Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Category:Georgian beatified people

2024-11-13T16:44:43Z

Szturnek: added Category:Roman Catholics from Georgia (country) using HotCat

[[Category:Beatified people by nationality|Georgian]]
[[Category:Roman Catholics from Georgia (country)]]

Category:Panamian Servants of God

2024-11-13T16:41:22Z

Szturnek: added Category:Panamanian Roman Catholics using HotCat

[[Category:Servants of God by nationality]]
[[Category:Panamanian Roman Catholics]]

List of members of the European Parliament for Poland, 2024–2029

2024-11-12T23:07:11Z

Szturnek: Bryłka and Buczek had join on 1st October to PfE

{{Short description|none}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{MEP lists Poland}}
On 9 June 2024 Poland [[2024 European Parliament election in Poland|elected]] its 53 [[Member of the European Parliament|members]] of the [[European Parliament]], that will seat in the tenth session until 2029.

==List==
{| style="text-align: left;"
|+ '''Key to political association by'''
|-
! List{{Efn|name=list}}
! Party{{Efn|name=party}}
! Group{{Efn|name=group}}
|- style="vertical-align: top;"
| {{Unbulleted list
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Civic Coalition (Poland)}}|border=silver}} [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|Civic Coalition]] (KO)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Law and Justice}}|border=silver}} [[Law and Justice]] (PiS)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Confederation Liberty and Independence}}|border=silver}} [[Confederation Liberty and Independence]] (KWiN)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Third Way (Poland)}}|border=silver}} [[Third Way (Poland)|Third Way]] (TD)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|The Left (Poland)}}|border=silver}} [[The Left (Poland)|The Left]]}}
| {{Unbulleted list
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Law and Justice}}|border=silver}} [[Law and Justice]] (PiS)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Civic Platform}}|border=silver}} [[Civic Platform]] (PO)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|National Movement (Poland)}}|border=silver}} [[National Movement (Poland)|National Movement]] (RN)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|New Left (Poland)}}|border=silver}} [[New Left (Poland)|New Left]] (NL)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|New Hope (Poland)}}|border=silver}} [[New Hope (Poland)|New Hope]] (NN)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Polish People's Party}}|border=silver}} [[Polish People's Party]] (PSL)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Polish Initiative}}|border=silver}} [[Polish Initiative]] (iPL)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Confederation of the Polish Crown}}|border=silver}} [[Confederation of the Polish Crown]] (KKP)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Poland 2050}}|border=silver}} [[Poland 2050]] (PL2050)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Independent}}|border=silver}} [[Independent politician|Independents]] (Ind.)}}
| {{Unbulleted list
|{{colorbox|{{party color|European Conservatives and Reformists}}|border=silver}} [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|European Conservatives and Reformists]] (ECR)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|European People's Party Group}}|border=silver}} [[European People's Party Group]] (EPP)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats}}|border=silver}} [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats]] (S&D)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Renew Europe}}|border=silver}} [[Renew Europe]] (Renew)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Europe of Sovereign Nations}}|border=silver}} [[Europe of Sovereign Nations Group|Europe of Sovereign Nations]] (ESN)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Europe of Sovereign Nations}}|border=silver}} [[Europe of Sovereign Nations Group|Europe of Sovereign Nations]] (ESN)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Patriots for Europe}}|border=silver}} [[Patriots for Europe]] (PfE)
|{{colorbox|{{party color|Non-Inscrits}}|border=silver}} [[Non-Inscrits]] (NI)}}
|}

{{Table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable sortable col9right col10right"
! Constituency
! colspan="2" | List{{Efn|name=list}}
! Name
! colspan="2" | Party{{Efn|name=party}}
! colspan="2" | Group{{Efn|name=group}}
! # of votes
! % of votes{{Efn|name=percent}}
|-
| [[Pomeranian (European Parliament constituency)|Pomeranian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Janusz|Lewandowski}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 133,444 || 17.95
|-
| [[Pomeranian (European Parliament constituency)|Pomeranian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Magdalena|Adamowicz}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 204,207 || 27.47
|-
| [[Pomeranian (European Parliament constituency)|Pomeranian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Piotr|Müller}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 62,330 || 8.38
|-
| [[Kuyavian-Pomeranian (European Parliament constituency)|Kuyavian-Pomeranian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Krzysztof|Brejza}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 205,200 || 37.67
|-
| [[Kuyavian-Pomeranian (European Parliament constituency)|Kuyavian-Pomeranian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Kosma|Złotowski}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 61,463 || 11.28
|-
| [[Podlaskie and Warmian-Masurian (European Parliament constituency)|Podlaskie Warmian-Masurian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Jacek|Protas|nolink=1}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 125,861 || 18.31
|-
| [[Podlaskie and Warmian-Masurian (European Parliament constituency)|Podlaskie Warmian-Masurian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Maciej|Wąsik}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 85,151 || 12.39
|-
| [[Warsaw (European Parliament constituency)|Warsaw]] || {{party color cell|Third Way (Poland)}} || [[Third Way (Poland)|TD]] || '''{{sortname|Michał|Kobosko}}'''|| {{party color cell|Poland 2050}} || [[Poland 2050|PL2050]] || {{party color cell|Renew Europe}} || [[Renew Europe|Renew]] || 39,170 || 3.00
|-
| [[Warsaw (European Parliament constituency)|Warsaw]]
| {{party color cell|Confederation Liberty and Independence}} || [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|KWiN]]
| '''{{sortname|Ewa|Zajączkowska-Hernik}}'''
| {{party color cell|New Hope (Poland)}} || [[New Hope (Poland)|NN]] || {{party color cell|Europe of Sovereign Nations}} || [[Europe of Sovereign Nations Group|ESN]] || 102,569 || 7.86
|-
| [[Warsaw (European Parliament constituency)|Warsaw]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Kamila|Gasiuk-Pihowicz}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 136,811 || 10.49
|-
| [[Warsaw (European Parliament constituency)|Warsaw]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Michał|Szczerba}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 120,667 || 9.25
|-
| [[Warsaw (European Parliament constituency)|Warsaw]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Hanna|Gronkiewicz-Waltz}}''' {{small|Since 10 October 2024}}|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 94,474 || 7.24
|-
| [[Warsaw (European Parliament constituency)|Warsaw]] || {{party color cell|The Left (Poland)}} || [[The Left (Poland)|The Left]] || '''{{sortname|Robert|Biedroń}}'''|| {{party color cell|New Left (Poland)}} || [[New Left (Poland)|NL]] || {{party color cell|Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats}} || [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]] || 65,869 || 5.05
|-
| [[Warsaw (European Parliament constituency)|Warsaw]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Małgorzata|Gosiewska}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 99,286 || 7.61
|-
| [[Warsaw (European Parliament constituency)|Warsaw]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Tobiasz|Bocheński}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 95,880 || 7.35
|-
| [[Masovian (European Parliament constituency)|Masovian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Andrzej|Halicki}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 129,401 || 18.01
|-
| [[Masovian (European Parliament constituency)|Masovian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Adam|Bielan}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 90,690 || 12.62
|-
| [[Masovian (European Parliament constituency)|Masovian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Jacek|Ozdoba}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 54,327 || 7.56
|-
| [[Łódź (European Parliament constituency)|Łódź]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Dariusz|Joński}}'''|| {{party color cell|Polish Initiative}} || [[Polish Initiative|iPL]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 194,109 || 25.61
|-
| [[Łódź (European Parliament constituency)|Łódź]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Waldemar|Buda}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 103,679 || 13.68
|-
| [[Greater Poland (European Parliament constituency)|Greater Poland]] || {{party color cell|Third Way (Poland)}} || [[Third Way (Poland)|TD]] || '''{{sortname|Krzysztof|Hetman}}'''|| {{party color cell|Polish People's Party}} || [[Polish People's Party|PSL]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 44,937 || 4.37
|-
| [[Greater Poland (European Parliament constituency)|Greater Poland]] || {{party color cell|Confederation Liberty and Independence}} || [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|KWiN]] || '''{{sortname|Anna|Bryłka|nolink=1}}'''|| {{party color cell|National Movement (Poland)}} || [[National Movement (Poland)|RN]] || {{party color cell|Patriots for Europe}} || [[Patriots for Europe|PfE]]{{Efn|name=rn}} || 111,420 || 10.84
|-
| [[Greater Poland (European Parliament constituency)|Greater Poland]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Ewa|Kopacz}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 187,866 || 18.28
|-
| [[Greater Poland (European Parliament constituency)|Greater Poland]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Michał|Wawrykiewicz|nolink=1}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 119,068 || 11.58
|-
| [[Greater Poland (European Parliament constituency)|Greater Poland]] || {{party color cell|The Left (Poland)}} || [[The Left (Poland)|The Left]] || '''{{sortname|Joanna|Scheuring-Wielgus}}'''|| {{party color cell|New Left (Poland)}} || [[New Left (Poland)|NL]] || {{party color cell|Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats}} || [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]] || 57,669 || 5.61
|-
| [[Greater Poland (European Parliament constituency)|Greater Poland]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Marlena|Maląg}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 115,670 || 11.25
|-
| [[Lublin (European Parliament constituency)|Lublin]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Marta|Wcisło}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 103,740 || 16.75
|-
| [[Lublin (European Parliament constituency)|Lublin]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Mariusz|Kamiński}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 110,466 || 17.84
|-
| [[Subcarpathian (European Parliament constituency)|Subcarpathian]] || {{party color cell|Confederation Liberty and Independence}} || [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|KWiN]] || '''{{sortname|Tomasz|Buczek|nolink=1}}'''|| {{party color cell|National Movement (Poland)}} || [[National Movement (Poland)|RN]] || {{party color cell|Patriots for Europe}} || [[Patriots for Europe|PfE]]{{Efn|name=rn}} || 51,754 || 8.18
|-
| [[Subcarpathian (European Parliament constituency)|Subcarpathian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Elżbieta|Łukacijewska}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 115,324 || 18.23
|-
| [[Subcarpathian (European Parliament constituency)|Subcarpathian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Daniel|Obajtek}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 171,689 || 27.14
|-
| [[Subcarpathian (European Parliament constituency)|Subcarpathian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Bogdan|Rzońca}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 46,096 || 7.29
|-
| [[Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie (European Parliament constituency)|Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie]] || {{party color cell|Third Way (Poland)}} || [[Third Way (Poland)|TD]] || '''{{sortname|Adam|Jarubas}}'''|| {{party color cell|Polish People's Party}} || [[Polish People's Party|PSL]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 81,674 || 5.49
|-
| [[Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie (European Parliament constituency)|Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie]] || {{party color cell|Confederation Liberty and Independence}} || [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|KWiN]] || '''{{sortname|Grzegorz|Braun}}'''|| {{party color cell|Confederation of the Polish Crown}} || [[Confederation of the Polish Crown|KKP]] || {{party color cell|Non-Inscrits}} || [[Non-Inscrits|NI]] || 113,746 || 7.64
|-
| [[Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie (European Parliament constituency)|Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Bartłomiej|Sienkiewicz}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 254,324 || 17.08
|-
| [[Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie (European Parliament constituency)|Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Jagna|Marczułajtis-Walczak}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 58,550 || 3.93
|-
| [[Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie (European Parliament constituency)|Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Beata|Szydło}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 285,336 || 19.17
|-
| [[Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie (European Parliament constituency)|Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Arkadiusz|Mularczyk}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 93,551 || 6.28
|-
| [[Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie (European Parliament constituency)|Lesser Poland and Świętokrzyskie]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Dominik|Tarczyński}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 210,942 || 14.17
|-
| [[Silesian (European Parliament constituency)|Silesian]] || {{party color cell|Confederation Liberty and Independence}} || [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|KWiN]] || '''{{sortname|Marcin|Sypniewski|nolink=1}}'''|| {{party color cell|New Hope (Poland)}} || [[New Hope (Poland)|NN]] || {{party color cell|Europe of Sovereign Nations}} || [[Europe of Sovereign Nations Group|ESN]] || 49,553 || 3.72
|-
| [[Silesian (European Parliament constituency)|Silesian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Borys|Budka}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 334,842 || 25.14
|-
| [[Silesian (European Parliament constituency)|Silesian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Mirosława|Nykiel}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 54,937 || 4.12
|-
| [[Silesian (European Parliament constituency)|Silesian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Łukasz|Kohut}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 107,626 || 8.08
|-
| [[Silesian (European Parliament constituency)|Silesian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Jadwiga|Wiśniewska}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 145,218 || 10.9
|-
| [[Silesian (European Parliament constituency)|Silesian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Patryk|Jaki}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 266,246 || 19.99
|-
| [[Lower Silesian and Opole (European Parliament constituency)|Lower Silesian and Opole]] || {{party color cell|Confederation Liberty and Independence}} || [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|KWiN]] || '''{{sortname|Stanisław|Tyszka}}'''|| {{party color cell|New Hope (Poland)}} || [[New Hope (Poland)|NN]] || {{party color cell|Europe of Sovereign Nations}} || [[Europe of Sovereign Nations Group|ESN]] || 78,954 || 6.89
|-
| [[Lower Silesian and Opole (European Parliament constituency)|Lower Silesian and Opole]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Bogdan|Zdrojewski}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 310,544 || 27.11
|-
| [[Lower Silesian and Opole (European Parliament constituency)|Lower Silesian and Opole]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Andrzej|Buła|nolink=1}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 65,967 || 5.76
|-
| [[Lower Silesian and Opole (European Parliament constituency)|Lower Silesian and Opole]] || {{party color cell|The Left (Poland)}} || [[The Left (Poland)|The Left]] || '''{{sortname|Krzysztof|Śmiszek}}'''|| {{party color cell|New Left (Poland)}} || [[New Left (Poland)|NL]] || {{party color cell|Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats}} || [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]] || 70,363 || 6.14
|-
| [[Lower Silesian and Opole (European Parliament constituency)|Lower Silesian and Opole]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Anna|Zalewska}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 108,305 || 9.45
|-
| [[Lower Silesian and Opole (European Parliament constituency)|Lower Silesian and Opole]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Michał|Dworczyk}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 123,908 || 10.82
|-
| [[Lubusz and West Pomeranian (European Parliament constituency)|Lubusz and West Pomeranian]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Bartosz|Arłukowicz}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 264,097 || 34.78
|-
| [[Lubusz and West Pomeranian (European Parliament constituency)|Lubusz and West Pomeranian]] || {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || '''{{sortname|Joachim|Brudziński}}'''|| {{party color cell|Law and Justice}} || [[Law and Justice|PiS]] || {{party color cell|European Conservatives and Reformists}} || [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|ECR]] || 114,195 || 15.04
|- class=sortbottom
! colspan="13" |
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="13" | Source:<ref name="PKW">{{cite web |title=Arkusze danych w wyborach do Parlamentu Europejskiego w 2024 r. |url=https://wybory.gov.pl/pe2024/pl/dane_w_arkuszach |website=wybory.gov.pl |publisher=[[National Electoral Commission (Poland)|National Electoral Commission]] |access-date=11 June 2024}}</ref><ref name="EP">{{cite web |title=Advanced search {{!}} Poland |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/search/advanced?countryCode=PL |website=European Parliament |access-date=20 July 2024}}</ref>
|}

===Former members===
{{Table alignment}}
{| class="wikitable col9right col10right"
! Constituency
! colspan="2" | List{{Efn|name=list}}
! Name
! colspan="2" | Party{{Efn|name=party}}
! colspan="2" | Group{{Efn|name=group}}
! # of votes
! % of votes{{Efn|name=percent}}
! Until
! Reason
! Replaced by
|-
| [[Warsaw (European Parliament constituency)|Warsaw]] || {{party color cell|Civic Coalition (Poland)}} || [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|KO]] || '''{{sortname|Marcin|Kierwiński}}'''|| {{party color cell|Civic Platform}} || [[Civic Platform|PO]] || {{party color cell|European People's Party Group}} || [[European People's Party Group|EPP]] || 143,179 || 10.97
| 25 September 2024 || Appointed minister without portfolio || [[Hanna Gronkiewicz-Waltz]]
|- class=sortbottom
! colspan="13" |
|- class=sortbottom
| colspan="13" | Source:{{r|PKW}}
|}

==Notes==
{{Notelist|refs=
{{Efn|name=list|[[Electoral list]] of the MEP in the [[2024 European Parliament election in Poland|election in 2024]].}}
{{Efn|name=party|Political party membership of the MEP.}}
{{Efn|name=group|[[Political groups of the European Parliament|European Parliament political group]] affiliation of the MEP.}}
{{Efn|name=percent|Percentage of votes in the scale of the constituency cast for the MEP.}}
{{Efn|name=rn|Join Patriots for Europe on 1 October 2024. Previously Non-Inscrits.}}
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
}}

==See also==
* [[2024 European Parliament election in Poland]]
* [[List of members of the European Parliament (2024–2029)]]

{{Members of the European Parliament}}
[[Category:Lists of members of the European Parliament for Poland|2024]]
[[Category:Lists of members of the European Parliament 2024–2029|Poland]]
[[Category:MEPs for Poland 2024–2029|*List]]

Patriots for Europe

2024-11-12T22:53:26Z

Szturnek: /* MEPs */ Hange low rez png to svg

{{Short description|Far-right political group of the European Parliament}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox European Parliament group
| title = Patriots for Europe
| image = File:Patriots for Europe logo.svg
| englishabbr = PfE Patriots
|from={{start date and age|df=y|8 July 2024}}
| chairs = [[Jordan Bardella]]
| ideology = {{ubl|class=nowrap|
|[[Sovereigntism]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite news |last1=Messad |first1=Paul |title=French far-right RN set to join Orbán’s ‘Patriots for Europe’ |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/eu-institutions/news/le-rn-devrait-rejoindre-le-groupe-de-viktor-orban-au-parlement-europeen/ |access-date=7 July 2024 |work=Euractiv |date=7 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Malingre |first1=Virginie |title=Dutch, In the European Parliament, a possible joint group with Marine Le Pen and Viktor Orban |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/en/international/article/2024/07/05/in-the-european-parliament-a-possible-joint-group-with-marine-le-pen-and-viktor-orban_6676832_4.html |access-date=6 July 2024 |work=Le Monde |date=5 July 2024}}</ref><ref name="sovereigntist"/><ref>{{cite news |last1=Abascal |first1=Santiago |title=The abandonment of the ECR by Vox, its entry into the group of 'Patriots for Europe' and its reasons |url=https://www.outono.net/elentir/2024/07/05/the-abandonment-of-the-ecr-by-vox-its-entry-into-the-group-of-patriots-for-europe-and-its-reasons/ |access-date=6 July 2024 |work=Counting Stars |date=5 July 2024}}</ref>}}
|[[National conservatism]]<ref name="politico-nat">{{cite news |last1=Mathiesen |first1=Karl |title=Dutch, Spanish far-right parties to join Orbán’s Patriots for Europe |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/netherlands-spain-far-right-viktor-orban-patriots-for-europe-hungary/ |access-date=6 July 2024 |work=Politico|date=6 July 2024}}</ref>
|[[Right-wing populism]]<ref>{{cite news |last1=Albanese|first1=Chiara|last2=Adghirni|first2=Samy|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-07-02/le-pen-may-ditch-her-eu-parliament-group-in-far-right-shakeup|title=Le Pen May Ditch Her EU Parliament Group in Far-Right Shakeup|website=Bloomberg|date=2 July 2024}}</ref>
|[[Euroscepticism]]{{refn|<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/article/2024/jul/08/le-pen-and-orban-join-forces-in-european-parliament-far-right-alliance |title=Le Pen and Orbán join forces in European parliament far-right alliance |publisher=The Guardian |date=8 July 2024 |author=Jennifer Rankin }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.france24.com/en/europe/20240709-le-pen-orban-and-the-patriots-for-europe-is-the-eu-being-undermined-from-within |title=Le Pen, Orban and the ‘Patriots for Europe’: Is the EU being undermined from within? |publisher=France 24 |date=9 July 2024 |author=Sébastian Seibt }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2024/07/09/patriot-games-viktor-orban-goes-on-the-offensive/ |title=PATRIOT GAMES: VIKTOR ORBAN GOES ON THE OFFENSIVE |date=9 July 2024 |publisher=Balkan Insight |author=Piotr Maciej Kaczynski }}</ref>}}}}
| position = [[Right-wing politics|Right-wing]]{{refn|<ref name="Reuters">{{Cite web |title=France's RN to Lead New Right-Wing Group at EU Parliament – Reuters – 07/8/2024 |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/new-orban-backed-eu-alliance-says-frances-rn-join-2024-07-08/ |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=Reuters}}</ref><ref name="Euractive">{{Cite web |title=Orbán’s new right-wing group hits EU parliament threshold – Euractive – 07/8/2024 |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/orbans-new-right-wing-group-hits-eu-parliament-threshold/ |access-date=2024-07-08 |website=Euractive}}</ref>}} to [[Far-right politics|far-right]]{{refn|<ref name="dw">{{Cite web |title=Hungary: Orban announces new far-right European alliance – DW – 06/30/2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/hungary-orban-announces-new-far-right-european-alliance/a-69517687 |access-date=2024-07-02 |website=[[Deutsche Welle]]}}</ref><ref name="euronews">{{cite web|title=Portugal's far right joins Viktor Orbán's 'Patriots for Europe' alliance|url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/07/01/portugals-far-right-joins-viktor-orbans-patriots-for-europe-alliance|date=2024-07-01}}</ref><ref name="politico-far">{{Cite web | title=Le Pen’s National Rally to take control of far-right Patriots in EU Parliament | url=https://www.politico.eu/article/marine-le-pen-national-rally-eu-parliament-far-right-patriots-for-europe/ |date=2024-07-08 |access-date=2024-07-08|work=Politico}}</ref>}}
| europarties = [[Patriots.eu]] (majority) [[European Christian Political Movement]] (minority)
| meps = {{composition bar|86|720|{{Party color|Patriots for Europe}}}}
| precededby = [[Identity and Democracy]]
| website = {{Official URL}}
|imagesize=225
}}

'''Patriots for Europe''' ('''PfE''' or '''Patriots''') is a [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] to [[Far-right politics|far-right]] [[Sovereigntism|sovereigntist]]<ref name="sovereigntist">{{cite news | title=Hungarian, Fidesz Joins New Sovereigntist EP Group, Who else Will Follow |url=https://hungarytoday.hu/fidesz-joins-new-sovereigntist-ep-group-who-else-will-follow/ |access-date=6 July 2024 |work=Hungary Today |date=7 July 2024}}</ref> [[political group of the European Parliament|political group]], formed as the third-largest group ahead of the [[tenth European Parliament]].

The group includes all but one member from the [[Identity and Democracy]] group and members from other groups. The group could also coordinate the work of its members at the [[European Council]] and the [[Council of the European Union]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://euobserver.com/eu-political/ar7e524613|title=Orban's new Patriots for Europe group is targeting the council, not the parliament|website=euobserver|date=1 July 2024|access-date=8 July 2024}}</ref>

== History ==
=== Formation ===
[[Fidesz]] had been unaffiliated at the European level since leaving the [[European People's Party Group]] (EPP Group) in March 2021. ANO MEPs belonged to the [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party]] and its affiliated [[Renew Europe]] group since 2011, but left both organisations after the [[2024 European Parliament election|2024 European Parliament elections]], citing disagreements with the party's programme. The [[Freedom Party of Austria]] (FPÖ) belonged to the far-right [[Identity and Democracy]] (ID) group during the [[Ninth European Parliament|ninth term]] (2019–2024).<ref name=newEUalliance>{{Cite web |title='Patriots for Europe': Hungary's Orban announces new EU Parliament alliance |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/6/30/patriots-for-europe-hungarys-orban-announces-new-eu-parliament-alliance |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Al Jazeera}}</ref>

On 30 June 2024, the founding of the group was announced at a press conference in Vienna by [[Prime Minister of Hungary|Hungarian Prime Minister]] [[Viktor Orbán]] ([[Fidesz]]), former [[Prime Minister of the Czech Republic|Czech Prime Minister]] [[Andrej Babiš]] ([[ANO 2011]]), and former [[Minister of the Interior (Austria)|Austrian Minister of the Interior]] [[Herbert Kickl]] and [[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]] [[Harald Vilimsky]] (both [[Freedom Party of Austria]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Hungary: Orban announces new far-right European alliance – DW – 06/30/2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/hungary-orban-announces-new-far-right-european-alliance/a-69517687 |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=[[Deutsche Welle]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |agency=[[Czech News Agency]] |date=2024-06-30 |title=Patrioti pro Evropu. ANO, Fidesz a FPÖ zakládají novou politickou alianci |url=https://www.denik.cz/cesko-a-eu/andrej-babis-viktor-orban-fidesz-ano-fpo-aliance.html |access-date=2024-07-01 |work=[[Deník]]|language=cs}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-30 |title=Vlastenci pro Evropu. ANO, Fidesz a Svobodná strana Rakouska zakládají politickou alianci |url=https://www.irozhlas.cz/zpravy-svet/andrej-babis-ano-fidesz-viktor-orban-svobodna-strana-rakouska_2406301027_ako |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=iROZHLAS |language=cs}}</ref> Representatives of the three founding parties signed "A Patriotic Manifesto for a European Future",<ref name="Manifesto_FPÖ.eu">{{Cite web |url=https://www.fpoe.eu/patrioten-fuer-europa-kickl-fpoe-orban-fidesz-babis-ano-gaben-startschuss-fuer-neue-patriotische-allianz/|title=„Patriotisches Manifest – Erklärung mit Herbert Kickl, Viktor Orbán, Andrej Babiš & Harald Vilimsky"|website=[[Freedom Party of Austria]]|location=Vienna|date=30 June 2024|access-date=1 July 2024}}</ref><ref name="Manifesto_FPÖ.at">{{Cite web |url=https://www.fpoe.at/artikel/patrioten-fuer-europa-kickl-fpoe-orban-fidesz-babis-ano-gaben-startschuss-fuer-neue-patrioti/|title=„Patrioten für Europa“: Kickl (FPÖ), Orbán (Fidesz), Babiš (ANO) gaben Startschuss für neue patriotische Allianz!|website=[[Freedom Party of Austria]]|location=Vienna|date=30 June 2024|access-date=1 July 2024}}</ref><ref name="Manifesto_Andrej.Babiš">{{Cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/AndrejBabis/posts/pfbid02fz9AFYsqHmpv3zuSoLD71mtHcDfTDEiUdkRaAep8G6ZHBDpLtcZWoxqu7fNBd2XPl|title=VLASTENECKÝ MANIFEST PRO EVROPSKOU BUDOUCNOST"|author=[[Andrej Babiš]]|location=Vienna|date=30 June 2024|access-date=1 July 2024|website=Facebook|language=cs}}</ref> setting out the alliance's ideological positions, including weakening the EU, a focus on European cultural identity, opposition to [[illegal immigration]], and a revision of the [[European Green Deal]].<ref name="platform">{{Cite web |date=2024-06-30 |title=Babiš, Orbán a Kickl zakládají vlasteneckou alianci|url=https://www.novinky.cz/clanek/zahranicni-babis-orban-a-kickl-zakladaji-vlasteneckou-alianci-40478413 |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=[[Novinky.cz]]|language=cs|publisher=Borgis}}</ref>

On 1 July, the nationalist Portuguese party [[Chega (political party)|Chega]], with two MEPs, became the fourth member of the Patriots for Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-01 |title=Extrema-direita portuguesa junta-se à aliança "Patriotas pela Europa" de Viktor Orbán |url=https://pt.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/07/01/extrema-direita-portuguesa-junta-se-a-alianca-patriotas-pela-europa-de-viktor-orban |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=euronews |language=pt}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-01 |title=Portugal's Chega party to join Orbán's new far-right alliance |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/portugal-chega-party-andre-ventura-join-viktor-orban-new-far-right-alliance/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=POLITICO}}</ref> On 5 July, the Spanish [[Vox (political party)|Vox]] party also joined, leaving the [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|European Conservatives and Reformists]] (ECR) group.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ansa.it/english/news/2024/07/05/vox-leaves-melonis-ecr-for-orbans-new-patriots_49e7edab-b24c-4fa0-b37b-6a484ffac6af.html | title=Vox leaves Meloni's ECR for Orban's new 'Patriots'|website=Ansa.it|date=5 July 2024}}</ref> The same day, the Dutch [[Party for Freedom]] (PVV), formerly part of the ID Group, also announced it would join.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://x.com/geertwilderspvv/status/1809269979457417639|title=x.com|accessdate=July 7, 2024}}</ref> On 6 July, the [[Danish People's Party]] and [[Vlaams Belang]], both part of the ID group, announced they would also join, bringing the group above the minimum number of member states required for an official European Parliament group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://x.com/AndersVistisen/status/1809560229715079643|title=x.com|accessdate=July 7, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://x.com/tomvangrieken/status/1809638940288188840|title=x.com|accessdate=July 7, 2024}}</ref> On 8 July, the [[National Rally (France)|National Rally]] (RN) and [[Lega (political party)|Lega]] were announced as new members of the group.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://x.com/zoltanspox/status/1810246146142413033?s=46&t=5ykVSjLUcF5_QLpfJWkkJg|title=x.com|accessdate=July 8, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://x.com/matteosalvinimi/status/1810220106703626327|title=x.com|accessdate=July 8, 2024}}</ref> The prerequisite for establishing a political group of the European Parliament is the membership of at least 23 MEPs from at least seven EU member states. The alliance met this criterion on 6 July 2024.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Sajó |first1=Dávid |title=A Dán Néppárt is csatlakozik Orbánék európai pártcsoportjához, megvan a szükséges létszám a frakcióhoz |url=https://telex.hu/kulfold/2024/07/06/orban-ep-frakcio-szelsojobb |access-date=6 July 2024 |work=Telex |date=6 July 2024}}</ref> According to ''[[Le Monde]]'', the RN waited until after the second round of the [[2024 French legislative election]] for the announcement "for fear of reviving suspicion of pro-Russian sympathies".<ref name="auto">{{cite news|url=https://www.lemonde.fr/politique/live/2024/07/08/en-direct-legislatives-2024-de-nombreux-responsables-politiques-prennent-la-parole-ce-soir-a-la-television_6247441_823448.html#id-1672292|title=Le RN va rejoindre une nouvelle alliance au Parlement européen dirigée par le premier ministre hongrois, Viktor Orban
|website=Le Monde|date=8 July 2024|access-date=8 July 2024|lang=fr}}</ref>

==== Potential members ====
During the formation process, parties previously speculated as possible members of the new EU Group included:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scheffer |first=Joakim |date=2024-07-01 |title=The EP's Potentially Strongest Right-Wing Group — Who Could Join PM Orbán's Patriots for Europe? |url=https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/politics/patriots-for-europe_viktor-orban_right-wing_european-parliament_ecr_id_hungary/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Hungarian Conservative}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-01 |title=Portugal's far right joins Orbán's 'Patriots for Europe' alliance |url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/07/01/portugals-far-right-joins-viktor-orbans-patriots-for-europe-alliance |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Euronews}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Zachová |first=Aneta |date=2024-06-30 |title=Orbán, Babiš, Kickl create new "patriotic" alliance to redefine EU policies, eye new Parliament group |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/orban-babis-kickl-create-new-patriotic-alliance-to-redefine-eu-policies-eye-new-parliament-group/ |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Euractiv}}</ref>

* Germany: [[Alternative for Germany]] (AfD), which has 15 MEPs (formerly part of the ID Group). However, due to previous tension between Fidesz and AfD, this was seen as unlikely,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Benakis |first=Theodoros |date=2024-07-01 |title=Far-right AfD eyes Orbán's new group in the European Parliament |url=https://www.europeaninterest.eu/far-right-afd-eyes-orbans-new-group-in-the-european-parliament/ |access-date=2024-07-05 |website=European Interest}}</ref> with the AfD stating it had no current plans to join.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Stellmacher|first=John|date=2024-07-01 |title=New European right-wing alliance initially without AfD |url=https://aussiedlerbote.de/en/new-european-right-wing-alliance-initially-without-afd/ |access-date=2024-07-05 |website=aussiedlerbote.de}}</ref> AfD expressed interest in creating a group including Hungarian Fidesz rival [[Our Homeland Movement]] and the Bulgarian [[Revival (Bulgarian political party)|Revival]]. These parties eventually established a separate far-right grouping, [[Europe of Sovereign Nations Group|Europe of Sovereign Nations]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Starcevic|first1=Seb|last2=Wax|first2=Eddy|date=2024-07-10 |title=New far-right group led by Germany’s AfD founded in European Parliament |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/new-far-right-group-european-parliament-germany-afd/ |access-date=2024-07-10 |website=POLITICO}}</ref>
* Poland: [[Law and Justice]] (PiS), which won 20 MEPs, initially negotiated with the Patriots for Europe, but later reached an agreement with [[Brothers of Italy]] allowing it to remain in the [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|European Conservatives and Reformists]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Genovese|first=Vincenzo|url=https://au.news.yahoo.com/polands-law-justice-says-no-160800058.html|title=Poland's Law and Justice says no to Orbán's Patriots and stays with Meloni's group in EU Parliament|website=Yahoo News|date=3 July 2024}}</ref>
* Slovakia: [[Republic Movement]], with two MEPs, expressed interest in membership,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Zmušková |first1=Barbara |last2=Griera |first2=Max |date=8 July 2024 |title=Orbán v europarlamente zabodoval. Patrioti pre Európu môžu mať reálnu moc |url=https://euractiv.sk/section/europska-politika/news/orban-v-europarlamente-zabodoval-patrioti-pre-europu-mozu-mat-realnu-moc/ |website=Euractiv |language=sk}}</ref> but one MEP subsequently joined [[Europe of Sovereign Nations Group|Europe of Sovereign Nations]] on 10 July.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Liboreiro|first1=Jorge|last2=Genovese|first2=Vincenzo|url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/07/10/afd-and-allies-form-new-far-right-group-in-brussels-called-europe-of-sovereign-nations|title=AfD and allies form new far-right group in Brussels called Europe of Sovereign Nations|website=Euronews|date=10 July 2024}}</ref>
* Slovakia: [[Direction – Social Democracy|Smer–SD]] was speculated to join the alliance with its five MEPs; however, according to its junior coalition partner, [[Voice – Social Democracy|Hlas–SD]], Smer–SD expressed a preference for rejoining the [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats|S&D]] group.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Scheffer |first=Joakim |date=2024-07-01 |title=The EP's Potentially Strongest Right-Wing Group — Who Could Join PM Orbán's Patriots for Europe |url=https://www.hungarianconservative.com/articles/politics/patriots-for-europe_viktor-orban_right-wing_european-parliament_ecr_id_hungary/ |access-date=2024-07-02 |website=Hungarian Conservative}}</ref> Although it was later rejected from S&D,<ref>{{Cite news |last=HARZER|first=FILIP|url=https://www.seznamzpravy.cz/clanek/volby-eurovolby-europoslanci-smeru-dali-vale-socialistum-mluvi-se-o-namluvach-s-patrioty-255541|title=Europoslanci Směru dali vale socialistům, mluví se o námluvách s Patrioty|website=[[Seznam Zprávy]]|date=10 July 2024|access-date=10 July 2024|language=cs}}</ref> Smer–SD declined to join Patriots for Europe, saying that it can not join the group that "has nothing to do with [[social democracy]]".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Silenská|first=Natália|url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/politics/news/ficos-smer-will-not-join-new-patriots-for-europe-group-cites-ideological-divide/|title=Fico’s Smer will not join new Patriots for Europe group, cites ideological divide|website=Euractiv|date=12 July 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Ahmet Gencturk|url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/europe/slovak-premier-hints-his-social-democratic-party-wont-join-right-wing-patriots-alliance-in-european-parliament/3273877|title= Slovak premier hints his social democratic party won't join right-wing Patriots alliance in European Parliament|publisher=Anadolu Ajansı|date=12 July 2024}}</ref>
* Slovenia: The [[Slovenian Democratic Party]] (SDS), which won four MEPs, ultimately remained part of the [[European People's Party Group|EPP Group]], while noting that not all SDS MEPs agreed with this decision.<ref>{{cite web | last=Dlhopolec | first=Peter | last2=Eisenchteter | first2=Jules | last3=Ciobanu | first3=Claudia | last4=Watson | first4=Nicholas | title=Democracy Digest: Hungary Centre Stage as EU Presidency Begins and PM Visits Kyiv | website=Balkan Insight | date=2024-07-05 | url=https://balkaninsight.com/2024/07/05/democracy-digest-hungary-centre-stage-as-eu-presidency-begins-and-pm-visits-kyiv/ | access-date=2024-08-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=Portal24|date=7 September 2024|title=SDS ostaja del EPP, mnenja znotraj stranke so različna|url=https://portal24.si/sds-ostaja-del-epp-mnenja-znotraj-stranke-so-razlicna/}}</ref>

=== 10th European Parliament (2024–present) ===
On 8 July, [[Jordan Bardella]], president of the French [[National Rally]] (RN), was named as the group's president.<ref>{{cite news |last=Fortuna|first=Gerardo|url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/07/08/far-right-patriots-group-springs-to-third-force-in-european-parliament|title=Far-right Patriots group springs to third force in European Parliament|website=Euronews|date=8 July 2024|access-date=8 July 2024}}</ref><ref name=bureau-start/><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.politico.eu/article/patriots-for-europe-jordan-bardella-viktor-orban-marine-le-pen/|title=Patriots for Europe becomes EU parliament’s 3rd-largest group, picks Jordan Bardella as president|website=Politico Europe|date=8 July 2024|access-date=8 July 2024}}</ref>

The Polish [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|Confederation]]'s [[National Movement (Poland)|National Movement]], which won two MEPs, announced in July 2024 that it was in negotiations with Patriots for Europe, while the three Confederation MEPs from [[New Hope (Poland)|New Hope]] joined the [[Europe of Sovereign Nations Group|ESN]] group, and the one [[Confederation of the Polish Crown]] MEP was not seeking to join.<ref>{{cite web |last=ADAMCZYK |first=GRZEGORZ |date=3 July 2024 |title=Confederation MEP rules out alliance with Germany's AfD, eyes other European groups |url=https://rmx.news/article/confederation-mep-rules-out-alliance-with-germanys-afd-eyes-other-european-groups/ |website=Remix}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=TV24|url=https://tvn24.pl/swiat/konfederacja-podzielona-w-europarlamencie-poslowie-rozwazaja-dolaczenie-do-roznych-frakcji-st7996809|date=9 July 2024|title=Konfederacja podzielona w europarlamencie? Źródło: troje z AfD, dwoje z Orbanem, a z Braunem nikt nie rozmawia}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=Brussels Signal|title=Polish Konfederacja split between Patriots and Sovereigntists in European Parliament|date=10 July 2024|url=https://brusselssignal.eu/2024/07/polish-konfederacja-split-between-patriots-and-sovereigntists-in-european-parliament/}}</ref> Ultimately, the National Movement joined Patriots for Europe on 1 October.<ref>{{cite tweet|user=PatriotsEP|number=1841154088932683914|title=With MEP @annabrylka and MEP @buczek_tomasz, the Patriots in the European Parliament are gaining two new MEPs.}}</ref>

== MEPs ==
===10th European Parliament===
{{main|List of members of the European Parliament (2024–2029)}}
[[File:Patriots for Europe MEPs map.svg|alt=Map of Patriots for Europe, European Parliament Group representation|thumb|267x267px|Patriots for Europe has MEPs in 13 member states. Dark purple indicates member states sending multiple MEPs, light purple indicates member states sending a single MEP.]]
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size:90%"
! State
! National party
! [[Ninth European Parliament|Former political group]]
! colspan=2 | European party
! MEPs<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/search/table |title=MEPs by Member State and political group |access-date=17 July 2024}}</ref>
|-
| {{flag|Austria}}
| [[Freedom Party of Austria]] ''Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs (FPÖ)''
| [[Identity and Democracy]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|6|20|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
| {{flag|Belgium}}
| [[Vlaams Belang|Flemish Interest]] {{lang|nl|Vlaams Belang}} ''(VB)''
| [[Identity and Democracy]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|3|22|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
| rowspan=3 | {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| [[ANO (political party)|ANO 2011]] {{lang|cs|ANO 2011}} ''(ANO)''
| [[Renew Europe]]{{efn|name=ALDE|group=result|ANO announced its departure from [[Alliance of Liberals and Democrats for Europe Party|ALDE]] and [[Renew Europe]] on 21 June 2024, with leader Andrej Babiš declaring that ANO would not be able to fulfill its program as part of those groups. ANO considered joining other EU political groups after its departure, before successfully negotiating the creation of the Patriots for Europe alliance with [[Fidesz]] and the [[Freedom Party of Austria|FPÖ]].}}
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|7|21|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
| [[Přísaha|Přísaha Civic Movement]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/256852/NIKOLA_BARTUSEK/home |title=MEP: Nikola BARTŮŠEK |date=16 July 2024 |website=[[European Union]] |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> {{lang|cs|Přísaha občanské hnutí (Přísaha)}}
| ''N/A''
| {{party color cell|None}}
| ''None''
| {{composition bar|1|21|{{party color|None}}}}
|-
| [[Motorists for Themselves]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/256850/FILIP_TUREK/home |title=MEP: Filip TUREK |date=16 July 2024 |website=[[European Union]] |access-date=19 July 2024}}</ref> {{lang|cs|Motoristé sobě (AUTO)}}
| ''N/A''
| {{party color cell|None}}
| ''None''
| {{composition bar|1|21|{{party color|None}}}}
|-
| {{flag|Denmark}}
| [[Danish People's Party]] {{lang|da|Dansk Folkeparti}} ''(DF)''
| [[Identity and Democracy]]
| {{party color cell|None}}
| ''None''
| {{composition bar|1|15|{{party color|None}}}}
|-
| {{flag|France}}
| [[National Rally]] {{lang|fr|Rassemblement National (RN)}}
| [[Identity and Democracy]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|30|81|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
| {{flag|Greece}}
| [[Voice of Reason (political party)|Voice of Reason]] {{lang|el|Φωνή Λογικής}} ''(ΦΛ)''
| ''N/A''
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|1|21|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
| rowspan=2 | {{flag|Hungary}}
| [[Fidesz|Fidesz – Hungarian Civic Alliance]] ''Fidesz – Magyar Polgári Szövetség''
| [[Non-Inscrits]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|10|21|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
| [[Christian Democratic People's Party (Hungary)|Christian Democratic People's Party]] ''Kereszténydemokrata Néppárt (KDNP)''
| [[European People's Party Group]]{{efn|name=EPP|group=result|KDNP left the EPP party and the EPP group, after the EPP group decided to admit the [[Tisza Party|TISZA]] party. After the creation of the Patriots for Europe alliance, KDNP decided to join.}}
| {{party color cell|None}}
| ''None''
| {{composition bar|1|21|{{party color|None}}}}
|-
| {{flag|Italy}}
| [[Lega (political party)|League]] ''Lega''
| [[Identity and Democracy]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|8|76|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
| {{flag|Latvia}}
| [[Latvia First]] {{lang|lv|Latvija pirmajā vietā}} ''(LPV)''
| ''N/A''
| {{party color cell|European Christian Political Movement}}
| [[European Christian Political Movement|ECPM]]
| {{composition bar|1|9|{{party color|European Christian Political Movement}}}}
|-
| {{flag|Netherlands}}
| [[Party for Freedom]] ''Partij voor de Vrijheid (PVV)''
| [[Identity and Democracy]]{{efn|Their MEP left PVV and eventually the ID group.}}
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|6|31|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
| {{flag|Poland}}
| [[National Movement (Poland)|National Movement]]{{efn|Part of the [[Confederation Liberty and Independence|Confederation]] alliance. Its other members did not join.}} ''Ruch Narodowy (RN)''
| [[Non-Inscrits]]
| {{party color cell|None}}
| ''None''
| {{composition bar|2|53|{{party color|None}}}}
|-
| {{flag|Portugal}}
| [[Chega (political party)|Enough!]] ''Chega!''
| ''N/A''{{efn|name=extraparliamentary|The party contested the [[2019 European Parliament election]] as a member of ID, but failed to win any seats. After the [[2024 European Parliament election|2024 election]], the party gained representation, but decided to join PfE instead of sitting with the collapsing ID.}}
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|2|21|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
| {{flag|Spain}}
| [[Vox (political party)|Vox]] ''Vox''
| [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|European Conservatives and Reformists]]{{efn|Vox left the ECR Group on 5 July.}}
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
| {{composition bar|6|61|{{party color|Patriots.eu}}}}
|-
! style="text-align:left" | {{flag|European Union}}
! colspan=4 style="text-align:right" | Total
! {{composition bar|86|720|{{Party color|Patriots for Europe}}}}
|}

== Organization ==
===President===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! colspan=2 | President
! Took office
! Left office
! State
! Party
|-
| '''[[Jordan Bardella]]'''
| [[File:Jordan_Bardella_-_Strasbourg_European_Parliament_September_2022_(Cropped).jpg|70px]]
| 8 July 2024
| present
| {{flag|France}}
| [[File:Logo_Rassemblement_National.svg|75px]] [[National Rally]]
|}

===Bureau===
====2024–present====
Group bureau during the 10th European Parliament.<ref name=bureau-start>{{Cite web|url=https://agenparl.eu/2024/07/08/patriots-for-europe-become-the-third-largest-group-in-the-european-parliament/|title=Patriots for Europe become the third largest group in the European Parliament|website=Agenparl|date=2024-07-08|access-date=2024-07-08}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! style="width:150px" | Position
! style="width:150px" | Name
! style="width:150px" | State
! style="width:150px" | National party
! colspan=2 | European party
|-
| President
| [[Jordan Bardella]]
| {{flag|France}}
| [[National Rally]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
|-
| First Vice-President
| [[Kinga Gál]]
| {{flag|Hungary}}
| [[Fidesz]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
|-
| Vice-President
| [[Roberto Vannacci]]
| {{flag|Italy}}
| [[Lega (political party)|League]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
|-
| Vice-President
| [[Klára Dostálová]]
| {{flag|Czech Republic}}
| [[ANO 2011]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
|-
| Vice-President
| [[Sebastiaan Stöteler]]
| {{flag|Netherlands}}
| [[Party for Freedom]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
|-
| Vice-President
| [[António Tânger Corrêa]]
| {{flag|Portugal}}
| [[Chega (political party)|Chega]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
|-
| Vice-President
| [[Hermann Tertsch]]
| {{flag|Spain}}
| [[Vox (political party)|Vox]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
|-
| Vice-President
| [[Harald Vilimsky]]
| {{flag|Austria}}
| [[Freedom Party of Austria]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
|-
| Chief Whip
| [[Anders Vistisen]]
| {{flag|Denmark}}
| [[Danish People's Party]]
| {{party color cell|None}}
| ''None''
|-
| Treasurer
| [[Gerolf Annemans]]
| {{flag|Belgium}}
| [[Vlaams Belang]]
| {{party color cell|Patriots.eu}}
| [[Patriots.eu]]
|}

== See also ==
* [[Europe of Sovereign Nations Group|Europe of Sovereign Nations]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{commonscatinline}}

{{EuroparlGroup}}
{{Political organisations at European Union level}}
[[Category:2024 establishments in the European Union]]
[[Category:Eurosceptic parties]]
[[Category:European political alliances]]
[[Category:Political groups of the European Parliament]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 2024]]
[[Category:Right-wing populism in Europe]]
[[Category:Conservatism in Europe]]
[[Category:Far-right politics in Europe]]
[[Category:Anti-immigration politics in Europe]]
[[Category:Viktor Orbán]]
[[Category:Nationalism in Europe]]
[[Category:Andrej Babiš]]

Grata of Bergamo

2024-11-12T20:37:08Z

Szturnek: added Category:Christian martyrs using HotCat

{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix=[[Saint]]
| name = Grata of Bergamo
| honorific_suffix=
| image = 1750 Tiepolo Die Heiligen der Familie Crotta anagoria.JPG
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption = [[The Patron Saints of the Crotta Family]] (1750), by [[Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo]]. Saint Grata is presenting the head of the martyred [[Alexander of Rome|St. Alexander]] to her father.
| titles = Martyr
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| home_town =
| residence =
| death_date =307
| death_place = [[Bergamo|Bergamo, Italy]]
| venerated_in = [[Catholic Church]], [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch|Antiochian Orthodox Church]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day =
| attributes =
| patronage = Bergamo
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
| suppressed_by =
| influences =
| influenced =
| tradition =
| major_works =
}}

'''Grata of Bergamo''' (early 4th century) is an Italian [[saint]] and [[martyr]], and sister of Asteria of Bergamo. Her parents were Saint Lupo of Bergamo and Saint Adelaide, duke and duchess of [[Bergamo]].<ref name="dunbar-354">Dunbar, Agnes B.C. (1901). ''A Dictionary of Saintly Women''. Volume 1. London: George Bell & Sons. p. 354</ref><ref name="antiochien">{{Cite web|title=St. Asteria (or Hesteria) & St. Grata, Virgin Martyrs, of Bergamo, Italy|url=http://ww1.antiochian.org/node/19373|access-date=12 May 2021|website=Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America}}</ref> According to [[Hagiography|hagiographer]] Agnes B.C. Dunbar, Grata's husband was "a great king in Germany".<ref name="dunbar-354"/> She did not become a Christian until after his death, when she converted her parents to Christianity and persuaded them to build the cathedral of Bergamo. She became known as a holy woman in Bergamo, "especially for her zeal in securing Christian burial for the bodies of martyrs".<ref name="britishmuseum">{{Cite web|title=Saint Grata|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG172941|access-date=12 May 2021|website=British Museum}}</ref> She built three churches and a hospital for the poor in Begamo.<ref name="dunbar-354" /> She and her sister Asteria buried the body of [[Alexander of Rome|St. Alexander of Rome]], after Grata wrapped his head in a napkin. After her parents' death, she governed Bergamo "with wisdom and benevolence".<ref name="britishmuseum"/> Grata was put to death for burying Alexander.<ref name="antiochien" /> Her feast day is September 4.<ref name="dunbar-354" />

She is the co-patron of the city of Bergamo. St. Grata seems to have been a popular subject for female writers, being the subject of a 1596 biography by Flavia Grumelli and a 1723 one by the nun Maria Aurelia Tassis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tassis|first=Maria Aurelia|url=http://archive.org/details/wotb_6743646|title=La Vita di S. Grata Vergine, Regina nella Germania, poi Principessa di Bergamo, e Protettrice della medesima Città ; descritta da Donna Maria Aurelia Tassis Religiosa Benedittina professa nell' insigne Monistero di S. Grata di Bergamo. Dedicata agl' Illustriss. e Reverendiss. Signori Prelati, Canonici, e Capitolo della Catedrale di Bergamo|date=1723|publisher=Padua : Giuseppe Comino|language=Italian}}</ref> The Church of San Grata Inter Vites (in English, "among the vines") because it was surrounded by vineyards until 17th century in Bergamo, where she was buried until 1000 CE, is dedicated in her honor. Her body was moved to another church, also named for her, inside the city's walls.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Church of San Grata Inter Vites|url=https://www.visitbergamo.net/en/object-details/2997-church-of-san-grata-inter-vites/|access-date=12 May 2021|website=Visit Bergamo|language=it}}</ref>

==Asteria of Bergamo==
{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix=Saint
| name = Asteria of Bergamo
| honorific_suffix=martyr
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| titles =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| home_town =
| residence =
| death_date =307
| death_place = [[Bergamo|Bergamo, Italy]]
| venerated_in = [[Catholic Church]], [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch|Antiochian Orthodox Church]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day =
| attributes =
| patronage = Bergamo
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
| suppressed_by =
| influences =
| influenced =
| tradition =
| major_works =
}}

'''Asteria of Bergamo''', also called '''Hesteria''' (died 307)<ref name="antiochien"/> is an Italian [[saint]] and [[martyr]], and sister of Grata of Bergamo. She is the patroness saint of [[Bergamo]] in Northern Italy.

Asteria and Grata, at the time of [[Diocletian]] and [[Maximian]], buried [[Alexander of Rome]]. Grata was put to death; Asteria buried her, and then she was arrested, and tortured. An ancient epitaph describes her as having been beheaded as a Christian under Diocletian, when she had already reached her sixtieth year.<ref name=monks>[http://catholicsaints.info/book-of-saints-asteria/ Monks of Ramsgate. "Asteria". ''Book of Saints'', 1921. CatholicSaints.Info. 2 August 2012]{{PD-notice}}</ref> Asteria, Grata, and Alexander were all martyred for refusing to worship the god [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] as Maximian had ordered.<ref name="dunbar-354"/><ref name="biodictionary"/>

Asteria's feast day is 10 August.<ref name=monks/><ref name="biodictionary">{{Cite book|last=Holweck|first=Frederick George|title=A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints|publisher=B. Herder Book Company|year=1924|isbn=|location=St. Louis, Missouri|pages=111}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Grata of Bergano}}
[[Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox saints]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs]]

Asteria of Bergamo

2024-11-12T19:46:20Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints using HotCat

#REDIRECT [[Grata of Bergamo]] {{R from merge}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Asteria of Bergano}}
[[Category:Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox saints]]

Xynoris

2024-11-12T19:44:04Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Fictional Christian saints using HotCat

{{Orphan|date=June 2018}}

'''Saint Xynoris''' was a fictional [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Saint]] who was created through a series of mistranslations.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/literaryblunder00wheagoog|page=[https://archive.org/details/literaryblunder00wheagoog/page/n194 13]|quote=Saint Xynoris.|title=Literary Blunders: A Chapter in the "History of Human Error."|last=Wheatley|first=Henry Benjamin|date=1893|publisher=E. Stock|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k824246|title=Gallica -|website=visualiseur.bnf.fr|access-date=2017-08-16}}</ref> The saint was inadvertently fabricated by [[Baronius|Caesar Baronius]] when he mistranslated the notes of [[John Chrysostom]] while chronicling the oppression of Christians under [[Roman emperor|Roman Emperor]] [[Emperor Julian|Julian]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fD9aAAAAYAAJ&q=Saint+Xynoris&pg=PA54|title=The Academy and Literature|date=1881|publisher=Academy Publishing Company|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Robinson|first=George W.|date=1917|title=Ocium Heinsii|jstor=263343|journal=Classical Philology|volume=12|issue=3|pages=307|doi=10.1086/360108|doi-access=}}</ref>

== Mistranslation and creation ==
In his writings on the [[martyr]]dom of [[Juventinus and Maximinus|Saint Juventinus and Saint Maximinus]], [[Cardinal (Catholic Church)|Cardinal]] Caesar Baronius described a "couple" of martyrs in [[Antioch]], which he derived from the works of Saint Chrysostom, who used the [[Greeks|Greek]] word Ζεύγος (couple or pair) to describe the two.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> This word (which is in fact an [[Apellative|apellative noun]]) was incorrectly translated by Baronius into the name new name ''Xynoris'', leading the Cardinal to declare that a female Christian had been martyred in Antioch alongside the two men.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w7UZAQAAIAAJ&q=Saint+Xynoris&pg=PA139|title=The Month|date=1881|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qmNZAAAAYAAJ&q=Saint+Xynoris&pg=PA538|title=A General Dictionary: Historical and Critical: in which a New and Accurate Translation of that of the Celebrated Mr. Bayle, with the Corrections and Observations Printed in the Late Edition at Paris, is Included; and Interspersed with Several Thousand Lives Never Before Published. The Whole Containing the History of the Most Illustrious Persons of All Ages and Nations Particularly Those of Great Britain and Ireland, Distinguished by Their Rank, Actions, Learning and Other Accomplishments. With Reflections on Such Passages of Bayle, as Seem to Favor Scepticism and the Manichee System|last=Bayle|first=Pierre|date=1741|publisher=J. Bettenham|language=en}}</ref> 25 January was the feast date assigned to the saint.<ref name=":3" />

Baronius' error was later discovered and corrected, but the mistake was recorded as an example of [[mistranslation]] in books such as [[Henry B. Wheatley|Henry B. Wheatley's]] [[The History of Human Error|''History of Human Error'']].<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/literaryblunders00wheauoft|page=[https://archive.org/details/literaryblunders00wheauoft/page/13 13]|quote=Saint Xynoris.|title=Literary Blunders: A Chapter in the "History of Human Error."|last=Wheatley|first=Henry Benjamin|date=1893|publisher=E. Stock|language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Fictional Christian saints]]

{{saint-stub}}

Veronus of Lembeek

2024-11-12T19:43:32Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat (We have more specified cat)

{{Short description|Belgian Catholic Saint}}
[[File:Halle Stevens-de Waelplein zonder nummer - 31994 - onroerenderfgoed.jpg|thumb|Church of Saint Veronus in Lembeek, Belgium]]
'''Veronus of Lembeek''' ({{langx|fr|Véron de Lembecq}}, {{langx|nl|Veroon van Lembeek}}) is a medieval [[folk saint]], venerated in his adopted hometown of [[Lembeek]], near [[Halle, Belgium|Halle]] and close to the [[Languages of Belgium|Belgian language boundary]]. According to tradition, Veronus chose to lived a humble life despite being a great-grandson of [[Charlemagne]], and acquired a reputation for holiness before his death on 31 January 863.

==Biography==

Whether Veronus was or not a historical person, his life is mainly known from a [[hagiography]] by {{ill|Olbert de Gembloux|fr}}.<ref name=Brookston>{{cite web |website=Brookston Beer Bulletin |title=Beer Saints: St. Veronus |author=Jay R. Brooks |date={{date|2023/01/31}} |url=https://brookstonbeerbulletin.com/beer-saints-st-veronus/ }}</ref> Gembloux's text is believed to have been written around 1020 CE at the request of [[Reginar IV, Count of Mons]] following the rediscovery of the saint's burial in 1004 and the transfer of his relics to [[Mons, Belgium|Mons]] in 1012.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://immaterieelerfgoed.be/nl/erfgoederen/sint-veroonmars-lembeek |title=Sint-Veroonmars Lembeek |website=Immaterieel erfgoed in Vlaanderen |author=Hugo Hernie}}</ref>

In that narrative, Veronus was a member of the [[Carolingian dynasty]], perhaps a son of [[Louis the German]].<ref name=Aliens/> At age 16, however, he left the royal court to live a life of humble work, in imitation of [[Jesus]]. He thus became employed in a farm in Lembeek. He performed various [[miracle]]s, including creating a wellspring by planting a stick in the ground,<ref name=Heiligen>{{cite web |website=Heiligen |url=https://www.heiligen-3s.nl/heiligen/01/31/01-31-0900-veronus.php |title=Veronus van Lembeek}}</ref> and accurately predicting details of his burial to his sister, known as [[Verona of Leefdaal|Saint Verona]] and revered in [[Leefdaal]].<ref name=Brookston/><ref name=Aliens/>

==Tradition==
[[File:Sint Veroonprocessie in Lembeek - 3.jpg|thumb|Procession of Saint Veronus in Lembeek, 2015]]

Veronus is invoked against [[headache]]s, [[typhus]], [[rheumatism]], [[fever]], [[contagious diseases]], and [[ulcer]]s.<ref name=Aliens>{{cite web |title=St. Veronus: The Mysterious Beer Saint |website=Aliens in this world |date={{date|2015/03/10}} |url=https://suburbanbanshee.wordpress.com/2015/03/10/st-veronus-the-mysterious-beer-saint/ }}</ref><ref name=Heiligen/> He is liturgically commemorated on 31 January, the date of his death. Since the 15th century, he has also been honored by a procession in Lembeek on [[Easter Monday]].<ref>{{cite web |website=vrt.be| title=Plusieurs traditions pascales revivent en Brabant flamand après l’épidémie de corona |author=Anne François |date={{date|2022/04/18}} |url=https://www.vrt.be/vrtnws/fr/2022/04/18/plusieurs-traditions-pascales-revivent-en-brabant-flamand-apres/ }}</ref>

Veronus is also one of numerous saints associated with [[beer]], and the [[patron saint]] of [[Beer in Belgium|Belgian brewers]].<ref>{{cite web |website=beertourism.com |title=Patron Saints of Beer |url=https://www.beertourism.com/blogs/about-beer/patron-saints-of-beer }}</ref> One claim is that [[lambic]] originates from Lembeek and specifically from the miraculous wellspring created by Veronus.<ref name=Aliens/> A [[pub]] in [[Peterborough, Ontario]] is named after him, the ''St. Veronus Café and Tap Room''.<ref>{{cite web |website=St. Veronus Café and Tap Room |url=https://www.stveronus.com/ |title=Welcome}}</ref>

Veronus is reputed to be buried in the {{ill|Saint Veronus Church{{!}}local church|nl|Sint-Veronuskerk}} of Lembeek, which is named after him and was largely rebuilt in the late 19th century. The church is named after Veronus and contains his 16th-century [[tomb effigy]].<ref>{{cite web |website=Persinfo.com |title=Lembeek kijkt uit naar jaarlijkse Sint-Veroonmis |url=https://www.persinfo.org/nl/nieuws/artikel/lembeek-kijkt-uit-naar-jaarlijkse-sint-veroonmis/42000 |date={{date|2020/01/10}} }}</ref> Relics of Veronus are also held in [[Mons, Belgium|Mons]].<ref name=Aliens/>

==See also==
* [[Verona of Leefdaal]]
* [[Veron (disambiguation)|Veron]]
* [[Veranus of Cavaillon]], or Véran

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Carolingian dynasty]]
[[Category:Belgian Roman Catholic saints]]

{{RC-bio-stub}}

Verona of Leefdaal

2024-11-12T19:43:20Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat (We have more specified cat)

{{Short description|Belgian Catholic Saint}}
[[File:Chapelle Sainte-Vérone de Leefdaal 06.JPG|thumb|Chapel of Saint Verona in Leefdaal, Belgium]]
'''Verona of Leefdaal''' ({{langx|fr|Vérona de Leefdael}}, {{langx|nl|Verona van Leefdaal}}) is a medieval [[folk saint]], venerated in her adopted hometown of [[Leefdaal]], presently part of the municipality of [[Bertem]], [[Flemish Brabant]], [[Belgium]]. According to tradition, Verona was the sister of [[Veronus of Lembeek]] and a great-granddaughter of [[Charlemagne]].

==Overview==

According to tradition, Saint Verona was born in the [[Rhineland]], the daughter of [[Louis the German]]. While looking for the grave of her twin brother Veronus, Verona took a rest at a roadside chapel in Leefdaal. Here, the voice of God apparently revealed two secrets to Verona: she could find her brother's grave in [[Lembeek]]; and she would be buried underneath the chapel in which she was presently resting. She went on her way and found her brother's grave in Lembeek, before returning to her native Rhineland, where she established a number of convents before dying in 870. Her body was then brought by oxen to Leefdaal.<ref>{{cite web |website=Discovering Belgium |title=A walk around Leefdaal |date={{date|2018/05/19}} |url=https://www.discoveringbelgium.com/leefdaal/ |author=Denzil Walton}}</ref>

Verona is worshipped in the {{ill|Sint-Verona|nl}} chapel in Leefdaal, which displays an 18th-century statue of her. According to some philological interpretations, Verona never existed and the name of the St Verona chapel actually comes from a local hill named {{lang|nl|Vroienberg}},<ref>{{cite web |title=Two ancient churches: St Peter's, Bertem and St Verona's, Leefdaal |date={{date|2021/01/13}} |url=https://nwhyte.livejournal.com/3708043.html |website=From the Heart of Europe}}</ref> which means "hill of the Lord".<ref>{{cite web |website=Bertem.be |title=Sint-Veronakapel Leefdaal |url=https://www.bertem.be/product/153/sint-veronakapel-leefdaal }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Veronus of Lembeek]]
* [[Veron (disambiguation)|Veron]]
* [[Veranus of Cavaillon]], or Véran

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Carolingian dynasty]]
[[Category:Belgian Roman Catholic saints]]

{{RC-bio-stub}}

Saint Tigrides

2024-11-12T19:42:50Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:French Roman Catholic saints using HotCat

{{Short description|Legendary saint and second Bishop of Gap, France}}
'''Saint Tigrides''' is a [[legend]]ary [[Congregation for the Causes of Saints#Pre-Congregation|saint]] and the equally legendary<ref>Louis Duchesne makes Constantius (517–529) the first historical bishop of Gap. {{cite book|last1=Duchesne|first1=Louis|title=Fastes épiscopaux de l'ancienne Gaule: I. Provinces du Sud-Est|date=1907|publisher=Fontemoing|location=Paris|url=https://archive.org/details/fastespiscopau01duch|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fastespiscopau01duch/page/285 285]–286}} second edition (in French).</ref> second [[Bishop of Gap]], [[France]].<ref>[http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/diocese/gapz0.htm Diocese of Gap], [[France]], GCatholic.org. {{self-published source|date=March 2018}}</ref>

Very little is known of his life.<ref>Joseph Hyacinthe Albanès; Ulysse Chevalier (editor) (1899), ''Gallia christiana novissima. Histoire des archevêchés, évêques et abbayes de France d'après les documents authentiques recueillis dans les registres du Vatican et les archives locales'', (Montbéliard: Société anonyme d'imprimerie montbéliardaise), pp. 448–449.</ref> He is celebrated locally with a [[feast day]] on 3 February, as is noted in the ''Martyrologicum Hieronymianum''.<ref>''Martyrologicum Hieronymianum'', p. 17 (ed. De Rossi and Duchesne) in: ''Acta Sanctorum Novembris'' Tomi II pars prior (Bruxelles 1894), p. 17.</ref> There is no other evidence for Teredius (or Tigrides).

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tigrides}}
[[Category:French Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:4th-century bishops in Gaul]]

{{saint-stub}}
{{bishop-stub}}

Tarbula

2024-11-12T19:42:28Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Christian saints of Antiquity using HotCat

{{Short description|Persian saint, virgin, and martyr (d. between 341 and 349)}}
{{Unreliable sources|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox saint
|name= Saint Tarbula
|birth_date=
|death_date=341 or 349
|feast_day= 4 April
|venerated_in= [[Catholic Church]],
[[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]]
|image=
|imagesize= 250px
|caption=
|birth_place=[[Iraq]]
|death_place=[[Iraq]]
|titles=
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes=
|patronage=
|major_shrine=
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
}}
'''Tarbula''' (d. between 341 and 349), also called '''Tarbu''', '''Therbuta''', '''Pherbutha''', and '''Phermoutha''',<ref name="oca">{{Cite web |title=Virgin Martyr Pherbutha (Phermoutha) of Persia, with Her Sister, and Servant |url=https://www.oca.org/saints/lives/2023/04/04/100989-virgin-martyr-pherbutha-phermoutha-of-persia-with-her-sister-and |access-date=28 March 2024 |website=Orthodox Church of America}}</ref> was a Persian [[saint]], [[Virginity|virgin]], and Christian [[martyr]] who was [[Death by sawing|cut in half by saw]] after being accused of [[witchcraft]] and causing the illness of the Persian queen, wife of [[Shapur II]]. Her feast day is 4 April.

== Life ==
Tarbula was born in what is now modern-day [[Iraq]]. Her brother was [[Shemon bar Sabbae|Saint Symeon]] (also called Simeon), [[bishop]] of what is now [[Al-Mada'in]].<ref name="jensen-50">Jensen, p. 50</ref> Their father was a [[Fulling|fuller]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Beutner |first=Dawn Marie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uEniDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22saint+simeon%22+fuller&pg=PA162 |title=Saints: Becoming an Image of Christ Every Day of the Year |date=2020-05-06 |publisher=Ignatius Press |isbn=978-1-64229-115-5 |language=en}}</ref> Tarbula also had a sister whose name is unknown. In some texts "Tarbo" or "Tharba<ref>{{Cite book |last=Butler |first=Alban |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVXc3EXDMXIC&dq=Tharba&pg=PA270 |title=The lives of the primitive fathers, martyrs, and other principal saints... |date=1798 |publisher=J. Moir |language=en}}</ref>" is the name given to Tarbula, while her sister is named "Pherbutha". Tarbula however is how the historian [[Sozomen]] translated her name into Greek.

Tarbula, her sister, and a servant were all virgins and lived together "in a kind of ascetic house community",<ref name="jensen-50" /> in the manner of [[Members of the Covenant]].

Tarbula, her sister and the servant were brought to the royal court to attend the queen of [[List of monarchs of Persia|Persian emperor]] [[Shapur II]].<ref name="oca" /> Tarbula was "distinguished by her extraordinary beauty";<ref name="oca" /> the Roman lawyer and Church historian [[Sozomen]] called Tarbula "beautiful and very stately in form".<ref name="sozomen">{{Cite book |last=Sozomen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DJPHDwAAQBAJ&dq=Tarbula&pg=PT100 |title=Ecclesiastical History |date=2020 |publisher=Wyatt North Publishing |isbn=978-1647980030}}</ref> The queen suggested that she marry to increase her position, but Tarbula refused because she had made a vow to a life of service to God and virginity. One of the priests ([[magi]]) of the queen's court offered to marry Tarbula as well, but she also refused him; he might have accused the three women of poisoning the queen.<ref name="oca" />

All three women were accused of [[witchcraft]] and for causing the queen's illness, in retaliation for the death of Symeon who had been [[Martyrs of Persia under Shapur II|murdered by Shapur II]].<ref name="sozomen" /> A few sources blame the Jewish leaders for their arrest, conviction, and execution;<ref name="sozomen" /><ref name="oca" /><ref name="jensen-31">Jensen, p. 31</ref> though the religion of the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanids]] was [[Zoroastrianism]], the queen was a Jewish convert and "had great confidence in the attachment of her co-religionists".<ref name="dunbar-238">Dunbar, p. 238</ref>

According to Sozomen, the case against the women was interpreted as retaliation against [[Constantine the Great|Emperor Constantine's]] banning of the prostitution of young girls and the destruction of the temple of [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]].<ref name="jensen-31" /> One of the case's judges became "deeply enamored with her"<ref name="oca" /> and secretly proposed that she have intercourse with him in exchange for money and her freedom and the freedom of her sister and servant, but Tarbula refused.<ref name="sozomen" /><ref name="jensen-31" /><ref name="dunbar-239">Dunbar, p. 239</ref> The other two judges also offered the women freedom in exchange for intercourse with them.<ref name="oca" /> The women were found guilty, condemned to death, and were [[Death by sawing|cut in half by saw]], then dismembered and their bodybuilding parts nailed to [[Gibbeting|gibbets]].<ref name="sozomen" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Arjana |first=Sophia Rose |title=Muslims in the Western Imagination |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University press |isbn=978-0-19-932492-7 |location=New York |pages=65}}</ref> Their execution was called an "especially cruel martyrdom".<ref name="jensen-31" /> The queen was advised to pass between the women's bodies to dissolve their curse against her and to heal her disease.<ref name="oca" /><ref name="dunbar-239" />

Their bodies were thrown into a ditch, which Christians secretly retrieved and buried.<ref name="oca" />

Tarbula's feast day is 4 April.<ref name="oca" />

== Ritual execution ==
The [[Death by sawing|death by saw]] execution of Tarbula and her companions was not only an ancient punishment but also seen as a powerful religious ritual by many ancient Middle Eastern peoples - capable of not only breaking the imagined spell on the queen, but also purify and/or bring luck and health to whomever passed between the victims remains.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bickerman |first=Elias J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IoMtDgAAQBAJ&q=Tarbula&pg=PA10 |title=Studies in Jewish and Christian History (2 vols): A New Edition in English including The God of the Maccabees, introduced by Martin Hengel, edited by Amram Tropper |date=2007-06-30 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-2072-9 |language=en}}</ref>

The death of Tarbula and her companions therefore gains a strong symbolic message; that of faithful Christians not denouncing their faith or giving up their virtue even in the face of death.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gregory |first=Brad S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=71cwEAAAQBAJ&dq=%22st+tarbula%22+art&pg=PA281 |title=Salvation at Stake: Christian Martyrdom in Early Modern Europe |date=2001-11-15 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-26406-9 |language=en}}</ref> They become martyrs through their execution at the hands of non-Christians and sacrifice in a heathenish ritual.

== In the Arts ==
Tarbula is not widely featured in the arts but there are some notable examples such as;

A pieta engraved<ref>{{Cite web |title=print {{!}} British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/object/P_1863-0509-641 |access-date=2024-04-29 |website=www.britishmuseum.org |language=en}}</ref> by [[Hieronymus Wierix]]

Martyrdom of St. Tarbula (ca. 1634) copper engraving by an unknown artist (possibly [[Adriaen Collaert]]) in' Sacrum Sanctuarium Crucis ' by Petro Bivero<ref>{{Cite book |last=Arjana |first=Sophia Rose |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHWbBQAAQBAJ&dq=tarbula&pg=PA65 |title=Muslims in the Western Imagination |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-932492-7 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Balthasar I Moretus]] depicted the ''Martyrdom of St. Tarbula'' with turbaned onlookers. The image reinforces the Christian theme of resurrection through Christ even after torture and death.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gHWbBQAAQBAJ&dq=Saint+Tarbula&pg=PA65 Arjana, Sophia Rose. ''Muslims in the Western Imagination'', Oxford University Press, 2015, p. 65] {{ISBN|9780199324927}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Martyrs of Persia under Shapur II]]
* [[Death by sawing]]

== References ==
<references responsive="1"></references>

== Works cited ==

* Dunbar, Agnes B.C. (1901). ''A Dictionary of Saintly Women''. Vol. 2. London: George Bell & Sons.
* Jensen, Anne (1996). ''God's Self-Confident Daughters: Early Christianity and the Liberation of Women''. Translated by Dean Jr., O.C. (1st ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox Press. [[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25672-2|<bdi>978-0-664-25672-2</bdi>]].

[[Category:Christian saints of Antiquity]]
[[Category:Martyrs]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:Persian saints]]

Simon the Tanner

2024-11-12T19:40:41Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat (We have more specified cat)

{{for|the Athenian associate of Socrates|Simon the Shoemaker}}
{{distinguish|text=[[Simon the Tanner (New Testament)]] mentioned in the Book of Acts}}
{{Short description|Coptic Orthodox saint associated with the story of moving Mokattam Mountain}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix = [[Saint]]
|name = Simon the Tanner
|birth_date = 10th century
|death_date = 10th century
|feast_day=
|venerated_in = [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]
|image = StSimonTheShoemaker.jpg
|imagesize = 220px
|caption = Coptic icon of St. Simon the Shoemaker depicted as a one-eyed man carrying [[waterskin|waterskins]], as he used to carry water to the sick and the old every morning before going to work.
|birth_place = [[Egypt]]
|death_place = [[Old Cairo]], [[Egypt]]
|titles=
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes=[[Anophthalmia|One eye]], [[eyepatch]], [[waterskin|waterskins]]
|patronage=
|major_shrine = St. Simon the Tanner Coptic Orthodox Monastery ([[Zabbaleen]], [[Mokattam]])
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
}}
{{Oriental Orthodox sidebar |expanded=figures}}
'''Saint Simon the Tanner''' ({{fl|10th century}}), also known as '''Saint Simon the Shoemaker''' ({{langx |cop|Ⲫⲏⲉⲑⲟⲩⲁⲃ Ⲥⲓⲙⲱⲛ Ⲡⲓⲃⲁⲕϣⲁⲣ; Ⲡⲓϩⲟⲙ, Ϧⲁⲣⲣⲁⲍ|lit=Simon the Shoemaker; Craftsman|translit=Fnethouav Simōn Pivakšar; Pišom}}; {{langx |ar|سمعان الدباغ|translit=Sama'an al-Dabagh}}), is the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodox]] saint associated with the story of the moving the [[Mokattam|Mokattam Mountain]] in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]], during the rule of the Muslim [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] [[Caliph]] [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah|al-Muizz Lideenillah]] (953–975) while [[Abraham the Syrian]] was the [[Pope of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]].

==Life==
Simon the Tanner lived toward the end of the 10th century and many Coptic [[Christians]] in Egypt were engaged in handicrafts. Saint Simon worked in tanning, a craft known there till this day. This profession involved other crafts that depend on the process, from whence Simon carried several titles related to skins: Tanner, Cobbler, Shoemaker.<ref name=Iskander>{{cite web |last= Iskander |first= Lara |title= The Monastery of Saint Simon (Simeon) the Tanner |work= Tour Egypt |url= http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tanner.htm |access-date= 2009-02-13}}</ref>

==The miracle of moving the mountain==
According to a traditional story, Caliph [[Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah|al-Muizz]], who reigned during AD 972–975,<ref name=Meinardus58>{{Citation |last= Meinardus |first= Otto F.A |title= Coptic Saints and Pilgrimages |page= 58 |year= 2002 |publisher= The American University in Cairo Press |place= Cairo}}.</ref> used to invite religious leaders to debate in his presence. In one of those meetings in which the patriarch [[Abraham of Alexandria|Abraham]], also known as Pope Abraam, and a Jew named [[Yaqub ibn Killis]] (in another account of this story he was referred to as Moses) were present, Abraham got the upper hand in the debate. Plotting to take revenge, Ibn Killis quoted the verse where [[Jesus Christ]] said in the [[Gospel of Matthew]]: "He replied, "Truly I tell you, if you have faith as small as a mustard seed, you can say to this mountain, 'Move from here to there,' and it will move. Nothing will be impossible for you."" ({{bibleverse ||Matthew|17:20}}), and demanded that the Pope prove that his religion is right by means of this. After hearing ibn Killis say this, the caliph asked Abraham "What sayest thou concerning this word? Is it your gospel or not?"<ref name=Meinardus58/> The patriarch answered "Yes, it is in it." After hearing Abraham answer, the caliph demanded that this very miracle be performed by Abraham's hand or else he and all the Copts would be killed by the sword. The patriarch asked for three days to complete the miracle.<ref name=Meinardus58/>

[[Image:Kairo Hanging Church BW 1.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[The Hanging Church]], [[Cairo]], built in the 3rd or 4th century]]

Abraham put together a group of monks, priests and elders. He told them stay in the church for three days for a penance. On the morning of the third day, Abraham was praying in [[the Hanging Church]], when he saw [[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary, mother of Jesus]]. The Holy Virgin told him to go to the great market. She said to him, "There thou wilt find a one-eyed man carrying on his shoulder a jar full of water; seize him, for he it is at whose hands this miracle shall be manifested."<ref name=Meinardus58/> Abraham listened to Mary and went to the market where he met the man the Holy Virgin spoke of. The man was Simon the tanner, who had plucked out his eye because of a passage from the Bible: "If your right eye causes you to stumble, gouge it out and throw it away. It is better for you to lose one part of your body than for your whole body to be thrown into hell." ({{bibleverse ||Matthew|5:29–30}})

Simon told Abraham to go out with his priests and all his people to the mountain with the Caliph and all his soldiers. Simon then told Abraham to cry out "O Lord, have mercy" three times and each time to make the sign of the cross over the mountain.<ref name=Meinardus58/> The patriarch followed the words of Simon and the mountain was lifted. After the miracle was performed in the presence of the Caliph, the Pope turned left and right looking for Simon, but he had disappeared and no one could find him. The Caliph turned to Abraham and said "O Patriarch, I have recognized the correctness of your faith."

Shortly after the miracle took place, Al-Muizz decided to convert to Christianity, abdicated in favour of his son and entered a monastery. A baptismal font, large enough for the immersion of a grown man, was built for him in the [[Saint Mercurius Church in Coptic Cairo|Church of Saint Mercurius]]. This font still exists today at the site where Al-Muizz was converted and is known as "Maamoudiat Al-Sultan", 'Baptistery of the Sultan'.<ref name=dio>{{cite book |title= Sunday School Curriculum: Grade 2 |page= 10 |publisher= The Coptic Orthodox Diocese of the Southern USA |location= Colleyville, TX |url= https://www.suscopts.org/ssc/Grade02.pdf |access-date= 8 September 2021}}</ref><ref name=Quest>{{cite book |last= Tadros |first= Samuel |title= Motherland Lost: The Egyptian and Coptic Quest for Modernity |pages= 45, 53 (note 8) |publisher=[[Hoover Press]] |location= Stanford, CA |series= Hoover Institution Press Publication |volume= 638 |year= 2013 |isbn= 9780817916466 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=qL-i-dOlQ-gC&pg=PT53 |access-date= 8 September 2021}}</ref><ref name=FM>{{cite web |last= Marangos |first= Frank |title= Moving the Mountain: The Management of Relational Stewardship |publisher= OINOS Educational Consulting |date= 16 March 2015 |url= https://oinosconsulting.com/2015/03/16/moving-the-mountain-the-management-of-relational-stewardship/ |access-date= 8 September 2021}}</ref> This story is rejected by influential Muslim historians such as [[Ahmad Zaki Pasha]] and Muhammad Abdullah Enan.

In commemoration of this miracle, the Coptic Orthodox Church observes three extra days of fasting before the beginning of the [[Nativity Fast]].

Many more details of the story are found on a Coptic website, which claims that the miracle occurred on November 27, 979 AD.<ref>{{cite web |title=Saint Samaan the Tanner Monastery — Miracle |url= http://www.samaanchurch.com/en/miracle_en.php}}</ref>

==Discovery of Saint Simon's relics==
During the years of 1989–91, Coptic clergymen and archaeologists searched for the relics of the 10th century tanner and saint, Simon. Simon was apparently buried in the cemetery of al-Habash in [[Old Cairo]]; however, while searching for Simon's relics, his skeleton was discovered{{clarify|reason=How were they identified? By miracle (dream or alike), or by some kind of material proof, such as a dated inscription plus carbon dating of artifacts and human remains?|date=September 2021}} in the Coptic Orthodox [[Church of the Holy Virgin (Babylon El-Darag)|Church of the Holy Virgin at Babylon El-Darag]]<ref name=Iskander/> during its restoration.<ref name=Meinardus58/> Simon's skeleton was discovered on August 4, 1991, about one meter below the surface of the church. What was of particular interest when finding his skeleton was that the hair on his head was still intact and had not disintegrated. The hair that was intact was only on the back of his skull and it was deduced that the man was bald in front and had thick hair on the back of his head.<ref name=Meinardus58/>

In the church where Simon's skeleton was found there was a painting that depicted the Coptic Pope Abraham and a bald-headed tanner carrying two water jars. The bald-headed man is most likely Simon because he was known for carrying water jars to the poor. The painting further depicted some of the characteristics of the discovered skeleton. In a church nearby a pot was discovered and was dated to be more than 1000 years old. It is believed that this clay pot was the vessel that Simon used to carry water to the poor. The jar is now kept in the new Church of Saint Simon on Muquattam, Cairo.<ref name=Meinardus58/>

==Dedicated places of worship==
===Virgin Mary and St. Simon the Tanner Cathedral, Cairo===
Coordinates: {{Coord|30.030543|31.2765053|display=inline}}
[[File:St. Simon the Tanner's Hall.JPG|thumb|[[Simon the Tanner#Virgin Mary and St. Simon the Tanner Cathedral, Cairo|St. Simon the Tanner]]'s Hall]]

Virgin Mary and St. Simon the Tanner Cathedral in the [https://www.samaanchurch.com/en/home Saint Samaan the Tanner Monastery] is on the east bank of the Nile<ref name=Meinardus328>Meinardus, Otto F.A (1965). "Christian Egypt Ancient and Modern", p.328. French Institute of Oriental Archeology, Cairo.</ref> behind the [[Garbage City|Zabbaleen village]]. The Zabbaleen village where the garbage collectors of Cairo live. In 1969 the governor of Cairo decided to move all of the garbage collectors to the Mokattam. In 1987 there were approximately 15,000 people living in the Zabbaleen village.<ref name=Iskander/>

Reaching the monastery is not an easy feat due to having to wind through the Zabbaleen village.

===The Monastery of Saint Simon, Aswan===
The Monastery of Saint Simon, Aswan does not seem have any direct connection with St Simeon. It is accessible by either crossing the desert from [[Qubbet el-Hawa]] or by sailing across the Nile from [[Aswan]] and then walking up the [[Wadi]] al-Qurqur.<ref name=Meinardus328/> The monastery, which was originally dedicated to Anbâ Hadra of Aswân, was later renamed to Saint Simon.

It was built in the 7th century and reconstructed in the 10th century. By the 13th century, however, the monastery was in ruin; there was an inscription found there that said that a Mutammar Ali had visited in 1295 A.D. Although though the monastery was ruined, its main features were preserved.<ref name=Meinardus329>Meinardus (1965), p.329. French Institute of Oriental Archeology, Cairo.</ref>

One of the churches in the monastery had numerous Coptic inscriptions inside and there were slabs of stones giving the history of many of the monks that had lived there.<ref name=Meinardus329/>

==See also==
*[[Al-Muizz Lideenillah]]
*[[Coptic Cairo]]
*[[Coptic saints]]
*[[Fasting and abstinence of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*[http://www.samaanchurch.com/en/ Saint Samaan The Tanner Monastery]

{{Coptic saints}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Simon the Tanner}}
[[Category:10th-century births]]
[[Category:10th-century deaths]]
[[Category:Coptic Orthodox saints]]
[[Category:Burials at the Church of the Holy Virgin (Babylon El-Darag)]]
[[Category:10th-century Christian saints]]

Maria Shvarnovna

2024-11-12T19:40:08Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Eastern Orthodox saints using HotCat

{{More citations needed|date=February 2024}}'''Maria Shvarnovna''' (c. 1158 - 19 March/19 May 1205/1206) was the first wife of the [[Yurievichi]] [[grand prince of Vladimir]] [[Vsevolod the Big Nest|Vsevolod III Big Nest]], and gave birth to at least 14 children (hence Vsevolod's sobriquet of "Big Nest"). Four of her sons, [[Konstantin of Rostov|Konstantin]], [[Yuri II of Vladimir|George]], [[Yaroslav II of Vladimir|Yaroslav]] and [[Sviatoslav III of Vladimir|Sviatoslav]], succeeded their father as [[Grand Prince]]s of [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]], and Yaroslav went on to become Grand Prince of [[Kiev]] around the time of the [[Mongol invasion of Rus|Mongol Invasion]]. As Yaroslav's mother, she is thus the paternal grandmother of [[Alexander Nevsky]], whose son, [[Daniel of Moscow]], founded the Daniilovichi, the Muscovite branch of the Yurievichi.

Maria's origins are disputed. Some sources say she was [[Ossetians|Ossetian]] or [[Alans|Alan]] and connected to the [[Kingdom of Georgia|Georgian]] royal house, while others, such as the ''Uspensky Sbornik'' (a 13th-century text now housed in the [[Russian Museum|Russian State Museum]] in Moscow), say she was [[Moravians|Moravian]]. M. V. Shchepkina posited the idea that the Sbornik was compiled for Maria in 1199–1206,<ref>Щепкина М.В. О происхождении Успенского сборника // Древнерусское искусство. Рукописная книга. Сб.1 – М.,1972., стр. 73, 63.</ref> and thus the claims that she was Moravian might be more believable than the other claims, but Caucasian chronicles claim Vsevolod traveled to [[Tbilisi]] in 1170 (from [[Constantinople]]), where he was married to Maria at the suggestion of the Georgian King.{{fact|date=February 2017}} The date of her death is also uncertain, as 19 March 1205 is also given in some accounts. The ''[[Novgorod First Chronicle]]'' mentions her death under the year 1205, but does not give an exact day.<ref>''A. N. Nasonov, ed., Novgorodskaya Pervaia Letopis: Starshego i Mladshego Izvodov'' (Leningrad and Moscow: ANSSS, 1950), 50, 246.</ref> As it is mentioned after her son Konstantin's arrival in Novgorod on March 20, it would seem she died after that, perhaps in May.
[[Image:Vladimir asv2019-01 img16 Knyaginin Monastery.jpg|thumb|275px|The main church of the Princess's Convent that was founded by Maria Shvarnovna in [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir]].]]

There is a hypothesis that her father is a certain voivode {{ill|Shvarn (voivode)|lt=Shvarn|ru|Шварн (воевода)}}, possibly of Czech origin.<ref>Казаков Александр Александрович [https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/k-voprosu-o-proishozhdenii-marii-shvarnovny-suprugi-velikogo-knyazya-vsevoloda-bolshoe-gnezdo К вопросу о происхождении Марии Шварновны, супруги великого князя Всеволода большое Гнездо]
</ref>

Maria is venerated as a saint by the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and is credited with founding several convents, most notably the Convent of the Assumption, known as the {{ill|Knyaginin Convent|lt=Princess's Convent|ru|Успенский Княгинин монастырь}} ({{lang|ru|Успенский Княгинин монастырь}}) in [[Vladimir, Russia|Vladimir on the Kliazma]]. According to several accounts, the convent was founded in 1200 and Maria took the schema and the name Marfa (although this would have required her to have ended her marriage with Vsevolod, who outlived her by six years). She and her sister, Anna, were buried in the convent and her relics, along with those of several other saints, including [[Alexander Nevsky]]'s first wife, Princess Alexandra, and his daughter are still kept there.{{fact|date=February 2017}}

==Children==

Maria and [[Vsevolod the Big Nest]] had at least 14 children:

*Sbislava Vsevolodovna (born 26 October 1178).
*Vseslava Vsevolodovna. (died c. 1206) Married [[Rostislav Yaroslavich]], Prince of [[Snov River|Snov]]. He was a son of [[Yaroslav II Vsevolodovich]], Prince of [[Chernigov]]. His paternal grandfather was [[Vsevolod II of Kiev]].
*Verchuslava Vsevolodovna. (born 1181) Married [[Rostislav II of Kiev]].
*[[Konstantin of Rostov]] (18 May 1186 – 2 February 1218)
*Boris Vsevolodovich. (c. 1188 – 1238)
*Gleb Vsevolodovich (died 29 September 1189)
*[[Yuri II of Vladimir]] (1189 – 4 March 1238)
*[[Yaroslav II of Vladimir]] (8 February 1191 – 30 September 1246)
*Yelena Vsevolodovna (died after 1206)
*Vladimir Vsevolodovich, Prince of [[Yuryev-Polsky District|Yuryev-Polsky]] (25 October 1194 – 6 January 1229)
*[[Sviatoslav III of Vladimir]] (27 March 1196 – 3 February 1252)
*Ivan Vsevolodovich, Prince of [[Starodub-on-the-Klyazma|Starodub]] (28 November 1197 – after 1247)
*Pelagea Vsevolodovna
*Anna Vsevolodovna. Married Vladimir, Prince of [[Belgorod Kievsky|Belgorod]] (died 1239)

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*Кузнецов А.А., [https://cyberleninka.ru/article/n/zhena-vsevoloda-bolshoe-gnezdo-yasskoe-alanskoe-ili-cheshskoe-proishozhdenie Жена Всеволода Большое Гнездо: ясское (аланское) или чешское происхождение?], ''Вестник Нижегородского университета им. Н. И. Лобачевского'', 2016, no.2., pp. 1-27 -- argues in favor of the Alan hypothesis and against the Czech hypothesis
{{DEFAULTSORT:Shvarnovna, Maria}}
[[Category:12th-century births]]
[[Category:1205 deaths]]
[[Category:Princesses from Kievan Rus']]
[[Category:Yurievichi family]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox saints]]
[[Category:12th-century people from Kievan Rus']]
[[Category:Mothers of Russian monarchs]]

Severus of Ravenna

2024-11-12T19:39:07Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Italian saints using HotCat

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix=[[Saint]]
|name=Severus of Ravenna
|birth_date=
|birth_place=[[Ravenna]], [[Roman Empire]]
|death_date=''circa'' 348
|death_place=
|feast_day=1 February
|venerated_in=[[Catholic Church]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]]
|image=Saint Severus of Ravenna mosaic - Sant'Apollinare in Classe - Ravenna 2016.jpg
|imagesize=
|caption=St. Severus of Ravenna - mosaic in Sant'Apollinare in Classe
|titles=[[Bishop of Ravenna]]
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=Pre-Congregation
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes=[[Loom]], [[weaving|weaver]]'s tools, [[dove]]
|patronage=[[Hatter]]s, wool weavers,<ref name=Mainzer>[https://bistummainz.de/glaube/heilige/ein-tag-mit-heiligen/severus-von-ravenna/ "Severus von Ravenna", Die Mainzer Heiligen]</ref> spinners, policemen, cloth, stocking, and glove makers.
|major_shrine=Pavio/Pavia (original) [[Erfurt]], Germany
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
}}

Saint '''Severus of Ravenna''' was a 4th-century [[Bishop of Ravenna]] who attended the [[Council of Sardica]] in 343. He was ordained as a bishop due to his personal [[virtue]] and because of "the sign of a dove". He is commemorated on February 1.

==Life==
According to legend, Severus, a wool weaver, went with his wife, Vincentia, to observe the election of a successor to Bishop Agapitus for Ravenna. When he arrived at the church a white dove landed three times on his shoulders, so the people took this as a sign elected him.<ref name=Ökumenisches>{{Cite web |url=https://www.heiligenlexikon.de/BiographienS/Severus_von_Ravenna.htm |title=Severus von Ravenna |website=Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon |language=de |access-date=2022-05-29}}</ref> When he became bishop, his wife and daughter, Innocentia, took the veil.

He attended the [[Council of Sardica]] in 343.<ref name=Ökumenisches/>

He was buried in [[Classe, ancient port of Ravenna|Classe]] near Ravenna.<ref name=Ökumenisches/>

==Veneration==
[[File:2022 Severussarkophag 1.jpg|thumb|250px|Sarcophagus of St. Severus, [[St Severus' Church, Erfurt]]]]
He was purported to be an example of not only a [[Clerical marriage|married priest]], but a married archbishop.<ref name="Berman">{{Cite book|last=Berman|first=Constance H.|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1267427298|title=Medieval religion new approaches|date=2005|publisher=Routledge|pages=127|oclc=1267427298}}</ref>

[[Andreas Agnellus]], in his ''Liber Pontificalis Ecclesiae Ravennatis'', mentions the founding of a church dedicated to Severus at Classe and the later translation of his relics from a nearby monasterium dedicated to Rophilius, which appears to have taken place around the year 500.<ref>[http://csla.history.ox.ac.uk/record.php?recid=E05789 Trzeciak, Frances. Cult of Saints, E05789, University of Oxford]</ref>

On the feast of Pentecost 582, Archbishop John II "Romanus" consecrated the Basilica of San Severo in Ravenna-Classe at his burial place and in his honor - it was destroyed in 1820 (and excavated from 1964 to 1967).

A Gallic priest named Felix stole Severus' bones together with those of his wife Vincentia and daughter Innocentia and brought them to Pavia.<ref name=Mainzer/> In 836 Bishop [[Otgar of Mainz]] acquired the relics and transferred them to first to [[Mainz]], Germany, and eventually to a predecessor building of [[St Severus' Church, Erfurt]], where they were buried and still lie today.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books/about/Der_heilige_Severus_von_Ravenna_Patron_d.html?id=wqASvwEACAAJ Oppermann, Johann M., ''Der heilige Severus von Ravenna, Patron der Stiftskirche zu Erfurt: sein Leben, die Geschichte seiner Reliquien, sowie seine Verehrung in Lied und Gebet'', Schöningh, 1878]</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://catholicsaints.info/saint-severus-of-ravenna/ |title=Saint Severus of Ravenna |website=CatholicSaints.Info |date=31 January 2010}}</ref> Severus is depicted in [[Justinian I|Justinian]]'s mosaics in [[Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Classe|Saint Apollinaire in Classis]], and his name is recorded in early [[Martyrology|martyrologies]].<ref name="Berman" />

There is a Saint Severus Parish Church in [[Boppard]], Germany.

A different St. Severus was martyred in Ravenna during the reign of Maximian, and some early records confused him with the bishop.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Severus of Ravenna}}
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:340s deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century Italian bishops]]
[[Category:Italian saints]]
[[Category:People from Ravenna]]
[[Category:Bishops of Ravenna]]

{{saint-stub}}

Saint Sava

2024-11-12T19:38:38Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat (We have more specified cat)

{{Short description|12/13th-century Serbian prince, Orthodox monk, diplomat, and founder of Serbian law}}
{{For|the Bulgarian saint|Saint Sava (disciple of Saints Cyril and Methodius)}}
{{Infobox saint
| name=Sava
| honorific-prefix = [[Saint]]
| honorific-suffix = [[Serbian Patriarch|Archbishop of Serbia]] The Illuminator
| birth_name=Rastko Nemanjić
| birth_date=1169 or 1174{{Cref2|a|1}}
| birth_place = Gradina, [[Zeta (crown land)|Zeta]]
| death_date={{death date|1236|1|27|df=y}} (61–62 or 66–67)
| death_place=[[Veliko Tarnovo|Tarnovo]], [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]]
| feast_day= {{OldStyleDate |January 27||January 14}}
| venerated_in= [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] [[Catholic Church]]<ref name="automatically generated1">{{Cite web|title=St Sava of Serbia|url=https://www.indcatholicnews.com/saint/17|access-date=2021-08-19|website=Independent Catholic News|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180114042058/https://www.indcatholicnews.com/saint/17|archive-date=2018-01-14}}</ref><ref name="automatically generated2">{{Cite web|title=Saint Sava Archbishop of Serbia|url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/saint/st-sava-archbishop-of-serbia-116|access-date=2021-08-19|website=Catholic News Agency}}</ref><ref name="automatically generated3">{{Cite web|title=Saint Sava – Saints and Angels|url=https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=755|access-date=2021-08-19|website=Catholic Online}}</ref>
| image=Saint_Sava,_Patriarchate_of_Peć_(2).jpg
| imagesize= 250px
| caption= Fresco detail of Saint Sava in [[Patriarchate of Peć (monastery)|Serbian Orthodox Patriarchate of Peć monastery]], [[Serbia]]
| titles= [[Prince of the Church|Prince]], [[Archbishop]], [[Confessor of the Faith|Confessor]], [[Equal to the Apostles]]
| beatified_date=
| beatified_place=
| beatified_by=
| canonized_date=
| canonized_place=
| canonized_by=[[Orthodox Church]]
| attributes= [[Ktetor]], teacher, theologian, legislator, diplomat, protector of the poor, writer
| patronage=Serbia, Serbs, Serbian schools
| major_shrine=[[Church of Saint Sava]], [[Belgrade]]
| suppressed_date=
| issues=
| misc = {{Infobox Christian leader|embed=yes
| type = Archbishop
| name = Sava
| title = [[Serbian Archbishop]] 
| image =
| imagesize = 250px
| alt =
| church = [[Serbian Orthodox Church]]
| archdiocese =
| province =
| metropolis =
| diocese =
| see = [[Eparchy of Žiča|Žiča]]
| enthroned = 1219
| ended = 1235
| predecessor =
| successor = [[Arsenije Sremac|Arsenije]]
| opposed =
| other_post = [[Archimandrite]]
| ordination = Patriarch [[Manuel I of Constantinople]]
| buried = [[Holy Forty Martyrs Church, Veliko Tarnovo|Holy Forty Martyrs Church]] (until May 6, 1237) [[Mileševa]] (until 1594)
| consecration =
| rank =
| nationality = [[Serb]]ian
| religion = [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christian]]
| residence =
| parents = [[Stefan Nemanja]] and [[Saint Anastasija|Ana]]
| spouse =
| children =
| occupation = archbishop
| profession =
| alma_mater =
| signature = [[File:Печат светог Саве.svg|100px]]
| honorific-prefix = [[Saint]]
| honorific-suffix = [[Equal-to-the-Apostles]]
}}}}
'''Saint Sava''' ({{langx|sr|Свети Сава|Sveti Sava}}, {{IPA|sh|sʋɛ̂ːtiː sǎːʋa|pron}}; [[Old Church Slavonic]]: {{lang|cu|Свѧтъ Сава / {{Script|Glag|ⰔⰂⰤⰕⰟ ⰔⰀⰂⰀ}}}}; {{langx|el|Άγιος Σάββας}}; 1169 or 1174 – 14 January 1236), known as '''the Enlightener''', was a [[Serbs|Serbian]] prince and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] monk, the first [[Archbishop]] of the [[Autocephaly|autocephalous]] [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Church]], the founder of [[Law of Serbia|Serbian law]], and a [[Foreign relations of Serbia|diplomat]]. Sava, born as '''Rastko Nemanjić''' ({{lang-sr-cyr| Растко Немањић}}), was the youngest son of [[Serbian Grand Prince]] [[Stefan Nemanja]] (founder of the [[Nemanjić dynasty]]), and ruled the appanage of [[Zachlumia]] briefly in 1190–92. He then left for [[Mount Athos]], where he became a monk with the name ''Sava'' (''[[Sabbas]]''). At Athos he established the monastery of [[Hilandar]], which became one of the most important cultural and religious centres of the Serbian people. In 1219 the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople|Patriarchate]] exiled in [[Nicea]] recognized him as the first Serbian Archbishop, and in the same year he authored the oldest known constitution of Serbia, the ''[[Zakonopravilo]]'' [[nomocanon]], thus securing full religious and political independence. Sava is regarded as the founder of [[Serbian medieval literature]].{{sfn|Dvornik|1962|pp=94–100}}{{sfn|Matejić|1976|p=}}{{sfn|Obolensky|1988|pp=115–172}}{{sfn|Speake|2018|pp=77–92}}{{sfn|Curta|2018|pp=91–99}}

He is widely considered one of the most important figures in [[History of the Serbs|Serbian history]]. Sava is considered to be to the [[Serbs]] what [[Averroes]] is to the [[Muslims]] and [[Maimonides]] is to the [[Jews]]. Saint Sava is venerated by the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] on {{OldStyleDate|January 27||January 14}}. Many artistic works from the [[Middle Ages]] to modern times have interpreted his life. He is the patron saint of Serbia, Serbs, and Serbian education. The [[Church of Saint Sava]] in [[Belgrade]] is dedicated to him, built on the site where the [[Burning of Saint Sava's relics|Ottomans burnt his remains]] in 1594,{{sfn|Radić|2007|p=234}} during an uprising in which Serbs used icons of Sava as their war flags; the church is one of the [[List of largest church buildings in the world|largest church buildings in the world]].

==Biography==
===Early life===
Rastko ({{lang-sr-cyrl|Растко Немањић}}, {{IPA|sr|râstkɔ nɛ̌maɲitɕ}}), a diminutive of ''[[Rastislav]]'',{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=218}} was born in 1169 or 1174 {{Cref2|a|2}}, in Gradina (modern-day [[Podgorica]]). As the youngest son of Grand Prince [[Stefan Nemanja]] and his wife [[Anastasia of Serbia|Ana]],{{sfn|Jakovljević|2015|pp=423–432}} prince Rastko belonged to the first generation of the [[Nemanjić dynasty]], alongside his brothers [[Vukan Nemanjić|Vukan]] and [[Stefan the First-Crowned|Stefan]]. His biographers mention that he was born after a hiatus in the couple's childbearing and was therefore especially dear. At the Serbian court the brothers received a good education{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=218}} in the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] tradition, which exercised great political, cultural and [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople|religious influence]] in Serbia.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=38}} He grew up in a time of great foreign relations activities in Serbia. Rastko showed himself serious and [[ascetic]]; as the youngest son, he was made Prince of Hum at an early age,{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=218}} in ca. 1190.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=19}} Hum was a province between [[Neretva (river)|Neretva]] and [[Dubrovnik]] (''Ragusa'').{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=38}} Having his own court with magnates (''velmože''), senior officials and selected local [[Medieval Serbian nobility|nobility]], the governance in Hum was not only an honorary title but constituted a practical school of state administration. [[Teodosije the Hilandarian]] said that Rastko, as a ruler, was "mild and gentle, kind to everyone, loving the poor as few others, and very respecting of the monastic life".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=38}} He showed no interest in fame, wealth, or the throne.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=38}} The governance of Hum had previously been held by his uncle [[Miroslav of Hum|Miroslav]], who continued to hold at least the [[Lim river|Lim region]] with [[Bijelo Polje]] while Rastko held Hum.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=52}} After two years, in autumn 1192 or shortly afterwards, Rastko left Hum for [[Mount Athos]].{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=218}} Miroslav may have continued as ruler of Hum after Rastko had left.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=20}} Athonite monks were frequent visitors to the Serbian court – lectures perhaps made him determined to leave.{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=218}}

===Mount Athos===
[[File:St. Sava and Nemanja 1796, Bay of Kotor painting school.png|left|thumb|Late 18th century [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian orthodox]] [[icon]] of Saint Sava and his father Saint Simeon]]
Upon arriving at Athos, Rastko entered the Russian [[St. Panteleimon Monastery]] where he received the monastic name of ''Sava'' ([[Sabbas]]).{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=38}} According to tradition, a Russian monk was his spiritual guide or mentor{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=218}} and was said to have had earlier visited the Serbian court with other Athonite monks.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=38}} Sava then entered the Greek [[Vatopedi]] monastery, where he would stay for the next seven years, and became more closely acquainted with Greek theological and church-administrational literature. His father tried to persuade him to return to Serbia, but Sava was determined and replied, "You have accomplished all that a Christian sovereign should do; come now and join me in the true Christian life".{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=218}} His young years at Athos had a significant influence on the formation of his personality, it was also here that he found models on which he would organize monastic and church life in Serbia.{{sfn|Obolensky|1974|p=291}}{{sfn|Obolensky|1988|p=115}}

Stefan Nemanja took his son's advice{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=218}} – he summoned an assembly at [[Studenica monastery|Studenica]] and [[abdicated]] on 25 March 1196, giving the throne to his middle son, [[Stefan the First-Crowned|Stefan]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=38}} The next day, Nemanja and his wife Ana took monastic vows.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=38}} Nemanja took the monastic name ''Simeon'' and stayed in Studenica until leaving for Mount Athos in autumn 1197.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=30}} The arrival was greatly pleasing to Sava and the Athonite community, as Nemanja as a ruler had donated much to the community. The two, with consent of ''[[hegumen]]'' (monastery head) Theostyriktos of Vatopedi, went on a tour of Athos in late autumn 1197 in order for Simeon to familiarize with all of its churches and sacred places; Nemanja and Ana donated to numerous monasteries, especially Karyes, Iviron and the Great Lavra.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}}

When Sava visited the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios III Angelos]] at Constantinople, he mentioned the neglected and abandoned [[Hilandar]], and asked the Emperor to grant him and his father permission to restore the monastery and transfer it to Vatopedi.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}} The Emperor approved, and sent a special letter and considerable gold to his friend Stefan Nemanja ([[monk Simeon]]).{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}} Sava then addressed the [[Protos (monastic office)|Protos]] of Athos, asking them to support the effort so the monastery of Hilandar might become a haven for Serb monks.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}} All Athonite monasteries, except Vatopedi, accepted the proposal. In July 1198, Emperor Alexios III issued a charter which revoked the earlier decision, and instead not only granted Hilandar, but also the other abandoned monasteries in Mileis, to Simeon and Sava, to be a haven and shelter for Serb monks in Athos.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}} The restoration of Hilandar quickly began and Grand Prince Stefan sent money and other necessities, and issued the founding charter for Hilandar in 1199.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}}

Sava wrote a ''[[typikon]]'' (liturgical office order) for Hilandar, modeled on the ''typikon'' of the monastery of [[Theotokos Euergetis]] in Constantinople.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}} Besides Hilandar, Sava was the ''[[ktetor]]'' (sr. ''ktitor''; founder, donator) of the hermitage at [[Karyes (Athos)|Karyes]] (seat of Athos) for the monks who devoted themselves to solitude and prayer.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}} In 1199, he authored the [[Karyes Typikon|typikon of Karyes]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}} Along with the hermitage, he built the chapel dedicated to [[Sabbas the Sanctified]], whose name he received upon monastic vows.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}} His father died on 13 February 1199.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=30}} In 1204, after 13 April, Sava received the rank of ''[[archimandrite]]''.{{sfn|Speake|2018|p=83}}

As Nemanja had earlier (1196) decided to give the rule to [[Stefan the First-Crowned|Stefan]], and not the eldest son, [[Vukan Nemanjić|Vukan]], the latter began plotting against Stefan in the meantime. He found an ally in Hungarian king [[Emeric, King of Hungary|Emeric]] with whom he banished Stefan to Bulgaria, and Vukan seized the Serbian throne (1202). Stefan returned to Serbia with an army in 1204 and pushed Vukan to [[Zeta (crown land)|Zeta]], his hereditary land.{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=41–48}} After problems at Athos with Latin bishops and [[Boniface of Montferrat]] following the [[Fourth Crusade]], Sava returned to Serbia in the winter of 1205–1206 or 1206–1207, with the remains of his father which he relocated to his father's endowment, the [[Studenica monastery]], and then reconciled his quarreling brothers.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=79}} Sava saved the country from further political crisis by ending the dynastic fight, and also completed the canonization process of Nemanja (Simeon) as a saint.{{sfn|Ćirković|Korać|Babić|1986|p=13}}{{sfn|Bataković|2005|p=19}}

===Enlightenment===
[[File:Sveti_Sava_blagosilja_Srpčad,_Uroš_Predić,_1921.jpg|thumb|left|Sava blessing Serb youth, [[Uroš Predić]] (1921).]]
Having spent 14 years in Mount Athos, Sava had extensive theological knowledge and spiritual power.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=39}} According to Sava's biography, he was asked to teach the court and people of Serbia the Christian laws and traditions and "in that way enwisen and educate".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=40}} Sava then worked on the religious and cultural enlightenment of the Serbian people, educating in Christian morality, love and mercy, meanwhile also working on the church organization.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=40}} Since his return in 1206, he became the ''[[hegumen]]'' of [[Studenica monastery|Studenica]], and as its elder, self-willed entered regulations on the independent status of that monastery in the Studenica Typikon.{{sfn|Speake|2018|p=83}} He used the general chaos in which the Byzantine Empire found itself after the [[siege of Constantinople (1204)]] into the hands of the Crusaders, and the strained relations between the [[Despotate of Epirus]] (where the [[Archbishopric of Ohrid]] was seated, which the Serbian Church was subordinated to) and the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] in [[Nicaea]], into his advantage. The Studenica Typikon became a sort of ''[[lex specialis]]'', which allowed Studenica to have independent status ("Here, therefore, no one is to have authority, neither bishop nor any one else") in relation to the Bishopric of Raška and Archbishopric of Ohrid. The canonization of Nemanja and the Studenica Typikon would be the first steps towards the future autocephaly of the Serbian Church and elevation of the Serbian ruler to king ten years later.{{sfn|Ćirković|Korać|Babić|1986|pp=16–19}}{{sfn|Speake|2018|p=83}}

[[File:Свети Сава крунише свог брата Стефана Првовенчаног, by Anastas Jovanović.jpg|thumb|Crowning of Stefan, by [[Anastas Jovanović]].]]

In 1217, archimandrite Sava left Studenica and returned to Mount Athos. His departure has been interpreted by a part of the historians as a reaction to his brother Stefan accepting the royal crown from Rome.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=40}} Stefan had just prior to this made a large switch in politics, marrying a Venetian noblewoman, and subsequently asked the Pope for a royal crown and political support.{{sfn|Ćirković|2004|p=38}} With the establishment of the [[Latin Empire]] (1204), Rome had considerably increased its power in the Balkans. Stefan was crowned by a papal legate, becoming equal to the other kings, and was called "the First-Crowned King" of Serbia.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=107}}{{sfn|Kalić|2017|pp=8–9, 15}}

Stefan's politics that led to the events of 1217 were somewhat in odds with the Serbian Orthodox tradition, represented by his brother, archimandrite Sava, who favored Eastern Orthodoxy and Byzantine ecclesiastical culture in Serbia. Though Sava left Serbia while talks were underway between Stefan and Rome (apparently due to disagreeing with Stefan's excessive reliance on Rome), he and his brother resumed their good relation after receiving the crown. It is possible that Sava did not agree with everything in his brother's international politics, however, his departure for Athos may also be interpreted as a preparation for obtaining the autocephaly (independence) of the Serbian Archbishopric.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=40}} His departure was planned, both Domentijan and Teodosije, Sava's biographers, stated that before leaving Studenica he appointed a new ''hegumen'' and "put the monastery in good, correct order, and enacted the new church constitution and monastic life order, to be held that way", after which he left Serbia.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=40}}
[[File:Saint Sava Mileseva Monastery.png|left|thumb|555x555px|Fresco in [[Mileševa Monastery|Mileševa]].]]

===Autocephaly and church organization===
[[File:Sveti Sava miri zavađenu braću.jpg|thumb|Sava reconciling his quarreling brothers, [[Paja Jovanović]] (1901)]]
The elevation of Serbia into a kingdom did not fully mark the independence of the country, according to that time's understanding, unless the same was achieved with its church. Rulers of such countries, with church bodies subordinated to Constantinople, were viewed as "rulers of lower status who stand under the top chief of the Orthodox Christian world – the Byzantine Emperor". Conditions in Serbia for [[autocephaly]] were largely met at the time, with a notable number of learned monks, regulated monastic life, stable church hierarchy, thus "its autocephaly, in a way, was only a question of time". It was important to Sava that the head of the Serbian church was appointed by Constantinople, and not Rome.{{sfn|Fine|1994|pp=116–119}}

On 15 August 1219, during the feast of the [[Dormition of the Mother of God]], Sava was consecrated by [[Patriarch Manuel I of Constantinople]] in [[Nicaea]] as the first Archbishop of the autocephalous (independent) Serbian Church. The patriarch of Constantinople and his Synod thus appointed Sava as the first archbishop of ''"Serbian and coastal lands."''{{sfn|Ostrogorsky|1956|p=383}}{{sfn|Blagojević|1993|pp=27–28}}{{sfn|Ćirković|2004|pp=28, 42–43}}{{sfn|Ferjančić|Maksimović|2014|pp=37–54}}{{sfn|Marjanović|2018|pp=41–50}} With the support of Emperor [[Theodore I Laskaris]] and "the Most Venerable Patriarch and the whole Constantinopolitan assembly" he received the blessing that Serbian archbishops receive consecration from their own bishops' assemblies without consenting with the [[Latin Patriarch of Constantinople]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=40}} Sava had thus secured the independence of the church; in the Middle Ages, the church was the supporter and important factor in state sovereignty, and political and national identity. At the same time, both Laskaris and Manuel were delighted that Serbian policy was continuously looking towards [[Constantine the Great]]'s legacy – [[Byzantium]] – rather than Rome.{{sfn|Van Tricht|2011|pp=402–405}}

From Nicaea, Archbishop Sava returned to Mount Athos, where he profusely donated to the monasteries.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=40}} In Hilandar, he addressed the question of administration: "he taught the hegumen especially how to, in every virtue, show himself as an example to others; and the brothers, once again, he taught how to listen to everything the hegumen said with the fear of God", as witnessed by Teodosije.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=40}} From Hilandar, Sava traveled to [[Thessaloniki]], to the monastery of Philokalos, where he stayed for some time as a guest of the Metropolitan of Thessaloniki, Constantine the Mesopotamian, with whom he was a great friend ever since his youth.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=40}} His stay was of great benefit as he transcribed many works on law needed for his church.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=41}}

Upon his return to Serbia, he was engaged in the organization of the Serbian church, especially regarding the structure of bishoprics, those that were situated on locales at the sensitive border with the Roman Catholic West.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=41}} At the assembly in [[Žiča]] in 1219, Sava "chose, from his pupils, God-understanding and God-fearing and honorable men, who were able in managing by divine laws and by the tradition of the [[Holy Apostles]], and keep the apparitions of the holy God-bearing fathers. And he consecrated them and made them bishops" (Domentijan).{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=41}} Sava gave the newly appointed bishops law books and sent them to bishoprics in all parts of Serbia.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=41}} It is unclear how many bishoprics he founded. The following bishoprics were under his administration: Zeta (''Zetska''), seated at Monastery of Holy Archangel Michael in [[Prevlaka]] near Kotor; Hum (''Humska''), seated at [[Monastery of the Holy Mother of God, Ston|Monastery of the Holy Mother of God]] in [[Ston]]; [[Eparchy of Dabar|Dabar]], seated at Monastery of St. Nicholas on the Lim; Moravica, seated at Monastery of St. Achillius in the Moravica region; Budimlja, seated at Monastery of St. George; Toplica, seated at Monastery of St. Nicholas in the Toplica region; Hvosno, seated at Monastery of the Holy Mother of God in the [[Hvosno]] region; Žiča, seated at [[Žiča]], the seat of the Church; Raška, seated at [[Patriarchal Monastery of Peć|Monastery of Holy Apostles Peter and Paul]] in [[Peć]]; Lipljan, seated at [[Lipljan]]; Prizren, seated at [[Prizren]].{{sfn|Popović|2002|pp=171–184}} Among his bishops were [[Ilarion (medieval Serbian bishop)|Ilarion]] and [[Metodije (medieval Serbian bishop)|Metodije]]. In the same year Sava published ''[[Zakonopravilo]]'' (or "St. Sava's Nomocanon"), the first [[constitution]] of Serbia; thus the Serbs acquired both forms of independence: political and religious.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=118}}{{sfn|Dragojlović|1993|p=36}}
[[File:Sveti Sava Kraljeva Crkva.jpg|thumb|Fresco detail of Saint Sava in [[Studenica Monastery]], [[Serbia]]]]
The organizational work of Sava was very energetic, and above all, the new organization was given a clear national character. The Greek bishop at Prizren was replaced by a Serbian, his disciple. This was not the only feature of his fighting spirit. The determination of the seats of the newly established bishoprics was also performed with especially state-religious intention. The Archbishopric was seated in the [[Monastery of Žiča]], the new endowment of King Stefan.{{sfn|Curta|2006|p=393}} The bishopric in Dabar on the Lim river was situated towards the border with Bosnia, to act on the Orthodox element there and suppress the [[Bosnian Church|Bogomil teaching]]. The bishopric of Zeta was located on the [[Prevlaka]] peninsula, [[Bay of Kotor]], out of real [[Zeta (crown land)|Zeta]] itself, and the bishopric of Hum in [[Ston]]; both of these were almost on the outskirts of the kingdom, obviously with the aim to combat the Catholic action which had spread especially from the Catholic dioceses of Kotor and Dubrovnik. In earlier times, also Orthodox monasteries were subjected to the supervision of the Catholic Archdiocese of Bar; after Sava's action that intercourse began to change in the opposite direction. After Sava's organization, Orthodoxy finally became the state religion of Serbia. Sava, in that respect, worked consistently and without any regard. The Bogomils had been prohibited already by his father, Nemanja, while Sava, as an Athonite Latinophobe, did his part all to prevent and weaken the influence of Catholicism. Through his clergy, which he directly influenced as an example and with teaching, Sava rose also the general cultural level of the whole people, striving to develop human virtues and a sense of civic duty. The Serbian state thought of the Nemanjić dynasty was created politically by Nemanja, but spiritually and intellectually by Sava.{{sfn|Carter|1969|pp=39–56}}{{sfn|Dragojlović|1993|pp=32–40}}

===First pilgrimage===
[[File:Marsava.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mar Saba]], where Sava founded Serbian cells]]
[[File:VergineTricherusa.jpg|left|thumb|[[Trojeručica]], a [[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Orthodox]] [[icon]]]]
After the crowning of his nephew [[Stefan Radoslav|Radoslav]], the son of Stefan, Sava left the Serbian maritime in 1229 for a trip to [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]]. He visited almost all the [[List of religious sites#Christianity|holy places]] and endowed them with valued gifts.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}} The Patriarch of Jerusalem, [[Athanasius II of Jerusalem|Athanasius]], along with the rest of the prelates, and especially monks, warmly greeted and welcomed him. Sava asked Athanasios II, his host, and the Great Lavra fraternity, led by ''[[hegoumenos]]'' Nicholas, if he could purchase two monasteries in the [[Holy Land]]. His request was accepted and he was offered the monasteries of Saint John the Theologian on [[Mount Zion|Mount Sion]] and [[St. George's Monastery, Acre|St. George's Monastery]] at [[Acre, Israel|Akkon]] - both to be inhabited by Serbian monks. On the way back he visited [[Empire of Nicaea|Nicaea]] and the Byzantine Emperor [[John Vatatzes]] (r. 1221–1254), where he remained for several days. From there, he continued his journey to Mount Athos, Hilandar, and then via [[Thessaloniki]] to Serbia. While visiting [[Mar Saba]], he had been gifted the ''[[Trojeručica]]'' (the "Three-handed Theotokos"), an icon of [[Nursing Madonna]], and the [[crosier]] of [[Sabbas the Sanctified]], which he brought to Hilandar. After a short stay at Studenica, Sava embarked on a four-year trip throughout the lands where he confirmed the theological teachings and delivered constitutions and customs of monastic life to be kept, as he had seen in Mount Athos, Palestine, and the Middle East.{{sfn|Marković|2009|pp=267–271}}

===Second pilgrimage and death===
After the throne change in 1234, when King Radoslav was succeeded by his brother [[Stefan Vladislav|Vladislav]], Archbishop Sava began his second trip to the Holy Land.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} Prior to this, Sava had appointed his loyal pupil [[Arsenije Sremac]] as his successor to the throne of the Serbian Archbishopric.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} Domentijan says that Sava chose Arsenije through his "clairvoyance", with Teodosije stating further that he was chosen because Sava knew he was "evil-less and more just than others, prequalified in all, always fearing God and carefully keeps His commandments".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} This move was wise and deliberate; still in his lifetime he chose himself a worthy successor because he knew that the further fate of the Serbian Church largely depended on the personality of the successor.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}}

Sava began his trip from [[Budva]], then via [[Brindisi]] in Italy to [[Acre, Israel|Acre]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} On this road he experienced various bad events, such as an organized pirate attack in the rough [[Mediterranean Sea]], which however ended well.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} In Acre he stayed in his monastery dedicated to St. George, which he had earlier bought from the [[Latin Empire|Latins]], and then from there went to [[Jerusalem]], to the Monastery of St. John the Apostle, "which he, as soon as arriving, redeemed from the [[Saracens]], in his name".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} Sava had a prolonged stay in Jerusalem; he was again friendly and brotherly received by Patriarch Athanasius.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} From Jerusalem he went to [[Alexandria]], where he visited Patriarch Nicholas, with whom he exchanged gifts.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}}

After touring the holy places in [[Egypt]], he returned to Jerusalem, from where he went to the [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]], where he spent [[Lent]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Todorović |first1=Miloš |title=Serbian–Egyptian Intercultural Relations |date=2021 |publisher=Alia Mundi |location=Belgrade |isbn=978-86-81396-12-4 |pages=138–139 |url=https://www.academia.edu/49589125 |access-date=8 July 2021}}</ref> He returned briefly to Jerusalem, then went to [[Principality of Antioch|Antioch]]ia, and from there across [[Armenia]] and the "Turkic lands" he went on the "Syrian Sea" and then returned on a ship to Antiochia.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} On the ship, Sava became sick, and was unable to eat.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} After a longer trip he arrived at Constantinople where he briefly stayed.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=43}} Sava first wanted to return home via Mount Athos (according to Domentijan), but he instead decided to visit the [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian]] capital at [[Veliko Tarnovo|Tarnovo]], where he was warmly and friendly admitted by the Bulgarian Emperor [[Ivan Asen II of Bulgaria|Ivan Asen II]] (father-in-law of King Vladislav) and Bulgarian Patriarch Joakim.{{sfn|Dujčev|1978|pp=17–29}}[[File:SS.Forty Martyrs Church (Veliko Tarnovo) E3.jpg|thumb|Sava died ill on his way home from the Holy Land, on 12 January 1235, in [[Veliko Tarnovo|Tarnovo]], [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian Empire]].]]

As on all his destinations, he gave rich gifts to the churches and monasteries: "[he] gave also to the Bulgarian Patriarchate priestly honourable robes and golden books and candlesticks adorned with precious stones and pearls and other church vessels", as written by Teodosije.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|pp=43–44}} Sava had after much work and many long trips arrived at Tarnovo a tired and sick man.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} When the sickness took a hold of him and he saw that the end was near, he sent part of his entourage to Serbia with the gifts and everything he had bought with his blessing to give "to his children".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} The [[eulogia]] consisted of four items.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Eulogiae Terrae Sanctae of St Sava of Serbia|author=Popović Danica|journal=Balcanica |year=2014 |issue= 45|pages=55–69|url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/ft.aspx?id=0350-76531445055P|doi=10.2298/BALC1445055P|doi-access=free}}</ref> Domentijan accounted that he died between Saturday and Sunday, most likely on {{OldStyleDateNY|27 January|14 January}} 1235.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}}

Sava was respectfully buried at the [[Holy Forty Martyrs Church, Veliko Tarnovo|Holy Forty Martyrs Church]].{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=136}} Sava's body was returned to Serbia after a series of requests,{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=136}} and was then buried in the [[Mileševa monastery]], built by Vladislav in 1234.{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=136}}{{sfn|Curta|2019|p=515}} According to Teodosije, Archbishop Arsenije told Vladislav "It's neither nice nor pleasing, before God nor the people, leaving our father [Sava] gifted to us by the Christ. An equal to apostles – who made so many feats and countless efforts for the Serbian lands, decorating it with churches and the kingdom, the archbishopric and bishops, and all constitutions and laws – that his relics lie outside his fatherland and the seat of his church, in a foreign land".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} King Vladislav twice sent delegations to his father-in-law Asen, asking him to let the relics of Sava be transferred to the fatherland, but the Emperor was unappealing.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} Vladislav then personally visited him and finally got the approval, and brought the relics to Serbia.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} With the highest church- and state honours, the relics of Saint Sava were transferred from the Holy Forty Martyrs Church to [[Mileševa monastery|Mileševa]] on {{OldStyleDateNY|19 May|6 May}} 1237. "The King and the Archbishop, with the bishops and hegumens and many noblemen, all together, little and great, carried the Saint in much joy, with psalms and songs".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} Sava was canonized, and his relics were considered miraculous; his cult remained throughout the [[Serbia in the Middle Ages|Middle Ages]] and the [[Ottoman Serbia|Ottoman rule]].{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=136}}

==Legacy==
[[File:Saint Sava, Bogorodica Ljeviška.jpg|thumb|Fresco from Saint Sava in [[Our Lady of Ljeviš|Monastery Bogorodica Ljeviška]]]]
Saint Sava is the protector of the Serb people: he is venerated as a protector of churches, families, schools and artisans.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}} His feast day is also venerated by Greeks, Bulgarians, Romanians and Russians.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}}  Numerous toponyms and other testimonies, preserved to this day, convincingly speak of the prevalence of the cult of St. Sava.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}} St. Sava is regarded the father of Serbian education and literature; he authored the ''Life of St. Simeon'' (Stefan Nemanja, his father), the first Serbian hagiography.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}} He has been given various honorific titles, such as "Father" and "Enlightener".{{cref2|b}} 

The Serb people built the cult of St. Sava based on the religious cult; many songs, tales and legends were created about his life, work, merit, goodness, fairness and wisdom, while his relics became a topic of national and ethnopolitical cult and focus of liberation ideas.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}} In 1840, at the suggestion of [[Atanasije Nikolić]], the rector of the [[Lyceum of the Principality of Serbia|Lyceum]], the feast of Saint Sava was chosen to celebrate [[Education]] every year. It was celebrated as a school holiday until 1945 when the communist authorities abolished it. In 1990, it was reintroduced as a school holiday.<ref name="RTS 2020">{{cite web | title=Danas je Sveti Sava, školska slava | website=РТС | date=2020-01-25 | url=http://www.rts.rs/page/stories/sr/story/125/drustvo/3826448/danas-je-sveti-sava-skolska-slava.html | language=sr}}</ref>

The Serbian Orthodox Church venerates saint Sava on {{OldStyleDate|January 27||January 14}}.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}}

===Biographies===
The first, shorter, biography on St. Sava was written by his successor, Archbishop Arsenije.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} The transcript is preserved in a manuscript on [[parchment]] dating to the 13th or 14th century.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} [[Domentijan]] (ca. 1210–after 1264), an Athonite monk, wrote the ''Life of St. Sava'' in 1253.{{sfn|Miljković|2008|pp=304–338}} He gifted it to Serbian king [[Stefan Uroš I]] (r. 1243–76).{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} This biography describes Sava's life from his birth to his burial in Tarnovo.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} [[Teodosije the Hilandarian|Teodosije]] (1246–1328), also an Athonite monk, wrote the ''Life of St. Sava'' at Hilandar at the end of the 13th century.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} He based it on Domentijan's biography, though, unlike the latter, of which narratives are of thoughtful and solemn rhetoric, Teodosije's biography is warmer, with features of a [[Hagiography|hagiographic narrative]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} Teodosije's description of events give the impression of a [[novel]], though it does not distort the historical course of events.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} Catholic bishop [[Ivan Mrnavić]], a contemporary of Serbian patriarch [[Pajsije of Janjevo|Pajsije]], published a biography of St. Sava in Latin, in Rome in 1630–31, which was later translated into Serbian by [[Veselin Čajkanović]] (1881–1946); this biography has many historical inaccuracies.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} There are many transcripts preserved of Domentijan's biography, and many more of Teodosije's.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}}  [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Bosnia|Bishop of Bosnia]] [[Giovanni Thomas Marnavich]] wrote about him.

===Relics===
The presence of the relics of St. Sava in Serbia had a church-religious and political significance, especially during the Ottoman period.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} No individual among the Serbs has been woven into the consciousness and being of the people as Saint Sava, from his time until the present day.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} In 1377, [[Banate of Bosnia|Bosnian Ban]] [[Tvrtko I of Bosnia|Tvrtko]] was crowned King in the presence of Sava's relics.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} In 1448, ''vojvoda'' [[Stjepan Vukčić Kosača|Stefan Vukčić Kosača]] of [[Zachlumia|Hum]] styled himself "herzog (duke) of Saint Sava".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} The cult collected all South Slavic peoples, especially the Orthodox Serbs, while his grave was also a pilgrim site for Catholics and Muslims.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=44}} Foreign 16th-century writers, Jean Sesno (1547) and Catherine Zen (1550) noted that Muslims respected the tomb of St. Sava, and feared him.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|pp=44–45}} Benedicto Ramberti (1553) said that Turks and Jews gave more charity to Mileševa than Serbs.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} [[File:Stevan Aleksić, Spaljivanje Moštiju Svetog Save, 1912.jpg|thumb|right|The burning of Saint Sava's relics by the Ottomans after the [[Banat Uprising]], on April 27, 1595. Painting by [[Stevan Aleksić]] (1912)]]
====Burning of relics====
{{Further|Burning of Saint Sava's relics}}When the [[Uprising in Banat|Serbs in Banat rose up]] against the Ottomans in 1594, using the portrait of Saint Sava on their [[war flags]], the Ottomans retaliated by incinerating the relics of St. Sava on the [[Vračar plateau]] in [[Belgrade]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} Grand Vizier [[Koca Sinan Pasha]], the main commander of the Ottoman army, ordered for the relics to be brought from Mileševa to Belgrade, where he set them on fire on 27 April.{{sfn|Ćirković|2004|p=141}} Monk Nićifor of the [[Fenek monastery]] wrote that "there was great violence carried out against the clergy and devastation of monasteries".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=45}} The Ottomans sought to symbolically and really, set fire to the Serb determination of freedom, which had become growingly noticeable. The event, however, sparked an increase in rebel activity, until the suppression of the uprising in 1595.{{sfn|Sotirović|2011|pp=164–165}} It is believed that his left hand was saved]; it is currently held at Mileševa.<ref>[http://www.svetosavlje.org/svetinje/Mosti/rukasvSave.htm Mileševa: Ruka svetog Save]</ref>

The [[Church of Saint Sava]] was built near the place where his relics were burned. Its construction began in the 1930s and was completed in 2004. It is one of the largest churches in the world.

===Divine Services===
[[Divine Service (Eastern Orthodoxy)|Divine Services]], ''službe'', were created in his honour following his burial. The earliest service date to the reign of king Vladislav, in which Saint Sava is mentioned along the killed monks on Sinai.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} In it, he is compared to the saints [[Sergius and Bacchus]], whose relics are held at the Mileševa monastery.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} In the service, he is called an [[wikt:illuminator|illuminator]] on earth, and the adoration of his icon is mentioned.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} There are two services dedicated to Saint Sava: one dedicated to his [[wikt:assumption|Assumption]] (death), and the second to the translation of his relics.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} Nikola and Radoslav wrote the service on the translation of his relics in ca. 1330.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} Other services dedicated to the translation were also compiled in 1599 by ''inok'' Georgije, and written by ''protohegumen'' Visarion of [[Zavala monastery|Zavala]] in 1659–60.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} These services were superseded by the use of Teodosije's service.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} The unknown author of the ''Service of the Assumption of Saint Sava'', a monk of Mileševa, speaks to him: "Father of Fathers – [of] clergy rules, wholewised model, virtue of monks, fortification of the church, lighthouse of love, seat of feelings, source of mercifulness, fire-inspired tongue, mouth of sweet words, a church vessel of God, intellectual heaven become – God-good hierarch of Christ".{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}}{{multiple image
| align = right
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| image2 = Hram Sv. Save 003.JPG
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| image3 = SaintSavaTempleSerbiaBelgrade.jpg
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| footer_align = center
| footer = Monument, complex (day) and front walk (night) of the [[Church of Saint Sava]], one of [[List of largest church buildings in the world|the largest churches in the world]].
}}
===Churches dedicated to St. Sava===
There are many temples (''hramovi'') dedicated to St. Sava. As early as the beginning of the 14th century, Serbian Archbishop [[Nikodim I]] (s. 1316–1324) dedicated a church to him.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} [[Helena of Bulgaria]], the wife of Emperor [[Stefan Dušan]] (r. 1331–55), founded a chapel on the top of the tower in Karyes, dedicated to St. Simeon and St. Sava.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} One of the churches of [[St. Panteleimon Monastery|Rossikon]] on Mount Athos, as well as a church in Thessaloniki, are dedicated to him.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=46}} Churches throughout Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia and Montenegro are dedicated to him, as well as churches in [[Serb diaspora|diaspora communities]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|pp=46–47}}

===Visual arts===
[[File:Saint Sava, Patriarchate of Peć (2).jpg|thumb|Fresco in [[Patriarchate of Peć (monastery)|Patriarchate of Peć]]]]
There are close to no Serbian churches that do not have a depiction of St. Sava.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} He is most often depicted as an [[archiereus]] (''arhijerej'', main priest), or together with his father, St. Simeon.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} The most notable of his fresco depictions are located in the monasteries of [[Studenica monastery|Studenica]], [[Mileševa]], [[Patriarchate of Peć (monastery)|Peć]], [[Morača (monastery)|Morača]], [[Church of St. Achillius, Arilje|Arilje]], [[Sopoćani]], [[Visoki Dečani|Dečani]], [[Hilandar]], [[Bogorodica Ljeviška]], [[Psača]], [[Lesnovo monastery|Lesnovo]], [[Marko's Monastery]], [[Matejić Monastery|Matejić]], [[Church of St. George, Staro Nagoričane|Nagoričano]], [[Nikita Monastery|Nikita]], [[Andrijaš Monastery|Andrijaš]], [[Bela Crkva Karanska|Bela Crkva]], [[Baljevac Church|Baljevac]], [[Pavlica Monastery|Pavlica]], [[Ljubostinja]], [[Manasija|Resava]], [[Koporin]], [[Prohor Pčinjski Monastery|Prohor Pčinjski]], [[Rudenica]], Blagoveštenje and St. Nicholas in [[Ovčar-Kablar Gorge|Ovčar]], [[Ježevica]], [[Poganovo Monastery|Poganovo]] and others; he is depicted with the Nemanjić dynasty (''[[Nemanjić family tree (art)|loza Nemanjića]]'') in [[Visoki Dečani|Dečani]], Peć and [[Orahovica Monastery|Orahovica]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} The translation of his relics are illustrated in the church of the [[Gradac Monastery]], and in the [[Patriarchal Monastery of Peć|Monastery of Peć]] (in the Bogorodica Odigitrije temple) the scene where Sava appoints his successor Arsenije is depicted.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} In the Church of St. George, also in the [[Patriarchal Monastery of Peć|Monastery of Peć]], an assembly of Sava is depicted.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} Iconographer (''zograf'') [[Georgije Mitrofanović]] illustrated events from the ''Life of St. Sava'' in the dining room of [[Hilandar]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} "The Serbian miracle-workers" Sava and Simeon are depicted in the Archangel Sobor in [[Kremlin]], in Moscow.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} In the chapel of the [[Rila Monastery]] in Bulgaria, the ''Life of St. Sava'' is depicted in eight compositions, and in the Athonite monastery of [[St. Panteleimon Monastery]] he is depicted as a monk.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}}

St. Sava is depicted with St. Simeon on an icon from the 14th century which is held in the National Museum in Belgrade, and on an icon held in the National Museum in Bucharest.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} The pair is depicted on tens of icons held in Hilandar.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} Other icons of them are found in the monasteries of [[Lepavina Monastery|Lepavina]] and [[Krka Monastery|Krka]],{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=47}} and on the [[triptych]] of Orahovica.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}} On an icon of Morača, beside a scene from his life, he is depicted with St. Simeon, ''knez'' Stefan and St. Cyril the Philosopher.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}}



Graphical illustrations of St. Sava are found in old Serbian printed books: ''Triode'' from the [[Mrkšina crkva printing house]] (1566), ''Zbornik'' of [[Jakov of Kamena Reka]] (1566), as well as ''Sabornik'' of [[Božidar Vuković]] (1546) where he is depicted with St. Simeon.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}} There are notable depictions of Sava in [[chalcography]], one of which was made by [[Zaharije Orfelin]] (1726–1785).{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}} In Hilandar, there are two wood-cuts depicting St. Sava and St. Simeon holding the ''[[Three-handed Theotokos]]'' icon.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}} His person is illustrated on numerous liturgical metal and textile items, while he and scenes from his life are illuminated in many manuscripts and printed books.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=48}}

===Literature===
Many Serbian poets have written poetry dedicated to St. Sava. These include [[Jovan Jovanović Zmaj]]'s (1833–1904) ''Pod ikonom Svetog Save'' and ''Suze Svetog Save'', [[Vojislav Ilić]]'s (1860–1894) ''Sveti Sava'' and ''Srpkinjica'', [[Milorad Popović Šapčanin]]'s (1841–1895) ''Svetom Savi'', [[Aleksa Šantić]]'s (1868–1924) ''Pred ikonom Svetog Save'', ''Pepeo Svetog Save'', ''Sveti Sava na golgoti'', [[Vojislav Ilić Mlađi]]'s (1877–1944) ''Sveti Sava'', [[Nikolaj Velimirović]]'s (1881–1956) ''Svetitelju Savo'', ''Reči Svetog Save'' and ''Pesma Svetom Savi'', [[Milan Petrović (poet)|Milan Petrović]]'s (1902–1963) ''Sveti Sava'', [[Vasko Popa]]'s (1922–1991) ''St. Sava's Journey'', [[Momčilo Tešić]]'s (1911–1992) ''Svetom Savi'', [[Desanka Maksimović]]'s (1898–1993) ''Savin monolog'', [[Matija Bećković]]'s (b. 1939) ''Priča o Svetom Savi'', [[Mićo Jelić Grnović]]'s (b. 1942) ''Uspavanka'', and others.

==Works==
The earliest works of Sava were dedicated to ascetic and monastic life: the Karyes Typikon and Hilandar Typikon.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 12}} In their nature, they are Church law, based strictly on non-literary works, however, in them some moments came to expression of indirect importance for the establishment of an atmosphere in which Sava's original and in the narrow sense, literary works, came to exist.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 12}} In addition, characteristics of Sava's language and style come to light here, especially in those paragraphs which are his specific interpretations or independent supplements.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 12}}
[[File:Karyes Typicon and Sava's signature.jpg|thumb|[[Karyes Typikon]] with Sava's signature (1199).|270x270px]]
* [[Karyes Typikon]], written for the Karyes cell in 1199. It is basically a translation from a standard Greek ascetic typikon. It became a model for Serbian solitary or eremitical monasticism also outside of Mount Athos.<ref name=Bogdanovic-Karejski>{{harvnb|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 13}}</ref>
* [[Hilandar Typikon]], written for Hilandar in 1199. Compiled as a translation and adaptation of the introductory part of the Greek Theotokos Euergetis typikon from Constantinople. Sava only used some parts of that typikon, adding his own, different regulations tailored to the needs of Hilandar. He and his father had donated to the Euergetis monastery, and Sava stayed there on his trips to Constantinople, seemingly, he liked the order and way of life in this monastery. This typikon was to become the general managing order for other Serbian monasteries (with small modifications, Sava wrote the Studenica Typikon in 1208).<ref name=Bogdanovic-Hilandarski1>{{harvnb|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 14}}</ref> The Hilandar Typikon contains regulations for the spiritual life in the monastery and organization of various services of the monastic community (''opštežića'').<ref name=Bogdanovic-Hilandarski2>{{harvnb|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 15}}</ref>

The organization of the Serbian church with united areas was set on a completely new basis. The activity of major monasteries developed; caretaking of missionary work was put under the duty of the proto-priests (''protopopovi''). Legal regulations of the Serbian Church was constituted with a code of a new, independent, compilation of Sava – the ''Nomocanon'' or ''Krmčija''; with this codification of Byzantine law, Serbia already at the beginning of the 13th century received a firm legal order and became a state of law, in which the rich Greek-Roman law heritage was continued.{{sfn|Sedlar|1994|p=307}}{{sfn|Šarkić|2011|pp=241–248}}
[[File:Savino Zakonopravilo - Ilovichki prepis, 1262.jpg|thumb|218x218px|right|1262 transcript of the ''[[Zakonopravilo]]'' (1220).]]
* Nomocanon (sr. ''[[Zakonopravilo]]'') or ''Krmčija'', most likely created in Thessaloniki in 1220, when Sava returned from Nicaea to Serbia, regarding the organization of the new, autocephalous Serbian church. It was a compilation of state ("civil") law and religious rules or canons, with interpretations of famous Byzantine canonists, who by themselves were a kind of source of law. As Byzantine nomocanons, with or without interpretation, the Serbian Nomocanon was a capital source and monument of law; in the medieval Serbian state, it was the source of the first order as a "[[Divine right of kings|divine right]]"; after it, legislations of Serbian rulers (including [[Dušan's Code]]) were created. Sava was the initiator of the creation of this compilation, while the translation was likely the work of various authors, older and contemporary to Sava. An important fact is that the choice of compilation in this nomocanon was unique: it is not preserved in Greek manuscript tradition. In the ecclesiastic term, it is very characteristic, due to its opposing of that period's views in effect on church-state relations in Byzantium, and restoring of some older conceptions with which the sovereignty of divine law is insisted on.<ref name=Bogdanovic-Krmcija>{{harvnb|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 17}}</ref>

His liturgical regulations include also ''Psaltir-holding laws'' (Ustav za držanje Psaltira), which he translated from Greek, or as possibly is the case with the Nomocanon, was only the initiator and organizer, and supervisor of the translation.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 18}} A personal letter of his, written from Jerusalem to his disciple ''hegumen'' Spiridon in Studenica, shows Sava getting closer to literature. This is the first work of the epistolary genre that has been preserved in the old Serbian literature. Theologian Lazar Mirković (1885–1968) noted "With a lot of feeling and longing for the fatherland in a distant world and caring for things in the homeland, Sava wrote this letter to Spiridon, reporting about him and his entourage, of them falling ill on the road, how they donated to the Holy sites, where he intended to travel, and along with the letter he sent gifts: a cross, pleat, cloth and pebbles. The cross and pleat had laid on Christ's grave, and hence these gifts received greater value. Sava perhaps found the cloth in Jordan".{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 19}} The letter has been preserved in 14th-century copies held in the [[Velika Remeta monastery]].<ref>{{cite web|author=Đuro Daničić|title=Poslanica Svetog Save arhiepiskopa srpskoga|year=1872|publisher=JAZU|url=https://archive.org/stream/pismosvetogasaveigumanuspiridonunet/Produced_by_convert-jpg-to-pdf.net#page/n0/mode/2up}}</ref> The proper literary nature of Sava is however revealed only in his hagiographical and poetic compositions. Each in its genre, they stand at the beginning of the development of convenient literary genres in the independent Serbian literature.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 20}}

In the Hilandar Typikon, Sava included the ''Short Hagiography of St. Simeon Nemanja'', which tells of Simeon's life between his arrival at Hilandar and death. It was written immediately after his death, in 1199 or 1200. The developed hagiography on St. Simeon was written in the introduction of the Studenica Typikon (1208).<ref name=Kratko>{{harvnb|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 21}}</ref>

*[[Life of St. Simeon|Hagiography of St. Simeon]], written in 1208 as a ''ktetor'' hagiography of the founder of Studenica.<ref name=Kratko/> It was made according to the rules of Byzantine literature.<ref name=Kratko/> The hagiography itself, biography of a saint, was one of the main prose genres in Byzantium.<ref name=Kratko/> Hagiographies were written to create or spread the cult of the saint, and communicated the qualities of and virtues of the person in question.<ref name=Kratko/> The work focused on the monastic character of Simeon, using biographical information as a subset to his renouncing of the throne, power and size in the world for the Kingdom of Heaven.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 24}} Simeon is portrayed as a dramatic example of renouncing earthly life, as a representative of basic evangelical teachings and foundations of these, especially of monastic spirituality.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 24}} His biographical pre-history (conquests and achievements) with praises are merged in the prelude, followed by his monastic feats and his death, ending with a prayer instead of praise.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 24}} The language is direct and simple, without excessive rhetorics, in which a close witness and companion, participant in the life of St. Simeon, is recognized (in Sava).{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 25}} Milan Kašanin noted that "no old biography of ours is that little pompous and that little rhetorical, and that warm and humane as Nemanja's biography".{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 25}}

Very few manuscripts of the works of St. Sava have survived.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Рукописи}} Apart from the Karyes Typikon, of which copy, a scroll, is today held at Hilandar, it is believed that there are no original manuscript (''authograph'') of St. Sava.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Рукописи}} The original of the Charter of Hilandar (1198) was lost in World War I.{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Рукописи}}

St. Sava is regarded the founder of the independent [[medieval Serbian literature]].{{sfn|Bogdanović|1999|loc= Предговор, para. 3–5}}

==''Ktetor''==
[[File:Sveti Sava, freska iz Gračanice, XIV vek.jpg|thumb|Fresco in [[Gračanica Monastery|Gracanica Monastery]].]]
[[File:Vitraž Svetog Save, Srpska pravoslavna crkva Svetog Vaznesenja Gospodnjeg u Subotici.jpg|thumb|The Stained Glass of Saint Sava, Serbian Orthodox Church of the Ascension of the Lord in [[Subotica]]]]
Sava founded and reconstructed churches and monasteries wherever he stayed.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=41}} While staying at Vatopedi, even before the arrival of his father (1197), he founded three chapels (''paraklisi'').{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=41}} He had the monastery church covered in [[lead]], and was regarded as the second ''[[ktetor]]'', also having donated highly valuable ecclesiastical art objects.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=41}} Together with his father he was the great, second ''ktetor'' of the monasteries of [[Iviron]], [[Great Lavra]] and churches in [[Karyes, Mount Athos|Karyes]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}} The most important was [[Hilandar]], together with his father (1198).{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}} He then founded the cell at Karyes, and in 1199 became ktetor of three more Authonite monasteries: [[Karakallou]], [[Xeropotamou]], and [[Philotheou]].{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}} In 1197 he gave a large contribution to the Constantinopolitan monastery of the Holy Mother of God Euergetes, and did the same to Philokallou in Thessaloniki; "due to him also giving much gold for the erection of that monastery, the population there regard him the ''ktetor''", according to Teodosije.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}}

Returning to Serbia in 1206, Sava continued his work. The Mother of God Church in Studenica was painted, and two hermitages near Studenica were endowed.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}} His most important architectural work was the Home of the Holy Saviour, called Žiča, the first seat of the Serbian Archbishopric.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}} In Peć he built the Church of the Holy Apostles, and he was also involved in the building of the [[Mileševa]] monastery.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}} In [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], on [[Mount Sinai]], he founded the Monastery of St. John the Apostle, as a shelter for Serb pilgrims.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}} Sava donated gold to many monasteries in Palestine, Thessaloniki, and especially Mount Athos.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}} His ktetor activity was an expression of deep devotion and sincere loyalty to Christian ideals.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=42}}

* [[Hilandar]] monastery on [[Mount Athos]]
* [[Karyes]] monastery cell (see: [[Karyes Typicon]])
* Church of [[John the Apostle]] in [[Jerusalem]]
And many other churches across Serbia, as well.

{|
| Style = "vertical-align: top;" |
; Reconstructions
* Monastery of [[Vatopedi]] on [[Mount Athos]]
* [[Philotheou monastery]] on [[Mount Athos]]
* [[Xeropotamou monastery]] on [[Mount Athos]]
* [[Karakallou]] monastery on [[Mount Athos]]
* Saint Andrew's church in [[Constantinople]]
* [[Studenica monastery]] in [[Kraljevo]]
* [[Patriarchal Monastery of Peć|Church of the Holy Apostles]] in [[Peć]]
* [[Mileševa monastery]] in [[Prijepolje]]
* [[Mar Saba monastery]] in [[Bethlehem]]

| Style = "vertical-align: top;" |
; Donations
* Iviron monastery on [[Mount Athos]]
* The Monastery of Great Lavra on [[Mount Athos]]
* Mother's Mary monastery in [[Thessaloniki|Solun]]
* Filokala monastery in [[Thessaloniki|Solun]]
* [[Žiča monastery]] in [[Kraljevo]]
* Church of Christ's birth in [[Bethlehem]]
* An unnamed [[Georgian people|Georgian]] monastery in [[Jerusalem]]
* Church of St. Lazarus of Bethany in [[Jerusalem]]
* Church of St. Zechariah in [[Jerusalem]]
* Saint Mary's church in [[Nazareth]]

And many other donations in [[Jerusalem]] and [[Serbia]].
|}

<gallery class="center">
File:Manastir Studenica 1.jpg|[[Studenica monastery|Studenica]]
File:Monastir Mileseva II.jpg|[[Mileševa]]
File:Hilan2.jpg|[[Hilandar]]
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Serbian Orthodox Church]]
*[[List of saints of the Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Saints]]
*[[List of Eastern Orthodox saints|Eastern Orthodox Saints]]
*[[Order of St. Sava]]
* [[Only Unity Saves the Serbs]]
* [[John the Deacon (Byzantine writer)|John the Deacon]]
{{s-start}}
{{s-rel|eo}}
{{s-new|First|reason=Founding of '''[[Serbian Orthodox Church|Serbian Church]]'''}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Archbishop of Serbs]]| years = December 6, 1219 – 1233}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Arsenije Sremac|Arsenije]]}}
{{s-roy}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Miroslav of Hum|Miroslav]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Prince of [[Zahumlje|Hum]] {{small|under [[Stefan Nemanja]]}}|years=1190 – 1192}}
{{s-aft|after=Miroslav or [[Toljen of Hum|Toljen]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{Subject bar |portal1= Biography |portal2=Christianity |portal3= Saints|portal4= Serbia}}

==Annotations==
{{Cnote2 Begin|liststyle=upper-alpha}}
{{Cnote2|a|Sources puts the year of his birth in either 1169 or 1174.{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=37}} The [http://www.spc.rs/sr/sveti_sava_prvi_arhiepiskop_prosvetitelj_srpski official site of the Serbian Orthodox Church] put it "around year 1174". Historians Slobodan Mileusnić{{sfn|Mileusnić|2000|p=37}} and [[Alexis Vlasto]]{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=218}} supports ca. 1174. }}

{{Cnote2|b|Throughout history, Sava has been given various honorific titles. He received the popular epithet "Illuminator (enlightener) of the Serbs".{{sfn|Fine|1994|p=118}} In other genealogies and chronicles, as well as in many records and inscriptions, he was given the titles: "First Archbishop and teacher and educator and with God enlighter of his fatherland", "First saint and teacher", "Great miracle-worker", etc. (for further information: {{cite book|author=Radovan Samardžić|title=Pisci srpske istorije|volume=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wD4MAQAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Prosveta|page=19|isbn=9788607007905 |quote=}}) }}
{{Cnote2 End}}

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* {{Cite journal|last=Kalić|first=Jovanka|author-link=Jovanka Kalić|title=The First Coronation Churches of Medieval Serbia|journal=Balcanica|year=2017|issue=48|pages=7–18|doi=10.2298/BALC1748007K|url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0350-7653/2017/0350-76531748007K.pdf}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Marjanović|first=Dragoljub|title=Emergence of the Serbian Church in Relation to Byzantium and Rome|journal=Niš and Byzantium|year=2018|volume=16|pages=41–50|url=http://www.nisandbyzantium.org.rs/doc/zbornik16/PDF-XVI/03%20b%20Dragoljub%20Marjanovi%C4%87-16.pdf}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Marković|first=Miodrag|title=Saint Sava of Serbia and Athanasios II, the Patriarch of Jerusalem |journal=Niš and Byzantium|year=2009|volume=7|pages=267–271|url=http://www.nisandbyzantium.org.rs/doc/zbornik7/PDF-VII/20%20Miodrag%20Markovic.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last=Matejić|first=Mateja|author-link=Mateja Matejić (priest)|title=Biography of Saint Sava|year=1976|location=Columbus|publisher=Kosovo Publishing Company|isbn=978-0915887002|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KCDZAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|last=Mileusnić|first=Slobodan|editor=|year=2000|orig-year=1989|title=Sveti Srbi|issue=2|publisher=Prometej|location=Novi Sad|isbn=8676394784|oclc=44601641|language=sr}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Miljković|first=Bojan|title=La vie de saint Sava de Serbie par Domentijan et les cultes des icônes athonites thaumaturges de la Vierge|journal=Byzantion|year=2008|volume=78|pages=304–338|jstor=44173078|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44173078}}
* {{Cite book|last=Obolensky|first=Dimitri|author-link=Dimitri Obolensky|title=The Byzantine Commonwealth: Eastern Europe, 500–1453|year=1974|orig-year=1971|location=London|publisher=Cardinal|isbn=978-0351176449|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RlBoAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Obolensky|first=Dimitri|author-link=Dimitri Obolensky|title=Six Byzantine Portraits|year=1988|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0198219514|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pyPZAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ostrogorsky|first=George|author-link=George Ostrogorsky|title=History of the Byzantine State|year=1956|location=Oxford|publisher=Basil Blackwell|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bt0_AAAAYAAJ}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Popović|first=Svetlana|title=The Serbian Episcopal Sees in the Thirteenth Century|journal=Старинар|year=2002|issue=51: 2001|pages=171–184|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yuAVAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Radić|first=Radmila|chapter=Serbian Christianity|title=The Blackwell Companion to Eastern Christianity|year=2007|location=Malden|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|pages=231–248|isbn=978-0470766392|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fHtSuvaVAAoC&pg=PA231}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Šarkić|first=Srđan|title=Some Remarks Concerning the Reception of Byzantine Law in Mediaeval Serbia|journal=Анали Правног факултета у Београду|year=2011|volume=59|number=3|pages=241–248|url=https://anali.rs/xml/201-/2011c/2011-3e/Annals_2011_241-248.pdf}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Sedlar|first1=Jean W.|title=East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500|year=1994|location=Seattle|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0295800646|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4NYTCgAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Sotirović|first=Vladislav B.|title=The Serbian Patriarchate of Peć in the Ottoman Empire: The First Phase (1557–94)|journal=Serbian Studies Journal|year=2011|volume=25|issue=2|pages=143–169|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265712072}}
* {{Cite book|last=Speake|first=Graham|title=A History of the Athonite Commonwealth: The Spiritual and Cultural Diaspora of Mount Athos|year=2018|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1108425865|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=68FWDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Van Tricht|first1=Filip|title=The Latin Renovatio of Byzantium: The Empire of Constantinople (1204–1228)|location=Leiden|year=2011|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004203235|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlnPm2riK1UC}}
* {{Cite book|last=Vlasto|first=Alexis P.|author-link=Alexis P. Vlasto|title=The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs|year=1970|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521074599|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpVOAAAAIAAJ}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Birnbaum|first=Henrik|chapter=Byzantine Tradition Transformed: The Old Serbian Vita|title=Aspects of the Balkans: Continuity and Change|year=1972|location=The Hague and Paris|publisher=Mouton|pages=243–284|chapter-url=http://macedonia.kroraina.com/en/hb_sv/hb_sv_hbirnbaum.htm}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Đorđević|editor-first1=Života|editor-last2=Pejić|editor-first2=Svetlana|title=Cultural Heritage of Kosovo and Metohija|year=1999|location=Belgrade|publisher=Institute for the Protection of Cultural Monuments of the Republic of Serbia|isbn=978-8680879161|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e6MtAQAAIAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ivanović|first=Miloš|chapter=Serbian Hagiographies on the Warfare and Political Struggles of the Nemanjić Dynasty (from the Twelfth to Fourteenth Century)|title=Reform and Renewal in Medieval East and Central Europe: Politics, Law and Society|year=2019|location=Cluj-Napoca|publisher=Romanian Academy, Center for Transylvanian Studies|pages=103–129|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/43289161}}
* {{Cite book|last=Marinković|first=Radmila|chapter=Medieval Literature|title=The History of Serbian Culture|year=1995|location=Edgware|publisher=Porthill Publishers|pages=53–66|chapter-url=http://www.rastko.rs/isk/rmarinkovic-medieval_literature.html}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Marjanović-Dušanić|first=Smilja|author-link=Smilja Marjanović-Dušanić|title=Lʹ idéologie monarchique dans les chartes de la dynastie serbe des Némanides (1168–1371): Étude diplomatique|journal=Archiv für Diplomatik: Schriftgeschichte, Siegel- und Wappenkunde|year=2006|volume=52|issue=JG |pages=149–158|doi=10.7788/afd.2006.52.jg.149|s2cid=96483243|url=https://www.vr-elibrary.de/doi/10.7788/afd.2006.52.jg.149}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last1=Marković|editor-first1=Miodrag|editor-last2=Vojvodić|editor-first2=Dragan|title=Serbian Artistic Heritage in Kosovo and Metohija: Identity, Significance, Vulnerability|year=2017|location=Belgrade|publisher=Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts|url=https://www.academia.edu/34710555}}
* {{Cite book|last=Popović|first=Radomir V.|title=Serbian Orthodox Church in History|year=2013|location=Belgrade|publisher=Academy of Serbian Orthodox Church for Fine Arts and Conservation|isbn=978-8686805621|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0i6XngEACAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|last=Stanković|first=Vlada|chapter=Rethinking the Position of Serbia within Byzantine Oikoumene in the Thirteenth Century|title=The Balkans and the Byzantine World before and after the Captures of Constantinople, 1204 and 1453|year=2016|location=Lanham, Maryland|publisher=Lexington Books|pages=91–102|chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/42261061}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Saint Sava}}
* {{Cite web|url=https://www.rastko.rs/knjizevnost/liturgicka/svsava-sabrana/svsava-sabrana_01.html|title=Projekat Rastko: Sveti Sava: Sabrani spisi – Predgovor|website=www.rastko.rs|access-date=2019-05-03}}
* [http://istorijska-biblioteka.wikidot.com/art:sveti-sava Istorijska biblioteka: Sveti Sava] {{in lang|sr}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090224071402/http://rastko.org.rs/knjizevnost/liturgicka/svsava-sabrana/index_c.html Collected works] {{in lang|sr}}

{{Serbian Orthodox leaders}}
{{Serbian Orthodox saints}}
{{Nemanjić dynasty}}
{{National symbols of Serbia}}
{{Serbian literature}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sava}}

[[Category:12th-century venerated Christians]]
[[Category:13th-century venerated Christians]]
[[Category:13th-century Serbian writers]]
[[Category:12th-century Byzantine writers]]
[[Category:12th-century Christian theologians]]
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[[Category:13th-century Christian theologians]]
[[Category:Medieval European scribes]]
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[[Category:13th-century Byzantine monks]]
[[Category:Serbian monks]]
[[Category:Byzantine theologians]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox theologians]]
[[Category:Sermon writers]]
[[Category:Saint Sava| ]]
[[Category:12th-century births]]
[[Category:1236 deaths]]
[[Category:12th-century Serbian royalty]]
[[Category:13th-century Serbian royalty]]
[[Category:13th-century Eastern Orthodox bishops]]
[[Category:12th-century Byzantine monks]]
[[Category:Nemanjić dynasty]]
[[Category:Christian writers]]
[[Category:Christian hagiographers]]
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[[Category:Serbian saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Serbs]]
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[[Category:Miracle workers]]
[[Category:Ktetors]]
[[Category:Founders of Christian monasteries]]
[[Category:13th-century jurists]]
[[Category:Athonite Fathers]]
[[Category:People associated with Hilandar Monastery]]
[[Category:People associated with St. Panteleimon Monastery]]

Qays al-Ghassani

2024-11-12T19:38:07Z

Szturnek: +Category:Eastern Orthodox saints; ±Category:Christian saints→Category:Arab Christian saints using HotCat

{{Infobox saint
|name=Qays al-Ghassani, aka Abd al-Masih
|birth_date=
|death_date= 9 March (unknown year)
|feast_day=
|venerated_in=[[Eastern Orthodox Church]]
|image=
|imagesize=
|caption=
|birth_place=[[Najran]]
|death_place=[[Ramla]]
|titles=Martyr
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes=
|patronage=
|major_shrine=
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
}}
'''Qays al-Ghassani''', also known as 'Abd al-Masih, was a [[medieval]] [[Eastern Orthodox]] [[martyr]]. He died in the 9th century, during a wave of conversions to [[Islam]]. His death was recorded in a 10th-century manuscript now belonging to [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]], on [[Mount Sinai]].<ref name=free>[http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Obscure+text,+illuminating+conversation:+reading+The+Martyrdom+of...-a0186594231 Obscure text, illuminating conversation: reading The Martyrdom of 'Abd al-Masih (Qays al-Ghassani)].</ref>

==Life==
Qays, called ibn Rabi and ibn Yazid al-Ghassani, was a [[Christian Arab]] of [[Najran]], in southern [[Arabia]]. Living in the 9th century CE he fell in with a group of Muslims who practised raiding, and while in their company converted to [[Islam]]. However, after some thirteen years, while at [[Baalbek]], he heard the Gospel being read by a priest; he was reminded of his past life as a Christian, and became convinced of the error of his ways. He renounced his conversion to Islam and became a monk, first at [[Mar Saba|Sabas]], then at Mount Sinai. He served as steward, then superior, at Mount Sinai, and during this time he needed to travel to [[Ramla]] on a legal matter. While there he was recognized by an associate from his raiding days and arrested as an [[apostate]]. He was tried, and when he refused to return to Islam he was beheaded.<ref name=free/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=1xUV-nMxNGsC&dq=Abd-al-Masih,+martyr&pg=RA1-PA182 Eastern Christianity]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=8mUJ58SMMhEC&dq=Abd-al-Masih%2C%20martyr&pg=PA2 A New Dictionary of Saints]

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Qays al-Ghassani}}
[[Category:9th-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Islam]]
[[Category:Arab Christian saints]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Year of death unknown]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox saints]]

Saint Pimenius

2024-11-12T19:37:17Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat (We have more specified cat)

{{Short description|Catholic saint and martyr (4th century AD)}}
{{Orphan|date=September 2023}}

{{Infobox saint|name=Saint Pimenius|titles=Martyr|birth_date=c. 4th century AD|death_date=362 AD|death_place=[[Tiber River]], [[Rome]], [[Western Roman Empire]]|feast_day=2 December|honored_in=[[Catholic Church]]|canonized_date=[[Pre-Congregation]]}}

'''Saint Pimenius''', also known as '''Pigmenius''', '''Pigmentius''', and '''Pigmène''' ({{circa|4th century AD}} – 362) is a [[saint]] and [[martyr]] venerated in the [[Catholic Church]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title=St. Pigmenius - Saints & Angels|url=https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=5452|website=Catholic Online|language=en|access-date=2020-05-13}}</ref>

== Life ==
Pimenius was the tutor of [[Julian (emperor)|Julian the Apostate]], who later became Roman Emperor Julian and tried to revive [[Roman Empire|Rome]]'s [[Religion in ancient Rome|traditional state religion]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title=Name Pimenius|url=https://catholicsaints.info/tag/name-pimenius/|website=CatholicSaints.Info|language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-13}}</ref><ref>[[Edward Gibbon|Gibbon, Edward]]. "Chapter 23". ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]''.</ref> Pimenius ended up coming into conflict with Julian because the former was a [[Christianity|Christian]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|title=Pigmenius van Rome|url=http://heiligen-3s.nl/heiligen/03/24/03-24-0362-pigmenius.php|website=heiligen-3s.nl|access-date=2020-05-13}}</ref> As a result, Julian had Pimenius drowned in the [[Tiber|Tiber River]] in 362 AD.<ref name=":1" /> In the [[Catholic Church]], Saint Pimenius is considered a [[Congregation for the Causes of Saints|pre-congregation]] saint, with a memorial on 24 March<ref name=":1" /> and a [[Calendar of saints|feast day]] on 2 December.

== References ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pimenius}}
[[Category:362 deaths]]
[[Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Catholic martyrs]]
[[Category:4th-century births]]

Martin of Arades

2024-11-12T19:36:41Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Frankish saints using HotCat

{{Infobox saint
|name=Martin of Arades Martin of Corbie
|birth_date=
|death_date=26 November 726<ref name="Corblet 224"/>
|feast_day=26 November<ref name="feast day"/>
|venerated_in= [[Catholic Church]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]<ref name="feast day"/>
|image=
|imagesize=
|caption=
|birth_place=
|death_place=[[Saint-Priest-sous-Aixe]]<ref name="Corblet 224"/>
|titles=
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes=
|patronage=[[Aixe-sur-Vienne]], [[Saint-Priest-sous-Aixe]], [[gout]]<ref name="Corblet 224-225">J. Corblet, ''Hagiographie du diocèse d'Amiens'', III, Paris - Amiens, 1873, pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SU8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA224 224]-[https://books.google.com/books?id=SU8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA225 225].</ref>
|major_shrine=[[Saint-Priest-sous-Aixe]]<ref name="Corblet 224"/>
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
}}
Saint '''Martin of Arades''', also called '''Martin of Corbie''' (died on 26 November 726 in [[Saint-Priest-sous-Aixe]]<ref name="Corblet 224">J. Corblet, ''Hagiographie du diocèse d'Amiens'', III, Parijs - Amiens, 1873, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=SU8AAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA224 224].</ref>), was a canonized monk from [[Corbie Abbey]], whose feast day is November 26 in both the Roman Catholic and the Eastern Orthodox Church.<ref name="feast day">art. Martin of Arades, in The Benedictine Monks of St. Augustine's Abbey, Ramsgate (edd.), ''The Book of Saints. A Dictionary of Servants of God canonized by the Catholic Church'', New York, 19474, p. [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89089195267;view=2up;seq=426;skin=mobile 403]; [http://www.orthodoxengland.org.uk/stdnov.htm ''November 26. Latin Saints of the Orthodox Patriarchate of Rome'', OrthodoxEngland.org.uk]</ref>

He was the [[chaplain]] and [[confessor]] of the Frankish Mayor of the Palace [[Charles Martel]].<ref>M. Bunson - M. Bunson - S. Bunson, ''Our Sunday Visitor's Encyclopedia of Saints'', Huntington, 1998, p. 404.</ref> He died in Saint-Priest-sous-Aixe and was buried there.<ref name="Corblet 224"/> He is the patron saint of [[gout]].<ref name="Corblet 224"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Martin of Arades}}
[[Category:Frankish saints]]
[[Category:8th-century Frankish saints]]
[[Category:726 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:People from Corbie]]

{{Saint-stub}}

Martyrs of Japan

2024-11-12T19:35:34Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat (More specified category is included (Category:Groups of Roman Catholic saints))

{{Short description|Christian missionaries who were martyred in Japan}}
{{Persecutions of the Catholic Church sidebar}}
The {{nihongo|'''Martyrs of Japan'''|日本の殉教者|Nihon no junkyōsha|lead=yes}} were [[Christians|Christian]] missionaries and followers who were persecuted and executed, mostly during the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] period in the 17th century. The Japanese saw the rituals of the Christians causing people to pray, close their eyes with the sign of the cross and lock their hands together – this was seen as psychological warfare against the Japanese and this was punished as such.
More than 400 martyrs of Japan have been recognized with [[beatification]] by the [[Catholic Church]], and 42 have been [[canonized]] as saints.
[[File:Märtyrer von Nagasaki 1628.jpg|thumb|The 26 Martyrs of Japan at [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]] (1628 engraving)]]

== Early Christianity in Japan ==
{{Main|Hidden Christians of Japan|Fumi-e}}
Christian missionaries arrived with [[Francis Xavier]] and the [[Jesuits]] in the 1540s and briefly flourished, with over 100,000 converts, including many ''[[daimyō]]s'' in [[Kyushu]]. The shogunate and imperial government at first supported the [[Catholic]] mission and the missionaries, thinking that they would reduce the power of the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] monks, and help trade with [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]. However, the Shogunate was also wary of [[colonialism]], seeing that the [[History of Spanish Slavery in the Philippines|Spanish had taken power in the Philippines]], after converting the population. It soon met resistance from the highest office holders of Japan. [[Emperor Ōgimachi]] issued edicts to ban Catholicism in 1565 and 1568, but to little effect.<ref name=SFX>{{cite book |last= Brodrick |author-link= James Patrick Broderick |first= James |date= 1952|title= Saint Francis Xavier (1506–1552) |location=London |publisher= Burns, Oates & Washbourne Ltd |pages= 558}}</ref> Beginning in 1587 with imperial regent [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]]'s ban on Jesuit missionaries, Christianity was repressed as a threat to national unity.<ref name=JAN>{{cite book|title=The Making of Modern Japan|url=https://archive.org/details/makingofmodernja00jans|url-access=registration|author-link = Marius Jansen | first = Marius | last = Jansen |year=2000|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=9780674003347|ref= Jansen}}</ref> While the Japanese view was that Christians were persecuted and executed for being more loyal to [[Jesus]] than the [[Shogunate]], the Catholic Church viewed them as martyrs: As the persecution was aimed at Christians as a group, and as they could escape only by [[Abjuration|abjuring]] their faith, the Catholic Church regarded the acts as being ''in odium fidei'' ("in hatred of the faith"), a principal factor in martyrdom. After the Tokugawa shogunate banned Christianity in 1614, it ceased to exist publicly. Many Catholics went underground, becoming {{nihongo|[[Kakure Kirishitan|hidden Christians]]|隠れキリシタン|kakure kirishitan}}, while others lost their lives. Only after the [[Meiji Restoration]] was Christianity re-established in Japan.

== 26 Martyrs of Japan (1597) ==
{{Main|26 Martyrs of Japan}}
[[File:Martyrdom-of-Paul-Miki-and-Companions-in-Nagasaki-(made-c1635).png|thumb|Martyrdom of Paul Miki and Companions in Nagasaki]]
The {{Nihongo|'''Twenty-six Martyrs of Japan'''|日本二十六聖人|Nihon Nijūroku Seijin}} refers to a group of [[Christians]] who were executed by [[crucifixion]] on 5 February 1597 at [[Nagasaki, Nagasaki|Nagasaki]].

Through the promulgation of decree on martyrdom, these first Martyrs of Japan were beatified on 14 September 1627 by [[Pope Urban VIII]]. These saints were canonized saints on 8 June 1862 by [[Pope Pius IX]].<ref name="JA1">{{cite web |url=http://newsaints.faithweb.com/martyrs/Japan01.htm |title=Martyrs of Japan (1597–1637) |website=Hagiography Circle |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211128093416/http://newsaints.faithweb.com/martyrs/Japan01.htm |archive-date=November 28, 2021}}</ref>

== 205 Martyrs of Japan (1598–1632) ==
{{Main|205 Martyrs of Japan}}
[[File:Martyrdom-of-Nagasaki-Painting-1622.png|thumb|The Christian martyrs of the 1622 [[Great Genna Martyrdom]]. 16th/17th-century Japanese painting.]]
Persecution flared episodically and over a period of 15 years, between 1617 and 1632, 205 missionaries and native Christians are known to have been killed for their faith, 55 of them during the [[Great Genna Martyrdom]], a further 50 during the [[Great Martyrdom of Edo]] (but only three were beatified as part of the 205 Martyrs of Japan).<ref>{{Cite web |author=The Jesuits Prayer Ministry Singapore |year=2023 |title=December 4th: Blessed Jerome De Angelis, SJ and Blessed Simon Yemon, SJ |url=https://www.jesuit.org.sg/dec-jerome-angelis-simon-yemon-sj/ |website=The Jesuits Prayer Ministry Singapore}}</ref> Christianity was proscribed and forced underground until the arrival of Western missionaries in the nineteenth century.

Through the promulgation of decree on martyrdom, these 205 Martyrs of Japan were venerated on 26 February 1866 and beatified on 7 May 1867, by [[Pope Pius IX]].<ref name="JA2">{{cite web |url=http://newsaints.faithweb.com/martyrs/Japan02.htm |title=Martyrs of Japan (1597–1637) |website=Hagiography Circle |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210419151006/http://newsaints.faithweb.com:80/martyrs/Japan02.htm |archive-date=April 19, 2021}}</ref>

== Augustine Recollects Martyrs (1632) ==
{{Main|Martin Lumbreras Peralta}}
Two Spanish Augustinians arrived in Japan in the later half of 1632 from Manila to evangelize the Japanese. Upon arrival, Japanese authorities were notified by the Chinese merchants who had given them passage. The Augustinians fled into the mountains where Dominican missionaries instructed them in the language of the country. When they descended into the city they were recognized and arrested in November 1632. On 11 December 1632, they were martyred for their faith.<ref name="AUG">{{cite web |website=The Black Cordelias |url=https://theblackcordelias.wordpress.com/2009/12/11/blessed-martin-lumbreras-sanchez-perez-peralta-and-melchiorre-sanchez-december-11/ |title=Blessed Martin Lumbreras Sanchez Perez Peralta and Melchiorre Sanchez, December 11 |date=December 11, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220327160329/https://theblackcordelias.wordpress.com/2009/12/11/blessed-martin-lumbreras-sanchez-perez-peralta-and-melchiorre-sanchez-december-11/ |archive-date=March 27, 2022}}</ref>

Through the promulgation of decree on martyrdom, these two Augustinian Martyrs of Japan were venerated on 28 November 1988 and beatified on 23 April 1989, by [[Pope John Paul II]].{{r|JA2}}

== 16 Martyrs of Japan (1633–1637) ==
{{Main|16 Martyrs of Japan}}
The martyrdom continued on with a group of missionaries and natives that belonged to the Philippine Province of the Dominican Order, called the Holy Rosary Province.<ref name=DMJ>{{cite book|title=New Saints and Blesseds of the Catholic Church (1979-1983) Vol. I|first=Ferdinand |last=Holböck |year=2000|publisher=Ignatius}}</ref>

Through the promulgation of decree on martyrdom, these 16 Martyrs of Japan were venerated on 11 October 1980 and beatified on 18 February 1981, by [[Pope John Paul II]].<ref name="usccb">{{cite web |website=United States Conference of Catholic Bishops |url=http://www.nccbuscc.org/comm/popejohnpaulii/beatify.shtml |title=Beatifications During Pope John Paul II's Pontificate |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519161337/http://www.nccbuscc.org/comm/popejohnpaulii/beatify.shtml |archive-date=May 19, 2011}}</ref> They were later canonized saints on 18 October 1987, by [[Pope John Paul II]].<ref name="vatican">{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/news_services/liturgy/saints/ns_lit_doc_19871018_ruiz-compagni_en.html |title=Lawrence Ruiz and companions |publisher=the Vatican website |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415105128/https://www.vatican.va/news_services/liturgy/saints/ns_lit_doc_19871018_ruiz-compagni_en.html |archive-date=April 15, 2021}}</ref>

== 188 Martyrs of Japan (1603–1639) ==
These martyrs are additional religious priests and laity murdered for their faith between the years 1603 and 1639.

Through the promulgation of decree on martyrdom, these 188 Martyrs of Japan were venerated on 1 June 2007 and beatified on 24 November 2008, by [[Pope Benedict XVI]].<ref name=JA3>{{cite web |url=http://newsaints.faithweb.com/martyrs/Japan03.htm |title=Martyrs of Japan (1603–39) |website= Hagiography Circle |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609051808/http://newsaints.faithweb.com/martyrs/Japan03.htm |archive-date=June 9, 2021}}</ref> The ceremony, held in Nagasaki, was presided over by Cardinal [[Peter Shirayanagi]], archbishop emeritus of Tokyo.<ref name=pime>[https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Telegram-from-the-pope-on-the-death-of-Card.-Shirayanagi-17242.html "Telegram from the pope on the death of Card. Shirayanagi", PIME – AsiaNews, December 31, 2009]</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Saints}}
*[[Twenty-Six Martyrs Museum and Monument]]
*[[Christianity in Japan]]
*[[Roman Catholicism in Japan]]
*[[Nanban trade]]
*[[Silence (2016 film)]]
*[[Christianization]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.26martyrs.com/ The 26 Martyrs Museum in Nagasaki City, Japan]
*[http://www.cbcj.catholic.jp/eng/ehistory/table01.htm Catholic Bishops Conference of Japan: ''Timeline of the Catholic Church in Japan'']
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060303075846/http://www.pauline.or.jp/history/e-history03.html Daughters of St. Paul Convent, Tokyo, Japan: ''Prohibition of Christian religion by Hideyoshi and the 26 martyrs'']
* {{CathEncy|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09744a.htm|title=Japanese Martyrs}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090422112412/http://www.osa-west.org/japanesemartyrs.html ''The Japanese Martyrs'']
*[http://nx2.jp/?m=wiki&a=page_h_detail&c_wiki_id=49 Nagasaki Wiki: ''Detailed Access Information from Nagasaki Station to 26 Martyrs Monument'']
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071214215109/https://www.zenit.org/article-21265?l=english 2008 ''Beatification of Japanese Martyrs'']
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000023/http://pweb.sophia.ac.jp/britto/xavier/4jesuits2bbeatified.pdf Britto, Francis. ''All About Francis Xavier'']

{{Catholic saints|state=collapsed}}
{{Persecution of Christians}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Japan, Martyrs Of}}
[[Category:Catholic martyrs of the Early Modern era]]
[[Category:History of Christianity in Japan|Martyrs]]
[[Category:16th century in Japan]]
[[Category:17th century in Japan]]
[[Category:Martyred groups]]
[[Category:Persecution by Buddhists]]
[[Category:People executed by Japan]]
[[Category:Groups of Anglican saints|Martyrs]]
[[Category:Lists of Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Lists of saints]]
[[Category:Beatifications by Pope Pius IX]]
[[Category:Beatifications by Pope John Paul II]]
[[Category:Beatifications by Pope Benedict XVI]]
[[Category:Groups of Roman Catholic saints]]

Irmgard of Chiemsee

2024-11-12T19:34:50Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat She isn't canonized

{{Short description|Beatified German nun (c.831-866)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2022}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix= Blessed
|name= Irmengard of Chiemsee
|birth_date=c. 830/833
|death_date=16 July 866
|feast_day= 16 July
|venerated_in= Roman [[Catholic Church]]
|image=Frauenchiemsee Münster - Grab Irmengard.jpg
|imagesize=
|caption=Frecsco at the burial place of Bl. Irmengard in Frauenwörth minster
|birth_place= [[Regensburg]], [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]]
|death_place= [[Frauenchiemsee]]
|titles=
|beatified_date= 17 July 1929
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by= [[Pope Pius XI]]
|canonized_date=
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes= crowned, in Benedictine habit with the [[crozier]] of an abbess, holding a flaming heart
|patronage=
|major_shrine=
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
}}
'''Irmgard of Chiemsee''' ({{langx|de|Selige Irmgard}}, also ''Irmengard''; {{circa|831/833}} – 16 July 866), a member of the [[Carolingian dynasty]], was the second daughter of King [[Louis the German]] and his wife [[Hemma]]. She was the first [[abbess]] of [[Frauenchiemsee|Frauenwörth abbey]] from 857 until her death.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://monasticmatrix.usc.edu/monasticon/?function=detail&id=1365&PHPSESSID=eaf91a71fdc5bed806ef48959a589fb8 | title = Frauenwörth | work = Monasticon: repertory of profiles of women's religious communities that existed between 400-1600 C.E. | publisher = Monastic Matrix hosted by University of Southern California | accessdate = 2007-11-16 | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110527163124/http://monasticmatrix.usc.edu/monasticon/?function=detail&id=1365&PHPSESSID=eaf91a71fdc5bed806ef48959a589fb8 | archivedate = 27 May 2011 }}</ref>

==Life==
Born at King Louis' court in [[Regensburg]], [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]], young Irmgard, like her sisters, was destined for a monastic life. She was raised at the [[Order of Saint Benedict|Benedictine]] abbey of [[Buchau Abbey|Buchau]] in [[Duchy of Swabia|Swabia]], whose estates she later received from the hands of her father. She was known for her comprehensive education

About 850 Louis appointed Irmgard abbess of Frauenwörth, which had been founded by the last [[Agilolfing]] duke [[Tassilo III, Duke of Bavaria|Tassilo III of Bavaria]] in 782 and held the status of an [[Imperial abbey]] since 788. During her leadership the decayed premises were restored and the former chapter for noble ladies developed into a Benedictine [[convent]].

Since she was of Imperial descent, the incumbent abbess of Frauenwörth had the right to wear a thin golden hoop, resembling a little crown.

==Veneration==
Irmgard was already venerated in the early 11th century, when abbot Gerhard had her head reliquary [[Translation (relics)|translated]] to [[Seeon Abbey]] in 1004. However, she was [[Beatification|beatified]] only on 17 July 1929 by [[Pope Pius XI]], on initiative of [[Michael von Faulhaber|Cardinal Faulhaber]]. Her relics were re-unified during a festive ceremony in 2003.

Irmengard's [[feast]] is 16 July.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rabenstein |first=Katherine I. |year=1998 |url=http://www.saintpatrickdc.org/ss/0716.htm |title=Saints of 16 July |work=Saints O'the Day |publisher=St. Patrick Catholic Church Washington, D.C. |accessdate=2007-11-16 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071105092534/http://www.saintpatrickdc.org/ss/0716.htm |archivedate= 5 November 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In Frauenchiemsee, ''Irmengardstag'' is celebrated the Sunday nearest to 16 July. In paintings Irmgard is portrayed in a Benedictine habit either crowned with Bible and abbot's staff or with heart in her hand.

==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. ''' Irmgard of Chiemsee '''
|2= 2. [[Louis the German]]
|3= 3. [[Emma of Altdorf]]
|4= 4. [[Louis the Pious]]
|5= 5. [[Ermengarde of Hesbaye]]
|6= 6. [[Welf (father of Judith)|Welf]]
|7= 7. Hedwig, Duchess of Bavaria
|8= 8. [[Charlemagne]]
|9= 9. [[Hildegarde]]
|10= 10. [[Ingerman of Hesbaye]]
|11= 11. Hedwig of Bavaria
|16= 16. [[Pepin the Short]]
|17= 17. [[Bertrada of Laon]]
|18= 18. [[Gerold of Anglachgau]]
|19= 19. [[Emma of Alamannia]]
|20= 20. Rodbert
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite web
|url=http://www.frauenwoerth.de/Selige_Irmengard/body_selige_irmengard.htm
|title=Selige Irmengard
|work=Frauenwörth
|publisher=Abtei Frauenwörth
|accessdate=2007-11-16
|language=German
|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071010154616/http://www.frauenwoerth.de/Selige_Irmengard/body_selige_irmengard.htm
|archivedate=10 October 2007
|url-status=dead
}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Irmgard of Chiemsee}}
[[Category:830s births]]
[[Category:866 deaths]]
[[Category:Year of birth uncertain]]
[[Category:German beatified people]]
[[Category:Benedictine nuns]]
[[Category:Women of medieval Germany]]
[[Category:Carolingian dynasty]]
[[Category:Women from the Carolingian Empire]]
[[Category:Consecrated virgins]]

Helladius, Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides

2024-11-12T19:34:25Z

Szturnek: technical fix

{{Saint|name=Helladius, Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides|titles=Martyrs|death_date=244 or 326|feast_day=May 28|honored_in=Catholic Church and Orthodox Church}}
'''Saints Helladius, Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides''' are honored as Christian martyrs who were burned to death in Rome either in 244<ref>[http://orthodoxengland.org.uk/s3centy.htm Latin Saints of the Orthodox Patriarchate of Rome]</ref><ref>[http://catholicsaints.info/book-of-saints-crescens-dioscorides-paul-and-helladius/ Monks of Ramsgate. "Crescens, Dioscorides, Paul and Helladius". ''Book of Saints''] 1921. CatholicSaints.Info. 14 October 2012 {{PD-notice}}</ref> or 326.<ref>[https://www.holytrinityorthodox.com/calendar/los/May/28-07.htm Janos, S. "The Holy Martyrs Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides", Holy Trinity Orthodox Church]</ref> According to Professor Mauricio Saavedra OSA, "this group was introduced by [[Caesar Baronius|Baronius]] and is fictitious."<ref>[https://dokumen.pub/the-church-of-smyrna-history-and-theology-of-a-primitive-christian-community-978-3631662359.html Saavedra, Mauricio. ''The Church of Smyrna: History and Theology of a Primitive Christian Community''] Peter Lang, 2015, p. 199, {{ISBN|978-3631662359}}</ref>

The old Roman and British Martyrology places their deaths at [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=YBVGAQAAMAAJ&dq=Helladius,+Crescentius,+Paul+and+Dioscorides&pg=PA167 ''The Roman and British Martyrology'': Dublin, O'Neill, 1846. p. 167]</ref>

They are commemorated in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] on 28 May.<ref>[https://media.musicasacra.com/dominican/M.pdf "The Twenty-eighth Day of May", ''The Martyrology of the Sacred Order of Friars Preachers''] (W.R. Bonniwell O.P., trans.) The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland. 1998, p. 111</ref>

This Crescentius should not be confused with [[Crescentius of Rome]], who died in 303; this Helladius is not [[Helladius (4th century hieromartyr)|the bishop and martyr]] commemorated on the same day.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman saints]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Groups of Christian martyrs of the Roman era]]

Helladius, Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides

2024-11-12T19:33:09Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Ancient Roman saints using HotCat

{{Saint|name=Helladius, Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides|titles=Martyrs|death_date=244 or 326|feast_day=May 28|honored_in=Catholic Church and Orthodox Church}}
'''Saints Helladius, Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides''' are honored as Christian martyrs who were burned to death in Rome either in 244<ref>[http://orthodoxengland.org.uk/s3centy.htm Latin Saints of the Orthodox Patriarchate of Rome]</ref><ref>[http://catholicsaints.info/book-of-saints-crescens-dioscorides-paul-and-helladius/ Monks of Ramsgate. "Crescens, Dioscorides, Paul and Helladius". ''Book of Saints''] 1921. CatholicSaints.Info. 14 October 2012 {{PD-notice}}</ref> or 326.<ref>[https://www.holytrinityorthodox.com/calendar/los/May/28-07.htm Janos, S. "The Holy Martyrs Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides", Holy Trinity Orthodox Church]</ref> According to Professor Mauricio Saavedra OSA, "this group was introduced by [[Caesar Baronius|Baronius]] and is fictitious."<ref>[https://dokumen.pub/the-church-of-smyrna-history-and-theology-of-a-primitive-christian-community-978-3631662359.html Saavedra, Mauricio. ''The Church of Smyrna: History and Theology of a Primitive Christian Community''] Peter Lang, 2015, p. 199, {{ISBN|978-3631662359}}</ref>

The old Roman and British Martyrology places their deaths at [[Ancient Corinth|Corinth]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=YBVGAQAAMAAJ&dq=Helladius,+Crescentius,+Paul+and+Dioscorides&pg=PA167 ''The Roman and British Martyrology'': Dublin, O'Neill, 1846. p. 167]</ref>

They are commemorated in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic Church]] on 28 May.<ref>[https://media.musicasacra.com/dominican/M.pdf "The Twenty-eighth Day of May", ''The Martyrology of the Sacred Order of Friars Preachers''] (W.R. Bonniwell O.P., trans.) The Newman Press, Westminster, Maryland. 1998, p. 111</ref>

This Crescentius should not be confused with [[Crescentius of Rome]], who died in 303; this Helladius is not [[Helladius (4th century hieromartyr)|the bishop and martyr]] commemorated on the same day.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman saints|Helladius, Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides ]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian martyrs|Helladius, Crescentius, Paul and Dioscorides]]
[[Category:Groups of Christian martyrs of the Roman era]]

Helladius and Theophilus

2024-11-12T19:32:42Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Roman saints from Africa (continent) using HotCat

{{Short description|Christian martyrs}}
{{inline|date=February 2017}}
'''Helladius and Theophilus''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: Έλλάδιος & Θεόφιλος) were two Christian martyrs in [[Libya]], killed by being thrown into a furnace. Helladius was a layman and Theophilus a [[deacon]]. The [[Roman Martyrology]] gives their feast as 8 January.

==Sources==
*http://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=2268
*http://www.santiebeati.it/dettaglio/36620

[[Category:Roman saints from Africa (continent)]]
[[category:Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Saints duos]]

{{saint-stub}}

Grata of Bergamo

2024-11-12T19:32:00Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian martyrs using HotCat More specified category are included

Saint George

2024-11-12T19:31:26Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Ancient Roman saints using HotCat

{{Short description|Christian saint and martyr (died 303)}}
{{Redirect|St. George||Saint George (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-pc}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix = [[Saint]]
| name = George
| birth_date = 3rd century
| birth_place = [[Cappadocia (Roman province)|Cappadocia]], [[Roman Empire]]
| death_date = 23 April 303
| death_place = [[Lydda]], [[Syria Palaestina]], Roman Empire<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-George |title=Saint George |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |edition=Online |access-date=21 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06453a.htm |title=St. George |encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia |access-date=21 July 2022}}</ref>
| feast_day = {{indented plainlist|
* '''23 April''' ([[Saint George's Day]])
* '''6 May''' ([[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]] when [[Julian calendar|Julian]] date is observed)
* '''23 Parmouti''' ([[Coptic calendar]], 1 May)<ref>Otto Friedrich August Meinardus, ''Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity'' (1999), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Cmey73GtfuUC&pg=PA315 p. 315] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113181915/https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Cmey73GtfuUC&pg=PA315 |date=13 November 2022 }}.</ref>
* '''Saturday before third Sunday of [[Exaltation of the Cross]]''' ([[Armenian Church]] calendar)<ref>''Domar: the calendrical and liturgical cycle of the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church'', Armenian Orthodox Theological Research Institute, 2002, pp. 504–505</ref>
}}
| venerated_in = {{plainlist|
* [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]
* [[Catholic Church]]
* [[Oriental Orthodoxy]]
* [[Church of the East]]
* [[Anglican Communion]]
* [[Lutheranism]]
* [[Umbanda]]
* [[Druze]] faith<ref>{{cite book|title=The Holy Land: An Oxford Archaeological Guide from Earliest Times to 1700| first= Jerome|last= Murphy-O'Connor|year= 2008| isbn= 9780191647666| page =205 |publisher=OUP Oxford}}</ref>
* [[Islam]]
}}
| image = St. Georg, Donatello, 1416-17, Bargello Florenz-03.jpg
| caption = ''[[Saint George (Donatello)|Saint George]]'' by [[Donatello]], {{Circa|1415}}
| titles = Martyr, Patron of England
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| major_shrine = {{indented plainlist|
*[[Church of Saint George, Lalibela]]
* [[Church of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr]]
* [[St. George Cathedral, Timișoara]]
* [[St. George's Monastery, Al-Khader]]
* [[Cathedral of Saint George, Damascus]]
* [[St. George Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Edappally]]
* [[St. George Orthodox Church Puthuppally Pally]]
* [[St. George's Syro-Malabar Catholic Forane Church, Aruvithura]]
* [[St. George's Cathedral, Addis Ababa]]
* [[St. George Forane Church, Edathua]]
* [[St George's Chapel, Windsor Castle]]
}}
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| attributes = Clothed as a [[Crusades|crusader]] in [[plate armour]] or [[Mail (armour)|mail]], often bearing a [[lance]] tipped by a cross, riding a white horse, often slaying a [[dragon]]. In the [[Greek East and Latin West]] he is shown with [[St George's Cross]] emblazoned on his armour, or [[shield]] or [[banner]].
| patronage = Many [[patronages of Saint George]] exist around the world
| suppressed_date =
| issues =
| prayer =
| prayer_attrib =
}}

'''Saint George''' ({{lang-grc-gre|Γεώργιος|Geṓrgios}};<ref group="note">[[Geʽez]]: ጊዮርጊስ, {{langx|la|Geōrgius}}, {{lang-ka|გიორგი}}, {{langx|he|גאורגיוס|Ge'orgiyos}}, {{langx|syr|ܡܪܝ ܓܘܪܓܝܣ|Mar Giwargis}}, {{langx|ar|جرجس|translit=Jirjis}}</ref> died 23 April 303), also '''George of Lydda''', was an early [[Christians|Christian]] [[martyr]] who is venerated as a [[saint]] in [[Christianity]]. According to tradition, he was a soldier in the [[Roman army]]. Of [[Cappadocian Greeks|Cappadocian Greek]] origin, he became a member of the [[Praetorian Guard]] for [[Roman emperor]] [[Diocletian]], but was sentenced to death for refusing to recant his Christian faith. He became one of the most [[Saint George in devotions, traditions and prayers|venerated]] saints, heroes, and [[Great martyr|megalomartyrs]] in Christianity, and he has been especially venerated as a [[military saint]] since the [[Crusader States|Crusades]]. He is respected by Christians, [[Druze]], as well as some [[Muslims]] as a martyr of [[Monotheism|monotheistic]] faith.

In [[hagiography]], as one of the [[Fourteen Holy Helpers]] and one of the most prominent military saints, he is immortalized in the legend of [[Saint George and the Dragon]]. His feast day, [[Saint George's Day]], is traditionally celebrated on 23 April. Historically, the countries of [[England]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Ukraine]], [[Malta]], [[Ethiopia]], the regions of [[Catalonia]] and [[Aragon]], and the city of [[Moscow]] have [[patronages of Saint George|claimed George as their patron]] saint, as have several other regions, cities, universities, professions, and organizations. The [[Church of Saint George (Lod)|Church of Saint George]] in [[Lod|Lod (Lydda), Israel]], has a sarcophagus traditionally believed to contain St. George's remains.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=G. Massiot |title=Church of Saint George, Lod: Interior, view of the nave from the southeast end |url=https://curate.nd.edu/show/wm117m04h1d |access-date=11 May 2022 |website=CurateND |date=2023 |publisher=University of Notre Dame|doi=10.7274/24858729.v1 }}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 124v 2.jpg|thumb|George depicted in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' of 1493]]
Very little is known about George's life. It is thought that he was a [[Roman Empire|Roman]] military officer of [[Cappadocian Greeks|Cappadocian Greek]] descent, who was martyred under [[Roman emperor]] [[Diocletian]] in one of the [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|pre-Constantinian persecutions]] of the 3rd or early 4th century.<ref name=":1">{{Harvnb|Lampinen|Mataix-Ferrándiz|2022|p=14}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=23 April 2020 |title=Who was Saint George and why is he England's patron saint? |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/st-georges-day-google-doodle-england-patron-saint-soldier-dragon-a9479816.html |access-date=21 August 2020 |website=The Independent}}</ref> Beyond this, early sources give conflicting information.

[[Edward Gibbon]]<ref>[[Edward Gibbon]], ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', 2:23:5</ref><ref name="Emerson">{{citation |title=Emerson |page=520 |year=1996 |editor1-last=Richardson |editor1-first=Robert D. |quote=George of Cappadocia ... [held] the contract to supply the army with bacon ... embraced [[Arianism]] ... [and was] promoted ... to the episcopal throne of [[Alexandria]] ... When Julian came, George was dragged to prison, the prison was burst open by a mob, and George was lynched ... [he] became in good time Saint George of England |editor2-last=Moser |editor2-first=Barry}}.</ref> argued that George, or at least the legend from which the above is distilled, is based on [[George of Cappadocia]],<ref name="Gibbon">Edward Gibbon, ''[[The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'', 2:23:5</ref><ref name="CathEnc">{{citation |title=[[Catholic Encyclopedia]] |contribution=Saint George |quote=it is not improbable that the apocryphal Acts have borrowed some incidents from the story of the Arian bishop}}.</ref> a notorious 4th-century Arian bishop who was [[Athanasius of Alexandria]]'s most bitter rival, and that it was he who in time became George of England. This identification is seen as highly improbable. Bishop George was slain by Gentile Greeks for exacting onerous taxes, especially inheritance taxes. [[J. B. Bury]], who edited the 1906 edition of Gibbon's ''The Decline and Fall'', wrote "this theory of Gibbon's has nothing to be said for it". He adds that "the connection of St. George with a dragon-slaying legend does not relegate him to the region of the myth".<ref name="CE1913">{{Cite CE1913|last=Thurston|first=Herbert|authorlink=Herbert Thurston|wstitle=St. George}} "There seems, therefore, no ground for doubting the historical existence of St. George, even though he is not commemorated in the Syrian, or in the primitive Hieronymian Martyrologium, but no faith can be placed in the attempts that have been made to fill up any of the details of his history. For example, it is now generally admitted that St. George cannot safely be identified by the nameless martyr spoken of by Eusebius (Church History VIII.5), who tore down Diocletian's edict of persecution at Nicomedia. The version of the legend in which Diocletian appears as persecutor is not primitive. Diocletian is only a rationalized form of the name Dadianus. Moreover, the connection of the saint's name with Nicomedia is inconsistent with the early cultus at Diospolis. Still less is St. George to be considered, as suggested by Gibbon, Vetter, and others, a legendary double of the disreputable bishop, George of Cappadocia, the Arian opponent of St. Athanasius."</ref> Saint George in all likelihood was martyred before the year 290.<ref name="hogg">{{citation |last=Hogg |first=John |title=Supplemental Notes on St George the Martyr, and on George the Arian Bishop |journal=Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom |pages=106–136 |year=1863 |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044090850256;view=1up;seq=9 |publisher=Royal Society of Literature}}</ref>
==Legend==

=== Christian legends ===
There is little information on the early life of George. [[Herbert Thurston]] in ''[[The Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' states that, based upon an ancient [[cult (religious practice)|cultus]], narratives of the early pilgrims, and the early dedications of churches to George, going back to the fourth century, "there seems, therefore, no ground for doubting the historical existence of St. George", although no faith can be placed in either the details of his history or his alleged exploits.<ref name="CE1913" />

The [[Diocletianic Persecution]] of 303, associated with [[military saint]]s because the persecution was aimed at Christians among the professional soldiers of the [[Roman army]], is of undisputed historicity. According to [[Donald Attwater]],

{{blockquote|No historical particulars of his life have survived, ... The widespread veneration for St George as a soldier saint from early times had its centre in Palestine at Diospolis, now [[Lod|Lydda]]. St George was apparently martyred there, at the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century; that is all that can be reasonably surmised about him.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Attwater|first1=Donald|title=Dictionary of Saints|year=1995|orig-year=1965|location=London|publisher=Penguin Reference|edition=Third|page=152}}</ref>}}

[[File:Martorell - Sant Jordi.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Saint George and the Dragon (Martorell)|Saint George and the Dragon]]'', 1434/35, by [[Bernat Martorell]]|305x305px]]
The saint's veneration dates to the 5th century with some certainty, and possibly even to the 4th, while the collection of his miracles gradually began during the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] times.<ref name=":2">{{Harvnb|Cavallo|1997|p=71}}</ref> The story of the [[Saint George and the Dragon|defeat of the dragon]] is not part of Saint George's earliest hagiographies, and seems to have been a later addition.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

The earliest text which preserves fragments of George's narrative is in a Greek hagiography which is identified by [[Hippolyte Delehaye]] of the scholarly [[Bollandist]]s to be a [[palimpsest]] of the 5th century.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/actasanctorum12unse#page/n148/mode/1up Acta Sanctorum], Volume 12, as republished in 1866</ref> An earlier work by [[Eusebius]], ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church history]]'', written in the 4th century, contributed to the legend but did not name George or provide significant detail.<ref>[[Church History (Eusebius)]], book 8, chapter 5; [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0640%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D1 Greek text here] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114032922/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2008.01.0640:book%3D8:chapter%3D5:section%3D1 |date=14 January 2022 }}, and [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/03d/0265-0339,_Eusebius_Caesariensis,_Historia_ecclesiastica_%5BSchaff%5D,_EN.pdf English text here]. Eusebius's full text as follows:
{{blockquote|Immediately on the publication of the [[20,000 Martyrs of Nicomedia|decree against the churches in Nicomedia]], a certain man, not obscure but very highly honored with distinguished temporal dignities, moved with zeal toward God, and incited with ardent faith, seized the edict as it was posted openly and publicly, and tore it to pieces as a profane and impious thing; and this was done while two of the sovereigns were in the same city,—the oldest of all, and the one who held the fourth place in the government after him. But this man, first in that place, after distinguishing himself in such a manner suffered those things which were likely to follow such daring, and kept his spirit cheerful and undisturbed till death.}}</ref> The work of the Bollandists [[Daniel Papebroch]], [[Jean Bolland]], and [[Godfrey Henschen]] in the 17th century was one of the first pieces of scholarly research to establish the saint's historicity, via their publications in ''[[Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca]]''.<ref>{{citation | first = Christopher | last = Walter | year = 2003 | title = The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition | publisher = Ashgate Publishing | isbn = 1-84014-694-X | page = 110}}.
Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca 271, 272.</ref> [[Pope Gelasius I]] stated in 494 that George was among those saints "whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose actions are known only to God."<ref>{{Cite EB1911|page=737|wstitle=George, Saint|volume=11|quote=In the canon of Pope Gelasius (494) George is mentioned in a list of those 'whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose acts are known only to God'}}</ref>

The most complete version, based upon the fifth-century Greek text but in a later form, survives in a translation into [[Syriac language|Syriac]] from about 600. From text fragments preserved in the [[British Library]], a translation into English was published in 1925.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=Frank | editor-link1=F. L. Cross|editor2-last=Livingstone |editor2-first=Elizabeth |editor-link2=Elizabeth Livingstone|title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |date=1957 |pages=667–668 |edition=2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Ernest W. |title=Acts of S. George |journal=[[Le Muséon]] |date=1925 |volume=38 |pages=67–115 |issn=0771-6494}}, online [https://archive.org/details/actsofsaintgeorg0000ewbr here].</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Collins |first1=Michael |title=St George and the dragons: the making of English identity |date=2012 |publisher=Fonthill |isbn=978-1-78155-649-8 |chapter=3 The Greek and Latin traditions}}</ref>

[[File:Saint George the Dragon-Slayer by Georgios Klontzas (Byzantine museum).jpg|thumb|right|''Saint George the Dragon-Slayer'', 16th c., by [[Georgios Klontzas]]|195px]]
In the Greek tradition, George was born to noble Christian parents, in [[Cappadocia (Roman province)|Cappadocia]]. After his father died, his mother, who was originally from [[Lod|Lydda]], in [[Syria Palaestina]] (a part of the Byzantine Empire), returned with George to her hometown.<ref name=":0">{{cite book|last1=Guiley|first1=Rosemary|title=The Encyclopedia of Saints|page=129|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ABkgU0GOBbcC&pg=PA129 |quote=George was an historical figure. According to an account by Metaphrastes, George was born in Cappadocia (in modern Turkey) to a noble Christian family; his mother was Palestinian.|isbn=978-1-4381-3026-2|year=2001|publisher=Infobase }}</ref> He went on to become a soldier for the [[Roman army]]; but, because of his [[Christians|Christian]] faith, he was arrested and tortured, "at or near Lydda, also called [[Lod|Diospolis]]"; on the following day, he was paraded and then beheaded, and his body was buried in Lydda.<ref name=":0" /> According to other sources, after his mother's death, George travelled to the eastern imperial capital, [[Nicomedia]],<ref>{{citation |first= A. |last= Heylin |year= 1862 |title= The Journal of Sacred Literature and Biblical Record |volume= 1 |page= 244}}. {{citation | first = John H | last = Darch | year = 2006 | title = Saints on Earth | publisher = Church House Press | isbn = 978-0-7151-4036-9 | page = 56}}. {{citation | first = Christopher | last = Walter | year = 2003 | title = The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition | publisher = Ashgate Publishing | isbn = 1-84014-694-X | page = 112}}.</ref> where he was persecuted by one ''Dadianus''. In later versions of the Greek legend, this name is rationalised to [[Diocletian]], and George's martyrdom is placed in the [[Diocletianic Persecution|Diocletian persecution]] of AD 303. The setting in Nicomedia is also secondary, and inconsistent with the earliest cults of the saint being located in [[Lod|Diospolis]].<ref name=CathEnc />

George was executed by [[decapitation]] on 23 April 303. A witness of his suffering convinced Empress [[Alexandra of Rome]] to become a Christian as well, so she joined George in martyrdom. His body was buried in [[Lod|Lydda]], where Christians soon came to honour him as a martyr.<ref>{{citation | first = Fred | last = Hackwood | year = 2003 | title = Christ Lore the Legends, Traditions, Myths | publisher = Kessinger Publishing | isbn = 0-7661-3656-6 | page = 255}}.</ref><ref name="Butler">{{citation | first = Alban | last = Butler | year = 2008 | title = Lives of the Saints | isbn = 978-1-4375-1281-6}}.{{rp |166}}</ref>[[File:Saint George in the Acta Sanctorum.png|thumb|George in the ''[[Acta Sanctorum]]'', as collected in late 1600s and early 1700s. The Latin title ''De S Georgio Megalo-Martyre; Lyddae seu Diospoli in Palaestina'' translates as ''St. George Great-Martyr; [from] [[Lod|Lydda]] or Diospolis, in Palestine''.]]

The Latin ''Passio Sancti Georgii'' (6th century) follows the general course of the Greek legend, but Diocletian here becomes ''Dacian, Emperor of the Persians''. His martyrdom was greatly extended to more than twenty separate tortures over the course of seven years. Over the course of his martyrdom, 40,900 pagans were converted to Christianity, including the Empress Alexandra. When George finally died, the wicked Dacian was carried away in a whirlwind of fire. In later Latin versions, the persecutor is the Roman emperor [[Decius]], or a Roman judge named [[Dacian (prefect)|Dacian]] serving under Diocletian.<ref>Michael Collins, ''St George and the Dragons: The Making of English Identity'' (2018), [https://books.google.com/books?id=Z95VDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT129 p. 129] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113181917/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z95VDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT129 |date=13 November 2022 }}.</ref>

===St. George and the Dragon===
{{Main|Saint George and the Dragon}}
[[File:S.George (Novgorod, mid. 14 c, GTG).jpg|thumb|Russian icon (mid 14th century), [[Novgorod Republic|Novgorod]]|left|268x268px]]
The earliest known record of the legend of [[Saint George and the Dragon]] occurs in the 11th century, in a Georgian source,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://d.lib.rochester.edu/teams/text/whatley-saints-lives-in-middle-english-collections-st-george-and-the-dragon |title=St. George and the Dragon: Introduction |work=Robbins Library Digital Projects |access-date=14 July 2020 }}</ref> reaching Catholic Europe in the 12th century. In the ''[[Golden Legend]]'', by 13th-century Archbishop of [[Genoa]] [[Jacobus de Voragine]], George's death was at the hands of [[Dacian (prefect)|Dacian]], and about the year 287.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

The tradition tells that a fierce [[dragon]] was causing panic at the city of Silene, [[Libya]], at the time George arrived there. In order to prevent the dragon from devastating people from the city, they gave two sheep each day to the dragon, but when the sheep were not enough they were forced to sacrifice humans, elected by the city's own people. Eventually, the king's daughter was chosen to be sacrificed, and no one was willing to take her place. George saved the girl by slaying the dragon with a lance. The king was so grateful that he offered him treasures as a reward for saving his daughter's life, but George refused it and insisted he give them to the poor. The people of the city were so amazed at what they had witnessed that they all became Christians and were baptized.<ref>{{cite book|first=Paolo O.|last=Pirlo|title=My first book of saints|date=1997|chapter=St. George|publisher=Sons of Holy Mary Immaculate – Quality Catholic Publications|pages=83–85|isbn=971-91595-4-5}}</ref>

[[File:St George and the Dragon Verona ms 1853 26r.jpg|thumb|Miniature from a 13th-century ''Passio Sancti Georgii'' ([[Verona]])]]
Saint George's encounter with a [[dragon]], as narrated in the ''Golden Legend'', would go on to become very influential, as it remains the most familiar version in English owing to [[William Caxton]]'s 15th-century translation.<ref>{{citation | first = Jacobus | last = De Voragine | year = 1995 | title = The Golden Legend | publisher = Princeton University Press | isbn = 978-0-691-00153-1 | page = 238}}.</ref>

In the medieval romances, the lance with which George slew the dragon was called Ascalon, after the [[Levant]]ine city of [[Ashkelon]], today in Israel. The name ''Ascalon'' was used by [[Winston Churchill]] for his personal aircraft during World War II, according to records at [[Bletchley Park]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://winstonchurchill.org/publications/finest-hour/finest-hour-148/getting-there-churchills-wartime-journeys/|title=Getting There: Churchill's Wartime Journeys|date=1 May 2013|website=The International Churchill Society|access-date=9 November 2019}}</ref> Iconography of the horseman with spear overcoming evil was widespread throughout the Christian period.<ref>Charles Clermont-Ganneau, "Horus et Saint Georges, d'après un bas-relief inédit du Louvre". ''Revue archéologique'', 1876</ref>

===Muslim legends===
George ({{langx|ar|جرجس}}, ''Jirjis'' or ''Girgus'') is included in some Muslim texts as a prophetic figure. The Islamic sources state that he lived among a group of believers who were in direct contact with the last [[apostles of Jesus]]. He is described as a rich merchant who opposed erection of [[Apollo]]'s statue by [[Mosul]]'s king Dadan. After confronting the king, George was tortured many times to no effect, was imprisoned and was aided by the angels. Eventually, he exposed that the idols were possessed by Satan, but was martyred when the city was destroyed by God in a rain of fire.<ref name=Littlefield>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNAWAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA313|title=The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism|author=Scott B. Noegel, Brannon M. Wheeler|date=April 2010|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|page=313|isbn=978-1-4617-1895-6}}</ref>

Muslim scholars had tried to find a historical connection of the saint due to his popularity.<ref name=Numen>{{cite journal|journal=[[Numen (journal)|Numen]]|title='Georgic' Cults and Saints of the Levant|author=H. S. Haddad|publisher=Brill|year=1968|page=37}}</ref> According to Muslim legend, he was martyred under the rule of [[Diocletian]] and was killed three times but resurrected every time. The legend is more developed in the Persian version of [[al-Tabari]] wherein he resurrects the dead, makes trees sprout and pillars bear flowers. After one of his deaths, the world is covered by darkness which is lifted only when he is resurrected. He is able to convert the queen but she is put to death. He then prays to God to allow him to die, which is granted.<ref>{{cite book|title= Encyclopaedia of Islam|edition=Second|volume= I, Part 2|editor1=P. Bearman|editor1-link=Peri Bearman|editor2=Th. Bianquis|editor3=C. E. Bosworth|editor3-link=C. E. Bosworth|editor4=E. van Donzel|editor5=W. P. Heinrichs|editor5-link=Wolfhart Heinrichs|publisher=Brill|author=[[Bernard Carra de Vaux]]|page=1047}}</ref>

[[Al-Thaʿlabi]] states that George was from Palestine and lived in the times of some [[Disciples of Jesus in Islam|disciples of Jesus]]. He was killed many times by the king of Mosul, and resurrected each time. When the king tried to starve him, he touched a piece of dry wood brought by a woman and turned it green, with varieties of fruits and vegetables growing from it. After his fourth death, the city was burnt along with him. [[Ibn al-Athir]]'s account of one of his deaths is parallel to the [[crucifixion of Jesus]], stating, "When he died, God sent stormy winds and thunder and lightning and dark clouds, so that darkness fell between heaven and earth, and people were in great wonderment." The account adds that the darkness was lifted after his resurrection.<ref name=Numen />

==Veneration==
{{See also|Saint George in devotions, traditions and prayers}}

===History===
[[File:Paolo Veronese 023.jpg|thumb|left|''Martyrdom of Saint George'', by [[Paolo Veronese]], 1564]]
A [[titular church]] built in Lydda during the reign of [[Constantine the Great]] (reigned 306–337) was consecrated to "a man of the highest distinction", according to the church history of [[Eusebius]]; the name of the ''titulus'' "patron" was not indicated. The [[Church of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr]] located in the city is believed to have housed his remains.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Walter |first=Christopher |date=1995 |title=The Origins of the Cult of Saint George |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.3406/rebyz.1995.1911 |journal=Revue des études byzantines |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=295–326 |doi=10.3406/rebyz.1995.1911 |issn=0766-5598}}</ref>

The veneration of George spread from [[Syria Palaestina]] through Lebanon to the rest of the [[Byzantine Empire]] – though the martyr is not mentioned in the Syriac ''[[horologion|Breviarium]]''<ref name="Butler" /> – and the region [[Georgia (country)|east of the Black Sea]]. By the 5th century, the veneration of George had reached the Christian [[Western Roman Empire]], as well: in 494, George was canonized as a [[saint]] by [[Pope Gelasius I]], among those "which are known better to God than to human beings."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Gélase |title=The Letters of Gelasius I (492-496): Pastor and Micro-Manager of the Church of Rome |last2=Neil |first2=Bronwen |last3=Allen |first3=Pauline |date=2014 |publisher=Brepols |isbn=978-2-503-55299-6 |series=Adnotationes |location=Turnhout |pages=160}}</ref>

The early cult of the saint was localized in [[Lod|Diospolis (Lydda)]], in Palestine. The first description of Lydda as a pilgrimage site where George's relics were venerated is ''[[De Situ Terrae Sanctae]]'' by the archdeacon Theodosius, written between 518 and 530. By the end of the 6th century, the center of his veneration appears to have shifted to [[Cappadocia (Roman province)|Cappadocia]]. The ''Life'' of [[Saint Theodore of Sykeon]], written in the 7th century, mentions the veneration of the relics of the saint in Cappadocia.<ref>Christopher Walter, "The Origins of the Cult of Saint George", ''Revue des études byzantines'' 53 (1995), 295–326 (p. 296) ([https://www.persee.fr/doc/rebyz_0766-5598_1995_num_53_1_1911 persee.fr] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528183624/https://www.persee.fr/doc/rebyz_0766-5598_1995_num_53_1_1911 |date=28 May 2019 }})</ref>

By the time of the [[early Muslim conquests]] of the mostly Christian and [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] Middle East, a [[Church of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr|basilica in Lydda]] dedicated to George existed.<ref>{{citation | first = Denys | last = Pringle | title = The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-521-39037-0 | page = 25}}.</ref> A new church was erected in 1872 and is still standing, where the feast of the translation of the relics of Saint George to that location is celebrated on 3 November each year.<ref>Eastern Christian Publications, ''Theosis: Calendar of Saints'' (2020), pp. 75–76.</ref> In England, he was mentioned among the martyrs by the 8th-century monk [[Bede]]. The ''[[Georgslied]]'' is an adaptation of his legend in [[Old High German]], composed in the late 9th century. The earliest dedication to the saint in England is a church at [[Fordington, Dorset]], that is mentioned in the will of [[Alfred the Great]].<ref>Samantha Riches, ''St. George: Hero, Martyr and Myth'' (Sutton, 2000), {{ISBN|0750924527}}, p. 19.</ref> George did not rise to the position of "patron saint" of England, however, until the 14th century, and he was still obscured by [[Edward the Confessor]], the traditional patron saint of England, until in 1552 during the reign of [[Edward VI]] all saints' banners other than George's were abolished in the [[English Reformation]].<ref>McClendon 1999, p .6</ref><ref>Perrin, ''British Flags'', 1922, p. 38.</ref>
[[File:Cornelis Schut - The beheading of Saint George.jpg|thumb|The martyrdom of Saint George, by [[Cornelis Schut]], 1643]]

Belief in an apparition of George heartened the [[Franks]] at the [[Battle of Antioch (1098)|Battle of Antioch]] in 1098,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Runciman|first1=Steven|title=A History of the Crusades I: The First Crusade|date=1951–1952|publisher=Penguin Classics|isbn=978-0-14-198550-3|pages=204–205}}</ref> and a similar appearance occurred the following year at Jerusalem. The chivalric military [[Order of Sant Jordi d'Alfama]] was established by king [[Peter II of Aragon|Peter the Catholic]] from the [[Crown of Aragon]] in 1201, [[Republic of Genoa]], [[Order of Saint George (Kingdom of Hungary)|Kingdom of Hungary]] (1326), and by [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13350a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' 1913, ''s.v.'' "Orders of St. George"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022221745/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13350a.htm |date=22 October 2021 }} omits Genoa and Hungary: see David Scott Fox, ''Saint George: The Saint with Three Faces'' (1983:59–63, 98–123), noted by McClellan 999:6 note 13. Additional Orders of St. George were founded in the eighteenth century (''Catholic Encyclopedia'').</ref> [[Edward III of England]] put his [[Order of the Garter]] under the banner of George, probably in 1348. The chronicler [[Jean Froissart]] observed the English invoking George as a battle cry on several occasions during the [[Hundred Years' War]]. In his rise as a national saint, George was aided by the very fact that the saint had no legendary connection with England, and no specifically localised shrine, as that of [[Thomas Becket]] at Canterbury: "Consequently, numerous shrines were established during the late fifteenth century," Muriel C. McClendon has written,<ref>McClendon 1999:10.</ref> "and his did not become closely identified with a particular occupation or with the cure of a specific malady."
[[File:Igreja Matriz de São Jorge 20190812 184815 BURST002.jpg|left|thumb|[[Relic]]s of George at [[São Jorge parish church]], [[São Jorge (Santana)|São Jorge]], [[Madeira Island]], Portugal]]

In the wake of the Crusades, George became a model of [[chivalry]] in works of literature, including [[medieval romance]]s. In the 13th century, [[Jacobus de Voragine]], Archbishop of Genoa, compiled the ''Legenda Sanctorum'', (''Readings of the Saints'') also known as ''Legenda Aurea'' (the ''Golden Legend''). Its 177 chapters (182 in some editions) include the story of George, among many others. After the invention of the printing press, the book became a best seller.

The establishment of George as a popular saint and protective giant<ref>[[Desiderius Erasmus]], in ''[[The Praise of Folly]]'' (1509, printed 1511) remarked "The Christians have now their gigantic St. George, as well as the pagans had their [[Hercules]]."</ref> in the West, that had captured the medieval imagination, was codified by the official elevation of his feast to a ''festum duplex''<ref>Only the most essential work might be done on a ''festum duplex''</ref> at a church council in 1415, on the date that had become associated with his martyrdom, 23 April. There was wide latitude from community to community in celebration of the day across late medieval and early modern England,<ref>Muriel C. McClendon, "A Moveable Feast: Saint George's Day Celebrations and Religious Change in Early Modern England" ''The Journal of British Studies'' '''38'''.1 (January 1999:1–27).</ref> and no uniform "national" celebration elsewhere, a token of the popular and vernacular nature of George's ''cultus'' and its local horizons, supported by a local guild or confraternity under George's protection, or the dedication of a local church. When the [[English Reformation]] severely curtailed the saints' days in the calendar, Saint George's Day was among the holidays that continued to be observed.

In April 2019, the parish church of São Jorge, in [[São Jorge (Santana)|São Jorge]], [[Madeira Island]], Portugal, solemnly received the [[relic]]s of George, patron saint of the parish. During the celebrations the 504th anniversary of its foundation, the relics were brought by the new Bishop of Funchal, D. [[Nuno Brás da Silva Martins|Nuno Brás]].<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.jornaldamadeira.com/2019/04/29/d-nuno-bras-presidiu-a-festa-em-honra-de-sao-jorge/|title=D. Nuno Brás presidiu à Festa em honra de São Jorge |journal= Jornal da Madeira|last=Gonçalves|first=Luisa|language=pt-PT|date=29 April 2019|access-date=3 September 2019}}</ref>

===Veneration in the Levant===
George is renowned throughout the Middle East, as both saint and prophet. His veneration by Christians and Muslims lies in his composite personality combining several biblical, Quranic and other ancient mythical heroes.<ref name="Hovannisian" /> Saint George is the [[patron saint]] of [[Christianity in Lebanon|Lebanese Christians]],<ref>{{cite book|title=By this Sign: A.D. 250 to 350 : from the Decian Persecution to the Constantine Era|first=Christian |last=History Project |year=2003| isbn=9780968987322| page =44|publisher=Christian History Project|quote= St. George is also the patron saint of Lebanese and Palestinian Christians.}}</ref> [[Palestinian Christians]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Religious Celebrations: An Encyclopedia of Holidays, Festivals, Solemn Observances, and Spiritual Commemorations|first=J. Gordon|last= Melton|year=2021| isbn=9781598842050| page =334|publisher=ABC-CLIO|quote=He is also the patron saint of the Palestinian Christian community.}}</ref> and [[Christianity in Syria|Syrian Christians]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Immigrant Narratives: Orientalism and Cultural Translation in Arab American and Arab British Literature|first=Wail |last=S. Hassan |year=2014| isbn=9780199354979| page =83|publisher=Oxford University Press|quote=There are several examples of this: "Besides being the patron saint of England and of the Christians of Syria.}}</ref>

[[File:StGeorgeDragged.jpg|thumb|upright|220px|Saint George dragged through the streets (detail), by [[Bernat Martorell]], 15th century]]

[[William Dalrymple (historian)|William Dalrymple]], who reviewed the literature in 1999, tells us that [[J. E. Hanauer]] in his 1907 book ''Folklore of the Holy Land: Muslim, Christian and Jewish'' "mentioned a shrine in the village of [[Beit Jala]], beside [[Bethlehem]], which at the time was frequented by [[Christians]] who regarded it as the birthplace of George and some [[Jews]] who regarded it as the burial place of the [[Elijah|Prophet Elias]]. According to Hanauer, in his day the monastery was "a sort of madhouse. Deranged persons of all the three faiths are taken thither and chained in the court of the chapel, where they are kept for forty days on bread and water, the Eastern Orthodox priest at the head of the establishment now and then reading the Gospel over them, or administering a whipping as the case demands."<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.sacred-texts.com/asia/flhl/flhl12.htm|title= Folk-lore of the Holy Land, Moslem, Christian and Jewish | first = JE | last = Hanauer | year = 1907 |access-date=18 January 2007}}</ref> In the 1920s, according to [[Tawfiq Canaan]]'s ''Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine'', nothing seemed to have changed, and all three communities were still visiting the shrine and praying together."<ref name="Dalrymple">{{cite book |title= From the Holy Mountain: a journey among the Christians of the Middle East |first= William |last= Dalrymple |publisher= [[Henry Holt and Company]] - Owl Books |year= 1999 |isbn=978-0-80-505873-4 |oclc=37928466 |url= https://archive.org/details/fromholymountain00will |via= [[Internet Archive]] }}</ref>

Dalrymple himself visited the place in 1995. "I asked around in the [[Christian Quarter]] in [[Jerusalem]], and discovered that the place was very much alive. With all the greatest shrines in the Christian world to choose from, it seemed that when the local Arab Christians had a problem – an illness, or something more complicated – they preferred to seek the intercession of George in his grubby little shrine at Beit Jala rather than praying at the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in Jerusalem or the [[Church of the Nativity]] in [[Bethlehem]]."<ref name="Dalrymple" /> He asked the priest at the shrine "Do you get many Muslims coming here?" The priest replied, "We get hundreds! Almost as many as the Christian pilgrims. Often, when I come in here, I find Muslims all over the floor, in the aisles, up and down."<ref name="Dalrymple" /><ref>{{cite journal|title="Georgic" Cults and Saints of the Levant |author=H. S. Haddad|journal=Numen|year=1969|volume=16|issue=1|pages=21–39|doi=10.1163/156852769X00029|jstor=3269569}}</ref>

The ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' quotes G. A. Smith in his ''Historic Geography of the Holy Land'', p. 164, saying: "The Mahommedans who usually identify St. George with the prophet Elijah, at Lydda confound his legend with one about Christ himself. Their name for Antichrist is [[Dajjal]], and they have a tradition that Jesus will slay Antichrist by the gate of Lydda. The notion sprang from an ancient [[bas-relief]] of George and the Dragon on the Lydda church. But Dajjal may be derived, by a very common confusion between ''n'' and ''l'', from [[Dagon]], whose name [[Beit Dajan (disambiguation)|two neighbouring villages]] bear to this day, while one of the gates of Lydda used to be called the Gate of Dagon."<ref>{{Cite EB1911|page=737|wstitle=George, Saint|volume=11}}</ref>

Due to the [[Christianity and Druze|Christian influence on the Druze faith]], two [[Christian saints]] have become amongst the [[Druze]]'s most venerated figures: Saint George and Saint [[Elijah]].<ref name="Beaurepaire">{{cite book|title=Religious Interactions in Europe and the Mediterranean World: Coexistence and Dialogue from the 12th to the 20th Centuries|first=Pierre-Yves|last=Beaurepaire|year=2017|isbn=9781351722179|pages=310–314|publisher=Taylor & Francis}}</ref> Thus, in all the villages inhabited by Druze and Christians in central [[Mount Lebanon]] a Christian church or Druze [[maqam (shrine)|maqam]] is dedicated to either one of them.<ref name="Beaurepaire"/> According to scholar Ray Jabre Mouawad the Druzes appreciated the two saints for their bravery: [[Saint George and the Dragon|Saint George because he confronted the dragon]] and Saint Elijah because he competed with the pagan priests of [[Baal]] and won over them.<ref name="Beaurepaire"/> In both cases the explanations provided by Christians is that Druzes were attracted to [[Military saint|warrior saints]] that resemble their own militarized society.<ref name="Beaurepaire"/>

===Veneration in the Muslim world===
George is described as a prophetic figure in Islamic sources.<ref name=Littlefield /> George is venerated by some Christians and Muslims because of his composite personality combining several biblical, Quranic and other ancient mythical heroes.{{citation needed|date=April 2018}} In some sources he is identified with [[Elijah]] or Mar Elis, George or Mar Jirjus and in others as [[al-Khidr]]. The last epithet meaning the "green prophet", is common to Christian, Muslim, and Druze folk piety. Samuel Curtiss who visited an artificial cave dedicated to him where he is identified with Elijah, reports that childless Muslim women used to visit the shrine to pray for children. Per tradition, he was brought to his place of martyrdom in chains, thus priests of Church of St. George chain the sick especially the mentally ill to a chain for overnight or longer for healing. This is sought after by both Muslims and Christians.<ref name="Hovannisian">''Religion and Culture in Medieval Islam'' by Richard G. Hovannisian, Georges Sabagh (2000) {{ISBN|0-521-62350-2}}, Cambridge University Press, pp. 109–110</ref>

According to [[Elizabeth Anne Finn]]'s ''Home in the Holy land'' (1866):<ref>{{cite book | pages =[https://archive.org/details/homeinholylanda00finngoog/page/n64 46]–47|title=Home in the Holyland|author= Elizabeth Anne Finn|publisher=James Nisbet and Co | location = London|year= 1866|url=https://archive.org/details/homeinholylanda00finngoog }}</ref>

{{blockquote|St George killed the dragon in this country; and the place is shown close to [[Beirut|Beyroot]]. Many churches and convents are named after him. The church at Lydda is dedicated to George; so is [[St. George's Monastery, Al-Khader|a convent]] near [[Bethlehem]], and another small one just opposite the [[Jaffa Gate|Jaffa gate]], and others beside. The Arabs believe that George can restore mad people to their senses, and to say a person has been sent to St. George's is equivalent to saying he has been sent to a madhouse. It is singular that the Moslem Arabs adopted this veneration for St George, and send their mad people to be cured by him, as well as the Christians, but they commonly call him [[Khidr|El Khudder]] – The Green
– according to their favourite manner of using epithets instead of names. Why he should be called green, however, I cannot tell – unless it is from the colour of his horse. Gray horses are called green in Arabic.|author=|title=|source=}}

[[File:Coin of Kvirike III.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|The earliest numismatic depiction of St. George. Coin of [[Kvirike III]], [[Kingdom of Georgia]], {{Circa|1015}}]]

The mosque of Nabi Jurjis, which was restored by [[Timur]] in the 14th century, was located in Mosul and supposedly contained the tomb of George.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XMBAwAAQBAJ&q=saint+george+mosque+mosul&pg=PA525|title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places|date=5 March 2014|publisher=I.B. Tauris|page=525|isbn=978-1-134-25986-1}}</ref> It was however destroyed in July 2014 [[Islamic State occupation of Mosul|by the occupying]] [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]], who also destroyed the Mosque of the Prophet Sheeth ([[Seth]]) and the [[Mosque of the Prophet Yunus|Mosque of the Prophet Younis]] ([[Jonah]]). The militants claimed that such mosques have become places for apostasy instead of prayer.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/10994818/Islamic-militants-destroy-historic-14th-century-mosque-in-Mosul.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/iraq/10994818/Islamic-militants-destroy-historic-14th-century-mosque-in-Mosul.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Islamic militants destroy historic 14th century mosque in Mosul|newspaper=[[Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]|date=28 July 2014}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

George or ''[[Hazrat]]'' Jurjays was the patron saint of Mosul. Along with [[Theodosius the Cenobiarch|Theodosius]], he was revered by both Christian and Muslim communities of [[Jazira Region|Jazira]] and [[Anatolia]]. The wall paintings of [[Kırk Dam Altı Kilise]] at [[Belisırma]] dedicated to him are dated between 1282 and 1304. These paintings depict him as a mounted knight appearing between donors including a Georgian lady called Thamar and her husband, the Emir and Consul Basil, while the Seljuk Sultan [[Mesud II]] and Byzantine Emperor [[Andronikos II Palaiologos|Andronicus II]] are also named in the inscriptions.<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mUgyAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA402|title=Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan|author=Teresa Fitzherbert|editor=Linda Komaroff|chapter=Religious Diversity Under Ilkhanid Rule|date=5 October 2006|publisher=Brill|page=402|isbn=9789047418573}}</ref>

A [[maqam (shrine)|shrine]] attributed to prophet George can be found in [[Diyarbakır]], Turkey. [[Evliya Çelebi]] states in his ''[[Seyahatname]]'' that he visited the tombs of prophet [[Jonah]] and prophet George in the city.<ref>{{Cite web|title=EVLİYA ÇELEBİ NİN SEYAHATNAME SİNDE DİYARBAKIR* DIYARBAKIR IN EVLIYA ÇELEBI S SEYAHATNAME – PDF Ücretsiz indirin|url=https://docplayer.biz.tr/20638287-Evliya-celebi-nin-seyahatname-sinde-diyarbakir-diyarbakir-in-evliya-celebi-s-seyahatname.html|access-date=21 August 2020|website=docplayer.biz.tr}}</ref><ref>[https://www.tigrishaber.com/evliya-celebi-diyarbakirda-521yy.htm EVLİYA ÇELEBİ DİYARBAKIR’DA (Turkish)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210613121442/https://www.tigrishaber.com/evliya-celebi-diyarbakirda-521yy.htm |date=13 June 2021 }} ''TigrisHaber''. Posted 22 July 2014.</ref>

The reverence for Saint George, who is often identified with Al-Khidr, is deeply integrated into various aspects of Druze culture and religious practices.<ref name="Ferg 2020 197–200">{{cite book|title=Geography, Religion, Gods, and Saints in the Eastern Mediterranean|first=Erica|last=Ferg|year=2020 |isbn=9780429594496 |pages=197–200 |publisher=Routledge|quote=}}</ref> He is seen as a guardian of the [[Druze]] community and a symbol of their enduring faith and resilience. Additionally, Saint George is regarded as a protector and healer in Druze tradition.<ref name="Ferg 2020 197–200"/> The story of Saint George slaying the dragon is interpreted allegorically, representing the triumph of good over evil and the protection of the faithful from harm.<ref name="Ferg 2020 197–200"/>

===Feast days===
{{See also|Saint George in devotions, traditions and prayers}}
[[File:Dante Gabriel Rossetti - The Wedding of St George and Princess Sabra.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|''The Wedding of St George and Princess Sabra'' by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] (1857)]]
In the [[General Roman Calendar]], the feast of George is on 23 April. In the [[Tridentine calendar]] of 1568, it was given the [[ranking of liturgical days in the Roman Rite|rank]] of "Semidouble". In [[Pope Pius XII]]'s [[General Roman Calendar of Pope Pius XII|1955 calendar]] this rank was reduced to "Simple", and in [[Pope John XXIII]]'s [[General Roman Calendar of 1960|1960 calendar]] to a [[Commemoration (liturgy)|"Commemoration"]]. Since [[Pope Paul VI]]'s [[Mysterii Paschalis|1969 revision]], it appears as an [[Memorial (liturgy)|"optional memorial]]". In some countries such as England, the rank is higher – it is a Solemnity (Roman Catholic) or Feast ([[Church of England]]): if it falls between Palm Sunday and the Second Sunday of Easter inclusive, it is transferred to the Monday after the Second Sunday of Easter.<ref>The Divine Office: Table of Liturgical Days, Section I (RC) and Calendar, Lectionary and Collects (Church House Publishing 1997) p. 12 (C of E)</ref>

George is very much honoured by the Eastern Orthodox Church, wherein he is referred to as a "Great Martyr", and in [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] overall. His [[calendar of saints|major feast day]] is on 23 April (Julian calendar 23 April currently corresponds to Gregorian calendar 6 May). If, however, the feast occurs before [[Easter]], it is celebrated on [[Easter Monday]], instead. The Russian Orthodox Church also celebrates two additional feasts in honour of George. One is on 3 November, commemorating the [[consecration]] of a [[cathedral]] dedicated to him in Lydda during the reign of [[Constantine the Great]] (305–37). When the church was consecrated, the [[relic]]s of George were transferred there. The other feast is on 26 November for a church dedicated to him in [[Kyiv]], {{Circa|1054}}.

In [[Bulgaria]], George's day ({{langx|bg|Гергьовден}}) is celebrated on 6 May, when it is customary to slaughter and roast a lamb. George's day is also a [[public holiday]].

In [[Serbia]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], the [[Serbian Orthodox Church]] refers to George as ''Sveti Djordje'' (''Свети Ђорђе'') or ''Sveti Georgije'' (''Свети Георгије''). George's day (''Đurđevdan'') is celebrated on 6 May, and is a common [[slava (patron saint day)|''slava'' (patron saint day)]] among ethnic [[Serbs]].

In [[Egypt]], the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]] refers to George ({{Langx|cop|Ⲡⲓⲇⲅⲓⲟⲥ Ⲅⲉⲟⲣⲅⲓⲟⲥ or ⲅⲉⲱⲣⲅⲓⲟⲥ}}) as the "Prince of Martyrs" and celebrates his martyrdom on the 23rd of [[Paremhat]] of the [[Coptic calendar]], equivalent to 1 May.<ref>{{Cite web |title=St. George|url=https://www.copticchurch.net/synaxarium/saints/george.html#:~:text=In%20Egypt,%20the%20Copts%20call%20him,%20%22The%20Prince,them.%20The%20Greeks%20call%20him%20%22the%20Great%20Martyr%22. |access-date=20 July 2023 |website=CopticChurch.net}}</ref> The [[Copts]] also celebrate the consecration of the first church dedicated to him on the seventh of the month of Hatour of the Coptic calendar usually equivalent to 17 November.

In India, the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]], one of the oriental catholic churches ([[Eastern Catholic Churches]]), and [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church|Malankara Orthodox Church]] venerate George. The main pilgrim centres of the saint in India are at Aruvithura and Puthuppally in Kottayam District, [[Edathua]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://edathuapalli.org/church/ |title= St. George forane church Edathua-689573 |last= B |first= Sathish |publisher= Sathish B |date= 20 March 2008 |website= Edathuapalli |access-date= 5 February 2017 |archive-date= 7 August 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200807151233/http://edathuapalli.org/church/ |url-status= dead }}</ref> in [[Alappuzha]] district, and [[Edappally]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.edappallystgeorge.org/ |title= St. George forane church Edappally |publisher= St: George Church |date= 22 April 2014 |website= Edappally |access-date= 5 February 2017 |archive-date= 9 March 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180309205243/http://www.edappallystgeorge.org/ |url-status= dead }}</ref> in [[Ernakulam]] district of the southern state of [[Kerala]]. The saint is commemorated each year from 27 April to 14 May at Edathua.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Arrangements for Edathua church fete |url= http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/arrangements-for-edathua-church-fete/article8428550.ece|newspaper= The Hindu |location= Alappuzha |date= 3 April 2016 |access-date= 5 February 2017}}</ref> On 27 April after the flag hoisting ceremony by the parish priest, the statue of the saint is taken from one of the altars and placed at the extension of the church to be venerated by devotees till 14 May. The main feast day is 7 May, when the statue of the saint along with other saints is taken in procession around the church. Intercession to George of Edathua is believed to be efficacious in repelling snakes and in curing mental ailments. The sacred relics of George were brought to [[Antioch]] from [[Mardin]] in 900 and were taken to Kerala, India, from Antioch in 1912 by Mar Dionysius of Vattasseril and kept in the Orthodox seminary at Kundara, Kerala. H.H. Mathews II Catholicos had given the relics to St. George churches at Puthupally, Kottayam District, and Chandanappally, Pathanamthitta district.

George is [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|remembered]] in the [[Church of England]] with a [[Festival (Anglicanism)|Festival]] on 23 April.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=27 March 2021|website=The Church of England}}</ref>

Catholic Church feast days:
* 23 April – main commemoration<ref>{{Cite web |last=popadmin |date=25 March 2021 |title=23 April: Feast of Saint George – Prince of Peace Catholic Church & School |url=https://princeofpeacetaylors.org/23-april-feast-of-saint-george/ |access-date=19 August 2022 }}</ref>
* 24 April – commemoration in [[Catholic Church in Poland|Poland]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=24 kwietnia: św. Jerzego, męczennika |url=https://ordo.pallotyni.pl/index.php/mszal-rzymski/swieci-kwiecien/1369-24-kwietnia-sw-jerzego-meczennika |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=ordo.pallotyni.pl}}</ref> (23 April – commemoration of [[Saint Wojciech]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=23 kwietnia: św. Wojciecha, biskupa i męczennika, głównego patrona Polski |url=https://ordo.pallotyni.pl/index.php/mszal-rzymski/swieci-kwiecien/1367-23-kwietnia-sw-wojciecha-biskupa-i-meczennika-glownego-patrona-polski |access-date=19 August 2022 |website=ordo.pallotyni.pl}}</ref>
* 7 May – [[martyrdom]] in [[Lydda]]
* 20 June – commemoration of [[Translation (relic)|translation]] of [[Sacred Relic of Saint George|relics]] to [[Anchin Abbey]]

Eastern Orthodox Church feast days:<ref>{{Cite web |title=ГЕОРГИЙ ПОБЕДОНОСЕЦ – Древо |url=http://drevo-info.ru/articles/10133.html |access-date=17 July 2022 |website=drevo-info.ru |language=ru}}</ref>
* 27 January – Commemoration of the Miracle (deliverance of the island of [[Zakynthos]] from the plague) of the Great Martyr George in [[Zakynthos]] in 1689/1688. ([[Greek Orthodox Church]])<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 January 2013 |title=Ο Τροπαιοφόρος και η πανούκλα |url=https://www.imerazante.gr/2013/01/31/59443 |access-date=17 July 2022 |website=Εφημερίδα Ημέρα, Ζάκυνθος. |language=el}}</ref>
* 12 April – Gerontius from Cappadocia, [[martyr]], father of George, husband of Polychronia (c.290)<ref>{{Cite web |title=ГЕРОНТИЙ КАППАДОКИЙСКИЙ – Древо |url=http://drevo-info.ru/articles/13675435.html |access-date=17 July 2022 |website=drevo-info.ru |language=ru}}</ref>
* 23 April – Holy Glorious [[Great martyr|Great-martyr]], Victory-bearer and [[Wonderworker]] George (303) [<nowiki/>[[Death anniversary]]]
* 23 April – Polychronia from Cappadocia, martyr, mother of George, wife of Gerontius (303/304)<ref>{{Cite web |title=ПОЛИХРОНИЯ КАППАДОКИЙСКАЯ – Древо |url=http://drevo-info.ru/articles/13675436.html |access-date=17 July 2022 |website=drevo-info.ru |language=ru}}</ref>
* 6 May – [[George's Day in Spring]] [<nowiki/>[[Bulgarian Orthodox Church|BOC]] and [[Serbian Orthodox Church|SOC]]]
* 3 November – Dedication of the [[Church of Saint George and Mosque of Al-Khadr|Church of the Great-martyr George]] in [[Lydda]] (4th century)
* 10 November – Commemoration of the torture of Great-martyr George in 303 [<nowiki/>[[Georgian Orthodox Church|GOC]]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=КОЛЕСОВАНИЕ ВЕЛИКОМУЧЕНИКА ГЕОРГИЯ – Древо |url=http://drevo-info.ru/articles/4346.html |access-date=17 July 2022 |website=drevo-info.ru |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Воспоминание колесования великомученика Георгия Победоносца (Груз.) — Храм великомученицы Ирины |url=http://xn----7sbzarjpe3b6d.xn--p1ai/%d0%b2%d0%be%d1%81%d0%bf%d0%be%d0%bc%d0%b8%d0%bd%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%b8%d0%b5-%d0%ba%d0%be%d0%bb%d0%b5%d1%81%d0%be%d0%b2%d0%b0%d0%bd%d0%b8%d1%8f-%d0%b2%d0%b5%d0%bb%d0%b8%d0%ba%d0%be%d0%bc%d1%83%d1%87%d0%b5/ |access-date=17 July 2022 |language=ru-RU}}</ref>
* 23 November – Dedication of the [[Saint George's Day|Church of St. George]] at [[Kyiv]] (1051)

==Patronages==
{{Main|Patronages of Saint George}}


George is a highly celebrated saint in both the [[Catholic|Western]] and [[Eastern Christian]] churches, and many [[Patronages of Saint George]] exist throughout the world.<ref>{{citation | first = Graham | last = Seal | year = 2001 | title = Encyclopedia of folk heroes | isbn = 1-57607-216-9 | page = 85| publisher = Bloomsbury Academic }}.</ref>

George is the [[patron saint]] of England. His cross forms the national [[flag of England]], which overlaps with Scotland's St Andrew's flag Blue White Saltire Cross to establish the United Kingdom of Great Britain Union Flag, which is contained in other national flags containing the Union Flag, such as those of Australia and New Zealand. By the 14th century, the saint had been declared both the patron saint and the protector of the royal family.<ref>{{citation | first = Kathryn | last = Hinds | title = Medieval England | publisher = Marshall Cavendish | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-7614-0308-6 | page = 44}}.</ref>

[[File:Independence Day celebrations.jpg|thumb|right|Monument to Saint George on [[Freedom Square, Tbilisi]], Georgia]]

The [[Georgia (country)|country of Georgia]], where devotions to the saint date back to the fourth century, is not technically named after the saint, but is a well-attested [[back-formation]] of the English name. However, many towns and cities around the world are. George is one of the patron saints of Georgia. Exactly 365 Orthodox churches in Georgia are named after George according to the number of days in a year. According to legend, George was cut into 365 pieces after he fell in battle and every single piece was spread throughout the entire country.<ref name="Gabidzashvili">{{citation | last = Gabidzashvili | first = Enriko | year = 1991 | title = Saint George: In Ancient Georgian Literature | publisher = Armazi – 89 | place = Tbilisi, Georgia}}.</ref><ref>{{citation | first = FJ | last = Foakes-Jackson | title = A History of the Christian Church | publisher = Cosimo | year = 2005 | isbn = 1-59605-452-2 | page = 556}}.</ref><ref>{{citation | first = Antony | last = Eastmond | title = Royal Imagery in Medieval Georgia | publisher = Penn State Press | year = 1998 | isbn = 0-271-01628-0 | page = 119}}.</ref>

George is the patron saint of [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saint George, Patron Saint of Ethiopia |url=https://www.horniman.ac.uk/story/saint-george-patron-saint-of-ethiopia/ |access-date=4 June 2022 |website=Horniman Museum and Gardens }}</ref> He is also the patron saint of the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian Orthodox Church]]; George slaying the dragon is one of the most frequently used subjects of [[icon]]s in the church.'''<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jWLOtldQzOEC&q=saint+george+dragon+ethiopia+church&pg=PA2|title=The Origins of the New Churches Movement in Southern Ethiopia: 1927–1944|last=Fargher|first=Brian L.|date=1996|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-9004106611}}</ref>'''

George is also one of the patron saints of the Mediterranean islands of [[Malta]] and [[Gozo]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Vella|first1=George Francis|title=St George, the patron saint of Gozo|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20090430/letters/st-george-the-patron-saint-of-gozo.254880|website=Times of Malta|date=30 April 2009 |access-date=26 January 2017}}
{{cite web|title=The patron saint and protector of Gozo|url=http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20090416/letters/the-patron-saint-and-protector-of-gozo.252979|website=Times of Malta|date=16 April 2009 |access-date=26 January 2017}}</ref> In a battle between the Maltese and the [[Moors]], George was alleged to have been seen with [[Saint Paul]] and [[Saint Agata]], protecting the Maltese. George is the protector of the island of Gozo and the patron of Gozo's largest city, [[Victoria, Gozo|Victoria]]. The [[St. George's Basilica, Malta|St. George's Basilica]] in Victoria is dedicated to him.<ref>{{citation | first = Arthur | last = de Bles | year = 2004 | title = How to Distinguish the Saints in Art | isbn = 1-4179-0870-X | page = 86}}.</ref>

[[File:Britain Needs You at Once - WWI recruitment poster - Parliamentary Recruiting Committee Poster No. 108.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|English recruitment poster from World War I, featuring George and the Dragon]]

Devotions to George in Portugal date back to the 12th century. [[Nuno Álvares Pereira]] attributed the victory of the Portuguese in the [[battle of Aljubarrota]] in 1385 to George. During the reign of [[John I of Portugal]] (1357–1433), George became the patron saint of Portugal and the King ordered that the saint's image on the horse be carried in the ''[[Feast of Corpus Christi|Corpus Christi]]'' procession. The flag of George (white with red cross) was also carried by the Portuguese troops and hoisted in the fortresses, during the 15th century. "Portugal and Saint George" became the battle cry of the Portuguese troops, being still today the battle cry of the [[Portuguese Army]], with simply "Saint George" being the battle cry of the [[Portuguese Navy]].<ref>{{citation | title = Daily Life in Portugal in the Late Middle Ages | first1 = AH | last1 = de Oliveira Marques | first2 = Vítor | last2 = André | first3 = SS | last3 = Wyatt | publisher = University of Wisconsin Press | year = 1971 | isbn = 0-299-05584-1 | page = 216}}.</ref>

Devotions to Saint George in Brazil was influenced by the Portuguese colonisation. George is the unofficial patron saint of the city of [[Rio de Janeiro]] (title officially attributed to [[Saint Sebastian]]) and of the city of São Jorge dos Ilhéus (Saint George of Ilhéus). Additionally, George is the patron saint of Scouts and of the Cavalry of the Brazilian Army. In May 2019, he was made official as the patron saint of the [[State of Rio de Janeiro]], next to Saint Sebastian.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://extra.globo.com/noticias/rio/governador-sanciona-lei-que-torna-sao-jorge-sao-sebastiao-padroeiros-do-estado-23649222.html| title = Governador sanciona lei que torna São Jorge e São Sebastião padroeiros do estado| date = 8 May 2019}}</ref> George is also revered in several Afro-Brazilian religions, such as [[Umbanda]], where it is syncretized in the form of the [[orisha]] [[Ogun]]. However, the connection of George with the Moon is purely Brazilian, with a strong influence of African culture, and in no way related to the European saint. Tradition says that the spots at the Moon's surface represent the miraculous saint, his horse and his sword slaying the dragon and ready to defend those who seek his help.<ref>Santos, Georgina Silva dos.Ofício e sangue: a Irmandade de São Jorge e a Inquisição na Lisboa moderna.Lisboa: Colibri; Portimão: Instituto de Cultura Ibero-Atlântica, 2005</ref>

George, is also the patron saint of the region of [[Aragon]], in Spain, where his feast day is celebrated on 23 April and is known as "Aragon Day", ''or 'Día de Aragón''' in Spanish. He became the patron saint of the former [[Kingdom of Aragon]] and [[Crown of Aragon]] when King [[Pedro I of Aragon]] won the [[Battle of Alcoraz]] in 1096. Legend has it that victory eventually fell to the Christian armies when George appeared to them on the battlefield, helping them secure the conquest of the city of [[Huesca]] which had been under the Muslim control of the [[Taifa]] of [[Saragossa|Zaragoza]]. The battle, which had begun two years earlier in 1094, was long and arduous, and had also taken the life of King Pedro's own father, King [[Sancho Ramirez]]. With the Aragonese spirits flagging, it is said that George descending from heaven on his charger and bearing a dark red cross, appeared at the head of the Christian cavalry leading the knights into battle. Interpreting this as a sign of protection from God, the Christian militia returned emboldened to the battle field, more energised than ever, convinced theirs was the banner of the one true faith. Defeated, the [[moors]] rapidly abandoned the battlefield. After two years of being locked down under siege, Huesca fell and King Pedro made his triumphal entry into the city. To celebrate this victory, the cross of St. George was adopted as the personal coat of arms of Huesca and Aragon, in honour of their saviour. After the fall of Huesca, King Pedro aided the military leader and nobleman, Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar, otherwise known as [[El Cid]], with a coalition army from Aragon in the long conquest of the [[Kingdom of Valencia]].

Tales of King Pedro's success at Huesca and in leading his expedition of armies with El Cid against the Moors, under the auspices of George on his standard, spread quickly throughout the realm and beyond the Crown of Aragon, and Christian armies throughout Europe quickly began adopting George as their protector and patron, during all subsequent Crusades to the Holy Lands. By 1117, the military order of Templars adopted the Cross of St. George as a simple, unifying sign for international Christian militia embroidered on the left hand side of their tunics, placed above the heart.

The [[Saint George's Cross|Cross of St. George]], also known in Aragon as The [[Cross of Alcoraz]], continues to emblazon the flags of all of Aragon's provinces.

The association of St. George with chivalry and noblemen in Aragon continued through the ages. Indeed, even the author [[Miguel de Cervantes]], in his book on the adventures of [[Don Quixote]], also mentions the [[jousting]] events that took place at the festival of St. George in [[Saragossa|Zaragoza]] in Aragon where one could gain international renown in winning a joust against any of the knights of Aragon.

In Valencia, Catalonia, the Balearics, Malta, Sicily and Sardinia, the origins of the veneration of St. George go back to their shared history as territories under the [[Crown of Aragon]], thereby sharing the same legend.

One of the highest civil distinctions awarded in Catalonia is the [[Creu de Sant Jordi Award|St. George's Cross]] (''Creu de Sant Jordi''). The [[Sant Jordi Awards]] have been awarded in Barcelona since 1957.

Saint George (''Sant Jordi'' in [[Catalan language|Catalan]]) is also the patron saint of [[Catalonia]]. His cross appears in many buildings and local flags, including the [[flag of Barcelona]], the Catalan capital. A Catalan variation to the traditional legend places George's life story as having occurred in the town of [[Montblanc, Tarragona|Montblanc]], near [[Tarragona]].

In 1469, the [[Order of St. George (Habsburg-Lorraine)]] was founded in Rome by [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Friedrich III of Habsburg]] in the presence of [[Pope Paul II]] in honour of Saint George. The order was continued and promoted by his son, [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Maximilian of Habsburg]]. The later history of the order was eventful, in particular the order was dissolved by Nazi Germany. Only after the fall of the Iron Curtain and the collapse of communism in Central and Eastern Europe was the order reactivated as a European association in association with Saint George by the [[Habsburg]] family.<ref>Manfred Hollegger "Maximilian I." (2005), p 150.</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.georgsorden.at/geschichte/?L=1| title = History of the St. Georgs-Orden}}</ref><ref>Roman Procházka "Österreichisches Ordenshandbuch" (1979), p 274.</ref>

==Arms and flag==
{{Main|Saint George's Cross}}
[[File:Flag of England.svg|thumb|upright|George's cross]]

It became fashionable in the 15th century, with the full development of classical heraldry, to provide [[attributed arms]] to saints and other historical characters from the pre-heraldic ages. The widespread attribution to George of the red cross on a white field in Western art – "[[Saint George's Cross]]" – probably first arose in [[Genoa]], which had adopted this image for [[Genoa#Flag|their flag]] and George as their patron saint in the 12th century. A ''vexillum beati Georgii'' is mentioned in the Genovese annals for the year 1198, referring to a red flag with a depiction of George and the dragon. An illumination of this flag is shown in the annals for the year 1227. The Genovese flag with the red cross was used alongside this "George's flag", from at least 1218, and was known as the ''insignia cruxata comunis Janue'' ("cross ensign of the commune of Genoa"). The flag showing the saint himself was the city's principal war flag, but the flag showing the plain cross was used alongside it in the 1240s.<ref>Aldo Ziggioto, "Genova", in ''Vexilla Italica'' 1, XX (1993); Aldo Ziggioto, "Le Bandiere degli Stati Italiani", in ''Armi Antiche'' 1994, cited after [http://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/it-genoa.html Pier Paolo Lugli, 18 July 2000] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029062343/https://www.crwflags.com/fotw/flags/it-genoa.html |date=29 October 2021 }} on ''[[Flags of the World (website)|Flags of the World]]''.</ref>

In 1348, [[Edward III of England]] chose George as the patron saint of his [[Order of the Garter]], and also took to using a red-on-white cross in the hoist of his [[Royal Standards of England|Royal Standard]].

The term "Saint George's cross" was at first associated with any plain [[Christian cross variants#Greek cross|Greek cross]] touching the edges of the field (not necessarily red on white).<ref>William Woo Seymour, ''The Cross in Tradition, History and Art'', 1898, [https://archive.org/stream/crossintraditi00seym#page/362/mode/2up/search/George p. 363]</ref> [[Thomas Fuller]] in 1647 spoke of "the plain or St George's cross" as "the mother of all the others" (that is, the other [[Crosses in heraldry|heraldic crosses]]).<ref>Fuller, ''A Supplement tu the Historie of the Holy Warre'' (Book V), 1647, chapter 4.</ref>

==Iconography==
[[File:Saint Georges (musée byzantin et chrétien, Athènes) (30604158222).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Byzantine]] icon of George, [[Athens]], Greece]]

George is most commonly depicted in early icons, [[mosaic]]s, and [[fresco]]s wearing armour contemporary with the depiction, executed in gilding and silver colour, intended to identify him as a [[Roman army|Roman soldier]]. Particularly after the [[Fall of Constantinople]] and George's association with the [[crusades]], he is often portrayed mounted upon a [[White horse (mythology)|white horse]]. Thus, a 2003 Vatican stamp (issued on the anniversary of the Saint's death) depicts an armoured George atop a white horse, killing the dragon.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.vaticanstate.va/EN/Services/Philatelic_and_Numismatic_Office/_listing_emissioni--id--Shop%20Francobolli--cat--2003.htm |title=Vatican stamps |publisher=Vaticanstate.va |access-date=23 April 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111001194032/http://www.vaticanstate.va/EN/Services/Philatelic_and_Numismatic_Office/_listing_emissioni--id--Shop%20Francobolli--cat--2003.htm |archive-date=1 October 2011 }}</ref>

Eastern Orthodox iconography also permits George to ride a black horse, as in a Russian icon in the British museum collection.<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/publications/online_research_catalogues/russian_icons/catalogue_of_russian_icons/the_british_museum_collection/british_museum_collection_2.aspx| title = Bobrov, Yury. "A catalogue of the Russian icons in the British Museum", The British Museum}}</ref>
In the south Lebanese village of [[Mieh Mieh]], the Saint George Church for Melkite Catholics commissioned for its 75th jubilee in 2012 (under the guidance of Mgr Sassine Gregoire) the only icons in the world portraying the whole life of George, as well as the scenes of his torture and martyrdom (drawn in eastern iconographic style).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://noursat.tv/ar/news-details.php?id=2996|title=احتفالات بمناسبة اليوبيل الماسي لبناء كنيسة مار جاورجيوس – المية ومية|website=Noursat|access-date=11 August 2019}}</ref>

George may also be portrayed with [[Saint Demetrius]], another early [[soldier saint]]. When the two saintly warriors are together and mounted upon horses, they may resemble earthly manifestations of the archangels [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]] and [[Gabriel]]. Eastern traditions distinguish the two as George rides a white horse and Demetrius a red horse (the red [[pigment]] may appear black if it has bituminized). George can also be identified by his spearing a dragon, whereas Demetrius may be spearing a human figure, representing [[Maximian]].

===Gallery===
{{For|equestrian depictions|Saint George and the Dragon#Iconography}}
{{Commons|Saint George structured art gallery}}

;Eastern
<gallery>
File:Tetarteron sb1975.jpg|[[Tetarteron]] of [[Manuel I Komnenos]] (12th century) showing a bust of George
File:Novgorod George.jpg|Main icon of Yuriev Monastery in Novgorod (c. 1130)
File:Святой Георгий Победоносец, фреска 12 века, Старая Ладога.jpg|A 12th-century depiction of Saint George in [[St. George's Church, Staraya Ladoga|a church]] at the Staraya Ladoga Fortress of [[Staraya Ladoga]]
File:LifeofStGeorge.JPG|Scenes from the life of George, [[Kremikovtsi Monastery]], Bulgaria (15th century)
File:St.George rescuing the emperor's daughter.JPG|A plaque, on which is represented George rescuing the emperor's daughter (15th century)
File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM De slag bij Adua TMnr 5956-2.jpg|"[[Ethiopian Empire]] forces, assisted by St George (top), win the [[Battle of Adwa]] against [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]]. Painted 1965–75."
</gallery>

;Western
<gallery>
File:Saint George Knight in Vies de Saints Manuscrit 588 f. 113 c1290-1310.jpg|George as a knight, miniature from a ms. of ''Vies de Saints'', c. 1290–1310 (Bibliothèque Sainte-Geneviève, Manuscrit 588)
File:St George BNF Fr 241 101v.jpg|Miniature of George and the Dragon, ms. of the ''[[Golden Legend|Legenda Aurea]]'', dated 1348 (BNF Français 241, fol. 101v.)
File:St George Royal19BXVII 109.jpg|Miniature of George and the Dragon, ms. of the'' Legenda Aurea'', Paris, 1382 (BL Royal 19 B XVII, f. 109).
File:1480 Setzschild mit Heiligem Georg anagoria.JPG|George on a small pavise (Nuremberg, c. 1480)
File:Tübingen - Stiftskirche Sankt Georg 52329.jpg|George as a martyr: [[St. George's Collegiate Church, Tübingen|St. George's Collegiate Church]] in [[Tübingen]] (15th century)
File:Saint George - Carlo Crivelli.jpg|George by [[Carlo Crivelli]]
File:Saint Georg – Master of Sierentz.jpg|St.George by the [[Master of Sierentz]]. (1440–1450)
File:Cathedral Fribourg vitrail Georg Michael Anna Maria 11.jpg|Stained-glass (by [[Józef Mehoffer|J. Mehoffer]]), [[Fribourg Cathedral|Fribourg cathedral]]
File:Cathedral Fribourg vitrail Anna Maria 03.jpg|Stained-glass (by [[Józef Mehoffer|J. Mehoffer]], [[Fribourg Cathedral|Fribourg cathedral]])
File:Чудо-Георгия-о-Змие-(икона).jpg|St. George in the Orthodox Icon
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[Moors and Christians of Alcoy]], an international historical festival dedicated to George in [[Alcoy, Spain|Alcoy]] ([[Province of Alicante|Alicante]]), Spain
* [[Uastyrdzhi]], Ossetian name for George
* [[Church of Saint George (Lod)]]
* [[Sacred Relic of Saint George]]

==References==
{{Reflist|group=note}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book |last1=Lampinen |first1=Antti |title=Seafaring and Mobility in the Late Antique Mediterranean |last2=Mataix-Ferrándiz |first2=Emilia |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2022 |isbn=9781350201712}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cavallo |first=Guglielmo |title=The Byzantines |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1997 |isbn=9780226097923}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|chapter = [[s:Ælfric's Lives of Saints/14geo eng|Of Saint George]]|title = Ælfric's Lives of Saints|year = 1881| publisher = London, Pub. for the Early English text society, by N. Trübner & co.|author=Ælfric of Eynsham|author-link=Ælfric of Eynsham}}
* Brook, E.W., 1925. ''Acts of Saint George'' in series ''Analecta Gorgiana'' 8 (Gorgias Press).
* Burgoyne, Michael H. 1976. ''A Chronological Index to the Muslim Monuments of Jerusalem''. In ''The Architecture of Islamic Jerusalem''. Jerusalem: The British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem.
* Gabidzashvili, Enriko. 1991. ''Saint George: In Ancient Georgian Literature''. Armazi – 89: Tbilisi, Georgia.
* Good, Jonathan, 2009. ''The Cult of Saint George in Medieval England'' (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press).
* Loomis, C. Grant, 1948. ''White Magic, An Introduction to the Folklore of Christian Legend'' (Cambridge: Medieval Society of America)
* Natsheh, Yusuf. 2000. "Architectural survey", in ''Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917''. Edited by Sylvia Auld and Robert Hillenbrand (London: Altajir World of Islam Trust) pp. 893–899.
* Whatley, E. Gordon, editor, with Anne B. Thompson and Robert K. Upchurch, 2004. ''St. George and the Dragon in the South English Legendary (East Midland Revision, c. 1400)'' Originally published in ''Saints' Lives in Middle English Collections'' (Kalamazoo, Michigan: Medieval Institute Publications) ([http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/whgeodintro.htm on-line introduction])
* George Menachery, ''Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India''. Vol.II Trichur – 73.

==External links==
{{Commons|Saint George}}
{{NSRW Poster|George, St.|Saint George}}
* [https://archive.org/details/st-george-passio-original-apocryphal-form-2020 English translation of the 5th century Latin legend] at the [[Internet Archive]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070429070715/https://www.stgeorgesholiday.com/about-us/saint-george/ ''St. George and the Dragon'', free illustrated book based on 'The Seven Champions' by Richard Johnson (1596)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060218063758/http://archnet.org/library/sites/one-site.tcl?site_id=5549 Archnet]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060313162521/http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/dragons/6.html Saint George and the Dragon links] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20050610083809/http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/dragons/38.html pictures] (more than 125), from [https://web.archive.org/web/20050526223744/http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/dragons/ Dragons in Art and on the Web]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080316102135/http://www.catholic-forum.com/saints/golden184.htm Story of Saint George from The Golden Legends]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20020802231548/http://www.pinetreeweb.com/stgeorge.htm Saint George and the Boy Scouts], including a woodcut of a Scout on horseback slaying a dragon
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20040602002709/http://www.digitas.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/wiki/ken/SaintGeorge A prayer for St George's Day]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050320173756/http://www.niranamchurch.com/StGeorge.asp St. George]
* [http://www.lib.rochester.edu/camelot/teams/whgeodintro.htm St. George and the Dragon: An Introduction]
* [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=101184 Greatmartyr, Victory-bearer and Wonderworker George] Orthodox [[icon]] and [[synaxarion]] for 23 April
* [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=103161 Dedication of the Church of the Greatmartyr George in Lydia] Icon and synaxarion for 3 November
* [http://ocafs.oca.org/FeastSaintsViewer.asp?SID=4&ID=1&FSID=103398 Dedication of the Church of the Greatmartyr George at Kiev] Icon and synaxarion for 26 November
* [https://archive.today/20130107193940/http://www.pht.eoldal.hu/fotoalbum/palast-nevezetessegei/az-1898-ban-epult-templom/96 Saint George in the church] in [[Plášťovce]], ([[:hu:Palást (település)|Palást]]) in [[Slovakia]]
* [http://www.puthuppallypally.in/ Famous Georgian Pilgrim Center in India St. George Orthodox Church Puthuppally, Kerala, India]
* [http://cas.podomatic.com/entry/index/2010-04-22T20_03_59-07_00/ Hail George] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130216191656/http://cas.podomatic.com/entry/index/2010-04-22T20_03_59-07_00 |date=16 February 2013 }} Radio webcast explains how Saint George came to be confused with some Afro-Brazilian deities
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20141203064602/http://blog.catholicfaithstore.com/blog/2013/04/25/the-feast-of-st-george/ Blog Article on the Feast of Saint George] The feast of Saint George is 23 April – About that Dragon ...
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/george.html St. George, Martyr] at the [http://www.christianiconography.info/ Christian Iconography] web site.
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/goldenLegend/george.htm Of St. George, Martyr] from Caxton's translation of the Golden Legend

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Folcwin

2024-11-12T19:31:04Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:French Roman Catholic saints using HotCat

{{Short description|Frankish abbot and cleric}}
{{similar names| Folkwin}}
Saint '''Folcwin''' or '''Folcuin''' ({{langx|la|Folquinus, Folcwinus, Folcvinus}};<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_jzYiF_ZvsUC&dq=%22folcvinus%22&pg=PA930|title=Sanctorum conciliorum et decretorum collectio nova, seu Collectionis conciliorum a P. P. Philippo Labbeo et Gabriele Cossartio,... primum vulgatae, dein emendatioris et amplioris opera Nicolai Coleti,... Venetiis recusae, supplementum, in quo additamenta, variantes, lectiones, emendationes ad concilia veneto-labbeana, nova itidem concilia ac decreta permulta exhibentur. Omnia ex editis et mss. codicibus... collegit... additisque praefationibus, notis... illustravit Joannes Dominicus Mansi,...|last=Mansi|first=Gian Domenico|date=1748-01-01|publisher=ex typographia J. Salani et V. Junctinii|language=la}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://monasterium.net/mom/AbteiSanctGallen/39411fee-0fff-4e52-ad13-73ef457f4e5c/charter|title=Charter AbteiSanctGallen{{!}}39411fee-0fff-4e52-ad13-73ef457f4e5c - Monasterium.net|website=monasterium.net|access-date=2017-02-06}}</ref> [[Old Dutch]]: ''*Folkwin''; French: Folquin) (d. 15 December 855) was a [[Franks|Frankish]] abbot, cleric, and [[Bishop of Thérouanne]] (appointed 816).

==Biography==
Folcwin was born to [[Hieronymus, son of Charles Martel]], and his wife Ercheswinda (Ermentrudis). He was appointed [[bishop of Thérouanne]] in 816 and confirmed by [[Louis the Pious]]; he was consecrated in 817 by the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Reims|Archbishop of Reims]], likely [[Ebbo]]. He seems to have remained loyal to Louis. Folcwin participated regularly in synods, including the synods of [[Ingelheim am Rhein]] (840), Paris (846/7), [[Quierzy]] (849), and Soissons (853). [[Charles the Bald]] appointed him as [[Missus dominicus]] for one of the twelve West-Frankish ''missatica'', one which apparently overlapped mostly with his diocese.<ref name=folcuin/>

Folcwin was closely tied to the [[Abbey of Saint Bertin]]; in 843 he returned the relics of [[Audomar]] (the founder of Bertin) to Sithiu (now [[Saint-Omer]]). Archbishop [[Hincmar]] of Reims asked Folwin for relics for the dedication of the altar in [[Reims Cathedral]]; with the Normans threatening, Folcwin sent off relics of Ss [[Bertin]] and [[Winnoc]] for security reasons.<ref name=folcuin>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Folcuin. 1. F. |first=Geert |last=Berings |encyclopedia=[[Lexikon des Mittelalters]] |volume=4 |at=607/608 |year=1999}}</ref>

Folcuin died on 15 December 855 during an official visit to [[Esquelbecq]]. During his lifetime Charles the Bald seems to have already tried to forcefully appoint a successor; after his death, Hincmar made every effort to have his successor be appointed through a process originating in Thérouanne. Folcuin's remains were elevated on 16 November 928, and [[Translation (relic)|translated]] in 1181. The earliest evidence of a cult is found in the work of his relative, [[Folcuin]], [[Lobbes Abbey|abbot of Lobbes]],<ref name=folcuin/> who produced the ''Gesta abbatum Sithiensium'' (or ''Gesta abbatum Sancti Bertini'', "Deeds of the Abbots of Saint-Bertin"), a combination of [[chronicle]] and [[cartulary]]. Folcuin incorporates numerous charters from the abbey's archives into his historical narrative, which begins with the abbey's foundation around 650 and continues to 961/2. It was composed at the request of the lay abbot, [[Adalolf]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of the Medieval Chronicle]] |doi = 10.1163/2213-2139_emc_SIM_01716|title = Folcuin of St. Bertin}}</ref>

Evidence from a hagiographical manuscript from the time of abbot Odbert (986-1007) shows that Folcwin, along with [[Silvin of Auchy]] (whose body was in Saint-Bertin, after [[Arnulf I, Count of Flanders|Arnulf I]] stole it from [[Auchy-lès-Hesdin|Auchy-les-Moines]]), Bertin, and Winnoc, was "fundamental to [the] institutional identity" of the monks in Saint-Bertin. Folcwin's name is found in liturgical manuals from the area by the beginning of the eleventh century.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Crises of Cenobitism: Abbatial Leadership and Monastic Competition in Late Eleventh-Century Flanders |first=Steven |last=Vanderputten |journal=[[The English Historical Review]] |year=2012 |volume=127 |issue=525 |pages=259-284 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41473996}}</ref>

He is venerated in the [[Roman Catholic Church]] on 14 December,<ref name=folcuin/> as well as the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].

The first part of the [[Latin]] [[cartulary]] of [[Abbey of Saint Bertin|St Bertin]]'s is credited to St Folquin.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k29276b |title=Collection des cartulaires de France ; 3. Cartulaire de l'abbaye de Saint-Bertin. Appendice au cartulaire de l'abbaye de Saint-Bertin. Tome 3 |publisher=M. Guérard |page=49 |year=1840}}</ref> A review of his life was written during the next century by his grand nephew [[Folcuin]], abbot of Lobbes, on request of Walter, abbot of Saint-Bertin.

== See also ==
* [[Saint-Folquin]], a commune in the Pas-de-Calais department named for Folcwin

== References ==
{{Reflist}}


{{Subject bar |portal1= Saints |portal2= Biography |portal3= Christianity |portal4= Germany}}
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[[Category:French Roman Catholic saints]]
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Euverte d'Orléans

2024-11-12T19:30:36Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:French Roman Catholic saints using HotCat

{{Short description|Early Christian bishop}}

{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix= Saint
| name = Euverte
| honorific_suffix= [[Bishop of Orléans]]
| image = File:Bussy Saint Euverte.jpg
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption = Statue of Saint Euverte in the Church of Bussy-le-Repos
| titles =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = 4th century
| birth_place =
| home_town =
| residence =
| death_date = {{circa|340}}
| death_place =
| venerated_in =
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day = 7 September
| attributes =
| patronage =
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
| suppressed_by =
| influences =
| influenced =
| tradition =
| major_works =
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}}

'''Euverte d'Orléans''' or '''St. Euverte''' (died 7 September in [[Orléans]]) also known as '''Evurtius''', '''Evortius''' or '''Eortius''', was the fourth [[Bishop of Orléans]] in the 4th century.

==Life==
According to [[Alban Butler]], Euverte flourished during the reign of [[Constantine the Great]].{{sfn|Butler|1799|p=72}} Euverte was a subdeacon of the Church of Rome. He came to Gaul and was elected bishop of Orléans. He was concerned about the spiritual life of his people in a difficult time.<ref>[https://nominis.cef.fr/contenus/saint/8114/Saint-Euverte.html "Saint Euverte, évêque d'Orléans (IVe siècle)", Nominis]</ref> He chose his [[Coadjutor bishop|coadjutor]], [[Aignan of Orleans]] as his successor.<ref>Monks of Ramsgate. "Anianus". ''Book of Saints'', 1921. {{PD-notice}}</ref>

His name is famous in the ancient western Martyrologies, but his history is of no authority. The day (7 September) was transmitted by martyrologies in order to celebrate his anniversary. Three translations have been made of his relics. A famous abbey at Orleans bears his name. The first ''[[Aignan of Orleans|Life of Saint Aignan]]'', written between 474 and 530, is the oldest text attributing the construction of a Saint Euverte cathedral at Orléans.

==Sarum entry==
The Martyrology of the Use of Sarum includes the following.
{{blockquote|At Orlyauce the deposicyon of saynt Eurcy a confessour, that (as is wryten in his legend) was the fyrst subdeacon of the chirche of Rome, & after by a myracle in a sygne of a dove, he was electe bisshop of the same cite.<ref>[https://macsphere.mcmaster.ca/bitstream/11375/16149/2/Sarum%20Martirology%20English.pdf ''Sarum Martirology'', (Richard Whitford, ed.) William Renwick, mmxii]</ref>}}

==Veneration==
Euverte is a patron saint of the city of Orleans.<ref>"La Translation de saint Euverte à Orléans, un saint mentionné dans le Guide du pèlerin", David Parou Saint-Jacques Foundation</ref>

==Legacy==
Sainte Croix - Saint Euverte primary school is located in Orleans.<ref>[http://www.scse.fr/ Sainte Croix - Saint Euverte School]</ref>

==Citation==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O0BOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA72 |accessdate=2021-08-19
|last=Butler |first=Alban |title=The Lives of the Primitive Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints: Compiled from Original Monuments and Other Authentic Records
|volume=9 |publisher=J. Moir |year=1799}}
*{{cite book |title=Histoire d'Orléans et de son terroir |date=1982–1983 |publisher=Horvath |location=Roanne/Le Coteau [France] |isbn=2-7171-0276-0}}
*{{cite book |title=La fondation des églises locales, le culte des saints et des reliques : [Actes du] colloque d'Orléans, 19-20 octobre 2000 |date=2001 |publisher=Rencontre avec le patrimoine religieux |location=Le Blanc |isbn=2-911948-15-7}}
*{{cite book |last1=Schmitt |first1=Jean-Claude |title=Les rythmes au Moyen Âge |date=2016|publisher=Gallimard |location=[Paris] |isbn=978-2-07-017769-1}}
*{{cite book |last1=Duchesne |first1=Louis (1843-1922) Auteur du texte |title=Fastes épiscopaux de l'ancienne Gaule. Provinces du Sud-Est / par L. Duchesne,... |date=1907–1910 |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k107955h?rk=42918;4 |language=EN}}
{{refend}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Euverte d'Orleans}}
[[Category:French Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian saints]]

Callinica and Basilissa

2024-11-12T19:30:14Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Ancient Roman saints using HotCat

{{Short description|Two Christian martyrs}}
Saints '''Callinica''' and '''Basilissa''' (died 252) were two Christian [[martyr]]s. They were "wealthy matrons"<ref name="antiochian">{{Cite web|title=St. Callinica and St. Basilissa of Rome|url=http://ww1.antiochian.org/node/17558|access-date=19 July 2020|publisher=Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese|location=Englewood, New Jersey}}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> who helped imprisoned Christians by providing them with food, money, and other necessities.<ref name="saintlywomen">{{Cite book|last=Dunbar|first=Agnes B.C.|title=A Dictionary of Saintly Women|publisher=George Bell & Sons|year=1901|volume=1|location=London|pages=141}}</ref> They were "arrested for their generosity"<ref name="antiochian" /> and beheaded by the sword in Rome in 252, probably during the persecution conducted by Roman emperor [[Decius]].<ref name="antiochian" /><ref name="bookofsaints">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hpfmCgAAQBAJ|title=The Book of Saints|publisher=Aeterna Press|year=2015|location=London}}</ref> Basilissa was described as "a rich lady of [[Galatia]] in Asia Minor, was distinguished for her charitable zeal".<ref name="bookofsaints" /> Callinica was her helper in her good works.<ref name="antiochian" /> Callinica was arrested first; her testimony led to Basilissa's arrest.<ref name="saintlywomen" /> Hagiographer Agnes Dunbar said this about them: "Both avowing their belief in Christ, and steadfastly refusing to sacrifice to the idols, they were tortured and beheaded".<ref name="saintlywomen" /> Their feast day is March 22.<ref name="antiochian"/>

Dunbar also states that some sources refer to Callinica as a man ("Callinicus"), and that other sources say that the two lived during the reign of the Roman emperor [[Trajan]] 100–150 years earlier. They also say that the women were part of the five companions of Trajan's daughter Drozella (also known as Drosis). Another source, also according to Dunbar, states that Callinica and Basilissa were companions of [[Birillus|Saint Birillus]] of Antioch, who was the first bishop of [[Catania|Cantania]] in [[Sicily]], appointed by [[Saint Peter]].<ref name="saintlywomen" />

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Ancient Roman saints]]
[[Category:3rd-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:3rd-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:Female saints]]
[[Category:Saints duos]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs executed by decapitation]]
[[Category:Groups of Christian martyrs of the Roman era]]

{{saint-stub}}

Caesarea (Mazaca)

2024-11-12T19:29:37Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat (This is a city with some saint, not human)

{{Short description|Ancient city in Asia-Minor, capital of the Kingdom of Cappadocia}}
{{Infobox ancient site
|name = Caesarea
|native_name = Mazaca
|alternate_name =
|image = Fortress of Kayseri 01.jpg
|alt =
|caption = [[Kayseri Castle]]
|map_type = Turkey #Europe
|map_alt =
|map_size = 275
|relief=yes
|coordinates = {{coord|38|43|21|N|35|29|15|E|display=inline,title}}
|location = [[Kayseri]], [[Kayseri Province]], [[Turkey]]
|region = [[Cappadocia]]
|type = Ancient Greek settlement
|part_of =
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|width =
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|height =
|builder = [[Roman people|Romans]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]], [[Cappadocian Greeks|Greeks]]
|material =
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|abandoned = 11th century
|epochs =
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'''Caesarea''' ([[Help:IPA/English|/ˌsɛzəˈriːə, ˌsɛsəˈriːə, ˌsiːzəˈriːə/]]; {{langx|el|Καισάρεια|Kaisareia}}), also known historically as '''Mazaca''' ({{langx|el|Μάζακα|links=no}}), was an ancient city in what is now [[Kayseri]], [[Turkey]]. In [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman]] times, the city was an important stop for [[Merchant|merchants]] headed to [[Europe]] on the ancient [[Silk Road]]. The city was the capital of [[Cappadocia (Roman province)|Cappadocia]], and [[Armenians|Armenian]] and [[Cappadocia|Cappadocian]] kings regularly fought over control of the strategic city. The city was renowned for its bishops of both the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek Orthodox]] and [[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolic]] churches. After the [[Battle of Manzikert]] where the [[Byzantine Empire]] lost to the incoming [[Seljuk Empire]], the city was later taken over by the [[Sultanate of Rum]] and became reconfigured over time with the influences of both [[Islamic architecture|Islamic]] and, later, [[Ottoman architecture]].
{{Annotated image
| image = Asia Minor in the Greco-Roman period - general map - regions and main settlements.jpg
| image-width = 1500
| image-left = -800
| image-top = -300
| width = 300
| height = 380
| float = right
| annotations = 
| caption = Excerpt, zoom-in, of this part of Greco-Roman Anatolia. To many Romans also called Asia Minor. The city is shown in the north with its name before the alternative from the reign of [[Julius Caesar]]. Click for broader map and to enable varied magnification.
}}

==History==
===Superseded trading town===
[[File:Basil of Caesarea.jpg|thumb|[[Basil of Caesarea]]]]
[[File:Panaghia Kirche Talas Kayseri.JPG|thumb|Aya Panagia Greek Church in [[Talas, Turkey|Talas, Kayseri]]]]
[[File:Kayseri Meryem Ana Kilisesi 002.jpg|thumb|Meryem Ana Kilisesi, meaning 'Virgin Mary Church']]
An earlier Silk Road trading town or city can be traced to 3000 BCE, in ruined [[Kültepe]], {{cvt|20|km}} north-east. Findings there include numerous baked-clay tablets, some of which were enclosed in clay envelopes stamped with [[cylinder seal]]s. The documents record common activities, such as trade between the Assyrian colony and the city-state of [[Assur]] and between Assyrian merchants and local people. The trade was run by families rather than the state. The '''Kültepe texts''' are the oldest documents of Anatolia. Although they are written in Old Assyrian, the [[Hittite language|Hittite]] loanwords and names in the texts are the oldest record of any Indo-European language.<ref>[[Calvert Watkins|Watkins, Calvert]]. "Hittite". In: ''The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor''. Edited by Roger D. Woodard. Cambridge University Press. 2008. p. 6. {{ISBN|978-0-511-39353-2}}</ref> Most of the archaeological evidence is typical of Anatolia rather than of Assyria, but the use of both cuneiform and the dialect is the best indication of Assyrian presence.
[[File:Kayseri Surp Kirkor Lusavoric Armenian Church from main road 2193.jpg|thumb|Surp [[Gregory the Illuminator|Krikor Lusavorich]] Armenian Church]]

===Importance and economy===
{{main|Silk Road}}
====Hellenistic times====
Caesarea remained as its precessor was a firmly inland trading centre firstly for many nearby city states, secondly due to links far beyond to east and west giving it, among regional comparators in size, enhanced trade.<ref name=jb/>

The city was the centre of a satrapy under Persian rule until it was conquered by [[Perdikkas]], one of the generals of [[Alexander the Great]] when it became the seat of a transient [[satrapy]] by another of Alexander's former generals, [[Eumenes|Eumenes of Cardia]]. The city was subsequently passed to the [[Seleucid]] empire after the [[battle of Ipsus]].

====Kingdom of Cappadocia====
It became the centre of an autonomous Greater Cappadocian kingdom under [[Ariarathes III of Cappadocia]] in around 250 BC. In the ensuing period, the city came under the sway of [[Hellenistic]] influence, and was given the Greek name of '''Eusebia''' ({{langx|el|Εὐσέβεια}}) in honor of the Cappadocian king [[Ariarathes V|Ariarathes V Eusebes Philopator of Cappadocia]] (163–130 BC). The new name of '''Caesarea''' ({{langx|el|Καισάρεια}}), by which it has since been known, was given to it by the last Cappadocian King [[Archelaus of Cappadocia|Archelaus]]<ref name = "place-names">{{cite book |url = http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t209.e3530 |title = Kayseri |access-date =2007-12-11 |last = Everett-Heath |first = John |chapter = The Concise Dictionary of World Place-Names |year = 2005 |publisher = Oxford University Press}}</ref> or perhaps by [[Tiberius]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03133b.htm |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Caesarea |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070702063704/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03133b.htm |archive-date=2007-07-02}}</ref>

====Roman and Byzantine rule====
The city passed under formal Roman rule in 17 AD.

Caesarea was destroyed by the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] king [[Shapur I of Persia|Shapur I]] after his victory over the [[Emperor Valerian I]] in 260 AD. At the time it was recorded to have around 40,000 inhabitants. The city gradually recovered, and became home to several early Christian saints: [[Dorothea of Caesarea|saints Dorothea and Theophilus the martyrs]], [[Gregory of Nazianzus]], [[Gregory of Nyssa]] and [[Basil of Caesarea]]. In the 4th century, bishop [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil]] established an ecclesiastic centre on the plain, about one mile to the northeast, which gradually supplanted the old town.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} It included a system of almshouses, an orphanage, old peoples' homes, and a leprosarium (leprosy hospital).

The city's bishop, Thalassius, attended the [[Second Council of Ephesus]] in 449 CE<ref>Richard Price, Michael Gaddis The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, Volume 1 [https://books.google.com/books?id=6IUaOOT1G3UC&q=Caesarea&pg=RA2-PA157 p31].</ref> and was suspended from the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451 CE.<ref>Richard Price, Michael Gaddis, The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon, Volume 1 [https://books.google.com/books?id=6IUaOOT1G3UC&q=Caesarea&pg=RA2PA157 p36].</ref>

A ''[[Notitia Episcopatuum]]'' composed during the reign of [[Byzantine emperors|Byzantine Emperor]] [[Heraclius]] in about 640 lists 5 [[suffragan]] [[diocese]]s of the [[metropolitan see]] of Caesarea. A 10th-century list gives it 15 suffragans.<ref>Heinrich Gelzer, [https://archive.org/stream/abhandlungenbay06klasgoog#page/n575/mode/2up ''Ungedruckte und ungenügend veröffentlichte Texte der Notitiae episcopatuum''], in: Abhandlungen der philosophisch-historische classe der bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1901, p. 536, nº 77–82, and pp. 551–552, nnº 106–121.</ref> In all the ''Notitiae'' Caesarea is given the second place among the metropolitan sees of the [[patriarchate of Constantinople]], preceded only by Constantinople itself, and its archbishops were given the title of ''[[protothronos]]'', meaning "of the first see" (after that of Constantinople). More than 50 first-millennium archbishops of the see are known by name, and the see itself continued to be a residential see of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] until 1923, when by order of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] all members of that Church (Greeks) were deported from what is now Turkey.<ref>Pius Bonifacius Gams, [http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=65154&dirids=1 ''Series episcoporum Ecclesiae Catholicae''] {{webarchive |url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20150308111152/http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/doccontent?id=65154&dirids=1 |date=2015-03-08 }}, Leipzig 1931, p. 440</ref><ref>Michel Lequien, [https://books.google.com/books?id=0agp0mJFG_sC ''Oriens christianus in quatuor Patriarchatus digestus''], Paris 1740, Vol. I, coll. 367–390</ref><ref>Raymond Janin, ''v. 2. Césarée de Cappadoce'', in [https://archive.org/stream/dictionnairedhis12baud#page/104/mode/2up ''Dictionnaire d'Histoire et de Géographie ecclésiastiques''], vol. XII, Paris 1953, coll. 199–203</ref> Caesarea was also the seat of an Armenian diocese.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03133b.htm |title = Caesarea |encyclopedia = [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] |url-status = live |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070702063704/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03133b.htm |archive-date = 2007-07-02}}</ref> No longer a residential bishopric, Caesarea in Cappadocia is today listed by the [[Catholic Church]] as a [[titular see]] of the [[Armenian Catholic Church]] and the [[Melkite Catholic Church]].<ref>''Annuario Pontificio 2013'' (Libreria Editrice Vaticana 2013 {{ISBN|978-88-209-9070-1}}), p. 867</ref> It was a titular see of the Roman Church under various names as well, including Caesarea Ponti.

A portion of Basil's new city was surrounded with strong walls, and it was turned into a fortress by [[Justinian I|Justinian]]. Caesarea in the 9th century became a Byzantine administrative centre as the capital of the Byzantine [[Theme (Byzantine district)|Theme]] of [[Charsianon]]. [[Kayseri Castle]], built in antiquity, and expanded by the [[Seljuq Sultanate of Rum|Seljuk]]s and Ottomans, is still standing in good condition in the central square of the city.

Home to many early Christian saints,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cappadocian Saints - Discover Cappadocia|url=https://www.discovercappadocia.com/enjoy-in-cappadocia/enjoy-in-cappadocia/cappadocian-saints|access-date=2021-09-04|website=www.discovercappadocia.com}}</ref> such as [[Basil of Caesarea|Basil]], [[Andreas of Caesarea|Andreas (Andrew)]] and [[Emmelia of Caesarea]]. It was an important trading centre<ref name=jb/><ref>{{Cite web|title=Silk Road Caravanserais in Central Turkey|url=https://cromwell-intl.com/travel/turkey/hans/|access-date=2021-09-04|website=Bob Cromwell: Travel, Linux, Cybersecurity|language=en}}</ref> on the [[Silk Road]].

===Successor city===
The city has some surviving buildings and is otherwise largely the foundations of what is now [[Kayseri]], Turkey.<ref name=jb>{{Cite web|last=Borges|first=Jason|date=2020-02-18|title=Caesarea Mazaca (Kayseri)|url=https://www.cappadociahistory.com/post/caesarea-mazaca-kayseri|access-date=2021-09-04|website=Cappadocia History|language=en}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>

File:Coin of Ariobarzanes, minted at Mazaca in 83 or 82 BC.jpg|Coin of Ariobarzanes, minted at Mazaca in 83 or 82 BC
File:Neron hemidrachme victoire Césarée de Capadocce.jpg|Half-drachma from Caesarea (Mazaca) of Nero (reigned 37 to 68 CE)
File:Kayseri Castle (Kayseri Kalesi).jpg|The foundations of this building, Kayseri Castle / Fortress of Kayseri retains some city walls, both date to the Roman era
File:The Hercules Sarcophagus depicting the Twelve Labors of Hercules, 150-160 AD, Kayseri Archaeological Museum, Turkey (26287165415).jpg|This sarcophagus of the Twelve Labors of Hercules at [[Kayseri Archaeology Museum]] dates to 150-160 CE
File:Cappadocian Greeks Kayseri.JPG|[[Cappadocian Greeks]] in Kayseri
File:Mazaka Land.jpg|Mazaka Land in [[Kayseri]], [[Turkey]]
File:Kayseri fine house 4077.jpg|House in Kayseri from an earlier period
File:Kayseri Archaeological Museum 2326.jpg|Coin from Kayseri Archaeological Museum
File:Kayseri Surp Kirkor Lusavoric Armenian Church dome and ceiling 2154.jpg|Surp Kirkor Lusavoric Armenian Church dome and ceiling
File:Kayseri fine house 2465.jpg|Architectural style
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Kayseri]]
[[Category:Ancient Anatolia]]

Albert of Vercelli

2024-11-12T19:26:53Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints using HotCat

{{Short description|Italian Catholic prelate, died 1214 CE}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix= [[Saint]]
|name= Albert of Jerusalem
|honorific_suffix= [[Canons Regular of the Order of the Holy Cross|OSC]]
|birth_date= 1149
|death_date= {{death date and age|1214|09|14|1149|df=y}}
|feast_day= 17 September (Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel)
|venerated_in= [[Catholic Church]]
|image=Alberto Avog.JPG
|imagesize= 250px
|caption=
|birth_place= [[Gualtieri]], [[Italy]]
|death_place= [[Acre, Israel|Acre]], [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
|titles= [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem|Patriarch of Jerusalem]]
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes=
|patronage=
|major_shrine=
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|issues=
}}
'''Albert of Jerusalem''', OSC (1149{{snd}}14 September 1214), also '''Albertus Hierosolymitanus''', '''Albertus Vercelensis''', '''Saint Albert''', '''Albert of Vercelli''' or '''Alberto Avogadro''',<ref>The name "Avogadro" is based on one tradition tracing his origin to a family of that name.
A competing tradition identifies him as ''Alberto dei Conti di [[Sabbioneta]]''. Evaldo Xavier Gomes (ed.), ''The Carmelite Rule, 1207-2007: proceedings of the Lisieux Conference, 4–7 July 2005'' (2008), p. 116. (''Circa la famiglia di origine le ipotesi più seguite, sia che si protenda per Gualtieri o Gualtirolo, per alcuni, sarebbe da ascrivere alla famiglia degli Avogadro, per altri a quella dei Conti di Sabbioneta, ritenendo aperta la questione'').</ref> was a [[Canon law (Catholic Church)|canon lawyer]] and [[saint]]. He was [[Bishop of Bobbio]] and [[Bishop of Vercelli]], and served as mediator and diplomat under [[Pope Clement III]]. Innocent III appointed him [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem|Patriarch of Jerusalem]] in 1204 or 1205. In Jerusalem, he contributed the [[Carmelite Rule of St. Albert]] to the newly-founded [[Carmelites|Order of the Brothers of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mount Carmel]]. Albert is honoured as a saint in the Roman Catholic Church and commemorated in the liturgical calendar of the Carmelites on 17 September.

==Life==
Born at Castel [[Gualtieri]], [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Italy]],<ref>[https://carmelites.ie/saints/saint-albert-of-jerusalem/ "Saint Albert of Jerusalem", Irish Province of Carmelites]</ref> he was educated in [[theology]] and law. He entered the [[Canons Regular of the Lateran#Background|Canons Regular of the Holy Cross]] at Mortara and was elected prior in 1180.<ref>[http://www.carmelite.org/carmelite-spirituality/saints-of-carmel/st-albert-jerusalem "St. Albert of Jerusalem", The British Province of Carmelites]</ref>
He became [[Bishop of Bobbio]] in 1184, and a year later was appointed [[Bishop of Vercelli]].<ref name=Campbell>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01261a.htm Campbell, Thomas. "Blessed Albert." The Catholic Encyclopedia] Vol. 1. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1907. 28 January 2019</ref> He served the [[papacy]] as a mediator and diplomat between [[Pope Clement III]] and [[Frederick I, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa]]. Albert served as [[papal legate]] in 1199 and helped end the war between [[Parma]] and [[Piacenza]].

In 1205 he was made Patriarch of Jerusalem by [[Pope Innocent III]], whom he also served as papal legate in the [[Holy Land]]. As patriarch, Albert helped found the Carmelites around 1209, in particular by his composition of what came to be called the [[Carmelite Rule of St. Albert]].<ref name=Campbell/> This order was based on [[Mount Carmel]], across the Bay of Haifa from [[Acre (city)|Acre]] where he resided as patriarch.

Additionally, he mediated disputes between the [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]] and the [[Kingdom of Cyprus]] and between the [[Knights Templar]] and the [[Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia]]. In 1214 he had been invited to the [[Fourth Lateran Council]], but the Master of the Hospital of the Holy Spirit, whom he had rebuked and deposed for immorality, stabbed him to death on 14 September while taking part in a procession on the [[Feast of the Cross|Feast of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross]].<ref name=Campbell/> He was succeeded by [[Raoul of Merencourt]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Saints}}
* [[Book of the First Monks]]
* [[Constitutions of the Carmelite Order]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{catholic|title=Blessed Albert}}
==External links==
*[http://srhelena.blogspot.com/2009/09/feast-day-september-17th-albert.html Carmelite Calendar]", at Sr. Helena of Mary, O.Carm, "St. Albert of Jerusalem, Law-Giver of Carmel"
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140701033637/http://www.kilmacudcarmel.ie/albert.html#Who#Who "St. Albert of Jerusalem", St. Joseph's Carmelite Monastery, Kilmacud]
*[https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=1211 Catholic Online, "St. Albert of Jerusalem"]
*[http://www.stpetersbasilica.info/Exterior/Colonnades/Saints/St%20Albert-6/St%20Albert.htm "Colonnade Statue in St Peter's Square"]

{{S-start}}
{{s-rel|ca}}
{{Succession box|
before=[[Soffredo]]|
title= [[Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem]]|
years=1204–1214|
after=[[Raoul of Mérencourt]]
}}
{{S-end}}
{{Carmelites|state=expanded}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Avogadro, Albert}}
[[Category:1149 births]]
[[Category:1214 deaths]]
[[Category:Bishops of Bobbio]]
[[Category:Bishops of Vercelli]]
[[Category:Christians of the Crusades]]
[[Category:Latin Patriarchs of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:Diplomats of the Holy See]]
[[Category:Italian beatified people]]
[[Category:Canon law jurists]]
[[Category:Carmelite spirituality]]
[[Category:13th-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the Kingdom of Jerusalem]]
[[Category:13th-century venerated Christians]]
[[Category:12th-century Italian jurists]]
[[Category:13th-century Italian jurists]]
[[Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints]]

Augustine of Hippo

2024-11-12T19:26:15Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat (We have more specified cat)

{{Short description|Christian theologian and philosopher (354–430)}}
{{Redirect-multi|3|Augustine|Saint Augustine|Augustinus}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix= [[Saint]]
| name= Augustine of Hippo
| titles= [[Bishop of Hippo Regius]] [[Doctor of the Church]]
| birth_name = Aurelius Augustinus
| birth_date= 13 November 354
| birth_place= [[Thagaste]], [[Numidia Cirtensis]], [[Roman Empire]]
| death_date= 28 August 430 (aged 75)
| death_place= [[Hippo Regius]], Numidia Cirtensis, [[Western Roman Empire]]
| resting_place= [[Pavia]], [[Italy]]
| feast_day= {{plainlist|
* 28 August ([[Latin Church]], [[Western Christianity]])
* 15 June ([[Eastern Christianity]])
* 4 November ([[Assyrian Church of the East|Assyrian]])}}
| image= Saint Augustine by Philippe de Champaigne.jpg
| caption= ''Saint Augustin'' by [[Philippe de Champaigne]], {{c.|1645|lk=no}}
| imagesize = 230
| venerated_in= All [[Christian denomination]]s which [[veneration of saints|venerate saints]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date = [[Pre-Congregation]]
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =[[San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro]], [[Pavia]], [[Italy]]
| attributes = [[Crozier]], [[mitre]], young child, book, small church, flaming or pierced heart<ref>{{Cite book| last = Hall| first = James| title = Hall's Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art| page = 35| year = 1996| edition = 2nd| publisher = John Murray | isbn = 0-7195-4147-6}}; {{Cite book| last = Daniel| first = Howard | title = Encyclopedia of Themes and Subjects in Painting| page = 35| year = 1971| publisher = Thames and Hudson | isbn = 0-500-18114-4}}</ref>
| patronage = {{hlist|[[Brewing|Brewers]]|[[Printer (publisher)|Printers]]|[[Theologians]]|[[Philosophers]]|[[Conjunctivitis|Sore eyes]]|[[Bridgeport, Connecticut]]|[[Cagayan de Oro]]|[[San Agustin, Isabela]]|[[Mendez, Cavite]]|[[Tanza|Tanza, Cavite]]|[[Baliwag|Baliwag, Bulacan]]|[[Iba, Zambales]]}}
| module =
{{Infobox philosopher
| embed = yes
| region = [[Western philosophy]]
| era = {{plainlist|
* [[Ancient philosophy]]
* [[Medieval philosophy]]}}
| school_tradition =
{{flatlist|
* [[Augustinianism]]
}}
| notable_students = [[Orosius|Paul Orosius]]{{sfn|Nguyen|Prior|2014|p=66}} [[Prosper of Aquitaine]]
| main_interests =
{{plainlist|
* [[Christian anthropology]]
* [[Biblical criticism]]
* [[Epistemology]]
* [[Ethics]]
* [[Metaphysics]]
* [[Pedagogy]]
* [[Philosophy of religion]]
* [[Theodicy]]
* [[Theology]]
}}
| notable_works ={{plainlist|
* ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]''
* ''[[On Christian Doctrine]]''
* ''[[On the Trinity]]''
* ''[[City of God (book)|The City of God]]''}}
| notable_ideas = {{collapsible list|title={{nbsp}}
|''[[Filioque]]''{{sfn|Siecienski|2010}}
|[[Original sin]]<ref>Bonaiuti, Ernesto, and Giorgio La Piana. “The Genesis of St. Augustine's Idea of Original Sin.” ''The Harvard Theological Review'', vol. 10, no. 2, 1917, pp. 159–75. ''JSTOR'', http://www.jstor.org/stable/1507550. Accessed 20 June 2022.</ref>
|[[Free will in theology#Roman Catholic|Free will]]
|[[Augustinian soteriology]]
|[[Just war theory]]
|[[Absence of good]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Augustine|title=Enchridion|url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf103.iv.ii.xiii.html|chapter=What Is Called Evil in the Universe Is But the Absence of Good|access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref>
|[[Concupiscence]]{{sfn|Greenblatt|2017}}
|[[Sacramental character]]{{sfn|Ryan|1908}}
|[[Augustinian hypothesis]]<ref>St. Augustine, ''The Harmony of the Gospels'', Book 1 chapter 2 paragraph 4. from [http://www.hypotyposeis.org/synoptic-problem/2004/10/external-evidence-augustine.html hypothesis.com]</ref>
|[[Augustinian theodicy]]
|[[Augustinian values]]{{sfn|Esmeralda|n.d.|p=}}|[[Divine command theory]]{{sfn|Austin|2006}}
|[[Amillennialism]]
|''[[You are Christ]]''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.catholic.org/prayers/prayer.php?s=5|title=Jesus Christ Prayers – Prayers|first=Catholic|last=Online|website=Catholic Online}}</ref>
|[[Deity]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=deity |title=Deity |work=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=6 June 2017}}</ref>
|''[[Solvitur ambulando]]''{{sfn|Huffington|2013}}|[[Heroic virtue]]{{sfn|Wilhelm|1910}}
|''[[Incurvatus in se]]''{{sfn|Jenson|2006}}
|[[Allegorical interpretations of Genesis|Genesis as an allegory]]<ref>''Literal Interpretation of Genesis'' 1:19–20, Chapt. 19</ref><ref>''The Literal Interpretation of Genesis'' 2:9</ref>
|[[Divine illumination]]
|[[Theocentricism]]{{sfn|Demacopoulos|Papanikolaou|2008|p=271}}
|[[Limbo of Infants|Limbo]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/15011.htm |title=CHURCH FATHERS: On Merit and the Forgiveness of Sins, and the Baptism of Infants, Book I (Augustine) |publisher=www.newadvent.org}}</ref>
}}
}}
{{Ordination
| denomination = Catholic Church
| embed = yes
| date of priestly ordination = 391
| place of priestly ordination = [[Hippo Regius]], [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]], [[Roman Empire]]
| date of consecration = 395
| consecrated by = Megalius
| sources = {{sfn|Portalié|1907a}}<ref>{{Cite web|title=Augustine of Hippo, Bishop and Theologian|url=http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/50.html|website=justus.anglican.org|publisher=Society of Archbishop Justus|access-date=22 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824001306/http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/50.html|archive-date=24 August 2017}}</ref>
}}
}}'''Augustine of Hippo''' ({{IPAc-en|ɔː|ˈ|ɡ|ʌ|s|t|ᵻ|n}} {{respell|aw|GUST|in}}, {{IPAc-en|USalso|ˈ|ɔː|ɡ|ə|s|t|iː|n}} {{respell|AW|gə|steen}};<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.lexico.com/definition/Augustine |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220110120650/https://www.lexico.com/definition/Augustine |url-status=dead |archive-date=10 January 2022 |title=Augustine |dictionary=[[Lexico]] UK English Dictionary |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}}</ref> {{langx|la|Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis}}; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430),{{sfn|Wells| 2000|p=54}} also known as '''Saint Augustine''', was a theologian and philosopher of [[Berbers|Berber]] origin and the bishop of [[Hippo Regius]] in [[Numidia (Roman province)|Numidia]], [[Roman North Africa]]. His writings deeply influenced the development of [[Western philosophy]] and [[Western Christianity]], and he is viewed as one of the most important [[Latin Church Fathers|Church Fathers of the Latin Church]] in the [[Patristic Period]]. His many important works include ''[[The City of God]]'', ''[[De Doctrina Christiana|On Christian Doctrine]]'', and ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]''.

According to his contemporary, [[Jerome|Jerome of Stridon]], Augustine "established anew the ancient Faith".{{efn|Jerome wrote to Augustine in 418: "You are known throughout the world; Catholics honour and esteem you as the one who has established anew the ancient Faith" (''conditor antiquae rursum fidei'').{{sfn|TeSelle|2002|p=343}} Cf. [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/lettere/lettera_200_testo.htm Epistola 195]}} In his youth he was drawn to the [[Manichaeism|Manichaean faith]], and later to the [[Hellenistic philosophy]] of [[Neoplatonism]]. After his conversion to Christianity and baptism in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives.{{sfn|TeSelle|2002|p=343}} Believing the [[Grace in Christianity|grace of Christ]] was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of [[original sin]] and made significant contributions to the development of [[just war theory]]. When the [[Western Roman Empire]] began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the Church as a spiritual [[New Jerusalem#Christianity|City of God]], distinct from the material Earthly City.{{sfn|Durant|1992|p=}} The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the [[Trinity]] as defined by the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]] and the [[First Council of Constantinople|Council of Constantinople]]{{sfn|Wilken|2003|p=291}} closely identified with Augustine's ''[[On the Trinity]]''.

Augustine is recognized as a saint in the [[Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], the [[Lutheran Church|Lutheran church]]es, and the [[Anglican Communion]]. He is also a preeminent Catholic [[Doctor of the Church]] and the patron of the [[Augustinians]]. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death. Augustine is the [[patron saint]] of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses.<ref name="KnoYrSaint">[http://www.catholicapologetics.info/library/saints/index.htm Know Your Patron Saint]. catholicapologetics.info</ref> His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Many [[Protestantism|Protestants]], especially [[Calvinism|Calvinists]] and [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], consider him one of the theological fathers of the [[Protestant Reformation]] due to his teachings on [[salvation]] and [[divine grace]].{{sfn|Hägglund|2007|pp=139–140}}{{sfn|González|1987|p=}}<ref name="St. Augustine of Hippo">{{Cite book |others=Translated by Peter Holmes and Robert Ernest Wallis, and revised by Benjamin B. Warfield (revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight) |author=St. Augustine of Hippo |chapter=On Rebuke and Grace |title=Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, First Series, Vol. 5 |editor=Philip Schaff |location=Buffalo, New York |publisher=Christian Literature Publishing Co. |edition= 1887 |chapter-url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1513.htm}}</ref> [[Protestant Reformers]] generally, and [[Martin Luther]] in particular, held Augustine in preeminence among early [[Church Fathers]]. From 1505 to 1521, Luther was a member of the [[Order of the Augustinian Eremites]].

In the [[Eastern Christianity|East]], his teachings are more disputed and were notably attacked by [[John Romanides]],<ref>{{Cite web| title = Some Underlying Positions of This Website| url = http://www.romanity.org/htm/rom.00.en.some_underlying_positions_of_this_website.htm| website = www.romanity.org| access-date = 30 September 2015}}</ref> but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant approbation of his writings, chiefly [[Georges Florovsky]].<ref>{{Cite web| title = Limits of Church| url = http://www.fatheralexander.org/booklets/english/limits_church.htm| website = www.fatheralexander.org| access-date = 30 September 2015}}</ref> The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the [[filioque]],<ref name="Rev. Dr.">Papademetriou, George C. [http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8153 "Saint Augustine in the Greek Orthodox Tradition"]. goarch.org {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105045903/http://goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith8153 |date=5 November 2010 }}</ref> was rejected by the Eastern Orthodox Church.{{sfn|Siecienski|2010|pp=53–67}} Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and [[predestination]].<ref name="Rev. Dr." /> Though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint and has influenced some Eastern Church Fathers, most notably [[Gregory Palamas]].<ref>{{Cite book| chapter= Gregorios Palamas' Reception of Augustine's Doctrine of the Original Sin and Nicholas Kabasilas' Rejection of Aquinas' Maculism as the Background to Scholarios' Immaculism| title=Never the Twain Shall Meet?|editor=Denis Searby |publisher=De Gruyter| doi=10.1515/9783110561074-219| date = 2017| last1 = Kappes| first1 = Christian| pages=207–258| isbn=978-3-11-056107-4}}</ref> In the [[Greek Orthodox Church|Greek]] and [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox church]]es, his feast day is celebrated on 15 June.<ref name="Rev. Dr." /><ref>{{Cite journal | last =[[Archimandrite]] | title = Book Review: ''The Place of Blessed Augustine in the Orthodox Church'' | journal =Orthodox Tradition | volume =II | issue =3&4 | pages =40–43 | url =http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx#rose | access-date =28 June 2007| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070710012506/http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx| archive-date= 10 July 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>

The historian [[Diarmaid MacCulloch]] has written: "Augustine's impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example, [[Paul the Apostle|Paul of Tarsus]], has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes."{{sfn|MacCulloch|2010|p=319}}

== Life ==
=== Background ===
Augustine of Hippo, also known as ''Saint Augustine'' or ''Saint Austin'',<ref>{{Cite book |title=The American Heritage College Dictionary |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|Houghton Mifflin Company]] |location=Boston|year=1997 |isbn=978-0-395-66917-4 |page=91}}</ref> is known by various [[cognomen]]s throughout the many denominations of the Christian world, including ''Blessed Augustine'' and the ''Doctor of Grace''{{sfn|Portalié|1907a}} ({{Langx|la|Doctor gratiae}}).

[[Hippo Regius]], where Augustine was the [[bishop]], was in modern-day [[Annaba]], [[Algeria]].{{sfn|Chadwick|2001|p=26}}{{sfn|Oakes|2008|p=183}}

=== Childhood and education ===
[[File:7 Nicolo di Pietro. 1413-15. The Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica. Pinacoteca, Vatican..jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Saint Augustine Taken to School by Saint Monica'', by [[Niccolò di Pietro]], 1413–15]]
Augustine was born in 354 in the [[municipium]] of [[Thagaste]] (now [[Souk Ahras]], Algeria) in the [[Numidia (Roman province)|Roman province of Numidia]].<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica">{{Cite web | title=Saint Augustine – Biography, Philosophy, & Major Works | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Augustine | access-date=28 January 2018}}</ref>{{sfn|Magill|2003|p=172}}<ref>{{Cite book|author=Saint Augustine (Bishop of Hippo.)|title=On Christian Teaching|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5pv1MGv0TUC&pg=PR26|year=1999|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-283928-2|page=26}}</ref>{{sfn|Jones|2017|p=39}}{{sfn|Jayapalan|2001|p=51}} His mother, [[Saint Monica|Monica]] or Monnica,{{efn|"[T]he names Monnica and Nonnica are found on tombstones in the Libyan language—as such Monnica is the only Berber name commonly used in English."{{harvnb|Brett|Fentress|1996|p=293}}}} was a devout Christian; his father Patricius was a [[Paganism|pagan]] who converted to Christianity on his deathbed.<ref>Vesey, Mark, trans. (2007) "Confessions Saint Augustine", introduction, {{ISBN|978-1-59308-259-8}}.</ref> He had a brother named Navigius and a sister whose name is lost but is conventionally remembered as [['Perpetua' of Hippo|Perpetua]].{{sfn|Bonner|1986|p=}}

Scholars generally agree that Augustine and his family were [[Berbers]], an ethnic group indigenous to North Africa,{{sfn|Hollingworth|2013|pp=50–51}}{{sfn|Leith|1990|p=24}}<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HAAXAQAAIAAJ|title=Catholic World, Volumes 175–176|publisher=Paulist Fathers|year=1952|page=376|quote=The whole of North Africa was a glory of Christendom with St. Augustine, himself a Berber, its chief ornament.}}</ref> but were heavily Romanized, speaking only Latin at home as a matter of pride and dignity.{{sfn|Hollingworth|2013|pp=50–51}} In his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage, at least geographically and perhaps ethnically. For example, he refers to [[Apuleius]] as "the most notorious of us Africans,"{{sfn|Hollingworth|2013|pp=50–51}}<ref>Ep., CXXXIII, 19. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1102138.htm English version], [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/lettere/lettera_139_testo.htm Latin version]</ref> to Ponticianus as "a country man of ours, insofar as being African,"{{sfn|Hollingworth|2013|pp=50–51}}<ref>Confess., VIII, 6, 14. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/110108.htm English version], [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/confessioni/index2.htm Latin version]</ref> and to [[Faustus of Mileve]] as "an African [[Gentleman]]".{{sfn|Hollingworth|2013|pp=50–51}}<ref>Contra Faustum, I, 1. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/140601.htm English version], [http://www.augustinus.it/latino/contro_fausto/index2.htm Latin version]</ref>

Augustine's family name, Aurelius, suggests his father's ancestors were [[liberti|freedmen]] of the ''[[Aurelia (gens)|gens Aurelia]]'' given full Roman citizenship by the [[Edict of Caracalla]] in 212. Augustine's family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born.{{sfn|Lancel|2002|p=5}} It is assumed that his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on the basis of her name,{{sfn|Power|1999|pp=353–354}}{{sfn|Brett|Fentress|1996|pp=71, 293}} but as his family were ''[[Decurion (administrative)|honestiores]]'', an upper class of citizens known as honorable men, Augustine's first language was likely Latin.{{sfn|Power|1999|pp=353–354}}

At the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madaurus (now [[M'Daourouch]]), a small Numidian city about {{convert|19|mi|km|abbr=off|order=flip}} south of Thagaste. There he became familiar with [[Latin literature]], as well as pagan beliefs and practices.{{sfn|Knowles|Penkett|2004|p=|loc=Ch. 2}} His first insight into the nature of sin occurred when he and a number of friends stole pears from a neighbourhood garden. He tells this story in his autobiography, ''Confessions''. He realises that the pears were "tempting neither for its colour nor its flavour" - he was neither hungry nor poor, and he had enough of fruit which were "much better". Over the next few chapters, Augustine agonises over this past sin of his, recognising that one does not desire evil for evil's sake. Rather, "through an inordinate preference for these goods of a lower kind, the better and higher are neglected".<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 2:5</ref> In other words, man is drawn to sin when grossly choosing the lesser good over a greater good. Eventually, Augustine concludes that it was the good of the "companionship" between him and his accomplices that allowed him to delight in this theft.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 2:8</ref>

At the age of 17, through the generosity of his fellow citizen Romanianus,<ref name=EA>''Encyclopedia Americana'', v. 2, p. 685. Danbury, Connecticut: Grolier, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7172-0129-5}}.</ref> Augustine went to [[Carthage]] to continue his education in [[rhetoric]], though it was above the financial means of his family.<ref name="ReferenceA">Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 2:3.5</ref> Despite the good warnings of his mother, as a youth Augustine lived a [[Hedonism|hedonistic]] lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits. The need to gain their acceptance encouraged inexperienced boys like Augustine to seek or make up stories about sexual experiences.<ref name="FLNZ1">Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 2:3.7</ref> Despite multiple claims to the contrary, it has been suggested that Augustine's actual sexual experiences were likely with members of the opposite sex only.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Soble |first=Alan G. |date=2002 |title=Correcting Some Misconceptions about St. Augustine's Sex Life |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3704726 |journal=Journal of the History of Sexuality |volume=11 |issue=4 |pages=545–569 |doi=10.1353/sex.2003.0045 |jstor=3704726 |s2cid=142659448 |via=JSTOR|issn=1043-4070 }}</ref>

It was while he was a student in Carthage that he read [[Cicero]]'s [[dialogue]] ''[[Hortensius (Cicero)|Hortensius]]'' (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression, enkindling in his heart the love of wisdom and a great thirst for truth. It started his interest in philosophy.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 3:4</ref> Although raised Christian, Augustine became a [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]], much to his mother's chagrin.{{sfn|Pope|1911}}

At about the age of 17, Augustine began a relationship with a young woman in Carthage. Though his mother wanted him to marry a person of his class, the woman remained his lover. He was warned by his mother to avoid fornication (sex outside marriage), but Augustine persisted in the relationship{{sfn|Ranke-Heinemann|1990|p=}} for over fifteen years,<ref name="utne.com">Boyce, James (May 2015) [http://www.utne.com/mind-and-body/st-augustine-and-original-sin-ze0z1505zken.aspx "Don't Blame the Devil: St Augustine and Original Sin"]. ''[[Utne Reader]]''.</ref> and the woman gave birth to his son Adeodatus (372–388), which means "Gift from God",<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 4:2</ref> who was viewed as extremely intelligent by his contemporaries. In 385, Augustine ended his relationship with his lover in order to prepare to marry a teenage heiress. By the time he was able to marry her, however, he had decided to become a Christian priest and the marriage did not happen.<ref name="utne.com" />{{sfn|Brown|2000|p=63}}

Augustine was, from the beginning, a brilliant student, with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek{{sfn|O'Donnell|2005|p=}} – his first Greek teacher was a brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he realized he needed to know Greek, it was too late; and although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was never eloquent with it. He did, however, become a master of Latin.

=== Move to Carthage, Rome, and Milan ===
[[File:Augustine Lateran.jpg|thumb|The earliest known portrait of Augustine in a 6th-century fresco, Lateran, Rome]]

Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste during 373 and 374. The following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric and remained there for the next nine years.<ref name=EA /> Disturbed by unruly students in Carthage, he moved to establish a school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practised, in 383. However, Augustine was disappointed with the apathetic reception. It was the custom for students to pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the term, and many students attended faithfully all term, and then did not pay.

Manichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, [[Quintus Aurelius Symmachus|Symmachus]], who had been asked by the imperial court at [[Milan]]{{sfn|Portalié|1907a}} to provide a rhetoric professor. Augustine won the job and headed north to take his position in Milan in late 384. Thirty years old, he had won the most visible academic position in the Latin world at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers.

Although Augustine spent ten years as a Manichaean, he was never an initiate or "elect", but an "auditor", the lowest level in this religion's hierarchy.{{sfn|Portalié|1907a}}{{sfn|Chadwick|2001|p=14}} While still at Carthage a disappointing meeting with the Manichaean bishop, [[Faustus of Mileve]], a key exponent of Manichaean theology, started Augustine's scepticism of Manichaeanism.{{sfn|Portalié|1907a}} In Rome, he reportedly turned away from Manichaeanism, embracing the [[Philosophical scepticism|scepticism]] of the [[New Academy]] movement. Because of his education, Augustine had great rhetorical prowess and was very knowledgeable of the philosophies behind many faiths.{{sfn|Kishlansky|Geary|O'Brien|2005|pp=142–143}} At Milan, his mother's religiosity, Augustine's own studies in [[Neoplatonism]], and his friend [[Simplician]]us all urged him towards Christianity.<ref name="EA" /> This was shortly after the Roman emperor [[Theodosius I]] declared Christianity to be the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire on 27 February 380 by the [[Edict of Thessalonica]]{{sfn|Doniger|1999|pp=689–690}} and then issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382. Initially, Augustine was not strongly influenced by Christianity and its ideologies, but after coming in contact with [[Ambrose]] of Milan, Augustine reevaluated himself and was forever changed.

[[File:Saint Augustine and Saint Monica.jpg|thumb|upright|left|''Saint Augustine and his mother, Saint Monica'' (1846) by [[Ary Scheffer]]]]
Augustine arrived in Milan and visited Ambrose, having heard of his reputation as an orator. Like Augustine, Ambrose was a master of rhetoric, but older and more experienced.{{sfn|BeDuhn|2010|p=163}} Soon, their relationship grew, as Augustine wrote, "And I began to love him, of course, not at the first as a teacher of the truth, for I had entirely despaired of finding that in thy Church—but as a friendly man."<ref name="Augustine: Account of His Own Conversion" /> Augustine was very much influenced by Ambrose, even more than by his own mother and others he admired. In his ''Confessions'', Augustine states, "That man of God received me as a father would, and welcomed my coming as a good bishop should."<ref name="Augustine: Account of His Own Conversion">{{Cite web| last1=Outler| first1=Albert| title="Medieval Sourcebook." Internet History Sourcebooks Project| url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/aug-conv.asp| website=Fordham University, Medieval Sourcebook| publisher=[[Fordham University]] |access-date=30 October 2014}}</ref> Ambrose adopted Augustine as a spiritual son after the death of Augustine's father.{{sfn|Wilson|2018|p=90}}

Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and arranged a respectable marriage for him. Although Augustine acquiesced, he had to dismiss his concubine and grieved for having forsaken his lover. He wrote, "My mistress being torn from my side as an impediment to my marriage, my heart, which clave to her, was racked, and wounded, and bleeding." Augustine confessed he had not been a lover of wedlock so much as a slave of lust, so he procured another concubine since he had to wait two years until his fiancée came of age. However, his emotional wound was not healed.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 6:15</ref> It was during this period that he uttered his famously insincere prayer, "Grant me [[chastity]] and [[sexual abstinence|continence]], but not yet."<ref name="FLNZ2">Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'', 8:7.17</ref>

There is evidence Augustine may have considered this former relationship to be equivalent to marriage.{{sfn|Burrus|2011|pp=1–20}} In his ''Confessions'', he admitted the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his eleven-year-old fiancée but never renewed his relationship with either of his concubines. [[Alypius of Thagaste]] steered Augustine away from marriage, saying they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine looked back years later on the life at [[Cassago Brianza|Cassiciacum]], a villa outside of Milan where he gathered with his followers, and described it as ''Christianae vitae otium'' – the leisure of Christian life.{{sfn|Ferguson|1999|p=208}}

=== Conversion to Christianity and priesthood ===
[[File:Fra angelico - conversion de saint augustin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''The Conversion of St. Augustine'' by [[Fra Angelico]]]]

In late August of 386,{{efn|{{harvnb|Brown|2000|p=64}} places Augustine's garden conversion at the end of August, 386.}} at the age of 31, having heard of Ponticianus's and his friends' first reading of the life of [[Anthony the Great|Anthony of the Desert]], Augustine converted to Christianity. As Augustine later told it, his conversion was prompted by hearing a child's voice say "take up and read" ({{langx|la|tolle, lege}}). Resorting to the ''[[sortes biblicae]]'', he opened a book of St. Paul's writings (codex apostoli, 8.12.29) at random and read Romans 13: 13–14: "Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh to fulfil the lusts thereof."<ref>{{Cite book| author = Augustine of Hippo | title = Confessions |year= 2008| publisher= Oxford University Press| place = New York | pages =152–153 | others = Chadwick, Henry transl}}</ref>

He later wrote an account of his conversion in his ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]'' ({{langx|la|Confessiones}}), which has since become a classic of Christian theology and a key text in the history of [[autobiography]]. This work is an outpouring of thanksgiving and penitence. Although it is written as an account of his life, the ''Confessions'' also talks about the nature of time, causality, free will, and other important philosophical topics.<ref name="justus.anglican.org">[http://justus.anglican.org/resources/bio/50.html Augustine of Hippo, Bishop and Theologian]. Justus.anglican.org. Retrieved on 17 June 2015.</ref> The following is taken from that work:

{{blockquote|<poem>Belatedly I loved thee, O Beauty so ancient and so new, belatedly I loved thee. For see, thou wast within and I was without, and I sought thee out there. Unlovely, I rushed heedlessly among the lovely things thou hast made. Thou wast with me, but I was not with thee. These things kept me far from thee; even though they were not at all unless they were in thee. Thou didst call and cry aloud, and didst force open my deafness. Thou didst gleam and shine, and didst chase away my blindness. Thou didst breathe fragrant odours and I drew in my breath; and now I pant for thee. I tasted, and now I hunger and thirst. Thou didst touch me, and I burned for thy peace.<ref>Augustine, Confessions 10.27.38, tr. Albert C. Outler. https://faculty.georgetown.edu/jod/augustine/conf.pdf</ref></poem>}}
[[File:Ascanio Luciano – Capriccio with the vision of St. Augustine in a ruined arcade.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''The vision of St. Augustine'' by [[Ascanio Luciano]]]]

[[Ambrose]] baptized Augustine and his son Adeodatus, in Milan on [[Easter Vigil]], 24–25 April 387.{{sfn|Brown|2000|p=117}} A year later, in 388, Augustine completed his [[Christian apologetics|apology]] ''On the Holiness of the Catholic Church''.{{sfn|Portalié|1907a}} That year, also, Adeodatus and Augustine returned home to Africa.<ref name=EA /> Augustine's mother [[Saint Monica|Monica]] died at [[Ostia Antica|Ostia]], Italy, as they prepared to embark for Africa.{{sfn|Pope|1911}} Upon their arrival, they began a life of aristocratic leisure at Augustine's family's property.{{sfn|Possidius|2008|p=|loc=3.1}} Soon after, Adeodatus, too, died.{{sfn|A'Becket|1907}} Augustine then sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. He only kept the family house, which he converted into a [[monastic]] foundation for himself and a group of friends.<ref name=EA /> Furthermore, while he was known for his major contributions to Christian rhetoric, another major contribution was his preaching style.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Oort|first=Johannes van|date=5 October 2009|title=Augustine, His Sermons, and Their Significance|journal=HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies|volume=65|pages=1–10}}</ref>

After converting to Christianity, Augustine turned against his profession as a rhetoric professor in order to devote more time to preaching.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Tell|first=Dave|date=1 November 2010|title=Augustine and the "Chair of Lies": Rhetoric in The Confessions|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/rhetorica/article-abstract/28/4/384/82868/Augustine-and-the-Chair-of-Lies-Rhetoric-in-The?redirectedFrom=fulltext|journal=Rhetorica|language=en|volume=28|issue=4|pages=384–407|doi=10.1525/RH.2010.28.4.384|issn=0734-8584|hdl=1808/9182|s2cid=146646045 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> In 391 Augustine was [[ordination|ordained]] a [[priest]] in [[Hippo Regius]] (now Annaba), in Algeria. He was especially interested in discovering how his previous rhetorical training in Italian schools would help the Christian Church achieve its objective of discovering and teaching the different scriptures in the Bible.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Herrick|first=James|title=The History and Theory of Rhetoric|publisher=Pearson|year=2008|isbn=978-0-205-56673-0|location=New York|edition=4th}}</ref> He became a famous [[preacher]] (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the [[Manichaeism|Manichaean religion]], to which he had formerly adhered.{{sfn|Portalié|1907a}} He preached around 6,000 to 10,000 sermons when he was alive; however, there are only around 500 sermons that are accessible today.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Sypert|first=John|date=1 May 2015|title=Redeeming Rhetoric: Augustine's Use of Rhetoric in His Preaching Ministry|url=https://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/eleu/vol4/iss1/3|journal=Eleutheria|volume=4|issue=1|issn=2159-8088}}</ref> When Augustine preached his sermons, they were recorded by stenographers.<ref name=":4" /> Some of his sermons would last over one hour and he would preach multiple times throughout a given week.<ref name=":2" /> When talking to his audience, he would stand on an elevated platform; however, he would walk towards the audience during his sermons.<ref name=":2" /> When he was preaching, he used a variety of rhetorical devices that included [[Analogy|analogies]], word pictures, [[simile]]s, [[metaphor]]s, [[Repetition (rhetorical device)|repetition]], and [[antithesis]] when trying to explain more about the Bible.<ref name=":2" /> In addition, he used questions and rhymes when talking about the differences between people's life on Earth and Heaven as seen in one of his sermons that was preached in 412 AD.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|last=Conybeare|first=Catherine|editor1-first=Michael J|editor1-last=MacDonald|date=30 November 2017|title=Augustine's Rhetoric in Theory and Practice|url=https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199731596.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199731596-e-025|access-date=8 March 2021|website=The Oxford Handbook of Rhetorical Studies|language=en|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199731596.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-973159-6}}</ref> Augustine believed that the preachers' ultimate goal is to ensure the salvation of their audience.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Farrell|first=James|date=1 January 2008|title=The Rhetoric(s) of St. Augustine's Confessions|url=https://scholars.unh.edu/comm_facpub/3|journal=Augustinian Studies|volume=39|issue=2|pages=265–291|doi=10.5840/augstudies200839224}}</ref>

In 395, he was made [[coadjutor Bishop]] of Hippo and became full Bishop shortly thereafter,{{sfn|Brown|2000|p=}} hence the name "Augustine of Hippo"; and he gave his property to the church of Thagaste.<ref>Augustine, ''ep''.126.1</ref> He remained in that position until his death in 430. Bishops were the only individuals allowed to preach when he was alive and he scheduled time to preach after being ordained despite a busy schedule made up of preparing sermons and preaching at other churches besides his own.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanlon |first=Peter T. |title=Augustine's Theology of Preaching |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-4514-8278-2 |location=Philadelphia, Pennsylvania |pages=}}</ref> When serving as the Bishop of Hippo, his goal was to minister to individuals in his congregation and he would choose the passages that the church planned to read every week.<ref name=":42">{{Cite journal |last=Oort |first=Johannes van |date=5 October 2009 |title=Augustine, His Sermons, and Their Significance |journal=HTS Teologiese Studies/Theological Studies |volume=65 |pages=1–10}}</ref> As bishop, he believed that it was his job to interpret the work of the Bible.<ref name=":42" /> He wrote his autobiographical ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]'' in 397–398. His work ''The City of God'' was written to console his fellow Christians shortly after the [[Visigoths]] had [[Sack of Rome (410)|sacked Rome in 410]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=O'Donnell |first=James J. |title=Augustine |publisher=Twayne Publishers |year=1985 |isbn=0-8057-6609-X |location=Boston |pages=12}}</ref> Augustine worked tirelessly to convince the people of Hippo to convert to Christianity. Though he had left his monastery, he continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence.{{sfn|Portalié|1907b}}

Much of Augustine's later life was recorded by his friend [[Possidius]], bishop of [[Calama (Numidia)|Calama]] (present-day [[Guelma]], Algeria), in his ''Sancti Augustini Vita''. During this latter part of Augustine's life, he helped lead a large community of Christians against different political and religious factors which had a major influence on his writings.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wagner|first=Nathan|date=1 May 2018|title=Rhetorical Distinctions in Augustine's Early and Later Writing|url=https://online.ucpress.edu/rhetorica/article-abstract/36/2/105/83045/Rhetorical-Distinctions-in-Augustine-s-Early-and?redirectedFrom=fulltext|journal=Rhetorica|language=en|volume=36|issue=2|pages=105–131|doi=10.1525/rh.2018.36.2.105|s2cid=172122521 |issn=0734-8584}}</ref> Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took every opportunity to defend Christianity against its detractors. Possidius also described Augustine's personal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the temptations of the flesh, and exercised prudence in the financial stewardship of his see.{{sfn|Possidius|2008|p=}}

== Death and sainthood ==
Shortly before Augustine's death, the [[Vandals]], a [[Germanic tribe]] that had converted to [[Arianism]], [[Vandalic conquest of Roman Africa|invaded Roman Africa]]. The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of 430 when Augustine entered his final illness. According to Possidius, one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine, the healing of an ill man, took place during the siege.{{sfn|Possidius|2008|p=43}} Augustine has been cited to have excommunicated himself upon the approach of his death in an act of public penance and solidarity with sinners.<ref>Joseph Ratzinger, Behold the Pierced One (Ignatius Press: 2011), ePub ed. 63

See also, J.van der Meer, Augustinus der Seelsorger (Cologned 1951), 324</ref> Spending his final days in prayer and repentance, he requested the penitential [[Psalms]] of David be hung on his walls so he could read them and upon which led him to "[weep] freely and constantly" according to Possidius' biography.<ref>Possidius, Life of St. Augustine (trans. Weiskotten), CHAPTER XXXI. Death and burial, https://www.tertullian.org/fathers/possidius_life_of_augustine_02_text.htm#C31</ref> He directed the library of the church in Hippo and all the books therein should be carefully preserved. He died on 28 August 430.{{sfn|Possidius|2008|p=57}} Shortly after his death, the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo, but they returned soon after and burned the city. They destroyed all but Augustine's cathedral and library, which they left untouched.

Augustine was [[canonization|canonized]] by popular acclaim, and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by [[Pope Boniface VIII]].{{sfn|Oestreich|1907}} His [[feast day]] is 28 August, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses. He is invoked against sore eyes.<ref name="KnoYrSaint" />

Augustine is remembered in the [[Church of England]]'s [[Calendar of saints (Church of England)|calendar of saints]] with a [[Lesser Festival (Anglicanism)|lesser festival]] on 28 August.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Calendar|url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar|access-date=27 March 2021|website=The Church of England|language=en}}</ref>

=== Relics ===
[[File:Basilica-sant'agostino-annaba03.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Augustine's arm bones, [[Saint Augustin Basilica]], Annaba, Algeria]]
According to [[Bede]]'s ''True Martyrology'', Augustine's body was later [[Translation (relic)|translated]] or moved to [[Cagliari]], [[Sardinia]], by the Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by [[Huneric]]. Around 720, his remains were transported again by Peter, [[bishop of Pavia]] and uncle of the Lombard king [[Liutprand, King of the Lombards|Liutprand]], to the church of [[San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro]] in Pavia, to save them from frequent coastal raids by [[Saracen]]s. In January 1327, [[Pope John XXII]] issued the papal bull ''Veneranda Santorum Patrum'', in which he appointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augustine (called ''Arca''), which was remade in 1362 and elaborately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes from Augustine's life, created by [[Giovanni di Balduccio]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Girelli |first1=Francesca |title=L'Arca di Sant'Agostino: opera di Giovanni di Balduccio |journal=Bollettino d'Arte |date=2021 |volume=45 |pages=1–15 |url=https://www.lerma.it/download/2836/5e31a47f407a/pagine-da-9788891322654-fasc-45-x-web-1.pdf |access-date=29 September 2023 |language=it |issn=0394-4573}}</ref>
[[File:Arca di S. Agostino (1362), Pavia, S. Pietro in Ciel d'Oro 16.JPG|thumb|[[Giovanni di Balduccio]], Tomb of St Augustine, 1362–1365, [[San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro]], [[Pavia]]]]
In October 1695, some workmen in the Church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia discovered a marble box containing human bones (including part of a skull). A dispute arose between the Augustinian hermits (Order of Saint Augustine) and the regular canons ([[Canons Regular of Saint Augustine]]) as to whether these were the bones of Augustine. The hermits did not believe so; the canons affirmed they were. Eventually [[Pope Benedict XIII]] (1724–1730) directed the Bishop of Pavia, [[Monsignor]] Pertusati, to make a determination. The bishop declared that, in his opinion, the bones were those of Augustine.<ref>[http://www.augnet.org/default.asp?ipageid=2213&iparentid=145 Augustine's tomb, Augnet] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222172526/http://www.augnet.org/default.asp?ipageid=2213&iparentid=145 |date=22 February 2014 }}. Augnet.org (22 April 2007). Retrieved on 17 June 2015.</ref>

The Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1785,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Monasteri Imperiali Pavia |title=San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro |url=https://www.monasteriimperialipavia.it/san-pietro-in-ciel-doro/ |website=monasteriimperialipavia.it |publisher=University of Pavia |access-date=29 September 2023}}</ref> Augustine's ark and relics were brought to [[Pavia Cathedral]] in 1799.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Regione Lombardia |title=Arca di S. Agostino |url=https://www.lombardiabeniculturali.it/opere-arte/schede/PV300-00010/ |website=lombardiabeniculturali.it |publisher=Regione Lombardia |access-date=29 September 2023}}</ref> San Pietro fell into disrepair but was finally restored in the 1870s, under the urging of [[Agostino Gaetano Riboldi]], and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Augustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.{{sfn|Dale|2001|p=55}}{{sfn|Stone|2002|p=}}

In 1842, a portion of Augustine's right arm (cubitus) was secured from Pavia and returned to Annaba.{{sfn|Schnaubelt|Van Fleteren|1999|p=165}} It now rests in the [[Saint Augustin Basilica]] within a glass tube inserted into the arm of a life-size marble statue of the saint.

== Views and thought ==
{{Catholic philosophy|expanded=Philosophers|expanded2=Ancient}}
Augustine's large contribution of writings covered diverse fields including theology, philosophy and sociology. Along with [[John Chrysostom]], Augustine was among the most prolific scholars of the early church by quantity.

=== Theology ===
==== Christian anthropology ====
Augustine was one of the first Christian [[Late Latin|ancient Latin]] authors with a very clear vision of [[Christian anthropology|theological anthropology]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia | publisher = Stanford | title = Encyclopedia of Philosophy | url = http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/augustine/#PhiAnt | contribution = Saint Augustine {{ndash}} Philosophical Anthropology | year = 2016 }}</ref> He saw the human being as a perfect unity of soul and body. In his late treatise ''[[s:Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers: Series I/Volume III/Moral Treatises of St. Augustin/On Care to Be Had for the Dead/Section 5|On Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5]]'' (420) he exhorted respect for the body on the grounds it belonged to the very nature of the human [[person]].<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De cura pro mortuis gerenda'' [[Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum|CSEL]] 41, 627 [13–22]; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">[[Patrologia Latina|PL]]</abbr> 40, 595: ''Nullo modo ipsa spernenda sunt corpora. (...) Haec enim non-ad ornamentum vel adiutorium, quod adhibetur extrinsecus, sed ad ipsam naturam hominis pertinent''.</ref> Augustine's favourite figure to describe ''body-soul'' unity is marriage: ''caro tua, coniunx tua – your body is your wife''.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Enarrationes in psalmos'', 143, 6.</ref><ref>[[Corpus Christianorum|CCL]] 40, 2077 [46] – 2078 [74]; 46, 234–35.</ref><ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De utilitate ieiunii'', 4, 4–5.</ref>

Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the [[#Original sin|fall of humanity]] they are now experiencing dramatic combat with one another. They are two categorically different things. The body is a three-dimensional object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no spatial dimensions.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De quantitate animae'' 1.2; 5.9.</ref> Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, fit for ruling the body.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De quantitate animae'' 13.12: ''Substantia quaedam rationis particeps, regendo corpori accomodata''.</ref>

Augustine was not preoccupied, as [[Plato]] and [[Descartes]] were, in detailed efforts to explain the [[metaphysics]] of the soul-body union. It sufficed for him to admit they are metaphysically distinct: to be a human is to be a composite of soul and body, with the soul superior to the body. The latter statement is grounded in his [[hierarchical classification]] of things into those that merely exist, those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and have intelligence or reason.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On the free will'' (''De libero arbitrio'') 2.3.7–6.13.</ref>{{sfn|Mann|1999|pp=141–142}}

Like other Church Fathers such as [[Athenagoras of Athens|Athenagoras]],<ref>{{Cite web | title = A Plea for the Christians |author= Athenagoras the Athenian | url = http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0205.htm | publisher = New Advent}}</ref> [[Tertullian]],{{sfn|Flinn|2007|p=4}} [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Basil of Caesarea]],{{sfn|Luker|1985|p=12}} Augustine "vigorously condemned the practice of induced [[abortion]]", and although he disapproved of abortion during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction between early and later abortions.{{sfn|Bauerschmidt|1999|p= 1}} He acknowledged the distinction between "formed" and "unformed" fetuses mentioned in the [[Septuagint]] translation of Exodus 21:22–23, which incorrectly translates the word "harm" (from the original Hebrew text) as "form" in the [[Koine Greek]] of the Septuagint. His view was based on the Aristotelian distinction "between the fetus before and after its supposed 'vivification{{'"}}. Therefore, he did not classify as murder the abortion of an "unformed" fetus since he thought it could not be known with certainty the fetus had received a soul.{{sfn|Bauerschmidt|1999|p= 1}}<ref>[http://www.usccb.org/issues-and-action/human-life-and-dignity/abortion/respect-for-unborn-human-life.cfm Respect for Unborn Human Life: the Church's Constant Teaching]. U.S. Conference of Catholic Bishops</ref>

Augustine held that "the timing of the infusion of the soul was a mystery known to God alone".{{sfn|Lysaught|Kotva|Lammers|Verhey|2012|p=676}} However, he considered procreation as "one of the goods of marriage; abortion figured as a means, along with drugs which cause sterility, of frustrating this good. It lay along a continuum which included infanticide as an instance of 'lustful cruelty' or 'cruel lust.' Augustine called the use of means to avoid the birth of a child an 'evil work:' a reference to either abortion or contraception or both."<ref name="Vasa">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ewtn.com/library/bishops/vasapelosi.htm|title=Modern Look at Abortion Not Same as St. Augustine's|website=www.ewtn.com|access-date=4 December 2016|archive-date=20 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220044432/https://www.ewtn.com/library/bishops/vasapelosi.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Creation ====
{{See also|Allegorical interpretations of Genesis}}
In ''City of God'', Augustine rejected both the contemporary ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed from the Church's sacred writings.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Augustine of Hippo |chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF1-02/npnf1-02-18.htm#P2017_1154484 |chapter=Of the Falseness of the History Which Allots Many Thousand Years to the World's Past |title=The City of God |at=Book 12: Chapt. 10 [419]}}</ref> In ''The Literal Interpretation of Genesis'', Augustine argued that God had created everything in the universe simultaneously and not over a period of six days. He argued the six-day structure of creation presented in the Book of Genesis represents a [[framework interpretation (Genesis)|logical framework]], rather than the passage of time in a physical way – it would bear a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less literal. One reason for this interpretation is the passage in [[Sirach]] 18:1, ''creavit omnia simul'' ("He created all things at once"), which Augustine took as proof that the days of Genesis 1 had to be taken non-literalistically.{{sfn|Teske|1999|pp=377–378}} As additional support for describing the six days of creation as a [[heuristic device]], Augustine thought the actual event of creation would be incomprehensible by humans and therefore needed to be translated.{{sfn|Franklin-Brown|2012|p=280}}

Augustine also does not envision original sin as causing structural changes in the universe, and even suggests that the bodies of [[Adam and Eve]] were already created mortal before [[Fall of man|the Fall]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Augustine of Hippo |title=On the Merits |at=1.2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Augustine of Hippo |title=City of God |at=13:1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |author=Augustine of Hippo |title=Enchiridion |at=104}}</ref> Apart from his specific views, Augustine recognized that interpreting the creation story was difficult, and remarked that interpretations could change should new information come up.<ref>Young, Davis A. [http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1988/PSCF3-88Young.html "The Contemporary Relevance of Augustine's View of Creation"], ''[[Perspectives on Science and Christian Faith]]'' '''40.1''':42–45 (3/1988). Retrieved 30 September 2011.</ref>

==== Ecclesiology ====
{{See also|Ecclesiology}}
[[File:Carlo Crivelli - St. Augustine - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|''St. Augustine'' by [[Carlo Crivelli]]]]
Augustine developed his doctrine of the Church principally in reaction to the [[Donatist]] sect. He taught there is one Church, but within this Church there are two realities, namely, the visible aspect (the institutional [[hierarchy of the Catholic Church|hierarchy]], the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Catholic sacraments]], and the [[laity]]) and the invisible (the souls of those in the Church, who are either dead, sinful members or elect predestined for Heaven). The former is the institutional body established by Christ on earth which proclaims salvation and administers the sacraments, while the latter is the invisible body of the elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages, who are known only to God. The Church, which is visible and societal, will be made up of "wheat" and "tares", that is, good and wicked people (as per Mat. 13:30), until the end of time. This concept countered the Donatist claim that only those in a [[state (theology)|state of grace]] were the "true" or "pure" church on earth, and that priests and bishops who were not in a state of grace had no authority or ability to confect the sacraments.{{sfn|González|1987|p=28}}

Augustine's ecclesiology was more fully developed in ''City of God''. There he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or kingdom, ruled by love, which will ultimately triumph over all earthly empires which are self-indulgent and ruled by pride. Augustine followed [[Cyprian]] in teaching that bishops and priests of the Church are the [[apostolic succession|successors of the Apostles]],{{sfn|González|1987|p=}} and their authority in the Church is God-given.

The concept of [[Church invisible]] was advocated by Augustine as part of his refutation of the Donatist sect, though he, as other Church Fathers before him, saw the invisible Church and visible Church as one and the same thing, unlike the later Protestant reformers who did not identify the Catholic Church as the [[One true church|true church]].<ref>{{Cite book |author=Justo L. Gonzalez |title=A History of Christian Thought: Volume 2 (From Augustine to the eve of the Reformation) |date=1970–1975 |publisher=Abingdon Press}}</ref> He was strongly influenced by the [[Platonism|Platonist]] belief that true reality is invisible and that, if the visible reflects the invisible, it does so only partially and imperfectly (see [[Theory of Forms]]).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=JeXFXXHBgnoC Wallace M. Alston, The Church of the Living God: A Reformed Perspective] (Westminster John Knox Press, 2002 {{ISBN|978-0-664-22553-7}}), p. 53</ref> Others question whether Augustine really held to some form of an "invisible true Church" concept.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/non-orthodox_ch7.pdf|title=Patrick Barnes, The Non-Orthodox: The Orthodox Teaching on Christians Outside of the Church}}</ref>

==== Eschatology ====
Augustine originally believed in [[premillennialism]], namely that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general [[resurrection]], but later rejected the belief, viewing it as carnal. During the medieval period, the Catholic Church built its system of eschatology on Augustinian [[amillennialism]], where Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church.{{sfn|Blomberg|2006|p=519}}

During the [[Reformation]], theologians such as [[John Calvin]] accepted amillennialism. Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death,{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=}}<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Enchiridion'', 110</ref> and that [[purgatory|purgatorial]] fires of the [[Intermediate state (Christianity)|intermediate state]] purify only those who died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=}}

==== Mariology ====
Although Augustine did not develop an independent [[Mariology]], his statements on Mary surpass in number and depth those of other early writers. Even before the [[Council of Ephesus]], he defended the [[perpetual virginity of Mary|Ever-Virgin Mary]] as the [[theotokos|Mother of God]], believing her to be "full of grace" (following earlier Latin writers such as [[Jerome]]) on account of her sexual integrity and innocence.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De Sancta Virginitate'', 6,6, 191.</ref> Likewise, he affirmed that the Virgin Mary "conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever".<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De Sancta Virginitate'', 18</ref>

==== Natural knowledge and biblical interpretation ====
Augustine took the view that, if a literal interpretation contradicts science and humans' God-given reason, the biblical text should be interpreted metaphorically. While each passage of Scripture has a literal sense, this "literal sense" does not always mean the Scriptures are mere history; at times they are rather an [[extended metaphor]].<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De Genesi ad literam 1:19–20'', Chapt. 19 [408], ''De Genesi ad literam'', 2:9</ref>

==== Original sin ====
{{See also|Original sin}}

[[File:Saint Augustine - Tomas Giner.JPG|thumb|Painting of Augustine (1458) by Tomás Giner, tempera on panel, Diocesan Museum of Zaragoza, Aragon, Spain]]
Augustine taught that the sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness (''insipientia'') followed by pride and disobedience to God or that pride came first.<ref group=lower-alpha>He explained to Julian of Eclanum that it was a most subtle job to discern what came first: ''Sed si disputatione subtilissima et elimatissima opus est, ut sciamus utrum primos homines insipientia superbos, an insipientes superbia fecerit''. (''Contra Julianum'', V, 4.18; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 795)</ref> The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the [[Tree of the knowledge of good and evil]] (Gen 2:17).<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On the Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (''[[De Genesi ad litteram']]'), VIII, 6:12, vol. 1, pp. 192–93 and 12:28, vol. 2, pp. 219–20, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ; [[Bibliothèque Augustinniene|BA]] 49,28 and 50–52; PL 34, 377; cf. idem, ''De Trinitate'', XII, 12.17; [[Corpus Christianorum|CCL]] 50, 371–372 [v. 26–31; 1–36]; ''De natura boni'' 34–35; CSEL 25, 872; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 42, 551–572''</ref> The tree was a symbol of the order of creation.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On the Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (''De Genesi ad litteram''), VIII, 4.8; [[Bibliothèque Augustinniene|BA]] 49, 20</ref> Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values.<ref group=lower-alpha>Augustine explained it in this way: "Why therefore is it enjoined upon mind, that it should know itself? I suppose, in order that, it may consider itself, and live according to its own nature; that is, seek to be regulated according to its own nature, viz., under Him to whom it ought to be subject, and above those things to which it is to be preferred; under Him by whom it ought to be ruled, above those things which it ought to rule. For it does many things through vicious desire, as though in forgetfulness of itself. For it sees some things intrinsically excellent, in that more excellent nature which is God: and whereas it ought to remain steadfast that it may enjoy them, it is turned away from Him, by wishing to appropriate those things to itself, and not to be like to Him by His gift, but to be what He is by its own, and it begins to move and slip gradually down into less and less, which it thinks to be more and more." ("[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/130105.htm On the Trinity]" (''De Trinitate''), 5:7; [[Corpus Christianorum|CCL]] 50, 320 [1–12])</ref>

They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom if [[Satan]] had not sown into their senses "the root of evil" (''radix Mali'').<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Nisi radicem mali humanus tunc reciperet sensus'' ("Contra Julianum", I, 9.42; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 670)</ref> Their nature was wounded by [[concupiscence]] or [[libido]], which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire.<ref group="lower-alpha">In one of Augustine's late works, ''[[Retractationes]]'', he made a significant remark indicating the way he understood the difference between spiritual, moral libido and the sexual desire: "Libido is not good and righteous use of the libido" ("libido non-est bonus et rectus usus libidinis"). See the whole passage: ''Dixi etiam quodam loco: «Quod enim est cibus ad salutem hominis, hoc est concubitus ad salutem generis, et utrumque non-est sine delectatione carnali, quae tamen modificata et temperantia refrenante in usum naturalem redacta, libido esse non-potest». Quod ideo dictum est, quoniam "libido non-est bonus et rectus usus libidinis". Sicut enim malum est male uti bonis, ita bonum bene uti malis. De qua re alias, maxime contra novos haereticos Pelagianos, diligentius disputavi''. Cf. ''De bono coniugali'', 16.18; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 40, 385; ''De nuptiis et concupiscentia'', II, 21.36; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 443; ''Contra Iulianum'', III, 7.16; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 710; ibid., V, 16.60; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 817. See also {{Cite book |author=Idem |title=Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale |publisher=Études Augustiniennes |year=1983 |location=Paris |page=97}}</ref> In terms of [[metaphysics]], concupiscence is not a state of being but a bad quality, the privation of good or a wound.<ref>''Non substantialiter manere concupiscentiam, sicut corpus aliquod aut spiritum; sed esse affectionem quamdam malae qualitatis, sicut est languor''. (''De nuptiis et concupiscentia''), I, 25. 28; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 430; cf. ''Contra Julianum'', VI, 18.53; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 854; ibid. VI, 19.58; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 857; ibid., II, 10.33; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 697; ''Contra Secundinum Manichaeum'', 15; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 42, 590.</ref>

Augustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against [[Pelagius]] and his [[Pelagianism|Pelagian]] disciples, [[Caelestius]] and [[Julian of Eclanum]],{{sfn|González|1987|p=}} who had been inspired by [[Rufinus of Syria]], a disciple of [[Theodore of Mopsuestia]].<ref>[[Marius Mercator]] ''Lib. subnot.in verb. Iul. Praef.'',2,3; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 48,111 /v.5-13/</ref>{{sfn|Bonner|1987|p=35}} They refused to agree original sin wounded human will and mind, insisting human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.{{sfn|Bonner|1986|pp=355–356}}<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.augustinus.it/latino/grazia_cristo/grazia_cristo_1_libro.htm De gratia Christi et de peccato originali]'', I, 15.16; CSEL 42, 138 [v. 24–29]; Ibid., I,4.5; CSEL 42, 128 [v.15–23].</ref>

Pelagians insisted human affections and desires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, e.g. [[fornication]], is exclusively a matter of will, i.e. a person does not use natural desires in a proper way. In opposition, Augustine pointed out the apparent disobedience of the flesh to the spirit, and explained it as one of the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eve's disobedience to God.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Against Two Letters of the Pelagians'' 1.31–32</ref>

Augustine had served as a "Hearer" for the Manichaeans for about nine years,{{sfn|Brown|2000|p=35}} who taught that the original sin was [[carnal knowledge]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jcreeves/manichaean_version_of_genesis_2-4.htm |title=The Manichaean Version of Genesis 2–4 |access-date=25 March 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051029144459/http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jcreeves/manichaean_version_of_genesis_2-4.htm |archive-date=29 October 2005 }}. Translated from the Arabic text of Ibn al-Nadīm, Fihrist, as reproduced by G. Flügel in ''Mani: Seine Lehre und seine Schriften'' (Leipzig, 1862; reprinted, [[Osnabrück]]: Biblio Verlag, 1969) 58.11–61.13.</ref> But his struggle to understand the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the age of nineteen.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De libero arbitrio'' 1,9,1.</ref> By ''malum'' (evil) he understood most of all concupiscence, which he interpreted as a vice dominating people and causing in men and women moral disorder. Agostino Trapè insists Augustine's personal experience cannot be credited for his doctrine about concupiscence. He considers Augustine's marital experience to be quite normal, and even exemplary, aside from the absence of Christian wedding rites.{{sfn|Trapè|1987|p=113–114}} As J. Brachtendorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian [[Stoicism|Stoic]] concept of passions, to interpret [[Paul the Apostle|Paul's]] doctrine of universal sin and redemption.{{sfn|Brachtendorf|1997|p=307}}

[[File:Peter Paul Rubens - St Augustine.JPG|thumb|''St. Augustine'' by [[Peter Paul Rubens]]]]
The view that not only human [[soul]] but also senses were influenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in Augustine's time among the [[Fathers of the Church]].{{sfn|Sfameni Gasparro|2001|pp=250–251}}{{sfn|Somers|1961|p=115}}<ref>Cf. [[John Chrysostom]], ''Περι παρθενίας'' (''De Sancta Virginitate''), XIV, 6; SCh 125, 142–145; [[Gregory of Nyssa]], ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/130105.htm On the Making of Man]'', 17; SCh 6, 164–165; and ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2907.htm On Virginity]'', 12.2; SCh 119, 402 [17–20]. Cf. Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1309.htm On the Good of Marriage]'', 2.2; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 40, 374.</ref> It is clear the reason for Augustine's distancing from the affairs of the flesh was different from that of [[Plotinus]], a [[Neoplatonist]]{{efn|Although Augustine praises him in the ''Confessions'', 8.2., it is widely acknowledged that Augustine's attitude towards that pagan philosophy was very much of a Christian apostle, as {{harvnb|Clarke|1958|p=151}} writes: ''Towards Neoplatonism there was throughout his life a decidedly ambivalent attitude; one must expect both agreement and sharp dissent, derivation but also repudiation. In the matter which concerns us here, the agreement with Neoplatonism (and with the Platonic tradition in general) centres on two related notions: immutability as the primary characteristic of divinity, and likeness to divinity as the primary vocation of the soul. The disagreement chiefly concerned, as we have said, two related and central Christian dogmas: the Incarnation of the Son of God and the resurrection of the flesh''. Cf. É. Schmitt's chapter 2: ''L'idéologie hellénique et la conception augustinienne de réalités charnelles'' in: {{Cite book |title= Le mariage chrétien dans l'oeuvre de Saint Augustin. Une théologie baptismale de la vie conjugale |author= Idem |year= 1983 |publisher= Études Augustiniennes| location=Paris |pages=108–123}} {{Cite book |title= The Young Augustine: The Growth of St. Augustine's Mind up to His Conversion |last=O'Meara |first=J.J. |year= 1954 |location=London |pages=143–151 and 195f}} {{Cite book |title= Le "platonisme" des Pères |last= Madec |first=G. |page= 42}} in {{Cite book |title=Petites Études Augustiniennes |author= Idem |year= 1994|series=«Antiquité» 142| location=Paris |pages= 27–50|publisher= Collection d'Études Augustiniennes}} Thomas Aq. STh I q84 a5; Augustine of Hippo, ''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120108.htm City of God]'' (''De Civitate Dei''), VIII, 5; CCL 47, 221 [3–4].}} who taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind.{{sfn|Gerson|1999|p=203}} Augustine taught the redemption, i.e. transformation and purification, of the body in the resurrection.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''"Enarrations on the Psalms"'' (''Enarrationes in psalmos''), 143:6; [[Corpus Christianorum|CCL]] 40, 2077 [46] – 2078 [74]; ''On the Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (''De Genesi ad Litteram''), 9:6:11, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ, vol. 2, pp. 76–77; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 34, 397.</ref>

Some authors perceive Augustine's doctrine as directed against [[human sexuality]] and attribute his insistence on continence and devotion to God as coming from Augustine's need to reject his own highly sensual nature as described in the ''Confessions''.{{Efn|"It is, of course, always easier to oppose and denounce than to understand."{{sfn|Bonner|1986|p=312}}}} Augustine taught that human sexuality has been wounded, together with the whole of human nature, and requires [[Redemption (theology)|redemption]] of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal acts. The virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the grace of the sacrament of Christian marriage, which becomes therefore a ''remedium concupiscentiae'' – remedy of concupiscence.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''De continentia'', 12.27; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 40, 368; Ibid., 13.28; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 40, 369; ''Contra Julianum'', III, 15.29, <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 717; Ibid., III, 21.42, <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 724.</ref>{{sfn|Burke|2006|pp= 481–536}} The redemption of human sexuality will be, however, fully accomplished only in the resurrection of the body.<ref>''[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1501.htm Merits and Remission of Sin, and Infant Baptism]'' (''De peccatorum meritis et remissione et de baptismo parvulorum''), I, 6.6; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 44, 112–113; cf. ''On the Literal Meaning of Genesis'' (''De Genesi ad litteram'') 9:6:11, trans. John Hammond Taylor SJ, vol. 2, pp. 76–77; <abbr title="Patrologia Latina">PL</abbr> 34, 397.</ref>

The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin is transmitted to his descendants by concupiscence,<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Imperfectum Opus contra Iulianum'', II, 218</ref> which he regarded as the passion of both soul and body,{{efn|In 393 or 394 he commented: ''Moreover, if unbelief is fornication, and [[idolatry]] unbelief, and [[covetousness]] idolatry, it is not to be doubted that covetousness also is fornication. Who, then, in that case can rightly separate any unlawful lust whatever from the category of fornication, if covetousness is fornication? And from this we perceive, that because of unlawful lusts, not only those of which one is guilty in acts of uncleanness with another's husband or wife, but any unlawful lusts whatever, which cause the soul to make a bad use of the body to wander from the law of God, and to be ruinously and basely corrupted, a man may, without crime, put away his wife, and a wife her husband, because the Lord makes the cause of fornication an exception; which fornication, in accordance with the above considerations, we are compelled to understand as being general and universal.'' ("[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/16011.htm On the Sermon on the Mount]", ''De sermone Domini in monte'', 1:16:46; [[Corpus Christianorum|CCL]] 35, 52).}} making humanity a ''massa damnata'' (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|pp=1200–1204}} Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of physical death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin, Augustine was the first to add the concept of inherited guilt (''reatus'') from Adam whereby an infant was eternally damned at birth.{{sfn|Wilson|2018|pp=93, 127, 140, 146, 231–233, 279–280}}

Although Augustine's anti-Pelagian defence of original sin was confirmed at numerous councils, i.e. [[Council of Carthage (418)|Carthage (418)]], [[First Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]] (431), [[Council of Orange (529)|Orange]] (529), [[Council of Trent|Trent]] (1546) and by popes, i.e. [[Pope Innocent I]] (401–417) and [[Pope Zosimus]] (417–418), his inherited guilt eternally damning infants was omitted by these councils and popes.{{sfn|Wilson|2018|pp=221, 231, 267, 296}} [[Anselm of Canterbury]] established in his ''[[Cur Deus Homo]]'' the definition that was followed by the great 13th-century Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the "privation of the righteousness which every man ought to possess," thus separating it from ''concupiscence,'' with which some of Augustine's disciples had identified it,{{sfn|Bonner|1986|p=371}}{{sfn|Southern|1953|pp=234–237}} as later did Luther and Calvin.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|pp=1200–1204}} In 1567, [[Pope Pius V]] condemned the identification of Original Sin with concupiscence.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|pp=1200–1204}}

==== Predestination ====
{{Main|Augustinian soteriology}}Augustine taught that God orders all things while preserving human freedom.{{sfn|Levering|2011|p=44}} Prior to 396, he believed [[predestination]] was based on God's foreknowledge of whether individuals would believe in Christ, that God's grace was "a reward for human assent".{{sfn|Levering|2011|pp=48–49}} Later, in response to [[Pelagius]], Augustine said that the sin of [[pride]] consists in assuming "we are the ones who choose God or that God chooses us (in his foreknowledge) because of something worthy in us", and argued that God's grace causes the individual act of faith.{{sfn|Levering|2011|pp=47–48}}

Scholars are divided over whether Augustine's teaching implies [[double predestination]], or the belief God chooses some people for damnation as well as some for salvation. Catholic scholars tend to deny he held such a view while some Protestants and secular scholars have held that Augustine did believe in double predestination.{{sfn|James|1998|p=102}} About 412, Augustine became the first Christian to understand predestination as a divine unilateral pre-determination of individuals' eternal destinies independently of human choice, although his prior Manichaean sect did teach this concept.{{sfn|Widengren|1977|pp=63–65, 90}}{{sfn|Stroumsa|1992|pp=344–345}}{{sfn|Wilson|2018|pp=286–293}}{{sfn|van Oort|2010|p=520}} Some Protestant theologians, such as [[Justo L. González]]{{sfn|González|1987|p=44}} and [[Bengt Hägglund]],{{sfn|Hägglund|2007|pp=139–140}} interpret Augustine's teaching that grace is [[irresistible grace|irresistible]], results in conversion, and leads to [[perseverance of the saints|perseverance]].

In ''On Rebuke and Grace'' (''De correptione et gratia''), Augustine wrote: "And what is written, that He wills all men to be saved, while yet all men are not saved, may be understood in many ways, some of which I have mentioned in other writings of mine; but here I will say one thing: He wills all men to be saved, is so said that all the predestinated may be understood by it, because every kind of men is among them."<ref name="St. Augustine of Hippo" />

Speaking of the twins Jacob and Esau, Augustine wrote in his book ''On the Gift of Perseverance'', "[I]t ought to be a most certain fact that the former is of the predestinated, the latter is not."<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On the Gift of Perseverance'', Chapter 21</ref>

==== Sacramental theology ====
[[File:Vittore carpaccio, visione di sant'agostino 01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|''[[St. Augustine in His Study (Carpaccio)|St. Augustine in His Study]]'' by [[Vittore Carpaccio]], 1502]]

Also in reaction to the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the "regularity" and "validity" of the [[sacrament]]s. Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church, while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments does not depend upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (''[[ex opere operato]]''); therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church. On this point, Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of [[Cyprian]], who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised.{{sfn|González|1987|p=}} Augustine taught that sacraments administered outside the Catholic Church, though true sacraments, avail nothing. However, he also stated that baptism, while it does not confer any grace when done outside the Church, does confer grace as soon as one is received into the Catholic Church.<ref>{{Cite book|author=Augustine of Hippo|title=St. Augustine's Writings Against The Manichaeans And Against The Donatists|edition=eBook |year= 2012|publisher=Jazzybee Verlag|isbn=978-3-8496-2109-4}}</ref>

Augustine is said to have held {{Weasel inline|date=May 2024}} an understanding of the [[real presence of Christ in the Eucharist]], saying that Christ's statement, "This is my body" referred to the bread he carried in his hands,<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Explanations of the Psalms'' 33:1:10 [405]</ref><ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Sermons'' 227 [411]</ref> and that Christians must have faith the bread and wine are in fact the body and blood of Christ, despite what they see with their eyes.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Sermons'' 272</ref> For instance, he stated that "He [Jesus] walked here in the same flesh, and gave us the same flesh to be eaten unto salvation. But no one eats that flesh unless first he adores it; and thus it is discovered how such a footstool of the Lord's feet is adored; and not only do we not sin by adoring, we do sin by not adoring."{{sfn|Jurgens|1970|p=20|loc = § 1479a}}

Presbyterian professor and author John Riggs argued that Augustine held that Christ is really present in the elements of the Eucharist, but not in a bodily manner, because his body remains in [[Heaven in Christianity|Heaven]].{{sfn|Riggs|2015|p=15}}

Augustine, in his work ''On Christian Doctrine'', referred to the Eucharist as a "figure" and a "sign".<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On Christian Doctrine'', Book II, Chapter 3; Book III, Chapter 9; Book III, Chapter 16</ref>{{sfn|Ambrose|1919|p=35}}

Against the [[Pelagians]], Augustine strongly stressed the importance of [[infant baptism]]. About the question whether baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation, however, Augustine appears to have refined his beliefs during his lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians about his position. He said in one of his sermons that only the baptized are saved.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''A Sermon to Catechumens on the Creed'', Paragraph 16</ref> This belief was shared by many early Christians. However, a passage from his ''City of God'', concerning the [[Apocalypse]], may indicate Augustine did believe in an exception for children born to Christian parents.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'', Book 20, Chapter 8</ref>

=== Philosophy ===
[[File:Nuremberg chronicles - Augustine (CXXXVIr).jpg|thumb|Saint Augustine in the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' ]]

==== Astrology ====
Augustine's contemporaries often believed [[astrology]] to be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were regarded as true men of learning and called ''mathematici''. Astrology played a prominent part in Manichaean doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted by their books in his youth, being particularly fascinated by those who claimed to foretell the future. Later, as a bishop, he warned that one should avoid astrologers who combine science and [[horoscope]]s. (Augustine's term "mathematici", meaning "astrologers", is sometimes mistranslated as "mathematicians".) According to Augustine, they were not genuine students of [[Hipparchus]] or [[Eratosthenes]] but "common swindlers".{{sfn|Van Der Meer|1961|p=60}}{{sfn|Bonner|1986|p=63}}{{sfn|Testard|1958|pp=100–106}}<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''Confessions'' 5,7,12; 7,6</ref>

==== Epistemology ====
[[Epistemology|Epistemological]] concerns shaped Augustine's intellectual development. His early dialogues ''Contra academicos'' (386) and ''De Magistro'' (389), both written shortly after his conversion to Christianity, reflect his engagement with sceptical arguments and show the development of his doctrine of [[divine illumination]]. The doctrine of illumination claims God plays an active and regular part in human perception and understanding by illuminating the mind so human beings can recognize intelligible realities God presents (as opposed to God designing the human mind to be reliable consistently, as in, for example, Descartes's idea of clear and distinct perceptions). According to Augustine, illumination is obtainable to all rational minds and is different from other forms of [[sense perception]]. It is meant to be an explanation of the conditions required for the mind to have a connection with intelligible entities.<ref name=encyclopedia>{{Cite encyclopedia| last=Mendelson| first=Michael| title=Saint Augustine| url=http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2012/entries/augustine/| encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy| access-date=21 December 2012| date=24 March 2000}}</ref>

Augustine also posed the [[problem of other minds]] throughout different works, most famously perhaps in ''[[On the Trinity]]'' (VIII.6.9), and developed what has come to be a standard solution: the argument from analogy to other minds.{{sfn|Matthews|1992|p=}} In contrast to Plato and other earlier philosophers, Augustine recognized the centrality of [[Philosophical problems of testimony|testimony]] to human knowledge and argued that what others tell us can provide knowledge even if we do not have independent reasons to believe their testimonial reports.{{sfn|King|Ballantyne|2009|p=195}}

==== Just war ====
{{See also|Just war theory}}
Augustine asserted Christians should be [[pacifists]] as a personal, philosophical stance.<ref>[http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/septemberweb-only/9-17-55.0.html "A Time For War?"] ''Christianity Today'' (9 January 2001). Retrieved on 28 April 2013.</ref> However, peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could only be stopped by violence would be a sin. Defence of one's self or others could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a legitimate authority. While not breaking down the conditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine coined the phrase in his work ''The City of God''.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120728203512/http://www.crusades-encyclopedia.com/augustineofhippo.html Augustine of Hippo]. Crusades-encyclopedia.com. Retrieved on 28 April 2013.</ref> In essence, the pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting for its long-term preservation.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120728203512/http://www.crusades-encyclopedia.com/augustineofhippo.html St. Augustine of Hippo], Crusades-Encyclopedia</ref> Such a war could not be pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace.<ref>[http://www.jknirp.com/mattox.htm "Saint Augustine and the Theory of Just War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103033459/http://www.jknirp.com/mattox.htm |date=3 November 2013 }}. Jknirp.com (23 January 2007). Retrieved on 28 April 2013.</ref> [[Thomas Aquinas]], centuries later, used the authority of Augustine's arguments in an attempt to define the conditions under which a war could be just.<ref>[http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/politics/pg0029.html "The Just War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423100800/https://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/politics/pg0029.html |date=23 April 2021 }}. Catholiceducation.org. Retrieved on 28 April 2013.</ref>{{sfn|Gonzalez|2010|p=}}

==== Free will ====
Included in Augustine's earlier [[theodicy]] is the claim God created humans and angels as rational beings possessing [[free will]]. Free will was not intended for sin, meaning it is not equally predisposed to both good and evil. A will defiled by sin is not considered as "free" as it once was because it is bound by material things, which could be lost or be difficult to part with, resulting in unhappiness. Sin impairs free will, while grace restores it. Only a will that was once free can be subjected to sin's corruption.{{sfn|Meister|Copan|2013|p=}} After 412, Augustine changed his theology, teaching that humanity had no free will to believe in Christ but only a free will to sin: "I in fact strove on behalf of the free choice of the human 'will,' but God's grace conquered" (''Retract''. 2.1).{{sfn|Wilson|2018|p=285 }}

The early Christians opposed the deterministic views (e.g., fate) of Stoics, Gnostics, and Manichaeans prevalent in the first four centuries.{{sfn|McIntire|2005|pp=3206–3209}} Christians championed the concept of a relational God who interacts with humans rather than a Stoic or Gnostic God who unilaterally foreordained every event (yet Stoics still claimed to teach free will).{{sfn|Dihle|1982|p=152}} [[Patristics]] scholar Ken Wilson argues that every early Christian author with extant writings who wrote on the topic prior to Augustine of Hippo (412) advanced human free choice rather than a deterministic God.{{sfn|Wilson|2018|pp=93–94, 273–274}} According to Wilson, Augustine taught traditional free choice until 412, when he reverted to his earlier Manichaean and Stoic deterministic training when battling the Pelagians.{{sfn|Wilson|2018|pp=281–294}} Only a few Christians accepted Augustine's view of free will until the Protestant Reformation when both Luther and Calvin embraced Augustine's deterministic teachings wholeheartedly.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Martin |first1=Luther |translator1-last=Krodel |translator1-first=Gottfried |editor1-last=Lehman |editor1-first=Helmut |title=Luther's Works |volume=48 |date=1963 |publisher=Fortress Press |page=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Calvin |first1=John |translator1-last=Cole |translator1-first=Henry |title=Calvin's Calvinism |article=A Treatise on the Eternal Predestination of God |date=1927 |publisher=Sovereign Grace Union |location=London |page=38}}</ref>

The [[Catholic Church]] considers Augustine's teaching to be consistent with free will. He often said that anyone can be saved if they wish.{{sfn|Portalié|1907b}} While God knows who will and will not be saved, with no possibility for the latter to be saved in their lives, this knowledge represents God's perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their destinies.{{sfn|Portalié|1907b}}

=== Sociology, morals and ethics ===
==== Natural law ====
Augustine was among the earliest to examine the legitimacy of the laws of man, and attempt to define the boundaries of what laws and rights occur naturally, instead of being arbitrarily imposed by mortals. All who have wisdom and conscience, he concludes, are able to use reason to recognize the ''lex naturalis'', [[natural law]]. Mortal law should not attempt to force people to do what is right or avoid what is wrong, but simply to remain just. Therefore "[[an unjust law is no law at all]]". People are not obligated to obey laws that are unjust, those that their conscience and reason tell them violate natural law and [[natural rights|rights]].<ref>{{Cite web| url = https://lawexplores.com/the-philosophy-of-law-in-the-writings-of-augustine/#Fn23| title = Augustine on Law and Order — Lawexplores.com}}</ref>

==== Slavery ====
Augustine led many clergy under his authority at Hippo to free their slaves as a "pious and holy" act.<ref>Augustine, "Of the Work of Monks", n. 25, in Philip Schaff, ed., ''A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church'', volume 3, p. 516. Eerdmans, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 1956.</ref> He boldly wrote a letter urging the emperor to set up a new law against slave traders and was very much concerned about the sale of children. Christian emperors of his time for 25 years had permitted the sale of children, not because they approved of the practice, but as a way of preventing [[infanticide]] when parents were unable to care for a child. Augustine noted that the tenant farmers in particular were driven to hire out or to sell their children as a means of survival.<ref>''The Saints'', Pauline Books & Media, Daughters of St. Paul, Editions du Signe (1998), p. 72</ref>

In his book, ''The City of God'', he presents the development of slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to God's divine plan. He wrote that God "did not intend that this rational creature, who was made in his image, should have dominion over anything but the irrational creation – not man over man, but man over the beasts". Thus he wrote that righteous men in primitive times were made shepherds of cattle, not kings over men. "The condition of slavery is the result of sin", he declared.<ref>Augustine, ''The City of God'', Ch. 15, p. 411, Vol. II, ''Nicene & Post-Nicene Fathers'', Eerdman's, Grand Rapids, Michigan, Reprinted 1986</ref> In ''The City of God'', Augustine wrote he felt the existence of slavery was a punishment for the existence of sin, even if an individual enslaved person committed no sin meriting punishment. He wrote: "Slavery is, however, penal, and is appointed by that law which enjoins the preservation of the natural order and forbids its disturbance."<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/120119.htm|title=Church Fathers: City of God, Book XIX (St. Augustine)|website=www.newadvent.org|access-date=31 July 2018}}</ref> Augustine believed slavery did more harm to the slave owner than the enslaved person himself: "the lowly position does as much good to the servant as the proud position does harm to the master."<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|url=https://hts.org.za/index.php/hts/article/view/300|last=Oort|first=Johannes Van|date=5 October 2009|title=Augustine, His Sermons, and Their Significance|journal=HTS Teologiese Studies/ Theological Studies|volume=65|pages=1–10}}</ref> Augustine proposes as a solution to sin a type of cognitive reimagining of one's situation, where slaves "may themselves make their slavery in some sort free, by serving not in crafty fear, but in faithful love," until the end of the world eradicated slavery for good: "until all unrighteousness pass away, and all principality and every human power be brought to nothing, and God be all in all."<ref name=":0" />

==== Jews ====
Against certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of [[Hebrew Scripture]], Augustine countered that God had chosen the [[Jews]] as a special people,{{sfn|MacCulloch|2010|p=8}} and he considered the scattering of Jewish people by the Roman Empire to be a fulfilment of prophecy.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'', book 18, chapter 46.</ref> He rejected homicidal attitudes, quoting part of the same prophecy, namely "Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law" (Psalm 59:11). Augustine, who believed Jewish people would be converted to Christianity at "the end of time", argued God had allowed them to survive their dispersion as a warning to Christians; as such, he argued, they should be permitted to dwell in Christian lands.{{sfn|Edwards|1999|pp=33–35}}<ref>Richard S. Levy ed. ''Antisemitism: A historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution'' (2 vol ABC-CLIO, 2005) vol 1 pp 43–45.</ref><ref>. Paula Fredricksen, ''Augustine and the Jews: A Christian Defense of Jews and Judaism'' (Yale UP, 2010).</ref>

The sentiment sometimes attributed to Augustine that Christians should let the Jews "survive but not thrive" (it is repeated by the author [[James Carroll (author)|James Carroll]] in his book ''Constantine's Sword'', for example){{sfn|Carroll|2002|p=219}} is apocryphal and is not found in any of his writings.{{sfn|Van Biema|2008}}

==== Sexuality and the sexes ====
For Augustine, the evil of sexual immorality was not in the sexual act itself, but in the emotions that typically accompany it. In ''On Christian Doctrine'' Augustine contrasts love, which is enjoyment on account of God, and lust, which is not on account of God.<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''On Christian Doctrine'', 3.37</ref> Augustine claims that, following the Fall, sexual lust (''concupiscentia'') has become necessary for copulation (as required to stimulate male erection), sexual lust is an evil result of the Fall, and therefore, evil must inevitably accompany sexual intercourse (''On marriage and concupiscence'' [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_I/Volume_V/On_Marriage_and_Concupiscence/Book_I/Chapter_19 1.19]<ref>[https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_Nuptiis_et_Concupiscentia_ad_Valerium Latin text]: "Carnis autem concupiscentia non est nuptiis imputanda, sed toleranda. Non enim est ex naturali connubio veniens bonum, sed ex antiquo peccato accidens malum." (Carnal concupiscence, however, must not be ascribed to marriage: it is only to be tolerated in marriage. It is not a good which comes out of the essence of marriage, but an evil which is the accident of original sin.)</ref>). Therefore, following the Fall, even marital sex carried out merely to procreate inevitably perpetuates evil (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 1.27; ''A Treatise against Two Letters of the Pelagians'' 2.27). For Augustine, proper love exercises a denial of selfish pleasure and the subjugation of corporeal desire to God. The only way to avoid evil caused by sexual intercourse is to take the "better" way (''Confessions'' 8.2) and abstain from marriage (''On marriage and concupiscence'' 1.31). Sex within marriage is not, however, for Augustine a sin, although necessarily produces the evil of sexual lust. Based on the same logic, Augustine also declared the pious virgins raped during the sack of Rome to be innocent because they did not intend to sin nor enjoy the act.{{sfn|Russell|1945|p=356}}<ref>Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'', Book I, Ch. 16, 18.</ref>

Before the Fall, Augustine believed sex was a passionless affair, "just like many a laborious work accomplished by the compliant operation of our other limbs, without any lascivious heat",<ref>''On marriage and concupiscence'' [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_I/Volume_V/On_Marriage_and_Concupiscence/Book_II/Chapter_26 2.26], [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/02m/0354-0430,_Augustinus,_De_Nuptiis_Et_Concupiscentia,_MLT.pdf Latin text]: "Sine qua libidine poterat opus fieri conjugum in generatione filiorum, sicut multa opera fiunt obedientia caeterorum sine illo ardore membrorum, quae voluptatis nutu moventur, non aestu libidinis concitantur."</ref> that the seed "might be sown without any shameful lust, the genital members simply obeying the inclination of the will".<ref>''On marriage and concupiscence'' [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_I/Volume_V/On_Marriage_and_Concupiscence/Book_II/Chapter_29 2.29], [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/02m/0354-0430,_Augustinus,_De_Nuptiis_Et_Concupiscentia,_MLT.pdf Latin text]: "sereretur sine ulla pudenda libidine, ad voluntatis nutum membris obsequentibus genitalibus"; cf. ''City of God'' 14.23</ref> After the Fall, by contrast, the penis cannot be controlled by mere will, subject instead to both unwanted impotence and involuntary erections: "Sometimes the urge arises unwanted; sometimes, on the other hand, it forsakes the eager lover, and desire grows cold in the body while burning in the mind... It arouses the mind, but it does not follow through what it has begun and arouse the body also" (''City of God'' 14.16).

Augustine censured those who try to prevent the creation of offspring when engaging in sexual relations, saying that though they may be nominally married they are not really, but are using that designation as a cloak for turpitude. When they allow their unwanted children to die of exposure, they unmask their sin. Sometimes they use drugs to produce sterility, or other means to try to destroy the fetus before they are born. Their marriage is not wedlock but debauchery.<ref>''On marriage and concupiscence'' [https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Nicene_and_Post-Nicene_Fathers:_Series_I/Volume_V/On_Marriage_and_Concupiscence/Book_I/Chapter_17 1.17], [https://la.wikisource.org/wiki/De_Nuptiis_et_Concupiscentia_ad_Valerium Latin text]: "Aliquando eo usque pervenit haec libidinosa crudelitas vel libido crudelis, ut etiam sterilitatis venena procuret et si nihil valuerit, conceptos fetus aliquo modo intra viscera exstinguat ac fundat, volendo suam prolem prius interire quam vivere, aut si in utero iam vivebat, occidi ante quam nasci. Prorsus si ambo tales sunt, coniuges non sunt; et si ab initio tales fuerunt, non sibi per connubium, sed per stuprum potius convenerunt."</ref>

Augustine believed Adam and Eve had both already chosen in their hearts to disobey God's command not to eat of the Tree of Knowledge before Eve took the fruit, ate it, and gave it to Adam.<ref name="ReferenceC">Augustine of Hippo, ''City of God'', 14.13</ref>{{sfn|Clark|1996|p=}} Accordingly, Augustine did not believe Adam was any less guilty of sin.<ref name="ReferenceC" />{{sfn|Clark|1986|pp=139–162}} Augustine praises women and their role in society and in the Church. In his ''Tractates on the Gospel of John'', Augustine, commenting on the [[Samaritan]] woman from John 4:1–42, uses the woman as a figure of the Church in agreement with the New Testament teaching that the Church is the bride of Christ.<ref>{{bibleverse|John|4:1–42}}</ref> "Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her."<ref>{{bibleverse|Eph|5:25}}</ref>

Augustine believed that "woman has been made for man" and that "in sex she is physically subject to him in the same way as our natural impulses need to be subjected to the reasoning power of the mind, in order that the actions to which they lead may be inspired by the principles of good conduct".<ref>{{cite book |last1=May Schott |first1=Robin |title=Discovering Feminist Philosophy Knowledge, Ethics, Politics |date=2003 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |page=32}}</ref> Women were created as a "helper" to men for Augustine.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Deborah F. |first1=Sawyer |title=Women and Religion in the First Christian Centuries |date=2002 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |page=152}}</ref>

==== Pedagogy ====
[[File:Sandro Botticelli - St Augustin dans son cabinet de travail.jpg|thumb|''[[Saint Augustine in His Cell (Botticelli)|Saint Augustine in His Study]]'' by [[Sandro Botticelli]], 1494, [[Uffizi Gallery]]]]
Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education. A work early in Augustine's writings is ''De Magistro'' (On the Teacher), which contains insights into education. His ideas changed as he found better directions or better ways of expressing his ideas. In the last years of his life, Augustine wrote his ''Retractationes'' (''Retractations''), reviewing his writings and improving specific texts. Henry Chadwick believes an accurate translation of "retractationes" may be "reconsiderations". Reconsiderations can be seen as an overarching theme of the way Augustine learned. Augustine's understanding of the search for understanding, meaning, and truth as a restless journey leaves room for doubt, development, and change.{{sfn|McCloskey|2008|pp=}}

Augustine was a strong advocate of [[critical thinking]] skills. Because written works were limited during this time, spoken communication of knowledge was very important. His emphasis on the importance of community as a means of learning distinguishes his pedagogy from some others. Augustine believed dialectic is the best means for learning and that this method should serve as a model for learning encounters between teachers and students. Augustine's dialogue writings model the need for lively interactive dialogue among learners.{{sfn|McCloskey|2008|pp=}}
He recommended adapting educational practices to fit the students' educational backgrounds:
* the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers;
* the student who has had no education; and
* the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated.

If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already learned, but to challenge the student with material they do not yet know thoroughly. With the student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one with an inferior education who believes he understands something when he does not. Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of student the difference between "having words and having understanding"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Guthrie |first=James W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oNobAAAAIAAJ&q=Encyclopedia+of+Education:+AACSB-Commerce |title=Encyclopedia of Education: AACSB-Commerce |date=2003 |publisher=Macmillan Reference USA |isbn=978-0-02-865594-9 |pages=160 |language=en}}</ref> and of helping the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Under the influence of [[Bede]], [[Alcuin]], and [[Rabanus Maurus]], ''De catechizandis rudibus'' came to exercise an important role in the education of clergy at the monastic schools, especially from the eighth century onwards.{{sfn|Howie|1969|p=150–153}}

Augustine believed students should be given an opportunity to apply learned theories to practical experience. Yet another of Augustine's major contributions to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when speaking to the students. The ''mixed style'' includes complex and sometimes showy language to help students see the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The ''grand style'' is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the same passion in the students' hearts. Augustine balanced his teaching philosophy with the traditional [[Bible]]-based practice of strict discipline.{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Augustine knew [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]]. He had a long correspondence with St Jerome regarding the textual differences existing between the [[Hebrew Bible]] and the Greek [[Septuagint]], concluding that the original Greek manuscripts were closely similar to the other Hebrew ones, and also that even the differences in the two original versions of the Holy Scripture could enlight its spiritual meaning to have been unitarily inspired by God.<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Edmon L. |last1=Gallagher |author-link1=Edmon L. Gallagher|title=Augustine on the Hebrew Bible |journal=[[The Journal of Theological Studies]] |volume= 67 |issue=1 |date=1 April 2016 |pages=97–114 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1093/jts/flv160}}</ref>

==== Coercion ====
Augustine of Hippo had to deal with issues of violence and coercion throughout his entire career due largely to the Donatist-Catholic conflict. He is one of the very few authors in Antiquity who ever truly theoretically examined the ideas of religious freedom and coercion.<ref name="Brown1964" />{{rp|107}} Augustine handled the infliction of punishment and the exercise of power over law-breakers by analyzing these issues in ways similar to modern debates on penal reform.{{sfn|Brown|1964|p=115}}

His teaching on coercion has "embarrassed his modern defenders and vexed his modern detractors,"<ref name="Markus">R. A. Markus, Saeculum: History and Society in the Theology of St.Augustine (Cambridge, 1970), pp. 149–153</ref>{{rp|116}} because it is seen as making him appear "to generations of religious liberals as ''le prince et patriarche de persecuteurs.''"<ref name="Brown1964" />{{rp|107}} Yet Brown asserts that, at the same time, Augustine becomes "an eloquent advocate of the ideal of corrective punishment" and reformation of the wrongdoer.{{sfn|Brown|1964|p=116}} Russell says Augustine's theory of coercion "was not crafted from dogma, but in response to a unique historical situation" and is, therefore, context-dependent, while others see it as inconsistent with his other teachings.<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|125}}

===== The context =====
During the [[Diocletianic persecution|Great Persecution]], "When Roman soldiers came calling, some of the [Catholic] officials handed over the sacred books, vessels, and other church goods rather than risk legal penalties" over a few objects.<ref name="Tilley1996">{{Cite book |last1=Tilley |first1=Maureen A. |title=Donatist Martyr Stories The Church in Conflict in Roman North Africa |date=1996 |publisher=Liverpool University Press |isbn=978-0-85323-931-4}}</ref>{{rp|ix}} Maureen Tilley says this was a problem by 305, that became a schism by 311, because many of the North African Christians had a long established tradition of a "physicalist approach to religion."<ref name="Tilley1996" />{{rp|xv}} The sacred scriptures were not simply books to them, but were the Word of God in physical form, therefore they saw handing over the Bible, and handing over a person to be martyred, as "two sides of the same coin."<ref name="Tilley1996" />{{rp|ix}} Those who cooperated with the authorities became known as ''traditores.'' The term originally meant ''one who hands over a physical object'', but it came to mean "traitor".<ref name="Tilley1996" />{{rp|ix}}

According to Tilley, after the persecution ended, those who had apostatized wanted to return to their positions in the church.<ref name="Tilley1996" />{{rp|xiv}} The North African Christians, (the rigorists who became known as Donatists), refused to accept them.<ref name="Tilley1996" />{{rp|ix, x}} Catholics were more tolerant and wanted to wipe the slate clean.<ref name="Cameron1993">{{Cite book |last1=Cameron |first1=Alan |title=The Later Roman Empire, 284–430 |date=1993 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-51194-1 |edition=illustrated}}</ref>{{rp|xiv, 69}} For the next 75 years, both parties existed, often directly alongside each other, with a double line of bishops for the same cities.<ref name="Tilley1996" />{{rp|xv}} Competition for the loyalty of the people included multiple new churches and violence.{{efn|French archaeology has shown the north African landscape of this time period became "covered with a white robe of churches" with Catholics and Donatists building multiple churches with granaries to feed the poor as they competed for the loyalty of the people.<ref name="Brown1964">{{Cite journal|last=Brown|first= P.|year=1964|title=St. Augustine's Attitude to Religious Coercion|journal=Journal of Roman Studies|volume= 54|issue=1–2| pages=107–116|doi=10.2307/298656|jstor= 298656|s2cid= 162757247}}</ref>}}{{rp|334}} No one is exactly sure when the [[Circumcellions]] and the Donatists allied, but for decades, they fomented protests and street violence, accosted travellers and attacked random Catholics without warning, often doing serious and unprovoked bodily harm such as beating people with clubs, cutting off their hands and feet, and gouging out eyes.<ref name="Frend1">{{Cite book|last=Frend|first=W. H. C.|title=The Donatist Church|date=2020|publisher=Wipf and Stock|isbn=978-1-5326-9755-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QNbaDwAAQBAJ}}</ref>{{rp|172, 173, 222, 242, 254}}

Augustine became [[coadjutor Bishop]] of Hippo in 395, and since he believed that conversion must be voluntary, his appeals to the Donatists were verbal. For several years, he used popular propaganda, debate, personal appeal, General Councils, appeals to the emperor and political pressure to bring the Donatists back into union with the Catholics, but all attempts failed.<ref name="Frend1" />{{rp|242, 254}} The harsh realities Augustine faced can be found in his Letter 28 written to bishop Novatus around 416. Donatists had attacked, cut out the tongue and cut off the hands of a Bishop Rogatus who had recently converted to Catholicism. An unnamed count of Africa had sent his agent with Rogatus, and he too had been attacked; the count was "inclined to pursue the matter."<ref name="Markus" />{{rp|120}} Russell says Augustine demonstrates a "hands-on" involvement with the details of his bishopric, but at one point in the letter, he confesses he does not know what to do. "All the issues that plague him are there: stubborn Donatists, Circumcellion violence, the vacillating role of secular officials, the imperative to persuade, and his own trepidations."<ref name="Markus" />{{rp|120, 121}} The empire responded to the civil unrest with the law and its enforcement, and thereafter, Augustine changed his mind about using verbal arguments alone. Instead, he came to support the state's use of coercion.<ref name="Brown1964" />{{rp|107–116}} Augustine did not believe the empire's enforcement would "make the Donatists more virtuous" but he did believe it would make them "less vicious."<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|128}}

===== The theology =====
The primary 'proof-text' of what Augustine thought concerning coercion is from Letter 93, written in 408, as a reply to bishop Vincentius, of Cartenna (Mauretania, North Africa). This letter shows that both practical and biblical reasons led Augustine to defend the legitimacy of coercion. He confesses that he changed his mind because of "the ineffectiveness of dialogue and the proven efficacy of laws."<ref name="Marcos">Marcos, Mar. "The Debate on Religious Coercion in Ancient Christianity." Chaos e Kosmos 14 (2013): 1–16.</ref>{{rp|3}} He had been worried about false conversions if force was used, but "now," he says, "it seems imperial persecution is working." Many Donatists had converted.<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|116}} "Fear had made them reflect, and made them docile."<ref name="Marcos" />{{rp|3}} Augustine continued to assert that coercion could not directly convert someone, but concluded it could make a person ready to be reasoned with.<ref name="Park">{{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Jae-Eun|title=Lacking love or conveying love?: The fundamental roots of the Donatists and Augustine's nuanced treatment of them|journal=The Reformed Theological Review |volume=72 |issue=2|date=August 2013 |pages=103–121 |url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=646939318099580;res=IELHSS |access-date=22 April 2020}}</ref>{{rp|103–121}}

According to Mar Marcos, Augustine made use of several biblical examples to legitimize coercion, but the primary analogy in Letter 93 and in Letter 185, is the parable of the Great Feast in Luke 14.15–24 and its statement ''compel them to come in.''<ref name="Marcos" />{{rp|1}} Russell says, Augustine uses the Latin term ''cogo'', instead of the ''compello'' of the Vulgate, since to Augustine, ''cogo'' meant to "gather together" or "collect" and was not simply "compel by physical force."<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|121}}

In 1970, Robert Markus<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Liebeschuetz |first1=Wolf |title=Robert Markus: Medieval historian noted for his writings on the early Church |date=25 February 2011 |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/robert-markus-medieval-historian-noted-for-his-writings-on-the-early-church-2224995.html |publisher=Independent}}</ref> argued that, for Augustine, a degree of external pressure being brought for the purpose of reform was compatible with the exercise of free will.<ref name="Markus" /> Russell asserts that ''Confessions 13'' is crucial to understanding Augustine's thought on coercion; using Peter Brown's explanation of Augustine's view of salvation, he explains that Augustine's past, his own sufferings and "conversion through God's pressures," along with his biblical hermeneutics, is what led him to see the value in suffering for discerning truth.<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|116–117}} According to Russell, Augustine saw coercion as one among many conversion strategies for forming "a pathway to the inner person."<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|119}}

In Augustine's view, there is such a thing as just and unjust persecution. Augustine explains that when the purpose of persecution is to lovingly correct and instruct, then it becomes discipline and is just.<ref name="Marcos" />{{rp|2}} He said the church would discipline its people out of a loving desire to heal them, and that, "once compelled to come in, heretics would gradually give their voluntary assent to the truth of Christian orthodoxy."<ref name="Russell2">{{Cite book |last1=Russell |first1=Frederick H. |title=The Limits of Ancient Christianity: Essays on Late Antique Thought and Culture in Honor of R.A. Markus. |date=1999 |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=0-472-10997-9 |chapter=Persuading the Donatists: Augustine's Coercion by Words}}</ref>{{rp|115}} Frederick H. Russell<ref name="Russell">{{Cite web |title=Frederick Russell |url=https://sasn.rutgers.edu/academics-admissions/academic-departments/federated-department-history/faculty-emeriti/frederick-russell |website=School of Arts & Sciences-Newark Faculty Emeriti |publisher=Rutgers University Newark |quote=Ph.D., Johns Hopkins}}</ref> describes this as "a pastoral strategy in which the church did the persecuting with the dutiful assistance of Roman authorities,"<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|115}} adding that it is "a precariously balanced blend of external discipline and inward nurturance."<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|125}}

Augustine placed limits on the use of coercion, recommending fines, imprisonment, banishment, and moderate floggings, preferring beatings with rods which was a common practice in the ecclesial courts.<ref name="Hughes">{{Cite book |editor1-last=Hughes |editor1-first=Kevin L. |editor2-last=Paffenroth |editor2-first=Kim |title=Augustine and Liberal Education |date=2008 |publisher=Lexington Books |isbn=978-0-7391-2383-6}}</ref>{{rp|164}} He opposed severity, maiming, and the execution of heretics.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Toleration, History of |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia An International Work of Reference on the Constitution, Doctrine, Discipline, and History of the Catholic Church|year=1912 |publisher=University of Michigan |editor-last=Herbermann|editor-first=Charles George|pages=761–772}}</ref>{{rp|768}} While these limits were mostly ignored by Roman authorities, Michael Lamb says that in doing this, "Augustine appropriates republican principles from his Roman predecessors..." and maintains his commitment to liberty, legitimate authority, and the rule of law as a constraint on arbitrary power. He continues to advocate holding authority accountable to prevent domination but affirms the state's right to act.<ref>Lamb, Michael. "Augustine and Republican Liberty: Contextualizing Coercion." Augustinian Studies (2017).</ref>

[[Herbert A. Deane]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=Herbert L. Deane, 69, Ex-Columbia Official |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/02/16/obituaries/herbert-l-deane-69-ex-columbia-official.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=16 February 1991 |access-date=26 August 2020 |quote=professor emeritus of political philosophy and a former vice provost at Columbia University}}</ref> on the other hand, says there is a fundamental inconsistency between Augustine's political thought and "his final position of approval of the use of political and legal weapons to punish religious dissidence" and others have seconded this view.{{efn|See: C. Kirwan, ''Augustine'' (London, 1989), pp. 209–218; and J. M. Rist. ''Augustine: Ancient Thought Baptized'' (Cambridge, 1994), pp. 239–245.|<ref>H. A. Deane, ''The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine'' (New York, 1963), pp. 216–219.</ref>}} Brown asserts that Augustine's thinking on coercion is more of an attitude than a doctrine since it is "not in a state of rest," but is instead marked by "a painful and protracted attempt to embrace and resolve tensions."<ref name="Brown1964" />{{rp|107}}

According to Russell, it is possible to see how Augustine himself had evolved from his earlier ''Confessions'' to this teaching on coercion and the latter's strong patriarchal nature: "Intellectually, the burden has shifted imperceptibly from discovering the truth to disseminating the truth."<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|129}} The bishops had become the church's elite with their own rationale for acting as "stewards of the truth." Russell points out that Augustine's views are limited to time and place and his own community, but later, others took what he said and applied it outside those parameters in ways Augustine never imagined or intended.<ref name="Russell2" />{{rp|129}}

== Works ==
{{Main|Augustine of Hippo bibliography}}
[[File:Antonio Rodríguez - Saint Augustine - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Saint Augustine'' painting by Antonio Rodríguez]]
Augustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists of more than one hundred separate titles.{{sfn|Wright|Sinclair|1931|pp=56–}} They include [[apologetics|apologetic]] works against the heresies of the [[Arianism|Arians]], [[Donatists]], [[Manichaeans]] and [[Pelagians]]; texts on Christian [[doctrine]], notably {{Lang|la|[[De Doctrina Christiana]]}} (''On Christian Doctrine''); [[exegesis|exegetical]] works such as commentaries on [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], the [[Psalms]] and [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul's]] [[Letter to the Romans]]; many [[sermon]]s and [[Letter (message)|letters]]; and the ''Retractationes'', a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end of his life.

Apart from those, Augustine is probably best known for his ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]'', which is a personal account of his earlier life, and for ''De civitate Dei'' (''[[The City of God]]'', consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly shaken by the [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack of Rome]] by the [[Visigoths]] in 410. His ''[[On the Trinity]]'', in which he developed what has become known as the 'psychological analogy' of the [[Trinity]], is also considered to be among his masterpieces, and arguably of more [[doctrinal]] importance than the ''Confessions'' or the ''City of God''.{{sfn|Hill|1961|pp=540–548}} He also wrote ''On Free Choice of the Will'' (''[[De libero arbitrio (Augustine)|De libero arbitrio]]''), addressing why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil.

== Legacy ==
[[File:Vergós Group - Saint Augustine Disputing with the Heretics - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''Saint Augustine Disputing with the Heretics'' painting by Vergós Group]]

In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly influenced by [[Stoicism]], [[Platonism]] and [[Neoplatonism]], particularly by the work of [[Plotinus]], author of the ''[[Enneads]]'', probably through the mediation of [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] and [[Gaius Marius Victorinus|Victorinus]] (as [[Pierre Hadot]] has argued). Some Neoplatonic concepts are still visible in Augustine's early writings.{{sfn|Russell|1945|p=|loc=Book II, Chapter IV}} His early and influential writing on the [[Will (philosophy)|human will]], a central topic in [[ethics]], would become a focus for later philosophers such as [[Arthur Schopenhauer|Schopenhauer]], [[Søren Kierkegaard|Kierkegaard]], and [[Friedrich Nietzsche|Nietzsche]]. He was also influenced by the works of [[Virgil]] (known for his teaching on language), and [[Cicero]] (known for his teaching on argument).<ref name=encyclopedia />

=== In philosophy ===
[[Philosopher]] [[Bertrand Russell]] was impressed by Augustine's meditation on the nature of time in the ''Confessions'', comparing it favourably to [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s version of the view that time is subjective.{{sfn|Russell|1945|pp=352–353}} Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists [[eternity|outside of time]] in the "eternal present"; that time only exists within the created universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of [[memory]]. [[Frances Yates]] in her 1966 study ''[[The Art of Memory]]'' argues that a brief passage of the ''Confessions'', 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory<ref>{{Cite web| url = http://www.stoa.org/hippo/text10.html#TB10C8S12| title = Confessiones Liber X: commentary on 10.8.12| access-date = 6 November 2004| archive-date = 20 October 2014| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141020081133/http://www.stoa.org/hippo/text10.html#TB10C8S12| url-status = dead}} ''(in Latin)''</ref> clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a [[mnemonic]] technique for organizing large amounts of information.

Augustine's philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his ''Confessions'', had a continuing influence on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and time anticipated and inspired the insights of modern [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenology]] and [[hermeneutics]].{{sfn|De Paulo|2006|p=}} [[Edmund Husserl]] writes: "The analysis of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker to be deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem."{{sfn|Husserl|2019|p=21}}

[[Martin Heidegger]] refers to Augustine's descriptive philosophy at several junctures in his influential work ''[[Being and Time]]''.{{efn|For example, [[Martin Heidegger]]'s articulations of how "[[Being-in-the-world]]" is described through thinking about ''seeing'': "The remarkable priority of 'seeing' was noticed particularly by Augustine, in connection with his Interpretation of ''concupiscentia''." Heidegger then quotes the ''Confessions'': "Seeing belongs properly to the eyes. But we even use this word 'seeing' for the other senses when we devote them to cognizing... We not only say, 'See how that shines', ... 'but we even say, 'See how that sounds'". ''Being and Time'', Trs. Macquarrie & Robinson. New York: Harpers, 1964, p. 171.}} [[Hannah Arendt]] began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on Augustine's concept of love, ''Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin'' (1929): "The young Arendt attempted to show that the philosophical basis for ''vita socialis'' in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love, grounded in his understanding of the common origin of humanity."{{sfn|Chiba|1995|p=507}}

Jean Bethke Elshtain in ''Augustine and the Limits of Politics'' tried to associate Augustine with Arendt in their concept of evil: "Augustine did not see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which produced [[the Holocaust]] as merely banal [in ''[[Eichmann in Jerusalem]]'']."{{sfn|Tinder|1997|pp=432–433}} Augustine's philosophical legacy continues to influence contemporary critical theory through the contributions and inheritors of these 20th-century figures. Seen from a historical perspective, there are three main perspectives on the political thought of Augustine: first, political Augustinianism; second, Augustinian [[political theology]]; and third, Augustinian political theory.{{sfn|Woo|2015|pp=421–441}}

=== In theology ===
{{Scholastic Philosophy}}
[[Thomas Aquinas]] was influenced heavily by Augustine. On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen man their natural powers even after the Fall, without "supernatural gifts".{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|p=1203}} While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine taught that Adam's guilt as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty (see [[total depravity]]).{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|pp=1200–1204}}

According to [[Leo Ruickbie]], Augustine's arguments against [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], differentiating it from a miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against [[paganism]] and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and [[witchcraft]]. According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustine's vision of the heavenly city has influenced the secular projects and traditions of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], [[Marxism]], [[Freudianism]] and eco-fundamentalism.{{sfn|Lal|2002}} Post-Marxist philosophers Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt rely heavily on Augustine's thoughts, particularly ''The City of God'', in their book of political philosophy ''Empire''.

Augustine has influenced many modern-day theologians and authors such as [[John Piper (theologian)|John Piper]]. [[Hannah Arendt]], an influential 20th-century political theorist, wrote her doctoral dissertation in philosophy on Augustine, and continued to rely on his thought throughout her career. [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]] extensively quotes Augustine in ''[[Philosophical Investigations]]'' for his approach to language, both admiringly, and as a sparring partner to develop his own ideas, including an extensive opening passage from the ''[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]''.{{Citation needed|date=April 2020}} Contemporary linguists have argued that Augustine has significantly influenced the thought of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]], who did not 'invent' the modern discipline of [[semiotics]], but rather built upon [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] and Neoplatonic knowledge from the Middle Ages, via an Augustinian connection: "as for the constitution of Saussurian semiotic theory, the importance of the Augustinian thought contribution (correlated to the Stoic one) has also been recognized. Saussure did not do anything but reform an ancient theory in Europe, according to the modern conceptual exigencies."{{sfn|Munteanu|1996|p=65}}

In his autobiographical book ''Milestones'', [[Pope Benedict XVI]] claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought.

=== Oratorio, music ===
[[Marc-Antoine Charpentier]], Motet "''Pour St Augustin mourant"'', H.419, for 2 voices and continuo (1687), and "''Pour St Augustin"'', H.307, for 2 voices and continuo (1670s).
[[File:Jaume Huguet - Consecration of Saint Augustine - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|''[[The Consecration of Saint Augustine]]'' by [[Jaume Huguet]]]]
Much of Augustine's conversion is dramatized in the oratorio ''La conversione di Sant'Agostino'' (1750) composed by [[Johann Adolph Hasse]]. The libretto for this oratorio, written by [[Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria]], draws upon the influence of [[Pietro Metastasio|Metastasio]] (the finished libretto having been edited by him) and is based on an earlier five-act play ''Idea perfectae conversionis dive Augustinus'' written by the Jesuit priest [[Franz Neumayr]].{{sfn|Smither|1977|pp=97–98}} In the libretto Augustine's mother Monica is presented as a prominent character that is worried that Augustine might not convert to Christianity. As Dr. Andrea Palent<ref>{{Cite AV media notes |title=La conversione Di Sant' Agostino |last=Hasse |first=Johann Adolf |publisher=Capriccio Digital |year=1993  |page=13}}</ref> says: {{Blockquote|text=Maria Antonia Walpurgis revised the five-part Jesuit drama into a two-part oratorio liberty in which she limits the subject to the conversion of Augustine and his submission to the will of God. To this was added the figure of the mother, Monica, so as to let the transformation appear by experience rather than the dramatic artifice of deus ex machina.|sign=|source=}} Throughout the oratorio Augustine shows his willingness to turn to God, but the burden of the act of conversion weighs heavily on him. This is displayed by Hasse through extended recitative passages.

=== In popular art ===

In his poem "Confessional", [[Frank Bidart]] compares the relationship between Augustine and his mother, Saint Monica, to the relationship between the poem's speaker and his mother.<ref name="Bidart1983">{{Cite magazine|last=Bidart|first= Frank |date=1983|magazine= [[The Paris Review]]|url=https://www.theparisreview.org/poetry/3046/confessional-frank-bidart|author-link=Frank Bidart|access-date=19 July 2020|title=Confessional}}</ref>

In the 2010 TV miniseries ''[[Restless Heart: The Confessions of Saint Augustine]]'', Augustine is played by [[Matteo Urzia]] (aged 15), [[Alessandro Preziosi]] (aged 25) and [[Franco Nero]] (aged 76).<ref name="Dipollina">{{Cite news |last1=Dipollina |first1=Antonio |title=Sant'Agostino (2009) |url=https://www.mymovies.it/film/2009/santagostino/rassegnastampa/514822/ |access-date=5 March 2021 |work=La Repubblica |publisher=MYmovies |date=28 January 2010 |language=it |quote=Quello giovanissimo è interpretato da Matteo Urzia – bellissimo, già una stellina del panorama nazionale – l' Agostino maturo è il divo-in-fiction Alessandro Preziosi. Quello anziano, ma attivissimo sotto l' assedio dei Vandali, è addirittura un Franco Nero smagliante.}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}

English pop/rock musician, singer and songwriter [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] wrote a song related to Saint Augustine entitled "Saint Augustine in Hell" which was part of his fourth solo studio album ''[[Ten Summoner's Tales]]'' released in March 1993.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://songmeanings.com/songs/view/10455/|title=Sting – Saint Augustine In Hell Lyrics|website=SongMeanings|date=21 March 2006 }}</ref>

== See also ==
* ''[[Cogito, ergo sum]]''
* [[Rule of Saint Augustine]]
* ''[[Augustinus-Lexikon]]''

{{Clear}}

== Notes and references ==
=== Notes ===
{{Notelist}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Cited sources ===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
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* {{Cite book| last=Hägglund| first=Bengt| title=Teologins historia| language=de|trans-title=History of Theology| translator= Gene J. Lund| edition= 4th revised| year=2007| publisher=Concordia Publishing House| location=St. Louis, Missouri| orig-year=1968| author-link=Bengt Hägglund| isbn=978-0-7586-1348-6}}
* {{Cite journal |jstor = 43705747|title = St Augustine on the Trinity – I|journal = Life of the Spirit |volume = 15|issue = 180|pages = 540–548|last1 = Hill|first1 = Edmund|year = 1961| doi=10.1017/S0269359300011873 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Hollingworth|first=Miles|title=Saint Augustine of Hippo: An Intellectual Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0q3W7jYz7ZsC&pg=PA51|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-986159-0}}
* {{Cite book|last=Howie|first=George|title=Educational theory and practice in St. Augustine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_yo8AAAAIAAJ|year=1969|publisher=Routledge and Kegan Paul|location=London}}
* {{Cite web |title=Solution to many a problem: Take a walk |last=Huffington |first=Arianna |work=baltimoresun.com |date=3 September 2013 |access-date=11 March 2020 |url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/opinion/bs-xpm-2013-09-03-bal-solution-to-many-a-problem-take-a-walk-20130830-story.html }}
* {{Cite book|last=Husserl|first=Edmund|title=The Phenomenology of Internal Time-Consciousness|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PLKYDwAAQBAJ|year=2019|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-04199-9}}
* {{Cite book|last=James|first=Frank A.|title=Peter Martyr Vermigli and Predestination: The Augustinian Inheritance of an Italian Reformer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IsXM9vKcSg0C&pg=PR12|year=1998|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-826969-4}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jayapalan|first=N.|title=Comprehensive History of Political Thought|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n77z4tabLXcC&pg=PA51|year=2001|publisher=Atlantic Publishers & Dist|isbn=978-81-269-0073-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jenson|first=Matt|title=The Gravity of Sin: Augustine, Luther and Barth on 'homo Incurvatus in Se'|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uwsRAQAAIAAJ|year=2006|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-0-567-03137-2}}
* {{Cite book|first=Barry|last=Jones|title=Dictionary of World Biography|edition=4th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FIopDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA39|date=2017|publisher=ANU Press|isbn=978-1-76046-126-3}}
* {{Cite book|last=Jurgens|first=William|title=The Faith of the Early Fathers|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rkvLsueY_DwC&pg=PA20|volume=3|year=1970|publisher=Liturgical Press|location=Collegeville, MN|isbn=978-0-8146-1021-3}}
* {{Cite journal| last1=King| first1=Peter| first2=Nathan| last2=Ballantyne| title=Augustine on Testimony| journal=[[Canadian Journal of Philosophy]]| year=2009| volume=39| issue=2| doi=10.1353/cjp.0.0045| url=http://www.canadianjournalofphilosophy.com/PDFs/cjp39-2--195-214--Ballantyne-King.pdf| page=195| s2cid=660491| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110911164130/http://www.canadianjournalofphilosophy.com/PDFs/cjp39-2--195-214--Ballantyne-King.pdf| archive-date=11 September 2011}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Kishlansky|first1=Mark A.|last2=Geary|first2=Patrick J.|last3=O'Brien|first3=Patricia|series=Civilization in the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xKUDDmbp18C|title=To 1715|year=2005|publisher=Pearson Longman|isbn=978-0-321-23621-0|ol=27691066M}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Knowles|first1=Andrew|last2=Penkett|first2=Pachomios|title=Augustine and His World|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qzuZPwAACAAJ|year=2004|publisher=InterVarsity Press|isbn=978-0-8308-2356-7}}
* {{Cite web  |title=Morality and Capitalism: Learning from the Past |last=Lal |first=Deepak |work=No 812, UCLA Economics Working Papers from UCLA Department of Economics |date=1 March 2002 |access-date=21 March 2020 |url= https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:cla:uclawp:812 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Lancel|first=Serge|title=Saint Augustine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m8gMywEACAAJ|year=2002|publisher=SCM Press|isbn=978-0-334-02866-6}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/fromgenerationto0000leit|url-access=registration|title=From Generation to Generation: The Renewal of the Church According to Its Own Theology and Practice|last=Leith|first=John H.|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1990|isbn=978-0-664-25122-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Levering |first=Matthew |title=Predestination: Biblical and Theological Paths |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-960452-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cLBS6Dl1OYgC }}
* {{Cite book|last=Luker|first=Kristin|title=Abortion and the Politics of Motherhood|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-SZnZTSQV9EC&pg=PA12|year=1985|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-90792-8}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Lysaught|first1=M. Therese|last2=Kotva|first2=Joseph|last3=Lammers|first3=Stephen E.|first4=Allen|last4=Verhey|title=On Moral Medicine: Theological Perspectives on Medical Ethics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4__yBKLGRngC|year=2012|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans|isbn=978-0-8028-6601-1}}
* {{Cite book|author-link=Diarmaid MacCulloch|first=Diarmaid M|last=MacCulloch|title=A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u1eTZKpJVS4C&pg=PT319|year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-102189-8}}
* {{Cite book|last=Magill|first=Frank N.|title=The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7NVFUi7G6TEC&pg=PA172|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45740-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Mann|first=WE|editor=Gareth B. Matthews|title=The Augustinian Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ouXatAEACAAJ|year=1999|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-20999-2|chapter=Inner-Life Ethics}}
* {{Cite book|last=Matthews|first=Gareth B.|title=Thought's Ego in Augustine and Descartes|url=https://archive.org/details/thoughtsegoinaug00matt|year=1992|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=0-8014-2775-4}}
* {{Cite web|last=McCloskey|first=Gary N.|date=April 2008|url=http://www.merrimack.edu/academics/augustinian_pedagogy/documents/encountering_0408.pdf|title=Encounters of Learning: Saint Augustine on Education|publisher=Saint Augustine Institute for Learning and Teaching, [[Merrimack College]]|access-date=1 January 2013|archive-date=19 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119161450/https://www.merrimack.edu/academics/augustinian_pedagogy/documents/encountering_0408.pdf|url-status=dead}}
* {{Cite book |last=McIntire|first= C.T. |editor1-last=Jones |editor1-first=Lindsay |title=The Encyclopedia of Religion |volume=5 |date=2005 |publisher=Macmillan Reference |location=Farmington Hills, MI |edition=2nd |article=Free Will and Predestination: Christian Concepts}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Meister|first1=Chad V.|last2=Copan|first2=Paul|title=The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5KrAa6e_VN4C|edition=2nd|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-78294-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Munteanu |first=E. |date=1996 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IWtCAAAAQBAJ |chapter=On the Object-Language / Metalanguage Distinction in Saint Augustine's Works. De Dialectica and de Magistro |editor1-last=Cram |editor1-first=D. |editor2-last=Linn |editor2-first=A.R. |editor3-last=Nowak |editor3-first=E. |series=History of Linguistics |title=Volume 2: From Classical to Contemporary Linguistics |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company|John Benjamins]] |isbn=978-9027283818 }}
* {{Cite book| last1=Nguyen| first1=vanThanh| last2=Prior| first2=John M.| title=God's People on the Move: Biblical and Global Perspectives on Migration and Mission| date=2014| publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rdF2BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66| quote=Paul Orosius was a fifth century CE historian and theologian and a student of St. Augustine of Hippo| isbn=978-1-63087-751-4}}
* {{Cite book|last=O'Donnell|first=James Joseph|title=Augustine: A New Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cQqB_hiupPgC|year=2005|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-053537-7}}
* {{Cite book|last=Oakes|first=Jonathan|title=Algeria|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vyg7ViBs4JAC&pg=PA183|year=2008|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1-84162-232-3}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Jae-Eun |title=Lacking love or conveying love?: The fundamental roots of the Donatists and Augustine's nuanced treatment of them |journal=The Reformed Theological Review |volume=72 |issue=2 |date=August 2013 |pages=103–121 |url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=646939318099580;res=IELHSS |access-date=22 April 2020 }}
* {{Cite CE1913|wstitle= Pope Boniface VIII| first=Thomas |last=Oestreich|volume=2}}
* {{Cite CE1913| last= Pope | first = Hugh | wstitle = St. Monica| volume=10}}
* {{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Life of St. Augustine of Hippo|volume=2|last=Portalié|first=Eugène|year=1907a}}
* {{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Teaching of St. Augustine of Hippo|volume=2|last=Portalié|first=Eugène|year=1907b}}
* {{Cite book|author=Possidius|author-link=Possidius|title=The Life of Saint Augustine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oFt_6GNlsjkC|year=2008|publisher=Arx|isbn=978-1-889758-90-9|translator=Herbert T. Weiskotten}}
* {{Cite book|last=Power|first=Kim|date=1999|chapter=Family, Relatives|title=Augustine Through the Ages: An Encyclopedia|editor=Allan D. Fitzgerald|location=Grand Rapids|publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]]|isbn=978-0-8028-3843-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GcVhAGpvTQ0C}}
* {{Cite book|author=Quintilian|title=Institutio Oratoria|location=London|publisher=W. Heinemann|date=1939|url=https://archive.org/details/institutioorato01butlgoog/page/n84/mode/2up|translator=H.E. Butler}}
* {{Cite book|last=Ranke-Heinemann|first=Uta|title=Eunuchs for the kingdom of heaven: women, sexuality and the Catholic Church|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=svclAQAAIAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Doubleday|isbn=978-0-385-26527-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Riggs |first=John |year=2015 |title=The Lord's Supper in the Reformed Tradition |location=Louisville, Kentucky |publisher=Westminster John Knox |isbn=978-0-664-26019-4 }}
* {{Cite book|author-link=Bertrand Russell|last=Russell|first= Bertrand|year=1945|title=A History of Western Philosophy|publisher = Simon & Schuster|title-link = A History of Western Philosophy}}
* {{Cite CE1913|last=Ryan|first= M.J|wstitle= Character (in Catholic Theology)|volume=3}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Salway|first1=Benet|title=What's in a Name? A Survey of Roman Onomastic Practice from c. 700 B.C. to A.D. 700|journal=Journal of Roman Studies|volume=84|year=1994|pages=124–145|issn=0075-4358|doi=10.2307/300873| jstor= 300873|s2cid=162435434 }}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Schaff |editor-first=Philip |date=1887 |series=A Select library of the Nicene and post-Nicene fathers of the Christian church |title=Volume II: St Augustine's ''City of God'' and ''Christian Doctrine'' |url=https://archive.org/details/selectlibraryofn02auguuoft/page/n7/mode/2up/search/concerning+plato |publisher=The Christian Literature Company |location=Buffalo }}
* {{Cite book |title=Enkrateia e Antropologia. Le motivazioni protologiche della continenza e della verginità nel christianesimo del primi secoli e nello gnosticismo |last=Sfameni Gasparro |first=G. |year=2001 |series= Studia Ephemeridis «Augustinianum» 20| location=Rome }}
* {{Cite book|last1=Schnaubelt|first1=Joseph C.|last2=Van Fleteren|first2=Frederick|title=Augustine in Iconography: History and Legend|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JhTqAAAAMAAJ|year=1999|publisher=P. Lang|isbn=978-0-8204-2291-6}}
* {{Cite book|last=Siecienski|first=A. Edward|title=The Filioque: History of a Doctrinal Controversy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=auT8VbgOe48C|date=2010|publisher=OUP USA|isbn=978-0-19-537204-5}}
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F7vpR97_-VIC&pg=PA98|title=A History of the Oratorio|last=Smither|first=Howard E.|date=1977|publisher=UNC Press Books|isbn=978-0-8078-1274-7}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Somers|first1=H.|title=S.J. : Image de Dieu. Les sources de l'exégèse augustinienne|journal=Revue d'Études Augustiniennes et Patristiques|volume=7|issue=2|year=1961|pages=105–125|issn=1768-9260|doi=10.1484/J.REA.5.104017}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Making of the Middle Ages |url=https://archive.org/details/makingofmiddleag00sout |url-access=registration |last=Southern |first=R.W. |year=1953 |publisher=New Haven, Yale University Press |location=London |isbn=978-0-300-00967-5 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Stone|first=Harold Samuel|title=St. Augustine's Bones: A Microhistory|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sr_YAAAAMAAJ|year=2002|publisher=University of Massachusetts Press|isbn=978-1-55849-387-2}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Stroumsa |first1=Gediliahu |chapter=Titus of Bostra and Alexander of Lycopolis: A Christian and a Platonic Refutation of Manichaean Dualism |date=1992 |editor1=Richard T. Wallis |editor2=Jay Bregman |title=Neoplatonism and Gnosticism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gibdkdPp0IC |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-1-4384-2313-5 }}
* {{Cite book|last=TeSelle|first=Eugene|title=Augustine the Theologian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4sRKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA343|year=2002|publisher=Wipf and Stock|isbn=978-1-57910-918-9}}
* {{Cite book | title= Saint Augustin et Cicéron, I. Cicéron dans la formation et l'oeuvre de saint Augustin | last = Testard| first= M |year= 1958| publisher= Études Augustiniennes | location= Paris | language = fr}}
* {{Cite encyclopedia |publisher=Wm B Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-3843-8 |editor-first=Allan D. |editor-last=Fitzgerald |last=Teske |first=Roland J. |title=Genesi ad litteram liber imperfectus, De |encyclopedia=Augustine through the Ages: An Encyclopedia |year=1999}}
* {{Cite journal| last=Tinder|first= Glenn| journal=[[American Political Science Review]]| volume= 91| issue= 2| year=1997| title=Review of Augustine and the Limits of Politics, by Jean Bethke Elshtain| pages= 432–433| doi=10.2307/2952372|jstor=2952372|s2cid= 151790345}}
* {{Cite book|last=Trapè|first=Agostino|title=S. Agostino, introduzione alla dottrina della grazia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bqc2fEu2IxAC|volume=1|year=1987|publisher=Città Nuova|isbn=978-88-311-3402-6|trans-title=St. Augustine, introduction to the doctrine of grace|language=it}}
* {{Cite magazine|url=http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1864878,00.html|first=David|last=Van Biema|title=Paula Fredriksen Was Saint Augustine Good for the Jews?|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time magazine]]|date=7 December 2008}}
* {{Cite book| title = Augustine the Bishop. The Life and Work of the Father of the Church| url = https://archive.org/details/augustinebishopl0000meer/page/60| url-access = registration| last = Van Der Meer| first = F| year = 1961| location = London & New York}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=van Oort |first1=Johannes |title=Manichaean Christians in Augustine's Life and Work |journal=History and Religious Culture |date=2010 |volume=90 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wells |first=J. |author-link=John C. Wells |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |publisher=[[Longman]] |location=New York |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-582-36467-7 |edition=2nd |url=https://archive.org/details/longmanpronuncia00jcwe/page/54/mode/2up/ }}
* {{Cite book |last1=Widengren |first1=Geo |title=Der Manichäismus |date=1977 |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt }}
* {{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Heroic virtue|last=Wilhelm|first=Joseph|volume=7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilken |first=Robert L. |title=The Spirit of Early Christian Thought |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=New Haven |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-300-10598-8 }}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilson|first=Kenneth M.|title=Augustine's Conversion from Traditional Free Choice to "Non-free Free Will": A Comprehensive Methodology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OxhdDwAAQBAJ|year=2018|publisher=Mohr Siebeck|location=Tübingen|isbn=978-3-16-155753-8}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wilson|first=Ken|title=The Foundation of Augustinian-Calvinism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U0VMyAEACAAJ|year=2019|publisher=Independently Published|isbn=978-1-08-280035-1}}
* {{Cite journal |last= Woo |first= B. Hoon |journal= Political Theology |volume= 16 |issue= 5 |year= 2015 |title= Pilgrim's Progress in Society{{snd}}Augustine's Political Thought in ''The City of God'' |pages= 421–441 |url= https://www.academia.edu/16870779 |doi= 10.1179/1462317X14Z.000000000113 |s2cid= 218691369 }}
* {{Cite book|last1=Wright|first1=Frederick Adam|last2=Sinclair|first2=Thomas Alan|title=A History of Later Latin Literature|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jmxUxwEACAAJ|year=1931|publisher=Routledge}}
{{refend}}

=== Further reading ===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |title=Ancient Christian Writers: The Works of the Fathers in Translation |year=1978 |publisher=Newman Press |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Augustine |first=Saint |title=The Essential Augustine |year=1974 |publisher=Hackett |location=Indianapolis |edition=2nd |editor=Vernon Joseph Bourke}}
* {{Cite book |title=Augustine and the Trinity |author-link=Lewis Ayres |author=Ayres, Lewis |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-83886-3}}
*{{cite book |last=Beierwaltes |first=Werner |author-link=Werner Beierwaltes|date=1980 |editor-last= |editor-first= |title=Regio Beatitudinis: Augustine's Concept of Happiness |publisher=[[Villanova University|Villanova University Institute for the Study of Augustine and Augustinian Tradition]]|url=https://www1.villanova.edu/villanova/provost/institutes/augustinianinstitute/lectures/staugustine/_jcr_content/widgetiparsys/download_8/file.res/as_1980.pdf |orig-date= |chapter=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bourke |first=Vernon Joseph |title=Augustine's Quest of Wisdom |year=1945 |publisher=Bruce |location=Milwaukee}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bourke |first=Vernon Joseph |title=Wisdom From St. Augustine |year=1984 |publisher=Center for Thomistic Studies |location=Houston}}
* {{Cite journal |author=Brachtendorf J |issue=1997 |title=Cicero and Augustine on the Passions |journal=Revue des Études Augustiniennes |volume=43 |pages=289–308 |hdl=2042/23075 |doi=10.1484/J.REA.5.104767 |year=1997}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Burke |first=Cormac |author-link=Cormac Burke (priest) |title=St. Augustine and Conjugal Sexuality |journal=[[Communio]] |year=1990 |volume=IV |issue=17 |url=http://www.cormacburke.or.ke/node/355 |pages=545–565}}
* {{Cite book |last=Burnaby |first=John |title=Amor Dei: A Study of the Religion of St. Augustine |year=1938 |publisher=The Canterbury Press Norwich |isbn=978-1-85311-022-1}}
* {{Cite book |last=Conybeare |first=Catherine |author-link=Catherine Conybeare |title=The Irrational Augustine |year=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-926208-3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Clark |first=Mary T. |author-link=Mary T. Clark |title=Augustine |year=1994 |publisher=Geoffrey Chapman |isbn=978-0-225-66681-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=Deane |first=Herbert A. |title=The Political and Social Ideas of St. Augustine |year=1963 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |author-link=Herbert A. Deane}}
* {{Cite book |last=de Paulo |first=Craig J.N. |title=Augustinian Just War Theory and the Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq: Confessions, Contentions and the Lust for Power |year=2011 |publisher=[[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang]] |isbn=978-1-4331-1232-4}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dodaro |first=Robert |author-link=Robert Dodaro |title=Christ and the Just Society in the Thought of Augustine |year=2004 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/gb/universitypress/subjects/religion/theology/christ-and-just-society-thought-augustine |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9780521069649}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Doull |first=James A. |author-link=James Doull |title=Augustinian Trinitarianism and Existential Theology |journal=[[Dionysius (journal)|Dionysius]] |year=1979 |volume=III |pages=111–159}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Doull |first=James A. |author-link=James Doull |title=What is Augustinian "Sapientia"? |journal=Dionysius |year=1988 |volume=XII |pages=61–67}}
*{{cite book |last=Fairweather |first=E.R. |author-link=E.R. Fairweather|date=1954 |editor-last= |editor-first= |title=Augustinus Magister: Congrès International Augustinien, 1954 |publisher=Études Augustiniennes |orig-date= |pages=897–903 |chapter=St. Augustine's Interpretation of Infant Baptism |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/augustinusmagist0002cong/page/n3/mode/2up |asin=B000R97CFU|name-list-style=amp}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fox |first=Robin Lane |author-link=Robin Lane Fox |title=Augustine: Conversions to Confessions |year=2015 |publisher=Basic Books |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gilson |first=Etienne |author-link=Étienne Gilson |title=The Christian Philosophy of St. Augustine |url=https://archive.org/details/christianphiloso00gilsrich |url-access=registration |year=1960 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |others=L.E.M. Lynch, trans}}
* Green, Bradley G. [http://www.jamesclarke.co/product_info.php/products_id/1675?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6 ''Colin Gunton and the Failure of Augustine: The Theology of Colin Gunton in the Light of Augustine''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518162919/https://www.jamesclarke.co/product_info.php/products_id/1675?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6 |date=18 May 2019 }}, James Clarke and Co. (2012), {{ISBN|978-0227680056}}
* {{Cite book |title=Augustine and Tradition: Influences, Contexts, Legacy |year=2021 |publisher=Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI |editor-last=Hunter |editor-first=David G. |editor2-last=Yates |editor2-first=Jonathan P. |isbn=978-0-8028-7699-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kolbet |first=Paul R. |title=Augustine and the Cure of Souls: Revising a Classical Ideal |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |location=Notre Dame, Indiana |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-268-03321-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lawless |first=George P. |title=Augustine of Hippo and His Monastic Rule |year=1987 |publisher=Clarendon Press |location=Oxford}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=LeMoine |editor1-first=Fannie |editor2-first=Christopher |editor2-last=Kleinhenz |series=Garland Medieval Casebooks |volume=9 |title=Saint Augustine the Bishop: A Book of Essays |location=New York |publisher=Garland |year=1994}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lubin |first=Augustino |title=Orbis Augustinianus sive conventuum ordinis eremitarum Sancti Augustini – chorographica et topographica descriptio |location=Paris |year=1659 |url=http://www.cassiciaco.it/ita/001ago/Agostiniani/lubin_conventi/lubin_600.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050321185503/http://www.cassiciaco.it/ita/001ago/Agostiniani/lubin_conventi/lubin_600.htm |archive-date=21 March 2005}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mackey |first=Louis |author-link=Louis H. Mackey |title=Faith Order Understanding: Natural Theology in the Augustinian Tradition |publisher=PIMS |location=Totonto |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-88844-421-9}}
* {{Cite book |title=Augustine: A Collection of Critical Essays |url=https://archive.org/details/augustinecollect00mark |url-access=registration |year=1972 |publisher=Anchor |location=Garden City, NY |editor=Markus, R.A.}}
* {{Cite book |title=Augustine |author=Matthews, Gareth B. |publisher=Blackwell |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-631-23348-0}}
* {{Cite book |editor1-last=Mayer |editor1-first=Cornelius P. |title=Augustinus-Lexikon |title-link=Augustinus-Lexikon |publisher=Schwabe AG |location=[[Basel]]}}
* Miles, Margaret R. (2012). ''[http://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php/products_id/1674?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6 Augustine and the Fundamentalist's Daughter] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190516211705/https://www.lutterworth.com/product_info.php/products_id/1674?osCsid=1673ba77f80a4a6cf663eb311d2556b6 |date=16 May 2019 }}'', [[Lutterworth Press]], {{ISBN|978-0718892623}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Nash |first=Ronald H |title=The Light of the Mind: St Augustine's Theory of Knowledge |year=1969 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |location=Lexington}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last=Wiener |editor-first=Philip |title=Dictionary of the History of Ideas |publisher=Scribner |location=New York |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-684-13293-8 |volume=3 |chapter=Platonism in the Renaissance |chapter-url=http://xtf.lib.virginia.edu/xtf/view?docId=DicHist/uvaBook/tei/DicHist3.xml;chunk.id=dv3-64 |last=Nelson |first=John Charles |pages=510–515 (vol. 3) |quote=(...) Saint Augustine asserted that Neo-Platonism possessed all spiritual truths except that of the Incarnation. (...)}}
* {{Cite book |last=O'Daly |first=Gerard |title=Augustine's Philosophy of the Mind |year=1987 |publisher=University of California Press |location=Berkeley}}
* {{Cite book |last=O'Donnell |first=James |author-link=James J. O'Donnell |title=Augustine: A New Biography |publisher=ECCO |location=New York |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-06-053537-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/augustine00jame_qqt |ref=none}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pagels |first=Elaine |author-link=Elaine Pagels |title=Adam, Eve, and the Serpent: Sex and Politics in Early Christianity |publisher=Vintage Books |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-679-72232-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/adameveserpent00elai}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Park |first=Jae-Eun |url=https://www.academia.edu/4811679 |title=Lacking Love or Conveying Love? The Fundamental Roots of the Donatists and Augustine's Nuanced Treatment of Them |journal=The Reformed Theological Review |volume=72 |issue=2 |year=2013 |pages=103–121}}.
* {{Cite book |author=Plumer, Eric Antone |title=Augustine's Commentary on Galatians |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-924439-3}}
* {{Cite book |title=Saint Augustine the Algerian |author=Pollman, Karla |publisher=Edition Ruprecht |location=Göttingen |year=2007 |isbn=978-3-89744-209-2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pottier |first=René |title=Saint Augustin le Berbère |publisher=Fernand Lanore |year=2006 |isbn=978-2-85157-282-0 |language=fr}}
* ''Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament'' (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp. 28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp. 22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp. 33–35.
* {{Cite book |last=Starnes |first=Colin |author-link=Colin Starnes |title=Augustine's Conversion: A Guide to the Arguments of Confessions I–IX |year=1990 |publisher=[[Wilfrid Laurier University Press]] |location=Waterloo, Ontario}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tanquerey |first=Adolphe |title=The Spiritual Life: A Treatise on Ascetical and Mystical Theology |publisher=Tan Books & Publishers |location=Rockford, Illinois |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-89555-659-2 |page=37 |title-link=Ascetical theology}}
* {{Cite book |chapter=S. Agostino: Introduzione alla Dottrina della Grazia |last=Trapè |first=A. |location=Rome |publisher=Città Nuova |year=1990 |series=Collana di Studi Agostiniani 4 |title=I – Natura e Grazia |page=422 |isbn=978-88-311-3402-6}}
* {{Cite book |last=von Heyking |first=John |title=Augustine and Politics as Longing in the World |publisher=University of Missouri Press |location=Columbia |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8262-1349-5}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Woo |first=B. Hoon |title=Augustine's Hermeneutics and Homiletics in ''De doctrina christiana'' |journal=Journal of Christian Philosophy |year=2013 |volume=17 |url=https://www.academia.edu/5228314 |pages=97–117}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zumkeller O.S.A. |first=Adolar |title=Augustine's Ideal of the Religious Life |publisher=Fordham University Press |location=New York |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8232-1105-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/augustinesidealo00zumk}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zumkeller O.S.A. |first=Adolar |title=Augustine's Rule |publisher=Augustinian Press |location=Villanova |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-941491-06-8}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikisource author}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Augustine of Hippo
|viaf= |lcheading= |wikititle= }}

=== General ===
* [http://www.augustinus.it/links/inglese/opere.htm "Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in English)"] from Augustinus.it
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180316095930/http://www.abbaye-saint-benoit.ch/saints/augustin/ "Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in French)"] from Abbey Saint Benoît de Port-Valais
* [http://www.mercaba.org/Filosofia/Medieval/agustin_de_hipona_00.htm "Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in Spanish)"] from Mercaba, Catholic leaders' website
* [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/augustine?show=worksBy "Works by Saint Augustine"] from CCEL.org
* [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/searchresults?q=Augustine&redirect=true Works by Augustine at Perseus Digital Library]
* {{Cite SEP |url-id=augustine|title=Saint Augustine|last=Mendelson|first=Michael}}
* {{Cite IEP|augustin|Augustine}}
* {{Cite IEP|aug-poso|Augustine's Political and Social Philosophy}}
* [http://www.bartleby.com/210/8/281.html "St. Augustine, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of the Church"], ''Butler's Lives of the Saints''
* [http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/jod/augustine/ Augustine of Hippo] edited by [[James J. O'Donnell]] – texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc.
* [[v:Augustine of Hippo/Augustine's Theory of Knowledge|Augustine's Theory of Knowledge]]
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/augustine.html "Saint Augustine of Hippo"] at the [http://www.christianiconography.info/ Christian Iconography] website
* [http://www.christianiconography.info/goldenLegend/augustine.htm "The Life of St. Austin, or Augustine, Doctor"] from the Caxton translation of the ''Golden Legend''
* [http://davidaslindsay.blogspot.com/2009/08/doctor-gratiae.html David Lindsay: Saint Augustine – Doctor Gratiae]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120409175403/http://www.its.caltech.edu/~nmcenter/women-cp/augustin.html St. Augustine – A Male Chauvinist?] [http://www.ewtn.com/library/THEOLOGY/MALECHAU.HTM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190610220015/http://www.ewtn.com/library/theology/malechau.htm |date=10 June 2019 }}, Fr. Edmund Hill, [[Dominican Order|OP]]. Talk given to the [[Robert Hugh Benson]] Graduate Society at [[Cambridge University Catholic Chaplaincy|Fisher House, Cambridge]], on 22 November 1994.
* [http://www.churchhistorytimelines.com/pages/st-augustine St. Augustine Timeline – Church History Timelines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307232543/http://churchhistorytimelines.com/pages/st-augustine |date=7 March 2016 }}
* Giovanni Domenico Giulio: ''Nachtgedanken des heiligen Augustinus.'' Trier 1843 {{ULBDD|urn:nbn:de:hbz:061:1-481434}}

=== Bibliography ===
* [http://www.earlychurch.org.uk/augustine.php Augustine of Hippo] at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles
* [http://www.findingaugustine.org/ Bibliography on St. Augustine] – Started by T.J. van Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium

=== Works by Augustine ===
* {{Gutenberg author |id=Augustine,+Aurelius|name=Aurelius Augustine}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=1156|name=Saint Augustine}}
* {{Internet Archive author |dname=Saint Augustine|search=("Bishop of Hippo" OR "Saint Augustine" OR "Augustine, Saint" OR "Aurelius Augustine" OR "Aurelius, Augustine" OR "Saint Austin" OR "Austin, Saint")}}
* {{Librivox author |id=79}}
* [http://www.ccel.org/a/augustine/ St. Augustine] at the [[Christian Classics Ethereal Library]]
* [http://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/augustine-against-secundinus-the-manichaean-in-english/ Augustine against Secundinus] in English.
* [http://www.intratext.com/Catalogo/Autori/AUT31.HTM Aurelius Augustinus] at "IntraText Digital Library" – texts in several languages, with concordance and frequency list
* [http://www.augustinus.it/ Augustinus.it] – Latin, Spanish and Italian texts
* [http://www.documentacatholicaomnia.eu/20_40_0354-0430-_Augustinus,_Sanctus.html Sanctus Augustinus] at Documenta Catholica Omnia – Latin
* [http://www.doxologypress.org/theaudio/index.html City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309192235/http://www.doxologypress.org/theaudio/index.html |date=9 March 2021 }} audio books
* {{Cite book|author=Saint Augustine|title=The Happy Life; Answer to Sceptics; Divine Providence and the Problem of Evil; Soliloquies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u4EJZWrmqgkC|publisher=CUA Press|location=US|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8132-1551-8}}
* [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0580 Digitized manuscript] created in France between 1275 and 1325 with extract of Augustine of Hippo works at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 SOMNI]
* [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0895 Expositio Psalmorum beati Augustini] – digitized codex created between 1150 and 1175, also known as "Enarrationes in Psalmos. 1–83", at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 SOMNI]
* [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0892 Aurelii Agustini Hipponae episcopi super loannem librum] – digitized codex created in 1481; his sermons about John's Gospel at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 SOMNI]
* [http://real-r.mtak.hu/104/ ''Sententiae ex omnibus operibus Divi Augustini decerptae''] – digitized codex created in 1539; at [http://konyvtar.mta.hu/index_en.php Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_019.html Lewis E 19 In epistolam Johannis ad Parthos (Sermons on the first epistle of Saint John) at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_021.html Lewis E 21 De sermone domini in monte habito (On the sermon on the mount) and other treatises; De superbia (On pride) and other treatises; Expositio dominice orationis (Exposition on the lord's prayer) at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_022.html Lewis E 22 Enarrationes in psalmos (Expositions on the psalms); Initials (ABC); Prayer at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_023.html Lewis E 23 Sermons at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0023/html/lewis_e_213.html Lewis E 213 Rule of Saint Augustine; Sermon on Matthew 25:6 at OPenn]
* [http://openn.library.upenn.edu/Data/0007/html/lehigh_003.html Lehigh Codex 3 Bifolium from De civitate Dei, Book 22 at OPenn]

=== Biography and criticism ===
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060610111127/http://augnet.org/ Order of St Augustine]
* [http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/inquirers/bless_aug.aspx Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100528110934/http://www.villanova.edu/mission/spirituality/about/ Augustine's World: An Introduction to His Speculative Philosophy] by Donald Burt, OSA, member of the [[Augustinians|Augustinian Order]], [[Villanova University]]
* [http://roderic.uv.es/uv_ms_0049 Tabula in librum Sancti Augustini De civitate Dei] by [[Robert Kilwardby]], digitized manuscript of 1464 at [http://roderic.uv.es/handle/10550/43 SOMNI]

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Augustine of Hippo}}
[[Category:Augustine of Hippo| ]]
[[Category:354 births]]
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[[Category:Philosophers of war]]
[[Category:Saints from Roman Africa (province)]]
[[Category:Sermon writers]]
[[Category:Systematic theologians]]
[[Category:Catholic philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman philosophers]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Christian mystics]]
[[Category:5th-century bishops in Roman North Africa]]
[[Category:Former Manichaeans]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox saints]]
[[Category:Eastern Catholic saints]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:Anglican saints]]
[[Category:Translation theorists]]
[[Category:Natural law ethicists]]
[[Category:Christian anthropologists]]

Grata of Bergamo

2024-11-12T19:25:46Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Italian Roman Catholic abbesses; added Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints using HotCat

{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix=[[Saint]]
| name = Grata of Bergamo
| honorific_suffix=
| image = 1750 Tiepolo Die Heiligen der Familie Crotta anagoria.JPG
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption = [[The Patron Saints of the Crotta Family]] (1750), by [[Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo]]. Saint Grata is presenting the head of the martyred [[Alexander of Rome|St. Alexander]] to her father.
| titles = Martyr
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| home_town =
| residence =
| death_date =307
| death_place = [[Bergamo|Bergamo, Italy]]
| venerated_in = [[Catholic Church]], [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch|Antiochian Orthodox Church]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day =
| attributes =
| patronage = Bergamo
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
| suppressed_by =
| influences =
| influenced =
| tradition =
| major_works =
}}

'''Grata of Bergamo''' (early 4th century) is an Italian [[saint]] and [[martyr]], and sister of Asteria of Bergamo. Her parents were Saint Lupo of Bergamo and Saint Adelaide, duke and duchess of [[Bergamo]].<ref name="dunbar-354">Dunbar, Agnes B.C. (1901). ''A Dictionary of Saintly Women''. Volume 1. London: George Bell & Sons. p. 354</ref><ref name="antiochien">{{Cite web|title=St. Asteria (or Hesteria) & St. Grata, Virgin Martyrs, of Bergamo, Italy|url=http://ww1.antiochian.org/node/19373|access-date=12 May 2021|website=Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America}}</ref> According to [[Hagiography|hagiographer]] Agnes B.C. Dunbar, Grata's husband was "a great king in Germany".<ref name="dunbar-354"/> She did not become a Christian until after his death, when she converted her parents to Christianity and persuaded them to build the cathedral of Bergamo. She became known as a holy woman in Bergamo, "especially for her zeal in securing Christian burial for the bodies of martyrs".<ref name="britishmuseum">{{Cite web|title=Saint Grata|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG172941|access-date=12 May 2021|website=British Museum}}</ref> She built three churches and a hospital for the poor in Begamo.<ref name="dunbar-354" /> She and her sister Asteria buried the body of [[Alexander of Rome|St. Alexander of Rome]], after Grata wrapped his head in a napkin. After her parents' death, she governed Bergamo "with wisdom and benevolence".<ref name="britishmuseum"/> Grata was put to death for burying Alexander.<ref name="antiochien" /> Her feast day is September 4.<ref name="dunbar-354" />

She is the co-patron of the city of Bergamo. St. Grata seems to have been a popular subject for female writers, being the subject of a 1596 biography by Flavia Grumelli and a 1723 one by the nun Maria Aurelia Tassis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tassis|first=Maria Aurelia|url=http://archive.org/details/wotb_6743646|title=La Vita di S. Grata Vergine, Regina nella Germania, poi Principessa di Bergamo, e Protettrice della medesima Città ; descritta da Donna Maria Aurelia Tassis Religiosa Benedittina professa nell' insigne Monistero di S. Grata di Bergamo. Dedicata agl' Illustriss. e Reverendiss. Signori Prelati, Canonici, e Capitolo della Catedrale di Bergamo|date=1723|publisher=Padua : Giuseppe Comino|language=Italian}}</ref> The Church of San Grata Inter Vites (in English, "among the vines") because it was surrounded by vineyards until 17th century in Bergamo, where she was buried until 1000 CE, is dedicated in her honor. Her body was moved to another church, also named for her, inside the city's walls.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Church of San Grata Inter Vites|url=https://www.visitbergamo.net/en/object-details/2997-church-of-san-grata-inter-vites/|access-date=12 May 2021|website=Visit Bergamo|language=it}}</ref>

==Asteria of Bergamo==
{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix=Saint
| name = Asteria of Bergamo
| honorific_suffix=martyr
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| titles =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| home_town =
| residence =
| death_date =307
| death_place = [[Bergamo|Bergamo, Italy]]
| venerated_in = [[Catholic Church]], [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch|Antiochian Orthodox Church]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day =
| attributes =
| patronage = Bergamo
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
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| influences =
| influenced =
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}}

'''Asteria of Bergamo''', also called '''Hesteria''' (died 307)<ref name="antiochien"/> is an Italian [[saint]] and [[martyr]], and sister of Grata of Bergamo. She is the patroness saint of [[Bergamo]] in Northern Italy.

Asteria and Grata, at the time of [[Diocletian]] and [[Maximian]], buried [[Alexander of Rome]]. Grata was put to death; Asteria buried her, and then she was arrested, and tortured. An ancient epitaph describes her as having been beheaded as a Christian under Diocletian, when she had already reached her sixtieth year.<ref name=monks>[http://catholicsaints.info/book-of-saints-asteria/ Monks of Ramsgate. "Asteria". ''Book of Saints'', 1921. CatholicSaints.Info. 2 August 2012]{{PD-notice}}</ref> Asteria, Grata, and Alexander were all martyred for refusing to worship the god [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] as Maximian had ordered.<ref name="dunbar-354"/><ref name="biodictionary"/>

Asteria's feast day is 10 August.<ref name=monks/><ref name="biodictionary">{{Cite book|last=Holweck|first=Frederick George|title=A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints|publisher=B. Herder Book Company|year=1924|isbn=|location=St. Louis, Missouri|pages=111}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Grata of Bergano}}
[[Category:Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Italian Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox saints]]

Grata of Bergamo

2024-11-12T19:25:37Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Italian Roman Catholic abbesses using HotCat

{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix=[[Saint]]
| name = Grata of Bergamo
| honorific_suffix=
| image = 1750 Tiepolo Die Heiligen der Familie Crotta anagoria.JPG
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption = [[The Patron Saints of the Crotta Family]] (1750), by [[Giovanni Domenico Tiepolo]]. Saint Grata is presenting the head of the martyred [[Alexander of Rome|St. Alexander]] to her father.
| titles = Martyr
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| home_town =
| residence =
| death_date =307
| death_place = [[Bergamo|Bergamo, Italy]]
| venerated_in = [[Catholic Church]], [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch|Antiochian Orthodox Church]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day =
| attributes =
| patronage = Bergamo
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
| suppressed_by =
| influences =
| influenced =
| tradition =
| major_works =
}}

'''Grata of Bergamo''' (early 4th century) is an Italian [[saint]] and [[martyr]], and sister of Asteria of Bergamo. Her parents were Saint Lupo of Bergamo and Saint Adelaide, duke and duchess of [[Bergamo]].<ref name="dunbar-354">Dunbar, Agnes B.C. (1901). ''A Dictionary of Saintly Women''. Volume 1. London: George Bell & Sons. p. 354</ref><ref name="antiochien">{{Cite web|title=St. Asteria (or Hesteria) & St. Grata, Virgin Martyrs, of Bergamo, Italy|url=http://ww1.antiochian.org/node/19373|access-date=12 May 2021|website=Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America}}</ref> According to [[Hagiography|hagiographer]] Agnes B.C. Dunbar, Grata's husband was "a great king in Germany".<ref name="dunbar-354"/> She did not become a Christian until after his death, when she converted her parents to Christianity and persuaded them to build the cathedral of Bergamo. She became known as a holy woman in Bergamo, "especially for her zeal in securing Christian burial for the bodies of martyrs".<ref name="britishmuseum">{{Cite web|title=Saint Grata|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG172941|access-date=12 May 2021|website=British Museum}}</ref> She built three churches and a hospital for the poor in Begamo.<ref name="dunbar-354" /> She and her sister Asteria buried the body of [[Alexander of Rome|St. Alexander of Rome]], after Grata wrapped his head in a napkin. After her parents' death, she governed Bergamo "with wisdom and benevolence".<ref name="britishmuseum"/> Grata was put to death for burying Alexander.<ref name="antiochien" /> Her feast day is September 4.<ref name="dunbar-354" />

She is the co-patron of the city of Bergamo. St. Grata seems to have been a popular subject for female writers, being the subject of a 1596 biography by Flavia Grumelli and a 1723 one by the nun Maria Aurelia Tassis.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Tassis|first=Maria Aurelia|url=http://archive.org/details/wotb_6743646|title=La Vita di S. Grata Vergine, Regina nella Germania, poi Principessa di Bergamo, e Protettrice della medesima Città ; descritta da Donna Maria Aurelia Tassis Religiosa Benedittina professa nell' insigne Monistero di S. Grata di Bergamo. Dedicata agl' Illustriss. e Reverendiss. Signori Prelati, Canonici, e Capitolo della Catedrale di Bergamo|date=1723|publisher=Padua : Giuseppe Comino|language=Italian}}</ref> The Church of San Grata Inter Vites (in English, "among the vines") because it was surrounded by vineyards until 17th century in Bergamo, where she was buried until 1000 CE, is dedicated in her honor. Her body was moved to another church, also named for her, inside the city's walls.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Church of San Grata Inter Vites|url=https://www.visitbergamo.net/en/object-details/2997-church-of-san-grata-inter-vites/|access-date=12 May 2021|website=Visit Bergamo|language=it}}</ref>

==Asteria of Bergamo==
{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix=Saint
| name = Asteria of Bergamo
| honorific_suffix=martyr
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| titles =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place =
| home_town =
| residence =
| death_date =307
| death_place = [[Bergamo|Bergamo, Italy]]
| venerated_in = [[Catholic Church]], [[Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch|Antiochian Orthodox Church]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day =
| attributes =
| patronage = Bergamo
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
| suppressed_by =
| influences =
| influenced =
| tradition =
| major_works =
}}

'''Asteria of Bergamo''', also called '''Hesteria''' (died 307)<ref name="antiochien"/> is an Italian [[saint]] and [[martyr]], and sister of Grata of Bergamo. She is the patroness saint of [[Bergamo]] in Northern Italy.

Asteria and Grata, at the time of [[Diocletian]] and [[Maximian]], buried [[Alexander of Rome]]. Grata was put to death; Asteria buried her, and then she was arrested, and tortured. An ancient epitaph describes her as having been beheaded as a Christian under Diocletian, when she had already reached her sixtieth year.<ref name=monks>[http://catholicsaints.info/book-of-saints-asteria/ Monks of Ramsgate. "Asteria". ''Book of Saints'', 1921. CatholicSaints.Info. 2 August 2012]{{PD-notice}}</ref> Asteria, Grata, and Alexander were all martyred for refusing to worship the god [[Jupiter (mythology)|Jupiter]] as Maximian had ordered.<ref name="dunbar-354"/><ref name="biodictionary"/>

Asteria's feast day is 10 August.<ref name=monks/><ref name="biodictionary">{{Cite book|last=Holweck|first=Frederick George|title=A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints|publisher=B. Herder Book Company|year=1924|isbn=|location=St. Louis, Missouri|pages=111}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Grata of Bergano}}
[[Category:Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Italian Roman Catholic abbesses]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox saints]]

Apostolos the New

2024-11-12T19:25:18Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:Greek saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church using HotCat

{{More citations needed|date=June 2024}}{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix = Saint
| name = Apostolos the New
| image = Agios Apostolos the New.jpg
| birth_name = Apostolos Stamatiou ({{langx|el|Απόστολος Σταματίου}})
| birth_date = 1667
| birth_place = Agios Lavrentios of [[Magnesia Prefecture|Magnesia]]
| death_date = 1686
| death_place = [[Golden Horn]]
| feast_day = 6th of August
| venerated_in = [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]
|}}
'''Apostolos the New''' ({{langx|el|Άγιος Απόστολος ο Νέος}}), was born in Agios Lavrentios of [[Magnesia Prefecture|Magnesia]], [[Pelion]], [[Greece]], in 1667 A.D.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://www.synaxarion.gr/gr/sid/390/sxsaintinfo.aspx|title=Ὁ Ἅγιος Ἀπόστολος ὁ Μάρτυρας ὁ Νέος}}</ref> His father was Costas Stamatiou ({{langx|el|Κώστας Σταματίου}}) and his mother was Melo ({{langx|el|Μελώ}}). At the age of 15 he became an orphan. In 1682 A.D., he went to [[Istanbul]], where he worked in a tavern.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.saint.gr/795/saint.aspx|title=Βίος Αγίου Αποστόλου του Νέου|last=|first=|website=|publisher=|archiveurl=|archivedate=|accessdate=}}</ref>

== Life ==

=== Uprising ===
According to the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], Apostolos had already been in [[Constantinople]] for four years when the inhabitants of his homeland were oppressed under heavy taxation.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2013/08/holy-new-martyr-apostolos-young-1686.html|title = Holy New Martyr Apostolos the New (+ 1686)}}</ref> Because of this, he decided to turn to the Sultan's commissioners and taught them how to reduce the tax burden. Apostolos helped his brethren set up their own committee of residents who would represent them. This was a success, but [[Voivode]] did not accept the documents of his [[Sultan|sultan's]] commissioners, rejecting them as forgeries. Voivode arrested three of the residents' committee and took them to [[Istanbul]] himself, where he demanded they be imprisoned for high [[treason]].<ref name=":0" />

=== Confinement ===
When their compatriots learned of this, they sent a committee to Istanbul to address the queen mother herself (the Sultan's mother - [[Valide Hanoum Kiosem]]) to get them released. As they did not know how and where to go, Apostolos was willing to help them, since he also knew the Turkish language. He even took the report written by the residents and gave it to a top Sultan official. The official, however, had already received orders from Voivode of [[Pelion]].<ref name=":0" />

Apostolos was arrested and handed over to Voivode to be punished for his arrogance. Voivode then ordered him to be chained and asked Apostolos for a four-year [[Haraç]] for as long as he was away from his village. However, because he feared that the rest of the committee would appeal to the queen mother herself, he thought of finally leaving the three prisoners and Apostolos. But a compatriot of Apostolos, out of envy that an insignificant and poor child would be considered a benefactor of his place, slandered him that he had instigated the whole affair and that if he had set him free he would surely badmouth Voivode in the royal palace. So Voivode ordered that he be severely tortured to death.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://imd.gr/2018/08/%ce%bf-%ce%ac%ce%b3%ce%b9%ce%bf%cf%82-%ce%bd%ce%b5%ce%bf%ce%bc%ce%ac%cf%81%cf%84%cf%85%cf%82-%ce%b1%cf%80%cf%8c%cf%83%cf%84%ce%bf%ce%bb%ce%bf%cf%82-%ce%bf-%ce%bd%ce%ad%ce%bf%cf%82/|title=Ο Άγιος Νεομάρτυς Απόστολος ο Νέος|website=Ιερά Μητρόπολη Δημητριάδος|language=el|accessdate=2020-01-13}}</ref>

=== The struggle for Islamization ===

After a failed attempt to escape, Voivode tried to convert Apostolos to Islam by circumcising him, but Voivode was unsuccessful.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}}

After Apostolos declared that he was a Christian and his faith would not change, he was led to senior religious officials where they themselves tried to make him change his faith by giving him wealth and glory. Apostolos did not renounce his Christian faith. He only told them: "Don't waste your time, do whatever it takes but do it quickly. Whatever death you give me, I will willingly accept it for the sake of my [[Jesus|Christ]]. So don't be late. Do you want to burn me? Let me gather the wood and prepare the fire. Do you want to hang me? Let me prepare the loop with my own hands. Do you want to behead me? Give me the sword and I will sharpen it as needed." After they didn't achieve anything, the [[vizier]] finally ordered his beheading.<ref name=":0" />

=== The execution ===

After a night of torture, Apostolos<ref>{{Cite web|last=Sanidopoulos|first=John|title=Holy New Martyr Apostolos the New (+ 1686)|url=https://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2013/08/holy-new-martyr-apostolos-young-1686.html|access-date=2020-10-28}}</ref> was led before dawn to a location near [[Golden Horn]] where he waited for the executioner to behead him. The executioner first hit him three times in the neck with his [[scythe]], then grabbed him by the hair and beheaded him. Apostolos died at the age of 19. Books were written about his life state that after his execution, the execution squad saw from afar a large crowd going to his dead body. Believing that they were Christians, the men ran to the site but could see nothing. Only his dead body was there and no one else. After they threw his body into the sea, they brought his head to the vizier as proof of his execution.<ref name=":0" />

=== After execution ===
Christians who had seen his execution demanded his head so that it be buried, through the patriarchate. When it was given to them, they put it in a silver case and gave it to the Temple of Agios Dimitrios in [[Kurtuluş]].{{cn|date=September 2023}}

Sometime later, a compatriot of Apostolos took his head and carried it to his homeland, specifically to the Apostolos's house (which had now become a temple in his honor). Today, his head is in the Diocese of Dimitriada, Magnesia.<ref name=":0" />

== Veneration ==
[[Eastern Orthodox Church]] considered him a [[saint]] and he was commemorated on August 16.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.eortologio.net/month/8/day/16/16_Αυγούστου|title=16 Αυγούστου|last=thewebform|website=Εορτολόγιο|language=el|accessdate=2019-11-13}}</ref>

== Sources ==
<references />

{{DEFAULTSORT:Apostolos the New}}
[[Category:Greek saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church]]
[[Category:1667 births]]
[[Category:1686 deaths]]

Anthony-Rawḥ al-Qurashī

2024-11-12T19:24:15Z

Szturnek: We have more specified category

{{Short description|Arab Christian martyr}}
{{Too few opinions|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox saint
|name=Anthony-Rawḥ al-Qurashī
|birth_name= Rawḥ al-Qurashī
|birth_date=
|death_date= December 25, 799 AD
|feast_day=
|venerated_in=[[Pre-Congregation]]
|image=
|imagesize=
|caption=
|birth_place= possibly [[Damascus]]
|death_place= [[Raqqa]]
|titles=Martyr
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date= [[Pre-Congregation]]
|canonized_place=
|canonized_by=
|attributes=
|patronage=
|major_shrine=
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
|honorific suffix=
|honorific prefix=[[Saint]]
}}

'''Anthony-Rawḥ al-Qurashī''' was an [[Arab Christian]] [[martyr]] and [[Saint]] of the late 8th century. The name al-Qurashī refers to the [[Quraysh]] tribe which he was descended from.

==Hagiography==
Anthony, born Rawḥ al-Qurashī, was a Muslim nobleman from Damascus. He was a descendant of the [[Quraysh]] tribe which was the same tribe that the [[Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]] came from. Rawḥ lived in the abandoned monastery [[Dayr Murran]] that was dedicated to [[Theodore Tiron|
Saint Theodore]] on [[Mount Qasioun]] which had a functioning Church adjacent to it. Rawḥ would regularly sneak into the Church to steal the [[Eucharist]] and eat it and would even ''tear the crosses from their places, rip the altar cloths, and greatly harass the priest.'' One day, Rawḥ found the Church empty and decided to shoot the icon of St. Theodore above the altar with his bow. Rawḥ fired an arrow and it came within a foot of the icon but then suddenly turned back towards Rawḥ piercing him in his left hand which terrified him and knocked him unconscious. A few days later Rawḥ witnessed another miracle when he saw the Consecrated Host transform into a lamb during a Mass. That same night St. Theodore appeared to Rawḥ in a dream and chastised him for his behavior ordering him to embrace Christ and repent. Rawḥ was so moved by this vision that he set off to [[Jerusalem]] the next day to be [[baptized]]. However, the Patriarch [[Elias II of Jerusalem]] was afraid that by baptizing Rawḥ he would anger Muslim authorities so he sent him to the [[River Jordan]] to be baptized by a group of monks who submerged him, gave him a monastic cowl and the Christian name of Anthony.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7817/jameroriesoci.136.2.265|title=Swimming against the Current: Muslim Conversion to Christianity in the Early Islamic Period|last=Sahner|first=Christian|date=2016|journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society|volume=136 |issue=2 |pages=270–271|doi=10.7817/jameroriesoci.136.2.265 |jstor=10.7817/jameroriesoci.136.2.265 }}</ref>

When Anthony returned to Damascus his family mocked his ''coarse dress'' and turned him over to the [[Islamic judge]] after failing to bring him back to Islam. The judge berated Anthony saying "Shame on you, Rawḥ, why have you left your religion into which you were born, not to mention your esteem and nobility (ḥasabaka wa-sharafaka)?" When this did not convince Anthony either the judge sent him to [[Raqqa]], the seat of the caliph [[Harun al-Rashid]]. Al-Rashīd also mocked Anthony for his monk's clothing, and after failing to convert him, ordered his execution. Anthony welcomed his sentence explaining that it would free him from his three greatest sins: ''having gone on hajj to Mecca, having sacrificed on ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā, and having killed Christians during raids against the Byzantines.'' Thus, Anthony was decapitated on [[Christmas Day]] 799 A.D.{{sfn|Sahner|2016|p=272}}

According to [[Theodore Abu Qurrah]]:
{{blockquote|In our own day there was a well-known martyr, from a family of the highest nobility among the outsiders, whose story is widespread. May he remember us in his prayers, he is called St. Anthony. He used to tell everyone he met that he came to believe in Christianity only because of a miracle he saw in connection with an icon that belonged to St. Theodore, the martyr.{{sfn|Sahner|2016|p=272}}
}}

==See also==
*[[Abo of Tiflis]]
*[[Ahmet the Calligrapher]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:People from Damascus]]
[[Category:8th-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity from Islam]]
[[Category:Arab Christian saints]]
[[Category:Christian saints killed by Muslims]]
[[Category:Christians executed for refusing to convert to Islam]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs executed by decapitation]]
[[Category:People executed for apostasy from Islam]]
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Arab Christians]]
[[Category:Syrian Christians]]
[[Category:799 deaths]]

Abd al-Masih (martyr)

2024-11-12T19:23:11Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints; added Category:4th-century Christian saints using HotCat

{{Infobox saint
|name=Asher ben Levi
|birth_name= אשר בן לוי (Asher ben Levi)
|birth_date=
|death_date=390 AD
|feast_day=October 3
|venerated_in=[[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodox Church]]
|image=
|imagesize=
|caption=
|birth_place= [[Sinjar]] (Likely)
|death_place= [[Sinjar]] (Likely)
|titles=Martyr
|beatified_date= [[Pre-Congregation]]
|beatified_place= [[Syria]]
|beatified_by= [[Syriac Orthodox Church]]
|canonized_date= [[Pre-Congregation]]
|canonized_place= [[Syria]]
|canonized_by= [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] [[Armenian Apostolic Church]]
|attributes=
|patronage= Barren women
|major_shrine=
|suppressed_date=
|issues=
|honorific suffix=Abd al-Masih
|honorific prefix=[[Saint]]
}}
Abd al-Masih, born '''Asher ben Levi''' ({{langx|he|אשר בן לוי}}),<ref name=":0">[http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1936-asher-ben-levi Asher ben Levi] at jewishencyclopaedia.com; retrieved 21 July 2019</ref> is described as a [[saint]] and [[martyr]] in [[early Christianity]]. The name Abd al-Masih ({{lang|ar|عبد المسيح}}) means "servant/slave of the Messiah" in [[Arabic]].

Abd al-Masih was a [[Jewish]] shepherd boy in [[Sasanian Mesopotamia]] who was killed by his father, Levi, for [[conversion to Christianity|converting to Christianity]]. Having converted, he pierced his ear to wear an earring, probably an indication of his metaphorical [[slavery]] to [[Jesus]].<ref>[http://syriaca.org/person/1102#bib1102-2/ Abdelmasih - ܥܒܕܐܠܡܣܝܚ] Retrieved on 7 Feb 2018</ref> He died in AD 390.<ref>[http://www.syriacstudies.com/AFSS/Syriac_Articles_in_English/Entries/2008/3/18_The_Lives_of_the_Martyrs_of_Edessa,_Samosata_and_Persia_-_Mor_Ignatius_Aphram_Barsoum.html/ The Lives of the Martyrs of Edessa, Samosata and Persia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001061939/http://syriacstudies.com/AFSS/Syriac_Articles_in_English/Entries/2008/3/18_The_Lives_of_the_Martyrs_of_Edessa,_Samosata_and_Persia_-_Mor_Ignatius_Aphram_Barsoum.html |date=2015-10-01 }} Retrieved on 7 Feb 2018</ref> The story is set in [[Singara]] and is a [[Syriac language|Syriac]] text with later versions in [[Arabic]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]].<ref>This text was the subject of the PhD thesis of Michael L. Morris, University of Southampton, 2009.</ref>

There is disagreement about the location of his martyrdom. Some sources say [[Singar]] (in modern [[Iraq]] near the Syrian border), and others say [[Taglibis]] in Arabia. He is regarded as the [[patron saint]] of sterile women in Syria, and has his feast day observed on July 13, and July 22 or October 3.<ref>Holweck, F. G. ''A Biographical Dictionary of the Saints''. St. Louis, MO: B. Herder Book Co., 1924.</ref>

After his martyrdom, his then-elderly father grew troubled and unwell, and after being taken to the place where his son died; he ended up converting to Christianity with his family.<ref name=":0" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
{{cite book |last=Fiey |first=Jean Maurice |editor=Lawrence I. Conrad|date=2004 |title=Saints Syriaques, volume 6
|url= http://syriaca.org/bibl/650| publisher=The Darwin Press, Inc.|location= Princeton, N.J.}}

==External links==
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=1xUV-nMxNGsC&dq=Abd al-Masih,+martyr&pg=RA1-PA182 Eastern Christianity]
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=8mUJ58SMMhEC&dq=Abd al-Masih%2C%20martyr&pg=PA2 A New Dictionary of Saints]


{{Subject bar |portal1= Biography |portal2= Christianity |portal3= Judaism}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abd al-Masih}}
[[Category:People from Sinjar]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:Converts to Christianity from Judaism]]
[[Category:4th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:Year of birth unknown]]
[[Category:Iraqi Jews]]
[[Category:390 deaths]]

Abāmūn of Tukh

2024-11-12T19:20:37Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Christian saints using HotCat (We have more specified cat)

{{Short description|Coptic martyr}}
{{Notability|Biography|date=May 2022}}
{{Infobox saint
| name = Abāmūn of Toukh
| image =
| imagesize =
| alt =
| caption =
| titles = Martyr
| birth_date = 4th century
| birth_place = [[Toukh]], [[Egypt]]
| death_date = 4th century
| death_place = [[Ansena]], [[Egypt]]
| venerated_in = [[Coptic Orthodox Church]] [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]]
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
| canonized_place =
| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day = 20 July (13 [[Epip|Abib]])
| attributes =
| patronage =
| issues =
| suppressed_date =
| suppressed_by =
| influences =
| influenced =
| tradition =
| major_works =
}}

'''Abāmūn of Toukh''' is a [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic]] [[martyr]] known only from a mention of him in the ''[[Synaxarion]]'' of Mikhail of Atrib. His feast day is 20 July (13 [[Epip|Abib]]).

==Biography==
He was from [[Toukh]] in the diocese of [[Banha]]. He is said to have been visited by the archangel [[Michael (archangel)|Michael]], who told Abāmūn that he would be martyred at [[Ansena]]. Abamun traveled to Ansena, There he was [[torture]]d by the governor Eukhious by a variety of means, including the [[rack (torture device)|rack]], fire, red-hot irons, flogging, flaying, and the furnace before he was finally beheaded. He is also said to have worked a number of miracles.

After his execution, another Christian, [[Julius of Aqfahs]], wrapped the body in cloths and had it carried back to his homeland, Toukh. Vagaries of translation have led some to believe that Mikhail went on to imply that Abāmūn's body had been taken there immediately, although other translators have made it clear that the intended meaning was more likely that the body was moved from Toukh sometime in the thirteenth century.

==Veneration==
[[Abu al-Makarim]] records that in the thirteenth century there was a church dedicated to Abamūn (note the spelling difference) at [[El-Bahnasa]]. He went on to say that he himself was not sure whether the church was dedicated to '''Abāmūn of Ṭoukh''' or his namesake [[Abāmūn of Tarnūt]].

The evidence available makes it seem more likely that it was named after Abāmūn of Ṭoukh, for several reasons. One is that Julius of Aqfahs personally took care of this martyr's body, but not the other's. Another is that Mikhail specifically mentions that this Abāmūn was at the time of his writing in the Said, which indicates that there was a [[Cult (religious practice)|cult]] extant at the time [[veneration|venerating]] this Abāmūn, but not the other. Lastly, there is the existing reference to this individual working a number of miracles, with no such reference made to any miracle by the other Abamun.

==References==
* Atiya, Aziz S. ''The Coptic Encyclopedia.'' New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1991. {{ISBN|0-02-897025-X}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abamun of Tukh}}
[[Category:Saints from Roman Egypt]]
[[Category:Angelic visionaries]]
[[Category:Michael (archangel)]]
[[Category:Torture victims]]
[[Category:Christian martyrs executed by decapitation]]

Adalbert of Prague

2024-11-12T17:52:30Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Eastern Orthodox saints; added Category:Polish saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church using HotCat

{{Short description|Bohemian missionary and saint (c.956–997)}}
{{About|Saint Adalbert of Prague|the name|Adalbert}}
{{Infobox saint
|honorific_prefix=[[Saint]]
|name=Adalbert of Prague
|image=Szt-adalbert.jpg
|imagesize=
|caption=Portrait by [[Mihály Kovács (painter)|Mihály Kovács]], 1855
|titles=Bishop and Martyr
|birth_date= {{c.|lk=no}} 956
|birth_place=[[Libice nad Cidlinou]], [[Duchy of Bohemia]] (now the [[Czech Republic]])
|death_date= {{death date and age|997|04|23|956|df=y}}
|death_place=[[Święty Gaj]] or [[Primorsk, Kaliningrad Oblast|Primorsk]], [[Prussia (region)|Prussia]] (now [[Poland]] or [[Russia]])
|feast_day= 23 April
|venerated_in=[[Catholic Church]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]
|beatified_date=
|beatified_place=
|beatified_by=
|canonized_date=999<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Adalbert| title = "Saint Adalbert Bishop of Prague", Encyclopædia Britannica| access-date = 2020-01-30| archive-date = 2020-03-17| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200317161843/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Adalbert| url-status = live}}</ref>
|canonized_place=Rome
|canonized_by=[[Pope Sylvester II]]
|major_shrine=[[Gniezno]], [[Prague]]
|attributes=spears <ref name="Stracke1">{{cite web |last1=Stracke |first1=Richard |title=Hungarian Saints: Adalbert, Martin, Stanislas, Emeric and Stephen |url=http://www.christianiconography.info/Wikimedia%20Commons/adalbertGyor.html |website=Christian Iconography |date=2015-10-20 |access-date=2019-01-17 |archive-date=2019-02-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190205235734/http://www.christianiconography.info/Wikimedia%20Commons/adalbertGyor.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|patronage=[[Poland]], [[Czech Republic]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Esztergom–Budapest|Archdiocese of Esztergom]], [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Prague|Archdiocese of Prague]] (primary), students of Polish literature, [[Kaliningrad Oblast]]
|issues=
|suppressed_date=
|prayer=
|prayer_attrib=
}}

'''Adalbert of Prague''', Święty Wojciech in Polish, is a Patron Saint of Poland. ({{langx|la|Sanctus Adalbertus}}, {{langx|cs|svatý Vojtěch}}, {{langx|sk|svätý Vojtech}}, {{langx|pl|święty Wojciech}}, {{langx|hu|Szent Adalbert (Béla)}}; {{circa}} 956{{snd}}23 April 997), known in the [[Czech Republic]], [[Poland]] and [[Slovakia]] by his birth name '''Vojtěch''' ({{langx|la|Voitecus}}), was a [[Czechs|Czech]] [[missionary]] and [[Christians|Christian]] [[saint]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Butler |first1=Alban |last2=Burns |first2=Paul |title=Butler's Lives of the Saints: April |date=1999 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-86012-253-1 |page=166 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OaqWAEry-wkC&q=Adalbert+of+Prague+canonization&pg=PA166 |language=en}}</ref> He was the [[Bishop of Prague]] and a [[missionary]] to the Hungarians, Poles, and Prussians, who was martyred in his efforts to convert the [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] [[Old Prussians|Prussians]] to [[Christianity]]. He is said to be the composer of the oldest Czech hymn ''[[Hospodine, pomiluj ny]]'' and ''[[Bogurodzica]]'', the oldest known Polish anthem which was a religious hymn . but his authorship of them has not been confirmed.{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=123}}

Adalbert was later declared the [[patron saint]] of the Czech Republic, [[Patron saints of Poland|Poland]], and the [[Duchy of Prussia]]. He is also the patron saint of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Esztergom-Budapest|Archdiocese of Esztergom]] in [[Hungary]].<ref name="Katolikus.hu">{{cite web|title=Szent Adalbert|url=http://www.katolikus.hu/szentek/0423.html|website=Katolikus.hu|publisher=Catholic Church in Hungary|access-date=7 March 2018|archive-date=27 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227113333/http://www.katolikus.hu/szentek/0423.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Life==
===Early years===
Born as ''[[Vojtěch]]'' in 952{{sfn|Molnar|1978|p=12}} or {{circa|956}}{{sfn|Vlasto|1970|p=97}} in [[Gord (Slavic settlement)|gord]] [[Libice nad Cidlinou|Libice]], he belonged to the [[Slavník dynasty|Slavnik clan]], one of the two most powerful families in Bohemia.{{sfn|Molnar|1978|p=12}} Events from his life were later recorded by a Bohemian priest [[Cosmas of Prague]] (1045–1125). Vojtěch's father was [[Slavník]] (d. 978–981), a duke ruling a province centred at Libice.{{sfn|Cosmas of Prague|2009|pp=77–78}} His mother was [[Střezislava]] (d. 985–987),{{sfn|Cosmas of Prague|2009|pp=77–78}} and according to David Kalhous belonged to the [[Přemyslid dynasty]].{{sfn|Kalhous|2015|p=10}} He had five brothers: [[Soběslav (d. 1004)|Soběslav]], Spytimír, Dobroslav, Pořej, and Čáslav.{{sfn|Cosmas of Prague|2009|p=81}} Cosmas also refers to Radim (later [[Radim Gaudentius|Gaudentius]]) as a brother;{{sfn|Cosmas of Prague|2009|pp=87, 156}} who is believed to have been a half-brother by his father's liaison with another woman. After he survived a grave illness in childhood, his parents decided to dedicate him to the service of God. Adalbert was well educated, having studied for approximately ten years (970–80) in [[Magdeburg]] under [[Adalbert of Magdeburg]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/Saint.aspx?id=1910,|title=St. Adalbert of Prague {{!}} Saint of the Day {{!}} AmericanCatholic.org|date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053145/http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/Saint.aspx?id=1910,|archive-date=2016-03-04|access-date=2018-03-22}}</ref> The young Vojtěch took his tutor's name "Adalbert" at his [[Confirmation]].

===Episcopacy===
[[File:Socha Svateho Vojtecha a Radima.jpg|thumb|left|upright|210px|Monument to Adalbert and his brother Gaudentius, [[Libice nad Cidlinou]], Czech Republic]]
[[File:Adalbert Siegel Domkapitel Gnesen.png|thumb|left|upright|210px|Adalbert on a seal of the chapter of [[Gniezno Cathedral]] (Gnesen)]]
In 981 [[Adalbert of Magdeburg]] died, and his young protege Adalbert returned to [[Bohemia]]. Later Bishop [[Dětmar|Dietmar of Prague]] ordained him a [[Catholic]] [[priest]]. In 982, Bishop Dietmar died, and Adalbert, despite being under canonical age, was chosen to succeed him as [[Bishop of Prague]].<ref name="Foley">{{cite web |url = http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/Saint.aspx?id=1910, |title = "St. Adalbert of Prague", Franciscan Media |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304053145/http://www.americancatholic.org/Features/Saints/Saint.aspx?id=1910, |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Amiable and somewhat worldly, he was not expected to trouble the secular powers by making excessive claims for the Church.{{sfn|Butler|2003|p=181}} Although Adalbert was from a wealthy family, he avoided comfort and luxury, and was noted for his charity and austerity. After six years of preaching and prayer, he had made little headway in evangelizing the Bohemians, who maintained deeply embedded pagan beliefs.

Adalbert opposed the participation of Christians in the [[slavery|slave]] trade and complained of [[polygamy]] and idolatry, which were common among the people. Once he started to propose reforms he was met with opposition from both the secular powers and the clergy. His family refused to support Duke [[Boleslaus II, Duke of Bohemia|Boleslaus]] in an unsuccessful war against Poland. Adalbert was no longer welcome and eventually forced into exile.<ref name=":0" /> In 988 he went to [[Rome]]. He lived as a hermit at the Benedictine [[Santi Bonifacio e Alessio|monastery of Saint Alexis]]. Five years later, Boleslaus requested that the [[Pope]] send Adalbert back to Prague, in hopes of securing his family's support. [[Pope John XV]] agreed, with the understanding that Adalbert was free to leave Prague if he continued to encounter entrenched resistance. Adalbert returned as bishop of Prague, where he was initially received with demonstrations of apparent joy. Together with a group of [[Italians|Italian]] Benedictine monks which brought with him, he founded in 14 January 993 a [[Brevnov Monastery|monastery in Břevnov]] (then situated westward from Prague, now part of the city), the second oldest monastery on Czech territory.

In 995, the [[Slavniks]]' former rivalry with the Přemyslids, who were allied with the powerful Bohemian clan of the [[Vršovci|Vršovid]]s, resulted in the storming of the Slavnik town of [[Libice nad Cidlinou]], which was led by the Přemyslid [[Boleslaus II the Pious]]. During the struggle four or five of Adalbert's brothers [[Massacre of the Slavníks|were killed]]. The Zlič Principality became part of the Přemyslids' estate. Adalbert unsuccessfully attempted to protect a noblewoman caught in adultery. She had fled to a convent, where she was killed. In upholding the right of sanctuary, Bishop Adalbert responded by excommunicating the murderers. Butler suggests that the incident was orchestrated by enemies of his family.{{sfn|Butler|2003|p=181}}

After this, Adalbert could not safely stay in Bohemia and escaped from Prague. Strachkvas was eventually appointed to be his successor. However, Strachkvas suddenly died during the liturgy at which he was to accede to his episcopal office in Prague. The cause of his death is still ambiguous. The Pope directed Adalbert to resume his see, but believing that he would not be allowed back, Adalbert requested a brief as an itinerant missionary.<ref name="Foley" />

Adalbert then traveled to [[Hungary]] and probably baptized [[Géza, Grand Prince of the Hungarians|Géza of Hungary]] and his son [[Stephen of Hungary|Stephen]] in [[Esztergom]]. Then he went to [[Poland]] where he was cordially welcomed by [[Boleslaus I of Poland|then-Duke Boleslaus I]] and installed as Bishop of [[Gniezno]].

===Mission and martyrdom in Prussia===
[[File:Polska 992 - 1025.png|thumb|Poland, [[Bohemia]] and [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussia]] during the reign of [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Boleslaus I]]]]
[[File:Gniezno Cathedral detail 02.jpg|thumb|The execution of Saint Adalbert by the pagan [[Old Prussians|Prussians]], [[Gniezno Doors]]]]

Adalbert again relinquished his diocese, namely that of Gniezno, and set out as a missionary to preach to the inhabitants near [[Prussia (Baltic)|Prussia]].<ref>{{cite web| url = http://saints.sqpn.com/book-of-saints-adalbert| title = Monks of Ramsgate. "Adalbert", ''Book of Saints'' (1921)| date = May 2012| access-date = 2012-09-20| archive-date = 2014-12-21| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141221064936/http://saints.sqpn.com/book-of-saints-adalbert| url-status = live}}</ref> [[Boleslaus I of Poland|Bolesław I]], Duke (and, later, King) of Poland, sent [[soldiers]] with Adalbert on his mission to the Prussians. The Bishop and his companions, entered Prussian territory and traveled along the coast of the [[Baltic Sea]] to [[Gdańsk]]. At the borders of the Polish realm, at the mouth of the [[Vistula|Vistula River]], his half-brother Radim (Gaudentius), Benedict-Bogusza (who was probably a Pole), and at least one interpreter, ventured out into Prussia alone, as Bolesław had only sent his soldiers to escort them to the border.<ref name=":1" />

Adalbert achieved some success upon his arrival,<ref name=":2" /> however his arrival mostly caused strain upon the local Prussian populations.<ref name=":1" /> Partially this was because of the imperious manner with which he preached,<ref name=":2" /> but potentially because he preached utilizing a book.<ref name=":1" /> The Prussians had an oral society where communication was face to face. To the locals Adalbert reading from a book may have come off as a manifestation of an evil action. He was forced to leave this first village after being struck in the back of the head by an oar by a local chieftain, causing the pages of his book to scatter upon the ground. He and his companions then fled across a river.<ref name=":1" />

In the next place that Adalbert tried to preach, his message was met with the locals banging their sticks upon the ground, calling for the death of Adalbert and his companions. Retreating once again Adalbert and his companions went to a market place of [[Truso]] (near modern-day [[Elbląg]]). Here they were met with a similar response as at the previous place.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last1=Baronas|first1=Darius|title=The Conversion of Lithuania: From Pagan Barbarians to Late Medieval Christians|last2=Rowell|first2=S.C.|publisher=The Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore|year=2015|isbn=978-609-425-152-8|location=Vilnius|pages=35–36}}</ref> On the 23 April 997, after mass, while Adalbert and his companions lay in the grass while eating a snack, they were set upon by a pagan mob. The mob was led by a man named Sicco,<ref name=":1" /> possibly a pagan priest,<ref name=":2" /> who delivered the first blow against Adalbert, before the others joined in. They removed Adalbert's head from his body after he was dead, and mounted on a pole while they returned home.<ref name=":1" /> This encounter may also have taken place in Tenkitten and [[Primorsk, Kaliningrad Oblast|Fischhausen]] (now Primorsk, [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], [[Russia]]).<ref name=":2" /> It is recorded that his body was bought back for its weight in [[gold]] by King [[Boleslaus I of Poland]].<ref name=":2">{{cite web| url = https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/saint/st-adalbert-of-prague-685| title = "St. Adalbert of Prague", Catholic News Agency| access-date = 2020-04-19| archive-date = 2020-10-08| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201008075713/https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/saint/st-adalbert-of-prague-685| url-status = live}}</ref>

==Veneration and relics==
[[File:Catedral de Gniezno, Gniezno, Polonia, 2014-09-17, DD 25-27 HDR.jpg|thumb|upright|Silver coffin of Adalbert, Cathedral in Gniezno]]
[[File:Dystynktorium kanonicki Gennadij Jerszow.JPG|thumb|upright|Canonical cross of Saint Adalbert by [[Giennadij Jerszow]]. Collegiate Capitol in [[Gdańsk]]. Silver-Gold 2011]]
[[File:Adalbert of Prague.jpg|thumb|upright|Statue of Saint Adalbert in Prague]]
A few years after his martyrdom, Adalbert was [[canonization|canonized]] as '''Saint Adalbert of Prague.''' His life was written in ''Vita Sancti Adalberti Pragensis'' by various authors, the earliest being traced to imperial [[Aachen]] and the Bishop of [[Liège]], [[Notger von Lüttich]], although it was previously assumed that the [[Rome|Roman]] monk [[John Canaparius]] wrote the first ''Vita'' in 999. Another famous biographer of Adalbert was [[Bruno of Querfurt]] who wrote a hagiography of him in 1001–4.

Notably, the Přemyslid rulers of Bohemia initially refused to ransom Adalbert's body from the Prussians who murdered him, and therefore it was purchased by Poles. This fact may be explained by Adalbert's belonging to the Slavniks family which was rival to the Přemyslids. Thus Adalbert's bones were preserved in [[Gniezno]], which assisted [[Boleslaus I of Poland]] in increasing Polish political and diplomatic power in Europe.

According to Bohemian accounts, in 1039 the Bohemian Duke [[Bretislav I]] looted the bones of Adalbert from Gniezno in a raid and translated them to [[Prague]]. According to Polish accounts, however, he stole the wrong relics, namely those of Gaudentius, while the Poles concealed Adalbert's relics which remain in [[Gniezno]]. In 1127 his severed head, which was not in the original purchase according to ''Roczniki Polskie'', was discovered and translated to Gniezno. In 1928, one of the arms of Adalbert, which Bolesław I had given to [[Otto III, Holy Roman Emperor|Holy Roman Emperor Otto III]] in 1000, was added to the bones preserved in Gniezno. Therefore, today Adalbert has two elaborate shrines in the [[Prague Cathedral]]<ref>{{cite web| url = https://www.radio.cz/en/section/curraffrs/relics-of-bohemias-patron-saint-adalbert-find-new-resting-placeRelics| title = of Behemia's patron saint Adalbert find new resting place}}</ref> and [[Gniezno Cathedral|Royal Cathedral of Gniezno]], each of which claims to possess his relics, but which of these bones are his authentic relics is unknown. For example, pursuant to both claims two skulls are attributed to Adalbert. The one in Gniezno was stolen in 1923.

The massive bronze [[Gniezno Doors|doors]] of [[Gniezno Cathedral]], dating from around 1175, are decorated with eighteen [[relief]]s of scenes from Adalbert's life. They are the only [[Romanesque art|Romanesque]] ecclesiastical doors in Europe depicting a cycle illustrating the life of a saint, and therefore are a precious relic documenting Adalbert's martyrdom. We can read that door literally and theologically.

The one thousandth anniversary of Adalbert's martyrdom was on 23 April 1997. It was commemorated in Poland, the Czech Republic, Germany, Russia, and other nations. Representatives of [[Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], and [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] churches traveled on a pilgrimage to Adalbert's tomb located in Gniezno. [[Pope John Paul II]] visited the cathedral and celebrated a liturgy there in which heads of seven European nations and approximately one million faithful participated.

A ten-meter cross was erected near the village of Beregovoe (formerly Tenkitten), [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], where Adalbert is thought to have been martyred by the Prussians.

== Feast day ==
* 25 January – commemoration of translation of relics to [[Igreja de São Roque|Church of Saint Roch]],<ref name=":3"/>
* 22 April – commemoration in [[Diocese of Innsbruck]],<ref>{{Cite book |title=Direktorium 2022 (ab Advent 2021) für die Diözesen Innsbruck und Feldkirch}}</ref>
* 22 April – commemoration in [[Catholic Church in England and Wales]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=OFFICE FOR LITURGY |url=https://www.salfordliturgy.org.uk/ |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=OFFICE FOR LITURGY |archive-date=2022-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819110630/https://www.salfordliturgy.org.uk/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Local calendar information |url=https://universalis.com/n-localcalendars.htm |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=universalis.com |archive-date=2022-06-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624122134/https://universalis.com/n-localcalendars.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 23 April – commemoration of [[death anniversary]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=Catholic Church |url=http://archive.org/details/MartRom2004 |title=Martyrologium Romanum (2004) |date=2004}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=23 kwietnia: św. Wojciecha, biskupa i męczennika, głównego patrona Polski |url=https://ordo.pallotyni.pl/index.php/mszal-rzymski/swieci-kwiecien/1367-23-kwietnia-sw-wojciecha-biskupa-i-meczennika-glownego-patrona-polski |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=ordo.pallotyni.pl |archive-date=2022-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819110558/https://ordo.pallotyni.pl/index.php/mszal-rzymski/swieci-kwiecien/1367-23-kwietnia-sw-wojciecha-biskupa-i-meczennika-glownego-patrona-polski |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 14 May – commemoration of consecration of church in Aachen<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Adalbert von Prag - Ökumenisches Heiligenlexikon |url=https://www.heiligenlexikon.de/BiographienA/Adalbert_von_Prag.htm |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=www.heiligenlexikon.de |language=de |archive-date=2022-10-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009105228/https://www.heiligenlexikon.de/BiographienA/Adalbert_von_Prag.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 25 August – commemoration of [[Translation (relic)|translation of relics]] from [[Gniezno]] to [[Prague]] (1039)<ref>{{Cite web |title=sv. Radim |url=http://catholica.cz/?id=4780 |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=catholica.cz |archive-date=2022-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819110558/http://catholica.cz/?id=4780 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 26 August – commemoration of [[Translation (relic)|translation of relics]] to [[Wrocław]]<ref name=":3" />
* 20 October – commemoration of [[Translation (relic)|translation of relics]] to [[Gniezno]] (1090)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Translacja - święto patronalne św. Wojciecha |url=https://niedziela.pl/artykul/4270/nd |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=niedziela.pl |language=pl |archive-date=2022-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819110632/https://www.niedziela.pl/artykul/4270/nd |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 22 October – commemoration of [[Translation (relic)|translation of relics]] to [[Gniezno]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=KAI |first=Katolicka Agencja Informacyjna |date=30 November 2001 |title=Gniezno: uroczystość Przeniesienia Relikwii św. Wojciecha {{!}} eKAI |url=https://www.ekai.pl/gniezno-uroczystosc-przeniesienia-relikwii-sw-wojciecha/ |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=eKAI {{!}} Portal Katolickiej Agencji Informacyjnej |archive-date=2022-08-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819110600/https://www.ekai.pl/gniezno-uroczystosc-przeniesienia-relikwii-sw-wojciecha/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* 6 November – commemoration of [[Translation (relic)|translation of relics]] to [[Esztergom]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Veszprémy |first=László |title=Szent Adalbert és Magyarország|journal= Historiográfiai áttekintés. Ars Hungarica 26. (1998) 321-338. |url=https://www.academia.edu/60893325 |access-date=2022-08-19 |archive-date=2023-05-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230517041648/https://www.academia.edu/60893325 |url-status=live }}</ref>
He is also commemorated on 23 April by [[Evangelical Church in Germany]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Das Kirchenjahr Evangelischer Sonn- und Feiertagskalender 2016/2017 |url=https://eivelkirche.ekir.de/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Liturgischer-Kalender_2016-2017.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://eivelkirche.ekir.de/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/Liturgischer-Kalender_2016-2017.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Latin Saints of the Orthodox Patriarchate of Rome |url=http://www.orthodoxengland.org.uk/saintsa.htm |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=www.orthodoxengland.org.uk |archive-date=2022-05-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220520175838/http://www.orthodoxengland.org.uk/saintsa.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

== In popular culture and society ==
The Dagmar and Václav Havel [[VIZE 97]] Foundation Prize, given annually to a distinguished thinker "whose work exceeds the traditional framework of scientific knowledge, contributes to the understanding of science as an integral part of general culture and is concerned with unconventional ways of asking fundamental questions about cognition, being and human existence"
includes a massive replica of Adalbert's crozier by Czech artist Jiří Plieštík.

St. Vojtech Fellowship was established in 1870 by Slovak Catholic priest Andrej Radlinský. It had facilitated [[Slovakia|Slovak]] Catholic thinkers and authors, continuing to publish religious original works and translations to this day. It is the official publishing body of [[Episcopal Conference of Slovakia]].

===Churches and parishes named for Adalbert===
{{Main|St. Adalbert's Church (disambiguation){{!}}St. Adalbert's Church}}

==See also==
* [[History of the Czech lands in the Middle Ages]]
* [[History of Poland (966–1385)]]
* [[Congress of Gniezno]]
* [[Gniezno Doors]]
* [[Adalbert of Magdeburg]]
* [[Portal:Catholic Church/Patron Archive/April 23|Saint Adalbert of Prague, patron saint archive]]
* [[Statue of Adalbert of Prague, Charles Bridge]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{Wikisource author}}

==Sources==
*{{cite book|last=Butler|first=Alban|title=Butler's Lives of the Saints|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHnM1a1NTugC&pg=PA181|year=2003|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-2903-1|pages=181–}}
*{{cite book|last=Vlasto|first=A. P. |title=The Entry of the Slavs Into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpVOAAAAIAAJ|year=1970|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-07459-9}}
*{{cite journal|last=Molnar|first=Enrico S.|title=St. Adalbert - Missionary to three countries|journal=The Living Church|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11zkAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA3-PA32|date=30 April 1978|publisher=Morehouse-Gorham Company|pages=11–12}}
*{{cite book|last=Kalhous|first=David|title=Legenda Christiani and Modern Historiography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9a28CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10|year=2015|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-30589-2|pages=10, 16, 26, 32, 44, 46, 57, 60, 72, 91–92, 111, 114–115, 117, 119, 130}}
*{{cite book|last=Althoff|first=Gerd|title=Otto III|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n7iPQjA9Lf8C&pg=PA14|year=2010|publisher=Penn State Press|isbn=978-0-271-04618-1|pages=3, 14, 27, 49, 60, 65–71, 91, 96–97, 99, 127, 137–138, 141–143}}
*{{cite book|author=Cosmas of Prague|editor=Wolverton, Lisa|title=The Chronicle of the Czechs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZG7igBN41oUC&pg=PA119|year=2009|publisher=CUA Press|isbn=978-0-8132-1570-9|pages=7–8, 15, 30, 49–50, 72, 75–83, 87, 96, 100, 107–109, 113–114, 117–120, 136, 156, 160, 176}}
*Donald Attwater and Catherine R. John, ''The Penguin Dictionary of Saints'', Third Edition (New York: Penguin Books, 1993); {{ISBN|0-14-051312-4}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Adalbert of Prague}}
* {{Hl-Lex|b|Adalbert_von_Prag.htm}} {{in lang|de}}
* {{cite web|author=Rudolf Grulich|title=Der heilige Adalbert von Prag – ein Wegbereiter Europas|publisher=kirche-in-not.de|url=http://www.kirche-in-not.de/downloads/20080616-der-heilige-adalbert-ein-wegbereiter-europas.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.kirche-in-not.de/downloads/20080616-der-heilige-adalbert-ein-wegbereiter-europas.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|language=de}}


{{Subject bar |portal1= Saints |portal2= Biography |portal3= Catholicism |portal4= Czech Republic}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:950s births]]
[[Category:997 deaths]]
[[Category:10th-century bishops in Bohemia]]
[[Category:Nobility from medieval Bohemia]]
[[Category:Slavník dynasty]]
[[Category:People from Nymburk District]]
[[Category:Czech Christian missionaries]]
[[Category:Burials at St. Vitus Cathedral]]
[[Category:Burials at Gniezno Cathedral]]
[[Category:Saints from medieval Bohemia]]
[[Category:Polish Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:10th-century Christian saints]]
[[Category:10th-century Christian martyrs]]
[[Category:10th century in Hungary]]
[[Category:10th century in Poland]]
[[Category:Christian missionaries in Europe]]
[[Category:Patron saints of Poland]]
[[Category:Polish saints of the Eastern Orthodox Church]]

Abigail

2024-11-12T17:49:47Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Eastern Orthodox saints using HotCat (More specified category is indluced(Category:Eastern Orthodox royal saints))

{{Short description|Wife of King David in the Bible}}
{{About|the woman married to King David|more information on the name "Abigail"|Abigail (name)|other uses|Abigail (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Avigail|people with the given name "Avigail"|Avigail (name)}}
{{See also|Avigayil}}
[[File:Antonio Molinari David y Abigail.jpg|right|thumb|250px|''David and Abigail'' by [[Antonio Molinari (painter)|Antonio Molinari]]]]
[[File:Escalante-abigail.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Prudent Abigail'' by [[Juan Antonio de Frías y Escalante|Juan Antonio Escalante]]]]
[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 096.png|thumb|right|250px|''David and Abigail'', 1860 woodcut by [[Julius Schnorr von Karolsfeld]]]]
'''Abigail''' ({{hebrew Name|אֲבִיגַיִל|ʾAvīgayīl|ʾĂḇīḡayīl}}) was an Israelite woman in the [[Hebrew Bible]] married to [[Nabal]]; she married the future [[David|King David]] after Nabal's death ([[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]] {{Bibleref2-nb|1SAM|25|NIV}}).<ref name=EB>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Dale H. |editor-last=Hoiberg |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Abigail |edition=15th |year=2010 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. |volume=I: A-ak Bayes |location=Chicago, IL |isbn=978-1-59339-837-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/32 32] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/newencyclopaedia2009ency/page/32 }}</ref> Abigail was David's third wife, after [[Ahinoam]] and [[Saul]]'s daughter, [[Michal]], whom Saul later married to [[Palti, son of Laish]], when David went into hiding.

Abigail became the mother of one of David's sons, who is listed in the [[Book of Chronicles]] under the name ''[[Daniel (son of David)|Daniel]]'', in the [[Masoretic Text]] of the Books of Samuel as ''Chileab,''<ref>{{bibleverse|2|Samuel|3:3|}}</ref> and in the [[Septuagint]] text of 2 Samuel 3:3 as Δαλουια, ''Dalouia''.<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/bib/sep/sa2003.htm 2 Samuel 3], LXX</ref> Her name is spelled '''Abigal''' in {{Bibleref2|2Samuel|17:25|ASV|2 Samuel 17:25}} in the [[American Standard Version]].

== Name ==
Derived from the Hebrew word ''ab,'' "father", and the Hebrew root ''g-y-l'', "to rejoice," the name Abigail has a variety of possible meanings including "my father's joy" and "source of joy".<ref>"my father's joy", "my father rejoices", "my father is joy" (or similar); from either the verbal root ''g-y-l'' "to rejoice" directly, or from the root noun ''gil'' "rejoicing, joy". See: [[Adele Berlin]] in: [[Carol L. Meyers]], Toni Craven, Ross Shepard Kraemer (eds.), ''Women in Scripture: A Dictionary of Named and Unnamed Women in the Hebrew Bible, the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical Books, and the New Testament'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, 2000, [https://books.google.com/books?id=MFbHT73BxpAC&pg=PA43 p. 43]</ref>

==Biblical narrative==
In 1 Samuel 25, [[Nabal]] demonstrates ingratitude towards David, the son of [[Jesse (biblical figure)|Jesse]] (from the tribe of Judah), and Abigail attempts to placate David, in order to stop the future King from taking revenge. She gives him food, and speaks to him, urging him not to "have on his conscience the staggering burden of needless bloodshed" (verse 31, NIV) and reminding him that [[God]] will make him a "[[Davidic line|lasting dynasty]]" (verse 28). [[Jon Levenson]] calls this an "undeniable [[wikt:adumbration|adumbration]]" of [[Nathan (prophet)|Nathan]]'s prophecy in [[Covenant (biblical)#Davidic covenant|2 Samuel 7]].<ref name=Levenson>[[Jon D. Levenson]], "1 Samuel 25 as Literature and History," ''[[Catholic Biblical Quarterly|CBQ]]'' 40 [1978] 20.</ref> [[Alice Bach]] notes that Abigail pronounces a "crucial prophecy,"<ref>[[Alice Bach]], "[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1945&C=1780 The Pleasure of Her Text] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629050426/http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1945&C=1780 |date=2011-06-29 }}," ''[[Union Seminary Quarterly Review]]'' 43 [1989] 44.</ref> and the [[Talmud]] regards her as one of the [[Tanakh]]'s seven female prophets.<ref>[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Megilah.pdf 14a] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124155511/http://halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Megilah.pdf |date=2010-11-24 }}</ref> Levenson, however, suggests that she "senses the drift of history" from intelligence rather than from special revelation.<ref name=Levenson />

After Abigail reveals to Nabal what she has done, "God struck Nabal and he died" (v. 38), after which David married her. Abigail is described as intelligent and beautiful. The [[Talmud]] amplifies this idea, mentioning her as being one of the "four women of surpassing beauty in the world" (the other three being [[Rahab]], [[Sarah]], and [[Esther]]). Being married to the wealthy Nabal, she is also a woman of high socioeconomic status. Whether David married her because he was attracted to her, or as an astute political move, or both is unclear.<ref name=Berlin>{{cite web |url=http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/abigail-bible |last=Berlin |first=Adele |title=Abigail: Bible|publisher=Jewish Women's Archive}}</ref>

Abigail and David's second wife, Ahinoam the Jezreelite, accompany David and his war band as they seek refuge in Philistine territory. While David and his men are encamped near Jezreel, the women are captured by Amalekites who raided the town of [[Ziklag]] and carried off the women and children. David led the pursuit, and they were subsequently rescued. Both wives then settle with David in Hebron, where Abigail gives birth to David's second son, Chileab (also called Daniel).<ref name=Berlin/>

Abigail is also listed as one of the seven Jewish women prophets, the other six being [[Miriam]], [[Deborah]], [[Hannah (biblical figure)|Hannah]], [[Sarah]], [[Huldah]], and [[Esther]].<ref>[[Megillah (Talmud)|Megillah]] [http://www.halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Megilah.pdf 15a] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124155511/http://halakhah.com/pdf/moed/Megilah.pdf |date=2010-11-24 }}</ref> In terms of her moral character, [[Abraham Kuyper]] argues that Abigail's conduct indicates "a most appealing character and unwavering faith,"<ref>[[Abraham Kuyper]], ''Women of the Old Testament'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1941), 106.</ref> but Alice Bach regards her as subversive.<ref>Alice Bach, "[http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1945&C=1780 The Pleasure of Her Text] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629050426/http://www.religion-online.org/showchapter.asp?title=1945&C=1780 |date=2011-06-29 }}", ''Union Seminary Quarterly Review'' 43 [1989] 41.</ref>

Adele Berlin contrasts the story of Abigail with that of Bathsheba. In one, the wife prevents David from murdering her foolish and greedy husband. In the second, David orders the death of a good man because he desires his wife. "In the Abigail story, David, the potential king, is seen as increasingly strong and virtuous, whereas in the Bathsheba story, the reigning monarch shows his flaws ever more overtly and begins to lose control of his family."<ref name=Berlin/>

[[Jon D. Levenson|Levenson]] and [[Halpern]] suggest that Abigail may, in fact, also be the same person as [[Abigail (mother of Amasa)|Abigail, mother of Amasa]].<ref>[[Jon D. Levenson]] and [[Baruch Halpern]], "The Political Import of David's Marriages," ''[[Journal of Biblical Literature|JBL]]'' 99 [1980] 511–512.</ref> [[Richard M. Davidson]], however, points out that "on the basis of the final form of Old Testament canon, references to Abigail in the biblical accounts indicate two different individuals."<ref>{{cite book|last=Davidson|first=Richard M.|author-link=Richard M. Davidson|title=Flame of Yahweh: A Theology of Sexuality in the Old Testament|year=2007|publisher=Hendrickson|page=444}}</ref>

==Generic use==
Abigail's self-styling as a ''[[handmaid]]''<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Samuel|25:25|}} and following</ref> led to ''Abigail'' being a traditional term for a waiting-woman, for example as the ''waiting [[gentlewoman]]'' in [[Beaumont and Fletcher]]'s ''[[The Scornful Lady]]'', published in 1616.<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Abigail|volume=1|page=62}}</ref> [[Jonathan Swift]], [[Tobias Smollett]], and [[Henry Fielding]] use ''Abigail'' in this generic sense, as does [[Charlotte Brontë]]. Scott, in The Abbot frequently refers to Lilias, Lady Avenel's maid as an “Abigail.” [[Anthony Trollope]] makes two references to ''the abigail'' (all lower case) in ''[[The Eustace Diamonds]]'', at the beginning of Chapter 42, whilst [[Thomas Mann]] makes the same reference at the start of the second chapter of Part 2 in [[Buddenbrooks]] (published in 1901). [[William Rose Benet]] notes the notoriety of [[Abigail Hill]], better known as "Mrs Masham", a [[lady-in-waiting]] to [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Queen Anne]].<ref>''The Reader's Encyclopedia'', 1948, ''s.v.'' "Abigail".</ref> [[George MacDonald Fraser]] makes mention of "an ''abigail'' fussing about the room" in his novel ''[[Flashman (novel)|Flashman]]'' from ''[[The Flashman Papers]]'' series.

==In art==
Abigail, and especially her meeting with David, was a common subject of European artwork in the [[Renaissance]] and post-Renaissance period. Artists depicting her, or them, include [[Antonio Molinari (painter)|Antonio Molinari]], [[Juan Antonio Escalante]], and [[Peter Paul Rubens]].

Abigail is a featured figure on [[Judy Chicago]]'s installation piece ''[[The Dinner Party]]'', being represented in one of the 999 tiles of the ''[[List of women in the Heritage Floor|Heritage Floor]].''<ref name="AbigailBM">{{cite web | year=2007 | title=Abigail | work=Elizabeth A. Sackler Center for Feminist Art: The Dinner Party: Heritage Floor: Abigail | publisher=[[Brooklyn Museum]] | url=http://www.brooklynmuseum.org/eascfa/dinner_party/heritage_floor/abigail.php | access-date=13 December 2011}}</ref><ref name="C69">Chicago, 69.</ref>

== Citations ==
{{Reflist}}

== General and cited references ==
* Chicago, Judy. ''The Dinner Party: From Creation to Preservation''. London: Merrell (2007). {{ISBN|1-85894-370-1}}.
* {{cite Q|Q115281287|editor1=Henry Gardiner Adams}}

== External links ==
* {{commons category-inline|Abigail (Biblical figure)}}

{{Prophets of the Tanakh}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Abigail}}
[[Category:10th-century BC people]]
[[Category:10th-century BC women]]
[[Category:11th-century BC people]]
[[Category:11th-century BC women]]
[[Category:Christian royal saints]]
[[Category:Christian saints from the Old Testament]]
[[Category:Christian saints in unknown century]]
[[Category:Eastern Orthodox royal saints]]
[[Category:Books of Samuel people]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic royal saints]]
[[Category:Wives of David]]
[[Category:Women in the Hebrew Bible]]
[[Category:Nonviolence advocates]]

Zamość uprising

2024-11-12T05:16:25Z

Szturnek: added Category:Uprisings of Poland using HotCat

{{Short description|Resistance operation during the Nazi occupation of Poland}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict =
| width =
| partof = [[Polish resistance movement in World War II]]
| image = General Government for the occupied Polish territories (1941).png
| image_size =
| caption = [[Zamość]] region in [[Lublin District]] (brown, upper centre)
| date = 1942 – 1944
| place = [[Zamość]] region ([[Lublin District]], [[General Government]])
| territory =
| result = Polish victory
| status =
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
* [[Ukrainian Auxiliary Police]]
* [[File:Dyvizia Galychyna-rukav.svg|19px]] [[14th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS (1st Galician)|Galicia Division]]
{{flagicon image|Flag of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army.svg}} [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]]
| combatant2 = {{flagdeco|POL|1928}} [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Polish resistance:]]
* {{flagicon|Polish Underground State}} [[Home Army]]
* {{flagicon image|Banner of the Farmer Battalions (Stronnictwo Ludowe Roch).svg}} [[Bataliony Chłopskie|Peasants' Battalions]]
* {{flagicon image|Socialist red flag.svg}} [[People's Guard (1942–1944)|People's Guard]]
'''Supported by:'''
{{flagicon|Soviet Union|1936}} [[Soviet partisans]]
| commander1 =
| commander2 = * Stanisław Basaj
* Jerzy Mara-Meÿer
* Konrad Bartoszewski
* Franciszek Krakiewicz
* Franciszek Bartłomowicz
* Grzegorz Korczyński
* Antoni Paleń
* Umer Achmołła Atamanow
* Wasyl Wołodin
*Ignatius Zytkowski
| units1 =
| units2 =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| notes =
| campaignbox =
}}

The '''Zamość uprising''' comprised [[World War II]] [[Partisan (military)|partisan]] operations, 1942–1944, by the [[Polish resistance in World War II|Polish resistance]] (primarily the [[Home Army]] and [[Bataliony Chłopskie|Peasant Battalions]]) against Germany's ''[[Generalplan Ost|Generalplan-Ost]]'' forced [[Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany|expulsion of Poles]] from the [[Zamość]] region (''Zamojszczyzna'') and the region's [[Settler colonization|colonization]] by German settlers.<ref name="JPop182"/>

The Polish defense of the Zamość region was one of [[Polish resistance movement in World War II|Poland's largest resistance operations of World War II]]. <ref name="JPop182"/><ref name="AK-PWN">[http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3871190 Armia Krajowa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512221344/http://encyklopedia.pwn.pl/haslo.php?id=3871190 |date=2014-05-12 }} at [[Internetowa encyklopedia PWN|Encyklopedia PWN]]. Last accessed on 14 March 2008. {{in lang|pl}}</ref>

==German atrocities==
{{Main article|Ethnic cleansing of Zamojszczyzna by Nazi Germany}}
[[File:Wysiedlanie-Zamojszczyzna.jpg|thumb|left|[[Expulsion of Poles by Nazi Germany|Expulsion of Poles]] from villages in [[Zamość]] region by [[SS]], December 1942]]

In 1942, as part of ''[[Generalplan Ost]]'', the [[Zamość]] region, with its fertile black soil, in the [[General Government]], was chosen for further German colonisation.<ref name="dc">[http://www.deathcamps.org/occupation/zamosc%20ghetto.html "Zamosc Ghetto"] at DeathCamps.org. Last retrieved on March 16, 2008</ref><ref name="JPop110-110">Joseph Poprzeczny, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=2arPruq8lhIC Odilo Globocnik, Hitler's Man in the East]'', McFarland, 2004, {{ISBN|0-7864-1625-4}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=gjOO6ui8SIkC&q=Zamosc&pg=PA110 pp. 110–111.]</ref> In fact the Zamość region expulsions and colonization can be considered the beginning of the large-scale implementation of the Generalplan Ost.<ref name="JPop181">Poprzeczny 2004, p. 181.</ref> The city itself was to be renamed "Himmlerstadt" ([[Himmler]] City), later changed to Pflugstadt (Plow City), which was to symbolise the German "plow" that was to "plow the East".<ref name="dc"/> The German occupiers had planned the relocation of at least 60,000 ethnic Germans to the area before the end of 1943. An initial "test trial" [[Population transfer|expulsion]] was performed in November 1941, and the whole operation ended in anti-partisan [[Pacification operations in German-occupied Poland|pacification]] operations combined with expulsions in June–July 1943 which were codenamed ''Wehrwolf'' Action I and II.

Over 110,000 Polish people from approximately 300 villages [[Expulsion of Poles by Germany|were expelled]] to make room for German (and to a lesser extent, Ukrainian) settlers as part of Nazi plans for establishment of German colonies in the conquered territories ([[Generalplan Ost]]).<ref name="dc"/><ref name="JPop181"/><ref name="Davies">[[Norman Davies]], ''God's Playground: A History of Poland'', Columbia University Press, 2005, [https://archive.org/details/godsplaygroundhi00norm_0/page/338  Google Print, p.338]</ref><ref name="Piotrowski22">[[Tadeusz Piotrowski (sociologist)|Tadeusz Piotrowski]], ''Poland's Holocaust'', McFarland & Company, 1997, {{ISBN|0-7864-0371-3}}. [https://archive.org/details/polandsholocaust00piot/page/22  Google Print, p.22]</ref> In the [[Warsaw]] or [[Lublin]] area some villagers were ''resettled'', but about 50,000 of those expelled were sent as [[forced labor in Nazi Germany|forced labour to Germany]] while others were sent to the [[Nazi concentration camps]] never to return.<ref name="dc"/> Some villages were simply razed and the inhabitants murdered.<ref name="dc"/><ref name="JPop110-110"/>

4,454 Polish [[Kidnapping of children for forced Germanization by Nazi Germany|children were kidnapped]] by German authorities from their parents for potential [[Germanisation]].<ref name="JPop182"/><ref name="dc"/><ref name="Piotrowski22"/><ref name="Ipnb">Zygmunt Mańkowski; Tadeusz Pieronek; [[Andrzej Friszke]]; [[Thomas Urban]] (panel discussion), "[http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=545B236E-A0B9-4357-A242-38B4AE779D0F Polacy wypędzeni] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018123652/http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=545B236E-A0B9-4357-A242-38B4AE779D0F |date=2015-10-18 }}", Biuletyn IPN, nr5 (40) May 2004 / Bulletin of the [[Institute of National Remembrance]] (Biuletyn Instytutu Pamięci Narodowej), issue: 05 /
2004, pages: 628</ref><ref name="Lukas">
Lukas, Richard C. ''Did the Children Cry? Hitler's War against Jewish and Polish Children, 1939–1945''. Hippocrene Books, New York, 2001</ref> Only 800 of them were found and sent back to Poland after World War II.

==Polish resistance==
{{details|Polish resistance in World War II}}

[[File:Biłgoraj - pomnik AK.jpg|thumb|Monument to Polish [[Home Army]] insurgents, [[Biłgoraj]]]]
Local people resisted the action with great determination;<ref name="dc"/> they escaped into forests, organised self-defence, helped people who were expelled, and bribed kidnapped children out of German hands.<ref name="JPop182">Poprzeczny 2004, p. 182.</ref> Units of Polish resistance (primarily of [[Armia Krajowa]] and [[Bataliony Chłopskie]]) as well as elements of [[Soviet partisans]] and the Soviet-created [[Gwardia Ludowa]] helped to evacuate Polish civilians and assaulted German colonists and forces in the region.<ref name="JPop142">Poprzeczny 2004, p. 142.</ref> In December 1942 one of the first large partisan battles of World War II occurred in the region. The resistance forces numbered several thousand forest fighters. The first phase of the resistance took place from December 1942 to February 1943; the Germans then lessened their activities for a few months but counter-attacked in June, with major anti-partisan actions and terror directed against the civilian population (''Aktion Wehrwolf'').<ref name="JPop190"/>

After several battles between the partisans and the German units (the most notable being the battles of [[Bliżów|Wojda]], [[Róża, Lublin Voivodeship|Róża]], [[Zaboreczno]], [[Długi Kąt, Lublin Voivodeship|Długi Kąt]], [[Stara Huta, Zamość County|Lasowce]] and [[Hrubieszów]] as well as the [[Battle of Osuchy]]),<ref name="JPop190">Poprzeczny 2004, p. 190.</ref> the Germans had to halt the action and in the end very few German settlers were brought to the area.<ref>[[Włodzimierz Borodziej]], ''The Warsaw Uprising of 1944'', [[University of Wisconsin Press]], 2005, {{ISBN|0-299-20730-7}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=YHO0F65ifDIC&dq=%22Zamosc%22+resistance+-wikipedia&pg=PA41 Google Print, p. 41]</ref> Until the middle of 1943, the Germans managed to settle 9,000 colonists, and an additional 4,000 until the end of 1943. The increasing harassment from the partisans meant that the Germans began to lose the control of the region in the spring of 1943.<ref name="JPop190"/>
[[File:Pomnik AK zamosc.JPG|thumb|[[Home Army]] monument, [[Zamość]]]]

In the first half of 1944, Polish civilians and the Polish resistance were also attacked by Ukrainian units of the [[Ukrainian Insurgent Army]] (see [[massacres of Poles in Volhynia]]). Nonetheless, by the summer of 1944 the Polish partisans, based in the large forests of the region, had taken control of most of the countryside, limiting German control to the major towns.<ref name="JPop190"/> In the summer of 1944 Germans again initiated major anti-partisan operations ([[Operation Sturmwind I|Sturmwind I]] and [[Operation Sturmwind II|Sturmwind II]]) which resulted in the [[battle of Osuchy]] (one of the largest battles between the Polish resistance and Nazi Germany), with the insurgents sustaining heavy casualties.<ref>Martin Gilbert, ''Second World War A Complete History'', Holt Paperbacks, 2004, {{ISBN|0-8050-7623-9}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=xxdTZE2zREMC&q=osuchy&pg=RA4-PA542 Google Print, p. 542]</ref> However, soon afterwards, in July, the remaining Polish units took part in the nationwide [[Operation Tempest]] and managed to liberate several towns and villages in the Zamość region. The Germans, pressured by the advancing [[Red Army]], were forced to abandon the region.

==Remembrance==
Several monuments, museums and cemeteries have been raised in the area over time. In the [[People's Republic of Poland]] the actions of the Soviet-sponsored and created [[Gwardia Ludowa]] and [[Armia Ludowa]] entities were emphasized at the expense of those of the other resistance. A recent Polish documentary dedicated to the uprising has been recognized in the New York Festivals of 2008 with a bronze medal.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stopklatka.pl/wydarzenia/wydarzenie.asp?wi=42288&strona= |title=Internetowy Serwis Filmowy - Film Kino DVD Wideo Program tv Repertuar kin Konkursy - Dobra Strona Filmu |publisher=Stopklatka.pl |access-date=2013-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.roztocze.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1283&Itemid=94 |title=Brązowe "Powstanie" - Roztocze - od Kraśnika po Lwów |publisher=Roztocze |date=2007-10-15 |access-date=2013-02-08}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.film.gildia.pl/newsy/archiwum/2008/02/tvp-medal-ny |title=TVP na medal - film.gildia.pl - film, newsy, recenzje |publisher=film.gildia.pl |access-date=2013-02-08}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany]]
* [[Ethnic cleansing of Zamojszczyzna by Nazi Germany]]
* [[Operation Tannenberg]]
*[[Pacifications of villages in German-occupied Poland]]
*[[Nazi crimes against the Polish nation]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|25em}}

==References==
* {{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2arPruq8lhIC | title=Odilo Globocnik, Hitler's Man in the East | publisher=McFarland | author=Joseph Poprzeczny | year=2004 | isbn=0786481463}}
* Joseph Poprzeczny, [https://books.google.com/books?id=gjOO6ui8SIkC&q=Globocnik's+order&pg=PA179 German order, dated 22 November 1943, for the ethnic cleansing of the Zamosc Lands] issued by [[Odilo Globocnik]], in ''Hitler's Man'' (2004).
* Andrzej Jerzy Krukowski, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070330055850/http://www.zsp4zamosc.edu.pl/inno/inno11.html Powstanie Zamojskie 1942–1943 (The Zamość Uprising)] at ZSP4Zamosc.edu.pl {{in lang|pl}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080312011425/http://www.dws.xip.pl/PW/pw40.html "Bitwa o Zamojszczyznę"] {{in lang|pl}}
* Zygmunt Puźniak, [https://archive.today/20130416102217/http://www.tygodnikzamojski.pl/tz.php?get=dzial,7475 POWSTANIE ZAMOJSKIE CZY JÓZEFOWSKIE?], Tygodnik Zamojski, 27 luty 2008. {{in lang|pl}}
* Janusz Gmitruk, ''Powstanie Zamojskie'', Muzeum Historii Polskiego Ruchu Ludowego, 2003, {{ISBN|83-87838-69-1}}
* Jan Grygiel, ''Związek Walki Zbrojnej i Armia Krajowa w Obwodzie Zamojskim 1939–1944'', Polskie Wydawnictwo Naukowe 1985
* ''Walki oddziałów ZWZ-AK i BCh Inspektoratu Zamojskiego w latach wojny 1939–1944'', Związek Żołnierzy Armii Krajowej Okręg Zamość 1990

{{Polish uprisings}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}
{{Armia Krajowa}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zamosc Uprising}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1944]]
[[Category:Military operations involving the Polish resistance during World War II]]
[[Category:Uprisings during World War II]]
[[Category:History of Zamość]]
[[Category:General Government]]
[[Category:Ukrainian Insurgent Army]]
[[Category:Uprisings of Poland]]

Sejny Uprising

2024-11-12T05:15:16Z

Szturnek: added Category:Uprisings of Poland using HotCat

{{Short description|Polish uprising against the Lithuanian authorities in August 1919}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Sejny Uprising
| image = Sejny 1919 rudnicki.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Lt. Adam Rudnicki, leader of the Sejny Uprising, and his colleagues. August 1919.
| place = [[Suwałki Region]]
| date = August 23 – September 7, 1919
| result = Polish victory
| territory = Lithuanians retreated behind the [[Foch Line]]; Poland secured Sejny
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Second Polish Republic|1919}} [[Polish Military Organization]] (PMO) {{flagicon|Second Polish Republic|1919}} 41st Infantry Regiment
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Lithuania|1918}} [[Lithuania]]n Sejny Command {{flagicon|Lithuania|1918}} 1st Reserve Battalion
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Second Polish Republic|1919}} Adam Rudnicki {{flagicon|Second Polish Republic|1919}} [[Mieczysław Mackiewicz]] {{flagicon|Second Polish Republic|1919}} [[Wacław Zawadzki]]{{KIA}}
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Lithuania|1918}} [[Kazys Ladiga]]
| strength1 = 900<ref name=BuchSt/>–1,200<ref name=Manc/> PMO volunteers 800 regular troops{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=276}}
| strength2 = 900 regular troops{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=276}} 300 volunteers{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=275}}
| casualties1 = 37 killed in action 70 wounded
| casualties2 =
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Polish–Lithuanian War}}
| partof = [[Polish–Lithuanian War]]
}}
{{Campaignbox Establishment of Second Polish Republic}}
The '''Sejny Uprising''' or '''Seinai Revolt''' ({{langx|pl|Powstanie sejneńskie}}, {{langx|lt|Seinų sukilimas}}) refers to a Polish uprising against the [[Lithuania]]n authorities in August 1919 in the ethnically mixed area surrounding the town of [[Sejny]] ({{langx|lt|Seinai}}). When German forces, which occupied the territory during [[World War I]], retreated from the area in May 1919, they turned over administration to the Lithuanians. Trying to prevent an armed conflict between Poland and Lithuania, the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] drew a demarcation line, known as the [[Foch Line]]. The line assigned much of the disputed [[Suwałki Region|Suwałki (Suvalkai) Region]] to Poland and required the [[Lithuanian Army]] to retreat. While the Lithuanians retreated from some areas, they refused to leave Sejny (Seinai), because of its major Lithuanian population.{{sfn|Senn|1975|p=158}} Polish irregular forces began the uprising on August 23, 1919, and soon received support from the regular [[Polish Army]]. After several military skirmishes, Polish forces secured Sejny and the Lithuanians retreated behind the Foch Line.

The uprising did not solve the larger border conflict between Poland and Lithuania over the ethnically mixed [[Suwałki Region]]. Both sides complained about each other's repressive measures.<ref name=BuchKr/> The conflict intensified in 1920, causing military skirmishes of the [[Polish–Lithuanian War]]. Sejny changed hands frequently until the [[Suwałki Agreement]] of October 1920, which left Sejny on the Polish side. The uprising undermined the plans of Polish leader [[Józef Piłsudski]] who was [[1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania|planning a coup d'état in Lithuania]] to replace the Lithuanian government with a pro-Polish cabinet which would agree to a union with Poland (the proposed [[Międzymorze]] federation). Because the Sejny Uprising had prompted the Lithuanian intelligence to intensify its investigations of Polish activities in Lithuania, they discovered plans for the coup and prevented it, arresting Polish sympathizers. These hostilities in Sejny further strained the [[Polish–Lithuanian relations]].

Eventually, Poland and Lithuania reached an agreement on a new border that left Sejny on the Polish side of the border. The Polish–Lithuanian border in the Suwałki Region has remained the same since then (with the exception of the [[World War II]] period).

==Background==
During the ages, the lands surrounding the town of [[Suwałki]] were part of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] until 1795. Sejny itself was property of [[Vilnius]]' [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] friars from 1603 until 1805. During the [[Third Partition of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] in 1795, the region became part of the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] as [[New East Prussia]] until 1807, from then until 1815, it was part of the [[Duchy of Warsaw]] which [[Napoleon]] had created. For a century after the conclusion of the [[Napoleonic Wars]], the town was in [[Congress Poland]], a part of the [[Russian Empire]].<ref name="Wsp" /><ref name="Sejnhist" />

During [[World War I]], the region was captured by the [[German Empire]], which intended to incorporate the area into its province of [[East Prussia]].<ref name=BuchSt/> After the German defeat, the victorious [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] was willing to assign the territory to either the newly independent Poland or Lithuania.<ref name=BuchSt/> The future of the region was discussed at the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference]] in January 1919.<ref name=Pisa/> The Germans, whose former [[Ober-Ost]] administration was preparing to evacuate, initially supported leaving the area to a Polish administration.<ref name=Manc/> However, as Poland was becoming an ally of [[France]], German support gradually shifted towards Lithuania.<ref name=Manc/> In July 1919, when the German troops began their slow retreat from the area, they delegated the administration to local Lithuanian authorities.{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=271}} Lithuanian officers and troops, who first arrived in the region in May,<ref name=Maka/> began to organize military units in the pre-war [[powiat of Sejny|Sejny county]].{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=271}}

According to Russian statistics from 1889, there were 57.8% Lithuanians, 19.1% Poles, and 3.5% Belarusians in the [[Suwałki Governorate]].<ref name=Senav/> It is generally agreed that Lithuanians formed the majority of the population in the northern Suwałki Governorate, while Poles were concentrated in the south. But Lithuanian and Polish historians and political scientists continued to disagree over the location of the line that separated the areas of Lithuanian and Polish majorities. Lithuanians claimed that Sejny and the surrounding area were inhabited primarily by the Lithuanians,<ref name=Maka/> while the Poles claimed exactly the opposite.{{sfn|Łossowski|1995|p=51}} The German census of 1916 showed that 51% of Sejny population was Lithuanian.{{sfn|Senn|1975|p=133}}

==Demarcation lines==
[[File:Border-Lithuania-Poland-1919-1939.svg|thumb|300px|right|Selected lines of demarcation between Lithuania and Poland in 1919–1939. Light green denotes the first line, drawn on June 18, 1919. The second, dark green line known as [[Foch Line]], was drawn on July 27.]]

In the [[aftermath of World War I]], the [[Conference of Ambassadors]] drew the first [[demarcation line]] between Poland and Lithuania on June 18, 1919. The line satisfied no one, and Polish troops continued to advance deeper into the Lithuanian-controlled territory.{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=254}} These attacks coincided with the signing of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] on June 28, which eliminated any danger from Germany.<ref name=Pisa/> Attempting to halt further hostilities, [[Marshal of France]] [[Ferdinand Foch]] proposed a new line, known as the [[Foch Line]], on July 18, 1919.{{sfn|Senn|1975|p=132}}

The Foch Line was negotiated with the Polish war mission, led by General [[Tadeusz Jordan-Rozwadowski]] in Paris, while Lithuanian representatives were not invited.<ref name=Maka/> The Foch Line had two major modifications compared to the June 18 line: first, the entire line was moved west to give extra protection to the strategic [[Warsaw – Saint Petersburg Railway]] and second, the [[Suwałki Region]], including the towns of Sejny, [[Suwałki]], [[Puńsk]], was assigned to Poland.{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|pp=254, 257}} Despite assurances at the time that the line was just a temporary measure to normalize the situation before full negotiations could take place, the southern Foch Line is the present-day [[Lithuania–Poland border]].<ref name=Maka/>{{sfn|Senn|1975|p=135}}

On July 26, the Foch Line was accepted by the [[Conference of Ambassadors]] as the provisional border between the two states.<ref name=Manc/> Lithuanians were not informed about this decision until August 3.{{sfn|Senn|1975|p=134}} Neither country was satisfied: both Lithuanian and Polish forces would have to retreat from the Suwałki and Vilnius regions, respectively.{{sfn|Łossowski|1995|p=51}} Those Germans still present in the region also objected to the boundary of the line.<ref name=Loss/> The Lithuanian forces (about 350 strong){{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=272}} left the town of Suwałki by August 7, but stopped in Sejny and formed a line at the [[Czarna Hańcza]] river – [[Wigry Lake]], thus effectively violating the demarcation line.<ref name=BuchSt/> Lithuanians believed that the Foch Line was not the final decision, and that they had the duty to protect Lithuanian outposts in the region.<ref name=Maka/>

==Uprising preparations==
On August 12, 1919, two days after the Germans retreated from Sejny,{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=273}} a Polish meeting in the town attracted over 100 delegates from neighboring Polish communities; the meeting passed a resolution that "only securing the area by Polish Army can solve the problem."<ref name=BuchSt/><ref name=Manc/> The Sejny branch of the [[Polish Military Organization]] (PMO), led by Polish regular army officers Adam Rudnicki and Wacław Zawadzki, began preparing for the uprising on August 16.<ref name=BuchSt/> PMO members and local militia volunteers numbered some 900<ref name=BuchSt/> or 1,200 men (sources vary).<ref name=Manc/> The uprising was scheduled for the night of August 22 to 23, 1919.<ref name=Manc/> The date was chosen to coincide with the withdrawal of German troops from the town of Suwałki.<ref name=BuchSt/> The Poles hoped to capture the territory up to the Foch Line and advance further to take control of the towns of [[Seirijai]], [[Lazdijai]], [[Kapčiamiestis]] as far as [[Simnas]].<ref name=Manc/>{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=274}}

According to the Polish historian [[Tadeusz Mańczuk]], Piłsudski – who was [[1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania|planning a coup d'état]] in [[Kaunas]] – discouraged the local PMO activists from carrying out the Sejny Uprising.<ref name=Manc/> Piłsudski reasoned that any hostilities could leave Lithuanians even more opposed to the proposed union with Poland (see [[Międzymorze]]). The local PMO disregarded his recommendations and launched the uprising. While locally successful, it led to the failure of the nationwide coup.<ref name=Manc/><ref name=Pisa/>

On August 17, a Lithuanian counter-demonstration was staged. Its participants read aloud a recently issued recruiting proclamation of the Lithuanian volunteer army: "Citizens! Our nation is in danger! To arms! We shall leave not a single occupant on our lands!"<ref name=BuchSt/>{{sfn|Łossowski|1995|p=67}} On August 20, [[Prime Minister of Lithuania]] [[Mykolas Sleževičius]] visited Sejny and called on Lithuanians to defend their lands "to the end, however they can, with axes, pitchforks and scythes".<ref name=BuchSt/>{{sfn|Łossowski|1995|p=67}} According to Lesčius, at the time the Lithuanian command in Sejny had only 260 infantry and 70 cavalry personnel, stretched along the long line of defense. There were only 10 Lithuanian guards and 20 clerical staff in the town itself.{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=273}} Mańczuk and Buchowski note that the Polish insurgents estimated the Lithuanian forces at 1,200 infantry (Mańczuk also adds an estimate of 120 cavalry), including a 400-strong garrison in Sejny.<ref name=BuchSt/><ref name=Manc/>

==Military skirmishes==
According to the Lithuanian historian Lesčius, the first Polish assault of about 300 PMO members on August 22 was repelled,{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=274}} but the next day Lithuanians were forced to retreat towards [[Lazdijai]]. Over 100 Lithuanians were imprisoned in Sejny when their commander Bardauskas sided with the Poles.{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|pp=274–275}} The Polish insurgents also attacked Lazdijai and Kapčiamiestis,<ref name=BuchSt/> towns on the Lithuanian side of the Foch Line.

In early morning of August 25, Lithuanians counterattacked and recaptured Sejny. Polish sources claim that Lithuanians there were aided by a company of Germans volunteers,<ref name=BuchSt/><ref name=Manc/><ref name=Wsp/><ref name=Sejnhist/> but Lithuanian sources assert that it was an excuse used by Rudnicki to explain his defeat.<ref name=Maka/> The Lithuanian forces recovered some important documents and property, freed Lithuanian prisoners{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=275}} and, according to Mańczuk, executed several of the PMO fighters they found wounded.<ref name=Manc/>

On the evening of August 25, the first regular unit (41st Infantry Regiment) of the Polish Army received an order to advance towards Sejny.<ref name=Manc/> The Lithuanian forces retreated on the same day when they learned about the approaching Polish reinforcements.{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=275}} According to Mańczuk, they based their retreat on an erroneous report about a "large Polish cavalry unit" operating to their rear; only small groups of Polish partisans operated there.<ref name=Manc/> Later the next day, during the afternoon of August 26, the PMO forces in Sejny were joined by the 41st Infantry Regiment.<ref name=Manc/>

On August 26, a large anti-Polish protest took place in [[Lazdijai]], with cries to march on Sejny.{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=275}} The last Lithuanian attempt to retake the town was made on August 28. The Lithuanians (about 650 men) were defeated by the combined forces of the Polish Army (800 men) and PMO volunteers (500 men).{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=275–276}} On August 27, the Poles officially demanded that Lithuanians retreat behind the Foch Line. On September 1, Rudnicki announced incorporation of PMO volunteers into the 41st Infantry Regiment.<ref name=Manc/> During the negotiations on September 5, representatives of the two groups agreed to settle on a detailed demarcation line; Lithuanians agreed to retreat by September 7.{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=277}} The Polish regular army units did not cross the Foch Line, and refused to aid the PMO insurgents still operating on the Lithuanian side.<ref name=Manc/>

Polish sources give total Polish casualties for the Sejny Uprising as 37 killed in action and 70 wounded.<ref name=BuchSt/><ref name=Manc/>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Sejny Parada.jpg|thumb|right|Polish cavalry parade in Sejny]]
After the uprising, Poland repressed Lithuanian cultural life in Sejny. Lithuanian schools in Sejny (which had some 300 pupils) and surrounding villages were closed.<ref name=Maka/> The local Lithuanian clergy were evicted, and the [[Sejny Priest Seminary]] relocated.<ref name=BuchKr/> According to the Lithuanians, the repressions were even more far-reaching, including a ban on public use of the [[Lithuanian language]] and the closing of Lithuanian organizations, which had a total of 1,300 members.<ref name=Maka/>{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=278}} ''[[The New York Times]]'', reporting on renewed hostilities a year later, described the 1919 Sejny events as a violent occupation by the Poles, in which the Lithuanian inhabitants, teachers, and religious ministers were maltreated and expelled.<ref name=NYT/> Polish historian Łossowski notes that both sides mistreated the civilian population and exaggerated reports to gain internal and foreign support.{{sfn|Łossowski|1995|p=66}}

The uprising contributed to the deterioration of the [[Polish–Lithuanian relations]] and further discouraged the Lithuanians from joining the proposed [[Międzymorze]] federation.<ref name=Manc/><ref name=Pisa/>{{sfn|Łossowski|1995|p=68}} The Sejny Uprising doomed the Polish plan to [[1919 Polish coup d'état attempt in Lithuania|overthrow the Lithuanian government in a coup d'état]].<ref name=Manc/><ref name=Pisa/> After the uprising, the Lithuanian police and intelligence intensified their investigation of Polish sympathizers and soon uncovered the planned coup. They made mass arrests of Polish activists from August 27 to the end of September 1919. During the investigations, lists of PMO supporters were found; law enforcement completely suppressed the organisation in Lithuania.{{sfn|Lesčius|2004|p=270}}

Hostilities over the Suwałki Region resumed in summer 1920. When the Polish Army began to retreat during the course of the [[Polish–Soviet War]], the Lithuanians moved to secure what they claimed to be their new borders, set by the [[Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty]] of July 1920.<ref name=Senn/> The Peace Treaty granted Sejny and surrounding area to Lithuania. Poland did not recognize this bilateral treaty. Ensuing tensions heightened until the outbreak of the [[Polish–Lithuanian War]]. Sejny changed hands frequently until it was controlled by Polish forces on September 22, 1920.<ref name=BuchKr/> The situation was legalized by the [[Suwałki Agreement]] of October 7, 1920, which effectively returned the town to the Polish side of the border.{{sfn|Łossowski|1995|pp=166–175}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|refs=

<ref name=BuchKr>{{cite journal|first=Krzysztof |last=Buchowski |author-link=Krzysztof Buchowski |url=http://www.lkma.lt/annuals/23annual_en.html |title=Polish-Lithuanian Relations in Seinai Region at the Turn of the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries |journal=The Chronicle of Lithuanian Catholic Academy of Sciences|issue=XXIII |volume=2 |year=2003 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070927015825/http://www.lkma.lt/annuals/23annual_en.html |archive-date = 2007-09-27}}</ref>

<ref name=BuchSt>{{cite web | first=Stanisław | last=Buchowski | title=Powstanie Sejneńskie 23–28 sierpnia 1919 roku | publisher=Gimnazjum Nr. 1 w Sejnach | url=http://www.g1.powiat.sejny.pl/strony/buchowski.htm | access-date=2007-09-27 | language=pl | archive-date=2008-06-10 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610050258/http://www.g1.powiat.sejny.pl/strony/buchowski.htm | url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=Loss>{{cite book | first=Piotr |last=Łossowski |title =Stosunki polsko-litewskie w latach 1918–1920 |year=1966 | publisher =Książka i Wiedza |location=Warsaw |oclc=9200888 |page=51|language=pl}}</ref>

<ref name=Maka>{{cite journal | last = Makauskas | first = Bronius | title = Pietinės Sūduvos lietuviai už šiaudinės administracinės linijos ir geležinės sienos (1920–1991 m.) | journal = [[Voruta (newspaper)|Voruta]] |volume=27–30 |issue=405–408 |date=1999-08-13 | url = http://www.voruta.lt/pietines-suduvos-lietuviai-uz-siaudines-administracines-linijos-ir-gelezines-sienos-1920%E2%80%931991-m/ | issn=1392-0677|language=lt}}</ref>

<ref name=Manc>{{cite journal|first=Tadeusz |last=Mańczuk |year=2001 |title=Z Orłem przeciw Pogoni. Powstanie sejneńskie 1919 |journal=[[Mówią Wieki]] |url=http://www.mowiawieki.pl/artykul.html?id_artykul=860 |access-date=2007-09-27 |language=pl |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071223034311/http://www.mowiawieki.pl/artykul.html?id_artykul=860 |archive-date=December 23, 2007 }}</ref>

<ref name=NYT>{{cite journal| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1920/09/06/109799019.pdf |title=Poles Attacked By Lithuanians |first=Walter |last=Duranty |journal=[[The New York Times]] |date=1920-09-06 }}</ref>

<ref name=Pisa>{{cite web| first=Katarzyna |last=Pisarska |url=http://www.www.dawna-suwalszczyzna.com.pl/phpbb3/viewtopic.php?f=31&t=349 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120313135500/http://www.www.dawna-suwalszczyzna.com.pl/phpbb3/viewtopic.php?f=31&t=349 |archive-date=2012-03-13 | url-status=dead |title=Stosunki Polsko–Litewskie w latach 1926–1927 |access-date=2007-09-27|language=pl}}</ref>

<ref name=Sejnhist>{{cite web |url=http://www.sejny.home.pl/historia |title=Historia |publisher=Urząd Miasta Sejny |access-date=2008-11-09 |language=pl |archive-date=2008-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211201112/http://www.sejny.home.pl/historia |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=Senav>{{cite journal| title=Tautos budimas ir blaivybės sąjūdis| journal=Istorija| year=1999| first=Ieva| last=Šenavičienė| volume=40| page=3| issn=1392-0456| url=http://archyvas.istorijoszurnalas.lt/images/stories/Istorija_40/Istorija40.pdf| language=lt| access-date=2019-10-05| archive-date=2021-08-14| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814130015/http://archyvas.istorijoszurnalas.lt/images/stories/Istorija_40/Istorija40.pdf| url-status=dead}}</ref>

<ref name=Senn>{{cite book |first=Alfred Erich |last=Senn |title=The Great Powers: Lithuania and the Vilna Question, 1920–1928 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=180UAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA37 |publisher=Brill Archive |year=1966 |series=Studies in East European history |page=37 |lccn=67086623 }}</ref>

<ref name=Wsp>{{cite web| url=http://www.wspolnota-polska.org.pl/index.php?id=h23081919 |title=Powstanie Sejneńskie 1919 |publisher=[[Association "Polish Community"]] |access-date=2008-11-09|language=pl}}</ref>
}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last = Lesčius | first = Vytautas | title = Lietuvos kariuomenė nepriklausomybės kovose 1918–1920 | publisher = [[Vilnius University]], [[General Jonas Žemaitis Military Academy of Lithuania]] | year = 2004 | location = Vilnius | isbn = 9955-423-23-4 | url = http://www.lka.lt/download/7665/lietuvos_kariuomene_1.pdf | language = lt | access-date = 2019-12-27 | archive-date = 2015-01-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150102043921/http://www.lka.lt/download/7665/lietuvos_kariuomene_1.pdf | url-status = dead }}
* {{cite book| first=Piotr |last=Łossowski |author-link=Piotr Łossowski |title=Konflikt polsko-litewski 1918-1920 |publisher= Książka i Wiedza |location=Warszawa |year=1995 |isbn=83-05-12769-9 |language=pl }}
* {{cite book| first=Alfred Erich |last=Senn | title=The Emergence of Modern Lithuania |publisher=Greenwood Press |orig-year=1959 |year=1975 |isbn=0-8371-7780-4 }}
{{refend}}

{{Polish uprisings}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}

[[Category:Polish–Lithuanian War|Sejny 1919]]
[[Category:Rebellions in the Second Polish Republic]]
[[Category:Revolutions of 1917–1923]]
[[Category:Suwałki]]
[[Category:Uprisings of Poland]]

Września children strike

2024-11-12T05:13:50Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Rebellions in Poland using HotCat (It wasn't a rebelion - it was a strike)

{{Short description|1901–1904 Polish civil rights protests}}
[[File:Wrzesnia.jpg|thumb|Children from Września participated in the school strike in response to the banning of the Polish language.]]
The '''Września school strike''', or '''Września children strike''', refers to the 1901–1904 protests in [[Września]] of Polish children and their parents against [[Germanisation]] of the schools.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thefirstnews.com/article/the-children-who-were-flogged-to-within-an-inch-of-their-lives-for-refusing-to-pray-in-german-22062 |title=The children who were flogged to within an inch of their lives for refusing to pray in German |access-date=20 May 2021}}</ref>

==Background==
{{details|Germanisation of Poles during the Partitions}}

In all of [[Greater Poland]], which was annexed by Germany during the late-18th-century [[partitions of Poland]], German was the language of instruction in schools from 1873 except in two subjects: religion and music.<ref name="Dabrowski2004">{{cite book|author=Patrice M. Dabrowski|title=Commemorations and the Shaping of Modern Poland|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ICQkdR7TZxcC&pg=PA160|date=21 September 2004|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-11028-9|page=160}}</ref>

In March 1901, the German administration ordered the religion classes to switch to German.<ref name=muzwrz>{{cite web|url=http://www.muzeum.wrzesnia.pl/index.php?show=strajk|title=Witamy w serwisie: Muzeum Regionalne im. Dzieci Wrzesińskich we Wrześni - www.muzeum.wrzesnia.pl - Zapraszamy!|publisher=|accessdate=18 March 2015}}</ref>

==Strike==
In April, a number of students (one source gives the number at 118<ref name="Trochimczyk2009">{{cite book|author=Maja Trochimczyk|title=A Romantic Century in Polish Music|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9D2sAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA96|date=9 December 2009|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=978-0-9819693-3-6|page=96}}</ref>) in the Catholic People's School in Września (''Katolicka Szkoła Ludowa we Wrześni''), attended by about 650 pupils, refused to accept new German textbooks and to participate in the class activities. The teachers responded with [[school detention|detention]] and [[school corporal punishment|corporal punishment]].<ref name=muzwrz/> Over the coming weeks, the students' parents became increasingly vocal in protesting the punishment of their children. On 20 May, a group of 100 to 200 people were protesting in front of the school until they were dispersed by police, who were called for by the school.<ref name=muzwrz/> The German administration threatened the students of not being allowed to finish school. Adults involved in the protests were put on trial for public disturbance, preventing the officials from carrying out their duties, trespassing, and similar crimes, and 26 people were officially charged, and on 19 November 1901, 20 individuals were sentenced to imprisonment from several weeks to over two years.<ref name="Dabrowski2004"/><ref name=muzwrz/>

Polish activists formed two committees to support families whose members were imprisoned. The German administration soon disbanded the committees and, in turn, charged the activists.<ref name=muzwrz/>

Despite the trials, the protests continued. Some parents moved their children to other schools, and the school officials constructed barracks, where the protesting children were isolated.<ref name=muzwrz/> Use of the Polish language was banned on the school grounds, and police were in charge of enforcing student attendance.<ref name=muzwrz/>

After an amnesty for children was declared in 1903, the number of children still refusing to take the German religion lessons diminished. The last striking children gave up by the summer of 1904.<ref name=muzwrz/>

==Aftermath==
The strike gained international attention.<ref name="Dabrowski2004"/><ref name="Lewis2007"/> In late 1901, the Polish composer [[Ignacy Paderewski]] declared that proceeds from his concert in Germany would be given to the Września activists. He was booed and boycotted by German audiences. As a result, he refused to perform in Germany.<ref name="Ther2014">{{cite book|author=Philipp Ther|title=Center Stage: Operatic Culture and Nation Building in Nineteenth-Century Central Europe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tz9TAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73|year=2014|publisher=Purdue University Press|isbn=978-1-55753-675-4|page=73}}</ref> The cause was taken up by other Polish cultural figures, such as writers [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]] and [[Maria Konopnicka]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sdw.icpnet.pl/historia.html|title=Oglnopolski Konkurs Internetowy - Historia Strajku Dzieci Wrzesiskich|publisher=|accessdate=18 March 2015}}</ref>

The Września strike inspired another large strike of Polish students in 1907.<ref name="Lewis2007">{{cite book|author=Barbara A. Lewis|title=The Teen Guide to Global Action: How to Connect with Others (Near & Far) to Create Social Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf6AFjSfIGAC&pg=PA18|date=15 December 2007|publisher=Free Spirit Publishing|isbn=978-1-57542-856-7|page=18}}</ref>

The issue was documented in what has been described as the oldest Polish film, ''[[Prussian Culture]]'', made in 1908 by [[Mojżesz Towbin]].<ref name="Trochimczyk2009"/> Another movie about the events, ''[[Wizja lokalna, 1901]]'', was made in 1981 by [[Filip Bajon]].<ref name="Haltof2015">{{cite book|author=[[Marek Haltof]]|title=Historical Dictionary of Polish Cinema|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wReMBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20|date=30 January 2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-4472-6|page=20}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{cite book|author=John J. Kulczycki|title=School Strikes in Prussian Poland, 1901-1907: The Struggle Over Bilingual Education|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mQCcAAAAMAAJ|year=1981|publisher=Boulder [Colo.] : East European Monographs; New York|isbn=978-0-914710-76-9}}
* Stanisław A. Blejwas, [http://www.wbc.poznan.pl/dlibra/plain-content?id=24779 American Polonia and the School Strike in Września],
* {{in lang|pl}} L. Kostrzewski, "Przebieg strajku szkolnego we Wrześni w 1901 roku", w: Strajk szkolny we Wrześni w 1901 r., Września 2001
* {{in lang|pl}} Monika Warneńska, Ulica dzieci wrzesińskich. Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, 1983.
* {{in lang|pl}} Strajk dzieci wrzesińskich z perspektywy wieku, opracowanie zbiorowe pod redakcją Stanisława Sierpowskiego. Bogucki Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Poznań, Września 2001.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wrzesnia children strike}}
[[Category:1901 in Poland]]
[[Category:1902 in Poland]]
[[Category:1903 in Poland]]
[[Category:1904 in Poland]]
[[Category:1901 in Germany]]
[[Category:1902 in Germany]]
[[Category:1903 in Germany]]
[[Category:1904 in Germany]]
[[Category:1900s in Prussia]]
[[Category:Student strikes]]
[[Category:Province of Posen]]
[[Category:Germany–Poland relations]]
[[Category:Września]]
[[Category:Colonisation of Partitioned Poland]]
[[Category:Germanization]]
[[Category:1901 labor disputes and strikes]]
[[Category:1902 labor disputes and strikes]]
[[Category:1903 labor disputes and strikes]]
[[Category:1904 labor disputes and strikes]]

1956 Poznań protests

2024-11-12T05:09:58Z

Szturnek: /* External links */ It was;t a uprising

{{Short description|Protest against communist Polish government}}
{{use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict = Poznań June
|partof = the [[Cold War]]
|image = Poznan 1956.jpg
|image_size = 275
|caption = The sign reads "We demand bread!"
|date = {{start and end dates|1956|06|28|1956|06|30|df=y}}
|place = [[Poznań]], [[Polish People's Republic]]
|result = Protests suppressed
|combatant1 = Protesters
|combatant2 = {{ubl|[[Polish People's Army]]|[[Internal Security Corps]]|[[Służba Bezpieczeństwa]]}}
|strength1 = 100,000<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa"/>
|strength2 = {{ubl|10,000|390 tanks<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa"/>}}
|casualties1 = {{ubl|57–100 killed|600 wounded<ref name="Z perspektywy"/>}}
|casualties2 = 8 killed<ref name="Paczkowski"/>
}}

The '''1956 Poznań protests''', also known as '''Poznań June''' ({{langx|pl|Poznański Czerwiec}}), were the first of several massive protests against the communist government of the [[Polish People's Republic]]. Demonstrations by workers demanding better working conditions began on 28 June 1956 at [[Poznań]]'s [[Cegielski Factories]] and were met with violent repression.

A crowd of approximately 100,000 people gathered in the city centre near the local [[Ministry of Public Security (Poland)|Ministry of Public Security]] building. About 400 tanks and 10,000 soldiers of the [[Polish People's Army]] and the [[Internal Security Corps]] under the command of the Polish-Soviet general [[Stanislav Poplavsky]] were ordered to suppress the demonstration and during the pacification fired at the protesting civilians.

The death toll is estimated from 57<ref name="Paczkowski">[[Andrzej Paczkowski|Paczkowski, A.]] (2005). ''Pół wieku dziejów Polski''. {{in lang|pl}} Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe. {{ISBN|83-01-14487-4}}. p. 203.</ref> to over a hundred people,<ref name="Z perspektywy"/> including a 13-year-old boy, [[Romek Strzałkowski]]. Hundreds of people sustained injuries. The Poznań protests were an important milestone on the way to the [[Polish October]] and the installation of a less Soviet-controlled government.

== Background ==
After [[Joseph Stalin]]'s death, the process of [[de-Stalinization]] prompted debates on fundamental issues throughout the entire [[Eastern Bloc]]. [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s speech ''[[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences]]'' had wide implications both inside the [[Soviet Union]] and in other communist countries. In Poland, in addition to the criticism of the [[cult of personality]], popular topics of debate centered on the right to steer a more independent course of "local, national path[s] to socialism" instead of following the Soviet model down to every little detail; such views were shared by many [[Polish United Workers' Party]] members in the discussion and critique of Stalin's execution of older Polish communists from the [[Communist Party of Poland]] during the [[Great Purge]].<ref name="city_background">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&instance=1017&parent=0&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Reasons for the outbreak] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref> The death of Poland's hardline Communist leader [[Bolesław Bierut]] on 12 March 1956—allegedly from shock at the content of the Secret Speech—gave further fuel to the movement for change.

[[Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1989)|Anti-communist resistance in Poland]] was also bolstered, and a group of opposition leaders and cultural figures founded the [[Crooked Circle Club]] ({{langx|pl|Klub Krzywego Koła}}) in Warsaw. It promoted discussions about Polish independence, questioned the efficiency of the [[state controlled economy]], and government disdain and even persecution of World War II veterans of [[Polish Armed Forces in the West]] and [[Armia Krajowa]]. While the intelligentsia expressed their dissatisfaction with discussions and publications (''[[bibuła]]''), workers took to the streets. The living conditions in Poland did not improve, contrary to government propaganda, and workers increasingly found that they had little power compared to bureaucracy of the Party (''[[nomenklatura]]'').<ref name="city_background"/>

The city of Poznań was one of the largest urban and industrial centers of the [[Polish People's Republic]]. Tensions were growing there, particularly since autumn of 1955. Workers in the largest factory in the city, the [[H. Cegielski - Poznań S.A.|Joseph Stalin Metal Industries]], were complaining about higher taxes for the most productive workers (''[[udarnik]]''), which affected several thousands of workers. Local directors were unable to make any significant decisions due to [[micromanagement]] by the higher officials; over several months, petitions, letters and delegations were sent to the Polish Ministry of Machine Industry and the Central Committee of Polish United Workers' Party, to no avail.<ref name="city_background"/>

Finally, a delegation of about 27 workers was sent to Warsaw around 23 June. On the night of 26 June, the delegation returned to Poznań, confident that some of their demands had been considered in a favourable light. However, the next morning, the Minister of Machine Industry met with the workers and withdrew several promises that their delegation had been given in Warsaw.<ref name="city_background"/>

== Strikes ==
{{Eastern Bloc sidebar}}
On 28 June 1956, a spontaneous strike started at 6:30 a.m. at the multifactory complex of the [[H. Cegielski - Poznań S.A.|Joseph Stalin Metal Industries]] (ZiSPO).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kemp-Welch |first=Tony |date=2006 |title=Dethroning Stalin: Poland 1956 and its legacy |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668130600996523 |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |language=en |volume=58 |issue=8 |pages=1261–1284 |doi=10.1080/09668130600996523 |issn=0966-8136}}</ref> Around 80% of its workers, most of whom had lost bonus pay in June as the government suddenly raised the required work quota, took to the streets demanding pay compensation and some concessions of freedom, marching towards the city centre. Workers at other plants, as well as institutions and students, joined the procession.<ref name="city_thursday">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3060&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Black Thursday – course of events] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

Between 9 and 11 a.m., about 100,000 people gathered on the [[Adam Mickiewicz]] Square in front of the [[Imperial Castle in Poznań]], surrounded by buildings occupied by the city and Party authorities and police headquarters. The demonstrators demanded lower [[food prices]], wage increases and the revocation of some recent changes in the law that had eroded workers' conditions. They further requested a visit from [[Polish Prime Minister]] [[Józef Cyrankiewicz]], as the local government declared that they had no authority to solve the workers' problems. Some police officers also joined the crowd.<ref name="city_thursday"/>

After 10 a.m., the situation rapidly deteriorated, with rumours spreading that members of the negotiating delegation had been arrested. The local units of the regular police ([[Milicja Obywatelska]]) were unable to contain the crowd and the situation turned into a violent uprising as the crowds stormed the prison at Młyńska Street, where members of the delegation were believed to have been imprisoned; hundreds of prisoners were released around 10:50 am. At 11:30 am, the arms depot at the prison building was seized and the firearms distributed among the demonstrators.<ref name="city_thursday"/>

[[File:Poznan1956002.jpg|thumb|left|Poznań 1956, [[Jan Kochanowski|Kochanowskiego]] Street; transporting one of the victims]]
The crowd ransacked the Communist Party's local headquarters and then, at around 11 a.m., attacked the office of the [[Ministry of Public Security (Poland)|Ministry of Public Security]] on Kochanowskiego Street, but were repulsed when the first shots were fired from its windows into the crowd. From then until 6:00 pm, they seized or besieged many government buildings and institutions in and around Poznań, including the district courthouse and the prosecutor's office, the [[radio jamming]] station on Dąbrowskiego Street, and police stations in [[Junikowo]], [[Poznań-Wilda|Wilda]], [[Swarzędz]], [[Puszczykowo]] and [[Mosina]]. The prison camp in Mrowino and the military school at the [[Poznań University of Technology]] were seized and weapons taken. The police documents at the local police station, procuratorate and courthouse were destroyed.<ref name="city_thursday"/>

In the meantime, at about 11:00 am, 16 tanks, 2 armored personnel carriers and 30 other vehicles were sent from the Officers' School of Armored and Mechanized Formations, a Poznań garrison, to protect the designated buildings, but no shots were exchanged between them and the insurgents. These soldiers engaged in friendly conversation with the protesters; some reports state that two tanks were seized and some troops disarmed.<ref name="Przebieg_wydarzen"/> [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]], the Soviet general, and [[Ministry of National Defence (Poland)|Poland's Defence Minister]], then decided to take personal control, and the situation changed dramatically.<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa">{{in lang|pl}} Waldemar Lewandowski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3450279.html Poznańska bitwa pancerna]'' Gazeta Wyborcza, 29 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref><ref name="Przebieg_wydarzen">{{in lang|pl}} Piotr Bojarski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3448628.html Przebieg wydarzeń podczas czarnego czwartku]'' Gazeta Wyborcza, 28 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref><ref name="Sowieccy_generalowie">{{in lang|pl}} Waldemar Lewandowski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3450305.html Sowieccy generałowie w polskich mundurach]'' [[Gazeta Wyborcza]], 29 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref><ref name="Jak_wojsko">{{in lang|pl}} Waldemar Lewandowski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3448625.html Jak wojsko pacyfikowało powstanie]'' Gazeta Wyborcza, 28 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref>

[[File:Poznan1956001.jpg|thumb|Tanks on the empty [[Joseph Stalin]] Square in the center of Poznań]]
Rokossovsky sent his deputy, the Polish-Soviet general [[Stanislav Poplavsky]], and a group of lower Soviet officers, with orders to put down the protest in a manner consistent with Russian standards, intending to end the demonstrations as soon as possible to prevent an occurrence similar to the [[uprising of 1953 in East Germany]], when a similar protest, not quelled in time, spread to many other regions. The Russian officers arrived at 2 p.m. at [[Ławica Airport]] and took command. Poplavsky did not bother to use local regulars from Poznań garrisons, instead taking other troops from [[Silesian Military District]] and recalling special troops from the [[Biedrusko]] military base north of Poznań. The troops were told that the protesters were led and organized by "German provocateurs", who were attempting to darken Poland's image during the ongoing [[Poznań International Fair]].<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa"/><ref name="Przebieg_wydarzen"/><ref name="Sowieccy_generalowie"/><ref name="Jak_wojsko"/>

Between 4 p.m. and 5 a.m. the following day, troops from the [[Polish 10th Armored Division]], [[Polish 19th Armored Division]], [[Polish 4th Infantry Division]] and [[Polish 5th Infantry Division]], totaling 10,300, and the [[Internal Security Corps]], under the command of Poplavsky, entered Poznań. A two-hour long procession of tanks, armored cars, field guns, and lorries full of troops went through the city and surrounded it. At 9 p.m., a wave of detentions began. The detainees were taken to [[Ławica Airport]], where they were subjected to brutal interrogation; 746 persons were detained until 8 August. The protests continued until 30 June, when the troops finally pacified the city, after exchanging fire with some of the more violent demonstrators. At 7:30 a.m. on 29 June the Prime Minister arrived and infamously declared on the local radio station that "any provocateur or lunatic who raises his hand against the people's government may be sure that this hand will be chopped off."<ref name="city_thursday"/><ref name="Cyr_quote">[http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/44-5-224.shtml Radio Free Europe Background Reports] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404041146/http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/44-5-224.shtml |date=2008-04-04 }}: 1976-12-2</ref>

There are varying estimates of casualties. The historian Łukasz Jastrząb from the [[Institute of National Remembrance]] (IPN) estimates casualties at 57 dead and about 600 wounded (including eight on the side of the government), noting that larger estimates, such as that by IPN scholar, [[Stanisław Jankowiak]], who places the figure at slightly over 100, are not fully supported by available data.<ref name="Z perspektywy">{{in lang|pl}} [http://www.tnpolonia.com/poznan56.html ''"Z perspektywy historyka i w świetle dokumentów…"''] – interview with dr Łukasz Jastrząb</ref> Estimates of a similar range, such as the "over 70 deaths", can be found in media reports.<ref name="WV"/>

== Aftermath ==
[[File:Poznan1956004.jpg|thumb|Trial of "the Nine" after riots June 1956]]
About 250 people were arrested in the first few days, including 196 workers;<ref name="Paczkowski"/> several hundred others were arrested in the following weeks.<ref name="city_thursday"/> Stanisław Hejmowski, the lawyer who defended them, faced repressions by the government for his statement that the government's actions had led to the death of innocent civilians. The government failed in its attempts to coerce the detainees into stating that they were provoked by foreign (Western) secret services; nonetheless, this became the official line of the government for years to come.<ref name="city_trials">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3782&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Investigation] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

[[File:Poznan1956003.jpg|thumb|left|Funeral of one of the victims in June 1956]]
Soon the ideologues realized that they had lost the support of the Soviet Union, and the regime turned to conciliation by announced wage rises and other reforms. Realizing the need for a change in leadership, the Polish communists chose a new leader, [[Władysław Gomułka]], who was considered a moderate; this transition is known as [[Polish October]] (or "Gomułka Thaw"). In spite of this, the communist authorities censored all information on the Poznań events for a quarter of a century.<ref name="city_rememberance_monument">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3744&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Forbidden remembrance] and [http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?id=3043&ch=3744&p=3746&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56&rhs=publications The monument] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

Historians were denied source materials for research, and censorship was effective in eliminating any mention of the events of June 1956 from publicly available sources. Persecution of the most active participants would be carried out for many years. The memory of the events was preserved by the participants and members of opposition. After the [[Gdańsk Agreement]] in 1980, the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement, as one of its first actions decided to raise a monument in memory of the Poznań June 1956 events.<ref name="city_rememberance_monument"/>

Many historians consider the Poznań 1956 protests to be an important milestone in [[history of Poland (1945–1989)|modern history of Poland]], and one of the events that precipitated the [[fall of communism in Poland]]. Nonetheless, the protests of 1956 were not motivated by clearly anti-communist ideology; the workers' demands were mostly of an economic nature, centering around better work conditions rather than any other clearly articulated political objectives. The workers sang "[[The Internationale]]" and their banners read "We demand bread." It was the government's consistent failure to fulfil the first demand which eventually led to the demands for political change, but even during the [[history of Solidarity]] few demanded wide political reforms.<ref name="WV">[http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/11464/ Hot June '56] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721101200/http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/11464/ |date=21 July 2008 }} [[Warsaw Voice]] 31 May 2006. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref><ref name="Modzelewski">[http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php?article_id=9118 Interview with Karol Modzelewski, one of the leaders of the revolt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217034717/http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php?article_id=9118 |date=17 February 2012 }} Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

=== Commemoration ===
On 21 June 2006, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the events, the Polish parliament [[Sejm]] declared 28 June to be a [[Holidays in Poland|national holiday in Poland]]; the ''Day of Remembrance of the Poznań June 1956''.<ref name="uchwała">{{in lang|pl}} [http://bap-psp.lex.pl/serwis/mp/2006/0455.htm UCHWAŁA SEJMU RZECZYPOSPOLITEJ POLSKIEJ z dnia 21 czerwca 2006 r. w sprawie ustanowienia dnia 28 czerwca Narodowym Dniem Pamięci Poznańskiego Czerwca 1956] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724062335/http://bap-psp.lex.pl/serwis/mp/2006/0455.htm |date=2011-07-24 }}. Last accessed on 3 April 2007</ref>

== See also ==
* ''[[Poznań '56]]'', a 1996 film
* [[Plzeň uprising of 1953]], violent protest of workers in Czechoslovakia
* [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]]
* [[Polish 1970 protests]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* Curp, T. David. "The Revolution Betrayed? The Poznan Revolt and the Polish Road to Nationalist Socialism." ''The Polish Review'' 51.3/4 (2006): 307–324. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25779632 online]
* Kemp-Welch, Tony. "Dethroning Stalin: Poland 1956 and its legacy." ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 58.8 (2006): 1261–1284. [https://is.muni.cz/el/1490/podzim2015/CZS51/um/60378119/Poland_1956.pdf Online]
* Kramer, Mark. "The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises in Hungary and Poland: Reassessments and New Findings." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 33.2 (1998): 163–214.
* Machcewicz, Paweł. ''Rebellious Satellite: Poland, 1956'' (Stanford University Press, 2009)
* [[S.L. Shneiderman|Shneiderman, S.L.]] ''The Warsaw Heresy''. New York: Horizon Press, 1959.
* "Poznan Workers' Riots: Poland 1956" in Neil Schlager, ed. ''St. James encyclopedia of labor history worldwide'' (2 vol, 2004) 2:144–147.

===In Polish===
* {{in lang|pl}} Piotr Grzelczak, ''Poznański Czerwiec 1956. Walka o pamięć w latach 1956-1989'' [Poznań June 1956. Struggle for memory, 1956-1989], Poznań 2016
* {{in lang|pl}} Stanisław Jankowiak, Paweł Machcewicz, Agnieszka Rogulska, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070529101159/http://www.pbp.poznan.pl/arch/a87-iso.html ''"Zranione miasto : Poznań w czerwcu 1956 r."''], [[Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]], 2003
* {{in lang|pl}} Łukasz Jastrząb, "Rozstrzelano moje serce w Poznaniu. Poznański Czerwiec 1956 r. – straty osobowe i ich analiza", Wydawnictwo Comandor, Warszawa 2006, {{ISBN|83-7473-015-3}}
* {{in lang|pl}} Norbert Wójtowicz, ''Ofiary "Poznańskiego Czerwca"'', Rok 1956 na Węgrzech i w Polsce. Materiały z węgiersko–polskiego seminarium. Wrocław październik 1996, ed. [[Łukasz Andrzej Kamiński]], Wrocław 1996, p. 32–41.

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090714122039/http://1956.pl/Learn,the,Truth,in,HTML,version,163.html Poznań – Budapest – 1956] (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland)
* [http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3060&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Black Thursday – timeline of events] (City of Poznań)
* [http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1078 50 years since the Poznan uprising] (International Viewpoint online magazine)

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{{Poznań}}
{{Cold War}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Poznan protests of 1956}}
[[Category:1956 in Poland]]
[[Category:1956 protests]]
[[Category:1956 riots]]
[[Category:Anti-communism in Poland]]
[[Category:Cold War rebellions]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1956]]
[[Category:Eastern Bloc]]
[[Category:History of Poznań|1956 protests]]
[[Category:June 1956 events in Europe]]
[[Category:Massacres in Poland]]
[[Category:Mass murder in 1956]]
[[Category:Poland–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Protests in Poland]]
[[Category:Riots and civil disorder in Poland]]
[[Category:20th century in Poznań]]
[[Category:Dissident movement in the People's Republic of Poland]]

1956 Poznań protests

2024-11-12T04:55:14Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Urban warfare using HotCat (It wasn't a battle)

{{Short description|Protest against communist Polish government}}
{{use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict = Poznań June
|partof = the [[Cold War]]
|image = Poznan 1956.jpg
|image_size = 275
|caption = The sign reads "We demand bread!"
|date = {{start and end dates|1956|06|28|1956|06|30|df=y}}
|place = [[Poznań]], [[Polish People's Republic]]
|result = Protests suppressed
|combatant1 = Protesters
|combatant2 = {{ubl|[[Polish People's Army]]|[[Internal Security Corps]]|[[Służba Bezpieczeństwa]]}}
|strength1 = 100,000<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa"/>
|strength2 = {{ubl|10,000|390 tanks<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa"/>}}
|casualties1 = {{ubl|57–100 killed|600 wounded<ref name="Z perspektywy"/>}}
|casualties2 = 8 killed<ref name="Paczkowski"/>
}}

The '''1956 Poznań protests''', also known as '''Poznań June''' ({{langx|pl|Poznański Czerwiec}}), were the first of several massive protests against the communist government of the [[Polish People's Republic]]. Demonstrations by workers demanding better working conditions began on 28 June 1956 at [[Poznań]]'s [[Cegielski Factories]] and were met with violent repression.

A crowd of approximately 100,000 people gathered in the city centre near the local [[Ministry of Public Security (Poland)|Ministry of Public Security]] building. About 400 tanks and 10,000 soldiers of the [[Polish People's Army]] and the [[Internal Security Corps]] under the command of the Polish-Soviet general [[Stanislav Poplavsky]] were ordered to suppress the demonstration and during the pacification fired at the protesting civilians.

The death toll is estimated from 57<ref name="Paczkowski">[[Andrzej Paczkowski|Paczkowski, A.]] (2005). ''Pół wieku dziejów Polski''. {{in lang|pl}} Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe. {{ISBN|83-01-14487-4}}. p. 203.</ref> to over a hundred people,<ref name="Z perspektywy"/> including a 13-year-old boy, [[Romek Strzałkowski]]. Hundreds of people sustained injuries. The Poznań protests were an important milestone on the way to the [[Polish October]] and the installation of a less Soviet-controlled government.

== Background ==
After [[Joseph Stalin]]'s death, the process of [[de-Stalinization]] prompted debates on fundamental issues throughout the entire [[Eastern Bloc]]. [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s speech ''[[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences]]'' had wide implications both inside the [[Soviet Union]] and in other communist countries. In Poland, in addition to the criticism of the [[cult of personality]], popular topics of debate centered on the right to steer a more independent course of "local, national path[s] to socialism" instead of following the Soviet model down to every little detail; such views were shared by many [[Polish United Workers' Party]] members in the discussion and critique of Stalin's execution of older Polish communists from the [[Communist Party of Poland]] during the [[Great Purge]].<ref name="city_background">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&instance=1017&parent=0&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Reasons for the outbreak] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref> The death of Poland's hardline Communist leader [[Bolesław Bierut]] on 12 March 1956—allegedly from shock at the content of the Secret Speech—gave further fuel to the movement for change.

[[Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1989)|Anti-communist resistance in Poland]] was also bolstered, and a group of opposition leaders and cultural figures founded the [[Crooked Circle Club]] ({{langx|pl|Klub Krzywego Koła}}) in Warsaw. It promoted discussions about Polish independence, questioned the efficiency of the [[state controlled economy]], and government disdain and even persecution of World War II veterans of [[Polish Armed Forces in the West]] and [[Armia Krajowa]]. While the intelligentsia expressed their dissatisfaction with discussions and publications (''[[bibuła]]''), workers took to the streets. The living conditions in Poland did not improve, contrary to government propaganda, and workers increasingly found that they had little power compared to bureaucracy of the Party (''[[nomenklatura]]'').<ref name="city_background"/>

The city of Poznań was one of the largest urban and industrial centers of the [[Polish People's Republic]]. Tensions were growing there, particularly since autumn of 1955. Workers in the largest factory in the city, the [[H. Cegielski - Poznań S.A.|Joseph Stalin Metal Industries]], were complaining about higher taxes for the most productive workers (''[[udarnik]]''), which affected several thousands of workers. Local directors were unable to make any significant decisions due to [[micromanagement]] by the higher officials; over several months, petitions, letters and delegations were sent to the Polish Ministry of Machine Industry and the Central Committee of Polish United Workers' Party, to no avail.<ref name="city_background"/>

Finally, a delegation of about 27 workers was sent to Warsaw around 23 June. On the night of 26 June, the delegation returned to Poznań, confident that some of their demands had been considered in a favourable light. However, the next morning, the Minister of Machine Industry met with the workers and withdrew several promises that their delegation had been given in Warsaw.<ref name="city_background"/>

== Strikes ==
{{Eastern Bloc sidebar}}
On 28 June 1956, a spontaneous strike started at 6:30 a.m. at the multifactory complex of the [[H. Cegielski - Poznań S.A.|Joseph Stalin Metal Industries]] (ZiSPO).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kemp-Welch |first=Tony |date=2006 |title=Dethroning Stalin: Poland 1956 and its legacy |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668130600996523 |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |language=en |volume=58 |issue=8 |pages=1261–1284 |doi=10.1080/09668130600996523 |issn=0966-8136}}</ref> Around 80% of its workers, most of whom had lost bonus pay in June as the government suddenly raised the required work quota, took to the streets demanding pay compensation and some concessions of freedom, marching towards the city centre. Workers at other plants, as well as institutions and students, joined the procession.<ref name="city_thursday">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3060&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Black Thursday – course of events] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

Between 9 and 11 a.m., about 100,000 people gathered on the [[Adam Mickiewicz]] Square in front of the [[Imperial Castle in Poznań]], surrounded by buildings occupied by the city and Party authorities and police headquarters. The demonstrators demanded lower [[food prices]], wage increases and the revocation of some recent changes in the law that had eroded workers' conditions. They further requested a visit from [[Polish Prime Minister]] [[Józef Cyrankiewicz]], as the local government declared that they had no authority to solve the workers' problems. Some police officers also joined the crowd.<ref name="city_thursday"/>

After 10 a.m., the situation rapidly deteriorated, with rumours spreading that members of the negotiating delegation had been arrested. The local units of the regular police ([[Milicja Obywatelska]]) were unable to contain the crowd and the situation turned into a violent uprising as the crowds stormed the prison at Młyńska Street, where members of the delegation were believed to have been imprisoned; hundreds of prisoners were released around 10:50 am. At 11:30 am, the arms depot at the prison building was seized and the firearms distributed among the demonstrators.<ref name="city_thursday"/>

[[File:Poznan1956002.jpg|thumb|left|Poznań 1956, [[Jan Kochanowski|Kochanowskiego]] Street; transporting one of the victims]]
The crowd ransacked the Communist Party's local headquarters and then, at around 11 a.m., attacked the office of the [[Ministry of Public Security (Poland)|Ministry of Public Security]] on Kochanowskiego Street, but were repulsed when the first shots were fired from its windows into the crowd. From then until 6:00 pm, they seized or besieged many government buildings and institutions in and around Poznań, including the district courthouse and the prosecutor's office, the [[radio jamming]] station on Dąbrowskiego Street, and police stations in [[Junikowo]], [[Poznań-Wilda|Wilda]], [[Swarzędz]], [[Puszczykowo]] and [[Mosina]]. The prison camp in Mrowino and the military school at the [[Poznań University of Technology]] were seized and weapons taken. The police documents at the local police station, procuratorate and courthouse were destroyed.<ref name="city_thursday"/>

In the meantime, at about 11:00 am, 16 tanks, 2 armored personnel carriers and 30 other vehicles were sent from the Officers' School of Armored and Mechanized Formations, a Poznań garrison, to protect the designated buildings, but no shots were exchanged between them and the insurgents. These soldiers engaged in friendly conversation with the protesters; some reports state that two tanks were seized and some troops disarmed.<ref name="Przebieg_wydarzen"/> [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]], the Soviet general, and [[Ministry of National Defence (Poland)|Poland's Defence Minister]], then decided to take personal control, and the situation changed dramatically.<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa">{{in lang|pl}} Waldemar Lewandowski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3450279.html Poznańska bitwa pancerna]'' Gazeta Wyborcza, 29 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref><ref name="Przebieg_wydarzen">{{in lang|pl}} Piotr Bojarski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3448628.html Przebieg wydarzeń podczas czarnego czwartku]'' Gazeta Wyborcza, 28 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref><ref name="Sowieccy_generalowie">{{in lang|pl}} Waldemar Lewandowski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3450305.html Sowieccy generałowie w polskich mundurach]'' [[Gazeta Wyborcza]], 29 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref><ref name="Jak_wojsko">{{in lang|pl}} Waldemar Lewandowski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3448625.html Jak wojsko pacyfikowało powstanie]'' Gazeta Wyborcza, 28 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref>

[[File:Poznan1956001.jpg|thumb|Tanks on the empty [[Joseph Stalin]] Square in the center of Poznań]]
Rokossovsky sent his deputy, the Polish-Soviet general [[Stanislav Poplavsky]], and a group of lower Soviet officers, with orders to put down the protest in a manner consistent with Russian standards, intending to end the demonstrations as soon as possible to prevent an occurrence similar to the [[uprising of 1953 in East Germany]], when a similar protest, not quelled in time, spread to many other regions. The Russian officers arrived at 2 p.m. at [[Ławica Airport]] and took command. Poplavsky did not bother to use local regulars from Poznań garrisons, instead taking other troops from [[Silesian Military District]] and recalling special troops from the [[Biedrusko]] military base north of Poznań. The troops were told that the protesters were led and organized by "German provocateurs", who were attempting to darken Poland's image during the ongoing [[Poznań International Fair]].<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa"/><ref name="Przebieg_wydarzen"/><ref name="Sowieccy_generalowie"/><ref name="Jak_wojsko"/>

Between 4 p.m. and 5 a.m. the following day, troops from the [[Polish 10th Armored Division]], [[Polish 19th Armored Division]], [[Polish 4th Infantry Division]] and [[Polish 5th Infantry Division]], totaling 10,300, and the [[Internal Security Corps]], under the command of Poplavsky, entered Poznań. A two-hour long procession of tanks, armored cars, field guns, and lorries full of troops went through the city and surrounded it. At 9 p.m., a wave of detentions began. The detainees were taken to [[Ławica Airport]], where they were subjected to brutal interrogation; 746 persons were detained until 8 August. The protests continued until 30 June, when the troops finally pacified the city, after exchanging fire with some of the more violent demonstrators. At 7:30 a.m. on 29 June the Prime Minister arrived and infamously declared on the local radio station that "any provocateur or lunatic who raises his hand against the people's government may be sure that this hand will be chopped off."<ref name="city_thursday"/><ref name="Cyr_quote">[http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/44-5-224.shtml Radio Free Europe Background Reports] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404041146/http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/44-5-224.shtml |date=2008-04-04 }}: 1976-12-2</ref>

There are varying estimates of casualties. The historian Łukasz Jastrząb from the [[Institute of National Remembrance]] (IPN) estimates casualties at 57 dead and about 600 wounded (including eight on the side of the government), noting that larger estimates, such as that by IPN scholar, [[Stanisław Jankowiak]], who places the figure at slightly over 100, are not fully supported by available data.<ref name="Z perspektywy">{{in lang|pl}} [http://www.tnpolonia.com/poznan56.html ''"Z perspektywy historyka i w świetle dokumentów…"''] – interview with dr Łukasz Jastrząb</ref> Estimates of a similar range, such as the "over 70 deaths", can be found in media reports.<ref name="WV"/>

== Aftermath ==
[[File:Poznan1956004.jpg|thumb|Trial of "the Nine" after riots June 1956]]
About 250 people were arrested in the first few days, including 196 workers;<ref name="Paczkowski"/> several hundred others were arrested in the following weeks.<ref name="city_thursday"/> Stanisław Hejmowski, the lawyer who defended them, faced repressions by the government for his statement that the government's actions had led to the death of innocent civilians. The government failed in its attempts to coerce the detainees into stating that they were provoked by foreign (Western) secret services; nonetheless, this became the official line of the government for years to come.<ref name="city_trials">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3782&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Investigation] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

[[File:Poznan1956003.jpg|thumb|left|Funeral of one of the victims in June 1956]]
Soon the ideologues realized that they had lost the support of the Soviet Union, and the regime turned to conciliation by announced wage rises and other reforms. Realizing the need for a change in leadership, the Polish communists chose a new leader, [[Władysław Gomułka]], who was considered a moderate; this transition is known as [[Polish October]] (or "Gomułka Thaw"). In spite of this, the communist authorities censored all information on the Poznań events for a quarter of a century.<ref name="city_rememberance_monument">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3744&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Forbidden remembrance] and [http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?id=3043&ch=3744&p=3746&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56&rhs=publications The monument] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

Historians were denied source materials for research, and censorship was effective in eliminating any mention of the events of June 1956 from publicly available sources. Persecution of the most active participants would be carried out for many years. The memory of the events was preserved by the participants and members of opposition. After the [[Gdańsk Agreement]] in 1980, the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement, as one of its first actions decided to raise a monument in memory of the Poznań June 1956 events.<ref name="city_rememberance_monument"/>

Many historians consider the Poznań 1956 protests to be an important milestone in [[history of Poland (1945–1989)|modern history of Poland]], and one of the events that precipitated the [[fall of communism in Poland]]. Nonetheless, the protests of 1956 were not motivated by clearly anti-communist ideology; the workers' demands were mostly of an economic nature, centering around better work conditions rather than any other clearly articulated political objectives. The workers sang "[[The Internationale]]" and their banners read "We demand bread." It was the government's consistent failure to fulfil the first demand which eventually led to the demands for political change, but even during the [[history of Solidarity]] few demanded wide political reforms.<ref name="WV">[http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/11464/ Hot June '56] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721101200/http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/11464/ |date=21 July 2008 }} [[Warsaw Voice]] 31 May 2006. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref><ref name="Modzelewski">[http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php?article_id=9118 Interview with Karol Modzelewski, one of the leaders of the revolt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217034717/http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php?article_id=9118 |date=17 February 2012 }} Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

=== Commemoration ===
On 21 June 2006, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the events, the Polish parliament [[Sejm]] declared 28 June to be a [[Holidays in Poland|national holiday in Poland]]; the ''Day of Remembrance of the Poznań June 1956''.<ref name="uchwała">{{in lang|pl}} [http://bap-psp.lex.pl/serwis/mp/2006/0455.htm UCHWAŁA SEJMU RZECZYPOSPOLITEJ POLSKIEJ z dnia 21 czerwca 2006 r. w sprawie ustanowienia dnia 28 czerwca Narodowym Dniem Pamięci Poznańskiego Czerwca 1956] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724062335/http://bap-psp.lex.pl/serwis/mp/2006/0455.htm |date=2011-07-24 }}. Last accessed on 3 April 2007</ref>

== See also ==
* ''[[Poznań '56]]'', a 1996 film
* [[Plzeň uprising of 1953]], violent protest of workers in Czechoslovakia
* [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]]
* [[Polish 1970 protests]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* Curp, T. David. "The Revolution Betrayed? The Poznan Revolt and the Polish Road to Nationalist Socialism." ''The Polish Review'' 51.3/4 (2006): 307–324. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25779632 online]
* Kemp-Welch, Tony. "Dethroning Stalin: Poland 1956 and its legacy." ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 58.8 (2006): 1261–1284. [https://is.muni.cz/el/1490/podzim2015/CZS51/um/60378119/Poland_1956.pdf Online]
* Kramer, Mark. "The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises in Hungary and Poland: Reassessments and New Findings." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 33.2 (1998): 163–214.
* Machcewicz, Paweł. ''Rebellious Satellite: Poland, 1956'' (Stanford University Press, 2009)
* [[S.L. Shneiderman|Shneiderman, S.L.]] ''The Warsaw Heresy''. New York: Horizon Press, 1959.
* "Poznan Workers' Riots: Poland 1956" in Neil Schlager, ed. ''St. James encyclopedia of labor history worldwide'' (2 vol, 2004) 2:144–147.

===In Polish===
* {{in lang|pl}} Piotr Grzelczak, ''Poznański Czerwiec 1956. Walka o pamięć w latach 1956-1989'' [Poznań June 1956. Struggle for memory, 1956-1989], Poznań 2016
* {{in lang|pl}} Stanisław Jankowiak, Paweł Machcewicz, Agnieszka Rogulska, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070529101159/http://www.pbp.poznan.pl/arch/a87-iso.html ''"Zranione miasto : Poznań w czerwcu 1956 r."''], [[Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]], 2003
* {{in lang|pl}} Łukasz Jastrząb, "Rozstrzelano moje serce w Poznaniu. Poznański Czerwiec 1956 r. – straty osobowe i ich analiza", Wydawnictwo Comandor, Warszawa 2006, {{ISBN|83-7473-015-3}}
* {{in lang|pl}} Norbert Wójtowicz, ''Ofiary "Poznańskiego Czerwca"'', Rok 1956 na Węgrzech i w Polsce. Materiały z węgiersko–polskiego seminarium. Wrocław październik 1996, ed. [[Łukasz Andrzej Kamiński]], Wrocław 1996, p. 32–41.

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090714122039/http://1956.pl/Learn,the,Truth,in,HTML,version,163.html Poznań – Budapest – 1956] (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland)
* [http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3060&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Black Thursday – timeline of events] (City of Poznań)
* [http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1078 50 years since the Poznan uprising] (International Viewpoint online magazine)

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Poznan protests of 1956}}
[[Category:1956 in Poland]]
[[Category:1956 protests]]
[[Category:1956 riots]]
[[Category:Anti-communism in Poland]]
[[Category:Cold War rebellions]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1956]]
[[Category:Eastern Bloc]]
[[Category:History of Poznań|1956 protests]]
[[Category:June 1956 events in Europe]]
[[Category:Massacres in Poland]]
[[Category:Mass murder in 1956]]
[[Category:Poland–Soviet Union relations]]
[[Category:Protests in Poland]]
[[Category:Riots and civil disorder in Poland]]
[[Category:20th century in Poznań]]
[[Category:Dissident movement in the People's Republic of Poland]]

1956 Poznań protests

2024-11-12T04:54:20Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Rebellions in Poland using HotCat (It wasn't any rewolution or uprising - but very bloody demonstraton)

{{Short description|Protest against communist Polish government}}
{{use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict = Poznań June
|partof = the [[Cold War]]
|image = Poznan 1956.jpg
|image_size = 275
|caption = The sign reads "We demand bread!"
|date = {{start and end dates|1956|06|28|1956|06|30|df=y}}
|place = [[Poznań]], [[Polish People's Republic]]
|result = Protests suppressed
|combatant1 = Protesters
|combatant2 = {{ubl|[[Polish People's Army]]|[[Internal Security Corps]]|[[Służba Bezpieczeństwa]]}}
|strength1 = 100,000<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa"/>
|strength2 = {{ubl|10,000|390 tanks<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa"/>}}
|casualties1 = {{ubl|57–100 killed|600 wounded<ref name="Z perspektywy"/>}}
|casualties2 = 8 killed<ref name="Paczkowski"/>
}}

The '''1956 Poznań protests''', also known as '''Poznań June''' ({{langx|pl|Poznański Czerwiec}}), were the first of several massive protests against the communist government of the [[Polish People's Republic]]. Demonstrations by workers demanding better working conditions began on 28 June 1956 at [[Poznań]]'s [[Cegielski Factories]] and were met with violent repression.

A crowd of approximately 100,000 people gathered in the city centre near the local [[Ministry of Public Security (Poland)|Ministry of Public Security]] building. About 400 tanks and 10,000 soldiers of the [[Polish People's Army]] and the [[Internal Security Corps]] under the command of the Polish-Soviet general [[Stanislav Poplavsky]] were ordered to suppress the demonstration and during the pacification fired at the protesting civilians.

The death toll is estimated from 57<ref name="Paczkowski">[[Andrzej Paczkowski|Paczkowski, A.]] (2005). ''Pół wieku dziejów Polski''. {{in lang|pl}} Warsaw: Wydawnictwo Naukowe. {{ISBN|83-01-14487-4}}. p. 203.</ref> to over a hundred people,<ref name="Z perspektywy"/> including a 13-year-old boy, [[Romek Strzałkowski]]. Hundreds of people sustained injuries. The Poznań protests were an important milestone on the way to the [[Polish October]] and the installation of a less Soviet-controlled government.

== Background ==
After [[Joseph Stalin]]'s death, the process of [[de-Stalinization]] prompted debates on fundamental issues throughout the entire [[Eastern Bloc]]. [[Nikita Khrushchev]]'s speech ''[[On the Cult of Personality and Its Consequences]]'' had wide implications both inside the [[Soviet Union]] and in other communist countries. In Poland, in addition to the criticism of the [[cult of personality]], popular topics of debate centered on the right to steer a more independent course of "local, national path[s] to socialism" instead of following the Soviet model down to every little detail; such views were shared by many [[Polish United Workers' Party]] members in the discussion and critique of Stalin's execution of older Polish communists from the [[Communist Party of Poland]] during the [[Great Purge]].<ref name="city_background">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&instance=1017&parent=0&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Reasons for the outbreak] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref> The death of Poland's hardline Communist leader [[Bolesław Bierut]] on 12 March 1956—allegedly from shock at the content of the Secret Speech—gave further fuel to the movement for change.

[[Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1989)|Anti-communist resistance in Poland]] was also bolstered, and a group of opposition leaders and cultural figures founded the [[Crooked Circle Club]] ({{langx|pl|Klub Krzywego Koła}}) in Warsaw. It promoted discussions about Polish independence, questioned the efficiency of the [[state controlled economy]], and government disdain and even persecution of World War II veterans of [[Polish Armed Forces in the West]] and [[Armia Krajowa]]. While the intelligentsia expressed their dissatisfaction with discussions and publications (''[[bibuła]]''), workers took to the streets. The living conditions in Poland did not improve, contrary to government propaganda, and workers increasingly found that they had little power compared to bureaucracy of the Party (''[[nomenklatura]]'').<ref name="city_background"/>

The city of Poznań was one of the largest urban and industrial centers of the [[Polish People's Republic]]. Tensions were growing there, particularly since autumn of 1955. Workers in the largest factory in the city, the [[H. Cegielski - Poznań S.A.|Joseph Stalin Metal Industries]], were complaining about higher taxes for the most productive workers (''[[udarnik]]''), which affected several thousands of workers. Local directors were unable to make any significant decisions due to [[micromanagement]] by the higher officials; over several months, petitions, letters and delegations were sent to the Polish Ministry of Machine Industry and the Central Committee of Polish United Workers' Party, to no avail.<ref name="city_background"/>

Finally, a delegation of about 27 workers was sent to Warsaw around 23 June. On the night of 26 June, the delegation returned to Poznań, confident that some of their demands had been considered in a favourable light. However, the next morning, the Minister of Machine Industry met with the workers and withdrew several promises that their delegation had been given in Warsaw.<ref name="city_background"/>

== Strikes ==
{{Eastern Bloc sidebar}}
On 28 June 1956, a spontaneous strike started at 6:30 a.m. at the multifactory complex of the [[H. Cegielski - Poznań S.A.|Joseph Stalin Metal Industries]] (ZiSPO).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kemp-Welch |first=Tony |date=2006 |title=Dethroning Stalin: Poland 1956 and its legacy |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09668130600996523 |journal=Europe-Asia Studies |language=en |volume=58 |issue=8 |pages=1261–1284 |doi=10.1080/09668130600996523 |issn=0966-8136}}</ref> Around 80% of its workers, most of whom had lost bonus pay in June as the government suddenly raised the required work quota, took to the streets demanding pay compensation and some concessions of freedom, marching towards the city centre. Workers at other plants, as well as institutions and students, joined the procession.<ref name="city_thursday">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3060&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Black Thursday – course of events] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

Between 9 and 11 a.m., about 100,000 people gathered on the [[Adam Mickiewicz]] Square in front of the [[Imperial Castle in Poznań]], surrounded by buildings occupied by the city and Party authorities and police headquarters. The demonstrators demanded lower [[food prices]], wage increases and the revocation of some recent changes in the law that had eroded workers' conditions. They further requested a visit from [[Polish Prime Minister]] [[Józef Cyrankiewicz]], as the local government declared that they had no authority to solve the workers' problems. Some police officers also joined the crowd.<ref name="city_thursday"/>

After 10 a.m., the situation rapidly deteriorated, with rumours spreading that members of the negotiating delegation had been arrested. The local units of the regular police ([[Milicja Obywatelska]]) were unable to contain the crowd and the situation turned into a violent uprising as the crowds stormed the prison at Młyńska Street, where members of the delegation were believed to have been imprisoned; hundreds of prisoners were released around 10:50 am. At 11:30 am, the arms depot at the prison building was seized and the firearms distributed among the demonstrators.<ref name="city_thursday"/>

[[File:Poznan1956002.jpg|thumb|left|Poznań 1956, [[Jan Kochanowski|Kochanowskiego]] Street; transporting one of the victims]]
The crowd ransacked the Communist Party's local headquarters and then, at around 11 a.m., attacked the office of the [[Ministry of Public Security (Poland)|Ministry of Public Security]] on Kochanowskiego Street, but were repulsed when the first shots were fired from its windows into the crowd. From then until 6:00 pm, they seized or besieged many government buildings and institutions in and around Poznań, including the district courthouse and the prosecutor's office, the [[radio jamming]] station on Dąbrowskiego Street, and police stations in [[Junikowo]], [[Poznań-Wilda|Wilda]], [[Swarzędz]], [[Puszczykowo]] and [[Mosina]]. The prison camp in Mrowino and the military school at the [[Poznań University of Technology]] were seized and weapons taken. The police documents at the local police station, procuratorate and courthouse were destroyed.<ref name="city_thursday"/>

In the meantime, at about 11:00 am, 16 tanks, 2 armored personnel carriers and 30 other vehicles were sent from the Officers' School of Armored and Mechanized Formations, a Poznań garrison, to protect the designated buildings, but no shots were exchanged between them and the insurgents. These soldiers engaged in friendly conversation with the protesters; some reports state that two tanks were seized and some troops disarmed.<ref name="Przebieg_wydarzen"/> [[Konstantin Rokossovsky]], the Soviet general, and [[Ministry of National Defence (Poland)|Poland's Defence Minister]], then decided to take personal control, and the situation changed dramatically.<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa">{{in lang|pl}} Waldemar Lewandowski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3450279.html Poznańska bitwa pancerna]'' Gazeta Wyborcza, 29 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref><ref name="Przebieg_wydarzen">{{in lang|pl}} Piotr Bojarski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3448628.html Przebieg wydarzeń podczas czarnego czwartku]'' Gazeta Wyborcza, 28 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref><ref name="Sowieccy_generalowie">{{in lang|pl}} Waldemar Lewandowski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3450305.html Sowieccy generałowie w polskich mundurach]'' [[Gazeta Wyborcza]], 29 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref><ref name="Jak_wojsko">{{in lang|pl}} Waldemar Lewandowski, ''[http://miasta.gazeta.pl/poznan/1,36039,3448625.html Jak wojsko pacyfikowało powstanie]'' Gazeta Wyborcza, 28 June 2006. Last accessed on 10 August 2007</ref>

[[File:Poznan1956001.jpg|thumb|Tanks on the empty [[Joseph Stalin]] Square in the center of Poznań]]
Rokossovsky sent his deputy, the Polish-Soviet general [[Stanislav Poplavsky]], and a group of lower Soviet officers, with orders to put down the protest in a manner consistent with Russian standards, intending to end the demonstrations as soon as possible to prevent an occurrence similar to the [[uprising of 1953 in East Germany]], when a similar protest, not quelled in time, spread to many other regions. The Russian officers arrived at 2 p.m. at [[Ławica Airport]] and took command. Poplavsky did not bother to use local regulars from Poznań garrisons, instead taking other troops from [[Silesian Military District]] and recalling special troops from the [[Biedrusko]] military base north of Poznań. The troops were told that the protesters were led and organized by "German provocateurs", who were attempting to darken Poland's image during the ongoing [[Poznań International Fair]].<ref name="Poznanska_bitwa"/><ref name="Przebieg_wydarzen"/><ref name="Sowieccy_generalowie"/><ref name="Jak_wojsko"/>

Between 4 p.m. and 5 a.m. the following day, troops from the [[Polish 10th Armored Division]], [[Polish 19th Armored Division]], [[Polish 4th Infantry Division]] and [[Polish 5th Infantry Division]], totaling 10,300, and the [[Internal Security Corps]], under the command of Poplavsky, entered Poznań. A two-hour long procession of tanks, armored cars, field guns, and lorries full of troops went through the city and surrounded it. At 9 p.m., a wave of detentions began. The detainees were taken to [[Ławica Airport]], where they were subjected to brutal interrogation; 746 persons were detained until 8 August. The protests continued until 30 June, when the troops finally pacified the city, after exchanging fire with some of the more violent demonstrators. At 7:30 a.m. on 29 June the Prime Minister arrived and infamously declared on the local radio station that "any provocateur or lunatic who raises his hand against the people's government may be sure that this hand will be chopped off."<ref name="city_thursday"/><ref name="Cyr_quote">[http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/44-5-224.shtml Radio Free Europe Background Reports] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080404041146/http://files.osa.ceu.hu/holdings/300/8/3/text/44-5-224.shtml |date=2008-04-04 }}: 1976-12-2</ref>

There are varying estimates of casualties. The historian Łukasz Jastrząb from the [[Institute of National Remembrance]] (IPN) estimates casualties at 57 dead and about 600 wounded (including eight on the side of the government), noting that larger estimates, such as that by IPN scholar, [[Stanisław Jankowiak]], who places the figure at slightly over 100, are not fully supported by available data.<ref name="Z perspektywy">{{in lang|pl}} [http://www.tnpolonia.com/poznan56.html ''"Z perspektywy historyka i w świetle dokumentów…"''] – interview with dr Łukasz Jastrząb</ref> Estimates of a similar range, such as the "over 70 deaths", can be found in media reports.<ref name="WV"/>

== Aftermath ==
[[File:Poznan1956004.jpg|thumb|Trial of "the Nine" after riots June 1956]]
About 250 people were arrested in the first few days, including 196 workers;<ref name="Paczkowski"/> several hundred others were arrested in the following weeks.<ref name="city_thursday"/> Stanisław Hejmowski, the lawyer who defended them, faced repressions by the government for his statement that the government's actions had led to the death of innocent civilians. The government failed in its attempts to coerce the detainees into stating that they were provoked by foreign (Western) secret services; nonetheless, this became the official line of the government for years to come.<ref name="city_trials">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3782&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Investigation] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

[[File:Poznan1956003.jpg|thumb|left|Funeral of one of the victims in June 1956]]
Soon the ideologues realized that they had lost the support of the Soviet Union, and the regime turned to conciliation by announced wage rises and other reforms. Realizing the need for a change in leadership, the Polish communists chose a new leader, [[Władysław Gomułka]], who was considered a moderate; this transition is known as [[Polish October]] (or "Gomułka Thaw"). In spite of this, the communist authorities censored all information on the Poznań events for a quarter of a century.<ref name="city_rememberance_monument">[http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3744&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Forbidden remembrance] and [http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?id=3043&ch=3744&p=3746&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56&rhs=publications The monument] from the official city of Poznań website dedicated to 1956 events. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

Historians were denied source materials for research, and censorship was effective in eliminating any mention of the events of June 1956 from publicly available sources. Persecution of the most active participants would be carried out for many years. The memory of the events was preserved by the participants and members of opposition. After the [[Gdańsk Agreement]] in 1980, the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement, as one of its first actions decided to raise a monument in memory of the Poznań June 1956 events.<ref name="city_rememberance_monument"/>

Many historians consider the Poznań 1956 protests to be an important milestone in [[history of Poland (1945–1989)|modern history of Poland]], and one of the events that precipitated the [[fall of communism in Poland]]. Nonetheless, the protests of 1956 were not motivated by clearly anti-communist ideology; the workers' demands were mostly of an economic nature, centering around better work conditions rather than any other clearly articulated political objectives. The workers sang "[[The Internationale]]" and their banners read "We demand bread." It was the government's consistent failure to fulfil the first demand which eventually led to the demands for political change, but even during the [[history of Solidarity]] few demanded wide political reforms.<ref name="WV">[http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/11464/ Hot June '56] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080721101200/http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/11464/ |date=21 July 2008 }} [[Warsaw Voice]] 31 May 2006. Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref><ref name="Modzelewski">[http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php?article_id=9118 Interview with Karol Modzelewski, one of the leaders of the revolt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217034717/http://www.socialistworker.co.uk/article.php?article_id=9118 |date=17 February 2012 }} Last accessed on 3 April 2007.</ref>

=== Commemoration ===
On 21 June 2006, to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the events, the Polish parliament [[Sejm]] declared 28 June to be a [[Holidays in Poland|national holiday in Poland]]; the ''Day of Remembrance of the Poznań June 1956''.<ref name="uchwała">{{in lang|pl}} [http://bap-psp.lex.pl/serwis/mp/2006/0455.htm UCHWAŁA SEJMU RZECZYPOSPOLITEJ POLSKIEJ z dnia 21 czerwca 2006 r. w sprawie ustanowienia dnia 28 czerwca Narodowym Dniem Pamięci Poznańskiego Czerwca 1956] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724062335/http://bap-psp.lex.pl/serwis/mp/2006/0455.htm |date=2011-07-24 }}. Last accessed on 3 April 2007</ref>

== See also ==
* ''[[Poznań '56]]'', a 1996 film
* [[Plzeň uprising of 1953]], violent protest of workers in Czechoslovakia
* [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]]
* [[Polish 1970 protests]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* Curp, T. David. "The Revolution Betrayed? The Poznan Revolt and the Polish Road to Nationalist Socialism." ''The Polish Review'' 51.3/4 (2006): 307–324. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25779632 online]
* Kemp-Welch, Tony. "Dethroning Stalin: Poland 1956 and its legacy." ''Europe-Asia Studies'' 58.8 (2006): 1261–1284. [https://is.muni.cz/el/1490/podzim2015/CZS51/um/60378119/Poland_1956.pdf Online]
* Kramer, Mark. "The Soviet Union and the 1956 Crises in Hungary and Poland: Reassessments and New Findings." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 33.2 (1998): 163–214.
* Machcewicz, Paweł. ''Rebellious Satellite: Poland, 1956'' (Stanford University Press, 2009)
* [[S.L. Shneiderman|Shneiderman, S.L.]] ''The Warsaw Heresy''. New York: Horizon Press, 1959.
* "Poznan Workers' Riots: Poland 1956" in Neil Schlager, ed. ''St. James encyclopedia of labor history worldwide'' (2 vol, 2004) 2:144–147.

===In Polish===
* {{in lang|pl}} Piotr Grzelczak, ''Poznański Czerwiec 1956. Walka o pamięć w latach 1956-1989'' [Poznań June 1956. Struggle for memory, 1956-1989], Poznań 2016
* {{in lang|pl}} Stanisław Jankowiak, Paweł Machcewicz, Agnieszka Rogulska, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070529101159/http://www.pbp.poznan.pl/arch/a87-iso.html ''"Zranione miasto : Poznań w czerwcu 1956 r."''], [[Instytut Pamięci Narodowej]], 2003
* {{in lang|pl}} Łukasz Jastrząb, "Rozstrzelano moje serce w Poznaniu. Poznański Czerwiec 1956 r. – straty osobowe i ich analiza", Wydawnictwo Comandor, Warszawa 2006, {{ISBN|83-7473-015-3}}
* {{in lang|pl}} Norbert Wójtowicz, ''Ofiary "Poznańskiego Czerwca"'', Rok 1956 na Węgrzech i w Polsce. Materiały z węgiersko–polskiego seminarium. Wrocław październik 1996, ed. [[Łukasz Andrzej Kamiński]], Wrocław 1996, p. 32–41.

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090714122039/http://1956.pl/Learn,the,Truth,in,HTML,version,163.html Poznań – Budapest – 1956] (Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Poland)
* [http://www.city.poznan.pl/mim/strony/czerwiec56/pages.html?co=list&id=3043&ch=3060&instance=1017&lang=en&lhs=czerwiec56 Black Thursday – timeline of events] (City of Poznań)
* [http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/spip.php?article1078 50 years since the Poznan uprising] (International Viewpoint online magazine)

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Silesian Uprisings

2024-11-12T04:52:27Z

Szturnek: −Category:German war crimes; −Category:Polish war crimes using HotCat (It wasn't a war crime done by Poland or Germany)

{{short description|Separatist uprisings in 1919–1921}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Silesian Uprisings
| place = [[Upper Silesia]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Weimar Republic|size=22px}} [[Weimar Republic|Germany]]
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Polish Military Organization of Upper Silesia]]
----
'''Supported by:''' {{flagcountry|Second Polish Republic|1919}}
| partof = the [[aftermath of World War I]] and the [[Revolutions of 1917–1923]]
| result = See [[#Aftermath|Aftermath]] section
| width =
| date = 16 August 1919 – 21 July 1921
| caption = Silesian insurgents
| image = Polish Silesia insurgents.PNG
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox German-Polish Wars}}
| territory = *Division of Silesia between Poland and Germany
* Creation of Silesian autonomy in the [[Second Polish Republic]]
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Alfons Zgrzebniok]] {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Franciszek Szkudło]]{{KIA}} {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Wojciech Korfanty]] {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Maciej Hrabia Mielzynski]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Weimar Republic|size=22px}} [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Schwartzkoppen]] {{flagicon|Weimar Republic|size=22px}} [[Karl Höfer]]
}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
[[File:Armoured Car Korfanty 1920.jpg|thumb|305px|right|Polish [[Armored car (military)|armored car]] ''[[Wojciech Korfanty|Korfanty]]'' in 1920 made by Polish fighters in Woźniak foundry. It was one of the two created; the second was named Walerus – Woźniak.<ref name="KornWoz">{{in lang|pl}} [http://www.zaglebie.info/news_poznaj.php?n=1843 Ostatnie chwile odlewni Woźniaków] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928161714/http://www.zaglebie.info/news_poznaj.php?n=1843 |date=28 September 2007 }}. Zaglebie.info</ref>]]
{{Campaignbox Establishment of Second Polish Republic}}
The '''Silesian Uprisings''' ({{langx|pl|Powstania śląskie|links=no}}; {{langx|de|Aufstände in Oberschlesien, Polenaufstände|links=no}}) were a series of three uprisings from August 1919 to July 1921 in [[Upper Silesia]], which was part of the [[Weimar Republic]] at the time. Ethnic Polish and Polish-Silesian insurrectionists, seeking to have the area transferred to the newly founded [[Second Polish Republic|Polish Republic]], fought German police and [[Freikorps|paramilitary]] forces which sought to keep the area part of the new German state founded after [[World War I]]. Following the conflict, the area was divided between the two countries. The rebellions have subsequently been commemorated in modern Poland as an example of [[Polish nationalism]]. Despite central government involvement in the conflict, Polish historiography renders the events as uprisings reflecting the will of ordinary Upper Silesians rather than a war.{{efn|"Thus, within the first three postwar years Poland waged war against the Ukraine, Lithuania, the USSR, Czechoslovakia, and Germany. Polish historiography refers to the first four conflicts as 'wars' while calling the encounters with Germany grassroots 'uprisings' or 'insurgencies', despite central government involvement" {{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=29-30}}}}

==Background==
[[File:Wojciech Korfanty.PNG|thumb|[[Wojciech Korfanty]] organized the Third Polish Silesian Uprising in [[Province of Upper Silesia|Upper Silesia]].]]
Much of Silesia had belonged to the [[Kingdom of Poland (1025–1385)|Crown of Polish Kingdom]] in medieval times, but it passed to the Kings of [[Bohemia]] under the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the 14th century. Following the death of [[Louis II of Hungary|Louis II Jagiellon of Bohemia and Hungary]] in the [[Battle of Mohács]], Silesia became part of the [[Habsburg monarchy]] when [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand I]] of [[Archduchy of Austria|Austria]] was elected as the King of Bohemia. [[Frederick the Great]] of [[Prussia]] seized Silesia from [[Maria Theresa of Austria]] in 1742 in the [[War of Austrian Succession]], after which it became a part of Prussia<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Cienciala |first=Anna M. |title=The Rebirth of Poland |url=http://www.conflicts.rem33.com/images/Poland/rebirth.htm |access-date=1 July 2024 |website=Ethnic Conflicts}}</ref> and subsequently, in 1871, the [[German Empire]]. Although the province of Silesia overall had by then become Germanized through the [[Ostsiedlung]] and later the [[Kulturkampf#1871–72|Kulturkampf]], Poles constituted a majority in Upper Silesia.<ref>Racisms Made in Germany edited by Wulf D. Hund, Wulf Dietmar Hund, Christian Koller, Moshe Zimmermann LIT Verlag Münster 2011 page 20, 21</ref><ref>The Ideology of Kokugo: Nationalizing Language in Modern Japan
Lee Yeounsuk page 161 [[University of Hawaii Press]] 2009</ref><ref>The Immigrant Threat: The Integration of Old and New Migrants in Western Europe since 1850 (Studies of World Migrations) Leo Lucassen page 61 [[University of Illinois Press]] page 2005</ref>

===Mineral resources===
Upper Silesia was bountiful in mineral resources and heavy industry, with mines, iron and steel mills. The Silesian mines were responsible for almost a quarter of Germany's annual output of coal, {{awrap|81 percent}} of its zinc and 34 percent of its lead.<ref>
{{cite book | last = MacMillan | first = Margaret | author-link = Margaret MacMillan | title = Paris 1919 | publisher = [[Random House]] | year = 2001 | page = [https://archive.org/details/paris1919sixmont00macm/page/219 219] | isbn = 0-375-50826-0 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/paris1919sixmont00macm/page/219 }}</ref>
After World War I, during the negotiations of the [[Treaty of Versailles]], the German government claimed that, without Upper Silesia, it would not be able to fulfill its obligations with regard to reparations to the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]].{{citation needed|date=January 2014}}

===Demographics in the early 20th century===
The area in Upper Silesia east of the [[Oder]] was dominated by ethnic Poles, most of whom were working class. Most spoke a dialect of Polish, a few felt they were a [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] group of their own called [[Silesians]].<ref name=":0" /> In contrast, most of the local middle and upper classes were ethnic Germans, including the landowners, businessmen, factory owners, local government, police, and [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] clergy.<ref name=":0" /> The population of Upper Silesia was overwhelmingly Catholic with 92% of the people being Roman Catholic.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=42}} Most of the 8% of Upper Silesians who were Protestant tended to be Germans, but the linguistic and ethnic divide between Catholic Germans and Poles tended to subsume their shared religion.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=42}}

In the German census of 1900, 65% of the population of the eastern part of Silesia was recorded as Polish-speaking, which decreased to 57% in 1910.<ref name=":0" /> This was partly a result of forced [[Germanization]],<ref name="Mapy">"Mapy narodowościowe Górnego Śląska od połowy XIX wieku do II Wojny Światowej" Dorota Borowiecz Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Wrocławskiego 2005 {{ISBN|83-229-2569-7}}</ref> but was also due to the creation of a ''bilingual'' category, which reduced the number of Polish speakers.<ref name=":0" /> American [[Paul Weber (academic)|Paul Weber]] drew up a language map that showed that in 1910, in most of the Upper Silesian districts east of the Oder river, Polish-speaking Silesians constituted a majority, forming more than 70% of the population there.<ref name=":0" />

While still under German control, various Poles identified as Silesians would write, publish, distribute pamphlets, newsletters and other written material, promoting the idea of a Polish-Silesian Identity. Included among the statements within these texts was adherence to the Roman Catholic church. One such publisher was Ignacy Bulla (later changed to Buła in celebration), who would spread information related to these principles at risk to his own life and freedom. He is widely credited with having inspired the Polish-Silesian patriotic feelings that inspired the uprisings. His contribution to bringing Silesia back into the Roman Catholic Church was the subject of at least one dissertation presented by a Seminary student.
===The First World War===
As a frontier area, Upper Silesia was placed under [[martial law]] in August 1914 and remained so for rest of the war.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=27}} The German military administrators distrusted the Poles, taking the viewpoint that as Slavs, they were naturally sympathetic towards the [[Russian Empire|Russians]], and governed Upper Silesia in a very high-handed and harsh manner.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=27}} The First World War was a period in Upper Silesia of collapsing living standards as wages failed to keep up with inflation; almost everyone suffered from shortages of food and working hours were increased in the mines and factories.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=26-27}} The nationalist climate produced by the [[Spirit of 1914]], with its sense that all Germans should rally behind the Kaiser in the war effort, led members of Germany's Polish minority to feel more excluded and marginalized than before 1914.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024|reason=Spirit of 1914 was very brief & limited to middle & upper classes. Hard to see how it could have had much lasting impact on the Polish minority.}} The subject of an independent Polish state was first raised by the Germans and Austrians who in 1916 created a puppet Polish state on the territory of [[Congress Poland]], the lands of which were taken from the Russian Empire in 1915.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=27}} The way in which the Allies promoted the promise of an independent Poland after the war, most notably in the 14 Points issued by the American president Woodrow Wilson led to hopes within the Polish community within the ''Reich'' that Poland might be reborn again after an Allied victory. During the First World War, about 56, 000 men from Upper Silesia were killed fighting in the war with the heaviest losses being taken at the Battle of Somme in 1916.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=26}}

===Versailles plebiscite===
[[File:EB1922 - Upper Silesia Frontier, 1921.png|thumb|Upper Silesian frontier, 1921]]
During the Paris peace conference in 1919, a strong division emerged between the British prime minister David Lloyd George who wanted Upper Silesia to remain within Germany vs. the French Premier Georges Clemenceau who supported the Polish claim to Upper Silesia.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=28}} The Treaty of Versailles, signed in 1919, had ordered a [[Upper Silesia plebiscite|plebiscite in Upper Silesia]], to determine whether the territory should be a part of Germany or Poland.<ref name=":0" /> The plebiscite was to be held within two years of the Treaty in the whole of Upper Silesia, although the Polish government had only requested it to be held in the areas east of the Oder river, which had a significant number of Polish speakers.<ref name=":0" /> Thus, the plebiscite took place in all of Upper Silesia, including the predominantly {{awrap|Polish-speaking}} areas in the east and the predominantly German-speaking areas west of the river.<ref name=":0" /> The Upper Silesian plebiscite was to be conducted on 20 March 1921. In the meantime, the German administration and police remained in place.<ref name=":0" /> The requirement for a referendum in Upper Silesia in the Treaty of Versailles was a compromise to resolve the Anglo-French dispute at the Paris peace conference.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=28}} Around the German city of Posen turned the Polish city of [[Poznań]], [[Greater Poland uprising (1918–1919)|an uprising by the Polish majority]] in December 1918 had left about 2,900 people dead, and it was felt preferable to have a plebiscite in Upper Silesia and rather a resort to arms as being the case in Poznań.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=28}}

[[File:Cap badge of the Polish Storm Detachment during Silesian Uprisings.PNG|166px|thumb|left|Cap badge of the Polish Storm Detachment during Silesian Uprisings]]

Meanwhile, propaganda and strong arm tactics by both sides led to increasing unrest.<ref name=":0" /> The German authorities warned that those voting for Poland might forfeit their jobs and pensions.<ref name=":0" /> Pro-Polish activists argued that, under Polish rule, Silesian Poles would no longer be discriminated against. Poland also promised to honour their German state social benefits, such as the old age pensions.<ref name=":0" /> However, many German Army veterans joined the Freikorps (Free Corps), a paramilitary organization whose troops fought any pro-Polish activists.<ref name=":0" /> The pro-Poland side employed the [[Polish Military Organisation]] (''POW'') – a secret military organisation and predecessor of [[Polish intelligence]] – to fight back with the same force.{{cn|date=August 2023}}

The majority of the men serving in the para-military forces on both sides were veterans of the First World War and were experienced soldiers, accustomed to fighting and killing.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=30}} In addition, most of the men serving on the German side had served in the ''[[Freikorps]]'' ("Free Corps"), units of volunteers raised by the government to fight against the possibility of a Communist revolution.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=30}} Most of the men serving on the Polish side had previously served in the German military during World War One.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=58}}

Eventually, the deteriorating situation resulted in Upper Silesian Uprisings conducted by Poles in 1919 and 1920.

The right to vote was granted to all aged 20 and older who either had been born in or lived in the plebiscite area. A result was the mass migration of both Germans and Poles.<ref name="votemigr">[http://www.poland.pl/archives/interwar/article,,id,284219.htm Plebiscite contributions for benefit of uniting Warmia and Masuria, Spisz and Orawa, Cieszyn Silesia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206142020/http://www.poland.pl/archives/interwar/article,,id,284219.htm |date=6 February 2012 }}. Poland.pl portal</ref> The German newcomers accounted for 179,910, while Polish newcomers numbered over 10,000.<ref name=":0" /> Without these "new voters", the pro-German vote would have had a majority of 58,336 instead of the final 228,246.<ref name=":0" /> The plebiscite took place as arranged on 20 March. A total of 707,605 votes were cast for Germany and 479,359 for Poland.<ref name=":0" />

The Third Silesian Uprising conducted by Poles broke out in 1921 supported by thousands of troops from outside the region mobilized by the Polish government.{{efn|"Reacting to the outcome of the plibiscite, Wojciech Koranty ordered the third Silesian insurgency on the symbolic day of 3 May [...] The Polish government and military clearly instigated this offensive, for example, by mobilizing thousands of troops from outside of the region to join the local insurgents. {{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=32}}}}. The [[League of Nations]] was asked to settle the dispute before it led to even more bloodshed. In 1922, a six-week debate decided that Upper Silesia should be divided. This was accepted by both countries, and the majority of Upper Silesians. Approximately 736,000 Poles and 260,000<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ipsen |first=Knut |title=Das Verhältnis des vereinigten Deutschlands zu den osteuropäischen Nachbarn |last2=Poeggel |first2=Walter |publisher=Brockmeyer |year=1993 |isbn=978-3-819-60177-4 |location=Bochum |page=15 |language=de |trans-title=The Relationship of United Germany to its East European Neighbors}}</ref> Germans thus found themselves now in Polish (Upper) Silesia, and 532,000{{Sfn|Ipsen|Poeggel|1993|p=15}} Poles and 637,000 Germans remained in German (Upper) Silesia.{{Citation needed|date=February 2011|reason=Need source for 736,000 and 637,000 figures}}
{{anchor|First Silesian Uprising}}

== Uprisings ==

===First Uprising (1919)===
{{Infobox military conflict
| image = Black Reichswehr fighting Polish forces during the Poland Uprising 1919.jpg
| caption = [[Reichswehr]] forces fighting insurgents in [[Mysłowice|Myslowitz]] during the First Silesian Uprising.
| conflict = First Silesian Uprising
| date = 16–26 August 1919
| place = Parts of [[Upper Silesia]]
| casus =
| result = [[Weimar Republic|German]] victory
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Grenzschutz]] [[Reichswehr]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Polish Military Organization of Upper Silesia|POW G.Śl.]]
| commander1 = [[Karl Höfer]]
| commander2 = [[Alfons Zgrzebniok]] [[Franciszek Szkudło]]{{KIA}}
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 = Unknown
| casualties2 = 2,500 rebels killed or executed
| casualties3 = About 9,000 polish refugees
}}

On 15 August 1919, German border guards (''Grenzschutz'') massacred ten Silesian civilians in a labour dispute at the [[Mysłowice]] mine (''Myslowitzer Grube''). The massacre sparked protests from the Silesian Polish miners, including a [[general strike]] of about 140,000 workers,<ref name="mysl">{{in lang|pl}} [http://www.myslowice.pl/miasto.php?t=hm_2 ŚLADY PRZESZŁOŚCI W MYSŁOWICACH] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204153447/http://www.myslowice.pl/miasto.php?t=hm_2 |date=4 February 2012 }}</ref> and caused the First Silesian uprising against German control of Upper Silesia. The miners demanded the local government and police become ethnically mixed to include both Germans and Poles.<ref name=":0" />

About 21,000 German soldiers of the Weimar Republic's [[Reichswehr|Provisional National Army]] (''Vorläufige Reichsheer''), with about 40,000 troops held in reserve, quickly put down the uprising. The army's reaction was harsh, with 2,500 Poles either hanged or executed by firing squad for their parts in the protest.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Greenman |first=Kathryn |url={{Google books|XfwYEAAAQBAJ |page=299|plainurl=yes}} |title=Revolutions in International Law: The Legacies of 1917 |last2=Orford |first2=Anne |last3=Saunders |first3=Anna |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9781108852364 |location=Oxford |pages=297}}</ref> Some 9,000 ethnic Poles sought refuge in the Second Polish Republic, taking along their family members. This came to an end when Allied forces were brought in to restore order, and the refugees were allowed to return later that year.
{{anchor|Second Silesian Uprising}}

===Second Uprising (1920)===
{{Infobox military conflict
| image =
| caption =
| conflict = Second Silesian Uprising
| date = 19–25 August 1920
| place = [[Upper Silesia]]
| casus =
| result = [[Second Polish Republic|Polish]] victory
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Polish Military Organization]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Germany}} German civil government and police of Upper Silesia
| combatant3 = Allied Plebiscite Commission Military Forces
| commander1 =
| commander2 =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
}}

The '''Second Silesian Uprising''' ({{langx|pl|Drugie powstanie śląskie|links=no}}) was the second of the three uprisings.

In February 1920, an Allied Plebiscite Commission was sent to Upper Silesia. It was composed of representatives of the Allied forces, mostly from France, with smaller contingents from United Kingdom and Italy.<ref name=":0" /> Soon, however, it became apparent that the Allied forces were too few to maintain order. Further, the commission was torn apart by lack of consensus: the [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Italy|Italians]] favored the Germans, while the [[France|French]] supported the Poles.<ref name=":0" /> The British blamed this situation on France's intent on limiting Germany's industrial might.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=31}} Those forces failed to prevent continuing unrest.<ref name=":0" />

In August 1920, a German newspaper in Upper Silesia printed what later turned out to be a false announcement of the fall of Warsaw to the Red Army in the [[Polish–Soviet War]]. Pro-German activists spontaneously organised a march to celebrate what they assumed would be the end of independent Poland. The volatile situation quickly degenerated into violence as pro-German demonstrators began looting Polish shops; the violence continued even after it had become clear that [[battle of Warsaw (1920)|Warsaw had not fallen]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name="Watt">{{cite book | last = Watt | first = Richard | author-link = Richard M. Watt | title = Bitter Glory: Poland and its Fate | publisher = [[Barnes and Noble]] | year = 1979 | isbn = 0-7607-0997-1 }}</ref>

On 19 August, the violence eventually led to a Polish uprising which quickly resulted within the occupation of government offices in the districts of [[Katowice|Kattowitz]] (Katowice), [[Pszczyna|Pless]] (Pszczyna) and [[Bytom|Beuthen]] (Bytom). Between 20 and 25 August, the rebellion spread to [[Chorzów|Königshütte]] (Chorzów), [[Tarnowskie Góry|Tarnowitz]] (Tarnowskie Góry), [[Rybnik]], [[Lubliniec|Lublinitz]] (Lubliniec) and [[Strzelce Opolskie|Gross Strehlitz]] (Strzelce Opolskie). The Allied Commission declared its intention to restore order, but internal differences kept anything from being done; British representatives held the French responsible for the easy spread of the uprising through the eastern region.<ref>{{cite book | last = Gajda | first = Patricia A. | title = PostScript to Victory: British Policy and the German-Polish Borderlands 1919–1925 | publisher = [[University Press of America]] | year = 1982 | isbn = 0-8191-2204-1 | page=69}}</ref>

The fighting was slowly brought to an end in September, by a combination of allied military operations and negotiations between the parties. The Poles obtained the disbanding of the ''[[Sicherheitspolizei (Weimar Republic)|Sipo]]'' police and the creation of a new police (''[[Abstimmungspolizei]]'') for the area, which would be 50% Polish.<ref name="Watt"/> Poles were also admitted to the local administration. The Polish Military Organisation in Upper Silesia was supposed to be disbanded, though in practice this did not happen.
{{anchor|Third Silesian Uprising}}

===Third Uprising (1921)===
{{Infobox military conflict
| image = File:III powstanie śląskie - Maxim wz. 08 w powstańczej akcji nad Odrą.jpg
| caption = Silesian insurgents behind a MG 08 machine gun in action along the [[Oder]] river
| conflict = Third Silesian Uprising
| date = 2 May – 21 July 1921
| place = [[Upper Silesia]]
| casus =
| result = [[League of Nations]] forces a ceasefire
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Germany}} [[Grenzschutz]] [[Freikorps]] [[Selbstschutz]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Polish Military Organisation]]
| combatant3 = Inter-Allied Commission
| commander1 = [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Schwartzkoppen]] [[Karl Höfer]]
| commander2 = [[Wojciech Korfanty]] [[Maciej Hrabia Mielzynski]]
| commander3 = [[Jules Gratier]] [[Filippo Salvioni]] [[William Heneker]]
| strength1 =
| strength2 = 40,000
| strength3 =
| casualties1 =
| casualties2 =
| casualties3 =
}}
[[File:III powstanie śląskie (1-H-459).jpg|thumb|left|Opposing the Silesian insurrectionists were the Grenzschutz "border guards" of the Weimar Republic.]]
[[File:Wykolejony pociag.jpg|thumb|Train derailed by the insurgents near [[Kędzierzyn-Koźle|Kędzierzyn]]]]
[[File:Powstańcy śląscy 1921.jpg|thumb|Polish insurgents unit in 1921]]
[[File:III powstanie śląskie (1-H-446-2).jpg|thumb|right|Armoured train "Kabicz" of Polish insurrectionist forces comprising a [[Prussian T 37|T 37]] steam locomotive with improvised armour cladding and two coal hopper cars.]]

The Third Silesian Uprising ({{langx|pl|Trzecie powstanie śląskie}}) was the last, largest and longest of the three uprisings. It included the [[Battle of Annaberg]] and began in the aftermath of a plebiscite that yielded mixed results. The British and French governments could not reach a consensus on the interpretation of the plebiscite.<ref name=":0" /> The primary problem was the disposition of the "Industrial Triangle" east of the Oder river, whose triangle ends were marked by the cities of Beuthen (Bytom), [[Gliwice|Gleiwitz]] (Gliwice) and Kattowitz (Katowice).<ref name=":0" /> The French wanted to weaken Germany, and thus supported Polish claims on the territory; the British and the Italians disagreed, in part because the German government declared that a loss of the Silesian industries would render Germany incapable of paying the demanded [[war reparations]].<ref name=":0" /> Devising a frontier that was mutually acceptable to both sides proved to be impossible because in many of the contested districts of Upper Silesia, the people in the urban areas tended to vote for staying in Germany while the rural areas voted for going to Poland.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=172}} Thus, any division would mean that a number of people would end up on the "wrong" side of the frontier.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=172}}

In late April 1921, rumours spread that the British position would prevail, prompting the local Polish activists to organise an uprising.<ref name=":0" /> The insurrection was to begin in early in May. Having learned from previous failures, the Third War was carefully planned and organized under the leadership of [[Wojciech Korfanty]]. It started on 2–3 May 1921, with the destruction of German rail bridges (see "[[Wawelberg Group]]") in order to slow down the movement of German reinforcements. A particular concern was to prevent the recurrence of violent acts against Polish civilians by members of the ''Freikorps'', demobilised Imperial German army units that had refused to disband. These paramilitary units existed throughout Germany and usually acted independently from both the provisional official army and the leadership of the fledgling German Republic. However, the ''Reich'' government subsidized these groups and thus had much leverage over them.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=83}} The most violent and the most aggressive of the ''Freikorps'' units sent into Upper Silesia was the Oberland corps from Bavaria, which seemed to have been the unit most responsible for the atrocities on the German side.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=83}}

The [[Inter-Allied Commission]], in which General [[Henri Le Rond]] was the most influential individual, waited rather long prior to taking any steps to end the violence.<ref name="anreg1922">Edmund Burke, James Dodsley, ''Annual Register'', v. 2 – 1922, [https://books.google.com/books?id=lwhdAAAAIAAJ&dq=Silesia+1,950,000++965,000+-wikipedia&pg=PA179 Google Print, p.179-180] (public domain text)</ref> The French troops generally favored the insurrection, while within some cases, British and Italian contingents actively cooperated with Germans.<ref name="anreg1922" /> UK Prime Minister [[David Lloyd George|Lloyd George]]'s speech in the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]], strongly disapproving of the insurrection, aroused the hopes of some Germans, but the ''Entente'' appeared to have no troops ready and available for dispatch.<ref name="anreg1922" /> The only action the 'Inter-Allied Military Control Commission' and the [[French Third Republic|French government]] made was demanding immediate prohibition of the recruiting of German volunteers from outside Upper Silesia, and this was promptly made public.<ref name="anreg1922" />

After the initial success of the insurgents in taking over a large portion of Upper Silesia, the German ''Grenzschutz'' several times resisted the attacks of Wojciech Korfanty's Polish troops, in some cases with the cooperation of British and Italian troops.<ref name=anreg1922/> An attempt on the part of the British troops to take steps against the Polish forces was prevented by General Jules Gratier, the French commander-in-chief of the Allied troops.<ref name=anreg1922/> Eventually, the insurgents kept most of territory they had won, including the local industrial district. They proved that they could mobilize large amounts of local support, while the German forces based outside Silesia were barred from taking an active part in the conflict.

The fighting in Upper Silesia was characterized by numerous atrocities on both sides with rape and mutilation being integral and routine methods of war.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=5 & 77-78 & 121-124}} The men of both sides tended to conflate "national honor" and their sense of masculinity with their perceived ability to "protect" the women of their respective communities from the other side.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=113-114}} For both sides, rape served as a way to symbolically "unman" the men of the other side by proving that they were incapable of defending their women and as a way of asserting their power over the women of the other side, hence the frequency of rape.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=113-114}} Complaints about rape by both sides started to become common after the 1919 uprising, but were most common after the 1921 uprising.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=128}} The British historian Tim Wilson wrote about sexual violence by the German forces: "Eighteen such incidents can be easily verified. Many of these were multiple rapes; in other cases of mass rape the number of victims were not even given".{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=78}} In September 1922, the Polish government submitted a detailed dossier about the rape of Polish Upper Silesian women to the League of Nations.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=78}} Wilson also wrote that rape of women believed to be supporting the German cause by "Polish militants" was "relatively common".{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=121}}

Mutilation by both sides were a common tactic as a way to show dominance over the other side.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=155-157}} Both sides liked to mutilate the faces of their victims to the point of obliviating the face as a way to show their dominance by robbing the victim of not only their lives, but even their identities that they held in life.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=155}} Reports from the British officers state that the "corpses of both men and women have been mutilated".{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=124}} The most common means of mutilation was by smashing in the face with rifle butts into a bloody mash.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=155}} Likewise, castration of prisoners were a common tactic, again as a way to show dominance and to literally "unman" the other side.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=156}} Violence against the genitals was the second common form of mutilation of faces.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=156}} One British Army officer wrote in 1921 "It is revolting the number of murders that took place, generally at night and in the woods, which no amount of patrolling could stop. For instance, a one-armed German ex-soldier was taken out and murdered by the Poles one night, and the same night the French reported several murders by the Germans near their post in the woods close by".{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=200}} Wilson wrote that these tactics were not "the triumph of innate barbarism in the absence of social constraint", but rather were tactics quite consciously chosen to express contempt and dominance.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=156}} Much of the grotesque violence was due to the fluidity of identities in Upper Silesia where many people saw themselves as neither German nor Polish, but rather Silesian, thus leading to nationalists to take extreme measures to polarize society into diametrically opposed blocs.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=157-158}} In May-June 1921, at least 1,760 people were killed in the fighting in Upper Silesia.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=200}}

The support of France for Poland proved to be crucial. On 23 May 1921, the ''Freikorps'' defeated the Poles at the Battle of Annaberg, which in turn led to a French ultimatum demanding that the ''Reich'' cease at once its support of the German para-military forces.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=83}} The next day, much to the shock of the ''Freikorps'' who were expecting to follow up their victory by keeping all of Upper Silesia for Germany, the German president Frederich Ebert bowed to the ultimatum and banned the ''Freikorps''.{{sfn|Wilson|2010|p=83}}

Twelve days after the outbreak of the insurrection, Korfanty offered to take his troops behind a line of demarcation (the "Korfanty Line"), conditional on the released territory not being re-occupied by German forces, but by Allied troops.<ref name=anreg1922/> It was not, however, until 1 July that the British troops arrived in Upper Silesia and began to advance in company with those of the other Allies towards the former frontier.<ref name=anreg1922/> Simultaneously, with this advance, the Inter-Allied Commission pronounced a general amnesty for the illegal actions committed during the insurrection, with the exception of acts of revenge and cruelty.<ref name=anreg1922/> The German ''Grenzschutz'' was withdrawn and disbanded.<ref name=anreg1922/>

==Aftermath==
[[File:Katowice - Pomnik Powstańców Śląskich.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Silesian Insurgents Monument]] in [[Katowice]]. The largest and heaviest monument in Poland, constructed in 1967.]]

Arrangements between the Germans and Poles in Upper Silesia and appeals issued by both sides, as well as the dispatch of six battalions of Allied troops and the disbandment of the local guards, contributed markedly to the pacification of the district.<ref name=anreg1922/>

The Allied Supreme Council was, however, still unable to come to an agreement on the partition of the Upper Silesian territory on the lines of the plebiscite; the British and the French could only agree on one solution: turning the question over to the Council of the [[League of Nations]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name=anreg1922/>

The greatest excitement was caused all over Germany and in the German part of Upper Silesia by the intimation that the Council of the League of Nations had handed over the matter for closer investigation to a commission; this remained composed of four representatives, one each from [[Belgium]], [[Brazil]], [[Spain]], and [[China]].<ref name=anreg1922/> The commission collected its own data and issued a decision, stressing the principle of [[self-determination]].<ref name=":0" /> On the basis of the reports of this commission and those of its experts, in October 1921 the Council awarded the greater part of the Upper Silesian industrial district to Poland.<ref name=":0" />

The Polish Government had decided to give Silesia considerable autonomy with the [[Silesian Parliament]] as a constituency and the [[Silesian Voivodeship]] Council as the executive body.

Poland obtained almost exactly half of the 1,950,000 inhabitants, ''viz.'', 965,000, but not quite a third of the territory, i.e., only 3,214 of 10,951 square kilometres (1,241 of 4,228 mi2).<ref name=anreg1922/> This, however, constituted the more valuable portion by far of the district. Of 61 coal mines 49{{frac|1|2}} fell to Poland, the Prussian state losing 3 mines out of 4. Of a coal output of 31,750,000 tonnes, 24,600,000 tonnes fell to Poland. All iron mines with an output of 61,000 tonnes fell to Poland.<ref name=anreg1922/> Of 37 furnaces, 22 went to Poland, 15 to Germany. Of a pig-iron output of 570,000 tonnes, 170,000 tonnes remained German, and 400,000 tonnes became Polish.<ref name=anreg1922/> Of 16 zinc and lead mines, which produced 233,000 tons in 1920, only 4, with an output of 44,000 tonnes, remained German.<ref name=anreg1922/> The main towns of Königshütte (Chorzów), Kattowitz (Katowice), and Tarnowitz (Tarnowskie Góry) were given to Poland.<ref name=anreg1922/> In the Silesian territory that Poland regained, the Germans were a significant minority. Similarly, a significant minority of Poles (about half a million Poles) was still left on the German side, most of them in [[Opole|Oppeln]] (Opole).<ref name=":0" />

In order to mitigate the hardships likely to arise from the partition of a district that was essentially an economic unit, it was decided, on the recommendation of the Council of the League of Nations, that German and Polish delegates, under a chairman appointed by the Council of the League, should draw up economic regulations as well as a statute for the protection of minorities, which were to have a duration of fifteen years.<ref name=anreg1922/> Special measures were threatened in the event that either of the two states should refuse to participate in the drawing up of such regulations, or to accept them subsequently.<ref name=anreg1922/>

In May 1922, the League of Nations issued the [[German–Polish Convention regarding Upper Silesia|German-Polish Accord on East Silesia]], also known as the ''Geneva Accord'', intended to preserve the economic unity of the area and to guarantee minority rights. The League also set up a tribunal to arbitrate disputes. Furthermore, in response to a German complaint about the importance of Silesian coal for the German industry, Germany was given the right to import 500,000 tons per year at discounted prices.<ref name=":0" /> In 1925, three years following the development of the agreement and approaching the termination of the coal agreement, Germany refused to import the appropriate quantities of coal, attempting to use the coal issue as a lever against Poland, trying to impose a revision of the whole Polish-German frontier.<ref name=":0" /> [[Polish-German relations]] worsened, as Germany also began a tariff war with Poland, but the Polish government would not yield on the border issue.<ref name=":0" />

In 1921, [[Adolf Hitler]] who was the best known member of the Munich-based National Socialist German Workers' Party, but not its leader, came into conflict with the party's founder and leader, [[Anton Drexler]]. In July 1921, the dispute came was resolved with Hitler seizing control of the party and deposing Drexler as a party leader.{{sfn|Schoenbaum|1966|p=19}} At the meeting in Munich that decided in favor of Hitler, it was the veterans of the Upper Silesia campaign newly returned to Bavaria, described by one contemporary as the "Upper Silesian adventurers, flashing medals, badges and swastikas", who provided the decisive votes which enabled the triumph of Hitler over Drexler.{{sfn|Schoenbaum|1966|p=19}} A number of the ''Freikorps'' veterans of the Upper Silesia war such as Fritz Schmedes went on to serve in the Nazi Party. Schmedes, who played a leading role as a ''Freikorps'' officer in the "vicious fighting" in Upper Silesia in 1921, became a SS-''Brigadeführer'' in World War Two who committed one of the worse massacres ever in Greek history when [[Distomo massacre|his men massacred]] the entire village of [[Distomo]] on 10 June 1944.{{sfn|Mazower|1993|p=214}}

Under the [[Sanation]] regime, [[Michał Grażyński]], was appointed as the ''voivode'' of Polish Upper Silesia in 1927.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=68}} Graźyński became involved in a lengthy feud with Korfanty and went out of his way to downplay and minimize Korfanty's role in the uprisings.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=68}} By contrast, Graźyński vastly inflated his own role in the uprising of 1921 as he described himself as the "chief insurgent" and the "sole liberator" of Upper Silesia, an attempt to rewrite history in his favor that made him unpopular in Upper Silesia.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=68}} The fact that Grażyński was from Galicia led him being viewed as an outsider in Upper Silesia.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=69}} During his time as the ''voivode'' which lasted until 1939, Grażyński held gigantic rallies to honor the anniversary of the uprising of 1921 every May 3rd that were meant as much to honor himself as the anniversary of the uprising.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=69}} Grażyński's rallies were boycotted by Korfanty and his supporters who complained that he was taking all of the credit for the uprisings for himself.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=69}} [[Jan Kustos]], the leader of the Upper Silesia Defense League that wanted autonomy for Upper Silesia in Poland criticised the especially grandiose and expensive rally Grażyński organsed on 3rd May 1931 to mark the 10th anniversary of the uprising as a colossal waste of money, charging that it was unjust that millions of zlotys have been spent on the rally when so ordinary people were suffering from the Great Depression.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=69}}

In September 1939, Polish Upper Silesia was annexed to Germany, and during the German occupation, there were a violent policy of Germanizing the "recovered lands".{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=7-8}} During the German occupation, Polish veterans of the Upper Silesia uprisings were hunted down and killed as enemies of the ''Reich''.{{sfn|Piekałkiewicz|2019|p=199}} For this reason alone, the Polish veterans tended to be overrepresented in the Polish resistance.{{sfn|Piekałkiewicz|2019|p=199}} In 1945, all of Upper Silesia was annexed to Poland.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=8}} During the Communist era, the government in Warsaw took an ultra-nationalist line to rebut the charge that it was under Soviet domination, and placed great emphasis on the "recovered western territories" as the centerpiece of its claim for legitimacy.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=8-9}} [[Władysław Gomułka]] gave a speech at [[Góra Świętej Anny (hill)|Góra Świętej Anny]] on 1 May 1946 to honor the Poles killed fighting in the battle in 1921 and presented a line of continuity between the uprising of 1921 and his government.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=200-204}} This was especially the case during the period when Gomułka was in power between 1956-1970 as he restored the tradition of celebrating the anniversary of the third uprising every May 3rd and often took part in the celebrations.{{sfn|Polak-Springer|2015|p=237-240}}

The last veteran of the Silesian Uprisings, [[List of last surviving veterans of military insurgencies and wars#Silesian Uprisings (1919–1921)|Wilhelm Meisel]], died in 2009 at the age of 105.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dziennikzachodni.pl/stronaglowna/74711,wilusiowi-stuknie-105-lat,id,t.html|title=Wilusiowi stuknie 105 lat!|language=pl|date=1 January 2009|access-date=23 October 2010|last=Książek|first=Mirosława}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nowiny.rybnik.pl/artykul,14749.html|publisher=[[Dziennik Zachodni]]|title=Odszedł najstarszy Ślązak|language=pl|location=Nowiny|date=10 June 2009|access-date=23 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120314053210/http://www.nowiny.rybnik.pl/artykul,14749.html|archive-date=March 14, 2012}} "Wilhelm Meisel do końca cieszył się życiem, bardzo lubił towarzystwo, muzykę oraz ruch. Interesował się tym, co dzieje się w Polsce i na świecie."</ref> In 2021, a dispute emerged over plans to put up a monument in Opole honoring those who fought for Poland.<ref name="Harper">{{cite news |last1=Harper |first1=Jo |title=A century on, the Silesian Uprisings remain complicated |url=https://emerging-europe.com/after-hours/a-century-on-the-silesian-uprisings-remains-complicated/ |access-date=28 December 2022 |publisher=Emerging Europe |date=8 May 2021}}</ref> The Social-Cultural Society of Germans in Opole Silesia, representing the last of the ''volksdeutche'' (ethnic German) minority in Silesia, called for a monument to honor both sides.<ref name="Harper"/> The mayor of Opole stated he wanted to "commemorate the heroes of the Silesian uprising who fought for Poland and not those who shot at them."<ref name="Harper"/>

==See also==
* [[Silesian Eagle]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==Citations==
* [[Henryk Zieliński]], ''Rola powstania wielkopolskiego oraz powstań śląskich w walce o zjednoczenie ziem zachodnich z Polską (1918–1921), w: Droga przez Półwiecze''.
* [[Rohan Butler]], MA, [[J.P.T. Bury]], MA, & [[M.E. Lamber]]t (ed.), MA, ''Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919–1939'', 1st Series, volume XI, ''Upper Silesia, Poland, and the Baltic States, January 1920 – March 1921'', Her Majesty's Stationery Office ([[HMSO]]), London, 1961 (amended edition 1974), {{ISBN|0-11-591511-7}}
* [[W.N. Medlicott]], MA, D.Lit., [[Douglas Dakin]], MA, PhD, & [[M.E. Lambert]], MA (ed.), ''Documents on British Foreign Policy 1919–1939'', 1st Series, volume XVI, ''Upper Silesia, March 1921 – November 1922'' [[HMSO]], London, 1968.
* Dziewanowski, M. K., ''Poland in the 20th century'', New York: [[Columbia University Press]], 1977.
* Hughes, Rupert, [https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9F07E3DD1E30E13ABC4A52DFB6678382609EDE "Germany's Silesian Plot: Colonizing Scheme to Overcome Polish Majority in a Region Which Contains Vast Resources for Future War-Making"], ''The New York Times'', 12 October 1919.
* {{cite book |last1=Mazower |first1=Mark |title=Inside Hitler's Greece The Experience of Occupation, 1941-44 |date=1993 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=0300089236}}
* {{cite book |last1=Piekałkiewicz |first1=Jarosław |title=Dance with Death A Holistic View of Saving Polish Jews During the Holocaust |date=2019 |publisher=Hamilton Books |location=Falls Village |isbn=9780761871675}}
* {{cite book |last1=Polak-Springer |first1=Peter |title=Recovered Territory A German-Polish Conflict Over Land and Culture, 1919-1989 |date=2015 |publisher=Berghahn Books |location=London |isbn=9781782388883}}
* {{cite book |last1=Schoenbaum |first1=David |title=Hitler's Social Revolution Class and Status in Nazi Germany, 1933-1939 |date=1966 |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |location=London |isbn=978-0-307-82233-8}}
* {{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Tim |title=Frontiers of Violence Conflict and Identity in Ulster and Upper Silesia 1918-1922 |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780199583713}}

{{Polish uprisings}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}
{{Silesia topics}}
{{Dissolution of Austria–Hungary}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Silesian Uprisings| ]]
[[Category:1919 in Germany]]
[[Category:1919 in Poland]]
[[Category:1920 in Germany]]
[[Category:1920 in Poland]]
[[Category:1921 in Germany]]
[[Category:1921 in Poland]]
[[Category:Rebellions in Germany]]
[[Category:Civil wars involving the states and peoples of Europe]]
[[Category:Civil wars of the 20th century]]
[[Category:Rebellions in the Second Polish Republic]]
[[Category:Revolutions of 1917–1923]]
[[Category:Separatist rebellion-based civil wars]]
[[Category:Wartime sexual violence in Europe]]
[[Category:Wars involving Poland]]
[[Category:Wars involving Germany]]

Willicaire of Vienne

2024-11-10T21:01:12Z

Szturnek: removed Category:French Roman Catholic abbesses; added Category:French Roman Catholic saints using HotCat

{{Short description|8th century archbishop}}
{{Cleanup|reason=careless copying from fr-Wiki|date=January 2022}}
'''Willicaire''' (Wilicarius), was arch[[bishop of Vienne]], in Dauphine, [[France]] in the eighth century.<ref>[http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/vien1.htm#58630 Metropolitan Archdiocese of Vienne]. GCatholic.org.</ref> He is considered a saint of the Catholic Church locally.<ref>Jean-Barthélemy Hauréau, Gallia christiana, vol. XVI, Paris, 1865, coll. 35</ref>

==Archbishop of Vienne==
Willicaire (sometimes Wilicaire, or Vulchaire) was archbishop of Vienna around the years 740.<ref>Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Liste des évêques et archevêques de Vienne (France)]];</ref>

He received from [[Pope Gregory III]] (731-741), the [[Pallium]].<ref>Louis Duchesne, Fastes épiscopaux de l'ancienne Gaule. Provinces du Sud-Est (tome premier), vol. 3, Paris, Thorin et fils, 1894, 356 p. (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 149-150.</ref><ref>Ulysse Chevalier, Regeste dauphinois, ou Répertoire chronologique et analytique des documents imprimes et manuscrits relatifs Ã l'histoire du Dauphiné, des origines chrétiennes Ã l'année 1349, Impr. valentinoise, 1912 (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 93, Acte no 555.</ref><ref>Ulysse Chevalier, Notice chronologico-historique sur les archevÃªques de Vienne : d'aprÃ¨s des documents paléographiques inedits, Vienne, 1879, 18 p. (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 9.</ref><ref>Ansgar Wildermann (trad. Monique Baud-Wartmann), Â« Willicaire (740 - 762) [archive] Â» dans le Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse en ligne, version du 8 avril 2013.</ref>

Louis Duchesne reports that according to the writings of Adon de Vienne (799-875), he "transported the relics of Saints Ferreol and Julien to Vienne as the previous basilica housing them having been burnt down by the Muslims" 1, around 731–734.

Wilicaire succeeded Austrebert as [[Bishop of Vienne]]. Following the invasion of the Saracens, he had the bones of Blessed Ferreol transferred with the head of the martyr Julien intra muros, and with them he buried martyrs of t the invasion.<ref>- Adon de Vienne (transl. Lucas, 2018) 5</ref>

St Wilicarius (Wilicaire) left his see in c.752 when it fell under Frankish persecution. He took refuge in Rome and then finally retired to the monastery of St Maurice where he died in 765.

He is revered as a saint, with a [[feast day|feast]] held on 13 June.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://orthodoxengland.org.uk/oefranc3.htm | title=Orthodox Europe :: The Holy Bishops of Vienne }}</ref>

==Retirement==
<blockquote>
"Wounded by the procedures of [[Charles Martel]], retired to the monastery of Agaune", he seems to resign his office at the beginning of the 740s to retire to the monastery of Saint-Maurice d'Agaune, in Valais.<ref>Ansgar Wildermann (trad. Monique Baud-Wartmann), Â« Willicaire (740 - 762) [archive] Â» dans le Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse en ligne, version du 8 avril 2013.</ref>
Ulysse Chevalier, in the Regeste Dauphinois (1912), gives c. 552.<ref>[[Ulysse Chevalier]], Regeste dauphinois, ou Répertoire chronologique et analytique des documents imprimés et manuscrits relatifs Ã l'histoire du Dauphiné, des origines chrétiennes Ã l'année 1349, Impr. valentinoise, 1912 (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 91, Acte no 547.</ref></blockquote>

==Life in Saint-Maurice d'Agaune==
The historian Chevalier says that "he becomes abbot, then bishop of Sion" .<ref>Ulysse Chevalier, Regeste dauphinois, ou Répertoire chronologique et analytique des documents imprimés et manuscrits relatifs Ã l'histoire du Dauphiné, des origines chrétiennes Ã l'année 1349, Impr. valentinoise, 1912 (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 91, Acte no 547.</ref>

It was mentioned In 765, that Bishop Wilcarius, who leads the community.<ref>Ansgar Wildermann (trad. Monique Baud-Wartmann), Â« Willicaire (740 - 762) [archive] Â» dans le Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse en ligne, version du 8 avril 2013.</ref> The list of abbots produced by Leon Dupont Lachenal mentions him as abbot from 760 to 782, "Vulchaire, former Archbishop of Vienne and Bishop of Mentana ([[Nomentum]]) near [[Rome]], Abbot of St-Maurice and Bishop of Sion".

During the [[Council of Attigny]], convened around 762/765 by king [[Pepin the short|Pepin le Bref]], he was present<ref>Ulysse Chevalier, Regeste dauphinois, ou Repertoire chronologique et analytique des documents imprimés et manuscrits relatifs Ã l'histoire du Dauphine, des origines chretiennes Ã l'année 1349, Impr. valentinoise, 1912 (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 93, Acte no 555.</ref> and signed as archbishop of the abbey of Saint-Mauriceâ.<ref>Ansgar Wildermann (trad. Monique Baud-Wartmann), Â« Willicaire (740 - 762) [archive] Â» dans le Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse en ligne, version du 8 avril 2013.</ref>[[Louis Duchesne]] sayys that he was mentioned in Agaune, in 771.<ref>Louis Duchesne, Fastes épiscopaux de l'ancienne Gaule. Provinces du Sud-Est (tome premier), vol. 3, Paris, Thorin et fils, 1894, p. 149-150.</ref>

He should not be confused with Abbot Willicaire d'Agaune, who became archbishop of Sens in 769.

His death is placed in the year 782.<ref>Leon Dupont Lachenal, Â« Les abbés de St-Maurice d'Agaune [archive] Â», Ã‰chos de Saint-Maurice, 1944 (édition numérique 2012), tome 42, p. 85-86, Â« Abbés de Saint-Maurice et évÃªques de Sion Â» et Â« Mainmise des Rodolphiens et des Savoie. Les Praets Â»</ref>

==References==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:French Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:8th-century archbishops]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Vienne]]

Willicaire of Vienne

2024-11-10T21:01:03Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Saints; added Category:French Roman Catholic abbesses using HotCat

{{Short description|8th century archbishop}}
{{Cleanup|reason=careless copying from fr-Wiki|date=January 2022}}
'''Willicaire''' (Wilicarius), was arch[[bishop of Vienne]], in Dauphine, [[France]] in the eighth century.<ref>[http://www.gcatholic.org/dioceses/former/vien1.htm#58630 Metropolitan Archdiocese of Vienne]. GCatholic.org.</ref> He is considered a saint of the Catholic Church locally.<ref>Jean-Barthélemy Hauréau, Gallia christiana, vol. XVI, Paris, 1865, coll. 35</ref>

==Archbishop of Vienne==
Willicaire (sometimes Wilicaire, or Vulchaire) was archbishop of Vienna around the years 740.<ref>Content in this edit is translated from the existing French Wikipedia article at [[:fr:Liste des évêques et archevêques de Vienne (France)]];</ref>

He received from [[Pope Gregory III]] (731-741), the [[Pallium]].<ref>Louis Duchesne, Fastes épiscopaux de l'ancienne Gaule. Provinces du Sud-Est (tome premier), vol. 3, Paris, Thorin et fils, 1894, 356 p. (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 149-150.</ref><ref>Ulysse Chevalier, Regeste dauphinois, ou Répertoire chronologique et analytique des documents imprimes et manuscrits relatifs Ã l'histoire du Dauphiné, des origines chrétiennes Ã l'année 1349, Impr. valentinoise, 1912 (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 93, Acte no 555.</ref><ref>Ulysse Chevalier, Notice chronologico-historique sur les archevÃªques de Vienne : d'aprÃ¨s des documents paléographiques inedits, Vienne, 1879, 18 p. (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 9.</ref><ref>Ansgar Wildermann (trad. Monique Baud-Wartmann), Â« Willicaire (740 - 762) [archive] Â» dans le Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse en ligne, version du 8 avril 2013.</ref>

Louis Duchesne reports that according to the writings of Adon de Vienne (799-875), he "transported the relics of Saints Ferreol and Julien to Vienne as the previous basilica housing them having been burnt down by the Muslims" 1, around 731–734.

Wilicaire succeeded Austrebert as [[Bishop of Vienne]]. Following the invasion of the Saracens, he had the bones of Blessed Ferreol transferred with the head of the martyr Julien intra muros, and with them he buried martyrs of t the invasion.<ref>- Adon de Vienne (transl. Lucas, 2018) 5</ref>

St Wilicarius (Wilicaire) left his see in c.752 when it fell under Frankish persecution. He took refuge in Rome and then finally retired to the monastery of St Maurice where he died in 765.

He is revered as a saint, with a [[feast day|feast]] held on 13 June.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://orthodoxengland.org.uk/oefranc3.htm | title=Orthodox Europe :: The Holy Bishops of Vienne }}</ref>

==Retirement==
<blockquote>
"Wounded by the procedures of [[Charles Martel]], retired to the monastery of Agaune", he seems to resign his office at the beginning of the 740s to retire to the monastery of Saint-Maurice d'Agaune, in Valais.<ref>Ansgar Wildermann (trad. Monique Baud-Wartmann), Â« Willicaire (740 - 762) [archive] Â» dans le Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse en ligne, version du 8 avril 2013.</ref>
Ulysse Chevalier, in the Regeste Dauphinois (1912), gives c. 552.<ref>[[Ulysse Chevalier]], Regeste dauphinois, ou Répertoire chronologique et analytique des documents imprimés et manuscrits relatifs Ã l'histoire du Dauphiné, des origines chrétiennes Ã l'année 1349, Impr. valentinoise, 1912 (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 91, Acte no 547.</ref></blockquote>

==Life in Saint-Maurice d'Agaune==
The historian Chevalier says that "he becomes abbot, then bishop of Sion" .<ref>Ulysse Chevalier, Regeste dauphinois, ou Répertoire chronologique et analytique des documents imprimés et manuscrits relatifs Ã l'histoire du Dauphiné, des origines chrétiennes Ã l'année 1349, Impr. valentinoise, 1912 (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 91, Acte no 547.</ref>

It was mentioned In 765, that Bishop Wilcarius, who leads the community.<ref>Ansgar Wildermann (trad. Monique Baud-Wartmann), Â« Willicaire (740 - 762) [archive] Â» dans le Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse en ligne, version du 8 avril 2013.</ref> The list of abbots produced by Leon Dupont Lachenal mentions him as abbot from 760 to 782, "Vulchaire, former Archbishop of Vienne and Bishop of Mentana ([[Nomentum]]) near [[Rome]], Abbot of St-Maurice and Bishop of Sion".

During the [[Council of Attigny]], convened around 762/765 by king [[Pepin the short|Pepin le Bref]], he was present<ref>Ulysse Chevalier, Regeste dauphinois, ou Repertoire chronologique et analytique des documents imprimés et manuscrits relatifs Ã l'histoire du Dauphine, des origines chretiennes Ã l'année 1349, Impr. valentinoise, 1912 (lire en ligne [archive]), p. 93, Acte no 555.</ref> and signed as archbishop of the abbey of Saint-Mauriceâ.<ref>Ansgar Wildermann (trad. Monique Baud-Wartmann), Â« Willicaire (740 - 762) [archive] Â» dans le Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse en ligne, version du 8 avril 2013.</ref>[[Louis Duchesne]] sayys that he was mentioned in Agaune, in 771.<ref>Louis Duchesne, Fastes épiscopaux de l'ancienne Gaule. Provinces du Sud-Est (tome premier), vol. 3, Paris, Thorin et fils, 1894, p. 149-150.</ref>

He should not be confused with Abbot Willicaire d'Agaune, who became archbishop of Sens in 769.

His death is placed in the year 782.<ref>Leon Dupont Lachenal, Â« Les abbés de St-Maurice d'Agaune [archive] Â», Ã‰chos de Saint-Maurice, 1944 (édition numérique 2012), tome 42, p. 85-86, Â« Abbés de Saint-Maurice et évÃªques de Sion Â» et Â« Mainmise des Rodolphiens et des Savoie. Les Praets Â»</ref>

==References==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:French Roman Catholic abbesses]]
[[Category:8th-century archbishops]]
[[Category:Archbishops of Vienne]]

Vulmar

2024-11-10T21:00:26Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Saints; added Category:French Roman Catholic saints using HotCat

{{Short description|French abbot later canonised}}
{{Infobox saint
| honorific_prefix= Saint
| name = Vulmar
| honorific_suffix=
| image = File:Vulmarus -1600 - Bibliotheque municipale de Lyon.JPG
| imagesize =
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| caption = Vulmarus (1600) Bibliotheque municipale de Lyon
| titles =
| birth_name =
| birth_date =
| birth_place = [[Boulogne]]
| home_town =
| residence =
| death_date = 7th century
| death_place =
| venerated_in =
| beatified_date =
| beatified_place =
| beatified_by =
| canonized_date =
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| canonized_by =
| major_shrine =
| feast_day = 20 July
| attributes =
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}}
Saint '''Vulmar''' (or Ulmar, Vilmer, Vulmaire, Vulmar of Samer, Vulmarus, Wulmar; died 689) was a French [[priest]], [[hermit]] and then [[abbot]] who was later venerated as a [[saint]].
He turned to religion after his wife was taken from him and given to the man to whom she had previously been betrothed.

==Life==

Vulmar was born near [[Boulogne-sur-Mer|Boulogne]] in [[Picardy]], France.
He married, but was separated from his wife.
He became a lay brother at the [[Benedictine]] [[Hautmont Abbey]], formerly in [[County of Hainaut|Hainaut]].
Later he became a priest and was the founding abbot of [[Samer]] monastery near Boulogne.{{sfn|St Vulmar British Museum}}
It is said that Vulmar hid in a hollow oak at [[Caëstre]] for three days to avoid unwelcome honors.{{sfn|Humanistica Lovaniensia 1953|p=425}}
He is depicted as a hermit living in a hollow tree who receives bread from a peasant.{{sfn|St Vulmar British Museum}}
His feast day is 20 July.{{sfn|Drake|Drake|1916|p=137}}

==Butler's account==

According to the hagiographer [[Alban Butler]], {{blockquote|ST VULMAR. Abbot (c. A.D. 700)

ST Vulmar or Wulmar, whom the Roman Martyrology calls a man of wonderful holiness, was born in the territory of Boulogne in Picardy. He was married, but having been separated by force from his wife, he entered himself in the abbey of Hautmont in Hainault, where he was employed to keep the cattle and to hew wood for the community. He was distinguished for his eminent spirit of prayer, and was promoted to the priesthood. He after obtained leave to live alone in a hermitage near Mount Cassel for some years, and then founded near [[Calais]] the abbey of Samer, corruptly so called for Saint-Vulmar ; this monastery existed until the [[French Revolution]]. St Vulmar also founded a nunnery at [[Wierre-au-Bois|Wierre-aux-Bois]], a mile from his own monastery. [[Cædwalla of Wessex|Caedwalla]], King of the [[Wessex|West Saxons]], passing that way in 688 on his journey to receive baptism, conferred on the abbey an alms towards carrying on the foundation. St Vulmar was glorified by miracles, and his relics were conveyed to Boulogne, and from thence to the [[Saint Peter's Abbey, Ghent|abbey of St Peter]] at [[Ghent]].{{sfn|Butler|1956|pp=154–155}} }}

==Baring-Gould's account==

According to [[Sabine Baring-Gould]], Vulmar was the son of a Frankish [[Nobility|nobleman]] named Vulbert.
When he was a young man he was married to a girl named Osterhilda.{{sfn|Baring-Gould|1882|p=489}}
However, when she was a child she had been promised by her parents to someone else.{{sfn|Baring-Gould|1882|pp=489–490}}
That person complained to the king of the Franks, who ordered the separation of the young couple and gave Osterhilda to the person to whom shed had been betrothed.
Vulmar reacted by turning his back on the world and joining the monastery of Hautont in Hainault.
He was given the job of looking after cows.{{sfn|Baring-Gould|1882|p=490}}

Eventually Vulmar was ordained a priest, but decided to live alone in the oak forest.{{sfn|Baring-Gould|1882|p=490}}
For many years he lived in the Eeken forest, but when he was discovered returned to his place of birth and built a hermitage in the forest near Samer.
Over time both male and female disciples joined him, and he built two monasteries in the forest, one for men that he led and one for women under his niece Eremberta.
In 688 Ceadwalla, king of the West Saxons, visited him there while travelling to Rome, gave him 30 sous and said he would pray for him.{{sfn|Baring-Gould|1882|p=491}}
Vulmar died of old age just before or after the start of the 8th century and was buried at Samer.
The Huguenots later scattered his bones.{{sfn|Baring-Gould|1882|p=492}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}{{reflist|25em}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation
|last=Baring-Gould|first=Sabine|title=The Lives of the Saints|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AFY2AAAAMAAJ&pg=PA489
|accessdate=2021-07-13|year=1882|publisher=J. Hodges}}
*{{citation |title=Butler's Lives of the Saints |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.75008/page/n177/mode/2up?q=vulmar |accessdate=2021-07-13
|last=Butler |first=Alban |editor1-last=Thurston |editor1-first=Herbert |editor2-last=Attwater |editor2-first=Donald |volume=III July August September |publisher=Christian Classics Inc.
|location=Westminster, Maryland |year=1956 |ISBN=0870610481}}
*{{citation
|last1=Drake|first1=Maurice|last2=Drake|first2=Wilfred|title=Saints and their emblems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iwHMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA137
|accessdate=2021-07-13|date=1916-01-01|publisher=Dalcassian Publishing Company|id=GGKEY:PR7E6H0KXDH}}
*{{citation |title=Humanistica Lovaniensia |year=1953 |pages=387–515 |publisher=Leuven University Press |ref={{harvid|Humanistica Lovaniensia 1953}}
|volume=11 History Of The Foundation And The Rise Of The Collegium Trilingue Lovaniense 1517-1550: Part The Second : The Development |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23972929}}
*{{citation |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/collection/term/BIOG154935 |accessdate=2021-07-13 |publisher=British Museum
|title=St Vulmar |ref={{harvid|St Vulmar British Museum}} }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
*{{citation|title=La vie des saints pour tous les jours de l'année. Tirée des meilleurs & des plus fidelles auteurs. Avec des Reflexions chrestiennes sur la vie de chaque saint.
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UMSCImKCaaQC&pg=PA151|volume=3|year=1683|publisher=Lambert Rouilland |location=Paris |language=fr|pages=151ff}}
{{refend}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:}}
[[Category:French Roman Catholic saints]]
[[Category:7th-century deaths]]

Theobald of Vienne

2024-11-10T20:59:58Z

Szturnek: removed Category:Saints; added Category:French Roman Catholic saints using HotCat

{{Short description|Catholic archbishop}}
{{Infobox saint
| name = Saint Theobald of Vienne
| titles = Archbishop of Vienne
| birth_date = {{circa|927}}
| residence = [[Vienne, Isère|Vienne]]
| death_date = {{circa|1001}}
| death_place = [[Vienne, Isère|Vienne]]
| feast_day = 21 May
| honored_in = [[Roman Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]<ref>[http://www.orthodoxengland.org.uk/saintst.htm Orthodox England]</ref>
| canonized_date = 9 December 9, 1903
| canonized_by = [[Pope Pius X]]
| major_shrine = [[Vienne Cathedral]]
| attributes = Mitre, Staff, Book, Church Model
}}
'''Saint Theobald of Vienne''' ({{circa|927}}–{{circa|1001}}) (also known as Teobaldo, Thibaud and Thibault) was [[Archbishop of Vienne]], France, from 970AD until his death in 1001AD.

==Life==
Theobald was born around 927 in eastern France. He became a priest and was made archbishop of Vienne in 957.<ref name=urban>[https://kath-oberes-elztal.de/detail/heiliger/id/569-theobald-von-vienne/ ''"Lexikon der Heiligen und Namenstage'', (Albert Urban, ed.), Herder-Verlag, Freiburg, 2010]</ref>

Supporter of monastic revival, he was deemed a protector of the Church en lieu of Royal Interference.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thua |first=Laban |date=2019-08-05 |title=St Theobald of Vienne - Feast Day - May 21 |url=https://catholicreadings.org/saint-theobald-of-vienne/ |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Catholic Daily Readings |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=St. Theobald of Vienne - Saints & Angels |url=https://www.catholic.org/saints/saint.php?saint_id=2199 |access-date=2023-04-14 |website=Catholic Online |language=en}}</ref> He was the uncle to [[Theobald of Provins|Saint Theobald of Provins]]. Saint Theobald of Vienne's Grave is in [[Vienne Cathedral|Saint Maurice Cathedral]] in Vienne and is said to be the site of miracles, and was once a pilgrimage site.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/607578700 |title=Die Kirche Jesu Christi leben |date=2010 |others=George Augustin |isbn=978-3-451-30314-2 |edition=1. Aufl |location=Freiburg, Br |oclc=607578700}}</ref>

The cult of veneration for Theobald was approved by [[Pope Pius X]] on December 9, 1903.<ref name=urban/>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:French Roman Catholic saints]]