normally actively managed) [[Investment Trust]] class of fund under the ETF umbrella, pointing out the fact that these are also funds that trade on exchanges.

ETFs are mainly exchanged 'in-kind'; holdings of ETFs are made available daily. This is felt to be a strength since no one knows more than anyone else about what the fund holds.
If holdings were secret, it would be difficult to buy an ETF, since one would not know what shares to transfer; similarly, if one sells and gets the component shares, the holdings would not be secret.
This seems to cause problems for an actively managed fund.
Similarly, [[arbitrageur]]s are less likely to bid aggressively if they don't know what they are buying and selling.
All of this is in contrast to mutual funds, which are allowed to keep holdings unknown for many months.
Lastly, some people think that owners of ETFs are more sophisticated, therefore more likely to be proponents of indexing (a passive strategy). So it is not immediately obvious who would buy actively managed ETFs.

==Usage==
Today ETFs present a viable alternative investment option to traditional open-ended mutual funds, especially open-ended [[index fund]]s. There are many available ETFs that attempt to track all kind of indexes (such as large-cap, mid-cap, small-cap, etc), specialties (such as value and growth), industries, countries, precious metals and other commodities or commodity indices like GSCI; and more are being developed for the future.

==History==
The first ETF was introduced on the [[Toronto Stock Exchange]] in 1990.{{Fact|date=February 2007}}

There are over one hundred ETFs traded on the [[American Stock Exchange]], with more in other countries. ETFs have been gaining popularity ever since they were introduced on the American Stock Exchange in the mid [[1990s]], beginning with SPDR in 1993. ETFs are attractive to investors because they offer the diversification of mutual funds with the features of a stock. The popularity is likely to increase as new and more innovative ETFs are introduced.

The original ETFs were set up as competitors to open-ended index funds, and subsequent ETFs have usually followed in their footsteps: they typically have very low [[expense ratio]]s compared to actively managed mutual funds. They also have a lower [[turnover ratio]], which in some jurisdictions can be more [[tax-favorable]].

ETF managers such as Barclays and State Street typically have the most money under management of all companies. This can raise corporate governance issues as often the largest owner of a listed company is a money management company - which simply owns that company as part of a portfolio of companies, designed to outperform other portfolios - and thus has little view or scrutiny of individual companies' internal issues.

==ETFs vs. open-ended funds==
An advantage of mutual funds is that they have lower costs if you only invest a little bit of [[money]], or invest small monthly or quarterly amounts. Since ETFs are traded on the stock market, every trade has commission costs. Many mutual funds do not have such costs. If an investor likes to invest, say, $100 or $500 every month, mutual funds are likely to cost less. However, some online brokers do not charge commissions on ETF transactions, and consequently, the above sentences may no longer be valid [http://www.marketwatch.com/news/story/lower-etf-fees-seen-boon/story.aspx?guid=%7B845DCAA9-D455-4FC3-A697-D41154722403%7D].

There are many advantages to ETFs, and these advantages will likely increase over time. Most ETFs have a lower [[expense ratio]] than comparable mutual funds. Mutual funds can charge 1% to 3%, or more; index funds are generally lower, while ETFs are almost always in the 0.1% to 1% range. Over the long term, these cost differences can compound into a noticeable difference.

ETFs are more [[tax-efficient]] than mutual funds in some jurisdictions [http://news.morningstar.com/article/article.asp?id=156431&_QSBPA=Y&fsection=Comm6]. In the U.S., whenever a mutual fund realizes a [[capital gain]] that is not balanced by a realized loss, the mutual fund must distribute the capital gains to their shareholders by the end of the quarter. This can happen when stocks are added to and removed from the index, or when a large number of shares are redeemed (such as during a panic). These gains are taxable to all shareholders, even those who reinvest the gains distributions in more shares of the fund. In contrast, ETFs are not redeemed by holders (instead, holders simply sell their ETF on the stock market, as they would a stock), so that investors generally only realize capital gains when they sell their own shares.

Perhaps the most important, although subtle, benefit of an ETF is the stock-like features offered. Since ETFs trade on the market, investors can carry out the same types of trades that they can with a stock. For instance, investors can [[Short selling|sell short]], use a [[limit order]], use a [[stop-loss order]], [[margin (finance)#Margin buying|buy on margin]], and invest as much or as little money as they wish (there is no minimum investment requirement). Also, many ETFs have the capability for options (puts and calls) to be written against them. Mutual funds do not offer those features.

For example, an investor in an open-ended fund can only purchase or sell at the end of the day at the mutual fund's closing price. This makes stop-loss orders much less useful for open-ended funds – if your broker even allows them. An ETF is continually priced throughout the day and therefore is not subject to this disadvantage, allowing the user to react to adverse or beneficial market condition on an intraday basis. This stock-like [[liquidity]] allows an investor to trade the ETF for cash throughout regular trading hours, and often after-hours on [[Electronic Communication Network|ECNs]]. ETF liquidity varies according to trading volume and liquidity of the underlying securities, but very liquid ETFs such as SPY, DIA, and QQQQ can be traded pre-market and after-hours with reasonably tight [[Bid/offer spread|spreads]]. These characteristics can be important for investors concerned with [[liquidity risk]].

A more subtle advantage is that ETFs, like closed-ended funds, are immune from some market timing problems that have plagued open-ended mutual funds. In these timing attacks, large investors trade in and out of an open ended fund quickly, exploiting minor variances in price in order to profit at the expense of the long-term unit holders. With an ETF (or closed-ended fund) such an operation is not possible--the underlying assets of the fund are not affected by its trading on the market.

==Major Issuers of ETFs==
* [[Barclays Global Investors]] issues [[iShares]].
* [[State Street Global Advisors]] issues streetTRACKS and SPDRs.
* [[Vanguard Group]] issues Vanguard ETFs, formerly known as VIPERs
* [[Rydex Financial]] issues Rydex ETFs.
* [[Merril Lynch]] issues HOLDRSs.
* [[Bank of New York]] issues BLDRS based on [[ADRs]].
* [http://www.powershares.com PowerShares] issues PowerShares ETFs.
* [http://www.dbfunds.db.com Deutsche Bank] manages PowerShares DB commodity- and currency-based ETFs.
* [http://www.wisdomtree.com/ WisdomTree]: issues fundamentally weighted WisdomTree ETFs.
* [http://www.lyxoretf.com/ Lyxor Asset Management]: issues Lyxor ETFs.
* [http://www.claymore.com/ Claymore Securities]: issues specialty Claymore ETFs.
* [http://www.profunds.com/ ProFunds]: issues inverse and leveraged ProShares ETFs.
* [http://www.vaneck.com/ Van Eck Global]: issues Market Vectors ETFs.

==Top U.S. ETFs==
The first, and most widely held (as of November 2004) US ETF is the [[SPDR|Standard & Poor's Depositary Receipt]], abbreviated SPDR. Shares of SPDR, called "spiders", are traded on the American Stock Exchange under the ticker SPY. Also popular and well known are the ETFs that track the [[NASDAQ-100]] index ("qubes") and the [[Dow Jones Industrial Average]] ("diamonds").

Top 10 [[United States|US]]-based ETFs, by assets under management:

* [[Standard & Poor's Depository Receipts|SPDR]]s "spiders" ({{amex2|SPY}})
* [[IShares MSCI EAFE|iShares MSCI EAFE Index Fund]] ({{amex2|EFA}})
* [[PowerShares QQQ]] "qubes" ({{nasdaq2|QQQQ}})
* [[IShares S&P 500|iShares S&P 500 Index Fund]] ({{nyse2|IVV}})
* [[IShares MSCI Japan|iShares MSCI Japan Index Fund]] ({{nyse2|EWJ}})
* [[IShares MSCI Emerging Markets|iShares MSCI Emerging Markets Index Fund]] ({{amex2|EEM}})
* [[MidCap SPDR]]s ({{amex2|MDY}})
* [[DIAMONDS Trust|DIAMONDS Trust, Series 1]] ({{amex2|DIA}})
* [[IShares Russell 2000|iShares Russell 2000 Index Fund]] ({{amex2|IWM}})
* [[IShares Dow Jones Select Dividend|iShares Dow Jones Select Dividend Index Fund]] ({{nyse2|DVY}})

(as of December 2005)

==European ETFs==


In the [[European Union]] many ETFs are traded as cross border [[UCITS|UCITS III]] funds. For example the [[United Kingdom|UK]] iShares are Irish registered UCITS funds and trade on the [[London Stock Exchange]]. The European ETF market leader is [http://www.indexchange.com/default_e.asp Indexchange Investments AG], whose funds are listed in Germany on the [[Deutsche Börse]]. Indexchange was a subsidiary of [[HypoVereinsbank]]. It has been acquired by [[Barclays Global Investors]] <ref>[http://www.indexchange.de/pressreleasedetails.aspx?siteid=67&action=show&itemid=111&lang=en&backurl=%2Fhome.aspx%3Fsiteid%3D2%26lang%3Den%26tabid%3D-2]</ref>

* [[iShares DJ STOXX 50]]
* [[iShares DJ EURO STOXX 50]]
* Indexchange DJ Euro Stoxx EX
* Indexchange DJ Euro Stoxx 50 EX
* Indexchange DJ Stoxx 50 EX
* Lyxor ETF DJ Euro Stoxx 50
* Lyxor ETF MSCI Europe

==Swedish ETFs==
In Sweden six ETFs exist as of November 2006, all provided by [http://www.xact.se XACT Fonder]:

* XACT Bull - leveraged ETF tracking 1,5 times daily OMXS30 returns
* XACT Bear - like Bull, but inverse, Bear gains from market declines
* XACT OMXS30 - tracking 30 most traded stocks in Stockholm Stock Exchange
* XACT OMXSB - tracking 80-100 most traded stocks in Stockholm Stock Exchange
* XACT F Euro - Fundamentally Weighted index, about 270 stocks in Eurozone
* XACT VINX30 - tracking 30 most traded stocks in the Nordic region (Sweden, Norway, Finland, Denmark)

==Finnish ETFs==

* [http://www.seligson.fi/omxh25/content/english/index.htm SGL OMHXH25] - It is a market value weighted index that consists of the 25 most-traded stock classes. Provided by Seligson & Co Fund Management
* XACT OMXH25 - Same as above by Handelsbanken Mutual Fund Company Ltd.

==Canadian ETFs==
In Canada, Barclays Global Investors is the largest ETF provider, offering ETFs under the iShares brand name:

* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XIC XIC] -- tracks the S&P/TSX Composite Total Return Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XIU XIU] -- tracks the S&P/TSX 60 Total Return Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XMD XMD] -- tracks the S&P/TSX MidCap Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XCS XCS] -- tracks the S&P/TSX SmallCap Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XEG XEG] -- tracks the S&P/TSX Capped Energy Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XIT XIT] -- tracks the S&P/TSX Capped Information Technology Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XGD XGD] -- tracks the S&P/TSX Capped Gold Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XFN XFN] -- tracks the S&P/TSX Capped Financials Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XMA XMA] -- tracks the S&P/TSX Capped Materials Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XRE XRE] -- tracks the S&P/TSX Capped Real Estate Investment Trust Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XTR XTR] -- tracks the S&P/TSX Income Trust Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XDV XDV] -- tracks the Dow Jones Canada Select Dividend Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XCG XCG] -- tracks the Dow Jones Canada Select Growth Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XCV XCV] -- tracks the Dow Jones Canada Select Value Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XEN XEN] -- tracks the Jantzi Social Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XSB XSB] -- tracks the Scotia Short-term bond Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XBB XBB] -- tracks the Scotia Capital Bond Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XRB XRB] -- tracks the Scotia Capital Real Return Bond Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XCB XCB] -- tracks the Scotia Capital All Corporate Bond Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XGB XGB] -- tracks the Scotia Capital All Government Bond Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XLB XLB] -- tracks the Scotia Capital Long Term Bond Index
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XSP XSP] -- tracks the S&P 500 Index (currency hedged)
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XSU XSU] -- tracks the Russell 2000 Index (currency hedged)
* [http://ishares.ca/product_info/fund_overview.do?ticker=XIN XIN] -- tracks the MSCI EAFE 100% Hedged to CAD Dollars Index (currency hedged)

Claymore Investments also offers a series of ETFs available in Canada:

* [http://www.claymoreinvestments.ca/ETFs/Public/fund/Overview.aspx?ID=63b33b22-c636-4124-983b-476b170404f9 CBQ] Claymore [[BRIC]] ETF -- tracks the BNY BRIC Select ADR Index ([[BRIC|Brazil, Russia India and China]])
* [http://www.claymoreinvestments.ca/ETFs/Public/fund/Overview.aspx?ID=eba66e74-23f3-4264-b4ac-c3b6cf58cfc6 CDZ] Claymore CDN Dividend & Income Achievers ETF -- tracks Mergent’s Canadian Dividend & Income Achievers Index.
* [http://www.claymoreinvestments.ca/ETFs/Public/fund/Overview.aspx?ID=289cb9eb-6d35-417a-a321-ab6bac0eaff1 CLO] Claymore Oil Sands Sector ETF -- tracks the Sustainable Oil Sands Sector Index
* [http://www.claymoreinvestments.ca/ETFs/Public/fund/Overview.aspx?ID=c0a2adf3-4c30-4a6c-8221-66236e68962d CLU] Claymore US Fundamental ETF (Canadian Dollar Hedged) -- tracks the FTSE RAFI US 1000 Canadian Dollar Hedged Index
* [http://www.claymoreinvestments.ca/ETFs/Public/fund/Overview.aspx?ID=43913afe-9fe5-472b-88f1-fa2496bdc594 CRQ] Claymore Canadian Fundamental Index ETF -- tracks the [[FTSE]] RAFI Canada Index

Horizons Betapro also offers a series of ETFs available in Canada:

* [http://www.hbpetfs.com/sptsxbupf.asp HXU] the "HBP 60 Bull + ETF" -- tracks two times (200%) the daily performance of the S&P/TSX 60 Total Return Index
* [http://www.hbpetfs.com/sptsxbepf.asp HXD] the "HBP 60 Bear + ETF" -- tracks two times (200%) the inverse (opposite) of the daily performance of the S&P/TSX 60 Total Return Index

==Hong Kong ETFs==
* 2800.HK [http://www.trahk.com.hk/ TraHK] -- tracks the [[Hang Seng Index]]
* 2801.HK [http://www.ishares.com.hk/ China Tracker] -- tracks the MSCI China Index
* 2819.HK [http://www.hsbcinvestments.com.hk/ ABF HK IDX ETF] -- tracks the iBoxx ABF Hong Kong Index
* 2821.HK [http://www.abf-paif.com/ ABF Pan Asia Bond Index Fund] -- tracks the iBoxx ABF Pan-Asia Index
* 2823.HK [http://www.ishares.com.hk/ A50 China Tracker] -- tracks the FTSE/Xinhua China A50 Index
* 2828.HK [http://www.hangseng.com/etf HS H-Share ETF] -- tracks the Hang Seng China Enterprises Index
* 2833.HK [http://www.hangseng.com/etf HS HSI ETF] -- tracks the Hang Seng Index
* 2836.HK [http://www.ishares.com.hk/ SENSEXINDIA ETF] -- tracks the BSE Sensitivity Index
* 2838.HK [http://www.hangseng.com/etf Hang Seng FTSE/Xinhua China 25 Index ETF] -- tracks the FTSE/Xinhua China 25 Index

==Top Republic of Korea ETFs==
All [[ROK]]-based ETFs, as of June 2006:

* KODEX 200
* KOSEF
* KODEX Baedang ('Baedang' means 'dividend' in Korean)
* KODEX KRX 100
* KODEX Star
* Lyxor ETF MSCI Korea

==Commodity ETFs==
Commodity ETFs, also known as exchange-traded commodities (ETCs), track a specific commodity or a general commodity index, such as:
* [[Gold exchange-traded fund]]s (GETFs)
* [[Silver]] by [[iShares]] ({{nyse2|SLV}})
* [[Petroleum]] by [[ETF Securities]] ({{lse2|OILB}} and {{lse2|OILW}})
* DBC Fund tracking the Deutsche Bank Liquid Commodity Index - Optimized Yield (DBLCI-OY) by [[Deutsche Bank]] ({{nyse2|DBC}})
* Lyxor ETF Commodities CRB tracking the Reuters Jefferies CRB Index by Lyxor Asset Management ({{Euronext2|VLCRB}})
* EasyETF GSCI tracking the Goldman Sachs Commodity Index by Axa Investment Managers and [[BNP Paribas]] ({{FWB2|GSCI}} and {{swx|LU0203243844USD4}})
* GSG

Since September 2006, numerous ETFs have been available on the London Stock Exchange [http://www.londonstockexchange.com/en-gb/pricesnews/education/experiencedinvestors/investetc/productlist.htm]. ETCs invest in real commodities (via future contracts or storing gold bars, for example) and not in commodity producing companies, such as mining companies, though of course, mining-company ETFs also exist.

==See also==
*[[Collective investment scheme]]
*[[Mutual fund]]
*[[Index fund]]
*[[Enhanced Indexing]]
*[[Investment trust]]
*[[Gold exchange-traded fund]]

==References==
*[http://news.morningstar.com/article/article.asp?id=156431&_QSBPA=Y&fsection=Comm6 Are ETFs Really More Tax-Efficient Than Mutual Funds?] - Dan Culloton, Morningstar, February 14, 2006
*[http://www.sec.gov/answers/etf.htm Exchange-Traded Funds] - [[United States Securities and Exchange Commission|SEC]] Description
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.sec.gov/answers/etf.htm ETF Answers] by the [[U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission]]
* [http://mutualfunds.about.com/od/etfs/ ETF Basics] ETF articles at about.com
* [http://finance.yahoo.com/etf Exchange-Traded Funds (ETF) Center - Yahoo! Finance]
* [http://moneycentral.msn.com/investor/partsub/funds/topfundresults.asp?Category=55&ETF=true List of Top Performing ETFs] on MSN Money

{{investment-management}}

[[Category:Exchange-traded funds|*]]
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User talk:Ignatzmice/Archive 1

2007-05-20T23:42:54Z

Sir Vicious: /* Vietnam */

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{{User:Ace Class Shadow/vandalized|1}}

== MacMail UBX ==
Please could you not put instructions for your userbox on the UBX Gallery page but rather on the actual MacMail UBX Template by inserting <noinclude> tags before and after the instructions [[User:Rugby471|Rugby471]] 08:17, 21 April 2007 (UTC)

I have taken care of all of it, for the userbox, if you type in {{tlu|Template:User Macmail|}} and after the pipe ( | ) character the version number, eg 10.4.1, it will come up with that on the certain page ! I have also added a category so you can view you is using your UBX, it is
<nowiki>Category:Wikipedians_who_use_ Mac_OSX_Mail</nowiki>, if there is anything you don't understand, please ask me on my [[User_talk:Rugby471|talk page]].

== Re:Interrobang ==

Thank you, that looks good. --[[User:Gray Porpoise|Gray]] [[Special:Contributions/Gray Porpoise|Porpo]][[Wikipedia:Featured portal candidates/Portal:Cetaceans|ise]] 22:27, 25 November 2006 (UTC)

== Re: Hi! ==

Huh? --[[User:Red Pooka|Red]][[User talk:Red Pooka|Pooka]] 04:45, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

== Re Smile ==

Thanks for the smile {{emot|:)}}. [[User:Martinp23|M]][[User:Martinp23/Esperanza|a]][[User_talk:Martinp23|rtinp23]] 22:42, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

== Userbox for person who reads science fiction, not "sci-fi" ==

That was me seeking such a thing. --Orange Mike 03:42, 27 November 2006 (UTC)
:Multajn dankojn! --Orange Mike 06:17, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

== thanks ==

hey, thanks for the smile! [[User:Bikeable|bikeable]] [[User talk:Bikeable|(talk)]] 04:32, 27 November 2006 (UTC)

== Hello ^_^ ==

<div style="float:center;border-style:solid;border-color:blue;background-color:AliceBlue;border-width:1px;text-align:left;padding:8px;" class="plainlinks">[[Image:Fsmile.svg|left|62px]]

{{{1|[[User:Saber girl08|Saber girl08]]}}} has smiled at you! Smiles promote [[Wikipedia:WikiLove|WikiLove]] and hopefully this one has made your day better. Spread the WikiLove by smiling to someone else, whether it be someone you have had disagreements with in the past or a good friend. Happy editing! {{{2|}}} Smile at others by adding {{tls|Smile}} to their talk page with a friendly message.
</div>

Hey! I was just wandering around, and dropped in to leave a note. Have a wonderful day! [[User:Saber girl08|Saber girl08]] 01:47, 9 March 2007 (UTC)

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== [[User talk:76.197.139.8]] ==

You are [[WP:DNFT|being trolled]]. Quite successfully. I've blocked him for a few hours and will now tap him with the cluestick. Please try to avoid reverting his talk page - he's getting off on it. Thanks and happy editing.  [[User_talk:Redvers|⋐⋑ ]]'''''[[User:Redvers|REDVEЯS]]''''' 17:00, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

:Don't worry too much about people blanking their talk pages - if you report to AIV with a note saying "talk page blanked", the admins there will know to check the page history. We've got a couple of hours peace, any way - 3hr block applied (no more possible: shared IP address I believe). Cheers!  [[User_talk:Redvers|⋐⋑ ]]'''''[[User:Redvers|REDVEЯS]]''''' 17:09, 12 May 2007 (UTC)
==Vandalism?==
Hello, you recently notified me on my talk page about vandalism. This isn't the case. I am currently writing and testing a bot that will notify an article's creator when it has been nominated for speedy deletion. If you look at the talk page in question, my bot accidentlly put a second nomination for the same image. I was simply reverting my own edits to remove the duplicate edit my bot added. --[[User:69.91.62.179|69.91.62.179]] 20:09, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

== Not Vandalism ==

Dear Ignatzmice,

The edits that [[User:12.205.154.197|12.205.154.197]] made to my user page were not vandalism, in fact, they were made by me. Thank you for your concern, though.

-cAnUcKiD!!!! [[User:Canuckid|visit my userpage!]] 22:23, 12 May 2007 (UTC)

Why did you remove this barnstar? [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ADmcdevit&diff=130611111&oldid=130611001]]—[[User:Gaff|Gaff]] [[User_talk:Gaff|ταλκ]] 20:30, 13 May 2007 (UTC)
::I was not the IP, I just saw your edit show up on the recent changes...no biggie. cheers—[[User:Gaff|Gaff]] [[User_talk:Gaff|ταλκ]] 20:37, 13 May 2007 (UTC)

Sorry about that, I am still learning. I deleted something that I felt was not appropriate and not researched. Another user had pointed out how it had been copied and pasted from an animal-activist web site. It obviously lacked any neutrality.

I won't make modifications in the future unless I have the time to explain why. ([[Special:Contributions/69.134.77.198|69.134.77.198]] ([[User talk:69.134.77.198|Talk]]))

== [[:Image:Mail Icon.png]] ==
Hello, Ignatzmice. An automated process has found and will an image or media file tagged as nonfree media, and thus is being used under [[Wikipedia:fair use|fair use]] that is in your userspace. The image ([[:Image:Mail Icon.png]]) was found at the following location: [[User:Ignatzmice]]. This image or media will be removed per criterion number 9 of our [[Wikipedia:Non-free_content#Policy|non-free content policy]]. The image or media will be replaced with [[:Image:NonFreeImageRemoved.svg]] , so your formatting of your userpage should be fine. This does ''not'' necessarily mean that the image is being deleted, or that the image is being removed from other pages. It is only being removed from the page mentioned above. All mainspace instances of this image will ''not'' be affected Please find a free image or media to replace it with, and or remove the image from your userspace. [[User:Gnome (Bot)]][[User talk:Gnome (Bot)|-talk]] 20:23, 16 May 2007 (UTC)

== [[Vietnam]] ==
Thank you for reverting the vandalisms made to the [[Vietnam]] article, however it seemed you mistakenly reverted and 1 paragraph [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vietnam&diff=131315742&oldid=131313723] was lost during the process. It was a real pain sifting through the history to find it again. While I appreciate your efforts, I hope you watch out for that in the future, thank you =). [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] 12:51, 19 May 2007 (UTC)

: Hi, it's no problem at all, I was just frustrated because that article is always vandalized and yet it is not locked, so ... after multiple reversions, if someone is not paying attention, contents tend to disappear and no one would be able to find it. This is not the first time I had to go back and find content b/c vandalisms on that article and no other vandal policers seem to pay much attention when they revert so I hope you understand my frustration. How do we make it so they would lock that article from IP edits btw? Is there anywhere I can suggest that? I'm not at all familiar with the process. Thanks for understanding. [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] 08:03, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:: Thanks for the pointer =), I've just requested for the article to be semi-protected. Regards. [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] 23:42, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Requests for page protection

2007-05-20T23:36:51Z

Sir Vicious: /* Current requests for protection */

{{Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/Header}}
[[Category:Non-talk pages automatically signed by HagermanBot]]
__TOC__

==Current requests for protection==
{{Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/PRheading}}

===={{la|Vietnam}}====
'''semi-protect'''. Day in day out anonymous vandalisms. Article tends to lose contents after multiple reversions due to confusions of vandal policers therefore making it hard to sift through the history, find the correct version/segment to revert/re-add. [[User:Sir Vicious|Sir Vicious]] 23:36, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{lu|Born Acorn}}====
'''semi-protect'''. Requesting own user page protection, personal attacks by anonymous IPs and newly created accounts. [[User:Born Acorn|Born Acorn]] 22:57, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Volleyball}}====
'''semi-protect'''. Consistent, multiple per day vandalism by anonymous IPs. [[User:Autiger |AUTiger]] ʃ [[User_talk:Autiger|talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/Autiger|work]] 22:43, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}} - [[User:Phaedriel|Phaedriel]] - 22:47, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Middlesbrough F.C.}}====
'''Semi-protection'''. Daily vandalism edits always from anonymous IP addresses. --[[User:Simmo676|Simmo676]] 22:16, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}} - [[User:Phaedriel|Phaedriel]] - 22:47, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Sony}}====
'''Semi-protection'''— a lengthy history of vandalism by anons and other committed vandals. Page was also earlier semi-protected, but this protection was removed a few weeks ago. ···[[User:Ganryuu|巌流]][[Help:Japanese|?]] · [[User talk:Ganryuu|Talk]] to [[WP:JA|Gan]][[WP:MOS-JA|ryuu]] 21:49, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}} [[User:Jossi|≈ jossi ≈]] [[User_talk:Jossi|(talk)]] 22:11, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Antonio Banks}}====
'''Full Protection''', It was semi-protected just a few days ago to protect from heavy libelous vandalism ([http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wikipedia%3ARequests_for_page_protection&diff=131880617&oldid=131879397 diff]), but that hasn't stopped or even slowed down the vandalism, which has escalated to people moving the page and flat out saying he lies about his name in the articlle.«»[[User:Bdve|bd]]([[User talk:Bdve|talk]] [[Special:Contributions/Bdve|stalk]]) 21:46, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}} [[User:Jossi|≈ jossi ≈]] [[User_talk:Jossi|(talk)]] 22:11, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Simon Cowell}}====
'''semi-protection''' Lots of anon vandalism - most a real problem with [[WP:BIO]]. [[User:SOPHIA| '''Sophia''']] 21:06, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}} [[User:Jossi|≈ jossi ≈]] [[User_talk:Jossi|(talk)]] 22:07, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

==== {{lut|69.140.94.120}} ====
'''semi-protection''' Semi-protection, User talk of blocked using it for personal attacks and {{tl|unblock}} abuse [[User:GDonato|GDonato]] ([[User talk:GDonato|talk]]) 20:55, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|p}} by [[User:Theresa knott|Theresa knott]]. - [[User:Phaedriel|Phaedriel]] - 22:49, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|toilet}}====
'''semi-protect''' Vandal target for anonymous users. [[User:NHRHS2010|'''NHRHS2010''']][[User talk:NHRHS2010|''' Talk ''']] 20:44, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|nea}} [[User:Jossi|≈ jossi ≈]] [[User_talk:Jossi|(talk)]] 20:55, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
::EVERY TIME I request a protection, it gets declined. But the page gets protected when someone else requests the protection. I hate when this happens!

===={{la|The Mysterians}}====
''Semi protect''. Massive bombardmnt by IP hopping vandal, hopefully semi protection will stop it..[[User:Invisible Noise|Invisible Noise]] 20:35, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}} [[User:Jossi|≈ jossi ≈]] [[User_talk:Jossi|(talk)]] 20:54, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
===={{la|The Mystery of the Druids}}====
'''Semi-protection''' - has been repeatedly attacked with nonsense over the past several days by anons and new account. [[User:Corvus cornix|Corvus cornix]] 20:25, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:Still getting defaced. Please protect ASAP. -- [[User:Hdt83|Hdt83]] [[User talk:Hdt83|Chat]] 20:46, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
::Come, on somebody? Anybody? [[User:Corvus cornix|Corvus cornix]] 20:50, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}}. [[User:Jossi|≈ jossi ≈]] [[User_talk:Jossi|(talk)]] 20:52, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Islam and antisemitism}}====
'''Full protection''' lots of major POV edits in both directions in the recent history over the entire article. Seems to be a revert war.--[[User:Sefringle|Sefringle]] 20:10, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|nea}} [[User:Sean William|Sean William]] 20:11, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{lt|Uw-move4im}}====
'''semi-protection''' Semi-protection: High-visible template, New [[WP:UTM]] template. [[User:Funpika|Fun]][[User_Talk:Funpika|pika]] 19:00, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}}. [[User:Krimpet|Krimpet]] ([[User talk:Krimpet|talk]]) 19:04, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Mahmoud Ahmadinejad}}====
'''Full protect''' - There are 2 parties involved in a long running dispute over what should be in the lead of the article and to some extent all of the article for around 4 months. It is better to page being protected till a consensus is reached, I will fill a request for a formal mediation too. --[[User:Pejman47|Pejman47]] 18:58, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|p|1 week}} '''[[User:Sr13|Sr]][[User talk:Sr13|13]]''' 19:15, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{lp|Arts}}====
'''Semi-protect''' - Heavy vandalism from anons and new users. '''[[User_talk:Mystytopia|Clyde]] (a.k.a [[User:Mystytopia|Mystytopia]])''' 18:22, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|nea}} [[User:Krimpet|Krimpet]] ([[User talk:Krimpet|talk]]) 19:07, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Factory farming}}====
'''Full protect''' - There are 2 parties involved in a long running dispute over what should be in the lead of the article and as such there is plenty of reverting going on. Propose protection until this difference is sorted out.-[[User:Localzuk|Localzuk]][[User talk:Localzuk|(talk)]] 18:11, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|p}} indefinitely until a consensus is reached. [[User:Krimpet|Krimpet]] ([[User talk:Krimpet|talk]]) 19:06, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|CBS}}====
'''semi-protect'''. Vandalism is spilling over from [[Jericho (TV series)|Jericho]] which was itself recently semi-pro'd. -- [[User:Gridlock Joe|Gridlock Joe]] 17:15, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|nea}} [[User:Krimpet|Krimpet]] ([[User talk:Krimpet|talk]]) 17:25, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Haim Saban}}====
'''semi-protect'''. High level of IP vandalism. [[User:Sabranan|Sabranan]] 16:49, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}} for 1 week. [[User:Krimpet|Krimpet]] ([[User talk:Krimpet|talk]]) 17:27, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Chariot}}====
'''Semi-protection''' for a few days because of IP edit warring -- [[User:Nick1nildram|Nick]] 16:41, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|nea}} [[User:Krimpet|Krimpet]] ([[User talk:Krimpet|talk]]) 17:26, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|The 1/2 Hour News Hour}}====
'''Semi-protect''' Somewhere on the internet there must be a forum which directs users to regularly make similar vandal edits. These edits primarily include changing the phrase "perceived liberal bias in the media" to "prevalent liberal bias" or "obvious" or simply removing the word 'perceived'. I would estimate this happens 20-30 times per month.[[User:Yeago|Yeago]] 13:45, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|nea}} [[User:Krimpet|Krimpet]] ([[User talk:Krimpet|talk]]) 17:28, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Cadma}}====
'''Semi-protection''' for four days should be enough. Article already got recreated by newly registered editor and CSD'd five times today (appropriate warnings given). I think it could use a little salt. --[[User:Seed 2.0|Seed]] [[User talk:Seed 2.0|2.0]] 16:21, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:{{tick}} '''Done''' - Salted. --[[User:Winhunter|WinHunter]] ([[User talk:Winhunter|talk]]) 16:30, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Kaká}}====
'''semi-protection''' for a few days, as the article in the last days was heavily (IMHO) attacked by various IP addresses. In three days, there was 17 vandalisms by IP. [[User:Garavello|Garavello]] 15:53, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s|1 week}}. [[User:Sean William|Sean William]] 17:23, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|The Black Parade}}====
'''semi-protection''' '''+expiry 1 week''', Semi-protection: Vandalism, IP Adresses and new users keep removing sourced info and readding sections that have already been deleted in the past [[User:mcr616|mcr616]] [[User_Talk:mcr616|Speak!]] 13:56, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:[[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|20px]] '''Semi-protected''' by [[User:Winhunter|Winhunter]]. - '''[[User:AuburnPilot|auburnpilot]]''' [[User_talk:AuburnPilot|talk]] 17:00, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Emo}}====

'''Restore indefinite semi-protection.''' Disambig page used to be under indefinite semi-protection due to heavy chronic vandalism (thanks to the slang usage), but recently got unprotected: now the vandalism is back. --[[User:Piet Delport|Piet Delport]] 13:45, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:[[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|20px]] '''Semi-protected''' by [[User:Majorly|Majorly]]. - '''[[User:AuburnPilot|auburnpilot]]''' [[User_talk:AuburnPilot|talk]] 17:00, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

==Current requests for unprotection==
{{Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/URheading}}

===={{la|Hard disk}}====
'''Remove protection'''. Six weeks should be long enough to deter vandals. [[User:Thumperward|Chris Cunningham]] 20:26, 19 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|u}}. '''''[[User:Bibliomaniac15|bibliomaniac]][[User talk:Bibliomaniac15|1]][[Special:Contributions/Bibliomaniac15|5]]''''' 21:10, 19 May 2007 (UTC)

==Current requests for significant edits to a protected page==
{{Wikipedia:Requests for page protection/SRheading}}
==Fulfilled/denied requests==
===={{la|Dubai International Airport}}====
'''semi-protection''' '''+expiry 1 month''', Semi-protection: Vandalism, This is not the first time I have put this article for semi-protection. The vandalism is repeated and as the IP is [[Emirates_Internet]] the only way to prevent vandalising ip edits is semi protection. There is advertising added almost every day pulled off websites detailed on the talk page. [[User:Y4kk|Y4kk]] 12:01, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}}. Bit borderline, but since it's the same content being restored each time we can safely assume this is one determined person (or small group) who's gonna keep at it. – [[User:Steel359|Steel]] 12:38, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Natasha Galkina‎}}====
'''Semi-protection''' for a few days. Subject of [[WP:BLP|biography of living person]], runner-up of America's Next Top Model Cycle 8, and subject to potentially libelous, unsourced attacks, mostly fom IP addresses. [[User:Yamara|Yamara]] 12:05, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}} [[User:Gnangarra|Gnan]][[User_talk:Gnangarra|garra]] 12:55, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Jaslene Gonzalez‎}}====
'''Semi-protection''' for a few days. Subject of [[WP:BLP|biography of living person]], winner of America's Next Top Model Cycle 8, and subject to libelous, unsourced attacks, mostly fom IP addresses. [[User:Yamara|Yamara]] 12:05, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s}} [[User:Gnangarra|Gnan]][[User_talk:Gnangarra|garra]] 12:55, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Joel Hayward}}====
'''Semi-protection'''. Subject of [[WP:BLP|biography of living person]] is POV-pushing using sock-puppet accounts. [[User:Groupthink|Groupthink]] 11:19, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:[[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|20px]] '''Semi-protected'''. '''[[User:Majorly|Majorly]]''' (''[[User talk:Majorly|talk]]'' | ''[[User:Majorly/MU|meet]]'') 11:28, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Enda Kenny}}====
'''semi-protection''' for a few days. This article had been the subject of vandalism and dubious unsourced claims recently. As the subject is a senior politician currently fighting an election campaign, the leader of the 2nd largest party in the south of Ireland, I propose semi-protecting it until the polling stations close on the 24th May, probably around 11 p.m. Universal Time. The article will probably need updating in the aftermath of the election. [[User:PatGallacher|PatGallacher]] 11:06, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:[[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|20px]] '''Semi-protected''' due to heavy [[vandalism]]. '''[[User:Majorly|Majorly]]''' (''[[User talk:Majorly|talk]]'' | ''[[User:Majorly/MU|meet]]'') 11:25, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Eye}}====
'''semi-protection''' '''+expiry 1 month''', Semi-protection: Vandalism, Basic vandalism by ips. [[User:Kzrulzuall|Kzrulzuall ]][[User talk:Kzrulzuall|Talk]]• [[Special:Contributions/Kzrulzuall|Contribs]] 10:33, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:[[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|20px]] '''Semi-protected''' due to heavy [[vandalism]]. '''[[User:Majorly|Majorly]]''' (''[[User talk:Majorly|talk]]'' | ''[[User:Majorly/MU|meet]]'') 11:03, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Justin Morneau}}====
'''semi-protection''' This article can be subject frequently for casual vandalism, and given its lack of discussion on its talk page, not watchlisted to a great degree. I request semi-protection, given how Morneau is the current AL MVP in [[Major League Baseball]], and remain in that status until at least the new AL MVP is decided late in 2007. [[User:Crazyviolinist|crazyviolinist]] 04:00, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:[[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|20px]] '''Semi-protected''' due to heavy [[vandalism]]. '''[[User:Majorly|Majorly]]''' (''[[User talk:Majorly|talk]]'' | ''[[User:Majorly/MU|meet]]'') 11:06, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Ascended master}}====
'''Full protect'''. One editor keeps intruding the "fansite" tag on the article, implying that the content is unimportant. As soon as the tag is removed, this editor re-inserts it. The use of this tag may be regarded as pejorative and insulting to well-meaning contributors. There are various metaphysical and religious organizations world-wide that believe in calling saints "Ascended Masters". There is simply no justification in posting tags just to show disapproval of the subject. This editor, who keeps inserting the tag, had agreed to participate in a Mediation Committee approximately 6 months ago; then the administrator (Pinchen Cohen) had to close the case due to lack of participation (except for my full cooperation). [[User:Aburesz|Aburesz]] 00:55, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:[[Image:Symbol support vote.svg|20px]] '''Fully protected''' due to [[Wikipedia:Edit war|revert warring]]. '''[[User:Majorly|Majorly]]''' (''[[User talk:Majorly|talk]]'' | ''[[User:Majorly/MU|meet]]'') 11:07, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy}}====
'''Full-protect'''. A group of users is carrying to this page a dispute that led to the protecton of [[Attachment Therapy]] and for which there is an RfC in process. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia_talk:Requests_for_comment/DPeterson#The_Group_continues_to_try_to_expand_the_dispute_to_other_articles]] [[user:DPeterson|DPeterson]][[User talk:DPeterson|talk]] 21:34, 19 May 2007 (UTC)

:[[Image:Symbol oppose vote.svg|20px]] There is not enough recent activity to [[Wikipedia:Protection_policy#Uses|justify]] [[Wikipedia:Protection policy|protection]] at this time. For now, be sure to use descriptive [[Wikipedia:Edit summary|edit summaries]] and discuss edits on [[Wikipedia:Talk pages|talk]]. '''[[User:Majorly|Majorly]]''' (''[[User talk:Majorly|talk]]'' | ''[[User:Majorly/MU|meet]]'') 11:09, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Topal Osman}}====
'''Remove protection'''. This small article has been protected for almost a month and the editor who requested protection has not participated in any talkpage discussion of any kind since making his request. [[User:The Myotis|The Myotis]] 05:57, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:[[Image:Symbol keep vote.svg|20px]] '''Un-protected.''' It's been protected for long enough. Hopefully things have calmed down since then. '''[[User:Majorly|Majorly]]''' (''[[User talk:Majorly|talk]]'' | ''[[User:Majorly/MU|meet]]'') 11:10, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Jackie Chan}}====
'''full protection'''. High level of vandalism since protection was last removed. persistant vandalism from several users, or users with sock puppets daily.
:{{RFPP|s}} Most of the vandalising users are new accounts or IP addresses, so I'll semi protect this, to allow positive contributors to edit. '''[[User:CattleGirl|CattleGirl]]''' ''[[User talk: CattleGirl| talk]] | [[User:CattleGirl/Autograph Book|sign!]]'' 08:01, 20 May 2007 (UTC)}}

===={{la|Golf}}====
'''Semi-Protection'''. This article seems to be a vandaliser magnet. The page's history is frequently nearly filled up with vandalisms and reverts. It has been semi-protected in the past, but the vandalism just keeps coming back.
[[User:Grovermj|Grover]] 06:53, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s|4 weeks}} – [[User:Riana|Riana]] [[User talk:Riana|⁂]] 07:34, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|The Secret (2006 film)}}====
'''full protection''' '''+expiry 12 hours''', Full protection: Dispute, Edit warring [[User:Wooyi|Wooyi]][[User talk:Wooyi|Talk to me?]] 03:11, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

:{{RFPP|p}}. Done as requested. '''''[[User:Bibliomaniac15|bibliomaniac]][[User talk:Bibliomaniac15|1]][[Special:Contributions/Bibliomaniac15|5]]''''' 06:10, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Goguryeo}}====
'''full protection''' Several editors have been disrupting the stability of the article and violating [[WP:NPOV]] and [[WP:3RR]]. Requesting protection back to NPOV version. [[User:Good friend100|Good friend100]] 02:37, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|full|2 days}} —— (fully protected)'''[[user:Eagle 101|Eagle101]]'''[[user_talk:Eagle 101|Need help?]] 03:26, 20 May 2007 (UTC)

===={{la|Boredom}}====
'''semi-protection''' This article is a major target for casual vandalism. See the edit history for details--very few substantive changes are being made and the vandalism/reversion cycle makes it difficult to locate substantive changes in the page history. Requesting semi-protection. [[User:Cazort|Cazort]] 02:49, 20 May 2007 (UTC)
:{{RFPP|s|2 weeks}} – [[User:Riana|Riana]] [[User talk:Riana|⁂]] 02:54, 20 May 2007 (UTC)