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Trafficking in Persons (Prevention, Care and Rehabilitation) Bill, 2021

2024-09-13T08:47:46Z

Squike: Added short description

{{Short description|Bill to provide anti-trafficking legislation in India}}
{{Orphan|date=February 2022}}

{{Infobox legislation
| short_title = Trafficking in Persons (Prevention, Care and Rehabilitation) Bill, 2021
| imagesize = 100
| long_title =
| citation = {{plainlist|
[https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/DRAFT%20TRAFFICKING%20IN%20PERSONS%20%28PREVENTION%2C%20CARE%20AND%20REHABILITATION%29%20BILL%202021%20%281%29.pdf TIP Bill 2021]
*[http://164.100.47.4/billstexts/lsbilltexts/PassedLokSabha/89-C_2018_LS_Eng.pdf TIP Bill 2018]
*[https://wcd.nic.in/sites/default/files/Draft%20Trafficking%20of%20persons%20Bill%202016.pdf TIP Bill 2016]
}}
| bill = {{plainlist|
*Trafficking of Persons (Prevention, Protection and Rehabilitation) Bill 2018
*Trafficking of Persons (Prevention, Protection and Rehabilitation) Bill, 2016}}
| introduced_by = [[Ministry of Women and Child Development]]
| keywords = trafficking in persons, care, protection, rehabilitation, supportive environment, prosecution, commercial carrier, debt bondage, exploitation
| status = Pending
}}

'''Trafficking in Persons (Prevention, Care and Rehabilitation) Bill, 2021''' or '''TIP Bill''' {{speculation inline|text=will provide for a comprehensive and dedicated anti-trafficking legislation in India.|date=August 2021}}

== History ==
Trafficking in India has been dealt with under a number of laws such as [[Indian Penal Code of 1860]], Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1986, Bonded Labour Regulation Act, 1986 and Child Labour Regulation Act, 1986.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Trafficking of Persons (Prevention, Protection and Rehabilitation) Bill, 2018|url=https://prsindia.org/billtrack/the-trafficking-of-persons-prevention-protection-and-rehabilitation-bill-2018|access-date=2021-07-30|website=PRS Legislative Research}}</ref> The 2021 bill aims to provide a dedicated legislation. Earlier forms of the proposed legislation included the ''Trafficking of Persons (Prevention, Protection and Rehabilitation) Bill 2016'' and the ''Trafficking of Persons (Prevention, Protection and Rehabilitation) Bill, 2018.'' The 2018 bill was tabled in the [[Lok Sabha]] and passed in July 2018. However the bill never made it to the [[Rajya Sabha]] following public disapproval. Following the completion of the first term of the [[Narendra Modi Government|Narendra Modi government]] in 2019, the bill lapsed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Pandit|first=Ambika|date=16 March 2020|title=Reporting of crime a must in new anti-trafficking bill|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/reporting-of-crime-a-must-in-new-anti-trafficking-bill/articleshow/74644233.cms|access-date=2021-07-30|website=The Times of India}}</ref>

== Bills ==

=== TIP Bill 2016 ===
The Bill was questioned for not covering all forms of human trafficking, for not clearly covering cross-border trafficking, and for not clearly explaining how the law is supposed to interact with other legislation such as [[Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act|Protection of Children from Sexual Offence Act]]. The role of consent in whether the trafficked person wants to be rescued and rehabilitated is not sufficiently covered.<ref>[https://www.antislavery.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/2_submission_on_trafficking_of_persons_bill_anti_slavery_international.pdf Written submission to Ministry of Women and Child Development: Trafficking of Persons (Prevention, Protection and Rehabilitation) Bill, 2016]. ''[[Anti-Slavery International]]''. 30 June 2016. Retrieved on 30 July 2021.</ref>

=== TIP Bill 2018 ===
The 2018 bill was again criticized for not doing what it set out to do, that of being "clear and comprehensive".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tandon|first=Tripti|date=2015-06-05|title=India's Trafficking Bill 2018 is Neither Clear Nor Comprehensive|url=https://www.epw.in/engage/article/trafficking-of-persons-prevention-protection-and-rehabilitation-bill-2018-is-neither-clear-nor-comprehensive|journal=Economic and Political Weekly|language=en|pages=7–8}}</ref> It was criticized for being too criminal-centric and not victim-centric enough.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Bhattacherjee|first=Kallol|date=2018-07-25|title=Anti-trafficking Bill could harm victims, warn experts|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/anti-trafficking-bill-could-harm-victims-warn-experts/article24506762.ece|access-date=2021-07-30|issn=0971-751X}}</ref> The aspect of how the bill would fit into the current legislative framework was again raised.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Mahara|first=Priti|date=1 August 2018|title=Anti-trafficking bill: Proposed law must be victim-centric and take a child rights approach|url=https://scroll.in/article/888702/anti-trafficking-bill-proposed-law-must-be-victim-centric-and-take-a-child-rights-approach|access-date=2021-07-30|website=Scroll.in|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== TIP Bill 2021 ===
The 2021 bill makes the [[National Investigation Agency]] the lead investigating agency on such matters. However it was pointed out that the bill did not elucidate rescue protocols.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Roy|first=Esha|date=2021-07-05|title=Draft anti-trafficking Bill widens scope of offences, includes stringent penalties|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/govt-invites-suggestions-draft-anti-trafficking-bill-widens-scope-of-offences-includes-stringent-penalties-7389122/|access-date=2021-07-30|website=The Indian Express|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Singh|first=Shiv Sahay|date=2021-07-18|title=Concerns remain over anti-trafficking bill|language=en-IN|work=The Hindu|url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/concerns-remain-over-anti-trafficking-bill/article35388874.ece|access-date=2021-07-30|issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Law of India]]
[[Category:Human trafficking in India]]

Nauru Rehabilitation Corporation

2024-09-13T08:43:21Z

Squike: Added short description

{{Short description|To rehabilitate land destroyed by the phosphate industry in Nauru}}
[[File:Coral_pinacles_on_Nauru2.jpg|thumb|Jagged rocks left behind after phosphate mining on Nauru.]]
The '''Nauru Rehabilitation Corporation''' is a [[state-owned enterprise]] established by the [[Nauru|Republic of Nauru]] in May 1999, following the passing of the Nauru Rehabilitation Corporation Act in July 1997. Its primary mission is to rehabilitate land destroyed by the [[Economy of Nauru|phosphate industry]], both before and after its independence, making them once again economically useful to the small island-nation.

== History ==
Work on the lands began in early 2008 with the help of Australian funding. Australia, during its trusteeship over the island until 1968, had mined and profited from the rich phosphate deposits of the island. Once independent, however, Nauru took Australia to the courts demanding financial reparations for the environmental and agricultural damages caused by the mining operations. The Australian government under Prime Minister [[Paul Keating]] agreed to assist Nauru in an out-of-court settlement in the 1990s, signing a treaty to that effect with the then [[President of Nauru]], [[Bernard Dowiyogo]]. The Nauru Rehabilitation Corporation (NRC) was set up to put the necessary work into effect.

== Work ==
The work currently involves breaking and crushing the jagged rock formations left behind by phosphate mining. The crushed rock contains some proportion of mineable phosphate and some parts of the rock is also sold to the construction industry, but the main aim of activity is to clear the holes dug by the phosphate industry. Subsequently, a layer of arable soil is supposed to cover the land, allowing for the growth of vegetation.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}}

Between 2007 and 2018, the NRC was in charge of the extraction of phosphate from remaining unmined areas. However, slow progress meant that the responsibility was given back to [[Nauru Phosphate Corporation|RONPHOS]] in July 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Davies|first1=Anne|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/04/corruption-incompetence-and-a-musical-naurus-riches-to-rags-tale|title=Corruption, incompetence and a musical: Nauru's cursed history|date=3 September 2018|work=The Guardian|access-date=15 April 2020|last2=Docherty|first2=Ben}}</ref>

== CEO ==
The NRC's CEO is [[Vinci Clodumar]]. In addition, its operations are the responsibility of the Department of State. The minister responsible for the NRC at its foundation was [[Freddie Pitcher|Frederick Pitcher]]. Since mid-November 2011, following a change in government, it is [[David Adeang]].

== See also ==

* [[History of Nauru]]
* [[Economy of Nauru]]
* ''[[British Phosphate Commission]]''
* ''[[Nauru Phosphate Corporation]]''

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{Cite web|date=December 11, 2017|title=Nauru Rehabilitation Corporation|url=http://nauru-news.com/advance-nauru-nauru-rehabilitation-corporation/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-11-11|website=Nauru News|publisher=Government of the Republic of Nauru|language=en-US}}
*{{Cite web|last=Ali|first=Saleem H.|date=July 14, 2016|title=The new rise of Nauru: can the island bounce back from its mining boom and bust?|url=http://theconversation.com/the-new-rise-of-nauru-can-the-island-bounce-back-from-its-mining-boom-and-bust-62419|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-11-11|website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]}}
*{{Cite web|last=Solomons|first=Ilan|date=June 24, 2016|title=Unsustainable use of revenue from once booming phosphate sector haunting Nauru|url=https://www.miningweekly.com/article/unsustainable-use-of-revenue-from-once-booming-phosphate-sector-haunting-nauru-2016-06-24/rep_id:3650|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-11-11|website=[[Mining Weekly]]}}

[[Category:Government-owned companies]]
[[Category:Companies of Nauru]]

Glaslyn

2024-09-10T07:24:29Z

Squike: Updated short description

{{Short description|Lake in Snowdonia National Park, Wales}}
{{about|the lake|the river|Afon Glaslyn}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox body of water
| name = Glaslyn
| image = LlydawAndGlaslyn.JPG
| caption = Looking east from [[Snowdon]]: Glaslyn at bottom, [[Llyn Llydaw]] above
| alt = A view down a mountainside of two lakes
| image_bathymetry =
|pushpin_map=UK Wales Snowdonia
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = [[Snowdon]], Wales
| coords = {{coord|53|4|14|N|4|3|58|W|type:waterbody_region:GB|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| inflow =
| outflow =
| catchment =
| basin_countries = United Kingdom
| length = {{convert|500|m|abbr=on}}
| width = {{convert|300|m|abbr=on}}
| area = {{convert|0.1|km2|abbr=on}}
| depth =
| max-depth = {{convert|39|m|abbr=on}}
| volume =
| residence_time =
| shore =
| elevation = {{convert|600|m|abbr=on}}
| islands =
| cities =
}}
{{langnf|cy|'''Glaslyn'''|Blue lake|italic=no}} is a [[lake]] in the [[Snowdonia National Park]] in [[Gwynedd]], north-west [[Wales]].

==Geography==
{{see also|Geology of Snowdonia National Park}}
It is found at approximately {{convert|600|m|ft}} [[Above mean sea level|above sea level]] in a [[cirque|cwm]] on the eastern flanks of [[Snowdon]]. It is a rough ellipse in shape, about {{convert|500|m|ft}} east–west and about {{convert|300|m|ft|sigfig=1}} north–south, and the Miners' Track runs along the northern shore.<ref>Ordnance Survey Explorer OL17: Snowdon/Yr Wyddfa.</ref>

It has a maximum depth of 39 m (127 feet), and contains about {{convert|59|e6cuft|e6m3|abbr=off}} of water.<ref>https://maps.nls.uk/dcn6/7443/74432492.6.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref>

Glaslyn is the source of the [[Afon Glaslyn]], the major river of Gwynedd, which runs east to the reservoir of [[Llyn Llydaw]] before turning south-west to reach the sea at [[Porthmadog]].

In 2020, small particles of microplastic pollution – deposited by rain – were found in the lake, triggering a further investigation of the extent of environmental damage in UK lakes and mountains.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Lloyd|first=Matt|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-51546978|title=Microplastics on Snowdon a 'scary wake-up call'|date=2020-03-01|work=BBC News|access-date=2020-03-01|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Folklore==
[[File:Bedivere.jpg|thumb|upright|In Arthurian legend, [[Bedivere]] threw ''[[Excalibur]]'' into a lake identified by some as Glaslyn on the slopes of Snowdon.]]
In [[Welsh folklore]], Arthur had [[Bedivere]] throw his sword ''[[Excalibur]]'' into Glaslyn, where Arthur's body was later placed in a boat to be carried away to [[Afallon]]. Arthur's men then retreated to a cave on the slopes of [[Y Lliwedd]], where they are said to sleep until such time as they are needed.<ref name="Roberts_Glaslyn">{{harvnb|Roberts|1995|pp=145–148}}</ref><ref name="Marsh_Horseshoe">{{harvnb|Marsh|2010|pp=25–28}}</ref> [[Merlin]] is supposed to have hidden the golden throne of Britain among the cliffs north of [[Garnedd Ugain|Crib y Ddysgl]] when the Saxons invaded.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1995|pp=143–145}}</ref>

Glaslyn was also the final resting place of a water monster, known as an ''{{lang|cy|[[afanc]]}}'' (also the Welsh word for [[beaver]]), which had plagued the people of the [[Conwy valley]]. They tempted the monster out of the water with a young girl, before securing it with chains and dragging it to Glaslyn.<ref name="Roberts_Glaslyn"/><ref name="Marsh">{{harvnb|Marsh|1984}}</ref> A large stone known as Maen Du'r Arddu, below [[Clogwyn Du'r Arddu]], is supposed to have [[magic (paranormal)|magical powers]]. Like several other sites in Wales, it is said that if two people spend the night there, one will become a great poet while the other will become insane.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1995|pp=100–101}}</ref> Llyn Coch in Cwm Clogwyn has been associated with the [[Tylwyth Teg]] (fairies), including a version of the [[fairy]] bride legend.<ref>{{harvnb|Roberts|1995|pp=38–39}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[RSPB Glaslyn Osprey Project]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

===Works cited===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |first=Terry |last=Marsh |title=The Summits of Snowdonia |publisher=[[Robert Hale Publishing]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-7090-1456-0 |chapter=Yr Wyddfa (Snowdon) |pages=178–183}}
* {{cite book |first=Terry |last=Marsh |year=2010 |title=Great Mountain Days in Snowdonia |publisher=[[Cicerone Press]] |isbn=978-1-85284-581-0}}
* {{cite book |first=Geraint |last=Roberts |year=1995 |title=The Lakes of Eryri |publisher=[[Gwasg Carreg Gwalch]] |isbn=978-0-86381-338-2}}
{{Refend}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Beddgelert]]
[[Category:Lakes of Gwynedd]]
[[Category:Tourism in Gwynedd]]
[[Category:Lakes of Snowdonia]]
[[Category:Tourism in Snowdonia]]
[[Category:Sites of Special Scientific Interest in West Gwynedd]]

The Lakes of Pontchartrain

2024-08-01T15:29:35Z

Squike: fix broken link

{{Short description|American ballad}}
"'''The Lakes of Pontchartrain'''" is a [[ballad]] from the [[United States]] about a man who is given shelter by a [[Louisiana Creole]] woman. He falls in love with her and asks her to marry him, but she is already promised to a sailor and declines. It is a tale of [[unrequited love]].<ref name="Rte-1">{{cite web |last1=Smith |first1=Ruth |title=By the Lakes of Ponchartrain |url=https://www.rte.ie/radio/radio1/clips/11267912/ |website=RTE Radio |date=29 December 2020 |access-date=25 August 2023 |language=en}}</ref>

==Setting==
The song is named for and set on the shores of the major estuarine waterbodies of the Pontchartrain Basin,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://lacoast.gov/new/About/Basin_data/po/Default.aspx|title=The Pontchartrain Basin|website=lacoast.gov}}</ref> including lakes [[Lake Maurepas|Maurepas]], [[Lake Pontchartrain|Pontchartrain]], and [[Lake Borgne|Borgne]]. Lake Pontchartrain forms the northern boundary of New Orleans, while Lake Maurepas is west of Lake Pontchartrain and connected to Lake Pontchartrain by Pass Manchac and North Pass. Lake Borgne is east of Lake Pontchartrain and connects to Lake Pontchartrain through the [[Industrial Canal|GIWW/IHNC]], [[Rigolets|Pass Rigolets]], and [[Chef Menteur Pass]]. Lake Borgne extends into [[Mississippi Sound]] and therefore is directly connected to the [[Gulf of Mexico]].

==Origins==
The exact origin of the song is unknown, though it is commonly held to have originated in the southern United States in the 19th century. Ruth Smith explored the journey of the song in an [[RTÉ]] radio documentary in 2020. <ref name="Rte-1"/> This documentary traces the modern Irish version back, using the [[Roud index]] to a [[songbook]] entitled ''Songs and ballads from Southern Michigan''<ref name="Michigan-1">{{cite book |last1=[[Emelyn Gardner]] & Geraldine Chickering |title=Ballads and Songs of Southern Michigan |url=https://press.umich.edu/Books/B/Ballads-and-Songs-of-Southern-Michigan |access-date=25 August 2023}}</ref> by Gardiner and Chickering. <ref name="Rte-1"/>

The liner notes accompanying [[Planxty|Planxty's]] version state that the tune was probably brought back by soldiers fighting for the British or French armies in Louisiana and Canada in the [[War of 1812]]. Although the tune might date to that period, the popular lyrics undoubtedly came much later, since they tell of taking a railway train from New Orleans to Jackson Town. This was most likely to be the railway junction town of Jackson, Mississippi (named in honor of General [[Andrew Jackson]]), the capital of Mississippi. The line would have been the [[New Orleans, Jackson and Great Northern]] Railway—whose line, opened before the Civil War, included a pre-existing local line running north from downtown New Orleans along the shores of Lake Pontchartrain. Most likely, the lyrics date to the Civil War, and the reference to "foreign money" being "no good" could refer to either U.S. or Confederate currency, depending upon who was in control of the area at the time. It should also be noted that thousands of banks, during the civil war, issued their own bank notes, which could be rejected in various towns, depending on how trusted were the issuing bank. Also, the Confederacy and Union issued their own bank notes—as did individual States—leading to a proliferation of currency (notes and coinage) that might not be acceptable in a particular region.

==Versions==

===Planxty and Paul Brady===
The best-known versions of the song use the tune for "[[Lily of the West]]", especially the recordings by the Irish traditional musical group [[Planxty]] on ''[[Cold Blow and the Rainy Night (album)|Cold Blow and the Rainy Night]]'' in [[1974 in music|1974]] where they give [[Mike Waterson]] as their source, and by the Irish musician and songwriter (and sometime member of Planxty) [[Paul Brady]] on ''[[Welcome Here Kind Stranger]]'' in [[1978 in music|1978]]. The [[2002 in music|2002]] release of a live recording of the songs from the aforementioned album, entitled ''The Missing Liberty Tapes'', preserves a solo rendition of "The Lakes of Pontchartrain" from Brady's 1978 concert at [[Liberty Hall]] in Dublin. A new recording of "The Lakes of Pontchartrain" appears on his [[1999 in music|1999]] album ''[[Nobody Knows: The Best of Paul Brady]]''. Brady has also recorded an [[Irish language|Irish-language]] version of the song, as "{{lang|ga|Bruach Loch Pontchartrain}}", translated by [[Francie Mooney]]. Planxty member [[Christy Moore]] later recorded the song for his 1983 solo album ''[[The Time Has Come (Christy Moore album)|The Time Has Come]]''.

===Other notable performers===
*[[Trapezoid (band)|Trapezoid]] recorded a southern, jazz and Irish version on the 1980 release, ''Now and Then''
*[[Harvey Reid]], on his 1988 album ''Of Wind and Water''
*[[Bob Dylan]] performed the song frequently in [[1988 in music|1988]]–[[1989 in music|1989]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.expectingrain.com/dok/atlas/pontchartrain.html|title=EDLIS Dylan Atlas|website=www.expectingrain.com}}</ref>
*[[The Hothouse Flowers]], in 1990, featured on the ''Bringing it all Back Home'' Irish/American music compilation
*[[Peter Case]], on his 1993 album ''[[Sings Like Hell]]''
*[[Andy M. Stewart]], former lead singer for [[Silly Wizard]], covered this version on his 1994 album ''Man In The Moon''
*The song was included on Swedish rock artist {{ill|Svante Karlsson|sv}}'s debut album ''American Songs'' in 1999
*[[Jane Siberry]]'s 2000 album, [[Hush (Jane Siberry album)|''Hush'']]
*[[The Be Good Tanyas]], on their debut album, ''[[Blue Horse (album)|Blue Horse]]'' (2001)
*[[Merrie Amsterburg]], on her ''Clementine and Other Stories'' album in 2006
*[[Mark Knopfler]] performing "Lily of the West" with [[The Chieftains]]
*[[Tangerine Dream]], for the 2007 album ''[[Madcap's Flaming Duty]]''
*The song has also been recorded in 2010 by Irish band [[The Coronas]]
*It was sung by Irish [[Taoiseach]] (prime minister) [[Brian Cowen]] in the Ardilaun Hotel, [[Galway]] during an infamous late-night drinking session in September 2010<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/news/singing-taoiseach-hits-bum-note-as-critics-lap-up-gargle-gate-in-galway-1.650843|title=Singing Taoiseach hits bum note as critics lap up 'Gargle-gate' in Galway|newspaper=The Irish Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/arid-20130833.html|title=Cowen: I was not drunk|date=September 15, 2010|website=Irish Examiner}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/banjo-plucking-cowen-is-a-real-oil-painting-26685228.html|title=Banjo-plucking Cowen is a real oil painting|website=independent|date=30 September 2010 }}</ref>
*[[Aoife O'Donovan]] performed a version for a live audience during the November 16, 2013, broadcast of ''[[A Prairie Home Companion]]'' from the Music Hall at Fair Park in Dallas, Texas. O'Donovan recorded the song again in March 2020 for ''[[Live from Here]]'' during its "Live from Home" series during the COVID-19 pandemic
*[[Warren Zevon]] performed the song live at the Neil Young Bridge Benefit in Mountain View, CA on 11/06/1993
*[[Celtic Woman]] recorded the song in 2021 on their album Postcards from Ireland
*[https://fathersonandfriends.com/album/17777/rebels-rogues-rascals Father, Son, and Friends] recorded the song on their album Rebels, Rogues, and Rascals in the early 1990s.

==Alternative lyrics and tunes==
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2020}}
An alternative verse can be found in the Digital Tradition Folk Song Search.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}
The tune, or a slight variation of it, is to be found in the Scots tradition accompanying the [[Border ballad]] ''[[Jock O'Hazeldean]]''.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

When this song made its way west, cowboys changed the title to "On the Lake of the Poncho Plains." The Creole girl became a Cree Indian and the Pontchartrain was changed to the Poncho Plains. The cowboy version is recorded in ''Singing Cowboy; A Book of Western Songs'' collected and edited by Margaret Larkin, c1931.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[https://songsinirish.com/?song=lakes-of-pontchartrain-lyrics-in-irish The Lakes of Pontchartrain in Irish Gaelic]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lakes of Pontchartrain}}
[[Category:Songs of the American Civil War]]
[[Category:Irish folk songs]]
[[Category:Paul Brady songs]]
[[Category:Year of song unknown]]

Common frog

2024-05-05T07:27:32Z

Squike: /* top */earlier spawning date, from personal observation in Ireland

{{Short description|Species of amphibian}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = European Common Frog Rana temporaria.jpg
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name="Kuzmin 2008">Kuzmin, S., Ishchenko, V., Tuniyev, B., Beebee, T., Andreone, F., Nyström, P., Anthony, B.P., Schmidt, B., Ogrodowczyk, A., Ogielska, M., Bosch, J., Miaud, C., Loman, J., Cogalniceanu, D., Kovács, T. & Kiss, I. (2009). ''Rana temporaria'' (errata version published in 2016). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2009: {{doi|10.2305/IUCN.UK.2009.RLTS.T58734A11834246.en}}</ref>
| taxon = Rana temporaria
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]
| subdivision_ranks = Subspecies
| subdivision = *''R. t. temporaria''
*''R. t. honnorati''
*''R. t. parvipalmata''
| range_map = Mapa Rana temporaria.png
| range_map_caption = Distribution of ''Rana temporaria'' in Europe
}}
[[File:Rana temporaria 120329-015849.ogg|thumb|Male ''Rana temporaria'' calling in a garden pond in [[Jambes]], Belgium]]
The '''common frog''' or '''grass frog''' ('''''Rana temporaria'''''), also known as the '''European common frog''', '''European common brown frog''', '''European grass frog''', '''European Holarctic true frog''', '''European pond frog''' or '''European brown frog''', is a [[Semiaquatic|semi-aquatic]] [[amphibian]] of the family [[Ranidae]], found throughout much of Europe as far north as Scandinavia and as far east as the [[Urals]], except for most of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], southern Italy, and the southern [[Balkans]]. The farthest west it can be found is Ireland. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan. The nominative, and most common, subspecies '''''Rana temporaria temporaria''''' is a largely terrestrial frog native to Europe. It is distributed throughout northern Europe and can be found in Ireland, the [[Isle of Lewis]] and as far east as Japan.<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |publisher=[[BBC]] |work=Nature Wildfacts |title=Common frog, grass frog |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/483.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021028090843/http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/wildfacts/factfiles/483.shtml |archive-date=2002-10-28 |access-date=2007-08-09}}</ref>

Common frogs [[Metamorphosis|metamorphose]] through three distinct developmental life stages — aquatic [[larva]], terrestrial juvenile, and adult. They have corpulent bodies with a rounded snout, webbed feet and long hind legs adapted for swimming in water and hopping on land. Common frogs are often confused with the common toad (''[[Bufo bufo]]''), but frogs can easily be distinguished as they have longer legs, hop, and have a moist skin, whereas toads crawl and have a dry 'warty' skin. The spawn of the two species also differs, in that frog spawn is laid in clumps and toad spawn is laid in long strings.

There are 3 subspecies of the common frog, ''R. t. temporaria'', ''R. t. honnorati'' and ''R. t. palvipalmata''. ''R. t. temporaria'' is the most common subspecies of this frog.

==Description==
The adult common frog has a body length of {{convert|6|to|9|cm|in|1}}.<ref name="Complete">{{Cite book|last= Sterry|first= Paul|title= Complete British Wildlife Photoguide|year= 1997|publisher= [[HarperCollins]]|location= London|isbn= 0-583-33638-8 }}</ref> In addition, its back and flanks vary in colour from olive green<ref name="BBC"/> to grey-brown, brown, olive brown, grey, yellowish and [[rufous]].<ref name="Amphibia"/> However, it can lighten and darken its skin to match its surroundings.<ref name="BBC"/> Some individuals have more unusual colouration—both black and red individuals have been found in Scotland, and [[albino]] frogs have been found with yellow skin and red eyes. During the mating season the male common frog tends to turn greyish-blue (see video below). The average mass is {{convert|22.7|g|oz|abbr=on}}; the female is usually slightly larger than the male.<ref name="BBC"/>
[[File:Rana temporaria tadpoles eating 8.jpg|thumb|Captive common frog tadpoles eating a crushed garden snail]]
[[File:RanaTemporariaMaleThumb.JPG|thumb|Male during breeding season showing the nuptial pad, white throat and a blue grey hue over the normal black and brown skin]]
[[File:Rana_Temporaria_After_Egg_Laying_Mid-Norway_May_2013.jpg|thumb|Common frog mass spawning event in the wild]]

The flanks, limbs and backs are covered with irregular dark blotches<ref name="BBC"/> and they usually sport a [[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]]-shaped spot on the back of their neck and a dark spot behind the eye.<ref name="Amphibia"/> Unlike other amphibians, common frogs generally lack a mid-dorsal band but, when they have one, it is comparatively faint.<ref name="Amphibia"/> In many countries [[moor frog]]s have a light dorsal band which easily distinguishes them from common frogs. The underbelly is white or yellow (occasionally more orange in females) and can be speckled with brown or orange.<ref name="BBC"/> The eyes are brown with transparent horizontal pupils, and they have transparent inner eyelids to protect the eyes while underwater, as well as a 'mask' which covers the eyes and eardrums.<ref name="BBC"/> Although the common frog has long hind legs compared to the [[common toad]], they are shorter than those of the [[agile frog]] with which it shares some of its range. The longer hind legs and fainter colouration of the agile frog are the main features that distinguish the two species.

Males are distinguishable from females as they are smaller and have hard swellings, known as [[nuptial pad]]s, on the first digits of the forelegs, used for gripping females during mating.<ref name="Complete"/><ref name="BBC"/> During the mating season males' throats often turn white, and their overall colour is generally light and greyish, whereas the female is browner, or even red.<ref name="Amphibia"/>

These smooth-skinned frogs can grow to an average weight of 22.7 grams and length of seven to ten centimeters (2.8-3.9 in) with colors varying from gray to green, brown, yellow, or red and may be covered in blotches.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/128297/common-frog|title=Common frog | amphibian | Britannica}}</ref> The underbelly is white or yellow often with speckles.<ref name="BBC"/>

==Habitat and distribution==
Outside the breeding season, common frogs live a solitary life in damp [[wetland]] [[ecological niche|niche]]s near ponds or marshes or among long [[riparian]] grass.<ref name="Roots">{{cite book |author=Roots, Clive |title=Hibernation |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn |year=2006 |pages=510, 511 |isbn=0-313-33544-3}}</ref> They are normally active for much of the year, only [[hibernating]] in the coldest months.<ref name="Amphibia"/> In the most northern extremities of their range they may be trapped under ice for up to nine months of the year, but recent studies have shown that in these conditions they may be relatively active at temperatures close to freezing.<ref name="Roots"/> In the [[British Isles]], common frogs typically hibernate from late October to January. They will re-emerge as early as February if conditions are favorable, and migrate to bodies of water such as garden ponds to spawn.<ref name="enfo">{{cite web |title=The Common Frog – (''Rana temporaria'') |work=enfo.ie |publisher=ENFO |url=http://www.enfo.ie/leaflets/bs33.htm |access-date=2007-08-09 |url-status=dead |archive-date=28 September 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928111934/http://www.enfo.ie/leaflets/bs33.htm}}</ref> Where conditions are harsher, such as in the [[Alps]], they emerge as late as early June. Common frogs hibernate in running waters, muddy burrows, or in layers of decaying leaves and mud at the bottom of ponds or lakes primarily with a current. The oxygen uptake through the skin suffices to sustain the needs of the cold and motionless frogs during hibernation.<ref name="BBC"/><ref name="Amphibia">{{cite web|url=https://amphibiaweb.org/cgi-bin/amphib_query?where-genus=Rana&where-species=temporaria |access-date=2007-08-09|last=Kuzmin|first=Sergius L.|date=10 November 1999|title=''Rana temporia'' |publisher=AmphibiaWeb}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Common Frog final|last=Dunlop|first=David|date=26 February 2004|publisher=Lancashire BAP|url=http://www.lbap.org.uk/bap/urban/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Common%20Frog%20final.pdf|access-date=2007-08-09|archive-date=27 September 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927161321/http://www.lbap.org.uk/bap/urban/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Common%20Frog%20final.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Common frogs are found throughout much of Europe as far north as northern Scandinavia inside the [[Arctic Circle]] and as far east as the [[Urals]], except for most of [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]], southern Italy, and the southern [[Balkans]]. Other areas where the common frog has been introduced include the [[Isle of Lewis]], Shetland, [[Orkney]] and the [[Faroe Islands]]. It is also found in Asia, and eastward to Japan.<ref name="BBC"/><ref>[http://jenskjeld.info/UK_side/indexuk.htm ''Rana temporaria'' have established themselves as a wild population in Nólsoy]. jenskjeld.info</ref>

The common frog has long been thought to be an entirely introduced species in Ireland,<ref name="enfo"/> however, genetic analyses suggest that particular populations in the south west of Ireland are indeed indigenous to the country.<ref name=IrlFrog1/> The authors propose that the Irish frog population is a mixed group that includes native frogs that survived the [[last glacial period]] in ice free [[refugium (population biology)|refugia]], natural post-glacial colonizers and recent artificial introductions from Western Europe.<ref name=IrlFrog1>{{cite journal|issn=0018-067X|volume=102|issue=5|pages=490–496|last=Teacher|first=A. G. F.|author2=T. W. J. Garner |author3=R. A. Nichols |title=European phylogeography of the common frog (''Rana temporaria''): routes of postglacial colonization into the British Isles, and evidence for an Irish glacial refugium|journal=[[Heredity (journal)|Heredity]] |date=21 January 2009|doi=10.1038/hdy.2008.133|pmid=19156165|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zsl.org/science/news/irish-frogs-may-have-survived-ice-age,568,NS.html|title=Irish frogs may have survived Ice Age|publisher=[[Zoological Society of London]]|date=17 March 2009|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090618224252/http://www.zsl.org/science/news/irish-frogs-may-have-survived-ice-age,568,NS.html|archive-date=18 June 2009}}</ref>

=== Genetic population structure ===
The common frog is a very widely distributed species, being common all throughout Europe and northwest Asia. The more peripheral subpopulations of common frogs are significantly less in number, as well as less genetically variable. There is a steep genetic decline when approaching the periphery of the common frog's distribution range.<ref name=Johansson>{{cite journal |last1=Johansson |first1=Markus |last2=Primmer |first2=Craig R. |last3=Merilä |first3=Juha |date=14 March 2006 |title=History vs. current demography: explaining the genetic population structure of the common frog (''Rana temporaria'') |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02866.x |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=975–983 |pmid=16599961 |bibcode=2006MolEc..15..975J |s2cid=30974911 |ref=Demography}}</ref> Additionally, genetic differentiation of common frog subpopulations tends to decrease in relation to increasing latitude.<ref name=Johansson/> The colder climates create a strong selective pressure favoring common frog populations able to behaviorally [[Thermoregulation|thermoregulate]] at a high degree.<ref name="Ludwig-2015" />

==Conservation ==

=== Long-term impact of diseases ===
Of the many diseases affecting common frogs, one of the most deadly has been the [[Ranavirus]], which has been responsible for causing declines in amphibian populations worldwide. Two of the main, and most deadly, symptoms caused by Ranavirus towards common frogs are skin ulcerations and [[Bleeding|hemorrhaging]].<ref name="Teacher-2010">{{cite journal |last1=Teacher |first1=A. G. F. |last2=Cunningham |first2=A. A. |last3=Garner |first3=T. W. J. |date=10 June 2010 |title=Assessing the long-term impact of Ranavirus infection in wild common frog populations: Impact of Ranavirus on wild frog populations |journal=Animal Conservation |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=514–522 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-1795.2010.00373.x|s2cid=85889833 }}</ref> Mortality rates associated with the disease are very high, in some events it is observed to be over 90%.<ref name="Teacher-2010" /> Deaths caused by Ranavirus occur in all stages of common frog development and are concentrated mostly during the summer months. Overall, common frog populations affected by ranavirus experience consistent and substantial declines in population size. Recent metagenomics studies on common frogs from the United Kingdom have revealed widespread viral infections of Rana tamanavirus, a positive-sense RNA virus that is closely related to Tamana bat virus, as of yet no pathology or effect on life history traits have been observed.<ref name="pmid38059479">{{cite journal| author=Parry RH, Slonchak A, Campbell LJ, Newton ND, Debat HJ, Gifford RJ | display-authors=etal| title=A novel tamanavirus (Flaviviridae) of the European common frog (Rana temporaria) from the UK. | journal=J Gen Virol | year= 2023 | volume= 104 | issue= 12 | pages= | pmid=38059479 | doi=10.1099/jgv.0.001927 | pmc=10770923 }} </ref>

=== Impact of urbanization ===
Due to the widespread nature of ''Rana temporaria'', common frogs can make their homes in both urban and rural environments. However, many of the populations living in urban environments are subject to the detrimental effects of urbanization. The construction of roads and buildings – absolute barriers to migration – has stymied [[gene flow]] and [[Genetic drift|drift]] between urban populations of common frogs, leading to lower levels of genetic diversity in urban common frog populations compared to their rural counterparts.<ref name="Hitchings-1997">{{cite journal |last1=Hitchings |first1=Susan P. |last2=Beebee |first2=Trevor J. C. |date=August 1997 |title=Genetic substructuring as a result of barriers to gene flow in urban Rana temporaria (common frog) populations: implications for biodiversity conservation |journal=Heredity |volume=79 |issue=2 |pages=117–127 |doi=10.1038/hdy.1997.134|pmid=9279008 |s2cid=6284299 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Urban common frog populations also experience higher levels of mortality and developmental abnormality, indicative of forced [[inbreeding]].<ref name="Hitchings-1997" />

However, the common frog is listed as a species of [[least concern]] on the [[IUCN Red List|IUCN Red List of Threatened Species]].<ref name="Kuzmin 2008" />

== Diet ==

=== Juvenile ===
At metamorphosis, once the tadpole's fore legs have developed, the frog does not feed for a short time. Recently metamorphosed juvenile frog mostly feed on small insects like [[Springtail|Collembola]] (hexapods), [[Mite|Acarina]] (mites and ticks), and small fly larvae. ''Rana temporaria'' tadpoles, however, mostly feed on algae and decomposed plants,<ref name="Stojanova-2008">{{cite journal |last1=Stojanova |first1=A. |last2=Mollov |first2=I. |date=2008 |title=DIET AND TROPHIC NICHE OVERLAP OF THE MOOR FROG (Rana arvalis Nilsson, 1842) AND THE COMMON FROG (Rana temporaria L., 1758) FROM POLAND |s2cid=83200707 |language=en |ref=food3}}</ref> but once their hind legs develop, they become carnivorous.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tadpole to frog: development stages & metamorphosis – Saga |url=https://www.saga.co.uk/magazine/home-garden/gardening/wildlife/amphibians/the-tadpole |access-date=2023-03-17 |website=saga.co.uk}}</ref>

=== Adults ===
The common frog takes its place as an unspecialized and opportunistic feeder wherever it is located. In other words, common frogs will consume whatever prey that is most available and easy to capture.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Houston |first1=W. W. K. |date=October 1973 |title=The food of the Common frog, Rana temporaria, on high moorland in northern England |journal=Journal of Zoology |language=en |volume=171 |issue=2 |pages=153–165 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.1973.tb02212.x |issn=0952-8369 |ref=Food1}}</ref> This usually means that the common frog feeds by remaining idle and waiting until a suitable prey enters the frog's domain of capture. As a corollary, this also means that the common frog's diet changes depending on the season where the associated prey become the most abundant. In the summer, the common frog's diet mostly consists of adult [[Crane fly|crane flies]] and the larvae of butterflies and moths. To a slightly lesser extent, common frogs will feed on [[Woodlouse|woodlice]], arachnids, beetles, slugs, snails, and earthworms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Trakimas |first1=Giedrius |last2=Jardine |first2=Timothy D. |last3=Barisevičiūtė |first3=Rūta |last4=Garbaras |first4=Andrius |last5=Skipitytė |first5=Raminta |last6=Remeikis |first6=Vidmantas |date=6 July 2011 |title=Ontogenetic dietary shifts in European common frog (Rana temporaria) revealed by stable isotopes |journal=Hydrobiologia |volume=675 |issue=1 |pages=87 |doi=10.1007/s10750-011-0804-3 |s2cid=39126267 |ref=Food2}}</ref><ref name="Stojanova-2008" /><ref>{{cite web | url=https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Rana_temporaria/ | title=Rana temporaria | website=[[Animal Diversity Web]] }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://amphibiaweb.org/species/5168 | title=AmphibiaWeb – Rana temporaria }}</ref> In addition, common frogs will typically feed on bigger prey as they become larger. Therefore, newly developed common frogs are limited to smaller insect prey, whereas larger frogs are able to consume a wide range of insects. Common frogs will hide in damp places, such as in the water, during the day, and at night, they will begin searching for food.

== Reproduction and mating patterns==
[[File:DutchCommonFrogsCroackingRanaTemporaria.ogv|thumb|right|Choir of greyish males and a few brownish females still present in a small pond]]
During the spring the frog's [[pituitary gland]] is stimulated by changes in external factors, such as rainfall, day length and temperature, to produce hormones which, in turn, stimulate the production of sex cells – [[egg]]s in the females and [[sperm]] in the male. The male's nuptial pad also swells and becomes more heavily pigmented.<ref name="frog reproduction">{{cite web|url=http://www.frog-garden.com/frog-reproduction.html|title=Frog Reproduction|last=Anon|work=Frog-garden.com|access-date=23 March 2014|archive-date=21 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190121083313/https://www.frog-garden.com/frog-reproduction.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Common frogs breed in shallow, still, fresh water such as ponds, with spawning commencing sometime between late February and late June, but generally in April over the main part of their range.<ref name="Amphibia"/>

=== Competition among males ===
Like its close cousin, the moor frog (''R. arvalis''), ''R. Temporaria'' does not exhibit [[Territory (animal)|territoriality]] which leads to lack of physical fighting among males. During breeding season, male common frogs undergo a period of a few days (less than 10 days) where they display rapid and frenzied breeding behavior,<ref name="Elmberg-1986">{{cite journal |last1=Elmberg |first1=Johan |date=1986 |title=Apparent lack of territoriality during the breeding season in a boreal population of common frogs Rana temporaria L |url=https://www.thebhs.org/publications/the-herpetological-journal/volume-1-number-2-june-1986/1129-09-apparent-lack-of-territoriality-during-the-breeding-season-in-a-boreal-population-of-common-frogs-rana-temporaria-l |journal=Herpetological Journal |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=81–83 |language=en-gb |ref=breeding1}}</ref> during which the purpose of the male is to quickly find and mate with as many female frogs as possible. Higher rates of mating success in males typically have longer thumbs than single males,<ref name="Ryser-1989">{{cite journal |last1=Ryser |first1=Jan |date=1 January 1989 |title=The breeding migration and mating system of a Swiss population of the common frog Rana temporaria |journal=Amphibia-Reptilia |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=13–21 |doi=10.1163/156853889X00269 |ref=breeding2|doi-access=free }}</ref> which allows them to have a better grip on females.

=== Mating interactions ===
Around three years after being born, the common frog will return to its original site of birth and release a [[mating call]]. Males will be the first to arrive at the pond and await females as they enter. During this period of pre-female competition, the pond is significantly male dominant, and there is a large amount of [[Male intrasexual competition|intrasexual competition]] taking place.<ref name="Ryser-1989" /> The shallow portion of the pond, which is more suitable for egg laying, is more predominantly occupied by the larger males. However, once the females arrive, this territoriality quickly dissipates and male-female [[Amplexus|amplexed]] pairs are free to migrate wherever in the pond. Additionally, once engaged in an amplexus, it is rare for single males to attempt to displace or "take over" the paired male.<ref name="Ryser-1989" />

It is also important to note the effect of size on a male common frog's mating strategies. Smaller frogs, during the pre-spawning period get displaced from the shallow areas of the pond. Therefore, they circumvent this issue by searching for females on the land or in areas of the pond where they first arrive.<ref name="Elmberg-1986" /> Meanwhile, the larger frogs occupy the spawning site, where they encounter more amplexed pairs and therefore rely on their ability to displace amplexed males to secure a mate.<ref name="Elmberg-1986" /> However, the frequency of these takeovers is not consistent.

==Life cycle==
Female common frog clutch sizes range from a few hundred up to 5,000 eggs. Many of these eggs form large aggregates that serve to thermoregulate as well as protect the developing embryo from potential predators. By bunching the eggs together, it raises the temperature of the embryo compared to the surrounding water, which is important because the rate of tadpole development is faster in higher temperatures.<ref name="Laugen-2003">{{cite journal |last1=Laugen |first1=A. T. |last2=Laurila |first2=A. |last3=Rasanen |first3=K. |last4=Merila |first4=J. |date=September 2003 |title=Latitudinal countergradient variation in the common frog (Rana temporaria) development rates – evidence for local adaptation |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=996–1005 |doi=10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00560.x |pmid=14635915 |s2cid=22444241 |ref=dev1|doi-access=free }}</ref> Additionally, the eggs are typically laid in the shallower regions of the pond to prevent hypoxia-induced fatality of the embryos.<ref name="Laugen-2003" />

It normally takes 2–3 weeks for the eggs to hatch. Afterwards, common frog larvae group up into schools where they help each other feed off of algae and larger plants, as well as avoid predators.<ref name="Terhivuo-1988" /> By June and July, most tadpoles will have [[Metamorphosis|metamorphosized]], and the remaining time until winter is used to feed and grow larger.<ref name="Terhivuo-1988">{{cite journal |last1=Terhivuo |first1=Juhani |date=1988 |title=Phenology of spawning for the Common Frog (Rana temporaria L.) in Finland from 1846 to 1986 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23734521 |journal=Annales Zoologici Fennici |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=165–175 |jstor=23734521 |issn=0003-455X |ref=dev2}}</ref> Only the largest frogs will survive the winter, which places a large emphasis on rapid development until then. In fact, a common frog's rate of development correlates with temperature. In lower temperature regions, common frogs will hatch earlier and metamorphosize sooner than common frogs living in warmer climate regions.<ref name="Terhivuo-1988" /> Sexual maturity occurs only after three years, and common frogs will typically live between six and eight years.<ref name="Laugen-2003" />[[File:Junger Grasfrosch (Rana temporaria) in Buchenlaub im Naturpark Pfälzerwald.jpg|thumb|Common frog camouflaged in autumn leaves.]]

===Development in the presence of predators===
The presence of a predator in the early development of the tadpole has an effect on its metamorphosis traits. For instance, it can lead to a longer larval period and a smaller size and mass at metamorphosis.<ref name="Vodrážková-2022" /> Once the predator is removed, the growth rate of the tadpole returns to, or even exceeds, baseline. This influence of predator threat is only significant during early tadpole development.<ref name="Vodrážková-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Vodrážková |first1=M. |last2=Šetlíková |first2=I. |last3=Navrátil |first3=J. |last4=Berec |first4=M. |date=12 May 2022 |title=Different time patterns of the presence of red-eared slider influence the ontogeny dynamics of common frog tadpoles |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=7876 |doi=10.1038/s41598-022-11561-6 |pmid=35552438 |pmc=9098440 |bibcode=2022NatSR..12.7876V |s2cid=248759763 |ref=devpred}}</ref>

One of the common frog's most pervasive predators is the red-eared slider (''[[Red-eared slider|''Trachemys scripta elegans'']]''), which is a very invasive species of turtle.

== Thermoregulation ==
As an [[ectotherm]], the common frog is very reliant on temperature as it directly influences their [[metabolism]], development, reproduction, muscle ability, and respiration. As such, common frogs at mid and high elevations have developed a unique set of strategies to survive in cold climates. In fact, it is due to the common frog's ability to thermoregulate so effectively that the species has been able to become so pervasive across a multitude of environments and climates, living as far north as the [[Arctic Circle]] in [[Scandinavia]], which is further north than any other amphibian in the region.<ref name="Ludwig-2015" /> Contrary to ''[[Wood frog|''Lithobates sylvaticus'']]'' (wood frogs), common frogs do not have the ability to freeze protect themselves by increasing their levels of blood glucose to serve as a [[cryoprotectant]].<ref name="Ludwig-2015">{{cite journal |last1=Ludwig |first1=Gerda |last2=Sinsch |first2=Ulrich |last3=Pelster |first3=Bernd |date=1 April 2015 |title=Behavioural adaptations of Rana temporaria to cold climates |journal=Journal of Thermal Biology |volume=49-50 |pages=82–90 |doi=10.1016/j.jtherbio.2015.02.006 |pmid=25774030 |ref=thermoreg}}</ref> As a result, common frogs must rely on behavioral thermoregulation by seeking out warm microhabitats (such as in the soil or between rocks) during wintertime. Additionally, common frogs will commonly hibernate throughout the winter season in groups to provide bodily heating.<ref name="Ludwig-2015" />

== Social behavior ==
Similar to other [[Frog|anuran]] species (''[[American toad|Bufo americanus]]'' and ''[[Wood frog|Rana sylvatica]]''), ''Rana temporaria'' are able to naturally discriminate others of its kind. Post-embryonic interaction with conspecifics is not necessary to induce associative behavior for common frogs as an adult. Rather, once common frog tadpoles have reached a certain age, they gain a strong innate associative tendency.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Griffiths |first1=R. A. |last2=Foster |first2=J. P. |date=August 1998 |title=The effect of social interactions on tadpole activity and growth in the British anuran amphibians ( Bufo bufo , B. calamita , and Rana temporaria ) |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=245 |issue=4 |pages=431–437 |doi=10.1017/S0952836998008061}}</ref> ''Rana temporaria'' tend to aggregate as the result of environmental pressures, such as temperature or predators.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nicieza |first1=A. G. |date=December 1999 |title=Context-dependent aggregation in Common Frog Rana temporaria tadpoles: influence of developmental stage, predation risk and social environment: Context-dependent aggregation in frog tadpoles |journal=Functional Ecology |language=en |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=852–858 |doi=10.1046/j.1365-2435.1999.00375.x|doi-access=free }}</ref>
[[File:Graureiher mit Grasfrosch Federsee Bad-Wuertt Guntram Deichsel 2013.jpg|thumb|[[Grey heron]] feeding on a common frog]]

==Predators==
Tadpoles are eaten by fish, [[Dytiscidae|diving beetles]], dragonfly larvae and birds. Adult frogs have many predators including [[storks]], [[birds of prey]], [[crow]]s, [[gull]]s, ducks, [[tern]]s, [[heron]]s, [[pine marten]]s, [[stoat]]s, [[weasel]]s, [[European polecat|polecats]], [[badger]]s, [[otter]]s and snakes.<ref name="Anon">{{cite web |last=Anon |title=Common frog: rana temporaria |url=http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/education/commonfrog.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100215055419/http://www.snh.org.uk/pdfs/education/commonfrog.pdf |archive-date=15 February 2010 |access-date=10 November 2010 |work=All about... |publisher=Scottish National Heritage}}</ref> Some frogs are killed, but rarely eaten, by [[domestic cat]]s, and large numbers are killed on the roads by motor vehicles.<ref>[[RSPB]] '''Birds''' magazine Summer 2004, page 66</ref>

==Interactions with humans and livestock==
Common frogs have an important place in human ecology by controlling the insect populations. In particular, their consumption of [[mosquito]]s and other crop-damaging insects has been especially valuable. In addition, ''Rana temporaria'', due to their ecological pervasiveness and relative abundance, have become a common laboratory specimen.<ref name="Anon" />

==Farming==
''R. temporaria'' are [[frog raising|farmed]].<ref name="Ferrie-et-al-2014">{{cite conference |last1=Ferrie |first1=Gina M. |last2=Alford |first2=Vance C. |last3=Atkinson |first3=Jim |last4=Baitchman |first4=Eric |last5=Barber |first5=Diane |last6=Blaner |first6=William S. |last7=Crawshaw |first7=Graham |last8=Daneault |first8=Andy |last9=Dierenfeld |first9=Ellen |last10=Finke |first10=Mark |last11=Fleming |first11=Greg |last12=Gagliardo |first12=Ron |last13=Hoffman |first13=Eric A. |last14=Karasov |first14=William |last15=Klasing |first15=Kirk |last16=Koutsos |first16=Elizabeth |last17=Lankton |first17=Julia |last18=Lavin |first18=Shana R. |last19=Lentini |first19=Andrew |last20=Livingston |first20=Shannon |last21=Lock |first21=Brad |last22=Mason |first22=Tom |last23=McComb |first23=Alejandra |last24=Morris |first24=Cheryl |last25=Pessier |first25=Allan P. |last26=Olea-Popelka |first26=Francisco |last27=Probst |first27=Tom |last28=Rodriguez |first28=Carlos |last29=Schad |first29=Kristine |last30=Semmen |first30=Kent |last31=Sincage |first31=Jamie |last32=Stamper |first32=M. Andrew |last33=Steinmetz |first33=Jason |last34=Sullivan |first34=Kathleen |last35=Terrell |first35=Scott |last36=Wertan |first36=Nina |last37=Wheaton |first37=Catharine J. |last38=Wilson |first38=Brad |last39=Valdes |first39=Eduardo V. |title=Nutrition and health in amphibian husbandry |journal=[[Zoo Biology]] |publisher=[[Wiley Periodicals]] |volume=33 |issue=6 |date=2014-10-08 |issn=0733-3188 |doi=10.1002/zoo.21180 |pages=485–501 |conference=Veterinary Medicine, Husbandry, Nutrition, Science, and Research Working Groups of the Ex Situ Amphibian Medicine and Nutrition Workshop (February 2013) |s2cid=17636001 |pmid=25296396 |pmc=4685711}} [[NIH Manuscript Submission|NIHMSID]] 743535.</ref> Miles ''et al.'' 2004 provide improved ingredients for manufacturers of [[food pellet|pellet food]] for farmed common frogs.<ref name="Ferrie-et-al-2014" />

Due to the spread of diseases such as ranavirus, the UK based amphibian charity [[Froglife]] advised the public to avoid transporting frogspawn, tadpoles or frogs from one pond to another, even if these are close by.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Spawn & tadpoles: in my garden |url=https://www.froglife.org/info-advice/frequently-asked-questions/spawn-tadpoles-larvae/ |access-date=2022-05-18 |website=froglife.org}}</ref> It has also been recommended not to place goldfish or exotic frog species in outdoor ponds as this could have a negative effect on the frog population.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Rana temporaria}}
{{Wikispecies|Rana temporaria}}
*[http://www.herp.it/ Amphibians of Europe]
*[http://www.frogswatch.com/ FrogsWatch.com Web page developed around photographs of the common frog taken in the same suburban garden over a period of 10 years. ]

{{portalbar|Frogs}}
{{Rana (genus)}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q27465}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Rana (genus)]]
[[Category:Amphibians of Europe]]
[[Category:Arctic land animals|Frog, Common]]
[[Category:Animal models]]
[[Category:Fauna of Finland]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Amphibians described in 1758]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]
[[Category:Habitats Directive Species]]

Byaruhanga

2024-02-24T20:34:55Z

Squike: /* top */added a name to the list

'''Byaruhanga''' is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:

*[[Beatrice Ayuru Byaruhanga]] (born 1970s), Ugandan entrepreneur and school founder
*[[Peter Byaruhanga]] (born 1979), Ugandan footballer
*[[William Byaruhanga]], Ugandan lawyer and businessman
*[[Catherine Byaruhanga]], BBC journalist and presenter

==See also==
*[[Kasirye Byaruhanga]], Ugandan law firm

{{surname}}

Manchester Trades Union Council

2024-01-04T22:48:19Z

Squike:

{{Short description|History of the Trades Union Council}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
{{Infobox union
|name = Manchester TUC
|image = File:Manchester_Trades_Union_Council_logo.jpg
|location_country= England
|affiliation = Greater Manchester County Association of Trades Councils
|members = 18,000 (2016)
|full_name = Manchester Trades Union Council
|founded = 1868 at [[Mechanics' Institute, Manchester|Mechanics' Institute]], [[Manchester]]
|headquarters = [[Mechanics' Institute, Manchester|Mechanics' Institute]], [[Manchester]]
|key_people = President - Alexander Davidson (PCS) Secretary - Chris Marks (PCS) Vice President - John Clegg (Unite)
}}

The '''Manchester Trades Union Council''' brings together [[trade union]] branches in [[Manchester]] in England.

==History==
Efforts to bring trade unionists together across Manchester go back to the eighteenth century. In 1818 the cotton spinners persuaded other trades to join them in a successful but short lived Philanthropic Society. The first use of the name Trades Council was a meeting in 1837 of the United Trades Council of Manchester and Salford organising support for the Glasgow Cotton Spinners. A thousand people in the Corn Exchange listened to speakers including J.R. Richardson, author of ‘The Rights of Women’ and [[Joseph Rayner Stephens]], both of whom went on to be active [[Chartism|Chartists]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edmund|last2=Frow|first2=Ruth|title=To make that future-- now! : a history of The Manchester and Salford Trades Council|date=1976|publisher=E.J. Morten|location=Manchester|isbn=0-85972-026-8|page=7|edition=Subscription}}</ref>

Following a trade union conference in Sheffield in July 1866 called to discuss the use of the lockout weapon by employers, two delegates from the Manchester Typographical Association, William Henry Wood and Samuel Caldwell Nicholson, convened the inaugural meeting of the Manchester and Salford Trades Union Council in October 1866. A month later Wood was elected secretary and Nicholson president.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edmund|last2=Frow|first2=Ruth|title=To make that future-- now! : a history of The Manchester and Salford Trades Council|date=1976|publisher=E.J. Morten|location=Manchester|isbn=0-85972-026-8|page=13|edition=Subscription}}</ref> Wood and Nicholson were Conservative working men. Other members of the council included the radicals Peter Shorrocks of the Tailors, William MacDonald of the Operative Housepainters and Malcolm MacLeod, an engineer. When the Council decided to avoid identifying with any political movement, the radicals set up the Trade Unionists Political Association with MacDonald as president and MacLeod as secretary.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edmund|last2=Frow|first2=Ruth|title=To make that future-- now! : a history of The Manchester and Salford Trades Council|date=1976|publisher=E.J. Morten|location=Manchester|isbn=0-85972-026-8|page=15|edition=Subscription}}</ref> One of the Trades Council's first decisions was the proposal to form a court of arbitration. Set up jointly with the Manchester Chamber of Commerce in 1868, it was short-lived, failing to arbitrate a single case.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edmund|last2=Frow|first2=Ruth|title=To make that future-- now! : a history of The Manchester and Salford Trades Council|date=1976|publisher=E.J. Morten|location=Manchester|isbn=0-85972-026-8|page=20|edition=Subscription}}</ref> More significantly in February that year, the council called a national conference of trade unionists which met in June and agreed to form what became the Trades Union Congress. Woods was elected president and Shorrocks secretary.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edmund|last2=Frow|first2=Ruth|title=To make that future-- now! : a history of The Manchester and Salford Trades Council|date=1976|publisher=E.J. Morten|location=Manchester|isbn=0-85972-026-8|page=21|edition=Subscription}}</ref> This soon became the leading national association of trade unions.

Peter Shorrocks played a leading role in establishing the Amalgamated Society of Tailors and was an active supporter of the [[International Workingmen's Association]], the First International.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edmund|last2=Frow|first2=Ruth|title=To make that future-- now! : a history of The Manchester and Salford Trades Council|date=1976|publisher=E.J. Morten|location=Manchester|isbn=0-85972-026-8|page=22|edition=Subscription}}</ref> He succeeded Wood to be secretary from 1877 to 1883. He was followed as secretary by [[George Davy Kelley]], full-time secretary of the Amalgamated Society of Lithographic Printers and a member of the General Council of the Manchester Liberal Association.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Edmund|last2=Frow|first2=Ruth|title=To make that future-- now! : a history of The Manchester and Salford Trades Council|date=1976|publisher=E.J. Morten|location=Manchester|isbn=0-85972-026-8|page=26|edition=Subscription}}</ref> Kelley helped to greatly increase affiliations to the council. Many of the new affiliations were general unions of unskilled workers, a development which Kelley opposed as he felt the organisations would not endure, but they soon came to dominate the council. Despite this, Kelley remained the council's most prominent figure, being elected to Manchester City Council in 1891 as a Liberal-Labour representative.<ref name="haworth">Alan Haworth and Dianne Hayter, ''Men who made Labour'', pp.122-123</ref>

In 1902, the council convened a meeting of local trade unionists and members of the [[Independent Labour Party]] and [[Social Democratic Federation]], which renamed the council as the '''Manchester Trades and Labour Council''', becoming the local affiliate of the [[Labour Representation Committee (1900)|Labour Representation Committee]].<ref>Declan McHugh, ''Labour in the City'', p.53</ref> Two years later, Kelley broke his links with the Liberals, and in 1906 he was elected as a Labour Member of Parliament, standing down from his trades council posts.<ref name="haworth" />

In the 1920s, the council affiliated to the [[Communist Party of Great Britain]]-led [[National Minority Movement]].<ref>Alan Clinton, ''The Trade Union Rank and File: Trades Councils in Britain, 1900-40'', p.148</ref> Although the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] set up its own Manchester Borough organisation, the council continued to campaign on a wide range of labour issues, remaining the leading labour movement organisation in the city into the 1930s, and attracted the support of [[John Maynard Keynes]] for its proposals on local industrial policy.<ref>Alan Clinton, ''The Trade Union Rank and File: Trades Councils in Britain, 1900-40'', pp.179-180</ref>

In 1974, Salford District Trades Council was created, and the Manchester Trades Union Council adopted its present name.<ref name="salford">Salford Trades Union Council, "[https://salfordtradescouncil.com/officers/ Officers]"</ref>

==Secretaries==
:1866: [[William Henry Wood]]<ref name="salford" />
:1877: [[Peter Shorrocks]]<ref name="salford" />

:1883: [[George Davy Kelley]]<ref name="salford" />
:1906: [[Tom Fox (Labour politician)|Tom Fox]]<ref name="salford" />
:1909: William R. Mellor<ref name="salford" />
:1929: [[A. A. Purcell]]<ref name="salford" />
:1935: [[Jack Munro]]<ref name="salford" />
:1944: Horace Newbold<ref name="salford" />
:1969: Colin Davis<ref name="salford" />
:1974: Frances Dean
:1982: Dave Hawkins - UHDE
:1990: Arthur Berry - NGA
:1999 Jeno Menezes
:2004 Geoff Brown - [[University and College Union|UCU]]
:2012 Frank Ellis - [[Transport Salaried Staffs' Association|TSSA]]
:2013 Richard Lighten - [[UNISON]]
:2014 Alexander Davidson - PCS
:2016: Chris Marks - PCS
:2018: Alexander Davidson - GMB
:2019: John Pye - UNISON
:2020: John Pye - UNISON

==Presidents==
:1866: [[Samuel Caldwell Nicholson]]
:1882: [Robert Austin]]
:1886: [[Matthew Arrandale]] - UMW
:1895: F. Entwistle - ASE
:1899: George Tabbron - Manchester Brassfounders
:1901: [[Matthew Arrandale]] - UMW
:1905: [[A. A. Purcell]] - NAFTA
:1906:
:[[Tom Fox (Labour politician)|Tom Fox]]
:1914: [[A. A. Purcell]] - NAFTA
:1920: [[Rhys Davies (politician)|Rhys Davies]] - SAU
:1921: Ernest Hookway
:1924: [[Jack Munro]] (NUSMW)
:1925: Ernest Hookway
:1927: Will Crick
:1927: Eric Gower
:1932: Abraham Moss - RCA
:1935: Fred Harrison - NSMM
:1938: Bob Bradfield
:1940: Tom Brown - NAUSAWC
:1944: Jim Porter - USDAW
:1946: Jim Cunnick - USDAW
:1950: [[Edmund Dell]] - ASSET
:1951: Jim Porter - USDAW
:1953: L. H. Addie - CSCA
:1954: Jim Cunnick
:1957: Jim Porter - USDAW
:1959: [[Edmund Dell]] - ASSET
:1961: [[Eddie Marsden]] - CEU
:1964: Ernest Pearson - AEU
:1967: [[Eddie Marsden]] - CEU
:1969: C. Davies
:1970: Frances Dean - USDAW
:1975: Mick Gadian - NUTGW
:1978: M. Bury
:1980: T. Keane
:1982: Denis Maher - CEU
:1988: Tony Lucas - MU
:1989: Henry Suss - GMB Clothing and Textile Section
:1991: Harry Spooner - NASUWT
:2004: Sharon Green - [[Public and Commercial Services Union|PCS]]
:2013: Annette Wright - PCS
:2017: Alexander Davidson - PCS
:2018: Annette Wright - PCS
:2019: Ian Allinson - UNITE
:2020: Ian Allinson - UNITE

==Vice Presidents==
:1945/46/47: Frances Dean
:1948/49: E Pearson
:1950:P Jackson
:1951: J Porter
:1952:P Jackson
:1955/56: J Porter
:1957/58: E Dell
:1959/60: E Marsden
:1961/62/63: E Pearson
:1964/65/66: E Marsden
:1967/68: C Davies
:1969/70: A Harvey
:1973/74:S Gadian
:1977/78/79: F Hodgkinson
:1980/81:D Maher
:1982/83/84: JP Gunn
:1985-89: Henry Suss
:1989-91: G Peel
:2004: Sarah Livesey - [[Union of Shop, Distributive and Allied Workers|USDAW]]
:2013: John Clegg - UNITE
:2019: John Morgan - NEU
:2020: John Morgan - NEU

==References==
{{reflist}}
*'and the new paths are begun' Manchester Trades Council History Vol 2 Jim Arnison and Edmund and Ruth Frow {{ISBN|1 870605 85 3}}

==External links==
*[https://www.manchestertuc.org.uk Official site]

[[Category:Organisations based in Manchester]]
[[Category:Politics of Manchester]]
[[Category:Trade unions established in 1866]]
[[Category:Trades councils]]

Interstitial webpage

2023-11-30T09:11:14Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add-desc 1.0

{{Short description|Webpage displayed before or after an expected content page}}
On the [[World Wide Web|web]], an '''interstitial webpage''' (or '''interstitial''') is a [[web page]] displayed before or after an expected content page, often to display [[Online advertising|advertising]] or for regulatory reasons, such as to confirm the user's age (prior to showing age-restricted material) or obtain consent to store [[HTTP cookie|cookies]]. Most interstitial advertisements are delivered by an [[ad server]].

Some people take issue with the use of such pages to present [[online advertising]] before allowing users to see the content they were trying to access.<ref>{{cite web|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326074226/http://modernl.com/article/ethical-blogging-101|url=http://modernl.com/article/ethical-blogging-101|title=Ethical Blogging 101|publisher=Modern Life|date=2009-03-26|archivedate=2009-03-26|access-date=2021-03-20}}</ref>

==Meaning of interstitial==
{{wiktionary|interstitial}}
In this context, "interstitial" is used in the sense of “in-between”. The interstitial web page sits between a referenced page and the page which references it—hence it is in between two pages.<ref name="iab-display-guidelines">{{cite web |url=http://www.iab.net/displayguidelines |title=IAB Display Advertising Guidelines |publisher=Iab.net |date= |accessdate=2015-07-27}}</ref> This is distinct from a page which simply links directly to another, in that the interstitial page serves only to provide extra information to a user during the act of navigating from one page to the next.

In [[digital marketing]], the term “interstitial” is often used in the sense of “interstitial advertising”, rather than “interstitial webpage”. In some cases, this may lead to confusion because interstitial ads are not always served on interstitial web pages. According to a standard advanced by the [[Interactive Advertising Bureau|IAB]], an interstitial (also known as a between-the-page ad) can either be displayed on a separate webpage or appear briefly as an overlay on the destination page.<ref name=iab-display-guidelines /> Moreover, mobile advertising guidelines created by the Mobile Marketing Association (MMA) include in-app interstitial ads, that are integrated into [[Mobile app|applications]], rather than web pages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mmaglobal.com/files/mobileadvertising.pdf |format=PDF |title=Mobile aDvertising Guidelines : Version 5.0 |publisher=Mmaglobal.com\accessdate=2015-07-27}}</ref>

==Circumvention==
Many interstitial pages are circumvented by [[NoScript]] and [[ad blockers]].

==See also==
* [[Ad blocker]]
* [[Ad server]], the technology that delivers most online advertisements
* [[AdBlock]], a tool to prevent the display of online advertisements
* [[Adobe Flash]], a technology similar in its application for [[online advertising]].
* [[Modal window]]
* [[Pop-up ad]]

==References==

{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://developers.google.com/search/docs/appearance/avoid-intrusive-interstitials Google interstitial references]

[[Category:Web design]]
[[Category:Online advertising methods]]

{{web-stub}}

Whittington Estate

2023-11-30T09:04:26Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add-desc 1.0

{{Short description|Modernist housing estate in north central London}}
{{Infobox housing project|building name=Whittington Estate|image=stoneleigh terrace.jpg|location=[[London Borough of Camden]]|units=273|constructed=1972–1979|construction architect=[[Peter Tábori]]|construction style=[[Modernism]], [[Brutalism]]|coordinates={{coord|51.5654878|-0.1419120|display=inline,title}}|caption=View of Stoneleigh Terrace from Raydon Street}}
The '''Whittington Estate,''' also known as Highgate New Town, is a [[housing estate]] in the [[London Borough of Camden]], [[N postcode area|North London]], [[England]]. It was designed in a [[Modernism|modernist]] style by [[Peter Tábori|Peter Tabori]] and Ken Adie for Camden Council's Architects Department.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Jack |title=The Council House |publisher=Hoxton Mini Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-914314-16-2 |edition=1st |location=London |language=English}}</ref> Construction work commenced in 1972 and was completed in 1979, five years later than planned.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Whittington Estate - Designing Buildings |url=https://www.designingbuildings.co.uk/wiki/Whittington_Estate }}</ref> The estate was designed by Tabori initially as his final year project at the [[Regent Street Polytechnic|Regents Street Polytechnic]] under the name Highgate New Town; Sydney Cook, the head of Camden Architects Department went on to commission Tabori to make the estate a reality.<ref name=":0" />

== Description ==
[[File:PXL 20230104 141041109.jpg|thumb|A map of the Whittington Estate|left]]
The estate comprises 6 parallel terraces with pedestrian streets running between; it is built primarily out of precast concrete with dark-stained timber used for the doors and windows.<ref name=":0" /> Camden Architects Department are famous for their application of low-rise high-density design for their housing estates under Sydney Cook in the 60s and 70s, the Whittington Estate being a prime example of this design principle.<ref name=":1" /> Flats are arranged in a ziggurat arrangement with south-facing balconies or terraces for each flat, giving each flat access to plentiful natural light.<ref name=":0" /> There is a small park, a sports pitch and a children's playground on the estate grounds as well as numerous planters containing greenery lining the streets.
[[File:Whittington Estate Cat.jpg|alt=A cat on the Whittington Estate.|left|thumb|235x235px|One of the estate's many cats.]]
The pedestrian streets provide a safe, walkable area where children are able to play, residents are able to socialise and the estate's many cats are frequently seen.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
[[Category:Brutalist architecture in London]]
[[Category:Housing estates in the London Borough of Camden]]
[[Category:Ziggurat style modern architecture]]
[[Category:Modernist architecture in England]]
[[Category:Modernist architecture]]

Solar charger

2023-11-30T09:02:18Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add-desc 1.0

{{Short description|Small device to convert solar energy to electricity}}
{{refimprove|date=December 2018}}
{{Multiple image|direction=vertical|align=right|image1=Solar charger-001-front.jpg|image2=Solar charger-001-back.jpg|width=150|caption2=Front and back views of a small, portable solar charger with two [[AAA battery|AAA Batteries]] and [[USB]] output.}}
A '''solar charger''' is a charger that employs [[solar energy]] to supply electricity to devices or batteries. They are generally [[wikt:portable|portable]].

Solar chargers can charge [[lead acid battery|lead acid]] or [[Ni-Cd battery]] banks up to 48 V and hundreds of [[ampere hour]]s (up to 4000 Ah) capacity. Such type of solar charger setups generally use an intelligent [[charge controller]]. A series of [[solar cells]] are installed in a stationary location (ie: rooftops of homes, base-station locations on the ground etc.) and can be connected to a battery bank to store energy for off-peak usage. They can also be used in addition to mains-supply chargers for energy saving during the daytime.

Most portable chargers can obtain energy from the sun only. Examples of solar chargers in popular use include:
*Small portable models designed to charge a range of different [[mobile phone]]s, cell phones, iPods or other portable audio equipment.
*Fold out models designed to sit on the dashboard of an automobile and plug into the cigar/12v lighter socket to keep the battery topped up while the vehicle is not in use.
*Flashlights/torches, often combined with a secondary means of charging, such as a kinetic (hand crank generator) charging system.
*Public solar chargers permanently installed in public places, such as parks, squares and streets, which anyone can use for free.

==Voltage regulator==
A solar panel can produce a range of charging voltages depending upon [[sunlight]] intensity, so a [[voltage regulator]] must be included in the charging circuit so as to not over-charge ([[overvoltage]]) a device such as a 12 volt car battery.

== Solar chargers on the market ==
Portable solar chargers are used to charge cell phones and other small electronic devices on the go. Chargers on the market today use various types of solar panels, ranging from [[Thin-film photovoltaic cell|thin film]] panels with efficiencies from 7-15% (amorphous silicon around 7%, [[Copper indium gallium selenide|CIGS]] closer to 15%), to the slightly more efficient [[monocrystalline silicon|monocrystalline]] panels which offer efficiencies up to 18%.

The other type of portable solar chargers are those with wheels which enable them to be transported from one place to another and be used by a lot of people. They are semi-public, considering the fact that are used publicly but not permanently installed.<ref>[http://www.cncworld.tv/news/v_show/24318_New_Portable_Solar_Charger.shtml New portable solar charger] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130123110045/http://www.cncworld.tv/news/v_show/24318_New_Portable_Solar_Charger.shtml |date=2013-01-23 }}</ref>

The solar charger industry has been plagued by companies [[Mass production|mass-producing]] low efficiency solar chargers that don't meet the consumer's expectations. This in turn has made it hard for new solar charger companies to gain the trust of consumers. Solar companies are starting to offer high-efficiency solar chargers.
Portable solar power is being utilized in developing countries to power lighting as opposed to utilizing [[kerosene lamp]]s which are responsible for respiratory infections, lung and throat cancers, serious eye infections, cataracts as well as low birth weights. Solar power provides an opportunity for rural areas to "leapfrog" traditional grid infrastructure and move directly to distributed energy solutions.

Some solar chargers also have an on-board battery which is charged by the solar panel when not charging anything else. This allows the user to be able to use the solar energy stored in the battery to charge their electronic devices at night or when indoors.

Solar chargers can also be [[wikt:rollable|rollable]] or flexible and are manufactured using [[Thin-film photovoltaic cell|thin film]] PV technology. Rollable solar chargers may include Li-ion batteries.

Currently, foldable solar panels are coming down in price to the point that almost anyone can deploy one while at the beach, biking, hiking, or at any outdoor location and charge their cellphone, tablet, computer etc. Some companies such as GoSun have incorporated a solar charger into a table so that can have more than one function.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gritdaily.com/gosun-develops-portable-products-for-a-solar-future/|title=Portable Products For a Solar Future|date=July 29, 2020}}</ref>

== Gallery ==
{{gallery
| File:Strawberry Tree in Obrenovac.jpg
|A public solar charger installation, the [[Strawberry Tree (solar energy device)|Strawberry Tree]], in [[Obrenovac]], [[Serbia]]
| File:Tesla charging station with solar collector trimmed.jpeg| [[Tesla supercharger]] rapid charging station, California. The stationary solar arrays are on top]

| File:Eletroposto6.jpg| Charging station at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, owned by [[Petrobras]]. Note the stationary solar arrays
|title=
|File:Coyle Industries Portable Solar Power System.jpg| Portable solar panel (solar power system).
}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Renewable energy|Energy}}
*[[Solar cell phone charger]]

== References ==
{{Commonscat|Solar chargers}}

{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Battery chargers]]
[[Category:Energy harvesting]]
[[Category:Solar-powered devices]]
[[Category:Photovoltaics]]

Katz centrality

2023-11-30T08:59:09Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add-desc 1.0

{{Short description|Measure of centrality in a network based on nodal influence}}
{{Network Science}}
In [[graph theory]], the '''Katz centrality''' or '''alpha centrality''' of a node is a measure of [[centrality]] in a [[Graph (discrete mathematics)|network]]. It was introduced by [[Leo Katz (statistician)|Leo Katz]] in 1953 and is used to measure the relative degree of influence of an actor (or node) within a [[social network]].<ref name="katz1953" /> Unlike typical centrality measures which consider only the shortest path (the [[geodesic]]) between a pair of actors, Katz centrality measures influence by taking into account the total number of [[walk (graph theory)|walks]] between a pair of actors.<ref name="hanneman2005" />

It is similar to [[Google]]'s [[PageRank]] and to the [[eigenvector centrality]].<ref name="vigna2016" />

==Measurement==
[[File:Katz example net.png|thumb|500px|right|A simple social network: the nodes represent people or actors and the edges between nodes represent some relationship between actors]]
Katz centrality computes the relative influence of a node within a network by measuring the number of the immediate neighbors (first degree nodes) and also all other nodes in the network that connect to the node under consideration through these immediate neighbors. Connections made with distant neighbors are, however, penalized by an attenuation factor <math>\alpha</math>.<ref name ="aggarwal2011" /> Each path or connection between a pair of nodes is assigned a weight determined by <math>\alpha</math> and the distance between nodes as <math>\alpha^d</math>.

For example, in the figure on the right, assume that John's centrality is being measured and that <math>\alpha = 0.5</math>. The weight assigned to each link that connects John with his immediate neighbors Jane and Bob will be <math>(0.5)^1 = 0.5</math>. Since Jose connects to John indirectly through Bob, the weight assigned to this connection (composed of two links) will be <math>(0.5)^2 = 0.25</math>. Similarly, the weight assigned to the connection between Agneta and John through Aziz and Jane will be <math>(0.5)^3 = 0.125</math> and the weight assigned to the connection between Agneta and John through Diego, Jose and Bob will be <math>(0.5)^4 = 0.0625</math>.

==Mathematical formulation==
Let ''A'' be the [[adjacency matrix]] of a network under consideration. Elements <math>(a_{ij})</math> of ''A'' are variables that take a value 1 if a node ''i'' is connected to node ''j'' and 0 otherwise. The powers of ''A'' indicate the presence (or absence) of links between two nodes through intermediaries. For instance, in matrix <math>A^3</math>, if element <math>(a_{2,12}) = 1</math>, it indicates that node 2 and node 12 are connected through some walk of length 3. If <math>C_{\mathrm{Katz}}(i)</math> denotes Katz centrality of a node ''i'', then, given a value <math>\alpha\in(0,1)</math>, mathematically:

:<math>C_{\mathrm{Katz}}(i) = \sum_{k=1}^\infty \sum_{j=1}^n \alpha^k (A^k)_{ji}</math>

Note that the above definition uses the fact that the element at location <math>(i,j)</math> of <math>A^k</math> reflects the total number of <math>k</math> degree connections between nodes <math>i</math> and <math>j</math>. The value of the attenuation factor <math>\alpha</math> has to be chosen such that it is smaller than the reciprocal of the absolute value of the largest [[eigenvalue]] of ''A''.<ref name="junker2008" /> In this case the following expression can be used to calculate Katz centrality:

:<math> \overrightarrow{C}_{\mathrm{Katz}} = ((I - \alpha A^T)^{-1}-I)\overrightarrow{I}</math>

Here <math>I</math> is the identity matrix, <math>\overrightarrow{I}</math> is a vector of size ''n'' (''n'' is the number of nodes) consisting of ones. <math>A^T</math> denotes the [[transposed matrix]] of A and <math>(I - \alpha A^T)^{-1}</math> denotes [[matrix inversion]] of the term <math>(I - \alpha A^T)</math>.<ref name="junker2008" />

An extension of this framework allows for the walks to be computed in a dynamical setting.<ref name ="grindrod2011communicability" /><ref name="grindrod2010Dynamical"/> By taking a time dependent series of network adjacency snapshots of the transient edges, the dependency for walks to contribute towards a cumulative effect is presented. The arrow of time is preserved so that the contribution of activity is asymmetric in the direction of information propagation.

Network producing data of the form:

:<math>\left \{A^{[k]} \in \R^{N \times N} \right \} \qquad \text{for} \quad k=0,1,2,\ldots,M,</math>

representing the adjacency matrix at each time <math>t_k</math>. Hence:

:<math>\left( A^{[k]} \right)_{ij} = \begin{cases} 1 & \text{there is an edge from node } i \text{ to node } j \text{ at time } t_k \\ 0 & \text{otherwise} \end{cases}</math>

The time points <math>t_0 < t_1 < \cdots < t_M</math> are ordered but not necessarily equally spaced. <math>Q \in \R^{N \times N}</math> for which <math>(Q)_{ij}</math> is a weighted count of the number of dynamic walks of length <math>w</math> from node <math>i</math> to node <math>j</math>. The form for the dynamic communicability between participating nodes is:

:<math>\mathcal{Q} = \left(I-\alpha A^{[0]} \right)^{-1} \cdots \left( I - \alpha A^{[M]} \right)^{-1}.</math>

This can be normalized via:

:<math>\hat{\mathcal{Q}}^{[k]} = \frac{\hat{\mathcal{Q}}^{[k-1]} \left(I-\alpha A^{[k]} \right)^{-1}}{\left \|\hat{\mathcal{Q}}^{[k-1]} \left( I - \alpha A^{[k]} \right)^{-1} \right \|}.</math>

Therefore, centrality measures that quantify how effectively node <math>n</math> can 'broadcast' and 'receive' dynamic messages across the network:

:<math>C_n^{\mathrm{broadcast}} := \sum_{k=1}^{N} \mathcal{Q}_{nk} \quad \mathrm{and} \quad C_n^{\mathrm{receive}} := \sum_{k=1}^{N} \mathcal{Q}_{kn}</math>.

===Alpha centrality===
Given a graph with [[adjacency matrix]] <math>A_{i,j}</math>, Katz centrality is defined as follows:

:<math> \vec{x} = (I-\alpha A^T)^{-1}\vec{e} - \vec{e} \, </math>

where <math>e_j</math> is the external importance given to node <math>j</math>, and <math>\alpha</math> is a nonnegative attenuation factor which must be smaller than the inverse of the [[spectral radius]] of <math>A</math>. The original definition by Katz
<ref>{{cite journal | author = Leo Katz | title = A new status index derived from sociometric analysis | journal = Psychometrika | volume = 18 | issue = 1 | pages = 39–43 | doi = 10.1007/BF02289026| year = 1953 | s2cid = 121768822 }}</ref>
used a constant vector <math>\vec{e}</math>. Hubbell<ref>{{cite journal | author = Charles H. Hubbell | title = An input-output approach to clique identification | journal = Sociometry | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | pages = 377–399 | doi = 10.2307/2785990| year = 1965 | jstor = 2785990 }}</ref>
introduced the usage of a general <math>\vec{e}</math>.

Half a century later, Bonacich and Lloyd<ref>{{cite journal | author = P. Bonacich, P. Lloyd | title = Eigenvector-like measures of centrality for asymmetric relations | journal = Social Networks | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 191–201 | doi=10.1016/S0378-8733(01)00038-7| year = 2001 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.226.2113 }}</ref> defined alpha centrality as:

:<math> \vec{x} = (I-\alpha A^T)^{-1}\vec{e} \, </math>

which is essentially identical to Katz centrality. More precisely, the score of a node <math>j</math> differs exactly by <math>e_j</math>, so if <math>\vec{e}</math> is constant the order induced on the nodes is identical.

==Applications==
Katz centrality can be used to compute centrality in directed networks such as citation networks and the World Wide Web.<ref name="newman2010" />

Katz centrality is more suitable in the analysis of directed acyclic graphs where traditionally used measures like [[eigenvector centrality]] are rendered useless.<ref name="newman2010" />

Katz centrality can also be used in estimating the relative status or influence of actors in a social network. The work presented in <ref name="laflin2013discovering"/> shows the case study of applying a dynamic version of the Katz centrality to data from Twitter and focuses on particular brands which have stable discussion leaders. The application allows for a comparison of the methodology with that of human experts in the field and how the results are in agreement with a panel of social media experts.

In [[neuroscience]], it is found that Katz centrality correlates with the relative firing rate of [[neurons]] in a neural network.<ref name="jmckay2017" /> The temporal extension of the Katz centrality is applied to fMRI data obtained from a musical learning experiment in <ref name="mantzaris2013fMRI"/> where data is collected from the subjects before and after the learning process. The results show that the changes to the network structure over the musical exposure created in each session a quantification of the cross communicability that produced clusters in line with the success of learning.

A generalized form of Katz centrality can be used as an intuitive ranking system for sports teams, such as in [[college football]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Juyong |last2=Newman |first2=M. E. J. |title=A network-based ranking system for American college football |journal=Journal of Statistical Mechanics: Theory and Experiment |date=31 October 2005 |volume=2005 |issue=10 |pages=P10014 |doi=10.1088/1742-5468/2005/10/P10014 |issn=1742-5468|arxiv=physics/0505169 |s2cid=15120571 }}</ref>

Alpha centrality is implemented in igraph library for network analysis and visualization.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://igraph.sourceforge.net/doc/R/alpha.centrality.html | title=Welcome to igraph's new home}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|refs =
<ref name ="katz1953">Katz, L. (1953). A New Status Index Derived from Sociometric Analysis. Psychometrika, 39–43.</ref>
<ref name="hanneman2005">Hanneman, R. A., & Riddle, M. (2005). Introduction to Social Network Methods. Retrieved from http://faculty.ucr.edu/~hanneman/nettext/</ref>
<ref name ="aggarwal2011">Aggarwal, C. C. (2011). Social Network Data Analysis. New York, NY: Springer.</ref>
<ref name="junker2008">Junker, B. H., & Schreiber, F. (2008). Analysis of Biological Networks. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.</ref>
<ref name="newman2010">Newman, M. E. (2010). Networks: An Introduction. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.</ref>
<ref name="vigna2016">{{cite journal |last=Vigna |first=S. |year=2016 |title=Spectral ranking |journal=Network Science |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=433–445 |doi=10.1017/nws.2016.21|doi-access=free }}</ref>

<ref name="mantzaris2013fMRI">
{{cite journal |author1=Mantzaris, Alexander V. |author2=Danielle S. Bassett |author3=Nicholas F. Wymbs |author4=Ernesto Estrada |author5=Mason A. Porter |author6=Peter J. Mucha |author7=Scott T. Grafton |author8=Desmond J. Higham | title=Dynamic network centrality summarizes learning in the human brain | journal =Journal of Complex Networks |volume=1 |issue=1|pages= 83–92 |date=2013 |doi=10.1093/comnet/cnt001 |arxiv=1207.5047 }}</ref>

<ref name="grindrod2010Dynamical">
{{cite journal |author1 = Peter Grindrod |author2= Desmond J. Higham. | title= Evolving graphs: Dynamical models, inverse problems and propagation |journal=Proc. R. Soc. A |volume=466 |issue= 2115 |pages= 753–770 |date=2010 |doi= 10.1098/rspa.2009.0456 |bibcode= 2010RSPSA.466..753G |doi-access= free }}
</ref>

<ref name="grindrod2011communicability">
{{cite journal |title=Communicability across evolving networks| author1=Grindrod, Peter |author2=Parsons, Mark C |author3=Higham, Desmond J |author4=Estrada, Ernesto| journal=Physical Review E| volume=83| pages=046120 | number=4| year=2011| publisher=APS| doi=10.1103/PhysRevE.83.046120 | pmid=21599253 | bibcode=2011PhRvE..83d6120G | url=http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/19357/1/Coomunicability_accepted.pdf }}
</ref>

<ref name="laflin2013discovering">
{{cite journal |title=Discovering and validating influence in a dynamic online social network| author1=Laflin, Peter |author2=Mantzaris, Alexander V |author3=Ainley, Fiona |author4=Otley, Amanda |author5=Grindrod, Peter |author6=Higham, Desmond J| journal=Social Network Analysis and Mining|
volume=3| pages=1311–1323 | number=4| year=2013| publisher=Springer| doi=10.1007/s13278-013-0143-7 | s2cid=7125694 }}
</ref>

<ref name="jmckay2017">{{cite journal |author1 = Fletcher, Jack McKay |author2=Wennekers, Thomas| title = From Structure to Activity: Using Centrality Measures to Predict Neuronal Activity| journal = International Journal of Neural Systems|issue=2| pages = 1750013| year = 2017|volume=28| doi = 10.1142/S0129065717500137|pmid=28076982| doi-access = free}}
</ref>

}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Katz Centrality}}

[[Category:Graph invariants]]
[[Category:Social network analysis]]
[[Category:Algebraic graph theory]]

Cromwellian Parliamentary Surveys

2023-11-30T08:55:30Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add-desc 1.0

{{Short description|Survey in 17th century England to determine landholders' acreage and rent}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Orphan|date=January 2017}}

The '''Parliamentary Surveys''' were initiated by [[Oliver Cromwell]] to evaluate lands which he had confiscated. Primarily they were Crown or Ecclesiastical estate lands in England and the assessments were carried out by a team of surveyors during the period 1647 to 1650. The objective was to identify all landholders in each manor; determine how much land each held and how much rent they paid. The surveyors then made a valuation of what each holding was worth, so that the manor could be put up for sale. The money thus generated was to be used to pay Cromwell's Model Army.

The Surveys were undertaken with a variety of accuracy. Those where the surveyors were able to copy from an existing register kept by the previous landlord are extremely accurate. However, where a register was not available the surveyors held manor court meetings at which all the manor tenants were supposed to appear to present their land holdings. Inevitably not all were keen to do so, and thus the survey results can be incomplete or inaccurate.

Nevertheless, many of the surveys provide an invaluable complete tenant and land census of manors in the mid seventeenth century, where the landlord was the English Crown or the church. Original copies of the surveys are deposited in the [[Lambeth Palace Library]] in London. A few are in the National Archives in [[Kew]], [[London]]; and some County Record Offices have copies of the Surveys in their region. Some have been transcribed and indexed.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bodington |first=E. J. |year=1919 |title=The church survey in Wiltshire, 1649-50 (part 1) |url=https://archive.org/stream/wiltshirearchaeo401917191#page/253/mode/1up |journal=Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine |volume=XL |issue=CXXIX |pages=253–72}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bodington |first=E. J. |year=1920 |title=The church survey in Wiltshire, 1649-50 (parts 2 and 3) |url=https://archive.org/stream/wiltshirearchaeo411920192#page/n18/mode/1up |journal=Wiltshire Archaeological & Natural History Magazine |volume=XLI |issue=CXXXII and CXXXIII |pages=1–39, 105–24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Willan |first=T. S. |title=The Parliamentary Surveys for the North Riding of Yorkshire |url=https://archive.org/stream/YAJ0311934#page/224/mode/1up |journal=Yorkshire Archaeological Journal |volume=XXXI |issue=Part 123 |pages=224–289}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor1-last=Cave |editor2-last=Pounds |editor2-first=N.J.G. |year=1982 |title=The Parliamentary Survey of the Duchy of Cornwall Pts 1 & 2 |location=Torquay |publisher=The Devon & Cornwall Record Society |isbn=978-0-901853-27-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Cave |first1=T. |last2=Wilson |first2=R. A. |year=1924 |title=The Parliamentary Survey of Lands & Possessions of the Dean and Chapter of Worcester |publisher=Worcester Historical Society |oclc=813708754}}</ref>

The lands surveyed were then sold to purchasers at a price related to the survey valuations, and on the basis of an assumption that the new owner would have a minimum of 10 years income from the property. This was fortunate as it happened that it was almost exactly 10 years between sale around 1650 and the restoration of the monarchy of [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1660. It was the reason why upon restoring ownership of the lands to the crown and church in 1661-2, very little compensation was ever paid to the 1650 purchasers. They were deemed to have enjoyed what they had paid for.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gentles |first=I. |date=July 1980 |title=The sale of bishops' lands in the English Revolution, 1646 - 1660 |journal=English Historical Review |volume=XCV |issue=CCCLXXVI |pages=573–596 |doi=10.1093/ehr/XCV.CCCLXXVI.573}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thirsk |first=J. |date=December 1954 |title=The Restoration land settlement |journal=Journal of Modern History |volume=XXVI |issue=4 |pages=315–328 |jstor=1876109 |doi=10.1086/237733|s2cid=144362391 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gentles |first=I. |date=1973 |title=The sales of crown lands during the English Revolution |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=XXVI |issue=4 |pages=614–635 |jstor=2593701 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.1973.tb01957.x }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Oliver Cromwell]]

Rubato Composer

2023-11-30T08:51:47Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add-desc 1.0

{{Short description|Music composition and transformation software}}
{{multiple issues|
{{no sources|date=March 2020}}
{{notability|date=January 2014}}
}}

'''Rubato Composer''' is free ([[GPL]]) [[software]] that allows one to compose music or transform existing music with the help of mathematical [[Category Theory]] and [[topos theory|Topos Theory]]. It is currently the only software for music composition based on Category Theory. It was developed by [[Gérard Milmeister]] and [[Guerino Mazzola]]. The predecessor Presto is no longer developed and runs only on [[Atari]] computers.

==See also==
* [[List of music software]]

==External links==
* {{Official website|www.rubato.org}}
* [http://developer.berlios.de/projects/rubato Older version for NeXTstep and Mac OS]

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|author=Gérard Milmeister|title=The Rubato Composer Music Software: Component-Based Implementation of a Functorial Concept Architecture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HH4mVt--UsYC|date=5 April 2009|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-00148-2}}

[[Category:Music software]]

{{Music-software-stub}}

1917 Chesterton by-election

2023-11-26T09:08:10Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add-desc 1.0

{{Short description|Unopposed by-election for the British House of Commons}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
The '''1917 Chesterton by-election''' was a parliamentary [[by-election]] held on 27 July 1917 for the [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] constituency of [[Chesterton (UK Parliament constituency)|Chesterton]] also known as the Western Division of [[Cambridgeshire]].

==Vacancy==
The by-election was caused by the appointment of the sitting [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]] [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|MP]], the Rt. Hon. [[Edwin Samuel Montagu|Edwin Montagu]] as [[Secretary of State for India]].<ref>Chandrika Kaul, ''Edwin Samuel Montagu'' in the ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' online, 2004-11</ref> Under the Parliamentary rules of the day he had to resign and fight a by-election.

==Candidates==
Montagu was re-selected to fight the seat by his local Liberal Association and as the wartime truce between the political parties was in operation no opposing candidate was nominated against him.

==The result==
There being no other candidates putting themselves forward Montagu was returned unopposed.<ref>F W S Craig, ''British Parliamentary Election Results, 1885-1918; Macmillan Press, 1974'' p227</ref>
----

{{Election box begin | title=Chesterton by-election, 1917}}
{{Election box winning candidate with party link|
|party = Liberal Party (UK)
|candidate = [[Edwin Samuel Montagu]]
|votes = Unopposed
|percentage = ''N/A''
|change = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box hold with party link|
|winner = Liberal Party (UK)
|swing = ''N/A''
}}
{{Election box end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==See also==
*[[List of United Kingdom by-elections]]
*[[United Kingdom by-election records]]
*[[1916 Chesterton by-election]]
*[[1915 Chesterton by-election]]

{{By-elections to the 30th UK Parliament}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chesterton by-election 1917}}
[[Category:1917 elections in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1917 in England]]
[[Category:20th century in Cambridgeshire]]
[[Category:July 1917 events]]
[[Category:By-elections to the Parliament of the United Kingdom in Cambridgeshire constituencies]]
[[Category:Unopposed ministerial by-elections to the Parliament of the United Kingdom in English constituencies]]

Cychrus tuberculatus

2023-11-22T09:08:20Z

Squike: /* top */Added image and caption #suggestededit-add-image-top

{{short description|Species of beetle}}
{{speciesbox
| image = Cychrus tuberculatus (Harris) - ZooKeys-245-001-g008.jpeg
| genus = Cychrus
| species = tuberculatus
| authority = [[Thaddeus William Harris|Harris]], 1839
}}

[[File:Cychrus_tuberculatus_(Harris)_-_ZooKeys-245-001-g008.jpeg|thumb|right|alt=Cychrus tuberculatus (Harris) viewed from above|Cychrus tuberculatus (Harris)]]
'''''Cychrus tuberculatus''''' is a species of [[ground beetle]] in the subfamily [[Carabinae]].<ref name=catlife>{{Cite web| title=Cychrus tuberculatus T.W.Harris, 1839 | url=https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/6BSGH | website=Catalogue of Life | access-date=2023-04-08 }}</ref> It was described by [[Thaddeus William Harris]] in 1839.<ref name=catlife/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Taxonbar |from=Q4172242}}

[[Category:Cychrus|tuberculatus]]
[[Category:Beetles described in 1839]]

{{Cychrus-stub}}

John Carty (musician)

2022-10-31T16:03:56Z

Squike: /* Discography */ add The Cat that Ate the Candle

{{other people|John Carty}}
{{short description|Irish traditional musician|bot=PearBOT 5}}
{{BLP sources|date=March 2008}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{Use Irish English|date=January 2020}}
'''John Carty''' is an Irish musician. Considered by many as one of Ireland’s best traditional musicians, Carty plays [[fiddle]], [[tenor banjo]], [[tenor guitar]] and occasionally the [[flute]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.folkandhoney.co.uk/all-our-uk-gigs/john-carty-%7C-folk-band-%7C-gig-listings-a3681/|title=John Carty {{!}} Folk Band {{!}} Gig Listings - Artist Listed on Folk and Honey|website=Folkandhoney.co.uk|language=en|access-date=2020-04-22}}</ref> He is very interested in the North [[Connacht]] traditional music style.

Carty was born in [[London]] and now lives in [[Boyle, County Roscommon|Boyle]], [[County Roscommon]].

His first fiddle album, ''Last Night's Fun'', which released on Shanachie Records in 1996 has been described as a milestone in recorded fiddle music.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://irishtunecomposers.weebly.com/john-carty.html|title=John Carty|website=Irishtunecmposers.weebly.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-22}}</ref>

In 2003, he was awarded Traditional Musician of the Year by the Irish Television station [[TG4]]. The award placed him in the company of previous winners, such as [[Matt Molloy]] and [[Paddy Keenan]].

== Discography ==
*''The Cat that Ate the Candle'' (1994)
*''Last Night's Fun'' (1996)
*''Yeh That's All It Is'' (2001)
*''At It Again'' (2003)
*''Upon My Soul - James Carty'' (2006)
*''Pathway To the Well'' (2007)
*''[[On the Fly (album)|On the Fly]]'' (2007)
*''It's Not Racket Science - At the Racket'' (2008)
*''I Will If I Can'' (2005)
*''Meadbh (The Crimson Path)'' (2010)
*''At Complete Ease'' (2011)
*''The Cat That Ate The Candle'' (2011)
*''John Carty & Brian Rooney'' (2011)
*''The Good Mixer'' (2015) <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.johncartymusic.net/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=15 July 2021 |archive-date=15 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715142019/http://www.johncartymusic.net/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Carty, John}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Musicians from County Roscommon]]
[[Category:People from Boyle, County Roscommon]]
[[Category:Patrick Street members]]

{{Ireland-musician-stub}}

Talk:Time signature

2022-09-09T14:24:15Z

Squike: /* 12/8 time */ new section

{{Vital article|class=c|level=5|topic=Arts}}
{{WikiProject Time|class=C|importance=mid}}
{{WikiProject Music Theory|class=c|importance=mid}}
{{archives}}

==Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment==
[[File:Sciences humaines.svg|40px]] This article was the subject of a Wiki Education Foundation-supported course assignment, between 1 September 2020 and 18 December 2020. Further details are available [[Wikipedia:Wiki_Ed/University_of_Massachusetts_Lowell/FYSH_(Fall_2020)|on the course page]]. Student editor(s): [[User:ThomasBabaian|ThomasBabaian]].

{{small|Above undated message substituted from [[Template:Dashboard.wikiedu.org assignment]] by [[User:PrimeBOT|PrimeBOT]] ([[User talk:PrimeBOT|talk]]) 11:23, 17 January 2022 (UTC)}}
==3/4 compound and complex just like 6==

Sorry but all the online resources and wikipedia are kinda wrong because 3/4 isn't necessarily simple always. As this article mentioned there "In compound meter, subdivisions (which are what the upper number represents in these meters) of the beat are in three equal parts, so that a dotted note (half again longer than a regular note) becomes the beat." and it also says that "3
4 is a simple signature that represents three quarter notes (crotchets). It has a basic feel of (Bold denotes a stressed beat):

ONE two three (as in a waltz)" therefore according to that 3/4 can be a compound time signature, in the case of Waltz for instance. Because subdivisions are in three equal parts since the stressed is on every THREE notes therefore the "DOTTED NOTE BECOMES THE BEAT". And no, a measure with one beat isn't necessarily simple or not doable, take waltz as an example the main beat is on every 3 quarter notes. To say 3/4 is the simple version of 6/8 is extremely ignorant. What if the stress is on dotted half notes, every three notes in 3/4? It depends on the score and what the pulse is in that score. So I'm going to delete the word simple in "3
4 is a simple signature that represents". 6/4 for instance can be either compound or complex. If the beat is 6 quarter notes then it's simple if the beat is 2 dotted half notes it's s coumpound time signature. As simple as that. 3/4 isn't a device to make your time signature simple 6/8 doesn't automatically make your music complex either. What if I wanted to count that as a 6 beat measure. It's up to the piece and the composer.

Can someone clarify whether a time signature is complex or compound depends on the piece? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/70.27.243.174|70.27.243.174]] ([[User talk:70.27.243.174#top|talk]]) 08:22, 9 October 2017 (UTC) 
I am adding a comment for my class. [[User:MusicAB|MusicAB]] ([[User talk:MusicAB|talk]]) 18:35, 11 September 2020 (UTC)

:There are two issues here. One is misnotation. If a composer writes a piece in 3/2 but gives it a 6/4 time signature, that's just nonstandard; the standard is that any "6" signature means 2 groups of 3, not 3 groups of 2. Exceptions exist, both in Baroque and modern music, but there are counterexamples of just about every notation, since it evolved organically. That's not the same as undermining the definitions.
:The other matter is that music in 3/4 is often heard as "one to a bar," which does have a similar feel to compound signatures. This is frequent enough that it does merit mention in the article. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 17:47, 12 September 2020 (UTC)

==Ambiguous or misleading==

The text currently first uses "common time" (a phrase which is a re-direct to this site) in the following: "(such as or 3
4) (read 'common time' and 'three four time', respectively)." This can easily be incorrectly understood to mean that common time is three four time. Please re-write this. [[User:Kdammers|Kdammers]] ([[User talk:Kdammers|talk]]) 11:30, 6 December 2012 (UTC)

== measure ==

I know music is sort of axiomatic, but couldn't there be some way of making the lede clearer? The use of the word measure, while probably necessary, is, as currently used, opaque. It is a linked word, but the text of the link pretty much goes back to the first part of the article's sentence. What makes a measure a measure?[[User:Kdammers|Kdammers]] ([[User talk:Kdammers|talk]]) 11:41, 6 December 2012 (UTC)
:I'm not sure I understand your complaint. The linked word goes to an explanation: "a segment of time defined by a given number of beats, each of which are assigned a particular note value". This only "goes back to the first part of the article's sentence" in the sense that it says a time signature "specif[ies] how many" beats there are and "which note value constitutes one beat". This seems to be the very pinnacle of simplicity and clarity. What part do you find difficult to follow? Does it need to say that "measure" and "bar" (the actual title of the article linked from the word "measure") are synonymous?—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 17:41, 6 December 2012 (UTC)

*The lead undeniably needs work. I get what it is saying, but to non-musicians or even aspiring musicians who have not had any formal training it think it would be rather difficult to understand. I am also somewhat surprised that the article takes quite some time to getting around to mentioning that 4/4 is by far the most common, as indicated by the fact that is also called common time. To a general audience think this is a very basic fact that could significantly contribute to their understanding of what a time signature is and why they so often hear musicians counting to four or clicking the drumsticks four times. [[User:Beeblebrox|Beeblebrox]] ([[User talk:Beeblebrox|talk]]) 21:31, 17 December 2012 (UTC)

::The text is written for musicians as far as I can tell. My problem seems to be that it is like talking to me in Chinese when I don't know that language or telling me about colors if I'm blind. Saying that a measure is a bar does not tell me what a measure is.[[User:Kdammers|Kdammers]] ([[User talk:Kdammers|talk]]) 03:34, 31 December 2012 (UTC)

== reference needed or not for time signatures ? ==

Why do we need a reference when the value of the time signature of a piece of music is mentioned ? Wikipedia does rely on the competence of their contributors or not ? It is not difficult for a musician to know that Radiohead's 15 step is in 5/4. It belongs to the category of informations that are neither opinions neither private or "published" in any way by any entity, it is just a scientific reality. If we agree on this, I will contribute by adding a few other examples in popular music. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Laurent S. Vleminckx|Laurent S. Vleminckx]] ([[User talk:Laurent S. Vleminckx|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Laurent S. Vleminckx|contribs]]) 21:51, 27 January 2013 (UTC) 
:I think you might want to have a look at [[Talk:List of musical works in unusual time signatures]] (and especially the archives of that page) before proceeding to do what you are proposing. Wikipedia emphatically does not (and cannot) rely on the competence of their contributors, especially because there are such things as vandalism and hoaxes.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 23:26, 27 January 2013 (UTC)
::To put it another way, right or wrong you would be violating the principle of [[WP:OR|no original research]]. [[User:Beeblebrox|Beeblebrox]] ([[User talk:Beeblebrox|talk]]) 23:40, 27 January 2013 (UTC)

Thank you for your answer. As a new contributor, I will not engage myself in any troubles and respect your point of view, but if we stick to the principles of no original research, I would tell you that the meaning of my first message was precisely that I consider finding the time signature of a piece of music as a "routine calculation" as it is defined in the Wikipedia rules. I would go even further and say that it is not the fact that a score says that a song is n-tempered that makes the song actually be n-tempered : the song itself provides that information, and the source is thus a secondary source. Though, I must admit that it is true for the "n-tempered" thing but not for the time signature : a song can be attributed a few different time signatures but only one "n-tempered" number '''provided that n is a prime number''' (well here we are totally on original research :) ). That leads us to the question of the pertinence of the time signature (I would say that the only real important fact about a song would be the n-tempered number with n being a prime number) but I guess Wikipedia is not the place for such a debate. And thank you Beeblebrox for telling me that Wikipedia does not rely on the competence on the editors, I didn't know it, but I find it really sad. First because then editors are reduced to "sources finders". I thought that some editor having some knowledge in some fields could use that knowledge to enhance the community ? Besides, more generally, how can you guarantee that the journalist or whoever wrote the "source" (often citing another source) provides a more accurate information than the one directly computed by a Wikipedia contributor ?

Well, I guess there are other pages on Wikipedia where to talk about the pertinence of its principles and I guess that I should stick to the rules. Right now I have got some scorebooks so I will contribute with the few songs concerned. [[User:Laurent S. Vleminckx|Laurent S. Vleminckx]] ([[User talk:Laurent S. Vleminckx|talk]]) 00:52, 28 January 2013 (UTC)

:Welcome to the weird and wacky world of Wikipedia. I hope the frustration wears off quickly, and you find the environment congenial. The principle of "no original research" is one of the things that newcomers to Wikipedia have the greatest difficulty getting used to. It is made necessary by the "open" editing used, which requires no credentials at all of editors. Regarding some of the other questions you raise, you should have a look at the introductory paragraphs for the [[List of musical works in unusual time signatures]] and the articles [[Quintuple meter]] and [[Septuple meter]] for discussions of the "pertinence of time signatures" and their possible problematic relationship to the actual meter of any given piece of music. Keep in mind that the subject of the present article is the former rather than the latter, though their inter-relationship is of course part of the discussion.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 01:34, 28 January 2013 (UTC)

== Musical parameters in infobox ==

Musical parameters in infobox
I'm not sure of the best place to ask this, but I've started a discussion over at [[Template_talk:Infobox_song]], which essentially asks whether tempo and key should have their own parameters. — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/86.175.220.114|86.175.220.114]] ([[User talk:86.175.220.114|talk]]) 19:35, 15 March 2013 (UTC) 

== Stress and meter ==

There's an odd signature and timestamp in that section.--[[Special:Contributions/95.116.231.215|95.116.231.215]] ([[User talk:95.116.231.215|talk]]) 18:42, 4 April 2013 (UTC)
:The result of vandalism, or an extremely clumsy edit. I have reverted it. Thanks for pointing this out.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 19:00, 4 April 2013 (UTC)

== "Irrational" time signatures ==

I am going to insist on restoring my previous edits in the section on "irrational" meters. I added a link to [[dyadic rationals]], which is an article about the type of fractions that are most commonly used for time signatures. I also pointed out that so-called "irrational" time signatures are in fact precisely those which are ''not'' dyadic rationals, so that "non-dyadic" would be the mathematically proper way to refer to these fractions (rather than "irrational", which is exactly contrary to the [[Irrational number|mathematical usage of this term]]). Note that I did not attempt to rename the section, remove the "irrational" terminology, or otherwise conceal the fact that "irrational" is commonly used in this mathematically incorrect sense. My edits were entirely relevant, appropriate, and in the spirit of Wikipedia, and I object in the strongest possible terms to their reversion, especially given the presumptuous, spurious grounds cited by the user responsible ("mathematical details not helpful" -- as if that user's lack of interest in mathematics were a legitimate reason for deleting a pertinent cross-reference!). [[Special:Contributions/24.127.68.167|24.127.68.167]] ([[User talk:24.127.68.167|talk]]) 10:51, 24 May 2013 (UTC)
:This is an article about music. Whether the terminology used in music corresponds to similar terminology in other fields isn't really relevant ([[rational]] is also used in fields like psychology and economics as well, as you can see from the disambiguation page, and the page called [[irrational]] isn't even about math), and anyway dyadic rationals include numbers like 3475/65536, which isn't much help in understanding time signatures. I just don't see how including a link to this mathematical topic could assist readers in understanding even this obscure subtopic of musical time signatures. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 17:59, 24 May 2013 (UTC)
::Instead of assuming that you are in a position to know why every reader of this article is reading it, why not defer to other editors who did, in fact, happen to come upon the article as readers? There are plenty of people who are interested in the [[Music and mathematics|mathematics of music]], and they may appreciate the link simply for the background information it provides -- not necessarily because it "helps them understand" the meaning of a particular time signature. This is an encyclopedia, not a pedagogical text. (Though, frankly, I would have appreciated the terminological note even in a pedagogical text.)
::(It should also be obvious that the use of "irrational" in this context -- where it directly conflicts with the mathematical usage -- is much more problematic than the uses of this term in fields like psychology, where the meaning is simply unrelated. A note calling attention to the conflict serves to prevent confusion and is entirely appropriate.) [[Special:Contributions/24.127.68.167|24.127.68.167]] ([[User talk:24.127.68.167|talk]]) 04:58, 25 May 2013 (UTC)

::I agree. Unless there is solid evidence for good quality sources that the term 'irrational' is in general use in music we should not use terminology that conflicts with that used in mathematics. [[User:Martin Hogbin|Martin Hogbin]] ([[User talk:Martin Hogbin|talk]]) 10:10, 20 July 2014 (UTC)
:::I take it that you have not actually read the section of this article that deals with this subject. Whether or not the term is in "general use" may be debated but, as far as I am aware, there is no alternative term that may be substituted for this type of time signature. One thing that has not been pointed out here is that this use of the word "irrational" is consistent with the common musical term "[[Irrational_rhythm#Terminology|irrational rhythm]]" which, as you will discover if you follow the link to the pertinent section of that article, uses the word in a sense borrowed from ancient Greek prosody, rather than the quite different one from mathematics. You will also find that some of the alternative terms for these rhythms (ordinarily expressed by whole-number ratios) are also in conflict with mathematics, from which they ''are'' borrowed, but with misunderstandings and other distortions, piled on top of some etymological confusions perpetrated by mathematicians. Nevertheless, just as 5 + 5 = 9 in music, so has "irrational" come to signify "relationships expressed as numeric ratios".—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 20:13, 20 July 2014 (UTC)

::::Agree with Jerome, as usual, but I find it amusing that your definition of "irrational" in music is exactly what mathematicians would call "rational" — the exact opposite. Still, the less said about this topic the better. It's beyond obscure. I bet 99.9% of musicians have never encountered a non-dyadic time signature. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 18:25, 21 July 2014 (UTC)

:::::Not my definition! Not ''my'' definition!! I wash my hands of this whole sorry business. The expression has been around a lot longer than I have, and of course there is that irony. What is interesting, though, when you check the senses in the ''OED'' (which lists them in historical order) is that the prosodic sense predates the mathematical one, though in poetic analysis there is not the definition of numeric proportions—this only gets added in by the mathematically inept musicians when they borrowed the non-mathematical sense of the term. (We should keep in mind that music is an art, not a science, despite the best efforts of musicology to make it one.)—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 19:02, 21 July 2014 (UTC)

== Alla Breve, cut time ==

The second example in the table mentions '2/2' on the left and in the text, but
the rightmost column still shows a '4/4' example? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Sejtam|Sejtam]] ([[User talk:Sejtam|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Sejtam|contribs]]) 23:25, 12 August 2013 (UTC) 

== East versus West ==

I'm just some person when talking music, a complete layman, but I recently found myself in a forum where Time Signatures became relevant, yet we were still left with some unresolved issues.

The question arose when talking about the soundtrack to the film [[Akira]]. It's posted in its entirety on a youtube channel, and aroused one of the better discussions there. Almost. Some may recall the original film, but most will remember the re-dub, which came with an extensive commentary. In it, most seem to have memory of the composer interviewing about his motivation to use time signatures based on those found in ancient Japanese culture, and of those who saw it, some say this was something like 10/16 or 11/16. Does that... exist?

I noticed no mention of it, specifically, or anything regionally specific, but am wondering if the article in its current state may simply be referring to Western and/or contemporary music, or does it include such a wide description as to cover all musical possibilities?

I suppose the former would mean revision and addition, while the latter would mean... they were wrong!

[[User:WillJonassen|WillJonassen]] ([[User talk:WillJonassen|talk]]) 09:40, 29 August 2013 (UTC)

:Certainly meter ''signatures'' (such as 10/16 and 11/16) are specific to the European notation system, and therefore would have been unknown in Japan until modern times (say, the early 17th century). However, it is entirely possible that decuple or undecuple ''meters'' may have existed, or perhaps [[aksak]] rhythms whose unequal beats can be transcribed into Western notation using meters like 10/16 or 11/16. Notated examples of Japanese music date back as far as the 13th century, though to what extent rhythmic information can be reliably extracted from this notation I do not know. According to the [[Music of Japan]] article, rhythms of traditional music are "based on the intervals of human breathing rather than mathematical timing", which suggests that so specific a transcription as 11/16 would have to be very speculative. I am not very well-informed about Japanese traditional music, though, and other editors may have better information to offer.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 15:31, 29 August 2013 (UTC)

::It's still an incredible volume of information and knowledge which you've presented, and amazing how much such a response warrants continued learning. This is always great. I did some further research on my own, too, and though I lack the musical vocabulary necessary to carry on a full dialogue, the composition in question centered on the use of the Taiko drum ensemble juxtaposed with the human voice. The Taiko drum, of course, goes naturally with some serious energy. If it follows the breathing of anything, really, it would have to be a herd of stampeding horses, but that's just a side observation. Your mention of "human breathing" intervals does make a certain sort of sense in this context, in fact, as the goal of the film score had been to fully utilize the human vocal chord as an instrument unto itself. Check it out sometime, by the way - it's pure magic with or without the film. To your historical notes, though, those still remain interesting dates, as even the 17th century's point of development would place a new form's popular and cultural usage within a feudal state. A traditionally minded state. It could be a simple matter of untranslatable context, as well, being communicated to an English speaking audience which then led to a confusion. To finalize my own point and original question, still, relating to the aforementioned, it's good to know that there is a specific link to extra-cultural references of this sort. Music of Japan is exactly what I'll check out next - and in the future, I'll have a better grip on where to search for a starting point without assuming any one single article is all-inclusive, thanks to your example.

:::I appreciate the sincere effort, sincerely.

[[User:WillJonassen|WillJonassen]] ([[User talk:WillJonassen|talk]]) 16:55, 3 September 2013 (UTC)

::You are very welcome. Just one cautionary note: the [[Taiko#Kumi-daiko|Taiko drum ensemble]] only first came into existence in 1951. While it does draw on some aspects of traditional Japanese music, what they play is a modern interpretation, and the movement has also been "globalized", which means that elements from other cultural streams have influenced performances by such groups.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 17:06, 3 September 2013 (UTC)

:::Well, that's just hilarious. I can only assume, then, that the speaker (Musical Director [[Shoji Yamashiro]]), who conducted the interview in truncated English, had only made a misstep in his attempt to describe what was a massive project with a very wide and original scope. I suppose that's why no such information could be found... Oh, life. You so and so...
[[User:WillJonassen|WillJonassen]] ([[User talk:WillJonassen|talk]]) 17:13, 3 September 2013 (UTC)

== "Note values don't match with actual values" ==

In a request for clarification, [[User:70.88.200.134]] states that "note values don't match with actual values" in this passage:
:* The ''lower'' numeral indicates the [[note value]] that represents one [[beat (music)|beat]] (the ''beat unit''). {{Clarify|date=January 2014}}
:* The ''upper'' numeral indicates how many such beats there are in a [[bar (music)|bar]].
:For instance, {{music|time|2|4}} means two [[quarter-note]] (crotchet) beats per bar—{{music|time|3|8}} means three [[eighth-note]] (quaver) beats per bar.
This request needs some clarification, I think. In what way does the /4 not match a quarter note (crotchet), and /8 not match an eighth note (quaver)? Or am I missing something here? Is "actual value" some sort of specialized technical term I don't understand?—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 06:33, 13 January 2014 (UTC)
:Perhaps the reference is to compound meters. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 00:03, 15 January 2014 (UTC)
::That's what I thought at first, but if this is the case, the flag is placed in the wrong section: it is here, in the section on [[Time signature#Simple time signatures|simple time signatures]].—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 01:02, 15 January 2014 (UTC)
:Conversely, maybe it's a challenge to the concept of [[beat (music)|beat]], which doesn't always line up with the time-signature value. There's plenty of music in 4/4 which is experienced as two beats to the bar, and plenty of 3/4 (or 3/8) music which is one beat to the bar, etc. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 23:19, 15 January 2014 (UTC)
::Possibly, though neither "note values" nor "actual values" seem directly to signify the lower numeral in a time signature. I do wish [[User:70.88.200.134]] would chime in here and explain what the problem is. Failing clarification, I think the flag ought to be simply removed.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 00:11, 16 January 2014 (UTC)
:In other words, you want to flag the clarification flag for clarification :-) —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 16:50, 16 January 2014 (UTC)
::LOL! Yes, I guess that is exactly what I want to do!—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 00:40, 17 January 2014 (UTC)

== West Side Story ==

At long last, I have finally replaced the contrived example of "America" from [[West Side Story]], which showed both 6/8 and 3/4 signatures at the beginning, with an example from Tchaikovsky. In fact, "America" is written just in 6/8. I've been meaning to fix this for years. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 19:28, 2 June 2014 (UTC)

== Meter/time signature ==

Is this and [[WP:Engvar]] thing. In the UK, the numbers at the start of a line of music are generally called the 'time signature'. 'Meter' is used though. [[User:Martin Hogbin|Martin Hogbin]] ([[User talk:Martin Hogbin|talk]]) 10:05, 20 July 2014 (UTC)

== Removal of (clarification needed) tag ==

Without reading this talk page first, I have removed the (clarification needed) tag from the section "Simple time signatures" because there is a perfect (in terms of function) explanation just two lines below. [[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] was on the right track by suggesting that the tag be removed. The editor who placed the tag in the first instance appears to be failing to understand the subject. We are advised to "Be Bold" and ... er .. I was. Any editor who wishes to revert my edit needs to come up with a very good rationale. In other words: Don't waste our time! [[User:CaesarsPalaceDude|CaesarsPalaceDude]] ([[User talk:CaesarsPalaceDude|talk]]) 02:58, 27 September 2014 (UTC)
:Bless you, my son.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 05:40, 27 September 2014 (UTC)
::I won't change it back, but the article, especially the lede, is still pretty much opaque to all but initiates. Maybe you musicians should sit down with a nonmusical person and have them try to understand the article. I think you'll find out how confusing it is.[[User:Kdammers|Kdammers]] ([[User talk:Kdammers|talk]]) 14:08, 27 September 2014 (UTC)
:Finally, someone who actually does not find this sentence perfectly clear has chimed in! Thank you for stepping forward. Please explain to the rest of us what is opaque about the words "numeral", "note value", or "beat", so that we can rewrite this sentence in a way that you can understand it. There are already links to the articles [[Note value]] and [[Beat (music)]], where explanations of those terms are given. Surely "numeral" cannot be unfamiliar. Does "lower numeral" not clearly indicate the number at the bottom of the signature? If w cannot get past this sentence, then there is no chance at all of dealing with the lede, which I admit looks cluttered and confusing, but mainly because of the many badly formatted time-signature examples in its last paragraph. Here again there are many links to terms that beginners might find unfamiliar, but very little that I can identify as "opaque to all but initiates". Could you please be more specific?—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 22:24, 27 September 2014 (UTC)
::I don't want to go on and on on this, but I'll try to make clear what isn't clear. beat and bar/measure are unclear ( a beat is something measured by measures, which measure beats - except when they don't because 2/2 time is or is not the same as 4/4 time) and C [probably totally unknown to anyt nonmusicians including those who took two or three years of piano) and 3/4 are still left sounding like they may the the same thing. We exchanged comments on this a couple of years ago, but you don't see that the links don't help, and I don't see how they help. I think the best way to handle this is as I mentioned before: have one of the editors who understand this sit get together in real time with a nonmusician or two and see where they struggle. (Trying to do this long-distance is at least as frustrating as for non-computer people trying to get help from geeks over the Internet.) And, yes, the visual impact dramatically raises the affective filter of a non-insider. [[User:Kdammers|Kdammers]] ([[User talk:Kdammers|talk]]) 00:47, 28 September 2014 (UTC)
:If this muddled account is what it says in the article "Beat (music)" (and I admit I have not checked to verify this), then that article is sorely in need of correction. A beat is not "measured by measures". A beat is simply a periodic pulse, like the ticking of a clock. I admit this is proving difficult for a musician to discuss with a non-musician, especially when I cannot tap on the table-top between us to demonstrate the difference between a regular (periodic) pulse and a series of taps with different intervals of time between them. Does the "Beat (music)" article really make such a shambles of explaining this? I shall have to go and see but, if it does, the problem clearly must be there and not here. All that is at issue here is what symbol is assigned to this counting value (called a "beat"). It is not the purpose of this article to make an elaborate explanation of this basic element of musical rhythm.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 02:25, 28 September 2014 (UTC)
:I have just checked the "Beat (music)" article, and indeed it is even worse than you suggested. It is one of the most badly written ledes I have seen on any subject. Although everything in it is perfectly true, it unnecessarily introduces at the outset a whole collection of abstruse terms that appear to serve no purpose other than to prevent readers from progressing any further. I think the most helpful thing we could do here is to remove the link to this infected and confusing article, until such time as it has been hospitalised and successfully treated. The concept of "beat" is one of the simplest and easiest-to-understand aspects in all of music theory. Only a gang of Wikipedia editors could succeed in making it incomprehensible.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 03:00, 28 September 2014 (UTC)
::This article is about as clear as mud. Try writing it more clearly. [[Special:Contributions/76.126.195.34|76.126.195.34]] ([[User talk:76.126.195.34|talk]]) 04:45, 16 August 2016 (UTC)
:::Thank you for your constructive criticism. Given that there are nine major section, could we start at the beginning? The first sentence reads: "The time signature (also known as meter signature,[1] metre signature,[2] or measure signature[3]) is a notational convention used in Western musical notation to specify how many beats (pulses) are to be contained in each bar and which note value is to be given one beat." What do you find unclear about this (admittendly rather long) sentence?—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 04:59, 16 August 2016 (UTC)

== Yet another undefined term: hypermeter ==
The word hypermeter is used without explanation or link. [[Special:Contributions/69.247.14.176|69.247.14.176]] ([[User talk:69.247.14.176|talk]]) 22:53, 16 December 2014 (UTC)
:Right you are. I have added a link.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 23:04, 16 December 2014 (UTC)

== Progressive rock ==
Probably 21/8 in [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3kUhhPXIkRE&t=48s Wakeman's Anne of Cleves] is also worth mentioning. [[User:Fedorkov Dmitry|Fedorkov Dmitry]] ([[User talk:Fedorkov Dmitry|talk]]) 17:43, 30 March 2015 (UTC)
:See [[List of musical works in unusual time signatures]]. But you'd need documentation. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 23:32, 30 March 2015 (UTC)

==Order of explantion==
In an edit note, Jerome Kohl says "(changed order of presentation for clarity (explain first what it is we are going to count before explaining the counting itself)--the editorial note already refers to this)"

Could someone please indicate where it explains how the counting will go? I'm not seeing it. What I see see is someone explaining the lower number before the upper number. This isn't how we read this, and it isn't how we say it. 7/8 time isn't called "eight under seven time", it's "seven eight". — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:HacksawPC|HacksawPC]] ([[User talk:HacksawPC|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/HacksawPC|contribs]]) 07:56, 6 April 2015 (UTC) 

:If you were explaining to someone what a "grove of trees" was, would you insist on explaining the word "grove" first because it comes first in the phrase? If someone wasn't clear what a "tree" was, that would be difficult. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 18:17, 6 April 2015 (UTC)

== math ==

Maybe this is article not the appropriate place to answer this question, but I would think it would be clear to someone reading it (but it isn't to me). What if any difference is there between 2/2 and 4/4 (or 3/4 and 6/8 etc.) is there? [[Special:Contributions/64.53.191.77|64.53.191.77]] ([[User talk:64.53.191.77|talk]]) 03:27, 7 April 2015 (UTC)
:Do not confuse time signatures with mathematics. If the differences between these pairs of meters is not made clear by the article, then the article needs improvement. Can you please re-read the relevant sections, and then point out what parts are unclear?—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 04:45, 7 April 2015 (UTC)
::I'd agree that the difference between 6/8 and 3/4 is made explicit in the text, but not so for 2/2 and 4/4; in fact, the example shown in the table for 2/2 time is notated with a 4/4 time signature, a situation certain to confuse readers. Are they interchangeable or not? (Hint: sometimes). I'd say most musicians are pretty hazy on the distinction between 2/2 and 4/4 in practice, although they could cite the textbook difference. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 17:29, 7 April 2015 (UTC)
:::I'll have to take a closer look, I guess, but I thought the text was fairly plain that the upper numeral indicates the number of beats in the bar, and 2 ≠ 4. In practice, I find that the main areas of ambiguity are not with these specific time signatures (at least, not in "classical" music), but rather with whether the symbols {{Music|common-time}} and {{Music|cut-time}} should really be interpreted as 4/4 and 2/2, respectively. This is particularly ambiguous in the case of eighteenth-century music, of course. Is it appropriate, though, to go into such detail here, or is the "textbook definition" really sufficient?—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 23:06, 7 April 2015 (UTC)
::::Closer look taken, and I see what you mean about the 4/4 example illustrating the 2/2 block in the table. It is clearly a misplaced example, and should be moved to the 4/4 section. It looks like it may have been put there in confusion over the use of "duple" as a category encompassing all "even" meters, in opposition to "triple" for "odd" meters.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 23:11, 7 April 2015 (UTC)
::Yes, this is the right article to address ambiguities in C and C-slash, although it could be relegated to a lower-down section. Even Brahms used C-slash to mean 4/2 sometimes, so it's not exclusively an early-music thing. As for the difference between 2/2 and 4/4, I guess the textbook difference will have to suffice, but it begs the question of why one would choose one rather than the other: what's the ''practical'' difference between them? The upper number doesn't ''necessarily'' indicate the number of beats in a bar, e.g. 6/8 frequently only has two beats, and it's not that hard to find pieces notated in 4/4 which are really two beats to the bar, but the determination of what is a [[beat (music)|beat]] is a slippery slope. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 20:53, 8 April 2015 (UTC)
[[File:Brahms_Requiem_Excerpt.png|center]]
:::A salutary example, thanks for that. It reminds me that on occasion Brahms could be an historist composer (like Bruckner). The notation obviously refers back to the 16th century sources of aspects of that particular Brahms work. Should we also bring in Brahms's liking for dotting notes across barlines?—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 06:20, 9 April 2015 (UTC)
::::" and it's not that hard to find pieces notated in 4/4 which are really two beats to the bar," -- I have no idea what all this means. I thought that a beat is a stressed note, so 2/2 would be Stress, unstress {by the way, can it be unstress, Stress??} versus 4/4, which would be Stress, unstress, unstress, unstress; but the text I just quoted seems to contradict that idea. {Does stress simply mean louder?} [[Special:Contributions/76.126.195.34|76.126.195.34]] ([[User talk:76.126.195.34|talk]]) 04:49, 16 August 2016 (UTC)
:::::A beat is regarded as stressed in comparison to parts of the bar that are not on a beat. On the other hand, some beats may be stressed more than others. Stress does not necessarily mean louder, but that can be am important component. In 4/4 time, beat one is the primary stress, but beat three has secondary stress. Beats two and four are regarded as unstressed. Under some circumstances (a faster tempo, for example) the unstressed second and fourth beats can diminish in importance until they feel less like beats and more like fractions of beats, leaving just the first and third quarter notes of the bar seeming like "beats". There will still be the relative sense of strength: a stronger first beat, and a weaker, but still stressed, second beat. Clear now?—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 05:11, 16 August 2016 (UTC)

== Irrational meters ==

Since there was no example previously, I have added a theoretical one. It may not be ideal in its notation. [[User:Double sharp|Double sharp]] ([[User talk:Double sharp|talk]]) 15:04, 4 June 2016 (UTC)

== No TS? ==

Does Western music always have a time signature? I can't hear a repeating stress pattern in a lot of music. Is that because there is no set time signature, or is that a problem in my hearing? [[Special:Contributions/76.126.195.34|76.126.195.34]] ([[User talk:76.126.195.34|talk]]) 04:53, 16 August 2016 (UTC)
:The short answer is "No." There are pieces of music and even whole genres that are notated without a time signature, and are not meant to have a regular metrical structure ()see "free rhythm" [[Metre_(music)#Metric_structure here]]. That said, this is not very common in Western music, so it is also possible that you are somehow not observing a recurring pattern that is actually present.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 05:21, 16 August 2016 (UTC)
::Also, technically speaking, a time signature is a notational device, so it is sometimes omitted even when there is a regular [[Meter (music)|meter]], for example in church hymnals or lead sheets for pop music. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 17:05, 27 December 2016 (UTC)

== timey-wimey nonlinear history ==

:{{xt|The first deliberate quintuple meter pieces were apparently published in Spain between 1516 and 1520, though other authorities reckon that the Delphic Hymns to Apollo (one by Athenaeus is entirely in quintuple meter, the other by Limenius predominantly so), carved on the exterior walls of the Athenian Treasury at Delphi in 128 BC, are probably earlier.}}

It does not surprise me that some authorities reckon that something written in 128 BC is probably older than something published in AD 1516. What is this sentence trying to say? That the Delphic examples were long not recognized as quintuple? That not everyone agrees that they are quintuple? —[[User:Tamfang|Tamfang]] ([[User talk:Tamfang|talk]]) 00:53, 26 February 2017 (UTC)

:OK, I hold my hands up on this one. What you have left out is the "[[Wikipedia:Reliable Sources|reliable source]]" quoted in footnote number 8 immediately following the year 1520: "Tim Emmons, ''Odd Meter Bass: Playing Odd Time Signatures Made Easy'' (Van Nuys: Alfred Publishing, 2008): 4." This source declares outright that quintuple meter only first appears in Spain in the 16th century. This ''citation'' is an incontrovertible "fact", and I could not resist pointing out the slightly earlier examples (also with a reliable source: ''Documents of Ancient Greek Music: The Extant Melodies and Fragments'', edited and transcribed with commentary by Egert Pöhlmann and Martin L. West [Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2001]: 70–71 and 85) that make this claim seem rather foolish. This, by the way, is one example of why I personally dislike tucking away source citations in footnotes: they are too easy to overlook and, under Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Verifiability, not truth|verifiability, not truth]] policy, such "reliable sources" should be made as visible as possible (without, of course, disrupting readability). [[Parenthetical referencing]] serves this purpose much better than footnotes.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 22:46, 26 February 2017 (UTC)

::All very amusing, but it seems legitimate to say that these Spanish items are the first ''published'' examples and suggest at least a local practice of these irregular meters, whereas ancient inscriptions don't meet most people's definition of "publishing" and tell us little about musical practice in the ancient world. The question of inline citations is a red herring.
::This sentence could easily be edited to reflect this, in part by removing "probably" near the end, removing "deliberately" near the beginning (were there accidental ones?), and removing "other authorities reckon that" from the middle. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 23:52, 27 February 2017 (UTC)

:The question of what constitutes "published" is relevant here because, although the cited source (Emmons) does not actually say so, the 16th-century collection is the ''[[Cancionero de Palacio]]'', which is a manuscript, not a printed book. As such, engraving musical compositions on the wall of a public place (in the case of the Delphic Hymns, a temple to Apollo) would just as plausibly constitute "publication" in the ancient world as the copying of a manucript in the 16th century. Keep in mind that, at the time the ''Cancionero'' was initially copied, music printing did not yet exist. I would suggest it makes better sense to strike everying from the Emmons source, on grounds of unreliability, and accept the Pöhlmann and West citation as authoritative.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 03:50, 28 February 2017 (UTC)

::I think it's safe to say that both the Delphi and the Spanish examples are anomalous uses, as far as we know. I'd vote to keep the reference. I've rewritten the sentence to remove the word "first", although that whole paragraph is a list of everybody's favorite examples thrown together higgledy-piggledy. I was under the impression that "publishing" meant something different from "printing," but now that I look under Publishing in Harvard Dictionary, I see they're essentially synonymous. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 21:22, 1 March 2017 (UTC)

::Just for fun, here's an example from Handel's opera ''Orlando'', published in 1733:
[[File:Handel Orlando excerpt.png]]
::—[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 21:53, 1 March 2017 (UTC)

:::Yes, this example is discussed in the article [[Quintuple meter]]. I gree that the Spanish examples ''may'' be anomalous (though, again, see the discussion of Spanish traditional music in the Quintuple meter article). The Delphic examples certainly are not anomalous, since the [[Cretic]] meter in which they are composed is reasonably common in ancient Greek poetry, and specifically in [[paean]]s (which both hymns are).—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 23:53, 1 March 2017 (UTC)

== Move discussion in progress ==

There is a move discussion in progress on [[Talk:Commontime (album)#Requested move 30 December 2017 |Talk:Commontime (album)]] which affects this page. Please participate on that page and not in this talk page section. Thank you.  —[[User:RMCD bot|RMCD bot]] 21:33, 30 December 2017 (UTC)

== Importance ==

This article is listed as being at mid-important. Clicking on the links, I couldn't find a definition of high/mid etc., but intuitively, I don't understand why this article, if I understand what it is about (the basic way the rhythm of music is shown in Western notation?), is not listed as being of high importance. [[User:Kdammers|Kdammers]] ([[User talk:Kdammers|talk]]) 09:05, 10 March 2018 (UTC)

== Mission: Impossible Theme ==

I edited the page to say it was in 10/8, rather than 5/4, as this is how it is felt, grouping 3+3+2+2. It may be written in 5/4 with syncopation (I have seen the score), however this is misleading and the way beats are grouped in 5/4 is different from 10/8, which makes it very frustrating to play when written as such. The beats of 5/4 just don't line up with the way you feel the song, which is more important than how it is written; you can write 9/8, but it can felt in 3+3+3, or less commonly some permutation of 2+2+2+3, which has a very different feel (3 triplets vs. a slightly stilted, lengthened 4/4). Edit: wow I messed up, I was not given feedback that my section had been posted, rather given a conflicting edit error, and didn't tell me anything was posted, so I tried again. Nice. [[User:Torzod|Torzod]] ([[User talk:Torzod|talk]]) 02:27, 9 October 2019 (UTC)
:On Wikipedia, what matters most are [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|reliable sources]]. If you have one to cover this situation, it would make a welcome addition to the article.—[[User:Jerome Kohl|Jerome Kohl]] ([[User talk:Jerome Kohl|talk]]) 02:37, 9 October 2019 (UTC)

== and ==

What does "and" mean in " one and two and three and"? [[Special:Contributions/2600:6C67:1C00:300:7830:E76D:2A41:8E86|2600:6C67:1C00:300:7830:E76D:2A41:8E86]] ([[User talk:2600:6C67:1C00:300:7830:E76D:2A41:8E86|talk]]) 04:09, 24 March 2022 (UTC)

:It's just a way to pulse on the half-beats. The word has no denotative meaning. —[[User:Wahoofive|Wahoofive]] ([[User talk:Wahoofive|talk]]) 21:47, 24 March 2022 (UTC)

== 12/8 time ==

The 12/8 example given, 'The Irish Washerwoman' is a jig, and jigs are normally notated 6/8. Slides (type of Irish dance tune) are notated in 12/8, so I suggest using 'Star above the Garter' [ref: https://www.irishtune.info/tune/1829/] which is a 'slide'. [[User:Squike|squike]] ([[User talk:Squike|talk]]) 14:24, 9 September 2022 (UTC)

BIOPAT – Patrons for Biodiversity

2022-06-07T16:00:54Z

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{{Short description|Fund-raising organisation for the study of biodiversity}}
{{Infobox organization
|name = BIOPAT – Patrons for Biodiversity
|logo = BIOPAT logo.jpg
|type = [[Voluntary association]]
|founded_date = December 1999
|founder = Claus Bätke, Frank Glaw, Jörn Köhler
|first president = Claus Bätke
|focus = [[Environmentalism]]
|Non-profit_slogan = Patrons for Biodiversity
|homepage = [http://www.biopat.de www.biopat.de]
}}

'''BIOPAT''' is non-profit-making association set up to raise funds, through donation, for use in studying [[biodiversity]], systematically describing it, and supporting its preservation.

== History ==

BIOPAT was founded in 1999 by an international group of scientists and institutions and sponsored by the [[Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit]] (GIZ). The concept was initially proposed by Dr. Frank Glaw and Dr. Jörn Köhler in 1998 based on an idea of Professor [[Gerhard Haszprunar]] of the State Zoological Collection in Munich. Recognizing the importance of additional funding for taxonomic research to ensure the protection of biodiversity despite declining public support, they proposed a model whereby benefactors would provide funds for taxonomic research and nature conservation in exchange for a new species being named after them.

Similar models have since been adopted by other international environmental and biodiversity organizations, including the [[Wildlife Conservation Society]], the [[Audubon Society]], and [[Purdue University]]. It has also been the subject of a paper by the United Nations Environmental Programme <ref name="fundingecologicalresearch">{{cite web|accessdate=June 18, 2011|url=http://www.unep.org/dec/onlinemanual/Enforcement/InstitutionalFrameworks/EconomicInstruments/Resource/tabid/1014/Default.aspx|title=Financing conservation efforts by selling naming rights of new species}}</ref>

== Funding and accountability ==

The majority of BIOPAT’s income comes from benefactors who provide funds in exchange for a species being named after them by scientists. 50% of this money goes to support taxonomy and biodiversity research, the other half is used in support of nature conservation projects. All members of the Association, including the Scientific Advisory Council, provide their service on a volunteer basis and are not compensated.

To date, over 120 species have been sponsored by BIOPAT.

BIOPAT adheres to the [[International Non-Governmental Organisations (INGO) Commitment to Accountability Charter]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ingoaccountabilitycharter.org/list-of-signatories/ |title=INGO Accountability Charter member organisations |access-date=2011-07-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322152643/http://www.ingoaccountabilitycharter.org/list-of-signatories/ |archive-date=2012-03-22 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Image gallery==
Examples of species named through the BIOPAT initiative:
<gallery>

Image: Dendropsophus joannae.jpg|Dendropsophus joannae

</gallery>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:BIOPAT - Patrons for Biodiversity}}
[[Category:Biodiversity]]
[[Category:Environmental organisations based in Germany]]
[[Category:Non-profit organisations based in North Rhine-Westphalia]]
[[Category:Sustainability organizations]]
[[Category:1999 establishments in Germany]]

Chiniguchi Waterway Provincial Park

2022-06-07T15:58:59Z

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{{Short description|Wilderness park in Ontario, Canada}}
{{Infobox protected area
| name = Chiniguchi Waterway Provincial Park
| iucn_category = II
| photo = Wolf Lake, Chiniguchi.jpg
| photo_caption = View of Wolf Lake
| location = [[Sudbury District]], [[Ontario]], [[Canada]]
| nearest_city = [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]], [[Ontario]]
| map = Ontario
| coordinates = {{coords|46|50|N|80|33|W|display=inline, title}}
| area = {{convert|9368|ha|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| established = 2006<ref>{{cite web|url=http://protectedplanet.net/sites/Chiniguchi_Provincial_Park_Waterway |title=Chiniguchi Provincial Park - Waterway |work=Protected Planet |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6SB4WuxkE?url=http://protectedplanet.net/sites/Chiniguchi_Provincial_Park_Waterway |archivedate=29 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body = [[Ontario Parks]]
}}

The '''Chiniguchi Waterway Provincial Park''' consists of {{convert|9368|ha|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref>[http://www.ottertooth.com/Temagami/News/06/chini-park.htm New Chiniguichi River Waterway], Ottertooth.com
</ref> of protected wilderness along the Chiniguchi River, Maskinonge Lake, Kukagami Lake, Wolf Lake and Matagamasi Lake in the [[Sudbury District]] of [[Ontario]], that includes 336 hectares of Forest Reserve. The park is one of the several [[provincial park]]s located in the [[Greater Sudbury|Sudbury]] area.<ref>[http://www.ontla.on.ca/library/repository/mon/11000/254151.pdf Chiniguchi Waterway Provincial Park Fact Sheet], Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources</ref> It is managed by [[Ontario Parks]]. It contains the largest stand of old growth Red Pines.<ref>[http://www.ottertooth.com/Temagami/Sites/chini5.htm Wolf Lake's Old Growth Red Pine], Ottertooth.com</ref>

This river is only suitable for backcountry canoeists; there are no facilities in the park. Canoeists should be able to [[portage]].

<gallery>
File:Logging chute, Chiniguchi.jpg|Logging chute
Falls, Paradice Lagoon, Chiniguchi.jpg|Falls at Paradise Lagoon
</gallery>

==Wolf Lake Forest Reserve==
The Wolf Lake Forest Reserve contains the world's largest remaining old-growth red pine forest; containing trees up to 300 years old.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2013-07-14|title=New research: Wolf Lake ancient forest is endangered ecosystem|url=https://go.gale.com/ps/i.do?p=AONE&sw=w&issn=19442599&v=2.1&it=r&id=GALE%7CA336760051&sid=googleScholar&linkaccess=abs|journal=NewsRx Health & Science|language=English|pages=107–107}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{official website|https://www.ontarioparks.com/park/chiniguchiwaterway}}
*[http://www.ottertooth.com/Temagami/News/06/chini-park.htm New Chiniguichi River Waterway], Ottertooth.com

{{Ontario parks}}

[[Category:Provincial parks of Ontario]]
[[Category:Parks in Sudbury District]]
[[Category:Parks in Greater Sudbury]]
[[Category:Protected areas established in 2006]]
[[Category:2006 establishments in Ontario]]

{{Ontario-geo-stub}}
{{Canada-protected-area-stub}}

Sandhøkalvane Nunataks

2022-06-07T15:55:08Z

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{{Short description|Geomorphological features in the Antarctic}}
'''Sandhøkalvane Nunataks''' ({{coord|71|46|S|9|55|E|display=inline,title}}) is a group of [[nunatak]]s located {{convert|4|nmi|km}} northeast of [[Sandhø Heights]], lying between the [[Conrad Mountains]] and [[Mount Dallmann]] in [[Queen Maud Land]]. They were discovered and photographed by the [[New Swabia#German Antarctic Expedition (1938–1939)|German Antarctic Expedition]] in 1938–39, and mapped by Norway from air photos and surveys by the [[Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition|Norwegian Antarctic Expedition]], 1956–60, and named ''Sandhøkalvane'' ("the sand heights calves").

==References==
{{usgs-gazetteer|id=13248}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sandhokalvane Nunataks}}
[[Category:Nunataks of Queen Maud Land]]
[[Category:Princess Astrid Coast]]

{{PrincessAstridCoast-geo-stub}}

Powell-Cotton Ethnographic Films

2022-06-07T15:53:49Z

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{{Short description|Ethnographic and wildlife films from the mid-20th century}}
The '''Powell-Cotton ethnographic films''' is a collection of over 70 [[ethnographic film|ethnographic]], [[Documentary film|documentary]] and [[wildlife]] films made by the Powell-Cotton family between 1922 and 1973. The films relate exclusively to the family's expeditions in Africa during this time. The original films are held in the [[British Film Institute]] archives, and the [[Powell-Cotton Museum]] own copies contemporaneous with the originals.<ref>[http://www.cornucopia.org.uk/html/search/verb/GetRecord/5597 Powell-Cotton Photographic Collection Summary, Cornucopia: Museums Libraries Archives Council] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130707072843/http://www.cornucopia.org.uk/html/search/verb/GetRecord/5597 |date=2013-07-07 }}</ref>

==Context==
Between 1887 and 1939 [[Percy Powell-Cotton|Major Percy H G Powell-Cotton]] undertook a total of 28 expeditions to Africa and Asia.<ref>[http://southernsudan.prm.ox.ac.uk/biography/cotton/ Percy Horace Gordon Powell-Cotton (1866-1940), Southern Sudan, Pitts Rivers Museum]</ref> Alongside the extensive collection of game and animal specimens he bought back, Major Powell-Cotton also shot several reels of 16mm film footage whilst out in the bush.

His films mainly depict African game and wildlife, as well as market scenes, craft making and tribal ceremonies from the African rural communities. One particular film, ''Gorilla Drive, Cameroons'', is believed to be the only one of its subject from this date in existence. It shows the mustering of the animals by the local people, their herding and despatch by the natives with spears.<ref name="AxtonColin">Axton, Colin, Movie Film List, Powell-Cotton Museum, Quex Park, 2008</ref>

Powell-Cotton made 17 films in total, either independently or together with his daughter Diana or wife Hannah. All the films are 16mm black and white silent films, made in a non-narrative documentary style. The major also shot all his films using a handheld, windup Bell & Howell Filmo 70 camera, which is currently on display in the Powell-Cotton museum. The first recorded use of colour film was in 1950’s in the film ''South Africa: Victoria Falls & Livingstone Game Park'' made by Christopher and Diana Powell-Cotton.<ref name="AxtonColin" />

Most of the films in the collection were made for private viewing only and for the purposes recording keeping from the expeditions. However, Major Powell-Cotton did present several of his films to the [[Royal Anthropological Institute]] in 1932, including ''Crafts in the Cameroons'' (1931) and ''Osonigbe Juju House and Benin Brass Cutting'' (1931).<ref name="AxtonColin" />

==Angola==
The most notable films of the collection are those by Major Powell-Cotton’s daughters, [[Diana and Antoinette Powell-Cotton]] from their expeditions to Angola in 1936 and 1937.

The result of their trips was just under three hours of edited black-and-white 16mm film, accompanied by nearly 3,000 objects and 2,000 photographs. The films portray local ceremonies, craft-working and family life in rural Africa. Together they provide a unique record of the region at a crucial time in its history, before the full impact of the massive cultural changes brought about by missionization and colonial rule.<ref name="aspiremuseum.nsms">[http://aspiremuseum.nsms.ox.ac.uk/case-study-1-powell-cotton-museum Case-study 1: Powell-Cotton Museum, Oxford Aspire Museums] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20130706201930/http://aspiremuseum.nsms.ox.ac.uk/case-study-1-powell-cotton-museum |date=2013-07-06 }}</ref>

Diana and Antoinette filmed their entire footage on a single, small windup Kodak cine camera which is currently on display in the Powell-Cotton museum. The sisters were not able to review or edit any footage on location, and so were constantly anxious they had not captured the events and activities in Angola successfully. They only edited their footage on their return, and would give private viewings accompanied by music and live narration to family members in their screen room which is now Gallery 4 in the Powell-Cotton museum.<ref>Diana and Antoinette – Angola 1936 & 1937, Gallery 4, Powell-Cotton Museum, Quex Park, Birchington</ref>

==Exhibitions and projects==
Some of the Powell-Cotton films are shown as part of the permanent exhibition at the [[Powell-Cotton Museum]].

The Angolan film collection by the Powell-Cotton sisters was also the focus of the special exhibition ‘Tala! Visions of Angola’ which was held at the Powell-Cotton Museum from May to November 2012.<ref>[http://www.quexmuseum.org/UserFiles/file/Press%20Release/Tala%20PR%20(2).pdf Tala! Visions of Angola, Press Release, Powell-Cotton Museum, April 2012]</ref>

The exhibition was awarded National Lottery Heritage Funding and was co-curated with the Angolan Cultural Foundation and the Angolan Embassy. Commenting on the exhibition, the curators said:

“The objects we had access to, were made by somebody’s great grandmother or great grandfather. They deserve to be seen and remembered by their rightful ancestors as well as the wider public. Just as importantly, the Angolan community here in the UK have a right to be involved in the decisions made about the collection. This is after all their history.”<ref>[http://www.quexmuseum.org/home/copy-of-museum.aspx Tala! Visions of Angola, Special Events and Exhibitions, Powell-Cotton Museum, Quex Park, official website]</ref>

In connection with the exhibition, a research project entitled ‘Looking Back to Find Them Looking Forward: The Visionary Powell-Cotton Sisters’ and was in collaboration with the [[Pitt Rivers Museum]], University of Oxford.

The project and exhibition aimed to highlight the importance of the daughters collecting practises and material they brought back, especially their ethnographic films. As Oxford Aspire stated in an article on the project;

‘The sisters’ collecting practice was visionary in that it placed photography and film-making in a central role in the collection of material culture, something few other museum collections were doing at the time. As a result their collection represents a significant part of the film and museum heritage of the county. Until this new project, however, their achievements were not recognised in the galleries of the Powell-Cotton Museum.’<ref name="aspiremuseum.nsms" />

==Filmography==
See [[Powell-Cotton filmography]]

==See also==
*[[Powell-Cotton Museum]], [[Quex Park]]
*[[Percy Powell-Cotton|Major Percy H. G. Powell-Cotton]]
*[[Diana and Antoinette Powell-Cotton]]
*[[Visual anthropology]]
*[[Ethnographic film]]

==Bibliography==
Miller, Ben, ‘"Extraordinary" Tala show brings Visions of Angola to Kent's Powell-Cotton Museum’ on Culture 24, 22 May 2012

Legrand, Louise, Annette, Diana and Antoinette Powell-Cotton: 'interested amateurs'? MA Thesis, University of Kent, 2008

Powell Cotton Museum, Illustrated guide to the Powell-Cotton Museum natural history and ethnography, Quex Park, Birchington, The Museum, 1969

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.bfi.org.uk/archive-collections BFI Archive]
*[http://www.quexpark.co.uk/ Powell Cotton Museum official website]

[[Category:Film archives]]
[[Category:Documentary film series]]
[[Category:British Film Institute]]

MIMEDefang

2022-06-07T15:51:12Z

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{{Short description|email filtering software framework}}
{{Infobox software
| name = MIMEDefang
| logo = Mimedefang-logo.png
| screenshot =
| caption =
| collapsible =
| author =
| developer = Dianne Skoll, Dave O'Neill, Faraz Vahabzadeh, Giovanni Bechis, Bill Cole, Kevin A. McGrail
| released =
| latest release version = 2.86
| latest release date = {{release_date|2021|12|17}}<ref>{{cite mailing list|url=https://lists.mimedefang.org/pipermail/mimedefang_lists.mimedefang.org/2021-December/029705.html|mailing-list=mimedefang|date=17 December 2021|title=MIMEDefang 2.86 released|first=Giovanni|last=Bechis}}</ref>
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date =
| frequently updated =
| programming language = [[C (programming language)|C]], [[Perl]]
| operating system =
| platform =
| size =
| language =
| status =
| genre = Mail filtering
| license = [[GNU General Public License]]
| website = {{url|https://mimedefang.org/}}
}}
{{Portal|Free and open-source software}}
'''MIMEDefang''' is a [[GNU General Public License|GPL]] [[software license|licensed]] framework for [[e-mail filtering|filtering]] [[e-mail]]. It uses [[sendmail]]'s "[[Milter]]" [[API]], some [[C (programming language)|C]] [[glue code]], and some Perl code to let the user write high-performance mail filters in [[Perl]].<ref>{{cite web|title=MIMEDefang |url=http://www.mimedefang.org/ |accessdate=21 May 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6PkMh9qCN?url=http://www.mimedefang.org/ |archivedate=21 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

MIMEDefang can be used to:<ref name="FAQ">{{cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://www.mimedefang.org/faq |accessdate=21 May 2014 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/6PkMkjGWU?url=http://www.mimedefang.org/faq |archivedate=21 May 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Block [[Computer virus|viruses]] (e.g. using [[Clamav]])
* Block or tag [[E-mail spam|spam]] (e.g. using [[SpamAssassin]])
* Remove [[HTML]] mail parts
* Add boilerplate disclaimers to outgoing mail
* Remove or alter [[Email attachment|attachment]]s
* Replace attachments with [[URL]]s
* Implement sophisticated [[access control]]s.

== History ==
{{anchor|Roaring Penguin|CanIt}}
MIMEDefang was originally developed by [[Dianne Skoll]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dianne.skoll.ca/who-is-dianne/|title=Who is Dianne?}}</ref> who was contracted by the [[Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada]] in 2000 to help stop the flood of email viruses to the college's [[computer network|network]]. The software was written to filter attachments and was originally called MIMESweeper, then MIMEDefanger, and currently MIMEDefang. Skoll announced her software to the public on August 28, 2000. On December 21, 2001, a version incorporating support for [[SpamAssassin]] was released, making MIMEDefang a filter for both spam and viruses. Skoll's company, Roaring Penguin Software, developed and sold a commercial anti-spam product known as CanIt, which is based on the open-source version of MIMEDefang.

Roaring Penguin Software was acquired by AppRiver in March 2018.

On March 5th, 2020, AppRiver agreed to give The McGrail Foundation leadership of the open-source MIMEDefang project<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mcgrail.com/newsmanager/news_article.cgi?news_id=3|title=MIMEDefang donated to The McGrail Foundation}}</ref> for a period of three years, automatically renewable for one-year terms after that unless either AppRiver or The McGrail Foundation chooses not to renew the agreement.

On May 28th, 2021, Dianne Skoll announced<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lists.mimedefang.org/pipermail/mimedefang_lists.mimedefang.org/2021-May/029653.html|title=Mailmunge Announcement}}</ref> a fork of the project, known as Mailmunge.

== Architecture ==
The [[Milter]] library included with Sendmail uses [[POSIX]] [[Thread (computing)|thread]]s to allow multiple concurrent filters. MIMEDefang's Perl filter uses a pre-forked process model, similar to the traditional [[Apache Web server]] multi-processing model. MIMEDefang therefore consists of three components:<ref name="FAQ" />
* A [[Multithreading (computer architecture)|multithreaded]] C program that communicates with Sendmail and the filtering processes
* A [[multiplexer]] (written in C) that manages a pool of Perl scanning processes (called "slaves")
* A Perl program called mimedefang.pl that provides the basic filtering infrastructure.

MIMEDefang users code their filtering policies in Perl, using the infrastructure provided by mimedefang.pl. They don't need to worry about thread synchronizations because each Perl filter is a separate single-threaded process.

The infrastructure provided by mimedefang.pl follows the Milter API reasonably closely, but not exactly. It includes convenience routines for parsing and rebuilding MIME messages so that filter authors can concentrate on high-level policy rather than worry about low-level API details. This convenience comes with a small loss of flexibility and some loss of performance.

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|https://mimedefang.org/}}

[[Category:Free email software]]
[[Category:Spam filtering]]

Blaeu Atlas of Scotland

2022-05-30T21:53:35Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add 1.0

{{Short description|Atlas of Scotland and Ireland published 1654}}
{{italic title}}
[[File:Blaeu - Atlas of Scotland 1654 - SCOTIA REGNUM - Kingdom of Scotland.jpg|thumb|300px|Scotland, Orkney, and Shetland in the ''Atlas of Scotland'']]
The book commonly known as '''Blaeu Atlas of Scotland''', the fifth volume of ''[[Atlas Maior|Theatrum Orbis Terrarum Sive Atlas Novus]]'', is the first known atlas of [[Scotland]] and [[Ireland]].<ref name=":0" /> It was compiled by [[Joan Blaeu]], and contains 49 engraved maps and 154 pages of descriptive text written in [[Latin]]; it was first published in 1654.<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://maps.nls.uk/atlas/blaeu/ |title=Blaeu Atlas of Scotland, 1654 |website=National Library of Scotland |access-date=8 February 2014}}</ref> Most of the maps were made by [[Timothy Pont]], a Scottish cartographer. Those maps, made between 1583 and 1596, were collected, edited, and augmented with other maps (made by [[Robert Gordon of Straloch]] and his son James) by [[John Scot, Lord Scotstarvit]], a Scottish [[laird]].

It is the first known atlas of Scotland, and is praised for its quality and its importance; cartobibliographer Jeffrey Stone said in 1972 that for a century after its publication nothing notable happened in the cartography of Scotland. A translated version, including additional documentation, was published in association with the [[National Library of Scotland]] in 2006.

==Description and genesis==
Blaeu's Atlas of Scotland is ultimately based on the work of Scottish cartographer [[Timothy Pont]], who likely did the fieldwork on which his maps were based in the 1580s and 1590s. Pont never finished the work; he did ask King [[James VI and I]] for financial support for an atlas in the 1610s, but he died in 1615 and the project came to naught. [[Sir James Balfour, 1st Baronet, of Denmilne and Kinnaird]], came across Pont's work toward the end of the 1620s and rescued them; he, in turn, passed them on to [[John Scot, Lord Scotstarvit]], from whom [[Joan Blaeu]], working in Amsterdam, received them in the early 1630s. Blaeu had shown interest in mapping Scotland in 1626 in correspondence with Scot, and so Balfour's find proved timely. Around 35 of the Scottish maps came from Pont; others came from [[Robert Gordon of Straloch]] and his son James.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PO4GDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 |title=George Buchanan: Political Thought in Early Modern Britain and Europe |first=Caroline |last=Erskine |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=9781317128717 |chapter=The Making of Blaeu's ''Atlas'' |pages=39–47}}</ref>

Joan Blaeu explains in the preface that the maps of Scotland depended on the work of Pont and that John Scot had been instrumental in transferring those maps ("but much torn and deformed") to Amsterdam. Blaeu organized the maps, and "finishing touches" (corrections and some descriptions) were applied by Robert and James Gordon. Descriptions for [[Orkney]] and [[Shetland]] were written by someone from Orkney; all others are derived from [[George Buchanan]] and an Englishman named Camden (whose descriptions were often corrected by John Scot).<ref name=keuning>{{cite journal |title=Blaeu's ''Atlas'' |first=Johannes |last=Keuning |journal=[[Imago Mundi]] |year=1959 |volume=14 |pages=74–89 |doi=10.1080/03085695908592155 |jstor=1150214 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150214}}</ref>

The preface of the Volume IV in the series announced it already in 1645 but it was not published until 1654, in Latin, French, and German (earlier volumes of Blaeu's ''Atlas Maior'' were published separately in various languages).<ref name=keuning/> A Spanish edition was published probably in 1659.<ref name=review>{{cite journal |title=Rev. of ''The Blaeu Atlas of Scotland'' |journal=[[Scottish Geographical Journal]] |volume=123 |issue=2 |pages=150–52 |year=2007 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14702540701659457?journalCode=rsgj20 |doi=10.1080/14702540701659457|s2cid=219717817 }}</ref>

The atlas has 49 maps of Scotland and, despite its common name ("Blaeu Atlas of Scotland"), 6 maps of Ireland. For cartobibliographer Van der Krogt, the Irish maps indicate that Blaeu wasn't interested in an atlas of Scotland ''per se'', and the slow production development (nearly twenty-five years passed between the first the first communications regarding Scottish maps and the publication of the book) suggests that it was not of great commercial significance to the firm either.<ref name=review/>

==Later research==
The atlas is notable for being the first of its kind, but also for its quality. According to historian and cartobibliographer Jeffrey C. Stone, "Blaeu's portrayal of the Scottish landscape far exceeded, in both accuracy and content, anything previously published, or indeed anything to follow for more than a hundred years"; Stone argues that the century following its publication saw nothing of importance or quality happen, not until [[William_Roy#The_survey_of_Scotland|William Roy's military survey of Scotland]] (1747-1755). Relatively little scholarship was done in connection to the atlas, and nothing of much value happened until the publication in 1841 and 1858 of two sets of manuscripts and correspondence pertaining to the original publication of the atlas, a publication that saved those materials from oblivion.<ref>The Spalding Club and the Maitland Club were the two antiquarian societies that published these materials: "The Straloch Papers", in ''Miscellany of the Spalding Club'' 1 (1841), pp. 1-58; and ''Topographical Account of the District of Cunningham, Ayrshire. Compiled about the year 1600, by Mr. Timothy Pont'' (Glasgow, 1858).</ref> Important work in preserving, cataloguing, and researching the atlas was carried out by [[Caleb George Cash]], an English-born mountaineer and antiquarian who lived and taught in Scotland for most of his life. The manuscript maps had "fallen into disarray", and Cash began by preserving them. Then, he described and catalogued them, and collected and reviewed everything that had been written on them, and any material connected to the printed work. Apparently he did such an exhaustive job that for the next fifty years nothing of importance was added.<ref name=stone1>{{cite journal |title=Origins and Sources of the Blaeu Atlas of Scotland with Particular Reference to ''Extima Scotia'' (Atlas Novus, 1654) |first=Jeffrey C. |last=Stone |journal=[[Imago Mundi]] |year=1972 |volume=26 |pages= 17–26 |doi=10.1080/03085697208592385 |jstor=1150639 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150639}}</ref>

The 1960s and 1970s saw a resurgence of interest in the atlas, with half a dozen scholars active in publishing on the maps and the associated manuscripts; by that time, facsimiles of some of the maps had been printed by [[John Bartholomew and Son]], of Edinburgh. During that period, in 1967, a new trove of documents was discovered, with seven letters by [[Willem Blaeu]] and eight by his son, [[Joan Blaeu]], from between 1626 and 1657 and addressed to [[John Scot, Lord Scotstarvit]], who played an important role in the production and preparation of the atlas. The documents showed that just after 1630 Scot had received maps made by [[Timothy Pont]] between 1583 and 1596; Pont signed 36 of the maps that Blaeu engraved. Some of those maps Scot had sent to Amsterdam for Blaeu to see, and some were to be edited by cartographer Robert and James Gordon. They edited and revised the maps in the 1630s and 1640s, half a century after Pont made the maps, which meant that many corrections may have had to be made and that it is difficult to assess who was responsible for which maps.<ref name=stone1/>

The atlas was reprinted in 2006, edited by I. G. Cunningham and published with the assistance of the [[National Library of Scotland]] Cunningham also provided commentary on the texts. All the maps and texts are translated into English, and it has an introduction by [[Charles W. J. Withers]], as well as a translation of the complete correspondence between Scot and Blaeu. A reviewer praised the "professionalism, innovation, and expertise" of the NLS staff, but criticized the absence of an index for the maps.<ref name=review/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|author1-last=Stone|author1-first=J.C.|title=The Pont manuscript maps of Scotland: sixteenth century origins of a Blaeu atlas|publisher=Map Collector Publications|location=Tring|year=1989}}
*{{cite journal |first=Peter |last=Van Der Krogt |year=2005 |title=The place of the 'atlas of Scotland' in the atlas production of Willem Jansz. and Joan Blaeu |journal=[[Scottish Geographical Journal]] |volume=121 |issue=3 |pages=261–68 |doi=10.1080/00369220518737237|s2cid=219715771 }}
* {{cite web|url=https://maps.nls.uk/pont/history/death.html|publisher=National Library Of Scotland|work=Pont Maps of Scotland, ca. 1583–1614 — History|title=From Pont's death to the publication of Blaeu's atlas|author1-first=Andrew|author1-last=Grout}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Blaeu Atlas of Scotland 1654}}
*[http://maps.nls.uk/atlas/blaeu/ ''Blaeu Atlas of Scotland'', 1654], at [[National Library of Scotland]]

[[Category:Books about Scotland]]
[[Category:Atlases]]
[[Category:1654 books]]
[[Category:17th-century Dutch books]]
[[Category:17th century in Scotland]]
[[Category:Cartography in the Dutch Republic]]

Newark Canyon Formation

2022-05-16T11:19:25Z

Squike:

{{Short description|rock formation with dinosaur fossils}}
{{Infobox rockunit
| name = Newark Canyon Formation
| image =
| caption =
| type = [[Geological formation]]
| age = ?[[Late Cretaceous]]
| prilithology =
| otherlithology =
| namedfor =
| namedby =
| region = {{Flag|Nevada}}
| country = {{Flag|US}}
| coordinates =
| unitof =
| subunits =
| underlies =
| overlies =
| thickness =
| extent =
| area =
| map =
| map_caption =
}}

The '''Newark Canyon Formation''' is a [[Mesozoic]] geologic [[Formation (geology)|formation]] in [[Nevada]]<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://westerncordillera.com/newark_canyon.htm| title=Newark Canyon Formation| publisher=Western Cordillera| access-date=January 13, 2017}}</ref> in the [[United States]].

==Fossils==
[[Dinosaur]] remains (ankylosaurid and theropod remains) have been recovered from the formation, although none have yet been referred to a specific [[genus]].<ref name="dinosaurdistribution">Weishampel, et al. (2004). "Dinosaur distribution." Pp. 517-607.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Earth sciences|Paleontology|Dinosaurs||}}
* [[List of dinosaur-bearing rock formations]]
** [[List of stratigraphic units with indeterminate dinosaur fossils]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.): The Dinosauria, 2nd, Berkeley: University of California Press. 861 pp. {{ISBN|0-520-24209-2}}.

[[Category:Mesozoic Erathem of North America]]

{{US-geologic-formation-stub}}

Gomsi

2022-05-16T11:06:13Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add 1.0

{{Short description|13th-14th century archaeological site in India}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{Use Indian English|date=July 2018}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Gomsi
|native_name =
|alternate_name =
|image =

| imagealttext = [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[India]]
| pushpin_label_position =
| pushpin_map_alt =
|coordinates = {{coord|28.07|N|95.33|E|display=inline,title}}
|location = [[Rani Village]], [[East Siang District]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[India]]
|region = {{IND}}
|type = Settlement
|part_of =
|length =
|width =
|area =
|height =
|builder = expected as [[kingdom| King]]
|material =
|built = 13th-14th century
|abandoned =
|epochs =
|cultures =
|dependency_of =
|occupants =
|event =
|excavations =
|archaeologists =
|condition = Ruined
|ownership = Public
|management = [[Archaeological Survey of India]]
|public_access = Yes
|website = 
|notes = It is now undertaken by the Govt. of India
}}
'''Gomsi''' is an ancient archaeological site located between [[Rani Village]] and [[Sika Tode]]<ref name="PWD Link road urgent attention">{{cite news|last1=Saroh|first1=Benji|title=PWD Link road urgent attention|url=http://www.arunachaltimes.in/archives/june%207.html|access-date=24 November 2014|publisher=The Arunachal Times|date=7 June 2010}}</ref> in [[East Siang District]], [[Arunachal Pradesh]], India. It is dated to the 13th-14th century by the Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh<ref>[http://research.arunachal.gov.in/archaeology/archeology/ Gomsi (Rani),East Siang, Remains of old settlement,13th to 14th century A.D.]</ref> and is associated with the [[Chutia Kingdom]].{{cn|date=February 2022}} It is located at the field of Rani Village, about 15 km from the town of [[Pasighat]].

It might have acted as a checkpoint of the kingdom to keep peace in the region as well to control the trade exchanges at that period. There is also an ancient man-made pond(''pukhuri'') built as a part of the settlement.

==Excavation at Gomsi==
===Report of 1995-96===
The Directorate of Research, Government of Arunachal Pradesh, conducted trial-excavation at the main mound and at extreme northwestern corner of the site which comprised 5 acres of land. The site is located at 15 km in the southwestern direction from the district headquarters, Pasighat and 19 km inside from Murkong Salak, nearest Railwayhead in Assam-Arunachal border.

A portion of brick-wall was exposed out of a house structure. Excavation of almost rectangular mound (21x17 m), revealed ten brick courses to the northwestern corner of the wall showing both the base and the floor levels. Above the floor level, a superstructure was raised by using some perishable material.

In all, there were thirteen different sizes and shapes of bricks, used for construction. The excavation also revealed different types of pottery along with a few pieces of stone urn. Black painted pottery, with criss-cross design and a piece of flower vase were recovered from the digging in addition to an iron spear-head, besides one spear-head made of iron from 15 cm below surface level.

From the preliminary study of the findings, the site could be assignable to the [[Chutia kingdom|Chutia]] period(pre-Ahom period).{{cn|date=February 2022}}

===Report of 1996-97===
The site is spread in an area of 11.5 acres of land. Excavation revealed that the site represents a large brick mound with L-shaped large earthen mound measuring (23 m x 23 m x 24 m) about 3 m south of it and a rectangular pond measuring 38 m x 28 m about 60 m south of the mound. These are surrounded by nala measuring 3.5 m wide from all corners and both ends meeting in the pond. The nala served a dual purpose of a moat and a source of water supply.
A number of small earthen mounds measuring about 14 m x 10 m are also situated in the vicinity at regular intervals.

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite book |author= |title=Indian Archaeology 1996-1997 |url=http://asi.nic.in/nmma_reviews/Indian%20Archaeology%201996_97%20A%20Review.pdf |location=New Delhi |date=2002 |publisher=[[Archaeological Survey of India]] |access-date=24 November 2014 }}

==External links==
*{{cite web|last1=Gomsi|title=What To See!!|url=http://eastsiang.nic.in/html/whattosee.htm|publisher=East Siang District|access-date=24 November 2014}}
{{commonscatinline}}

==Geographical location==
{{Geographic location|width=auto
|Centre = '''Gomsi''
|North = [[Pasighat]]
|Northeast =
|East = [[Sika Tode]]
|Southeast =
|South = [[Ruksin]]
|Southwest =
|West =[[Rani Village]]
|Northwest =
}}

{{East Siang District}}
{{Arunachal Pradesh}}
{{Archaeological sites in India}}
{{Minority Concentrated Districts in India}}
{{States and territories of India}}

[[Category:East Siang district]]
[[Category:13th-century establishments in India]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures completed in the 13th century]]
[[Category:Pasighat]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Arunachal Pradesh]]

GeeksPhone Keon

2022-05-09T10:52:56Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add 1.0

{{Short description|phone designed for software development testing}}
{{Infobox mobile phone
| name = GeeksPhone Keon
| image = Kannada language input in a GeeksPhone Keon running Firefox OS.JPG
| imagesize= 250px
| caption =
| slogan = All you need to begin.<ref name="geeksphone-main-website">{{cite web |title = Geeksphone. Say 'hola' to the future |url = http://www.geeksphone.com/#feat |accessdate = 1 June 2013}}</ref>
| manufacturer = [[GeeksPhone]]
| available = 23 April 2013<ref name="mozillahacks">{{cite web |title = Geeksphone to start selling Firefox OS Developer Preview phones on April 23 |url = https://hacks.mozilla.org/2013/04/geeksphone-to-start-selling-firefox-os-developer-preview-phones/ |first = Stormy |last = peters |date = 22 April 2013 |accessdate = 1 June 2013}}</ref>
| price = 91€ without taxes and shipping & handling<ref name="mozillahacks" />
| screen = 480 × 320 [[pixel|px]] ([[List of common resolutions|HVGA]]) [[touchscreen|capacitive touchscreen]], 3.5"<ref name="geeksphone-store">{{cite web |title = Keon - Geeksphone |url = http://shop.geeksphone.com/en/phones/1-keon.html |publisher = [[GeeksPhone]] |accessdate = 1 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130601063753/http://shop.geeksphone.com/en/phones/1-keon.html |archive-date = 1 June 2013 |url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name="cnet">{{cite web | title = Geeksphone Keon - Smartphones - CNET Reviews |url = http://reviews.cnet.com/smartphones/geeksphone-keon/4505-6452_7-35619072.html |date = 11 May 2013 |accessdate = 1 June 2013}}</ref>
| camera = 3 [[Pixel#Megapixel|MP]]<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
| operatingsystem = [[Firefox OS]]<ref name="mozillahacks" />
| input =
*[[Capacitive sensing|Capacitive]] [[multi-touch]]<ref name="era-la">{{cite web|title=Geeksphone Keon With Firefox OS Features and Price |url=http://www.era.la/geeksphone-keon-with-firefox-os-features-and-price.html |date=23 April 2013 |accessdate=1 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513224333/http://www.era.la/geeksphone-keon-with-firefox-os-features-and-price.html |archivedate=13 May 2013 }}</ref> display
| cpu =
*1 [[Hertz|GHz]] [[Qualcomm]] [[Snapdragon (system on chip)|Snapdragon]] S1 7225AB processor ([[ARM architecture|ARMv7]]<ref name="geeksphone-forum-cpu">{{cite web |title = Processor |url = http://forum.geeksphone.com/index.php?topic=4721.0 |work = GeeksPhone Forum |date = 27 April 2013 |accessdate = 1 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170118051947/http://forum.geeksphone.com/index.php?topic=4721.0 |archive-date = 18 January 2017 |url-status = dead }}</ref>)
| memory = 512 [[Megabyte|MB]]<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
| storage = 4  [[Gigabyte|GB]]<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
| memory_card = [[microSD]], up to 32 GB<ref name="geeksphone-forum-microsd">{{cite web |title = Which Micro SD |url = http://forum.geeksphone.com/index.php?topic=5189.0 |date = May 2013 |accessdate = 1 June 2013 |archive-date = 10 June 2015 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150610233538/http://forum.geeksphone.com/index.php?topic=5189.0 |url-status = dead }}</ref>
| networks =
*[[GSM]] [[GSM frequency bands|850 / 900 / 1800 / 1900]]<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
*[[HSDPA]] ([[Multi-band|Tri-band]])
*[[HSDPA]]/[[UMTS]] [[UMTS frequency bands|850 / 1900 / 2100]]
| battery =
* 1580 mAh battery<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
* micro-USB charging
| connectivity =
* WLAN IEEE 802.11 a/b/g/n<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
* bluetooth 2.1 +EDR<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
* micro-[[USB]] 2.0<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
* [[GPS]]<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
* [[Subscriber identity module#Mini-SIM|mini-SIM card]]<ref name="mini-sim">{{cite web |title = SIM format |url = http://forum.geeksphone.com/index.php?topic=4681.0 |work = GeeksPhone Forum |date = 23 April 2013 |accessdate = 1 June 2013 |archive-date = 20 June 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130620114747/http://forum.geeksphone.com/index.php?PHPSESSID=86805870e26727dc4b4eddfbbf8807fd&topic=4681.0 |url-status = dead }}</ref>
* FM receiver<ref name="geeksphone-store" />
| form = Bar
| size =
* Width: {{convert|2.4|in}}
* Height: {{convert|4.5|in}}
* Thickness: {{convert|0.4|in}}
| weight = {{convert|4.2|oz|g|abbr=on}}
| sar = Head 0.788 W/kg Body (1cm gap) 1.160 W/kg<ref name="sar">{{cite web |title = SAR EU value |url = http://forum.geeksphone.com/index.php?topic=4706.0 |first = Rodrigo |last = Silva-Ramos |work = GeeksPhone Forum |date = 6 May 2013 |accessdate = 1 June 2013 |archive-date = 14 December 2013 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131214180256/http://forum.geeksphone.com/index.php?topic=4706.0 |url-status = dead }}</ref>
| Website = [http://shop.geeksphone.com/en/phones/1-keon.html GeeksPhone store]
| releasedate = {{start date|df=yes|2013|04|23}}
}}

The '''GeeksPhone Keon''' is an entry-level [[smartphone]] released by [[GeeksPhone]] in April 2013. It is intended for [[software developer]]s wanting to build and test [[mobile application]]s on the new [[Firefox OS]], not for general consumers.<ref name="cnet" />

The Keon and the higher-end [[GeeksPhone Peak|Peak]] are the first commercially available mobile devices running [[Firefox OS]].

==History and availability==
GeeksPhone Keon and Peak initially became available on 23 April 2013 and the first batch sold out in a few hours.<ref name="forbes">{{cite web |title = Geeksphone Sold Out In A Few Hours, That's A Good First Step for Firefox OS - Forbes |url = https://www.forbes.com/sites/ewanspence/2013/04/23/geeksphone-sold-out-in-a-few-hours-thats-a-good-first-step-for-firefox-os/ |first = Ewan |last = Spence |work = Forbes |date = 23 April 2013 |accessdate = 1 June 2013}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Comparison of Firefox OS devices]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Commons|Category:GeeksPhone Keon}}

[[Category:Firefox OS devices]]
[[Category:Linux-based devices]]
[[Category:Mobile Linux]]
[[Category:Open-source mobile phones]]
[[Category:Smartphones]]

AG Saño

2022-05-09T10:51:05Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Filipino muralist, conservationist, photographer, landscape architect, and environmental activist}}
{{Orphan|date=April 2022}}

'''AG Saño''' is a [[Filipino people|Filipino]] muralist, conservationist, photographer, landscape architect, and environmental activist<ref name="KristineAngeliSabillo20160325">{{Cite news |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/776242/climate-advocate-walks-for-100-days-creates-art-from-scrap-metal |title=Climate advocate walks for 100 days, creates art from scrap metal |last=Sabillo |first=Kristine Angeli |date=2016-03-25 |work=The [[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |access-date=2019-02-11 |language=en}}</ref> best known for numerous prominent advocacy murals along main thoroughfares around the Philippines' [[National Capital Region]],<ref name="Rappler20131031">{{Cite news |url=http://www.rappler.com/move-ph/domoreawards/41886-profile-ag-sano |title=AG Saño: A colorful world |date=2013-10-21 |work=[[Rappler]] |access-date=2019-02-11 |language=en}}</ref> promoting themes including marine wildlife conservation,<ref name="PristineDeLeon20170108">{{Cite web |url=http://nolisoli.ph/4883/have-you-seen-the-dolphins-on-the-street/ |title=The story behind the dolphin murals on the street |last=De Leon |first=Pristine L. |date=2017-01-08 |website=NOLISOLI |language=en-US |access-date=2019-02-11}}</ref> peace,<ref name="ActivistAlarm20141108">{{Cite web |url=http://world.350.org/artivist-alarm/2014/11/08/ag-sano-muralist-philippines/ |title=AG Saño – Muralist – Philippines |date=2014-11-08 |website=Artivist Alarm |language=en-US |access-date=2019-02-11}}</ref> environmental protection,<ref name="GMA20120309">{{Cite news |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/250873/lifestyle/muralist-ag-sano-does-taal-lake/ |title=Muralist AG Saño does Taal Lake |date=2012-03-09 |work=GMA News and Public Affairs |access-date=2019-02-11 |language=en-US}}</ref> indigenous people's rights, and the recognition of the role women have played in Philippine history.

In 2000, he was among seven friends who cofounded the Humpback Whale Research and Conservation Project, which eventually became the Philippine advocacy group known as balyena.org.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.adex.asia/2016/index.php/speakers-guests |title=Speakers/Guests |date=2016 |website=Asian Dive Expo Singapore 2016 |language=en-GB |archive-url=https://archive.today/20190211055702/https://www.adex.asia/2016/index.php/speakers-guests |archive-date=2019-02-11 |url-status=live |access-date=2019-02-11 }}</ref><ref name="balyenaorgwwa">{{Cite web |url=http://balyena.org.ph/about/wwa |title=Balyena.org - Who We Are |website=Balyena.org - Balyena at Lumba sa Pilipinas |access-date=2019-02-11}}</ref>

Saño has been recognized as one of the Heroes for Peace awardees in the 5th Multiple Intelligence International School Awards, and has been named Arts for Peace Ambassador by the Asia-America Initiative in recognition of his contributions to the [[Bangsamoro]] peace process.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://tubbatahareefs.org/ag-sano-talks-about-art-marine-conservation-and-volunteerism/ |title=AG Saño talks about art, marine conservation and volunteerism |date=2013-07-08 |website=Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park Website |language=en-US |access-date=2019-02-11}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sano, AG}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing (living people)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Filipino environmentalists]]

{{Philippines-bio-stub}}
{{environmentalist-stub}}

List of All-Ireland Fleadh champions

2022-04-26T20:53:00Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Winners of traditional Irish music competitions}}
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2013|talk=y}}
This page lists those who have won the senior title at [[Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann]] title since its foundation in 1951 by [[Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann]].

There are competitions for soloists, duos, trios, and various types of ensembles, many of which are divided into separate competitions by age group. A list of the categories are found [[Fleadh Cheoil#Competition categories|here]].<ref>[http://homepage.eircom.net/~fredfinn/results_cont.htm#All_Irl_2006 All Ireland Fleadh Results 2005 and 2006]</ref><ref name="2007 results">{{cite web | title=2007 Irish Seniors Preview | work=[[Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann]]| url=http://comhaltas.ie/press_room/detail/all_ireland_fleadh_results_2007/| access-date=11 January 2007 }}</ref><ref name="2008 results">{{cite web | title=2008 Irish Seniors Results | work=[[Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann]]| url=http://media.comhaltas.ie/docs/results/AllIrelandResults2008.pdf| access-date=20 October 2008 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.fleadh2010.ie/file/finndocs/All-Irl_resultsH.PDF# Fleadh Cheoil na hÉirrean Results 2010] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923023142/http://www.fleadh2010.ie/file/finndocs/All-Irl_resultsH.PDF |date=2010-09-23 }}</ref>

==[[Fiddle]] (Fidil)==

*1951, Pat Kelly, County Tyrone
*1952, Bobby Casey, County Clare and Dan Cleary, County Offaly (tie)
*1953, [[Paddy Canny]], County Clare
*1954, Aggie Whyte, County Galway
*1955, [[Seán Ryan (Irish fiddler)|Seán Ryan]], County Tipperary
*1956, Seán Ryan, County Tipperary
*1957, Jimmy McHugh, Glasgow, Scotland
*1958, Seán McLoughlan, County Antrim
*1959, John Gallagher, County Donegal
*1960, Cáit Ní Chuis, County Limerick
*1961, Séamus Connolly, County Clare
*1962, Brendan McGlinchey, County Armagh
*1963, Séamus Connolly, County Clare
*1964, Gus Tierney, County Clare
*1965, Gerry Forde, County Wexford
*1966, Kathleen Collins, New York City
*1967, Maura Connolly, County Laois
*1968, Bobby Casey, County Clare
*1969, Joe Ryan, County Clare
*1970, Máirtín Byrnes, County Galway
*1971, Antóin Mac Gabhann, County Cavan
*1972, Antóin Mac Gabhann, County Cavan
*1973, Paddy Glackin, County Dublin
*1974, Vincent Griffin, County Clare
*1975, [[Liz Carroll]], Chicago, USA
*1976, Jim McKillop, County Antrim
*1977, Maurice Lennon, County Leitrim
*1978, Seán Nugent, County Fermanagh
*1979, Frank Kelly, County Donegal
*1980, Eileen O'Brien, County Tipperary
*1981, [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]], County Clare
*1982, Martin Hayes, County Clare
*1983, Jimmy McBride, County Donegal
*1984, [[Eileen Ivers]], New York City
*1985, [[Cathal Hayden]], County Tyrone
*1986, Brian Conway, New York City
*1987, Brendan Larrissey, County Louth
*1988, Bríd Harper, County Donegal
*1989, Áine O'Connor, County Limerick
*1990, Brian Lavery, County Londonderry
*1991, Thomas Morrow, County Leitrim
*1992, Mac Dara Ó Raghallaigh, County Meath
*1993, Áine McGrath, County Kildare
*1994, Andrew Dinan, Manchester, England
*1995, [[Liz Kane]], County Galway
*1996, Kevin Madden, Manchester, England
*1997, Ursula Byrne; County Down
*1998, Mark Lavery, County Londonderry
*1999, Oisín Mac Diarmada, County Sligo
*2000, Ita Cunningham, County Galway
*2001, Zoe Conway, County Louth
*2002, Fergal Scahill, County Galway
*2003, Aisling Ní Choisdealbha, County Tipperary
*2004, Michael O Rourke, County Clare
*2005, Michael Harrison, County Tipperary
*2006, Aidan O’Neill, County Tyrone
*2007, Laura Beagon, County Monaghan
*2008, Rónán Mac Grianna, County Mayo
*2009, Johnny Canning, Glasgow, Scotland
*2010, Lisa Ward, County Leitrim
*2011, Tara Breen, County Clare
*2012, Niall Murphy, County Armagh
*2013, Lydia Warnock, County Leitrim
*2014, Dylan Foley, New York, USA
*2015, Aoife Cunningham, County Cavan
*2016, Darragh Curtin, County Kerry
*2017, Roisín Anne Hughes, Glasgow, Scotland
*2018, Caoimhe Kearins, County Sligo
*2019, Dylan Carlos, County Roscommon

==[[Button Accordion]] (Bosca Cheoil)==

*1951, Joe Boland, County Offaly
*1952, Frank Gavigan, County Westmeath
*1953, Paddy O'Brien, County Tipperary
*1954, Kieran Kelly, County Offaly
*1955, Kieran Kelly, County Offaly
*1956, George Ross, County Wexford
*1957, Michael Mullins, County Offaly
*1958, Danny Coughlan, County Offaly
*1959, Joe Burke, County Galway
*1960, Joe Burke, County Galway
*1961, Brendan Mulhair, County Galway
*1962, Martin McMahon, County Clare
*1963, John Bowe, County Offaly
*1964, Tommy McGuire. County Offaly
*1965, Paddy Ryan, County Tipperary
*1966, Tom Ferris, County Wexford
*1967, Ellen Flanagan Comerford, County Offaly
*1968, Dick Sherlock, County Sligo
*1969, Pat Barton, County Offaly
*1970, John Regan, County Sligo
*1971, Paddy Gavin, County Dublin
*1972, Seán Gavin, County Galway
*1973, P. J. Hernon, County Galway
*1974, Jackie Daly, County Cork
*1975, Paddy O'Brien, County Offaly
*1976, Deirdre Collis, County Sligo
*1977, Gerry Hanley, County Galway
*1978, Martin Connolly, County Clare
*1979, John Lucid, County Kerry
*1980, Séamus Walshe, County Clare
*1981, Tom O'Connell, County Limerick
*1982, John Nolan, New York City, USA
*1983, John Whelan, Luton, England / New Jersey, USA
*1984, John Connolly, County Tipperary
*1985, Willie Fogarty, County Tipperary
*1986, Billy McComiskey, Brooklyn, New York / Baltimore, Maryland, USA
*1987, Michael Sexton, County Clare
*1988, Paddy Clancy, County Limerick
*1989, John Bass, County Wexford
*1990, John Bass, County Wexford
*1991, Michael O'Connell, London
*1992, Ned Kelly, County Tipperary
*1993, Colin Nea, County Westmeath
*1994, Colin Nea, County Westmeath
*1995, Pádraig Kinsella, County Offaly
*1996, Danny O'Mahony, County Kerry
*1997, Alan Costello, County Tipperary
*1998, Maurice Egan, County Kerry
*1999, James Kinsella, County Offaly
*2000, Nuala Hehir, County Clare
*2001, T. P. McNamara, County Kerry
*2002, Fiachna Ó Mongain, County Mayo
*2003, Oliver Diviney, County Galway
*2004, Marie Walsh, County Galway
*2005, Damien Mullane, West London, England
*2006, Pádraig Ó Foghlú (Patrick Foley), County Limerick
*2007, Damien Mullane, West London, England
*2008, Darren Breslin, East London, England
*2009, Padraig King, County Limerick
*2010, Conor Moriarty, County Kerry
*2011, Vanessa Miller, County Clare
*2012, Martin O'Connell, County Kerry/Laois
*2013, Christopher Maguire, County Fermanagh
*2014, Michael Curran, County Tyrone
*2015, Daithí Gormley, County Sligo
*2016, Uinseann Ó Murchú, County Wexford
*2017, Colm Slattery, County Tipperary
*2018, John McCann, County Fermanagh
*2019, Seamus Tiernan, County Mayo

==Flute (Feadóg Mhór)==

*1951, Paddy Treacy, County Galway
*1952, Paddy Treacy, County Galway
*1953, Vincent Broderick, County Galway
*1954, Ned Coleman, County Galway and Vincent Broderick, County Galway (tie) <ref>Irish Independent, 8 June 1954, 8</ref>
*1955, Peter Broderick, County Galway
*1956, [[Peadar O'Loughlin]], County Clare
*1957, Peadar O'Loughlin, County Clare
*1958, P. J. Maloney, County Tipperary
*1959, Michael Falsey, County Clare
*1960, Paddy Carty, County Galway
*1961, [[Paddy Carty]], County Galway
*1962, [[Cathal McConnell]], County Fermanagh
*1963, [[Paddy Carty]], County Galway
*1964, Paddy Treacy, County Galway
*1965, [[Séamus Tansey]], County Sligo
*1966, [[Matt Molloy]], County Roscommon
*1967, John Brady, County Offaly
*1968, Mícheál Ó Halmhain, County Dublin
*1969, Mícheál Ó Halmhain, County Dublin
*1970, Billy Clifford, London
*1971, P. O. Ceannabhain, County Galway
*1972, Patsy Hanly, County Roscommon
*1973, Eugene Nolan, County Laois
*1974, Josie McDermott, County Sligo
*1975, Deirdre Collis, County Sligo
*1976, Peig McGrath Needham, County Roscommon
*1977, Pat "Patsy" Moloney, County Limerick/[[Birmingham]], [[England]]
*1978, Tommy Guihan, County Roscommon
*1979, Marcus Hernon, County Galway, and Leon Agnew, County Antrim (tie)
*1980, Marcus Hernon, County Galway
*1981, Michael Harty, County Tipperary
*1982, Noel Sweeney, County Longford
*1983, Paul Gallagher, Luton/London
*1984, Siobhán O'Donnell, London
*1985, Claire Burke, County Offaly
*1986, Sharon McDermott, County Tyrone
*1987, Pat Fitzpatrick, County Wexford
*1988, Garry Shannon, County Clare
*1989, Attracta Brady, County Offaly
*1990, Thomas McElvogue, Leeds
*1991, Sharon Burke, London
*1992, Martin Glynn, County Clare
*1993, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
*1994, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
*1995, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
*1996, Majella Bartley, County Monaghan
*1997, Sandra Deegan, County Carlow
*1998, June McCormack, County Sligo
*1999, Tom O'Connor, County Kerry
*2000, Sarah-Jane Woods, County Dublin
*2001, Louise Mulcahy, County Limerick
*2002, Isaac Alderson, Chicago
*2003, Aoife Ní Ghrainbhil, County Kerry
*2004, Michael Mac Conraí, County Limerick
*2005, Siobhán Hogan, County Clare
*2006, James Mahon, County Dublin
*2007, Cian Kearins, County Sligo
*2008, Stiofan Ó Dochartaigh (Stephen Doherty), County Mayo
*2009, Cathy Jones, County Kilkenny
*2010, Paraic Stapleton, County Tipperary
*2011, Orlaith McAullife, London
*2012, Tommy Fitzharris, County Laois
*2013, Jillian Ní Mháille (O'Malley), [[County Mayo]]
*2014, Siobhán Ní Uirc (Joanne Quirke), County Cork
*2015, Cein Sweeney, County Cavan
*2016, Séamus Tierney, County Cavan
*2017, Tiernan Courell, County Sligo
*2018, Tom Gavin, County Sligo
*2019, Ciarán Mac Gearailt (FitzGerald), County Kildare

==Tin Whistle (Feadóg Stain)==

*1951, H. McGee, County Westmeath
*1953, E. Maloney, County Galway
*1954, T. Sheridan, County Cavan
*1955, T. Sheridan, County Cavan
*1956, S. O hAodha, County Clare
*1957, M. O'Cleirig, County Clare and Matthew Lynch, County Cavan (Joint Result)
*1958, M. MacEil, County Roscommon
*1959, Martin Talty, County Clare
*1960, Michael Falsey, County Clare
*1961, Michael Falsey, County Clare
*1962, [[Cathal McConnell]], County Fermanagh
*1964, [[Josie McDermott]], [[County Sligo]]
*1965, M. O'Dwyer, London England
*1966, [[Josie McDermott]], County Sligo
*1967, Anne Sheehy, County Kerry
*1968, Michael Graham, County Kildare
*1969, Joe McKevitt, County Louth
*1970, [[Mary Bergin]], [[County Dublin]]
*1971, [[Roy Galvin]], County Dublin
*1972, Deirdre Collis, County Sligo
*1973, [[Micho Russell]], County Clare
*1974, Michael Gavin, County Dublin
*1975, S. O’Riain, (Seán Ryan) County Tipperary.
*1976, Father Charlie Coen, [[New York City]]
*1977, Diarmuid O’Cionnaith, County Dublin
*1978, {{lang|ga|italic=no|Marcus O hlarnan}}, County Galway
*1979, Peter McAlinden, London, England
*1980, Damhnait Nic Suibhne, County Donegal
*1981, Liz King - Cassidy, County Wexford
*1982, Maire. Ní Mhaonacgh, County Limerick
*1983, Sean Smyth, [[County Mayo]]
*1984, [[Joanie Madden]], New York
*1985, Padraig Donlon, [[County Longford]]
*1986, Sharon McDermott, County Tyrone
*1987, Sion Ní hAllmhuráin, County Clare
*1988, Attracta Ní Bhradaigh, County Offaly
*1989, Mary Jo Campbell, County Kildare
*1990, Martina Bree, County Sligo
*1991, Eleanor Carmody, County Kerry
*1992, Colm O'Donnell, County Sligo
*1993, Grace Kelly, Manchester, England
*1994, Laurence Nugent, [[County Fermanagh]]
*1995, Laurence Nugent, [[County Fermanagh]]
*1996, Tríona Flavin, [[County Limerick]]
*1997, Sandra Deegan, [[County Carlow]]
*1998, Róisín Nic Dhonnacha, [[County Galway]]
*1999, Emma O'Leary, [[County Kerry]]
*2000, Mikie Smyth, [[County Dublin]]
*2001, Louise Mulcahy, [[County Limerick]]
*2002, Isaac Alderson, Chicago
*2003, Emer Burke (Eimear De Burca), County Mayo
*2004, Aidan O'Neill, [[County Tyrone]]
*2005, Edward Looney, County Kerry
*2006, Aisling McPhillips, [[County Fermanagh]]
*2007, Cian Kearins, County Sligo
*2008, Siobhan Ní Ógain (Siobhan Hogan), County Clare
*2009, Yvonne Ward, County Leitrim
*2010, Siobhán Ní Uirc (Joanne Quirke) [[County Cork]]
*2011, Orlaith McAuliffe, [[London, England]]
*2012, Seán Céitinn, [[County Cork]]
*2013, Jillian Ní Mháille, [[County Mayo]]
*2014, Yasmin Lynch, County Donegal
*2015, James McCaffrey, County Tyrone
*2016, Máire De Barra, County Mayo
*2017, Seamus Ó Flatharta, County Galway
*2018, Liam Ó Neadán, County Sligo
*2019, Ciarán Mac Gearailt (FitzGerald), County Kildare

==[[Piano Accordion]] (Cáirdín Piano)==

*1964, Frank Kelly, County Roscommon
*1965, Liam Gaul, Wexford
*1966, K.Lawrie, Birmingham
*1967, Liam Clarke, Dun Dealgon
*1968, Mick Foster, Rathconrath
*1969 K.Lawrie, Birmingham
*1970, Mick Foster, Rathconrath
*1971, Pat McCabe, Clones
*1972, John Ferguson, Leeds
*1973, John Ferguson, Leeds
*1974, John Ferguson, Leeds
*1975, Ann Morris, Boyle
*1976, John Henry, County Londonderry
*1977, Jimmy Keane, Chicago, USA
*1978, Jimmy Keane, Chicago, USA
*1979, John Gibney, Derby
*1980, Mary Finn, Sligo
*1981, Seamus Meehan, County Dublin
*1982, Karen Tweed, Northampton
*1983, Liam Roberts, County Dublin
*1984, Noreen McQuaid, Monaghan
*1985, Elaine McDermott, County Tyrone
*1986, Collette O'Leary, Dublin
*1987, Gearoid Ó hArgain (Ferard Horgan), County Cork
*1988, Michael McDonagh, Luton
*1989, Gerry Conlon, Glasgow
*1990, Ger Maloney, Limerick
*1991, Declan Payne, Sligo
*1992, Michael Tennyson, Leeds
*1993, Michael Tennyson, Leeds
*1994, Michael Tennyson, Leeds
*1995, Mirella Murray, Galway
*1996, Andreas O Murchu, County Cork
*1997, Marie Clarke, County Donegal
*1998, Michelle O Leary, Manchester
*1999, Michelle O Leary, Manchester
*2000, Gearóid Mac Eogáin, County Monaghan
*2001, Ann Mc Laughlin, County Donegal
*2002, Colin McGill, County Laois
*2003, Shane Ó hUaithne, County Galway
*2004, David Nealon, County Galway
*2005, Dean Warner, Leeds
*2006, Amanda Ní Eochaidh, County Wexford
*2007, Sinéad Healy, County Mayo
*2008, Edel Mc Laughlin, County Donegal
*2009, Caitríona Ní Choileáin, County Cork
*2010, Seán Gavaghan, Leeds, Britain
*2011, Seán Gavaghan, Leeds, Britain
*2012, Adam Dyer, County Dublin
*2013, Dónal Ó Coileáin, County Cork
*2014, Kevin Murphy, Glasgow, Scotland
*2015, Kevin Murphy, Glasgow, Scotland
*2016, Kevin Murphy, Glasgow, Scotland
*2017, Ryan Hackett, County Tyrone
*2018, Rhianne Kelly, County Galway
*2019, Fergal Bradley, County Donegal

==[[Concertina]] (Consairtín)==

*1956, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1959, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1960, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1961, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1962, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1963, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1964, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1965, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1966, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1967, Chris Droney, County Clare
*1968, Theresa White, County Waterford
*1969, Tommy McMahon, County Clare
*1970, Tommy McMahon, County Clare
*1971, Tommy McMahon, County Clare
*1975, Gerald Haugh, County Clare
*1976, Father Charlie Coen, New York
*1977, Father Charlie Coen, New York
*1979, Mary MacNamara, County Clare
*1981, D. Buckley, County Cork
*1982 [[Gearóid Ó hAllmhuráin]], County Clare
*1983, Ciaran Burns, County Down
*1984, Méabh Ní Lochlainn, Baile Átha Cliath
*1985, Francis Droney, County Clare
*1987, Paul Quinn, Camlough, Co. Armagh
*1988, Elaine O'Sullivan, Coventry
*1989, Johnny Williams, Chicago
*1990, Micheal O'Raghallaigh, County Meath
*199X, Michael Rooney, County Monaghan
*199X, Maura Walsh, County Kerry
*1994, Grainne Hambly, County Mayo
*1996, Antóin O Conaill, County Limerick
*1997, Ernestine Ni Ealal, County Mayo
*1998, Maedhbh Scahill, County Galway
*1999, Séamus Ó Mongáin, County Mayo
*2000, Triona Ní Aodha, County Kerry
*2001, Triona Ní Aodha, County Kerry
*2002, Hugh Healy, County Clare
*2003, Holly NicOireachtaigh, County Mayo
*2004, Aidan O'Neill, County Tyrone
*2005, Alan Egan, County Kerry
*2006, Máiréad Ní Uirthuile, County Sligo
*2007, Rory McMahon, County Clare
*2008, Aoife Ní Uaithne, County Galway
*2009, Tomás Fitzharris, County Laois
*2010, Breda Shannon, County Roscommon
*2011, Aoibheann Murphy, County Cork
*2012, Niamh Ní Shúilleabháin, County Dublin
*2013, Róisín Ní Bhrudair, County Galway
*2014, Ciaran Hanna, County Tyrone
*2015, Paul Clesham, County Mayo
*2016, Sinéad Mulqueen, County Clare
*2017, Ciarán FitzGerald (Ciarán Mac Gearailt), County Kildare
*2018, Sarán Mulligan, County Louth
*2019, Aileen de Búrca, County Mayo

==Uilleann Pipes (Píb Uilleann)==

*1951, Willie Clancy, County Clare <ref>''Irish Independent'', 15 May 1951, 7</ref>
*19??, Dan O Dowd, County Dublin
*1954, Michael Padian, County Monaghan <ref>'Cavan Fleadh Ceoil Results', ''Irish Independent'', June 8, 1954, 8</ref>
*1955, Dan Cleary, County Offaly
*1956, Dan Cleary, County Offaly
*1957, Dan Cleary, County Offaly
*1958, Pat McNulty, Glasgow, Scotland (formerly of County Donegal)*1965, Michael Falsey, County Clare
*1964, Liam O'Floinn Fleadh Cheoil na hÉireann Clones
*1966, [[Finbarr Furey]]
*196?, Tomás Ó Ceannabháin, County Galway
*1973, Tom Walsh, Preston, Lancashire
*1975, Finbar McLaughlin, City of Derry
*1976, Trevor Stewart, County Antrim
*1977, Joseph McHugh, City of Derry
*1979, Brian Stafford, City of Derry
*1981, D. Buckley
*1980, Mattie Connolly, County Monaghan/New York
*1982, Seamus Meehan, Dublin
*1983, Michael Cooney, County Tipperary
*1984, Fergus Finnegan, County Dublin
*1985, Fergus Finnegan, County Dublin
*1986, Eamonn Walsh, Ballina, County Mayo
*1987, Martin Frain, [[Sheffield]], UK
*1990, Brendan Ring, London
*1991, Tiarnán Ó Duinchinn, County Monaghan
*1992, David Power, County Waterford
*1993, Brian Mac Aodha, County Leitrim.
*1996, Brian Krause, County Galway
*1997, Flaithrí Neff, County Cork
*1998, David Kinsella, County Offaly
*1999, Audrey Cunningham, County Wicklow
*2000, Mikie Smyth, County Dublin
*2001, Louise Mulcahy, County Limerick
*2002, Isaac Alderson, Chicago
*2003, Martin Crossin, County Donegal
*2004, Richard Murray, County Galway
*2005, James Mahon, County Dublin
*2006, Éanna Ó Cróinín, County Meath
*2007, Seán McCarthy, County Cork
*2008, Fiachra Ó Riagáin, County Galway<ref>http://www.fiachrapipes.com/</ref>
*2009, Martino Vacca, County Limerick
*2010, Richard Neylon, County Galway<ref>http://irishpiper.ie</ref>
*2011, Éanna Ó Chróinín, County Meath
*2012, Seán Céitinn, County Cork
*2013, Conor Mallon, County Armagh
*2014, Cathal Ó Crócaigh, County Dublin
*2015, Tara Howley, County Clare
*2016, Fionn Morrison, County Dublin
*2017, Eoin Orr, County Donegal
*2018, Timmy Flaherty, CCÉ, Ballylongford / Tarbert, Ciarraí
*2019, Ruairí Howell, County Down

==[[Harp]] (Cruit)==
*1974, [[Deirdre Danaher]], New York City, USA
*1975, [[Maire Ni Chathasaigh]], County Cork
*1976, Maire Ni Chathasaigh, County Cork
*1977, Maire Ni Chathasaigh, County Cork
*1979, [[Patricia Daly]], County Armagh
*1980, [[Sylvia Woods]], California, USA
*1981, [[Janet Harbison]], County Dublin
*1982, [[Mairéad Ní Chathasaigh]], County Cork
*1983, [[Celia Joyce]], Preston, Lancashire, England
*1984, [[Shawna Culotta]], California, USA
*1985, [[Kathleen Guilday]], Boston, USA
*1986, [[Martha Clancy]], Philadelphia, USA
*1987, [[Eimear Ní Bhroin]], County Cork
*1989, [[Tracey Fleming]], County Roscommon
*1990, [[Cormac de Barra]], County Dublin
*1992, [[Laoise Ní Cheallaigh]] (Laoise Kelly), County Mayo
*1993, Michael Rooney, County Monaghan
*1994, [[Gráinne Hambly]], County Mayo
*1996, [[Padraigín Caesar]], County Carlow
*1997, [[Áine Heneghan]], County Mayo
*1998, [[Barbra Doyle]], County Kildare
*1999, [[Freda Nic Ghiolla Chathain]], County Westmeath
*2000, [[Eileen Gannon]], St. Louis
*2001, [[Holly Nic Oireachtaigh]], County Mayo
*2002, [[Nicola Ní Chathail]], County Galway
*2003, [[Fionnuala Ní Ruanaidh]], County Monaghan
*2004, [[Méabh de Buitléir]], County Clare
*2005, [[Seana Ní Dhaithí]], County Meath
*2006, [[Lucy Kerr]], City of Derry
*2007, [[Aedin Martin]], County Dublin
*2008, [[Lisa Ní Cheannaigh]] (Lisa Canny), County Mayo
*2009, Oisín Morrisson. County Dublin
*2010, AnnaLee Foster, Oregon, USA
*2011, Aoife Ní Argáin, County Dublin
*2012, Alisha McMahon, County Clare
*2013, Áine Ní Shiocháin, County Limerick
*2014, Eimear Coughlan, County Clare
*2015, Gráinne Nic Ghiobúin, County Limerick
*2016, Niamh McGloin, County Sligo
*2017, Seamus Ó Flatharta, County Galway
*2018, Síofra Hanley, County Sligo
*2019, Fionnuala Donlon, County Louth

==[[Mouth Organ]] (Orgán Béil)==

*1966, Thomas McGovern, County Leitrim
*1969, Phil Murphy, County Wexford
*1970, Phil Murphy, County Wexford
*1971, Phil Murphy, County Wexford
*1973, John Murphy, County Wexford
*1975, Rick Epping, USA
*1976, Gerard Danaher, County Sligo
*1977, Mary Brogan, County Wexford
*1979, Kieran McHugh, County Antrim
*198?, Pip Murphy, County Wexford (twice)
*1981, P. J. Gannon, St. Louis, USA
*1983, Mick Furlong, County Wexford
*1984, Nicky Furlong, Wexford
*1985, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
*1987, Don Meade, New York, USA
*1993, [[Brendan Power (harmonica player)|Brendan Power]], New Zealand
*1996, Austin Berry, County Roscommon
*1997, Austin Berry, County Roscommon
*1998, Austin Berry, County Roscommon
*1999, Tomás Ó Tuathail, County Mayo
*2000, Paul Moran, County Galway
*2001, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
*2002, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
*2003, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
*2004, Noel Battle, County Westmeath
*2005, Edward Looney, County Kerry
*2006, Pauline Callinan, County Clare
*2007, Nollaig Mac Concatha, County Meath
*2008, Pat Casey, County Tyrone
*2009, Pat Casey, County Tyrone
*2010, Pat Casey, County Tyrone
*2011, Orla Ward, County Leitrim
*2012, Poilín Ní Ghabháin (Pauline Callinan), County Clare
*2013, John Horkan, County Mayo
*2014, John Horkan, County Mayo
*2015, Denis Nolan, County Wexford
*2016, John Horkan, County Mayo
*2017, Pat Fulton, County Offaly
*2018, John Horkan, County Mayo
*2019, Arlene O'Sullivan, County Clare

==[[Banjo]] (Bainseo)==

*1971, Mick O'Connor, London
*1974, Owen Hackett, County Meath
*1975, S. O’Hagen, County Tyrone
*1976, Tony "Sully" Sullivan, Manchester
*1977, [[Kieran Hanrahan]], County Clare
*1978, James (Kevin) Shanahan, London
*1979, Willie Kavanagh, County Longford
*1981, John Hogan, Arklow County Wicklow, (Gorey CCE)
*1982, [[John Carty (musician)|John Carty]], London
*1983, [[Cathal Hayden]], County Tyrone
*1984, [[Cathal Hayden]], County Tyrone
*1985, Noel Birmingham, County Clare
*1987, Tomas Ó Maoilean, County Galway
*1988, Pat Bass, County Wexford
*1990, Lorraine Ely, Luton
*1991, Pat Bass, County Wexford
*1992, Pat Bass, County Wexford
*1993, Joe Molloy, Birmingham
*1994, John Morrow, County Leitrim
*1995, Theresa O'Grady, Luton
*1996, Paul Meehan, County Armagh
*1997, Brian Fitzgerald, County Limerick
*1998, Colm O hUaithnin, County Tipperary
*1999, Brian Kelly, Birmingham
*2000, Kerri Ní Oireachtaigh, County Sligo
*2001, Alan Byrne, County Dublin
*2002, Kieran Fletcher, County Armagh
*2003, Clíodhna Ní Choisdealbha, County Tipperary
*2004, Aisling Neville, County Kerry
*2005, Éamonn Ó Murchú, County Cork
*2006, Shane McDermott, County Fermanagh
*2007, Gearóid Céitinn, County Limerick
*2008, Steven Madden, County Clare
*2009, Eoin O'Sullivan, County Limerick
*2010, Eimear Howley, County Clare
*2011, Dermot Mulholland, City of Derry
*2012, Con Mahon, County Offaly
*2013, Tomas Quinn, County Tyrone
*2014, Elaine Reilly, County Longford
*2015, George McAdam, County Monaghan
*2016, Gearoid Curtin, County Kerry
*2017, Brian Scannell, County Limerick
*2018, Dean Ó Gríofa, County Kerry
*2019, Shane Scanlon, County Cork

==[[Mandolin]] (Maindilín)==

*1979, Séamus Egan, [[Pennsylvania]]
*1980, Stephen Daly, [[Dublin]]
*1989, Stephen Daly, [[Dublin]]
*1990, Terence Matthews, Co. Kerry
*1991, Pat Bass, Co. Wexford
*1992, Pat Bass, Co. Wexford
*1994, John Morrow, [[County Leitrim]]
*1995, Sean Marshall, [[County Longford]]
*1996, Brian Carolan, [[County Meath]]
*1997, Brian Kelly, [[London]]
*1998, Colm O hUaithnin, [[County Tipperary]]
*1999, Kate Marquis, [[County Monaghan]]
*2000, Kate Marquis, [[County Monaghan]]
*2001, Daithí Ó Cearnaigh, [[County Kerry]]
*2002, Shane Mulchrone, [[County Mayo]]
*2003, Piaras MacEochagáin, [[County Kerry]]
*2004, Alan Tierney, [[County Galway]]
*2005, Aaron Mc Sorley, [[County Tyrone]]
*2006, Frances Donahue, [[County Cork]]
*2007, Michael Gaughan, West London
*2008, Eimear Ní hAmhlaigh, [[County Clare]]
*2009, Ryan McCourt, County Antrim
*2010, Gavin Strappe, County Tipperary
*2011, Sandra Walsh, County Cork
*2012, Séamus Ó Ciarba, County Clare
*2013, Dónal Ó Coileáin, County Cork
*2014, Elaine Reilly, County Longford
*2015, George McAdam, County Monaghan
*2016, Richie Delahunty, County Tipperary
*2017, Darragh Carey Kennedy, County Tipperary
*2018, Oisin Murphy, County Monaghan
*2019, Shane Scanlon, County Cork

==[[Piano]] (Piano)==
*1960, Brendan Gaughran, County Louth
*1961, Brendan Gaughran, County Louth
*1962, Brendan Gaughran, County Louth
*1972, James McCorry, County Armagh
*1975, K.Taylor, London, Britain
*1976, Mary Corcoran, County Dublin
*1977, Geraldine Cotter, County Clare
*1979, Mary McNamara, County Clare
*1980, Seamus O'Sullivan, Glasgow, Scotland
*1983, Carol Talty, County Clare
*1984, Gerry Conlon, Glasgow
*1985, Brendan Moran, Leigh, Greater Manchester, UK
*1986, Gerry Conlon, Glasgow, Scotland
*1987, Nora Byrne, County Wexford
*1989, Gerry Conlon, Glasgow, Scotland
*1990, Seamus O'Sullivan, Glasgow, Scotland
*1991, Caroline Ní Mhurchú, County Cork
*1995, Adrian Scahill, County Galway
*1996, Aindreas O Murchú, County Cork
*1997, Caitriona Cullivan, County Cavan
*1998, Padraig O Reilly, County Clare
*1999, Caitriona Cullivan, County Cavan
*2000, Ita Cunningham, County Galway
*2001, Paul Ryan, County Tipperary
*2002, Mary McMahon, County Galway
*2003, Adele Farrell, Manchester
*2004, David Nealon, County Galway
*2005, Caitríona Cullivan, County Cavan
*2005, David Nealon, County Galway
*2006, Aidan O’Neill, County Tyrone
*2007, Amanda Nic Eochaidh, County Wexford
*2008, Amanda Nic Eochaidh, County Wexford
*2009, Déirdre O Reilly, County Cavan
*2010, Gearóid Mac Giollarnáth, County Galway
*2011, Adam Dyer, County Dublin
*2012, Tadhg Ó Meachair, County Dublin
*2013, Edel McLaughlin, County Donegal
*2014, Connor Kiernan, County Cavan
*2015, Mark Mac Criostail, County Tyrone
*2016, David Browne, Glasgow, Scotland
*2017, Rebecca McCarthy Kent, County Waterford
*2018, James Hogan, County Offaly
*2019, Hannah Collins, County Cork

==Melodeon (Mileoideon)==

*1981, Sean Norman, Co Offaly
*1982, John Bass, Co. Wexford
*1983, Brendan Begley, [[County Dublin]]
*1984, Johnny Bass, Co. Wexford
*1985, Padraig O Coill, [[County Wexford]]
*1986, Caroline Judge, St. Albans
*1987, Diarmuid Ó Cathain, County Kerry
*1988, John Bass, Co. Wexford
*1993, Martin Hickey, [[County Offaly]]
*1995, Oliver Diviney, [[County Galway]]
*1996, Oliver Diviney, [[County Galway]]
*1997, Peadar Mac Eli, [[County Mayo]]
*1998, Oliver Diviney, [[County Galway]]
*1999, Sean Bass, [[County Wexford]]
*2000, Sharon Ní Chearbhall, County Offaly
*2001, Caitríona O'Brien, County Wicklow
*2002, Caitríona O'Brien, County Wicklow
*2003, Caitríona O'Brien, County Wicklow
*2004, Niamh Brett, County Roscommon
*2005, Damien Mullane, West London, [[England]]
*2006, Daire Mulhern, [[County Clare]]
*2007, Noel Clancy, [[County Waterford]]
*2008, Christopher Maguire, [[County Fermanagh]]
*2009, Connor Moriarty, County Kerry
*2010, Damien McGuiness, County Sligo
*2011, Seán Ó Maoilmhíchíl, County Limerick
*2012, Aonghus Ó Maicín, County Mayo
*2013, Dónal Ó Linneacháin, County Cork
*2014, Caoimhe Millar, County Clare
*2016, Diarmuid O' Meachair, County Cork
*2017, Seamus Tiernan, County Mayo
*2018, Colm Slattery, County Tipperary
*2019, Steven O Leary, County Kerry

==Miscellaneous (Rogha Ghleas)==

*1971, Mike O'Connor, UK;
*1975, S. Epping, County Xxxxx
*1976, Joe Noonan, County Limerick
*1977, Tomas O’Cinneide, County Tipperary
*1979, Seamus Logan, County Antrim
*1983, Jim Egan, County Tipperary
*1984, David Mc Nevin, Dublin
*1985, Colman Nugent, County Waterford
*1987, Karen Tweed, London
*1989, David James, [[South Bend]], [[Indiana]], USA
*1992, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
*1993, [[Brendan Power (harmonica player)|Brendan Power]], New Zealand
*1994, John Morrow, County Leitrim
*1995, Dawn Doherty, County Mayo
*1996, Majella Bartley, County Monaghan
*1997, Trudy O Donnell, County Donegal
*1998, Caitriona Ni Chlochassaigh, County Limerick
*1999, Seán Ó Murchú, County Mayo
*2000, Séan Bass, County Wexford
*2001, Aishling McPhillips, County Fermanagh
*2002, David James, South Bend, Indiana
*2003, Pádraig Ó Dómhnaill, County Limerick
*2004, Fionnbarra Mac Riabhaigh, County Roscommon
*2005, Edward Looney, County Kerry
*2006, Pádraig Mac Giolla Phádraig, County Wexford
*2007, Billy Dowling, County Offaly
*2008, Eimear Ní hAmhlaigh, County Clare
*2009, Tara Breen, County Clare
*2010, Gavin Strappe, County Tipperary
*2011, Arthur O'Connor, County Offaly
*2012, Jens Kommnick, Germany
*2013, Eimer Arkins, County Clare
*2014, Alan Finn, County Cork
*2015, Daniel Delaney, County Kilkenny
*2016, Richie Delahunty, County Tipperary
*2017, Tadhg Mulligan, County Louth
*2018, Claire Ann Kearns, County Offaly
*2019, Darragh Carey Kennedy, County Tipperary

==Accompaniment (Tionlacán)==

*1994, Adrian Scahill, Corofin CCE, [[County Galway]]<ref>''Treoir'' Iml. 26, Uimh. 4, 1994.</ref>
*1995, Michael Rooney, [[County Monaghan]]
*1996, Verena Commins, Leeds CCE
*1997, Kevin Brehony, [[County Sligo]]
*1998, Annmarie Acosta, United States
*1999, Aisling Ní Choisdealbha, [[County Tipperary|Tipperary]]
*2000, Séan Farrell, County Limerick
*2001, Marta Cook, Chicago, USA
*2002, Michael O'Rourke, [[County Clare]]
*2003, Marie Walsh, [[County Galway]]
*2004, Johnny Berrill, [[County Galway]]
*2005, Paul McMahon, [[County Louth]]
*2006, Stiofán Ó Marchaim, [[County Limerick]]
*2007, Caruilín Ní Shúilleabháin, [[County Wexford]]
*2008, Cathy Potter, County Antrim
*2009, Joshua Dukes, Silver Spring, Maryland, USA
*2010, Ronan Warnock, County Tyrone
*2011, Elvie Miller, County Clare
*2012, Jens Kommnick, Germany
*2013, Catherine McHugh, County Galway
*2014, Marc Mac Criostail, County Tyrone
*2015, Paul Clesham, County Mayo
*2016, Sinead Mulqueen, County Clare
*2017, David Browne, Glasgow, Scotland
*2018, Jack Warnock, City of Derry
*2019, Eddie Kiely, County Cork

==[[Bodhran]] (Bodhrán)==

*1973, John O'Dwyer, Leeds
*1975, Johnny McDonagh, County Galway
*1976, Tommy Hayes, County Limerick
*1977, Gerry Enright, County Limerick
*1979, Vincent Short, [[Lancashire]]
*1981 Michael Lawler, County Wexford
*1982, Padhraic Egan, County Dublin
*1983, Michael Lawler, County Wexford
*1984, Michael Lawler County Wexford
*1985, Maurice Griffin, County Tipperary
*1986, Fabian Ó Murchu, County Cork
*1987, Fabian Ó Murchu, County Cork
*1988 Máirtín Mac Aodha, (Glasgow)
*1989, Fabian Ó Murphy, County Cork
*1990 Martin Meehan (12-15), County Armagh
*1992 Máirtín Mac Aodha, (Glasgow)
*1994 Martin Saunders, County Carlow
*1995, Mark Maguire, Glasgow, Scotland
*1996, Junior Davey, County Sligo
*1997, Junior Davey, County Sligo
*1998, Peter O Brien, London
*1999, Aindrias Mac Dáibhí, County Sligo
*2000, Séan Ó Dulaing, County Kilkenny
*2001, Ciarán Leahy, County Cork
*2002, Martin O'Neill, Glasgow
*2003, Paul Phillips, County Down
*2004, Serena Curley, County Galway
*2005, Siobhan O’ Donnell, County Sligo
*2006, Séan O’Neill, County Down
*2007, Sinead Curley, County Galway
*2008, Robbie Walsh, County Dublin
*2009, Máirtín Mac Aodha. County Offaly
*2010, Niall Preston, County Dublin
*2011, Kieran Leonard, County Fermanagh
*2012, Paul McClure, County Donegal
*2013, Conor Mairtin, County Meath
*2014, Dale McKay, County Laois
*2015, Danny Collins, County Cork
*2016, Sean O' Neill, County Down
*2017, James O’Connor, County Limerick
*2018, Niamh Fennell, County Waterford
*2019, James O'Connor, County Limerick

==Céilí Band Drummer (Drumaí Céilí)==

*1974, Gerarde Dawe, County Louth
*1975, A. Vaughan, County Clare
*1976, Donal O’Connor, County Sligo
*1977, Billy Dwyer, County Wexford
*1979, Billy Dwyer, County Wexford
*1983, Micheal Heir, County Clare
*1985, Debbie Conneely, Manchester
*1987, Mark Maguire, Glasgow, Scotland
*1995, Mark Maguire, Glasgow, Scotland
*1996, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
*1997, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
*1998, Darragh Kelly, County Sligo
*1999, Aidan Flood, County Longford
*2000, Brian Breathnach, County Monaghan
*2001, Aidan Flood, County Longford
*2002, Kevin O'Neill, Glasgow
*2003, Aidan Flood, County Longford
*2004, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
*2005, Martin Murphy, County Longford
*2006, Darragh Kelly, County Sligo
*2007, Seán Ó Broin, County Waterford
*2008, Charline Brady, County Fermanagh
*2009, Charline Brady, County Fermanagh
*2010, Pádraig Ó Maolcathaigh, County Limerick
*2011, Kieran Leonard, County Fermanagh
*2012, Damien McGuinness, County Sligo
*2013, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
*2014, Brian Walsh, County Monaghan
*2015, Jason McGuinness, County Sligo
*2016, Eoghan Mac Giollachroist, County Longford
*2017, Michael Sheridan, County Sligo
*2018, Conor Moore, County Wexford
*2019, Conor Hartnett, County Tipperary

==War Pipes (Piob Mhór)==

*1955 Francis Vaughan, County Clare
*1973 Denis Nagle, County Kerry
*1974, Michael O’Malley, London
*1975, Michael O’Malley, London
*1976, Michael O’Malley, London
*1977, Br. Vincent, County Sligo
*1979, James Finnegan, London
*1983, Rory Somers, County Mayo
*1984, Larry O Dowd, Sligo
*1985, Sarah Fitzpatrick, County Wexford
*1987, Denis O'Reilly, County Kerry
*1993, Shane O'Neill, County Tyrone
*1996, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
*1997, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
*1998, Martin McAndrew, Chicago
*1999, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
*2000, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
*2001, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
*2002, Danny Houlihan, County Kerry
*2004, Greg Robbin, London
*2005, Conal McNamara, County Galway
*2006, Rachel Corr, County Tyrone
*2007, (none)
*2008, Lisa Farber, New Jersey, USA
*2009, Lisa Farber, New Jersey, USA
*2010, David Stone, County Waterford

==Fiddle - Slow Airs (Fidil/Veidhlín - Foinn Mhalla)==

*1975, P. Ó Coill, County Xxxxx
*1976, Ann O'Brien, County Antrim
*1977, [[Nollaig Ní Chathasaigh]], County Cork
*1979, John O'Sullivan, County Kilkenny
*1981. Tommy McGoldrick, County Antrim
*1983, Frances Nesbitt, County Tipperary
*1984, Frances Nesbitt, County Tipperary
*1985, Frances Nesbitt, County Tipperary
*1986, Timmy O'Shea, County Kerry
*1987, Michael Ó hÉineacháin, County Mayo
*1988, Colm Crummey, County Antrim
*1992, Karen Franklin, County Limerick
*1993, Frances Donahue, Loughmore, County Tipperary
*1996, Kieran Convery, County Antrim
*1997, Breda Keville, Leeds, UK
*1998, Lisa Ní Choisdealbha, County Tipperary
*1999, Emma O' Leary, County Kerry
*2000, Tomás Mac Aogáin, County Wexford
*2001, Cathal Ó Clochasaigh, County Limerick
*2002, Eleanor Keane, [[Glasgow]], Scotland
*2003, Kia Jewett, [[New Jersey]], USA
*2004, Clár Ní Chuinn, County Tipperary
*2005, Marion Collins, County Cork
*2006, Pádraig Creedon, County Kerry
*2007, Niall McClean, County Down
*2008, Áine Sinéad Ní Riain (Anna Jane Ryan), County Limerick
*2009, Tara Breen, County Clare
*2010, Courtney Cullen, County Wicklow
*2011, Lydia Warnock, County Leitrim
*2012, Clár Breathnach, County Dublin
*2013, Caitríona Ní Luasa, County Cork
*2014, Donál Ó Beoláin, County Westmeath
*2015, Lucia Mac Partlin, County Tipperary
*2016, Éadaoin Ní Mhaicín, County Mayo
*2017, Jake James, New York, USA
*2018, Jason McGuinness, County Sligo
*2019, Sarah O'Gorman, County Waterford

==Uilleann Pipes - Slow Airs (Píb Uilleann - Foinn Mhalla)==

*1985, Eamonn Walsh, County Mayo
*1975, Seamus Casey, London
*1976, Seamus Casey, London
*1977, (only 1 competitor)
*1979, [[Gearóid Ó hAllmhuráin]], County Clare
*1983, Brian McComb, [[Blackburn]], [[Lancashire]], [[England]]
*1984, Eamonn Walsh, Dublin
*1985, Brian McNamara, County Leitrim
*1986, Andrew Murphy, Poulton-le-fylde, Lancashire, England
*1987, Mark Donnelly (Deceased), County Armagh
*1991, Tommy Martin, County Dublin
*1992, Patrick Hutchinson, USA
*1993, Brian Mac Aodha, Co. Leitrim.
*1996, Máire de Cogáin, County Cork
*1997, Flaithrí Neff, County Cork
*1998, Sean Ryan, USA
*1999, Audrey Cunningham, County Wicklow
*2000, Mikie Smyth, County Dublin
*2001, Louise Mulcahy, County Limerick
*2002, Isaac Alderson, Chicago
*2003, Sinéad O'Shiel Flemming, County Laois
*2004, Richard Murray, County Galway
*2005, James Mahon, County Dublin
*2006, Éanna Ó Cróinín, County Galway
*2007, Seán McCarthy, County Cork
*2008, [http://www.fiachrapipes.com/ Fiachra Ó Riagáin], County Galway
*2009, Martino Vacca, County Limerick
*2010, [http://irishpiper.ie Richard Neylon], County Galway
*2011, Éanna Ó Cróinín, County Meath
*2012, Seán Céitinn, County Cork
*2013, Torrin Ryan, Massachusetts, USA
*2014, Patrick Hutchinson, Massachusetts, USA
*2015, Tara Howley, County Clare
*2016, Siobhán Hogan, County Galway
*2017, Conall Duffy, County Louth
*2018, Conor Murphy, County Dublin
*2019, Eoin Orr, County Donegal

==Flute - Slow Airs (Feadóg Mhór - Foinn Mhalla)==

*1975, J. Lewis, County Xxxxx ?
*1976, Ann O’Brien, County Antrim??
*1977, Des Leech, County Dublin
*1979, Páraic Ó Lochlainn, County Dublin
*1980, Damhnait Nic Suibhne, County Donegal
*1981 Neansaí Ní Choisdealbha, County Galway
*1983, Meadhbh Ní Lochlainn, County Dublin
*1984, Tom Hanafin, County Kerry
*1985, Julia Nicholas, [[St Helens, Merseyside|St. Helens]], [[Merseyside]], [[UK]]
*1987, Kathleen Ford, County Donegal
*1988, Michael Griffin, County Wexford
*1991, Paul McGlinchey, County Tyrone
*1995, Maureen Shannon, USA
*1996, Fiona Butler, County Kilkenny
*1997, Catriona Ni Chlochasaigh, County Limerick
*1998, Aoife Ni Ghrainbhil, County Kerry
*1999, Ciaran McGuinness, County Longford
*2000, Attracta Brady, County Offaly
*2001, Áine Ní Dhé, County Kerry
*2002, Seacailín Ní Ealaithe, County Limerick
*2003, Maidhc Ó hÉanaigh, Co. na Gaillimhe
*2004, Frances Donahue, County Galway
*2005, [http://irishpiper.ie Richard Neylon], County Galway
*2006, Sinéad Fahey, County Waterford
*2007, Christina Dolphin, County Dublin
*2008, Audrey Ní Murchú, County Westmeath
*2009, Matthew Dean, Villa Real, Castellan, Spain
*2010, Breda Shannon, County Roscommon
*2011, Eibhlís Ní Shúilleabháin, [[County Cork]]
*2012, Órlaith McAuliffe, [[London, England]]
*2013, Jillian Ní Mháille, [[County Mayo]]
*2014, Máiréad Ní Chiaraigh, County Cork
*2015, Maura O'Brien, County Tipperary
*2016, Caitlín O'Shea, County Kerry
*2017, Ciarán FitzGerald (Ciarán Mac Gearailt), County Kildare.
*2018, Claire Fennell, County Waterford
*2019, Conor Maheady, County Mayo

==Tin Whistle - Slow Airs (Feadóg Stain - Foinn MhaIla)==

*1975, W. Patton, County Antrim
*1976, [[Carmel Gunning]], County Sligo
*1977, Kevin Whitty, County Wexford
*1979, Chalmers Brown, County Down
*1983, Mairéad Ní Chathasaigh, County Cork
*1984, Tom Hanafin, County Kerry
*1985, Michel Sikiotakis, [[Paris]], France
*1993, Maggie McCarty, County Limerick
*1994, Maggie McCarty, County Limerick
*1995, Maggie McCarty, County Limerick
*1996, Fiona Butler, County Kilkenny
*1997, Majella Bartley, County Monaghan
*1998, Róisín Nic Dhonnacha, County Galway
*1989, Lorraine Mc Mahon, County Louth
*1999, Emma O'Leary, County Kerry
*2000, Caitríona Ní Mhaoldomhnaigh, County Limerick
*2001, Noreen Ní Mhurchú, County Cork
*2002, Sacra Ní Fhuardha, County Galway
*2003, Linda Ní Bheirn, County Roscommon
*2004, Sinéad Fahy, County Waterford
*2005, Julie Ann McCafferty, County Fermanagh
*2006, [http://www.fiachrapipes.com/ Fiachra Ó Riagáin], County Galway
*2007, Pól Ó Rúis, County Roscommon
*2008, Edel McLaughlin, County Donegal
*2009, Audrey Murphy, County Westmeath
*2010, Audrey Murphy, County Westmeath
*2011, Siobhan Ni Uirc (Joanne Quirke) County Cork
*2012, Audrey Ní Mhurcú, [[County Westmeath]]
*2013, Yasmin Lynch, [[County Donegal]]
*2014, Maura Ní Bhriain, County Tipperary
*2015, Siobhán Ní Chonchuirr, County Donegal
*2016, Ciarán FitzGerald (Ciarán Mac Gearailt), County Kildare
*2017, Cárl Ó' Dochartaigh, (Karl Doherty), County Donegal
*2018, Brendan Rowan, County Meath
*2019, Padraig Enright, County Kerry

==Harp - Slow Airs (Cruit - Foinn Mhalla)==

*2011, Déirdre Ní Ghrainbhil, County Kerry
*2012, Fiana Ní Chonaill, County Limerick
*2013, Emily Gaine, County Sligo
*2014, Eimear Coughlan, County Clare
*2015, Siobhán Ní Bhuachalla, County Cork
*2016, Kerri Ní Mhaoláin, (Kerri Mullan) City of Derry
*2017, Seamus O Flatharta, County Galway
*2018, Una Ní Fhlannagáin, County Galway
*2019, Siofra Thornton, County Tipperary

==Duets (Ceol Beirte)==
*1955, James Rooney & Sean McAloon, County Fermanagh
*1956, Seán Ryan & P. J. Moloney, County Tipperary
*1962, Joe Burke & Aggie Whyte, County Galway
*1977, Sean McGlynn & Brendan Mulvihill, Washington D.C.
*1975, Jimmy Keane & Liz Carroll, Chicago
*1976, John and Eileen Brady, County Offaly
*1977, Billy McComiskey & Brendan Mulvihill, New York
*1979, Martin Hayes & Mary McNamara, County Clare
*1983, Sean & Breda Smyth, [[County Mayo]]
*1984, Rose Daly & Sean O Dalaigh Offaly & Dublin
*1985, E. Minogue & M. Cooney, County Tipperary
*1986, Rose Daly & Sean o Dalaigh Offaly & Dublin
*1987, Joanie Madden & Kathy McGinty, New York
*1988, Michael & Chris McDonagh, Luton, UK
*1989, PJ Hernon & Philip Duffy, County Sligo
*1990, Elizabeth Gaughan & Michael Tennyson, Leeds
*1991, Micheal & MacDara O'Reily, Meath
*1992, Micheal & MacDara O'Reily, Meath
*1993, Paul McGlinchey & Barry McLaughlin, Tyrone
*1994, Anthony Quigney & Aiden McMahon, Clare
*1995, Mirella Murray & Liz Kane, County Galway
*1996, Ursula & Clare Byrne, County Down
*1997, Aisling & Alan O Choisdeabha, County Tipperary
*1998, Antoin O Connaill & Diarmuid O Brien, County Limerick
*1999, Cathal & C. Ní Chlochasaigh, County Limerick
*2000, Loretto Ní Mhaoldomhnaigh & Thomas Slattery, County Tipperary
*2001, Nuala Hehir & Liz Gaughan, County Clare
*2002, Sharon Ní Chearbhaill & Attracta Brady, County Offaly
*2003, Seana & Lorna Ní Dhaithí, County Meath
*2004, Úna Devlin & Paul Quinn, County Armagh
*2005, Mairéad McManus & Katie Boyle, Glasgow
*2006, Aisling Neville & Alan Egan, County Kerry
*2007, Tara Breen & Cathal Mac an Rí, County Clare
*2008, Sean & Gearoid Ó Cathain, County Kildare
*2009, Daragh & Micheál Ó hÉalaí, County Mayo
*2010, Alan Finn & Rory McMahon, County Cork
*2011, Lottie & Courtney Cullen, County Wicklow
*2012, Seacailín & Eibhlín Ní Éalaithe, County Limerick
*2013, Rory Healy & John Bass, County Wicklow
*2014, Orlaith McAuliffe & Brogan McAuliffe, London, England
*2015, Patricia McArdle & Róisín Anne Hughes, Glasgow, Scotland
*2016, Anne Marie Bell & Megan Duffy, County Sligo
*2017, Tadhg & Saran Mulligan, County Louth
*2018, Áine & Ciarán Mac Gearailt (FitzGerald), County Kildare
*2019, Jason & Damien McGuiness, County Sligo

==[[Trio (music)|Trios]] (Ceol Trír)==

*1960, Larry Redican, Jack Coen, Paddy O'Brien
*1967, Joe Burke, Kathleen Collins & Carl Hession
*1975, Nolan, Ryan & Flanagan, County Xxxxx
*1975, Paddy O’Brien, Sean Ryan & Micheal O’hAlmhain, County Offaly
*1976, Collis Trio, County Sligo
*1977, O’Brien, Fogarty & Harty Trio, County Tipperary
*1979, M. Harty, E.O'Brien & W. Fogarty, County Tipperary
*1983, M. Nugent, J Nugent & M. Carroll, County Clare
*1984, L.Gaul, S.Rattigan, D.Robinson, Co. Wexford
*1985, Cathrine, Anne & Fiona McEnroe, County Cavan
*1987, J. Lawlor, J. & E. Kennedy, Luton, UK
*1988, Mary O'Connell, Michael & Christopher McDonagh, Luton, UK
*1989, Michael Hurley, P. J. Hernon & Philip Duffy, County Sligo,
*1991, Thomas, John & Robert Morrow, County Leitrim
*1992, Michael, MacDara, & Felim O'Reily, Meath
*1994, Michael Tennyson, Liz Gaughan & Maureen Ferguson, Leeds
*1995, Claire Griffin, Anthony Quigney & Aiden McMahon, Co. Clare
*1996, Seán, Mairín & Caitríona O Clochasaigh, County Limerick
*1997, Darragh Pattwell, Alan & Aisling Coisdealbha, County Tipperary
*1998, John & Jacinta McEvoy, Patsy Moloney, Birmingham
*1999, Tomás Keegan, Pat Bass & John Bass, County Wexford
*2000, Cathal, Mairín & Cáit Clohessey, County Limerick
*2001, Nual Hehir, Liz Gaughan & B. Quinn, County Clare
*2002, Carmel Doohan, Clive Earley, Ciara O'Sullivan, County Clare
*2003, Fionnuala Ní Ruanaidh, Thomas Johnson, Laura Ní Bheagain, County Monaghan
*2004, John Burke, Carmel Burke & Siobhán Ní Chonaráin, Birmingham
*2005, Ciara Ní Chondúin, Aidan Hill & Michael Harrison, County Tipperary
*2006, Danielle O’Riordan, John Neville & Katie Lucey, County Kerry
*2007, Sean & Gearóid Keane & Cormac Murphy, County Kildare
*2008, Alan Egan, Michael Mac Conraoí & Gearóidín Ní Cheallacháin, County Limerick
*2009, Cian & Caoimhe Ní Chiaráin and Seán Farrell, County Sligo
*2010, Máiréad & Aisling Ní Mhocháin & Seán Céitinn, County Cork
*2013, Alan Finn, Rory Mc Mahon & Eoin O' Sullivan, County Cork
*2014, Eimear Coughlan, Francis Cunningham & Marian Curtin, An Tulach/Croisín/Laichtín Naofa
*2015, Daithí Gormley, Cian & Caoimhe Kearins, County Sligo
*2016, Áine Nic Gearailt (FitzGerald), Ciarán Mac Gearailt (FitzGerald) & Cormac Mac Aodhagán, County Kildare
*2017, Tomás Quinn, Michael Kerr, Christopher Maguire, County Tyrone
*2018, Aileen De Burca, Deirdre De Barra & Eibhlin De Barra, County Mayo
*2019, Jack Boyle, Orlaith McAuliffe & Christopher Maguire, London

==[[Céilí Band]] (Buíon Cheoil Chéilí)==

*1951, Athlone 'B' Band, County Westmeath<ref>Irish Independent, 16 May 1951, 4; Irish Press 16 May 1951, 4
</ref>
*1953, Aughrim Slopes Céilí Band, County Galway
*1954, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare, Athlone Céilí Band, County Westmeath, and Moyglass Céilí Band, County Wexford (tie)<ref>Irish Independent, 8 June 1954, 8</ref>
*1955, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
*1956, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
*1957, Tulla Céilí Band, County Clare
*1958, Kincora Céilí Band, County Dublin
*1959, Leitrim Céilí Band, County Galway
*1960, [[Tulla Céilí Band]], County Clare
*1961, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
*1962, Leitrim Céilí Band, County Galway
*1963, Liverpool Céilí Band, Liverpool
*1964, Liverpool Céilí Band, Liverpool
*1965, Castle Céilí Band, County Dublin
*1966, Glenside Céilí Band, London
*1967, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
*1968, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
*1969, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
*1970, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
*1971, Green Linnet Céilí Band, County Dublin
*1972, Brosna Céilí Band, County Kerry;
*1973, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
*1974, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
*1975, Pipers Club Céilí Band, County Dublin
*1976, Pipers Club Céilí Band, County Dublin
*1977, Longridge Céilí Band, County Offaly
*1978, Longridge Céilí Band, County Offaly
*1979, Ormond Céilí Band, County Tipperary
*1980, Ormond Céilí Band, County Tipperary
*1981, Ormond Céilí Band, County Tipperary
*1982, Longridge Céilí Band, County Offaly
*1983, Pride of Erin Céilí Band, County Fermanagh
*1984, Ormond Céilí Band, County Tipperary
*1985, Pride of Erin Céilí Band, County Fermanagh
*1986, The Thatch Céilí Band, London, England
*1987, The Thatch Céilí Band, London, England
*1988, St. Colmcille's Céilí Band, [[St. Albans]], [[Hertfordshire]], England
*1989, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
*1990, Siamsa Céilí Band, County Louth
*1991, St. Colmcille's Céilí Band, St. Albans
*1992, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
*1993, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
*1994, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
*1995, Kilfenora Céilí Band, County Clare
*1996, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
*1997, Bridge Céilí Band, County Laois
*1998, Táin Céilí Band, County Louth
*1999, Táin Céilí Band, County Louth
*2000, Táin Céilí Band, County Louth
*2001, Ennis Céilí Band, County Clare
*2002, Ennis Céilí Band, County Clare
*2003, Ennis Céilí Band, County Clare
*2004, Naomh Pádraig Céilí Band, County Meath
*2005, Naomh Pádraig Céilí Band, County Meath
*2006, Naomh Pádraig Céilí Band, County Meath
*2007, Allow Céilí Band, County Cork
*2008, Innisfree Céilí Band, County Sligo
*2009, Dartry Céilí Band, County Sligo
*2010, Teampall An Ghleanntáin Céilí Band, County Limerick
*2011, Shannonvale Céilí Band, County Kerry
*2012, Awbeg Céilí Band, County Cork
*2013, Moylurg Céilí band, County Roscommon<ref>{{cite web | url=http://comhaltas.ie/music/detail/comhaltaslive_422_3_the_moylurg_ceili_band/ | title=The moylurg ceili band | publisher=Comhaltas | work=The Moylurg March | date=2013 | access-date=2 June 2014}}</ref>
*2014, Knockmore Ceili Band, County Fermanagh
*2015, Shandrum Céilí Band, County Cork
*2016, Shandrum Céilí Band, County Cork
*2017, Shandrum Céilí Band, County Cork
*2018, Blackwater Céilí Band, County Tyrone
*2019, Cnoc na Gaoithe Céilí Band, County Clare

==Instrumental Groups (Grúpaí Ceoil)==

*1979, Armagh Pipers Club, County Armagh
*1980, Ceoltóirí Mágh Ealla, Mallow, Co. Cork
*1981, Ceoltóirí Mágh Ealla, Mallow, Co. Cork
*1982, Ceoltóirí Mágh Ealla, Mallow, Co. Cork
*1983, Ryan Family Group, County Tipperary
*1984, Shamrock, Paris, France
*1985, St. Alban's Group, Herts., UK
*1986, St. James Gate, San Antonio, Texas
*1987, Ballishall, County Wicklow
*1989, Loughmore Senior Grúpa Ceoil
*1994, Cois Locha, Portglenone, County Antrim
*1995, Tara, Manchester
*1996, St. Michael's, County Limerick
*1997, Craobh Naithi CCE, County Dublin
*1998, Grupa Cheoil Cholmain Naofa Clar Choinne Mhuiris, County Mayo
*1999, Ballydonoghue / Lisselton CCÉ, County Kerry
*2000, St. Michael's, County Limerick
*2001, CCÉ, Teampall an Ghleanntáin, County Limerick
*2002, Éamon Ó Muirí CCÉ, County Monaghan
*2003, South Birmingham CCÉ, Birmingham
*2004, St. Louis Irish Arts Grúpa Cheoil, St. Louis
*2005, Ceoltóirí Craobh na Coradh, County Clare
*2006, Ceoltóirí Mhuscraí, County Cork
*2007, St. Rochs, Irish Minstrels Branch, [[Glasgow]], Scotland
*2008, CCÉ, Teampall an Ghleanntáin, County Limerick
*2009, CCÉ, Fred Finn, County Sligo
*2010, CCÉ, Teampall An Ghleanntáin, County Limerick
*2011, CCÉ, Edenderry, County Offaly
*2012, Ceoltóirí Coillte, Illinois, USA
*2013, CCÉ, Guaire Baile Ghearóid, County Wexford
*2014, Ceoltóirí Cois Féile, County Kerry
*2016, Ceoltóirí Knockfennell, CCÉ Caisleán Uí Chonaill/Atháin/Baile Iobaird, County Limerick
*2017, St Roch's, Glasgow, Scotland
*2018, Tairseach, CCÉ Cill Shléibhe/Tulach Sheasta, County Tipperary
*2019, Ceoltóirí Tireragh, County Sligo

==Accordion Bands (Buíon Cheoil Cáirdin)==

*1984, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
*1985, St. Patrick's Accordion Band, County Down
*1987, St. Patrick's Accordion Band, County Donegal
*1988, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Strabane Co, Tyrone
*1989, St Marys Accordion Band, Convoy, Co, Donegal
*1990, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Strabane Co, Tyrone
*1991, St. Patrick's Accordion Band, Drumkein, County Donegal
*1992, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Keady Co, Armagh
*1993, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Keady Co, Armagh
*1994, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Strabane Co, Tyrone
*1995, St Oliver Plunkett Accordion Band, Keady Co, Armagh
*1996, Fanad Accordion Band, County Donegal
*1997, Fanad Accordion Band, County Donegal
*1998, St. Miguels Band, Downpatrick, County Down
*1999, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
*2000, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
*2001, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
*2002, K & S Accordion Band, County Meath
*2003, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
*2004, Saint Enda Accordion Band, County Monaghan
*2005, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
*2006, Mayobridge Youth Band, County Down
*2007, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
*2008, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
*2009, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
*2010, Holy Cross Accordion Band, Atticall, County Down
*2011, Holy Cross Accordion Band, Atticall, County Down
*2012, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
*2013, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
*2014, Holy Cross Accordion Band Atticall, County Down
*2015, St. Brigid's Accordion Band, Jonesboro, County Armagh
*2016, Holy Cross Accordion Band Atticall, County Down
*2017, Holy Cross Accordion Band Atticall, County Down
*2018, Holy Cross Accordion Band Atticall, County Down
*2019, No Competitors

==Flute Bands (Buíon Cheoil Feadóg Mhór)==

*1984, Harry Hickey Flute band, Atha Cliath
*1985, Clooney Flute Band, County Antrim
*1986, Clooney Flute Band, County Antrim
*1987, Droma Mor Rann na Feirste, County Donegal
*1988, Clooney Flute Bcand, County Antrim
*1989, Clooney Flute Band, County Antrim
*1990, Droma Mor Rann Na Feirste, Co Donegal
*1991, Droma Mor Rann Na Feirste, Co Donegal
*1992, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*1993, Clooney Flute Band, County Antrim
*1994, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*1995, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*1996, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*1997, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*1998, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*1999, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2000, Droma Mor Rann na Feirste, County Donegal
*2001, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2002, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2003, Buion Ceoil Cnoiceach Mór, Burtonport, County Donegal
*2004, Buion Ceoil Cnoiceach Mór, Burtonport, County Donegal
*2005, Buion Ceoil Cnoiceach Mór, Burtonport, County Donegal
*2006, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal (no other competitors)
*2007, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal (no other competitors)
*2008, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal (no other competitors)
*2009, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal (no other competitors)
*2010, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2011, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2012, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2013, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2014, Mullaghduff Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2015, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2016, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2017, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2018, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal
*2019, Maghery Fife & Drum Band, County Donegal

==Miscellaneous Marching Bands (Buíon Rogha Gléas)==

*1975, Acres National School Band, Burtonport, County Donegal
*1976, Killeshill Youth Band, County Tyrone
*1977, Claremorris Marching Band, County Mayo
*1983, Convent of Mercy Marching Band, County Mayo
*1984, St. Cecilia's Youth Band, Lisnaskea, County Fermanagh (Junior)
*1985, St. Crona's Accordion Band, Dungloe, County Donegal
*1985, St. Cecilia's Youth Band, Lisnaskea, County Fermanagh (Senior)
*1986, Clochaneely Marching Band, County Donegal
*1987, St. Macartan's Band, County Fermanagh
*1979, St. Patricks Accordion Band, County Tyrone
*1991, St. Crona's Accordion Band, Dungloe, Co. Donegal
*1993, St. Cecilia's Band, Aughnamullen, County Monaghan
*1994, St. Cecilia's Band, Aughnamullen, County Monaghan
*1995, St. Cecilia's Band, Aughnamullen, County Monaghan
*1996, St. Columba's Band, County Donegal
*1999, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
*2000, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
*2001, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
*2002, Buíon Cheoil Chloich Cheann Fhaola, County Donegal
*2003, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
*2004, St. Crona's Band, Dungloe, County Donegal
*2005, St. Mary's Band Broomfield, County Monaghan
*2006, Donaghmoyne Band, County Monaghan
*2007, St. Mary's, Castleblayney Band, County Monaghan
*2008, St. Mary's, Castleblayney Band, County Monaghan
*2009, Banna Ceoil, Ramelton, County Donegal
*2010, Ramelton, Ráth Mealton, County Donegal
*2011, Buncrana, County Donegal
*2012, Ramelton Town Snr Miscellaneous Band, County Donegal
*2013, Ramelton Town Snr Miscellaneous Band, County Donegal
*2014, Ramelton Town Snr Miscellaneous Band, County Donegal
*2017, Buion Cheoil Sinsear Chloich Cheann Fhaola, County Donegal
*2018, Buion Cheoil Sinsear Chloich Cheann Fhaola, County Donegal
*2019, Ramelton Town Snr Miscellaneous Band, County Donegal

==[[Pipe Bands]] (Buíon Cheoil Phíob)==
Note that the All-Ireland Fleadh Championships are unrelated to the All-Ireland Pipe Band Championships organised jointly by the Irish Pipe Band Association (IPBA) and the [[Northern Ireland]] Branch of the [[Royal Scottish Pipe Band Association]] (RSPBANI).

*1985, O'Neill Pipe Band, County Armagh
*1987, O'Neill Pipe Band, County Armagh
*1991, Annsborough Pipe Band, County Down
*1992, Clonoe Independent Pipe Band, Co Tyrone
*1993, Clonoe Independent Pipe Band, Co Tyrone
*1994, Clonoe Independent Pipe Band, Co Tyrone
*1996, Aghagallon Pipe Band, County Armagh
*2001, Buíon Cheoil Phíb Mhór Cloghfin, County Tyrone
*2002, Aughnamullen Pipe Band, County Monaghan
*2003, Achill Schools, County Mayo
*2004, St. Joseph's Pipe Band, County Down
*2005, St. Joseph's Pipe Band, County Down
*2006, Edendork Pipe Band, County Tyron
*2007, Edendork Pipe Band, County Tyrone
*2008, Edendork Pipe Band, County Tyrone
*2010, Buíon Cheoil Phíb Mhór Cloghfin, County Tyrone
*2011, St Josephs Pipe Band, Longstone, County Down
*2012, Crimlin Batafada Pipe Band, County Mayo
*2013, Corduff Pipe Band, County Monaghan
*2014, Corduff Pipe Band, County Monaghan
*2016, Achill Pipe Band, County Mayo
*2017, Achill Pipe Band, County Mayo
*2018, St Josephs Pipe Band, Longstone, County Down

==Irish Singing - Ladies (Amhrán Gaeilge - Mná)==

*1957, Rós Máire Ní Giollarnath, County Galway
*1975, Lena Bn. Uí Shé, County Xxxxx
*1976, Nora McDonagh, Chicago
*1977, Mary Cooley, Chicago
*1979, Eibhlín Briscoe, County Tipperary
*1983, Máiréad Ní Oistín, County Dublin
*1985, Karen Breathnach, County Kerry
*1987, Nóra Ní Dhonnacha, County Galway
*1996, Mary Gallagher, County Cork
*1998 Mairéad Ní Fhlatharta, County Galway
*1999, Caitríona Ní Laoire, County Meath
*2000, Karen Ní Thrinsigh, County Kerry
*2001, Karen Ní Thrinsigh, County Kerry
*2002, Treasa Bn. Uí Chonaill, County Galway
*2003, Astrid Ní Mhongáin, County Mayo
*2004, Bairbre Uí Theighneáin, Clonaslee, Co. Laois
*2005, Máire Ní Choilm, County Donegal
*2006, Nollaig Nic Andriú, County Mayo
*2007, Rachel Ní Ghairbheith, County Roscommon
*2008, Nollaig Ní Laiore, County Meath
*2009, Gobnait Ní Chrualaoi, County Cork
*2010, Róisín Ní Riain, County Kerry
*2011, Gobnait Ní Chrualaoí, County Cork
*2012, Muireann Ní Luasa, County Cork
*2013, Clár Nic Ruairi, City of Derry
*2014, Sailí Ní Dhroighneáin, County Galway
*2015, Paula Ní Chualáin, County Galway
*2016, Eimear Arkins, Missouri, USA
*2017, Gráinne Ní Fhatharta, County Galway
*2018, Danielle Ní Chéilleachair, County Cork
*2019, Kathryn Ní Mhaolán, City of Derry

==Irish Singing - Men (Amhrán Gaeilge - Fir)==

*1956, Sean Quinn, County Clare
*1975, T. O’Duinnon, County Xxxxx
*1976, Clement Mac Suibhne, County Donegal
*1977, Seosamh Mac Donnacha, County Galway
*1979, Maithiún Ó Caoimh, County Tipperary
*1982, Martin Joyce, Leeds
*1983, Seán Ó Cróinín, County Cork
*1984, John Flanagan, County Galway
*1985, Martin Joyce, Leeds
*1986, Seán Mac Craith, County Waterford
*1987, Dara Bán Mac Dhonnacha, County Galway
*1988, Risteard Ó hEidhín
*1989, Philip Enright, County Limerick
*1991, Patrick Connolly
*1992, Diarmuid Ó Cathasaigh, County Cork
*1993, Patrick Connolly
*1994, Padraic McNulty, County Mayo
*1995, Naoise Ó Mongáin, County Mayo
*1996, Bartlae Breathnach, County Galway
*1997, Traolach Ó Conghaile, County Mayo
*1998, Traolach Ó Conghaile, County Mayo
*1999, Naoise Ó Mongáin, County Mayo
*2000, Traolach Ó Conghaile, County Mayo
*2001, Ciarán Ó Coincheanainn, County Galway
*2002, Eoghan Warner, County Kerry
*2003, Naoise Ó Mongáin, County Mayo
*2004, Tadhg Ó Meachair, County Tipperary
*2005, Coireall Mac Curtain, County Limerick
*2006, Colm McDonagh, County Galway
*2007, Liam Ó Cróinín, County Cork
*2008, Breandán Ó Ceannabháin, County Galway
*2009, Breandán Ó Ceannabháin, County Galway
*2010, Seosamh Ó Críodáin, County Kerry
*2011, Seosamh Ó Críodáin, County Kerry
*2012, Seosamh Ó Críodáin, County Kerry
*2013, Anraí Ó Domhnaill, County Donegal
*2014, Anraí Ó Domhnaill, County Donegal
*2015, Conchubhar Ó Luasa, County Cork
*2016, Anraí Ó Domhnaill, County Donegal
*2017, Ciarán Ó Donnabháin, County Cork
*2018, Lughaidh Mac an Iascaire, County Dublin
*2019, Proinnsias O Cathasaigh, County Kerry

==English Singing - Ladies (Amhrán Béarla - Mná)==

*19??, Rita Gallagher, County Donegal; (three times winner - years unknown)
*1969, Nora Butler, County Tipperary
*1970, Nora Butler, County Tipperary
*1971, Nora Butler, County Tipperary
*1972, Anne Brolly, City of Derry
*1975, M. O’Reilly, County Xxxxx
*1976, Pauline Sweeney, County Donegal
*1977, Pauline Sweeney, County Donegal
*1978, Pauline Sweeney, County Donegal
*1979, Rita Gallager, County Donegal
*1983, Siobhan O'Donnell, London, England
*1985, Rose Daly, County Offaly
*1986, Rose Daly, County Offaly
*1987, Rose Daly, County Offaly
*1991, Karen Walsh, County Kerry
*1995, Catherine Mc Laughlin (née Nugent), County Fermanagh
*1996, Christina Pierce, County Roscommon
*1997, Fionnuala O' Reilly, County Leitrim
*1999, Máire Ní Chéilleachair, County Cork
*2000, Astrid Ní Mhongáin, County Mayo
*2001, Deirdre Scanlon, County Limerick
*2002, Sharon Buckley, County Kerry
*2003, Ann Marie Kavanagh, County Tipperary
*2004, Christina Pierce, County Roscommon
*2005, Brigid Delaney, County Kildare
*2006, Brigid Delaney, County Kildare
*2007, Kate Ford, County Donegal
*2008, Amelia Ní Mhurchú, County Monaghan
*2009, Shauna McGarrigle, County Offaly
*2010, Denise Whelan, County Clare
*2011, Eibhlín Máire Ní Dhuibhir, County Limerick
*2012, Eibhlín Ní Bhrúdair, County Limerick
*2013, Eimear Arkins, County Clare
*2014, Cáit Ní Bhrúdair Uí Mhurchú, County Limerick
*2015, Kathryn Nea, County Westmeath
*2019, Julie-Ann McCaffrey, County Fermanagh

==English Singing - Men (Amhrán Béarla - Fir)==

*1971, [[Len Graham (singer)|Len Graham]], County Louth
*1972, Oliver Mulligan, County Monaghan
*1973, [[Frank Harte]], County Dublin
*1975, Peter Nolan, County Offaly
*1976, [[Paddy Berry]], County Wexford
*1977, Vincent Crowley, Bantry, County Cork
*1979, John Cronin, Drinagh, County Cork
*1983, Vincent Crowley, Bantry, County Cork
*1985, John Furlong, County Wexford
*1986, Seán Ó Dálaigh Contae Átha Cliath
*1987, Gerard McQuaid, County Monaghan
*1996, John Power, County Waterford
*1997, John Power, County Waterford
*1998, Maurice Foley, County Cork
*1999, John Furlong, County Wexford
*2000, Séamus Brogan, [[St. Albans]], England
*2001, Jon Jon Williams, County Londonderry
*2002, Brian Hart, St. Louis, USA
*2003, Cathal Lynch, County Tyrone
*2004, Donal Bowe, County Tipperary
*2005, Dónal Ó Liatháin, County Limerick
*2006, Seán Breen, County Kerry
*2007, Niall Wall (Niall de Bhál), County Wexford
*2008, Padraic Keena (Padhraic Ó Cionnaith), County Westmeath
*2009, Tadhg Maher (Tadhg Ó Meachair), County Tipperary
*2010, Cian Ó Ciaráin, County Sligo
*2011, Cathal O'Neill, County Tyrone
*2012, Peadar Sherry, County Monaghan
*2013, [[Daoirí Farrell]], County Dublin
*2014, Micheál O'Shea, County Kerry
*2019, Kevin Elam, Washington DC, USA

==[[Whistling]] (Feadaíl)==

*1966, Tom McHale, County Roscommon
*1975, Paddy Berry, County Wexford
*1976, Seamus O'Donnell, County Sligo
*1977, Paddy Berry, County Wexford
*1979, Michael Creavers, County Galway
*1983, Walter O'Hara, County Wexford
*1984, Liam Gaul, County Wexford
*1985, Paddy O'Donnell, County Galway
*1986, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
*1987, Padraig Ó Raithbheartaigh, County Galway
*1996, Michael Ryan, County Tipperary
*1990, John O'Connell, County Antrim
*1998, Síle Áine de Barra, County Cork
*1999, Sean White, County Waterford
*2000, Frances Donahue, County Galway
*2001, Séan Seosamh Mac Domhnaill, County Mayo
*2002, Séan Seosamh Mac Domhnaill, County Mayo
*2003, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
*2004, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
*2005, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
*2006, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
*2007, Máiréad Ní Chorradáin, County Kerry (CCÉ Teampall a' Gleanntain)
*2008, Tony Connolly, County Galway
*2009, Claire McNicholl, City of Derry
*2010, Ailéin Ó Dubhuir, County Wexford
*2011, Ailéin Ó Dubhuir, County Wexford
*2012, Ailéin Ó Dubhuir, County Wexford
*2013, Ailéin Ó Dubhuir, County Wexford
*2014, Séamus Ó hAirtnéide, County Limerick
*2018, Ainíde Uí Bhennéis, County Limerick (CCE Teampall a' Ghleanntáin)
*2019, Liam Jones, County Clare

==[[Lilting]] (Portaireacht)==

*1954, Paddy Tunney, County Fermanagh (inaugural year for lilting)
*1955, Paddy Tunney, County Fermanagh
*1956, Paddy Tunney, County Fermanagh
*1959, Seamus Fay, County Cavan
*1960, Seamus Fay, County Cavan
*1961, Seamus Fay, County Cavan
*1963, Micheal O'Rourke, Co. Leitrim
*1964, Micky McCann, Co. Tyrone
*1967, Josie McDermott, County Sligo
*1969, Seamus Fay, County Cavan
*1975, Joseph Harris, County Kildare
*1976, Joseph Harris, County Kildare
*1977, Vincent Crowley, County Cork
*1978, Michael Rafferty, County Galway
*1979, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
*1980, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
*1981, Oliver Kearney, County Kildare
*1982, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
*1983, Michael Craven, County Galway
*1985, M.J. O'Reilly, County Wexford
*199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
*199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
*199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
*199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
*199x, John Culhane, County Limerick
*1987, Padraig Ó Raithbheartaigh, County Galway
*1996, Caitrona Cullivan, County Cavan
*1999, Bernadette Collins, County Cork
*2000, Seán Ó Cathaláin, County Limerick
*2001, Seán Ó Cathaláin, County Limerick
*2002, Seán Ó Cathaláin, County Limerick
*2003, Tadhg Maher, County Tipperary
*2004, Tommy Stone, County Offaly
*2005, Seán Breen, County Kerry
*2006, Séan Ó Cathaláin, County Limerick
*2007, Seán Breen, County Kerry
*2008, Cian Kearns (Cian Ó Ciaráin), County Sligo
*2009, Seán Breen, County Kerry
*2010, Paul O'Reilly (Pól Ó Raghallaigh), County Wexford
*2011, Caoimhe Ní Chiaráin, County Sligo
*2012, Eibhlín Ní Bhrúdair, County Limerick
*2013, Aoife Colféir, County Wexford
*2014, Donal Tydings, County Kerry
*2019, Donagh McElligott, County Kerry

==Irish Singing - Newly Composed Ballads (Amhrán Nua-Cheaptha Gaeilge)==

*1975, M. McGinley, County Donegal
*1976, M. McGinley, County Donegal
*1977, Máire Ní Bhaoil, County Monaghan
*1979, M.J. O' Reilly, County Wexford
*1982, M.J. O' Reilly, County Wexford
*1983, Seán Ó Cathasaigh, County Cork
*1985, Colm Mac Confhaola, County Wexford
*1987, Jack McCutheon, County Wexford
*1996, Frances Donahue, County Galway
*1999, Ciarán Ó Concheanainn, County Galway
*2000, Matthew Gormally, County Galway
*2001, Brenda O'Sullivan, County Dublin
*2002, Brenda O'Sullivan, County Dublin
*2003, Sarah Stone, County Offaly
*2004, Dick Beamish, County Cork
*2005, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
*2006, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
*2007, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
*2008, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
*2009, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
*2010, Eilís Ní Shúilleabháin, County Cork
*2011, Seán Ó Múimhneacháin, County Cork
*2012, Diarmaid Ó hEachthigheirn, County Cork
*2013, Liam Ó Riain, County Waterford
*2014, Seán Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
*2016 Nodlaig Ní Bhrollaigh Contae Dhoire
*2019. Sean O Muimhneachain, County Cork

==English Singing - Newly Composed Ballads (Amhrán Nua-Cheaptha Bearla)==

*1975, John Cronin, Drinagh, County Cork
*1976, Barbara Juppe, New York
*1977, John Flanagan, County Clare
*1979, Joseph Mulhern, City of Derry
*1983, Tony Waldron, County Galway
*1984, Seán Ó Dálaigh, {{lang|ga|italic=no|Bóthar na gCloch, Áth Cliath}}
*1985, Paddy Blake, County Wicklow
*1986, Seán Ó Dalaigh, {{lang|ga|italic=no|Bóthar na gCloch, Áth Cliath}}
*1987, Pádraig Ó Raithbheartaigh, County Galway
*1996, Dan Keane, County Kerry
*1996, Dan Keane, County Kerry
*1999, Dan Keane, County Kerry
*2000, Colm O'Donnell, County Sligo
*2001, Dan Keane, County Kerry
*2002, Niall Wall, County Wexford
*2003, Pete McAleer, Newport, [[Wales]]
*2004, Bruce Scott, [[Liverpool]]
*2005, Séan Ó Muimhneacháin, County Cork
*2006, Bruce Scott, Liverpool
*2007, Mary Ryan, County Kildare
*2008, Étaoin Rowe, West London
*2009, Terry Cowan, County Down
*2010, Muiris Mac Giolla Choda, County Cork
*2011, Muiris Mac Giolla Choda, County Cork
*2012, Padhraig Ó Tuathail, County Mayo
*2013, Shauna McGarrigle, County Offaly
*2014, Etaoin Rowe, London, England
*2019, Joe Kelly, County Westmeath

==Newly Composed Dance Tune (Nua-Ceaptha)==
*2011, Marie Walsh, County Galway
*2012, Nóirín Ní Shúilleabháin, County Galway
*2013, Keelan Mac Craith, County Tipperary
*2014, Donagh McElligott, County Kerry
*2015, Blaithín Kennedy, County Tipperary
*2016, Jody Moran, Victoria, Australia
*2017, Jody Moran, Victoria, Australia
*2018, Joanne O'Connor, County Limerick
*2019, Meibh Ní Dhubhlaioch, County Offaly

==8-Hand Céilí Ladies==
*2011, Sliabh Luachra CCÉ, County Kerry
*2012, Sliabh Luachra CCÉ, County Kerry
*2013, Sliabh Luachra CCÉ, County Kerry
*2014, Caisleán Nua, County Tipperary

==8-Hand Céilí Mixed==
*2011, Foireann Rince Mhuineacháin, Emyvale, County Monaghan
*2012, Emyvale CCÉ, County Monaghan
*2013, Craobh Bheartla Uí Fhlatharta, CCÉ, County Kildare
*2014, Emyvale CCÉ, County Monaghan

==4-Hand Céilí Ladies==
*2011, Sliabh Luachra CCÉ, County Kerry
*2012, Gleann Fleisce CCÉ, County Kerry
*2013, Gleann Fleisce A, CCÉ, County Kerry
*2014, Gleann Fleisce A, County Kerry

==4-Hand Céilí Mixed==
*2011, Foireann Rince Mhuineacháin, Emyvale, County Monaghan
*2012, CCÉ, Teampall an Ghleanntáin, County Limerick
*2013, Naomh Chiaráin, CCÉ, County Kerry
*2014, Ballyduff/Ballinvella/Ballysaggart, County Waterford

==[[Set Dancing]] - Full Set Ladies (Rince Seit - Mná)==

*1987, Gael Colmcille, County Meath
*1988, Stoneybatter Set, Dublin
*1989, Stoneybatter Set, Dublin
*1990, Stoneybatter Set, Dublin
*1996, Carrickcruppen Set
*1998, Elphin County Roscommon
*1999, Kilcummin Set, County Kerry
*2000, Galbally/Ballyhogue, County Wexford
*2001, Kilcummin, County Kerry
*2002, Elphin Set, County Roscommon
*2003, Gleneagle, County Kerry
*2004, Gleneagle, County Kerry
*2005, Glenflesk, County Kerry
*2006, [[Abbeyknockmoy]], County Galway
*2007, Glenflesk (Gleann Fleisce), County Kerry
*2008, [[Abbeyknockmoy]], County Galway
*2009, St. Ciara's, County Clare
*2010, Cill Áirne, County Kerry
*2011, Abbeyknockmoy, County Galway
*2012, Caisleán Nua, County Tipperary
*2013, Spa - Cill Áirne, County Kerry
*2014, Spa - Cill Áirne, County Kerry
*2018, Rithim an Chláir, CCÉ, Laichtín Naofa, Clár

==[[Set Dancing]] - Full Set Mixed (Rince Seit - Mixed)==

*1990, The Banner Set, County Clare
*1995, Elphin Set, County Roscommon
*1996, Elphin set, County Roscommon
*1997, Elphin Set, County Roscommon
*1998, Tulla Set, County Clare
*1999, Elphin Set, County Roscommon
*2000, [[Abbeyknockmoy]], County Galway
*2001, Gleneagle, County Kerry
*2002, [[Abbeyknockmoy]], County Galway
*2003, Gleneagle, County Kerry
*2004, Gleneagle, County Kerry
*2005, [[Knockcroghery]], County Roscommon
*2006, Glenflesk (Gleann Fleisce), County Kerry
*2007, Glenflesk (Gleann Fleisce), County Kerry
*2008, Kincora, County Clare
*2009, Diabhlaíocht na hÓige, County Clare
*2010, Rhythm of the Banner, County Clare
*2011, Drithle an Iarthair, County Clare
*2012, Kilcummin, County Kerry - Rehabs
*2013, Céimeanna - Cill Áirne, County Kerry
*2014, Ceimeanna - Cill Airne, County Kerry
*2015, Ceimeanna - Cill Airne, County Kerry
*2016, Rithim an Clair, County Clare
*2017, Ceimeanna - Cill Airne, County Kerry
*2018, Kilcummin, County Kerry

==Set Dancing - Half Set Mixed (Rince Seit - Half)==

*2007, Glenflesk (Gleann Fleisce), County Kerry
*2008, Cuilmore, County Mayo
*2009, CCÉ, Cill Chuimín, County Kerry
*2010, Ballyroan, County Laois
*2011, Ballyduff / Ballinvella / Ballysaggart, CCÉ, County Waterford
*2012, Kilcummin, County Kerry
*2013, Ballyroan, County Laois
*2014, Átha 'n Caoire, County Cork

==Full Set Mixed (Over 35)==

*2011, Ruagairí an Chláir, County Clare
*2012, Ballyduff/Ballinvella/Ballysaggart, County Waterford
*2013, Spa - Cill Áirne, County Kerry
*2014, Kilcummin CCÉ, County Kerry

==Old Style Dancing (Rince ar an Sean Nós)==

*2011, Una Ní Fhlatharta, County Kildare
*2012, Sharleen McCaffrey, County Westmeath
*2013, Siobhán Ní Ghionntaigh, County Mayo
*2014, John Joyce, County Galway
*2015, John Joyce, County Galway
*2016, John Joyce, County Galway

==See also==
*[[Traditional Irish Singers]]
*[[Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann]]
*[[Folk music of Ireland|Irish Traditional Music]]

== References ==
<references/>

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of All-Ireland Champions}}
[[Category:Irish music-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of Irish people|All-Ireland Fleadh champions]]
[[Category:Irish set dance]]

2013 Rose of Tralee

2022-04-26T20:46:57Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Festival in Ireland}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}}
{{Use Hiberno-English|date=December 2012}}
{{Beauty pageant
| photo =
| caption =
| winner = Haley O'Sullivan (Texas)
| congeniality =
| photogenic =
| best national costume =
| date = 14–20 August 2013
| venue = Festival Dome, [[Tralee]], [[County Kerry]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| presenters = [[Dáithí Ó Sé]]
| acts =
| broadcaster = [[RTÉ]]
| entrants = 32
| placements =
| withdraws =
| returns =
| before = [[2012 Rose of Tralee|2012]]
| next = [[2014 Rose of Tralee|2014]]
}}
The '''2013 Rose of Tralee''' was the 54th edition of the [[Rose of Tralee (festival)|annual Irish international festival]]. The festival ran for a total of 7 days; two additional days were added due to [[The Gathering Ireland 2013]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://roseoftralee.ie/news/193-come-for-rose-gathering |title=Come for Rose Gathering |date=13 August 2013 |work=The Rose of Tralee |accessdate=13 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304070245/http://roseoftralee.ie/news/193-come-for-rose-gathering |archivedate=4 March 2016 }}</ref> The festival ran from 14 to 20 August; concluding with the televised event on the final two nights. Many acts performed in Tralee during the festival, including; [[JLS]], [[Ryan Dolan]], [[The Coronas]], [[Sharon Shannon]] and [[The Stunning]]. [[Shane Filan]] made his debut solo performance during the televised selection show on 20 August.

The Texas Rose, Haley O'Sullivan was crowned the winner of the Rose of Tralee for 2013 on 20 August.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.independent.ie/entertainment/tv-radio/texas-rose-crowned-2013-rose-of-tralee-29514629.html|title= Texas Rose crowned 2013 Rose of Tralee|date=21 August 2013|work= Irish Independent|accessdate=21 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.rte.ie/ten/news/2013/0821/469337-marriage-proposal-for-new-orleans-rose-molly/|title= Texas Rose wins Rose of Tralee|date=21 August 2013|work= Raidió Teilifís Éireann|accessdate=21 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.thejournal.ie/rose-of-tralee-liveblog-2-1046058-Aug2013/?r_dir_d=1|title= As it happened: The crowning of the Rose of Tralee 2013|date=21 August 2013|work= The Journal|accessdate=21 August 2013}}</ref> A memorable highlight from the festival was when the boyfriend of the [[New Orleans]] rose proposed to her during the live TV broadcast.

==List of Roses==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Regional Title !! Contestant !! Age
|-
| [[Abu Dhabi]] || Sara Moffatt || 23
|-
| [[Arizona]] || Holly Nordquist || 21
|-
| [[Boston]] & [[New England]] || Deirdre Buckley || 19
|-
| [[County Clare|Clare]] || Marie Donnellan || 25
|-
| [[County Cork|Cork]] || Edel Buckley || 27
|-
| [[Darwin, Northern Territory|Darwin]] || Bridget Haines || 27
|-
| [[County Donegal|Donegal]] || Catherine McCarron || 26
|-
| [[Dubai]] || Caroline Callaghan || 24
|-
| [[County Dublin|Dublin]] || Claire Lennon || 24
|-
| [[County Kerry|Kerry]] || Gemma Kavanagh || 25
|-
| [[County Leitrim|Leitrim]] || Edwina Guckian || 25
|-
| [[Liverpool]] || Lisa O'Halloran || 24
|-
| [[London]] || Grace Kenny || 21
|-
| [[County Longford|Longford]] || Aisling Farrell || 23
|-
| [[Manchester]] || Marie McDermott || 25
|-
| [[Melbourne]] || Christine McGrattan || 26
|-
| [[County Monaghan|Monaghan]] || Eleanor McQuaid || 24
|-
| [[Newfoundland and Labrador]] || Erica Halfyard || 20
|-
| [[New Orleans]] || Molly Molloy Gambel || 23
|-
| [[New York City]] || Katie Mulholland || 25
|-
| [[New Zealand]] || Judeena Carpenter || 25
|-
| [[North Carolina]] || Jessica Giggey || 24
|-
| [[Ottawa]] || Keira Kilmartin || 22
|-
| [[Perth, Western Australia|Perth]] || Jean O'Riordan || 27
|-
| [[Philadelphia]] || Brittany Killion || 26
|-
| [[Queensland]] || Sorcha Holmes || 27
|-
| [[Southern California]] || Laura Rose Walsh || 25
|-
| [[South Australia]]|| Louise Thompson || 25
|-
| [[Sydney]] || Fiona O'Sullivan || 27
|-
| [[Texas]] || Haley O'Sullivan || 25
|-
| [[Washington, D.C.]] || Lauren DeBueriis || 26
|-
| [[County Wicklow|Wicklow]] || Sarah Whelan || 25
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110607140054/http://roseoftralee.ie/ Official Site]
*[http://www.rte.ie/tv/programmes/rose_of_tralee.html 2013 Rose of Tralee] at RTÉ

[[Category:2013 in Irish television|Rose of Tralee]]
[[Category:Rose of Tralee]]

Holos (political party)

2022-02-21T20:31:09Z

Squike: /* History */ Fixed grammar

{{short description|Political party in Ukraine}}
{{Infobox political party
| name = Voice
| native_name = Голос
| logo = [[File:Holos pictogram 2020.svg|60px]]     [[File:Holos logo 2020.svg|170px]]
| colorcode = {{party color|Holos (political party)}}
| leader = [[Kira Rudyk]]
| leader1_title = Faction leader
| leader1_name = Oleksandra Ustinova
| founder = [[Svyatoslav Vakarchuk]]
| foundation = {{start date and age|2019|05|16|df=y}}
| predecessor = Platform of Initiatives<ref name="ukr.lb.ua">{{in lang|uk}} [https://ukr.lb.ua/news/2019/05/21/427456_minyust_zareiestruvav_partiyu.html The Ministry of Justice registered the party of Vakarchuk], [[Lb.ua]] (May 21, 2019)</ref>
| ideology = [[Liberalism]]<ref>{{in lang|uk}} [https://blogs.pravda.com.ua/authors/fesenko/5cfec861d04c0/ The diary of the parliamentary elections-2019 (May 16 - June 18, 2019)], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (18 June 2019)</ref> [[E-democracy]]<ref>{{in lang|uk}} [https://goloszmin.org/program Party Program (May 30 - June 10, 2019)] (accessed 11 June 2019)</ref> [[Corruption in Ukraine|Anti-corruption]]<ref>{{in lang|uk}} [https://goloszmin.org/program (May 30 - June 10, 2019)], [[Golos Party]] (2 July 2019)</ref> [[Pro-Europeanism]]<ref name="file.liga.net/parties/golos"/><ref name="May 30 - June 10, 2019">{{in lang|uk}} [https://goloszmin.org/program (May 30 - June 10, 2019)], [[Golos Party]] (11 June 2019)</ref>
| headquarters = [[Kyiv]], [[Ukraine]]
| international =
| website = {{URL|http://goloszmin.org}}
| country = Ukraine
| slogan = ''The party of real changes''
| position = [[Centrism|Centre]]<ref name="May 30 - June 10, 2019">{{in lang|uk}} [https://goloszmin.org/program (May 30 - June 10, 2019)], [[Golos Party]] (11 June 2019)</ref> to [[Centre-right politics|centre-right]]<ref name="file.liga.net/parties/golos">{{in lang|uk}} [https://file.liga.net/parties/golos (May 16, 2019)], [[liga.net]] (13 July 2019)</ref>
| european = [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party|Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]]<ref name="facebook.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/ALDEparty/posts/10158650280289590|title=Holos from Ukraine has just been accepted as a new full member of ALDE Party|website=[[Facebook]]|date=18 November 2020|access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref>
| colours = {{colour box|#fa4616|border=darkgray}} [[Orange (colour)|Orange]]
| seats1_title = {{nowrap|[[Verkhovna Rada]]}}
| seats1 = {{Composition bar|20|450|{{party color|Holos (political party)}}}}
| seats2_title = [[2020 Ukrainian local elections|Regions]]<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.cvk.gov.ua/pls/vm2020/pvm002pt001f01=695pt00_t001f01=695.html|script-title=uk:Обрані депутати місцевих рад|language=uk|work=www.cvk.gov.ua|date=23 November 2020|access-date=23 November 2020}}</ref>
| seats2 = {{Composition bar|335|43122|{{party color|Holos (political party)}}}}
| youth_wing =
| wing1_title =
| membership_year = 2021
| membership = ±500 {{#tag:ref|According to the party leader [[Kira Rudyk]] in February 2021.<ref>{{in lang|uk}} [https://news.obozrevatel.com/ukr/politics/chasto-peredayu-privit-sorosu-zapituyuchi-pro-groshi-liderka-golosu-kira-rudik.htm Interview of Kira Rudyk], [[Obozrevatel]] (15 February 2021)</ref>|group=nb}}
}}
'''Holos''' ({{lang-uk|Голос}}), translated as '''Voice''' or '''Vote''', is a [[Liberalism|liberal]] and [[Pro-Europeanism|pro-European]] [[political party]] in [[Ukraine]], which was led by Ukrainian musician [[Svyatoslav Vakarchuk]] until March 2020.<ref>[https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/603364.html Vakarchuk elected Holos Party head to replace Yulia Klymenko], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (24 July 2019)</ref> The party won 20 MPs in the [[2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election|2019 parliamentary election]]<ref name="2748306cec100percentHolos"/> and became part of the opposition in the [[9th Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada|current Ukrainian parliament]].<ref name="7231776Rakhmanin"/><ref name="unian.ua">{{Cite web|url=https://www.unian.ua/m/politics/10911032-golos-obrav-novogo-kerivnika-partiji-zamist-vakarchuka-video.html|title="Голос" обрав нового керівника партії замість Вакарчука (відео)}}</ref> The party split late July 2021 and seven MPs were expelled from the party.<ref name="7302126UkrVoice"/> As of September 2021, only nine of the party's 20 seats in the Verkhovna Rada are held by MPs who are loyal to the party; the remaining 11 are held by MPs who have formed a breakaway group called [[Justice (parliamentary group)|Justice]] ({{lang-uk|Справедливість}}; ''Spravedlyvist'').<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=Ще один нардеп перейшов з фракції "Голосу" до групи "Справедливість" – тепер вона в більшості|url=https://www.unian.ua/politics/shche-odin-nardep-pereyshov-z-frakciji-golosu-do-grupi-spravedlivist-teper-vona-v-bilshosti-novini-ukrajina-11537329.html|access-date=2021-09-08|website=www.unian.ua|language=uk}}</ref>

==Name==
The name of the party has two meanings in the [[Ukrainian language]] - ''voice'' and ''vote''. The founder of the party, [[Svyatoslav Vakarchuk]], said that the name of the party was chosen because this word characterizes Ukrainian voters and their desire for change in the country:<ref>{{in lang|uk}}: [https://nv.ua/ukr/ukraine/politics/partiya-golos-vakarchuk-poyasniv-vibir-nazvi-dlya-svoyeji-politsili-50022550.html Партія Голос: Вакарчук пояснив вибір назви для своєї політсили], NV (20 May 2019)</ref>

''{{blockquote|It has two meanings, and both are very important to us. <...> Because Voice is their [the voters'] voice, by which they demonstrate a desire for change, it is their voice of change. On the other hand, it is their vote, that they can cast [in elections]. <...> The voice, in fact, characterizes Ukrainian voters and their desire for change. What else, if not the voice?|author=|title=|source=}}''

==History==
===Establishment and entry to parliament===
The party was presented to the public on 16 May 2019 in [[Kyiv]] and announced it would run in the upcoming [[2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election|July 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2019/05/16/7215170|script-title=uk:Вакарчук заявив про створення партії і похід у Раду|website=pravda.com.ua|language=uk|access-date=16 May 2019}}</ref> Legally, Holos is an "upgraded" version of the party "Platform of Initiatives" that was founded in 2015 to take part in the [[2015 Ukrainian local elections]].<ref name="ukr.lb.ua">{{in lang|uk}} [https://ukr.lb.ua/news/2019/05/21/427456_minyust_zareiestruvav_partiyu.html The Ministry of Justice registered the party of Vakarchuk], [[Lb.ua]] (May 21, 2019)</ref> The creation of the party marks Vakarchuk's second venture into politics – he previously served as an MP for almost a year after being elected in the [[2007 Ukrainian parliamentary election]].<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2018/09/14/world/europe/ukraine-rock-star-vakarchuk.html?rref=collection%2Fbyline%2Fandrew-e.-kramer For His Next Act, a Ukrainian Rock Star Looks to Politics], [[The New York Times]] (14 September 2018)</ref>

The party was first featured in the [[Opinion polling for the 2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election|opinion polling]] carried out from 16 to 21 May 2019, its rating was 4.6%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ratinggroup.ua/research/ukraine/monitoring_elektoralnyh_nastroeniy_ukraincev_16-21_maya_2019.html|title=Моніторинг електоральних настроїв українців (16-21 травня 2019)|website=ratinggroup.ua|language=en|access-date=2019-05-23}}</ref>

The party held its first congress on 8 June 2019, at which part of its party list for the then forthcoming elections was announced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://goloszmin.org/news/partiya-golos-vidkrila-imena-kandidativ-z-yakimi-jde-na-vibori|title=Партія "Голос" відкрила імена кандидатів, з якими йде на вибори|last=Goloszmin|website=goloszmin.org|language=uk|access-date=2019-06-16}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last=Голос Змін|title=НАЖИВО: з'їзд партії "Голос"|date=2019-06-08|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IOUAAnSxyPs|access-date=2019-06-16}}</ref> The top 10 candidates were as follows: 1) Svyatoslav Vakarchuk, 2) Yulia Klimenko, 3) Kira Rudyk, 4) Yaroslav Zheleznyak, 5) Oleksandra Ustinova, 6) Oleh Makarov, 7) Yaroslav Yurchyshyn, 8) Serhiy Rakhmanin, 9) Solomiya Bobrovska, and 10) Olha Stefanyshyna. Prior to the congress, the [[Ukrainian Galician Party]] and Voice agreed to cooperate, Ukrainian Galician Party members ran as Voice candidates in [[single-member constituencies]] and were added to Voice's national [[electoral list]].<ref>[https://www.chesno.org/party/152/ Small biography on Ukrainian Galician Party], [[Civil movement "Chesno"]] {{in lang|uk}}</ref><ref>{{in lang|uk}} [https://opora.lviv.ua/u-semy-vyborchyh-okrugah-lvivshhyny-vid-golosu-kandytuvatymut-predstavnyky-ukrayinskoyi-galytskoyi-partiyi/ Representatives of the Ukrainian Galician Party will run for the vote in seven constituencies of Lviv region], [[OPORA]] [[Lviv]] (7 June 2020)</ref> On 12 June, the party withdrew two of its constituency candidates because they had "affiliated with or co-operated with [[pro-Russian]] forces", namely [[Ukrainian Choice]] and the [[Opposition Bloc]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2019/06/12/7217880/|script-title=uk:"Голос" відкликав двох кандидатів у депутати|website=Українська правда|language=uk|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> Party leader Vakarchuk had assured on 19 May 2019 that no incumbent [[People's Deputy of Ukraine|MPs]] would be on the party's list for the 2019 parliamentary election. However, such deputies, whose political views coincided with the party's ideology, were allowed to be elected by majority constituencies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2019/05/19/7215497/ |script-title=uk:Вакарчук: У списку нової партії не буде діючих депутатів |date=19 May 2019 |publisher=[[Ukrayinska Pravda]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190519224629/https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2019/05/19/7215497/ |archive-date=19 May 2019 |access-date=10 June 2019 |language=uk |trans-title=Vakarchuk: There will be no acting deputies in the list of new party}}</ref> In the election, four incumbent MPs stood as candidates for the party in majority constituencies: [[Victoria Voytsitska]], [[Pavlo Rizanenko]], [[Victoria Ptashnyk]], and [[Leonid Yemets]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://glavcom.ua/country/politics/golos-krajini-kogo-vakarchuk-vzyav-u-svoyu-komandu-dosje-600455.html|script-title=uk:«Голос» країни. Кого Вакарчук взяв у свою команду (досьє)|website=glavcom.ua|language=uk|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> None of them were elected.<ref name="2748306cec100percentHolos">[https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-elections/2748306-cec-counts-100-percent-of-vote-in-ukraines-parliamentary-elections.html CEC counts 100 percent of vote in Ukraine's parliamentary elections], [[Ukrinform]] (26 July 2019) {{in lang|ru}} [https://www.pravda.com.ua/rus/articles/2019/07/21/7221526/ Results of the extraordinary elections of the People's Deputies of Ukraine 2019], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (21 July 2019)</ref>

In the 2019 parliamentary election, Voice finished with 5.82% of the vote, 17 MPs elected nationwide and three MPs elected in a constituency.<ref name="2748306cec100percentHolos"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cvk.gov.ua/pls/vnd2019/wp300pt001f01=919.html|title=Центральна виборча комісія - Вибори народних депутатів України 2019|website=www.cvk.gov.ua|access-date=2019-10-02}}</ref> 47.6% of the party's elected deputies are women.<ref>{{in lang|uk}} [https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2019/07/23/7221668/ The new Council has increased the number of women deputies], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (23 July 2019)</ref>

On 11 March 2020, Vakarchuk stepped aside as head of the party. Voice selected [[Kira Rudyk]] as its new leader.<ref name="unian.ua"/> Vakarchuk left parliament in June 2020, stating that his "mission" (bringing new people with new politics into parliament) was complete.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-06-12|title=Mission accomplished? Vakarchuk quits but his political party lives on|url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/ukrainealert/mission-accomplished-vakarchuk-quits-but-his-political-party-lives-on/|access-date=2021-03-25|website=Atlantic Council|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="pravda7257275VP">[https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2020/06/26/7257275/ "Voice" took away Vakarchuk's deputy mandate], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (26 June 2020) {{in lang|uk}}</ref><ref name="pravda7258681">[https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2020/07/8/7258681/ The CEC recognized the new People's Deputy of the Voice instead of Vakarchuk], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (8 July 2020) {{in lang|uk}}</ref>

[[File:Golos-Lviv-vybory-2020-08-20 8168 HBR LUFA.jpg|thumb|right|Voice candidates for the 2020 local elections in [[Lviv]]]]
The party was admitted to the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party|Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe]] (ALDE) on 18 November 2020.<ref name="facebook.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/ALDEparty/posts/10158650280289590|title=Holos from Ukraine has just been accepted as a new full member of ALDE Party|website=[[Facebook]]|date=18 November 2020|access-date=18 November 2020}}</ref>

In the October [[2020 Ukrainian local elections]], Voice had some local success, having led its factions to the [[Lviv Oblast Council]], to the city councils of [[Kyiv City Council|Kyiv]], [[Lviv]], [[Cherkasy]], and a number of other city councils, including even in the [[Donbas]].<ref name="fesenko5fbb7f2c065f1">{{in lang|uk}} [https://blogs.pravda.com.ua/authors/fesenko/5fbb7f2c065f1/ Party measurement of the results of local elections in 2020], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (23 November 2020)</ref> The party's mayoral candidate made it to the second round of the election in Cherkasy, which he lost.<ref name="fesenko5fbb7f2c065f1"/><ref>{{cite news |url=https://vybory.24tv.ua/rezultati-viboriv-u-cherkasah-2020-ofitsiyno-hto-peremig_n1453120 |script-title=uk:Результати виборів у Черкасах: чинний мер Бондаренко залишається на посаді |trans-title=Results of elections in Cherkasy, incumbent mayor Bondarenko remains in office |work=[[:uk:24 (телеканал)|24 Kanal]] |date=24 November 2020 |access-date=24 November 2020 |language=uk}}</ref> The party's mayoral candidate for Kyiv, showman [[Serhiy Prytula]], [[2020 Ukrainian local elections#Kyiv|failed to win in the city]], coming third with less than 8% of the vote.<ref>[https://www.ukrinform.net/rubric-elections/3131537-vitali-klitschko-wins-in-first-round-of-kyiv-mayor-election.html Vitali Klitschko wins in first round of Kyiv mayor election], [[Ukrinform]] (6 November 2020)</ref> In June 2021, he quit the party, claiming it had "moved so far away from our initial principles."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Притула покинув партію "Голос" через нове керівництво|url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/06/7/7296296/|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Українська правда|language=uk}}</ref>

In January 2021, the [[National Agency for Prevention of Corruption]] (NAPC) blocked the payment of state funds to the party's accounts.<ref name="Voice7317541">{{in lang|uk}} [https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/12/15/7317541/ NAPC won the cassation and blocked the state funding of "Voice"], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (15 December 2021)</ref> The NAPC found agreements and acts of work performed by contractors and the payment of rent for three offices to be illegal.<ref name="Voice7317541"/>

===Disunion===
[[File:Justice deputy group.jpg|thumb|left|Logo of the splinter group Justice]]
In June 2021, 10 of the party's 20 MPs announced that they would create a separate association named [[Justice (parliamentary group)|Justice]] ({{lang-uk|Справедливість}}; ''Spravedlyvist'') and expressed their lack of confidence in faction leader Yaroslav Zhelezniak.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gazeta.ua|date=2021-06-17|title="Голос" анонсував з'їзд і згадав про Вакарчука|url=https://gazeta.ua/articles/politics/_golos-anonsuvav-zyizd-i-zgadav-pro-vakarchuka/1038077?utm_source=yxnews&utm_medium=mobile&utm_referrer=https://yandex.ru/news/search?text=|access-date=2021-06-20|website=Gazeta.ua|language=uk}}</ref> In addition, three of the party's regional branches called on party leader Kira Rudyk to resign and demanded that the party hold a congress to select a new leader.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-06-16|title=Ще 3 обласних осередки "Голосу" закликали Рудик скласти повноваження|url=https://bykvu.com/ua/bukvy/shhe-3-oblasnih-oseredki-golosu-zaklikali-rudik-sklasti-povnovazhennja/|access-date=2021-06-20|website=Новини України - #Букви}}</ref> The party responded by admitting that it was "going through a difficult period" and announcing a congress at which the conflict within Voice will be addressed.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Goloszmin|title=Заява партії «Голос|url=https://goloszmin.org/news/zayava-partiyi-golos|access-date=2021-06-22|website=goloszmin.org|language=uk}}</ref> The split was triggered by the decision of five of the party's MPs (including Rudyk and Zhelezniak) to vote in favour of the [[Servant of the People (political party)|ruling party's]] initiative to delay the introduction of [[Ukrainian language]] quotas for the country's [[Cinema of Ukraine|film industry]]; the dissenting MPs called this "betrayal" and a "vote for [[Russification]]".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gazeta.ua|date=2021-06-15|title=Частина "Голосу" підіграла "слугам" і вляпалась у скандал|url=https://gazeta.ua/articles/politics/_castina-golosu-pidigrala-slugam-i-vlyapalas-u-skandal/1037663|access-date=2021-06-20|website=Gazeta.ua|language=uk}}</ref>

In late July 2021, a group made up of 11 of the party's MPs attempted to replace faction leader Yaroslav Zhelezniak with his deputy, Roman Kostenko as acting head of the faction.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Голос» звільнив Железняка з посади голови фракції, він заперечує — політика України|url=https://racurs.ua/ua/n157323-golos-zvilnyv-jeleznyaka-z-posady-golovy-frakciyi-vin-zaperechuie.html|access-date=2021-07-25|website=racurs.ua|language=uk}}</ref> This move failed because for the faction leader to be replaced, firstly two-thirds of the faction have to vote (in this case, 14 MPs), and secondly such a decision can only be made at a faction meeting.<ref name="lb.ua">{{Cite web|title=Регламентний комітет Ради роз'яснив ситуацію із заявами про звільнення Железняка з позиції голови фракції "Голос"|url=https://lb.ua/news/2021/07/22/489958_reglamentniy_komitet_radi_rozyasniv.html|access-date=2021-07-25|website=LB.ua}}</ref> A statement countering the attempt was signed by the remaining MPs, including Zhelezniak and Kostenko.<ref name="lb.ua"/>

At the party congress of 29 July 2021 it was decided to expel seven of the party MPs.<ref name="7302126UkrVoice"/> Five of the expelled MPs had already written statements to leave the party.<ref name="7302126UkrVoice">{{in lang|uk}} [https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/07/29/7302126/ "Voice" expelled 7 people's deputies from the party], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (29 July 2021)</ref> The expelled members were dissatisfied with, according to them, the "cementing of Kira Rudyk's control over the party."<ref name="7302126UkrVoice"/> At the same meeting, 86% of the delegates expressed their confidence in Rudyk as the party leader.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Goloszmin|title=Делегати з'їзду "Голосу" висловили підтримку Кірі Рудик|url=https://goloszmin.org/news/delegati-zyizdu-golosu-vislovili-pidtrimku-kiri-rudik|access-date=2021-09-03|website=goloszmin.org|language=uk}}</ref>

As of September 2021, only nine of the party's 20 seats in the [[Verkhovna Rada]] (Ukraine's national parliament) are held by MPs who are loyal to the party; the remaining 11 are held by MPs who are part of ''Spravedlyvist''.<ref name=":0" />

On 15 December 2021, Voice lost its appeal to the [[Supreme Court of Ukraine]] to rollback the January 2021 blocking of the payment of state funds to the party's accounts by the [[National Agency for Prevention of Corruption]] (NAPC).<ref name="Voice7317541"/> The court verdict remanded the case for retrial, but allowed the NAPC to continue blocking the funds.<ref name="Voice7317541"/>

=== Criminal case ===
On 2 February 2022, party leader Kira Rudyk stated that a criminal case had been opened against the party regarding its economic activities.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Голову партії "Голос" Кіру Рудик викликають на допит до ДБР|url=https://www.unian.ua/politics/golovu-partiji-golos-kiru-rudik-viklikayut-na-dopit-do-dbr-novini-ukrajina-11691814.html|access-date=2022-02-03|website=www.unian.ua|language=uk}}</ref> In comments on the party's official site Rudyk stated that the case was politically motivated, as Ukraine's State Bureau of Investigation is "systematically attempting to muzzle those who criticise the government while ignoring cases involving 'Ze-friends'".<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-02-02|title=Голову партії "Голос" Кіру Рудик викликають на допит до ДБР|url=https://dilo.net.ua/novyny/golovu-partiyi-golos-kiru-rudyk-vyklykayut-na-dopyt-do-dbr/|access-date=2022-02-03|website=Діло}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Goloszmin|title=ДБР закриває рота тим, хто критикує владу, але не чіпає справ, які стосуються Зе-друзів, — Кіра Рудик|url=https://goloszmin.org/news/dbr-zakrivaye-rota-tim-hto-kritikuye-vladu-ale-ne-chipaye-sprav-yaki-stosuyutsya-ze-druziv-kira-rudik|access-date=2022-02-03|website=goloszmin.org|language=uk}}</ref>

==Political positions==
The party declares a democratic approach, supporting the separation of money from politics.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://prm.ua/svyatoslav-vakarchuk-prezentuvav-novu-partiyu-golos-osnovni-tsili-ta-politichna-programa/ |title=Святослав Вакарчук презентував нову партію "Голос": основні цілі та політична програма |date=16 May 2019 |publisher=The direct channel |access-date=16 June 2019 |language=uk |trans-title=Svyatoslav Vakarchuk presented the new party "Voice": main goals and political program}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Голос змін: Політична програма партії "Голос"|trans-title=Voice of Changes: The political program of the party "Voice"|url=https://goloszmin.org/storage/app/media/files/Program.pdf|access-date=13 June 2020|language=uk|quote=Держава для людини, а не громадянин для чиновника (p.11)}}</ref> In economic matters, the party is in favor of introducing a tax on withdrawn capital, a land market, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and the fight against illegal customs and tax schemes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://24tv.ua/yak_top_5_nayreytingovishih_partiy_obitsyayut_zminiti_situatsiyu_v_ukrayini_n1166854 |title=Як топ-5 найрейтинговіших партій обіцяють змінити ситуацію в Україні |author=Lesya Vyhovsky |date=15 June 2019 |publisher=TV channel 24 |access-date=16 June 2019 |language=uk |trans-title=How top 5 most rated parties promise to change the situation in Ukraine}}</ref>

Party leader Vakarchuk stated on 10 June 2019 that the party wants to abolish the current Ukrainian election constituencies (in which 225 seats are elected in [[Electoral district|constituencies]] with a [[First-past-the-post voting|first-past-the-post electoral system]] in one round),<ref>[http://www.unian.info/politics/1545927-electoral-dead-end-for-rada.html Electoral dead-end for Rada], [[Ukrainian Independent Information Agency|UNIAN]] (29 September 2016) {{cite news|title=Parliament passes law on parliamentary elections|url=https://www.kyivpost.com/content/politics/parliament-passes-law-on-parliamentary-elections-117151.html|access-date=9 August 2015|agency=[[Interfax-Ukraine]]|publisher=[[Kyiv Post]]|date=17 November 2011}} {{cite web|title=Ukraine: The Law on Election of the People's Deputies (Unofficial translation by IFES), 2011|url=http://aceproject.org/ero-en/regions/europe/UA/ukraine-the-law-on-election-of-the-peoples/at_download/file|access-date=8 August 2015|format=PDF|date=17 November 2011}} [http://ukrainianweek.com/Politics/64047 The Distorted Will of the People], [[The Ukrainian Week]] (5 November 2012)</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2019/06/11/7217739/|script-title=uk:Вакарчук: "Голос" зробить усе, щоб мажоритарка зникла назавжди|website=Українська правда|language=uk|access-date=2019-06-12}}</ref> instead favoring a shift to full [[open list]] [[proportional representation]].

According to the analysis of human rights activist Volodymyr Yavorsky, the party's program pays great attention to human rights, while there are no populist statements in it.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://humanrights.org.ua/material/analiz_viborchih_program_cherez_prizmu_prav_ljiudini_partijia_golos |title=Аналіз виборчих програм через призму прав людини: партія «Голос |author=Volodymyr Yavorsky |date=10 July 2019 |publisher=Humanrights |access-date=20 July 2019 |language=uk |trans-title=Analysis of electoral programs through the prism of human rights: the Party "Voice" }}</ref>

According to experts from the Center for Economic Strategy Dmytro Yablonovsky and Daria Mikhailishin, the program focuses on combating corruption through de-oligarchization and by increasing the efficiency of the state through the introduction of modern technologies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://biz.nv.ua/ukr/experts/golos-shcho-obicyaye-partiya-vakarchuka-vibori-do-vr-novini-ukrajini-50032617.html |title=Що пропонує Голос. Економічні орієнтири партії Вакарчука |author=Dmytro Yablonovsky |date=18 July 2019 |publisher=NV business |access-date=20 July 2019 |language=uk |trans-title=What does the Voice offer? Economic Landmarks of the Vakarchuk Party }}</ref>

In November 2019, the party's parliamentary faction stated that because Ukraine could not regain control of separatist [[Donetsk People's Republic]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic]] and [[2014 Russian annexation of Crimea|Russian annexed]] [[Crimea]] it should "[[Frozen conflict|freeze the conflicts]]", abandon the [[Minsk Agreements]] and focus on strengthening its own positions.<ref>{{in lang|uk}} [https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2019/11/8/7231399/ "Voice": Ukraine should withdraw from the Minsk agreements and freeze the situation in the Donbas], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (8 November 2019)</ref><ref name="7231776Rakhmanin"/>

In October 2020, the party claimed that Russia must pay $500 bln in reparations to cover the damage it has caused to the [[Donbas]] since 2014.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Иск на $500 млрд: в Киеве потребуют от России восстановить Донбасс|url=https://www.gazeta.ru/politics/2020/10/25_a_13332385.shtml|access-date=2020-11-10|website=Газета.Ru|language=ru}}</ref>

==Leadership==
===Party Leaders===
{| class=wikitable
!No.
!Image
!Name
!Start Date
!End Date
!Time
|-
|'''1.'''
|[[File:Svyatoslav Vakarchuk Independence Day Reception, Kyiv, Ukraine, July 1, 2016.jpg|80px]]
|[[Svyatoslav Vakarchuk]]
|16 May 2019
|11 March 2020
|{{ayd|2019|05|16|2020|03|11}}
|-
|'''2.'''
|[[File:Kira Rudyk.jpg|80px]]
|[[Kira Rudyk]]
|11 March 2020
|Incumbent
|{{ayd|2020|03|11}}
|}

===Faction Leaders===
{| class=wikitable
!No.
!Image
!Name
!Start Date
!End Date
!Time
|-
|'''1.'''
|[[File:Holos pictogram 2020.svg|80px]]
|{{ill|Serhii Rakhmanin|uk|Рахманін Сергій Іванович}}
|29 August 2019<ref name="7231776Rakhmanin">{{in lang|uk}} [https://www.pravda.com.ua/articles/2019/11/13/7231776/ Serhiy Rakhmanin: Zelensky sees the Verkhovna Rada as an addition to the President's Office], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (13 November 2019)</ref>
|28 December 2020
|{{ayd|2019|08|29|2020|12|28}}
|-
|'''2.'''
|[[File:Holos pictogram 2020.svg|80px]]
|{{ill|Yaroslav Zhelezniak|uk|Железняк Ярослав Іванович}}
|28 December 2020<ref name="7278437Zhelezniak">{{in lang|uk}} [https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2020/12/28/7278437/ "Voice" elected a new head of the faction], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (28 December 2020)</ref>
|17 December 2021
|354 days
|-
|'''3.'''
|[[File:Holos pictogram 2020.svg|80px]]
|Oleksandra Ustinova
|17 December 2021<ref>{{Cite web|title=“Голос” змінив главу фракції|url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/12/17/7317761/|access-date=2022-02-08|website=Українська правда|language=uk}}</ref>
|Incumbent
|
|}

== Prominent party members ==

* [[Pavlo Kukhta]], program director of the party<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2019/05/27/7216310/|title = Вакарчук представив нових членів його партії}}</ref>
*Serhiy Rakhmanin, journalist and TV presenter<ref name="7231776Rakhmanin"/>
*Yuri Sokolov, cardiologist and doctor of medical sciences
*Lesia Vasylenko, human rights activist and founder of the Legal Hundred<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://1news.com.ua/ukraine/do-partiyi-vakarchuka-pryyednalys-pravozahysnyczya-ta-gromadska-aktyvistka.html|title=До партії Вакарчука приєднались правозахисниця та громадська активістка|date=2019-06-07|website=1NEWS.COM.UA|language=uk|access-date=2019-06-16}}</ref>
* Yaroslav Zhelezniak, Government Relations Advisor<ref>{{Cite web|title=Вакарчук представив нових членів його партії|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2019/05/27/7216310/|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Українська правда|language=uk}}</ref>
A number of prominent party members were excluded from the party in July 2021 due to their disagreement with the party's leadership.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-29|title=Партия "Голос" на съезде исключила сразу семь нардепов|url=https://apnews.com.ua/ru/news/partiya-golos-na-sezde-iskliuchila-srazu-sem-nardepov/|access-date=2021-07-30|website=APNEWS.COM.UA|language=ru-UA}}</ref><ref name=":0"/>

== Electoral performance ==
[[File:Електоральна підтримка партії Голос на Парламентських виборах в Україні 2019 року.svg|thumb|right|Results of the 2019 elections]]

===Verkhovna Rada===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! Year
! Leader
! Popular vote
! % of popular vote
! Position
! Overall seats won
!+/-
! rowspan=1| Government
|-
! [[2019 Ukrainian parliamentary election|2019]]
| [[Svyatoslav Vakarchuk]]
| 849,085
| 5.82
| 5th
|{{Composition bar|20|450|hex={{party color|Holos (political party)}}}}
| New
| {{no|Opposition}}
|}

==See also==
*[[:Category:Voice (Ukrainian political party) politicians]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Facebook|GolosZmin|Voice}}
{{Ukrainian political parties}}

[[Category:2019 establishments in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Anti-corruption parties in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Centrist parties in Ukraine]]
[[Category:E-democracy]]
[[Category:Liberal parties in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Parliamentary factions in Ukraine]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 2019]]
[[Category:Pro-European political parties in Ukraine]]

Gerber convention

2022-02-01T15:40:37Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Slam bidding convention in contract bridge}}
'''Gerber''' is a [[contract bridge]] [[bridge convention|convention]] devised by William Konigsberger and Win Nye from Switzerland<ref>[http://www.bridgeguys.com/Conventions/gerber_convention.html Gerber convention at the BridgeGuys website]</ref> who published it in 1936; [[John Gerber (bridge)|John Gerber]] of Texas introduced it to North America in 1938 where it was named after him.<ref>Downey and Pomer (2005), p. 153.</ref><ref>Francis et al (2001), p. 171. The Encyclopedia states that the convention was "invented" by John Gerber in 1938 and "devised" independently by Konigsberger and Nye and published by them in 1936.</ref> It is similar to [[Blackwood convention|Blackwood]] but uses 4{{clubs}} instead of 4NT as a [[relay bid|relay]] (asking) bid to inquire about the number of aces held by partner. A further relay bid may follow to inquire about the number of kings held.

Gerber is used primarily after notrump openings, responses, and rebids, making it a complement to Blackwood rather than a replacement. Some club players also use it after suit bidding, but most experts do not recommend this.

==Purpose==
Because bidding and making a slam or [[Contract bridge|grand slam]] contract in bridge gains significant bonus scoring points, partnerships will strive to bid them whenever their combined card assets are deemed sufficient. Knowing the number of aces and kings jointly held is usually crucial to this decision and Gerber is one of several bridge conventions used to ascertain the necessary information.

==Responses and continuations==
The ace-asking bid is 4{{clubs}}. The criteria for its application vary amongst users and alternatives are detailed below; likewise, a number of response schemes have been developed over the years. Partnership agreement is required on both matters.

===Original response scheme===
The original responses<ref>Francis et al (2001), p. 171</ref> to the 4{{clubs}} asking bid are:
* 4{{diams}} = 0 aces
* 4{{hearts}} = 1 ace
* 4{{spades}} = 2 aces
* 4NT = 3 aces
* 5{{clubs}} = 4 aces

===Modern response schemes===
Most modern bridge literature<ref>Downey and Pomer (2005), p. 154.</ref><ref>Kearse (1990), p. 317.</ref> recommend the following response scheme:
* 4{{diams}} = 0 or 4 aces
* 4{{hearts}} = 1 ace
* 4{{spades}} = 2 aces
* 4NT = 3 aces

However, some experts<ref>The [[Bridge World Standard]] (2001) consensus.</ref> favour the following responses, analogous to [[Blackwood_convention#Roman_Blackwood|Roman Blackwood]]:
* 4{{diams}} = 0 or 3 aces
* 4{{hearts}} = 1 or 4 aces
* 4{{spades}} = 2 aces

Other response structures have been devised along similar lines and partnership agreement is required to establish a preferred scheme.

===Continuations===
Like Blackwood, a follow-on bid may be used in Gerber to ask for kings. There are two principal approaches for the king-ask bid:
* Bid 5{{clubs}} to ask for kings or
* Use the next available bid, skipping the trump suit if one has been agreed, to ask for kings.
Step-responses mirror those for the ace-ask bid.

==Application==

===Comparison with Blackwood===
The main perceived advantage of Gerber is that it is bid at a lower level and therefore allows for a final contract lower than does Blackwood (in the event that insufficient aces are present). This lower level also allows for an exploration of kings in more cases. A second advantage is that it is highly suitable for potential notrump contracts, whereas with Blackwood a final contract of 5NT may be confused with a bid asking for kings. For this reason, many use Gerber when the potential contract is in notrump.

===Partnership agreement===
Depending on the auction context, a bid of 4{{clubs}} may have several meanings; it might, for example, be confused with a [[splinter bid]] or a [[cue bid]]. For this reason, it is important that partnerships agree, in advance, when 4{{clubs}} is Gerber.

Possible partnership agreements for distinguishing 4{{clubs}} as Gerber from other meanings of 4{{clubs}} are:
* 4{{clubs}} is always Gerber.
* 4{{clubs}} is Gerber unless a natural club suit bid has been made by the partnership.
* 4{{clubs}} is Gerber if it is a jump bid or if a suit has been agreed as trump.
* 4{{clubs}} is Gerber if the immediate preceding bid by partner was in notrump.
* 4{{clubs}} is Gerber only if it is a jump bid over an opening bid or rebid of 1 NT or 2 NT. ([[Standard American Yellow Card]])
* 4{{clubs}} is Gerber only when in response to opening bids of 1NT, 2NT or a strong artificial 2{{clubs}}.

In addition, agreement is required on how to handle responder holding a void and on opposition interference in the bidding.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last1 = Downey |first1 = Ned |last2 = Pomer |first2 = Ellen |title = Standard Bidding with SAYC |publisher = Master Point Press |location = Toronto |year = 2005 |isbn = 978-1-897106-03-7}}
* {{OEB|6}}
* {{cite book |last = Kearse |first = Amalya |author-link = Amalya Kearse |title = Bridge Conventions Complete |publisher = Devyn Press Inc., Revised and Expanded |year = 1990 |isbn = 0-910791-76-7}}
{{WPCBIndex}}

[[Category:Bridge conventions]]

Reverse (bridge)

2022-02-01T15:38:54Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Bidding sequence in bridge card game}}
{{Main|Contract bridge|Bidding system|Bridge convention|Glossary of contract bridge terms}}
A '''reverse''', in the [[card game]] [[contract bridge]], is a bidding sequence designed to show additional strength without the need to make a jump bid; specifically two suits are bid in the reverse order to that expected by the basic bidding system. Precise methods and definitions vary with country, bidding system and partnership agreements.

==Definitions==
===Standard American===
In [[Standard American]] a reverse is defined by [[William S. Root]]<ref>''The ABCs of Bridge'' William S. Root. 1998 Three Rivers Press. {{ISBN|0-609-80162-7}}</ref> as "... a nonjump bid at the two-level in a new suit ''that ranks higher than the suit you bid first''", and by Bridge World.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bridgeworld.com/default.asp?d=bridge_glossary&f=glossr.html|title=The Bridge World: Bridge Glossary|publisher=[[The Bridge World]]|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222110334/http://www.bridgeworld.com/default.asp?d=bridge_glossary&f=glossr.html|archive-date=2007-12-22}}</ref> as "a non-jump bid in a new suit that bypasses a bid in a lower-ranking suit already bid by the same player".
===Acol===
The [[Acol]] definition is somewhat wider and includes ''any bid of a new suit by opener higher than two of their first suit''.<ref>''Really Easy Bidding'' 1998 EBU {{ISBN|0-9506279-2-5}}</ref>

===Examples===
An example satisfying both definitions is:
:1{{Clubs}} – 1{{Spades}}; 2{{Hearts}}

The last bid is a reverse.

Note responder avoided making an initial response of 1{{Hearts}}. Despite this, opener chose to bid 2{{Hearts}}, apparently seeking a fit that is unlikely to exist. This seemingly odd bidding is the "reverse" of what one would expect with a minimum hand (keeping the bidding low) and is used only with strong hands as it consumes bidding space.

A relatively easy way to identify the reverse uses the "gap" principle. A simple reverse is made when:

1. Opener opens one of any suit (except spades).

2. Responder bids at the one level.

3. Responder's bid leaves a "gap" between the two bids.

4. Opener then bids "into the gap" at the two level.

For example, in the example above, the response created a "gap" of the red suits. When opener bids a red suit that was "in the gap" then that constitutes a reverse.

==Opener's reverse==

Depending on the bidding system, a reverse by opener usually shows a minimum of 16 [[Hand evaluation|points]] or a [[Losing-Trick_Count|five-loser hand]] and at least five cards in the first bid suit.

Opener's reverse may face a weak responding hand with which responder may have intended (over a simple suit rebid) to rebid his own suit or taken a preference to opener's first suit at the two level. Opener's reverse still allows responder to rebid his suit at the two level, but a preference to opener's first suit must be at the three level. Thus, opener's reverse must show values at least one trick beyond the minimum needed to open.

For example, following 1{{Diams}} – 1{{Spades}} ; 2{{Hearts}} – ?, responder may have a weak hand such as {{Spades}}QJ86 {{Hearts}}K2 {{Diams}}8762 {{Clubs}}Q74 and be planning to rebid 2{{Diams}}, a simple preference, if opener made a typical rebid such as 1NT or 2{{Clubs}}, and to pass if opener rebid 2{{Spades}} or 2{{Diams}}. However, following the reverse, he must now rebid 3{{Diams}}. Thus the reverse has forced the partnership to commit to taking nine tricks instead of eight - based on the extra strength of opener.

Examples of reverse bidding sequences:
*1{{Clubs}}(by opener) – 1{{Spades}}(by responder); 2{{Diams}}(by opener - this bid is the "reverse")
*1{{Diams}} – 1{{Spades}}; 2{{Hearts}}
*1{{Diams}} – 1NT; 2{{Hearts}}
*1{{Hearts}} – 2{{Diams}}; 3{{Clubs}} Acol definition only
*1{{Spades}} – 2{{Hearts}}; 3{{Diams}} Acol definition only

A special case exists when responder makes a two-over-one initial bid. Since a two-over-one response shows more than a minimum, generally ten or more, opener does not need as strong a hand to reverse the bidding at that juncture. The modern trend is therefore to allow such a reverse bid after a two-over-one initial response with a minimum opening hand.<ref>Root, William S. (1986). "Commonsense Bidding", p.48. Three Rivers Press, New York. {{ISBN|0-517-88430-5}}</ref>

Opener's reverse need not be in a four-card or longer suit; it can be made on a powerful three-card minor suit, such as {{Diams}}AQJ. This approach is useful in investigating notrump contracts and when no other four-card suit is available to bid.

===High and low level reverse===
Reverse bids are generally considered to be forcing, with subtle variations depending on system:
*A ''standard reverse'' (called a ''low level reverse'' in the UK), when opener's second bid is in a new higher ranked suit at the two level, is forcing for one round only, if it follows a one level bid by responder
*A standard reverse following a two level bid by responder is unlikely to be passed before a game contract is reached, due to the additional points needed for the response
*Under [[2/1 game forcing]] any rebid by opener following a two level response, which is itself forcing to game, cannot be passed until game is reached
*A ''high level reverse'' (a term used in the UK and in [[Acol]]), when opener's second bid is in a new lower ranked suit at the three level, is forcing to game.
*Strong club systems such as [[Precision Club]] have much less need for reverse bids to show extra strength because natural suit bids are limited. In that context, a reverse generally shows playing strength rather than high cards.

These examples illustrate high and low level reverses:
*1{{Clubs}} – '''1'''{{Spades}}; 2{{Hearts}} : a ''standard reverse''(or ''low reverse'') by opener - the 2{{Hearts}} bid is forcing for one round
*1{{Spades}} – '''2'''{{Diams}}; 3{{Clubs}} : a ''high reverse'' by opener - the 3{{Clubs}} bid is forcing to game

In some variants of 2/1 game forcing, the major-suit reverse after the sequence 1{{Diams}} – 2{{Clubs}} doesn't promise extra values — opener may merely show a 4-card suit or a stopper.<ref name=BWS>{{cite web|url=http://bridgeworld.com/default.asp?d=bw_standard&f=bwsall.html#IVH|title=Bridge World Standard: Complete System BWS 2001|work=[[The Bridge World]]}}</ref> [[Kaplan–Sheinwold]] treats 1{{Diams}} – 1M; 2{{Clubs}} as a reverse although this is not standard in other systems.

===Later bidding===
Most partnerships play a rebid of responder's suit or of 2NT in response to opener's reverse as weak and other responses as [[Forcing bid|forcing]] to game, including preference for the opening suit. Thus, after

:1{{Clubs}} – 1{{Hearts}}; 2{{Diams}} – ?
responder's rebids are:
:::2{{Hearts}}: weak, five card or longer heart suit
:::2{{Spades}}: strong relay ([[Fourth suit forcing]])
:::2NT: weak relay
:::3{{Clubs}}: forcing [[Glossary of contract bridge terms#preference| preference]], three card or longer support for opener's clubs

==Responder's reverse==
Most standard methods treat a responder's reverse as a game force. Responder's reverse usually follows a same suit rebid or a notrump rebid by opener, because otherwise it would be treated as [[Fourth suit forcing convention|conventional]]. Typical responder's reverse sequences are:

:1{{Diams}} – 1{{Hearts}}; 1NT – 2{{Spades}}

:1{{Clubs}} – 1{{Diams}}; 2{{Clubs}} – 2{{Hearts}}

==Jump reverses==
The term "jump reverse" denotes a jump bid in a suit in which a non-jump bid would be a reverse. Jump reverses after a major-suit response carry a special meaning. Most expert partnerships utilise this bid to denote game-going values with shortness (often specifically a singleton) in the suit bid and support for partner's major suit. An example of a jump reverse is:

1{{Clubs}} – 1{{Spades}}; 3{{Hearts}}

Partnerships utilising this agreement commonly agree that in this situation a [[splinter bid]] (i.e. a double jump in a new suit) indicates a void.<ref>William S. Root and Richard Pavlicek, Modern Bridge Conventions.</ref> This is also the understanding used in Bridge World Standard, though other options may also be used. 

Jump reverses after a minor-suit response commonly show splinter raises, too.

1{{Diams}} – 2{{Clubs}}; 3{{Hearts}}

Jump reverses after a 1NT response to a minor opening are often used to indicate game-going values with shortness in the suit bid (a singleton or void) and six cards or more in the minor suit opened. This agreement facilitates partner in deciding the final contract (in most cases 3NT or a game or slam in the opened minor).

==See also==
* [[Flannery]]
* [[Blackout convention]]
* [[Lebensohl]]

==References==
<references/>
{{WPCBIndex}}

[[Category:Contract bridge bidding]]

Acol

2022-02-01T15:37:00Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Bridge card game bidding system used in Britain and elsewhere}}
{{for multi|the village in Kent, England|Acol, Kent|the East African deity|Abuk (mythology)}}

'''Acol''' is the [[Contract bridge|bridge]] [[bidding system]] that, according to ''[[The Official Encyclopedia of Bridge]]'',<ref>{{OEB|7|343}}</ref> is "standard in British tournament play and widely used in other parts of the world". It is a natural system using four-card majors and, most commonly, a weak no trump.

==Origins==
Acol is named after the Acol Bridge Club in [[London]] [[NW6]], where it originated in the early 1930s.<ref name="acolbridgeclub">{{Cite web |url=http://www.acolbridgeclub.com/about-the-club/club-history |title=Acol Bridge Club Website. |access-date=2014-01-31 |archive-date=2016-05-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160507000417/http://www.acolbridgeclub.com/about-the-club/club-history |url-status=dead }}</ref> The club was founded on Acol Road,<ref name="acolbridgeclub"/> named after [[Acol, Kent]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baker |first1= T F T |last2=Bolton |first2=Diane K |last3=Croot |first3=Patricia E C |chapter=Hampstead: Kilburn, Edgware Road, and Cricklewood. |title=A History of the County of Middlesex |volume=9: Hampstead, Paddington |editor-first=C R |editor-last=Elrington |location=London |series=Victoria County History |date=1989 |pages=47–51 |via=British History Online |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/middx/vol9/pp47-51 |access-date=15 January 2020}}; {{cite web |author1=Conservation & Urban Design Team |title=South Hampstead Conservation Area (Formerly Known as Swiss Cottage Conservation Area) Character Appraisal and Management Strategy |url=https://www.camden.gov.uk/documents/20142/7909250/South+Hampstead+Appraisal+-+website+version+FEb11.pdf/0c576be4-69be-1bef-51ac-67f2cd821882 |publisher=London Borough of Camden |access-date=15 January 2020 |page=12, sec.4.9 |format=PDF |date=February 2011}}</ref> According to [[Terence Reese]], the system's main devisers were [[Maurice Harrison-Gray]], [[Jack Marx (bridge)|Jack Marx]] and [[S. J. Simon|S. J. "Skid" Simon]].<ref>[[Terence Reese|Reese, Terence]] and [[David Bird (bridge writer)|Bird, David]], ''Acol in the 90s'', Robert Hale Limited (London), 1990, {{ISBN|0-7090-5379-7}}, page 7.</ref> Marx himself, writing in the ''Contract Bridge Journal'' in December, 1952, said: "...the Acol system was pieced together by Skid Simon and myself the best part of 20 years ago."<ref>{{cite book
|last = Hasenson
|first = Peter
|title = British Bridge Almanack
|publisher = 77 Publishing
|location = London
|pages = 490
|year = 2004
|isbn = 0-9549241-0-X}} Page 54.</ref> In another account, Marx and Simon...
{{quote|text=progressively, infected and re-infected each other with the virus of the game. In interminable slow walks... they would wander round and round the quiet streets, endlessly discussing the refinements of the enthralling game. Out of these conversations—surely a strange gestation—was born Acol as we know it and play it to-day.|sign=Guy Ramsay|source=''Aces All'' (1955), Museum Press Limited, London, p. 170.}}

The first book on the system was written by [[Ben Cohen (bridge)|Ben Cohen]] and [[Terence Reese]].<ref>[[Ben Cohen (bridge)|Cohen, Ben]] and [[Terence Reese|Reese, Terence]], ''The Acol Two Club: with an introduction by S.J.Simon'', Leng, Sheffield, 1938. This was the first Acol textbook, its authors wisely disclaiming originality: "We do a job of reporting." It had a famous Preface, "Attitude of Mind" by [[S. J. Simon|Skid Simon]]. — Second and subsequent editions titled ''The Acol System of contract bridge''. Joiner & Steele, London. — 2nd ed 1939; 3rd ed 1946, with 13 hands from the Waddington Par Contest; 4th ed 1949, with a selection of hands from the 1949 International Series; 5th ed [1956?], with a selection of hands from the 1955–56 international events and an Introduction by Guy Ramsey. The fourth edition introduced three new chapters on competitive bidding, mistakes to avoid, and two clubs over one no-trump (the Marx or [[Stayman]] convention).</ref> Skid Simon explained the principles that lay behind the system,<ref>Simon S.J., ''Design for bidding'', Nicholson & Watson (London), 1949.</ref> and the system was further popularised in Britain by [[Iain Macleod]].<ref>[[Iain Macleod|Macleod, Iain]], ''Bridge is an easy game'', Falcon (London), 1952.</ref> The Acol system is continually evolving but the underlying principle is to keep the bidding as natural as possible. It is common in the [[Commonwealth of Nations|British Commonwealth]] but rarely played in [[North America]].

[[Ely Culbertson]] and his partner [[Theodore Lightner|Teddy Lightner]] had visited the Acol Bridge Club in 1934, after which members S.J. Simon and Jack Marx became interested in bridge bidding theory. Simon and Marx soon afterwards began a discussion that eventually led to the first version of the Acol system. <ref>"Bridge", Sweden, publisher: "Svensk Bridgelitteratur", printed in Malmö 1960, p 179 (of 909; close to A4-size) including a black and white picture of Acol Road at p. 178, chapter on Acol written by Alvar Stenberg, editors Hasse Hermansson, Alvar Stenberg, Hans-Olof Halldén and Einar Werner. No ISBN</ref>

== Bidding system structure ==
As a bidding system, Acol has the following characteristics:
* It is a natural system: most opening bids, responses and rebids are made with at least 4 cards in the suit bid, and most no trump bids are made with balanced hands.
* It is a four-card major system: only four-card suits are required to open 1{{Spades}} or 1{{Hearts}}, unlike [[Standard American]] and many other systems where five-card suits are typically required.
* It is an ''approach forcing system'': as in most modern bidding systems, a new suit in response to a suit opening is forcing, unlike some older systems such as Vienna, which require responder to jump in order to force opener to bid again.
* It makes extensive use of limit bids: limit bids describe the hand so closely, in terms of [[high card points]] (HCP) and shape, that the one who makes the limit bid is expected to pass on the next round, unless partner makes a forcing bid.
* Understanding and correct use of limit bids and forcing bids is fundamental to applying the system: all no trump bids below the level of 4NT are limit bids, as are all suit bids that merely repeat a suit already bid by the partnership; changes of suit may be forcing or not depending on the approach bids.
* The level of the 1NT opening bid influences other bids: the normal choice is between a "weak no trump" (12–14 HCP) and a "strong no trump" (15–17 HCP). In earlier forms of Acol, a "variable no trump" was common; 12–14 non-vulnerable and 16–18 vulnerable.
* If using a weak no–trump, this is the only "fully natural" bidding system which does not require a "short club" or "prepared" club/diamond bid with less than 4 cards. All 1 of a suit opening bids then promise at least 4 cards in the bid suit.

== Variants ==
Acol is an unregulated system. There is no Acol governing body and no single publication containing the "official" Acol (unlike, for example, [[Standard American]] Yellow Card). It can be compared to a [[living language]] since it is liable to change at the whim of users. The main versions of Acol in use today are:
* '''Acol''': unregulated Acol, from the simple to the complex, remains in common use throughout the UK. At any one time the version in most common use will be known as "Standard Acol" although this term will mean different things to different players and is sometimes confused with Standard English Acol.
* '''Standard English Acol''' (originally called simply "Standard English") or '''Bridge for All (BfA) Acol'''. Developed by the English Bridge Union in 1996, and designed to facilitate the learning of bridge and to provide standardised guidance to novices, intermediate players and their teachers. This variant uses the weak 1NT opening (12–14 [[High card point|points]]) and [[strong two]] opening bids. Simple conventions such as [[Stayman]], [[Blackwood convention|Blackwood]] and [[Jacoby transfers|Transfers]] are included at various stages in the learning process. It has been widely promulgated by the [[English Bridge Union|EBU]] and by [[EBUTA]] in particular, but the exact form is used mainly by those who have learned their bridge recently and those who taught them.
* '''Modern Acol''': a broad term for modern systems based on standard Acol but adding some additional [[Bridge convention|conventions]], particularly [[Jacoby transfers|transfers]] and alternative ways of playing opening two-bids, as described below. Varies between partnerships, but typically includes [[Bridge convention|two-suited overcalls]], [[cue bid]]s, [[checkback Stayman]], [[Jacoby 2NT]] and [[Blackwood convention|Roman Key Card Blackwood]].
* '''Benjaminised (Benji) Acol''': recognising that [[strong 2|strong two]] opening bids occur rarely, the 2{{Hearts}} and 2{{Spades}} openings are used as [[weak two bid]]s to show weak hands containing long suits (under 10 [[High card point|HCP]] and a 6-card suit). Very strong hands (8 or more [[Hand evaluation|playing tricks]], equivalent to an Acol Strong Two) are shown by an opening bid of 2{{Clubs}} which forces a 2{{Diams}} response allowing suits to be shown. The strongest hands (e.g., 23 or more [[High card point|points]] or a game force hand, equivalent to the Acol 2{{Clubs}} opening) are shown by an opening bid of 2{{Diams}}.
* '''Reverse Benji''': identical to Benji except that the 2{{Clubs}} and 2{{Diams}} bids are switched in meaning. A 2{{Clubs}} opening bid is now the strongest bid, as in basic Acol.
* '''Modern Acol with Three Weak Twos''': uses the [[Standard American]] pattern where 2{{Clubs}} is the only strong bid and 2{{Diams}}, as well as 2{{Hearts}} and 2{{Spades}}, is a [[weak two bid]]. Proponents consider [https://web.archive.org/web/20140407075911/http://surreyschoolofbridge.com/some-theory.php] that a Benji 2{{Diams}} bid on 23+ or a game forcing hand is too infrequent (about 0.2% of hands) to use up a whole opening bid. A weak two in diamonds is much more common (1.2%). However, some definition is lost on strong hands aiming for slam.
* '''Acol with Multi 2{{Diams}}''': this variant of Acol makes use of the [[Multi 2 diamonds]] convention, where 2{{Diams}} shows a variety of hands including [[weak two bid]]s in hearts and spades. The 2{{Clubs}} bid is used as in standard Acol (23+ [[High card point|points]]). Various uses are made of the 2{{Hearts}} and 2{{Spades}} bids, with traditional strong twos or [[Muiderberg convention|Lucas twos]] being some popular methods.

== Standard Acol ==
The following is a brief summary of the Standard Acol as from 2000 to 2005. Standard Acol has not changed significantly since that time.

=== Opening bids ===
Opening bids promise at least 12 high card [[High card point|points]] (HCP), or the equivalent in HCP and shape, unless [[preempt]]ing. Apart from NT, opening bids guarantee the ability to make a rebid over any forcing response from partner. There are six ''special'' opening bids which are quite closely defined, and one wide-ranging opening bid:
* Special opening bids:
** '''1NT''' — Shows a balanced hand (4-3-3-3, 4-4-3-2 or 5-3-3-2). Subject to partnership agreement, it may be either weak (12–14 HCP), strong (15–17 or 16–18 HCP) or variable (i.e., varying between weak and strong according to vulnerability). Limit bid. The weak NT is by far the most common practice among UK club and social players.
** '''[[Strong two clubs|2{{Clubs}}]]''' — Conventional game-forcing bid, promising game-going values (normally 23+ HCP) and at least 5 [[Hand evaluation#Quick Tricks|quick tricks]]. Game forcing unless responder replies 2{{Diams}} and opener rebids 2NT.
** '''2 of any other suit''' — [[Strong two bid]] which shows a strong hand with at least eight [[Hand evaluation#Playing Tricks|playing tricks]] and a 6-card suit (or two 5-card suits). Forcing for one round.
** '''2NT''' — Shows a balanced hand with 20–22 HCP. Limit bid.
** '''3 of a suit''' — Preemptive, normally seven or more cards in the suit bid (may be six at favourable vulnerability), weak hand (not more than 10 HCP). Not forcing.
** '''3NT''' — Preemptive, shows a long solid minor suit and is called the [[Gambling 3NT]]
* Wide-ranging opening bid (made if too strong to pass and unable to make one of the special opening bids):
** '''1 of a suit''' — Promises a minimum of 12 HCP and a 4-card suit, 11 HCP and a 5-card suit, or 10 HCP and a 6-card suit. Not forcing.

The wide-ranging 1 of a suit bid is the most common opening bid, accounting for about 75–80% of opening bids. The 1NT opening occurs on about 20% of biddable hands if "weak", or 10% if "strong".

=== Responses to 1 of a suit ===
* '''Pass''' — less than 6 HCP
* '''2 of opener's suit''' — at least four-card support and 6–9 HCP. Limit bid.
* '''3 of opener's suit''' — at least four-card support and 10–12 HCP. Invites game if opener has requisite strength (14 HCP or more). Limit bid.
* '''4 of opener's suit''' — at least five-card support for opener's major and 6–10 HCP, this is preemptive and to play.
* '''1NT''' — 6–9 HCP, denies ability to bid at 2 level. Not necessarily balanced. Limit bid.
* '''2NT''' — balanced, 10–12 HCP. Limit bid.
* '''3NT''' — balanced, 13-15 HCP. Limit bid.
* '''1 of a new suit''' — promises at least four cards in the suit bid, 6 HCP upwards. Forcing for one round.
* '''2 of a new suit (below 2 of opener's suit)''' — normally 5-card suit, at least a good 8 or 9 HCP. Forcing for one round
* '''Jump in a new suit''' — 5-card suit (or support for partner), at least 16 HCP, Game force.
''Note 1: these last three bids may conceal 4-card support for opener's suit, whereas the three NT responses deny 4-card support for opener, and also normally deny holding a 4 card major biddable at the 1 level''

''Note 2: when supporting opener's suit with an 8-card fit or better, HCP ranges can be adjusted downwards slightly to allow for shortages (singletons or voids)''

''Note 3: with at least four-card support for opener's major and 13+ HCP, bid a new suit and then jump to 4 of opener's suit on the next round, a '''delayed game raise'''. Alternatively, by partnership agreement, the [[Jacoby 2NT]] or an alternative method may be used.''

=== Responses to 1NT ===
The responses below assume a weak (12–14) NT opening: players should adjust the point ranges for responses if playing a different opening range.
* '''2{{Clubs}}''' — [[Stayman]]. Opener responds 2{{Diams}} with no four-card major, 2{{Hearts}} with a four-card heart suit and 2{{Spades}} with four spades (denies four hearts). Forcing for one round.
* '''2 of any other suit''' — weak takeout, opener must pass. Some players make use of [[Jacoby transfer|transfers]].
* '''3 of a suit''' — shows a strong hand with a five-card suit, forcing to game.
* '''2NT''' — 11–12 HCP. invites game if opener is maximum (i.e., for a weak opening NT, if opener has 14 or a good 13 HCP).
* '''3NT''' — to play.
* '''4{{Clubs}}''' — asks for aces. ([[Gerber convention|Gerber]])
* '''4{{Hearts}}, 4{{Spades}}''' — to play.
* '''4NT''' — slam invitation, opener bids 6NT with a maximum.
* '''5NT''' — slam invitation, opener bids 6NT unless a minimum. Note: some play as invitation to 7NT; opener bids 6NT if minimum, 7NT with a maximum).

=== Responses to 2NT ===
* '''3{{Clubs}}''' — [[Baron convention|Baron]]. Opener bids his lowest four-card suit. Forcing. (Stayman may also be used as in responses to 1NT; i.e., 3{{Diams}} shows no 4-card major).
* '''3 of other suit''' - shows a five card suit, forcing to game. Some players use [[Jacoby transfer|transfers]].
* '''Other responses as over 1NT'''.

=== Responses to 2{{Clubs}} ===
* '''2{{Diams}}''' — negative. Responder lacks the strength for a positive response. Unless opener rebids 2NT (balanced, 23–24 HCP, which may be passed), the sequence is forcing to game.
* '''2NT''' — fairly balanced, 8 or more HCP. Some players take this as showing a minor. Forcing to game.
* '''2 of a suit''' — at least five in the suit, the equivalent of an ace and a king in high cards. Forcing to game.
* '''3 of a suit''' — Solid suit of at least six cards. Forcing to game.

=== Responses to 2 of a suit (strong two) ===
* '''2NT''' — negative. Responder lacks the strength for a positive response.
* '''Simple bid of a new suit''' — 8 or more HCP (or an Ace and a King), at least five in the suit. Forcing to game.
* '''3 of opener's suit''' — 5–8 HCP, at least 3-card support. Forcing to game.
* '''3NT''' — flat hand, 8–11 HCP. Not forcing.

=== Opener's suit rebid after one-level opening ===
'''''Rebid own suit'''''
* '''Rebid of own suit at lowest level''' – minimum hand, at least a five-card suit, 12–15 HCP, non-forcing.
* '''Jump rebid of own suit''' – strong hand, normally at least six-card suit, 15–19 HCP, non-forcing but highly invitational.

==== Bid new suit ====
* '''Bid of new suit at lower level than first suit''' — minimum hand, 12–15 HCP, first suit has at least as many cards as second suit, non-forcing.
* '''Bid of new suit at higher level than two of the first suit, but without jumping ([[Reverse (bridge)|a Reverse bid]])''' — strong hand, 16–19 HCP, first suit has more cards (at least five) than second suit, forcing for one round.
* '''Jump in new suit''' — strong hand, about 19+ HCP over 1 level response or 16+ over 2 level response, first suit has at least as many cards as second suit, forcing to game.

==== Support for responder ====
* '''Simple raise of responder's suit''' — minimum hand, 4-card support, 12–15 HCP, non-forcing
* '''Jump raise of responder's suit''' — stronger hand, 4-card support, 16–18 HCP, non-forcing
* '''Jump to game in responder's suit''' — game values, 4-card support, 19+ HCP, non-forcing

''Note: when supporting responder's suit with an 8-card fit or better, HCP ranges can be adjusted downwards slightly to allow for shortages (singletons or voids)''

=== Opener's NT rebid after one-level opening ===
The following bids assume a weak (12–14) NT opening.

==== After a suit response at one level ====
The traditional rebids are:
* '''1NT''' — balanced, 15–16 HCP, limit bid
* '''2NT''' — balanced, 17–18 HCP, limit bid
* '''3NT''' — balanced, 19 HCP, limit bid

However, the modern approach modifies the ranges for the rebids thus:
* '''1NT''' — balanced, 15–17 HCP, limit bid
* '''2NT''' — balanced, 18–19 HCP, limit bid
* '''3NT''' — Often an Acol two type of hand prepared to play in NT.

==== After a suit response at two level ====
The traditional rebids are:
* '''2NT''' — balanced, 15–16 HCP, limit bid
* '''3NT''' — balanced, 17–19 HCP, limit bid

The modern approach is to use the 2NT rebid as forcing to game with 15-19 points, allowing major suit fits to be found at the 3 level. 3NT may be used as 15–17 with support for the minor that responder has bid (one option).

After the opener's 2NT rebid, 3{{Clubs}} can be used as a (forcing) enquiry to seek definition of the 2NT rebid.

The only non-forcing bid by responder after opener's 2NT rebid is a rebid of responder's suit. This means that bidding opener's first suit is unconditionally forcing.

=== Responder's second bid ===

By the time responder has to rebid, it is often clear what the best final contract should be, especially if either player has made a limit bid. If opener has bid two suits, responder can show preference between them. With a strong hand but uncertain whether a game contract is on or which game it should be, he can use fourth suit forcing to obtain further information.

=== Fourth suit forcing ===
{{main|Fourth suit forcing}}
A bid of the fourth suit at the 2 level by responder is a one-round force, usually asking opener to bid no trumps with a stopper in the fourth suit. A fourth suit bid at the 3 level is similar, but forcing to game.

=== Overcalls and doubles ===
Suit overcalls promise at least 5 cards.

Jump overcalls promise at least 6 cards, but may be played as weak, intermediate or strong. BfA Acol uses intermediate (opening hand, 11–16 points).

1NT overcall typically promises 15–18 points and at least one stopper in opponents' suit.

Double is for takeout, showing an opening hand (12+ points) short in opponents' suit (occasionally a very strong hand, at least 16+ points, of other shapes)

=== Responses to 1 of a suit if opponents overcall ===
Generally similar to unopposed bidding, but with these differences:
* '''Double''' — [[Negative double|negative]] or Sputnik double (up to 2{{Spades}}, or often higher in modern methods), for takeout, usually showing at least 4 cards in any unbid major. But note that in earlier versions of Acol, this double was for penalties.
* '''1NT''', '''2NT''' and '''3NT''' limit bids normally promise a stopper in opponents' suit.
* '''2 of a new suit (without a jump but above 2 of opener's suit)''' — at least 5-card suit, at least a good 9 HCP. Forcing for one round.

==Alternatives==

In common usage, the term Acol is understood to refer to a [[#5majors|four-card majors]] system. For hybrid systems using the weak NT opening with one or both [[#5majors|five-card majors]], a different terminology is preferable.

* '''Five card spades''' or 5-4-4-3 system; the 1{{Spades}} opening shows at least 5 spades, and a hand with 4 spades and 4-3-3-3 shape is opened 1{{Clubs}}. A 1{{Clubs}} opening may be on only 3 cards. This can also be played so that the 1{{Hearts}} opening either guarantees 5 hearts or 4 cards in both majors. In this case a 3-4-3-3 shape would also be opened 1{{Clubs}}.
* '''Five card majors''' with a weak NT; both 1{{Hearts}} and 1{{Spades}} openings guarantee 5 cards. Sometimes known as the "Third Way" system;<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bridgewebs.com//herts/THE%20THIRD%20WAY.pdf |title=Archived copy: The Third Way - Five card majors with a weak no-trump |access-date=2016-11-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121103747/http://www.bridgewebs.com//herts/THE%20THIRD%20WAY.pdf |archive-date=2016-11-21 |url-status=dead }}</ref> the first system of this type was the [[Kaplan–Sheinwold]] system. To handle 4-4-3-2 hands with both 4 card majors, this needs either a "short club" (1{{Clubs}} can be as few as 2 cards) or both a prepared 1{{Clubs}} and 1{{Diams}} which could be just 3 card suits. Five card majors are more commonly used with a strong no trump, as in [[Standard American]].

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* The English Bridge Union, [http://www.ebu.co.uk/publications/ConventionCards-SystemsInformation/ModernAcolSystemFile.pdf Standard English Modern Acol System File] (PDF)
* [http://www.ebu.co.uk/education/learning/landyfiles.htm Standard English Acol] (Described as a "dialect of Acol")
* [[Sandra Landy|Landy]] and EBU Committee. ''Really Easy Bidding'' 1998 The English Bridge Union, Aylesbury, UK, {{ISBN|0-9506279-2-5}}.
* One form of a Modern Acol bidding system that's easy to teach and easy to convert to five card majors:..[http://www.surreyschoolofbridge.com Surrey School Acol]

{{WPCBIndex}}

[[Category:Bridge systems]]

McGovern (name)

2022-01-23T16:34:47Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Irish surname}}
{{Infobox Family
| colour = powderblue
| name = McGovern [[Irish name]]: Mag Shamhráin
|image = [[file:Ireland location Cavan.jpg|200px]]
| crest =
| caption =
| ethnicity = [[Irish people|Irish]]/[[Celts|Celtic]]
| region =
| early_forms = MacGauran, MacGoveran, MacGowran, Magauran, MacGavern, Magavern, McGavern [[Anglicised]] Somers, Summers
| origin = [[County Cavan, Ireland]]<ref>[http://www.irishtimes.com/ancestor/browse/counties/ulster/index_mo.htm Irish Times]</ref>
| members = Samhradhán lived c. 1100 AD
| otherfamilies = [[McKiernan]]
| distinctions =
| traditions =
| heirlooms =
| estate =
| meaning = "A summery personality"
| footnotes =
}}

The [[surname]] '''McGovern''' ({{lang-ga|'''Mág Samhradháin'''}}), is of [[Ireland|Irish]] origin and is found predominantly in the counties of [[County Cavan|Cavan]] (among the fifteen most common names), [[County Fermanagh|Fermanagh]] and [[County Leitrim|Leitrim]].

The [[Irish name]] is Mag Samhradháin, meaning ''the Son of Samhradhán'', and the clan or [[sept]] takes its name from one [[Samhradhán]] who lived c. 1100 AD descended from 7th-century Eochaidh, a descendant of [[Brión mac Echach Muigmedóin]]. Eochaidh gave his name to Teallach Eochaid, modern day [[Tullyhaw]] in Cavan. This was long the territory of the McGoverns. Their strongholds were at [[Ballymagauran]], [[Bawnboy]], [[Coologe]] and [[Lissanover]] in Cavan.<ref>[[Robert Bell (writer and editor)|Robert Bell]], ''Book of Ulster Surnames'', Page 161, published by The Blackstaff Press in 1988.</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.surnamedb.com/Surname/Mcgovern|title = Surname Database: McGovern Last Name Origin}}</ref>

There are many variations found in the spelling of the name, all of which are attempts at a phonetic spelling of the Gaelic ''Mag Samhradháin''. The Mag part can be found as Mag, Meg, Mac, Mau, Mec, Mc, Ma or M'. The Samhradháin part (which may be attached to or detached from the ''Mag'' part and all its variations) can be found (the ''G'' being capitalised or not) as Samradhan, Shamhradhan, Shamhraghan, Shamradhan, Goveran, Govern, Govran, Gawran, Gawrain, Gawrene, Gawryne, Gauran, Gaurin, Gaurn, Gaurien, Gaurayn, Gaveran, Gaheran, Gahran, Gowran, Gouran, Gurn, Gurren, Guran, Guarayn.

==Chiefs of the Clan==

The following is a provisional list of the chiefs of the McGovern Clan, Barons or Lords of [[Tullyhaw]].

*c.653-686 Eochaidh, son of Maonach (After whom is named Teallach n-Eachach or [[Tullyhaw]])
*c.686-719 Oireachtach, son of Eochaidh
*c.719-752 Dúnghal, son of Oireachtach
*c.752-785 Cosgrach, son of Dúnghal (perhaps the ''Coscrach, son of Donn'' whose death is mentioned in AFM 794)
*c.818-851 Íomhaor, son of Cosgrach
*c.851-884 Ruarc, son of Íomhaor (lived at [[Dunmakeever]], [[Glangevlin]], [[County Cavan]])
*c.884-917 Tadhg Tir, son of Ruarc
*c.917-950 Conchobhar, son of Tadhg Tir
*c.950-983 Aonghus, son of Conchobhar
*c.983-1016 Flann, son of Aonghus
*c.1016-1049 Fearghal, son of Flann
*c.1049-1082 Conchobhar, son of Fearghal
*c.1082-1115 [[Samhradhán]], son of Conchobhar (lived at [[Moneensauran]], [[Glangevlin]], [[County Cavan]])
*c.1115-1148 [[Muireadhach Mág Samhradhán]] (i.e. the first chief to bear the name Mág Samhradháin or McGovern)
*c.1148-1181 [[Giolla na Naomh Mág Samhradháin, the First]], son of Muireadhach
*c.1181-1231 [[Giolla Íosa Mág Samhradháin]] (died 1231), son of Giolla na Naomh (the First)
*1231-c.1240 [[Giolla na Naomh Mág Samhradháin (the Second)]], son of Giolla Íosa
*c.1240-1258 [[Brian Mág Samhradháin]], the First, (died 1258)
*c.1258-1269 [[Donnchadh ‘Cime’ Mág Samhradháin]] (died 1269), son of Giolla na Naomh (the Second)
*1269-1272 [[Tomás Mág Samhradháin]], the First (died 1272), son of Aedh Mág Samhradháin and half-brother or step-brother of Donnchadh
*1272-1294 [[Brian ‘Breaghach’ Mág Samhradháin]], the Second, (died 3 May 1294), son of Donnchadh, lived at [[Coologe]], [[County Cavan]]
*1294-1299 [[Maghnus Mág Samhradháin]], the First (died 1299), son of Donnchadh and brother of Brian ‘Breaghach’
*-1325-1340 [[Tomás Mág Samhradháin the Second]] (died 1340), son of Brian ‘Breaghach’
*1340-1359 [[Niall Mág Samhradháin]] (died 1359), son of Tomás the Second
*1359-1393 [[Fearghal Mág Samhradháin]] (died 1393), son of Tomás the Second and brother of Niall
*1393-1408 [[Maghnus 'Ruadh' Mág Samhradháin]], the Second, (died 1408), son of Tomás the Second and brother of Niall
*1408-1458 [[Tomás Óg 'na Fésóige' Mág Samhradháin]], the Third (died 1458), son of Fearghal
*1458-1460 [[Eóghan Mág Samhradháin]] (died 1460) son of Tomás Óg & grandson of Fearghal
*1460-1478 [[Cathal Mág Samhradháin]], the First (died 1478) grandson of Fearghal
*1478-15 Feb 1495 [[Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin, the First]] (died 1495), son of Tomás Óg & grandson of Fearghal
*Feb 1495-15 Feb 1496 [[Domhnall ‘Bernach’ Mág Samhradháin]] (died 1496), son of Tomás Óg & half-brother of Feidlim
*Feb 1496-1504 [[Éamonn Mág Samhradháin]] (died 1504), grandson of Tomás Óg and nephew of Domhnall ‘Bernach’.
*1504-1512 [[Cathal Mág Samhradháin, the Second]], (died 1512), nephew of Éamonn
*1512-1532 [[Tomás Mág Samhradháin, the Fourth]] (died 1532), son of Maghnus and grandson of Tomás Óg
*1540- [[Uaithne Mág Samhradháin]], son of Maghnus and grandson of Tomás Óg
*15??-1584 [[Brian Óg Mág Samhradháin]], the Third, son of Brian, d. 1584,
*1584-1586- [[Tomas Óg Mág Samhradháin]] (pardoned 19/1/1586)
*-1609-1622 [[Feidhlimidh Mág Samhradháin]], the Second, (died 20 January 1622)
*1622- [[Brian Magauran]], the Fourth, son of Feidhlimidh
*-1641-1657- [[Charles Magauran]], the Third, son of [[Brian Magauran]]
*-1690- [[Colonel Bryan Magauran]], the Sixth, grandson of [[Charles Magauran]]

==Pedigree of McGovern Chiefs==

[[Samhradhán]]

¦

Muireadhach

¦

Giolla na Naomh

¦

Giolla Iosa (d. 1231)

¦

Giolla na Naomh (fl. 1255)

¦

Donnchadh Cime (d. 1272) = May Mor O’Rourke

¦

Brian Breaghach (d. 1298) = Maoilmheadha Mac Kiernan (d. 1323)

¦

Tomas (d. 1343) = Nualaidh Maguire

¦

Fearghal (d. 1393)

¦

Tomas na Feasoige (d. 1458)

¦

Tomas Og (d. 1494)

¦

Maghnus (d. 1497)

¦

Tomas (d. 1532)

¦

Brian

¦

Feidhlimidh (d. 20 Jan 1622)

¦

Brian (b. 1592, fl. 1626)

¦

Cathal (fl. 1655)

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
#C. Maguire, "Bawnboy and Templeport- History Heritage Folklore" (1999)
#Margo R. Griffin-Wilson, "Sidelights on History: The Book of Magauran and the Annals", in Proceedings of the Harvard Celtic Colloquium, Vol. 2 (1982), pp. 75-87.
#L. McKenna, ed., tr. (1947), “The Book of Magauran”.
#C. Parker, “Two minor septs of late medieval Breifne”, in Breifne Journal, Vol. VIII, No. 31 (1995), pp. 566–586
#Seán MacBrádaigh, ''The Genealogy of MacGovern'', in Genealogical Society of Ireland Journal, 2003, Vol. 4, No. 2, Page 122.
#Seán MacBrádaigh, ''The genealogy of MagShamhradháin'', in Breifne Journal 2010, Vol.XII, No.45, pp. 150–153.
#J. H. McGovern (1890), “Genealogy and Historical Notices of the MacGauran or McGovern Clan”
#M.V. Duignan (1934), "The Uí Briúin Bréifni genealogies", pp. 90–137, in JRSAI Vol. 4, No. 1, Jun. 30, 1934.
#McCarthy, Judith. “The Importance of the Tower House in the Late Medieval Society of Breifne” in Breifne Journal vol. VIII, No.1 (1989–90), pp. 118–136.
#F. J. McKiernan, “Hearth Money Rolls for the Baronies of Tullyhaw and Tullyhunco”, in Breifne Journal, Vol. I (1960), pp. 247–262
#Salvador Ryan, ‘Wily women of God’ in "Cavan’s late medieval and early modern devotional collections", in Brendan Scott (ed.), Culture and society in early modern Breifne/Cavan (Dublin: Four Courts Press, 2009) [https://www.academia.edu/12606832/_Wily_women_of_God_in_Cavan_s_late_medieval_and_early_modern_devotional_collections_in_Brendan_Scott_ed._Culture_and_society_in_early_modern_Breifne_Cavan_Dublin_Four_Courts_Press_2009_]
{{refend}}
;Footnotes
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://genforum.genealogy.com/mcgovern/messages/2783.html Statistics about McGovern Ancestors]
*[https://www.academia.edu/33605521/A_9th_century_U%C3%AD_Bri%C3%BAin_settlement_in_County_Cavan A 9th century Uí Briúin settlement in County Cavan]
{{Connachta}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mcgovern}}
[[Category:Irish families]]
[[Category:Surnames]]

The Miraculous Journey

2022-01-05T18:57:56Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add 1.0

{{Short description|Series of bronze sculptures by Damian Hurst}}
{{italic title}}
'''''The Miraculous Journey (2005 to 2013)''''' is a series of 14 bronze sculptures by the artist [[Damien Hirst]]. The sculptures are situated outside the Sidra Medicine in [[Doha]], [[Qatar]].<ref name=GuardNov182>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2018/nov/19/damien-hirst-uterus-sculptures-qatar-sidra-medicine-hospital|title=Damien Hirst's gigantic uteruses are a bold correction to shocking ignorance|author=Hannah Clugston|date=19 November 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref> The sculptures show the development of a human foetus in the womb, ending with a 46ft tall sculpture of a baby boy.<ref name=NYT/> Hirst said that his fascination with childbirth began after the birth of his own children, saying that "Everyone talks about our life's journey, but we have a whole journey before you're born".<ref name=NYT/>

The work was originally unveiled in 2013, but was covered up until November 2018.<ref name=GuardNov181>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/19/damien-hirst-delivers-controversy-with-giant-uterus-sculptures-at-qatar-hospital|title=Damien Hirst delivers controversy with giant uterus sculptures at Qatar hospital |date=19 November 2018|work=[[The Guardian]]|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref> At its 2013 unveiling each sculpture was covered with a balloon that slowly opened to reveal each piece.

The sculptures vary from 5 to 11 meters in height and collectively weigh 216 tonnes.<ref name=GuardNov182/> The piece is believed to have cost $20 million.<ref name=NYT>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/08/arts/design/damien-hirsts-anatomical-sculptures-have-their-debut.html|title=Art, From Conception to Birth in Qatar|date=7 October 2013|author=Carol Vogel|work=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=20 November 2018}}</ref>

The Qatari Sheikah [[Al-Mayassa bint Hamad bin Khalifa Al-Thani]] visited Hirst's studio in Gloucestershire, England, and was shown drawings from 2005 that Hirst had made of prenatal development. Hirst had intended them to be monumental sculptures, and Sheikha al Mayassa imagined situating them in front of the Sidra Medical Center.<ref name=NYT/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Damien Hirst}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Miraculous Journey}}
[[Category:2013 sculptures]]
[[Category:Public art in Qatar]]
[[Category:Works about human pregnancy]]
[[Category:Works by Damien Hirst]]

1000 Plant Genomes Project

2022-01-05T18:54:54Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add 1.0

{{Short description|Establishing a catalog of genetic variation}}
{{Infobox research project
|name = 1000 Plant Genomes Project
|project_type =
|end = 2019
|start = 2008
|website = {{url|http://www.onekp.com}}
|funding_agency = {{unbulleted list|class=nowrap|Alberta Innovates Technology Futures|[https://web.archive.org/web/20000407190300/http://www.aari.ab.ca/ Alberta Agricultural Research Institute] (AARI)| [http://www.genomealberta.ca/ Genome Alberta]|[https://www.ualberta.ca/ University of Alberta]| [[BGI_Group|BGI]] | [[China National GeneBank|China National GeneBank (CNGB)]] | [http://www.museaventures.com/ Musea Ventures (Somekh Family Foundation)] }}
}}

The '''1000 Plant Transcriptomes Initiative (1KP)''' was an international research effort to establish the most detailed catalogue of genetic variation in plants. It was announced in 2008 and headed by Dr. Gane Ka-Shu Wong and Dr. Michael Deyholos of the [[University of Alberta]]. The project successfully sequenced the [[transcriptomes]] (expressed genes) of 1000 different plant species by 2014;<ref name=onekp>[http://www.onekp.com Retrieved Feb. 25, 2010]</ref><ref name="1KP Data Access">{{cite journal | vauthors = Matasci N, Hung LH, Yan Z, Carpenter EJ, Wickett NJ, Mirarab S, Nguyen N, Warnow T, Ayyampalayam S, Barker M, Burleigh JG, Gitzendanner MA, Wafula E, Der JP, dePamphilis CW, Roure B, Philippe H, Ruhfel BR, Miles NW, Graham SW, Mathews S, Surek B, Melkonian M, Soltis DE, Soltis PS, Rothfels C, Pokorny L, Shaw JA, DeGironimo L, Stevenson DW, Villarreal JC, Chen T, Kutchan TM, Rolf M, Baucom RS, Deyholos MK, Samudrala R, Tian Z, Wu X, Sun X, Zhang Y, Wang J, Leebens-Mack J, Wong GK | display-authors = 6 | title = Data access for the 1,000 Plants (1KP) project | journal = GigaScience | volume = 3 | issue = 17 | pages = 17 | date = 2014 | pmid = 25625010 | pmc = 4306014 | doi = 10.1186/2047-217X-3-17 }}</ref> its final capstone products were published in 2019.<ref>{{cite journal | author = One Thousand Plant Transcriptomes Initiative | title = One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants | journal = Nature | volume = 574 | issue = 7780 | pages = 679–685 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31645766 | pmc = 6872490 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Wong|first1=Gane Ka-Shu|last2=Soltis|first2=Douglas E.|last3=Leebens-Mack|first3=Jim|last4=Wickett|first4=Norman J.|last5=Barker|first5=Michael S.|last6=de Peer|first6=Yves Van|last7=Graham|first7=Sean W.|last8=Melkonian|first8=Michael|date=2016-05-04|title=Sequencing and Analyzing the Transcriptomes of a Thousand Species Across the Tree of Life for Green Plants|journal=Annual Review of Plant Biology|volume=71|pages=741–765|doi=10.1146/annurev-arplant-042916-041040|pmid=31851546|issn=1543-5008|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

1KP was one of the large-scale (involving many organisms) sequencing projects designed to take advantage of the wider availability of [[DNA sequencing#High-throughput methods|high-throughput ("next-generation") DNA sequencing technologies]]. The similar [[1000 Genomes Project]], for example, obtained high-coverage genome sequences of 1000 individual people between 2008 and 2015, to better understand human [[genetic variation]].<ref name=two>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hayden EC | title = International genome project launched | journal = Nature | volume = 451 | issue = 7177 | pages = 378–9 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18216809 | doi = 10.1038/451378b | bibcode = 2008Natur.451R.378C | s2cid = 205035320 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=About IGSR and the 1000 Genomes Project|url=http://www.internationalgenome.org/about|website=IGSR: The International Genome Sample Resource|access-date=2 October 2018}}</ref> This project providing a template for further planetary-scale genome projects including the 10KP Project sequencing the whole genomes of 10,000 Plants,<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Cheng|first1=Shifeng|last2=Melkonian|first2=Michael|last3=Smith|first3=Stephen A.|last4=Brockington|first4=Samuel|last5=Archibald|first5=John M.|last6=Delaux|first6=Pierre-Marc|last7=Li|first7=Fay-Wei|last8=Melkonian|first8=Barbara|last9=Mavrodiev|first9=Evgeny V.|last10=Sun|first10=Wenjing|last11=Fu|first11=Yuan|date=2018-03-01|title=10KP: A phylodiverse genome sequencing plan|url= |journal=GigaScience|language=en|volume=7|issue=3|pages=1–9|doi=10.1093/gigascience/giy013|pmc=5869286|pmid=29618049}}</ref> and the [[Earth BioGenome Project]], aiming to sequence, catalog, and characterize the genomes of all of Earth’s [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] biodiversity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lewin|first1=Harris A.|last2=Robinson|first2=Gene E.|last3=Kress|first3=W. John|last4=Baker|first4=William J.|last5=Coddington|first5=Jonathan|last6=Crandall|first6=Keith A.|last7=Durbin|first7=Richard|last8=Edwards|first8=Scott V.|last9=Forest|first9=Félix|last10=Gilbert|first10=M. Thomas P.|last11=Goldstein|first11=Melissa M.|date=2018-04-24|title=Earth BioGenome Project: Sequencing life for the future of life|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|language=en|volume=115|issue=17|pages=4325–4333|doi=10.1073/pnas.1720115115|issn=0027-8424|pmc=5924910|pmid=29686065|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Goals ==
{{As of|2002}}, the number of classified [[Plant|green plant]] species was estimated to be around 370,000, however, there are probably many thousands more yet unclassified.<ref name=three>{{cite journal | vauthors = Pitman NC, Jørgensen PM | s2cid = 891010 | title = Estimating the size of the world's threatened flora | journal = Science | volume = 298 | issue = 5595 | pages = 989 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12411696 | doi = 10.1126/science.298.5595.989 }}</ref> Despite this number, very few of these species [[List of sequenced plant genomes|have detailed DNA sequence]] information to date; 125,426 species in [[GenBank]], {{As of|2012|04|11|lc=on}},<ref name=four>{{Cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/txstat.cgi |title=NCBI Taxonomy |publisher=NCBI |access-date=2012-04-11}}</ref> but most (>95%) having DNA sequence for only one or two genes. "...almost none of the roughly half million plant species known to humanity has been touched by genomics at any level".<ref name=onekp/> The 1000 Plant Genomes Project aimed to produce a roughly a 100x increase in the number of plant species with available broad genome sequence.

=== Evolutionary relationships ===
There have been efforts to determine the evolutionary relationships between the known plant species,<ref name=five>{{cite journal |title= Summary of Green Plant Phylogeny and Classification |year=1985 |last1=Bremer |first1=Kåre | name-list-style = vanc |journal=Cladistics |volume=1 |pages=369–385 |issue=4 |doi=10.1111/j.1096-0031.1985.tb00434.x |s2cid=84961691 }}</ref><ref name=six>{{cite journal | vauthors = Graham LE, Delwiche CF, Mishler BD | title = Phylogenetic connections between the'green algae'and the'bryophytes' | journal = Advances in Bryology | date = 1991 | volume = 213–44 | issue = 3 | pages = 451–483 | jstor = 2399900 }}</ref> but [[Phylogenetics|phylogenies]] (or phylogenetic trees) created solely using morphological data, cellular structures, single enzymes, or on only a few sequences (like [[Ribosomal RNA|rRNA]]) can be prone to error;<ref name=seven>{{cite journal | vauthors = Doyle JJ | title = Gene trees and species trees: molecular systematics as one-character taxonomy. | journal = Systematic Botany | date = January 1992 | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 144–63 | jstor = 2419070 | doi = 10.2307/2419070 }}</ref> morphological features are especially vulnerable when two species look physically similar though they are not closely related (as a result of [[convergent evolution]] for example) or [[homology (biology)|homology]], or when two species closely related look very different because, for example, they are able to change in response to their environment very well. These situations are very common in the plant kingdom. An alternative method for constructing evolutionary relationships is through changes in DNA sequence of many genes between the different species which is often more robust to problems of similar-appearing species.<ref name="seven"/> With the amount of genomic sequence produced by this project, many predicted evolutionary relationships could be better tested by [[sequence alignment]] to improve their certainty. With 383,679 nuclear gene family phylogenies and 2,306 gene age distributions with ''Ks'' plots used in the final analysis and shared in [[GigaDB]] alongside the capstone paper.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Li|first1=Zheng|last2=Barker|first2=Michael S.|date=2020-02-01|title=Inferring putative ancient whole-genome duplications in the 1000 Plants (1KP) initiative: access to gene family phylogenies and age distributions|url= |journal=GigaScience|language=en|volume=9|issue=2|doi=10.1093/gigascience/giaa004|pmc=7011446|pmid=32043527}}</ref>

===Biotechnology applications===
The list of plant genomes sequenced in the project was not random; instead plants that produce valuable chemicals or other products ([[secondary metabolite]]s in many cases) were focused on in the hopes that characterizing the involved genes will allow the underlying biosynthetic processes to be used or modified.<ref name=onekp/> For example, there are many plants known to produce oils (like olives) and some of the oils from certain plants bear a strong chemical resemblance to petroleum products like the [[Oil palm]] and [[hydrocarbon]]-producing species.<ref name=eight>{{cite journal | vauthors = Augustus GD, Jayabalan M, Rajarathinam K, Ray AK, Seiler GJ |year=2002 |title=Potential hydrocarbon producing species of Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu, India |journal=Biomass and Bioenergy |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=165–169 |doi=10.1016/S0961-9534(02)00045-4 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1260178 }}</ref> If these plant mechanisms could be used to produce mass quantities of industrially useful oil, or modified such that they do, then they would be of great value. Here, knowing the sequence of the plant's genes involved in the metabolic pathway producing the oil is a large first step to allow such utilization. A recent example of how engineering natural biochemical pathways works is [[Golden rice]] which has involved genetically modifying its pathway, so that a precursor to vitamin A is produced in large quantities making the brown-colored rice a potential solution for vitamin A deficiency.<ref name=nine>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ye X, Al-Babili S, Klöti A, Zhang J, Lucca P, Beyer P, Potrykus I | title = Engineering the provitamin A (beta-carotene) biosynthetic pathway into (carotenoid-free) rice endosperm | journal = Science | volume = 287 | issue = 5451 | pages = 303–5 | date = January 2000 | pmid = 10634784 | doi = 10.1126/science.287.5451.303 | bibcode = 2000Sci...287..303Y }}</ref> This is concept of engineering plants to do "work" is popular<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taiz |first1=Lincoln |last2=Zeiger |first2=Eduardo | name-list-style = vanc | chapter = Chapter 13: Secondary metabolites and plant defense |title=Plant physiology |publisher=Sinauer Associates |isbn=978-0-87893-856-8 |edition=4th|year=2006 }}</ref> and its potential would dramatically increase as a result of gene information on these 1000 plant species. Biosynthetic pathways could also be used for mass production of medicinal compounds using plants rather than manual organic chemical reactions as most are created currently.

One of the most unexpected results of the project was the discovery of multiple novel [[Light-gated ion channel|light-sensitive ion-channels]] used extensively for optogenetic control of neurons discovered through sequencing and physiological characterization of opsins from over 100 species of alga species by the project.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Klapoetke NC, Murata Y, Kim SS, Pulver SR, Birdsey-Benson A, Cho YK, Morimoto TK, Chuong AS, Carpenter EJ, Tian Z, Wang J, Xie Y, Yan Z, Zhang Y, Chow BY, Surek B, Melkonian M, Jayaraman V, Constantine-Paton M, Wong GK, Boyden ES | title = Independent optical excitation of distinct neural populations | journal = Nature Methods | volume = 11 | issue = 3 | date = March 2014 | pages = 338–346| pmid = 24509633 | pmc = 3943671 | doi = 10.1038/nmeth.2836 }}</ref> The characterization of these novel [[channelrhodopsin]] sequences providing resources for protein engineers who would normally have no interest in or ability to generate sequence data from these many plant species.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Wong GK, Soltis DE, Leebens-Mack J, Wickett NJ, Barker MS, Van de Peer Y, Graham SW, Melkonian M | title = Sequencing and Analyzing the Transcriptomes of a Thousand Species Across the Tree of Life for Green Plants | journal = Annual Review of Plant Biology | volume = 71 | date = April 2020 | pages = 741-765| pmid = 31851546 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-arplant-042916-041040 }}</ref> A number of biotech companies are developing these [[channelrhodopsin]] proteins for medical purposes, with many of these optogenetic therapy candidates under clinical trials to restore vision for [[Retina|retinal blindness]]. The first published results of these treating [[retinitis pigmentosa]] coming out in July 2021.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sahel JA, Boulanger-Scemama E, Pagot C, Arleo A, Galluppi F, Martel JN, Esposti SD, Delaux A, de Saint Aubert JB, de Montleau C, Gutman E, Audo I, Duebel J, Picaud S, Dalkara D, Blouin L, Taiel M, Roska B | title = Partial recovery of visual function in a blind patient after optogenetic therapy | journal = Nature Methods | volume = 27 | issue = 7 | date = July 2021 | pages = 1223-1229| pmid = 34031601 | doi = 10.1038/s41591-021-01351-4 }}</ref>

== Project approach ==
Sequencing was initially done on the [[DNA sequencing|Illumina Genome Analyzer]] GAII next-generation DNA sequencing platform at the [[Beijing Genomics Institute]] (BGI Shenzhen, China), but later samples were run on the faster [[HiSeq|Illumina HiSeq 2000]] platform. Starting with the 28 [[DNA sequencing|Illumina Genome Analyzer]] next-generation DNA sequencing machines, these were eventually upgraded to 100 HiSeq 2000 sequencers at the [[Beijing Genomics Institute]]. The initial 3Gb/run (3 billion base pairs per experiment) capacity of each of these machines enabled fast and accurate sequencing of the plant samples.<ref name=eleven>{{Cite web |url=http://www.genomics.cn/en/index.php |title=Retrieved Feb. 25, 2010 |access-date=2010-03-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100307194830/http://www.genomics.cn/en/index.php |archive-date=2010-03-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Species selection ===
The selection of plant species to be sequenced was compiled through an international collaboration of the various funding agencies and researcher groups expressing their interest in certain plants.<ref name=onekp/> There was a focus on those plant species that are known to have useful biosynthetic capacity to facilitate the biotechnology goals of the project, and selection of other species to fill in gaps and explain some unknown evolutionary relationships of the current plant phylogeny. In addition to industrial compound biosynthetic capacity, plant species known or suspected to produce medically active chemicals (such as poppies producing [[opiate]]s) were assigned a high priority to better understand the synthesis process, explore commercial production potential, and discover new pharmaceutical options. A large number of plant species with medicinal properties were selected from [[traditional Chinese medicine]] (TCM).<ref name=onekp/> The completed list of selected species can be publicly viewed on the website,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.onekp.com/samples/list.php|title=1kP Sample List Viewer|website=www.onekp.com|access-date=2020-04-10}}</ref> and methodological details and data access details have been published in detail.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal | vauthors = Carpenter EJ, Matasci N, Ayyampalayam S, Wu S, Sun J, Yu J, Jimenez Vieira FR, Bowler C, Dorrell RG, Gitzendanner MA, Li L, Du W, K Ullrich K, Wickett NJ, Barkmann TJ, Barker MS, Leebens-Mack JH, Wong GK | display-authors = 6 | title = Access to RNA-sequencing data from 1,173 plant species: The 1000 Plant transcriptomes initiative (1KP) | journal = GigaScience | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31644802 | pmc = 6808545 | doi = 10.1093/gigascience/giz126 | url = }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Johnson|first1=Marc T. J.|last2=Carpenter|first2=Eric J.|last3=Tian|first3=Zhijian|last4=Bruskiewich|first4=Richard|last5=Burris|first5=Jason N.|last6=Carrigan|first6=Charlotte T.|last7=Chase|first7=Mark W.|last8=Clarke|first8=Neil D.|last9=Covshoff|first9=Sarah|last10=dePamphilis|first10=Claude W.|last11=Edger|first11=Patrick P.|date=2012-11-21|title=Evaluating Methods for Isolating Total RNA and Predicting the Success of Sequencing Phylogenetically Diverse Plant Transcriptomes|journal=PLOS ONE|language=en|volume=7|issue=11|pages=e50226|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0050226|issn=1932-6203|pmc=3504007|pmid=23185583|bibcode=2012PLoSO...750226J|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Transcriptome vs. genome sequencing ===
Rather than sequencing the entire genome (all DNA sequence) of the various plant species, the project sequenced only those regions of the genome that produce a protein product ([[Gene|coding genes]]); the [[transcriptome]].<ref name=onekp/> This approach is justified by the focus on biochemical pathways where only the genes producing the involved proteins are required to understand the synthetic mechanism, and because these thousands of sequences would represent adequate sequence detail to construct very robust evolutionary relationships through sequence comparison. The numbers of coding genes in plant species can vary considerably, but all have tens of thousands or more making the transcriptome a large collection of information. However, non-coding sequence makes up the majority (>90%) of the genome content.<ref name=twelve>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morgante M | title = Plant genome organisation and diversity: the year of the junk! | journal = Current Opinion in Biotechnology | volume = 17 | issue = 2 | pages = 168–73 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16530402 | doi = 10.1016/j.copbio.2006.03.001 }}</ref> Although this approach is similar conceptually to [[expressed sequence tag]]s (ESTs), it is fundamentally different in that the entire sequence of each gene will be acquired with high coverage rather than just a small portion of the gene sequence with an EST.<ref name=thirteen>{{cite journal | vauthors = Morozova O, Hirst M, Marra MA | s2cid = 26713396 | title = Applications of new sequencing technologies for transcriptome analysis | journal = Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics | volume = 10 | pages = 135–51 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19715439 | doi = 10.1146/annurev-genom-082908-145957 }}</ref> To distinguish the two, the non-EST method is known as “shotgun transcriptome sequencing”.<ref name=thirteen/>

=== Transcriptome shotgun sequencing ===
mRNA ([[messenger RNA]]) is collected from a sample, converted to [[Complementary DNA|cDNA]] by a [[Reverse transcriptase|reverse transcriptase enzyme]], and then fragmented so that it can be sequenced.<ref name=onekp/><ref name=eleven/> Other than [[RNA-Seq|transcriptome shotgun sequencing]], this technique has been called RNA-seq and whole transcriptome shotgun sequencing (WTSS).<ref name=thirteen/> Once the cDNA fragments are sequenced, they will be [[De novo transcriptome assembly|''de novo'']] assembled (without aligning to a [[reference genome]] sequence) back into the complete gene sequence by combining all of the fragments from that gene during the data analysis phase. A new a ''de novo'' transcriptome assembler designed specifically for RNA-Seq was produced for this project,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xie|first1=Yinlong|last2=Wu|first2=Gengxiong|last3=Tang|first3=Jingbo|last4=Luo|first4=Ruibang|last5=Patterson|first5=Jordan|last6=Liu|first6=Shanlin|last7=Huang|first7=Weihua|last8=He|first8=Guangzhu|last9=Gu|first9=Shengchang|last10=Li|first10=Shengkang|last11=Zhou|first11=Xin|date=2014-06-15|title=SOAPdenovo-Trans: de novo transcriptome assembly with short RNA-Seq reads|url=https://academic.oup.com/bioinformatics/article/30/12/1660/380938|journal=Bioinformatics|language=en|volume=30|issue=12|pages=1660–1666|doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btu077|pmid=24532719|issn=1367-4803|doi-access=free}}</ref> SOAPdenovo-Trans being part of the [[Short Oligonucleotide Analysis Package|SOAP suite]] of genome assembly tools from the [[BGI Group|BGI]].

=== Plant tissue sampling ===
The samples came from around the world, with a number of particularly rare species being supplied by botanical gardens such as the [[Fairy Lake Botanical Garden]] (Shenzhen, China).{{citation needed|date=January 2020}} The type of tissue collected was determined by the expected location of biosynthetic activity; for example if an interesting process or chemical is known to exist primarily in the leaves, leaf sample was used. A number of RNA-sequencing protocols were adapted and tested for different tissue types,<ref name=":1" /> and these were openly shared via the protocols.io platform.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=T|first1=Marc|last2=J|first2=Eric|last3=Tian|first3=Zhijian|last4=Bruskiewich|first4=Richard|last5=N|first5=Jason|last6=T|first6=Charlotte|last7=W|first7=Mark|last8=D|first8=Neil|last9=Covshoff|first9=Sarah|last10=W|first10=Claude|last11=P|first11=Patrick|title=RNA Isolation from Plant Tissue v1 (protocols.io.439gyr6)|url=https://www.protocols.io/view/rna-isolation-from-plant-tissue-439gyr6|doi=10.17504/protocols.io.439gyr6|doi-access=free}}</ref>

== Potential limitations ==
Since only the transcriptome was sequenced, the project did not reveal information about [[Regulatory sequence|gene regulatory sequence]], [[non-coding RNA]]s, [[Repetitive DNA|DNA repetitive elements]], or other genomic features that are not part of the coding sequence. Based on the few whole plant genomes collected so far, these non-coding regions will in fact make up the majority of the genome,<ref name=twelve/><ref name=fourteen>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yu J, Hu S, Wang J, Wong GK, Li S, Liu B, Deng Y, Dai L, Zhou Y, Zhang X, Cao M, Liu J, Sun J, Tang J, Chen Y, Huang X, Lin W, Ye C, Tong W, Cong L, Geng J, Han Y, Li L, Li W, Hu G, Huang X, Li W, Li J, Liu Z, Li L, Liu J, Qi Q, Liu J, Li L, Li T, Wang X, Lu H, Wu T, Zhu M, Ni P, Han H, Dong W, Ren X, Feng X, Cui P, Li X, Wang H, Xu X, Zhai W, Xu Z, Zhang J, He S, Zhang J, Xu J, Zhang K, Zheng X, Dong J, Zeng W, Tao L, Ye J, Tan J, Ren X, Chen X, He J, Liu D, Tian W, Tian C, Xia H, Bao Q, Li G, Gao H, Cao T, Wang J, Zhao W, Li P, Chen W, Wang X, Zhang Y, Hu J, Wang J, Liu S, Yang J, Zhang G, Xiong Y, Li Z, Mao L, Zhou C, Zhu Z, Chen R, Hao B, Zheng W, Chen S, Guo W, Li G, Liu S, Tao M, Wang J, Zhu L, Yuan L, Yang H | display-authors = 6 | title = A draft sequence of the rice genome (Oryza sativa L. ssp. indica) | journal = Science | volume = 296 | issue = 5565 | pages = 79–92 | date = April 2002 | pmid = 11935017 | doi = 10.1126/science.1068037 | bibcode = 2002Sci...296...79Y | s2cid = 208529258 }}</ref> and the non-coding DNA may actually be the primary driver of trait differences seen between species.<ref name=fifteen>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bird CP, Stranger BE, Liu M, Thomas DJ, Ingle CE, Beazley C, Miller W, Hurles ME, Dermitzakis ET | display-authors = 6 | title = Fast-evolving noncoding sequences in the human genome | journal = Genome Biology | volume = 8 | issue = 6 | pages = R118 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17578567 | pmc = 2394770 | doi = 10.1186/gb-2007-8-6-r118 }}</ref>

Since mRNA was the starting material, the amount of sequence representation for a given gene is based on the [[Gene expression|expression]] level (how many mRNA molecules it produces). This means that highly expressed genes get better coverage because there is more sequence to work from.<ref name=fifteen/> The result, then, is that some important genes may not have been reliably detected by the project if they are expressed at a low level yet still have important biochemical functions.

Many plant species (especially agriculturally manipulated ones) <ref name=fourteen/> are known to have undergone large genome-wide changes through duplication of the whole genome. The rice and the wheat genomes, for example, can have 4-6 copies of whole genomes <ref name=fourteen/> ([[Taxonomy of wheat|wheat]]) whereas animals typically only have 2 ([[Ploidy|diploidy]]). These duplicated genes may pose a problem for the ''de novo'' assembly of sequence fragments, because repeat sequences confuse the computer programs when trying to put the fragments together, and they can be difficult to track through evolution.

== Comparison with the 1000 Genomes Project ==
===Similarities===
Just as the [[Beijing Genomics Institute]] in Shenzhen, China is one of the major genomics centers involved in the [[1000 Genomes Project]], the institute is the site of sequencing for the 1000 Plant Genomes Project.<ref name=sixteen>{{cite web | title = BGI Seeks Proposals to Sequence 1,000 Plant, Animal Genomes; Pledges $100M Toward Effort | url = https://www.genomeweb.com/sequencing/bgi-seeks-proposals-sequence-1000-plant-animal-genomes-pledges-100m-toward-effor# | access-date = 25 February 2010 | work = GenomeWeb }}</ref> Both projects are large-scale efforts to obtain detailed DNA sequence information to improve our understanding of the organisms, and both projects will utilize next-generation sequencing to facilitate a timely completion.

=== Differences ===
The goals of the two projects are significantly different. While the [[1000 Genomes Project]] focuses on genetic variation in a single species, the 1000 Plant Genomes Project looks at the evolutionary relationships and genes of 1000 different plant species.

While the [[1000 Genomes Project]] was estimated to cost up to $50 million USD,<ref name=two/> the 1000 Plant Genomes Project was not as expensive; the difference in cost coming from the target sequence in the genomes.<ref name=onekp/> Since the 1000 Plant Genomes Project only sequenced the transcriptome, whereas the human project sequenced as much of the genome as is decided feasible,<ref name=two/> there is a much lower amount of sequencing effort needed in this more specific approach. While this means that there was less overall sequence output relative to the [[1000 Genomes Project]], the non-coding portions of the genomes excluded in the 1000 Plant Genomes Project were not as important to its goals like they are to the human project. So then the more focused approach of the 1000 Plant Genomes Project minimized cost while still achieving its goals.

== Funding ==

The project was funded by Alberta Innovates - Technology Futures (merger of iCORE [https://web.archive.org/web/20111108005614/http://albertatechfutures.ca/CapacityBuildingPrograms.aspx]), [http://www.genomealberta.ca/ Genome Alberta], the [https://www.ualberta.ca/ University of Alberta], the [https://web.archive.org/web/20100307194830/http://www.genomics.cn/en/index.php Beijing Genomics Institute] (BGI), and [http://www.museaventures.com/ Musea Ventures] (a USA-based private investment firm).<ref name=seventeen>{{cite web |url=http://alberta.ca/home/NewsFrame.cfm?ReleaseID=/acn/200811/2475592E5F382-B4A5-7B90-D0E37ED2E1ACCB0C.html |title=Alberta iCORE researcher leads international genome project | publisher = Government of Alberta | date = November 13, 2008 |access-date=2018-08-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120925211520/http://alberta.ca/home/NewsFrame.cfm?ReleaseID=%2Facn%2F200811%2F2475592E5F382-B4A5-7B90-D0E37ED2E1ACCB0C.html |archive-date=2012-09-25 |url-status=live }}</ref> To date, the project received $1.5 million CAD from the [[Alberta Government]] and another $0.5 million from Musea Ventures.<ref name=seventeen/> In January 2010, [[BGI Group|BGI]] announced that it would be contributing $100 million to large-scale sequencing projects of plants and animals (including the 1000 Plant Genomes Project, and then following on to the 10,000 Plant Genome Project<ref name=":0" />).<ref name=sixteen/>

==Related projects==
*[[1000 Genomes Project|The 1000 Genomes Project]] – A Deep Catalog of Human Genetic Variation<ref name=two/>
* The 1001 Genomes Project – Sequencing the whole genome of 1,001 [[Arabidopsis thaliana|Arabidopsis]] strains<ref name=eighteen>{{cite journal | vauthors = Weigel D, Mott R | title = The 1001 genomes project for Arabidopsis thaliana | journal = Genome Biology | volume = 10 | issue = 5 | pages = 107 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19519932 | pmc = 2718507 | doi = 10.1186/gb-2009-10-5-107 }}</ref>
* Genome 10K – Whole genome sequence of 10,000 [[vertebrate]] species<ref name=nineteen>{{cite journal | author = Genome 10K Community of Scientists | title = Genome 10K: a proposal to obtain whole-genome sequence for 10,000 vertebrate species | journal = The Journal of Heredity | volume = 100 | issue = 6 | pages = 659–74 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19892720 | pmc = 2877544 | doi = 10.1093/jhered/esp086 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Biology}}
* {{annotated link|1000 Genomes Project}}
* {{annotated link|International HapMap Project}}
* {{annotated link|Human Genome Project}}
* {{annotated link|100,000 Genomes Project}}
* {{annotated link|List of biological databases}}

== References ==

{{Reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* {{Official website|http://www.onekp.com}}

[[Category:Genome projects]]

Stoddart Group

2022-01-05T18:51:45Z

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{{Short description|Geological sedimentary stratum}}
{{Infobox Rockunit
| name = Stoddart Group
| image =
| caption =
| type = [[Geological formation]]
| age = [[Mississippian age|Mississippian]] to [[Pennsylvanian (geology)|Pennsylvanian]] {{Fossil range|350|300| }}
| period = Carboniferous
| prilithology = [[Limestone]], [[Sandstone]], [[Shale]]
| otherlithology = [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]], [[siltstone]], [[coal]], [[anhydrite]]
| namedfor = Stoddart Creek
| namedby = A.T.C. Rutgers, 1958.
| region = {{flag|Alberta}}
| country = {{flag|Canada}}
| coordinates = {{coord|56.219|N|120.800|W|display=inline,title|name=Stoddart Group}}
| unitof =
| subunits = [[Taylor Flat Formation]] [[Kiskatinaw Formation]] [[Golata Formation]]
| underlies = [[Ishbel Group]], [[Prophet Formation]]
| overlies = [[Debolt Formation]]
| thickness = up to {{convert|660|m|ft|-1}}<ref name=lexicon/>
| extent =
| area =
| map =
| map_caption =
}}

The '''Stoddart Group''' is a [[Stratigraphy|stratigraphical]] unit of [[Mississippian age|Mississippian]] to [[Early Pennsylvanian]] [[Geochronology|age]] in the [[Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin]].

It takes the name from the Stoddart Creek, a creek that flows into [[Charlie Lake (British Columbia)|Charlie Lake]] north of [[Fort St. John, British Columbia|Fort St. John]], and was first described in well Pacific Fort St. John #23 (at depths from 2000 to 2600m) by A.T.C. Rutgers in 1958.

==Lithology==
The Formation is composed of both [[carbonate]] and [[clastic]] facies.
<ref name=lexicon>
{{Cite web
|url = http://cgkn1.cgkn.net/weblex/weblex_litho_detail_e.pl?
|title = Stoddart Group
|author = Lexicon of Canadian Geologic Units
|accessdate = 2009-03-01
|url-status = dead
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090416121153/http://cgkn1.cgkn.net/weblex/weblex_litho_detail_e.pl
|archivedate = 2009-04-16
}}
</ref>

==Distribution==
The Stoddart Group reaches a maximum thickness of {{convert|660|m|ft|-1}} in the sub-surface north of [[Fort St. John, British Columbia|Fort St. John]] in north-eastern [[British Columbia]]. It is present in the sub-surface from the foothills of the [[Northern Rockies]] and eastwards into the [[Peace River Country]] in north-western [[Alberta]].<ref name=lexicon/>

==Subdivisions==
The Stoddart Group is composed of the following [[geological formation|formations]], from top to bottom:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Geological unit|Sub-unit]] !! [[Geochronology|Age]] !! Lithology !! Max. Thickness !! Reference
|-
|[[Taylor Flat Formation]] || [[Early Pennsylvanian]] || [[limestone]], [[Dolomite (mineral)|dolomite]], occasional [[sandstone]], calcareous [[shale]] || {{convert|152|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cgkn1.cgkn.net/weblex/weblex_litho_detail_e.pl?00053:014978|title=Taylor Flat Formation|author=Lexicon of Canadian Geologic Units |accessdate=2009-12-21}}</ref>
|-
|[[Kiskatinaw Formation]] || [[Chesterian]] || quartzose [[sandstone]], dark grey [[shale]], rare [[carbonate]] || {{convert|183|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cgkn1.cgkn.net/weblex/weblex_litho_detail_e.pl?00053:007693|title=Kiskatinaw Formation|author=Lexicon of Canadian Geologic Units |accessdate=2009-12-21}}</ref>
|-
|[[Golata Formation]] || late [[Meramecian]]-[[Chesterian]] || fossiliferous [[limestone]], [[shales]], occasional [[siltstone]], [[coal]] and [[anhydrite]] || {{convert|50|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}
|<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cgkn1.cgkn.net/weblex/weblex_litho_detail_e.pl?|title=Golata Formation|author=Lexicon of Canadian Geologic Units|accessdate=2009-12-21|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090416121153/http://cgkn1.cgkn.net/weblex/weblex_litho_detail_e.pl|archivedate=2009-04-16}}</ref>
|}

==Relationship to other units==
The Stoddart Group is overlain by the [[Ishbel Group]] in the foothills and the [[Prophet Formation]] in the northern plains; it conformably overlays the [[Debolt Formation]].<ref name=lexicon/>

It can be correlated with the [[Tunnel Mountain Formation]], the [[Kananaskis Formation]], the [[Mattson Formation]] and the [[Mount Head Formation]] of the southern [[Canadian Rockies]], and with the [[Amsden Formation]] in [[Montana]].

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Western Canadian Sedimentary Basin| Northwest_Plains=yes}}

[[Category:Stratigraphy of Alberta]]
[[Category:Stratigraphy of British Columbia]]

Caoimhín Ó Raghallaigh

2021-12-29T15:01:17Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Fiddle (violin) player from Ireland}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
'''Caoimhín Ó Raghallaigh''' (born 28 August 1979) is a [[fiddler]], born in Dublin, Ireland, who attended [[Trinity College Dublin]], becoming a Scholar in [[Theoretical Physics]] (1999) and earning a First Class BA degree (as the top student of his class) in 2001. He is known for developing a drone-based fiddle style heavily influenced by the [[uilleann pipes]] and the music of [[Sliabh Luachra]].

Ó Raghallaigh spent several summers working part- and full-time in the Irish Traditional Music Archives in Dublin, opening up a wealth of old recordings which influenced his repertoire and style. Together with uilleann piper [[Mick O'Brien (musician)|Mick O'Brien]], he recorded ''Kitty Lie Over'', named no.1 traditional album of 2003 by Earle Hitchner in American newspaper the [[Irish Echo]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hitchner |first=Earle |url=http://www.celticcafe.com/celticcafe/EarleHitchner/Columns/Top10Lists/02_Top10_2003.html |title=Top 10 Albums, 2003 |access-date=2021-06-22 |date=January 21, 2004 |archive-date=21 August 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070821210334/http://www.celticcafe.com/celticcafe/EarleHitchner/Columns/Top10Lists/02_Top10_2003.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

He performs regularly with West Kerry accordion player [[Brendan Begley]], and has collaborated many times with [[sean-nós song|sean-nós]] singer [[Iarla Ó Lionáird]]. He has also performed with Icelandic group [[Amiina]], [[Sam Amidon]], [[The Waterboys]] among others. He is a member of two contemporary traditional music groups: [[The Gloaming]] (with [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]], [[Iarla Ó Lionáird]], [[Dennis Cahill (musician)|Dennis Cahill]] and [[Doveman|Thomas Bartlett]]) and This Is How We Fly (with [[Petter Berndalen]], [[Nic Gareiss]] and [[Seán Mac Erlaine]]). He has also worked in theatre, having been commissioned by the [[Abbey Theatre]] to write music, and works regularly with [[Gare St Lazare Players]]. He contributed music to the 2015 movie [[Brooklyn (film)]], a set of reels recorded especially for the purpose with Mayo accordion player [[Fiachna Ó Mongáin]].<ref>[http://www.soundtrack.net/movie/brooklyn/ Brooklyn Soundtrack info at Soundtrack.net]</ref>

As well as playing on violin and [[Hardanger fiddle]], Caoimhín Ó Raghallaigh plays an instrument made by Norwegian luthier Salve Hakedal, a fiddle with five bowed strings and five sympathetic strings, a cross between a Hardanger fiddle and a five string violin or [[viola d'amore]] which he calls a Hardanger d'Amore,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ó Raghallaigh |first1=Caoimhín |title=Tools of My Trade |url=http://www.caoimhinoraghallaigh.com/tools.php |website=Caoimhín Ó Raghallaigh |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150324015922/http://www.caoimhinoraghallaigh.com/tools.php |archive-date=2015-03-24}}</ref> first made for American Hardanger fiddle player Dan Trueman, and commissioned by Caoimhín with the head and tailpiece of Salve Hakedal's Viola d’Amore model. Ó Raghallaigh uses crosstunings or [[scordatura]] (common in Norwegian and old-time American fiddling), and uses baroque and transitional bows made by [[Michel Jamonneau]]. Ó Raghallaigh also used to play a Viola Pellegrina Pomposa by American luthier David Rivinus, a highly asymmetrical five-string viola. Caoimhín also plays [[tin whistle]], [[flute]] and [[uilleann pipes]], having been taught whistle and flute by Co. Clare flute-player [[Michael Tubridy]] of [[The Chieftains]] and [[Ceoltóirí Chualann]].

In 2011 he premiered ''The Valley of the Lunatics'', a work written for him by [[David Flynn (composer)|Dave Flynn]], at the Masters of Tradition Festival in Bantry.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cmc.ie/music/valley-lunatics |title=The Valley of the Lunatics |date=2019-03-20 |website=Contemporary Music Centre |language=en |access-date=2019-03-24}}</ref> Part of this piece is used in the soundtrack to the film ''[[Frank Ryan (Irish republican)|The Enigma of Frank Ryan]].''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cmcireland.wordpress.com/2012/02/16/the-enigma-of-frank-ryan/ |title=The Enigma of Frank Ryan |date=2012-02-16 |website=Contemporary Music Centre, Ireland |language=en |access-date=2019-03-24}}</ref>

In 2019, he and fellow [[The Gloaming|Gloaming]] member [[Doveman|Thomas Bartlett]] released a special [[Caoimhín Ó Raghallaigh and Thomas Bartlett|self-titled album]] of studio collaborations the pair had recorded together during gaps in the group's touring schedule.

==Discography==
*''Turas go Tír na nÓg'' (1999, out of print)
*''Kitty Lie Over'' (2003, with Mick O'Brien)
*''Where the One-Eyed Man is King'' (2007)
*''Comb Your Hair and Curl It'' (2010, with [[Mícheál Ó Raghallaigh]] and [[Catherine McEvoy]])
*''Triúr sa Draighean'' (2010, with [[Peadar Ó Riada]] and [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]])
*''A Moment of Madness'' (2010, with [[Brendan Begley]])
*''Deadly Buzz'' (2011, with Mick O'Brien)
*''Triúr Arís'' (2012, with [[Peadar Ó Riada]] and [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]])
*''Triúr Omós'' (2013, with [[Peadar Ó Riada]] and [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]])
*''This is How we Fly'' (2013, with [[Seán Mac Erlaine]], [[Nic Gareiss]] and [[Petter Berndalen]])
*''The Gloaming'' (2014, on [[Brassland Records]] and [[Realworld Records]], with [[Iarla O Lionaird]], [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]], [[Dennis Cahill (musician)|Dennis Cahill]] and [[Doveman|Thomas Bartlett]])
*''Music for an Elliptical Orbit'' (2014, on [[Diatribe Records]])
*''Laghdú'' (2014, on IrishMusic.net Records, with [[Dan Trueman]])
*''The Gloaming 2'' (2016, on [[Brassland Records]] and [[Realworld Records]], with [[Iarla O Lionaird]], [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]], [[Dennis Cahill (musician)|Dennis Cahill]] and [[Doveman|Thomas Bartlett]])
*''Foreign Fields'' (2017, with [[Seán Mac Erlaine]], [[Nic Gareiss]] and [[Petter Berndalen]])
*''All Soundings are True'' (2017, with [[Garth Knox]], on [[Diatribe Records]])
*''The Gloaming: Live at the NCH'' (2018, on [[Brassland Records]] and [[Realworld Records]], with [[Iarla O Lionaird]], [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]], [[Dennis Cahill (musician)|Dennis Cahill]] and [[Doveman|Thomas Bartlett]])
*''The Gloaming 3'' (2019, on [[Realworld Records]], with [[Iarla O Lionaird]], [[Martin Hayes (musician)|Martin Hayes]], [[Dennis Cahill (musician)|Dennis Cahill]] and [[Doveman|Thomas Bartlett]])
* ''Caoimhín Ó Raghallaigh and Thomas Bartlett'' (2019, on [[Realworld Records]], with [[Doveman|Thomas Bartlett]])

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* {{Official website}}
*[http://www.caoimhinandthomas.com/ Official website - Caoimhin and Thomas]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Oraghallaigh, Caoimhin}}
[[Category:1979 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:20th-century Irish people]]
[[Category:21st-century Irish people]]
[[Category:21st-century violinists]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity College Dublin]]
[[Category:Dublin fiddlers]]
[[Category:Irish fiddlers]]
[[Category:Irish folk musicians]]
[[Category:Musicians from County Dublin]]
[[Category:People educated at The High School, Dublin]]
[[Category:Scholars of Trinity College Dublin]]
[[Category:The Gloaming members]]

Katie Roiphe

2021-12-06T09:09:46Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Writer}}
{{Infobox writer
| image = Katie Roiphe.jpg
| caption = Katie Roiphe at [[New America (organization)|New America]] discussion in 2013
| name = Katie Roiphe
| pseudonym =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1968|7|13}}
| birth_name = Katherine Roiphe
| birth_place = New York City, U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Nonfiction writer, critic, professor
| period = 1993–present
| genre =
| subject =
| movement =
| notableworks = ''[[The Morning After (book)|The Morning After: Fear, Sex and Feminism]]'' (1994), ''Uncommon Arrangements: Seven Portraits of Married Life in London Literary Circles 1910-1939'' (2007)
| spouse =
| partner =
| children =
| parent = [[Anne Roiphe]]
| awards =
| signature =
}}
'''Katie Roiphe''' (born July 13, 1968)<ref>{{cite news |last1=Cooke |first1=Rachel |title=The interview: Katie Roiphe |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jun/01/fiction.society |accessdate=30 January 2019 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=31 May 2008}}</ref> is an American author and journalist. She is best known as the author of the non-fiction examination ''[[The Morning After (book)|The Morning After: Fear, Sex and Feminism]]'' (1994). She is also the author of ''Last Night in Paradise: Sex and Morals at the Century's End'' (1997), and the 2007 study of writers and marriage, ''Uncommon Arrangements''. Her 2001 novel ''Still She Haunts Me'' is an imagining of the relationship between Charles Dodgson (known as [[Lewis Carroll]]) and [[Alice Liddell]], the real-life model for Dodgson's ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]''. She is also known for allegedly planning to out the creator of the [[Shitty Media Men]] list in an article for Harper's magazine.

==Background and education==
Roiphe grew up in [[New York City]], daughter of psychoanalyst [[Herman Roiphe]] and noted [[feminist]] [[Anne Roiphe|Anne (née Roth) Roiphe]]. She attended the all-female [[Brearley School]],<ref>Elizabeth Bumiller, "An Elite School Is Having a Tough Time Finding a Leader", ''New York Times'', January 26, 1997.</ref> received an [[Bachelor of Arts|A.B.]] from [[Harvard University]]/[[Radcliffe College]] in 1990, and received a [[Ph.D.]] in English Literature from [[Princeton University]] in 1995.

In 2001, Roiphe married attorney Harry Chernoff in a [[Judaism|Jewish]] ceremony in [[Amagansett]], [[New York (state)|New York]].<ref name=Weddings>{{cite news|title=WEDDINGS; Katie Roiphe, Harry Chernoff|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/14/style/weddings-katie-roiphe-harry-chernoff.html|work=The New York Times|accessdate=12 August 2012|date=14 October 2001}}</ref> They had one daughter, Violet; they separated in 2005 (the year Roiphe's father died), and later divorced.<ref name=Traister>{{cite web|last=Traister|first=Rebecca|title=Katie Roiphe's morning after|url=http://www.salon.com/2007/07/09/katie_roiphe/|publisher=Salon magazine|accessdate=12 August 2012|date=9 July 2007}}</ref>

She subsequently had a son, Leo, and has defended being a single mother.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Roiphe|first1=Katie|title=Single Moms Are Crazy!|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2011/10/shaming_the_single_mom_do_we_all_secretly_think_single_moms_are_.html|website=Slate|accessdate=26 September 2017|date=5 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Roiphe NYT">{{cite news|last=Roiphe|first=Katie|title=In Defense of Single Motherhood|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/12/opinion/sunday/in-defense-of-single-motherhood.html?pagewanted=1&hp|work=The New York Times|accessdate=12 August 2012|date=11 August 2012}}</ref>

==''The Morning After''==
{{Main|The Morning After (book)}}
In her first book, ''The Morning After'', Roiphe argues that in many instances of supposed campus [[date rape]], women are responsible for their actions. "One of the questions used to define rape was: 'Have you had sexual intercourse when you didn't want to because a man gave you alcohol or drugs?' The phrasing raises the issue of agency. Why aren't college women responsible for their own intake of alcohol or drugs? A man may give her drugs, but she herself decides to take them. If we assume that women are not all helpless and naive, then they should be responsible for their choice to drink or take drugs. If a woman's 'judgment is impaired' and she has sex, it isn't always the man's fault; it isn't necessarily always rape."<ref>
Katie Roiphe, [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE2D7133EF930A25755C0A965958260 Date Rape's Other Victim], ''New York Times'', 13 June 1993.</ref>

In the review for ''[[The New York Times]]'', [[Christopher Lehmann-Haupt]] praised the book, calling it a "Book of the Times" and stating, "It is courageous of Ms. Roiphe to speak out against the herd ideas that campus life typically encourages."<ref>Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9F0CE5D8113EF935A2575AC0A965958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2 Divergent Views of Rape As Violence and Sex, ''The New York Times'', September 16, 1993]</ref> Writing for ''[[The New Yorker]]'', [[Katha Pollitt]] gave the book a negative review, calling it "a careless and irresponsible performance, poorly argued and full of misrepresentations, slapdash research, and gossip."<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Pollitt|first1=Katha|title=Not Just Bad Sex|magazine=The New Yorker|date=October 4, 1993|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/1993/10/04/not-just-bad-sex}}</ref> Pollitt's review was in turn criticized by [[Christina Hoff Sommers]] in ''[[Who Stole Feminism?]]'' (1994).<ref name=Book>Sommers, Christina Hoff. ''Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women''. Simon & Schuster, 1994. p. 214, 298.</ref> ''The Morning After'' received a positive response from [[Camille Paglia]], who called it "an eloquent, thoughtful, finely argued book that was savaged from coast to coast by shallow, dishonest feminist book reviewers".<ref>Paglia, Camille. ''Vamps and Tramps: New Essays''. Penguin Books, 1995. p. xvi.</ref>

==Cultural criticism==
Roiphe's second book was 1997's ''Last Night in Paradise: Sex and Morals at the Century's End''. She also began to contribute reviews and essays to ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'', ''[[Harper's Magazine|Harper's]]'', ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]'', ''[[The Washington Post]]'', and ''[[The New York Times]]''. More recently, she had an essay featured in the anthology ''Thirty Ways of Looking at Hillary: Reflections by Women Writers.'' In her essay, entitled "Elect Sister Frigidaire",<ref>[https://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0061455938?p=S009 Book Table of Contents] on [[Amazon.com]].</ref> Roiphe writes that Hillary Clinton is “in many ways the feminist dream incarnate, the opportunity made flesh, the words we whisper to little girls: ‘You can be president. You can do anything you want.’” Reviewing the book for ''The New York Times'', [[Michiko Kakutani]] noted that some of Roiphe's observations were in "stark contrast" to what Kakutani considered some of the "antifeminist" pieces in the collection.<ref>Michiko Kakutani, [https://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/15/books/15kaku.html Candidate Clinton Scrutinized by Women], ''The New York Times'', January 15, 2008.</ref> She has also written a novel based on the life of Lewis Carroll and his relationship with the real Alice, called ''Still She Haunts Me'', which was published in 2001.

In 2007, Roiphe published ''Uncommon Arrangements: Seven Portraits of Married Life in London Literary Circles 1910-1939''. Donna Seaman, in the trade publication ''[[Booklist]]'', gave the book a starred review, writing, "Roiphe, inspired aesthetically and philosophically by the writings and lives of these social and artistic pioneers, offers sophisticated psychological, sexual, and social analysis, fashioning uncommonly affecting portraits of uncommon men and women."<ref>Donna Seaman, "Uncommon Arrangements", ''Booklist'', June 1, 2007.</ref> In ''The New York Times'', the editor and critic [[Tina Brown]] called it "the perfect bedside book for an age like our own, when everything is known and nothing is understood."<ref>Tina Brown, "Couples", ''New York Times'', June 24, 2007.</ref> In ''The New York Observer'', Alexandra Jacobs conceded "Katie haters will be sorry to hear that it’s very absorbing. The author has done something constructive, for a change, with her contempt for the contemporary age’s lily-livered female psyche..."<ref>Alexandra Jacobs, [http://www.observer.com/2007/roiphe-escapes-herself-delves-edwardian-marriages Roiphe Escapes From Herself, Delves Into Edwardian Marriages] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080520110207/http://www.observer.com/2007/roiphe-escapes-herself-delves-edwardian-marriages |date=2008-05-20 }}, ''The New York Observer'', June 26, 2007.</ref> Roiphe responded to some of her critics in an essay in ''[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]'' including ''[[Gawker]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Roiphe|first1=Katie|title=Gawker Is Big Immature Baby|url=http://www.slate.com/articles/life/roiphe/2011/10/gawker_why_can_t_it_do_nastiness_the_right_way_.html|website=Slate|accessdate=26 September 2017|date=27 October 2011}}</ref>

In 2012, Roiphe published the essay collection ''In Praise of Messy Lives''. In ''The New York Times'', critic [[Dwight Garner (critic)|Dwight Garner]] praised the book, writing, "I’ve begun recommending it to people, particularly to would-be writers, explaining that Ms. Roiphe’s are how you want your essays to sound: lean and literate, not unlike Orwell’s, with a frightening ratio of velocity to torque....Among Ms. Roiphe’s gifts is one for brevity. She lingers long enough to make her points, and no longer. If I could condense my opinion of her new book onto a T-shirt, that Beefy-T would read: 'Team Roiphe.'"<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2012/11/27/books/in-praise-of-messy-lives-essays-by-katie-roiphe.html Dwight Garner, "Defending the Unruly Realm: ‘In Praise of Messy Lives,’ Essays by Katie Roiphe," ''The New York Times'', November 27, 2012.]</ref>

==Controversy==
In January 2018, Twitter users spread the information that Roiphe planned to name the creator of the anonymous [[Shitty Media Men]] list, a private spreadsheet that later became public.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2018/01/harpers-the-whisper-network-and-the-megaphone/550163/|title=The Harper's Controversy: The Whisper Network Meets the Megaphone|last=Garber|first=Megan|date=2018-01-10|work=The Atlantic|access-date=2018-08-24|language=en-US}}</ref> The creator, Moira Donegan, outed herself preemptively in an essay for ''The Cut'' magazine.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.thecut.com/2018/01/moira-donegan-i-started-the-media-men-list.html|title=I Started the Media Men List|last=Donegan|first=Moira|work=The Cut|access-date=2018-08-24|language=en}}</ref>

==Academic work==
Roiphe is a professor at [[New York University]]'s Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute and the Director of the Cultural Reporting and Criticism Program.<ref>"[https://journalism.nyu.edu/about-us/profile/katie-roiphe/ Katie Roiphe]". Arthur L. Carter Journalism Institute, New York University. Retrieved 28 February 2020.</ref>

==Books==
* ''[[The Morning After (book)|The Morning After: Sex, Fear and Feminism on Campus]]'' (1994) {{ISBN|9780140242898}}, {{OCLC|221728097}}
* ''Last Night in Paradise: Sex and Morals at the Century's End'' (1997) {{ISBN|9780316754392}}, {{OCLC|636777343}}
* ''Still She Haunts Me'' (2001) {{ISBN|9780385335300}}, {{OCLC|906910447}}
* ''Uncommon Arrangements: Seven Portraits of Married Life in London Literary Circles 1910-1939'' (2007) {{ISBN|9780385339377}}, {{OCLC|1015482076}}
* ''In Praise of Messy Lives'' (2012) {{ISBN|9781782112082}}, {{OCLC|862658759}}
* ''The Violet Hour: Great Writers at the End'' (2016) {{ISBN|9780349008530}}, {{OCLC|980104120}}
* ''The Power Notebooks'' (2020) {{ISBN|9781982128012}}, {{OCLC|1114283490}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roiphe, Katie}}
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American women writers]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers]]
[[Category:Brearley School alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:New York University faculty]]
[[Category:Princeton University alumni]]
[[Category:Writers from New York City]]
[[Category:American women academics]]
[[Category:21st-century American Jews]]
[[Category:21st-century American women]]

Vile Bodies

2021-10-09T12:17:54Z

Squike:

{{Short description|novel by Evelyn Waugh}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}
{{Infobox book |
| name = Vile Bodies
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image =  Viles Bodies.jpg
| caption = Jacket of the first UK edition of ''Vile Bodies''
| author = [[Evelyn Waugh]]
| illustrator =
| cover_artist =
|set_in=England, late 1920s
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| series =
| genre = Novel, satire
| publisher = [[Chapman & Hall]]
| release_date = 1930
| english_release_date =
| media_type = Print (hardback & paperback)
| dewey = 823.912
| congress = PR6045 .A97
| pages =254
| isbn = 0-14-118287-3
| oclc= 42700827
| preceded_by = [[Decline and Fall]]
| followed_by = [[Black Mischief]]
}}

'''''Vile Bodies''''' is the second novel by [[Evelyn Waugh]], published in 1930. It [[satire|satirises]] the [[bright young things]], the rich young people partying in London after [[World War I]], and the press which fed on their doings.
The original title ''Bright Young Things'', which Waugh changed because he thought the phrase had become too clichéd, was used in [[Stephen Fry]]'s [[Bright Young Things (film)|2003 film adaptation]]. The eventual title appears in a comment made by the novel's narrator in reference to the characters' party-driven lifestyle: "All that succession and repetition of massed humanity... Those vile bodies...".<ref>Waugh ''Vile Bodies'', p. 104.</ref><ref>The name seems to come from the Latin phrase ''Fiat experimentum in corpore vili'' ("Let the experiment be done upon a worthless body"), which is cited by [[James Boswell]], [[Thomas De Quincey]], [[William Makepeace Thackeray]] and others. The phrase 'vile body' also appears in the [[King James Version|King James Bible]]: "...who shall change our vile body, that it may be fashioned like unto his glorious body..." ([[Epistle to the Philippians]] 3:21).</ref>
The book was dedicated to B. G. and D. G., Waugh's friends [[Bryan Guinness, 2nd Baron Moyne|Bryan Guinness]] and his wife [[Diana Mitford|Diana]].<ref name="mosley">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/3148299.stm |title=Obituary: Lady Diana Mosley |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=13 August 2003 |access-date=26 May 2013}}</ref>

==Plot==
Adam Symes has a novel to finish and, with the proceeds, plans to marry Nina Blount. Returning from France, his manuscript is impounded as obscene by customs officers, while in the next room his friend Agatha Runcible is strip searched as a suspected jewel thief. She rings the newspapers about her fate. Adam rings Nina to say he cannot now marry her, and has to negotiate a penal new contract with his publisher.

Winning 1,000 pounds on a bet, Adam gives it to a drunk major to place on a horse, but the major disappears. After a fancy dress party, where he meets up with Nina and Agatha, the young people go back to the home of a quiet girl who turns out to be the Prime Minister's daughter. Agatha, who is in Hawaiian costume, is kicked out, to the delight of press photographers. The implication of orgies at 10 Downing Street causes the collapse of the government.

Nina suggests that Adam asks her widowed father in the country for money to marry on. The eccentric old man comes up with a cheque for 1,000 pounds and, in celebration, Adam takes Nina to a country hotel to claim her virginity. She claims not to have enjoyed it, pointing out also to Adam that the signature on the cheque says Charlie Chaplin.

The next big party in London is being held by Margot Metroland, whose private business is recruiting girls for Latin American brothels, and will feature an American lady evangelist with her choir of female angels. The party is crashed by Simon Balcairn, a friend of Adam's who is a gossip columnist, but Simon is kicked out and in despair gasses himself.

Simon's job is offered to Adam, who initially devotes much of his column to the exploits of his friends but finds he can only broaden the scope by invention. A dim childhood friend of Nina is transformed in dashing man-about-town Ginger Littlejohn. Still unable to marry, Nina suggests another attempt at her father. Adam finds the old man involved in the shooting of a historical film on his estate and comes away empty-handed.

While he was away, he got Nina and other friends to write his column, for which he is sacked. With friends, Adam goes to some motor races where he sees the drunk major, who says he has got Adam's winnings but then disappears. A drunk Agatha takes off in a racing car and crashes with serious injuries, from which she later dies.

Nina announces that she is engaged to Ginger, to which the jobless and penniless Adam reluctantly agrees if Ginger pays him 100 pounds. The nuptial pair fly off to France for their honeymoon, but Ginger is unable to join Nina for Christmas at the house of her father, who he has not yet met. Adam steps into the breach, sharing a bedroom as Nina's husband and watching her father's maladroit film.

War breaks out, in which Adam finds himself alone on a devastated battlefield in France. He comes across the drunk major, now a general, who still has his winnings and invites him to champagne in his staff car. There they find one of the evangelist's angels, back in Europe after her experiences in the South American entertainment industry. While general and angel flirt, an exhausted Adam falls asleep.

==Characters==
*Adam Fenwick-Symes, an aspiring novelist
*Nina Blount, his on-and-off fiancée
*Ginger Littlejohn, eventual husband of Nina
*Colonel Blount, eccentric father of Nina
*The Drunken Major
*Lottie Crump, owner of a private hotel
*Agatha Runcible, wild party girl
*Simon Balcairn, depressive gossip columnist
*Miles Malpractice, predatory gay partygoer
*Margot Metroland, society hostess and people trafficker
*Mrs Melrose Ape, American evangelist

==Style==
Heavily influenced by the cinema and by the disjointed style of [[T. S. Eliot]], ''Vile Bodies'' is Waugh's most ostentatiously [[modernism|"modern" novel]].<ref>Frick "Style and Structure".</ref> Fragments of dialogue and rapid scene changes are held together by the dry, almost perversely unflappable narrator.<ref>Waugh, Evelyn, ''Vile Bodies'', p. 146. A good example is the death of Simon Balcairn, a declining earl whose gossip columnist name is "Mr. Chatterbox"; his death forms a bridge between chapters VI and VII. ("He shut the door and the window and opened the door of the gas-oven. Inside it was very black and dirty and smelled of meat. He spread a sheet of newspaper on the lowest tray and lay down, resting his head on it. Then he noticed that by some mischance he had chosen Vanburgh's gossip-page in the ''Morning Despatch''. He put in another sheet. At first he held his breath. Then he thought that was silly and gave a sniff. The sniff made him cough, and coughing made him breathe, and breathing made him feel very ill; but soon he fell into a coma and presently died ... Then Adam became Mr. Chatterbox.")</ref>
Waugh said it was the first novel in which much of the dialogue takes place on the telephone. The book shifts in tone from light-hearted romp to bleak desolation (Waugh himself later attributed it to the breakdown of his first marriage halfway through the book's composition).<ref>Waugh ''Preface to the 1965 edition''.</ref> Some have defended the novel's downbeat ending as a [[poetic justice|poetically just]] reversal of the conventions of comic romance.<ref>Hollis ''Evelyn Waugh''.</ref><ref>O'Dea "What's in a Name?".</ref>

==Influence==
[[David Bowie]] cited the novel as the primary influence on his composition of the song "[[Aladdin Sane (song)|Aladdin Sane]]".<ref>Circus magazine, July 1973</ref>

A film adaptation, titled ''[[Bright Young Things (film)|Bright Young Things]]'', was released in 2003, written and directed by [[Stephen Fry]].

A stage adaptation of ''Vile Bodies'', endorsed by the Evelyn Waugh estate, was staged at the Warwick Arts Centre in March 2012.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.warwickartscentre.co.uk/events/theatre/evelyn-waughs-vile-bodies |title=Vile Bodies |access-date=1 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616174443/http://www.warwickartscentre.co.uk/events/theatre/evelyn-waughs-vile-bodies |archive-date=16 June 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all |website=Warwick Arts Centre }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://evelynwaughvilebodies.wordpress.com/|title=Evelyn Waugh's Vile Bodies|website=Evelyn Waugh's Vile Bodies}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | last = Frick | first = Robert | title = Style and Structure in the Early Novels of Evelyn Waugh | journal = Papers on Language and Literature | volume = 28 | issue = 4 | date = Fall 1992 | issn = 0031-1294 | oclc = 2449428 }}
* {{cite book | last = Hastings | first = Selina | year = 1994 | title = Evelyn Waugh: A Biography | location = London | publisher = [[Sinclair-Stevenson]] | isbn = 1-85619-223-7 | oclc = 34721492 }}
* {{cite book | last = Hollis | first = Christopher | year = 1971 | title = Evelyn Waugh | location = London | publisher = Longman | isbn = 0-582-01046-2 | oclc = 1159162 }}
* {{cite book | last = McDonnell | first = Jacqueline | orig-year = 1988 | year = 1998 | title = Evelyn Waugh | url = https://archive.org/details/evelynwaugh0000mcdo | url-access = registration | location = London | publisher = Macmillan | isbn = 0-312-01618-2 | oclc = 16900955 }} 
* {{cite book | last = Meyers | first = William | year = 1991 | title = Evelyn Waugh and the Problem of Evil | location = London | publisher = Faber & Faber | isbn = 0-571-14094-7 | oclc = 23594793 }}
* {{cite journal | last = O'Dea | first = Denise | title = What's in a Name? Or, Vile Bodies Revisited | journal = Philament: An Online Journal of the Arts and Culture | url = http://www.philamentjournal.com/issue4/odea-name/ | volume = 4 |date=August 2004 | issn = 1449-0471 |oclc=56720065 }}
*{{cite web |url=http://books.guardian.co.uk/departments/biography/story/0,,2179321,00.html |title=The beautiful and the damned |author=DJ Taylor |date=29 September 2007| access-date=2007-10-08 |work=[[The Guardian]] Review, adapted from DJ Taylor's "Bright Young People: The Rise and Fall of a Generation 1918–1940"}}

==External links==
* {{FadedPage|id=20190146|name=Vile Bodies}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Evelyn Waugh}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Vile Bodies}}
[[Category:1930 British novels]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:Chapman & Hall books]]
[[Category:Novels by Evelyn Waugh]]
[[Category:Novels set in London]]
[[Category:Novels set in the Roaring Twenties]]

LÉ James Joyce

2021-06-16T07:12:03Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Irish Naval Service patrol vessel}}{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2015}}
{{Use Irish English|date=April 2015}}
{|{{Infobox ship begin}}
{{Infobox ship image
| Ship image=Irish Navy P62 James Joyce.jpg
| Ship caption=
}}
{{Infobox ship career
|Hide header =
|Ship country = Ireland
|Ship flag = {{shipboxflag|Ireland|naval}}
|Ship name = LÉ ''James Joyce''
|Ship namesake = [[James Joyce]], Irish novelist and poet
|Ship ordered = October 2010
|Ship awarded =
|Ship builder =[[Appledore Shipbuilders|Babcock Marine Appledore]], [[North Devon]]
|Ship original cost = €71 million<ref>{{cite press release |url=http://www.defence.ie/WebSite.nsf/Release+ID/46AB2DC6A89AC21080257E8A005D2774?OpenDocument |title=New Naval Service ship to be called LÉ William Butler Yeats |publisher=Department of Defence |accessdate=9 January 2016}}</ref>
|Ship yard number =
|Ship way number =
|Ship laid down = November 2013
|Ship launched = 23 November 2014
|Ship sponsor = Carol Joyce
|Ship christened = 1 September 2015<ref name="commissioned">{{cite press release|url= http://merrionstreet.ie/en/News-Room/Releases/NAMING_AND_COMMISSIONING_CEREMONY_FOR_NEW_NAVAL_SERVICE_VESSEL_L%C3%89_JAMES_JOYCE.html |date=1 September 2015 |title= Naming and Commissioning Ceremony for new Naval Service Vessel LÉ James Joyce |publisher=MerrionStreet.ie |agency=Irish Government News Service |access-date=1 September 2015}}</ref>
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|Ship identification = *{{IMO Number|9614672}}
*{{MMSI Number|250003146}}
*[[Maritime call sign|Callsign]]: EIYZ
*[[Hull number]]: P62
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|Ship status = {{ship in active service}}
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{{Infobox ship characteristics
|Hide header =
|Header caption =
|Ship class = {{sclass-|Samuel Beckett|offshore patrol vessel}}
|Ship displacement = 2,256 tonnes Standard<ref name="ihs">{{cite web |url=http://navaltoday.com/2016/06/16/babcocks-appledore-to-build-fourth-irish-offshore-patrol-vessel/ | publisher= NavalToday.com | date= 16 June 2016 | title= Babcock's Appledore to build fourth Irish offshore patrol vessel }}</ref>
|Ship length = {{convert|90.00|m|abbr=on}}
|Ship beam = {{convert|14.00|m|abbr=on}}
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|Ship speed =*{{convert|15|kn|abbr=on}} cruise
*{{convert|23|kn|abbr=on}} maximum
|Ship range = {{convert|6000|nmi|abbr=on}}
|Ship endurance =
|Ship boats =
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|Ship troops =
|Ship complement = 54 (44 crew + 10 trainees)<ref name="advance">{{cite web |url=http://www.adsadvance.co.uk/babcock-displays-irish-opv-at-dsei.html |title=Babcock displays Irish OPV at DSEI |publisher=ADS Group |date =10 September 2013 |website=ADS Advance |accessdate=1 December 2013}}</ref>
|Ship time to activate =
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|Ship armament =*1 × [[OTO Melara 76 mm]] cannon
*2 × 20 mm [[Rheinmetall Rh202]] cannon
*2 × 12.7 mm [[Heavy Machine Gun|HMG]]
*4 × 7.62 mm [[GPMG]]<ref name="ihs" />
|Ship armour =
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|Ship aircraft facilities = [[UAV]] capable<ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.independent.ie/irish-news/new-navy-vessel-to-control-drones-and-robotic-subs-31072589.html | work= Irish Independent |title=New Navy vessel to control drones and robotic subs |last=Riegel |first=Ralph |date= 17 March 2015 }}</ref>
|Ship notes =
}}
|}

'''LÉ ''James Joyce'' (P62)''' is a {{sclass-|Samuel Beckett|offshore patrol vessel}} (OPV) which was built by [[Babcock Marine Appledore]] for the [[Irish Naval Service]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Gallacher|first=Neil|title=Devon-built Samuel Beckett ship handed to Irish Naval Service|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-devon-27164975|newspaper=BBC News|date=28 April 2014 |accessdate=9 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://afloat.ie/port-news/navy/item/29383-minister-welcomes-return-of-l%C3%A9-eithne-arrival-of-l%C3%A9-james-joyce-to-cork |title=Minister Welcomes Return Of LÉ Eithne, Arrival Of LÉ James Joyce To Cork |date=17 July 2015 |publisher=Afloat.ie }}</ref> Although criticised by a descendant of the author,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/environment/decision-to-name-navy-patrol-ships-after-writers-defended-1.1784185 |work=Irish Times |last=Siggins |first=Lorna |title= Decision to name Navy patrol ships after writers defended|date=5 May 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.irishtimes.com/news/politics/naval-service-ship-names-row-may-reopen-1.1826284 | title=Naval Service ship names row may reopen |date=9 June 2014 |last=Siggins |first=Lorna |work=Irish Times}}</ref> the ship was named for writer [[James Joyce]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/navy-to-use-drones-to-improve-surveillance-285010.html|title=Navy to use drones to improve surveillance|work=[[Irish Examiner]] |last=O'Riordan |first=Sean|accessdate=30 September 2014}}</ref><ref name="devon">{{cite news|url= http://www.northdevongazette.co.uk/news/photos_le_james_joyce_sets_sail_from_appledore_1_4113857 |work= North Devon Gazette |title =LÉ James Joyce sets sail from Appledore |date= 16 June 2015 | author = Howells, Sarah }}</ref>

==Design and construction==
{{further|Samuel Beckett-class offshore patrol vessel}}

In October 2010, the Irish Naval Service ordered a number of new offshore patrol vessels from [[Babcock Marine]], a [[UK]]-based shipbuilder operating out of [[Appledore, North Devon]]. Like the similar [[LÉ Róisín (P51)|''Róisín''-class]] OPV, ''James Joyce'' was designed by [[Vard Marine]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/46240/second-irish-opv-afloat-at-babcock-s-appledore-shipyard|title=Second Irish OPV afloat at Babcock's Appledore shipyard|work=janes.com|accessdate=10 December 2014}}</ref>

In July 2013, the name of the vessel, ''James Joyce'' was announced by the Minister for Defence [[Alan Shatter]] in [[Dáil Éireann]].<ref>{{cite web| url= http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/dail2013070900082#WRZ01000|title= Houses of the Oireachtas - Naval Service Vessels |publisher=Oireachtas (Hansard)}}</ref>

==Operational history==
The ship was completed and floated out of the shipyard in November 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.naval-technology.com/news/newsbabcock-floats-irish-navys-new-l-james-joyce-opv-4452783|title=Babcock floats Irish Navy's new LÉ James Joyce OPV|work=naval-technology.com|accessdate=6 December 2014}}</ref> Following sea-trials and a number of delays it was delivered to the Naval Service in mid-2015.<ref name="devon"/><ref name="examiner23July">{{cite news|url= http://www.irishexaminer.com/breakingnews/ireland/new-naval-ship-to-be-called-le-william-butler-yeats-687748.html |work= Irish Examiner |title =New naval ship to be called LÉ William Butler Yeats |quote= LÉ James Joyce, which arrived in the Naval Base at Haulbowline in Co Cork last Friday |date= 22 July 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url= http://www.irishexaminer.com/ireland/navy-crew-abandon-ship-over-problems-onleacute-james-joyce-341088.html |work= Irish Examiner |title=Navy crew 'abandon ship' over problems on LÉ James Joyce |last=O'Riordan |first=Sean | date= 7 July 2015}}</ref> The official naming and commissioning ceremony was held at [[Dún Laoghaire]] on 1 September 2015.<ref name="commissioned"/> In November 2016, personnel from the LÉ ''James Joyce'' boarded the [[FV Margiris | FV ''Margiris'']] as part of a fisheries inspection.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://coastmonkey.ie/news/irish-navy-boards-super-trawler/ | publisher = CoastMonkey.ie | title = Irish Navy boards super trawler off Donegal | date = 29 November 2016 | author = Robinson, Ann}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.donegaldemocrat.ie/news/home/226395/irish-navy-inspect-world-s-second-largest-trawler-off-the-coast-of-donegal.html | publisher = Donegal Democrat | title = Irish navy inspect world's second largest trawler off the coast of Donegal | date = 3 December 2016 | author = Doherty, Sue}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Samuel Beckett class OPV}}
{{IrishNavyFleet}}
{{Irish Naval Service}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:James Joyce (P62), LÉ}}

[[Category:Naval ships of the Republic of Ireland]]
[[Category:Samuel Beckett-class offshore patrol vessels]]
[[Category:2014 ships]]

{{Mil-ship-stub}}

Tony MacMahon

2021-05-18T07:18:32Z

Squike:

{{Short description|Irish traditional musician and broadcaster}}{{distinguish|Tony McMahon}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2013}}
'''Tony MacMahon''' (18 April 1939, [[Ennis]]) is an Irish [[diatonic button accordion|button accordion]] player and radio and television broadcaster.

[[File:Tony MacMahon.jpg|thumb|Tony MacMahon with his accordion]]
[[Ennis|Ennis, County Clare]]-born MacMahon's chief early inspiration, accordionist [[Joe Cooley]], was a frequent caller at the MacMahon home from 1949 until 1954, when Cooley left Ireland for the USA. MacMahon has described the memory of Cooley's music as being "embedded in his DNA.".<ref name="auto">{{cite web|url=http://journalofmusic.com/focus/beat-big-heart|title=The Beat of a Big Heart|publisher=The Journal of Music|date=1 August 2009|accessdate=16 June 2013}}</ref>
In 1957, MacMahon moved to Dublin to train as a teacher, where he came into contact with accordionist [[Sonny Brogan]] and fiddler John Kelly. Travelling in North America in 1964, in both New York and Dublin, he shared a flat with piper and singer [[Seamus Ennis]], whom he credits as an important influence on his playing of [[slow air]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://journalofmusic.com/focus/master|title=The Master|publisher=The Journal of Music|accessdate=16 June 2013}}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=215px|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|align=right|quote=“There is a big difference between playing notes and playing music, millions of people play instrument and make the same sound like a cat that presses its paw against a note in a piano but only the person who feels for music and has a high understanding can play soulfully.”<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/striking-the-right-chord/article4560504.ece|title=Striking the right chord|first=T.|last=Saravanan|date=29 March 2013|via=www.thehindu.com}}</ref>|source=— Tony MacMahon on Music, Interview during his stay at [[Madurai]]}}

MacMahon plays the accordion in the "press-and-draw" style of his mentor Joe Cooley. He is regarded as an exceptionally powerful performer, particularly of slow airs, and has been described as an "iconic figure in traditional music circles".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://journalofmusic.com/focus/macmahons-ghosts|title=MacMahon's Ghosts|publisher=The Journal of Music|date=1 November 2005|accessdate=16 June 2013}}</ref> His own attitude to his music, and his chosen instrument,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://journalofmusic.com/focus/player-black-keys|title=Player on the Black Keys|publisher=The Journal of Music|date=1 January 2009|accessdate=16 June 2013}}</ref> can be ambivalent, however: "I wouldn’t regard my own music either as traditional or indeed anything to write home about. [...] For longer than I care to remember, I have hacked my way through tunes of beauty and tenderness on stage."<ref name="auto"/>

MacMahon enjoyed a long career with [[RTÉ]], first as a presenter of traditional-music TV programmes, then as a radio producer (he initiated the long-running programme ''The Long Note''), and returning to television with ''The Pure Drop'' and ''Come West Along the Road''. ''The Green Linnet'' was a 1979 television series documenting MacMahon's travels through Western Europe with banjoist [[Barney McKenna]] in a green Citroën 2CV van (nicknamed The Green Linnet).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rte.ie/player/#!v=1137928 |title=RTÉ Player - Catch up with your favourite TV programmes online |publisher=Rte.ie |date= |accessdate=16 June 2013}}</ref> MacMahon retired from RTÉ in 1998.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130815131922/http://tonymacmahon.ie/|title=Welcome to the US Petabox|date=15 August 2013|website=web.archive.org}}</ref>

MacMahon has frequently voiced strong criticism of modern trends in the performance of Irish traditional music, and of growing commercialism in particular.<ref name="journalofmusic1">{{cite web|url=http://journalofmusic.com/editorial/editorial-macmahon-clare|title=Editorial: MacMahon from Clare |publisher=The Journal of Music|date=1 January 2009|accessdate=16 June 2013}}</ref> His address to the 1996 Crossroads Conference provides a summary of his views.<ref name="wordpress1">{{cite web|url=http://tonymacmahon.wordpress.com/the-language-of-passion-a-paper-by-tony-mac-mahon|title=The Language of Passion|publisher=Tony MacMahon|accessdate=14 November 2014}}</ref>

In 2014, MacMahon announced he was unable to continue public performances due to [[Parkinson's disease]].<ref name="wordpress2">{{cite web|url=http://tonymacmahon.wordpress.com/kitchen-concerts|title=Kitchen Concerts|publisher=Tony MacMahon profile|accessdate=14 November 2014}}</ref> However, in a November 2015 interview on RTÉ radio, he stated that after further tests, the diagnosis of Parkinson's had been found to be incorrect.<ref name="liveline">{{cite web|url=http://podcast.rasset.ie/podcasts/audio/2015/1123/20151123_rteradio1-liveline-parkinsons_c20885255_20885260_232_drm_.mp3|title=RTÉ - Liveline|publisher=RTÉ|accessdate=23 November 2015}}</ref>

==Discography==
* Traditional Irish Accordion. 1972 - CD re-release 2005.
* I gCnoc na Grai (In Knocknagree) (with Noel Hill, concertina). 1985 - CD re-release 1992.
* Aislingí Ceoil (Music Of Dreams) (with Noel Hill, concertina, and Iarla Ó Lionáird, voice). 1993.
* MacMahon from Clare. 2001.
* Scaoil Amach an Pocaide - Live in Spiddal (with Steve Cooney, guitar). 2014.
* Farewell to Music. 2016.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Source==
''The Companion to Irish Traditional Music'', ed. Fintan Vallely, New York University Press, 1999; {{ISBN|0-8147-8802-5}}.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Macmahon, Tony}}
[[Category:1939 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Musicians from County Clare]]
[[Category:Irish folk musicians]]
[[Category:Irish accordionists]]
[[Category:The Bothy Band members]]
[[Category:21st-century accordionists]]

Mizuna

2021-04-30T07:46:33Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add 1.0

{{Short description|edible plant of the cabbage family}}{{Infobox cultivar
| name = Mizuna
| image = Mizuna 001.jpg
| image_caption = Mizuna
| species = ''[[Brassica rapa]]'' var. ''niposinica''
| cultivar = Mizuna
| origin =
}}

{{nihongo3|"water greens"|ミズナ（水菜）|'''Mizuna'''}}, '''kyona''',<ref name=GRIN>{{citation |url=https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=319651 |title=USDA GRIN Taxonomy |accessdate=18 November 2016}}</ref> '''Japanese mustard greens''',<ref name=Bittman/><ref>{{cite web|title=MUSTARD GREENS FOR EATING COOKED:|url=http://www.realseeds.co.uk/mustardgreens.html |publisher=realseeds.co.uk|accessdate=22 January 2017}}</ref> or '''spider mustard''',<ref name=Bittman> Mark Bittman {{google books|AiKyRRV2xSQC|Leafy Greens: An A-to-Z Guide to 30 Types of Greens Plus More than 120 ...|page=66}}</ref> is a [[cultivar]] of ''[[Brassica rapa]]'' var. ''niposinica''.

==Description and use==
[[Image:Mizuna and pasta and salmon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mizuna atop [[pasta]] and [[smoked salmon]]]]
Possessing dark green serrated leaves, the taste of 'mizuna' has been described as a "piquant, mild peppery flavor...slightly spicy, but less so than [[arugula]]."<ref name="Discovering Mizuna">[http://cc-calendula.blogspot.com/2007/01/discovering-mizuna.html Discovering Mizuna]</ref> It is also used in [[stir-fry|stir-fries]], [[soup]]s, and [[nabemono]] (Japanese [[hot pot]]s).

A seller of packaged [[seed]]s in the [[United Kingdom]] describes 'mizuna' as:
{{quote|A vigorous grower producing numerous stalks bearing dark green, deeply cut and fringed leaves. They have a fresh, crisp taste and can be used on their own or cooked with meat. The [[Japanese people|Japanese]] are fond of them [[pickling|pickled]]. Highly resistant to cold and grown extensively during the winter months in [[Japan]].|<ref>[http://www.edirectory.co.uk/chilternseeds/pages/moreinfo.asp?pe=DBFBDHIAQ_+japanese+greens+mizuna&cid=211 Chiltern Seeds]</ref>}}

According to the [[BBC]]:
{{quote|Not only is it good to eat, it's also quite decorative, with glossy, serrated, dark green leaves and narrow white stalks, looking good in flower beds and as edging. It's vigorous, adaptable and easy to grow in most [[soil]]s. Mizuna greens have a mild [[mustard plant]] flavour. The usual sowing time, outside, is from early to late summer, but it can be sown in late spring or early summer, when it may have a tendency to bolt. Another alternative is to sow in early autumn, for [[transplanting]] under cover.|<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/gardening/plants/plant_finder/plant_pages/3433.shtml BBC Gardening]</ref>}}

An online recipe site says:
{{quote|...this vegetable averages 14" to 16" in height with leaves that are green and yellow, smooth in texture and somewhat feathery in shape. It is available as a mature green or as a baby version that is smaller in size and more tender in texture. As a salad green mizuna can be steamed, boiled, stir-fried or used to complement other greens mixed together for a salad, especially [[Brassica juncea|Red Asian Mustard greens]]. When cooked it shrinks to about half its size so it takes a large amount to make a cooked vegetable dish containing only mizuna. Mizuna can be found in well-stocked grocery stores or produce markets but is most readily available in early spring to late summer. Select fresh crisp leaves, avoiding those that are slightly discolored. They will keep four to five days when wrapped in plastic and stored in the vegetable drawer of the [[refrigerator]].|<ref>[http://www.recipetips.com/glossary-term/t--33500/mizuna.asp RecipeTips.com]</ref>}}

==Varieties==
[[Image:Mizuna&Daikon.jpg|thumb|250px|right|A [[salad]] of mizuna and [[daikon]]]]
In addition to the term "mizuna" (and its alternates) being applied to ''at least'' two different [[species]] of ''[[Brassica]]'', [[horticulture|horticulturalists]] have defined and named a number of varieties. For example, a resource provided by [[Cornell University]] and the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] lists sixteen varieties including "Early Mizuna", "Kyona Mizuna", "[[Komatsuna]] Mizuna", "Vitamin Green Mizuna", "Kyoto Mizuna", "Happy Rich Mizuna", "Summer Fest Mizuna", "Tokyo Early Mizuna", "Mibuna Mizuna", "Red Komatsuna Mizuna", "Waido Mizuna" and "Purple Mizuna".<ref>[http://vegvariety.cce.cornell.edu/mainSearch/showAll.php?ID=33&sortBy=overallrating&order=DESC&searchIn=1 Vegetable Varieties for Gardenders]</ref> There is also a variety known as pink mizuna.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Japanese Pink Mizuna|url=https://www.rareseeds.com/store/vegetables/new-items-2020/japanese-pink-mizuna|access-date=2020-09-15|website=www.rareseeds.com|language=en}}</ref>

==Cultivation==
'Mizuna' has been [[Plant cultivation|cultivated]] in Japan since ancient times.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20161119060109/https://www.prota4u.org/protav8.asp?h=M4&t=Brassica,rapa&p=Brassica+rapa PROTAbase on ''Brassica rapa'']
*{{ITIS |id=23063 |taxon=''Brassica rapa'' |accessdate=17 November 2006}}
{{Commonscat|Brassica rapa subsp. nipposinica}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Brassica rapa subsp. nipposinica}}
{{Wikispecies|Brassica rapa subsp. nipposinica}}

[[Category:Brassica]]
[[Category:Leaf vegetables]]
[[Category:Japanese vegetables]]
[[Category:Space-flown life]]

Kalinga War

2021-04-24T07:50:26Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add 1.0

{{Short description|conflict in ancient India}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=November 2015}}
{{POV|date=August 2016}}
{{Essay-like|date=February 2020}}
}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}}
{{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}}

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Kalinga War
| date = ended {{circa|261 BCE}}, in the 7th year of [[Ashoka]]'s coronation of 268 BCE.<ref name=BA30/>
| place = [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], [[History of India|India]]
| territory = [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]] annexed by [[Mauryan Empire]]
| result = [[Mauryan Empire|Maurya]] Compromise settlement
| combatant1 = [[Mauryan Empire]]
| combatant2 = [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]]
| commander1 = [[Ashoka]]
| commander2 = Maha Padmanabha
| strength1 = Total 200,000
| strength2 = 150,000 [[infantry]],<ref name=Indika>[[Pliny the Elder]] (77 CE), ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]] VI'', 22.1, quoting [[Megasthenes]] (3rd century BCE), ''[[Megasthenes#Indica|Indika]]'', Fragm. LVI.</ref> 10,000 [[cavalry]]<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roy|first1=Kaushik|title=Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia|date=6 October 2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5JECgAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|publisher=Routledge, 2015|isbn=9781317321286|access-date=17 August 2015}}</ref>
700 [[war elephant]]s<ref name=Indika/>
| casualties1 = 70,000
| casualties2 = 150,000 (figures by Ashoka)<ref>[[Ashoka]] ({{reign|268|231}} BCE), ''[[Edicts of Ashoka]]'', [[Ashoka's Major Rock Edict|Major Rock Edict]] 13.</ref><ref>[[Radhakumud Mookerji]] (1988). ''Chandragupta Maurya and His Times''. [[Motilal Banarsidass]] Publ. {{ISBN|81-208-0405-8}}.</ref> 
| conflict_native_name = କଳିଙ୍ଗ ଯୁଦ୍ଧ
| native_name_lang = or
}}

The '''Kalinga War''' (ended {{circa|261 BCE}})<ref name=" BA30">Le Huu Phuoc, Buddhist Architecture, Grafikol 2009, p.30</ref> was fought in ancient India between the [[Maurya Empire]] under [[Ashoka]] and the state of [[Kalinga (historical kingdom)|Kalinga]], an independent feudal kingdom located on the east coast, in the present-day state of [[Odisha]] and north parts of [[Andhra Pradesh]]. It is presumed that the battle was fought on Dhauli hills in [[Dhauli]] which is situated on the banks of [[Daya River]]. The Kalinga War included one of the largest and deadliest battles in Indian history.<ref name="WorldAtlas 2016">{{cite web | title=Greatest Battles In The History Of India | website=WorldAtlas | date=2016-09-19 | url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/greatest-battles-in-the-history-of-india.html | access-date=2019-06-28}}</ref> Kalinga did not have a king as it was culturally run without any.<ref>{{cite web|title=Detail History of Odisha|url=http://www.odisha.gov.in/history1.htm}}</ref>

This is the only major war Ashoka fought after his accession to the throne. In fact, this war marks the close of empire building and military conquests of ancient India that began with Maurya king Bindusara.<ref name=" Raychaudhuri 2006 p. 268">{{cite book | last=Raychaudhuri | first=H. | title=Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty | publisher=Cosmo Publications | year=2006 | isbn=978-81-307-0291-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1KObc_qaXYC&pg=PA252 | access-date=2019-06-27 | page=268}}</ref> In the entire Indian history this war is considered as the deadliest war costing nearly 250,000 lives.

== Background ==
[[File:Chandragupta Maurya Empire.png|thumb|300px|[[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]] (adjacent to the [[Bay of Bengal]]) and the [[Maurya Empire]] (blue) before the invasion of [[Ashoka]]]]
The reasons for invading Kalinga were to bring peace and for power. Kalinga was a prosperous region consisting of peaceful and artistically skilled people. Known as the [[Odia people|Utkala]],<ref name="mndas">{{cite book|last1=Das|first1=Manmatha Nath|title=Glimpses of Kalinga History|date=1949|publisher=Century Publishers|location=Calcutta|page=VII; 271|url=http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/32999|access-date=16 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604220400/http://www.dli.ernet.in/handle/2015/32999|archive-date=4 June 2016|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> they were the first from the region who traveled offshore to the southeast for trade. For that reason, Kalinga had important ports and a powerful navy. They had an open culture and used a uniform civil code.<ref name="Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra 1986 Page 10">[[Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra]](1986) Page 10. ''Military History of Orissa''. Cosmo Publications, New Delhi {{ISBN|81-7020-282-5}}</ref>

Kalinga was under the rule of the [[Nanda Empire]] until the empire's fall in 321 BCE.<ref>(Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, pp. 204-209, pp. 270–271)</ref> Ashoka's grandfather [[Chandragupta Maurya]] had previously attempted to conquer Kalinga but had been repulsed. Ashoka set himself to the task of conquering the newly independent empire as soon as he felt he was securely established on the throne.<ref name="Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra 1986 Page 10" />
Kalinga was a strategic threat to the Maurya empire. It could interrupt communications between Maurya capital Pataliputra and Maurya possessions in the central Indian peninsula. Kalinga also controlled the coastline for the trade-in bay of Bengal.<ref name=" Roy 2015 p.15 ">{{cite book | last=Roy | first=K. | title=Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Warfare, Society and Culture | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-317-32128-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5JECgAAQBAJ | access-date=2019-06-28 | page=15}}</ref>

==Course of the war==
[[Image: Kalinga battlefield daya river dhauli hills.jpg|thumb|A view of the banks of the [[Daya River]], the supposed battlefield of Kalinga from atop Dhauli hills, Bhubaneswar, Odisha State]]
{{Quote|text=No war in the history of India as important either for its intensity or for its results as the Kalinga war of Ashoka. No wars in the annals of human history have changed the heart of the victor from one of wanton cruelty to that of exemplary piety as this one. From its fathomless womb, the history of the world may find out only a few wars to its credit which may be equal to this war and not a single one that would be greater than this. The political history of mankind is really a history of wars and no war has ended with so successful a mission of peace for the entire war-torn humanity as the war of Kalinga.|author=[[Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra]]|title=''Military History of Orissa''<ref>[[Ramesh Prasad Mohapatra]] (1986) Page 12. ''Military History of Odisha''. Cosmo Publications, New Delhi {{ISBN|81-7020-282-5}}</ref>}}

The war was completed in the eighth year of Ashoka's reign, according to his own [[Edicts of Ashoka]], probably in 261 BCE.<ref name=BA30/> After a bloody battle for the throne following the death of his father, Ashoka was successful in conquering Kalinga – but the consequences of the savagery changed Ashoka's views on war and led him to pledge to never again wage a war of conquest.

According to [[Megasthenes]], the Greek historian at the court of [[Chandragupta Maurya]], the ruler of Kalinga had a powerful army comprising infantry, cavalry and elephants.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sequeira|first=Dolly E.|title=Total History and Civics|publisher=Morning Star|year=2020|location=Delhi|pages=45, 46}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
[[File: Dhauli Shanti Stupa, Bhubaneswar.jpg|thumb|left|Shanti Stupa, [[Dhauli]] hill is presumed to be the area where the Kalinga War was fought.]]
Ashoka had seen the bloodshed and felt that he was the cause of the destruction. The whole area of Kalinga was plundered and destroyed. Some of Ashoka's later edicts state that about 150,000 people died on the Kalinga side and an almost equal number of Ashoka's army, though legends among the [[Odia people]] – descendants of Kalinga's natives – claim that these figures were highly exaggerated by Ashoka. As per the legends, Kalinga armies caused twice the amount of destruction they suffered. Thousands of men and women were deported from Kalinga and forced to work on clearing wastelands for future settlement.<ref name="Roy 2015 p. 16">{{cite book | last=Roy | first=K. | title=Military Manpower, Armies and Warfare in South Asia | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Warfare, Society and Culture | year=2015 | isbn=978-1-317-32128-6 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5JECgAAQBAJ | access-date=2019-06-28 | page=16}}</ref>

{{Quote|Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Priyadarsi, conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dharma, a love for the Dharma and for instruction in Dharma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas.|Ashoka|[[Pillars of Ashoka|Rock Edict]] No. 13<ref>{{cite book|last1=Allen|first1=Charles|title=Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor|date=2012|publisher=Little, Brown Book Group|isbn=9781408703885|page=82|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4vHjbUtf_4C&pg=PT82|access-date=1 May 2018|language=en}}</ref>}}

Ashoka's response to the Kalinga War is recorded in the [[Edicts of Ashoka]]. The Kalinga War prompted Ashoka, already a non-engaged Buddhist, to devote the rest of his life to [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) and to ''dharma-Vijaya'' (victory through [[dharma]]). Following the conquest of Kalinga, Ashoka ended the military expansion of the empire and began an era of more than 40 years of relative peace, harmony, and prosperity. {{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

==See also ==

* [[List of battles by casualties]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081210080315/http://www.mssu.edu/projectsouthasia/history/primarydocs/Foreign_Views/GreekRoman/Megasthenes-Indika.htm Megasthenes: ''Indika'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140328144411/http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html The Edicts of King Ashoka]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:260s BC conflicts]]
[[Category:History of Odisha]]
[[Category:Wars involving India]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Indian kingdoms|Kalinga]]
[[Category:Maurya Empire]]
[[Category:Kalinga (India)]]
[[Category:Wars involving ancient India]]
[[Category:3rd century BC in India]]
[[Category:Conflicts in India]]
[[Category:Ashoka]]

Duplicate bridge

2021-04-17T15:03:46Z

Squike: #suggestededit-add 1.0

{{Short description|variant of contract bridge card game}}
{{Infobox card game
| title = Duplicate Bridge
| subtitle =
| image_link = [[Image:Bridge declarer.jpg|none|250px]]
| image_caption = Bridge declarer play
| alt_names = Bridge
| type = Trick-taking
| players = 8 or more 
| play = Clockwise
| card_rank = A K Q J 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
| ages =
| num_cards = 52
| deck = [[French deck|French]]
| origin =
| related = [[Contract bridge]], [[auction bridge]], [[whist]]
| playing_time = [[World Bridge Federation|WBF]] tournament games = 7.5 minutes per deal
| random_chance = Very Low
| skills = [[Memory]], [[wikt:tactics|tactics]], [[probability]], [[communication]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Duplicate bridge''' is the most widely used variation of [[contract bridge]] in club and tournament play. It is called ''duplicate'' because the same bridge deal (i.e. the specific arrangement of the 52 cards into the four hands) is played at each table and scoring is based on relative performance. In this way, every hand, whether strong or weak, is played in competition with others playing identical cards, and the element of skill is heightened while that of chance is reduced. Duplicate bridge stands in contrast to [[rubber bridge]] where each hand is freshly dealt and where scores may be more affected by chance in the short run.

[[Board (bridge)|Bridge boards]], simple four-way card holders, are used to enable each player's hand to be passed intact from table to table, and final scores are calculated by comparing each pair's result with others who played the same hand. [[Bidding box]]es are often used to facilitate the mechanics of bidding, prevent inadvertent passing of information, and minimize the noise level. [[Screen (bridge)|Screens]] are used in higher levels of competition and were introduced to reduce the chance of passing unauthorised information to one's partner.

In duplicate bridge, a player normally plays with the same partner throughout an event. The two are known as a "pair". There are two exceptions: in team events with up to six members swapping partners for portions of the event, and in individual tournaments, in which players change partners for each round.

==History==
[[Image:BridgeTournamentPlayingArea.jpg|350px|thumb|right|Duplicate bridge tournament playing area]] The origins of duplicate bridge are based on the emergence of duplicate whist in the game of whist. In the introduction to his book ''Duplicate Whist'', the author comments on the early emergence of duplicate whist: {{quote|text=The writer has it on good authority that it was played in Berlin and Paris as far back as 1840, and later in Philadelphia and New York...|sign=[[John T. Mitchell]]|source={{cite book |title = Duplicate Whist |url =https://archive.org/details/duplicatewhist00mitcgoog|publisher = A. C. McClurg and Co |location = Chicago, IL |year = 1891 |oclc = 9153326 }}}}
Mitchell also recounts the Cavendish experiment of 1857 to demonstrate the merits of duplicate whist in reducing the element of luck and to distinguish between the skill levels of better and poorer players. Cavendish concludes: {{quote|text=...that this experiment does not altogether eliminate luck, as bad play sometimes succeeds. But by far the greater part of luck, namely, that due to the superiority of winning cards, is by the plan described quite got rid of.|sign= Cavendish (Henry Jones)|source=Card Table Talk}}
Initially, owing to the early clumsy mechanics of card resorting to reconstruct the hands of a just played deal,<ref>In one approach, each player recorded his hand in a register so that the cards for each hand, having been played to and gathered from the center of the table in the traditional way after each trick, could be reconstructed by sorting through the just played tricks and redistributing the cards in accordance with the register. Later, the method of playing to a trick by placing one's cards in front of oneself instead of to the middle of the table allowed the hands of each player to be remain intact. See {{cite book |last = Mitchell |first = John T. |title = Duplicate Whist |url = https://archive.org/details/duplicatewhist00mitcgoog |publisher = A. C. McClurg and Co |location = Chicago, IL |year = 1891 |oclc = 9153326 }}</ref> the problems resulting from errors made in the transferring of cards between tables, and the unaccustomed movement of players between tables and the resultant slower pace of play, duplicate whist did not gain instant popularity. Nevertheless, the evolution of duplicate whist continued and the procedures and apparatus (known as ''trays'' or now, more commonly, ''[[Board (bridge)|boards]]'') for more conveniently maintaining and transferring the cards of each deal for replay had been greatly improved so that by the 1890s duplicate's popularity had become widespread. In turn, as the game of whist was superseded by [[contract bridge]], so was duplicate whist by duplicate bridge.

==Game types==

===Pairs game===
In a pairs tournament, each deal is played a number of times by different players, after which all the scores are compared.

The tournament consists of a number of '''rounds'''; in each round, a number of boards (i.e. hands), usually two to five, is played against the same opponents. A '''session''' typically consists of between 24 and 28 boards in total, but this can vary. Typically around eight boards are played per hour, so a typical session will last 3 hours or slightly more. If there is an odd number of pairs, one pair will have to sit out in each round. Most events are single-session, but tournament events can consist of two, four or more sessions.

Immediately after a board is played, the North player writes the result of that board on the [[Board (bridge)#Pockets|travelling sheet]], and the East player checks it. The information recorded includes at least the (identifying) numbers of the North-South and East-West pairs and the score achieved. Usually the contract and the number of tricks won are also recorded, and sometimes also the opening lead. Sometimes the cards in each hand are also written on the traveller, which is useful in case the cards are inadvertently mixed up. The traveller is contained within and travels with the [[board (bridge)|board]]. This means that the players learn how they did up to that point on each board. This might be regarded as an advantage or as a disadvantage: information about their relative standing in the field might induce a pair to change their strategy (e.g. aggressive or conservative bidding and play) on the remaining hands. Alternatively, the scores for each round may be recorded on '''pickup slips''' collected during the event to enable the scorer to start to process the results before the end of the session, so that the results can be announced soon after the end of the session. A modern development is an electronic data-entry device on each table that transmits the results wirelessly to the director's computer.<ref>[http://www.bridgemate.us/ Bridgemate scoring device website]</ref> This allows results to be posted at a club or on a website very quickly after the end of play.

The usual form of overall scoring for a pairs tournament is [[Bridge scoring#Matchpoint scoring|Matchpoint scoring]]; occasionally [[Bridge scoring#International Match Point scoring|IMP scoring]] is used instead.

Every pair plays against a different opposing pair in each successive round, depending on the size of the field. After each round, some or all of the players reseat themselves according to a prescribed "movement", so that each pair opposes a different pair in each round; the boards are also moved. The movement must be set up so that each pair does not play more than one round against the same opponents; and, of course, does not play the same board more than once.

The tournament director will select the movement depending on the number of pairs playing, to allow them to play the desired number of boards each, without repetition. Tournaments with up to about a dozen tables are usually played either as a Mitchell movement (each North/South pair plays against all or most East/West pairs) or a Howell movement (each pair plays against all or most other pairs, and switches between North/South and East/West as required). A Howell movement is typically used if there are fewer than about 7 tables. With larger fields the tournament can be split into separate '''sections''' (every section operates its own separate movement, but the scores are compared across all sections); each section normally plays a Mitchell movement.

===Table movements===
{{See also|Duplicate bridge movements}}

The '''[[John T. Mitchell|Mitchell]] movement''' is the most common. The North-South pairs remain stationary. After each round, the East-West pairs move to the next higher-numbered table and the boards move to the next lower table. If the number of tables is odd, every E-W pair will play different boards against every N-S pair after the full circle. In case of an even number of tables, the East-West pairs are told to skip a table after about half the rounds so that they do not encounter boards that they have already played; alternatively ("Relay-bystand Mitchell"), a "bystand" (playerless table) is introduced, while the two tables farthest from the bystand share the boards in each round (the "relay"). Usually, the bystand is placed halfway through the field (e.g. between Tables 5 and 6 if there are 10 tables) and the relay between Table 1 and the last table. A "perfect" Mitchell is seven, nine, or thirteen tables, with four, three, or two boards per round respectively: all players play all boards, and all pairs of each direction play against all pairs of the other direction. A variation of the Mitchell movement employs "arrow-switching". This means that for approximately one-eighth of the boards played, the N-S pairs play the E-W cards and vice versa. This variation is used when it is desired to have one winner rather than two winners (see below).

The '''[[Edwin C Howell (whist and bridge player)|Howell]] movement''' is sometimes used instead, usually when there are a relatively small number of tables. This movement is more complicated and varies according to the total number of pairs. All boards and most pairs move after every round according to guide cards placed on the tables, or carried by the players (usually one pair, or sometimes more, remain stationary). The Howell is sometimes considered a fairer test than the Mitchell, because each pair faces all or nearly all of the other pairs, not just the pairs sitting in the opposite direction. However the fairness of a movement depends not only on who one plays against but also to a considerable extent on one's indirect opponents, i.e. those who play the same cards as you do. The Howell also tends to be more error-prone than the Mitchell due to its greater complexity. Ideally the number of rounds will be one less than the number of pairs competing, so that each pair plays one round against every other pair. Each round will usually consist of either 2, 3, or 4 boards. However, sometimes this produces an inconvenient total number of boards to be played. To avoid this, a "reduced Howell" or "three-quarter Howell" movement is often played, with fewer rounds and usually with more than one stationary pair, so that the number of rounds plus the number of stationary pairs equals the total number of pairs.

Less common is the '''Chalfant movement'''. In this movement, the boards remain stationary while the players move according to guide cards. This requires significantly more physical tables, because several tables are not in play on any given round. (Like the Howell movement, this movement is typically used when there is a relatively small number of players, typically no more than 12 pairs. Also like the Howell movement, this movement produces a single winner and pairs face all or almost all of the other pairs in play.) This movement has the advantage that pairs are often moving to a table that was not in use on a previous round, so a slow pair does not delay as many other pairs as in a Howell. Also, for several sizes, this movement is technically superior in that more pairs face all other pairs than in the corresponding Howell movement. This movement has the disadvantage of requiring a larger number of physical tables, and thus more space. It also requires the players to carry guide cards with them and consult them, while the guide cards usually remain on the tables for Howell movements.

Whatever movement is used, if the number of pairs is odd, obviously one pair must sit idle during each round; that situation is referred to as a ''[[bye (sports)|bye]]'' or ''sit out''. In that undesirable case, the missing pair (sometimes called the ''phantom pair'') is treated as if it exists, i.e. the movement is set up for (number of actual pairs + half a table). The phantom pair may be North-South, East-West or an arbitrary pair number in a Howell movement. In a Mitchell movement, having an East-West phantom pair is advantageous in that there are non-phantom players at each table responsible for correct movement of the boards. During the movement, one pair in each round will sit out ("play" against the phantom pair). Since, as result, pairs will usually play unequal numbers of boards, their final results are normally scaled in the final calculation (known as ''factoring''), or less commonly they might be awarded "bye points" for that round (normally, a result slightly above average).

Another arrangement for an odd number of pairs is called a ''bump'' or ''rover'' movement, in which the number of tables is rounded down to (number of actual pairs - 1)/2. In a Mitchell movement, the extra pair normally sits out the first round and then, according to a schedule, substitutes for a different North-South pair for each subsequent round (the "bumped" pair having a sit out for that round). The extra pair are frequently referred to as the "rover pair" because, unlike the other North-South pairs, they move at each round. In particular, the bump is preferable to the sit out for 11½ tables: it allows every pair to play at least 24 boards while having only 33 boards in play.

In a Howell movement, the extra pair normally sit out the first round and are then allocated fixed seats where they remain for all subsequent rounds. Any position other than that which would normally be occupied by a stationary pair will do. The extra pair thus displace, or "bump", a different pair (those who would normally move to those seats) at each round. The extra pair are still colloquially known as the "rover pair" even though, in a Howell, they do not actually rove.

A better alternative is for the phantom pair to be allocated a stationary position. This enables all the boards to be played the same number of times (so that all the pairs play all the boards) and the movement in many cases to be completely fair between all the non-stationary pairs.

'''Trials''' are usually reserved for high-level competitions (such as regional and national championships, invitation tournaments etc.). There, a fixed number of pairs (usually 16) play a full [[round-robin tournament]] ([[Swiss tournament|Swiss]] can be also used to shorten the tournament) with relatively long matches (8-32 boards) against each other, the entire tournament lasting for two to four days. One session consists of only one round, with boards circulating among the tables and pairs remaining seated. Results are calculated after each round using IMP or Calcutta scoring, converted to Victory points, and added up to the running score. The pair with highest VP score becomes the winner.

===Teams game===
In a teams tournament, two pairs normally constitute a team. (Teams of five or six members are often permitted, but each set of boards will only be played by two pairs in the team, i.e. four members of the team.) If there are just two teams, they compete using two tables and having one pair from each team seated at each table, in opposite directions. (For example, Team A may sit North-South at table 1 and East-West at table 2; then Team B would sit East-West at table 1 and North-South at table 2.) Similar arrangements apply if there are more than two teams in the competition. Depending on the number of teams competing and the structure of the tournament, a relatively larger number of boards may be played in each round of the movement (usually six to eight for "[[Swiss system tournament|Swiss]] teams", usually 12, 24, or more for [[single-elimination tournament|knockout]] events). The boards are moved (sometimes by a [[caddy (bridge)|caddy]]) so that they are all eventually played at both tables (or more if there are four teams or more).

Suppose Team A plays Team B. The first time a hand is played, one partnership from Team A (say) takes the North-South cards and one partnership from Team B takes the East-West cards; when the hand is played again, it is played by the other two partnerships, but this time with Team A holding the East-West cards and Team B holding the North-South cards. Of course the teams may not discuss the deals between the two plays. Normally, each of the two tables deals and plays half of the scheduled boards at the beginning of the match, and they are exchanged halfway through the match. (If there are more than two teams, the movement is more complicated.) After each deal has been played twice, the scores for each deal are compared, and a net score is given depending on the net total score from the two times the deal was played. For example, if one pair scores +620 on a deal, and their teammates score -600, then the team's net score on that deal is +20.

Several forms of scoring are then used to calculate the overall winner of the match with [[#IMP scoring|IMP scoring]] and Board-a-match (resembling [[#Matchpoint scoring|matchpoint scoring]]) being the most common.
* At '''IMP scoring''', the net score is converted using an IMPs table that "compresses" big differences in score. For instance if the net score was 20, as in the above example, this would be converted to a score of 1 IMP, while a net score of say 450 (e.g. +620 versus +170) is worth 10 IMPs. If the match between the two teams is part of a larger competition, then usually the total difference in IMPs in a single match is again converted into so-called [[Bridge scoring#Victory Point scoring|Victory Points]] or VPs. The VPs awarded to each team in their matches are summed up to determine the overall team ranking.
* At '''Board-a-match''' (BAM), each hand has equal weight; each hand is won, lost, or tied.

Also used are:
* '''Total point score''', known as aggregate scoring in England, uses no conversion whatsoever; total-point scoring was more popular in the past, and is rarely used today. Only one event in England, the Hubert Phillips Bowl for Mixed Pivot teams, uses this form of scoring.<ref>http://www.ebu.co.uk/competitions/hubert-phillips-bowl</ref> Similarly, there is one event in Wales, the Cambria Cup for Mixed Pivot Teams.
* '''Patton scoring''' combines the methods of Board-a-match and Total point scoring. <ref>https://www.ebu.co.uk/newsletters/?id=1&page=8</ref>

===Individual events===
In an individual event, each player is paired with a different partner in each round. Individual events are less popular and much less common than pairs and teams events.

There are various methods for assigning partners. In one method, which can be regarded as an extension of the Mitchell movement, a given set of players always sit North, another set sit South, another set sit East, and a final set always sit West. This can be used to arrange that each pair consists of a relatively experienced or skilled player, and a relatively inexperienced player.

Individual events are more complex to run, as the movement and scoring are more complicated. They ideally require that players establish understandings in bidding and play methods with new partners in every round; this adds to the challenge of the game given the nuances of many [[bidding system|bidding]] and [[Signal (bridge)|signaling]] systems and [[Bridge convention|conventions]]. There is an additional element of luck compared to other types of events: a good player may be less successful with a poor partner on a difficult board than others are with the same partner on a simpler one.

Scoring is usually match points, but IMP pairs scoring can be used.

==Scoring==
{{See also|Bridge scoring}}

===Scoring and tactics===
The type of scoring significantly affects a pair's (or team's) tactics. For example, at matchpoints, making one more overtrick than everybody else on a board gives the same result (the top) as making a slam that nobody else bid, whereas at IMP scoring, the difference comes down to 1 IMP (30 points) in the first case, but 11 or 13 IMPs (500 or 750 points) in the second case. In general, matchpoint scoring requires a more "vivid" and risk-taking approach, while IMP scoring requires a more cautious approach. People that dislike IMP scoring sometimes refer to it as "cowardly", while people that dislike matchpoint scoring sometimes refer to it as "not bridge". The main features of the tactics are:
* '''Matchpoints'''
** Overtricks are important.
** [[Safety play]] is often neglected in the hunt for overtricks.
** Thin [[Contract bridge glossary#G|games]] and [[Contract bridge glossary#S|slams]] are avoided.
** [[Sacrifice (bridge)|Sacrifice]]s are more frequent; e.g. going down 500 points on a doubled contract is a good result if the opponents can score 620 points for a game.
** [[Contract bridge glossary#P|Penalty doubles]] are more frequent, as they increase the score for the [[Contract bridge glossary#P|penalty]]. For example, "the magic 200" refers to the situation when a vulnerable pair's contract is doubled and goes one down — the score of 200 will outscore all part-score contracts played at other tables.
** Playing in higher-scoring [[Contract bridge glossary#D|denominations]] (notrump or [[Contract bridge glossary#M|major suits]]) is important, as it may lead to an extra 10 or 20 points.
** Due to the above, it is often unclear to the defence, and sometimes even to declarer, what their goals are.<ref>Kelsey, H.W.: "Match-point bridge", Faber's "Master Bridge Series", 1970</ref> Thus mastering matchpoints play requires additional skills (sometimes referred to as "not bridge" by those who dislike it) to those required to play IMPs.
* '''IMPs'''
** Overtricks are not important, and it is not worth a significant risk of losing a game bonus of 300–500 points = 8–11 IMPs (or to a lesser extent a part score of 110 to 190) for the potential 1 IMP gain for an overtrick.
** [[Safety play]] is very important, for the same reason.
** Thin [[Contract bridge glossary#G|games]] and [[Contract bridge glossary#S|slams]] are often bid. Bidding a [[Contract bridge glossary#G|game]] with 40 percent [[probability]] of success vulnerable and 45 percent nonvulnerable, or a small slam with 50 percent probability, is worth the risk, and anything over that increases the probability of a positive IMP score in the long run.
** [[Sacrifice (bridge)|Sacrifice]]s are less frequent, as they may be risky.
** [[Contract bridge glossary#P|Penalty doubles]] are less frequent, as they may be risky. Often, when an opponents' contract is doubled, it turns declarer's attention to the bad lie of cards, and may induce him to take a successful line of play that he would not take otherwise.
** The contract itself sets a clear goal for both the defence and declarer, frequently allowing a deeper level of counter-plays between them.

===Contrast with rubber bridge===
Duplicate bridge, especially matchpoint games, differs significantly from [[rubber bridge]] in scoring technique, and therefore occasionally somewhat in tactics for bidding and play. Whereas the goal in rubber bridge is to win more points than the pair of people you are playing against, in duplicate bridge the goal is to do better than other pairs playing exactly the same cards. Because of this, strategies are different. In rubber (as in IMP scoring), 30 points above the line for an overtrick is unimportant and hardly worth risking a set. In match-points duplicate, it is common for those 30 points to mean you get a top score instead of average – and may be worth risking going down. In rubber, an occasional 800-point penalty is disastrous, but on matchpoints it is no worse than any other bottom score. International match points is in the middle of these extremes. Huge penalties are worse than small penalties, but 30 point differences are only moderately important.

A more subtle difference is in the bidding of [[Contract bridge glossary#P|partscore]] hands. In duplicate bridge, once a pair recognizes that they are playing for part score (less than a game), their objective is to win the auction with the minimum bid. In rubber bridge, it may occasionally be desirable to bid above this minimum as points below the line may be needed to complete a game.

Duplicate bridge also has the advantage of compensating for a bad run of luck with the cards. A pair that has had poor hands all night may still have the highest score for the evening – as long as they play those cards better than the other pairs with the same poor cards (however in such cases the pair will probably have had less opportunity to exercise skill and their result will be more heavily dependent on the skill displayed by their opponents).

== Governance ==
{{Main|List of contract bridge governing bodies}}

=== Organization ===
The worldwide [[sports governing body]] in bridge is the [[World Bridge Federation]], formed 1958 as the joint effort of delegates from Europe, the United States and South America.<ref>{{OEB|7|144}}</ref> In world bridge {{as of|2009|lc=y}}, North America and Europe, or the ACBL and EBL, are the two largest of eight world Zones or zonal organizations, with about 160,000 and 400,000 registered players.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbridge.org/zones/|title=Geographical zones|publisher=[[World Bridge Federation]]|access-date=2009-07-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090721022459/http://www.worldbridge.org/zones/|archive-date=2009-07-21|url-status=dead}}</ref>

{|class=wikitable
!Zone ||Organization||Area||Member Countries||Total Membership
|-
|1||European Bridge League (EBL)||[[Europe]]||align="right"|47||align="right"|393,164
|-
|2||American Contract Bridge League (ACBL)||[[North America]]||align="right"|3||align="right"|160,912
|-
|3||Confederacion Sudamericana de Bridge (CSB)||[[South America]]||align="right"|10||align="right"|4,384
|-
|4||Bridge Federation of Asia & the Middle East (BFAME)||[[Asia]]||align="right"|13||align="right"|9,188
|-
|5||Central American & Caribbean Bridge Federation (CAC)||[[Central America]]||align="right"|20||align="right"|1,384
|-
|6||Pacific Asia Bridge Federation (PABF)||Pacific Asia ([[Far East]])||align="right"|12||align="right"|71,129
|-
|7||South Pacific Bridge Federation (SPBF)||[[Australia]] and [[Oceania]]||align="right"|4||align="right"|47,286
|-
|8||African Bridge Federation (ABF)||[[Africa]]||align="right"|14||align="right"|6,398
|}

Registered European players are members of a National Bridge Federation such as the [[English Bridge Union]] or the [[Deutscher Bridge Verband]]. The NBFs in turn are members of the zonal EBL, which has 49 member "nations" in 2010.<ref name=members>[http://www.eurobridge.org/scripts/members.asp EBL Member Countries] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927125752/http://www.eurobridge.org/scripts/members.asp |date=2011-09-27 }}. [http://www.eurobridge.org/index2.html European Bridge League] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505034244/http://www.eurobridge.org/index2.html |date=2012-05-05 }}.</ref> In North America the zonal ACBL is an organization of player members. For world competition, however, the ACBL "members" are the NBFs of Canada, Mexico, and the US, which operate a few tournaments that qualify national representatives to some world events.<ref>[http://www.worldbridge.org/zones/zonelist.asp?qzone=2 Zone 2: American Contract Bridge League (ACBL)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810164606/http://www.worldbridge.org/zones/zonelist.asp?qzone=2 |date=2011-08-10 }}. World Bridge Federation. Retrieved 2011-07-02.</ref>

The ACBL charters more than 300 Units associated with exclusive territories. They are independent organizations that operate some tournaments and promote bridge locally.<ref name=units>[http://www.acbl.org/units/units.html ACBL Units] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110905031158/http://www.acbl.org/units/units.html |date=2011-09-05 }}. ACBL. Retrieved 2011-07-02.</ref><ref>[http://web2.acbl.org/documentLibrary/units/UnitAgreement.pdf Unit Agreement]. ACBL. Retrieved 2011-07-02.</ref> ACBL members are considered members of Units determined by residence. North America is also divided into 25 Districts that operate some Regional meets.<ref>[http://www.acbl.org/units/districts.html ACBL Districts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521220555/http://www.acbl.org/units/districts.html |date=2013-05-21 }}. ACBL. Retrieved 2011-07-02.</ref> Players may also be members of clubs that operate some bridge competition sanctioned by the ACBL.

===Rules===
The rules for playing duplicate bridge are formally titled ''The Laws of Duplicate Bridge'' and are issued by the World Bridge Federation and its member governing bodies. The Laws are designed to define correct procedure and to provide an adequate remedy when there is a departure from correct procedure. They are primarily designed not as punishment for irregularities but rather for the rectification of situations where nonoffenders may otherwise be damaged.<ref>Introduction to the ''Laws of Duplicate Bridge'' issued by the World Bridge Federation.</ref>

While the majority of primary rules are universal in application, authority to prescribe certain rules, procedures and requirements of competition and participation are delegated to the local governing bodies down to and including the club level.

==See also==
*[[Bidding box]]
*[[Screen (bridge)]]
*[[Board (bridge)]]
*[[English Bridge Union]]
*[[Tickets to the Devil]] - a novel by [[Richard P. Powell]] set in a National bridge event
*[[Duplicate Scrabble]] - a style of [[Scrabble]] inspired by duplicate bridge
*[[Duplicate poker]] - The concept of card duplication applied to the popular game of [[Poker]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://www.acbl.org American Contract Bridge League - ACBL]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130730164804/http://www.acbl.org/assets/documents/play/Laws-of-Duplicate-Bridge.pdf ACBL Laws of Duplicate Bridge]
* [http://www.bridgehands.com/Laws/ACBL/Duplicate/index.htm Index and cross-references] to the ACBL Laws of Duplicate Bridge - BridgeHands website
* [http://ptaff.ca/bridge/duplicata/?lang=en_CA Duplicate scoring tables]
* [http://www.ebu.co.uk English Bridge Union]
* [http://www.eurobridge.org European Bridge Federation]
* [http://www.worldbridge.org World Bridge Federation]
* [http://www.worldbridge.org/Data/Sites/1/media/documents/laws/2007lawscomplete.pdf WBF Laws of Duplicate Bridge]

{{WPCBIndex}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Duplicate Bridge}}
[[Category:Contract bridge]]

David Copperfield

2020-06-04T14:16:44Z

Squike: Correction: book does not mention the boat is upturned, which would be very unusual as a "house boat"

{{About|the novel by Charles Dickens|the American illusionist|David Copperfield (illusionist)|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2013}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2013}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Infobox book
| name = David Copperfield
| title_orig = The Personal History, Adventures, Experience and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger of Blunderstone Rookery
| image = Copperfield cover serial.jpg
| image_size = 200px
| caption = Cover, first serial edition of 1849
| author = [[Charles Dickens]]
| illustrator = [[Hablot Knight Browne]] ([[Phiz]])
| cover_artist = [[Hablot Knight Browne]] ([[Phiz]])
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| series =
| genres = [[Novel]], [[Bildungsroman]]
| publisher = [[Bradbury & Evans]]
| published = Serialised May 1849 – November 1850; book format 1850
| media_type = Print
| pages = {{nowrap|624 (first book edition)<ref name="The Guardian 2013-12-30">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2013/dec/30/david-copperfield-dickens-100-best-novels |title=The 100 best novels: No 15 – David Copperfield by Charles Dickens (1850)|last=McCrum|first=Robert|author-link=Robert McCrum|date=30 December 2013 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=24 March 2015}}</ref>}}
| isbn =
| preceded_by = [[Dombey and Son]] (1848)
| followed_by = [[Bleak House]] (1852–3)
}}

'''''David Copperfield''''' is the eighth novel by [[Charles Dickens]]. The novel's full title is '''''The Personal History, Adventures, Experience and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger of Blunderstone Rookery''''' (Which He Never Meant to Publish on Any Account).<ref group="N">Dickens invented over 14 variations of the title for this work, see {{cite journal |title=Titles, Titling, and Entitlement to |first=Hazard |last=Adams |journal=The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism |volume=46 |number=1 |date=Autumn 1987 |pages=7–21 |jstor=431304 |doi=10.2307/431304}}</ref> It was first published as a [[Serial (literature)|serial]] in 1849–50, and as a book in 1850.

The novel features the character [[David Copperfield (character)|David Copperfield]], and is written in the first person, as a description of his life until middle age, with his own adventures and the numerous friends and enemies he meets along his way. It is his journey of change and growth from infancy to maturity, as people enter and leave his life and he passes through the stages of his development.

It has been called his masterpiece, "the triumph of the art of Dickens",<ref name=Monod1968 /><ref name=Davis1999p92 /> which marks a turning point in his work, the point of separation between the novels of youth and those of maturity.<ref name=Davis1999p92 /><ref name=Davis1999p85>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|p=85}}</ref> Though written in the first person, ''David Copperfield'' is considered to be more than an autobiography, going beyond this framework in the richness of its themes and the originality of its writing, which makes it a true [[autobiographical novel]].<ref name=Davis1999p85 /><ref name=Davis1999p90 /> In the words of the author, this novel was "a very complicated weaving of truth and invention".<ref name=CDLettersp515 /> Some elements of the novel follow events in Dickens's own life.<ref name=Schlicke1999p158 /> It was Dickens' favourite among his own novels. In the preface to the 1867 edition, Dickens wrote, "like many fond parents, I have in my heart of hearts a favourite child. And his name is David Copperfield."<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.bartleby.com/307/1009.html |chapter=Preface |title=The personal history and experience of David Copperfield the younger |year=1917 |last=Dickens |first=Charles |via=Bartleby |series=Harvard Classics Shelf of Fiction |publisher=P F Collier & Son}}</ref>

Dickens wrote this novel without an outline, unlike the way he wrote ''[[Dombey and Son]]'', the previous novel. He wrote chapter summaries after the chapters were completed. Some aspects of the story were fixed in his mind from the start, but others, like the obsession of Mr Dick with Charles I, the profession of David Copperfield as a writer, and the sad fate of Dora, were not decided by Dickens until the serial publications were underway; August 1849, December 1849 and May 1850, respectively, were the dates when those decisions were made.<ref name=Schlicke1999p151 />

At first glance, the work is modeled in the loose and somewhat disjointed way of "personal histories" that was very popular in the United Kingdom of the 18th century;<ref name=TomJones group="N">For example, those of ''[[Joseph Andrews]]'' or ''[[Tom Jones (novel)|Tom Jones]]'' written by [[Henry Fielding]], Dickens' favorite past author.</ref> but in reality, ''David Copperfield'' is a carefully structured and unified novel. It begins, like other novels by Dickens, with a rather bleak painting of the conditions of childhood in Victorian England, notoriously when the troublesome children are parked in infamous boarding schools, then he strives to trace the slow social and intimate ascent of a young man who, painfully providing for the needs of his good aunt while continuing his studies, ends up becoming a writer; the story, writes Paul Davis, of "a Victorian everyman seeking self-understanding".<ref name=Davis1999p85 />

The novel has a primary theme of growth and the changes that occur on the way to maturity. In addition, Dickens included many aspects of Victorian Era life that he wanted to highlight or wished to change, which were primarily integrated into the story, using satire as one device. The plight of prostitutes and the attitude of middle class society to them, the status of women in marriage, the rigid class structure, are aspects that he highlighted, while the system for handling criminals, the quality of schools, and the employment of children in the fast-spreading factories of the 19th century were aspects he wished to influence, to change for the better. He, among other authors, achieved success in bringing about changes regarding child labour and schooling for more children up to age 12.<ref name="British Library"/>

==Plot summary==
[[File:Copperfield, map of England.jpeg|thumb|The England of ''David Copperfield''.]]
The story follows the life of [[David Copperfield (character)|David Copperfield]] from childhood to maturity. David was born in [[Blundeston|Blunderstone]], Suffolk, England, six months after the death of his father. David spends his early years in relative happiness with his loving, childish mother and their kindly housekeeper, [[Peggotty#Clara Peggotty|Clara Peggotty]]. They call him Davy. When he is seven years old his mother marries [[Edward Murdstone]]. To get him out of the way, David is sent to lodge with Peggotty's family in [[Great Yarmouth|Yarmouth]]. Her brother, fisherman [[Peggotty#Daniel Peggotty|Mr Peggotty]], lives in a beached barge, with his adopted relatives Emily and [[Peggotty#Ham Peggotty|Ham]], and an elderly widow, Mrs Gummidge. "Little Em'ly" is somewhat spoiled by her fond foster father, and David is in love with her. They call him Master Copperfield.

On his return, David is given good reason to dislike his stepfather, who believes exclusively in firmness, and has similar feelings for Murdstone's sister Jane, who moves into the house soon afterwards. Between them they tyrannize his poor mother, making her and David's lives miserable, and when, in consequence, David falls behind in his studies, Murdstone attempts to thrash him – partly to further pain his mother. David bites him and soon afterwards is sent away to Salem House, a boarding school, under a ruthless headmaster named Mr Creakle. There he befriends an older boy, [[James Steerforth]], and [[List of Dickensian characters#T|Tommy Traddles]]. He develops an impassioned admiration for Steerforth, perceiving him as someone noble, who could do great things if he would, and one who pays attention to him.

David goes home for the holidays to learn that his mother has given birth to a baby boy. Shortly after David returns to Salem House, his mother and her baby die, and David returns home immediately. Peggotty marries the local [[Mail carrier|carrier]], Mr Barkis. Murdstone sends David to work for a wine merchant in London – a business of which Murdstone is a joint owner. David's landlord, [[Wilkins Micawber]], is arrested for debt and sent to the [[King's Bench Prison]], where he remains for several months, before being released and moving to [[Plymouth]]. No one remains to care for David in London, so he decides to run away, with Micawber advising him to head to [[Dover]], to find his only known remaining relative, his eccentric and kind-hearted great-aunt [[Betsey Trotwood]]. She had come to Blunderstone at his birth, only to depart in ire upon learning that he was not a girl. However, she takes pity on him and agrees to raise him, despite Murdstone's attempt to regain custody of David, on condition that he always try to 'be as like his sister, Betsey Trotwood' as he can be, meaning that he is to endeavour to emulate the prospective namesake she was disappointed not to have. David's great-aunt renames him "Trotwood Copperfield" and addresses him as "Trot", one of several names David is called by in the novel.

David's aunt sends him to a better school than the last he attended. It is run by Dr Strong, whose methods inculcate honour and self-reliance in his pupils. During term, David lodges with the lawyer Mr Wickfield, and his daughter [[Agnes Wickfield|Agnes]], who becomes David's friend and confidante. Wickfield's clerk, [[Uriah Heep]], also lives at the house.

By devious means, Uriah Heep gradually gains a complete ascendancy over the aging and alcoholic Wickfield, to Agnes's great sorrow. Heep hopes, and maliciously confides to David, that he aspires to marry Agnes. Ultimately with the aid of Micawber, who has been employed by Heep as a secretary, his fraudulent behaviour is revealed. At the end of the book, David encounters him in prison, convicted of attempting to defraud the [[Bank of England]].

After completing school, David apprentices to be a [[proctor]]. During this time, due to Heep's fraudulent activities, his aunt's fortune has diminished. David toils to make a living. He works mornings and evenings for his former teacher Doctor Strong as a secretary, and also starts to learn [[shorthand]], with the help of his old school-friend Traddles, upon completion reporting parliamentary debate for a newspaper. With considerable moral support from Agnes and his own great diligence and hard work, David ultimately finds fame and fortune as an author, writing fiction.

David's romantic but self-serving school friend, Steerforth, also re-acquaints himself with David, but then goes on to seduce and dishonour Emily, offering to marry her off to his manservant Littimer before deserting her in Europe. Her uncle Mr Peggotty manages to find her with the help of Martha, who had grown up in their part of England, and then settled in London. Ham, who had been engaged to marry Emily before the tragedy, dies in a fierce storm off the coast in attempting to succour a ship. Steerforth was aboard the ship and also died. Mr Peggotty takes Emily to a new life in [[Australia]], accompanied by Mrs Gummidge and the Micawbers, where all eventually find security and happiness.

David, meanwhile, has fallen completely in love with Dora Spenlow, and then marries her. Their marriage proves troublesome for David in the sense of everyday practical affairs, but he never stops loving her. Dora dies early in their marriage after a miscarriage. After Dora's death, Agnes encourages David to return to normal life and his profession of writing. While living in [[Switzerland]] to dispel his grief over so many losses, David realises that he loves Agnes. Upon returning to [[England]], after a failed attempt to conceal his feelings, David finds that Agnes loves him too. They quickly marry and in this marriage, he finds true happiness. David and Agnes then have at least five children, including a daughter named after his great-aunt, Betsey Trotwood.

{{Clear}}

==Characters==
[[File:Dora Spenlow from David Copperfield art by Frank Reynolds.jpg|thumb|right|Illustration of David falling in love with Dora Spenlow, by Frank Reynolds]]
*'''[[David Copperfield (character)|David Copperfield]]''' – The narrator and protagonist of the novel. David's father, David, Sr, died six months before he was born, and he learns his mother has died when he is at Salem House, on his ninth birthday. He is characterised in the book as having goals in his life, but much to learn to attain maturity.
*'''Clara Copperfield''' – David's affectionate and beautiful mother, described as being innocently childish, who dies while David is at Salem House school. She dies a couple of months after the birth of her second son, who dies a day or so later. That baby's father is Edward Murdstone, her second husband.
*'''[[Clara Peggotty]]''' – The faithful servant of the Copperfield family and a lifelong companion to David - she is called by her surname Peggotty within David's family, as her given name is Clara, the same as David's mother; she is also referred to at times as Barkis after her marriage to Mr Barkis. After her husband's death, Peggotty helps to put in order David's rooms in London and then returns to Yarmouth to keep house for her nephew, Ham Peggotty. Following Ham's death, she keeps house for David's aunt, Betsey Trotwood.
*'''[[Betsey Trotwood]]''' – David's eccentric and temperamental yet kind-hearted great-aunt; she becomes his guardian after he runs away from the Murdstone and Grinby warehouse in [[Blackfriars, London]]. She is present on the night of David's birth but leaves after hearing that Clara Copperfield's child is a boy instead of a girl, and is not seen again until David flees to her house in [[Dover]] from London. She is portrayed as affectionate towards David, and defends him and his late mother when Mr Murdstone arrives to take custody of David: she confronts the man and rebukes him for his abuse of David and his mother, then threatens him and drives him off the premises. Universally believed to be a widow, she conceals the existence of her ne'er-do-well husband who occasionally bleeds her for money.
*'''Mr Chillip''' – A shy doctor who assists at David's birth and faces the wrath and anger of Betsey Trotwood after he informs her that Clara's baby is a boy instead of a girl. David meets this doctor each time he returns to the neighborhood of his birth. Mr Chillip, met in London when David Copperfield returns from Switzerland, tells David of the fate of Murdstone's second wife, much the same as the fate of David's mother.
*'''Mr Barkis''' – An aloof carter who declares his intention to marry Peggotty. He says to David: "Tell her, 'Barkis is willin'!' Just so." Peggotty marries him after Clara Copperfield's death. He is a miser, keeping an unexpected amount of wealth in a plain box labelled "Old Clothes". He bequeaths two-thirds of his money to his wife from his savings of £3,000 ({{Inflation|UK|3000|1830|r=-3|fmt=eq}}) when he dies after about ten years of marriage. He leaves annuities for Mr Daniel Peggotty, Little Emily, and David from the rest.
*'''[[Edward Murdstone]]''' – The main antagonist of the first half of the novel, he is Young David's cruel stepfather who beats him for falling behind in his studies. David reacts by biting Mr Murdstone, but is sent to Salem House - a private school owned by Mr. Murdstone's friend Mr Creakle - in retribution. After his mother dies, David is sent to work at his stepfather's factory in London, where he has to clean wine bottles. He appears at Betsey Trotwood's house after David runs away. Mr Murdstone appears to show signs of repentance when confronted by Copperfield's aunt about his treatment of Clara and David, but when David works at Doctor's Commons, he meets Murdstone taking out a marriage license for his next young and trusting wife.
*'''Jane Murdstone''' – Mr Murdstone's equally cruel [[spinster]] sister, who moves into the Copperfield house shortly after Mr Murdstone marries Clara Copperfield, taking over the housekeeping. She is the "Confidential Friend" of David's first wife, Dora Spenlow, and is the one who found David's letters to Dora, and creates the scene between David Copperfield and Dora's father, Mr Spenlow. Later, she rejoins her brother and his second wife in a marriage much like the one with David's mother.
*'''[[Daniel Peggotty]]''' – Peggotty's brother; a humble but generous Yarmouth fisherman who takes his nephew Ham and niece Emily into his custody after each of them has been orphaned. He welcomes David as a child when holidaying to Yarmouth with Peggotty. When Emily is older and runs away with David's friend Steerforth, he travels around the world in search of her. He eventually finds her in London, and after that, they emigrate to Australia.

[[File:David et Emily (Harold Copping).jpeg|thumb|upright|David and Emily on the beach at Yarmouth, by [[Harold Copping]].]]
*'''Emily (Little Em'ly)''' – The niece of Daniel Peggotty and his sister Clara Peggotty. She is a childhood friend of David Copperfield, who loved her in his childhood days. She abandons her Ham, her cousin and fiancé, on the eve of her wedding; instead disappearing abroad with Steerforth for several years. Broken by Steerforth's desertion, she does not go back home, but she does eventually go to London. With the help of Martha, her uncle finds her there, after Rosa Dartle rants at her, while David watches unseen. She accompanies her uncle to Australia.
*'''[[Peggotty|Ham Peggotty]]''' – The good-natured nephew of Mr Peggotty who is tall and strong, and becomes a skilled boat builder. He is the fiancé of Emily before she leaves him for Steerforth. His aunt looks after Ham once Emily is gone. When the fierce storm at sea off Yarmouth dismasts a merchant ship from the south, Ham attempts to rescue the crew, but is drowned by the ferocity of the waves before he can reach anyone. News of his death, a day before the emigration, is withheld from his family to enable them to emigrate without hesitation or remorse.
*'''Mrs Gummidge''' – The widow of Daniel Peggotty's partner, who is taken in and supported by Daniel after his partner's death. She is a self-described "lone, lorn creetur" who spends much of her time pining for "the old 'un" (her late husband). After Emily runs away with Steerforth, she renounces her self-pity and becomes Daniel and Ham's primary caretaker. She too emigrates to Australia with Daniel and Emily. In Australia, when she receives a marriage proposal, she responds by attacking the unlucky suitor with a bucket.
*'''Martha Endell''' – A young woman, once Little Emily's friend, who later gains a bad reputation; it is implied that she engages in some sexually inappropriate behaviour and is thus disgraced. She is stopped from suicide by Daniel Peggotty and David, who had been searching for her so she might help them find Emily in London. She emigrates with the Peggotty family to Australia. There, she marries and lives happily.
*'''Mr Creakle''' – The harsh headmaster of young David's boarding school who is assisted by the one-legged '''Tungay'''. Mr Creakle is a friend of Mr Murdstone. He singles out David for extra torment at Murdstone's request, but later treats him normally after David apologises to Murdstone. With a surprising amount of delicacy, his wife breaks the news to David that his mother has died. Later, he becomes a Middlesex magistrate and is considered 'enlightened' for his day. He runs his prison by the ''system'' and is portrayed with great sarcasm, as he thinks that his model inmates, Heep and Littimer, have changed their criminal ways due to the system.
*'''[[James Steerforth]]''' – A student at Creakle's school who befriends young David, even as he takes over David's money. He is condescending of other social classes, a snob who unhesitatingly takes advantage of his younger friends and uses his mother's influence, going so far as to get Mr Mell dismissed from the school because Mell's mother lives in almshouse. Although he grows into a charming and handsome young man, he proves to be lacking in character when he seduces and later abandons Little Em'ly. He eventually drowns at Yarmouth in a fierce storm at sea, washing up on the shore after the merchant ship breaks totally apart.
*'''Tommy Traddles''' – David's friend from Salem House. Traddles is one of the few boys who does not trust Steerforth and is notable for drawing skeletons on his slate to cheer himself up with the macabre thought that his predicaments are only temporary. They meet again later and become lifelong friends. Traddles works hard but faces great obstacles because of his lack of money and connections. He succeeds in making a name and a career for himself, becoming a Judge and marrying his true love, Sophy.
*'''[[Wilkins Micawber]]''' – A melodramatic, kind-hearted gentleman who has a way with words and eternal optimism. He befriends David as a young boy in London, taking him as a lodger. Micawber suffers from financial difficulty and spends time in a debtors' prison before moving his family briefly to [[Plymouth]]. Micawber meets David again, passing by the Heep household in Canterbury when David is taking tea there. Micawber takes a position at Wickford and Heep. Thinking Micawber is weak-minded, Heep makes him an accomplice in several of his schemes, but Micawber turns the tables on his employer and is instrumental in his downfall. Micawber emigrates to Australia, where he enjoys a successful career as a sheep farmer and becomes a magistrate. He is based on Dickens's father, [[John Dickens]], as described in {{Section link||Autobiographical novel}} who faced similar financial problems when Dickens was a child, but never emigrated.<ref name=Schlicke1999p158 />
*'''Emma Micawber''' – Wilkins Micawber's wife and the mother of their five children. She comes from a moneyed family who disapprove of her husband, but she constantly protests that she will "never leave Micawber!"
*'''Mr Dick (Richard Babley)''' – A slightly deranged, rather childish but amiable man who lives with Betsey Trotwood; they are distant relatives. His madness is amply described; he claims to have the "trouble" of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]] in his head. He is fond of making gigantic kites and tries to write a "Memorial" (ie a Petition - though on what subject is never revealed) but is unable to focus and finish it. Despite his limitations, Dick is able to see issues with a certain clarity. He proves to be not only a kind and loyal friend but also demonstrates a keen emotional intelligence, particularly when he helps Dr and Mrs Strong through a marriage crisis.
*'''Mr Wickfield''' – The widowed father of Agnes Wickfield and lawyer to Betsey Trotwood. He feels guilty that, through his love, he has hurt his daughter by keeping her too close to himself. This sense of guilt leads him to drink. His apprentice Uriah Heep uses the information to lead Mr Wickfield down a slippery slope, encouraging the alcoholism and feelings of guilt, and eventually convincing him that he has committed improprieties while inebriated, and blackmailing him. He is saved by Mr Micawber, and his friends consider him to have become a better man through the experience.
*'''[[Agnes Wickfield]]''' – Mr Wickfield's mature and lovely daughter and close friend of David since he began school at Dr Strong's in Canterbury. Agnes nurtures an unrequited love for David for many years but never tells him, helping and advising him through his infatuation with, and marriage to, Dora. After David returns to England, he realises his feelings for her, and she becomes David's second wife and mother of their children.
*'''[[Uriah Heep]]''' – The main antagonist of the novel's second half, Heep serves first as clerk from age 11 or 12, at age 15 he meets Copperfield and a few years later becomes partner to Mr Wickfield. He presents himself as self-deprecating and talks of being "umble", but gradually reveals his wicked and twisted character. He gains power over Wickfield but is exposed by Wilkins Micawber and Traddles, who have gathered evidence that Uriah committed multiple acts of fraud. By forging Mr Wickfield's signature, he has misappropriated the personal wealth of the Wickfield family, together with portfolios entrusted to them by others, including funds belonging to Betsey Trotwood. He fools Wickfield into thinking he has himself committed this act while drunk, and then blackmailed him. Heep is defeated but not prosecuted. He is later imprisoned for a separate fraud on the Bank of England. He nurtures a deep hatred of David Copperfield and of many others, though in some ways he is a mirror to David, wanting to get ahead and to marry the boss's daughter.
*'''Mrs Heep''' – Uriah's mother, who is as sycophantic as her son. She has instilled in him his lifelong tactic of pretending to be subservient to achieve his goals, and even as his schemes fall apart she begs him to save himself by "being 'umble."
*'''Dr Strong''' and '''Annie Strong''' – Director and assistant of the school David attends in Canterbury. Dr Strong's main concern is to work on his dictionary, where, at the end of the novel, he has reached the letter D. The Doctor is 62 when David meets him, and married about a year to Annie, considerably younger than her husband. In this happy loving couple, each one cares more about the other than of himself. The depth of their feeling allows them to defeat the efforts of Uriah Heep in trying to break their union.
*'''Jack Maldon''' – A cousin and childhood sweetheart of Annie Strong. He continues to bear affection for her and assumes she will leave Dr Strong for him. Instead, Dr Strong helps Maldon financially and in finding a position. He is charming, and after his time in India, he ends up in London society, in a social circle with Julia Mills. They live a life that seems empty to the adult David Copperfield.
*'''Julia Mills''' – She is a friend of Dora who supports Dora's romance with David Copperfield; she moves to India when her father gets a new position. She marries a wealthy Scottish man, a "Scotch [[Croesus]]," and lives in London in the end. She thinks of little besides money.
*'''Mrs Markleham'''- Annie's mother, nicknamed "The Old Soldier" by her husband's students for her stubbornness. She tries to take pecuniary advantage of her son-in-law Dr Strong in every way possible, to Annie's sorrow.
*'''Mrs Steerforth''' – The wealthy widowed mother of James Steerforth. She dotes on her son to the point of being completely blind to his faults. When Steerforth disgraces his family and the Peggottys by running off with Em'ly, Mrs Steerforth blames Em'ly for corrupting her son, rather than accept that James has disgraced an innocent girl. The news of her son's death destroys her. She lives on, but she never recovers from the shock.
*'''Rosa Dartle''' – Steerforth's cousin, a bitter, sarcastic spinster who lives with Mrs Steerforth. She is secretly in love with Steerforth and blames others such as Emily and Steerforth's mother for corrupting him. She is described as being thin and displays a visible scar on her lip caused by Steerforth in one of his violent rages as a child.
*'''Francis Spenlow''' – A lawyer, employer of David as a [[proctor]] and the father of Dora Spenlow. He dies suddenly of a heart attack while driving his [[Phaeton (carriage)|phaeton]] home. After his death, it is revealed that he is heavily in debt, and left no will.
*'''[[Dora Spenlow]]''' – The adorable daughter of Mr Spenlow who becomes David's first wife after a long courtship. She is described as being impractical and has many similarities to David's mother. In their first year of marriage, David learns their differences as to keeping a house in order. Dora does not learn firmness, but remains herself, affectionate with David and attached to her lapdog, Jip. She is not unaware of their differences, and asks David, whom she calls "Doady", to think of her as a "child-wife". She suffers a miscarriage, which begins a long illness from which she dies with Agnes Wickfield at her side.
*'''Littimer''' – Steerforth's obsequious valet, who is instrumental in aiding his seduction of Emily. Littimer is always polite and correct but his condescending manner intimidates David, who always feels as if Littimer is reminding him how young he is. He later winds up in prison for embezzlement, and his manners allow him to con his way to the stature of Model Prisoner in Creakle's establishment.
*'''Miss Mowcher''' – a [[dwarfism|dwarf]] and Steerforth's hairdresser. Though she participates in Steerforth's circle as a witty and glib gossip, she is strong against the discomfort others might feel associated with her dwarfism. She is later instrumental in Littimer's arrest.
*'''Mr Mell''' – A poor teacher at Salem House. He takes David to Salem House and is the only adult there who is kind to him. His mother lives in a workhouse, and Mell supports her with his wages. When Steerforth discovers this information from David, he uses it to get Creakle to fire Mell. Near the end of the novel, Copperfield discovers in an Australian newspaper that Mell has emigrated and is now Doctor Mell of Colonial Salem-House Grammar School, Port Middlebay, married with children.
*'''Sophy Crewler''' – One of a family of ten daughters, Sophy runs the household and takes care of all her sisters. She and Traddles are engaged to be married, but her family has made Sophy so indispensable that they do not want her to part from them with Traddles. The pair do eventually marry and settle down happily, and Sophy proves to be an invaluable aid in Traddles's legal career, while still helping her sisters.
*'''Mr Sharp''' – The chief teacher of Salem House, he has more authority than Mr Mell. He looks weak, both in health and character; his head seems to be very heavy for him; he walks on one side, and has a big nose.
*'''Mr Jorkins''' – The rarely seen partner of Mr Spenlow. Spenlow uses him as a scapegoat for any unpopular decision he chooses to make, painting Jorkins as an inflexible tyrant, but Jorkins is, in fact, a meek and timid nonentity who, when confronted, takes the same tack by blaming his inability to act on Mr Spenlow.

== Autobiographical novel==
===Fragments of autobiography===
Between 1845 and 1848, Dickens wrote fragments of autobiography excerpts of which he showed to his wife and John Forster. Then in 1855 he made an attempt at revising it. This was a failure because, as he tells his first love Maria Beadnell (now Mrs Winter), when he began dealing with his youthful love for her, "I lost courage and burned the rest".<ref name=DickenslettersWinter>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', letter to Mrs Winter, 22 February 1855</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Alison |last=Flood |title=Young Dickens in love: sugary, and waxing lyrical about gloves |newspaper=The Guardian |date=13 February 2015 |accessdate=11 February 2019 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2015/feb/13/charles-dickens-in-love-poetry-first-love-maria-beadnell}}</ref> Paul Schlicke points out that in fact not all the pages have gone through the flames and that, as Dickens began writing ''David Copperfield'' some pages were unearthed. Proof of this is found in the eleventh chapter of the novel: "I begin Life on my own Account and don't like it", where the story of Dickens's experience at the Warren Shoe Factory are almost verbatim with the only change, "[[Wilkins Micawber|Mr Micawber]]" instead of "my father".<ref name=Schlicke1999p158>{{harvnb|Schlicke|1999|p=158}}</ref> John Forster also published substantial extracts relating to this period in Dickens's biography, including a paragraph devoted to Wellington House College, which corresponds with second stage of childhood recounted in the novel.<ref>{{harvnb|Forster|1966|p=I, 3}}</ref> Thus Dickens looks back on his painful past, already evoked by the martyrdom of Little Paul in ''[[Dombey and Son]]'', though voiced by an [[Narrative point of view#POV omniscient|omniscient narrator]] in that earlier novel.<ref name=Schlicke1999p150>{{harvnb|Schlicke|1999|p=150}}</ref> Until Forster published his biography of Dickens in 1872-1874, no one knew that Dickens had worked in a factory as a child, not even his wife, until Dickens wrote it down and gave the papers to Forster in 1847.<ref>{{harvnb|Bradbury|2008|page=19}}</ref> The first generations of readers did not know this part of David Copperfield's story began like an incident in the author's life.

===The autobiographical dimension===
If ''David Copperfield'' has come to be Dickens's "darling", it is because it is the most autobiographical of all his novels.<ref name=Davis1999p90>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|p=90}}</ref> Some of the most painful episodes of his life are barely disguised; others appear indirectly, termed oblique revelations as described by Paul Davis.<ref name=Davis1999p90 /> However, Dickens himself wrote to Forster that the book is not a pure autobiography, but "a very complicated weaving of truth and invention".<ref name=CDLettersp515>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', VII, page 515</ref>

==== The autobiographical material ====
The most important autobiographical material concerns the months that Dickens, still a child, spent at the Warren factory, his diligence with his first love, Maria Beadnell (see [[Catherine Dickens]] and [[Ellen Ternan]]) finally his career as a journalist and writer. As pointed out by his biographer and friend John Forster, these episodes are essentially factual: the description of forced labor to which David is subjected at Murdstone and Grinby reproduces verbatim the autobiographical fragments entrusted to his friend; David's fascination with Dora Spenlow is similar to that inspired by the capricious Maria; the major stages of his career, from his apprenticeship at [[Doctors' Commons]] to writing his first novel, via the [[shorthand]] reporting of parliamentary procedures, also follow those of its creator.<ref name=Davis1999p90 />

However, this material, like the other autobiographical aspects of the novel, is not systematically reproduced as such. The cruel Mr Murdstone is very different from the real James Lamert, cousin to Dickens, being the stepson of Mrs Dickens's mother's sister, who lived with the family in [[Chatham, Kent|Chatham]] and [[Camden Town]], and who had found for the young Charles the place of tagger in the shoe factory he managed for his brother-in-law George.<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|p=202}}</ref> The end of this episode looks nothing like what happens in the novel; in reality, contrary to the desire of his mother that he continues to work, it is his father who took him out of the warehouse to send him to school. Contrary to Charles's frustrated love for Maria Beadnell, who pushed him back in front of his parents' opposition, David, in the novel, marries Dora Spenlow and, with satisfaction ''ex post facto'', writes Paul Davis, virtually "kills" the recalcitrant stepfather.<ref name=Davis1999p90 /> Finally, David's literary career seems less agitated than that of Dickens, and his results are much less spectacular. David's natural modesty alone does not explain all these changes; Paul Davis expresses the opinion that Dickens recounts his life as he would have liked it, and along with "conscious artistry", Dickens knows how to borrow data, integrate them to his original purpose and transform them according to the novelistic necessities, so that "In the end, Copperfield is David's autobiography, not Dickens's".<ref name=Davis1999p90 />

==Sources and context==
===Dickens's personal past===
''David Copperfield'' is the contemporary of two major memory-based works, [[William Wordsworth]]'s ''[[The Prelude]]'' (1850),<ref group="N">Actually Wordsworth began writing this work in 1798-99.</ref> an autobiographical poem about the formative experiences of his youth, and [[Tennyson]]'s ''[[In Memoriam A.H.H.|In Memoriam]]'' (1850) which [[Eulogy|eulogises]] the memory of his friend, [[Arthur Hallam]].<ref name=Schlicke1999p152/> On the one hand, there's [[Romanticism|Wordsworth's romantic questioning]] on the personal development of the individual, on the other hand, there is Tennyson's [[Victorian era|Victorian]] confrontation with change and doubt. According to Andrew Sanders, ''David Copperfield'' reflects both types of response, which give this novel the privileged position of representing the hinge of the century.<ref name=Sanders1997>{{harvnb|Sanders|1997}}</ref>

The intensely personal memories of Dickens are, according to Paul Schlicke, remarkably transmuted into fiction.<ref name=Schlicke1999p152 /> The experience Dickens lived, as the son of a brazen impenitent, is celebrated through the comic figure of Wilkins Micawber. Dickens's youthful passion for Maria Beadnell resurfaces with tenderness, in the form of David's impractical marriage with Dora Spenlow. And Dickens's decision to make David a novelist emphasises how he used this book to re-invent himself as a man and artist: "The world would not take another Pickwick from me, but we can be cheerful and merry, and with a little more purpose in us".<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to Dudley Costello, 25 April 1849.</ref> In fact, if the preoccupation with the adventures of an individualized hero, associated with a parade of comic or grotesque characters, looks back to Dickens's earlier novels, the interest in personal development, the pessimistic atmosphere, and the complex structure of ''Copperfield'' foreshadows the novels to come.<ref name=Schlicke1999p152 />

===Contemporaneous novels===
In 1847, ''[[Jane Eyre]]'', [[Charlotte Brontë]]'s intense first-person narrative, was acclaimed as soon as it was published. Unlike Thackeray, who adored it, Dickens claims years later to have never read it.<ref name=Meckler1975>{{harvnb|Meckler|1975}}</ref> True or false, he had encountered [[Elizabeth Gaskell]]'s ''[[Mary Barton]]'' a novel that called for understanding and sympathy in a class-eaten society<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letter'', Letter to Rogers, 18 February 1849.</ref> [[Thackeray]]'s ''[[Pendennis]]'' was serialised at the same time as ''David Copperfield'', and it depicts its hero's personal and social journey from the countryside to the city. A rivalry existed between these two major writers, though it preoccupied Thackeray more than Dickens. But the most direct literary influence is "obviously Carlyle"<ref name="Schlicke1999p153" /> who, in a lecture given in 1840, the year of his meeting with Dickens, on "On Heroes, Hero-Worship", and "the Heroic in History",<ref name=Carlyle1998p317>{{harvnb|Carlyle|1998|p=317}}</ref> claims that the most important modern character is "the hero as a man of letters".<ref name=Sanders1997 /> And this is David's destiny, through personal experiences, perseverance and seriousness.<ref name="Schlicke1999p153" />

==Development of the novel==
===First inspirations===
[[File:Charles Dickens 1850.jpeg|thumb|left|Charles Dickens 1850]]
On 7 January 1849, Dickens visited [[Norfolk]] county at [[Norwich]] and [[Great Yarmouth|Yarmouth]], with two close friends, [[John Leech (caricaturist)|John Leech]] (1817-1864) and [[Mark Lemon]] (1809-1870).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://charlesdickenspage.com/family_friends.html |work=The Charles Dickens Page |last=Perdue |first=David A |title=Charles Dickens: family and friends |accessdate=25 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721120345/http://www.charlesdickenspage.com/family_friends.html |archive-date=21 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Leech was an illustrator at ''[[Punch (magazine)|Punch]]'', a satirical magazine, and the first illustrator for ''[[A Christmas Carol]]'' by Dickens in 1843. Lemon was a founding editor of the same ''Punch'', and soon a contributor to ''[[Household Words]]'', the weekly magazine Dickens was starting up; he co-authored ''Mr Nightingale's Diary'', a farce, with Dickens in 1851.<ref name=Schlicke1999pp150331>{{harvnb|Schlicke|1999|pp=150, 331, 334}}</ref><ref name=Page1999p382>{{cite book |first=Norman |last=Page |title=Charles Dickens: Family History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xf2QqVI19b8C&pg=PA382 |year=1999 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-22233-4 |page=382}}</ref> The two cities, especially the second, became important in the novel, and Dickens informed Forster that Yarmouth seemed to him to be "the strangest place in the world" and that he would "certainly try my hand at it".<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to John Forster, 12 January 1849</ref> During a walk in the vicinity of Yarmouth, Dickens noticed a sign indicating the small locality of Blunderston, which became in his novel the village of "Blunderstone" where David is born and spends his childhood.<ref name=Schlicke1999p150 />

A week after his arrival in Yarmouth, his sixth son, Henry Fielding Dickens, was named after [[Henry Fielding]], his favorite past author. Per Forster, Dickens refers to Fielding "as a kind of homage to the novel he was about to write".<ref name=Forster1966p6>{{harvnb|Forster|1966|p=VI, 6}}</ref>

As always with Dickens, when a writing project began, he was agitated, melancholy, "even deeper than the customary birth pangs of other novels";<ref name=Forster1966p6 /> as always, he hesitated about the title, and his working notes contain seventeen variants, "Charles Copperfield" included.<ref name=Schlicke1999p150 /> After several attempts, he stopped on "The Copperfield Survey of the World as it Rolled", a title that he retained until 19 April.<ref name=Patten1978pp205>{{harvnb|Patten|1978|pp=205–206}}</ref> When Forster pointed out that his hero, now called David, has his own initials transposed, Dickens was intrigued and declared that this was a manifestation of his [[fate]].<ref name=Forster1966p6 /> However, he was not yet sure of his pen: "Though I know what I want to do, I am lumbering like a train wagon",<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to John Forster, April 19, 1849</ref> he told Forster.

===No general plan, but an inspired novel===
[[File:Sir Anthony Van Dyck - Charles I (1600-49) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|Charles I (1600-49) whose decapitation is the obsession of Mr Dick. [[Charles I in Three Positions]] by Anthony Van Dyck 1635-1636.]]
Contrary to the method previously used for ''[[Dombey and Son]]'', Dickens did not elaborate an overall plan and often wrote the summary of a chapter after completing it. Four character names were found at the last moment: Traddles, Barkis, Creakle and Steerforth;<ref>{{harvnb|Burgis|1981|p=XXIX}}</ref> the profession of David remains uncertain until the eighth issue (printed in December 1849, containing Chapters 22–24, in which David chooses to be trained as a proctor); and Paul Schlicke notes that the future of Dora was still not determined on 17 May 1850 (when 37 chapters had been published in the first 12 monthly instalments). Other major aspects of the novel, however, were immediately fixed, such as David's meeting with Aunt Betsey, Emily's fall or Agnes's role as the "real" heroine of the story.<ref name=Schlicke1999p151>{{harvnb|Schlicke|1999|p=151}}</ref>

Once launched, Dickens becomes "quite confident".<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to John Forster, 6 June 1849</ref> The most difficult thing was to insert "what I know so well", his experience at the Warren factory; once the threads were woven, however, the truth mixed with fiction, he exulted and congratulated himself in a letter to Forster <ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to John Forster, 10 July 1849</ref> From now on, he wrote in this letter, the story "bore him irresistibly along". Never, it seems, was he in the grip of failures of inspiration, so "ardent [is his] sympathy with the creatures of the fancy which always made real to him their sufferings or sorrows."<ref name=Forster1966p6 />

Changes in detail occur during the composition: on 22 August 1849, while staying on the [[Isle of Wight]] for a family vacation, he changed on the advice of Forster, the theme of the obsession of Mr Dick, a secondary character in the novel. This theme was originally "a bull in a china shop" and became "King Charles's head" in a nod to the bicentenary of the execution of [[Charles I of England]].<ref group = "N">Charles I was born into the [[House of Stuart]] 19 November 1600, and was [[List of Monarchs of England|King of England]], [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]] from 1625 to 1649. Charles I was deposed during the [[English Civil War]], and was beheaded, with the monarchy replaced by the [[Commonwealth of England]]. [[King Charles the Martyr|Charles]] was canonized by the [[Church of England]] in 1660.</ref><ref name=Schlicke1999p151 />

===Last incidents in the writing===
Although plunged into the writing of his novel, Dickens set out to create a new journal, ''[[Household Words]]'',<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to John Forster, 22 September 1849</ref> the first issue of which appeared on 31 March 1850. This daunting task, however, did not seem to slow down the writing of ''David Copperfield'': I am "busy as a bee", he writes happily to the actor [[William Macready]].<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to William Macready, 11 June 1850</ref>

A serious incident occurred in December: Mrs Jane Seymour Hill, [[chiropractor]] to [[Catherine Dickens|Mrs Dickens]],<ref name="Page_Perdue">{{cite web |url=http://charlesdickenspage.com/copperfield.html |work=The Charles Dickens Page |title=Miss Mowcher, Oops |last=Perdue |first=David A |year=2012 |accessdate=28 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829190736/http://charlesdickenspage.com/copperfield.html |archive-date=29 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> raised the threat of prosecution, because she recognised herself in the portrait of Miss Mowcher; Dickens did not do badly,<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to Mrs Seymour, 18 December 1849</ref> gradually modifying the psychology of the character by making her less of a caricature and, at the very end of the novel, by making her a friend of the protagonist, whereas at the beginning she served rather contrary purposes.<ref name="Page_Perdue" /> This was, writes Harry Stone, "the only major departure from his original plans."<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|1968|p=232}}</ref>

His third daughter was born on 16 August 1850, called Dora Annie Dickens, the same name as his character's first wife. The baby died nine months later after the last serial was issued and the book was published.<ref name=Schlicke1999p151 />

Dickens marked the end of his manuscript on 21 October 1850<ref name=Schlicke1999p151 /> and felt both torn and happy like every time he finished a novel: "Oh, my dear Forster, if I were to say half of what ''Copperfield'' makes me feel to-night, how strangely, even to you, I should be turned inside out! I seem to be sending some part of myself into the Shadowy World."<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to John Forster, 21 October 1850</ref><ref name=Schlicke1999p151 />

At first glance, the work is modeled in the loose and somewhat disjointed way of "personal histories" that was very popular in the United Kingdom of the 18th century;<ref name=TomJones group="N" /> but in reality, ''David Copperfield'' is a carefully structured and unified novel. It begins, like other novels by Dickens, with a rather bleak painting of the conditions of childhood in Victorian England, notoriously when the troublesome children are parked in infamous boarding schools, then he strives to trace the slow social and intimate ascent of a young man who, painfully providing for the needs of his good aunt while continuing his studies, ends up becoming a writer: the story, writes Paul Davis, of "a Victorian everyman seeking self-understanding".<ref name=Davis1999p85 />

===Publication in monthly instalments===
"The Personal History, Adventures, Experience, and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger, of Blunderstone Rookery"<ref group="N">A [[Rookery]] is a colony of birds, usually [[rook (bird)|rook]]s. The term [[Rookery (slum)|"rookery"]] was also used as a name for dense [[slum]] housing in nineteenth-century cities, especially in [[London]].</ref> was published from 1 May 1849 to 1 November 1850 in 19 monthly one-shilling instalments, containing 32 pages of text and two illustrations by [[Hablot Knight Browne|Hablot Knight Browne ("Phiz")]], with a title cover simplified to ''The Personal History of David Copperfield''. The last instalment was a double-number.

On the other side of the Atlantic, [[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]] and [[G. P. Putnam's Sons|G P Putnam]] published a monthly edition, then a two-volume book version.

[[File:Houghton HEW 2.6.15 - Dickens, David Copperfield.jpg|thumb|Title page of the first edition by Bradbury & Evans, signed by Dickens]]
* I – May 1849 (chapters 1–3);
* II – June 1849 (chapters 4–6);
* III – July 1849 (chapters 7–9);
* IV – August 1849 (chapters 10–12);
* V – September 1849 (chapters 13–15);
* VI – October 1849 (chapters 16–18);
* VII – November 1849 (chapters 19–21);
* VIII – December 1849 (chapters 22–24);
* IX – January 1850 (chapters 25–27);
* X – February 1850 (chapters 28–31);
* XI – March 1850 (chapters 32–34);
* XII – April 1850 (chapters 35–37);
* XIII – May 1850 (chapters 38–40);
* XIV – June 1850 (chapters 41–43);
* XV – July 1850 (chapters 44–46);
* XVI – August 1850 (chapters 47–50);
* XVII – September 1850 (chapters 51–53);
* XVIII – October 1850 (chapters 54–57);
* XIX-XX – November 1850 (chapters 58–64).

==Point of view==
Whatever the borrowings from Dickens's own life, the reader knows as an essential precondition, that ''David Copperfield'' is a novel and not an [[autobiography]]; a work with fictional events and characters – including the hero-narrator – who are creations of Dickens' imagination.

=== First person narrator ===
The use of the [[First-person narrative|first person]] determines the point of view: the [[narrator]] Copperfield, is a recognised writer, married to Agnes for more than ten years, who has decided to speak in public about his past life. This recreation, in itself an important act, can only be partial and also biased, since, [[A priori and a posteriori|''a priori'']], Copperfield is the only viewpoint and the only voice; not enjoying the prerogatives of the third person, omnipotence, ubiquity, clairvoyance, he relates only what he witnessed or participated in:<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=11}}</ref> all the characters appear in his presence or, failing that, he learns through hearsay, before being subjected to his pen through the prism of his conscience, deformed by the natural deficit of his perception and accentuated by the selective filter of memory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.signosemio.com/genette/narratology.asp |publisher=Signo |location=Quebec |title=Narratology, The narrative theory of Gérard Genette |last1=Guillemette |first1=Lucie |last2=Lévesque |first2=Cynthia |year=2016 |accessdate=5 April 2019}}</ref> Story teller and teacher, Copperfield does not let the facts speak for themselves, but constantly asserts himself as master of the narrative game, and he intervenes, explains, interprets and comments. His point of view is that of the adult he has become, as he expresses himself just as he is writing. At the end of his book, he feels a writer's pride to evoke "the thread[s] in the web I have spun"<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=697}}</ref>

Gareth Cordery writes that "if ''David Copperfield'' is the paradigmatic [[Bildungsroman]], it is also the quintessential novel of memory"<ref>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|p=372}}</ref> and as such, according to Angus Wilson, the equal of [[Marcel Proust]]'s ''[[In Search of Lost Time]]'' (''À la recherche du temps perdu'').<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1972|p=214}}</ref> The memory of the hero engages so intensely with his memories that the past seems present:

<blockquote>How well I recollect the kind of day it was! I smell the fog that hung about the place; I see the hoar-frost, ghostly, through it; I feel my rimy hair fall clammy on my cheek; I look along the dim perspective of the schoolroom, with a sputtering candle here and there to light up the foggy morning, and the breath of the boys wreathing and smoking in the raw cold as they blow upon their fingers, and rap their feet upon the floor.<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=101}}</ref></blockquote>

In such passages, which punctuate the retrospective chapters, the relived moment replaces the lived, the [[historical present]] seals the collapse of the original experience and the recreation of a here and now that seizes the entire field of consciousness.<ref name=Cordery2008p373>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|p=373}}</ref> Sometimes this resurrected experience is more vivid than reality; so, in Chapter 41, about Traddles' face, he says: "His honest face, he looked at me with a serio-comic shake of his head impresses me more in the remembrance than it did in the reality."<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=478}}</ref> These are "sacred moments", writes Gareth Cordery, which Copperfield has carefully guarded in "the treasure chambers"<ref group="N">The expression is from [[Augustine of Hippo|St Augustine]] who uses it at the end of the first part of his ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]''.</ref> of his memory, where sings "the music of time":<ref name=Cordery2008p373 /> "secret prose, that sense of a mind speaking to itself with no one there to listen".<ref>{{cite book |first=Graham |last=Greene |author-link=Graham Greene |title=The Lost Childhood and Other Essays |location=London |publisher=Eyre and Spottiswode |year=1951 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lostchildhoodoth0000gree/page/53 53]|title-link=The Lost Childhood and Other Essays }}</ref>

=== Commentary via the illustrations ===
[[File: David Copperfield. We arrive unexpectedly.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Sudden arrival at the Peggotty home by [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]]]]
Without being Dickens, this narrator, Copperfield, is very like him and often becomes his spokesperson. It adds to his point of view, directly or indirectly, that of the author, without there necessarily being total match between the two. As such, Copperfield serves as "medium", mirror and also screen, Dickens sometimes subverting his speech to get to the forefront or, on the contrary, hide behind this elegant delegate to the nimble pen. Dickens' voice, however, is in general well concealed and, according to Gareth Cordery, the most difficult to detect because mostly present by implication.<ref>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|p=377}}</ref> To help hear his voice, he adds, it is advisable to turn to Phiz, whose illustrations bring a point of view which is not always in agreement with that of Copperfield. For example, in chapter 21, the two friends arrive by surprise at the Peggotty home, and Copperfield presents Steerforth to Emily at the very moment when her betrothal with Ham has just been announced. This sudden intrusion stops the girl as she has just jumped from Ham's arms to nestle in those of Mr Peggotty, a sign, says Cordery in passing, that the promise of marriage is as much for the uncle as for the nephew. The text remains brief but Phiz interprets, anticipates the events, denounces even the future guilt of Copperfield: all eyes are on the girl, her bonnet, emblem of her social aspirations and her next wanderings with Steerforth, is ready to be seized. Copperfield, dressed as a gentleman, stands in the doorway, one finger pointing at Steerforth who is taller by one head, the other measuring the gap between Ham and Dan Peggotty, as if offering Emily to his friend. Emily, meanwhile, still has her head turned to Ham but the body is withdrawn and the look has become both challenging and provocative. Phiz brings together in a single image a whole bunch of unwritten information, which Dickens approved and probably even suggested.<ref>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|pages=377–378}}</ref>

===Reader's insight===
[[File:David Copperfield, The Wanderer.jpg|thumb|The Wanderer, Mr Peggotty talks to David as Martha overhears, by [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]].]]
A third perspective is the point of view of the discerning reader who, although generally carried away by sympathy for the narrator's self-interested pleading, does not remain blissfully ignorant and ends up recognizing the faults of the man and of the writer, just as he also learns to identify and gauge the covert interventions of the author.

The discerning reader listens to the adult Copperfield and hears what this adult wants or does not want them to hear. "Even though this manuscript is intended for no eyes but mine", (chapter 42)<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=488}}</ref> the book exists, and the reader becomes ''[[ipso facto]]'' a "[[Confessor|father-confessor]]",<ref name=Cordery2008p373 /> knowing how to judge and even, at times, to doubt the sincerity of the emotion expressed. So, when Dora dies, the reader sees that the topic of grief is dropped in a hurry, as if Copperfield had more important things to do than to indulge in sorrow: "this is not the time at which I am to enter a state of mind beneath its load of sorrow",<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=619}}</ref> which creates a question and an embarrassment: is Copperfield protecting himself from his confusion, or does he shed some crocodile tears for form?

Copperfield also examines some of his most culpable weaknesses, such as unconscious connivance (his "own unconscious part") in the defilement of the Peggotty home by Steerforth, which he remains forever incapable of opposing: "I believe that if I had been brought face to face with him, I could not have uttered one reproach."(chapter 32)<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=367}}</ref> The same treatment is given to his childhood love, his so much idealized Emily, who, once "fallen", is expelled from his consciousness to the point where his last comment, when he stealthily sees her aboard the ship leaving for Australia, is "a masterpiece of narrative duplicity": far from seeing in her what she has become, a real woman, he takes refuge behind the image of a pathetic religious icon elegantly allowing him to remove his own guilt for betraying her.<ref name=Jordan1985>{{cite journal |first=John O |last=Jordan |title=The Social Sub-Text of David Copperfield |journal=Dickens Studies Annual |volume=14 |number=14 |year=1985 |pages=61–92 |jstor=44371526 |publisher=Penn State University Press}}</ref>

These underground currents are thus revealed in David's psychological struggle, Gareth Cordery concludes, currents that his narrative unconsciously attempts to disguise.<ref name=Cordery2008p374 />

==Recapitulation of plot structure==
=== The plot line===
The story is a road from which different paths leave. The road is that of David's life, the main plot; the branches are born of meetings with him and lead to several secondary intrigues taken more or less far along. Each is represented by an important figure: Mr Micawber, Steerforth, little Emily, Uriah Heep; there are side stories, that of Martha Endell, Rosa Dartle, and, along the main road, stretch some parallel paths on which the reader is from time to time invited: the Traddles, Betsey Trotwood, the Peggotty family, Dan and Ham in particular, Peggotty herself remaining from start to finish intimately related to David. The different tracks do not move away from the main avenue, and when they do, a narrative "forceps" brings them together again. Hence the retrospective chapters and the ultimate recapitulation were written.<ref>Inspiration for this analysis arises partly from {{cite book |first=W Teignmouth |last=Shore |url=https://www.bartleby.com/307/1005.html |via=Bartleby |title=''David Copperfield'', Criticisms and Interpretations V |year=1917 |accessdate=9 April 2019 |quote=We should note when studying this novel that it is narrated in the first person, the story is an autobiography, the most difficult form of fiction in which to attain a close approach to realism. Dickens has succeeded wonderfully; |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410051005/https://www.bartleby.com/307/1005.html |archive-date=10 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===The necessary summaries===
[[File:David Copperfield 1850 p512.png|thumb|Mr Peggotty finds young Emily, by [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]]. ]]
The narrative is linear in appearance, as is usual in traditional first-person form. It covers the narrator's life until the day he decides to put an end to his literary endeavor. However, whole sections of his life are summarized in a few paragraphs, or sometimes just a sentence or two, indicating that three or ten years have passed, or that Dora is dead, necessary to keep the story moving along. Thus, the long stay of reflection in [[Switzerland]] which leads to the recognition of love for Agnes, or the lapse of time before the final chapter, are all [[Ellipsis (narrative device)|blanks in the story]]. Besides the hero, this story concerns important secondary characters such as Mr Micawber or Uriah Heep, or Betsey Trotwood and Traddles, the few facts necessary for a [[Vraisemblance|believable story]] are parsimoniously distilled in the final chapters: an impromptu visit to a prison, the unexpected return of Dan Peggotty from the Antipodes; so many false surprises for the narrator who needs them to complete each person's personal story. As such, the [[epilogue]] that represents the last chapter (Ch 64) is a model of the genre, a systematic review, presumably inspired by his memory, without true connection. There is the desire to finish with each one, with forced exclamations and ecstatic observations, scrolling through the lives of those who are frozen in time: Dick with his "Memorial" and his kite, Dr Strong and his dictionary, and as a bonus, the news of David's "least child", which implies that there have been other children between him and eldest child Agnes of whom the reader has never heard by name. So also goes the story of Dan Peggotty relating the sad tale of his niece. The four chapters called "Retrospect" (Ch 18 A Retrospect, Ch 43 Another Retrospect, Ch 53 Another Retrospect and Ch 64 A Last Retrospect) are placed at strategic moments of the general discourse, which play a catch-up role more than one of meditation by the narrator, without venturing into event details. Here, the narration has disappeared, it has given way to a list, an enumeration of events.<ref>This analysis is inspired by an article originally in ''Englishmen of Letters'', {{cite book |url=https://www.bartleby.com/307/1003.html |via=Bartleby |title=''David Copperfield'', Criticisms and Interpretations III |first=Adolphus William |last=Ward |year=1917 |accessdate=9 April 2019 |quote=As to the construction of “David Copperfield,” however, I frankly confess that I perceive no serious fault in it. It is a story with a plot, and not merely a string of adventures and experiences, like little Davy’s old favourites upstairs at Blunderstone. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410051001/https://www.bartleby.com/307/1003.html |archive-date=10 April 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Restructuring ''a posteriori'' ===
Dickens' approach, as shown in ''David Copperfield'', does not escape what [[:fr:Georges Gusdorf]] calls "the original sin of autobiography", that is to say a restructuring ''[[A priori and a posteriori|a posteriori]]'' and in this, paradoxically, it demonstrates its authenticity.<ref name=Gusdorf1956p117>{{harvnb|Gusdorf|1956|p=117}}</ref> It consists of splitting one's life into parts, choosing decisive phases, identifying an evolution and endowing them with a direction and then a meaning, whereas, from day to day, existence has been lived as a cluster of shapeless perceptions requiring an immediate adaptation, that captures at best in the novel the use of the [[historical present]] generally adopted by Dickens. It is a succession of autonomous moments which do not end up amalgamating in a coherent whole and that connect the tenuous thread of the "I" recognizing each other. In this reconstruction, one part of truth and the other of poetry, the famous ''[[Dichtung und Wahrheit]]'' (''From my Life: Poetry and Truth; 1811–1833''), autobiography of [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]], there is the obligatory absence of objectivity, the promotion of oblivion as an integral part of memory, the ruling power of the subjectivity of time found.<ref name=Ferrieux2001pp117>{{harvnb|Ferrieux|2001|pp=117–122}}</ref>

Thus, to use George Gusdorf's words again, ''David Copperfield'' appears as a "second reading of a man's experience", in this case, Charles Dickens, when he reached the fullness of his career, tried to give "a meaning to his legend".<ref name=Gusdorf1956pp105>{{harvnb|Gusdorf|1956|pp=105–123}}</ref>

==Themes==
This novel's main theme arises from the fact that it is a [[bildungsroman]], a literary genre that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of the [[protagonist]] from youth to adulthood, which is common in Dickens's novels,<ref name=Lynch1999>{{harvnb|Lynch|1999}}</ref> and in which character change is extremely important.<ref name=Bakhtin1996p2>{{harvnb|Bakhtin|1996|p=21}}</ref><ref name=Jeffers2005p2>{{harvnb|Jeffers|2005|p=2}}</ref> The changes involve David leaving past selves behind on the way to maturity. Other important themes relate especially to Dickens's social concerns, and his desire for reform. This includes the plight of so-called 'fallen women', and prostitutes, as well as the attitude of middle-class society to these women; the status of women in marriage; the rigid class structure; the prison system; educational standards, and emigration to the colonies of what was becoming the [[British Empire]]. The latter was a way for individuals to escape some of the rigidity of British society and start anew. Some of these subjects are directly satirized, while others are worked into the novel in more complex ways by Dickens.

===Bildungsroman===
====Different names====
[[File:David reaches Canterbury, from David Copperfield art by Frank Reynolds.jpg|thumb|upright|David reaches Canterbury, from ''David Copperfield'', by Frank Reynolds]]
Copperfield's path to maturity is marked by the different names assigned to him: his mother calls him "Davy"; Murdstone calls him as "Brooks of Sheffield"; for Peggotty's family, he is "Mas'r Davy"; en route to boarding school from Yarmouth, he appears as "Master Murdstone"; at Murdstone and Grinby, he is known as "Master Copperfield"; Mr Micawber is content with "Copperfield"; for Steerforth he is "Daisy"; he becomes "Mister Copperfield" with Uriah Heep; and "Trotwood", soon shortened to "Trot" for Aunt Betsey; Mrs Crupp deforms his name into "Mr Copperfull"; and for Dora he is "Doady".<ref name="Dickens pXV">{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=XV}}</ref> While striving to earn his real name once and for all, this plethora of names reflects the fluidity of Copperfield's personal and social relationships, and obscure his real identity. It is by writing his own story, and giving him his name in the title, that Copperfield can finally assert who he is.<ref name="Dickens pXV"/>

==== A series of lives ====
David's life can be seen as a series of lives, each one in radical disjunction from what follows, writes Paul Davis.<ref name=Davis1999p91 /> The young boy in the warehouse differs from Blunderstone Rookery's child, or Salem House student, and overall David strives to keep these parts of himself disconnected from each other. For example, in Chapter 17, while attending Canterbury School, he met Mr Micawber at Uriah Heep's, and a sudden terror gripped him that Heep could connect him, such as he is today, and the abandoned child who lodged with the Micawber family in London.<ref name=Davis1999p91 />

So many mutations indicate the name changes, which are sometimes received with relief: "Trotwood Copperfield", when he finds refuge in [[Dover]] at his Aunt Betsey's house, so the narrator writes, "Thus I began my new life, in a new name, and with everything new about me." Then, he realised "that a remoteness had come upon the old Blunderstone life" and "that a curtain had for ever fallen on my life at Murdstone and Grinby's".<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=176}}</ref>

There is a process of forgetfulness, a survival strategy developed by memory, which poses a major challenge to the narrator; his art, in fact, depends on the ultimate reconciliation of differences in order to free and preserve the unified identity of his being a man.

==== "Will I be the hero of my own life?" ====
[[File:Mr. Dick and his kite, from David Copperfield art by Frank Reynolds.jpg|thumb|Mr Dick and his kite, from ''David Copperfield'', by Frank Reynolds]]

David opens his story with a question: Will I be the hero of my own life? Which means that he does not know where his approach will lead him, that writing itself will be the test. As Paul Davis puts it, "In this Victorian quest narrative, the pen might be lighter than the sword, and the reader will be left to judge those qualities of the man and the writer that constitute heroism.<ref name=Davis1999p90 />

However, question implies an affirmation: it is Copperfield, and no one else, who will determine his life, the future is delusory, since the games are already played, the life has been lived, with the novel being only the story. Copperfield is not always the hero of his life, and not always the hero of his story, as some characters have a stronger role than him,<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|pp=90–91}}</ref> Besides Steerforth, Heep, Micawber, for example, he often appears passive and lightweight. Hence, concludes Paul Davis, the need to read his life differently; it is more by refraction through other characters that the reader has a true idea of the "hero" of the story. What do these three men reveal to him, and also to Dora, whom he marries?<ref name=Davis1999p91>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|p=91}}</ref> Another possible yardstick is a comparison with the other two "writers" of the novel, Dr Strong and Mr Dick. The dictionary of Strong will never be completed and, as a story of a life, will end with the death of its author. As for Mr Dick, his autobiographical project constantly raises the question of whether he can transcend the incoherence and indecision of his subject-narrator. Will he be able to take the reins, provide a beginning, a middle, an end? Will he succeed in unifying the whole, in overcoming the trauma of the past, his obsession with the decapitated royal head, so as to make sense of the present and find a direction for the future? According to Paul Davis, only Copperfield succeeds in constructing a whole of his life, including suffering and failure, as well as successes, and that is "one measure of his heroism as a writer".<ref name=Davis1999p91 />

==== The weight of the past ====
The past "speaks" especially to David, "a child of close observation" (chapter 2); the title of this chapter is: "I observe",<ref name=Dickens1999p14>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=14}}</ref> and as an adult he is endowed with a remarkable memory.<ref>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|p=99}}</ref> So much so that the story of his childhood is realized so concretely that the narrator, like the reader, sometimes forgets that it is a lived past and not a present that is given to see. The [[Simple past|past tense verb]] is often the ''[[preterite]]'' for the [[Historical present|narrative]], and the sentences are often short independent propositions, each one stating a fact. Admittedly, the adult narrator intervenes to qualify or provide an explanation, without, however, taking precedence over the child's vision. And sometimes, the story is prolonged by a reflection on the functioning of the memory. So, again in chapter 2, the second and third paragraphs comment on the first memory of the two beings surrounding David, his mother, and Peggotty:

<blockquote>I believe I can remember these two at a little distance apart, dwarfed to my sight by stooping or kneeling on the floor, and I going unsteadily from the one to the other. I have an impression on my mind, which I cannot distinguish from actual remembrance, of the touch of Peggotty's forefinger as she used to hold it out to me, and of its being roughened by needlework, like a pocket nutmeg-grater. 
This may be fancy, though I think the memory of most of us can go further back into such times than many of us suppose; just as I believe the power of observation in numbers of very young children to be quite wonderful for its closeness and accuracy. Indeed, I think that most grown men who are remarkable in this respect may with greater propriety be said not to have lost the faculty than to have acquired it; the rather, as I generally observe such men to retain a certain freshness, and gentleness, and capacity of being pleased, which are also an inheritance they have preserved from their childhood.<ref name=Dickens1999p14 /></blockquote>

David thus succeeds, as George Orwell puts it, in standing "both inside and outside a child's mind",<ref name=Davis1999p90 /> a particularly important double vision effect in the first chapters. The perspective of the child is combined with that of the adult narrator who knows that innocence will be violated and the feeling of security broken. Thus, even before the intrusion of Mr Murdstone as step-father or Clara's death, the boy feels "intimations of mortality".<ref name=Davis1999p90 /> In the second chapter for example, when David spends a day with Mr Murdstone, during the first episode of "Brooks of Sheffield"<ref group="N">Word play containing the verb "brook", meaning "endure," and the town of "[[History of Sheffield|Sheffield]]," famous for the manufacture of cutlery. Hence Mr Murdstone's joke, "take care, if you please. Somebody's sharp".</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/childrens-books-site/2016/feb/23/why-charles-dickenss-best-character-is-non-existent |title=Why Charles Dickens's best character is non-existent |last=Christie |first=Sally |newspaper=The Guardian |date=22 February 2016 |accessdate=8 April 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/news/the-gift-that-led-dickens-to-give-up-his-treasured-copy-of-david-copperfield-7676012.html |title=The gift that led Dickens to give up his treasured copy of David Copperfield |newspaper=The Independent |date=25 April 2012 |last=Alberge |first=Dalya |accessdate=8 April 2019}}</ref> in which, first blow to his confidence, he realizes little by little that Mr Murdstone and his comrade Quinion are mocking him badly:

<blockquote>
'That's Davy,' returned Mr Murdstone. 
'Davy who?' said the gentleman. 'Jones?' 
'Copperfield' said Mr Murdstone. 
'What! Bewitching Mrs Copperfield's incumbrance?' cried the gentleman. 'The pretty little widow?' 
'Quinion,' said Mr Murdstone, 'take care, if you please. Somebody's sharp.' 
'Who is?' asked the gentleman laughing. 
I looked up quickly, being curious to know. 
'Only Brooks of Sheffield', said Mr Murdstone. 
I was quite relieved to find that it was only Brooks of Sheffield, for, at first, I really thought it was I. 
There seemed to be something very comical in the reputation of Mr Brooks of Sheffield, for both the gentlemen laughed heartily when he was mentioned, and Mr Murdstone was a good deal amused also.<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=22}}</ref></blockquote>

The final blow, brutal and irremediable this time, is the vision, in chapter 9, of his own reflection in his little dead brother lying on the breast of his mother: "The mother who lay in the grave was the mother of my infancy; the little creature in her arms was myself, as I had once been, hushed forever on her bosom".<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=110}}</ref>

====A series of male models for David====
David Copperfield is a [[Posthumous birth|posthumous child]], that is, he was born after his father died.<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=6}}</ref> From birth, his aunt is the authority who stands in for the deceased father, and she decides Copperfield's identity by abandoning him because he is not female. His first years are spent with women, two Claras,<ref group="N">The connotations of the first name "Clara" are clarity, transparency, brightness.</ref> his mother and Peggotty, which, according to Paul Davis, "undermines his sense of masculinity".<ref name=Davis1999p90 /> Hence a sensitivity that the same critic calls "feminine", made-up of a lack of confidence, naive innocence and anxiety, like that of his mother, who was herself an orphan. Steerforth is not mistaken, when from the outset he calls Copperfield "Daisy"–a flower of spring, symbol of innocent youth. To forge an identity as a man and learn how to survive in a world governed by masculine values, instinctively, he looks for a father figure who can replace that of the father he did not have.

Several male models will successively offer themselves to him: the adults Mr Murdstone, Mr Micawber and Uriah Heep, his comrades Steerforth and Traddles.

*Mr Murdstone
[[File:David Copperfield (1850) (14777068141).jpg|thumb|Aunt Betsey & Mr Dick say no to Mr Murdstone and his sister, by [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]].]]

Mr Murdstone darkens Copperfield's life instead of enlightening him, because the principle of firmness which he champions, absolute novelty for the initial family unit, if he instills order and discipline, kills spontaneity and love. The resistance that Copperfield offers him is symbolic: opposing a usurper without effective legitimacy, he fails to protect his mother but escapes the straitjacket and achieves his independence. Mr Murdstone thus represents the anti-father, double negative of the one of which David was deprived, model ''a contrario'' of what it is not necessary to be.

*Mr Micawber
[[File:Traddles, Micawber and David from David Copperfield art by Frank Reynolds.jpg|thumb|Traddles, Micawber and David from ''David Copperfield'', by Frank Reynolds]]
The second surrogate father is just as ineffective, although of a diametrically opposed personality: it is Mr Micawber who, for his part, lacks firmness to the point of sinking into irresponsibility. Overflowing with imagination and love, in every way faithful and devoted, inveterate optimist, he eventually becomes, in a way, the child of David who helps him to alleviate his financial difficulties. The roles are reversed and, by the absurdity, David is forced to act as a man and to exercise adult responsibilities towards him. However, the Micawbers are not lacking in charm, the round Wilkins, of course, but also his dry wife, whose music helps her to live. Mrs Micawber has, since childhood, two songs in her repertoire, the Scottish "The dashing white sergeant"<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.scottishdance.net/ceilidh/dances.html#DashingWhite |work=Scottish Dance |title=Dances |access-date=19 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806160908/http://www.scottishdance.net/ceilidh/dances.html#DashingWhite |archive-date=6 August 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and the American lament "The little Tafflin with the Silken Sash",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.traditionalmusic.co.uk/studies-folksong/studies-folksong%20-%200112.htm |work=Traditional Music (.co.uk) |title=American Sea-Songs |access-date=19 July 2012}}</ref> whose attraction has decided her husband to "win that woman or perish in the attempt"<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=342}}</ref> In addition to the melodies that soothe and embellish, the words of the second, with her dream "Should e’er the fortune be my lot to be made a wealthy bride!" and her [[aphorism]] "Like attracts like" have become emblematic of the couple, one is the opposite of reality and the other the very definition of its harmony.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dickens-theme.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/davidcopperfield.html |work=dickens-theme.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk |title=The themes at Dickens |access-date=19 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100510193044/http://www.dickens-theme.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/davidcopperfield.html |archive-date=10 May 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

*Uriah Heep
New avatar of this quest, Uriah Heep is "a kind of negative mirror to David".<ref name=Davis1999p91 /> Heep is clever at enlarging the pathos of his humble origins, for example, which ability he exploits shamelessly to attract sympathy and mask an unscrupulous ambition; while David, on the other hand, tends to suppress his modest past and camouflage his social ambitions under a veneer of worldly mistrust, prompting Paul Davis to conclude that, just as Mr Murdstone is adept at firmness, Heep, in addition to being a rascal, lacks the so-called feminine qualities of sensitivity which David does not lose.<ref name=Davis1999p91 />

*Steerforth
[[File:Steerforth from David Copperfield art by Frank Reynolds.jpg|thumb|upright|Steerforth from ''David Copperfield'', by Frank Reynolds]]
For David, Steerforth represents all that Heep is not: born a gentleman, with no stated ambition or defined life plan, he has a natural presence and charisma that immediately give him scope and power. However, his failure as a model is announced well before the episode at Yarmouth where he seizes, like a thief, Little Emily before causing her loss in [[Italy]]. He already shows himself as he is, brutal, condescending, selfish and sufficient, towards Rosa Dartle, bruised by him for life, and Mr Mell who undergoes the assaults of his cruelty. The paradox is that even as he gauges his infamy, David remains from start to finish dazzled by Steerforth's aristocratic ascendancy, even as he contemplates him drowning on Yarmouth Beach, "lying with his head upon his arm, as I had often seen him at school".<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=640}}</ref>

*Traddles
Now consider Traddles, the anti-Steerforth, the same age as the hero, not very brilliant at school, but wise enough to avoid the manipulations to which David succumbs. His attraction for moderation and reserve assures him the strength of character that David struggles to forge. Neither rich nor poor, he must also make a place for himself in the world, at which he succeeds by putting love and patience at the center of his priorities, the love that tempers the ambition and the patience that moderates the passion. His ideal is to achieve justice in his actions, which he ends up implementing in his profession practically. In the end, Traddles, in his supreme modesty, represents the best male model available to David.<ref name=Davis1999p90 />

There are others, Daniel Peggotty for example, all love and dedication, who goes in search of his lost niece and persists in mountains and valleys, beyond the seas and continents, to find her trace. Mr Peggotty is the anti-Murdstone par excellence, but his influence is rather marginal on David, as his absolute excellence, like the maternal perfection embodied by his sister Peggotty, makes him a character type more than an individual to refer to. There is also the carter Barkis, original, laconic and not without defects, but a man of heart. He too plays a role in the personal history of the hero, but in a fashion too episodic to be significant, especially since he dies well before the end of the story.

====The hard path to the right balance====

It is true that David's personal story makes it more difficult for him to access the kind of equilibrium that Traddles presents, because it seems destined, according to Paul Davis, to reproduce the errors committed by his parents.<ref name=Davis1999p91 /> So, without knowing it, he looks a lot like his late father, also named David, who, according to Aunt Betsey, had eyes only for the flower-women, and, as such, he finds himself as irresistibly attracted to Dora whose delicate and charming femininity, the sweet frivolity too, recall those of his diaphanous mother. The chapters describing their loves are among the best in the novel<ref name=Davis1999p91 /> because Dickens manages to capture the painful ambivalence of David, both passionately infatuated with the irresistible young woman, to whom we can only pass and forgive everything, and frustrated by his weak character and his absolute ignorance of any discipline. For love, the supreme illusion of youth, he tries to change it, to "form her mind", which leads him to recognize that "firmness" can to be a virtue which, ultimately, he needs. However, finding himself in a community of thought, even distantly, with his hateful and cruel stepfather whom he holds responsible for the death of his mother and a good deal of his own misfortunes, it was a troubling discovery.<ref name=Davis1999p90 />

[[File:David Copperfield (1850) (14777862664).jpg|thumb|Dr Strong and his young wife Annie, by [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]].]]
It is his aunt Betsey who, by her character, represents the struggle to find the right balance between firmness and gentleness, rationality and empathy. Life forced Betsey Trotwood to assume the role she did not want, that of a father, and as such she became, but in her own way, adept at steadfastness and discipline. From an initially culpable intransigence, which led her to abandon the newborn by denouncing the incompetence of the parents not even capable of producing a girl, she finds herself gradually tempered by circumstances and powerfully helped by the "madness" of her protege, Mr Dick. He, between two flights of kites that carry away the fragments of his personal history, and without his knowing it, plays a moderating role, inflecting the rationality of his protector by his own irrationality, and his cookie-cutter judgments by considerations of seeming absurdity, but which, taken literally, prove to be innate wisdom. In truth, Aunt Betsey, despite her stiffness and bravado, does not dominate her destiny; she may say she can do it, yet she cannot get David to be a girl, or escape the machinations of Uriah Heep any more than the money demands of her mysterious husband. She also fails, in spite of her lucidity, her clear understanding, of the love blindness of her nephew, to prevent him from marrying Dora and in a parallel way, to reconcile the Strongs. In fact, in supreme irony, it is once again Mr Dick who compensates for his inadequacies, succeeding with intuition and instinctive understanding of things, to direct Mr Micawber to save Betsey from the clutches of Heep and also to dispel the misunderstandings of Dr Strong and his wife Annie.<ref name=Davis1999p91 />

As often in Dickens where a satellite of the main character reproduces the course in parallel, the story of the Strong couple develops in counterpoint that of David and Dora. While Dora is in agony, David, himself obsessed with his role as a husband, observes the Strongs who are busy unraveling their marital distress. Two statements made by Annie Strong impressed him: in the first, she told him why she rejected Jack Maldon and thanked her husband for saving her "from the first impulse of an undisciplined heart".<ref name=Dickens1999p535>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=535}}</ref> The second was like a flash of revelation: "There can be no disparity in marriage like unsuitability of mind and purpose".<ref name=Dickens1999p535 /> At the end of chapter 45, almost entirely devoted to the epilogue of this affair, David meditates on these words which he repeats several times and whose relevance, applied to his own case, is imposed on him. He concludes that in all things, discipline tempered by kindness and kindness is necessary for the equilibrium of a successful life. Mr Murdstone preached firmness; in that, he was not wrong. Where he cruelly failed was that he matched it with selfish brutality instead of making it effective by the love of others.<ref name=Davis1999p92 />

==== The happiness of maturity with Agnes ====
[[File:Agnes Wickfield from David Copperfield art by Frank Reynolds.jpg|thumb|right| upright|Agnes Wickfield, David's second wife, by Frank Reynolds]]
It is because David has taken stock of his values and accepted the painful memories of Dora's death, that he is finally ready to go beyond his emotional blindness and recognize his love for Agnes Wickfield, the one he already has called the "true heroine" of the novel to which he gives his name. Paul Davis writes that Agnes is surrounded by an aura of sanctity worthy of a stained glass window, that she is more a consciousness or an ideal than a person, that, certainly, she brings the loving discipline and responsibility of which the hero needs, but lacks the charm and human qualities that made Dora so attractive.<ref name=Davis1999p92 /> Adrienne E Gavin, nuancing the point, writes that she is neither more nor less [[caricature]] than other young women in the hero's life: if Emily is a [[stereotype]] of the "[[Fallen woman|lost woman]]" and Dora of "woman-child", Agnes is that of "[[The Angel in the House|ideal Victorian woman]]", which necessarily limits, for her as for the others, the possibilities of evolution, the only change available from a loving and devoted daughter to a loving and devoted wife.<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=XIV}}</ref>

That said, the writer David, now David Copperfield, realised the vow expressed to Agnes (when he was newly in love with Dora, in Chapter 35. Depression): "If I had a conjurer's cap, there is no one I should have wished but for you".<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=411}}</ref> At the end of his story, he realizes that the conjurer's cap is on his head, that he can draw his attention to the people he loves and trusts. Thus, ''David Copperfield'' is the story of a journey through life and through oneself, but also, by the grace of the writer, the recreation of the tenuous thread uniting the child and the adult, the past and the present, in what Georges Gusdorf calls "fidelity to the person".<ref>{{cite book |first=George |last=Gusdorf |title=Mémoire et personne |trans-title=Memory and person |location=Paris |publisher=University Press France |volume=2 |year=1951 |page=542 |language=fr}}</ref> or, as Robert Ferrieux said,<ref name=Ferrieux2001p129>{{harvnb|Ferrieux|2001|p=129}}</ref> {{Verse translation|lang=fr|italicsoff=no|rtl1=|le corps chaud de l'être personnel|the warm body of the personal being|attr1=|attr2=}}

===Social questions===

Admittedly, it is not the primary interest of ''David Copperfield'' that remains above all the story of a life told by the very one who lived it, but the novel is imbued with a dominant ideology, that of the [[middle class]], advocating moral constancy, hard work, [[separate spheres]] for men and women, and, in general, the art of knowing one's place, indeed staying in that place. Further, some social problems and repeated abuses being topical, Dickens took the opportunity to expose them in his own way in his fiction, and Trevor Blount, in his introduction to the 1966 edition Penguin Classics, reissued in 1985, devotes several pages to this topic.<ref name=Dickens1985p33>{{harvnb|Dickens|1985|pp=33–37}}</ref>

However, Gareth Cordery shows that behind the display of [[Victorian Era|Victorian]] values, often hides a watermarked discourse that tends to question, test, and even subvert them.<ref name=Cordery2008p374>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|p=374}}</ref> There are therefore two possible readings, the one that remains on the surface and another that questions below this surface, the implicit questions.

Among the social issues that ''David Copperfield'' is concerned with, are prostitution, the prison system, education, as well as society's treatment of the insane.

Dickens' views on education are reflected in the contrast he makes between the harsh treatment that David receives at the hands of Creakle at Salem House and Dr Strong's school where the methods used inculcate honour and self–reliance in its pupils.

Through the character of "the amiable, innocent, and wise fool" Mr Dick, Dickens's "advocacy in the humane treatment of the insane" can be seen.<ref>{{harvnb|Takei|2005|pp=116–131, 100}}</ref> Mr Dick's brother

::didn’t like to have him visible about his house, and sent him away to some private asylum-place: though he had been left to his particular care by their deceased father, who thought him almost a natural. And a wise man he must have been to think so! Mad himself, no doubt.

So Betsy Trotwood, continuing Mr Dick's story in Chapter 14, stepped in to suggest that Mr Dick should be given "his little income, and come and live with" her: "I am ready to take care of him, and shall not ill-treat him as some people (besides the asylum-folks) have done."

====Victorian child exploitation====
The employment of young children in factories and mines under harsh conditions in the early Victorian era disturbed many. There was a series of Parliamentary enquiries into the working conditions of children, and these "reports shocked writers [[Elizabeth Barrett Browning]] and Charles Dickens."<ref name="British Library" /> Dickens describes children working in factories or other workplaces in several novels, notably in ''[[Oliver Twist]]'', and in ''David Copperfield''. Young David works in a factory for a while after his mother dies and his stepfather showed no interest in him. Such depictions contributed to the call for legislative reform.<ref name="British Library">{{cite web |last1=Griffin |first1=Emma |title=Child labour |url=https://www.bl.uk/romantics-and-victorians/articles/child-labour# |publisher=The British Library |accessdate=26 May 2018 }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].</ref>

====Prison discipline====

Dickens satirises contemporary ideas about how prisoners should be treated in Chapter 61, 'I am Shown Two Interesting Penitents'. In this chapter, published in November 1850, David along with Traddles is shown around a large well-built new prison, modelled on [[Pentonville prison]] (built in 1842), where a new, supposedly more humane, system of incarceration is in operation, under the management of David's former headmaster Creakle.<ref name=Collins2016pp140>{{harvnb|Collins|2016|pp=140–163}}</ref> A believer in firmness, Dickens denounced comically the system of isolating prisoners in separate cells, the "separate system", and giving them healthy and pleasant food.<ref group="N">Dickens ridiculed the way it worked, lamenting that detainees were better treated than the poor or even non-commissioned soldiers.</ref> His [[satire]] appeals directly to the public, already warned by the long controversy over the prison discipline in the press.<ref name="Dickens_33">{{harvnb|Dickens|1985|p=33}}</ref> Mr Creakle is very proud of this new system, but his enthusiasm is immediately undermined by the reminder of his former ferocity as a school principal. In the prison David and Traddles encounter 'model prisoners' 27 and 28, who they discover are Uriah Heep and Mr Littimer. Heep is seen reading a hymn book and Littimer also "walked forth, reading a good book": both have managed to convince the naïve Creakle, and his fellow magistrates, that they have seen the error of their ways. Both are questioned about the quality of the food and Creakle promises improvements.<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1985|p=34}}</ref>

Dickens ideas in this chapter were in line with [[Thomas Carlyle|Carlyle]], whose pamphlet, "Model Prisons", also denounced Pentonville Prison, was published in the spring of 1850.<ref name=Collins2016pp140 /> Indeed Dickens had published anonymously, a month after Carlyle a pamphlet on the same subject, "Pet Prisonners".<ref>Charles Dickens, 'Pet Prisoners, "Letters", ''Household Words'', 27 April 1850.</ref>

====Emigration to Australia====
[[File: Fred Barnard08.jpg|thumb|Mr Micawber and the art of baking, with Mrs Micawber and the twins, by Fred Barnard.]]
Dickens exploration of the subject of emigration in the novel has been criticized, initially by [[John Forster (biographer)|John Forster]] and later by [[G K Chesterton]].
Chesterton accused Dickens of presenting emigration in an excessively optimistic light. That Dickens believed that by sending a boatload of people overseas their 'souls' can be changed, while ignoring the fact that poor people like Peggotty have seen their home stained or, like Emily, their honour tarnished. Micawber has been broken by the English social system and his journey to the antipodes is paid for by a paragon of the Victorian bourgeoisie, Betsey Trotwood,<ref>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|p=379}}</ref> And he is supposed to regain control of his destiny once he has arrived in Australia.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gilbert Keith |last=Chesterton |title=Criticisms and Appreciations of the Works of Charles Dickens |location=London |publisher=Dent |year=1933 |orig-year=1931 |page=131}}</ref> Trevor Blount points out that the word 'soul' has a different meaning for Dickens than Chesterton. Dickens cares about material and psychological happiness, and is convinced that physical well-being is a comfort for life's wounds.

Dickens sent his characters to America in ''[[Nicholas Nickleby]]'' and ''[[Martin Chuzzlewit]]'', but he has the Peggotty and Micawber families emigrate to the Australia. This approach was part of official policy of the 1840s, focusing on [[History of Australia (1788–1850)#Growth of free settlement|Australia]] as a land of welcome. It was at this time necessary to stimulate interest in the new colony and propagandists arrived in England in particular [[John Dunmore Lang]] and [[Caroline Chisholm]] from Australia. Dickens was only following this movement and, in any case, had faith in family colonisation. Moreover, the idea that redemption could be achieved by such a new start in a person's life was a preoccupation of the author, and he saw here subject matter to charm his readers.<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1985|pp=35–36}}</ref>

From the point of view of the novel's inner logic, in order for Copperfield to complete his psychological maturation and exist independently, Dickens must expel his surrogate fathers, including Peggotty and Micawber, and emigration is an easy way to remove them.<ref name=Davis1999p92 />

====Visions for society====
The episode in the prison, according to novelist [[Angus Wilson]], is more than a piece of journalism;<ref>{{harvnb|Wilson|1972|p=212}}</ref> it represents Dickens's vision of the society in which he lives. The same can be said of the episodes concerning prostitution and emigration, which illuminate the limits of Copperfield's moral universe and Dickens's own uncertainties.<ref name=Cordery2008p376>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|p=376}}</ref> That everything is put in order in Australia, that Martha marries a man from the bush, that Emily, in the strong arms of Dan Peggotty, becomes a lady of good works, that Micawber, who had been congenitally insolvent, suddenly acquires the management skills and becomes prosperous in dispensing justice. All these conversions are somewhat 'ironic',<ref>{{cite book |first=Grace |last=Moore |title=Dickens and Empires: Discourses of Class, Race and Colonialism in the Works of Charles Dickens |location=Aberdeen |publisher=Ashgate |year=2004 |page=12 |series=The Nineteenth Century Series |isbn=978-0754634126}}</ref> and tend to undermine the hypothesis of 'a Dickens believing in the miracle of the antipodes', which Jane Rogers considers in her analysis of the 'fallen woman' as a plot device to gain the sympathy of Dickens' readers for Emily.<ref name=Rogers2003>{{cite web |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/rogers/4.html |last=Rogers |first=Jane |work=Victorian Web |title=How did Dickens deal with prostitution in his novels? Little Em'ly in the novel |date=27 May 2003 |accessdate=16 March 2019 |quote=The fact that Em'ly can only continue her thwarted life in the colonies suggests that Dickens is sensitive to his audiences' abhorrence of Em'ly's crime, whilst (by saving her from annihilation) encouraging them to greater sympathy for her.}}</ref>

==== The middle-class ideology ====
[[John Forster (biographer)|John Forster]], Dickens's early biographer, praises the bourgeois or middle-class values and ideology found in ''David Copperfield''.<ref>{{harvnb|Forster|1966|pp=VI, 7}}</ref> Like him the Victorian reading public shared Copperfield's complacent views, expressed with the assurance of success that is his, at the end, as a recognized writer who is happy in marriage and safe from need.

Gateth Cordery takes a close look at class consciousness. According to him, Copperfield's relationship with aristocrat Steerforth and the humble Uriah Heep is "crucial".<ref name=Cordery2008p374 /> From the beginning, Copperfield ranks as and is considered by his friends among the good people. The Peggotty family, in Chapter 3, treat him with respect, "as a visitor of distinction"; even at Murdstone and Grinby, his behaviour and clothes earned him the title of "the little gentleman". When he reached adulthood, he naturally enjoyed Steerforth's disdain for Ham as a simple "joke about the poor". So he is predisposed to succumb, by what he calls in chapter 7 an "inborn power of attraction", to the charm instinctively lent to beautiful people, about which David said "a kind of enchantment . . . to which it was a natural weakness to yield." From start to finish, David remains fascinated by Steerforth, so he aspires inwardly to his social status.<ref>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|pp=374–375}}</ref>

In parallel there is a contempt of the upstart, Heep, hatred of the same nature as Copperfield's senseless adoration for Steerforth, but inverted. That '''umble'' Heep goes from a lowly clerk to an associate at Wickfield's, to claiming to win the hand of Agnes, daughter of his boss, is intolerable to David, though it is very similar to his own efforts to go from shorthand clerk to literary fame, with Dora Spenlow, the daughter of his employer.<ref name=Cordery2008p375>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|p=375}}</ref> Heep's innuendo that Copperfield is no better than him feeds on the disdain in which he holds Heep as of right: "Copperfield, you've always been an upstart",<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=612}}</ref> an honesty of speech, comments Cordery, of which Copperfield himself is incapable.<ref name=Cordery2008p375 />

====Marriage====

Another concern of Dickens is the institution of marriage and in particular the unenviable place occupied by women. Whether at the home of Wickfield, Strong, or under the Peggotty boat, women are vulnerable to predators or intruders like Uriah Heep, Jack Maldon, James Steerforth; Murdstone's firmness prevails up to the death of two wives; with David and Dora complete incompetence reigns; and at the Micawber household, love and chaos go hand in hand; while Aunt Betsey is subjected to blackmail by her mysterious husband. Dickens, according to Gareth Cordery, clearly attacks the official status of marriage, which perpetuated an inequality between the sexes, an injustice that does not end with the separation of couples.<ref name=Cordery2008p376 />

The mid-Victorian era saw change in gender roles, for men and women, in part forced by the factories and separation of work and home, which made stereotypes of the woman at home and the man working away from home.<ref name=McKnight2008pp186193>{{harvnb|McKnight|2008|pages=186–193}}</ref> Values, like the imperative need for women to marry and to be that ideal described as [[The Angel in the House]] (manages the home without aid and is always calm) are "interrogated, tested and even subverted",<ref>{{harvnb|Cordery|2008|page=374}}</ref> for example by having one mother-figure be the character Betsey Trotwood, who is not a mother.<ref name=McKnight2008p196>{{harvnb|McKnight|2008|page=196}}</ref> When seeming to describe a stereotypical image in particularly the female characters, the story "does so in a way that reflects the fault-lines of the image."<ref name=McKnight2008p195>{{harvnb|McKnight|2008|page=195}}</ref>

[[Anne Brontë]] in ''[[The Tenant of Wildfell Hall]]'' (1848) explores this iniquity in the status of the character Helen Graham, separated from her alcoholic husband. Dickens's understanding of the burden on women in marriage in this novel contrasts with his treatment of his own wife [[Catherine Dickens|Catherine]], whom he expected to be an Angel in the House.<ref name=McKnight2008p195 />

====The fallen woman====
[[File:The awakening conscience, William Holman Hunt (1851-1853).jpg|thumb|left|upright|''[[The Awakening Conscience]]'', [[William Holman Hunt|W H Hunt]] (1851-1853)]]
Martha Endell and Emily Peggotty, the two friends in Yarmouth who work at the undertaker's house, reflect Dickens's commitment to "save" so-called [[fallen women]]. Dickens was co-found with [[Angela Burdett-Coutts]] Urania Cottage, a home for young women who had "turned to a life of immorality", including theft and prostitution.<ref name=ODNB>{{Cite ODNB|id=10.1093|title=Coutts, Angela Georgina Burdett|first=Edna|last=Healey|author-link=Edna Healey}}</ref> On the eve of her wedding to her cousin and fiancé, Ham, she abandons him for Steerforth. After Steerforth deserts her, she doesn't go back home, because she has disgraced herself and her family. Her uncle, Mr Peggotty, finds her in London on the brink of being forced into prostitution. So that she may have a fresh start away from her now degraded reputation, she and her uncle emigrate to Australia. Martha has been a prostitute and contemplated suicide but towards the end of the novel, she redeems herself by helping Daniel Peggotty find his niece after she returns to London. She goes with Emily to start a new life in Australia. There, she marries and lives happily.

Their emigration to Australia, in the wake of that of Micawber, Daniel Peggotty, and Mr Mell, emphasizes Dickens' belief that social and moral redemption can be achieved in a distant place, where someone may create a new and healthy life.<ref>Charles Dickens, "A Bundle of Emigrants", Letters, ''Household Words'', 30 March 1850</ref> However, despite their families' forgiveness , they remain "tainted" and their expulsion from England is symbolic of their status: it is only at the other end of the world that these "social outcasts" can be reinstated. Morally, Dickens here conforms to the dominant middle-class opinion,

====The exception of Rosa Dartle====
John O Jordan devotes two pages to this woman, also "lost," though never having sinned.<ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|2001|pp=130–131}}</ref> The sanctification of the Victorian home, he says, depends on the opposition between two [[stereotypes]], the "angel" and the "whore". Dickens denounced this restrictive dichotomy by portraying women "in between". Such is Rosa Dartle, passionate being, with the inextinguishable resentment of having been betrayed by Steerforth, a wound that is symbolised by the vibrant scar on her lip. Never does she allow herself to be assimilated by the dominant morality, refusing tooth and nail to put on the habit of the ideal woman. Avenger to the end, she wants the death of Little Emily, both the new conquest and victim of the same predator, and has only contempt for the efforts of David to minimize the scope of his words. As virtuous as anyone else, she claims, especially that Emily, she does not recognize any ideal family, each being molded in the manner of its social class, nor any affiliation as a woman: she is Rosa Dartle, in herself.<ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|2001|p=130}}</ref>

David's vision, on the other hand, is marked by class consciousness: for him, Rosa, emaciated and ardent at the same time, as if there were incompatibility (chapter 20), is a being apart, half human, half animal, like the lynx, with its inquisitive forehead, always on the look out (chapter 29), which consumes an inner fire reflected in the gaunt eyes of the dead of which only this flame remains (chapter 20). In reality, says Jordan, it is impossible for David to understand or even imagine any sexual tension, especially that which governs the relationship between Rosa and Steerforth, which, in a way, reassures his own innocence and protects what he calls his "candor" - frankness or angelism? - his story. Also, Rosa Dartle's irreducible and angry marginality represents a mysterious threat to his comfortable and reassuring domestic ideology.<ref>{{harvnb|Jordan|2001|p=131}}</ref>

==Dickens's way of writing==
[[File:TomJonesTitle.png|150px|thumb|''[[Tom Jones (novel)|Tom Jones]]'' was an important influence on Dickens]]
Dickens's approach to the novel is influenced by various things, including the [[picaresque novel]] tradition,<ref name=Levin1970p676>{{harvnb|Levin|1970|p=676}}</ref> [[melodrama]],<ref name=Levin1970p674>{{harvnb|Levin|1970|p=674}}</ref> and the [[novel of sensibility]].<ref name=Purton2012pxvii>{{harvnb|Purton|2012|p=xvii}}</ref> [[Satire]] and [[irony]] are central to the picaresque novel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/picaresque-novel |title=Picaresque novel |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |last=Luebering |first=J E |accessdate=5 March 2019}}</ref> Comedy is also an aspect of the British picaresque novel tradition of [[Laurence Sterne]], [[Henry Fielding]], and [[Tobias Smollett]]. Fielding's ''[[The History of Tom Jones, a Foundling|Tom Jones]]''<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henry-Fielding#ref72429 |title=Last Years: Tom Jones |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia Britannica |last=Allen |first=Walter E |accessdate=5 March 2019 }}</ref><ref name=Watt1963p300>{{harvnb|Watt|1963|p=300}}</ref> was a major influence on the nineteenth century novel including Dickens, who read it in his youth,<ref>{{harvnb|Ackroyd|1990|p=44}}</ref> and named a son [[Henry Fielding Dickens]] in his honour.<ref name=HFDickens1934pxviii>{{harvnb|Dickens|1934|p=xviii}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25851/25851-h/25851-h.htm#Page_2_462 |last=Forster |first=John |title=The Life of Charles Dickens |publisher=Project Gutenberg |orig-year=1875 |year=2008 |accessdate=5 March 2019 |volume=III |chapter=Chapter 20 |page=462}}</ref> Melodrama is typically sensational and designed to appeal strongly to the emotions.

Trevor Blount comments on the fascination that Dickens has always exercised on the public. He mentions the lavishness, energy, vividness, brilliance, and tenderness of Dickens's writing, along with the range of his imagination. Blount also refers to Dickens's humour, and his use of the macabre and of pathos. Finally Blount celebrates the artistic mastery of an overflowing spontaneity, which is conveyed carried with both delicacy and subtlety.<ref name=Dickens1985p13>{{harvnb|Dickens|1985|p=13}}</ref> What Blount admires, in the first place, is the vigour with which the characters "rise" from the page and create a "phantasmagorical" universe, which is seen by the reader with the intensity of an hallucination. This is best illustrated in many of Dickens's works, by the powerful figure of a weak individual. In ''David Copperfield'' Mr Wilkins Micawber is such a figure, someone who is formidably incompetent, grandiose in his irreducible optimism, sumptuous in his verbal virtuosity, and whose grandiloquent tenderness is irresistibly comical.<ref name=Dickens1985p14>{{harvnb|Dickens|1985|p=14}}</ref> Micawber has been described as "With the one exception of [[Falstaff]], ... the greatest comic figure in English literature".<ref name=Priestley1966p242 />

In this novel, one characteristic noted by Edgar Johnson is that Dickens, in the first part, "makes the reader see with the eyes of a child",<ref name=Johnson1952>{{harvnb|Johnson|1952}}</ref> an innovative technique for the time, first tried in ''[[Dombey and Son]]'' with an omniscient [[narrator]], and carried here to perfection through the use of the 'I'.

[[Modernist]] novelist [[Virginia Woolf]] writes, that when we read Dickens "we remodel our psychological geography ... [as he produces] characters who exist not in detail, not accurately or exactly, but abundantly in a cluster of wild yet extraordinarily revealing remarks".<ref name=Woolf1986p286>{{harvnb|Woolf|1986|p=286}}</ref>

===Satire and pathos===
The very principle of satire is to question, and to tear off the masks, so as to reveal the raw reality under the varnish.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/eironeia |title=Eirôneia |work=Encyclopaedia Britannica |accessdate=26 February 2019}}</ref> Dickens use the whole arsenal of literary tools that are available to the satirist, or rather supplied by his narrator, David, who even directs satire upon himself. These tools include [[irony]], [[humour]], and [[caricature]]. How it is employed relates to the characters differing personalities. Satire is thus gentler towards some characters than others; toward David the hero-narrator, it is at once indulgent and transparent.

====Types of character====
[[File:Fred Barnard07.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|left|Uriah Heep at his desk, by Fred Barnard.]]
There are several different types of character: On the one hand there are the good ones, Peggotty, Dr Strong, Traddles, etc, on the hand there are the bad ones, Murdstone, Steerforth, Uriah Heep etc. A third category are characters who change over time, including Betsey Trotwood, who at first is more obstinate than nasty, it is true, and Martha Endell, and Creakle etc. There is also a contrast drawn between ever-frozen personalities such as Micawber, Dora, Rosa Dartle, and those who evolve. The latter includes David, Mr Mell, Miss Mowcher. The there is also a contrast drawn between the idiosyncrasies of Mr Dick, Barkis, Mrs Gummidge, and the subtle metamorphosis from innocence to maturity of characters like David, Traddles, Sophy Crewler.

Dickens worked intensively on developing arresting names for his characters that would reverberate with associations for his readers, and assist the development of motifs in the storyline, giving what one critic calls an "allegorical impetus" to a novel's meanings.<ref name="Mee2010">{{harvnb|Mee|2010|p=20}}</ref> The name Mr Murdstone in ''David Copperfield'' conjures up twin allusions to "murder" and stony coldness;<ref>{{harvnb|Stone|1987|pp=xx–xxi}}</ref> Strong is definitely not "strong"; Creakle "squeaks and grinds". There can also be a visual dimension to Dickens's humour. This includes Micawber's rotundity, his wife's dried-up body, which forever offers a sterile breast, Betsey's steadfast stiffness, Mr Sharp's bowed head, Daniel Peggotty's stubborn rudeness, Clara Copperfield's delicate silhouette, and Dora's mischievous air. Then there are exaggerated attitudes that are constantly repeated. Dickens creates humour out of character traits, such as Mr Dick's kite flying, James Maldon's insistent charm, Uriah Heep's obsequiousness, Betsey pounding David's room. There are in addition the employment of repetitive verbal phrases: "umble" of the same Heep, the "willin" of Barkis, the "lone lorn creetur" of Mrs Gummidge. Dickens also uses objects for a humorous purpose, like Traddles' skeletons, the secret box of Barkis, the image of Heep as a snake, and the metallic rigidity of Murdstone.

====Pathos and indulgent humour====
[[File:David Copperfield, Steerforth and Mr Mell.jpg|thumb|300px|Steerforth and Mr Mell, by [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]].]]
In ''David Copperfield'' idealised characters and highly sentimental scenes are contrasted with caricatures and ugly social truths. While good characters are also satirised, a considered sentimentality replaces satirical ferocity. This is a characteristic of all of Dickens's writing, but it is reinforced in ''David Copperfield'' by the fact that these people are the narrator's close family members and friends, who are devoted to David and sacrificing themselves for his happiness. Hence the indulgence applied from the outset, with humour prevailing along with loving complicity. David is the first to receive such treatment, especially in the section devoted to his early childhood, when he is lost in the depths of loneliness in London, following his punishment by Mr Murdstone. Michael Hollington analyses a scene in chapter 11 that seems emblematic of the situation and how humour and sentimentality are employed by Dickens.<ref name=Hollingotn1997p37>{{harvnb|Hollington|1997|p=37}}</ref> This is the episode where the very young David orders a pitcher of the best beer in a [[public house]], "To moisten what I had for dinner".<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|pp=132–133}}</ref> David's memory has retained the image of the scene, which is so vivid that he sees himself as from the outside. He has forgotten the exact date (his birthday). This episode release David's emotional pain, writes Michael Hollington, obliterating the infected part of the wound. Beyond the admiration aroused for the amazing self-confidence of the little child, in resolving this issue and taking control of his life with the assurance of someone much older, the passage "testifies to the work of memory, transfiguring the moment into a true myth".<ref name=Hollingotn1997p37 /> The tone is nostalgic because, ultimately, the epilogue is a true moment of grace. The wife of the keeper, returning David's money, deposits on his forehead a gift that has become extremely rare,<ref name=Hollingotn1997p38>{{harvnb|Hollington|1997|p=38}}</ref> a kiss, "Half admired and half compassionate", but above all full of kindness and femininity; at least, adds David, as a tender and precious reminder, "I am sure".

===Theatricality===
Dickens went to the theatre regularly from an early age and even considered becoming an actor in 1832.<ref name=Tomalin1992p7>{{harvnb|Tomalin|1992|p=7}}</ref> "Many of the plays that he saw on the London stage in the 1820s and 1830s were [[melodrama]]s".<ref name=Worth1978p1>{{harvnb|Worth|1978|p=1}}</ref> There is a visual, theatrical–even cinematic–element in some scenes in ''David Copperfield''. The cry of Martha at the edge of the river belongs to the purest Victorian [[melodrama]], as does the confrontation between Mr Peggotty and Mrs Steerforth, in chapter 32:

::I justify nothing, I make no counter-accusations. But I am sorry to repeat, it is impossible. Such a marriage would irretrievably blight my son's career, and ruin his prospects. Nothing is more certain than that, it never can take place, and never will. If there is any other compensation.<ref name=Dickens1985p378>{{harvnb|Dickens|1985|p=378}}</ref>

Such language, according to Trevor Blount, is meant to be said aloud. Many other scenes employ the same method: Micawber crossing the threshold, Heep harassing David in Chapter 17, the chilling apparition of Littimer in the middle of David's party in Chapter 27. The climax of this splendid series of scenes is the storm off Yarmouth, which is an epilogue to the menacing references to the sea previously, which shows Dicken's most intense virtuosity (chapter 55).

Dickens made the following comment in 1858: "Every good actor plays direct to every good author, and every writer of fiction, though he may not adopt the dramatic form, writes in effect for the stage".<ref>Charles Dickens, speaking at dinner for the Royal General Theatrical Fund, March 19, 1858.</ref>

===Setting===
Setting is a major aspect of Dickens's "narrative artistry and of his methods of characterization", so that "the most memorable quality of his novels may well be their atmospheric density [... of the] descriptive writing".<ref name=Johnson1969p147>{{harvnb|Johnson|1969|p=147}}</ref>

In ''David Copperfield'' setting is less urban, more rustic than in other novels, and especially maritime. Besides Peggotty, who is a seaman whose home is an overturned hull, Mr Micawber goes to the naval port of [[Plymouth]] on the south coast after prison and appears finally on board a steamer. David himself is connected to [[Great Yarmouth|Yarmouth]], and Aunt Betsey settled in the [[English Channel|Channel]] port of [[Dover]]. Young David notices the sea on his first day at her home; "the air from the sea came blowing in again, mixed with the perfume of the flowers".<ref name=Dickens1985Ch13>{{harvnb|Dickens|1985|loc=Chapter 13}}</ref> The city, [[London]], is especially the place of misfortune, where the dark warehouse of Murdstone and Grinby are found. The philosopher [[Émile Chartier|Alain]] (pseudonym of Émile-auguste Chartier) comments as follows about Dickens's portrayal of London (but it might also be applied to other locations), as cited by Lançon:

::The Dickensian atmosphere, unlike any other, comes from the way the distinctive nature of a dwelling is linked to the personality of its inhabitant [...] [There is there] a look that creates a sense of reality, with the remarkable connection between buildings and characters.<ref>{{cite news |first=Philippe |last=Lançon |author-link=Philippe Lançon |location=Paris |newspaper=Libération |date=March 17, 2012 |title=Charles Dickens, homme de Londres |department=Review: Arts. To celebrate the bicentennial of the birth of the writer, the British capital presents an exhibition in which London holds the leading role |trans-title=Charles Dickens, man of London |language=French |url=https://next.liberation.fr/culture/2012/03/17/charles-dickens-homme-de-londres_803733}}</ref>

===Symbolism===
Important symbols include, imprisonment, the sea, flowers, animals, dreams, and Mr Dick's kite.<ref name=Kincaid1969p196>{{harvnb|Kincaid|1969|pp=196–206}}</ref> According to Henri Suhamy, "Dickens's symbolism consists in giving significance to physical details ... The constant repetition of these details ... contributes to deepen their emblematic significance".<ref name=Suhamy1971p25>{{harvnb|Suhamy|1971|p=25}}</ref> This may include the characters, aspects of the story, and, more prominently amongst the motifs, places or objects.
[[File:Yarmouth engraving by William Miller after Turner.jpg|thumb| [[Great Yarmouth|Yarmouth, Norfolk]] engraving by William Miller after [[J. M. W. Turner|Turner]] ]]
Separating realism and symbolism can be tricky, especially, for example, when it relates, to the subject of imprisonment, which is both a very real place of confinement for the Micawber family, and, more generally throughout ''David Copperfield'', symbolic of the damage inflicted on a sick society, trapped in its inability to adapt or compromise, with many individuals walled within in themselves.<ref name=Suhamy1971p26>{{harvnb|Suhamy|1971|p=26}}</ref>

The imponderable power of the sea is almost always associated with death: it took Emily's father; will take Ham and Steerforth, and in general is tied to David's "unrest" associated with his Yarmouth experiences.<ref name=Kearney1978p28 /> In the end nothing remains but Steerforth's body cast-up as "flotsam and jetsam, that symbolises the moral emptiness of David's adoration. The violent storm in Yarmouth coincides with the moment when the conflicts reached a critical threshold, when it is as if angry Nature called for a final resolution; as Kearney noted, "The rest of the novel is something of an anti-climax after the storm chapter,".<ref name=Kearney1978p28>{{harvnb|Kearney|1978|page=28}}</ref><ref name=Kincaidp197>{{harvnb|Kincaid|1969|p=197}}</ref> Referring to the climactic storm scene in this novel, the last in any Dickens novel, Kearney remarked that "The symbolism of sea, sky and storm is successfully integrated to achieve what amounts to a mystical dimension in the novel, and this mystical dimension is, on the whole, more acceptable than the ones found elsewhere in Dickens".<ref>{{harvnb|Kearney|1978|page=30}}</ref>

According to Daniel L Plung, four types of animal are a particularly important aspect of the way symbolism is used: song birds symbolize innocence. "lions and raptors [are] associated with the fallen but not evil"; dogs, other than Jip, are associated "with the malicious and self-interested"; while snakes and eel represent evil.<ref name=Plung2000p216>{{harvnb|Plung|2000|p=216}}</ref> A typical example of the way that animal symbolism is used is found in the following sentence: " 'the influence of the Murdstones upon me [David] was like the fascination of two snakes on a wretched young bird" '.<ref name=Plung2000p217>{{harvnb|Plung|2000|p=217}}</ref> When David describes Steerforth as "brave as a lion" this is a clue to Steerforth's moral weakness and foreshadows subsequent events.<ref name=Plung2000p218>{{harvnb|Plung|2000|p=218}}</ref>

Flowers symbolize innocence, for example, David is called "Daisy" by Steerforth, because he is naive and pure, while Dora constantly paints bouquets, and when Heep was removed from Wickfield House, flowers return to the living room. Mr Dick's kite, represents how much he is both outside and above society, immune to its hierarchical social system. Furthermore, it flies among the innocent birds,<ref name=Plung2000p219>{{harvnb|Plung|2000|p=219}}</ref> and just as this toy soothes and gives joy to him, Mr Dick heals the wounds and restore peace where the others without exception have failed.

Dreams are also an important part of the novel's underlying symbolic structure, and are "used as a transitional device to bind [its] parts together" with twelve chapters ending "with a dream or reverie".<ref name=Kincaid1969p203>{{harvnb|Kincaid|1969|p=203}}</ref> In the early dark period of David's life his dreams "are invariably ugly", but in later chapters they are more mixed, with some reflecting "fanciful hopes" that are never realised, while others are nightmares which foreshadow "actual problems".<ref name=Kincaid1969p203 />

In addition physical beauty, in the form of Clara, is emblematic of moral good, while the ugliness of Uriah Heep, Mr Creakle and Mr Murdstone underlines their villainy. While David, the story's hero, has benefited from her love and suffered from the violence of the others.

=== Dialect ===
Dickens, in preparation for this novel, went to [[Norwich]], [[Lowestoft]], and [[Great Yarmouth|Yarmouth]] where the Peggotty family resides, but he stayed there for only five hours, on 9 January 1849. He assured his friends, that his descriptions were based on his own memories, brief as were his local experiences. However, looking to the work of K J Fielding <ref>{{cite news |first=K J |last=Fielding |title=''David Copperfield'' and Dialects |newspaper=Times Literary Supplement |date=30 April 1949}}</ref> reveals that the dialect of this town was taken from a book written by a local author, Major Edward Moor published in 1823.<ref>{{cite book |first=Major Edward |last=Moor |title=Suffolk Words and Phrases or, An attempt to collect the lingual localisms of that county |location=Yarmouth |publisher=J Loder for R Hunter |year=1823 |url=https://archive.org/details/suffolkwordsand00moorgoog/page/n9}}</ref> There, Dickens found ''a beein'' (a house), ''fisherate'' (officiate), ''[[dodman]]'' (snail), ''clickesen'' (gossip), and ''winnicking'' (tears) from ''winnick'' (to cry) and so on.<ref name=Dickens1985pp32>{{harvnb|Dickens|1985|pp=32–33}}</ref>

==Literary significance and reception==

Many view this novel as Dickens's [[masterpiece]], beginning with his friend and first biographer John Forster, who writes: "Dickens never stood so high in reputation as at the completion of Copperfield",<ref name=Forster1976p6>{{harvnb|Forster|1976|page=6}}</ref> and the author himself calls it "his favourite child".<ref>{{cite book |first=Charles |last=Dickens |title=David Copperfield |chapter=Preface |edition=1867 |location=London |publisher=Wordsworth Classics |page=4}}</ref><ref group="N">Conclusion of the preface of 1867: "Like many fond parents, I have in my heart of hearts a favourite child. And his name is David Copperfield."</ref> It is true, he says that "underneath the fiction lay something of the author's life",<ref>{{harvnb|Dickens|1999|p=3}}</ref> that is, an experience of self-writing. It is therefore not surprising that the book is often placed in the category of autobiographical works. From a strictly literary point of view, however, it goes beyond this framework in the richness of its themes and the originality of its writing.

Situated in the middle of Dickens's career, it represents, according to Paul Davis,<ref group="N">Paul Davis, editor of ''Charles Dickens A to Z'', published in 1999 by Checkmark Books.</ref> a turning point in his work, the point of separation between the novels of youth and those of maturity. In 1850, Dickens was 38 years old and had twenty more to live, which he filled with other masterpieces, often denser, sometimes darker, that addressed most of the political, social and personal issues he faced.

==="The privileged child" of Dickens===
Dickens welcomed the publication of his work with intense emotion, and he continued to experience this until the end of his life. When he went through a period of personal difficulty and frustration in the 1850s, he returned to ''David Copperfield'' as to a dear friend who resembled him: "Why," he wrote to Forster, "Why is it, as with poor David, a sense comes always crashing on me now, when I fall into low spirits, as of one happiness I have missed in life, and one friend and companion I have never made?”<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', letter to John Forster, 3 and 4 (?) February 1855.</ref><ref group="N">It is likely here that Dickens refers to the failure of his marriage with [[Catherine Dickens|his wife]].</ref> When Dickens begins writing ''Great Expectations'', which was also written in the first person, he reread ''Copperfield'' and confided his feelings to Forster: "was affected by it to a degree you would hardly believe"<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to John Forster, early October 1860.</ref> Criticism has not always been even-handed, though over time the high importance of this novel has been recognised.

===Initial reception===
Although Dickens became a Victorian celebrity his readership was mainly the middle classes, including the so-called skilled workers, according to the French critic Fabrice Bensimon, because ordinary people could not afford it.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Fabrice |last=Bensimon |title=La culture populaire au Royaume-Uni, 1800-1914 |trans-title=Popular Culture in the United Kingdom, 1800-1914 |journal=Revue d'Histoire Moderne & Contemporaine |year=2001 |volume=5 |number=48 |pages=75–91 |language=French|doi=10.3917/rhmc.485.0075 }}</ref> Issues I to V of the serial version reached 25,000 copies in two years, modest sales compared to 32,000 ''Dombey and Son'' and 35,000 ''Bleak House'', but Dickens was nevertheless happy: "Everyone is cheering David on", he writes to Mrs Watson,<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to Mrs Watson, 3 July 1850.</ref> and, according to Forster, his reputation was at the top.<ref name=Forster1976p6 />

The first reviews were mixed,<ref>{{cite book |first=Paul |last=Schlicke |contribution=David Copperfield: Reception |title=Oxford Reader's Companion to Dickens |editor-first=Paul |editor-last=Schlicke |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0198662532  }}</ref> but the great contemporaries of Dickens showed their approval: [[William Makepeace Thackeray|Thackeray]] found the novel "freshly and simply simple";<ref>William Makepeace Thackeray, London, ''Punch'', number 16, 1849.</ref> [[John Ruskin]], in his ''[[Modern Painters]]'', was of the opinion that the scene of the storm surpasses Turner's evocations of the sea; more soberly, [[Matthew Arnold]] declared it "rich in merits";<ref name="Schlicke1999p153">{{harvnb|Schlicke|1999|p=153}}</ref> and, in his autobiographical book ''[[A Small Boy and Others]]'', [[Henry James]] evokes the memory of "treasure so hoarded in the dusty chamber of youth".<ref>Henry James, ''A Small Boy and Others'', 1913, cited by Barbara Arnett and Giorgio Melchiori, ''The Taste of Henry James'', 2001, p. 3.</ref>

===Subsequent reputation===
[[File:Adolf Schrödter Falstaff und sein Page.jpg|right|thumb|upright=0.8|Falstaff (Adolf Schrödter, 1867), to whom J B Priestley compares Mr Micawber.]]

After Dickens' death, ''David Copperfield'' rose to the forefront of the writer's works, both through sales, for example, in ''Household Words'' in 1872 where sales reached 83,000,<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|1996|p=619}}</ref> and the praise of critics. In 1871, Scottish novelist and poet [[Margaret Oliphant]] described it as "the culmination of Dickens's early comic fiction";<ref>Margaret Oliphant, ''[[Blackwood's Magazine]]'', number 109, 1871.</ref> However, in the late nineteenth-century Dickens's critical reputation suffered a decline, though he continued to have many readers. This began when [[Henry James]] in 1865 "relegated Dickens to the second division of literature on the grounds that he could not 'see beneath the surface of things'". Then in 1872, two years after Dickens's death, [[George Henry Lewes]] wondered how to "reconcile [Dickens's] immense popularity with the 'critical contempt' which he attracted".<ref name=Pykett2008p471>{{harvnb|Pykett|2008|p=471}}</ref> However, Dickens was defended by the novelist [[George Gissing]] in 1898 in ''Charles Dickens: A Critical Study''.<ref name=Pykett2008p471 /> G. K. Chesterton published an important defence of Dickens in his book ''Charles Dickens'' in 1906, where he describes him as this “most English of our great writers”.<ref name=Pykett2008p473>{{harvnb|Pykett|2008|p=473}}</ref> Dickens's literary reputation grew in the 1940s and 1950s because of essays by [[George Orwell]] and [[Edmund Wilson]] (both published in 1940), and Humphrey House's ''The Dickens World'' (1941).<ref name=Pykett2008pp474>{{harvnb|Pykett|2008|pp=474–475}}</ref> However, in 1948, [[F. R. Leavis]] in ''[[The Great Tradition]]'', contentiously, excluded Dickens from his canon, characterising him as a "popular entertainer"<ref name=Leavis1948p244>{{harvnb|Leavis|1948|p=244}}</ref> without "mature standards and interests".<ref name=Leavis1948p132>{{harvnb|Leavis|1948|p=132}}</ref>

[[File:Wilkins Micawber from David Copperfield by Frank Reynolds.jpg|thumb|upright|Wilkins Micawber by Frank Reynolds, per [[W Somerset Maugham|Maugham]] "he never fails you."]]
Dickens's reputation, however, continued to grow and K J Fielding (1965) and Geoffrey Thurley (1976) identify what they call ''David Copperfield'''s "centrality", and [[Q. D. Leavis|Q D Leavis]] in 1970, looked at the images he draws of marriage, of women, and of moral simplicity.<ref name=Schlicke1999p154>{{harvnb|Schlicke|1999|p=154}}</ref> In their 1970 publication ''Dickens the Novelist'', F R and Q D Leavis called Dickens "one of the greatest of creative writers", and F R Leavis had changed his mind about Dickens since his 1948 work, no longer finding the popularity of the novels with readers as a barrier to their seriousness or profundity.<ref>{{harvnb|Pykett|2008|Page=476}}</ref> In 1968 Sylvère Monod, after having finely analyzed the structure and style of the novel, describe it as "the triumph of the art of Dickens",<ref name=Monod1968>{{cite book |first=Sylvère |last=Monod |title=Dickens the Novelist |url=https://archive.org/details/lish00sylv |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1968 |isbn=978-0806107684}}</ref> which analysis was shared by Paul B Davis.<ref name=Davis1999p92>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|p=92}}</ref> The central themes are explored by Richard Dunne in 1981, including the autobiographical dimension, the narrator-hero characterization process, memory and forgetting, and finally the privileged status of the novel in the [[intertextuality|interconnection between similar works of Dickens]].<ref name=Schlicke1999p154 /> Q D Leavis compares ''Copperfield'' to [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy's]] ''[[War and Peace]]'' and looks at adult-child relationships in both novels. According to writer Paul B Davis, Q. D. Leavis excels at dissecting David's relationship with Dora.<ref name=Davis1999p92 /> Gwendolyn Needham in an essay, published in 1954, analyzes the novel as a [[bildungsroman]], as did Jerome H Buckley twenty years later.<ref name=Davis1999p92 /> In 1987 [[Alexander Welsh]] devoted several chapters to show that ''Copperfield'' is the culmination of Dickens' autobiographical attempts to explore himself as a novelist in the middle of his career. Finally, [[J. B. Priestley|J B Priestley]] was particularly interested in Mr Micawber and concludes that "With the one exception of [[Falstaff]], he is the greatest comic figure in English literature".<ref name=Priestley1966p242>{{harvnb|Priestley|1966|loc=Chap XIII p 242}}</ref>

In 2015, the [[BBC]] Culture section polled book critics outside the UK about novels by British authors; they ranked ''David Copperfield'' eighth on the list of the 100 Greatest British Novels.<ref name=Ciabattari2015>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20151204-the-100-greatest-british-novels |work=BBC Culture |title=The 100 greatest British novels |date=7 December 2015 |accessdate=20 May 2019 |first=Jane |last=Ciabattari}}</ref> The characters and their varied places in society in the novel evoked reviewer comments, for example, the novel is "populated by some of the most vivid characters ever created,” “David himself, Steerforth, Peggotty, Mr Dick – and it climbs up and down and off the class ladder.", remarked by critic [[Maureen Corrigan]] and echoed by [[Wendy Lesser]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.com/culture/story/20151204-the-25-greatest-british-novels |title=8. David Copperfield (Charles Dickens, 1850) |work=BBC Culture: The 25 Greatest British Novels |last=Ciabattari |first=Jane |date=7 December 2015 |access-date=20 May 2019 }}</ref>

===Opinions of other writers===
''David Copperfield'' has pleased many writers. [[Charlotte Brontë]], for example, commented in 1849 in a letter to the reader of her publisher: I have read ''David Copperfield''; it seems to me very good—admirable in some parts. You said it had affinity to ''[[Jane Eyre]]'': it has—now and then—only what an advantage has Dickens in his varied knowledge of men and things!<ref>Charlotte Brontë, Letter to W S Williams, 13 September 1849, cited by {{cite book |first=Patricia H |last=Wheat |title=The Adytum of the Heart: The Literary Criticism of Charlotte Brontë |location=Cranbury, New Jersey, London and Mississauga, Ontario |publisher=Associated University Presses |year=1952 |pages=33, 121 |isbn=978-0-8386-3443-1}}</ref> Tolstoy, for his part, considered it "the best work of the best English novelist" and, according to [[F. R. Leavis|F R]] and Q D Leavis, was inspired by David and Dora's love story to have Prince Andrew marry Princess Lise in ''War and Peace''.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Tom |last=Cain |title=Tolstoy's Use of David Copperfield |journal=Critical Quarterly |volume=15 |number=3 |date=September 1973 |pages=237–246|doi=10.1111/j.1467-8705.1973.tb01474.x }}</ref> [[Henry James]] remembered being moved to tears, while listening to the novel, hidden under a table, read aloud in the family circle.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/past/docs/issues/2002/05/lodge.htm |magazine=The Atlantic |title=Dickens Our Contemporary, review of 'Charles Dickens' by Jane Smiley |last=Lodge |first=David |date=May 2002 |accessdate=25 July 2012}}</ref> [[Fyodor Dostoevsky|Dostoevsky]] enthusiastically cultivated the novel in a prison camp in Siberia.<ref>{{cite web |first1=Irina |last1=Gredina |first2=Philip V |last2=Allingham |title=Dickens's Influence upon Dostoyevsky, 1860-1870; or, One Nineteenth-Century Master's Assimilation of Another's Manner and Vision |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/gredina.html |work=The Victorian Web |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> [[Franz Kafka]] wrote in his diary in 1917, that the first chapter of his novel ''[[Amerika (novel)|Amerika]]'' was inspired by ''David Copperfield''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Kafka's Imitation of David Copperfield |last=Tedlock, Jr |first=E W |journal=Comparative Literature |volume=7 |number=1 |date=Winter 1955 |pages=52–62 |doi=10.2307/1769062 |publisher=Duke University Press |jstor=1769062 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=David Copperfield as Psychological Fiction |last=Spilka |first=Mark |date=December 1959 |journal=Critical Quarterly |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=292–301 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-8705.1959.tb01590.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Spilka |first=Mark |date=Winter 1959 |volume=16 |number=4 |pages=367–378 |journal=American Imago |title=Kafka and Dickens: The Country Sweetheart |jstor=26301688 }}</ref><ref group="N">Kafka's novel is a kind of inverted bildungsroman, since the young man whose destiny we follow is more of a disaster than an accomplishment.</ref> [[James Joyce]] parodied it in ''[[Ulysses (novel)|Ulysses]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://classic-literature.findthedata.org/compare/16-84/Ulysses-vs-David-Copperfield |work=Classic-Literature.FindtheData.org |title=Comparison between ''David Copperfield'' and ''Ulysses'' |accessdate=26 July 2012}}</ref> [[Virginia Woolf]], who was not very fond of Dickens, states that ''David Copperfield'', along with ''[[Robinson Crusoe]]'', Grimm's fairy tales, [[Walter Scott|Scott]]'s ''[[Waverley (novel)|Waverley]]'' and ''[[The Pickwick Papers|Pickwick's Posthumous Papers]]'', "are not books, but stories communicated by word of mouth in those tender years when fact and fiction merge, and thus belong to the memories and myths of life, and not to its esthetic experience."<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.woolfonline.com/?node=content/contextual/transcriptions&project=1&parent=45&taxa=46&content=6157&pos=3 |first=Virginia |last=Woolf |title=David Copperfield |journal=The Nation & the Athenæum |date=22 August 1925 |pages=620–21 |accessdate=20 February 2019}}</ref> Woolf also noted in a letter to Hugh Walpole in 1936, that she is re-reading it for the sixth time: "I'd forgotten how magnificent it is."<ref>Virginia Woolf, Letter to Hugh Walpole, 8 February 1936.</ref> It also seems that the novel was [[Sigmund Freud]]'s favourite;<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Psychoanalytic Dictionary of David Copperfield |last=Jaeger |first=Peter |date=1 September 2015 |volume=64 |number=246 |journal=English: Journal of the English Association |pages=204–206 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/english/efv018 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Bradley |last=Philbert |year=2012 |url=http://bradleyphilbert.com/writing/charles-beget-david-beget-david-beget-david/ |work=Bradley Philbert |title=Sigmund Freud and ''David Copperfield'' |accessdate=24 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825131340/http://bradleyphilbert.com/writing/charles-beget-david-beget-david-beget-david/ |archive-date=25 August 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[W. Somerset Maugham|Somerset Maugham]] sees it as a "great" work, although his hero seems to him rather weak, unworthy even of its author, while Mr Micawber never disappoints: "The most remarkable of them is, of course, Mr Micawber. He never fails you."<ref>{{cite book |first1=William Somerset |last1=Maugham |title=Great novelists and their novels: essays on the ten greatest novels of the world and the men and women who wrote them |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.186265 |publisher=J C Winston Co |year=1948 |page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.186265/page/n176 181]}}</ref>

==Illustrations ==
[[File:Hablot-browne.jpg|thumb|Hablot Knight Browne (Phiz), illustrator]]
[[File:Peggotty family house, David Copperfield.jpg|thumb|The Peggotty family house depicted by Phiz]]
As is the custom for a regular serialized publication for a wide audience, ''David Copperfield'', like Dickens's earlier novels, was from the beginning a "story in pictures" whose many engravings are part of the novel and how the story is related.

=== Hablot Knight Browne (Phiz) ===
[[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]] drew the original, the first two illustrations associated with ''David Copperfield'': on the wrapper for the serial publication, for which he engraved the silhouette of a baby staring at a globe, probably referring to the working title (''The Copperfield Survey of the World as it Rolled''), and the frontispiece (later used in the published books), and the title page. The green wrapper is shown at the top of this article. Phiz drew the images around the central baby-over-the-globe with no information on the characters who would appear in the novel. He knew only that it would be a bildungsroman.<ref name=Allingham2009 /> The images begin at the bottom, on the left side of the tree that has leaves on the left, and is dead on the right. A woman holds a baby on her lap. The images continue clockwise, marking events of a life, but with no reference to any specific event or specific character of the novel.<ref name=Allingham2009>{{cite web |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/illustration/phiz/226.html |work=Victorian Web |title=Taking Off the Wrapper: David Copperfield Anticipated, May 1849 |last=Allingham |first=Philip V |date=19 January 2009 |accessdate=27 June 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/dickens/life_publication.htm |publisher=PBS |first=Joel J |last=Brattin |title=Dickens and Serial Publication |date=27 June 2012}}{{dead link|date=March 2019}}</ref>

When each issue was written, Phiz then worked with Dickens on the illustrations. "In the monthly plates, Phiz would have to translate the memories of the protagonist-narrator into a third-person objective or dramatic point of view."<ref name=Allingham2009 /> Some of his illustrations contain details that are not in the text, but illuminate a character or situation, "forming part of [...] of what the novel is".<ref>{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Steig |title=Dickens and Phiz |location=Bloomington, Indiana |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1978 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dickensphiz0000stei/page/113 113] |isbn=978-0253317056 |url=https://archive.org/details/dickensphiz0000stei/page/113 }}</ref> Dickens accepted and even encouraged these additional, sometimes subtle indications, which, commenting on the event, say more than the narrator says in print. The latter intends to stay behind, just like the author who, thus, hides behind the illustrator.

Dickens was particularly scrupulous about illustrations; he scrutinized the smallest details and sometimes demanded modifications, for example to replace for a very particular episode the coat that David wears by "a little jacket".<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to Hablot Knight Browne, May 9, 1849</ref> The illustration of the meeting between David and Aunt Betsey was particularly delicate, and Phiz had to do it several times, the ultimate choice being that of Dickens.<ref name=Schlicke1999p152>{{harvnb|Schlicke|1999|p=152}}</ref> Once the desired result was obtained, Dickens does not hide his satisfaction: the illustrations are "capital", he writes to Phiz, and especially that which depicts Mr Micawber in chapter 16, "uncommonly characteristic".<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to Hablot Knight Browne, September 21, 1849</ref>

One puzzling mismatch between the text and accompanying illustrations is that of the Peggotty family's boat-house "cottage" on the Yarmouth sands (pictured). It is clear from the text that the author envisaged the house as an upright boat, whereas the illustrator depicted it as an upturned hull resting on the beach with holes cut for the doors and windows. Interior illustrations of the cottage also show it as a room with curved ceiling beams implying an upturned hull. Although Dickens seemed to have had the opportunity to correct this discrepancy he never did, suggesting that he was happy with the illustrator's depiction.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Allingham |first1=Philip |title=Illustrations by Phiz and Barnard of Peggoty's Boat-House in David Copperfield |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/art/illustration/phiz/dc/boat.html |website=The Victorian Web |publisher=Victorian Web |accessdate=7 November 2019}}</ref>

=== Other illustrators ===
[[File:Barkis conduit David à Yarmouth (Harold Copping).jpeg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|Barkis takes David to Yarmouth (Harold Copping)]]
[[File:Daniel Peggotty from David Copperfield.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Daniel Peggotty by Frank Reynolds]]
[[File:Peggotty et David, par Jessie Willcox-Smith.jpeg|thumb|left|Peggotty and David, by Jessie Willcox-Smith]]
[[File:Clarke-micawber.jpg|thumb|[[Micawber]] by [[Joseph Clayton Clarke|"Kyd"]] ]]
''David Copperfield'' was later illustrated by many artists later, after the serialization, including:
* [[Fred Barnard]] (1846-1896), who illustrated ''David Copperfield'' in the Household Edition by [[Chapman & Hall]] in the 1870s;<ref>{{cite web |title=A New Edition of Dickens for a New Generation of Readers: Fred Barnard and the Household Edition of Charles Dickens's Works |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/victorian/art/illustration/barnard/householdedition.html |last=Allingham |first=Philip V. |date=1 February 2008 |accessdate=28 April 2019 |publisher=Victorian Web}}</ref>
* [[Joseph Clayton Clarke|Kyd (Joseph Clayton Clarke)]] (1855-1937);
* [[Harold Copping|Harold Copping (1863-1932)]], who illustrated Dickens stories for children;<ref>{{cite web |url=https://spartacus-educational.com/ARTcopping.htm |title=Harold Copping |work=Spartacus Educational |date=August 2014 |last=Simkin |first=John |accessdate=9 March 2019}}</ref>
* [[Frank Reynolds (artist)|Frank Reynolds (1876-1953)]];
* [[Jessie Willcox Smith|Jessica Willcox Smith (1863-1935)]] who has illustrated many abbreviated editions for children.

Some of these works are full size paintings rather than illustrations included in editions of the novels.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://how-serendipitous.webs.com/copperfield/illustrations.html |work=how-serendipitous.webs.com |title=David Copperfield: illustrations |accessdate=27 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090801085544/http://how-serendipitous.webs.com/copperfield/illustrations.html |archive-date=1 August 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Kyd painted watercolors. Frank Reynolds provided the illustrations for a 1911 edition of David Copperfield.<ref name=Spartacus2014>{{cite web |url=https://spartacus-educational.com/ARTreynolds.htm |work=Spartacus Educational |title=Frank Reynolds |date=August 2014 |last=Simkin |first=John |accessdate=9 March 2019}}</ref>

Although the reputation of Dickens with literary critics went through a decline and a much later rise after he died,<ref>{{harvnb|Pykett|2008|page=470–471}}</ref> his popularity with readers followed a different pattern after his death. Around 1900, his novels, including ''David Copperfield'', began an increase in popularity, and the 40-year copyrights expired for all but his latest novels, opening the door to other publishers in the UK; by 1910 all of them had expired.<ref name=Cordery2017>{{cite web |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/victorian/authors/dickens/cordery/cordery.html |title="Your Country Needs You": Charles Dickens Called Up for National Service. |last=Cordery |first=Gareth |date=28 September 2017 |accessdate=28 April 2019 |publisher=Victorian Web}}</ref> This created the opportunity for new illustrators in new editions of the novels, as both Fred Barnard (Household Edition) and Frank Reynolds (1911 edition of ''David Copperfield'') provided, for example; their styles were different from that of [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]] who provided the illustrations for the first publications of the novel in 1850 and during the author's life. As the books were read by so many (one publisher, Chapman & Hall, sold 2 million copies of Dickens' works in the period 1900-1906),<ref name=Cordery2017 /> the characters became more popular for use outside the novels, in jigsaw puzzles and postcards. Uriah Heep and Mr Micawber were popular figures for illustrations. As [[World War I]] approached, the illustrations on postcards and the novels, abridged or full length, continued in popularity in the UK and among the soldiers and sailors abroad.<ref name=Cordery2017 />
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==Major print editions of ''David Copperfield''==
===Publishing contract===
Like ''[[Dombey and Son]]'', ''David Copperfield'' was not the subject of a specific contract; it followed the agreement of 1 June 1844, which was still valid. In that contract, the publishing house [[Bradbury and Evans]] received a quarter of the receipts from what Dickens wrote for the next eight years. This did not prevent the novelist from criticizing his publisher, or providing an incomplete number, just "to see exactly where I am" and for his illustrator [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]] to have "some material to work on".<ref>Charles Dickens, ''Letters'', Letter to Bradbury and Evans, July 10, 1849</ref>

===Dedication and preface===
The 1850 book, published by Bradbury and Evans, was dedicated to The honorable Mr and Mrs Richard Watson, from [[Rockingham, Northamptonshire]], aristocratic friends met on a trip to Switzerland five years ago.<ref>{{harvnb|Schlicke|1999|p=596}}</ref> A brief preface was written in 1850 by the author, already entrusted to Forster after he finished his manuscript, with the promise that a new work will follow. This text was also used for the 1859 edition, the Cheap Edition. The ultimate version of 1867, also called the Charles Dickens edition, included another preface by the author with the statement that ''David Copperfield'' is the favourite work of the author.

===Other editions===
Three volumes were published by [[Tauchnitz publishers|Tauchnitz]] in 1849-50, in English for distribution outside Great Britain in Europe. During Dickens' lifetime, many other editions were released, and many since he died. According to Paul Schlicke, the most reliable edition is the 1981 edition from [[Oxford University Press|Clarendon Press]] with an introduction and notes by Nina Burgis; it serves as a reference for later editions, including those of [[HarperCollins|Collins]], [[Penguin Books]] and Wordsworth Classics.<ref name=Schlicke1999p151 />

===List of editions===

*1850, UK, Bradbury & Evans, publication date 14 November 1850, bound (first edition), 624 pages,<ref name="The Guardian 2013-12-30"/> 38 plates.
*1858, UK, Chapman & Hall and Bradbury & Evans, publication date 1858, hardback, 'Library Edition', 515 pages.
*1867, UK, Wordsworth Classics, Preface by the author (the "Charles Dickens edition", with his statement "But, like many fond parents, I have in my heart of hearts a favourite child. And his name is DAVID COPPERFIELD.")
*1962 (reprinted 2006 with an afterward by [[Gish Jen]]) US, Signet Classics {{ISBN|0-451-53004-7}}. Includes passages deleted for the original monthly serial, and unrestored in subsequent editions.
*1981 (reprinted 2003) UK, [[Oxford University Press]] {{ISBN|0-19-812492-9}}, hardback, edited by Nina Burgis, The Clarendon Dickens, 781 pages.
*1990, USA, W W Norton & Co Ltd {{ISBN|0-393-95828-0}}, publication date 31 January 1990, hardback (Jerome H Buckley (Editor), Norton Critical Edition – contains annotations, introduction, critical essays, bibliography and other material).
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==Adaptations==

===Earliest adaptations===
While it was being published, ''David Copperfield'' was the object, according to Philip Bolton's survey, of six initial dramatizations, followed by a further twenty when the public's interest was at its peak in the 1850s.<ref>{{cite book |first=H Philip |last=Bolton |title=Dickens Dramatized |location=Boston |publisher=G K Hall |year=1987 |pages=xviii, 501 |isbn=978-0-8161-8924-3}}</ref> The first adaptation, ''Born with a Caul'' by George Almar, was staged while the serial issues were not yet completed, with some changes from Dickens' plot, having Steerforth live and marry Emily, and inventing a character to kill Mr Murdstone.<ref name=Davis1999pp9293>{{harvnb|Davis|1999|pages=92–93}}</ref> The most spectacular dramatization, however, were those of Dickens himself. Although he waited more than ten years to prepare a version for his public readings, it soon became one of his favourite performances, especially the storm scene, which he kept for the finale, "the most sublime moment in all the readings".<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|1996|pp=216–217}}</ref>

===Radio===
*''Favourite Story'', hosted by [[Ronald Colman]] - 25 October 1947
*''[[The United States Steel Hour|Theater Guild on the Air]]'' - 24 December 1950 with [[Richard Burton]], [[Boris Karloff]], [[Flora Robson]] and [[Cyril Ritchard]]
*''The Personal History of David Copperfield'' - [[BBC Radio 4]], 1991 - a ten-part series<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.radioechoes.com/?page=series&genre=Drama&series=David%20Copperfield |title=David Copperfield, Drama in 10 episodes |date=14 September 1991 |work=Radio Echoes |accessdate=12 March 2019}}</ref> with [[Gary Cady]] as David Copperfield, [[Miriam Margolyes]], [[John Moffatt (actor)|John Moffatt]], [[Timothy Spall]] and [[Sheila Hancock]]
* Performed unabridged Audible by Richard Armitage 2018

===Film and TV===
''David Copperfield'' has been filmed on several occasions:[[File:David Copperfield lobby card.jpg|thumb|right|''[[David Copperfield (1935 film)|David Copperfield]]'' (1935)]]
*1911 ''[[David Copperfield (1911 film)|David Copperfield]]'', silent film directed by [[Theodore Marston]]
*1913 ''[[David Copperfield (1913 film)|David Copperfield]]'', silent film directed by [[Thomas Bentley]]
*1922 ''[[David Copperfield (1922 film)|David Copperfield]]'', silent film directed by [[A. W. Sandberg]]
*1935 ''[[Personal History, Adventures, Experience, and Observation of David Copperfield the Younger (1935)|David Copperfield]]'', a film directed by [[George Cukor]], featuring [[W.C. Fields]]
*1956 ''[[David Copperfield (1956 TV serial)|David Copperfield]]'', a 13-part TV serial shown on BBC.
*1966 ''[[David Copperfield (1966 TV serial)|David Copperfield]]'', a 13-part TV serial.
*1969 ''[[David Copperfield (1969 film)|David Copperfield]]'', a film directed by [[Delbert Mann]].
*1974 ''[[David Copperfield (1974 TV serial)|David Copperfield]]'', a 6-part TV serial directed by [[Joan Craft]]
*1983 ''[[David Copperfield (1983 film)|David Copperfield]]'', an animated film by [[Burbank Films Australia]].
*1986 ''[[David Copperfield (1986 TV serial)|David Copperfield]]'', a 10-part TV serial directed by [[Barry Letts]], shown on BBC.
*1993 ''[[David Copperfield (1993 film)|David Copperfield]]'', animated TV film, shown on [[NBC]]
*1999 ''[[David Copperfield (1999 film)|David Copperfield]]'', a 2-part TV serial shown on [[BBC]]
*2000 ''[[David Copperfield (2000 film)|David Copperfield]]'', a film directed by [[Peter Medak]]
*2019 ''[[The Personal History of David Copperfield]]'', a film directed by [[Armando Iannucci]]

== See also ==

* [[Letters of Charles Dickens]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="N"}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
'''Books'''
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* {{citation |ref=harv |last=Bakhtin |first=Mikhail |author-link=Mikhail Bakhtin |chapter=The Bildungsroman and its Significance in the History of Realism |title=Speech Genres and Other Late Essays |editor1-last=Emerson |editor1-first=Caryl |editor2-first=Michael |editor2-last=Holquist |location=Austin, Texas |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=1996 |page=21 |isbn=978-0292775602 |series=Slavic Series }}
* {{cite book |title=Charles Dickens's David Copperfield |series=Major Literary Characters |editor-first=Harold |editor-last=Bloom |year=1993 |orig-year=1987 |location=New York |publisher=Chelsea House Publishers |isbn=978-0877547365 |url=https://archive.org/details/charlesdickenssd00bloo }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Bradbury |first=Nicola |contribution=Dickens's Use of the Autobiographical Fragment |editor-first=David |editor-last=Paroissien |title=A Companion to Charles Dickens |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4051-3097-4}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |contributor-first=Nina |contributor-last=Burgis |contribution=Preface |last=Dickens |first=Charles |title=David Copperfield |year=1981 |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=0-19-812492-9 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Carlyle |first=Thomas |title=Les Héros |trans-title=On Heroes and Hero Worship and the Heroic in History |translator-last=Rosso |translator-first=François |location=Paris |publisher=Maisonneuve & Larose |orig-year=1841 |year=1998 |series=Les trésors retrouvés de la ''Revue des deux mondes'' |isbn=2-70681-321 0 |language=fr |quote=Preface by Bruno de Cessole}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |editor-first=Philip |editor-last=Collins |title=Charles Dickens: The Critical Heritage |year=1996 |edition=3rd |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0415134590}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Philip |last=Collins |title=Dickens and Crime |publisher=Springer |year=2016 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-1349235452 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Dickens_and_Crime.html?id=McxsCwAAQBAJ}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Cordery |first=Gareth |contribution=David Copperfield |editor-first=David |editor-last=Paroissien |title=A Companion to Charles Dickens |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4051-3097-4}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Paul B |last=Davis |title=Charles Dickens from A to Z |location=New York |publisher=Checkmark Books |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8160-4087-2}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |title=David Copperfield |last=Dickens |first=Charles |location=London |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-14-043008-0 |quote=Introduction and notes by Trevor Blount |url=https://archive.org/details/personalhistory00dick }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Dickens |first=Charles |title=David Copperfield |location=London |publisher=Wordsworth Classics |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-85326-024-7 |series=Reference edition |quote=Introduction and notes by Adrienne E Gavin |url=https://archive.org/details/davidcopperfield00char_1 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Dickens |first=Henry Fielding |title=The Recollections of Sir Henry Fielding Dickens, KC |publisher=William Heinemann Ltd |year=1934 }}
* {{cite book |title=Approaches to Teaching Dickens' David Copperfield |editor-first=Richard J |editor-last=Dunn |year=1984 |location=New York |publisher=The Modern Language Association of America |isbn=978-0873524834 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Robert |last=Ferrieux |title=La Littérature Autobiographique en Grande-Bretagne et en Irlande |trans-title=Autobiography Literature in Great Britain and Ireland |location=Paris |publisher=Ellipses |year=2001 |isbn=978-2-7298-0021-5 |language=French, English}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Forster |first=John |title=Life of Charles Dickens |location=London |publisher=Everyman's Library |year=1976 |isbn=978-0460007825 |url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofcharlesdic00john }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Forster |first=John |author-link=John Forster (biographer) |title=The Life of Charles Dickens |location=London |publisher=J M Dent & Sons |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/25851/25851-h/25851-h.htm |orig-year=1872-1874 |year=1966}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Georges |last=Gusdorf |contribution=Conditions and Limits of Autobiography |title=in Formen der Selbstarung, Analektren zu einer Geschiste literarischen Selbsportraits Festgabe für Fritz Neubert |trans-title=In forms of self-expression, analogues to a history of the literary self-portrait: Festgabe for Fritz Neubert |editor1-first=Günter |editor1-last=Reichenkron |editor2-first=Erich |editor2-last=Haase |location=Berlin |publisher=Presses Universitaires de France |year=1956}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Michael |last=Hollington |editor-first=Odile |editor-last=Boucher-Rivalain |title=Roman et Poésie en Angleterre au xixe siècle |trans-title=The Novel and Poetry in 19th century England |location=Paris |publisher=Ellipses |year=1997 |isbn=978-2-7298-4710-4}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Edgar |last=Johnson |title=Charles Dickens: His Tragedy and Triumph |location=New York |publisher=Viking |orig-year=1952 |year=1977 |oclc=561737618 |url=https://charlesdickenspage.com/charles_dickens-david_copperfield.html |via=Charles Dickens Page}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |url=http://www.victorianweb.org/authors/dickens/edh/6.html |first=E D H |last=Johnson |title=Charles Dickens: An Introduction to His Novels |publisher=Random House |year=1969 |accessdate=4 March 2019}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Jeffers |first=Thomas L |title=Apprenticeships: The Bildungsroman from Goethe to Santayana |location=New York |publisher=Palgrave |year=2005 |isbn=1-4039-6607-9 |page=2}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |editor-first=John O |editor-last=Jordan |title=The Cambridge companion to Charles Dickens |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0521669641}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Leavis |first=F R |title=The Great Tradition |publisher=Chatto & Windus |year=1948 |url=https://archive.org/stream/greattradition031120mbp/greattradition031120mbp_djvu.txt}}
* {{cite web |ref=harv |last=Lynch |first=Jack |year=1999 |title=Glossary of Literary and Rhetorical Terms, Bildungsroman |url=http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/bildungsroman.html |publisher=[[Rutgers University]] |website= |access-date=21 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110805212616/http://andromeda.rutgers.edu/~jlynch/Terms/bildungsroman.html |archive-date=5 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=McKnight |first=Natalie |contribution=Dickens and Gender |editor-first=David |editor-last=Paroissien |title=A Companion to Charles Dickens |location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4051-3097-4}}
* {{Cite book |title = The Cambridge Introduction to Charles Dickens
|series = Cambridge Introductions to Literature
|last = Mee
|first = Jon
|publisher = [[Cambridge University Press]]
|year = 2010
|isbn = 978-0-521-67634-2
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=VxPryDIAQXAC&pg=PA20
|ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |editor-first=David |editor-last=Paroissien |title=A Companion to Charles Dickens |location=Chichester |publisher=Wiley Blackwell |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-470-65794-2}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Robert L |last=Patten |title=Charles Dickens and His Publishers |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1978 |isbn=978-0198120766 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/charlesdickenshi0000patt }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=J B |last=Priestley |title=The English Comic Characters |orig-year=1925 |location=New York |publisher=E P Dutton |year=1966 |url=http://www.unz.org/Pub/PriestleyJohn-1925 |access-date=6 March 2019}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Valerie |last=Purton |title=Dickens and the Sentimental Tradition: Fielding, Richardson, Sterne, Goldsmith, Sheridan, Lamb |publisher=Anthem Press |year=2012 |series=Anthem nineteenth century studies |isbn=978-0857284181 |url=https://books.google.com/books/about/Dickens_and_the_Sentimental_Tradition.html?id=aWE3aRCJdUwC}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Lyn |last=Pykett |contribution=Dickens and Criticism |title=A Companion to Charles Dickens |editor-first=David |editor-last=Paroissien |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-69190-8}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Dickens |first=Charles |title=David Copperfield |contributor-last=Sanders |contributor-first=Andrew |contribution=Introduction |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford World Classics |year=1997 |isbn=978-0192835789 |quote=Editor is Nina Burgis, with an introduction and notes by Andrew Sanders}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Schlicke |first=Paul |title=Oxford Reader's Companion to Dickens |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0198662136 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordreaderscom0000unse_a7o8 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Harry |last=Stone |title=Charles Dickens's Uncollected Writings from Household Words 1850-1859 |volume=1 and 2 |location=Indiana |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1968 |isbn=978-0713901207}}
* {{Cite book |ref=harv |title= Dickens's working notes for his novels
|last=Stone
|first=Harry
|publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]
|location=Chicago
|year=1987
|isbn=978-0-226-14590-7
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=85bNed2YLcIC&pg=PA268}}
* {{cite book |first=Graham |last=Storey |title=David Copperfield – Interweaving Truth and Fiction |series=Twayne's Masterwork Studies |year=1991 |location=Boston |publisher=Twayne Publishers |isbn=978-0805781427 |url=https://archive.org/details/davidcopperfield00grah }}
*{{cite book |ref=harv |last=Suhamy |first=Henri |title=Great Expectations |series=Cours d'Agrégation |publisher=CNED |location=Vanves, France |year=1971}}
* {{cite book |title=Charles Dickens: A Life
|last=Tomalin
|first=Claire
|author-link=Claire Tomalin
|publisher=Viking
|year=2011
|isbn=978-0-670-91767-9
|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Ian |last=Watt |title=The Rise of the Novel |location=London |publisher=Penguin Books |orig-year=1957 |year=1963 }}
* {{cite book |first=Barry |last=Westburg |title=The Confessional Fictions of Charles Dickens |url=https://archive.org/details/confessionalfict0000west |url-access=registration |pages=[https://archive.org/details/confessionalfict0000west/page/33 33–114] |year=1977 |location=DeKalb, Illinois |publisher=Northern Illinois University Press |isbn=978-0875800653 }}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=Angus |last=Wilson |author-link=Angus Wilson |title=The World of Charles Dickens |location=Harmondsworth |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1972 |isbn=978-0140034882}}.
* {{cite book |ref=harv |last=Woolf |first=Virginia |editor-first=Andrew |editor-last=McNeillie |title=The Essays of Virginia Woolf: 1925-1928 |location=London |publisher=Hogarth Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-7012-0669-7}}
* {{cite book |ref=harv |first=George J |last=Worth |title=Dickensian Melodrama: A Reading of the Novels |url=https://archive.org/details/dickensianmelodr0000wort |url-access=registration |location=Lawrence, Kansas |publisher=University of Kansas |year=1978 |isbn= }}

'''Journals'''
* {{cite journal |last1=Bottum|first1=Joseph|title=The Gentleman's True Name: David Copperfield and the Philosophy of Naming |journal=Nineteenth-Century Literature |volume=49 |issue=4 |year=1995 |pages=435–455 |issn=0891-9356 |doi=10.2307/2933728|jstor=2933728}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Cordery|first1=Gareth|title=Foucault, Dickens, and David Copperfield|journal=Victorian Literature and Culture |volume=26 |issue=1 |date=Spring 1998 |pages=71–85 |issn=1060-1503|doi=10.1017/S106015030000228X}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hager|first1=Kelly|title=Estranging David Copperfield: Reading the Novel of Divorce |journal=ELH |volume=63 |issue=4 |year=1996 |pages=989–1019 |issn=1080-6547|doi=10.1353/elh.1996.0032}}
* {{cite journal |ref=harv |last=Kearney |first=Anthony |title=The Storm Scene in David Copperfield |journal=Ariel, A Review of International English Literature |volume=9 |number=1 |date=January 1978 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |url=https://journalhosting.ucalgary.ca/index.php/ariel/article/viewFile/32251/26309}}
* {{cite journal |ref=harv |last=Kincaid |first=James R. |title=Symbol and subversion in ''David Copperfield'' |journal=Studies in the Novel |volume=1 |number=2 |date=Summer 1969}}
* {{cite journal |ref=harv |first=Harry |last=Levin |title=Charles Dickens (1812-1870) |journal=The American Scholar |volume=39 |number=4 |date=Autumn 1970 }}
* {{cite journal |ref=harv |last=Meckler |first=Jerome |title=Some Household Words |location=London |journal=The Dickensian |number=71 |year=1975}}
* {{cite journal |ref=harv |last=Plung |first=Daniel L |title=Environed by wild beasts: Animal imagery in Dickens's ''David Copperfield'' |journal=Dickens Quarterly |date=December 1, 2000 |volume=17 |number=4}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Saville|first1=Julia F |title=Eccentricity as Englishness in David Copperfield |journal=SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900|volume=42|issue=4|year=2002 |pages=781–797|issn=1522-9270|doi=10.1353/sel.2002.0041}}
* {{cite journal |ref=harv |last=Takei |first=Akiko |title=Benevolence or Manipulation? The Treatment of Mr Dick |journal=The Dickensian |location=London |volume=101 |number=466 |date=Summer 2005}}

'''Letters written by Charles Dickens'''

''Letters'', cited by recipient and date in the References, are found in the Pilgrim edition, published in 12 volumes, from 1965 to 2003.
* {{cite book |ref=harv |editor-last1=House |editor-first1=Madeline |editor-last2=Storey |editor-first2=Graham |editor-last3=Tillotson |editor-first3=Kathleen |editor-last4=Burgis |editor-first4=Nina |title=The Letters of Charles Dickens |edition=The Pilgrim |publisher=Oxford University Press}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource|David Copperfield|''David Copperfield''}}
{{Commons category|David Copperfield}}
{{wikiquote|David Copperfield (novel)|David Copperfield}}

'''Online editions'''
* [https://archive.org/stream/personalhistoryo00dickiala#page/n9/mode/2up ''David Copperfield''] at [[Internet Archive]]. Edition by Chapman & Hall with preface by the author, and 40 illustrations by [[Hablot Knight Browne|Phiz]].
* {{Cite book |last=Dickens |first=Charles |year=1911 |orig-year=1850 |edition=Illustrated in colour by Frank Reynolds |publisher=Hodder and Stoughton |url=https://archive.org/details/personalhistoryo00dickuoft |title=The Personal History of David Copperfield}}
* [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/766 ''David Copperfield''] at [[Project Gutenberg]].
* [http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/c/charles-dickens-david-copperfield/ ''David Copperfield''] – The original manuscript of the novel, held by the [[Victoria and Albert Museum]] (requires [[Adobe Flash]]).
* [http://www.bartleby.com/307/ ''David Copperfield''], at [[Bartleby.com]] (HTML w/ additional commentary)
* {{Librivox book | title=David Copperfield | author=Charles Dickens}}
* [http://www.bartleby.com/307/1007.html List of over 50 characters.]

'''Adaptations'''
* [https://archive.org/download/TheaterGuildontheAir/Tgoa_50-12-24_ep055-David_Copperfield.mp3 1950 ''Theatre Guild on the Air'' radio adaptation] at [[Internet Archive]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VWKRSZ7c0qk 1947 ''Favourite Story'' radio adaptation] at [[YouTube]]
* {{portal bar|Literature|Novels}}

{{David Copperfield}}
{{Charles Dickens}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:David Copperfield}}
[[Category:David Copperfield| ]]
[[Category:1850 British novels]]
[[Category:British autobiographical novels]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into films]]
[[Category:Novels about orphans]]
[[Category:Novels first published in serial form]]
[[Category:Novels set in England]]
[[Category:Novels set in the 19th century]]
[[Category:Victorian novels]]
[[Category:Novels by Charles Dickens]]
[[Category:Novels adapted into television programs]]
[[Category:English-language novels]]

Donegal fiddle tradition

2018-11-05T16:10:32Z

Squike: /* Historical */ update: Tommy Peoples now deceased.

{{EngvarB|date=October 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2013}}
[[File:Tp1web.jpg|thumb|Donegal fiddler, [[Tommy Peoples]].]]

The '''Donegal fiddle tradition''' is the way of playing the [[Musical styles (violin)#Fiddle|fiddle]] that is traditional in [[County Donegal]], Ireland. It is one of the distinct fiddle traditions within [[Folk music of Ireland|Irish traditional music]].<ref name="intro">{{Cite book|last = Vallely|first = Fintan|year = 1999|title= The Companion to Irish Traditional Music|publisher=Cork University Press|isbn=0-8147-8802-5|page=2|postscript = }}</ref>

The distinctness of the Donegal tradition developed due to the close relations between Donegal and [[Scotland]], and the Donegal repertoire and style has influences from [[Traditional music of Scotland#Folk music|Scottish fiddle music]]. For example, in addition to the standard tune types such as Jigs and Reels, the Donegal tradition also has Highlands (influenced by the Scottish [[Strathspey (dance)|Strathspey]]). The distinctiveness of the Donegal tradition led to some conflict between Donegal players and representatives of the mainstream tradition when Irish traditional music was organised in the 1960s.

The tradition has several distinguishing traits compared to other fiddle traditions such as the [[Sliabh Luachra]] style of southern ireland, most of which involves styles of [[Bow (music)|bowing]] and the [[Ornament (music)|ornamentation]] of the music, and rhythm. Due to the frequency of double stops and the strong bowing it is often compared to the [[Cape Breton fiddling|Cape Breton]] tradition.<ref>June Skinner Sawyers. 2001. Celtic music: a complete guide. Da Capo Press. p. 69</ref> Another characteristic of the style is the rapid pace at which it tends to proceed.<ref name="intro"/> Modern players, such as the fiddle group [[Altan (band)|Altan]], continue to be popular due to a variety of reasons.<ref name="international">{{cite book|title=The Companion to Irish Traditional Music|author=Fintan Vallely|publisher=New York University Press|year=1999|isbn=0-8147-8802-5}}</ref>

Among the most famous Donegal style players are [[John Doherty (musician)|John Doherty]] from the early twentieth century and [[James Byrne (musician)|James Byrne]], [[Paddy Glackin]], [[Tommy Peoples]] and [[Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh]] in recent decades.

==History==
[[File:Altanlivegweedore.jpg|300px|thumb|Donegal fiddle group Altan performing at the [[Frankie Kennedy Winter Music School]] in [[Gaoth Dobhair]], [[Co. Donegal]] in 2007.]]
The fiddle has ancient roots in Ireland, the first report of bowed instruments similar to the violin being in the [[Book of Leinster]] (ca. 1160). The modern violin was ubiquitous in Ireland by the early 1700s. However the first mention of the fiddle being in use in Donegal is from the blind harper [[Artur O'Neill (harpist)|Arthur O'Neill]] who in his 1760 memoirs described a wedding in [[Ardara, County Donegal|Ardara]] as having "plenty of pipers and fiddlers".<ref name="ReferenceACh2">Between the Jigs and the Reels: The Donegal Fiddle Tradition C Mac Aoidh – 1994 – Drumlin Publications</ref><ref name="Music D McLaughlin pp. 22">Donegal and Shetland Fiddle Music D McLaughlin, Irish Traditional Music Society – 1992 – Irish Traditional Music Society, University College, Cork. Chapter 2 "A history of Donegal Fiddle Music" pp. 22–35</ref> Donegal fiddlers participated in the development of the Irish music tradition in the 18th century during which jigs and slipjigs and later reels and hornpipes became the dominant musical forms. However, Donegal musicians, many of them being fishermen, also frequently travelled to Scotland, where they acquired tune types from the [[Traditional music of Scotland|Scottish repertoire]] such as the [[Strathspey (dance)|Strathspey]] which was integrated into the Donegal tradition as "Highland" tunes. The Donegal tradition derives much of its unique character from the synthesis of Irish and Scottish stylistic features and repertoires.<ref name="ReferenceACh2"/><ref name="Music D McLaughlin pp. 22"/> Aoidh notes however that while different types of art music were commonly played among the upper classes of Scottish society in the 18th century, the Donegal tradition drew exclusively from the popular types of Scottish music.<ref name="ReferenceACh2"/><ref>Donegal and Shetland Fiddle Music D McLaughlin, Irish Traditional Music Society – 1992 – Irish Traditional Music Society, University College, Cork</ref><ref name = "jrqigj">Changing cultural landscapes: the co-existence of musical genres in Irish culture and education. M McCarthy – Irish Studies Review, 2004 – Taylor & Francis</ref> Like some Scottish fiddlers (who, like Donegal fiddlers, tend to use a short bow and play in a straight-ahead fashion), some Donegal fiddlers worked at imitating the sound of the [[bagpipes]]. Workers from Donegal would bring their music to Scotland and also bring back Scottish tunes with them such music of J. Scott Skinner and Mackenzie Murdoch.<ref name="mustrad">{{Cite journal| publisher=Taylor & Francis|title=Changing cultural landscapes: the co-existence of musical genres in Irish culture and education|first=Marie|last=McCarthy|journal=Irish Studies Review|year=2004|pages=51–61| doi = 10.1080/0967088042000192112 |volume=12 |issue=1}}</ref> [[Lilting]], unaccompanied singing of wordless tunes, was also an important part of the Donegal musical tradition often performed by women in social settings. Describing the musical life of Arranmore Island in the late 19th century singer Róise Rua Nic Gríanna describes the most popular dances: "The Sets, the Lancers, the Maggie Pickie [i.e., Maggie Pickins] the Donkey, the [[Mazurka]] and the [[Barn dance]]s". Among the travelling fiddlers of the late 19th century players such as John Mhosaí McGinley, Anthony Hilferty, the McConnells and the Dohertys are best known. As skill levels increased through apprenticeships several fiddle masters appeared such as the Cassidy's, Connie Haughey, Jimmy Lyons and Miock McShane of Teelin and Francie Dearg and Mickey Bán Byrne of Kilcar. These virtuosos played unaccompanied listening pieces in addition to the more common dance music.<ref name="ReferenceACh2"/>

The influences between Scotland and Donegal went both ways and were furthered by a wave of immigration from Donegal to Scotland in the 19th century<ref>{{cite web|url=http://indigo.ie/~donances/FrameSet3.html|title=Some Donegal Surnames|accessdate=8 March 2008|publisher=Donegal Ancestry}}</ref> (the regions share common names of dances), as can be heard in the volume of strathspeys, [[schottische]]s, [[march (music)|marches]], and Donegal's own strong piping tradition, has influenced and been influenced by music, and by the sounds, ornaments, and repertoire of the [[Piob Mhor|Píob Mhór]], the traditional bagpipes of Ireland and Scotland.<ref name="ss">{{cite web|url=http://www.standingstones.com/donegalf.html|title=The Fiddle Music of Donegal|accessdate=8 March 2008|author=Michael Robinson|publisher=The Standing Stones}}</ref> There are other differences between the Donegal style and the rest of Ireland. Instruments such as the tin whistle, flute, concertina and accordion were very rare in Donegal until modern times.<ref name="ReferenceACh2"/> Traditionally the píob mór and the fiddle were the only instruments used and the use of pipe or fiddle music was common in old wedding customs. Migrant workers carried their music to Scotland and also brought back a number of tunes of Scottish origin.<ref name = "jrqigj"/> The Donegal fiddlers may well have been the route by which Scottish tunes such as Lucy Campbell, Tarbolton Lodge (Tarbolton) and The Flagon (The Flogging Reel), that entered the Irish repertoire.<ref name = "jrqigj"/> These players prided themselves on their technical abilities, which included playing in higher positions (fairly uncommon among traditional Irish fiddlers), and sought out material which would demonstrate their skills.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishfiddle.com/mcguireinterview.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011125053708/http://www.irishfiddle.com/mcguireinterview.html |dead-url=yes |archive-date=25 November 2001 |title=Sean McGuire: Master of The Irish Violin |accessdate=8 March 2008 |author=Ken Perlman |publisher=The Irish Fiddle |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

As Irish music was consolidated and organised under the [[Comhaltas Ceoltóirí Éireann]] movement in the 1960s, both strengthened the interest in traditional music but sometimes conflicted with the Donegal tradition and its social conventions. The rigidly organised sessions of the Comhaltas reflected the traditions of Southern Ireland and Donegal fiddlers like John Doherty considered the National repertoire with its strong focus on reels to be less diverse than that of Donegal with its varied rhythms. Other old fiddlers dislike the ways comhaltas sessions were organised with a committee player, often not himself a musician, in charge. Sometimes Comhaltas representatives would even disparage the Donegal tradition, with its Scottish flavour, as being un-Irish, and prohibit them from playing local tunes with Scottish genealogies such as the "Highlands" at Comhaltas sessions. This sometimes cause antagonism between Donegal players and the main organisation of traditional music in ireland.<ref name="ReferenceACh2"/><ref name="Music D McLaughlin pp. 22"/>

Outside of the Comhaltas movement however, Donegal fiddling stood strong with [[Paddy Glackin]] of Ceoltorí Laighean and the [[Bothy Band]] and later [[Tommy Peoples]] also with the Bothy Band and Mairead Ni Mhaonaigh with [[Altan (band)|Altan]], who all drew attention and prestige to the Donegal tradition within folk music circles throughout Ireland.

==Description of style==
[[File:Donegalfiddle.PNG|thumb|right|450px|An example of the described musical styles.]]
The Donegal style of fiddling is a label often applied to music from this area, though one also might plausibly identify several different, but related, styles within the county.<ref name="ss"/> To the extent to which there is one common style in the county, it is characterised by a rapid pace; a tendency to be more un-[[Swung note|swung]] in the playing of the fast dance tune types ([[reel (dance)|reel]] and [[jig]]s); short (non-[[Slur (music)|slurred]]), aggressive bowing, sparse ornamentation, the use of bowed [[Tuplet|triplets]] more often than [[Trill consonant|trills]] as [[musical ornament|ornaments]], the use of [[double stop]]s and droning; and the occurrence of "playing the octave", with one player playing the melody and the other playing the melody an octave lower. None of these characteristics are universal, and there is some disagreement as to the extent to which there is a common style at all. In general, however, the style is rather aggressive.<ref name="intro"/>

Another feature of Donegal fiddling that makes it distinctive among Irish musical traditions is the variety of rare tune types that are played. [[Highland (Irish)|Highlands]], a type of tune in [[4/4 time]] with some similarities to Scottish [[strathspey (dance)|strathspeys]], which are also played in Donegal, are one of the most commonly played types of tune in the county. Other tune types common solely in the county include barndances, also called "Germans," and [[mazurka]]s.<ref name="ma" />

==Fiddlers of the Donegal tradition==
[[File:James-Byrne.jpg|thumb|right|300px|James Byrne – Glencolumbkille 2 August 2007 Photo: Rik Walton]]

===Historical===
[[File:Donegalmap.jpg|alt=Map of County Donegal showing mountainous regions and lowlands adjacent to the water.|right|thumb|Map showing the geography and some of the different regions of Donegal.]]There are a number of different strands to the history of fiddle playing in County Donegal.<ref name="ma">{{Cite journal|title=Between the Jigs and the Reels: The Donegal Fiddle Tradition|first=C. |last=MacAoidh|year=1994|publisher=Drumlin Publications|page=125|postscript=}}</ref> Perhaps the best-known and, in the last half of the twentieth century, the most influential has been that of the Doherty family.<ref name="mustrad"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fiddlesessions.com/oct06/mccarrick.html |title=Famous Fiddlers, General Knowledge and Where to Get It Part Three |accessdate=8 March 2008 |author=Tim McCarrick |publisher=Mel Bay Publications, Inc. |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070825211725/http://www.fiddlesessions.com/oct06/McCarrick.html |archivedate=25 August 2007 }}</ref> [[Hugh Doherty (musician)|Hugh Doherty]] is the first known musician of this family. Born in 1790, he headed an unbroken tradition of fiddlers and pipers in the Doherty family until the death, in 1980, of perhaps the best-known Donegal fiddler, [[John Doherty (musician)|John Doherty]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Johnny Doherty|url=http://www.iol.ie/~ronolan/doherty.html|accessdate=8 March 2008|publisher=Rambling House|date=17 December 2007}}</ref> John, a travelling tinsmith, was known for his extremely precise and fast finger- and bow-work and vast repertoire, and is considered to be one of the greatest Irish fiddlers ever recorded.<ref name="mustrad"/> John's older brother, Mickey, was also recorded and, though Mickey was another of the great Irish fiddlers, his reputation has been overshadowed by John's.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Donegal and Shetland Fiddle Music|first=D.|last=McLaughlin|publisher=Irish Traditional Music Society|year=1992|location=Cork|page=58|postscript=}}</ref>

There is no single Donegal style but several distinctive styles. These styles traditionally come from the geographical isolated regions of Donegal including [[Inishowen]], eastern Donegal, [[The Rosses]] and [[Gweedore]], [[Croaghs]], [[Teelin]], [[Kilcar]], [[Glencolmcille]], [[Ballyshannon]] and [[Bundoran]]. Even with improved communications and transport, these regions still have recognisably different ways of fiddle playing. Notable deceased players of the older Donegal styles include Neillidh ("Neilly") Boyle, Francie Byrne, Con Cassidy,Frank Cassidy, [[James Byrne (musician)|James Byrne]] (1946–2008), P.V. O'Donnell (2011), and [[Tommy Peoples]] (1948–2018). Currently living Donegal fiddlers, include, [[Vincent Campbell]], [[John Gallagher (fiddler)|John Gallagher]], [[Paddy Glackin]], and [[Danny O'Donnell (fiddler)|Danny O'Donnell]].<ref name="ma" />

===Modern===
Fiddle playing continues to be popular in Donegal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.efxstudio.com/studio/Music%20Articles/encyclopedic/donegal_fiddle.htm|title=The Donegal Fiddle Tradition|accessdate=8 March 2008|author=Larry Sanger|publisher=EFX Studio}}</ref> The three fiddlers of the Donegal "supergroup" [[Altan (band)|Altan]], [[Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh]], Paul O'Shaughnessy, and Ciarán Tourish, are generally admired within Donegal. An example of another fiddler-player from Donegal is [[Liz Doherty]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.folkmusic.net/htmfiles/inart537.htm|title=Doctor Liz has many strings to her bow|accessdate=8 March 2008|author=Paul Dromey|publisher=The Living Tradition Ltd}}</ref>
Another well regarded fiddle player hailing from Donegal is [[Aidan O'Donnell]]. TG4 Young Musician of the Year 2010 Aidan O'Donnell has been described as one of the finest young Irish musicians at present. He began his music making at the age of 12, and since then has performed with some of traditional music's finest artists, including Donal Lunny, Micheal Ó'Suilleabháin and the Chieftains. In 2007, he won the prestigious ‘Oireachtas na Geailge' fiddle title, and has been a regular tutor at the Irish World Academy of Music and Dance, at the University of Limerick for the past number of years.

The fiddle, and traditional music in general, remained popular in Donegal not only because of the international coverage of certain artists<ref name="international"/> but because of local pride in the music.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dun-na-ngall.com/nw76.html|title=Nuacht Vol. 8 No.4|publisher=County Donegal|accessdate=8 March 2008|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080405060826/http://www.dun-na-ngall.com/nw76.html|archivedate=5 April 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Traditional music ''[[Irish traditional music session|Seisiúns]]'' are still common place both in [[pub]]s and in houses.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Field Guide to the Irish Music Session (Hardcover)|last=Foy|first=Barry|date=March 1999|isbn=978-1-57098-241-5|publisher=Roberts Rinehart Publishers|page=89|postscript=}}</ref> The Donegal fiddle music has been influenced by [[Sound recording and reproduction|recorded music]], but this is claimed to have had a positive impact on the tradition.<ref name="imr">{{cite web|url=http://www.irishmusicreview.com/donegalfiddle.htm|title=The Donegal Fiddle|accessdate=29 January 2008|publisher=Irish Music Review}}</ref> Modern Donegal fiddle music is often played in concerts and recorded on albums.<ref name="imr"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fiddle.com/issues/sum06.html|accessdate=8 March 2008|title=Summer 2006|publisher=Fiddler Magazine|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080615214458/http://www.fiddle.com/issues/sum06.html |archivedate = 15 June 2008|deadurl=yes}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Irish fiddle]]
* [[Scottish fiddling]]
* [[Irish music]]
* [[Celtic music]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

{{Music of Ireland}}
{{good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Donegal Fiddle Tradition}}
[[Category:Irish music]]
[[Category:Celtic music]]
[[Category:Irish styles of music]]

Contract bridge

2016-09-10T06:54:30Z

Squike: /* Overview */ face down changed to face up as per law 41

{{See also|Glossary of contract bridge terms}}
{{Infobox card game
| title = Contract bridge
| subtitle =
| image_link = [[Image:Bridge declarer.jpg|none|250px]]
| image_caption = Bridge declarer play
| alt_names = Bridge
| type = Trick-taking
| players = 4
| play = Clockwise
| card_rank = A K Q J 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2
| ages =
| num_cards = 52
| deck = [[French deck|French]]
| origin =
| related = [[Whist]], [[Auction bridge]], [[Duplicate bridge]]
| playing_time = [[World Bridge Federation|WBF]] tournament games = 7.5 minutes per deal
| random_chance = Low to moderate (depending on variant played)
| skills = [[Memory]], [[wikt:tactics|tactics]], [[probability]], [[communication]]
| footnotes =
}}
'''Contract bridge''', or simply '''bridge''', is a [[trick-taking game]] using a [[standard 52-card deck]]. It is played by four players in two competing partnerships,<ref>{{cite book
|last = Reese
|first = Terence
|authorlink = Terence Reese
|title = Bridge
|publisher = Hodder and Stoughton
|series = Teach Yourself Books
|year = 1980
|doi =
|isbn = 0-340-32438-4}}, page 1.
</ref> with partners sitting opposite each other around a table.<ref>In face-to-face games, a convenient table size is from 32 to 40 inches (80 to 100 centimeters) square [http://www.kardwell.com/bridge-tables.html] [http://www.baronbarclay.com/category/stakmore-furniture] or a round table allowing each player to reach to the center of the table during the play of the cards. In online computer play, players from anywhere in the world sit at a virtual table.</ref> Millions of people play bridge worldwide in clubs, [[bridge tournaments|tournaments]], online and with friends at home, making it one of the world's most popular card games, particularly among seniors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.usatoday.com/news/education/2005-12-19-bridge-schools_x.htm|title=USATODAY.com - Billionaires bank on bridge to trump poker|author=|date=|work=usatoday.com|accessdate=29 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/22/health/research/22brain.html|title=At the Bridge Table, Clues to a Lucid Old Age|author=|date=22 May 2009|work=The New York Times|accessdate=29 March 2016}}</ref> The [[World Bridge Federation]] is the governing body for international competitive bridge, with numerous other bodies governing bridge at the regional level.

The game consists of several {{gcb|deal|deals}}<ref>The terms deal, hand and board may be used interchangeably in bridge literature. More accurately, a {{gcb|hand}} is one player's holding of 13 cards, a {{gcb|deal}} is the four hands in one allocation of 52 cards; a [[Board (bridge)|board]] is a term more applicable to duplicate bridge and refers to a deal.</ref> each progressing through four phases. The cards are [[#Dealing|dealt]] to the players, and then the players [[#Auction or bidding|auction]] or ''bid'' to take the {{gcb|contract}} specifying how many tricks their partnership receiving the contract needs to take to receive points for the deal. It is during the auction where partners communicate information about their hand, including its overall strength and the length of its suits, although similar conventions for use during play exist. The cards are then [[#Play of the cards|played]], the {{gcb|declaring side}} trying to fulfill the contract, and the {{gcb|defenders}} trying to stop the declaring side from its goal. The deal is [[#Scoring|scored]] based on the number of tricks taken, the contract, and various other factors based on the variation played.<ref>{{cite book |last = Kantar |first = Eddie |authorlink = Eddie Kantar |title = Bridge for Dummies, 2nd Edition |publisher = Wiley Publishing, Inc. |series = |year = 2006 |doi = |isbn = 978-0-471-92426-5}}, page 11.
</ref>

[[Rubber bridge]] is the most popular variation for casual play, but most club and tournament play involves some variant of [[duplicate bridge]], where the cards are not re-dealt on each occasion, the same deal being played by two or more different sets of players to enable comparative scoring.

{{TOC limit|limit=3}}

==Etymology==
The name ''bridge'' has its origins in the name of an earlier game. Bridge departed from [[whist]] with the creation of [[s:Biritch, or Russian Whist|Biritch (or "Russian Whist")]] in the 19th century, and evolved through the late 19th and early 20th centuries to form the present game. The word ''biritch'' itself is a spelling of the Russian word [[:ru:Бирюч|Бирюч]] (бирчий, бирич), an occupation of a diplomatic clerk or an announcer. However some experts think that the Russian origin of the game is a fallacy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.stackexchange.com/questions/172810/etymology-of-bridge-the-card-game|title=historical change - Etymology of "bridge" (the card game) - English Language & Usage Stack Exchange|author=|date=|work=stackexchange.com|accessdate=29 March 2016}}</ref>

== Gameplay ==

=== Overview ===
[[File:Whist-type trick.jpg|upright=1|thumb|<center>An individual trick</center> North has led a 10{{Spades}} and so all players must play a spade card if they have one; if not, they may play any card.<ref name="law44">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 44, pp. 20–21.</ref> East plays the K{{spades}}, South the J{{diamonds}} and West the 7{{hearts}}. In a notrump game, East is the winner having played the highest spade card. However, if there is a trump suit, diamonds or hearts, South or West respectively wins the trick.]]
Bridge is a four-player partnership [[trick-taking game]] involving thirteen tricks per round.<ref name="law1">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 1, p. 3.</ref><ref name="law3">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 3, pp. 3–4.</ref> The dominant variations of the game are [[rubber bridge]], more common in social play and [[duplicate bridge]], which enables comparative scoring for tournament play. Each player is dealt thirteen cards from a standard 52-card deck. A {{gcb|trick|trick}} starts when a player leads, or makes the first play of a card. The leader to the first trick is determined by the auction; the leader to any subsequent trick is the player who won the preceding trick. Each player, in a clockwise fashion, plays one card on the trick. Players must play a card of the same suit as the original card led, unless they have none (said to be "void"), in which case they may play any card.<ref name="law44" />

The player who played the highest-ranked card wins the trick. Within a suit, the ace is ranked highest followed by the king, queen and jack and then the ten through to the two. In a game where the auction has determined that there is no trump suit, all suits are of equal strength. However, in a game where there is a trump suit, cards of that suit are superior in rank to any of the cards of any other suit. If one or more players plays a trump to a trick when void in the suit led, the highest trump wins. For example, if the trump suit is spades and if a player is void and plays a spade card, he wins the trick if no other player plays a higher spade card. If a trump suit is led, the usual rule for trick-taking applies.<ref name="law44" />

Unlike its predecessor [[Whist]], the goal of bridge is not to take the most tricks in a round.{{Sfn|Gibson|1974|pp=632–636}} Instead, the goal is to successfully estimate how many tricks one's partnership can take in a round.<ref name="law72a">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 72(a), pp. 34–35.</ref> To illustrate this, the simpler partnership trick-taking game of [[Spades (card game)|Spades]] has a similar mechanic: the usual trick-taking rules apply with the trump suit being spades, but in the beginning of the game, players ''bid'' or estimate how many tricks they can win, and the number of tricks bid by both players in a partnership are added. If a partnership takes at least that many number of tricks, they receive points for the round; otherwise, they receive penalty points, even if they took a majority of tricks.

[[File:Bridge auction competitive.png|upright=1|thumb|An example of a bridge auction. Here, the partnerships, sitting West-East and North-South, compete to win the contract and to prevent the other partnership from securing a contract, specifying the number of tricks needed to win points, and the trump suit.]]
Bridge extends the concept of bidding into an {{gcb|auction}}, where partnerships compete to take a {{gcb|contract}} specifying how many tricks they need to take in order to receive points for that round, and the trump suit or no trump, meaning that there will be no trump for the round. Players partake in the auction in a clockwise fashion, with each player either passing, doubling—which, for the other partnership, increases the penalties for not making the contract specified by the opposing partnership's last bid, but also increasing the reward for making a contract;<ref name="law19">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 19, p. 10.</ref> or suggesting a contract that their partnership will adopt, which must be higher than the previous highest bid if a player made a preceding bid for the round.<ref name="law18">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 18, p. 10.</ref>

Eventually, the player who bid the highest contract—which is determined by the contract's level as well as the suggested trump suit or no trump—wins the contract for their partnership. For example, in the example bidding on the right, the West-East pair secures the contract of 6{{diamonds}} because it is higher than 5{{spades}} and every player passed afterwards.<ref name="law22">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 22, p. 11.</ref> Note that six tricks are added to contract values, so the six-level contract would actually be a contract of twelve tricks.{{Sfn|Gibson|1974|p=135}}<ref name="law81">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 81, pp. 37–39</ref> In practice, establishing a contract without enough information on the other partner's hand is difficult, unlike in Spades where players only have to bid for their own hand, so there exist many [[bidding system]]s assigning meanings to bids, with common ones including [[Standard American]], [[Acol]], and [[2/1 game forcing]].

After the contract is set, one player from that partnership taking the bid (the {{gcb|declaring side}}) becomes the {{gcb|dummy}} and the other becoming the {{gcb|declarer}}. The dummy sets its cards face up after the first card is played, with the declarer (the non-dummy player) controlling the dummy's cards as well as their own.<ref name="law41">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 41, p. 19</ref> The opposing partnership is called the {{gcb|defenders}}, and their goal is to stop the declaring side from making their contract. Once all the cards have been played, the round is scored: if the declaring side make their contract, they receive points based on the contract, with some trump suits being worth more points than others and no trump being the highest, as well as bonus points for {{gcb|overtrick|overtricks}}, although they yield fewer points than contract points. Otherwise, if the declaring side fails to make their contract, the defenders receives points depending on the declaring side's undertricks, or the number of tricks short of the contract, and whether the contract was doubled by the defenders.<ref name="law81" />

=== Setup and dealing===
[[File:Board, duplicate bridge (1).png|thumb|upright|A bridge board]]
[[File:Bridgerunde.jpg|upright=1|thumb|Bridge seating arrangement]]
The four players sit in two partnerships such that each partner sits opposite to each other. [[Cardinal directions]] are given to the seats of a bridge table, such that one partnership sits in North and South, while the other sits in West and East.{{Sfn|Gibson|1974|p=134}} The cards may be freshly dealt or, in duplicate bridge where partnerships compete with each other, dealt beforehand.<ref name="law8">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 8, pp. 5–6.</ref><ref name="duplaw6">[[#duplicatelaws|Laws of Duplicate Bridge]], Law 6, pp. 9–10.</ref> All that is needed in basic games are the cards and a method of keeping score, but other items may be present in bridge tables, such as a board containing the cards to be played by each partnership (in duplicate bridge), [[bidding box]]es, or [[Screen (bridge)|screens]].<ref name="duplaw7">[[#duplicatelaws|Laws of Duplicate Bridge]], Law 7, p. 11.</ref><ref name="biddingbox">[[#duplicatelaws|Laws of Duplicate Bridge]], p. 136: "The ACBL Board of Directors authorizes tournament organizers in ACBL sanctioned events to use bidding boxes."</ref><ref name="duplaw80">[[#duplicatelaws|Laws of Duplicate Bridge]], Law 80, pp. 99–100.</ref>

In rubber bridge, each player draws a card at the start of the game: the two players who drew the highest cards are partners with the remaining being another partnership.<ref name="law3" /> The deck is shuffled and cut, usually by the player left to the dealer, before dealing. The position to deal is passed clockwise, with the player left of the dealer dealing for the next round. The dealer deals the card clockwise one card at a time.<ref name="law8" /><ref name="law4">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 4, p. 4.</ref>

In duplicate bridge, the cards are pre-dealt per table in order to allow for competitive scoring. These cards are stored on a device called a [[Board (bridge)|"board"]] with a slot for each cardinal direction. The director of a duplicate bridge game or their assistants may shuffle the decks immediately before play starts, or in advance. After a partnership has played a round, both players slot their cards into the board, ready to be played by the next partnership.<ref name="duplaw6be">[[#duplicatelaws|Laws of Duplicate Bridge]], Law 6B & 6E, pp. 9–10.</ref><ref name="duplaw7bc">[[#duplicatelaws|Laws of Duplicate Bridge]], Law 7B & 7C, p. 11.</ref>

=== Auction ===
[[File:Bridge Partner bidding box.jpg|upright=0.7|thumb|A [[bidding box]] containing all the possible calls a player can make in the auction.]]
The dealer opens the auction and can make the first call, and the auction proceeds clockwise.{{Efn|e.g., if North is the dealer, they make a call, then the auction continues with East, South, West, and so on.}} When it is their turn to call, players may pass to the player on their left—and can enter into the bidding later—or bid a contract, specifying the level of their contract and either the trump suit or no trump (the denomination), provided that it is higher than the last bid by any player, including their partner.{{Sfn|Gibson|1974|p=135}} All bids promise to take a number of tricks in excess of six, so a bid must be between one (seven tricks) and seven (thirteen tricks). A bid is higher than another bid if either the level is greater (e.g., 2{{clubs}} over 1NT) or the denomination is higher, with the order being in ascending order: {{clubs}}, {{diamonds}}, {{hearts}}, {{spades}}, and NT (no trump).{{Sfn|Gibson|1974|p=135}} Calls may be made orally, via a bidding box, or digitally for online bridge.

If the last bid was by the opposing partnership, one may also {{gcb|double}} the opponents' bid, increasing the penalties for undertricks, but also increasing the reward for meeting their contract. Doubling does not carry to future bids by the opponents unless future bids are doubled again. A player on the opposing partnership being doubled may also {{gcb|redouble}}, which increases the penalties and rewards further.{{Sfn|Gibson|1974|pp=135–136}} Players may not see their partner's hand during the auction, only their own. There exist many bidding conventions that assign meaning to various calls to assist players in reaching an optimal contract.<ref name="law40">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 40, pp. 18–19.</ref>

The auction ends when, after a player bids, doubles, or redoubles, every other player has passed, in which case the action proceeds to the play; or every player has passed and no bid has been made, in which case, the round is considered to be "passed out" and not played.<ref name="law22"/>

=== Play ===
The player from the declaring side who first bid the denomination named in the final contract becomes declarer.{{Efn|e.g., if player A bids 2{{hearts}} and player B, their partner, raises to 4{{hearts}} and that becomes the final contract, then player A becomes declarer.}}<ref name="defdeclarer">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Part I ("Definitions"): Declarer.</ref> The player left to the declarer leads the first trick. Afterwards, the dummy lays their cards face up on the table. Play proceeds clockwise, with each player expected to follow suit if possible. Tricks are won by the highest trump, or if there were none played, the highest card of the led suit.{{Sfn|Gibson|1974|pp=136–137}} The player who won the previous trick leads the next trick. The declarer has control of the dummy's cards and plays them when it is their turn, although the declarer may request the dummy to play a card on behalf.<ref name="law43">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 43, p. 20.</ref> There also exist conventions that communicate further information about one's hand during the play.<ref name="law41"/>

=== Scoring ===
{{main article|Bridge scoring}}
At the end of the round, points are awarded to the declaring side if they make the contract or the defenders otherwise. In Bridge, partnerships can be {{gcb|vulnerable}}, increasing the reward for receiving bonus points outside of making the contract, but also increasing the penalty for undertricks. In rubber bridge, if a side has won 100 contract points, they have won a {{gcb|game}} and are vulnerable for the remaining rounds,{{Sfn|Gibson|1974|p=138}} but in duplicate bridge, vulnerability is predetermined based on the number of each board.<ref name="duplaw2">[[#duplicatelaws|Laws of Duplicate Bridge]], Law 2, p. 6.</ref>

If the declaring side makes their contract, they receive points for {{gcb|odd tricks}}, or tricks bid and made in excess of six. In both rubber and duplicate bridge, the declaring side is awarded 20 points per odd trick for a contract in clubs or diamonds, and 30 points per odd trick per for a contract in hearts or spades. For a contract in no trump, the declaring side is awarded 40 points for the first odd trick and 30 points for the remaining odd tricks. Contract points are doubled or quadrupled if the contract is respectively doubled or redoubled.{{Efn|e.g., if the declaring side makes a contract of 4NT and takes exactly ten tricks, fulfilling the contract (6 + 4), they receive 40 points for the first odd trick, and 90 (30 × 3) points for the remaining odd tricks, adding up to 130 contract points. If the contract was doubled or redoubled, the declaring side receives 260 and 520 points respectively. Additional bonuses may apply depending on the variation played; for example, in duplicate bridge, the declaring side is awarded a game bonus for receiving more than 100 contract points, which is 500 if vulnerable, for a total of 630 points (500 + 130); or 300 if not vulnerable, for a total of 430 points (300 + 130).}} Overtricks score the same number of points per odd trick, although their doubled and redoubled values differ.<ref name="law81" /><ref name="duplaw77">[[#duplicatelaws|Laws of Duplicate Bridge]], Law 77, p. 95.</ref> Bonuses vary between the two bridge variations both in score and in type (for example, rubber bridge awards a bonus for holding a certain combination of high cards),<ref name="law81" /> although some are common between the two.

A large bonus is awarded if the declaring side makes a small slam or grand slam, a contract of twelve tricks and thirteen tricks respectively. If the declaring side is not vulnerable, a small slam awards 500 points, and a grand slam awards 1000 points. If the declaring side is vulnerable, a small slam awards 750 points, and a grand slam awards 1500 points.<ref name="law81" /><ref name="duplaw77" />

In duplicate bridge, there is a bonus for winning a game, or 100 contract points, which awards as a bonus 300 points if not vulnerable, and 500 points if vulnerable.<ref name="duplaw77" /> In rubber bridge, a partnership wins one game once it has accumulated 100 contract points; excess contract points do not carry over to the next game. A partnership that wins two games wins the rubber, receiving a bonus of 500 points if the opposing side is not vulnerable, and 700 points if the opposing side is vulnerable.<ref name="law72to74">[[#rubberlaws|Laws of Rubber Bridge]], Law 72–74, pp. 34–35.</ref>

Rubber bridge finishes when a partnership wins the rubber, the partnership receiving the most overall points winning.<ref name="law72to74" /> Duplicate bridge is scored comparatively, meaning that a partnership's round score is compared to other partnerships playing the same hands and scored according to their standing, with common systems of duplicate scoring including matchpoint scoring, where players receive a constant number of matchpoints for receiving more points than another partnership, and IMP (international matchpoint) scoring, where players receive IMPs based on the point difference between partnerships.<ref name="duplaw77" />

Undertricks are scored in both variations as follows:<ref name="law81" /><ref name="duplaw77" />
{|class="wikitable"
!rowspan="3" width=28%|Undertricks
!colspan="6"|Points per undertrick
|-
!colspan="3"|Vulnerable
!colspan="3"|Not vulnerable
|-
!width=12%|Undoubled
!width=12%|Doubled
!width=12%|Redoubled
!width=12%|Undoubled
!width=12%|Doubled
!width=12%|Redoubled
|-
|1st undertrick
|rowspan="3" align=center|100
|align=center|200
|align=center|400
|rowspan="3" align=center|50
|align=center|100
|align=center|200
|-
|2nd and 3rd, each
|align=center|300
|align=center|600
|align=center|200
|align=center|400
|-
|4th and each subsequent
|align=center|300
|align=center|600
|align=center|300
|align=center|600
|}

==Rules==
The rules of the game are referred to as the ''laws'' as promulgated by various bridge organizations.

===Laws of duplicate bridge===
{{Main article|Laws of Duplicate Bridge}}

The official rules of duplicate bridge are promulgated by the World Bridge Federation (WBF) as the "International Code of Laws of Duplicate Bridge, 2007".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbridge.org/departments/laws |title=World Bridge Federation Laws of Duplicate Bridge |publisher=Worldbridge.org |date= |accessdate=2011-11-05}}</ref> The Laws Committee of the WBF, composed of world experts, updates the Laws every 10 years; it also issues a Laws Commentary advising on interpretations it has rendered.

In addition to the basic rules of play, there are many additional rules covering playing conditions and the rectification of irregularities which are primarily for use by tournament directors who act as referees and have overall control of procedures during competitions. In addition, some details of procedure are left to the discretion of the zonal bridge organisation for tournaments under their aegis and some (for example, the choice of ''movement'') to the sponsoring organisation (e.g. the club).

The zonal organisations of the WBF also publish editions of the Laws. For example, the [[American Contract Bridge League]] publishes "Laws of Duplicate Bridge, 2008",<ref>[http://www.acbl.org/assets/documents/play/Laws-of-Duplicate-Bridge.pdf ACBL Laws of Duplicate Bridge, 2008]. Requirements for convention charts, alerts, and other laws are also available at the [http://www.acbl.org/ ACBL website].</ref> "Laws of Contract Bridge, 2003"<ref>[http://web2.acbl.org/laws/rlaws/lawofcontractbridgecombined_2004.pdf ACBL Laws of Contract Bridge, 2003].</ref> and additional supporting documentation including: Director Decisions, Tech Files and Casebook (appeals from national bridge championships).<ref>A cross-referenced listing including documentation is available at the [http://www.bridgehands.com/Laws/index.htm BridgeHands website].</ref>

===Rules of rubber bridge===
There are no universally accepted rules for rubber bridge promulgated by bridge governing bodies; instead local rules such as ''The Laws of Contract Bridge'' as published by the [[American Contract Bridge League]] constitute the rules for those wishing to abide by a published standard.<ref>[http://web2.acbl.org/laws/rlaws/lawofcontractbridgecombined_2004.pdf Laws of Contract Bridge, ACBL official site].</ref>

The majority of rules mirror those of duplicate bridge in the bidding and play and differ primarily in procedures for dealing and scoring.

===Laws of online play===
In 2001, the [[World Bridge Federation]] promulgated a set of Laws for online play.<ref>[http://www.worldbridge.org/Data/Sites/1/media/documents/laws/onlinelaws.pdf World Bridge Federation Laws of Electronic Bridge, 2001] for online play.</ref>

==History==
{{Main article|History of contract bridge}}
[[File:Shimer College bridge club 1942.jpg|thumb|Bridge club at [[Shimer College]], 1942.]]
Bridge is a member of the family of [[trick-taking game]]s and is a development of [[Whist]], which had become the dominant such game enjoying a loyal following for centuries. According to the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'', ''Bridge'' is the [[English language|English]] pronunciation of a game called ''[[Biritch]]'', which was also known as Russian Whist.

The oldest known Biritch rule book<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pagat.com/boston/biritch.html |title=Alternate source for Biritch, or Russian Whist by John Collinson, 1886 |publisher=Pagat.com |date= |accessdate=2011-11-05}}</ref> dated 1886 is ''[[s:Biritch, or Russian Whist|Biritch, or Russian Whist]]'' by John Collinson. It and his subsequent letter to ''The Saturday Review'' dated May 28, 1906, document the origin of ''Biritch'' as from the Russian community in Istanbul<ref>{{cite book
|last1 = Depaulis
|first1 = Thierry
|authorlink1 =
|last2 = Fuchs
|first2 = Jac
|authorlink2 =
|title = First Steps of Bridge in the West: Collinson's 'Biritch'
|publisher = The Playing-Card, Vol. 32, No. 2
|series =
|date = Sep–Oct 2003
|doi =
|isbn = }}pp. 67-76.</ref> and having some features in common with [[Solo Whist]]. The game had many significant bridge-like developments: dealer chose the [[trump (cards)|trump]] suit, or nominated his partner to do so; there was a call of notrumps (''biritch''); dealer's partner's hand became dummy; points were scored above and below the line; game was 3NT, 4H and 5D (although 8 club odd tricks and 15 spade odd tricks were needed); the score could be doubled and redoubled; and there were slam bonuses. This game, and variants of it known as "bridge"<ref>(Elwell 1905 and Benedict 1900)</ref> and "bridge-whist",<ref>(Melrose 1901)</ref> became popular in the United States and the UK in the 1890s despite the long-established dominance of whist.<ref>(Foster 1889)</ref>

In 1904 [[auction bridge]] was developed, in which the players bid in a competitive auction to decide the contract and declarer. The object became to make at least as many tricks as were contracted for and penalties were introduced for failing to do so.

The modern game of contract bridge was the result of innovations to the scoring of auction bridge made by [[Harold Stirling Vanderbilt]] and others. The most significant change was that only the tricks contracted for were scored below the line toward game or a slam bonus, a change that resulted in bidding becoming much more challenging and interesting. Also new was the concept of "vulnerability", making sacrifices to protect the lead in a rubber more expensive. The various [[bridge scoring|scores]] were adjusted to produce a more balanced and interesting game. Vanderbilt set out his rules in 1925, and within a few years contract bridge had so supplanted other forms of the game that "bridge" became synonymous with "contract bridge."

In the USA, most of the bridge played today is [[duplicate bridge]], which is played at clubs, in tournaments and online. In the UK, [[rubber bridge]] is still popular in both homes and clubs, as is duplicate bridge. The number of people playing contract bridge has declined since its peak in the 1940s, when a survey found it was played in 44% of US households. The game is still played, especially amongst retirees, and in 2005 the ACBL estimated there were 25 million players in the US.<ref>''Turning Tricks – The rise and fall of contract bridge" [http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/09/17/070917crbo_books_owen The New Yorker, September 17, 2007]</ref>

==Tournaments==
Bridge is a game of skill played with [[random]]ly dealt cards, which makes it also a [[game of chance]], or more exactly, a tactical game with inbuilt randomness, imperfect knowledge and restricted communication. The chance element is in the deal of the cards; in competitions and clubs the chance element is largely eliminated by comparing results of multiple pairs in identical situations. This is achievable when there are eight or more players, sitting at two or more tables, and the deals from each table are preserved and passed to the next table, thereby ''duplicating'' them for the next table of participants to play. At the end of a session, the scores for each deal are compared, and the most points are awarded to the players doing the best with each particular deal. This measures skill because each player is being judged only on the ability to bid with, and play, the same cards as other players. However very often even the most skillful play will only succeed some of the time, and the skilled player may be unlucky because an alternative, less expert play achieves a better result. But in the long run the expert player will score better.

This form of the game is referred to as ''duplicate bridge'' and is played in clubs and tournaments, which can gather as many as several hundred players. Duplicate bridge is a [[mind sport]], and its popularity gradually became comparable to that of [[chess]], with which it is often compared for its complexity and the mental skills required for high-level competition. Bridge and chess are the only "mind sports" recognized by the [[International Olympic Committee]], although they were not found eligible for the main [[Olympic games|Olympic]] program.<ref name="IOC">{{cite web|title=Review of the Olympic programme and the recommendations on the programme of the games of the XXIX Olympiad, Beijing 2008; page 8|url=http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Reports/EN/en_report_527.pdf|date=October 2011}}</ref>

The basic premise of duplicate bridge had previously been used for whist matches as early as 1857. Initially, bridge was not thought to be suitable for duplicate competition; it wasn't until the 1920s that (auction) bridge tournaments became popular.

In 1925 when contract bridge first evolved, bridge tournaments were becoming popular, but the rules were somewhat in flux, and several different organizing bodies were involved in tournament sponsorship: the [[American Bridge League]] (formerly the American Auction Bridge League, which changed its name in 1929), the [[American Whist League]], and the [[United States Bridge Association]]. In 1935, the first officially recognized world championship was held. By 1937, however, the [[American Contract Bridge League]] had come to power (a union of the ABL and the USBA), and it remains the principal organizing body for [[North American Bridge Championships|bridge tournaments]] in North America. In 1958, the [[World Bridge Federation]] was founded to promote bridge world-wide, coordinate periodic revision to the Laws (each ten years, next in 2017) and conduct world championships.{{sfn|Francis et al.|2001|p= 576. See WORLD BRIDGE FEDERATION (WBF)}}

===Bidding boxes and bidding screens===
[[Image:Encheres bridge.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Bidding box]]

In tournaments, "[[bidding box]]es" are frequently used, as noted above. In top national and international events, "[[screen (bridge)|bidding screens]]" are used. These are placed diagonally across the table, preventing partners from seeing each other during the game; often the screen is removed after the auction is complete.

==Game strategy==

===Bidding===
{{Main article|Bidding system|Bridge convention}}

Much of the complexity in bridge arises from the difficulty of arriving at a good final contract in the auction. This is a difficult problem: the two players in a partnership must try to communicate sufficient information about their hands to arrive at a makeable contract, but the information they can exchange is restricted – information may be passed only by the calls made and later by the cards played, not by other means; in addition, the agreed-upon meaning of each call and play must be available to the opponents.

Since a partnership that has freedom to bid gradually at leisure can exchange more information, and since a partnership that can interfere with the opponents' bidding (as by raising the bidding level rapidly) can cause difficulties for their opponents, bidding systems are both informational and strategic. It is this mixture of information exchange and evaluation, deduction, and tactics that is at the heart of bidding in bridge.

A number of basic [[rule of thumb|rules of thumb]] in bridge bidding and play are summarized as [[bridge maxims]].

====Bidding systems and conventions====
A ''bidding system'' is a set of partnership agreements on the meanings of bids. A partnership's bidding system is usually made up of a core system, modified and complemented by specific [[convention (bridge)|conventions]] (optional customizations incorporated into the main system for handling specific bidding situations) which are pre-chosen between the partners prior to play. The line between a well-known convention and a part of a system is not always clear-cut: some bidding systems include specified conventions by default. Bidding systems can be divided into mainly natural systems such as [[Acol]] and [[Standard American]], and mainly artificial systems such as the [[Precision Club]] and Strong Diamond (see [http://www.strongdiamond.co.uk/ Strong Diamond]).

Calls are usually considered to be either ''natural'' or ''conventional'' (artificial). A natural call carries a meaning that reflects the call; a natural bid intuitively showing hand or suit strength based on the level or suit of the bid, and a natural double expressing that the player believes that the opposing partnership will not make their bid. By contrast, a conventional (artificial) call offers and/or asks for information by means of pre-agreed coded interpretations, in which some calls convey very specific information or requests that are not part of the natural meaning of the call. Thus in response to 4NT, a 'natural' bid of 5{{Diams}} would state a preference towards a diamond suit or a desire to play the contract in 5 diamonds, whereas if the partners have agreed to use the common [[Blackwood convention]], a bid of 5{{Diams}} in the same situation would say nothing about the diamond suit, but tell the partner that the hand in question contains exactly one ace.

Conventions are valuable in bridge because of the need to pass information beyond a simple like or dislike of a particular suit, and because the limited bidding space can be used more efficiently by taking situations in which a given call will have less utility, because the information it would convey is not valuable or because the desire to convey that information would arise only rarely, and giving that call an artificial meaning that conveys more useful (or more frequently useful) information. There are a very large number of conventions from which players can choose; many books have been written detailing bidding conventions. Well-known conventions include [[Stayman]] (to ask for the showing of any 4 card major suit in a 1NT opener's hand), [[Jacoby transfer]]s (a request by the weak hand for the stronger partner to bid a particular suit first, and therefore to become the declarer), and the [[Blackwood convention]] (to ask for information on the number of aces and kings held, used in slam bidding situations).

The term ''[[preempt]]'' refers to a high level tactical bid by a weak hand, relying upon a long suit rather than high-value cards for tricks. Preemptive bids serve a double purpose – they allow players to indicate they are bidding on the basis of a long suit in an otherwise weak hand, which is important information to share, and they also consume substantial bidding room before a possibly strong opposing pair can identify whether they have a good possibility to play the hand, or in what suit or at what level they should do so. Several systems include the use of opening bids or other early bids with weak hands including long (usually six to eight card) suits at the 2, 3 or even 4 or 5 levels as preempts.

====Basic natural systems====
As a rule, a natural suit bid indicates a holding of at least four (or more, depending on the situation and the system) cards in that suit as an opening bid, or a lesser number when supporting partner; a natural NT bid indicates a balanced hand.

Most systems use a count of [[high card point]]s as the basic evaluation of the strength of a hand, refining this by reference to shape and distribution if appropriate. In the most commonly used point count system, aces are counted as 4 points, kings as 3, queens as 2, and jacks as 1 point; therefore, the deck contains 40 points. In addition, the ''distribution'' of the cards in a hand into suits may also contribute to the strength of a hand and be counted as [[point count|distribution points]]. A better than average hand, containing 12 or 13 points, is usually considered sufficient to ''open'' the bidding, i.e., to make the first bid in the auction. A combination of two such hands (i.e., 25 or 26 points shared between partners) is often sufficient for a partnership to bid, and generally to make, game in a [[major suit]] or notrump (more are usually needed for a [[minor suit]] game, as the level is higher).

In natural systems, a 1NT opening bid usually reflects a hand that has a relatively balanced shape (usually between two and four (or less often five) cards in each suit) and a sharply limited number of high card points, usually somewhere between 12 and 18 – the most common ranges use a span of exactly three points, (e.g., 12-14, 15-17 or 16-18), but some systems use a four-point range, usually 15-18.

Opening bids of three or higher are preemptive bids, i.e., bids made with weak hands that especially favor a particular suit, opened at a high level in order to define the hand's value quickly and to frustrate the opposition. For example, a hand of {{BridgeHandInline|KQJ9872|7|42|763}} would be a candidate for an opening bid of 3{{Spades}}, designed to make it difficult for the opposing team to bid and find their [[optimum contract]] even if they have the bulk of the points, as it is nearly valueless unless spades are trumps, it contains good enough spades that the penalty for being set should not be higher than the value of an opponent game, and the high card weakness makes it more likely that the opponents have enough strength to make game themselves.

Openings at the 2 level are either unusually strong (2NT, natural, and 2{{Clubs}}, artificial) or preemptive, depending on the system. Unusually strong bids communicate an especially high number of points (normally 20 or more) or a high trick-taking potential (normally 8 or more).

Opening bids at the one level are made with hands containing 12–13 points or more and which are not suitable for one of the preceding bids. Using [[Standard American]] with [[Five-card majors|5-card majors]], opening hearts or spades usually promises a 5-card suit. Partnerships who agree to play 5-card majors open a [[minor suit]] with 4-card majors and then bid their [[major suit]] at the next opportunity. This means that an opening bid of 1{{Clubs}} or 1{{Diamonds}} will sometimes be made with only 3 cards in that suit.

Doubles are sometimes given conventional meanings in otherwise mostly natural systems. A natural, or ''penalty'' double, is one used to try to gain extra points when the defenders are confident of setting (defeating) the contract. The most common example of a conventional double is the [[takeout double]] of a low-level suit bid, implying support for the unbid suits or the unbid major suits and asking partner to choose one of them.

====Variations on the basic themes====
Bidding systems depart from these basic ideas in varying degrees. [[Standard American]], for instance, is a collection of conventions designed to bolster the accuracy and power of these basic ideas, while Precision Club is a system that uses the 1{{Clubs}} opening bid for all or almost all strong hands (but sets the threshold for "strong" rather lower than most other systems – usually 16 high card points) and may include other artificial calls to handle other situations (but it may contain natural calls as well). Many experts today use a system called [[2/1 game forcing]] (enunciated as two over one game forcing), which amongst other features adds some complexity to the treatment of the one notrump response as used in [[Standard American]]. In the UK, [[Acol]] is the most common system; its main features are a weak one notrump opening with 12-14 high card points and several variations for 2-level openings.

There are also a variety of advanced techniques used for hand evaluation. The most basic is [[point count|the Milton Work point count]], (the 4-3-2-1 system detailed above) but this is sometimes modified in various ways, or either augmented or replaced by other approaches such as [[losing trick count]], [[honor point count]], [[law of total tricks]], or [[Zar Points]].

Common conventions and variations within natural systems include:
* Point count required for 1 NT opening bid ('mini' 10-12, 'weak' 12-14, 'strong' 15-17 or 16-18)
* Whether an opening bid of 1{{Hearts}} and 1{{Spades}} requires a minimum of 4 or 5 cards in the suit (''4 or 5 card majors'')
* Whether 1{{Clubs}} (and sometimes 1{{Diams}}) is 'natural' or 'suspect' ''(also called 'phoney' or 'short')'', signifying an opening hand lacking a notable heart or spade suit
* Whether opening bids at the two level are 'strong' (20+ points) or '[[Weak two bid|weak]]' (i.e., pre-emptive with a 6 card suit). (Note: an [[Strong two clubs|opening bid]] of 2{{Clubs}} is usually played in otherwise natural systems as conventional, signifying any exceptionally strong hand)
* ''[[Blackwood convention|Blackwood]]'' (either the original version or ''[[Blackwood convention#Roman Key Card Blackwood (RKCB)|Roman Key Card]]'')
* ''[[Stayman convention|Stayman]]'' (together with Blackwood, described as "the two most famous conventions in Bridge".<ref>Bridge Lessons series, ''Stayman & Transfer'' (Deal 1), by Andrew Robson</ref>)
* Whether the partnership will play ''[[Jacoby transfer]]s'' (bids of 2{{Diamonds}} and 2{{Hearts}} over 1NT or 3{{Diamonds}} and 3{{Hearts}} over 2NT respectively require the 1NT or 2NT bidder to rebid 2{{Hearts}} and 2{{Spades}} or 3{{Hearts}} and 3{{Spades}}), ''minor suit transfers'' (bids of 2{{Spades}} and either 2NT or 3{{Clubs}} over 1NT respectively require the 1NT bidder to bid 3{{Clubs}} and 3{{Diamonds}}) and ''Texas transfers'' (bids of 4{{Diamonds}} and 4{{Hearts}} respectively require the 1NT, or 2NT bidder to rebid 4{{Hearts}} and 4{{Spades}})
* What types of ''[[cue bid]]s (e.g. rebidding the opponents' suit)'' the partnership will play, if any.
* Whether doubling a contract at the 1, 2 and sometimes higher levels signifies a belief that the opponents' contract will fail and a desire to raise the stakes (a ''penalty double''), or an indication of strength but no biddable suit coupled with a request that partner bid something (a ''[[takeout double]]'').
* Whether doubling or overcalling over opponents' 1NT is natural or conventional. Most common artificial agreement is [[Cappelletti (bridge convention)|Cappelletti]], where 2{{Clubs}} is a transfer to be passed or corrected to a major, 2{{Diamonds}} means both majors and a major shows that suit plus a minor.
* How the partnership's bidding practices will be varied if their opponents intervene or compete.
* Which (if any) bids are ''[[forcing bid|forcing]]'' and require a response.

Within play, it is also commonly agreed what systems of opening leads, signals and discards will be played:
* Conventions for the [[opening lead]] govern how the first card to be played will be chosen and what it will mean,
* [[Signal (bridge)|Signals]] indicate how cards played within a suit are chosen – for example, playing a noticeably high card when this would not be expected can signal encouragement to continue playing the suit, and a low card can signal discouragement and a desire for partner to choose some other suit. (Some partnerships use "reverse" signals, meaning that a noticeably high card ''discourages'' that suit and a noticeably low card ''encourages'' that suit, thus not "wasting" a potentially useful intermediate card in the suit of interest.)
* [[Discard (bridge)|Discards]] cover the situation when a defender cannot follow suit and therefore has free choice what card to play or throw away. In such circumstances the thrown-away card can be used to indicate some aspect of the hand, or a desire for a specific suit to be played.
* [[Count Signals (bridge)|Count signals]] cover the situation when a defender is following suit (usually to a suit that the declarer has led). In such circumstances the order in which a defender plays his spot cards will indicate whether an even or odd number of cards was originally held in that suit. This can help the other defender count out the entire original distribution of the cards in that suit. It is sometimes critical to know this when defending.
* [[Glossary of contract bridge terms#SPS|Suit preference signals]] cover the situation where a defender is returning a suit which will be ruffed by his partner. If he plays a high card he is showing an entry in the higher side suit and vice versa. There are some other situations where this tool may be used.
* [[Glossary of contract bridge terms#Surrogate Signals|Surrogate signals]] cover the situation when it is critical to show length in a side suit and it will be too late if defenders wait till that suit is played. Then, the play in the first declarer played suit is a count signal regarding the critical suit and not the trump suit itself. In fact, any signal made about a suit in another suit might be called as such.

====Advanced bidding techniques====
Every call (including "pass", also sometimes called "no bid") serves two purposes. It confirms or passes some information to a partner, and also denies by implication any other kind of hand which would have tended to support an alternative call. For example, a bid of 2NT immediately after partner's 1NT not only shows a balanced hand of a certain point range, but also would almost always deny possession of a five-card major suit (otherwise the player would have bid it) or even a four card major suit (in that case, the player would probably have used the [[Stayman convention]]).

Likewise, in some partnerships the bid of 2{{Hearts}} in the sequence 1NT - 2{{Clubs}} - 2{{Diams}} - 2{{Hearts}} between partners (opponents passing throughout) explicitly shows five hearts but also confirms four cards in spades: the bidder must hold at least five hearts to make it worth looking for a heart fit after 2{{Diams}} denied a four card major, and with at least five hearts, a Stayman bid must have been justified by having exactly four spades, the other major (since Stayman (as used by this partnership) is not useful with anything except a four card major suit).<ref>Taken from Andrew Robson ''Bridge Lessons'' series, "Stayman & Transfer", deal 14</ref> Thus an astute partner can read much more than the surface meaning into the bidding. Alternatively, many partnerships play this same bidding sequence as "Crawling Stayman" by which the responder shows a weak hand (less than eight high card points) with shortness in diamonds but at least four hearts and four spades; the opening bidder may correct to spades if that appears to be the better contract.

The situations detailed here are extremely simple examples; many instances of advanced bidding involve specific agreements related to very specific situations and subtle inferences regarding entire sequences of calls.

===Play techniques===
{{Main article|List of play techniques (bridge)}}

[[Terence Reese]], a prolific author of bridge books, points out{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} that there are only four ways of taking a trick by force, two of which are very easy:
* playing a high card that no one else can beat
* trumping an opponent's high card
* establishing long suits (the last cards in a suit will take tricks if the opponents don't have the suit and are unable to trump)
* playing for the opponents' high cards to be in a particular position (if their ace is to the right of your king, your king may be able to take a trick, especially if, when that suit is led, the player to your right has to play their card before you do)

Nearly all trick-taking techniques in bridge can be reduced to one of these four methods. The optimum play of the cards can require much thought and experience and is the subject of whole books on bridge.

==Example==
The cards are dealt as shown in the bridge hand [[contract bridge diagram|diagram]]; North is the dealer and starts the auction which proceeds as shown in the bidding table.
{{BridgeHandNWES
|Label = Example 1 Matchpoints South in 4{{hearts}} Not Vulnerable
|J 3|J 8 7 4|A 10 7 6 5|Q 3
|K Q 8 7 2|A 2|J 4 2|10 7 2
|10 9 5 4|9 6|K Q 9|K 9 6 4
|A 6|K Q 10 5 3|8 3|A J 8 5
|Lead = Lead: {{spades}} K
}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:left; margin-top:10px; margin-right:10px;"
|-
!West||North||East||South
|- style="text-align:center;"
| ||Pass||Pass||1{{Hearts}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
|1{{Spades}}||2{{Hearts}}||2{{Spades}}||3{{Clubs}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
|Pass||4{{Hearts}}||Pass||Pass
|- style="text-align:center;"
|Pass|| || ||
|}
As neither North nor East have sufficient strength to ''open'' the bidding, they each pass, denying such strength. South, next in turn, opens with the bid of 1{{Hearts}}, which denotes a reasonable heart suit (at least 4 or 5 cards long, depending on the [[bidding system]]) and at least 12 [[hand evaluation|high card points]]. On this hand, South has 14 high card points. West ''[[overcall]]s'' with 1{{Spades}}, since he has a long spade suit of reasonable quality and 10 high card points (an overcall can be made on a hand that is not quite strong enough for an opening bid). North ''supports'' partner's suit with 2{{Hearts}}, showing heart support and about {{nowrap|6-8}} points. East supports spades with 2{{Spades}}. South inserts a ''[[game try]]'' of 3{{Clubs}}, ''inviting'' the partner to bid the ''game'' of 4{{Hearts}} with good club support and overall values. North complies, as North is at the higher end of the range for his 2{{Hearts}} bid, and has a fourth trump (the 2{{Hearts}} bid promised only three), and the ''doubleton'' queen of clubs to fit with partner's strength there. (North could instead have bid 3{{Hearts}}, indicating not enough strength for game, asking South to pass and so play 3{{Hearts}}.)

In the auction, North-South are trying to investigate whether their cards are sufficient to make a '''game''' (nine tricks at notrump, ten tricks in hearts or spades, 11 tricks in clubs or diamonds), which yields bonus points if bid and made. East-West are ''competing'' in spades, hoping to play a contract in spades at a low level. 4{{Hearts}} is the final contract, 10 tricks being required for N-S to make with hearts as trump.

South is the ''declarer'', having been first to bid hearts, and the player to South's left, West, has to choose the first card in the play, known as the ''opening lead''. West chooses the spade king because spades is the suit the partnership has shown strength in, and because they have agreed that when they hold two ''touching honors'' (or ''adjacent honors'') they will play the higher one first. West plays the card face down, to give their partner and the declarer (but not dummy) a chance to ask any last questions about the bidding or to object if they believe West is not the correct hand to lead. After that, North's cards are laid on the table and North becomes ''dummy'', as both the North and South hands will be controlled by the declarer. West turns the lead card face up, and the declarer studies the two hands to make a plan for the play. On this hand, the trump ace, a spade, and a diamond trick must be lost, so declarer must not lose a trick in clubs.

If the {{Clubs}}K is held by West, South will find it very hard to prevent it making a trick (unless West leads a club). However, there is an almost-equal chance that it is held by East, in which case it can be 'trapped' against the ace, and will be beaten, using a tactic known as a ''[[finesse]]''.

After considering the cards, the declarer directs dummy (North) to play a small spade. East plays ''low'' (small card) and South takes the {{Spades}}A, gaining the ''lead''. (South may also elect to ''[[duck (bridge)|duck]]'', but for the purpose of this example, let us assume South wins the {{Spades}}A at trick 1). South proceeds by ''drawing trump'', leading the {{Hearts}}K. West decides there is no benefit to holding back, and so wins the trick with the ace, and then cashes the {{Spades}}Q. For fear of conceding a ''[[ruff and discard]]'', West plays the {{Diams}}2 instead of another spade. Declarer plays low from the table, and East scores the {{Diams}}Q. Not having anything better to do, East returns the remaining trump, taken in South's hand. The trumps now accounted for, South can now execute the finesse, perhaps trapping the king as planned. South ''enters'' the dummy (i.e. wins a trick in the dummy's hand) by leading a low diamond, using dummy's {{Diams}}A to win the trick, and leads the {{Clubs}}Q from dummy to the next trick. East ''covers'' the queen with the king, and South takes the trick with the ace, and proceeds by ''cashing'' the remaining ''master'' {{Clubs}}J. (If East doesn't play the king, then South will play a low club from South's hand and the queen will win anyway, this being the essence of the finesse). The game is now safe: South ''[[ruff (cards)|ruffs]]'' a small club with a dummy's trump, then ruffs a diamond in hand for an ''entry'' back, and ruffs the last club in dummy (sometimes described as a ''[[crossruff]]''). Finally, South ''claims'' the remaining tricks by showing his or her hand, as it now contains only high trumps and there's no need to play the hand out to prove they are all winners.

(The trick-by-trick notation used above can be also expressed in tabular form, but a textual explanation is usually preferred in practice, for reader's convenience. Plays of small cards or ''discards'' are often omitted from such a description, unless they were important for the outcome).

North-South score the required 10 tricks, and their opponents take the remaining three. The contract is fulfilled, and North enters the pair numbers, the contract, and the score of +420 for the winning side (North is in charge of bookkeeping in duplicate tournaments) on the [[traveling sheet]]. North asks East to check the score entered on the traveller. All players return their own cards to the board, and the next deal is played.

On the prior hand, it is quite possible that the {{Clubs}}K is held by West. For example, by swapping the {{Clubs}}K and {{Hearts}}A between the defending hands. Then the 4{{Hearts}} contract would fail by one trick (unless West had led a club early in the play). However the failure of the contract would not mean that 4{{Hearts}} is a bad contract on this hand. The contract depends on the club finesse working, or a mis-defense. The bonus points awarded for making a game contract far outweigh the penalty for going one off, so it is best strategy in the long run to bid game contracts such as this one.

Similarly, there is a minuscule chance that the {{Clubs}}K is in the west hand, but the west hand has no other clubs. In that case, declarer can succeed by simply cashing the {{Clubs}}A, felling the {{Clubs}}K and setting up the {{Clubs}}Q as a winner. However the chance of this is far lower than the simple chance of approximately 50% that East started with the {{Clubs}}K. Therefore, the superior ''percentage'' play is to take the club finesse, as described above.

==Computer bridge==
{{Main article|Computer bridge}}

===User-based play===
After many years of little progress, [[computer bridge]] made great progress at the end of the 20th century. In 1996, the American Contract Bridge League (ACBL) initiated official World Championships Computer Bridge, to be held annually along with a major bridge event. The first Computer Bridge Championship took place in 1997 at the North American Bridge Championships in [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]].

Strong bridge playing programs such as Jack (World Champion in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2006 and 2009), Wbridge5 (World Champion in 2005, 2007 and 2008), RoboBridge<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.RoboBridge.com |title=RoboBridge |publisher=RoboBridge |date=2011-10-22 |accessdate=2011-11-05}}</ref> and many-time finalist Bridge Baron, would probably rank among the top few thousand human pairs worldwide. A series of articles published in 2005 and 2006 in the Dutch bridge magazine [[List of significant bridge books and magazines|IMP]] describes matches between Jack and seven top Dutch pairs. A total of 196 boards were played. Overall, the program Jack lost, but by a small margin (359 versus 385 imps).

===Internet-based play===
There are several free and subscription-based services available for playing bridge on the [[internet]]. For example:
* OKbridge<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.okbridge.com/|title=Bridge Online Play Bridge Game On Line - OKbridge|author=|date=|work=okbridge.com|accessdate=29 March 2016}}</ref> is the oldest of the still-running internet bridge services: was established as a commercial enterprise in 1994, but the program started to be used interactively in August 1990 on players of all standards. Beginners to world class may be found playing there.<ref name=OEB7>Manley et al. (2011), p. 597</ref> OKbridge is a subscription-based club, with services such as customer support and ethics reviews.
* SWAN Games<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swangames.com/main/index.html|title=Online Bridge|author=|date=|work=swangames.com|accessdate=29 March 2016}}</ref> was founded April, 2000. In March 2004, announced a partnership to provide internet services to SBF members and is a competitor in subscription-based online bridge clubs.<ref name=OEB7/>
* [[Bridge Base Online]] (BBO) is the most active online bridge club in the world, with more than 100 000 daily connections and 500 000 hands played each day.<ref name=OEB7/> in part because it is free to play regular games and volunteer-run tournaments.

These and other sites offer various features, such as opportunities to earn ACBL masterpoints, to play in online tournaments, to compile lists of friends, and to earn money playing Bridge. Bridge Base Online also has a [[Vugraph]] feature showing tournaments from around the world for anyone interested to watch live. As well as written commentaries from top level players, voice commentaries have been incorporated since mid-2011. Software and hardware has been tested in 2011 in order to have digital cameras recognize the cards being played, which will avoid human error or delay.

Some national contract bridge organizations now offer online bridge play to their members, including the English Bridge Union, the [[Dutch Bridge Federation]] and the Australian Bridge Federation. MSN and Yahoo! Games have several online rubber bridge rooms. In 2001, World Bridge Federation issued a special edition of the lawbook adapted for internet and other electronic forms of the game.

Advantages of online play include:
* The software prevents improper plays and calls, such as insufficient bids, [[revoke]]s (failure to follow suit when able), and actions out of turn.
* Unauthorised information cannot be passed by [[Nonverbal communication|tone of voice]] or [[body language]] (but can much more easily be passed by external communication).
* Detailed records are kept which can aid partners to review and improve their bidding and play.
* Hands can be easily be analysed for best play ([[double dummy]]) afterwards.
* Can play with partners far away - or across town.
* No need to assemble 4 people in one place.
* Faster play - no shifting chairs or waiting for shuffles.
* Player rating systems may attempt to measure ability without regard to the number of games played or the number of years spent accumulating [[masterpoints]].
* Fewer restrictions on the conventions that are permitted compared to club tourneys.
* Easy to find opponents for practice in bidding and playing.
* You will meet bridge players from every country and time zone.
* Flexibility when to play (24/7), and choice of opponent skill level.
* Choice of individual, pairs, or team competitions.
* Fun to watch famous bridge stars play "live" as well as well-known personalities such as Bill Gates and Warren Buffett (who used to appear regularly on OKBridge in set games)

There are also a number of disadvantages:
* Inability to decide on bidding convention ahead of time when partners are strangers.
* A reduced social element.
* Players may leave before a hand finishes, or in the middle of a planned session, either intentionally or because of connection difficulties.

Tournaments are usually shorter online. A common length is 12 boards(deals). Online services support many simultaneous tournaments. When you finish one tournament, another will start soon.

Some online services like BBO have apps for [https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=air.com.bridgebase.BridgeBase&hl=en Android] and [http://itunes.com/apps/bridgebase iPhone].

==Card games related to bridge==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[500 (card game)|500]]
* [[Bridgette (game)|Bridgette]]
* [[Euchre]]
{{col-break}}
* [[King (card game)|King]]
* [[Lanterloo]]
* [[Napoleon (card game)|Nap]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Ombre]]
* [[Quadrille (card game)|Quadrille]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Skat (card game)|Skat]]
* [[Spoil Five]]
* [[Whist]]
{{col-end}}

==See also==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Glossary of contract bridge terms]]
* [[List of bridge books]]
* [[List of bridge competitions and awards]]
{{col-break}}
* [[List of bridge magazines]]
* [[List of contract bridge people]]
{{col-end}}
{{clear}}

{{clear}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{Notelist|30em}}

===Notes===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last = Kantar |first = Eddie |authorlink = Eddie Kantar |title = Bridge for Dummies|edition=3rd |publisher =[[John Wiley & Sons]]|series = |year = 2012 |doi = |isbn = 978-1-118-24083-0|ref=harv}}
* {{OEB|6}}
* {{OEB|7}}
* {{cite web|author1=[[American Contract Bridge League]]|title=Laws of Duplicate Bridge|url=http://cdn.acbl.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/Laws-of-Duplicate-Bridge.pdf|ref=duplicatelaws|format=PDF|date=2016|location=[[Horn Lake, Mississippi|Horn Lake, MS]]}}
* {{cite web|author1=[[American Contract Bridge League]]|title=Laws of Rubber Bridge|url=http://cdn.acbl.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Laws-of-Rubber-Bridge.pdf|ref=rubberlaws|format=PDF|date=2014|location=[[Horn Lake, Mississippi|Horn Lake, MS]]}}
* {{cite book|last1=Gibson|first1=Walter B.|title=Hoyle's Modern Encyclopedia of Card Games: Rules of All the Basic Games and Popular Variations|date=1974|publisher=Dolphin Books|location=[[Garden City, New York|Garden City, NY]]|isbn=978-0385076807|ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Further|List of bridge books}}

==External links==
{{Wikicommons|Contract bridge}}
* [http://www.worldbridge.org/home.asp World Bridge Federation (WBF)]
* [http://www.acbl.org/ American Contract Bridge League (ACBL)]

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Squike: /* External links */ Replaced dead link

{{Refimprove|date = March 2009}}

'''The Irish Washerwoman''' is a traditional [[Irish jig]] whose melody is familiar to many people in the British Isles and North America.<ref>Cairns, Archie. 1995. ''Book 1 Pipe Music – The Irish Washerwoman's Jig''.</ref> It repeats its refrain several times, sometimes by gradually increasing in tempo until being played very fast before coming to a sudden stop. The tune has lyrics, but is typically rendered as an instrumental. It is one of the melodies played when [[Scottish highland dance|Scottish highland dancers]] dance a Scottish dance to the tune of an Irish Jig.

The song was arranged for the [[Boston Pops Orchestra]] by the American composer [[Leroy Anderson]] in 1947 and has featured in the repertoire of the Dutch violinist and composer [[André Rieu]], conductor of the [[Johann Strauss Orchestra]].

It also was the basis for [[Larry Williams]]'s R&B song "[[You Bug Me Baby]]", written by [[Sonny Bono]], which was the flip side to the single "[[Bony Moronie]]".

A [[folk]] song called "The Chemist's Drinking Song" is set to this tune with lyrics by [[John A. Carroll]], based on an idea by [[Isaac Asimov]].

[[A Prairie Home Companion]] guitarist [[Pat Donohue]] wrote a parody set to this tune called "The Irish Blues," which appears on his 2011 album, Nobody's Fault. His lyrics reveal the morning-after consequences of spending the night before in concerted Irish celebration.

The title of the Irish feature film The Old Irish Washerwoman (2014) is a reference to the jig.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-aZJtmJkAFQ A clip] of [[John Sheahan]] and [[André Rieu]] playing the song on violins
*[http://www.ireland-information.com/irishmusic/theirishwasherwoman.shtml A site with lyrics]
*[https://thesession.org/tunes/92 Sheet music on thesession.org]
*[http://www.makingmusicfun.net/htm/f_printit_free_printable_sheet_music/the-irish-washerwoman.htm Sheet music for piano] – intermediate level 4, with sound recording.
*[http://www.familyfriendsfirearms.com/forum/archive/index.php/t-58700.html The Chemist's Drinking Song]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Irish Washerwoman}}
[[Category:Irish songs]]
*[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt2535488/?ref_=fn_al_tt_1 The Old Irish Washerwoman Feature film.]

{{Folk-song-stub}}
{{Folk-dance-stub}}

Smiddyburn

2014-11-02T11:52:25Z

Squike: remove 'on'

{{Infobox Album 
| Name = Smiddyburn
| Type = studio
| Artist = [[Dave Swarbrick]]
| Cover = Smiddyburn.jpg
| Released = July 1981
| Recorded = Regal Sound Recorders, [[Hitchin]], 1981
| Genre = [[Folk rock]]
| Length =
| Label = [[Logo Records]]
| Producer = John Wood
| Reviews =
}}

'''Smiddyburn''' is a 1981 folk album recorded by [[Dave Swarbrick]] and named after the farm in [[Aberdeenshire]] where Swarbrick lived at the time. The tracks are mostly renditions of [[Traditional music|traditional folk tunes]], and Swarbrick is assisted by his erstwhile colleagues from [[Fairport Convention]] as well as his early mentor, [[Beryl Marriott]].<ref>{{cite web |url={{Allmusic|class=artist|id=p850/biography|pure_url=yes}} |title=Allmusic - Dave Swarbrick Biography |publisher=www.allmusic.com |accessdate=2010-09-15 }}</ref>

==Track listing==
*All tracks credited to "[[Traditional music|Trad. arr. Dave Swarbrick]]" unless otherwise noted
===Side one===
#"Wat Ye Wha I Met the Streen"<ref name = Gow>[[Nathaniel Gow]] arr. Dave Swarbrick</ref>/"The Ribbons of the Redheaded Girl"/"Ril Gan Ainm" (4:48)
#"Sir Charles Coote"<ref>[[Turlough Carolan|Carolan]] arr. Dave Swarbrick</ref>/"Smiths" (2:43)
#"I Have a Wife of My Own"/"Lady Mary Haye's Scotch Measure"<ref name = Gow/> (3:37)
#"Wishing"/"The Victor's Return"/"The Gravel Walk" (5:15)
===Side two===
#"When The Battle is Over" (3:37)
#"Sword Dance"/"The Young Black Crow" (4:18)
#"Sean O'Dwyer of the Glen"<ref>Trad. arr. Marriot</ref>/"The Hag With The Money"/"Sleepy Maggie" (4:52)
#"It Suits Me Well" - [[Sandy Denny]] (5:48)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de/~zierke/sandy.denny/songs/itsuitsmewell.html |title=Sandy Denny: It Suits Me Well |publisher=www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de |accessdate=2010-09-15 }}</ref>

==Personnel==
Tracks 1,4,6 and 8 are with [[Fairport Convention]] and [[Richard Thompson (musician)|Richard Thompson]]

*Dave Swarbrick - violin, mandolin, vocals
*[[Simon Nicol]] - guitar
*[[Dave Pegg]] - bass, mandolin
*[[Dave Mattacks]] - drums, percussion
*[[Richard Thompson (musician)|Richard Thompson]] - guitar, mandolin, mandocello
*Beryl Marriott - piano, piano accordion, clavicjord
*John McCormack - double bass
*[[Bruce Rowland (drummer)|Bruce Rowland]] - drums
*Roger Marriott - harmonica

==References==
{{Reflist}}
*{{cite web |url=http://www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de/~zierke/swarb/records/smiddyburn.html |title=Dave Swarbrick: Smiddyburn |publisher=www.informatik.uni-hamburg.de |accessdate=2010-09-14 }}
*{{cite web |url={{Allmusic|class=album|id=r108641|pure_url=yes}} |title=Allmusic - Smiddyburn Overview |publisher=www.allmusic.com |accessdate=2010-09-15 }}

[[Category:Dave Swarbrick albums]]
[[Category:1981 albums]]