Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Peel (tactic)

2024-10-25T04:09:05Z

Tc14Hd: /* top */Removed empty line

{{Short description|Infantry retreat technique}}[[File:US Navy 041025-N-2383B-055 U.S. Navy combat photographers practice a center peel maneuver during troop formation and contact drills.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Center peel during patrol formation and contact drills training in the US Navy.]]

A '''peel''' (sometimes nicknamed an '''Australian peel'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Airsoft Tactics |url=https://www.airsoftstation.com/resources/airsoft-tactics/ |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=www.airsoftstation.com}}</ref> or '''Aussie Peeloff'''<ref name=Recondo>{{Cite web |title=HD Stock Video Footage - U.S. Army tactical field training at MACV Recondo school in Nha Trang, Vietnam |url=https://www.criticalpast.com/video/65675033630_United-States-soldiers_explosion_students-watch-training_soldiers-in-fire-fight |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=www.criticalpast.com|quote=U.S. Army personnel practice a variation of the "Ausie Peeloff" (aka "center peel off", or simply, "peel off") tactical retreat technique at the MACV (Military Assistance Command Vietnam) Recondo School in Nha Trang, Vietnam. (This type of tactic is designed for use by a small reconnaissance unit when unexpectedly encountering a larger enemy force.) A group of soldiers observes in foreground, as a squad of 6 trainees executes a peel off. In this case, the point man is seen to peel off first, followed, successively, by the other squad members. Near the end of the maneuver, one soldier throws a grenade which explodes to cover the retreat of the last squad member. (Vietnam War period).}}</ref>) is a type of [[retreat (military)|retreat]] conducted by [[infantry]] which allows them to maintain effective defensive suppressive fire while retreating.<ref name="Williams2010">{{cite book|author=Gary Williams|title=SEAL of Honor: Operation Red Wings and the Life of LT. Michael P. Murphy (USN)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e8DnFCKgxzYC&pg=PA111|date=7 December 2010|publisher=Naval Institute Press|isbn=978-1-61251-006-4|page=111}}</ref> Though generally considered a modern-day infantry technique, the concept dates back to Greek<ref>{{Cite web |last=Peithis |first=Sotirios Christos |title=TACTICAL AND STRATEGIC COMMUNICATIONS IN ANCIENT GREECE, FIFTH CENTURY BC |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10125906/1/Final%20Submission.pdf |website=University College London}}</ref> and Roman times.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Taylor |first=Michael J. |date=2014 |title=Roman Infantry Tactics in the Mid-Republic: A Reassessment |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24432811 |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte |volume=63 |issue=3 |pages=301–322 |issn=0018-2311}}</ref> This particular [[military tactics|tactic]] is more specifically designed for situations where smaller groups of infantry withdraw from an engagement of a much larger force. <ref name=Recondo />

==Types of peel==
[[File:Right Peel.jpg|thumb|Diagram of an infantry element conducting a peel to the right.]]
A peel begins with an infantry element deciding to disengage from contact with an opposing force. The soldiers begin by using [[suppressing fire]] to delay the enemy's attack and advance. Upon issuance of the verbal command to initiate the peel, the infantryman closest to the enemy, in the opposite direction of the intended post-peel movement, ceases fire and works his way behind the element towards the other side, takes a position beyond from the farthest soldier on this side in the direction of disengagement, and resumes [[suppressing fire]].<ref name=MVT>{{cite web|url=https://maxvelocitytactical.com/peeling-an-explanation/|website=Max Velocity Tactical|title=Peeling: an explanation}}</ref> Then, the process repeats until the party has safely disengaged the target. <ref name=MVT /> One specific type of peel is a '''center peel''', in which the retreat is conducted in between two files of the squad in column formation, allowing for the squad to conduct effective suppressive fire to the flanks. <ref name=MVT /> The center peel is typically used when linear terrain features dictate that the element must move in column formation, or when the squad unexpectedly makes contact while in a column formation. <ref name=MVT /><ref name=FMFRP1225>{{cite web|url=https://www.marines.mil/Portals/1/Publications/FMFRP%2012-25%20%20The%20Guerrilla%20and%20How%20to%20Fight%20Him.pdf|website=Marines.mil|title=FMFRP 12-25: The Guerrilla and How to Fight Him}}</ref>
[[File:Center Peel.jpg|thumb|Diagram of an infantry element conducting a center peel.]]
==References in film and literature==
The center peel tactic was demonstrated in the final gunfight of the [[2003 in film|2003]] movie, ''[[Tears of the Sun]]'', where Lieutenant Waters ([[Bruce Willis]]) directs his men away from a significantly larger group of aggressive Nigerian troops.

This tactic was also shown in episode 6 of season 2 of the Amazon Prime show, [[Jack Ryan (TV series)|''Jack Ryan'']], where a small group of 3 soldiers were ambushed in a ravine.

The peel tactic can also be seen in the 1995 film ''[[Heat (1995 film)|Heat]]'' as the LAPD intercept the heist crew as they are leaving the bank.

== See also ==
*[[Fire and movement]]
*[[Bounding overwatch]]
*[[Overwatch (military tactic)]]
*[[Siege]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Military tactics}}
[[Category:Maneuver tactics|Center peel]]

Constitution of China

2024-10-24T23:54:41Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Supreme law of the People's Republic of China}}
{{Other|Constitution of China (disambiguation)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2017}}
{{Infobox constitution
| document_name = Constitution of the People's Republic of China
| image = PRCConstitutionCoverLowRes.png
| image_alt =
| caption = Cover of the current constitution
| orig_lang_code = zh-CN
| title_orig = {{noitalic|中华人民共和国宪法}}
| jurisdiction = [[People's Republic of China]]
| date_created =
| date_presented =
| date_ratified = December 4, 1982
| date_effective = December 4, 1982
| system = [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist-Leninist]] [[One-party state|one-party]] [[Socialism with Chinese characteristics|socialist]] [[republic]]
| branches = Six ([[National People's Congress|Legislative]], [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|Executive]], [[Central Military Commission (China)|Military]], [[National Supervisory Commission|Supervisory]], [[Supreme People's Court|Judicial]], [[Supreme People's Procuratorate|Procuratorial]])
| head_of_state = [[President of China|President]]{{efn|name=state representative|China does not have a head of state constitutionally, but a "[[List of state representatives of the People's Republic of China|state representative]]". While the [[President of China]] has many of the characteristics of the head of state, the Chinese constitution does not define it as such.}}
| chambers = Unicameral ([[National People's Congress]]){{efn|The ''de facto'' legislature is the [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress]]}}
| executive = [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]] headed by the [[Premier of China|Premier of the State Council]]
| courts = [[Supreme People's Court]] [[Supreme People's Procuratorate]]
| federalism = ''No'' - Decentralization within a Unitary State ([[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative regions]])
| electoral_college = ''Yes'' – the National People's Congress, which elects all other state authorities, is itself elected by two layers of [[Indirect election]]: County and Township People's Congresses elect the members of Provincial People's Congresses, who in turn elect the members of the National People's Congress.
| number_entrenchments =
| date_legislature = [[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference|September 21, 1949]] (Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference) [[1st National People's Congress|September 27, 1954]] (National People's Congress)
| date_first_executive = [[1st National People's Congress|September 27, 1954]] (1st National People's Congress) [[Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China (1949–1954)|October 1, 1949]] (Central People's Government)
| date_first_court = October 22, 1949
| date_repealed =
| number_amendments = 5
| date_last_amended = [[13th National People's Congress|11 March 2018]]
| location_of_document = [[Beijing]]
| commissioned = 11th Communist Party Central Committee
| writer =
| signers =
| media_type =
| supersedes = [[1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China]]
| wikisource = Constitution of the People's Republic of China
| footnotes = {{Notelist}}
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| order =
| showflag =
| s = 中华人民共和国宪法
| t = 中華人民共和國憲法
| p = Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó Xiànfǎ
}}
{{Politics of China |expanded = Law }}

The '''Constitution of the People's Republic of China''' is the [[constitution|supreme law]] of the [[People's Republic of China]]. It was adopted by the [[5th National People's Congress]] on December 4, 1982, with [[#Revisions and amendments|further revisions about every five years]]. It is the fourth constitution in PRC history, superseding the [[1954 Constitution of the People's Republic of China|1954 constitution]], the [[1975 Constitution of the People's Republic of China|1975 constitution]], and the [[1978 Constitution of the People's Republic of China|1978 constitution]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Diamant|first=Neil J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wukiEAAAQBAJ|title=Useful Bullshit: Constitutions in Chinese Politics and Society|date=2022|publisher=Cornell University Press|isbn=978-1-5017-6129-4|language=en|access-date=February 2, 2022|archive-date=July 27, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240727003907/https://books.google.com/books?id=wukiEAAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|Constitutional history of the People's Republic of China}}

The first Constitution of the People's Republic of China was declared in 1954. The current Constitution was declared in 1982,<ref name=":Laikwan">{{Cite book |last=Laikwan |first=Pang |title=One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty |date=2024 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |isbn=9781503638815 |location=Stanford, CA |doi=10.1515/9781503638822|doi-broken-date=August 9, 2024 }}</ref>{{Rp|page=82}} after two intervening versions enacted in 1975 and 1978. There were significant differences between each of these versions, and the 1982 Constitution has subsequently been amended five times.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

The 1982 Constitution expunges almost all of the rhetoric associated with the [[Cultural Revolution]] incorporated in the 1978 version. In fact, the Constitution omits all references to the Cultural Revolution and restates [[Chairman of the Chinese Communist Party|CCP Chairman]] [[Mao Zedong]]'s contributions in accordance with a major historical reassessment produced in June 1981 at the Sixth Plenum of the Eleventh Central Committee, the ''[[Resolution on Certain Questions in the History of Our Party since the Founding of the People's Republic of China]].''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Resolution on certain questions... |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/cpc/history/01.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803120333/https://www.marxists.org/subject/china/documents/cpc/history/01.htm |archive-date=August 3, 2018 |access-date=December 22, 2018 |website=marxists.org}}</ref>

==Structure==

#Preamble
#General Principles (Chapter 1)
#The Fundamental Rights and Duties of Citizens (Chapter 2)
#The Structure of the State (Chapter 3) — which includes such state organs as the [[National People's Congress]], the [[President of China|President]], the [[State Council of the People's Republic of China|State Council]], the [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]], the Local People's Congresses at All Levels and Local People's Governments at All Levels, the Autonomous Organs of Ethnic Autonomous Areas, the [[National Supervisory Commission|Commissions of Supervision]], and the People's Courts and People's Procuratorates.
#The [[Flag of China|National Flag]], the [[March of the Volunteers|National Anthem]], the [[National Emblem of the People's Republic of China|National Emblem]] and the [[Beijing|Capital]] (Chapter 4).<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.pkulaw.cn/display.aspx?cgid=311950&lib=law|title=Constitution of the People's Republic of China (2018 Amendment)|website=en.pkulaw.cn|access-date=2019-03-28|archive-date=December 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229185240/http://en.pkulaw.cn/display.aspx?cgid=311950&lib=law|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==1982 Constitution ==
There had been five major revisions by the National People's Congress (NPC) to the 1982 Constitution. The 1982 State Constitution provided a legal basis for the broad changes in China's social and economic institutions and significantly revised government structure. The posts of President and [[Vice President of China|Vice President]] (which were abolished in the 1975 and 1978 constitutions) are re-established in the 1982 Constitution.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

Prior to 1982 there were no term limits on key leadership posts. Deng imposed a two-term limit (10 years total) on all but the chair of the [[Central Military Commission (China)|Central Military Commission]].<ref name="ksn">{{cite news |last1=Suzuki |first1=Ken |title=China's New "Xi Jinping Constitution": The Road to Totalitarianism |url=https://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/a05803/china%E2%80%99s-new-xi-jinping-constitution-the-road-to-totalitarianism.html |publisher=Nippon Communications Foundation |date=27 November 2018 |access-date=June 2, 2020 |archive-date=July 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728201617/https://www.nippon.com/en/in-depth/a05803/china%E2%80%99s-new-xi-jinping-constitution-the-road-to-totalitarianism.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Much of the PRC Constitution is modeled after the [[1936 Constitution of the Soviet Union]], but there are some significant differences. For example, while the Soviet constitution contains an explicit right of [[secession]], the Chinese constitution explicitly forbids secession. While the Soviet constitution formally creates a [[Federation|federal]] system, the Chinese constitution formally creates a [[Unitary state|unitary]] multi-national state.{{cn|date=July 2024}}

The preamble describes China as "a country with one of the longest histories in the world. The people of all of China's nationalities have jointly created a culture of grandeur and have a glorious revolutionary tradition."<ref name=":Laikwan" />{{Rp|page=82}} The preamble dates this revolutionary history as beginning in 1840.<ref name=":Laikwan" />{{Rp|page=82}}

Article 1 of the Constitution describes China as "a [[socialist state]] under the [[people's democratic dictatorship]]"<ref name=1982constitution>{{cite web|url=http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html|title=CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA|date=December 4, 1982|work=People's Daily|access-date=June 25, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812224210/http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html|archive-date=August 12, 2010|url-status=live}}</ref> meaning that the system is based on an alliance of the working classes—in communist terminology, the workers and peasants—and is led by the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP), the vanguard of the working class. Elsewhere, the Constitution provides for a renewed and vital role for the groups that make up that basic alliance—the [[Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference]], minor political parties, and [[People's organization|people's organizations]].

Article 3 describes the relationship between the central government and local governments: "The division of responsibility and power between the central and local government is governed under the unified leadership of the central government, while fully encouraging the principle of local government initiative and proactivity."<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=Lan |first=Xiaohuan |title=How China Works: An Introduction to China's State-led Economic Development |publisher=[[Palgrave MacMillan]] |year=2024 |isbn=978-981-97-0079-0 |translator-last=Topp |translator-first=Gary}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=7-8}}

Article 35 of the 1982 Constitution proclaims that "citizens of the People's Republic of China enjoy [[freedom of speech]], of the [[freedom of press|press]], of [[freedom of assembly|assembly]], of association, of procession, and of demonstration."<ref name="1982constitution" /> In the 1978 constitution, these rights were guaranteed, but so were the right to strike and the "four big rights", often called the "four bigs": to speak out freely, air views fully, hold great debates, and write [[big-character posters]]. In February 1980, following the [[Democracy Wall]] period, the four bigs were abolished in response to a party decision ratified by the National People's Congress. The right to strike was also dropped from the 1982 Constitution. The widespread expression of the four big rights during the student protests of late 1986 elicited the regime's strong censure because of their illegality. The official response cited Article 53 of the 1982 Constitution, which states that citizens must abide by the law and observe labor discipline and public order. Besides being illegal, practicing the four big rights offered the possibility of straying into criticism of the CCP, which was in fact what appeared in student wall posters. In a new era that strove for political stability and economic development, party leaders considered the four big rights politically destabilizing. Chinese citizens are prohibited from forming new political parties.<ref>{{Citation |mode=cs1 |editor-first=Robert L. |editor-last=Worden |editor2-first=Andrea Matles |editor2-last=Savada |editor3-first=Ronald E. |editor3-last=Dolan |title=China: A Country Study |location=Washington DC |publisher=Government Printing Office |date=1987 |url=http://countrystudies.us/china/ |chapter=The Government |chapter-url=http://countrystudies.us/china/108.htm |access-date=March 22, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514004344/http://countrystudies.us/china/ |archive-date=May 14, 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Among the political rights granted by the constitution, all Chinese citizens have rights to elect and be elected.<ref name=":2">{{cite web |title=China 1982 (rev. 2004) |url=https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/China_2004?lang=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717104412/https://www.constituteproject.org/constitution/China_2004?lang=en |archive-date=July 17, 2015 |access-date=April 22, 2015 |website=Constitute}}</ref> According to the later promulgated election law, rural residents had only 1/4 vote power of townsmen (formerly 1/8). As Chinese citizens are categorized into rural resident and town resident, and the constitution has no stipulation of freedom of transference, those rural residents are restricted by the [[Hukou]] (registered permanent residence) and have fewer political, economic, and educational rights. This problem has largely been addressed with various and ongoing reforms of Hukou in 2007.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} The aforementioned ratio of vote power has been readjusted to 1:1 by an amendment to the election law passed in March 2010.<ref>{{cite web|title=城乡居民选举首次实现同票同权(Chinese)|url=http://www.cqwb.com.cn/cqwb/html/2010-03/15/content_201910.htm|access-date=July 17, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717131404/http://www.cqwb.com.cn/cqwb/html/2010-03/15/content_201910.htm|archive-date=July 17, 2015}}</ref>

The 1982 constitution included the birth planning policy known as the [[one-child policy]].<ref name=":92">{{Cite book |last=Klára |first=Dubravčíková |title=Contemporary China: a New Superpower? |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-03-239508-1 |editor-last=Kironska |editor-first=Kristina |chapter=Living Standards and Social Issues |doi=10.4324/9781003350064 |editor-last2=Turscanyi |editor-first2=Richard Q.}}</ref>{{Rp|page=63}}

==Revisions and amendments==

===7th National People's Congress (1988)===
{{See also|7th National People's Congress}}
The National People's Congress amended Articles 10 and 11 of the Constitution. Allow the emergence of the private sector and allow the transfer of the Land tenure.<ref>{{cite web|title=中国共产党中央委员会关于修改中华人民共和国宪法个别条款的建议|url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/wxzl/gongbao/2000-12/16/content_5002073.htm|access-date=2018-03-10|date=1988-02-28|publisher=中国人大网|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180309120458/http://www.npc.gov.cn/wxzl/gongbao/2000-12/16/content_5002073.htm|archive-date=2018-03-09|url-status=live}}</ref>

===8th National People's Congress (1993)===
{{See also|8th National People's Congress}}

===9th National People's Congress (1999)===
{{See also|9th National People's Congress}}

===10th National People's Congress (2004)===
{{See also|10th National People's Congress}}
The Constitution was amended on 14 March 2004 to include guarantees regarding [[private property]] (''"legally obtained private property of the citizens shall not be violated"'') and [[human rights]] (''"the State respects and protects human rights"''). The government argued that this represented progress for [[Democracy in China|Chinese democracy]] and was a sign from the CCP that they recognized the need to adapt to the booming Chinese economy, which had created a growing [[middle class]] who wanted private property protections.<ref name=bhr/>

[[Paramount leader|Chinese leader]] [[Hu Jintao]] said that "These amendments of the Chinese constitution are of great importance to the development of China [...] We will make serious efforts to carry them out in practice."<ref name="bhr">{{cite book |last1=Zhong |first1=Huang |last2=Qian |first2=Cheng |editor1-last=Plantilla |editor1-first=Jefferson R. |title=Bridging Human Rights Principles and Business Realities in Northeast Asia |date=2014 |publisher=Vinlin Press |location=Malaysia |pages=21–53 |url=https://www.business-humanrights.org/sites/default/files/documents/Merging%20Business%20and%20Human%20Rights%20in%20China.pdf |chapter=The Disappearance of Hong Kong in Comics, Advertising and Graphic Design}}</ref>

===13th National People's Congress (2018)===
{{See also|13th National People's Congress}}
The Constitution was amended on 11 March 2018, with 2,958 votes in favor, two against, and three abstentions.<ref name=scmp1>{{cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/2136719/xi-jinping-cleared-stay-president-chinas-political|title=Xi Jinping cleared to stay on as China's president with just 2 dissenters among 2,964 votes|website=[[South China Morning Post]]|author=Nectar Gan|date=2018-03-12|access-date=2018-10-25|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181025140408/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/policies-politics/article/2136719/xi-jinping-cleared-stay-president-chinas-political|archive-date=2018-10-25}}</ref> It includes an assortment of revisions that further cement the CCP's control and supremacy, including setting up the National Supervisory Commission,<ref name="cgcp">{{cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Charlotte |date=28 December 2017 |title=China Plans to Amend Its Constitution |url=https://thediplomat.com/2017/12/china-plans-to-amend-its-constitution/ |journal=[[The Diplomat]] |access-date=June 2, 2020 |archive-date=July 28, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728200940/https://thediplomat.com/2017/12/china-plans-to-amend-its-constitution/ |url-status=live }}</ref> establishing a new anti-graft agency, extending the powers of the CCP's graft watchdog, adding Hu Jintao's [[Scientific Outlook on Development]] and [[Xi Jinping Thought]] to the Preamble of the Constitution,<ref name="voan">{{cite news |last1=Huang |first1=Joyce |date=19 September 2017 |title=China's Constitution to Include Xi Jinping Thought |url=https://www.voanews.com/east-asia/analysts-amendments-chinas-constitution-include-xi-jinping-thought |work=[[Voice of America]] |publisher= |access-date=June 2, 2020 |archive-date=June 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200619213935/https://www.voanews.com/east-asia/analysts-amendments-chinas-constitution-include-xi-jinping-thought |url-status=live }}</ref> and removing [[term limit]]s for both the President and Vice President, enabling [[Xi Jinping]] to remain president indefinitely. Xi is also the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]], the ''de facto'' [[Paramount leader|top position]] in CCP ruling China without term limit.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://npcobserver.com/2018/03/11/translation-2018-amendment-to-the-p-r-c-constitution/|title=Translation: 2018 Amendment to the P.R.C. Constitution|website=npcobserver.com|date=March 11, 2018|access-date=December 22, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222125439/https://npcobserver.com/2018/03/11/translation-2018-amendment-to-the-p-r-c-constitution/|archive-date=December 22, 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="cbnyt">{{Cite news |last1=Buckley |first1=Chris |last2=Myers |first2=Steven Lee |date=2018-03-11 |title=China's Legislature Blesses Xi's Indefinite Rule. It Was 2,958 to 2. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/11/world/asia/china-xi-constitution-term-limits.html |access-date=2024-07-27 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=October 26, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026031518/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/11/world/asia/china-xi-constitution-term-limits.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The concept of [[ecological civilization]] building was also added to the Constitution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rodenbiker |first=Jesse |title=Ecological States: Politics of Science and Nature in Urbanizing China |date=2023 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5017-6900-9 |series=Environments of East Asia |location=Ithaca, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=1}}

The amendments also add the phrases "Communist Party of China" and its "leadership" into the main body of the Constitution. Prior to the amendment, the CCP and its leadership were only mentioned in the preamble. Constitutional preambles are often not legally binding and as the legal applicability of the Chinese constitution is debated,<ref name="qzij">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Qianfan |author-link=Zhang Qianfan |date=1 October 2010 |title=A constitution without constitutionalism? The paths of constitutional development in China |journal=[[International Journal of Constitutional Law]] |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=950–976 |doi=10.1093/icon/mor003 |doi-access=free}}</ref> the amendment may be seen as providing a constitutional basis for China's status as a [[one-party state]] and formally rendering any competitive [[multi-party system]] unconstitutional.<ref name=":0" /> Xi "now has the distinction of being the first Chinese leader ever to have his theories enshrined in the constitution during his own lifetime."<ref name="ksn" /> The leadership of the CCP is now constitutionally enshrined as the "defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics", and therefore it establishes one-party rule as an end-in-itself.<ref name="ksn" /> Xi says:<ref name="ksn" />
{{cquote|Party, government, military, civilian, and academic, north, south, east, west, and center, the Party leads everything.}}

==Constitutional enforcement==
Though technically the "supreme legal authority" and "fundamental law of the state", the ruling [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) has a documented history of violating many of the constitution's provisions and censoring calls for greater adherence to it.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Estes |first1=Adam Clark |date=3 February 2013 |title=China's Still Having a Hard Time Obeying Its Own Constitution |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/chinas-still-having-hard-time-obeying-its-own-constitution/318748/ |access-date=14 November 2019 |work=[[The Atlantic]] |publisher= |archive-date=May 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220508043926/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2013/02/chinas-still-having-hard-time-obeying-its-own-constitution/318748/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Allen-Ebrahimian |first1=Bethany |date=5 December 2014 |title=On First Annual Constitution Day, China's Most Censored Word Was 'Constitution' |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/12/05/china-constitution-censorship-rule-of-law/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917154410/https://foreignpolicy.com/2014/12/05/china-constitution-censorship-rule-of-law/ |archive-date=September 17, 2018 |access-date=14 November 2019 |work=[[Foreign Policy]] |publisher=}}</ref>

The constitution stipulates that the National People's Congress (NPC) and its [[Standing Committee of the National People's Congress|Standing Committee]] have the power to review whether laws or activities violate the constitution.<ref name=":1" />{{Non-primary source needed|date=July 2024}} Unlike many Western legal systems, courts do not have the power of [[judicial review]] and cannot invalidate a statute on the grounds that it violates the constitution.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhu |first1=Guobin |date=2010 |title=Constitutional Review in China: An Unaccomplished Project or a Mirage? |journal=[[Suffolk University Law Review]] |volume=43 |pages=625–653 |ssrn=1664949}}</ref>

Since 2002, a special committee within the NPC called the [[Constitution and Law Committee]] has been responsible for constitutional review and enforcement.<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/bmzz/falv/2018-03/29/content_2052705.htm|title=坚决贯彻宪法精神加强宪法实施监督_中国人大网|website=www.npc.gov.cn|access-date=April 2, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402225712/http://www.npc.gov.cn/npc/bmzz/falv/2018-03/29/content_2052705.htm|archive-date=April 2, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Non-primary source needed|date=July 2024}} The committee has never explicitly ruled that a law or regulation is unconstitutional. However, in one case, after media outcry over the [[Sun Zhigang incident|death of Sun Zhigang]] the State Council was forced to rescind regulations allowing police to detain persons without residency permits after the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress (NPCSC) made it clear that it would rule such regulations unconstitutional.<ref name="Keith Hand">{{cite journal |last1=Keith J. |first1=Hand |date=2006 |title=Using Law for a Righteous Purpose: The Sun Zhigang Incident and Evolving Forms of Citizen Action in the People's Republic of China |journal=[[Columbia Journal of Transnational Law]] |volume=45 |doi=10.4324/9781315240664-16 |doi-broken-date=July 27, 2024 |ssrn=1972011}}</ref>

==Criticisms==
The [[Open Constitution Initiative]] was an organization consisting of lawyers and academics in the People's Republic of China that advocated the [[rule of law]] and greater constitutional protections. It was shut down by the government on July 14, 2009.<ref>{{Cite news |date=July 23, 2009 |title=Open Constitution closed |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2009/07/23/open-constitution-closed |url-access=subscription |access-date=2024-07-26 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=August 8, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808170722/https://www.economist.com/asia/2009/07/23/open-constitution-closed |url-status=live }}</ref>

In early 2013, a movement developed among reformers in China based on enforcing the provisions of the constitution.<ref name="NYT02413">{{Cite news |last1=Wong |first1=Edward |author-link=Edward Wong |last2=Ansfield |first2=Jonathan |date=2013-02-03 |title=Reformers Aim to Get China to Live Up to Own Constitution |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/04/world/asia/reformers-aim-to-get-china-to-live-up-to-own-constitution.html |access-date=2024-07-26 |work=[[The New York Times]] |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=June 19, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619114627/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/02/04/world/asia/reformers-aim-to-get-china-to-live-up-to-own-constitution.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Langfitt |first1=Frank |date=18 September 2013 |title=China's Debate: Must The Party Follow The Constitution? |url=https://www.npr.org/2013/09/18/219671719/chinas-debate-must-the-party-follow-the-constitution |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203202224/https://www.npr.org/2013/09/18/219671719/chinas-debate-must-the-party-follow-the-constitution |archive-date=December 3, 2018 |access-date=14 November 2019 |work=[[NPR]] |publisher=}}</ref>

In 2019, Ling Li of the [[University of Vienna]] and Wenzhang Zhou of [[Zhejiang University]] wrote that "the constitution appeals to [the CCP] because it does ''not'' provide solutions to fundamental issues of governance. Instead, such issues are kept out of the constitution so that they can be addressed by the Party through other regulatory mechanisms outside of the constitutional realm."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Ling |last2=Zhou |first2=Wenzhang |date=2019-11-21 |title=Governing the "Constitutional Vacuum" – Federalism, Rule of Law, and Politburo Politics in China |journal=China Law and Society Review |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–40 |doi=10.1163/25427466-00401001 |s2cid=213533678}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|China|Politics|Law|Communism}}
* [[Constitutional economics]]
* [[Constitutional history of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Constitutional law]]
* [[Constitutionalism]]
* [[Law of the People's Republic of China]]
* [[Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=note}}
{{notes}}

== References==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Country study |url = http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html |article = China }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikisource|Constitution of the People's Republic of China}}
* [http://en.npc.gov.cn.cdurl.cn/constitution.html Official Translation of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China]
* [http://www.gov.cn/guoqing/2018-03/22/content_5276318.htm The Constitution of the People's Republic of China - Official Chinese text]
* [http://english.people.com.cn/constitution/constitution.html English version of the Constitution of the People's Republic of China, incorporating amendments up to 2004]
* [http://www.npc.gov.cn/zgrdw/englishnpc/Constitution/node_2825.htm The National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China: Constitution of the People's Republic of China (Full text after amendment on March 14, 2004)]

{{-}}
{{China topics|state=autocollapse}}
{{PRC State Organs}}
{{Asia topic|Constitution of|title=Constitutions of Asia|IR=Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran}}

[[Category:1982 in law]]
[[Category:Constitution of China]]
[[Category:Government of China]]
[[Category:Laws of China]]
[[Category:Politics of China]]
[[Category:1982 in Beijing]]

Northwest Wind

2024-10-24T23:28:12Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Chinese music style}}
{{Music of China}}

'''Northwest Wind''' ({{zh|c=西北风|p=xīběi fēng}}) is a style of music which emerged on the popular music scene in [[mainland China]] from the northwestern or [[Northwestern China|xibei]] portion of China specifically from the [[Shanxi]], [[Shaanxi]] and [[Gansu]] provinces.<ref>Garofalo, Reebee. [1992] (1992). Rockin' the Boat: mass music and mass movements. [[South End Press]]. {{ISBN|0-89608-427-2}}</ref> The style is a western-style fast tempo, strong beat and extremely aggressive bass lines that is distinctly different from [[cantopop]] or [[mandopop]] from [[Hong Kong]] and [[Taiwan]] respectively. It later evolved into [[Chinese rock|Chinese Rock]] in the late 1980s.

==See also==
*[[Shidaiqu]]
*[[Prison Song (genre)|Prison Song]]
*[[Chinese rock]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Chinese styles of music]]
[[Category:Popular music]]

{{music-genre-stub}}

Nesting algorithm

2024-10-24T17:16:44Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Optimizing algorithm}}
{{refimprove|date=September 2015}}
[[Image:NestingTypes01.jpg|thumb|right|Pictorial representations of three different types of nesting algorithms: Linear, Plate and Packing]]
'''Nesting algorithms''' are used to make the [[Nesting (process)|most efficient use]] of material or space. This could for instance be done by evaluating many different possible combinations via [[Recursion (computer science)|recursion]].

#Linear (1-dimensional): The simplest of the [[algorithms]] illustrated here. For an existing set there is only one position where a new cut can be placed – at the end of the last cut. Validation of a combination involves a simple Stock - Yield - [[Kerf]] = Scrap calculation.
#Plate (2-dimensional): These algorithms are significantly more complex. For an existing set, there may be as many as eight positions where a new cut may be introduced next to each existing cut, and if the new cut is not perfectly square then different rotations may need to be checked. Validation of a potential combination involves checking for intersections between [[two-dimensional]] objects.<ref name=a />
#Packing (3-dimensional): These algorithms are the most complex illustrated here due to the larger number of possible combinations. Validation of a potential combination involves checking for intersections between [[Three-dimensional space|three-dimensional]] objects.

<ref name=a>{{cite web|last1=Herrmann|first1=Jeffrey|last2=Delalio|first2=David|title=Algorithms for Sheet Metal Nesting|url=http://www.isr.umd.edu/Labs/CIM/projects/nesting/sheetmetal.pdf|publisher=IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ROBOTICS AND AUTOMATION|accessdate=29 August 2015}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Geometric algorithms]]

{{science-software-stub}}

New Enlightenment (China)

2024-10-24T13:24:22Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Chinese social and cultural movement}}
[[File:Hu Yaobang's Former Residence 142.jpg|thumb|A slogan in the [[Former Residence of Hu Yaobang|former residence]] of [[Hu Yaobang]], who was the [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]] from 1982 to early 1987. ]]
[[File:CuiJian2 2007 Hohaiyan.jpg|thumb|''[[Nothing to My Name]]'' (1986) by [[Cui Jian]]'','' the "Father of [[Chinese rock]]", was regarded as the beginning of Chinese rock music.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=June 3, 2005 |title=Cui Jian: Father of Chinese Rock 'N' Roll |url=https://international.ucla.edu/institute/article/11612 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240105210716/https://international.ucla.edu/institute/article/11612 |archive-date=2024-01-05 |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=[[UCLA]]}}</ref> The song became a symbol of the 1980s of China, and rock music was viewed as one of the most direct forms of enlightenment in China.<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Matusitz |first=Jonathan |date=February 2010 |title=Semiotics of Music: Analysis of Cui Jian's "Nothing to My Name," the Anthem for the Chinese Youths in the Post-Cultural Revolution Era |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-5931.2010.00735.x |journal=The Journal of Popular Culture |language=en |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=156–175 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-5931.2010.00735.x}}</ref><ref name=":17">{{Cite journal |last=Guo |first=Yongyu |date=1994 |title=狂欢、舞蹈、摇滚乐与社会无意识 |trans-title=Carnival, dance, rock music and social unconsciousness |url=http://www.personpsy.org/uploadfiles/file/gyydsz/狂欢舞蹈摇滚乐与社会无意识_郭永玉.pdf |journal=Personality and Social Psychology |language=zh |issue=4 |pages=34–39 |quote=美学家高尔泰认为摇滚乐承担起了“启蒙”这一歌手可能根本没有想到的也不愿意承担的时代使命：也许摇滚乐是中国目前唯一可以胜任启蒙的艺术出式了。因为理论界的范围大狭窄，起不了大面积的启蒙影响，而音乐是一种特殊的语言，它能起到任何其他方式都达不到的作用。中国需要启蒙……}}</ref>]]
'''New Enlightenment''' ({{zh|first=s|s=新启蒙|t=新啟蒙}}), or the '''New Enlightenment movement''' ({{zh|first=s|s=新启蒙运动|t=新啟蒙運動}}), was a massive social and cultural movement in [[mainland China]] that originated in the late 1970s and lasted for over a decade.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Huaiyin |url=https://academic.oup.com/hawaii-scholarship-online/book/15223/chapter-abstract/169722777?redirectedFrom=fulltext |title=Reinventing Modern China: Imagination and Authenticity in Chinese Historical Writing |date=October 2012 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |isbn=9780824836085 |chapter=6 Challenging the Revolutionary Orthodoxy: “New Enlightenment” Historiography in the 1980s}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=Yan |date=2007 |title=意识形态的兴衰与知识分子的起落—— "反右"运动与八十年代"新启蒙"的背景分析 |trans-title=The rise and fall of ideology and intellectuals—background analysis of the Anti-Rightist Campaign and the New Enlightenment in the 1980s |url=https://www.modernchinastudies.org/us/issues/past-issues/97-mcs-2007-issue-3/1017-2012-01-05-15-35-22.html |journal=[[Modern China Studies]] |volume=3}}</ref> Growing out of the "[[1978 Truth Criterion Controversy|1978 Truth Criterion Discussion]]" during the ''[[Boluan Fanzheng]]'' period, the New Enlightenment is widely regarded as a new wave of [[Age of Enlightenment|enlightenment]] within the Chinese society since the [[May Fourth Movement]] in 1919.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":2">{{Cite book |last=Wu |first=Guanjun |url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/abs/10.1142/9789814417921_0003?srsltid=AfmBOooPDgnSzCnxkds3l022g73tFSukq9h7PXggXFo7-T-OlYfWRX9a |title=The Great Dragon Fantasy |year=2014 |pages=121–156 |chapter=Chapter 2: New Enlightenment as Modernization |doi=10.1142/9789814417921_0003}}</ref> The decade of the 1980s has thus been called the '''Age of New Enlightenment''' in China.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wang |first=Xuedian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G7G4XwAACAAJ |title=思想史上的新启蒙时代: 黎澍及其探索的问题 |date=2010 |publisher=Henan People's Press (河南人民出版社) |isbn=978-7-215-06655-7 |language=zh |trans-title=The Age of New Enlightenment in intellectual history}}</ref><ref name=":23" /><ref name=":29">{{Cite journal |last=Yan |first=Jiaqi |author-link=Yan Jiaqi |date=2016-06-05 |title=中国自由化运动的结束--纪念李洪林 |trans-title=In memory of Li Hongli: the end of China's liberalization movment |url=https://www.modernchinastudies.org/cn/issues/current-issue/1517-the-passing-of-li-honglin-signals-the-end-of-an-era-by-yan-jiaqi-.html |journal=[[Modern China Studies]] |language=zh |volume=28 |issue=2}}</ref>

The theme of the New Enlightenment movement included promoting [[democracy]] and [[science]], embracing [[humanism]] and [[universal value]]s such as [[freedom]], [[human rights]] and [[rule of law]], while opposing the ideology of [[Cultural Revolution]] and [[Feudalism in China|feudalism]].<ref name=":1"/><ref name=":23" /> The movement gave rise to a number of new literature [[genre]]s such as the ''[[scar literature]]'' and the [[Misty Poets|''misty poetry'']], meanwhile [[aesthetics]] also became a popular topic in society.<ref name=":16" /> In addition, the growth of publication industry, the birth of new music genres such as [[Chinese rock]], and the rise of [[Chinese film industry]] all contributed significantly to the New Enlightenment.<ref name=":6" /> Notable leading figures of the movement included [[Fang Lizhi]], [[Li Zehou]], [[Wang Yuanhua]], and so on.

The New Enlightenment movement ended due to the [[Tiananmen Square massacre]] in June 1989.<ref name=":5" /> After [[Deng Xiaoping's southern tour]] in early 1992, however, the academic and intellectual circle in mainland China thrived again but became divided, forming two major [[School of thought|schools of thought]]: the [[Chinese New Left|''New Left'']] and the [[Liberalism in China|''Liberalism'']].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Xu |first=Jilin |author-link=Xu Jilin |date=December 2000 |title=The fate of an enlightenment: twenty years in the Chinese intellectual sphere (1978-98) |url=https://www.eastasianhistory.org/sites/default/files/article-content/20/EAH20_06.pdf |journal=East Asian History |language=en |publisher=[[Australian National University]] |issue=20 |pages=169–186}}</ref><ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Xu |first=Jilin |author-link=Xu Jilin |date=April 2005 |title=啟蒙的自我瓦解 |trans-title=The Self-Disintegration of the Enlightenment |url=https://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c088-200503013.pdf |journal=[[Twenty-First Century]] |issue=88 |via=[[Chinese University of Hong Kong]]}}</ref> On the other hand, as the [[capital market]] and [[market economy]] expanding in China, traditional intellectuals quickly lost their leadership role in social development which they enjoyed during the New Enlightenment in the 1980s, meanwhile [[Entrepreneurship|entrepreneurs]] and business elites became increasingly influential.<ref name=":8" />

== Origin ==
{{see also|Democracy Wall|Beijing Spring}}

After the [[Chinese Cultural Revolution]] ended in 1976, [[Deng Xiaoping]] and his allies launched the "[[Boluan Fanzheng]]" program in 1977 to correct the mistakes of Cultural Revolution and, by the end of 1978, Deng replaced [[Hua Guofeng]] as the [[paramount leader of China]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Wu |first=Wei |date=2014-02-24 |title=70年代末中国的思想启蒙运动 |trans-title=The Enlightenment movement in the late 1970s in China |url=https://cn.nytimes.com/china/20140113/cc13reform/ |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=[[The New York Times]] |language=zh}}</ref><ref name=":72">{{Cite book |last1=Wang |first1=Xiaoxuan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ed3QDwAAQBAJ&q=boluan+fanzheng&pg=PA160 |title=Maoism and Grassroots Religion: The Communist Revolution and the Reinvention of Religious Life in China |date=2020 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-006938-4 |language=en}}</ref> During the power struggle with Hua, Deng and his allies started the "[[1978 Truth Criterion Controversy|Truth Criterion Discussion]]" in May 1978, which not only helped Deng win the power struggle over Hua, but also became the origin of the New Enlightenment movement in mainland China.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Li-Ogawa |first=Hao |date=2022-01-02 |title=Hua Guofeng and China's transformation in the early years of the post-Mao era |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/24761028.2022.2035051 |journal=Journal of Contemporary East Asia Studies |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=124–142 |doi=10.1080/24761028.2022.2035051 |issn=2476-1028}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Publication ===
[[Wang Yuanhua]], a notable scholar who was often credited for coining the term "New Enlightenment" in the 1980s, founded the journal ''New Enlightenment'' in [[Shanghai]] in 1988.<ref name=":23">{{Cite web |last=Wang |first=Xuedian |date=2014-01-10 |title="80年代"是怎样被"重构"的？ |trans-title=How was the 1980s re-constructed? |url=https://culture.ifeng.com/sixiang/detail_2014_01/10/32900063_0.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140209093943/http://culture.ifeng.com/sixiang/detail_2014_01/10/32900063_0.shtml |archive-date=2014-02-09 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[Phoenix New Media]] |publisher=Open Times (开放时代)}}</ref><ref name=":18">{{Cite web |last=Xu |first=Jilin |author-link=Xu Jilin |date=May 3, 2012 |title=Enlightenment and Chinese Civil Society: The Cases of Wang Yuanhua and Li Shenzhi |url=https://china.usc.edu/calendar/enlightenment-and-chinese-civil-society-cases-wang-yuanhua-and-li-shenzhi |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=[[University of Southern California]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":22">{{Cite web |last=Li |first=Rui |author-link=Li Rui |date=2010-09-30 |title=王元化与新启蒙 |trans-title=Wang Yuanhua and the New Enlightenment |url=https://www.aisixiang.com/data/36305.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150606204717/https://www.aisixiang.com/data/36305.html |archive-date=2015-06-06 |website=Ai Sixiang (爱思想) |publisher=[[Yanhuang Chunqiu]]}}</ref><ref name=":36">{{Citation |last=Xiang |first=Biao |title=The 1980s Culture Craze |date=2023 |work=Self as Method : Thinking Through China and the World |pages=39–46 |editor-last=Xiang |editor-first=Biao |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-19-4953-1_4 |access-date=2024-10-08 |place=Singapore |publisher=Springer Nature |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-981-19-4953-1_4 |isbn=978-981-19-4953-1 |last2=Wu |first2=Qi |editor2-last=Wu |editor2-first=Qi}}</ref> Wang himself participated in a short-lived Enlightenment movement initiated by the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) in the 1930s, and in the 1980s he called on renewal of the enlightenment philosophy from the [[May Fourth Movement]] in 1919, which included promoting [[democracy]] and [[science]].<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":26">{{Cite web |last=Xu |first=Qingquan |date=2008-05-21 |title=王元化："五四的儿子"走了 |trans-title=Wang Yuanhua, "son of the May Fourth Movement", has passed away |url=https://news.sohu.com/20080521/n256993954.shtml |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[Sohu]] |publisher=[[China Newsweek]] |language=zh}}</ref> [[Li Rui]], [[Wang Ruoshui]], [[Liu Xiaobo]], [[Gu Zhun]] and a number of other CCP officials and notable scholars published articles in the ''New Enlightenment'' journal.<ref name=":22" /><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IKJVMQAACAAJ&q=%E7%8E%8B%E5%85%83%E5%8C%96 |title=新启蒙: 时代与选择 |date=1988 |publisher=Hunan Education Press (湖南教育出版社) |isbn=978-7-5355-0713-6 |language=zh |trans-title=New Enlightenment: times and choices}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gXMHAQAAIAAJ&q=%E7%8E%8B%E5%85%83%E5%8C%96 |title=新启蒙: 危机与改革 |date=1988 |publisher=Hunan Education Press (湖南教育出版社) |isbn=978-7-5355-0743-3 |language=zh |trans-title=New Enlightenment: crises and reforms}}</ref> However, the journal soon ceased its operation in 1989 due to the [[Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]].<ref name=":22" />
[[File:蒲志強19890510.jpg|thumb|[[Pu Zhiqiang]] publicly defended the ''[[World Economic Herald]],'' which was forcibly shut down by [[Jiang Zemin]] in [[Shanghai]] before the [[Tiananmen Square massacre]] in 1989. ]]
In fact, the publication industry in mainland China already began to thrive during the early phase of the ''Boluan Fanzheng'' period. As early as in March 1979, [[Li Honglin]], known as the "flag bearer for New Enlightenment", published an article titled "No Forbidden Areas for Reading Books" in the founding issue of ''[[Dushu|Dushu magazine]]'', calling for elimination of all restrictions on reading books.<ref name=":110">{{Cite web |title="No Forbidden Areas for Reading Books": Li Honglin (1925-2016) gifts Fung Library with his calligraphy |url=https://fairbank.fas.harvard.edu/news/no-forbidden-areas-for-reading-books/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240720160548/https://fairbank.fas.harvard.edu/news/no-forbidden-areas-for-reading-books/ |archive-date=2024-07-20 |access-date=2024-10-19 |website=[[Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies]] ([[Harvard University]]) |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite journal |date=2021 |title=Introduction: Thought Liberation Vanguard Li Honglin |url=https://www.modernchinastudies.org/us/issues/current-issue/1494-introduction-thought-liberation-vanguard-li-honglin.html |url-status=live |journal=[[Modern China Studies]] |volume=28 |issue=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529113327/https://www.modernchinastudies.org/us/issues/current-issue/1494-introduction-thought-liberation-vanguard-li-honglin.html |archive-date=2024-05-29}}</ref> In 1980, [[Qin Benli]] founded the ''[[World Economic Herald]],'' which later became the forefront for promoting and defending [[freedom of the press]] as well as [[freedom of speech]] in mainland China.<ref name=":19">{{Cite report |url=https://keep.lib.asu.edu/items/149513 |title=The rise and demise of the World economic herald, 1980-1989 |last=Zhou |first=Mi |date=2010 |publisher=Arizona State University |language=en}}</ref> In 1984, [[Jin Guantao]] and others began to publish the ''[[Toward the Future Series|Toward the Future Book Series]],'' which played a major role in introducing "[[universal value]]s" and a variety of other modern concepts to the Chinese public.<ref name=":0" /> Even though both the ''Herald'' and the ''Book Series'' were banned due to the [[Tiananmen Square massacre]] in 1989, the ban of the latter was lifted after [[Deng Xiaoping's southern tour]] in 1992.<ref name=":19" /> Other important newspapers, journals and book series included ''Economics Weekly'' (经济学周报), ''[[Dushu]]'' (读书), ''Culture: China and the World (''文化: 中国与世界) edited by [[Gan Yang]], and so on.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":30">{{Cite journal |last=Bartel |first=David |date=2011-07-30 |title=No Forbidden Zone in 21st Century |url=https://journals.openedition.org/chinaperspectives/5576 |journal=China Perspectives |language=en |volume=2011 |issue=2 |pages=66‑73 |doi=10.4000/chinaperspectives.5576 |issn=2070-3449}}</ref>

=== Social activities ===
A spectrum of activists and social groups with different thoughts became active in the 1980s, from further developing traditional Chinese culture by learning from the [[western civilization]], to embracing ''[[Total Westernization]]''.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":23" /> For example, [[Liu Xiaobo]], who later won the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 2010, once said in an interview in 1988, that "it had taken 100 years of [British] [[colonialism]] to bring [[British Hong Kong|Hong Kong]] up to what it is, and given the size of China, it would certainly need 300 years of colonization for it to become like what Hong Kong is today. I even doubt whether 300 years would be enough."<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Sautman |first1=Barry |last2=Hairong |first2=Yan |date=2010-12-15 |title=Do supporters of Nobel winner Liu Xiaobo really know what he stands for? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2010/dec/15/nobel-winner-liu-xiaobo-chinese-dissident |access-date=2024-10-05 |work=[[The Guardian]] |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Fallows |first=James |date=2010-10-21 |title=Liu Xiaobo and the '300 Years' Problem |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2010/10/liu-xiaobo-and-the-300-years-problem/64916/ |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en}}</ref> The TV documentary ''[[River Elegy]]'' in 1988 was another well-known example of making self-criticism over traditional Chinese culture.<ref name=":16">{{Cite book |last=Wang |first=Jing |url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft0489n683&brand=ucpress |title=High Culture Fever: Politics, Aesthetics, and Ideology in Deng's China |date=1996 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=9780520202955 |access-date=2024-10-05}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Kristof |first=Nicholas D. |date=October 2, 1989 |title=China Calls TV Tale Subversive |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/02/arts/china-calls-tv-tale-subversive.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219152855/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/10/02/arts/china-calls-tv-tale-subversive.html |archive-date=2017-12-19 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Zhu |first=Ying |date=2012-06-05 |title=The Inside Story of When China's State-Run TV Criticized the Party |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/06/the-inside-story-of-when-chinas-state-run-tv-criticized-the-party/258102/ |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en}}</ref> On the other hand, a number of leading Chinese philosophers including [[Liang Shuming]], [[Feng Youlan]], [[Ji Xianlin]], Zhang Dainian (张岱年), and [[Tang Yijie]] founded the Academy of Chinese Culture (中国文化书院) in [[Beijing]] in 1984, which organized numerous seminars and classes studying and comparing Chinese and western cultures, in the hope of further developing traditional Chinese culture.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":30" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dai |first=Hongliang |date= |title=Opposition of Tradition and Modernity: Attitude of the New-enlightenism to the Eastern and Western Cultures |url=https://www.alljournals.cn/view_abstract.aspx?pcid=01BA20E8BA813E1924CB483152CA50D4FC5BD3CBB47B847F&cid=585D04A2453D8AD5DDFFE8BE5B16E24C&jid=60EA5AA30496B189657A70B1FA0BCD80&aid=F7D9FFCD92CE32367AE1295AE2588C44&yid=140ECF96957D60B2&vid=&iid=&sid=&eid=&from_absract=1 |journal=Journal of Jinan University |volume=20 |issue=2 |pages=17–20}}</ref>

Meanwhile, [[Fang Lizhi]], then vice president of the [[University of Science and Technology of China]], was an influential figure in promoting democracy and universal human rights.<ref name=":11">{{Cite web |last=Wines |first=Michael |date=April 7, 2012 |title=Fang Lizhi, Chinese Physicist and Seminal Dissident, Dies at 76 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/04/08/world/asia/fang-lizhi-chinese-physicist-and-dissident-dies-at-76.html |website=[[New York Times]]}}</ref><ref name=":12">{{Cite web |date=2016-10-10 |title=The Most Wanted Man in China: A journey from scientist to enemy of the state |url=https://www.ias.edu/ideas/most-wanted-man-china |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=[[Institute of Advanced Studies]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":13">{{Cite web |last=Wang |first=Dan |author-link=Wang Dan (dissident) |date=2012-04-15 |title=方励之是80年代启蒙时期的代表人物 |trans-title=Fang Lizhi was a representative figure of the Enlightenment period in the 1980s |url=https://www.rfi.fr/cn/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD/20120415-%E7%8E%8B%E4%B8%B9%EF%BC%9A%E6%96%B9%E5%8A%B1%E4%B9%8B%E6%98%AF80%E5%B9%B4%E4%BB%A3%E5%90%AF%E8%92%99%E6%97%B6%E6%9C%9F%E7%9A%84%E4%BB%A3%E8%A1%A8%E4%BA%BA%E7%89%A9 |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=[[Radio France Internationale]] |language=zh}}</ref> In his famous speeches in 1986, Fang noted that "Democracy is not a favor bestowed from above; it should be won through people's own efforts."<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 8, 2012 |title=Fang Lizhi and Freedom |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303815404577331431257255126 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241005235402/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303815404577331431257255126 |archive-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref> Fang said publicly, that "We should not place our hope on grants from the top leadership. Democracy granted from above is not democracy in a real sense. It is relaxation of control".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Munro |first=Robin |date=September 1987 |title=The indiscreet thoughts of Academician Fang |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03064228708534320 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241006000645/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03064228708534320 |archive-date=2024-10-06 |journal=[[Index on Censorship]]|volume=16 |issue=9 |pages=28–33 |doi=10.1080/03064228708534320 }}</ref> In January 1989, in memory of the 200th anniversary of the [[French Revolution]] as well as the 70th anniversary of the [[May Fourth Movement]], Fang wrote an open letter to [[Deng Xiaoping]], then [[paramount leader of China]], calling for [[amnesty]] and release of [[Wei Jingsheng]] and other similar [[Political prisoner|political prisoners]].<ref name=":38">{{Cite journal |last=Ma |first=Shu-Yun |date=1998 |title=Clientelism, Foreign Attention, and Chinese Intellectual Autonomy: The Case of Fang Lizhi |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/189478 |journal=Modern China |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=445–471 |issn=0097-7004}}</ref><ref name=":28">{{Cite web |title=Fang Lizhi's letter to Deng Xiaoping |url=https://8964museum.com/time/en/t-c01-001/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007013044/https://8964museum.com/time/en/t-c01-001/ |archive-date=2024-10-07 |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=8964 Museum (六四記憶‧人權博物館) |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":27">{{Cite book |last=Fang |first=Lizhi |title=The Chinese Human Rights Reader |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2001 |isbn=9781315700137 |edition=1 |chapter=Open Letter to Deng Xiaoping (1989)}}</ref> The letter inspired other intellectuals and scientists to follow suit with open letters in support.<ref name=":38" /><ref name=":28" /><ref name=":27" />

=== Literature and films ===
After the [[Cultural Revolution]] ended in 1976, a number of new literature [[Genre|genres]] emerged in the late 1970s in mainland China, including the ''[[scar literature]]'' and the [[Misty Poets|''misty poetry'']].<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=Pei |first=Minxin |author-link=Minxin Pei |date=June 3, 2019 |title=Tiananmen and the end of Chinese enlightenment |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/Tiananmen-and-the-end-of-Chinese-enlightenment |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190603192225/https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/Tiananmen-and-the-end-of-Chinese-enlightenment |archive-date=2019-06-03 |access-date= |website=Nikkei Asia |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":14">{{Cite web |last=Sun |first=Jilin |date=2004 |title=Rise and Noise: From Misty Poetry to the Third-Generation Poets |url=https://www.ostasien-verlag.de/reihen/deutsche-ostasienstudien/doas/040.html |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=OSTASIEN Verlag}}</ref> The former reflected on the Cultural Revolution and the disasters that it brought to the Chinese society, while the latter expressed the true emotions of individuals through its unique style and has been described as a continuation of the enlightenment tradition of the [[May Fourth Movement]].<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":14" /> Moreover, [[Ba Jin]], a notable Chinese writer, called on the Chinese society to establish Cultural Revolution museums in order to prevent a second calamity of this scale:<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ba |first=Jin |date=1986-06-15 |title=A Museum of the "Cultural Revolution" |url=https://www.marxists.org/subject/anarchism/ba-jin/1986/museum-of-the-cultural-revolution.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231226145207/https://www.marxists.org/subject/anarchism/ba-jin/1986/museum-of-the-cultural-revolution.html |archive-date=2023-12-26 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[Marxists Internet Archive]]}}</ref><blockquote>"Let history not be repeated" must not be an empty phrase. In order that everyone sees clearly and remembers clearly, it is necessary to build a museum of the "Cultural Revolution," exhibiting concrete and real objects, and reconstructing striking scenes which will testify to what took place on this Chinese soil twenty years ago! Everyone will recall the march of events there, and each will recall his or her behavior during that decade.</blockquote>[[File:Yimou-Kaige.jpg|thumb|Leaders of the [[Cinema of China#Rise of the fifth generation|fifth generation of Chinese filmmakers]]: [[Zhang Yimou]] (left) and [[Chen Kaige]] (right)]]
Meanwhile, the 1980s saw the rise of the [[Cinema of China#Rise of the fifth generation|fifth generation of Chinese filmmakers]], notably [[Chen Kaige]] and [[Zhang Yimou]], who directed a number of "enlightening" films such as the ''[[Yellow Earth]]'' (1984), ''[[King of the Children]]'' (1987) and ''[[Red Sorghum (film)|Red Sorghum]]'' (1988).<ref name=":15">{{Cite journal |last=Han |first=Chen |date=2008 |title=啟蒙時代的電影神話──關於第五代電影的文化反思 |trans-title=The myth of film in the age of Enlightenment——a cultural reflection on the fifth generation of films |url=https://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/online/0711002.pdf |journal=[[Twenty-First Century]] |issue=73 |via=[[Chinese University of Hong Kong]]}}</ref> It has been argued that the fifth generation of film was continuation of the Enlightenment since the May Fourth Movement, in which the Enlightenment was embedded in national salvation and the motivation of Enlightenment was national salvation.<ref name=":15" />

=== Aesthetics and arts ===
In the 1980s, Chinese society experienced an "[[Aesthetics]] Fever" (美学热), which was an integral part of the "Cultural Fever" or "Culture Craze" (文化热) and the New Enlightenment movement.<ref name=":23" /><ref name=":16" /><ref name=":36" /><ref name=":37">{{Cite web |date=2021-11-04 |title=Star of 1980s ‘Chinese enlightenment’ dies in the US at 91 |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/3154759/star-1980s-chinese-enlightenment-dies-us-91 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104031152/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/3154759/star-1980s-chinese-enlightenment-dies-us-91 |archive-date=2021-11-04 |access-date=2024-10-08 |website=[[South China Morning Post]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvvn0qg |title=Li Zehou and Confucian Philosophy |date=2018 |publisher=[[University of Hawai'i Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-7289-2 |editor-last=Ames |editor-first=Roger T. |jstor=j.ctvvn0qg |editor-last2=Hershock |editor-first2=Peter D.}}</ref> Being one of the top aestheticians in China in the 1980s, [[Li Zehou]] was responsible for starting and leading the "Aesthetics Fever"; his celebrated work ''The Path of Beauty: A Study of Chinese Aesthetics'' was widely read and has been translated into several languages.<ref name=":37" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10">{{Cite book |last=Roker |first=Jana S. |url=https://sunypress.edu/Books/F/Following-His-Own-Path2 |title=Following His Own Path: Li Zehou and Contemporary Chinese Philosophy |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |year=2019 |isbn=9781438472478 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Li |first=Zehou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FKAQAQAAIAAJ |title=The Path of Beauty: A Study of Chinese Aesthetics |date=1994 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-586526-4 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blocker |first=H. Gene |date=1996 |title=Review of The Path of Beauty: A Study of Chinese Aesthetics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3333328 |journal=Journal of Aesthetic Education |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=114–117 |doi=10.2307/3333328 |jstor=3333328 |issn=0021-8510}}</ref> Li was also one of the first intellectuals to publicly endorse the [[The Stars Art Group|Stars Art Group]] as well as the [[Misty Poets]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-12-10 |title=李泽厚：80年代青年的启蒙导师 |trans-title=Li Zehou: an Enlightenment teacher for the youth in the 1980s |url=https://culture.ifeng.com/special/30yearidols/200812/1210_5194_916323.shtml |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[Phoenix New Media]]}}</ref> The "Aesthetics Fever" was believed to have inspired people to reflect on and discuss their revolutionary ideology and their way of living, and Li’s books on aesthetics were widely read among Chinese university students eager for something other than political slogans.<ref name=":37" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Xia |first=Yu |date=2009-01-06 |title=李泽厚：用理性的眼睛看中国 |trans-title=Li Zehou: viewing China with rational eyes |url=https://zqb.cyol.com/content/2009-01/06/content_2496596.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423075023/https://zqb.cyol.com/content/2009-01/06/content_2496596.htm |archive-date=2024-04-23 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[China Youth Daily]]}}</ref>

The ''<nowiki/>'85 New Wave'' is regarded as the birth of Chinese Contemporary Art, when a group of young artists drastically changed the landscape of China's fine art by introducing Western elements in their works starting from 1985.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2007–2008 |title='85 New Wave: The Birth of Chinese Contemporary Art |url=https://ucca.org.cn/en/exhibition/85-new-wave-birth-chinese-contemporary-art// |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240717235156/https://ucca.org.cn/en/exhibition/85-new-wave-birth-chinese-contemporary-art/ |archive-date=2024-07-17 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=UCCA Center for Contemporary Art |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2019 |title=Born after the '85 New Wave Art Movement: The Generation Y of Contemporary Chinese Art |url=https://beijingdangdaiartfair.com/en/exhibitions/born-after-the-85-new-wave-art-movement-the-generation-y-of-contemporary-chinese-art/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240615210123/https://beijingdangdaiartfair.com/en/exhibitions/born-after-the-85-new-wave-art-movement-the-generation-y-of-contemporary-chinese-art/ |archive-date=2024-06-15 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=Beijing Dangdai Art Fair |language=en-US}}</ref> The ''<nowiki/>'85 New Wave,'' also known as the ''<nowiki/>'85 Art Movement'', was the first nationwide [[avant-garde art]] movement in Chinese modern art history.<ref name=":32" /><ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Zhang |first=Jingsheng |date=2021-04-01 |title=The Rising of the Avant-Garde Movement In the 1980s People's Republic of China: A Cultural Practice of the New Enlightenment |url=https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/6292/ |url-status=live |journal=Theses and Dissertations |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240710002711/https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/6292/ |archive-date=2024-07-10 |via=[[University of South Carolina]]}}</ref> The artistic practices in the ''<nowiki/>'85 New Wave'' are regarded to be culturally enlightening and thought-liberating, and is considered a cultural practice of the New Enlightenment.<ref name=":33" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Huang |first=Zhuan |date=2015-08-20 |title=作为思想史运动的85新潮美术 |trans-title='85 New Wave as a movement in intellectual history |url=https://collection.sina.cn/zhuanlan/2015-08-20/detail-ifxhcvsc4202659.d.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240426085709/https://collection.sina.cn/zhuanlan/2015-08-20/detail-ifxhcvsc4202659.d.html |archive-date=2024-04-26 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[Sina]] |publisher=Astron.Net (雅昌艺术网)}}</ref>

=== Popular and rock music ===
[[File:Teresa Teng la.jpg|thumb|[[Deng Lijun]] was regarded by some as the "Enlightenment teacher of love" in China in the 1980s, thanks to her pop music songs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-06-12 |title=八十李泽厚寂寞的先知 |trans-title=80-year old Li Zehou, a lonely prophet |url=https://news.sohu.com/20100612/n272746124.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424215527/https://news.sohu.com/20100612/n272746124.shtml |archive-date=2024-04-24 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[Sohu]] |publisher=Southern People Weekly |language=zh |quote=有人这样概括：在80年代，邓丽君是爱情的启蒙老师，李泽厚是思想的启蒙老师。}}</ref>]]
Since the [[opening of China]] in the late 1970s, Mandarin popular music or ''[[Mandopop]]'' from [[Taiwan]] and [[Hong Kong]] had made a widespread and long-lasting impact on the Chinese public.<ref name=":24" /><ref name=":25">{{Cite web |last=Tao |first=Dongfeng |date=2015-05-10 |title=不要低估邓丽君们的启蒙意义 |trans-title=Do not underestimate the meaning of enlightenment from Deng Lijun and the like |url=https://www.aisixiang.com/data/87742.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424224742/https://www.aisixiang.com/data/87742.html |archive-date=2024-04-24 |website=Ai Sixiang (爱思想)}}</ref> Most notably, the pop songs by [[Deng Lijun]], known as the "[[Honorific nicknames in popular music|Eternal Queen of Asian Pop]]", were believed to have an "enlightening" effect on [[humanism]].<ref name=":24">{{Cite journal |last1=ZENG |first1=Yi |last2=LIU |first2=Siyue |date=2022-08-03 |title=Songs into the Mind: Populism, Civil Society, and the Fans Culture of Teresa Teng between the Taiwan Strait |url=https://scholars.ln.edu.hk/en/publications/songs-into-the-mind-populism-civil-society-and-the-fans-culture-o |journal=14th Annual Conference of the International Society for Cultural History |via=[[Lingnan University]]}}</ref><ref name=":25" /> On the other hand, ''Homeland Love (乡恋)'' by [[Li Guyi]] in 1980 was considered to be the first pop song from within mainland China, which exhibited truthful elements of humanity and echoed humanism.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chen |first=Nan |date=2019-09-30 |title=Everything to their names |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201909/30/WS5d91548fa310cf3e3556e3ed_3.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925043355/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201909/30/WS5d91548fa310cf3e3556e3ed_3.html |archive-date=2023-09-25 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[China Daily]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pang |first1=Zhonghai |last2=Chu |first2=Liming |date=2020 |title=1980年代中国流行音乐歌词的主题生成及其"启蒙"逻辑 |trans-title=Themes of the lyrics of Chinese pop music in the 1980s and their logic of "Enlightenment" |url=https://www.cqvip.com/qk/81473x/202006/7103123123.html |journal=Journal of Northeast Normal University |issue=6 |via=CQVIP}}</ref>

In 1986, [[Cui Jian]] debuted his rock song ''[[Nothing to My Name]]'' which became the starting point of [[Chinese rock|Chinese rock music]].<ref name=":7" /><ref name=":6" /><ref name=":17" /> According to aesthetician [[Gao Ertai]], Cui Jian and [[rock music]] may be the only form of art that could have an "enlightening" effect at the time, and China needed Enlightenment.<ref name=":17" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-11-10 |title=崔健给了中国一种声音 |trans-title=Cui Jian gave China a type of voice |url=https://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-11-10/162216624616.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240424220719/https://news.sina.com.cn/c/2008-11-10/162216624616.shtml |archive-date=2024-04-24 |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=[[Sina]] |publisher=[[The Beijing News]] |language=zh}}</ref>

== Resistance and repression ==
[[File:Události na náměstí Tian an men, Čína 1989, foto Jiří Tondl.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Democracy movements of China|democracy movement of China]] led by students in 1989, before the [[Tiananmen Square Massacre]].]]
The development of the New Enlightenment movement encountered a variety of resistance from within the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) since the beginning.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":23" /> At the [[Theory Conference, January-April 1979|CCP Theory Conference]] in early 1979, [[Deng Xiaoping]], then [[paramount leader of China]], proposed the "[[Four Cardinal Principles]]" which soon became the official boundary of [[political liberalization]] in mainland China and was incorporated in the [[Constitution of the People's Republic of China|China's Constitution]] in 1982.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cardinal Principles |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095549420?p=emailAkZJJ.xPrHVQc&d=/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095549420 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Deng |first=Xiaoping |author-link=Deng Xiaoping |date= |title=UPHOLD THE FOUR CARDINAL PRINCIPLES (excerpts) |url=http://academics.wellesley.edu/Polisci/wj/China/Deng/principles.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045747/http://academics.wellesley.edu/Polisci/wj/China/Deng/principles.htm |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=2021-01-10 |website=[[Wellesley College]]}}</ref> The principles forbid any challenges to [[Mao Zedong Thought]] and [[Marxism–Leninism]], as well as to the leadership of CCP.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deng |first=Xiaoping |author-link=Deng Xiaoping |date= |title=UPHOLD THE FOUR CARDINAL PRINCIPLES (excerpts) |url=http://academics.wellesley.edu/Polisci/wj/China/Deng/principles.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901045747/http://academics.wellesley.edu/Polisci/wj/China/Deng/principles.htm |archive-date=1 September 2022 |access-date=2021-01-10 |website=[[Wellesley College]]}}</ref>

In 1983, left-wing conservative power within the CCP launched the "[[Campaign against spiritual pollution]]", opposing Western-inspired liberal ideas.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":23" /><ref>{{Citation |last=Cheng |first=Linsun |title=Anti-Spiritual Pollution Campaign |date=2016-08-18 |encyclopedia=Berkshire Encyclopedia of China |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780190622671.001.0001/acref-9780190622671-e-17 |access-date=2024-10-05 |publisher=Berkshire Publishing Group |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780190622671.001.0001 |isbn=978-0-9770159-4-8}}</ref> The short-lived campaign hit the burgeoning industry of [[science fiction]] significantly in mainland China.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Three-Body Problem: The 'unfilmable' Chinese sci-fi novel set to be Netflix's new hit 3 Body Problem |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20240319-3-body-problem-china-censored-sci-fi-netflix-hit |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Shu-Shin |date=1986 |title=The Rise and Fall of the Campaign against Spiritual Pollution in the People's Republic of China |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/30172073 |journal=Asian Affairs |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=47–62 |issn=0092-7678}}</ref> Subsequently in 1986–87, the left-wing conservative power continued to launched the campaign of "[[anti-Bourgeois liberalization]]", as a response to the [[1986 Chinese student demonstrations]].<ref name=":20" /><ref name=":21">{{Cite journal |last=Baum |first=Richard |date=March 1995 |title=Deng Liqun and the Struggle Against "Bourgeois Liberalization", 1979-1993 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0920203X9500900401 |journal=China Information |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=1–35 |doi=10.1177/0920203X9500900401 |issn=0920-203X}}</ref> [[Hu Yaobang]], then [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]], was forced to resign due to his sympathetic stance on the student movements.<ref name=":20">{{Cite journal |last=Tong |first=James |date=April 1988 |title=Editors Introduction |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.2753/CLG0009-460921013 |journal=Chinese Law & Government |language=en |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=3–17 |doi=10.2753/CLG0009-460921013 |issn=0009-4609}}</ref><ref name=":21" /> [[Fang Lizhi]], [[Wang Ruowang]] and [[Liu Binyan]] who played important roles in the New Enlightenment movement were all expelled from the CCP by direct order from Deng Xiaoping.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deng |first=Xiaoping |date=1986-12-30 |title=旗帜鲜明地反对资产阶级自由化 |trans-title=Resoundingly oppose the Bourgeois liberalization |url=http://www.qstheory.cn/books/2019-07/31/c_1119485398_63.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423032010/http://www.qstheory.cn/books/2019-07/31/c_1119485398_63.htm |archive-date=2024-04-23 |access-date=2024-10-05 |website=[[Qiushi]]}}</ref>

In June 1989, the New Enlightenment movement ended due to the [[Tiananmen Square massacre]], which also ended [[History of the People's Republic of China#Political reforms|China's political reforms]] in the 1980s.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":8" /><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Wu |first=Wei |date=2015-06-04 |title=Why China's Political Reforms Failed |url=https://thediplomat.com/2015/06/why-chinas-political-reforms-failed/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413104706/https://thediplomat.com/2015/06/why-chinas-political-reforms-failed/ |archive-date=2023-04-13 |access-date=2020-05-03 |website=[[The Diplomat]]}}</ref> In an official government report, [[Chen Xitong]], then [[mayor of Beijing]], labelled certain activities of the New Enlightenment as "some political gatherings with very wrong or even [[reactionary]] views".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Chen |first=Xitong |date=1989-06-30 |title=关于制止动乱和平息反革命暴乱的情况报告 |trans-title=Report on the situation of stopping unrest and quelling counterrevolutionary riots |url=https://www.gov.cn/gongbao/shuju/1989/gwyb198911.pdf |website=Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China}}</ref> Another CCP official was quoted to have claimed that "while the [[May Fourth Movement]] created the CCP, the New Enlightenment movement intends to create an [[opposition party]]."<ref name=":26" />

== Notable figures ==
[[File:Fang Lizhi (10455658873) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Fang Lizhi]]]]
Intellectual leaders of the New Enlightenment movement include:
* [[Wang Yuanhua]]<ref name=":18" /><ref name=":22" />
* [[Fang Lizhi]]<ref name=":11" /><ref name=":12" /><ref name=":13" />
* [[Li Zehou]]<ref name=":37" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":10" />
* [[Jin Guantao]]<ref name=":30" /><ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Rethinking "Human": Pond Society, Automation Fever, and the Disappearance of the Laboring Body |url=https://aaa.org.hk/en/grants/the-robert-h-n-ho-family-foundation-greater-china-research-grant-papers/rethinking-human-pond-society-automation-fever-and-the-disappearance-of-the-laboring-body |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=Asia Art Archive |language=en}}</ref>
* [[Wen Yuankai]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2008-11-27 |title=温元凯：八十年代思想大解放 |trans-title=Wen Yuankai: the grand thought liberation in the 1980s |url=https://news.ifeng.com/opinion/phjd/zh/200811/1127_1925_897150.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715054847/https://news.ifeng.com/opinion/phjd/zh/200811/1127_1925_897150.shtml |archive-date=2024-07-15 |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=[[Phoenix New Media]]}}</ref><ref name=":31">{{Cite web |last=Li |first=Promise |date=2022-03-08 |title=From the 'Chinese National Character' Debates of Yesterday to the Anti-China Foreign Policy of Today |url=https://madeinchinajournal.com/2022/03/08/from-the-chinese-national-character-debates-of-yesterday-to-the-anti-china-foreign-policy-of-today/ |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=Made in China Journal |language=en-US}}</ref>

Other important intellectuals include [[Yan Jiaqi]], [[Bao Zunxin]], [[Liu Binyan]], [[Wang Ruowang]], Pang Pu (庞朴), [[Ba Jin]], [[Jiang Ping]], [[Liu Xiaobo]] and so on.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":30" /><ref name=":31" /><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Wang |first1=Vivian |last2=Dong |first2=Joy |date=2023-12-27 |title=Jiang Ping, the 'Conscience of China's Legal World,' Dies at 92 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/27/world/asia/jiang-ping-dead.html |website=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Nobel Peace Prize 2010: Liu Xiaobo |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/peace/2010/xiaobo/facts/ |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=Nobel Prize |language=en-US}}</ref>

On the other hand, as [[General Secretary of the Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP), [[Hu Yaobang]] and his successor [[Zhao Ziyang]] were both staunch supporters of thought-liberation and were sympathetic over the student movements in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schiavenza |first=Matt |date=2014-04-16 |title=China's Forgotten Liberal Hero |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/04/chinas-forgotten-liberal-hero/360722/ |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=[[The Atlantic]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":34">{{Cite web |last=Huang |first=Cary |date=2019-04-14 |title=Hu Yaobang: an icon of China's reform – and of how little has changed |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3005932/mao-tiananmen-hu-yaobang-icon-chinas-reform-and-reminder-how |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414011033/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3005932/mao-tiananmen-hu-yaobang-icon-chinas-reform-and-reminder-how |archive-date=2019-04-14 |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=[[South China Morning Post]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":35">{{Cite web |last=Yardley |first=Jim |date=2005-01-17 |title=Zhao Ziyang, Chinese Leader Purged for Supporting Tiananmen Protesters, Dies at 85 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/01/17/world/asia/zhao-ziyang-chinese-leader-purged-for-supporting-tiananmen.html |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Brokaw |first=Julian Gewirtz, David Shambaugh, Tom |date=2024-10-07 |title=An Alternative History for China |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2016/08/19/an-alternative-history-for-china-under-liberal-zhao-ziyang/ |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=[[Foreign Policy]] |language=en-US}}</ref> Hu was forced to resign in early 1987 due to the [[1986 Chinese student demonstrations]], while Zhao was ousted in June 1989 right after the [[Tiananmen Square protests and massacre]].<ref name=":34" /><ref name=":35" /> Other high-ranking CCP officials who contributed to the New Enlightenment movement included [[Zhou Yang (literary theorist)|Zhou Yang]], [[Li Shenzhi]], [[Hu Jiwei]], [[Wang Ruoshui]], [[Li Honglin]], [[Yuan Geng]], and so on.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":29" /><ref name=":18" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=1989-08-01 |title=Zhou Yang, Ex-Culture Official In the Chinese Party, Is Dead at 81 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/01/obituaries/zhou-yang-ex-culture-official-in-the-chinese-party-is-dead-at-81.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240503091433/https://www.nytimes.com/1989/08/01/obituaries/zhou-yang-ex-culture-official-in-the-chinese-party-is-dead-at-81.html |archive-date=2024-05-03 |website=The New York Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-09-18 |title=Former People's Daily chief editor Hu Jiwei sought Tiananmen vindication |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1039377/former-peoples-daily-chief-editor-hu-jiwei-sought-tiananmen-vindication |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519012510/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1039377/former-peoples-daily-chief-editor-hu-jiwei-sought-tiananmen-vindication |archive-date=2022-05-19 |access-date=2024-10-07 |website=[[South China Morning Post]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ruoshui |date=April 1985 |title=A Defense of Humanism |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.2753/CSP1097-1467160371 |journal=Chinese Studies in Philosophy |language=en |volume=16 |issue=3 |pages=71–88 |doi=10.2753/CSP1097-1467160371 |issn=0023-8627}}</ref>

== See also ==

* [[Chinese economic reform]]
* [[May Fourth Movement]] and [[New Culture Movement]]
* [[Eastward spread of Western learning]]
* [[Marxist humanism]]
* [[Khrushchev Thaw]] and [[New political thinking]]
* [[Andrei Sakharov]]
* [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]
* ''[[Liberty Leading the People]]''
* [[Do You Hear the People Sing?]]
* [[Age of Enlightenment]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

* [[Fang Lizhi]]. ''[[The Most Wanted Man In China]].'' Henry Holt and Co., 2013.
* [[Li Zehou]]. ''[https://books.google.com/books/about/The_Path_of_Beauty.html?id=FKAQAQAAIAAJ The Path of Beauty: A Study of Chinese Aesthetics].'' [[Oxford University Press]], 1994.
* [[Vera Schwarcz]]. ''[https://www.jstor.org/stable/657460 A Curse on the Great Wall: The Problem of Enlightenment in Modern China]. Theory and Society,'' Vol. 13, No. 3, Special Issue on China (May, 1984).

{{Cultural Revolution}}
{{1989 Tiananmen protests}}
[[Category:1970s in China]]
[[Category:1980s in China]]
[[Category:Liberalism in China]]

Simplified Cangjie

2024-10-23T11:22:55Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Chinese input method}}
{{more citations needed|date= June 2013}}
{{Original research|date=August 2019}}
{{Chinese
|altname=Quick
|t2=簡易
|p2=jiǎnyì
|j2=gaan2 ji6
|bpmf2=ㄐㄧㄢˇ ㄧˋ
|title=Sucheng
|t=速成
|p=sùchéng
|bpmf=ㄙㄨˋ ㄔㄥˊ
|j=cuk1 sing4
}}

'''Simplified Cangjie''', known as '''Quick''' ({{zh|t=簡易}}) or '''Sucheng''' ({{zh|t=速成}}) is a stroke based<ref>[http://bochecha.fedorapeople.org/chinese_ims/#im-based-on-the-strokes-necessary-to-write-a-word Stroke Based Input explained]</ref> keyboard [[Chinese input methods for computers|input method]] based on the Cangjie IME ({{zh|t=倉頡輸入法}}) but simplified with select lists.
Unlike full Cangjie, the user enters only the first and last keystrokes used in the [[Cangjie method|Cangjie]] system, and then chooses the desired character from a list of candidate [[Chinese characters]] that pops up. This method is popular in Hong Kong and Macau, the latter in particular.

Simplified Cangjie is one of the few input methods which has an [[Input Method Editor|IME]] pre-installed on Traditional Chinese-capable personal computers.

==Performance and learning==
Although described as having an easier learning curve with less errors, Simplified Cangjie users have slower typing speed compared to full Cangjie. The user must choose from a list of candidate characters, which can be compared to "hunt and peck" vs. ordinary touch [[typing]]. Because Simplified Cangjie does not promote the full sequence of keystrokes of standard Cangjie, it could leave simplified Cangjie users without knowledge of how to code a character without the disambiguation lists.

==Implementations==
===Windows===
In [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]], Simplified Cangjie is called 'Quick'. Microsoft Quick IME is bundled with all Traditional Chinese editions of [[Windows 3.1x]] or higher. Since Office 2007 and Windows 7, [[Microsoft]] offers two types of Quick: 'Quick' and 'New Quick'. Both are found under the section for Chinese (Traditional, Taiwan). The main difference between the two is that after the second keystroke, traditional Quick shows its drop down list while 'New Quick' will guess and output a character depending on the context (the New-Quick list needs to be manually invoked with an arrow key). 'New Quick' may also change previous characters of the sentence depending on whether the context changes. Microsoft also claims New-Quick to have an improved learning algorithm.
===macOS===
* Sucheng input is part of the standard installation of macOS.

==Adoption==
===Hong Kong===
In [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]]-speaking [[Hong Kong]], average computer users tend to prefer Simplified Cangjie over the full Cangjie largely due to its ease of use, and also the lack of other input methods available. The Cangjie IME itself has evidence of a strong presence in Hong Kong with it being available on most operating systems and [[Keyboard layout#Chinese|keyboard layouts]]. As Hong Kong people are generally unfamiliar with phonetic-based input methods designed for [[Standard Mandarin|Mandarin]] speakers such as [[pinyin]] and [[zhuyin]], these methods are not widely used. Children in Hong Kong learn Chinese in a very different way from their peers in Mainland China and Taiwan, not only that they generally learn Chinese in Cantonese instead of Mandarin, but they do not learn any transliteration system until perhaps much later in their lives when they start learning Mandarin. Indeed, children in Hong Kong learn Chinese characters from the very beginning in kindergartens; in contrast, in mainland China and Taiwan, transliteration systems like pinyin or zhuyin are taught first before introducing any Chinese characters to children.

==See also==
*[[Chinese input methods for computers]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Input method}}

[[Category:CJK input methods]]

Thirty-Six Stratagems

2024-10-23T09:21:23Z

Tc14Hd: /* top */Added link

{{Short description|6th century essay on strategy}}
{{Original research|date=January 2010}}
{{Infobox book
| author = Unknown
| pub_date = 6th century
| language = Chinese
| country = China
| subject = [[military strategy]]
}}
{{italic title}}
{{Chinese|title=''Thirty-Six Stratagems''|
t=三十六計|s=三十六计|p=Sānshíliù Jì|tp=San shíh lioù Jì |bpmf=ㄙㄢㄕˊ ㄌㄧㄡˋ ㄐㄧˋ |j=saam1 sap6 luk6 gai3|hanja=三十六計|hangul=삼십육계|kanji=兵法三十六計|hiragana=へいほうさんじゅうろっけい|qn=tam thập lục kế ba mươi sáu kế|chuhan=三十六計|chunom=𠀧𨒒𦒹計}}
{{Chinese Military Texts}}

The '''''Thirty-Six Stratagems''''' is a Chinese essay used to illustrate a series of stratagems used in politics, war, and civil interaction.

Its focus on the use of cunning and deception both on the battlefield and in court have drawn comparisons to Sun Tzu's ''[[The Art of War]]''. Zhang Yingyu's ''[[The Book of Swindles]]'', a late-[[Ming-dynasty]] work that focuses on the realms of commerce and civil society, shares some thematic similarities.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cup.columbia.edu/search-results?keyword=book+of+swindles |title = Search Results {{!}} book of swindles {{!}} Columbia University Press}}</ref>

==Origin==

The name of the collection comes from the ''[[Book of Qi]]''{{'s}} seventh biographical volume, ''Biography of Wang Jingze'' ({{Lang|zh-hant|王敬則傳}}).<ref name="hoolulu-wang">{{cite web|url=http://www.hoolulu.com/zh/25shi/07nanqishu/t-026.htm|title=Original Text of the ''Biography of Wáng Jìngzé'', ''Book of Qi'' (Traditional Chinese)|access-date=2006-11-27}}</ref> Wáng was a general who had served [[Southern Qi]] since the first [[Emperor Gao of Southern Qi|Emperor Gao]] of the dynasty. When [[Emperor Ming of Southern Qi|Emperor Ming]] came to power and executed many members of the court and royal family for fear that they would threaten his reign, Wang believed that he would be targeted next and rebelled. As Wang received news that [[Xiao Baojuan]], son and [[crown prince]] of Emperor Ming, had escaped in haste after learning of the rebellion, he commented that "of the thirty-six stratagems of Lord Tán, retreat was his best, you father and son should run for sure."<ref>"檀公三十六策，走是上計，汝父子唯應急走耳"</ref> "Lord Tán" refers to general [[Tan Daoji]] of the [[Liu Song dynasty]], who was forced to retreat after his failed attack on [[Northern Wei]], and Wang mentioned his name in contempt as an example of cowardice.<ref name="millionbook">{{cite web|url=http://www.millionbook.net/xd/m/mananchun/ysyh/145.htm|title=Introduction to the ''Thirty-Six Strategies'' (Traditional Chinese)|access-date=2006-11-27}}</ref>

The number thirty-six was used by Wang as a figure of speech in this context, and is meant to denote "numerous stratagems" instead of any specific number. Wang's choice of this term came from the ''[[I Ching]]'', where six is the number of [[Yin and Yang|''yin'']] that shared many characteristics with the dark schemes involved in military strategy. As thirty-six is the square of six, it therefore acted as a metaphor for "numerous strategies".<ref name="millionbook" /> Since Wang did not refer to any thirty-six specific stratagems, the thirty-six proverbs and their connection to military strategies and tactics are likely to have been created after the fact, with only the collection's name being attributed to Wang.<ref name="szbf" />

The prevailing view is that contents of the ''Thirty-Six Stratagems'' originated in both written and oral history. Some stratagems reference occurrences in the time of [[Sun Bin]], approximately 150 years after Sun Tzu's death.<ref name="szbf" /> The original hand-copied paperback was believed to have been discovered in China's [[Shaanxi]] province, of an unknown date and author, and put into print by a local publisher in 1941. The ''Thirty-Six Stratagems'' came to the public's attention after a review of it was published in the [[Communist Party of China|Chinese Communist Party's]] ''[[Guangming Daily (China)|Guangming Daily]]'' newspaper on September 16, 1961. It was subsequently reprinted and distributed with growing popularity.<ref name="szbf">{{cite web|url=http://www.szbf.net/Article_Show.asp?ArticleID=1490|title=Exploring the ''Thirty-Six Strategies'' (Simplified Chinese)|publisher=[Chinese Strategic Science Network]|date=2006-07-11|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721184402/http://www.szbf.net/Article_Show.asp?ArticleID=1490|archive-date=2011-07-21}}</ref>

The ''Thirty-Six Stratagems'' are divided into a preface, six chapters containing six stratagems each, and an incomplete afterword that was missing text. The first three chapters generally describe tactics for use in advantageous situations, while the last three chapters contain stratagems that are more suitable for disadvantageous situations. The original text of the ''Thirty-Six Stratagems'' has a [[Laconic phrase|laconic]] style that is common to [[Classical Chinese]]. Each proverb is accompanied by a short comment, no longer than a sentence or two, that explains how said proverb is applicable to military tactics. These 36 Chinese proverbs are related to 36 battle scenarios in Chinese history and folklore, predominantly of the [[Warring States period]] and the [[Three Kingdoms period]].

==Content==
The ''Thirty-Six Stratagems'' consists of six chapters, with each chapter consisting of six stratagems.

=== Chapter 1: Winning Stratagems ({{Lang|zh-hant|勝戰計}}, Shèng zhàn jì) ===

====Deceive the heavens to cross the sea ({{Lang|zh-hant|瞞天過海}}, Mán tiān guò hǎi)====
:Mask one's real goals from those in authority who lack vision by not alerting them to one's movements or any part of one's plan.

===={{anchor|Besiege Wei to rescue Zhao}} Besiege Wèi to rescue Zhào (圍魏救趙, Wéi Wèi jiù Zhào)====
{{further|Battle of Guiling}}
:When the enemy is too strong to be attacked directly, attack something they cherish. The idea is to avoid a head-on battle with a strong enemy, and instead strike at their weakness elsewhere. This will force the strong enemy to retreat in order to support their weakness. Battling against a tired and dispirited enemy will give a much higher chance of success.

====Kill with a borrowed knife (借刀殺人, Jiè dāo shā rén)====
:Attack using the strength of another when in a situation where using one's own strength is not favourable. For example, trick an ally into attacking them or use the enemy's own strength against them. The idea is to cause damage to the enemy via a third party.

====Wait at leisure while the enemy labors (以逸待勞, Yǐ yì dài láo)====
:It is advantageous to choose the time and place for battle while the enemy does not. Encourage the enemy to expend their energy in futile quests while one conserves their strength. When the enemy is exhausted and confused, attack with energy and purpose.

====Loot a burning house (趁火打劫, Chèn huǒ dǎ jié)====
:When a country is beset by internal problems, such as disease, famine, corruption, and crime, it is poorly-equipped to deal with an outside threat. Keep gathering internal information about an enemy. If the enemy is in its weakest state, attack them without mercy and annihilate them to prevent future troubles.

====Make a sound in the east, then strike in the west (聲東擊西, Shēng dōng jī xī)====
:In any battle the element of surprise can provide an overwhelming advantage. Even when face-to-face with an enemy, surprise can still be employed by attacking where they least expect it. Create an expectation in the enemy's mind through the use of a feint. Manipulate the enemy to focus their resources somewhere before attacking elsewhere that is poorly defended. Tactically, this is known as an "open feint".

===Chapter 2: Enemy Dealing Stratagems (敵戰計, Dí zhàn jì)===
====Create something from nothing (无中生有, Wú zhōng shēng yǒu)====
:A plain lie. Make somebody believe there was something when there is in fact nothing or vice versa.

====Openly repair the [[gallery road]]s, but sneak through the passage of [[Chencang]] (明修棧道，暗渡陳倉, Míng xiū zhàn dào, àn dù Chéncāng)====
:Deceive the enemy with an obvious approach that will take a very long time, while ambushing them with another approach. It is an extension of the "Make a sound in the east, then strike in the west" tactic, but instead of merely spreading misinformation to draw the enemy's attention, physical decoys are used to further misdirect the enemy. The decoys must be easily seen by the enemy to draw their attention while acting as if they are meant to do what they are falsely doing to avoid suspicion.
:Today, "sneaking through the passage of Chencang" also has the meaning of having an affair or doing something that is illegal.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Zhang|first1=Yongcheng|title=計策學-新36計／商政實例解說本|date=1988|publisher=Yuan-Liou Publishing Co., Ltd.|location=Taiwan|page=219|isbn=9789573206033|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=De21AAAAQBAJ&q=%E6%9A%97%E6%B8%A1%E9%99%B3%E5%80%89+%E5%81%B7%E6%83%85&pg=PT222|access-date=6 September 2016|edition=Strategy - New 36 Strategem/Business & Politics Explainer}}</ref>

====Watch the fires burning across the river (隔岸觀火, Gé àn guān huǒ)====
:Delay entering the field of battle until all other parties become exhausted by fighting amongst each other. Go in at full strength and finish them off.

====Hide a knife behind a smile (笑裏藏刀, Xiào lǐ cáng dāo)====
:Charm and ingratiate oneself with the enemy. When their trust is gained, move against them in secret.

====Sacrifice the plum tree to preserve the peach tree (李代桃僵, Lǐ dài táo jiāng)====
:There are circumstances where short-term objectives must be sacrificed in order to gain the long-term goal. This is the scapegoat strategy where someone suffers the consequences so that the rest do not.

====Take the opportunity to pilfer a goat (順手牽羊, Shùn shǒu qiān yáng)====
:While carrying out one's plans, be flexible enough to take advantage of any opportunity that presents itself, however small, and avail oneself of any profit, however slight.

===Chapter 3: Offensive Stratagems (攻戰計, Gōng zhàn jì)===
====Stomp the grass to scare the snake (打草驚蛇, Dǎ cǎo jīng shé)====
:Do something unaimed, but spectacular ("hitting the grass") to provoke a response from the enemy ("startle the snake") to have them give away their plans or position. Do something unusual, strange, and unexpected to arouse the enemy's suspicion and disrupt their thinking. It is more widely used as a warning: "[Do not] startle the snake by hitting the grass". An imprudent act will give one's position or intentions away to the enemy.

====Borrow a corpse to resurrect the soul (借屍還魂, Jiè shī huán hún)====
:Take an institution, a technology, a method, or even an ideology that has been forgotten or discarded and appropriate it for one's own purposes.

====Lure the tiger down the mountain (调虎離山, Diào hǔ lí shān)====
:Never directly attack an opponent whose advantage is derived from their position. Instead, lure them away from their position to separate them from their source of strength.

====In order to capture, one must let loose (欲擒故縱, Yù qín gù zòng)====
:Cornered prey will often mount a final desperate attack. To prevent this, let the enemy believe they still have a chance for freedom. Their will to fight is hampered by their desire to escape. The enemy's morale will be depleted and they will surrender without a fight when the illusion of escape is revealed.

====Tossing out a brick to lure a jade gem (拋磚引玉, Pāo zhuān yǐn yù)====
{{see also|wikt:拋磚引玉}}
:Bait someone by making them believe they gain something or to just make them react to it; "toss out a brick" to obtain something valuable from them in return ("get a jade gem").

====Defeat the enemy by capturing their chief (擒賊擒王, Qín zéi qín wáng)====
:If the enemy's army is strong but is allied to the commander only by money, superstition, or threats, target the leader. If the commander falls, the rest of the army will disperse or join one's side. If they are allied to the leader through loyalty, beware, as the army can continue to fight on after their death out of vengeance.

===Chapter 4: Mixed Warfare Stratagems (混戰計, Hùnzhàn jì)===
====Remove the firewood from under the pot (釜底抽薪, Fǔ dǐ chōu xīn)====
:Take out the leading argument or asset of someone; "steal someone's thunder". This is the essence of the [[indirect approach]]: instead of attacking enemy's fighting forces, direct attacks against their ability to wage war. Literally, take the fuel out of the fire.

====Disturb the water and catch a fish (渾水摸魚／混水摸魚, Hùn shuǐ mō yú)====
:Create confusion and exploit it to further one's own goals.

====Slough off the cicada's golden shell (金蟬脱殼, Jīn chán tuō qiào)====
:Mask oneself. Either leave one's distinctive traits behind and become inconspicuous or masquerade as something or someone else. This strategy is mainly used to escape from a stronger enemy.

====Shut the door to catch the thief (關門捉賊, Guān mén zhuō zéi)====
:To capture one's enemy, or more generally in fighting wars, to deliver the final blow to the enemy, plan prudently for success; do not rush into action. Before "moving in for the kill", first cut off the enemy's escape routes and any routes from external aid.

====Befriend a distant state and strike a neighbouring one (遠交近攻, Yuǎn jiāo jìn gōng)====
:Invading nations close to oneself carries a higher chance of success. The battlefields are close to one's domain and as such is easier for one's troops to receive supplies and defend the conquered land. Make allies with nations far away from oneself, as it is unwise to invade them.

====Obtain safe passage to conquer the [[Western Guo (state)|State of Guo]] (假途伐虢, Jiǎ tú fá Guó)====
:Borrow the resources of an ally to attack a common enemy. Once the enemy is defeated, use those resources to turn on the ally that lent them in the first place.

===Chapter 5: Combined Stratagems (並戰計, Bìng zhàn jì)===
====Replace the beams with rotten timbers (偷梁換柱, Tōu liáng huàn zhù)====
:Disrupt the enemy's formations, interfere with their methods of operations, and change the rules that they are used to following. In this way the supporting pillar, the common link that makes a group of men an effective fighting force, is removed.

====Point at the [[mulberry tree]] while cursing the locust tree (指桑罵槐, Zhǐ sāng mà huái)====
:To discipline, control, or warn others whose status or position excludes them from direct confrontation; use analogy and innuendo. Without directly naming names, those accused cannot retaliate without revealing their complicity.

====Feign madness but keep your balance (假痴不癲, Jiǎ chī bù diān)====
:Pretend to be incompetent to create confusion about one's intentions and motivations. Lure the opponent into underestimating one's ability until they drop their guard.

====Remove the ladder when the enemy has ascended to the roof (上屋抽梯, Shàng wū chōu tī)====
:With baits and deceptions, lure the enemy into treacherous terrain and cut off their lines of communication and escape routes. To save themselves, they must fight both one's own forces and the elements of nature.

====Decorate the tree with false blossoms (樹上開花, Shù shàng kāi huā)====
:Tying silk blossoms on a dead tree gives the illusion that the tree is healthy. Using artifice and disguise, make something worthless appear valuable and vice versa.

====Make the host and the guest exchange roles (反客為主, Fǎn kè wéi zhǔ)====
:Usurp leadership in a situation where one is normally subordinate. Infiltrate one's target. Initially, pretend to be a guest to be accepted, but develop from inside and become the owner later.

===Chapter 6: Defeat Stratagems (敗戰計, Bài zhàn jì)===
====The beauty trap (Honeypot) (美人計, Měi rén jì)====
:Send the enemy beautiful women to cause discord within his camp. This strategy can work on three levels. First, the ruler becomes so enamoured with the beauty that he neglects his duties and allows his vigilance to wane. Second, the group of men will begin to have issues if the desired women court another man, thus creating conflict and aggressive behavior. Third, other females at court, motivated by jealousy and envy, begin to plot subversions that further exacerbate the situation.

====The [[empty fort strategy]] (空城計, Kōng chéng jì)====
:When the enemy has stronger forces and one expects to be overrun at any moment, act calmly and taunt the enemy, so that the enemy thinks they are walking into an [[ambush]]. This stratagem is only successful if in most cases one has a powerful hidden force and the stratagem is seldom used.

====Let the enemy's own spy sow discord in the enemy camp (反間計, Fǎn jiàn jì)====
:Undermine the enemy's ability to fight by secretly causing discord between them and their friends, allies, advisors, family, commanders, soldiers, and population. While they are preoccupied with settling internal disputes, their ability to attack or defend is compromised.

====Inflict injury on oneself to win the enemy's trust (苦肉計, Kǔ ròu jì)====
:Pretending to be injured has two advantages: first, the enemy is lulled into lowering their guard since they no longer consider one to be an immediate threat. Second, ingratiating oneself with the enemy by pretending the injury was caused by a mutual enemy conserves one's strength while one's enemies fight each other.

====Chain stratagems (連環計, Lián huán jì)====
:In important matters, one should use several stratagems applied simultaneously after another as in a chain of stratagems. Keep different plans operating in an overall scheme; if any one strategy fails, apply the next strategy.

====If all else fails, [[Withdrawal (military)|retreat]] (走為上策, Zǒu wéi shàng cè)====
:If it becomes obvious that one's current course of action will lead to defeat, retreat and regroup. When one's side is losing, three choices remain: surrender, compromise, or escape. Surrender is complete defeat, compromise is half defeat, but escape is not defeat. As long as one is not defeated, there is still a chance. This is the most famous of the stratagems and is immortalized in the form of a Chinese idiom: "Of the Thirty-Six Stratagems, fleeing is best" (三十六計，走為上計, Sānshíliù jì, zǒu wéi shàng jì).

== See also ==
* ''[[The Art of War]]''
* ''[[The Book of Five Rings]]''
* ''[[On War]]''
* [[Cognitive dissonance]]
* [[Psychological warfare]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
*''The 36 Secret Strategies of the Martial Arts: The Classic Chinese Guide for Success in War, Business and Life'' by Hiroshi Moriya, William Scott Wilson
*''The Book of Stratagems'' by Harro von Senger. {{ISBN|0140169547}}
*''The 36 Stratagems for Business: Achieve Your Objectives Through Hidden and Unconventional Strategies and Tactics'' by Harro von Senger. {{ISBN|9781904879466}}
*''Greatness in Simplicity: The 36 Stratagems and Chinese Enterprises, Strategic Thinking'' by Cungen GE. {{ISBN|7802076420}}

==External links==
{{wikisourcelang|zh|三十六計}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070106184850/http://www.cc-only.com/36ji.htm Original text of ''Thirty-Six Stratagems'' (Simplified Chinese)] With comments and explanations to the preface, six chapters, and afterword
*[http://wengu.tartarie.com/wg/wengu.php?l=36ji English and French translation of the ''Thirty-Six Stratagems'']
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070406000541/http://www.chinastrategies.com/home36.htm English introduction to the Stratagems] with translation of each accompanied by examples taken from Chinese and Japanese history]
*[http://www.strategeme.com/HSml/Stratageme_alle.pdf The ''36 Stratagems'' compendium (German)]
*[https://truyenyy.com/truyen/binh-phap-ton-tu-va-36-muu-ke/ Binh phap ton tu va 36 ke (Vietnamese)]
*[http://www.36stratagemes.com "An Electronic Art of War in 36 Stratagems" (French/English)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140222133848/http://www.cob.sjsu.edu/jiang_w/winter2012/ClassMaterials/36stratagems.pdf The ''Thirty-Six Stratagems'' (Classic Chinese war theories, 800–300 BC)] (English)

[[Category:Chinese classic texts]]
[[Category:Chinese military texts]]
[[Category:Military strategy books]]

Bean chip

2024-10-22T23:02:48Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Snack food}}
[[File:Tostitos Artisan Recipes Roasted Garlic & Black Bean Chip (5233301556).jpg|thumb|[[Tostitos]]-brand garlic and black bean chips]]
'''Bean chips''' are chips prepared using [[bean]]s as a primary ingredient.<ref name="Consumer Reports 2015"/> Bean chips have been described as being higher in fiber and protein compared to corn and potato chips.<ref name="Consumer Reports 2015"/> Bean chips may be prepared from a variety of bean types and rice, such as brown rice,<ref name="Beanfields">{{cite news |author1=Mary Ellen Shoup |title=Beanfields CEO brings about brand revival: 'Our addressable market is anybody that wants a good tasting chip' |url=https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2019/03/01/Beanfields-CEO-brings-about-brand-revival-Our-addressable-market-is-anybody-that-wants-a-good-tasting-chip |work=Food Navigator-USA |date=March 1, 2019}}</ref> [[pinto bean]]s, [[Black turtle bean|black bean]]s,<ref name="Leblang Wyman 2011"/> and [[Navy bean|white bean]]s.<ref name="Channel 3000 2014"/> Some bean chips are prepared using [[green bean]]s.<ref name="Urban"/> They may be prepared from a bean [[dough]] that is steamed, sliced, and fried. They may be consumed as a [[snack food]] and may be accompanied by various [[Dip (food)|dips]].<ref name="Consumer Reports 2015"/><ref name="Naylor 2014 p. 213"/>

==Preparation methods==
Bean chips may be [[Deep frying|deep-fried]]<ref name="Perrine Flickinger Health 2011 p. 233"/> or baked,<ref name="Lins p. 14"/> and may be [[Seasoning|seasoned]].<ref name="Perrine Flickinger Health 2011 p. 233"/> A method of preparation uses dehulled, soaked beans that are blended with vegetable oil, salt, and a thickening agent.<ref name="Ensminger Ensminger 1993 p. 177"/> Using this method, the mixture is formed into a [[dough]] which is then steamed, after which the dough is sliced and the pieces are fried.<ref name="Ensminger Ensminger 1993 p. 177"/>

==Green bean chips==
[[Green bean]] chips may be prepared mixed with olive oil and seasonings, which are placed on a baking pan and baked until they are crisp.<ref name="Urban"/> They may be prepared by [[freeze-drying]] green beans that are then [[Vacuum fryer|vacuum-fried]].<ref name="Marinello 2010"/> Per a one-ounce (30 g) serving, green bean chips contain 130 calories, 4.5 g fat and 5 g fiber.<ref name="Marinello 2010"/>

==Commercial varieties==
Some companies in the United States mass-produce bean chips for consumer purchase, in a variety of flavours, with brands including Beanfields Bean Chips,<ref name="Beanfields" /> [[The Good Bean|The Good Bean, Inc.]], and Beanitos.<ref name="Leblang Wyman 2011"/><ref name="Convenience Store News"/><ref name="HC"/> Bean chips produced by The Good Bean, Inc. are prepared with beans, sweet potato, and [[quinoa]].<ref name="Convenience Store News"/>

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Bean dip]]
* [[Chips and dip]]
* [[Corn chip]]
* [[List of deep fried foods]]
* [[List of legume dishes]]
* [[List of snack foods]]
* [[Tortilla chip]]
* [[Vegetable chips]]
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="Consumer Reports 2015">{{cite web | title=What's Better Than Potato Chips? Bean Chips | website=Consumer Reports | date=January 31, 2015 | url=http://www.consumerreports.org/cro/news/2015/01/what-s-better-than-potato-chips-bean-chips/index.htm | accessdate=April 28, 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="Convenience Store News">{{cite web | title=Bean Chips With Sweet Potato & Quinoa | website=Convenience Store News | url=http://www.csnews.com/node/72605 | accessdate=April 28, 2015|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150428072145/http://www.csnews.com/node/72605|archive-date=April 28, 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="Channel 3000 2014">{{cite web | title=Consumer Reports: Veggie chips vs. potato chips | website=Channel 3000 | date=May 8, 2014 | url=http://www.channel3000.com/news/Consumer-Reports-Veggie-chips-vs-potato-chips/31506066 | accessdate=April 28, 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504064544/http://www.channel3000.com/news/Consumer-Reports-Veggie-chips-vs-potato-chips/31506066 | archive-date=May 4, 2015 | url-status=dead }}</ref>
<ref name="Perrine Flickinger Health 2011 p. 233">{{cite book | last1=Perrine | first1=S. | last2=Flickinger | first2=L. | last3=Health | first3=E.W. | title=The Women's Health Diet | publisher=Rodale Books | year=2011 | isbn=978-1-60961-245-0 | url=https://archive.org/details/womenshealthdiet0000perr | url-access=registration | page=[https://archive.org/details/womenshealthdiet0000perr/page/233 233]}}</ref>
<ref name="Ensminger Ensminger 1993 p. 177">{{cite book | last1=Ensminger | first1=M.E. | last2=Ensminger | first2=A.H. | title=Foods & Nutrition Encyclopedia, Two Volume Set | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=1993 | isbn=978-0-8493-8980-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XMA9gYIj-C4C&pg=PA177 | page=177}}</ref>
<ref name="HC">{{cite web | url=http://news.health.com/2012/11/19/crunch-some-non-potato-chips/ | title=Soy, Kale, and Bean: 3 Non-Potato Chips We Like | publisher=Health.com | date=November 19, 2012 | accessdate=28 April 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="Leblang Wyman 2011">{{cite web | last1=Leblang | first1=Bonnie Tandy | last2=Wyman | first2=Carolyn | title=SUPERMARKET SAMPLER: Uh, let's just say Beanitos Bean Chips may not be for everybody | website=New Haven Register | date=February 1, 2011 | url=http://www.nhregister.com/general-news/20110201/supermarket-sampler-uh-lets-just-say-beanitos-bean-chips-may-not-be-for-everybody | accessdate=April 28, 2015}}</ref>
<ref name="Urban">{{cite web | url=http://www.organicauthority.com/eco-chic-table/make-your-own-veggie-chips-recipes.html | title=5 Recipes for a Veritable Potpourri of Veggie Chips | publisher=Organic Authority | date=February 29, 2012 | accessdate=28 April 2015 | author=Urban, Shilo}}</ref>
<ref name="Marinello 2010">{{cite web | last=Marinello | first=Professor Nina | title=Green Bean Chips | website=The Healthy Professor | date=August 22, 2010 | url=http://blog.timesunion.com/healthyprofessor/green-bean-chips/279/ | accessdate=April 28, 2015}}</ref>

<ref name="Naylor 2014 p. 213">{{cite book | last=Naylor | first=S. | title=The Smart Guide to Bachelorette Parties | publisher=Smart Guide Publications, Incorporated | series=Smart Guide To | year=2014 | isbn=978-0-9785341-1-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AhL0TiMWkocC&pg=PA213 | page=213}}</ref>
<ref name="Lins p. 14">{{cite book | title=Vegetarian for Weight Loss | author=Lins, Jennifer | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8BDmBwAAQBAJ&pg=PT14 }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book | last=Martin | first=C. | title=The Wilderness Chef: Gourmet Recipes for the Great Outdoors | publisher=Globe Pequot Press | series=Lyons Press Series | year=2003 | isbn=978-1-58574-858-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=09AQt3ymbJIC&pg=PA162 | pages=162–163}}
* {{cite web | title=Massey scientists' bean chips could be next big health snack | website=[[Manawatu Standard]] | date=April 3, 2015|url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/manawatu-standard/news/67604212/massey-scientists-bean-chips-could-be-next-big-health-snack | accessdate=April 28, 2015}}

{{Chips and crisps}}

[[Category:Legume dishes]]
[[Category:Snack foods]]

Baby hatch

2024-10-22T21:10:25Z

Tc14Hd: /* Countries */ Removed empty lines

{{Short description|Device for transfer of unwanted infants}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2023}}
[[Image:Babyklappe.jpg|thumb|Baby hatch in [[Germany]]]] [[Image:Babybox - venkovní strana.jpg|thumb|Baby hatch called "BabyBox" in the [[Czech Republic]]]]
[[Image:BabyBoxPoland.JPG|thumb|Baby hatch in [[Poland]]. The label {{Lang|pl|OKNO ŻYCIA}} means 'Window of Life']]
A '''baby hatch''' or '''baby box'''<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nydailynews.com/news/national/baby-drop-off-boxes-unwanted-infants-installed-ind-article-1.2623613|title=First baby drop-off boxes for unwanted infants installed in Indiana|last=Parco|first=Nicholas|website=nydailynews.com|date=3 May 2016 |access-date=2019-06-27}}</ref> is a place where people (typically mothers) can leave babies, usually newborn, anonymously in a safe place to be found and cared for. This was common from the [[Middle Ages]] to the 18th and 19th centuries, when the device was known as a '''foundling wheel'''. Foundling wheels were abandoned in the late 19th century, but a modern form, the baby hatch, was reintroduced from 1952<ref name="times">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article717379.ece|title=The Child Catchers|last=Hibbert|first=Katharine|date=2006-05-21|work=The Times|access-date=2008-06-30 | location=London |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202015204/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article717379.ece| archive-date=2008-12-02 }}</ref> and since 2000 has been adopted in many countries, most notably in [[Pakistan]] where there are more than 300. They can also be found in [[Germany]] (100), the [[United States of America|United States]] (150),
<ref name=BBCStory>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-18585020 The 'baby box' returns to Europe], BBC News, 26 June 2012</ref> [[Czech Republic]] (88)<ref>{{Cite web |title=BABYBOX Statistiky babyboxů |url=https://www.babybox.cz/?p=statistiky |access-date=2024-04-19 |website=www.babybox.cz}}</ref> and [[Poland]] (67).<ref name=times/>

The hatches are usually in hospitals, social centres, or churches, and consist of a door or flap in an outside wall which opens onto a soft bed, heated or at least insulated. Sensors in modern beds issue an alert when a baby has been placed in it. In Germany, babies are looked after for eight weeks during which the parent can return and claim the child without any legal repercussions. If this does not happen, the child is put up for [[adoption]].

==History==
[[Image:Vondelingenluikje.JPG|thumb|upright|right|Foundling wheel at the [[Ospedale di Santo Spirito in Sassia|Ospedale di Santo Spirito]] in [[Rome]]]]

Baby hatches have existed in one form or another for centuries. The system was quite common in medieval times. From 1198 the first [[Child abandonment|foundling]] wheels ({{Lang|it|ruota dei trovatelli}}) were used in [[Italy]]; [[Pope Innocent III]] decreed that these should be installed in homes for foundlings so that women could leave their child in secret instead of [[infanticide|killing them]], a practice clearly evident from the numerous drowned infants found in the [[Tiber River]]. A foundling wheel was a cylinder set upright in the outside wall of the building, rather like a revolving door. Mothers placed the child in the cylinder, turned it around so that the baby was inside the church, and then rang a bell to alert caretakers. One example of this type which can still be seen today is in the ''[[Ospedale di Santo Spirito in Sassia|Santo Spirito]]'' hospital at the [[Vatican City]]; this wheel was installed in medieval times and used until the 19th century. Another foundling wheel dating to at least 1601 is on display for visitors to Naples' Church of the Annunciata.

In [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]], a Dutch merchant set up a wheel ({{Lang|de|Drehladen}}) in an orphanage in 1709. It closed after only five years in 1714 as the number of babies left there was too high for the orphanage to cope with financially. Other wheels are known to have existed in [[Kassel]] (1764) and [[Mainz]] (1811).
[[Image:Ruota Innocenti.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Foundling wheel at the [[Ospedale degli Innocenti]] in [[Florence]]]]
In France, foundling wheels ({{Lang|fr|tours d'abandon}}, abandonment wheel) were introduced by Saint [[Vincent de Paul]] who built the first foundling home in 1638 in [[Paris]]. Foundling wheels were legalised in an imperial decree of January 19, 1811, and at their height, there were 251 in France, according to author [[Anne Martin-Fugier]]. They were in hospitals such as the ''[[Hôpital des Enfants-Trouvés]]'' (Hospital for Foundling Children) in [[Paris]]. However, the number of children left there rose into the tens of thousands per year, as a result of the desperate economic situation at the time, and in 1863 they were closed down and replaced by "admissions offices" where mothers could give up their child anonymously but could also receive advice. The ''{{Lang|fr|tours d'abandon}}'' were officially abolished in law of June 27, 1904. Today in France, women are allowed to give birth anonymously in hospitals ({{Lang|fr|accouchement sous X}}) and leave their baby there.

In [[Brazil]] and [[Portugal]], foundling wheels ({{Lang|pt|roda dos expostos/enjeitados}}, literally 'wheel for [[Infant exposure|exposed]]/rejected ones') were also used after [[Maria I of Portugal|Queen Maria I]] proclaimed on May 24, 1783, that all towns should have a foundling hospital. One example was the wheel installed at the ''Santa Casa de Misericordia'' hospital in [[São Paulo]] on July 2, 1825. This was taken out of use on June 5, 1949, declared incompatible with the modern social system after five years' debate.
[[Image:Foundling Hospital.jpg|thumb|270px|right|[[Foundling Hospital]] in London]]

In [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Ireland]], foundlings were brought up in orphanages financed by the [[Poor Tax]]. The [[Foundling Hospital|home for foundlings]] in [[London]] was established in 1741; in [[Dublin]] the [[Foundling hospital#Ireland|Foundling Hospital and Workhouse]] installed a foundling wheel in 1730, as this excerpt from the Minute Book of the Court of Governors of that year shows:

{{blockquote|''"Hu (Boulter) Armach, Primate of All-Ireland, being in the chair, ordered that a turning-wheel, or convenience for taking in children, be provided near the gate of the workhouse; that at any time, by day or by night, a child may be layd in it, to be taken in by the officers of the said house."''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chapters.eiretek.org/books/OldDub/chapter10.htm |title=First Hospital in Dublin – Poor Relief in former days – The Foundling Hospital and its Founders |access-date=2006-05-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060501055827/http://www.chapters.eiretek.org/books/OldDub/chapter10.htm |archive-date=2006-05-01 }}</ref>}}

The foundling wheel in Dublin was taken out of use in 1826 when the Dublin hospital was closed because of the high death rate of children there.

==Modern examples==
[[File:Newly renovated "baby bin" at Door of Hope in Johannesburg,South Africa.jpg|thumb|upright|Door of Hope Children's Mission, Johannesburg]]
A baby hatch was installed by Door of Hope Children's Mission (Hole in the Wall) in Johannesburg, South Africa in 1999 after the pastor, Cheryl Allen, learned that a high number of newly born infants were abandoned. Pastor Allen realised that many of those desperate women and girls may well have acted differently if there had been an alternative. The church made a hole in their wall and a "baby bin" was installed allowing for mothers to leave their babies any time, day or night. The moment a baby is placed in the "baby bin" care workers on duty receive an electronic signal alerting them. The baby is taken in and the anonymity of the "donor" ensured. Baby M was the first baby that came through the "baby bin", arriving on 3 October 1999. To date (2013), Door of Hope has received over 1300 babies. 148 have come through the "baby bin" but most come from hospitals, police or community members and some babies have even been brought personally by the mothers.

Another modern baby hatch was installed in the [[Altona, Hamburg|Altona]] district of [[Hamburg]], Germany on 11 April 2000, after a series of cases in 1999 where children were abandoned and found dead from exposure. It consisted of a warm bed in which the child could be placed from outside the building. After a short delay to allow the person who left the child to leave anonymously, a silent alarm was set off which alerted staff. By 2010, 38 babies had been left in the {{Lang|de|Findelbaby}} baby hatch in Hamburg, 14 of whom were later reclaimed by their mothers.<ref name="thelocal.de">{{cite news|url=http://www.thelocal.de/national/20100408-26419.html |title=Baby hatches turn 10 amid calls for closure|publisher=Thelocal.de |access-date=2013-04-21}}</ref>

The [[Edhi Foundation]] in Pakistan offers a similar system.

Baby boxes are becoming more widespread in the United States after the 2022 Supreme Court decision ''[[Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization]]'' allowed states to prohibit abortion.<ref>[https://www.npr.org/2022/08/03/1115456040/indiana-is-installing-more-baby-boxes-where-newborns-can-be-anonymously-surrende Indiana is installing more baby boxes, where newborns can be anonymously surrendered]</ref>

==Reasons for using baby hatches==
[[File:Rabat Maltese 2017 07.jpg|thumb|upright|Baby hatch in [[Rabat, Malta]]]]
One reason many babies have been abandoned, especially in the past, was that they were born [[Illegitimacy|out of wedlock]]. In modern times, baby hatches are more often intended to be used by mothers who are unable to cope with looking after their own child and do not wish to divulge their identity.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Seol Ah |last2=Kim |first2=Hee Sook |date=2019-01-31 |title=A Study on the Social Perceptions of the Baby Box and Infant Abandonment |url=https://e-mch.org/journal/view.php?number=14 |journal=Journal of the Korean Society of Maternal and Child Health |language=English |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=13–22 |doi=10.21896/jksmch.2019.23.1.13 |issn=1226-4652|doi-access=free }}</ref> In some countries, it is not legal for mothers to give birth anonymously in a hospital, and the baby hatch is the only way they can safely and secretly leave their child to be cared for by others. In India<ref>{{Cite news |date=2007-02-18 |title=Cradles plan for unwanted girls |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6373043.stm |access-date=2024-04-10 |language=en-GB}}</ref> and Pakistan,<ref name=times/> the purpose of baby hatches is mainly to provide an alternative to [[Sex-selective infanticide|female infanticide]], which occurs due to socio-economic factors including the high cost of [[Dowry|dowries]].

==Opposition and legal issues==
Some issues with baby hatches are connected to children's right to know their own identity, as guaranteed by the UN [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]]'s Article 8.<ref name=un>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/10/unitednations-europe-news|title=Spread of 'baby boxes' in Europe alarms United Nations|date=June 10, 2012|first=Randeep|last=Ramesh|website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Another problem is that the anonymous person who drops off the infant may not have the legal right to do so, perhaps without the permission of the mother.<ref name=bmc /> Also, in some places baby hatches may be overwhelmed by the abandonment of sick and disabled children.<ref name=bmc />

Not all countries have [[safe-haven law]]s such as in the US which decriminalize leaving a child with an authority, and so it can be legally risky for a mother to abandon her baby in a baby hatch.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-46801838|title=Drop-off baby boxes: Can they help save lives in the US?|date=January 23, 2019|first=Vicky|last=Baker|website=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

Those opposed to baby hatches argue that hatches do not save babies lives, that it encourages further abandonment by mothers rather than finding other solutions,<ref name=bulletin /> and represents a state's dereliction of duty to create social programs which might reduce child abandonment.<ref name=polarise /> Several European countries have passed laws allowing for [[anonymous birth]] in hospitals, sometimes free of charge, to prevent the risks associated with an unassisted [[Childbirth|delivery]] and to provide medical care during the birth.<ref name=Simmonds>{{cite journal |last1=Simmonds |first1=Claire |title=An Unbalanced Scale: Anonymous Birth and the European Court of Human Rights |journal=The Cambridge Law Journal |date=2013 |volume=72 |issue=2 |pages=263–266 |id={{ProQuest|1373255306}} |doi=10.1017/S0008197313000391 |jstor=24694002 |s2cid=143104050}}</ref>

==Countries==

===Austria===
In Austria, the law treats babies found in baby hatches as [[Child abandonment|foundlings]]. The local [[social services]] office for children and young people ({{Lang|de|Jugendwohlfahrt}}) takes care of the child for the first six months and then it is given up for adoption.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}} The first hatch was introduced in Vienna in 2000. {{As of|2018}}, there were 15 hatches in seven of the nine [[Länder|Austrian states]], and hatches were used 30 times between 2008 and 2016. Since women have had the right to give birth anonymously in hospitals since 2001, those anonymous births have greatly outnumbered the use of baby hatches.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kinderrechte.gv.at/factbook-english/anonymous-births-and-baby-hatches/|title=Anonymous births and baby hatches|date=April 26, 2018|website=Kinderrechte}}</ref>

===Belgium===
In Belgium, the legal framework is absent, and abandoning babies is illegal, but in practice the babies are placed in foster care and become available for adoption after a few months.<ref name=belgium /> In 2000, the association {{Lang|nl|Moeders voor Moeders}} ('Mothers for mothers') set up the first {{Lang|nl|babyschuif}} in [[Antwerp]].<ref name=belgium>{{Cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/01/01/baby-box-scheme-parents-leave-children-anonymously-sees-record/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112015236/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2018/01/01/baby-box-scheme-parents-leave-children-anonymously-sees-record/|title='Baby box' scheme that lets parents leave children anonymously sees record year|date=January 1, 2018|archive-date=November 12, 2020|website=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url-access=subscription}}</ref> {{As of|2021}}, 18 babies have been found in the Antwerp hatch, the only one in Belgium.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.brusselstimes.com/brussels-2/130522/baby-hatch-reinstated-in-brussels-after-three-year-dispute/|title=Baby hatch reinstated in Brussels after three-year dispute|date=September 9, 2020|website=[[The Brussels Times]]}}</ref>
In 2017, another hatch was installed in [[Evere]], [[Brussels]], by the organization Corvia, but was banned by the mayor. Despite the [[Council of State (Belgium)|Council of State]] overturning the ban in 2020, a new mayor of Evere again prohibited its operation in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.brusselstimes.com/brussels-2/130522/baby-hatch-reinstated-in-brussels-after-three-year-dispute/|title=Baby hatch reinstated in Brussels after three-year dispute|date=September 9, 2020|publisher=[[The Brussels Times]]|first=Alan|last=Hope}}</ref><ref name=bulletin>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thebulletin.be/another-excuse-evere-rejects-baby-hatch-second-time|title='Another excuse': Evere rejects baby hatch for second time|date=February 24, 2021|website=[[The Bulletin (Belgian magazine)|The Bulletin]]|first=Lisa|last=Bradshaw}}</ref>

===Canada===
Canada prohibits abandoning a child "so that its life is or is likely to be endangered." {{As of|2020}}, three babies have been left in hatches installed in Canada. One hatch is in [[Vancouver]] and two in [[Edmonton]].<ref name=canada>{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/after-a-newborn-was-found-in-a-recycling-bin-a-safe-haven-baby-hatch-may-save-lives-132851|title=After a newborn was found in a recycling bin, a safe haven baby hatch may save lives|first=Alana|last=Cattapan|website=[[The Conversation (website)|The Conversation]]|date=March 4, 2020|quote=In most of Canada, however, abandoning a baby safely and legally is not an option. There are no "safe haven" laws like those in the United States that allow for parents to "safely surrender" their child in a police station, hospital or fire station. Instead, Section 218 of the Criminal Code of Canada prohibits abandoning any child under 10 "so that its life is or is likely to be endangered." As a result, there is discretion in the law about what is considered a danger, and those who would abandon their child are always at risk of prosecution. There are, however, a few places in the country where children can be left safely and anonymously. Since 2010, three baby hatches have been established — one in Vancouver and two in Edmonton. Because they are clearly identified as safe places, leaving a child in a baby hatch is one way to circumvent potential legal repercussions. In Vancouver, police have agreed not to pursue parents unless there is evidence that the child "was abused or otherwise endangered." To date, three babies have been left in Canadian baby hatches.}}</ref>

=== China ===
In 2011, China opened at least 25 baby hatches, "baby safety island" in [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]. A medical team was supposed to pick up the infant within 10 minutes.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |date=2014-06-27 |title=A look at China's "baby hatches" for unwanted infants - CBS News |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/a-look-at-chinas-baby-hatches-for-unwanted-infants/ |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=www.cbsnews.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2014-02-16 |title=China expands abandoned baby hatch scheme |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-26219171 |access-date=2023-09-09}}</ref> By 2015 there were 32 across the country.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |last=Young |first=Connie |date=2014-06-30 |title=China 'baby hatch' inundated with abandoned, disabled children |url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/06/30/world/asia/china-baby-hatches-jinan/index.html |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> The first was opened in [[Shijiazhuang]] in 2011.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |last=McKirdy |first=Euan |date=2014-02-17 |title=China's "baby hatch" numbers set to increase |url=https://www.cnn.com/2014/02/17/world/asia/china-baby-hatch/index.html |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> It has by 2014 received 181 children.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=Kaiman |first=Jonathan |date=2014-03-17 |title=Chinese city suspends baby hatch after it is overwhelmed by unwanted children |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/mar/17/china-baby-hatch-suspended-parents-abandon-infants |access-date=2023-09-09 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The estimated number of children, was officially some 1,400 a year in total, in the whole country.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=China's 'Baby Hatch' Project Swamped By Abandoned Children - Worldcrunch |url=https://worldcrunch.com/china-20-1/china039s-039baby-hatch039-project-swamped-by-abandoned-children |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=worldcrunch.com |language=en}}</ref>

The government-run orphanage in eastern China opened its first baby hatch on 1 June 2014, International Children's Day, as a symbolic step to show the country's commitment to improving child welfare. However, it since proved so popular that authorities have had to introduce new rules to limit the number of babies and children being abandoned. In just 11 days, 106 children, all with disabilities or medical conditions, were dropped off at the [[Jinan]] facility. That is more than the 85 orphans the city accepted in 2013.<ref name=":4" />

Since the opening of a baby hatch in [[Guangzhou]], it received almost 80 infants in a month.<ref name=":5" /> Child Welfare Centre in Guangzhou, said it had taken in 262 children in less than two months since it opened the baby hatch. All the babies – 67% of whom were less than a year old – had varying degrees of illness. More than 90% survived, 22 babies died.<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":3" /> The baby hatch in [[Nanjing]] was "crowded with visitors". Parents were seen to drop babies off at the facility every day.<ref name=":5" />

The number of babies with congenital defects has soared over the past decade, with upwards of 900,000 such cases reported each year. In addition, at least 100,000 children are abandoned each year. Most are either disabled or girls.<ref name=":7" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-01-09 |title=Baby Hatch Programs Struggle to Cope With Number of Infants With Birth Defects |url=https://www.chinafile.com/reporting-opinion/caixin-media/baby-hatch-programs-struggle-cope-number-infants-birth-defects |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=ChinaFile |language=en}}</ref>

===Czech Republic===
[[File:Příbram nemocnice 10.jpg|thumb|Baby hatch in [[Příbram]], Czech Republic, 2020]]
In the Czech Republic, the Ministry of Social Affairs confirmed in 2006 that baby hatches (called Babybox in Czech) are legal under Czech law. In contradiction to this, in March 2006, Colonel Anna Piskova, a police officer, said on Czech television that the police would look for the mothers of abandoned children.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} The head of the Czech baby hatch organization Statim,<ref name=Statim>{{cite web|url=http://www.babybox.cz/|title=BABYBOX úvodní stránka|author=Ondřej Tůma (McBig)|access-date=13 April 2016}}</ref> [[Ludvik Hess]], complained about this statement{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}} and was officially supported by the [[Save the Children]] Foundation.{{Citation needed|date=December 2017}}

The [[United Nations]] Committee on the Rights of the Child has questioned the legality of baby boxes, criticizing the high number of children's [[group home]]s and claiming the boxes violate [[children's rights]] in 2011.<ref>[http://www.ohchr.org/en/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=11098&LangID=E Committee on the Rights of the Child reviews report of the Czech Republic], United Nations, 31 May 2011</ref><ref>Committee on the Rights of the Child, Concluding Observations: Czech Republic, CRC/C/CZE/CO/3-4, [http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/crc/docs/CRC.C.CZE.CO.3-4.doc Committee on the Rights of the Child, Fifty-seventh session, 30 May – 17 June 2011] (4 August 2011)</ref> Czech internet news server [[Seznam.cz|novinky.cz]] has reported that United Nations wants to ban baby hatches in the Czech Republic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.novinky.cz/zahranicni/evropa/237051-osn-kritizovala-cr-za-deti-v-ustavech-chce-zrusit-babyboxy.html|title=OSN kritizovala ČR za děti v ústavech, chce zrušit babyboxy|work=Novinky.cz|date=22 June 2011 |access-date=13 April 2016}}</ref>

The first baby hatch was set up in July 2005 in [[Prague]] by ''Babybox – Statim''.<ref name="Statim" /> In March 2006, three children had been left there. In December 2007, there were five "Babyboxes" in the republic: [[Prague]]-[[Hloubětín (Prague)|Hloubětín]], [[Brno]], [[Olomouc]], [[Kadaň]] and [[Zlín]], and the next were planned in [[Pelhřimov]], [[Ústí nad Orlicí]], [[Mladá Boleslav]] and [[Sokolov (Sokolov District)|Sokolov]] in 2008. Between 2005 and 2007, ten infants were given in baby-boxes, seven of them in Prague. Some of them returned to their mothers or were inserted with full documentation.{{clarify|date=July 2022}} {{As of|December 2011}} there were 47, and 62 children had already been left there; one of the baby boxes was used 13 times.<ref>[http://www.ceskatelevize.cz/ct24/domaci/71433-v-melniku-zacal-fungovat-jubilejni-tricaty-babybox/ V Mělníku začal fungovat jubilejní třicátý babybox] {{in lang|cs}}</ref> 75 % of the boxes have been used.<ref name=":2" />
{{as of|2023|June}}, there are 85 baby hatches in the country, mostly in major cities and district capitals.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |author=Ondřej Tůma (McBig) |title=BABYBOX Statistiky babyboxů |url=http://www.babybox.cz/?p=statistiky |access-date=9 September 2023}}</ref> So far, they have helped to save 253 children,<ref name=":2">[https://www.babybox.cz/?p=zprava Babyboxes – News report 16 December 2020]{{in lang|cs}}</ref> with the oldest to date being the case of an almost two years old boy in 2019.<ref name=":řřř">{{cite web |author=Martin Vokáč |title=Chlapci z babyboxu už budou dva roky, rodiče se na odložení domluvili |date=25 January 2019 |url=https://www.idnes.cz/jihlava/zpravy/babybox-chlapec-nemocnice-pelhrimov-nejstarsi-dite-vysocina-karel-spevacek.A190125_102959_jihlava-zpravy_mv#:~:text=Chlapci%2C%20kterého%20před%20týdnem%20rodiče,nejstarší%20dítě%20odložené%20do%20schránky. |access-date=December 26, 2023}}</ref> The one in University Hospital [[Vinohrady|Královské Vinohrady]] in [[Prague]] has received 30 babies and the one at Brothers of Charity Hospital in [[Brno]] 22 babies since 2005.<ref name=":1" />

===France===
In France, the [[Vichy France|Vichy]] government adopted the Legislative Decree of 2 September 1941<ref>{{Cite web|title=Décret du 5 septembre 1946 PROTECTION DE LA NAISSANCE (LOI DU 2 SEPTEMBRE 1941 : ART. 2 ) APPLICATION DANS LES DEPARTEMENTS DU HAUT-RHIN, DU BAS-RHIN ET DE LA MOSELLE |url=https://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/jorf/id/JORFTEXT000000867501?isSuggest=true|access-date=2021-03-11|website=www.legifrance.gouv.fr}}</ref> on the Protection of Births allowing children to be born anonymously. This law, somewhat modified, became the modern right to anonymous birth ({{Lang|fr|accouchement sous X}}) set down in the French Social Action and Families Code (Art. 222–6). It covers children up to one year of age. In 2003, the [[European Court of Human Rights]] upheld this law,<ref>[http://www.coe.int/t/e/legal_affairs/legal_co-operation/Family_law_and_children's_rights/Judgments/odi%C3%A8vre%20-%2042326jnv.gc%2013022003e.asp odièvre – 42326jnv.gc 13022003e]</ref> ruling that it did not violate the [[European Convention on Human Rights]].

===Germany===
[[File:Babykorb Ludwigshafen 03.JPG|thumb|upright|Baby hatch in [[Ludwigshafen]], Germany]]
Baby hatches were reintroduced in Germany in 2000. {{As of|2020}}, there were around 70-100 baby hatches across the country. <ref name=DIJ>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dji.de/veroeffentlichungen/aktuelles/news/article/750-babyklappen-und-vertrauliche-geburten.html#:~:text=Dr.,Zeitung%20zu%20der%20umstrittenen%20Einrichtung&text=Die%20erste%20Babyklappe%20Deutschlands%20wurde,vermutlich%20zwischen%2070%20und%20100.|title=Babyklappen und vertrauliche Geburten|first=Claudia|last=Krell|date=April 7, 2020}}</ref> <ref name=bmc>{{Cite journal|title=Should we maintain baby hatches in our society?|first1=Atsushi|last1=Asai|first2=Hiroko|last2=Ishimoto|date=February 22, 2013|journal=[[BMC Medical Ethics]]|volume=14|issue=1|pages=9|doi=10.1186/1472-6939-14-9|pmid=23433312|pmc=3586365 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

There is no clear legal basis for operating baby hatches (known as {{Lang|de|Babyklappen}}) in Germany.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/controversy-over-baby-hatches-in-germany-a-844134.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714035608/https://www.spiegel.de/international/germany/controversy-over-baby-hatches-in-germany-a-844134.html|title=Controversy over Baby Hatches in Germany|date=July 13, 2012|archive-date=July 14, 2012|website=[[Spiegel Online]]|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Normally, a mother or father who abandons their child is considered to be committing a criminal act. However, under German law parents are allowed to leave their child in charge of a third party for up to eight weeks, for example if the parents need to go into hospital. After eight weeks, however, the [[youth welfare]] office must be called in.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

German law considers babies in baby hatches to have been left in charge of a third party. However, this loophole is extremely controversial and several attempts have been made to clear up the legal basis. As of yet, the legal situation remains unclear.

===Hungary===
In 2005, Hungary passed a law decriminalizing abandoning a baby in an incubator. The act is considered a declaration of abandonment and consent to adoption if the family does not return within six weeks to claim the child. Dumping a child elsewhere remains a crime.<ref name=polarise>{{Cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/11/baby-boxes-polarise-hungary|title='Baby boxes' polarise Hungary|first=Anna|last=Szoboszlay in|date=June 11, 2012|website=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-22123366|title=Call for 'baby boxes' for abandoned newborns|date=April 12, 2013|first=Emma|last=Ailes|website=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>

Hungary had 32 baby hatches as of 2015, all run by hospitals.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kormanyhivatal.hu/hu/pest/hirek/babamento-inkubatorok-orszagos-listaja |title=Babamentő inkubátorok országos listája |language=hu |publisher=Pest Megyei Kormányhivatal |date=February 1, 2015 |website=Kormányhivatal |access-date=August 6, 2022}}</ref> The first opened in 1996 in the {{ill|Schöpf-Merei Hospital|hu|Schöpf-Merei Kórház}} in [[Budapest]] and rescued 23 newborns until February 2007.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.origo.hu/itthon/20031011ketnapos.html|title=Kétnapos baba az utcai inkubátorban|date=October 11, 2003|access-date=August 6, 2022|website=[[Origo (website)|Origo]]|language=hu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.szoljon.hu/hirek-orszag-vilag/2007/02/ujabb-baba-a-schopf-merei-inkubatoraban|title=Újabb baba a Schöpf-Merei inkubátorában|date=February 3, 2007|access-date=August 6, 2022|website=SZOLJON|language=hu}}</ref>

===India===
In [[Tamil Nadu]] state, a baby hatch was set up in 1994 by the then Chief Minister, [[Jayalalithaa Jayaram|J. Jayalalithaa]], to prevent female [[infanticide]]. This kind of baby is called {{Lang|ta-latn|thottil kuzhanthai}} (cradle baby), raised by the state and entitled to free education. In 2002, an "e-cradle" scheme{{clarification|What does that mean? How is it different from the previous scheme?|date=January 2024}} was also introduced in southern India after an abandoned newborn baby was torn apart by dogs in the street near [[Trivandrum Medical College]].<ref>[https://archive.today/20130620212502/http://www.hindustantimes.com/India-news/Kerala/Kerala-e-cradle-gets-100th-child-a-girl/Article1-388062.aspx ''Hindustan Times'': Kerala e-cradle gets 100th child, a girl]</ref>

===Italy===
There are about 50 hatches, set up by "La culla per la Vita" (The Movement for Life).<ref>[https://www.culleperlavita.it/dove-sono/ La culla per la vita]</ref> In December 2006 a modern hatch was installed at the Policlinico Casilino in Rome and in February 2007 it received its first abandoned child. There are also plans to install one at the ''Santo Spirito'' hospital at the [[Vatican City]], the home of one of the original foundling wheels.{{Cn|date=June 2023}}

===Japan===
In Japan, abandoning a baby is normally punished with up to five years in prison. In 2006 [[Hasuda Taiji]] and other officials of Jikei Hospital applied to [[Kumamoto Prefecture]] government, [[Kumamoto, Kumamoto|Kumamoto city]] and other offices before opening a baby hatch. They were told that it would not count as abandonment, as the baby is under the hospital's protection. However, the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare would not comment on the issue, apart from saying that there was no precedent. In Japan, February 2007, the state indicated its position is that baby hatches "are not outright illegal." On the same year of April 5, Kumamoto City determined that "there are no reasonable grounds for not allowing modifications in the medical law," and approved changes that allowed establishment of the "Storks' Cradle".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Asai|first1=Atsushi|last2=Ishimoto|first2=Hiroko|date=February 22, 2013|title=Should we maintain baby hatches in our society?|url= |journal=BMC Medical Ethics|language=en|volume=14|issue=1|pages=9|doi=10.1186/1472-6939-14-9|issn=1472-6939|pmc=3586365|pmid=23433312 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

In 2006 the Jikei Hospital in [[Kumamoto Prefecture]] announced it was setting up a "storks' cradle" to try to reduce the number of abandoned babies and abortions. {{as of|2009|November|26|df=US}}, a total of 51 babies had been accepted, and this system has been under the strict guidance of a special committee which pointed out that the acceptance of anonymous babies might reduce the moral philosophy of people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://s01.megalodon.jp/2009-0524-2324-27/www.asahi.com/national/update/0524/SEB200905240028.html|title=【魚拓】asahi.com（朝日新聞社）：赤ちゃんポスト、０８年度は２４人熊本・慈恵病院 – 社会|work=ウェブ魚拓|access-date=13 April 2016}}</ref> 125 babies had been left at the baby hatch {{as of|2017|March|lc=y}}.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Kumamoto baby hatch still delivers hope 10 years on |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/04/15/national/social-issues/aftermath-quakes-kumamoto-baby-hatch-continues-offer-hope/ |work=[[Japan Times]] |date=April 15, 2017 |access-date=May 13, 2017 }}</ref>

===Latvia===
The first {{Lang|lv|glābējsilīte}} ('saviour manger') was set up in 2009 in [[Riga]] within the Children's Clinical University Hospital's territory. Since then, seven more hatches have been set up in Latvia's biggest towns. As of August 2019, 47 children have been left in a baby hatch, of whom five have later been reclaimed by their birth parents.<ref name="skaties.lv">{{cite web|url=https://skaties.lv/zinas/latvija/sabiedriba/glabejsilites-projekta-iesaistitie-sabiedribu-ludz-nenosodit-mates-kuras-atstaj-savu-mazuli-glabejsilites/|title=Glābējsilītes projektā iesaistītie sabiedrību lūdz nenosodīt mātes, kuras atstāj savu mazuli glābējsilītēs|website=skaties.lv|date=23 August 2019 |access-date=2019-12-29}}</ref>

In Latvia, unless the baby has been reported as missing, the law treats the babies as foundlings.<ref name=":calis">{{cite web|url=https://www.delfi.lv/calis/jaunumi/izglabt-negribetu-jaundzimuso-ka-baby-box-darbojas-asv-japana-krievija-un-citviet.d?id=50086125&page=10|title='Baby Box' Latvijā|last=Calis.lv|website=delfi.lv|access-date=2019-12-29|date=2018-06-01|language=lv}}</ref>

All baby hatches are located within hospital premises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://babybox.lv/glabejsilites-latvija/|title=Glābējsilītes Latvijā – babybox.lv|website=babybox.lv|access-date=2019-12-29|language=lv}}</ref> After a baby is left in a baby hatch, the police and custody court are informed about the case and the baby is given a health evaluation and is inspected for signs of abuse. The police during a two day long process find out if the child has been reported as missing, after that the baby is given the status of a foundling and can be put up for adoption.

If the birth parents want to recover a child, they have the option to do so until the child has been officially adopted. The birth parents must prove their parentage by taking a DNA test, which they must pay for themselves. After that a custody court reviews the parent's reasons for abandonment and decide whether to allow the parents guardianship of the child.<ref name=":calis" />

===Malaysia===
The first baby hatch was launched by a non-profit NGO, OrphanCare Foundation, in 2010. By end of 2016 OrphanCare had saved over 200 babies and has two more baby hatches in the states of Kedah and Johor. In 2015 OrphanCare signed a memorandum of cooperation with KPJ Healthcare to manage the adoption of babies placed in baby hatches in eight KPJ hospitals in major cities in Peninsular Malaysia. KPJ also has a baby hatch each in Sabah and Sarawak.{{Cn|date=June 2023}}

Almost 100 babies have been saved due to baby hatches nationwide. The seventh baby hatch was opened at the An-Nur Specialist Hospital in Bangi, [[Selangor]] in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Almost 100 infants saved due to baby hatches nationwide |url=https://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2022/12/03/almost-100-infants-saved-due-to-baby-hatches-nationwide |access-date=2023-09-09 |website=The Star |language=en}}</ref>

===Netherlands===
In 2003 plans to open a {{Lang|nl|babyluik}} in [[Amsterdam]] did not go ahead after heavy protest. State Secretary for Health [[Clémence Ross]] suggested that baby hatches were illegal. In years since, the ''Beschermde Wieg Foundation'' has opened abandoned children rooms in the cities of Groningen, Middelburg, Oudenbosch, Papendrecht, Rotterdam and Zwolle. Women in need can leave their babies anonymously. In 2017 a room in Amsterdam is planned.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.beschermdewieg.nl/English/Beschermdewieg-News.html|title=Beschermde Wieg Foundation :: News, Press & Publications|website=www.beschermdewieg.nl|access-date=2019-06-27|archive-date=20 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210420135759/https://www.beschermdewieg.nl/English/Beschermdewieg-News.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{Update inline|date=June 2023}}

===Pakistan===
The [[Edhi Foundation]] has around 300 centres<ref name=times/> which offer a {{Lang|ur-latn|jhoola}} service which is said to have saved over 16,000 lives;<ref name=times/> the ''{{Lang|ur-latn|jhoola}}'' is a white metal hanging cradle with a mattress, where the baby can be left anonymously outside the centre. A bell can be rung, and staff also check the cradle once an hour.

===Philippines===
The [[Hospicio de San Jose]] in [[Manila]], founded in 1810 and run by the [[Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul]], has a "turning cradle" marked "Abandoned Babies Received Here".

===Poland===
[[File:2018 Warszawa Hoża, okno życia.jpg|thumb|upright|Baby hatch in [[Warsaw]], Poland, 2018]]
In 2022, sixty-nine towns had them.{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

===Russia===
Since 2011, ten baby hatches have come into use in Russia. In less than one year of activity, the boxes helped to save three children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.babyboxrf.ru/content/view/Beby_box__v_rossii|title=Babybox в России|access-date=13 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160409172833/http://www.babyboxrf.ru/content/view/Beby_box__v_rossii|archive-date=2016-04-09|url-status=dead}}</ref> The charity fund The Cradle of Hope ({{Lang|ru|Колыбель надежды}}) established in [[Perm, Russia|Perm]] is the main project organizer. Along with installing and setting up baby hatches, the organization works to prevent infanticide, and helps families cope with crisis situations. The baby hatches are installed in hospitals and run by the wardship and guardianship authority.

The law treats babies found in baby boxes as foundlings, who are raised by the state while going through the legal process of adoption. Senator [[Elena Mizulina]] proposed a law to ban baby boxes. In September 2016 the ban was approved by the Russian government, stating that special places for anonymous abandonment of newborns violate the [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]].

===South Africa===
The non-profit organisation Door Of Hope Children's Mission set up a "hole in the wall" in July 1999 at the Mission Church in [[Johannesburg]]. By March 2013, around 148 babies came through the hole in the wall but over 1,300 babies have come through their doors.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12600166 | work=BBC News | title='Baby bin' to save South Africa's unwanted children | date=March 16, 2011}}</ref>

===South Korea===
Pastor [[Lee Jong-rak]] operates a "baby box" in his church in southwest Seoul. Before the Special Adoption Law was passed in August 2012, Lee said that the baby box received an average of about two newborns per month, but that number has risen to about 19 as of 2013.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303442004579121030310275014 | work=The Wall Street Journal | title=Change in Korean Adoption Law Followed by More Abandoned Babies | date=October 7, 2013}}</ref> Awareness of baby hatches in South Korea remains high.<ref name=":8" />

===Switzerland===
There are eight baby hatches in Switzerland, almost all privately operated, at hospitals in [[Davos]], [[Einsiedeln]], [[Bellinzona]], [[Olten]], [[Bern]], [[Zollikerberg]] ZH, [[Basel]] and [[Sion, Switzerland|Sion]]. From 2001 to 2021, 25 children were left there.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-08-04|title=Ein wenige Tage alter Junge - Säugling im Babyfenster des Berner Lindenhofspitals abgegeben |url=https://www.derbund.ch/saeugling-im-babyfenster-des-berner-lindenhofspitals-abgegeben-646602534869|access-date=2021-08-04|website=[[Der Bund]]|language=de}}</ref>

===United Kingdom===
In the United Kingdom there are no baby hatches,<ref name=belgium /> as, under Section 27 of the [[Offences against the Person Act 1861]], abandoning a child below the age of two years is a criminal offence punishable by up to five years in prison. In practice, such prosecutions are extremely rare and would only occur if the circumstances of child abandonment showed actual malice, i.e. appeared deliberately intended to result in the death of the child. A mother who wishes to have her newborn baby adopted can do so. Counseling is designed to ensure that giving up the baby is her genuine, irrevocable wish.<ref name=un />

===United States===
Baby hatches in the United States are generally called "newborn safety devices" or "newborn safety incubators."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Infant Safe Haven Laws |url=https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubPDFs/safehaven.pdf |website=U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Families, Children's Bureau}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Title 31, Article 34, Chapter 2.5: Emergency Custody of Certain Abandoned Children |url=https://iga.in.gov/laws/2022/ic/titles/31#31-34-2.5 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=[[Indiana General Assembly]]}}</ref> The first known installation of baby hatches in the United States was in Arizona in approximately 2001. Known as "drawers," the devices were installed primarily in Maricopa County, where six drawers exist at local hospitals as of May 2023. Beginning in 2016, the Indiana-based nonprofit corporation Safe Haven Baby Boxes began installing its own branded "Safe Haven Baby Boxes" in locations throughout [[Indiana]], the first in 2016.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Silva|first1=Daniella|title=Indiana Installs 'Safe Haven Baby Boxes' for Abandoned Newborns|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/indiana-installs-safe-haven-baby-boxes-abandoned-newborns-n568811|access-date=May 6, 2016|work=NBC News|date=May 5, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505185422/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/indiana-installs-safe-haven-baby-boxes-abandoned-newborns-n568811|archive-date=May 5, 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> {{As of|2023|April}}, there were 153 baby hatches installed and in use in eleven states, primarily Indiana, which has nearly 100 hatches in operation.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Baby Boxes in the United States {{!}} Locations, Laws, and Issues |url=https://stopshbbnow.org/usa/ |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=Stop Baby Boxes Now! |language=en-US}}</ref> Other states with baby hatches include Ohio, Arkansas, New Mexico, Kentucky, and Florida.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.wave3.com/2021/07/01/kentuckys-first-baby-box-mothers-crisis-safely-leave-child-installed/|title=Kentucky's first baby box for mothers in crisis to safely leave child installed|first=Phylicia|last=Ashley|website=[[WAVE (TV)]]|date=July 1, 2021|quote=...there are now 74 boxes in the country and since 2016. Twelve babies have been put in boxes, and 99 were personally handed over to staff at a baby box location. ... Safe Haven Baby Boxes are currently available in Indiana, Ohio, Arkansas, Florida and now Kentucky.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Sunbury drop-box a destination for unwanted babies|url=https://www.dispatch.com/story/news/2021/01/08/unwanted-baby-drop-off-box-now-available-mothers-crisis/4138794001/|access-date=January 8, 2021 |date=January 10, 2021 |first=Dean |last=Narciso |website=[[The Columbus Dispatch]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Spencer |first=Terry |date=2023-04-11 |title=Florida fight over 'baby boxes' part of bigger culture war |url=https://apnews.com/article/baby-boxes-florida-7a6dd3598f9c8a37be5c913572abdd62 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=AP News}}</ref> {{As of|2023|May}}, eight additional states have enacted laws authorizing installation of baby hatches, though none have been installed.<ref name=":0" />

==Cultural references==
* In the novel ''[[Anthony Adverse]]'' by [[Hervey Allen]], the main character is left in the foundling wheel of a convent in northern Italy.
* This type of abandonment is the main theme of a historical novella set in nineteenth-century [[Sicily]], ''[[The Lady of the Wheel]]'', by [[Angelo F. Coniglio]].
* In the ''[[M*A*S*H (TV series)|M*A*S*H]]'' episode "Yessir, That's Our Baby", the doctors eventually leave an abandoned, mixed race infant in the foundling wheel of a Catholic monastery after unsuccessfully attempting to get her taken care of by American agencies, due to the cruelty such children often face in Korea.
* "The Gap of Time",<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.jeanettewinterson.com/book/the-gap-of-time/ | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910171938/http://www.jeanettewinterson.com/book/the-gap-of-time/ | url-status=dead | archive-date=10 September 2015 | title=The Gap of Time }}</ref> by [[Jeanette Winterson]] is a modern interpretation of ''[[The Winter's Tale]]'' in which her equivalent of [[Shakespeare]]'s [[Perdita (The Winter's Tale)|Perdita]], instead of being abandoned on an island, is placed in a baby hatch in the fictional American city of New Bohemia.
* In [[Broker (2022 film)|''Broker'']], the main characters operate an illegal business where they steal babies left at baby hatches and sell them on the black market.

==See also==
* [[Child abandonment]]
* [[Harm reduction]]
* [[Maternity package]], a cardboard box full of all the items needed for a baby's first year, also known as a baby box

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{refbegin}}
* [[Meyers Konversations-Lexikon]] 1888
{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{commons category-inline}}
* {{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Foundling Hospitals |volume=10 |pages=746–747 |short=1}}
* [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,718631,00.html Germany Still Divided over the Idea of Baby Hatches] – Article from ''[[Deutsche Welle]]'' website (English)
* [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,13509-1768375,00.html Hospital to bring back abandoned baby wheel]{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} – Article from ''[[The Times]]'' newspaper, UK (Article behind a pay-wall)
* [http://www.babyklappe.info/ www.babyklappe.info] German language website of baby hatch producer
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070322194943/http://www.babyklappe.info/alle_babyklappen/ List of all baby hatches in Germany] (in German)
* [http://www.lecourrier.ch/retour_vers_le_xixe_siecle Retour vers le XIXe siècle] Article in French from ''le Courrier'', Switzerland
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120217102502/http://www.aphp.fr/site/histoire/enfance_assistee.htm L'évolution des modes d'abandon] from the ''Histoire et Patrimoine des hôpitaux de l'Assistance Publique – Hôpitaux de Paris''
* [http://www.doorofhope.co.za/ Door Of Hope, South Africa]
* [http://crnjapan.net/The_Japan_Childrens_Rights_Network/res-art.html Japanese newspaper articles, at Japanese Children's Rights Network]
* [http://www.nidaa.nl/ Netherlands Institute for the Documentation of Anonymous Abandonance] – Dutch website on foundlings and neonaticide

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Infancy]]
[[Category:Child abandonment]]
[[Category:Adoption, fostering, orphan care and displacement]]

Xiqin (instrument)

2024-10-22T11:25:40Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Musical instrument}}
{{italic title}}
[[File:Yulin cave 10, Xiqin or Erhu.jpg|thumb|300px|Painting of a Xiqin or [[Erhu]] from Yulin cave 10, Western Xia, (1036-1227 C.E.)]]
The '''''{{transl|zh|xiqin}}''''' ({{zh|t=[[wikt:奚琴|奚琴]]|p=Xī qín}}) was a bowed 2-string string [[List of traditional Chinese musical instruments|musical instrument]].<ref name="Grove">{{cite book |entry= Xquin |title=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |date=1984 |publisher=MacMillan Press |editor=Sadie Stanley |volume=3 |place=London |page=868 |quote= Xiqin. Historic two-string fiddle of China.}}</ref> The instrument was called ''xiquin'' in China, referencing the ''[[Kumo Xi|Xi]]'' (the creators, a Mongol tribe) and ''quin'' (Chinese for stringed instrument).<ref name="Grove2">{{cite book |entry= Erhu|title=The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instruments |date=1984 |publisher=MacMillan Press |editor=Sadie Stanley |volume=2 |place=London |page= 787|quote= Erhu...early ancestor known as xiquin...''xi''; a northern tribe known to the chinese; quin: 'string instrument'...two strings which were set in vibration with a strip of bamboo...}}</ref> It is perhaps the original member of the {{transl|zh|[[huqin]]}} family of [[List of Mongolian musical instruments#Bowed|Mongolian]] and [[List of Chinese musical instruments#Bowed|Chinese]] bowed string instruments; thus, the ''{{transl|mn|[[Matouqin|morin khuur]]}}'' and ''{{transl|zh|[[erhu]]}}'' and all similar fiddle instruments may be said to be derived from the {{transl|zh|xiqin}}.<ref name="Grove2"/> The {{transl|zh|xiqin}} had two silk strings and was held vertically.

==Origin and development==
The ''{{transl|zh|xiqin}}'' is believed to have been developed by the [[Kumo Xi]], a [[Mongols|Mongol]]- or [[Khitan people|Khitan]]-related ethnic group living in the [[Xar Moron River]] valley in [[northeast China]].

The ''{{transl|zh|xiqin}}'' first appeared in China during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907 CE), during which time it was used in the palace orchestra and bowed with a [[bamboo]] stick.<ref name="Grove2"/> It was further developed in the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), when it began to be bowed with a [[horsehair]] bow.

In 1105, during the [[Song dynasty#Northern Song|Northern Song dynasty]], the instrument was described as a foreign, two-stringed fiddle in an encyclopedic work on music called {{transliteration|zh|Yuè Shū}} ({{lang|zh|[[wikt:樂|樂]][[wikt:書|書]]}}; literally "book of music") by the [[Music theory|music theorist]] [[Chen Yang (music theorist)|Chen Yang]] ({{lang|zh|[[wikt:陳|陳]][[wikt:暘|暘]]}}).

==Similar instruments==
The {{transl|zh|[[erxian]]}} used in {{transl|zh|[[nanguan music|nanguan]]}} music and the {{transl|kk|[[kyl kiak]]}} used in {{transl|kk|kuu}} music of [[Kyrgyzstan]] is similar in construction to the {{transl|zh|xiqin}}. The Korean {{transl|ko|[[haegeum]]}} ({{korean|[[wikt:해금|해금]]|hanja=[[wikt:奚琴|奚琴]]}}) is also very similar in shape to the {{transl|zh|xiqin}} from which it is derived; in fact, its name is simply the Korean pronunciation of the same Chinese characters. The Chinese characters in Cantonese would be {{transl|zh|hai kum}} which shows that the name in [[Middle Chinese]] would probably sounds more like Cantonese or Korean rather than the current Mandarin transliteration; however, the Mongolian [[Khuuchir|{{transl|mn|khuuchir}} or {{transl|mn|khoochur}}]] is seen as directly related to the etymology of [[Old Chinese]], which is retained in the modern Mandarin example of {{transl|zh|huqin}} or {{transl|zh|huchin}}, which is the general description of all [[Rebab|spike-fiddles]] which originated with the ancient nomadic [[Ethnic groups in Chinese history|Hu]]-people, including the {{transl|zh|xiqin}}.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eason.com.sg/resources/intro/bowed_string_instrument.jsp |title=Introduction of Traditional Chinese Bowed String Instrument - Erhu, Gaohu, Zhonghu, Banhu, Chinese Violin, Chinese Fiddle |access-date=2015-04-08 |archive-date=2012-01-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112084321/http://www.eason.com.sg/resources/intro/bowed_string_instrument.jsp |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cn.hujiang.com/new/p571339/|title = Talk about Horse-head Fiddle of the Mongolians_Learn Chinese Hujiang}}</ref>

==See also==
*{{transl|zh|[[Huqin]]}}
*{{transl|ko|[[Haegeum]]}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|url=http://www.0438.cn/Html/caifu/3735.html |title=[松原文化]马头琴的传说郭尔罗斯远古的神话[松原信息港] |access-date=April 7, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707013004/http://www.0438.cn/Html/caifu/3735.html |archive-date=July 7, 2011 |quote= [note: this source relates a legend of the creation of another Mongolian fiddle, as if it were the first of its type.. It does not mention the xiquin by name.] This is consistent with the time when the horse-head fiddle itself was produced...the Gorlos tribe was the pioneer tribe of the Mongolians' "smelting iron out of the mountains" (i.e. "melting iron out of the mountains"), and took the first step to liberate themselves. The Mongolian tribe was the most advanced tribe, and it had the foundation for the myth of the horse-head fiddle.}}

{{huqin}}
{{Traditional Chinese musical instruments}}

[[Category:Chinese musical instruments]]
[[Category:Huqin family instruments]]
[[Category:Necked bowl lutes]]
[[Category:Continuous pitch instruments]]
[[Category:Wuhuan]]

{{China-music-stub}}
{{huqin-stub}}

Proto-Hakka

2024-10-21T11:39:07Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Reconstructed ancestor of the Hakka varieties}}
{{Infobox proto-language
| name = Proto-Hakka
| altname = Common Neo-Hakka
| region = Southern Chinese highlands{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=393}}
| era = c. 1280-1530{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=394,444}}
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| ancestor = [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan]]
| ancestor2 = [[Old Chinese]]
| target = [[Hakka Chinese]]
}}
'''Proto-Hakka''' (also called '''Common Neo-Hakka''', '''CNH''') is the [[linguistic reconstruction|reconstructed]] [[proto-language]] from which all [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka varieties]] descend. Like all branches of the [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic language family]], proto-Hakka is difficult to reconstruct through the [[comparative method]] due to its multistratal lexicon.

==History==

It is believed that Sinitic migration into what is now Southern China started in the [[Qin dynasty]], after which a slow yet steady population continued to migrate southwards, up until the early [[Tang dynasty]]. The part of the population who lived in the highlands then underwent frequent amicable cultural exchange with the [[She people]] (as opposed to the Ho-nte, also classified by the Chinese government under the She ethnonym), who are believed to have descended from an indigenous people.{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=379-382}} The aforementioned Sinitic migrants likely spoke an early Sinitic language, and through this cultural exchange, the Sinitic language was transmitted to the ancestral She.

Later large migration waves due to [[An Lushan rebellion|the An-Shi Chaos]] and the fall of the [[Song dynasty#Northern Song, 960–1127|Northern Song dynasty]] to the [[Jurchen people|Jurchen]]-led [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] led to large increases of population, and conflicts between the migrants and pre-existing Highlanders of Sinitic ethnicity.{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=386-387}} Once the conflict had calmed down, the two groups intermingled, and the language of these migrants provided [[Stratum (linguistics)#Superstratum|superstrata]] on one of the pre-existing Highlander languages, which became the multi-stratal proto-Hakka.{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=391,399,439}}

While Neo-Hakka and She share common innovations, there are She-internal innovations that are not shared with Neo-Hakka. This implies that Neo-Hakka is the sister branch to [[She Chinese]], forming a bifurcating tree from their common ancestor. This proto-language is in turn closely related to the paraphyletic group of stem Hakka, or "Paleo-Hakka".{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=438-440}}<ref group="note" name="Paleo-Hakka" />

==Classification==

To reconstruct proto-Hakka, the language varieties to be included must first be decided. O'Connor's earlier reconstruction only utilizes data on [[Meixian dialect|Moiyan]]-like Hakka varieties, which Coblin calls "Mainstream Hakka". The dialects included in Coblin's reconstruction are known as "Neo-Hakka", which includes Mainstream Hakka, but also varieties in southern [[Jiangxi]] which are not [[mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]] with Mainstream Hakka and whose speakers do not consider themselves [[Hakka people]].{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=i}}

The following critera are used to determine Neo-Hakka varieties:<ref>{{cite book |last = Norman |first = Jerry Lee |chapter = What is a Kèjiā dialect? In Editorial Board of Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Sinology (ed.) |year = 1989 |title = Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Sinology |page = 323-344 |publisher = Taipei: Academia Sinica}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last = Coblin |first = W. South |title = A Study of Comparative Gàn |year = 2015 |publisher = Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica |series = Language and linguistics Monograph Series 58 |chapter = VI Varia and Concluding Remarks | isbn = 9789860459265}}</ref>

* [[Sonorant]]-initial syllables corresponding to the Light Rising tone in [[Qieyun]] system appear in the Dark Level and Light Rising tones, and which tone they occur with are lexically determined.
* The copula should be a form of 係 *hei6.
* The first-person singular pronoun should take the form /ŋai/ in the popular register, or be derivable from an earlier */ŋai/.
* The verb "to eat" should be a form of 食 *šik8.

==Phonology==

Given the varieties to be included, the comparative method can then be applied to arrive at a reconstruction of this language. This reconstruction is described below.

===Consonants===

The following consonants are reconstructed for Common Neo-Hakka:

{|class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
!colspan=2|
![[labial consonant|Labial]]
![[dental consonant|Dental]]
![[palatal consonant|Postalveolar]]
![[velar consonant|Velar]]
![[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!colspan=2 |[[nasal consonant|Nasal]]
|/{{IPA link|m}}/
|/{{IPA link|n}}/
|/ň/
|/{{IPA link|ŋ}}/
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[plosive consonant|Plosive]]
!{{small|[[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]}}
|/{{IPA link|p}}/
|/{{IPA link|t}}/
|
|/{{IPA link|k}}/
|
|-
!{{small|[[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]}}
|/{{IPA link|pʰ}}/
|/{{IPA link|tʰ}}/
|
|/{{IPA link|kʰ}}/
|
|-
!rowspan=2|[[affricate consonant|Affricate]]
!{{small|[[tenuis consonant|tenuis]]}}
|
|/{{IPA link|ts}}/
|/tš/
|
|
|-
!{{small|[[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]]}}
|
|/{{IPA link|tsʰ}}/
|/tšʰ/
|
|
|-
!colspan=2 |[[fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|/{{IPA link|f}}/
|/{{IPA link|s}}/
|/š/
|
|/{{IPA link|h}}/
|-
!colspan=2|[[approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|/{{IPA link|v}}/
|/{{IPA link|l}}/
|
| 
| 
|}

Much like modern Hakka varieties, the consonants /m n ŋ p t k/ can appear in syllable-final position.

The consonant inventory is similar to modern Sinitic languages, and preserves the dental-postalveolar distinction found in other Sinitic languages like [[Modern Standard Mandarin]] or [[Taishanese|Hoisanese]], as well as the postalveolar nasal, preserved in [[Shanghainese]].

===Glides===

Common Neo-Hakka glides consist of {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/u/}}, or a combination thereof.

===Vowels===

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ class="nowrap" |
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} || {{IPA link|ɨ}} || {{IPA link|u}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} || ({{IPA link|ə}}) ({{IPA link|ɚ}}) || {{IPA link|o}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| || {{IPA link|ä|a}} ||
|}

Vowels in parentheses appear in loanwords from some Northern Chinese variety, likely some Northern Ming or Qing Mandarin koine or even early Modern Standard Mandarin.{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=270}}

===Finals===

The following chart lists all of the finals in Common Neo-Hakka, which are a combination of glide, nucleus, and coda. Examples with the reconstructed final are written to the right, in parentheses if multiple variants with different finals can be reconstructed to the proto-language.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ class="nowrap" |
! colspan="2" && rowspan="2" |
! colspan="8" | [[Syllable#Nucleus|Nucleus]]
|-
! {{IPA|/i/}}
! {{IPA|/ɨ/}}
! {{IPA|/u/}}
! {{IPA|/e/}}
! {{IPA|/ə/}} {{IPA|/ɚ/}}
! {{IPA|/o/}}
! {{IPA|/a/}}
! {{IPA|/ŋ̩/}}
|-
! rowspan="9" | [[Syllable#Coda|Coda]]
! {{IPA|∅}}
| {{IPA|*-i}} 移 {{IPA|*-ui}} 未{{efn|name=samefinal|This character has variant pronunciations with the same final.}} {{IPA|*-iui}} (銳)
| {{IPA|*-ɨ}} 思
| {{IPA|*-u}} 烏 {{IPA|*-iu}} 於
| {{IPA|*-e}} (事) {{IPA|*-ie}}{{efn|Occurs exclusively in variant forms with *-iu}} (鋸)
| {{IPA|*-ə}}{{efn|Occurs exclusively in the form *lə}} (而) {{IPA|*ɚ}}{{efn|Occurs only as an independent syllable.}} 爾
| {{IPA|*-o}} 多 {{IPA|*-io}} 茄 {{IPA|*-uo}} 火
| {{IPA|*-a}} 啞 {{IPA|*-ia}} 夜 {{IPA|*-ua}} 花
| {{IPA|*ŋ̩}} (女)
|-
! {{IPA|/i/}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA|*-ei}}{{efn|Frequently occurs as a variant of *-ai}} (買)
|
| {{IPA|*-oi}} (海) {{IPA|*-ioi}}{{efn|Tentative; appears as a variant of *-oi for certain syllables.}} (歲) {{IPA|*-uoi}}{{efn|name=varpron|Many syllables reconstructed with this final has variant pronunciations.}} 灰
| {{IPA|*-ai}} 帶 {{IPA|*-iai}} 低 {{IPA|*-uai}} 淮
|
|-
! {{IPA|/u/}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA|*-eu}} 歐 {{IPA|*-ieu}} 又
|
| {{IPA|*-ou}} 老
| {{IPA|*-au}} 包 {{IPA|*-iau}} 腰
|
|-
! {{IPA|/m/}}
| {{IPA|*-im}} 音
|
|
| {{IPA|*-em}} 森
|
| {{IPA|*-om}} 敢
| {{IPA|*-am}} 帆 {{IPA|*-iam}} 鹽
|
|-
! {{IPA|/n/}}
| {{IPA|*-in}} 因
|
| {{IPA|*-un}} 溫 {{IPA|*-iun}} 暈
| {{IPA|*-en}} 恩
|
| {{IPA|*-on}} 安 {{IPA|*-ion}} 遠 {{IPA|*-uon}} 酸
| {{IPA|*-an}} 反 {{IPA|*-ian}} 煙 {{IPA|*-uan}} 關
|
|-
! {{IPA|/ŋ/}}
| {{IPA|*-iŋ}} 英
|
| {{IPA|*-uŋ}} (翁) {{IPA|*-iuiŋ}} 永{{efn|name=samefinal}}
| {{IPA|*-eŋ}} 生 {{IPA|*-ueŋ}} 衡
|
| {{IPA|*-oŋ}} 幫 {{IPA|*-ioŋ}} 羊 {{IPA|*-uoŋ}} 光
| {{IPA|*-aŋ}} 硬 {{IPA|*-iaŋ}}{{efn|name=varpron}} 餅 {{IPA|*-uaŋ}} 橫 {{IPA|*-uiaŋ}} 兄
|
|-
! {{IPA|/p/}}
| {{IPA|*-ip}} 揖
|
|
| {{IPA|*-ep}} 澀
|
| {{IPA|*-op}} 鴿
| {{IPA|*-ap}} 鴨 {{IPA|*-iap}} 葉
|
|-
! {{IPA|/t/}}
| {{IPA|*-it}} 一
|
| {{IPA|*-ut}} 骨 {{IPA|*-iut}} 出
| {{IPA|*-et}}{{efn|name=varpron}} 蝨
|
| {{IPA|*-ot}} 割 {{IPA|*-iot}} 決 {{IPA|*-uot}} 刮 {{IPA|*-uiot}} 血
| {{IPA|*-at}} 八 {{IPA|*-iat}} 熱 {{IPA|*-uat}} (括)
|
|-
! {{IPA|/k/}}
| {{IPA|*-ik}} 役{{efn|name=samefinal}}
|
| {{IPA|*-uk}} 屋 {{IPA|*-iuk}} 浴
| {{IPA|*-ek}} 得 {{IPA|*-uek}} 或
|
| {{IPA|*-ok}} 惡 {{IPA|*-iok}} 藥 {{IPA|*-uok}} 廓{{efn|name=samefinal}}
| {{IPA|*-ak}} 白 {{IPA|*-iak}} 石
|
|}

{{notelist}}

The finals reconstrcted violate phonotactic rules expected from the Mainstream Hakka dialects, such as forbidding [[velar consonant|velar codas]] after [[front vowel|front vowels]]. This is due to the existence of Hakka languages, like {{interlanguage link|Ningdu Hakka|zh|寧都話}}, that allow both velars and [[dental consonant|dental consonants]] to act as codas after front vowels,{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=41-44}} thus the distinction must be reconstructed to their last common ancestor.

===Tones===

Common Neo-Hakka has 7 tones. Historical [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]] [[plosive|stops]] become [[aspirated consonant|aspirated]] in the areal tone split. The traditional tone categories and their names are listed below:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" && rowspan="2" |
! colspan="4" | Tone category
|-
! Level 平
! Rising 上
! Going 去
! Entering 入
|-
! rowspan="2" | Tone register
! Dark 陰
| 1. 陰平 Dark Level
| 3. 陰上 Dark Rising
| 5. 陰去 Dark Going
| 7. 陰入 Dark Entering
|-
! Light 陽
| 2. 陽平 Light Level
|
| 6. 陽去 Light Going
| 8. 陽入 Light Entering
|}

Due to the diverse realization of tonal values in the descendants, precise tone values were not reconstructed. For example, the Dark Level tone is realized as {{IPA|[˦]}} (44) in [[Meixian dialect|Moiyan]] (Meixian),{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=14-15}} whereas in [[Raoping Hakka|Ngiaupin]] (Raoping) it is {{IPA|[˩]}} (11) and in Ningdu it is {{IPA|[˦˨]}} (42) or {{IPA|[˦˧]}} (43).{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=41-44}} Tones 7 and 8, the Entering tones, are distinguished by their stop codas, and so do not count as independent tones phonemically. However, they are included separately as they are considered independent categories in Chinese historical linguistics.

==Vocabulary==

Certain vocabulary items can also be reconstructed for proto-Hakka, a selection of which is provided below. Only reconstructions for forms surviving in more than two dialects are included by Coblin.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! English gloss
! Reconstruction
! Written form
|-
| is / are (copula)
| {{IPA|*hei6}}{{efn|If correct, this is the only etymon where the final *ei appears after a guttural consonant.}}
| 係
|-
| eat
| {{IPA|*šik8}}
| 食
|-
| I ({{gcl|1SG}})
| {{IPA|*ŋai1}} / {{IPA|*ŋai2}} / {{IPA|*ŋai3}}
|
|-
| you (singular)
| {{IPA|*ŋ̩2 ~ *ŋ̩3}} / {{IPA|ni1}} / {{IPA|*ňi2}}
|-
| that
| {{IPA|*kai5}} /{{IPA|*kai2}}{{efn|name=rare|These forms are rarer.}} / {{IPA|*kai3}}{{efn|name=rare}}
|
|-
| ''existential negative'' ("not have / not exist")
| {{IPA|*mau2}} / {{IPA|*muo2}} {{efn|Comparative reconstruction shows that the descendant forms cannot descend from the same proto-form.}}
|-
| son
| {{IPA|*lai6}}
| 孻
|-
| rowspan="2" | daughter
| {{IPA|*ŋ̩3}} / {{IPA|*ňiu3}} / {{IPA|*nie}}
| 女
|-
| {{IPA|*muoi5 *tse3}} / {{IPA|*muoi5 *tsɨ3}}
| 妹子
|-
| face
| {{IPA|*mian5}}
| 面
|-
| rowspan="3" | eye
| {{IPA|*ŋan3}}
| 眼
|-
| {{IPA|*ŋan3 *tšiu1}}
| 眼珠
|-
| {{IPA|*muk7 *tšiu1}}
| 目珠
|-
| mouth
| {{IPA|*tšoi5}}
| {{efn|While many sources write this as 嘴 or 喙, this cannot be descended from either character.{{sfn|Coblin|2019|p=329}}}}
|-
| house
| {{IPA|*vuk7}}
| 屋
|-
| rowspan="2" | mountain
| {{IPA|*san1}}
| 山
|-
| {{IPA|*liaŋ1}}
| 嶺
|-
| cooked rice
| {{IPA|*fan6}} / {{IPA|*pʰon6}}
| 飯
|-
| rowspan="3" | egg
| {{IPA|*tšʰiun1}}
| 春
|-
| {{IPA|*luon3}}
| 卵
|-
| {{IPA|*tʰan3}}
| 蛋
|-
| meat
| {{IPA|*ňiuk7}}
| 肉
|-
| wear (clothing)
| {{IPA|*tšok7}}
| 著
|-
| stand
| {{IPA|*kʰi1}}
| 企／徛
|-
| rowspan="2" | speak / talk
| {{IPA|*koŋ3}}
| 講
|-
| {{IPA|*va6}}
| 話
|-
| rowspan="2" | know
| {{IPA|*ti1}} ({{IPA|*tek7}})
| 知（得）
|-
| {{IPA|*hiau3 *tek7}}
| 曉得
|}
{{notelist}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group="note"|refs=<ref name="Paleo-Hakka">Coblin translates the conventional Chinese name of 老客家話 as "Paleo-Hakka" as opposed to "Old Hakka", as "Old Hakka" would imply the oldest textually attested stage of the language.</ref>}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book|last = Coblin |first = W. South |title = Common Neo-Hakka: A Comparative Reconstruction |year = 2019 |publisher = Taipei: Institute of Linguistics, Academia Sinica |series = Language and linguistics Monograph Series 63 | isbn = 978-986-54-3228-7}}

{{Sino-Tibetan languages}}
{{Chinese language}}
{{Languages of China}}
{{Portal bar|Language|China}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hakka (Language)}}
[[Category:Hakka Chinese]]
[[Category:Languages of China]]
[[Category:Hakka culture]]
[[Category:Varieties of Chinese]]

Pinyin (disambiguation)

2024-10-21T11:31:26Z

Tc14Hd: /* top */Grammar

{{wiktionary|Pinyin|pinyin|pīnyīn}}
== Chinese language ==
'''[[Pinyin]]''' (''Hànyǔ Pīnyīn'') is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in [[China]], [[Singapore]] and (since 2009) [[Taiwan]].

'''Pinyin''' can also refer to other transcription systems used in China:

* For varieties of Chinese:
** [[Tongyong Pinyin]], a romanization of Mandarin Chinese formerly used in Taiwan
** ''Wēituǒmǎ Pīnyīn'', the Chinese name for the [[Wade–Giles]] system of Mandarin language romanization
** [[Cantonese Pinyin]], a standard romanization of Cantonese used in Hong Kong
** [[Sichuanese Pinyin]], a romanization of the Chengdu dialect of Sichuanese
** ''Yēlǔ pīnyīn'', romanization systems of Asian languages developed at Yale:
*** [[Yale romanisation of Cantonese]]
*** [[Yale romanisation of Mandarin]]
*** [[Yale romanisation of Korean]]
* For other languages of China:
** [[Tibetan pinyin]], the official transcription system for Standard Tibetan in China
** [[Yengi Yeziⱪ|Uyghur pinyin]], one of the official transcription systems for the Uyghur language in China

== Other ==
* [[Pinyin language]], a Niger–Congo language spoken by some 27,000 people in the Northwest region of Cameroon

{{disambiguation}}

Pinyin (disambiguation)

2024-10-21T11:30:37Z

Tc14Hd: /* Chinese language */ Added entry

{{wiktionary|Pinyin|pinyin|pīnyīn}}
== Chinese language ==
'''[[Pinyin]]''' (''Hànyǔ Pīnyīn'') is the official romanization system for Standard Chinese in [[China]], [[Singapore]] and (since 2009) [[Taiwan]].

'''Pinyin''' can also refer to other transcription systems used in China:

* For varieties of Chinese:
** [[Tongyong Pinyin]], a romanization of Mandarin Chinese formerly used in Taiwan
** ''Wēituǒmǎ Pīnyīn'', the Chinese name for the [[Wade–Giles]] system of Mandarin language romanization
** [[Cantonese Pinyin]], a standard romanization of Cantonese used in Hong Kong
** [[Sichuanese Pinyin]], a romanisation for the Chengdu dialect of Sichuanese
** ''Yēlǔ pīnyīn'', romanization systems of Asian languages developed at Yale:
*** [[Yale romanisation of Cantonese]]
*** [[Yale romanisation of Mandarin]]
*** [[Yale romanisation of Korean]]
* For other languages of China:
** [[Tibetan pinyin]], the official transcription system for Standard Tibetan in China
** [[Yengi Yeziⱪ|Uyghur pinyin]], one of the official transcription systems for the Uyghur language in China

== Other ==
* [[Pinyin language]], a Niger–Congo language spoken by some 27,000 people in the Northwest region of Cameroon

{{disambiguation}}

Klismaphilia

2024-10-21T10:36:04Z

Tc14Hd: Updated short description

{{Short description|Enjoyment of enemas or the paraphilia involving sexual arousal from enemas}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2016}}

'''Klismaphilia''' (or ''klysmaphilia''), from the Greek words {{lang|grc|κλύσμα}} ("enema", from {{lang|grc|κατακλυσμός}}, "deluge, flood") and {{lang|grc|φιλία}} ("love"), is a [[paraphilia]] involving enjoyment of, and [[sexual arousal]] from, [[enema]]s.<ref>[http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/paraphilias.html Paraphilias] {{Webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20080224093721/http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/paraphilias.html |date=2008-02-24 }} from [http://www.psychologytoday.com Psychology Today]</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Denko|first=JD.|date=April 1973|title=Klismaphilia: enema as a sexual preference. Report of two cases.|journal=Am J Psychother|volume=27|pages=232–50 | issue=2|pmid=4704017|doi=10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1973.27.2.232}}</ref>

==History==
The term ''klismaphilia'' was coined in 1973 by Joanne Denko, an early investigator in this field, in her article "Klismaphilia: Enema as a Sexual Preference: Report of Two Cases," to describe the activities of some of her patients,<ref name=Agnew_1982>{{cite journal|last=Agnew|first=J.|date=October 1982|title=Klismaphilia--a physiological perspective.|journal=American Journal of Psychotherapy|publisher=Association for the Advancement of Psychotherapy|location=United States|volume=36|pages=554–66|issn=0002-9564|pmid=7158678|issue=4|doi=10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1982.36.4.554}}</ref> whom she referred to as ''klismaphiliacs''.<ref name="Denko">{{cite journal|last=Denko|first=JD.|date=April 1976|title=Amplification of the erotic enema deviance.|journal=Am J Psychother|volume=30|pages=236–55 | issue=2|pmid=937588|doi=10.1176/appi.psychotherapy.1976.30.2.236}}</ref> ''Klismaphile''<ref>Brame et al., ''Different loving – The World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'':489,516</ref> has come into use as a synonym for klismaphiliac.<ref>{{cite web|title=klismaphile|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/klismaphile|work=Wiktionary|date=6 August 2017|access-date=2018-10-04}}</ref>

==Manifestation==
[[File:Aluminium Enema Nozzle 02.jpg|thumb|200 px|upright=.68|An aluminum nozzle]]
{{Multiple image| perrow = 1 | width = 200
| header = An Inflatable Enema Nozzle
| image1 = 120 mm Long Inflatable Latex Enema Nozzle Before Inflating.jpg
| caption1 = As inserted into the rectum
| image2 = 120 mm long inflatable Latex Enema Nozzle.inflated.jpg
| caption2 = Inflated wider than a human rectum so it cannot be expelled (diameter here of {{convert|89|mm|in}})
}}
Klismaphiles might gain pleasure from a large, water distended belly or the feeling of internal pressure. An enema fetish may include the sexual attraction to the equipment, processes, environments, situations, or scenarios,<ref>Brame et al., ''Different loving – The World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'':517</ref> and some may be sexually aroused by the preparations, such as by the feel and smell of a latex rubber or plastic syringe, by the smell of soapsuds enema solution, or by preparing the recipient.<ref name="Agnew, Klismaphilia 2000:75">Agnew, ''Klismaphilia (2000)'':75</ref> Often, klismaphiles report discovering these desires after a chance administration of an enema sometime in their childhood, but some do report discovering these feelings later on.<ref name=Agnew_1982/> Klismaphiles can gain satisfaction of enemas through fantasies, by actually receiving or giving one, or through the process of eliminating steps to being administered one (e.g., under the pretense of being constipated).<ref name="Denko"/> Usually, klismaphiles carry out normal lives and successfully engage in this behavior secretly.

An enema can be an auxiliary to, or a substitute for, genital [[Human sexual activity|sexual activity]].<ref name="Denko"/>

That some women use enemas while masturbating was documented by [[Alfred Kinsey]] in ''Sexual Behavior in the Human Female'': "There were still other masturbatory techniques which were regularly or occasionally employed by some 11 percent of the females in the sample... Douches, streams of running water, vibrators, urethral insertions, enemas, other anal insertions, sado-masochistic activity, and still other methods were occasionally employed, but none of them in any appreciable number of cases."<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Kinsey | first1 = Alfred Charles | title = Sexual Behavior in the Human Female | publisher = Indiana University Press | place = Bloomington, Indiana, U.S.A. | year = 1953 | isbn = 978-0-253-33411-4 }}</ref>

[[Sadomasochism|Sadomasochistic]] activities may incorporate enemas<ref>Brame et al., ''Different loving – The World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'':513,516</ref><ref>Agnew, ''Klismaphilia (2000)'':74,77,78,79</ref> for [[erotic humiliation]]<ref>Brame et al., ''Different loving – The World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'':515,516,520</ref> or for physical discomfort.<ref>Brame et al., ''Different loving – The World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'':513,517</ref> [[BDSM]] punishment scenes can involve administering an enema in a manner that is humiliating and painful<ref name="Agnew, Klismaphilia 2000:75"/> and for producing pain and cramps an extra-large volumes or highly irritating substances can be injected.<ref name=Agnew_1982/> Among the attractions to enema play in BDSM are erotic humiliation, [[dominance and submission]], [[Discipline (BDSM)|discipline]], psychodrama, [[Master/slave (BDSM)|power exchange]], and so on. An erotic enema allows acting out vulnerability in a primal form.<ref>Brame et al., ''Different loving – The World of Sexual Dominance and Submission'':515-516</ref>

==Classification==

The [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV-TR) classifies klismaphilia under the diagnosis of "Paraphilias, Not Otherwise Specified". The diagnostic code is 302.9.<ref name="DSM">Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association, 2000.</ref> Proactive treatment for klismaphilics is not generally recommended, due to the lack of any significant desire to be "cured".<ref name="Denko"/> Health treatment for klismaphilia thus is typically only focused on ensuring the techniques employed and chemicals used are not harmful to the practitioner.<ref name="Denko"/> Caution should always be maintained on the part of the practitioners experimenting with new techniques and concoctions; in certain cases cramps produced by the chemicals used have led to hospitalizations,<ref name="Denko"/> in other circumstances the effects can even be life-threatening.<ref name="Case report">{{cite journal|title=Rectal Impaction With Epoxy Resin: A Case Report |date=2005-06-01 |doi=10.1016/j.gassur.2004.12.010 |pmid=15862274 |volume=9 |issue=5 |journal=Journal of Gastrointestinal Surgery |pages=747–749|last1=Hemandas |first1=A. |last2=Muller |first2=G. |last3=Ahmed |first3=I. |s2cid=564073 }}</ref><ref name=Self_Administered_Death>{{cite journal |title=Case Report – Self-Administered Ethanol Enema Causing Accidental Death |volume=2014 |pages=191237 |author=Thomas Peterson |author2=Landen Rentmeester |author3=Bryan S. Judge |author4=Stephen D. Cohle |author5=Jeffrey S. Jones |name-list-style=amp |date=11 November 2014 |journal=Case Reports in Emergency Medicine |publisher=[[Hindawi Publishing Corporation]] |doi=10.1155/2014/191237 |pmid=25436159 |pmc=4243473 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite journal |author=Agnew, J. |url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=558902640693864;res=IELHEA |title=Klismaphilia |date=2000 |journal=Venereology |access-date=29 September 2018 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=75–79 |issn=1032-1012}}
* {{cite book |last1=Brame |first1=Gloria |author-link1=Gloria Brame |last2=Brame |first2=William D. |last3=Jacobs |first3=Jon |title=Different loving – The World of Sexual Dominance and Submission |year=1993 |publisher=[[Villard (imprint)|Villard Books]] |isbn=978-0-6797-6956-9}}

{{Paraphilia}}
{{Wiktionary|klismaphilia}}

[[Category:Anal eroticism]]
[[Category:Paraphilias]]
[[Category:Sexual acts]]

[[sv:Parafili#Exempel på parafilier]]

Conservative holiness movement

2024-10-21T10:12:51Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Christian movement}}
{{methodism|align = right}}
{{Quakers vertical}}
{{Anabaptist vertical}}
The '''conservative holiness movement''' is a loosely defined group of [[theologically conservative]] Christian [[Christian denomination|denominations]] with the majority being [[Methodist]]s whose teachings are rooted in the [[Methodist theology|theology]] of [[John Wesley]], and a minority being [[Quaker]]s (Friends) that emphasize the doctrine of [[George Fox]], as well as [[River Brethren]] who emerged out of the [[Radical Pietist]] revival, and Holiness Restorationists in the tradition of [[Daniel Sidney Warner]].<ref name="Kurian2016">{{cite book |last1=Kurian |first1=George Thomas |last2=Lamport |first2=Mark A. |title=[[Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States]] |date=10 November 2016 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |isbn=978-1-4422-4432-0 |page=1945 |language=English |quote=Formed in 1926, Central Yearly Meeting [of Quakers] is part of the Conservative Holiness Movement and consists of a small number of Monthly Meetings in Arkansas, Indiana, North Carolina, and Ohio.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last1=Thornton | first1=Wallace Jr. |title=Behavioral Standards, Embourgeoisement, and the Formation of the Conservative Holiness Movement |date=2008 |publisher=Wesleyan Theological Society |page=177 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="Lewis2002"/> Schisms began to occur in the 19th century and this movement became distinct from parent [[Holiness movement|Holiness bodies]] in the mid-20th century amid disagreements over modesty in dress, entertainment, and other "old holiness standards".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sidwell |first=Mark |title=Conservative Holiness Movement: A Fundamentalism File Report |url=http://www.lcoggt.org/history/conservative_holiness_movement.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602030018/http://www.lcoggt.org/history/conservative_holiness_movement.htm |archive-date=2023-06-02 |website=LAWTON CHURCH OF GOD, LAWTON OKLAHOMA}}</ref> Aligned denominations share a belief in [[Christian perfection]] (entire sanctification), though they differ on various doctrines, such as the celebration of the [[sacrament]]s and observance of [[ordinance (Christianity)|ordinances]], which is related to the denominational tradition of the specific conservative holiness body—Methodist, Quaker, Anabaptist or Restorationist.<ref name="EMCC2017"/><ref name="BurgessMaas2010"/> Many denominations identifying with the conservative holiness movement, though not all, are represented in the [[Interchurch Holiness Convention]]; while some denominations have [[full communion]] with one another, other bodies choose to be isolationist.<ref name="Thornton">{{cite book | last1=Thornton | first1=Wallace Jr. |title=Behavioral Standards, Embourgeoisement, and the Formation of the Conservative Holiness Movement |date=2008 |publisher=Wesleyan Theological Society |page=181 |language=English|quote=Naturally, such an attempt at inclusiveness while maintaining conservative distinctives has drawn criticism—some view IHC as too liberal and others see it as too conservative. Thus, while IHC has served as a unifying force for many conservatives, it would be incorrect to assume that IHC represents all CHM adherents.}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Reid |first1=Daniel G. |last2=Linder |first2=Robert D. |last3=Shelley |first3=Bruce |last4=Stout |first4=Harry S. |last5=Noll |first5=Craig A. |title=Concise Dictionary of Christianity in America |date=22 May 2002 |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |isbn=978-1-57910-969-1 |language=en}}</ref>

== Theological emphases ==

=== The nature of sin ===
The father of Methodism, John Wesley, taught that "Nothing is sin, strictly speaking, but a voluntary transgression of a known law of God. Therefore, every voluntary breach of the law of love is sin; and nothing else, if we speak properly. To strain the matter farther is only to make way for Calvinism."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Wesley |first=John |title=The Works of John Wesley, Third Edition |year=1872 |volume=12 |location=London: Wesleyan Methodist Book Room |pages=394}}</ref> With this narrower understanding of sin, John Wesley believed that it was not only possible but necessary to live without committing sin. Wesley explains this in his comments on {{Bibleverse|1 John|3:8|KJV}}: "Whosoever abideth in communion with Him—By loving faith, sinneth not—While he so abideth. Whosoever sinneth certainly seeth Him not—The loving eye of his soul is not then fixed upon God; neither doth he then experimentally know Him—Whatever he did in time past."<ref>John Wesley, [[Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament]], Fourth American Edition. (New York: J. Soule and T. Mason, 1818), 661.</ref> Holiness adherents therefore believe in the possibility and necessity of living a life without committing [[Christian views on sin|sin]]. Leading Holiness Scholar Leslie D. Wilcox concluded that "holiness writers, following the Wesleyan theology, define sin as a willful transgression of a known law of God."<ref>Leslie D. Wilcox, ''Be Ye Holy Leslie'' (Cincinnati Ohio: Revivalist Press., 1977), p. 40.</ref> The Inter-Church Holiness Convention following John Wesley defines sin as "a willful transgression against a known law of God. This means that there must be knowledge of wrongdoing, or of refusing to obey God, before sin is committed. Mistakes are not sin."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Salvation |publisher=InterChurch Holiness Convention|url=https://ihconvention.com/build-your-faith/questions-answers/salvation/|access-date=2021-01-12|language=en-US}}</ref> H. E. Schmul, the founder of the Inter-Church Holiness Convention actually explains how some of our "theological wunderkind" including S. D. Herron, and Leslie Wilcox came up with this definition:<blockquote>
An act of sin is any uncoerced word or thought or deed that violates the will of God, performed by an intelligent responsible person within the age of accountability done in defiance of God or not prompted by love to God or desire to please him. Sin, then, is a responsible act.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Brian |title=Properly Defining Sin: Defending the Biblical Definition |publisher=Heritage Publications |year=2023 |isbn=979-8860817951}}</ref> </blockquote>With this definition in mind, Christian denominations aligned with the Conservative Holiness Movement believe that "The lowest type of Christian sinneth not and is not condemned. The minimum of salvation is salvation from sinning."<ref>Wood, J A. 2016. ''Perfect Love, or, Plain Things for Those Who Need Them : Concerning the Doctrine, Experience, Profession, and Practice of Christian Holiness''. Wilmore, Kentucky: First Fruits Press.</ref> Following the lead of John Wesley, denominations identifying as being a part of the Conservative Holiness Movement hold that "calling every defect a sin, is not well pleasing to God."<ref name="Works of">{{cite book |last=Wesley |first=John |author-link=John Wesley |title=The Works of John Wesley |edition=third |volume=12 |location=London |publisher=Wesleyan Methodist Book Room |date=1872| page = 448}}</ref> "Mistakes, and whatever infirmities necessarily flow from the corruptible state of the body, are no way contrary to love; nor therefore, in the Scripture sense, sin."<ref name="Works of" /> This definition of sin is vitally important because "If this definition is compromised, victorious Christian living becomes meaningless, and entire sanctification an impossibility."<ref>Timothy Cooley from: Black, Caleb. What About Sin?: An Appraisal of the Nature of Sin in the American Holiness Tradition (p. 1). Kindle Edition.</ref> Historian Charles Jones explains that "Believing that sin was conscious disobedience to a known law of God, holiness believers were convinced that the true Christian, having repented of every known act of sin, did not and could not willfully sin again and remain a Christian."<ref>Charles Jones, ''Perfectionist Persuasion'', (Metuchen, N. J: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.. 1974), p32-33</ref>

=== Entire Sanctification ===
The word ''Holiness'' refers specifically to the belief in entire sanctification as a definite, second work of grace, in which original sin is cleansed, the heart is made perfect in love, and the believer is empowered to serve God. The Conservative Holiness movement is known for its emphasis on the possibility, necessity, and instantaneous nature of Entire Sanctification, also known as '[[Christian perfection#Wesleyan_teaching|Christian perfection]]' in Methodism and '[[Christian perfection#Quaker_teaching|Perfectionism]]' in Quakerism, as well as the second work of grace. This doctrine is shown in the founding documents of the Holiness Movement, the 1885 Declaration of Principles which explained:

<blockquote>"Entire Sanctification... is that great work wrought subsequent to regeneration, by the Holy Ghost, upon the sole condition of faith...such faith being preceded by an act of solemn and complete [[Consecration in Christianity#Entire consecration|consecration]]. This work has these distinct elements:

# The entire extinction of the carnal mind, the total eradication of the birth principle of sin;
# the communication of perfect love to the soul...
# the abiding indwelling of the Holy Ghost."<ref>Maddox, Randy (1998). "Reconnecting the Means to the End: A Wesleyan Prescription for the Holiness Movement". ''Wesleyan Theological Journal''.'''33''' (2): 29–66</ref></blockquote>

The [[Book of Discipline]] of the [[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]] explicates the doctrine of sanctification:<ref name="AWMC2014"/>

<blockquote>Entire sanctification is that work of the Holy Spirit by which the child of God is cleansed from all inbred sin through faith in Jesus Christ. It is subsequent to regeneration, and is wrought when the believer presents himself a living sacrifice, holy and acceptable unto God, and is thus enabled through grace to love God with all the heart and to walk in His holy commandments blameless. 
''Gen. 17:1; Deut. 30:6; Ps. 130:8; Ezek. 36:25–29; Matt. 5:48; Luke 1:74, 75; John 17:2–23; Rom. 8:3, 4; 11:26; 1 Cor. 6:11; 14:20; Eph. 4:13, 24; 5:25–27; Phil. 2:5, 7; Col. 4:12; 1 Thes. 3:10; 5:23; 2 Thes. 2:13; 2 Tim. 3:17; Tit. 2:12, 14; Heb. 9:13, 14; 10:14, 18–22; Jas. 1:27; 4:8; 1 Pet. 1:10; 2 Pet. 1:4; 1 John 1:7, 9; 3:8, 9; 4:17, 18; Jude 24.''<ref name="AWMC2014pp15-16">{{cite book|title=The Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference)|year=2014|publisher=[[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]]|location=[[Salem, Ohio|Salem]]|language=en|pages=15–16}}</ref></blockquote>

John Wesley, who articulated the doctrine, taught that those who had been entirely sanctified would be perfect in love, engaging in [[works of piety]] and [[works of mercy]]—both of which are characteristic of a believer's [[Sanctification in Christianity#Methodist|growing in grace]].<ref>{{cite book|author=S. T. Kimbrough|title=Orthodox and Wesleyan ecclesiology|year=2007|publisher=[[St Vladimir's Seminary Press]]|isbn=9780881412680|quote=Perhaps Wesley's favorite description of his own calling and that of Methodism was to "spread scriptural holiness." He and his helpers preaced "entire sanctification" or "Christian perfection" understood as the single-hearted love of God and neighbor. The twin vehicles and expressions of such love were "works of piety" (prayer, fasting, searching the Scriptures, partaking of the Lord's Supper as "means of grace") and "works of mercy" ("doing good unto all men, to their souls and to their bodies"): "God works [in you]; therefore you ''can'' work. God works [in you]; therefore you ''must'' work."}}</ref><ref name="GBGM">{{cite web|title=Christian Perfection: Works of Piety and Mercy|url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/action.stm|publisher=[[The United Methodist Church]]|quote=Christian Perfection is "holiness of heart and life." It is "walking the talk." John Wesley expected Methodists to do not only "works of piety" but "works of mercy"--both of these fused together put a Christian on the path to perfection in love.|access-date=5 July 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060202204507/http://gbgm-umc.org/UMW/Wesley/action.stm|archivedate=2 February 2006}}</ref>

=== Plain lifestyle ===
Members of the Conservative Holiness movement generally hold that the lifestyle restrictions found in the New Testament are still binding today and must be followed. This generally shows up in areas of entertainment, keeping the Sunday Sabbath, and modest clothing.<ref name="Gibson2008"/>

This is taught in the doctrine of [[outward holiness]] (for Methodist denominations in the conservative holiness movement), the [[testimony of simplicity]] (for Quaker [[Yearly Meeting|yearly meetings]] in the conservative holiness movement), the doctrine of [[nonconformity to the world]] (for River Brethren denominations in the conservative holiness movement), and the principle of [[nonconformity to the world|separation from the world]] (for Restorationist denominations in the conservative holiness movement).<ref name="Kostlevy2009"/>

Though there is variety in application of these principles, there is general consensus that they must be followed.<ref name="Gibson2008">{{Cite book |last=Gibson |first=Stephen |title=Dr. |publisher=Allegheny Publications |year=2008 |pages=6}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Tabernacle of Flatwoods Reformed Free Methodist Campground.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The [[Tabernacle (Methodist)|tabernacle]] of Flatwoods Reformed Free Methodist Campground, which served as the location of the annual [[camp meeting]] of the [[Reformed Free Methodist Church]], one of the earliest denominations of the conservative holiness movement]]
[[File:Grace Wesleyan Methodist Church.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Grace Wesleyan Methodist Church is a parish church of the [[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]] and is located in [[Akron, Ohio]].]]
The [[Holiness movement]] was largely contained within mainline Methodism during the 19th century, with some members of the holiness movement continuing to remain in the mainline Methodist Churches to this day (the "stay-inners"). Wesleyan-Holiness doctrine influenced adherents of other denominations as well. By the 1880s a persistent wave of "come-outism" was beginning to gather steam. The come-outers were concerned that mainline Methodism had begun to water-down Holiness teachings and even shun its more outspoken proponents.

The majority of the denominations which now comprise the Conservative holiness movement were once among a number of [[Holiness movement]] groups which had a history of coming out or having left [[Methodist Episcopal Church|mainline Methodism]] to teach and practice Holiness doctrine uninhibited. The denominations that left mainline Methodism and the mainstream holiness movement to form the conservative holiness movement did so because they saw a relaxation of the prohibitions on certain behaviours that they considered to be "worldly". The list of prohibitions varies from denomination to denomination, but the prohibitions include the wearing of gold (which includes wedding rings), television in the home (an extension to previous bans on theater patronage), women not cutting their hair (in accordance with historic interpretations of I Corinthians 11), the prohibition of men wearing [[shorts]], the prohibition of women wearing short skirts, and the [[Sunday sporting events#Opposition to Sunday sports|prohibition of patronizing sporting events]] on the [[Sabbatarianism#Methodist Churches|Sunday Sabbath]]. Members of denominations in the conservative holiness movement align themselves with the [[temperance movement]] and practice [[teetotalism]], thus abstaining from alcohol and other drugs.<ref name="AWMC2014">{{cite book|title=The Discipline of the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection (Original Allegheny Conference)|year=2014|publisher=[[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]]|location=[[Salem, Ohio|Salem]] |page=37}}</ref> Each major denomination enforces some of the disciplines listed above, so there is some variation amongst the groups. It is these disciplines that characterize the Churches of the conservative holiness movement.

The [[Church of God (Holiness)]] was created as a result of a [[schism]] with the [[Methodist Episcopal Church]] in 1883 due to differences in interpretation of the Methodist doctrine of [[Christian perfection]], as well as standards of dress.<ref>{{cite book | last1=Thornton | first1=Wallace Jr. |title=Behavioral Standards, Embourgeoisement, and the Formation of the Conservative Holiness Movement |date=2008 |publisher=Wesleyan Theological Society |page=181 |language=English}}</ref> In the Restorationist tradition, the [[Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)]] left the [[Church of God (Anderson, Indiana)]] in the 1910s due to issues concerning "worldly conformity in dress".<ref name="Thornton2008">{{cite book | last1=Thornton | first1=Wallace Jr. |title=Behavioral Standards, Embourgeoisement, and the Formation of the Conservative Holiness Movement |date=2008 |publisher=Wesleyan Theological Society |page=177 |language=English |quote=The CHM thus resulted from the desire of mid-century holiness conservatives to perpetuate the radical cause which dominated the movement at the beginning of the century. ... The first significant conservative “comeouter” group was the Church of God (Guthrie, OK), which pulled radical constituents from the Church of God (Anderson) in the early 1910s.}}</ref> The body that is now the [[Bible Holiness Church]] originated in 1896 as a schism with the Wesleyan Methodist Church and originally had a [[Holiness Pentecostal]] orientation; the Bible Holiness Church, however, formally rejected the possibility of a [[third work of grace]] in 1948.<ref name="Rowman & Littlefield">{{cite book |last1=Kurian |first1=George Thomas |last2=Lamport |first2=Mark A. |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity in the United States |date=10 November 2016 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-4432-0 |page=244 |language=English}}</ref> The [[Central Yearly Meeting of Friends]] is a Quaker [[Yearly Meeting]] emphasizing George Fox's doctrine of perfectionism and was founded in 1924.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kostlevy |first1=William |title=Historical Dictionary of the Holiness Movement |date=3 August 2009 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-6318-7 |page=48 |language=English}}</ref> The [[Reformed Free Methodist Church]] left the Free Methodist Church in 1932; the [[Immanuel Missionary Church]] and the [[Emmanuel Association|Emmanuel Association of Churches]] left the Pilgrim Holiness Church in 1936 and 1941, respectively—these schisms were due to what the departing bodies perceived as a laxity in traditional doctrine and standards.<ref name="Echols2015"/><ref name="Lewis2001">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=James R. |title=The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions |date= 2001 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn= 978-1-61592738-8}}</ref><ref name="Jones1974">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Charles Edwin |title=A guide to the study of the holiness movement |date=1974 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-81080703-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/guidetostudyoft00char}}</ref> Samuel West spearheaded the formation of the Reformed Free Methodist Church, which held its annual Flatwoods Camp Meeting in [[Perryopolis, Pennsylvania]]; the RFMC emphasized the traditional Methodist doctrine of [[plain dress]].<ref name="Jones1974"/> The Emmanuel Association, belonging to the subgroup of "Holiness Pacifists" in the conservative holiness movement, is known for its [[Christian pacifism|opposition to warfare]] and its holiness standards are codified in a manual known as "Principles of Holy Living"; the Immanuel Missionary Church, the First Bible Holiness Church and the [[Church of God (Guthrie, OK)|Church of God]] likewise teach [[nonresistance]] and are [[conscientious objector]]s, thus falling under this category too.<ref name= "Lewis2001"/><ref>{{cite book |title=Manual: First Bible Holiness Church |date=1956 |publisher=First Bible Holiness Church |location=[[Muncie, Indiana|Muncie]] |page=4}}</ref><ref name="TGT2021">{{cite web |title=Biblical Nonresistance: The Call of Christ to the Law of Love |url=https://www.thegospeltruth.org/wp-content/uploads/EnglishGT/Gospel-Truth-26-Biblical-Nonresistance.pdf|publisher=[[Church of God (Guthrie, OK)|Church of God]] |access-date=20 May 2021 |issue=26|work=The Gospel Truth|pages=5–9 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="2001Lewis">{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=James R. |title=The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions |date=2001 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn=978-1-61592-738-8 |page=304 |language=English |quote=The doctrine of the Emmanuel Association is similar to that of the Pilgrim Holiness Church, but it has a very rigid behavior code called Principles of Holy Living. Members are conscientious objectors.}}</ref>

The Holiness movement, for the most part, huddled together tightly from its early history to later when [[Pentecostalism]] was competing for the hearts and minds of its adherents. During the [[Fundamentalist–Modernist Controversy]] of the 1920s and onward, most Holiness groups found themselves at home in the Fundamentalist camp or allied with them.<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://nazarene.org/files/docs/Strange%20Bedfellows%20The%20Nazarenes%20and%20Fundamentalism.pdf |title= The Nazarenes & fundamentalism |access-date= 2015-02-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20160414123106/http://nazarene.org/files/docs/Strange%20Bedfellows%20The%20Nazarenes%20and%20Fundamentalism.pdf |archive-date= 2016-04-14 |url-status=dead}}</ref> While many Holiness groups made the jump toward the [[Evangelicalism|Evangelical]] movement in the late 1930s, there were groups that felt their Holiness peers were drifting away from [[Biblical inerrancy]] and [[Nonconformity to the world|separation from the world]].

By the post-World War II era, a more relaxed societal attitude toward morality and theological differences continued to accompany many mainstream Holiness conferences, districts and local churches reinforcing longstanding prohibitions on behavior in their governing documents. Not at home with other Fundamentalist alliances (which had a more Calvinistic and non-Holiness tone to them), an [[Interdenominational Holiness Convention]] (IHC) was called at a Wesleyan Methodist campground in Fairmont, Indiana, in 1951, though it did not include all denominations that are characterized as belonging to the conservative holiness movement, especially those of a more isolationist nature.<ref name="Thornton"/> [[Entire sanctification]] (in Methodism) or [[Christian perfection#Quaker teaching|Perfectionism]] (in Quakerism), as well as traditional holiness strictures on dress and entertainment, held a prominent place in convention sermons. The swelling divorce rate, the relentless spread of Communism (with its promotion of [[state atheism]]), and the effects of television on society were also prominent themes.<ref>Leonard Sankey, “Let’s Talk Dayton Convention,” Convention Herald, May–June 1999</ref> Participants resisted a call to form a new denomination, but became an ally toward a series of prior and future institutional secessions.

In 1955 the [[Bible Missionary Church]] (BMC) was formed in Idaho and soon grew nationwide as local congregations left the Church of the Nazarene over "worldliness" issues.

In 1963, another schism in the [[Free Methodist Church]] led to the formation of the [[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]] (EWC).<ref name="Kostlevy2009">{{cite book |last=Kostlevy|first=William|title= Historical Dictionary of the Holiness Movement|date=3 August 2009|publisher= Scarecrow Press|isbn=978-0-81086318-7|page= 30-31}}</ref>

In 1963, the Pilgrim Holiness Church of New York seceded from the Pilgrim Holiness Church to become an independent organization (in 1966–68, the Wesleyan Methodist Church and the Pilgrim Holiness Church proposed a merger to form the Wesleyan Church, which today has more in common with the [[Christian Holiness Partnership]]-affiliated Holiness churches such as the Nazarene Church).

The Brethren in Christ Church, a [[River Brethren]] denomination that emerged out of [[Radical Pietism]], entered into a schism in 1963 resulting in the formation of the [[Calvary Holiness Church (Philadelphia)|Calvary Holiness Church]], a conservative holiness denomination which continues to emphasize traditional River Brethren beliefs, such as the [[Christian headcovering|wearing of a headcovering by women]], [[plain dress]], [[temperance movement|temperance]], [[footwashing]], and [[Christian pacifism|pacifism]].<ref name="Lewis2002">{{cite book |last1= Lewis |first1=James R. |title=The Encyclopedia of Cults, Sects, and New Religions |date= 2002 |publisher=Prometheus Books |isbn= 978-1-61592738-8 |page=151}}</ref>

In 1966, the Church of the Bible Covenant was created as a result of a schism with the [[Church of the Nazarene]] under the leadership of Remiss Rehfeldt and Marvin Powers; in August 1988, the Church of the Bible Covenant largely became the International Fellowship of Bible Churches, though at that time, a minority of Covenanters joined the International Conservative Holiness Association.<ref name="Kostlevy">{{cite book |last1=Kostlevy |first1=William |title=The A to Z of the Holiness Movement |date=2010 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8108-7591-3 |page=60 |language=English}}</ref><ref name="NCCUSA2012">{{cite book |title=Yearbook of American & Canadian Churches 2012 |date=1 April 2012 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-1-4267-5610-8 |language=English}}</ref>

In the wake of the Wesleyan Church merger, the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches, the Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection of Churches, the Bible Methodist Connection of Tennessee (Tennessee Bible Methodists), the Bible Methodist Connection of Alabama (Alabama Bible Methodists), Bible Methodist Connection Mid-America (formed in 2018), and Pilgrim Holiness Church (Midwest Conference), were organized.

In 1973, the [[Fellowship of Independent Methodist Churches]] was formed in the British Isles after a number of congregations left the [[Methodist Church in Ireland]] and the [[Free Methodist Church]] due to their opposition to what they perceived was ecumenism with branches of Christianity that espoused [[Liberal Christianity|Modernism]].<ref name="Matthews2003">{{cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Rex Dale |title=Timetables of History for Students of Methodism |date=2007 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-0-687-33387-5 |page=231 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Cooney2001">{{cite book |last1=Cooney |first1=Dudley Levistone |title=The Methodists in Ireland: A Short History |date=2001 |publisher=Columba Press |isbn=978-1-85607-335-6 |page=120 |language=en}}</ref>

[[God's Missionary Church]] was formed by individuals affected by [[tent revival]] services.

Social change constantly confronts Conservative Holiness Christians. The Church of God (Holiness) in 1999 removed a ban on owning televisions, urging charity over “the ownership or use of television, videos, movies, the internet, and such like.” Other denominations in the conservative holiness movement, such as the [[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]], continue to forbid the watching of television, which they hold to be an [[occasion of sin]].<ref>I. C. Holland, “The Motive for the Motion,” Church Herald & Holiness Banner, 25 Feb. 2000, p. 10.</ref> Issues over doctrine and standards have resulted in schisms in denominations identifying with the conservative holiness movement too; for example, in 1979, a schism in the body now called the [[Bible Holiness Church]] resulted in the formation of the [[Wesleyan Holiness Alliance]].<ref name="Jones1974"/> The [[Wesleyan Holiness Association of Churches]], the Wesleyan Bible Holiness Church, the United Missionary Church and the [[Pilgrim Nazarene Church]] originated as a result of schisms with the [[Bible Missionary Church]], with the former being established under the leadership of Glen Griffith in 1959 to uphold the discipline of [[Christian views on divorce#Methodist Churches|prohibiting remarriage after divorce]] and the latter departing in 2003 "over personal commercial use of the Internet."<ref name="Bainbridge1997">{{cite book |last1=Bainbridge |first1=William Sims |title=The Sociology of Religious Movements |date=1997 |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-415-91202-0 |page=77 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Charles Edwin |title=A Guide to the Study of the Holiness Movement |date=1974 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-0703-7 |page=813 |language=English}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Charles Edwin |title=The Wesleyan Holiness Movement: Parts I-III |date=2005 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5433-8 |page=813 |language=en}}</ref> However, mergers have occurred as well; for example, in August 2019 the Pilgrim Nazarene Church (PNC) voted to join the Bible Methodist Connection. While not all the churches took part in the merger, it is estimated that approximately two-thirds of the PNC churches joined the Bible Methodist Connection.

==Denominations==
[[File:Camp Meeting at Wesleyan Methodist Campground.jpg|thumb|350px|A service of worship at the [[tabernacle (Methodist)|tabernacle]] of a [[camp meeting]] of the [[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]], held at Wesleyan Methodist Camp in [[Stoneboro, Pennsylvania]]]]
Denominations and associations of churches aligned with the conservative holiness movement include the following though independent churches aligned with the common themes of the conservative holiness movement exist too:

*[[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]]
*[[Bible Holiness Church]]<ref name="Rowman & Littlefield"/>
*[[Bible Methodist Connection of Churches]]
*[[Bible Methodist Connection of Tennessee]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://salisburybiblemethodist.com |title=Salisbury Bible Methodist Church~Salisbury, NC |access-date=2014-05-15 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221154530/http://salisburybiblemethodist.com/ |archive-date=2014-02-21 }}</ref>
*[[Bible Missionary Church]]
*[[Calvary Holiness Church (Philadelphia)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://calvaryholinesschurch.org/|title=CHC | Home|website=calvaryholinesschurch.org}}</ref>
*[[Central Yearly Meeting of Friends]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.centralyearlymeetingoffriends.org/|title=Best Casino Apps in New Zealand|website=www.centralyearlymeetingoffriends.org}}</ref>
*[[Church of God (Holiness)]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://cogh.net/|title=Church of God (Holiness) - Welcome, We're Glad You're Here}}</ref>
*[[Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)]]<ref name="Thornton2008"/>
*[[Church of the Bible Covenant]]
*[[Crusaders Churches of America]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.fccstlouis.org/|title=Faith Community Church – Bringing Joy to Life}}</ref>
*[[Emmanuel Association]]<ref name="Kostlevy2010">{{cite book |last1=Kostlevy |first1=William |title=Holy Jumpers: Evangelicals and Radicals in Progressive Era America |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199703364 |page=304 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[Evangelical Methodist Church#Evangelical Methodist Church Conference|Evangelical Methodist Church Conference]]
*[[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]]
*Faith Missionary Association
*[[Fellowship of Independent Methodist Churches]]
*First Bible Holiness Church<ref name="Jones2005">{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Charles Edwin |title=The Wesleyan Holiness Movement: A Comprehensive Guide |date=2005 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5433-8 |page=800 |language=en}}</ref>
*[[God's Missionary Church]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://godsmissionarychurch.org/|title=About|website=God's Missionary Church, Inc.}}</ref>
*Grace Tabernacle Church<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jones |first1=Charles Edwin |title=The Wesleyan Holiness Movement |date=2005 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=541}}</ref>
*[[House of Prayer (denomination)|House of Prayer]]
*[[Immanuel Missionary Church]]<ref name="Echols2015">{{cite book |last1=Echols |first1=Marian |title=Emmanuel Association of Churches: 1936-2015 |date=2015 |publisher=Emmanuel Association of Churches |pages=14–15 |language=English }}</ref>
*International Fellowship of Bible Churches<ref name="NCCUSA2012"/>
*International Conservative Holiness Association<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ichaministries.com/|title=HOME|website=ICHA Ministries}}</ref>
*[[Pilgrim Holiness Church|Pilgrim Holiness Church (Midwest Conference)]]
*[[Pilgrim Holiness Church|Pilgrim Holiness Church of New York]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.pilgrimholinesschurch.com|title=Pilgrim Holiness Church of New York Website}}</ref>
*[[Reformed Free Methodist Church]]
*United Holiness Church (Southeast Indiana)
*United Holiness Church of Korea
*United Missionary Church
*Wesleyan Bible Holiness Church
*[[Wesleyan Holiness Association of Churches]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Portrait of a Town: Portage, Pennsylvania, 1890-1990 |date=1990 |publisher=The Committee |page=59 |language=English |quote=On March 18, 1956, the first service of what is now the Wesleyan Holiness Church was held in the Miner's Hall under the leadership of Rev. Alvin Cottle.}}</ref>
*[[Wesleyan Holiness Alliance]]<ref name="Jones1974" />{{rp|781}}
*Wesleyan Nazarene Church
*Wesleyan Missionary Church
*Wesleyan Tabernacle Association

==Diversity in belief and practice==
Christian denominations aligned with the conservative holiness movement all share a belief in the doctrine of [[Christian perfection]] (entire sanctification); apart from this, denominations identified with the conservative holiness movement differ on several issues, given that there are Methodist, Quaker, Anabaptist and Restorationist churches that comprise the conservative holiness movement and these denominations have unique doctrines.<ref name="Kurian2016"/> Methodist denominations that are a part of the conservative holiness movement, such as the [[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]] or [[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]], affirm the celebration of the [[sacraments]], chiefly [[Holy Baptism]] and [[Holy Communion]]; on the other hand, denominations of the [[Quaker]] tradition, such as the [[Central Yearly Meeting of Friends]], are entirely non-sacramental.<ref name="Kurian2016"/> Anabaptist denominations aligned with the conservative holiness movement, such as the [[Calvary Holiness Church (Philadelphia)|Calvary Holiness Church]]—a River Brethren group—teach the observance of [[ordinance (Christianity)|ordinances]], such as baptism by trine immersion, [[eucharist|communion]], [[Christian headcovering|headcovering]] and [[footwashing]].<ref name="Lewis2002"/> While the Methodist denominations of the conservative holiness movement hold to [[church membership]] (such as the [[Evangelical Methodist Church Conference]]), the concept of membership rolls is rejected in conservative holiness denominations of a Restorationist background, such as the [[Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)]].<ref name="EMCC2017">{{cite book |title=Evangelical Methodist Church Discipline |date=15 July 2017 |publisher=[[Evangelical Methodist Church Conference]] |language=English|pages=22–21|quote=The marriage contract is so sacred that we advise against seeking divorce on any grounds whatseover. Should any member seek divorce on any unscriptural grounds (Matt. 5:32 "But I say unto you, that whosoever shall put away his wife, saving for the cause of fornication, causeth her to commit adultery; and whosoever shall marry her that is divorced comitteth adultery."), and that well proven, he shall be summoned to appear at a meeting in the local church, with the general board working in co-operation with the local church board. If proven guilty of such offense, he shall be dismissed at once, and no longer considered a member of Evangelical Methodist Church. We advise against the remarriage of all divorced persons, as the scriptures declare in Romans 7:3a "...So then if, while her husband liveth, she be married to another man, she shall be called an adulteress." If any person becoming converted, and having such marital complications as mentioned above in the days of their sin and ignorance, it is our belief that God will and does forgive them; however, we shall not receive such persons into church membership, but with to extend to them the right hand of fellowship, promising the prayers of God's people. Should any pastor, knowingly or unknowingly, receive such persons that have been divorced and remarried into membership, such membership shall not be valid. Ministers are advised to have nothing to do with the re-marriage of persons divorced on any grounds. In the event any person is divorced by an unbelieving companion and shall remain in an unmarried state, retaining his or her Christian integrity, he or she shall not be dismissed or barred from church membership.}}</ref><ref name="BurgessMaas2010">{{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=Stanley M. |last2=Maas |first2=Eduard M. van der |title=The New International Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements: Revised and Expanded Edition |date=3 August 2010 |publisher=Zondervan |isbn=978-0-310-87335-8 |language=en |quote=In each place, the Church of God consisted of the wholly sanctified living out the divine command under the Scripture-mandated name. No membership roll had to be kept, for true saints recognized one another.}}</ref>

==Educational institutions==
[[File:EWBI Entrance.jpg|thumb|The entrance to the [[Evangelical Wesleyan Bible Institute]] (EWBI) in [[Cooperstown, PA|Cooperstown]]]]
There are a number of elementary, middle and high schools affiliated with various denominations of the conservative holiness movement. Colleges affiliated with the conservative holiness movement include:

*[[Allegheny Wesleyan College]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://awc.edu/|title=Home|website=Allegheny Wesleyan College}}</ref> (Salem, OH)
*[[Bible Missionary Institute]] (Rock Island, IL)
*Covenant Foundation College (Knightstown, IN) [closed]<ref name="Kostlevy"/>
*[[Evangelical Wesleyan Bible Institute]] (Cooperstown, PA)
*Faith Bible School (Mitchell, SD)
*[[God's Bible School]] (Cincinnati, OH)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gbs.edu/|title=God's Bible School & College - Ministry training for the 21st century|website=God's Bible School & College}}</ref>
*[[Hobe Sound Bible College]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://hsbc.edu/|title=Hobe Sound Bible College - (772) 546-5534|website=Hobe Sound Bible College}}</ref> (Hobe Sound, FL)
*Immanuel Missionary College (Shoals, IN) [closed]
*[[Salem Swedish Methodist Episcopal Church|John Fletcher Christian College]] (Axtell, NE) [closed]
*[[Kansas Christian College (Overland Park)|Kansas Christian College]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Kansas Christian College: 2017-18 Academic Catalog |url=https://kansaschristian.edu/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/2017-2018-Catalog-.pdf |publisher=[[Kansas Christian College (Overland Park)|Kansas Christian College]] |access-date=24 July 2019 |language=en |date=2018 |quote=We must keep in mind that prudence involves concern for our influence on the college itself, the conservative holiness constituency we serve, the educational community, and the larger society of which we are a part.}}</ref> (Overland Park, Kansas)
*[[Northwest Indian Bible Institute]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=northwestindianbibleschool.org |url=https://northwestindianbibleschool.org/ |access-date=2024-06-18}}</ref> (Alberton, MT)
*[[Penn View Bible Institute]] (Penns Creek, PA)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://pvbi.edu/|title=Penn View Bible Institute | Where the mission still matters.}}</ref>
*Peoples Bible College (Colorado Springs, CO) [closed]
*Thompson Bible Institute (Bellevue, OH) [closed]
*[[Union Bible College and Academy]] (Westfield, IN)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ubca.org/|title=Home|website=Union Bible College}}</ref>
*Wesleyan Holiness Bible College/West Virginia Training School (Point Pleasant, WV)

==Missions==
A number of mission endeavors exist within the conservative holiness movement with active mission fields in the [[Philippines]], [[South Africa]], [[Ukraine]], [[Haiti]], [[Peru]], [[Mexico]], [[Asia]], [[Eastern Europe]], [[India]], [[Myanmar]], and [[South Korea]]. Listed below are a few of the mission organizations affiliated with the conservative holiness movement. Most of the denominations listed above also maintain their own missions boards and departments for both Home and Foreign Missions.

*Bible Methodist Missions<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://biblemethodist.org/missions/index.htm|title=Bible Methodist Missions}}</ref>
*Evangelical Bible Mission
*Evangelistic Faith Missions<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://efmmissions.org/|title=Evangelistic Faith Missions | Extending the Gospel|website=Evangelistic Faith Missions}}</ref>
*Hope International Missions
*Worldwide Faith Missions
*Pilgrim Missions
*Society of Indian Missions
*ICHA Ministries<ref name="auto"/>

== Publications ==
Publications, publishing companies, periodicals and discipleship tools affiliated with the conservative holiness movement include:
* [https://ihconvention.com/news-articles/convention-herald/ ''Convention Herald''] – publication of the [[Interchurch Holiness Convention]]
* [https://www.gbs.edu/alumni/revivalist/ ''God's Revivalist''] (Cincinnati, OH) – affiliated with [[God's Bible School and College]] since the late 1800s.
*[http://godsmissionarystandard.com/ ''God's Missionary Standard''] – the publication of [[God's Missionary Church]]
*''Pilgrim News'' – the publication of the [[Pilgrim Holiness Church]]
* [http://wesleyanbooks.com/ Schmul Publishing Co.] (Nicholasville, KY) – specializing in Wesleyan-Holiness reprints
*''[https://www.fimc.info/the-alert.html The Alert]'' – the publication of the [[Fellowship of Independent Methodist Churches]]
*''The Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist'' – the publication of the [[Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection]]
*''The Convention Pulpit'' – the podcast of the [[Interchurch Holiness Convention]]
*''The Earnest Christian'' – the publication of the [[Evangelical Wesleyan Church]]
*''The Eleventh Hour Messenger'' – the publication of the [[Wesleyan Holiness Association of Churches]]
*''[https://www.churchofgodeveninglight.com/the-gospel-truth/ The Gospel Truth]'' – the publication of the [[Church of God (Guthrie, Oklahoma)]]
*''The Holiness Evangelist'' – the publication of the [https://www.ichaministries.com/ International Conservative Holiness Association]
*''The Immanuel Missionary'' – the publication of the [[Immanuel Missionary Church]]

==See also==
*[[Apostolic Christian Church (Nazarene)]], a conservative Anabaptist denomination teaching entire sanctification
*[[Apostolic Faith Church]], a Holiness Pentecostal denomination teaching conservative standards
*[[Conservative Anabaptism]], a conservative strain of Christianity emphasizing obedience to Scriptural commands

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050710083533/http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1862 The Holiness Churches: A Significant Ethical Tradition], Donald W. Dayton
*The Holiness Heritage, by Dr. Brian Black
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20091022202530/http://geocities.com/Athens/Olympus/1802/submissions/jjohnson.htm A Social Science Perspective On The Conservative Holiness Movement], John Johnson
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050616082837/http://pages.prodigy.net/apbrown2/BibleMethodism/HistoryofBibleMethodism.htm The History and Development of Bible Methodism], A. Philip Brown II
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050619022929/http://www.gtii.com/bayview/wesleyan.html The History And Organization Of The Wesleyan Church], Bayview Wesleyan Church
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050211180103/http://www.awmchurch.org/discipline/default.htm Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection Discipline], Allegheny Wesleyan Methodist Connection of Churches
*[http://biblemethodist.org/home/constitution.htm Constitution of the Bible Methodist Connection of Churches], Bible Methodist Connection of Churches
*[http://phcofny.homestead.com/files/are.htm Pilgrim Holiness Church of New York – Who We Are], Pilgrim Holiness Church of New York
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070929161507/http://pastorpedro.org/HDM0084.htm A Presentation Of Perfection], Dr. Mark Eckart (Mainline Wesleyan)
*Handbook of Denominations, by Frank S. Mead, Samuel S. Hill, & Craig D. Atwood
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140714214053/http://wallacethornton.com/booklet-the-conservative-holiness-movement-a-historical-appraisal/ The Conservative Holiness Movement: A, Historical Appraisal The Conservative Holiness Movement: A Historical Appraisal], by Wallace Thornton Jr.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140714133304/http://wallacethornton.com/holiness-doctrine-and-practice/ From Glory to Glory: A Brief Summary of Holiness Beliefs and Practice], Wallace Thornton Jr.
* [http://wallacethornton.com/radical-righteousness/ Radical Righteousness: Personal Ethics and the Development of the Holiness Movement], Wallace Thornton Jr.

==External links==
*[https://www.holinessmovement.org/ Conservative Holiness Movement (directory)]
*[http://www.holinessonline.com Holiness Online]
*[http://www.holiness.cc Holiness Web Directory]
*[http://www.ihconvention.com/ InterChurch Holiness Convention]
*[https://freedomgospel.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/How-Do-You-Get-to-Heaven-2-Rev.-1.9-NCI.pdf Salvation Plan - Conservative Holiness Movement]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Conservative Holiness Movement}}
[[Category:Methodism]]
[[Category:Christian organizations established in 1952]]
[[Category:Methodist denominations established in the 20th century]]
[[Category:Christian revivals]]

Vietglish

2024-10-20T15:53:17Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Mixture of Vietnamese and English}}
{{refimprove | date= July 2009}}
'''Vietglish''', '''Vinglish''' or '''Vietlish''', is an informal term for a [[code mixing|mixture]] of elements from Vietnamese and English.<ref>Minero, Luis (2006) "Globalização e Expansão Conscienciológica Através dos Idiomas." Conscientia 10(4):302-316.</ref>

The term ''Vietglish'' is first recorded in 1969. Other colloquial [[portmanteau word]]s for Vietlish include (chronologically): ''Vietglish'' (1992), ''Vinish'' (2003), ''Vinglish'' (2010) and ''Vietnamiglish'' (2016).<ref>Lambert, James. 2018. A multitude of ‘lishes’: The nomenclature of hybridity. ''English World-wide'', 39(1): 32. DOI: 10.1075/eww.38.3.04lam</ref>

This usage is said to be found in immigrant communities in majority-English-speaking countries.{{fact|date=July 2009}} Borrowed English words are also commonly used in everyday Vietnamese both inside and outside Vietnam in informal contexts.{{fact|date=July 2009}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Sample Words
|-
! Vietglish !! Vietnamese !! Header text
|-
| You're Xinh Quá/ You're Xinh || Bạn thật dễ thương || You're Cute (Xinh Quá means so pretty in normal Vietnamese)
|-
| You're Xạo Quá || Bạn nói dối || You're lying
|}

==External links==
*[http://www.vietvoicemag.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=45&Itemid=26+vietglish Viet Voice Magazine - Very Vietglish]{{dead link|date=September 2024|bot=medic}}
*[http://www.nguoi-viet.com/absolutenm/anmviewer.asp?a=22829&z=47 What are you speaking? Hey, it's just Vietglish]

{{interlanguage varieties}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Vietnamese language]]
[[Category:Macaronic language]]

Chinese school

2024-10-20T15:47:39Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|School that teaches Chinese varieties}}
{{about|schools outside China teaching Chinese language and culture|other uses|Chinese school (disambiguation)}}
{{globalize|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| pic = Image:Chinesehw.jpg
| piccap = A student practices writing Chinese characters.
| s = 中文学校
| t = 中文學校
| p = zhōngwén xuéxiào
| y = jūngmán hohk'haauh
}}
A '''Chinese school''' ({{zh|s = 中文学校 |t = 中文學校|p = zhōngwén xuéxiào |cy = jūngmán hohk'haauh}}) is a [[school]] that is established for the purpose of teaching the [[varieties of Chinese]] (in particular, [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] and [[Cantonese]]), though the purpose can vary to teaching different aspects of [[Chinese culture]] such as Chinese art, calligraphy, history and martial arts. The programs can either be an independent institution or a part of an existing educational institution.

Many Chinese schools are purposed to preserve traditional Chinese language and culture. In 2007, ''USA Today'' dubbed Chinese "... is the new English."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/education/2007-11-19-mandarin-cover_n.htm|title=Chinese isn't the new French - It's the new English}}</ref> A recent trend in 2011 shows that the Chinese government has also provided funding to U.S. school districts with additional funding on top of funding they already receive from the U.S. government. As a result, there has also been concern that the Chinese government may also be infiltrating the education system outside its borders, as some people at a school district in [[Columbus, Ohio]], feel it has done.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/01/19/china.funds.language.programs|title=China sponsored language programs in U.S. raise concerns, hopes|website=[[CNN]]}}</ref>

==Curriculum==
A typical Chinese school curriculum can vary depending on the particular school. However, the [[Standard Chinese]] language and various aspects of [[Chinese culture]] such as [[Chinese art]], [[Chinese history]] and [[Chinese martial arts]] are typically included.

===Chinese language===
[[File:DifficultChineseSpeechSounds.svg|thumb|left|400px|Most native speakers of English find these sounds difficult.]]
{{Main article|Chinese language|Standard Chinese|Chinese as a foreign language}}
The Chinese language is spoken by nearly 1.2 billion people or about 16% of the world's population. Chinese schools typically teach both written and spoken Chinese. With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] instruction is gaining popularity in schools in the United States, and has become an increasingly popular subject of study amongst the young in the Western world, as in the UK.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4617646.stm | work=BBC News | title=How hard is it to learn Chinese? | date=January 17, 2006 | access-date=April 28, 2010}}</ref> One of the teaching tools used widely in Chinese schools is the [[Pinyin]] system, also known as the official phonetic system for [[Romanization of Chinese|transcribing]] the [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] pronunciations of [[Chinese character]]s into the [[Latin script|Latin alphabet]] which was developed in the 1950s based on earlier forms of [[romanization]]. It was published by the Chinese government in 1958 and revised several times.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=Xinhua News Agency |date=2008-02-11 |title = Pinyin celebrates 50th birthday |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/news/242463.htm |access-date = 2008-09-20}}</ref> The [[International Organization for Standardization]] (ISO) adopted pinyin as an international standard in 1982.<ref name="ISO1982">{{cite web|url=http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_ics/catalogue_detail_ics.htm?csnumber=13682|title=ISO 7098:1982 – Documentation – Romanization of Chinese |access-date=2009-03-01}}</ref>

===Chinese calligraphy===
{{Main article|Chinese calligraphy}}
[[Image:Chinese calligraphy scheme 03-en.svg|thumb|250px|right|Calligraphy tools]]
Written Chinese as taught in Chinese schools uses methods as defined by the Shūfǎ (書法) from China, which means "the way/method/law of writing".<ref group=note>書 being here used as in 楷书/楷書, etc, and meaning "writing style".</ref> Curricula in Chinese writing typically focus on stroke order and repetition. Schools also teach the relationship of words based on their [[Chinese radicals]], as many words come from ideas that relate to a particular topic. [[stroke order|Stroke orders of words]] are also important as they dictate how Chinese words can be found in a Chinese dictionary.<ref>{{cite book |title=王力古漢語字典|author=Wang Li|year=2000|publisher=中華書局|location=Beijing|isbn=7101012191|page=1118|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

===Chinese art===
{{Main article|Chinese painting}}
Chinese art is taught in Chinese schools following the techniques as established in Chinese painting. For example:
* [[Gongbi|Gong-bi]] (工筆), meaning "meticulous", uses highly detailed brushstrokes that delimits details very precisely. It is often highly coloured and usually depicts figural or narrative subjects. It is often practised by artists working for the royal court or in independent workshops. [[Bird-and-flower painting]]s were often in this style.
* [[Ink and wash painting]], in Chinese ''Shui-mo'' or (水墨<ref>The Chinese character "mo" means ink and "shui" means water</ref>) also loosely termed watercolour or brush painting, and also known as "literati painting", as it was one of the "[[four arts]]" of the Chinese [[Scholar-official]] class.<ref>Sickman, 222</ref> In theory this was an art practised by gentlemen, a distinction that begins to be made in writings on art from the [[Song dynasty]], though in fact the careers of leading exponents could benefit considerably.<ref>Rawson, 114-119; Sickman, Chapter 15</ref> This style is also referred to as "xie yi" (寫意) or freehand style.

===Chinese martial arts===
{{Main article|Chinese martial arts}}
Chinese martial arts, sometimes called "kung fu" are a number of [[Styles of Chinese martial arts|fighting styles]] that have developed over the centuries in China. Chinese schools often offer such programs as part of their curriculum as it is one of the fundamental aspects of Chinese culture. Though some martial art styles may have originated in other parts of Asia such as [[karate]] and [[tae kwon do]], they are sometimes taught as though it were part of the Chinese heritage.

==Major events==

===Chinese New Year===
{{Main article|Chinese New Year}}
Many Chinese schools put on a Chinese New Year gala as the festival is an important Chinese festival celebrated at the turn of the [[Chinese calendar]]. It is also known as the '''Spring Festival''', the literal translation of the modern Chinese name. Chinese New Year celebrations traditionally run from Chinese New Year's Eve, the last day of the last month of the Chinese calendar, to the [[Lantern Festival]] on the 15th day of the first month, making the festival the longest in the Chinese calendar. The first day of the New Year falls between January 21 and February 20.

==See also==
{{Portal|Education}}
* [[Chinese as a foreign language]]
* [[Confucius Institute]], partnerships between colleges and universities in China and those in other countries

Other cultures and languages have similar setups. For example:
*[[Hebrew school]]
*[[Arabic language school]]
*[[Hindi language school]]
*[[Français langue étrangère]]
*[[English as a second or foreign language]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050608085220/http://www.ncacls.org/ National Council of Associations of Chinese Language Schools]

{{Chinese American}}
{{Language school}}

[[Category:Chinese-language education]]
[[Category:History of immigration to the United States]]
[[Category:Asian-American culture]]

International Chinese Language Program

2024-10-20T11:42:47Z

Tc14Hd: /* Coursework */

{{Use American English|date = January 2019}}
{{Short description|Chinese language learning institute at National Taiwan University in Taipei}}
{{Use mdy dates|date = January 2019}}

{{Infobox University|name=International Chinese Language Program|native_name=國際華語研習所|image_name=|image_size=150|caption=[[Seal (device)|Seal]] of the National Taiwan University|vice-president=|city=[[Taipei]]|country=[[Taiwan]]|coor={{Coord|25.016|121.536|type:edu|display=inline,title}}|colors=Maroon and gold {{color box|#861A05}}{{color box|#FFB200}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/about/aboutNTU.html |title=NTU at a Glance |publisher=National Taiwan University |accessdate=15 March 2015 |archive-date=January 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129182014/http://www.ntu.edu.tw/english/about/aboutNTU.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>|affiliations=[[National Taiwan University]]|website={{URL|https://iclp.ntu.edu.tw/}}|logo=|native_name_lang=zh-Hant-TW}}

The '''International Chinese Language Program''' ('''ICLP'''; {{zh|t={{linktext|國際|華語|研習|所}}}}) is an institution for intensive training in formal [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]], [[Classical Chinese]], and other [[varieties of Chinese]]. It is located in [[Gongguan, Taipei|Gongguan]], [[Taipei]], on the main campus of [[National Taiwan University|National Taiwan University (NTU; Chinese: 國立臺灣大學)]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webometrics.info/ |title=Welcome to Ranking Web of Universities | Ranking Web of Universities |publisher=Webometrics.info |date= |accessdate=2015-07-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://cgi.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/features/universities2000/schools/multi.overall.html |title=Asiaweek.com | Asia's Best Universities 2000 | Overall Ranking |publisher=Cgi.cnn.com |date=2000-06-22 |accessdate=2015-07-02 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202135316/http://cgi.cnn.com/ASIANOW/asiaweek/features/universities2000/schools/multi.overall.html |archivedate=2016-02-02 }}</ref>

==History==
The center was established in 1961 by [[Stanford University]] to meet the stringent research and educational needs of Stanford University students. In 1963, the Inter−University Board was created and the official name became the Inter−University Program for Chinese Language Studies (IUP), commonly referred to as the "Stanford Center," with several top American universities contributing funds and participating in the center. Owing to the quality of the teachers and materials, as well as the intensity of instruction, this program quickly became the world's premier center for the intensive study of Mandarin Chinese, training several generations of the world's top [[sinologist]]s, including professors, [[diplomat]]s, and business leaders.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://iclp.ntu.edu.tw/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=1&Itemid=1 |title=About ICLP - About ICLP |publisher=Iclp.ntu.edu.tw |date=2008-03-13 |accessdate=2015-07-02}}</ref>

In 1997, a [[Inter-University Program for Chinese Language Study|new IUP]] was established at [[Tsinghua University]] in [[Beijing]], [[People's Republic of China|China]]. National Taiwan University assumed full administration of the program in Taiwan, and the name was changed to the "International Chinese Language Program at National Taiwan University" (ICLP). Though it changed its name, ICLP continued with the same teachers, same course materials, and same traditions as an elite Chinese training program, with the same level of intensive instruction and small classes that have made it the standard against which other Mandarin training programs are measured. ICLP has produced and continues to produce some of the best known texts for instruction in Mandarin. In January 2006, ICLP, though long-associated with National Taiwan University and having always been located there, was finally formally merged into NTU as an institute of the university.

==Coursework==
The normal courseload for students is three one-hour classes with no more than four students a class plus an additional hour of personal instruction. The student to faculty ratio at ICLP is less than 3:1. ICLP follows an approximately 10-week quarter system, with Fall, Winter, Spring, and Summer sessions (the summer session is just 8 weeks). Students who wish to study at ICLP can choose from several options. First is the year-long program, beginning in mid-September and ending in June or August, depending on the student's choice for the optional summer session. Second, students may also join just the optional summer session running from June to August. Third, there is a quarter program offered in line with the calendar of many [[List of colleges and universities in California|California universities]], in order to meet the needs of students studying abroad on a quarter system. In addition, sometimes students attend for just a single quarter (Fall, Winter, Spring or Summer) for remedial study or for college credit. Besides classwork, students practice outside class in a Mandarin-speaking environment that upholds much of its traditional Chinese heritage and culture within the framework of a modern [[Politics of Taiwan|democratic]] society.

Previously, ICLP did not accept beginner students, but due to overwhelming interest, ICLP now also offers intense instruction at the beginner level. Besides the full complement of courses in spoken and written Chinese from beginner to advanced levels, ICLP is one of the few Chinese language schools to offer beginner and advanced courses in [[Classical Chinese]] and [[Taiwanese Hokkien|Taiwanese]]. Classes in [[Chinese calligraphy]] and creative writing are also offered. [[Cantonese]] and [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] have also previously been offered. Students also have the opportunity to audit courses at National Taiwan University.

==Scholarships==
Besides graduate student grants, some ICLP students are also recipients of scholarships granted by the [[Blakemore Foundation]] and the [[Taipei Economic and Cultural Office|Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office (TECRO)]]. U.S. applicants to the [[Huayu Enrichment Scholarship]] apply through their regional TECRO Cultural Division. U.S. applicants to the [[Scholarship Program for Advanced Mandarin Studies]] apply through the Washington D.C. [[Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative Office]] Cultural Division.

==Alumni==
*[[David Coates (diplomat)|David Coates]], British diplomat, former Director General of the [[British Office Taipei|British Trade & Cultural Office]] in Taipei and Ambassador to the Ivory Coast.
*[[Weldon South Coblin]], linguist and sinologist
*[[Nathan Congdon]], Professor, School of Medicine, Dentistry and Biomedical Sciences, Centre for Public Health at [[Queen's University Belfast]]
*[[Joseph W. Esherick|Joseph Esherick]], historian, professor of modern Chinese history at [[University of California, San Diego]]
*[[Mark Halperin (professor)]], Professor of Chinese, Department Chair of East Asian Languages and Cultures at [[University of California, Davis]]
*[[Philip J. Ivanhoe]], historian of Chinese thought, particularly of Confucianism and Neo-Confucianism
*[[Rodger Krouse]], Co-Founder and Co-Chief Executive Officer of [[Sun Capital Partners]]
*[[Mark Edward Lewis]], scholar of early Chinese history
*[[B. Lynn Pascoe]], United States Foreign Service Officer, former Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations for Political Affairs<ref name="Pascoe NTU">{{cite web|url=http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~ntuvpadmin/records/951030/951030_1.pps|title=Homepage|publisher=Homepage.ntu.edu.tw|accessdate=2015-07-02}}</ref>
*[[Colin Pine]], [[interpreter]] for Chinese [[basketball]] star [[Yao Ming]]
*[[Shawna Yang Ryan]], novelist, author, and professor
*[[P. Steven Sangren]], a leading American anthropologist of Chinese religion
*[[Haun Saussy]], University Professor of Comparative Literature at the [[University of Chicago]]
*[[Meir Shahar]], professor in the Department of East Asian Studies at [[Tel Aviv University]]
*[[David Shambaugh]], professor of political science and international affairs at [[George Washington University]], as well as a non-resident senior fellow at the [[Brookings Institution]]
*[[Hugh Shapiro]], associate professor of East Asian history at the [[University of Nevada, Reno]]
*[[David Spindler]], independent American scholar of the Great Wall of China and one of its leading researchers<ref name="Spindler NTU">{{cite web |author=傅綠喜 |url=http://iclp.ntu.edu.tw/epaper/index.php?id=899 |title=臺大國際華語研習所電子報雙週刊 » 長城研究學者石彬倫(David Spindler)校友專訪 |publisher=Iclp.ntu.edu.tw |date=2007-05-21 |accessdate=2015-07-02 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20121222052956/http://iclp.ntu.edu.tw/epaper/index.php?id=899 |archive-date=December 22, 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*[[Tad Waddington]], author, translator/interpreter, and businessman
*[[Robin Winkler]], attorney and environmental activist<ref name="Winkler NTU">{{cite web |author=趙明廉 |url=http://iclp.ntu.edu.tw/epaper/index.php?id=775 |title=臺大國際華語研習所電子報雙週刊 » 一篇關於ICLP校友文魯彬(Robin Winkler)的《紐約時報》報導 |publisher=Iclp.ntu.edu.tw |date=2007-04-22 |accessdate=2015-07-02 |language=zh-Hant-TW |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304003524/http://iclp.ntu.edu.tw/epaper/index.php?id=775 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Winkler NYT">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/06/06/business/energy-environment/06green.html?_r=1&pagewanted=all|title=Activism Gets Rolling in Taiwan|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|accessdate=2015-07-02}}</ref>
*[[Edward Wong]], American journalist and a foreign correspondent for [[The New York Times]]
*[[Greg Zeluck]], Managing Director and Co-Head of Asia Buyouts at [[The Carlyle Group]]

==See also==
*[[National Dong Hwa University Chinese Language Center|Chinese Language Center (CLC)]] of [[National Dong Hwa University (NDHU)]]
*[[Mandarin Training Center|Mandarin Training Center (MTC)]] of [[National Taiwan Normal University|National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU)]]
*[[Mandarin Learning Center|Mandarin Learning Center (MLC)]] at [[Chinese Culture University]]
*[[List of Chinese language schools in Taiwan for foreign students]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://iclp.ntu.edu.tw/ Official website of the International Chinese Language Program]

{{National Taiwan University}}
{{Mandarin Centers}}

[[Category:Academic language institutions]]
[[Category:Language schools in Taiwan]]
[[Category:Schools in Taipei]]
[[Category:Schools of Chinese as a second or foreign language]]
[[Category:National Taiwan University organizations]]

Outline of the Korean language

2024-10-20T01:00:41Z

Tc14Hd: /* History */

{{Short description|Topical guide to the Korean language}}

The following [[Outline (list)|outline]] is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the Korean language:

'''[[Korean language|Korean]]''' – East Asian language spoken by about 80 million people.<ref name="google10">{{Citation | url = https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size | title = Summary by language size, table 3}}</ref> It is a member of the [[Koreanic]] language family and is the official and national language of [[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]], which form [[Korea]]. It is also one of the two official languages in the [[Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture]] and [[Changbai Korean Autonomous County]] of [[Jilin]], China. Historical and modern linguists classify Korean as a [[language isolate]];<ref name="google15">{{Citation | last = Song | first = Jae Jung | year = 2005 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=rIk52cJ1vDEC&pg=PA15 | title = The Korean language: structure, use and context | publisher = Routledge | page = 15| isbn = 978-0-415-32802-9 }}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | first1 = Lyle | last1 = Campbell | first2 = Mauricio | last2 = Mixco | year = 2007 | title = A Glossary of Historical Linguistics | publisher = University of Utah Press | contribution = Korean, A language isolate | pages = 7, 90–91 | quote = most specialists... no longer believe that the... Altaic groups... are related […] Korean is often said to belong with the Altaic hypothesis, often also with Japanese, though this is not widely supported}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | first = David | last = Dalby | date = 1999{{ndash}}2000 | title = The Register of the World's Languages and Speech Communities | publisher = Linguasphere Press}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | first = Nam-Kil | last = Kim | year = 1992 | contribution = Korean | title = International Encyclopedia of Linguistics | volume = 2 | pages = 282–86 | quote = scholars have tried to establish genetic relationships between Korean and other languages and major language families, but with little success}}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | first = András | last = Róna-Tas | year = 1998 | contribution = The Reconstruction of Proto-Turkic and the Genetic Question | title = The Turkic Languages | publisher = Routledge | pages = 67–80 | quote = [Ramstedt's comparisons of Korean and Altaic] have been heavily criticised in more recent studies, though the idea of a genetic relationship has not been totally abandoned }}.</ref><ref>{{Citation | first = Claus | last = Schönig | year = 2003 | contribution = Turko-Mongolic Relations | title = The Mongolic Languages | publisher = Routledge | pages = 403–19 | quote = the 'Altaic' languages do not seem to share a common basic vocabulary of the type normally present in cases of genetic relationship}}.</ref> however, it does have a few [[extinct language|extinct relatives]], which together with Korean and the [[Jeju language]] (spoken on [[Jeju Island]] and considered distinct) form the [[Koreanic languages|Koreanic language family]].<ref>{{Citation | contribution = Stratification in the peopling of China: how far does the linguistic evidence match genetics and archaeology? | editor1-last = Sanchez-Mazas | editor2-last = Blench | editor3-last = Ross | editor4-last = Lin | editor5-last = Pejros | title = Human migrations in continental East Asia and Taiwan: genetic, linguistic and archaeological evidence | year = 2008 | publisher = Taylor & Francis}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/18764127|title=Korean as a Paleosiberian Language (English version of 원시시베리아 언어로서의 한국어)|first=Alexander|last=Vovin}}</ref> Korean is [[Agglutinative language|agglutinative]] in its morphology and [[subject–object–verb|SOV]] in its [[syntax]]. {{TOC limit|limit=2}}

== History ==
{{Main|History of Korean}}
*[[Koreanic languages#Proto-Koreanic|Proto-Koreanic]]
**[[Puyŏ languages]]
***[[Ye-Maek language]]
***[[Buyeo language]]
*** [[Goguryeo language]]
*** [[Baekje language]]
**[[Han languages]]
*** [[Gaya language]]
*** [[Silla language]]
*[[Old Korean]]
*[[Middle Korean]]
*[[Modern Korean]]
**[[Hangul orthography]]
**[[New Korean Orthography]]

== Hangul ==
[[Hangul]]

* [[Origin of Hangul]]
** ''[[Hunminjeongeum]]''
** ''[[Hunminjeongeum Haerye]]''

* [[Hangul consonant and vowel tables]]

=== Online ===

* [[Korean language and computers]]
** [[ISO/TR 11941]]
** [[Unified Hangul Code]]

*[[Hangul Day]]

=== In non-Korean languages ===
* [[Cia-Cia language]]
* [[Taiwanese Hangul]]

== Chinese characters ==

* [[Hanja]]
** [[Idu script]]
*** [[Hyangchal]]
** [[Gugyeol]]
** [[Korean mixed script|Mixed script]]

*[[Classical Chinese|''Hanmun'']]

== Other language systems ==

* [[Korean Braille]]
* [[Korean Sign Language|Korean Sign language]]
** [[Korean manual alphabet]]

== Grammar ==
[[Korean grammar]]
*[[Korean count word]]
*[[Korean numerals]]
*[[Korean postpositions]]
*[[Korean profanity]]
*[[Korean pronouns]]
*[[Korean punctuation]]
*[[Korean speech levels]]
*[[Korean verbs]]
*[[Korean phonology]]
*[[Korean honorifics]]

== Linguistics ==

* [[Korean phonology]]
* [[Linguistic purism in Korean]]

== Dialects and relatives ==
{{Main|Korean dialects}}

=== In Korea ===
==== North Korea ====
* [[North Korean standard language]]
* [[Hamgyŏng dialect]]
* [[Hwanghae dialect]]
* [[Pyongan dialect]]
* [[Yukjin dialect]]

==== South Korea ====
* [[South Korean standard language]]
* [[Chungcheong dialect]]
* [[Gangwon dialect]]
* [[Gyeonggi dialect]]
* [[Gyeongsang dialect]]
* [[Jeolla dialect]]

==== Jeju ====
* [[Jeju language]]

==== Outside Korea ====
* [[Zainichi Korean language]]
* [[Korean language in China]]
* [[Koryo-mar]]
* [[Korean as a foreign language]]

== Transliteration ==
=== Romanization ===
[[Romanization of Korean]]
* [[McCune–Reischauer]]
* [[Revised Romanization of Korean]]
* [[Romanization of Korean (North)]]
* [[Yale romanization of Korean]]

=== Cyrillization ===
* [[Cyrillization of Korean|Kontsevich]]

== Etymology ==
* [[List of Korean placename etymologies]]
* [[Sino-Korean vocabulary]]
* [[Konglish]]
* [[North–South differences in the Korean language]]

== Korean dictionaries ==

*[[Basic Korean Dictionary]]
*[[Han-Han Dae Sajeon]]
*[[Standard Korean Language Dictionary]]

== Organizations and institutions ==

*[[International Circle of Korean Linguistics]]
*[[International Ideographs Core]]
*[[King Sejong Institute]]
*[[Korean Cultural Center]]
*[[Hunminjeongeum Society]]
*[[Korean Language Society]]
*[[National Hangeul Museum]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|Korean language}}

{{Outline footer}}
<includeonly>

</includeonly>

[[Category:Outlines of languages|Korean language]]
[[Category:Outlines|Korean language]]
[[Category:Korean language]]

Study Bible

2024-10-18T09:00:21Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Bible edition containing additional scholarly information}}
{{multiple issues|
{{original research|date=January 2013}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2014}}
}}
{{hatnote|For the study of the Bible, see [[Bible study (disambiguation)|Bible study]].}}

{{BibleHistory}}

A '''study Bible''' is an edition of the [[Bible]] prepared for use by a serious student of the Bible. It provides scholarly information designed to help the reader gain a better understanding of and context for the text.

==History==
Perhaps the first edition of an [[English language]] Bible that qualified as a "study Bible" was the ''[[Geneva Bible]]'' published by [[Rowland Hill (MP)|Sir Rowland Hill]] in 1560;<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KswJDAAAQBAJ&dq=%22the+1560+%27Geneva+Bible%27%2C+which+appeared+some+six+years+after+the+later+of%22&pg=PA44 |title=Staging Scripture: Biblical Drama, 1350–1600 |date=2016-04-18 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-31395-8 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Beenham.) |first=Thomas STACKHOUSE (Vicar of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qehUAAAAcAAJ&dq=%22rowland+hill%22+%22geneva+bible%22&pg=PR26 |title=A New History of the Holy Bible, from the beginning of the world to the establishment of Christianity. L.P. |date=1838 |language=en}}</ref> it contained extensive cross-references, synopses, and doctrinal points. The text of the Geneva Bible was usually not printed without the commentary, though the Cambridge edition was printed without commentary.{{citation needed|date= December 2014}}

The [[Church of England]] disputed some of the statements made in the Geneva Bible annotations. This led to the creation of the ''[[King James Version of the Bible|King James Bible]]'', which was typically printed with a much less extensive apparatus or none at all. Several commentators have supplied annotated King James Bibles containing their own points of view, but unlike the Geneva Bible, these commentaries are not as thoroughly integrated into the text.

Another historically significant study Bible was the ''[[Scofield Reference Bible]]'', first printed by [[Cyrus Scofield]] in 1909. This study Bible became widely popular in the [[United States]], where it spread the interpretation system known as [[dispensationalism]] among [[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalist Christians]]. A new version, the [[Recovery Version]], was published in 1985. It holds a similar interpretation, and this study Bible has a very large number of cross-references and explanatory and interpretative footnotes.

Nearly all [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] Bibles have explanatory and interpretative footnotes.{{citation needed|date= December 2014}} For example, the ''[[Jerusalem Bible]]'' is a widely respected study Bible originally made by [[France|French]] [[monk]]s in [[Jerusalem]], under the auspices of the [[Catholic Church]]. The original [[French language|French]] edition of 1961 became the basis of versions of this study Bible in several other languages, including English, revised as the ''[[New Jerusalem Bible]]''; some versions have more extensive notes than others.{{citation needed|date= December 2014}}

Logos International published the ''[[Logos International Study Bible]]'' in 1972. Based on the 1901 ''[[American Standard Version]]'', it is essentially an updated version of ''The Cross-Reference Bible'', published before 1929 and edited by Harold E. Monser. It includes an unusually large number of cross-references, in-text articles, and treatment of variant readings.{{citation needed|date= December 2014}}

[[Zondervan]] claims that its ''[[NIV Study Bible]]'' has six million in distribution and that it is the world's best selling study Bible.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zondervan.com/Cultures/en-US/Product/Bible/About+Study+Bibles.htm?QueryStringSite=Zondervan Zondervan – |website=Zondervan|title=About Study Bibles}}</ref>

The ''[[ESV Study Bible]]'' is a recent addition which sold well in its pre-release phase, in the fall of 2008.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.christianpost.com/article/20081103/highly-praised-esv-study-bible-reports-phenomenal-sales.htm |title=Highly Praised ESV Study Bible Reports Phenomenal Sales|work=[[Christian Post]]|date=November 3, 2008}}</ref>

In recent times, study Bibles focusing on specific aspects of the Biblical message, have appeared, such as ''[[The Green Bible]]'', an English version of the ''New Revised Standard Version Bible'' (originally published by [[Harper Bibles]] on October 7, 2008), which focuses on environmental issues and teachings.

==Features==
A study Bible usually contains such features as:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.baptiststart.com/study_bible_comparison.html|title=Study Bibles: A Survey of Eight: A Look at the HCSB Study Bible, ESV Study Bible, NIV Study Bible, NKJV Study Bible, Reformation Study Bible, MacArthur Study Bible, Life Application Study Bible, and the Thompson's Chain Reference Bible|website=Baptiststart.com|accessdate=April 8, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=Baptiststart.com|url=http://www.baptiststart.com/pdf/study_bible_chart.pdf|title=Study Bible Comparison Chart}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|website=Baptiststart.com|url=http://www.baptiststart.com/study_bible_comparison.html#Strengths|title=Strengths and Emphases of Various Study Bibles: The Strongest Study Bibles in Various Categories}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Highly Praised ESV Study Bible Reports Phenomenal Sales| author=Garcia, Elena| work=Christian Post| date=November 3, 2008| url=http://www.christianpost.com/news/highly-praised-esv-study-bible-reports-phenomenal-sales-35211/}}</ref>

* Annotations explaining difficult passages or points of [[theology]] and [[doctrine]]
* Articles and short biographies or character studies of Biblical people, places, and topics
* A [[concordance (publishing)|concordance]], a word index that indicates where various keywords are used in the Bible
* Contextual setting, including discussion of culture, customs, history, and timelines that relate Bible history to world history
* Harmonies of the [[Gospel]]s, pointing out parallel incidents in the life of [[Jesus]]
* Illustrations of locations and artifacts
* Introductions and historical notes for each book of the Bible
* Life/practical application
* [[Maps]] and charts that illustrate the [[Holy Land]] during Biblical times and may show the same areas today
* References or cross-references, to indicate where one passage of the text relates to others
* Variant readings or interpretations of certain debatable passages, or possible [[conjecture (textual criticism)|conjectural emendations]] (i.e., alterations based on a [[philology|philological]] expert's "educated guess" of the likely form of the original Hebrew or Greek, when the translators feel this is not sufficiently clear, possible translations from other ancient versions such as the [[Septuagint]], [[Targumim]], [[Peshitta]], and [[Vulgate]], readings from other manuscript families, such as marking those passages missing which are present in the [[Byzantine text-type]] in a modern textual eclectic translation, or marking those passages present which are missing in the [[Alexandrian text-type]] and the [[Nestle-Aland|modern critical text]] in a translation from the [[Textus Receptus]] or Byzantine text-type, etc.){{citation needed|date=April 2015}}
* Word definitions to explain difficult or complex words and ideas

==Study Bible software==
{{main|Bible software}}
Study Bible software is also available which can aid readers in the study of the Bible. This software normally includes several [[Bible translations]], [[Bible commentary|commentaries]], [[Bible Dictionaries]], maps and other content. They also include [[search engine]]s to enable users to find Bible passages by keyword and by theme.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [http://www.equip.org/articles/how-to-choose-a-study-bible How to choose a study Bible], by John R. Kohlenberger III, Christian Research Institute, 1996 – analyzes several study Bibles available, with short descriptions, and recommendations from an [[evangelicalism|evangelical]] Christian perspective.

[[Category:Bible versions and translations]]
[[Category:Study Bibles|*]]

Fejér's theorem

2024-10-17T18:43:15Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Mathematical theorem about the Fourier series}}
In mathematics, '''Fejér's theorem''',<ref>Lipót Fejér, [https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3087z/f984.item.r= « Sur les fonctions intégrables et bornées »], ''[[Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences|C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris]]'', 10 décembre 1900, 984-987, .</ref><ref>Leopold Fejér, [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=inu.30000106096518&view=1up&seq=61 Untersuchungen über Fouriersche Reihen], ''[[Mathematische Annalen]]'', [https://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/id/PPN235181684_0058 vol. 58], 1904, 51-69.</ref> named after [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[mathematician]] [[Lipót Fejér]], states the following:<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Introduction |date=1988-07-21 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/cbo9781139172011.002 |work=An Introduction to Hilbert Space |pages=1–3 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |access-date=2022-11-14}}</ref>

{{math_theorem
| math_statement = Let <math> f: \mathbb{R} \to \mathbb{C} </math> be a continuous function with period <math> 2 \pi </math>, let <math> s_n(f) </math> be the nth [[partial sum]] of the [[Fourier series]] of <math>f </math>, and let <math> \sigma_n(f) </math> be the sequence of [[Cesàro means]] of the sequence <math> s_n(f) </math>, that is the sequence of [[arithmetic means]] of <math> s_0(f), ..., s_n(f) </math>. Then the sequence <math> \sigma_n(f) </math> [[Uniform convergence|converges uniformly]] to <math>f </math> on <math> \mathbb{R} </math> as n tends to infinity.
| name = Fejér's Theorem
}}

== Explanation of Fejér's Theorem's ==
Explicitly, we can write the Fourier series of ''f'' as
<math display="block">f(x)= \sum_{n=- \infty}^{\infty} c_n \, e^{inx}</math>where the nth partial sum of the Fourier series of ''f'' may be written as
:<math>s_n(f,x)=\sum_{k=-n}^nc_ke^{ikx},</math>
where the Fourier coefficients <math>c_k</math> are
:<math>c_k=\frac{1}{2\pi}\int_{-\pi}^\pi f(t)e^{-ikt}dt.</math>
Then, we can define
:<math>\sigma_n(f,x)=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}s_k(f,x) = \frac{1}{2\pi}\int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t)F_n(t)dt </math>
with ''F''''n'' being the ''n''th order [[Fejér kernel]].

Then, Fejér's theorem asserts that

<math display="block">\lim_{n\to \infty} \sigma_n (f, x) = f(x)</math>

with uniform convergence. With the convergence written out explicitly, the above statement becomes

<math display="block">\forall \epsilon > 0 \, \exist\, n_0 \in \mathbb{N}: n \geq n_0 \implies | f(x) - \sigma_n(f,x)| < \epsilon, \, \forall x \in \mathbb{R}</math>

== Proof of Fejér's Theorem ==
We first prove the following lemma:

{{Math theorem
| math_statement = The nth partial sum of the Fourier series <math> s_n(f,x) </math> may be written using the Dirichlet Kernel as: <math> s_n(f,x) = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t) \, D_n(t) \, dt </math>
| name = Lemma 1
}}

Proof: Recall the definition of <math>D_n(x)</math>, the [[Dirichlet kernel|Dirichlet Kernel]]:<math display="block">D_n(x) = \sum_{k=-n}^n e^{ikx}.</math>We substitute the integral form of the Fourier coefficients into the formula for <math>s_n(f,x)</math> above

<math display="block">s_n(f,x)=\sum_{k=-n}^n c_ke^{ikx} = \sum_{k=-n}^n [\frac{1}{2\pi}\int_{-\pi}^\pi f(t)e^{-ikt}dt ] e^{ikx} = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(t) \sum_{k=-n}^n e^{ik(x-t)} \, dt = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(t) \, D_n(x-t) \, dt.</math>Using a change of variables we get

<math display="block">s_n(f,x) = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t) \, D_n(t) \, dt.</math>

This completes the proof of Lemma 1.

We next prove the following lemma:

{{Math theorem
| math_statement = The nth Cesaro sum <math> \sigma_n(f,x) </math> may be written using the Fejér Kernel as: <math> \sigma_n(f,x)=\frac{1}{2\pi}\int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t)F_n(t)dt </math>
| name = Lemma 2
}}

Proof: Recall the definition of the [[Fejér kernel|Fejér Kernel]] <math>F_n(x)</math>

<math display="block">F_n(x) = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=0}^{n-1}D_k(x)</math>As in the case of Lemma 1, we substitute the integral form of the Fourier coefficients into the formula for <math>\sigma_n(f,x)</math>

<math display="block">\sigma_n(f,x)=\frac{1}{n}\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}s_k(f,x) = \frac{1}{n}\sum_{k=0}^{n-1} \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t) \, D_k(t) \, dt = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t) \, [\frac{1}{n}\sum_{k=0}^{n-1} D_k(t)] \, dt = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t) \, F_n(t) \, dt</math>This completes the proof of Lemma 2.

We next prove the 3rd Lemma:

{{Math theorem
| math_statement = The Fejer Kernel has the following 3 properties:
* a) <math> \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi F_n (x) \, dx =1</math>
* b) <math> F_n(x) \geq 0 </math>
* c) For all fixed <math> \delta > 0 </math>, <math> \lim_{n \to \infty} \int_{\delta \leq |x| \leq \pi} F_n (x) \, dx = 0 </math>
| name = Lemma 3
}}

Proof: a) Given that <math>F_n</math> is the mean of <math>D_n</math>, the integral of which is 1, by linearity, the integral of <math>F_n</math> is also equal to 1.

b) As <math>D_n(x)</math> is a geometric sum, we get an simple formula for <math>D_n(x)</math> and then for <math>F_n(x)</math>,using [[De Moivre's formula]] :

<math display="block">F_n(x) = \frac{1}{n} \sum_{k=0}^{n-1}\frac{\sin((2k + 1) x / 2)}{\sin(x / 2)} = \frac{1}{n} \frac{\sin^2(n x / 2)}{\sin^2(x / 2)} \geq 0</math>

c) For all fixed <math> \delta > 0 </math>,

<math display="block">\int_{\delta \leq |x| \leq \pi} F_n (x) \, dx = \frac{2}{n} \int_{\delta \leq x \leq \pi} \frac{\sin^2(n x / 2)}{\sin^2(x / 2)} \, dx \leq \frac{2}{n} \int_{\delta \leq x \leq \pi} \frac{1}{\sin^2(x / 2)} \, dx</math>

This shows that the integral converges to zero, as <math> n </math> goes to infinity.

This completes the proof of Lemma 3.

We are now ready to prove Fejér's Theorem. First, let us recall the statement we are trying to prove

<math display="block">\forall \epsilon > 0 \, \exist\, n_0 \in \mathbb{N}: n \geq n_0 \implies | f(x) - \sigma_n(f,x)| < \epsilon, \, \forall x \in \mathbb{R}</math>

We want to find an expression for <math>|\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) |</math>. We begin by invoking Lemma 2:

<math display="block">\sigma_n(f,x)= \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t) \, F_n(t) \, dt.</math>By Lemma 3a we know that

<math display="block">\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t) \, F_n(t) \, dt - f(x) = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x-t) \, F_n(t) \, dt - f(x) \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi F_n(t) \, dt = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi f(x) \, F_n(t) \, dt=\frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi [f(x-t)-f(x)] \, F_n(t) \, dt. </math>

Applying the triangle inequality yields

<math display="block">|\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) |= |\frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi [f(x-t)-f(x)] \, F_n(t) \, dt| \leq \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi |[f(x-t)-f(x)] \, F_n(t)| \, dt = \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi |f(x-t)-f(x)| \, |F_n(t)| \, dt, </math>and by Lemma 3b, we get

<math display="block">|\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) |= \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{-\pi}^\pi |f(x-t)-f(x)| \, F_n(t) \, dt. </math>We now split the integral into two parts, integrating over the two regions <math>|t| \leq \delta</math> and <math> \delta \leq |t| \leq \pi</math>.

<math display="block">|\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) |= \left( \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{|t| \leq \delta} |f(x-t)-f(x)| \, F_n(t) \, dt \right) + \left( \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{\delta \leq|t|\leq \pi} |f(x-t)-f(x)| \, F_n(t) \, dt \right) </math>The motivation for doing so is that we want to prove that <math>\lim_{n \to \infty} |\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) |=0</math>. We can do this by proving that each integral above, integral 1 and integral 2, goes to zero. This is precisely what we'll do in the next step.

We first note that the function ''f'' is continuous on [-π,π]. We invoke [[Heine–Cantor theorem|the theorem]] that every periodic function on [-π,π] that is continuous is also bounded and uniformily continuous. This means that <math>\forall \epsilon > 0,\exist \delta > 0: |x-y| \leq \delta \implies |f(x)-f(y)| \leq \epsilon</math>. Hence we can rewrite the integral 1 as follows

<math display="block">\frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{|t| \leq \delta} |f(x-t)-f(x)| \, F_n(t) \, dt \leq \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{|t| \leq \delta} \epsilon \, F_n(t) \, dt = \frac{1}{2\pi}\epsilon \int_{|t| \leq \delta} \, F_n(t) \, dt </math>Because <math>F_n(x) \geq 0, \forall x\in \mathbb{R}</math> and <math>\delta \leq \pi</math><math display="block">\frac{1}{2\pi}\epsilon \int_{|t| \leq \delta} \, F_n(t) \, dt \leq \frac{1}{2\pi}\epsilon \int_{-\pi}^\pi \, F_n(t) \, dt </math>By Lemma 3a we then get for all n

<math display="block">\frac{1}{2\pi}\epsilon \int_{-\pi}^\pi \, F_n(t) \, dt = \epsilon </math>This gives the desired bound for integral 1 which we can exploit in final step.

For integral 2, we note that since ''f'' is bounded, we can write this bound as <math>M=\sup_{-\pi \leq t \leq \pi} |f(t)|</math>

<math display="block"> \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{\delta \leq|t|\leq \pi} |f(x-t)-f(x)| \, F_n(t) \, dt \leq \frac{1}{2\pi} \int_{\delta \leq|t|\leq \pi} 2M \, F_n(t) \, dt

= \frac{M}{\pi} \int_{\delta \leq|t|\leq \pi}F_n(t) \, dt </math>We are now ready to prove that <math>\lim_{n \to \infty} |\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) |=0</math>. We begin by writing

<math display="block">|\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) | \leq \epsilon \, + \frac{M}{\pi} \int_{\delta \leq|t|\leq \pi}F_n(t) \, dt </math>Thus,<math display="block">\lim_{n \to \infty} |\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) |\leq \lim_{n \to \infty} \epsilon \, + \lim_{n \to \infty} \frac{M}{\pi} \int_{\delta \leq|t|\leq \pi}F_n(t) \, dt </math>By Lemma 3c we know that the integral goes to 0 as n goes to infinity, and because epsilon is arbitrary, we can set it equal to 0. Hence <math>\lim_{n \to \infty} |\sigma_n(f,x) - f(x) |=0</math>, which completes the proof.

== Modifications and Generalisations of Fejér's Theorem ==
In fact, Fejér's theorem can be modified to hold for pointwise convergence.<ref name=":0" />

{{math_theorem
| math_statement = Let <math> f \in L^2(- \pi, \pi) </math> be continuous at <math> x \in (-\pi,\pi) </math>, then <math> \sigma_n(f,x) </math> converges pointwise as n goes to infinity.
| name = Modified Fejér's Theorem
}}

Sadly however, the theorem does not work in a general sense when we replace the sequence <math>\sigma_n (f,x)</math> with <math>s_n (f,x)</math>. This is because there exist functions whose Fourier series fails to converge at some point.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Rogosinski |first=W. W. |last2=Rogosinski |first2=H. P. |date=December 1965 |title=An elementary companion to a theorem of J. Mercer |journal=[[Journal d'Analyse Mathématique]] |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=311–322 |doi=10.1007/bf02806398 | doi-access= |issn=0021-7670}}</ref> However, the set of points at which a function in <math>L^2(-\pi, \pi)</math> diverges has to be measure zero. This fact, called Lusins conjecture or [[Carleson's theorem]], was proven in 1966 by L. Carleson.<ref name=":1" /> We can however prove a corollary relating which goes as follows:

{{Math theorem
| math_statement = Let <math> s_n \in \mathbb{C}, \, \forall n \in \, \mathbb{Z}_+ </math>. If <math> s_n </math> converges to s as n goes to infinity, then <math> \sigma_n </math> converges to s as n goes to infinity.
| name = Corollary
}}

A more general form of the theorem applies to functions which are not necessarily continuous {{harv|Zygmund|1968|loc=Theorem III.3.4}}. Suppose that ''f'' is in ''L''1(-π,π). If the left and right limits ''f''(''x''0±0) of ''f''(''x'') exist at ''x''0, or if both limits are infinite of the same sign, then

:<math>\sigma_n(x_0) \to \frac{1}{2}\left(f(x_0+0)+f(x_0-0)\right).</math>

Existence or divergence to infinity of the Cesàro mean is also implied. By a theorem of [[Marcel Riesz]], Fejér's theorem holds precisely as stated if the (C, 1) mean σ''n'' is replaced with [[Cesàro summation|(C, α) mean]] of the Fourier series {{harv|Zygmund|1968|loc=Theorem III.5.1}}.

==References==
<references/>
* {{citation|title=Trigonometric Series|title-link=Trigonometric Series|first=Antoni|last=Zygmund|authorlink=Antoni Zygmund|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1968|publication-date=1988|isbn=978-0-521-35885-9|edition=2nd}}.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fejer's theorem}}
[[Category:Fourier series]]
[[Category:Theorems in approximation theory]]

Sajaseong-eo

2024-10-16T19:11:38Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Korean four-character idiom}}
{{Italic title}}
In [[Korean language|Korean]], '''''sajaseong-eo''''' ({{ko-hhrm|사자성어|四字成語}}) are [[four-character idiom (disambiguation)|four-character idiom]]s, the analog of Chinese ''[[chengyu]]'' and Japanese ''[[yojijukugo]],'' and generally but not always of Chinese origin.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ilovekorean.net/korean-language/idioms.html |title=Structure of Korean Idioms |access-date=2014-05-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512222925/http://www.ilovekorean.net/korean-language/idioms.html |archive-date=2014-05-12 |url-status=dead |df= }}</ref> They have analogous categorization to the analogs in other languages, such as ''gosaseong-eo'' (고사성어; 故事成語) for historical idioms.

==External links==

* [[wikt:ko:분류:한국어_한자성어|분류:한국어_한자성어]] — Korean Wiktionary index of ''sajaseong-eo''.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140512223309/http://www.ilovekorean.net/attachments/article/247/Four%20Character%20Idioms%20(05042014).pdf Structure of four character idioms] — A sample list with English Translations

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Korean language]]

{{korea-stub}}

Bǎ construction

2024-10-16T13:31:49Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Chinese grammatical construction}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:''bǎ'' construction}}
The '''''bǎ'' construction''' is a [[Grammar|grammatical construction]] in the [[Chinese language]]. In a ''bǎ'' construction, the [[object (grammar)|object]] of a verb is placed after the [[function word]] {{zh|labels=no|c=把|hp=bǎ}} (or, in more formal writing, {{zh|labels=no|t=將|s=将|hp=jiāng}}), and the verb placed after the object, forming a [[subject–object–verb]] (SOV) sentence.<ref name="zheng2007">Zheng Ye, Weidong Zhan, Xiaolin Zhou (2007). "The semantic processing of syntactic structure in sentence comprehension: An ERP study." ''Brain Research'' 1142, pp. 135-145.</ref> [[Linguistics|Linguists]] commonly analyze ''bǎ'' as a [[light verb]] construction,<ref name="hornstein">[[Norbert Hornstein|Hornstein, Norbert]], Jairo Nunes, and Kleanthes K. Grohmann (2005). ''Understanding Minimalism''. New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 99–100.</ref> or as a [[preposition]].<ref name="zheng2007"/>

==Formation==
Charles Li and Sandra Thompson (1981) offer the following examples of the ''bǎ'' construction:<ref>Li & Thompson (1981), pp. 463–464. The glosses have been modified to be legible to non-specialists. "CRS" stands for Current Relevant State, a special discourse feature possibly marked by the [[sentence-final particle]] {{zh|labels=no|c=了|hp=le}} in Chinese; "CL" stands for "[[Classifier (linguistics)|Classifier]]," a kind of word used for counting in Chinese.</ref>

{|
|-
| || [subject] || [''bǎ''] || [direct object] || [verb]
|-
| || <big>{{lang|zh|你}}</big>　|| <big>{{lang|zh|把}}</big> || <big>{{lang|zh|他的意思}}</big> || <big>{{lang|zh|讲出来了}}</big>
|-
| width=100px|[[Pinyin|Transcription]] || width=75px|nĭ || width=75px|bǎ || width=170px|tā-de yìsi || jiǎng-chū-lái le
|-
| [[Interlinear gloss|Gloss]] || you || BA || he-[[Possessive case|POSSESSIVE]] meaning || speak-out-come CRS
|-
| Translation ||colspan=5|You have explained what he meant. (Literally: "You have spoken out his meaning.")
|-
|}

{|
|-
| || <big>{{lang|zh|我}}</big> || <big>{{lang|zh|把}}</big> || <big>{{lang|zh|这三本书}}</big> || <big>{{lang|zh|都卖了}}</big>
|-
| width=100px|[[Pinyin|Transcription]] || width=75px|wǒ || width=75px|bǎ || width=160px|zhè sān-běn shū || dōu mài-le
|-
| [[Interlinear gloss|Gloss]] || I || BA || these three-[[Classifier (linguistics)|CL]] book || all sell-[[Perfective aspect|PERFECTIVE]]
|-
| Translation || colspan=5|I sold all three books.
|}

==Usage==
The ''bǎ'' construction may only be used in certain contexts, generally those in which the verb expresses "settlement" of, or action upon, the object.<ref name="zheng2007"/><ref name="li468">Li & Thompson (1981), p. 468</ref><ref name="zheng2006">Zheng Ye, Yue-jia Luo, Angela D. Friederici, and Xiaolin Zhou (2006). "Semantic and syntactic processing in Chinese sentence comprehension: Evidence from event-related potentials." ''Brain Research'' 1071, pp. 186-196.</ref> According to Wang Li, "the disposal form states how a person is handled, manipulated, or dealt with; how something is disposed of; or how an affair is conducted,"<ref>Wang Li (1947). {{lang|zh|中国现代语法}} ''(Modern Chinese Grammar)''. Shanghai: Zhonghua Shuju. Translation by Charles Li (1974), "Historical Change of Word Order: A Case Study in Chinese and Its Implications." Quoted in Li & Thompson (1981).</ref> or, in other words, "what happens to" the object.<ref name="li468"/> Therefore, it is generally used with verbs that are high in [[transitivity (grammatical category)|transitivity]],<ref name="zheng2007"/> a property that describes the effect a verb has on its object;<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.2307/413757 | last=Hopper | first=Paul J. | authorlink=Paul J. Hopper |author2=Sandra A. Thompson |authorlink2=Sandra Thompson (linguist) | title=Transitivity in Grammar and Discourse | journal=Language | volume=56 | issue=2 |date=June 1980 | pages=251–299 | jstor=413757}}</ref> ''bǎ'' does not occur grammatically with verbs that express states or emotions, such as "love" and "miss," or with verbs that express activities that have no effect on the direct object, such as "sing" and "see."<ref name="li467">Li & Thompson (1981), p. 467.</ref>

The direct object of a ''bǎ'' construction must meet certain requirements as well. It is usually definite, meaning that it is specific and unique (as in phrases beginning with the equivalent of ''this'', ''that'', ''these'', or ''those'').<ref name="zheng2006"/> It may sometimes also be generic, such as "salt" in the sentence "She sometimes eats salt thinking it's sugar."<ref name="li465">Li & Thompson (1981). p. 465.</ref> The object of a ''bǎ'' construction is nearly always something that both the speaker and hearer know about and are aware of.<ref name="li465"/>

==Research==
Because of the numerous constraints on the kinds of words that may be used in ''bǎ'' construction, this construction has often been used in studies on language processing and on grammaticality judgments of native speakers. For example, sentences with ''bǎ'' construction that have [[Syntax|syntactic]] violations (such as ''bǎ'' being followed by a verb rather than a noun) and [[Semantics|semantic]] violations (such as ''bǎ'' being followed by a verb that doesn't express "disposal") have been used to study the interaction of syntactic and semantic processing in the brain using the [[neuroimaging]] technique of [[Event-related potential|ERP]],<ref name="zheng2006"/> and to evaluate [[construction grammar]]'s model of meaning-building.<ref name="zheng2007"/>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*Chao Yuen Ren (1968). ''A Grammar of Spoken Chinese''. Berkeley: University of California Press.
*Li, Charles, and [[Sandra A. Thompson]] (1981). "The bǎ construction," in ''Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar''. Los Angeles: University of California Press. pp. 463–491. {{ISBN|978-0-520-06610-6}}.
*Sybesma, Rint (1992). ''Causatives and accomplishments. The case of Chinese '''ba'''''. Doctoral dissertation, Leiden University.
{{refend}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ba construction}}
[[Category:Chinese grammar]]
[[Category:Chinese words and phrases]]
[[Category:Syntax]]

Tropical cyclones in 2024

2024-10-14T21:14:40Z

Tc14Hd: /* Western Pacific Ocean */ Removed empty line

{{Short description|none}}
{{multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=May 2024}}
{{Original research|date=May 2024}}
}}
{{Tropical cyclones by year
| Track=2024_tropical_cyclone_summary_map.png
| First system=[[Cyclone Anggrek (2024)|Anggrek]]
| First date=January 10, 2024
| Last system=
| Last date=
| Strongest system=[[Hurricane Milton|Milton]]
| Pressure mbar/hPa=897
| Pressure inHg=26.49
| Longest system=[[Tropical Depression 05F (2024)|05F]]
| Total days=29
| Total systems=95
| Named systems=67
| Fatalities=1,693 total
| Damages=108817
| Damagespre=
| YearB=2023
| YearC=2024
| YearC2=24
| YearA2=25
| Five years= [[Tropical cyclones in 2022|2022]], [[Tropical cyclones in 2023|2023]], '''2024''', ''[[Tropical cyclones in 2025|2025]]'', ''[[Tropical cyclones in 2026|2026]]''
}}
[[File:Major Tropical Cyclones of 2024.jpg|thumb|240x240px|Satellite photo of the 16 [[Tropical cyclone|tropical cyclones]] worldwide that reached at least Category 3 on the [[Saffir–Simpson scale]] during 2024, from [[Cyclone Anggrek (2024)|Anggrek]] in January to [[Hurricane Milton|Milton]] in October. Among them, [[Hurricane Milton|Milton]] (fourth image in the third row) is the most intense with a minimum central pressure of 897 hPa.]]
In 2024, [[tropical cyclone]]s will form in seven major bodies of water, commonly known as [[tropical cyclone basins]]. Tropical cyclones will be named by various weather agencies when they attain [[maximum sustained winds]] of {{convert|35|knots|km/h mph|round=5}}. So far, 89 systems have formed, with 64 of them being named. The most intense storm of the year so far is [[Hurricane Milton]], with a minimum barometric pressure of {{convert|897|hPa|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on|comma=off}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/al14/al142024.public_a.011.shtml?|access-date=7 October 2024|title=Hurricane Milton Intermediate Advisory No. 11A}}</ref> [[Typhoon Yagi]] is the deadliest and second-costliest tropical cyclone to date, with at least 830 fatalities and a damage total of $16.5 billion; the costliest tropical cyclone so far is [[Hurricane Helene]], which caused at least $38.5 billion worth of damage in the [[Southeastern United States]].

Tropical cyclones are primarily monitored by ten warning centers around the world, which are designated as a [[Regional Specialized Meteorological Center]] (RSMC) or a [[Tropical Cyclone Warning Center]] (TCWC) by the [[World Meteorological Organization]] (WMO). These centers are: [[National Hurricane Center]] (NHC), [[Central Pacific Hurricane Center]] (CPHC), [[Japan Meteorological Agency]] (JMA), [[Indian Meteorological Department]] (IMD), [[Météo-France]] (MFR), Indonesia's [[Meteorology, Climatology, and Geophysical Agency]] (BMKG), Australian [[Bureau of Meteorology]] (BoM), Papua New Guinea's National Weather Service (PNGNWS), [[Fiji Meteorological Service]] (FMS), and New Zealand's [[MetService]]. Unofficial, but still notable warning centers include the [[Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration]] (PAGASA; albeit official within the Philippines), the United States Navy's [[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] (JTWC) and the [[Brazilian Navy Hydrographic Center]].

==Global atmospheric and hydrological conditions==
After the New Year, the [[Madden–Julian oscillation]]'s (MJO) amplitude weakened, with its eastward propagation slowing down due to the positive phase of the [[Indian Ocean Dipole]] (IOD) and an equatorial [[Rossby wave]]. Despite that, the MJO briefly caused [[El Niño]]-like wind anomalies to become easterly at the [[International Date Line|Date Line]]. There was also a significant increase in convection across the eastern Indian Ocean in January as the Dipole began weakening.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-14 |title=Climate Prediction Center - Global Tropical Hazards Outlook (01/14) |url=https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/ghaz/index.php |access-date=2024-01-14 |website=Climate Prediction Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114202139/https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/ghaz/index.php |archive-date=2024-01-14 }}</ref> However, in the middle of January, the MJO began steadily intensifying, enhancing convection across the [[Maritime Continent]]. Despite that, intra-seasonal activity persevered,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-17 |title=Climate Prediction Center - Global Tropical Hazards Outlook (01/17) |url=https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/ghaz/index.php |access-date=2024-01-17 |website=Climate Prediction Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117144721/https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/ghaz/index.php |archive-date=2024-01-17 }}</ref> although the MJO produced convection in the Western Pacific.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-24 |title=Climate Prediction Center - Global Tropical Hazards Outlook (01/23) |url=https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/ghaz/index.php |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Climate Prediction Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124054837/https://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/precip/CWlink/ghaz/index.php |archive-date=2024-01-24 }}</ref> In Australia, the monsoonal trough's arrival was delayed until January 10, possibly due to the [[El Niño–Southern Oscillation|El Niño]] event.<ref>{{Cite news |date=January 16, 2024 |title=Tropical Climate Update |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/tropical-note/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122033113/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/tropical-note/ |archive-date=January 22, 2024 |access-date=January 22, 2024 |work=[[Bureau of Meteorology]]}}</ref> On April 16, the dominant El Niño event ended.<ref>{{cite news |title=Climate change: El Niño ends with uncertainty over cooler future |url=https://bbc.com/news/science-environment-68826152 |access-date=11 October 2024 |publisher=BBC News |date=16 April 2024}}</ref>

Despite the unseasonably warm temperatures in the North Atlantic, the equatorial Atlantic cooled rapidly into an "[[Atlantic Niña]]" due to [[upwelling]] caused by shifts in the [[trade winds]] and the [[Tropical Atlantic Variability|Atlantic zonal mode]]. The effects of an Atlantic Niña is not certain but it is contrary to the assumptions that the NOAA used in their forecast of seasonal activity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tuchen |first=Franz Philip |date=2024-08-14 |title=Atlantic Niña on the verge of developing. Here's why we should pay attention. |url=https://www.climate.gov/news-features/event-tracker/atlantic-nina-verge-developing-heres-why-we-should-pay-attention |access-date=2024-09-04 |website=Climate.gov |language=en}}</ref> CSU associated the quietness of the Atlantic during the month of August and the period after Ernesto dissipated–despite predictions of an extremely active peak period–to tropical waves forming too far north, warm upper-level winds causing destabilization, wind shear in the East Atlantic, and factors associated with the MJO.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Klotzbach |first1=Philip J. |last2=Bell |first2=Michael M. |last3=DesRosiers |first3=Alexander J. |last4=Silvers |first4=Levi J. |date=2024-09-03 |title=Discussion of the 2024 Atlantic Hurricane Season to Date and Forecast Thoughts on the Rest of the Season |url=https://tropical.colostate.edu/Forecast/2024_0903_seasondiscussion.pdf |access-date=2024-09-04 |work=[[Colorado State University]] |pages=1 |publication-place=[[Fort Collins, Colorado]]}}</ref>

==Summary==
<timeline>
ImageSize = width:1600 height:350
PlotArea = top:10 bottom:80 right:20 left:20

Legend = columns:3 left:20 top:58 columnwidth:270

AlignBars = early
DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy
Period = from:20/12/2023 till:15/01/2025
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal
ScaleMinor = grid:black unit:month increment:1 start:01/01/2024

Colors =
id:canvas value:gray(0.88)
id:NATL value:blue legend: North_Atlantic_Ocean
id:EPAC/CPAC value:green legend: East_and_Central_Pacific_Ocean
id:WPAC value:red legend: West_Pacific_Ocean
id:NIO value:orange legend: North_Indian_Ocean
id:SWIO value:purple legend: South-West_Indian_Ocean
id:SPAC value:yellow legend: South_Pacific_Ocean
id:AUSR value:pink legend: Australian_Region
id:SATL value:black legend: South_Atlantic_Ocean
id:MED value:gray(0.99) legend: Mediterranean_Sea

Backgroundcolors = canvas:canvas

BarData =
barset:Hurricane
bar:Month

PlotData=
barset:Hurricane width:11 align:left fontsize:S shift:(4,-4) anchor:till
from:30/12/2023 till:03/01/2024 color:SWIO text:"[[Cyclone Alvaro|Alvaro]]"
barset:break
barset:skip
from:10/01/2024 till:25/01/2024 color:AUSR
barset:break
barset:skip
from:25/01/2024 till:30/01/2024 color:SWIO text:"Anggrek"
from:11/01/2024 till:23/01/2024 color:AUSR text:"03U"
from:11/01/2024 till:18/01/2024 color:SWIO text:"Belal"
from:12/01/2024 till:05/02/2024 color:AUSR text:"[[Cyclone Kirrily|Kirrily]]"
from:22/01/2024 till:27/01/2024 color:SWIO text:"Candice"
from:25/01/2024 till:26/01/2024 color:SPAC text:"04F"
from:30/01/2024 till:02/02/2024 color:SWIO text:"05"
from:30/01/2024 till:01/02/2024 color:AUSR
barset:break
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
from:01/02/2024 till:04/02/2024 color:SPAC
barset:break
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
from:04/02/2024 till:07/02/2024 color:AUSR
barset:break
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
from:07/02/2024 till:28/02/2024 color:SPAC text:"05F"
from:03/02/2024 till:10/02/2024 color:SPAC text:"Nat"
from:05/02/2024 till:08/02/2024 color:SPAC text:"07F"
from:06/02/2024 till:12/02/2024 color:SPAC text:"Osai"
from:11/02/2024 till:13/02/2024 color:SPAC text:"09F"
from:14/02/2024 till:17/02/2024 color:SPAC text:"10F"
from:14/02/2024 till:25/02/2024 color:AUSR text:"Lincoln"
from:15/02/2024 till:19/02/2024 color:SWIO text:"Djoungou"
from:16/02/2024 till:22/02/2024 color:SATL text:"Akará"
from:18/02/2024 till:24/02/2024 color:SWIO text:"Eleanor"
barset:break
from:02/03/2024 till:14/03/2024 color:SWIO text:"Filipo"
from:04/03/2024 till:24/03/2024 color:AUSR
barset:break
barset:skip
from:24/03/2024 till:24/03/2024 color:SWIO text:"Neville"
from:08/03/2024 till:15/03/2024 color:SPAC text:"11F"
from:13/03/2024 till:21/03/2024 color:AUSR text:"Megan"
from:14/03/2024 till:14/03/2024 color:AUSR text:"10U"
from:19/03/2024 till:20/03/2024 color:SPAC text:"12F"
from:25/03/2024 till:28/03/2024 color:SWIO text:"Gamane"
from:03/04/2024 till:11/04/2024 color:AUSR text:"Olga"
from:10/04/2024 till:13/04/2024 color:AUSR text:"Paul"
from:12/04/2024 till:14/04/2024 color:AUSR text:"12U"
from:30/04/2024 till:04/05/2024 color:SWIO text:"Hidaya"
from:04/05/2024 till:05/05/2024 color:AUSR text:"16U"
from:16/05/2024 till:22/05/2024 color:SWIO text:"Ialy"
from:22/05/2024 till:30/05/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Typhoon Ewiniar (2024)|Ewiniar]]"
from:24/05/2024 till:28/05/2024 color:NIO text:"[[Cyclone Remal|Remal]]"
from:30/05/2024 till:02/06/2024 color:WPAC text:"Maliksi"
from:19/06/2024 till:20/06/2024 color:NATL text:"[[Tropical Storm Alberto (2024)|Alberto]]"
from:28/06/2024 till:08/07/2024 color:NATL text:"[[Hurricane Beryl|Beryl]]"
barset:break
from:30/06/2024 till:01/07/2024 color:NATL text:"[[Tropical Storm Chris (2024)|Chris]]"
from:04/07/2024 till:06/07/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Aletta"
from:13/07/2024 till:15/07/2024 color:WPAC text:"03W"
from:19/07/2024 till:24/07/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Tropical Storm Prapiroon (2024)|Prapiroon]]"
from:19/07/2024 till:27/07/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Typhoon Gaemi|Gaemi]]"
from:19/07/2024 till:20/07/2024 color:NIO text:"BOB 02"
from:24/07/2024 till:26/07/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Bud"
from:31/07/2024 till:06/08/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Carlotta"
from:02/08/2024 till:06/08/2024 color:NIO text:"LAND 01"
from:03/08/2024 till:09/08/2024 color:NATL text:"[[Hurricane Debby (2024)|Debby]]"
from:03/08/2024 till:06/08/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Daniel"
from:04/08/2024 till:07/08/2024 color:WPAC text:
barset:break
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
from:11/08/2024 till:18/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Typhoon Ampil (2024)|Ampil]]"
from:04/08/2024 till:09/08/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Emilia"
from:05/08/2024 till:14/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Tropical Storm Maria (2024)|Maria]]"
from:05/08/2024 till:07/08/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Fabio"
from:10/08/2024 till:14/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"Son-Tinh"
from:12/08/2024 till:15/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"Wukong"
from:12/08/2024 till:20/08/2024 color:NATL text:"[[Hurricane Ernesto (2024)|Ernesto]]"
barset:break
from:15/08/2024 till:17/08/2024 color:SWIO text:"01"
from:17/08/2024 till:20/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"Jongdari"
from:18/08/2024 till:29/08/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Gilma"
from:19/08/2024 till:26/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"TD"
from:19/08/2024 till:20/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"TD"
from:21/08/2024 till:21/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"TD"
from:21/08/2024 till:31/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Typhoon Shanshan (2024)|Shanshan]]"
from:22/08/2024 till:01/09/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC
barset:break
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
from:01/09/2024 till:08/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Hurricane Hone|Hone]]"
from:25/08/2024 till:03/09/2024 color:NIO text:"[[Cyclone Asna|Asna]]"
from:25/08/2024 till:29/08/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Hector"
from:30/08/2024 till:30/08/2024 color:WPAC text:"TD"
from:31/08/2024 till:08/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Typhoon Yagi|Yagi]]"
from:31/08/2024 till:02/09/2024 color:NIO text:"BOB 03"
from:02/09/2024 till:06/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"Leepi"
from:04/09/2024 till:12/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"TD"
from:08/09/2024 till:13/09/2024 color:NIO text:"BOB 04"
from:09/09/2024 till:12/09/2024 color:NATL text:"[[Hurricane Francine|Francine]]"
from:09/09/2024 till:17/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Typhoon Bebinca (2024)|Bebinca]]"
barset:break
from:11/09/2024 till:17/09/2024 color:NATL text:"Gordon"
from:12/09/2024 till:15/09/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Ileana"
from:13/09/2024 till:18/09/2024 color:NIO text:"[[Deep Depression BOB 05 (2024)|BOB 05]]"
from:15/09/2024 till:20/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Tropical Storm Soulik (2024)|Soulik]]"
from:15/09/2024 till:21/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Tropical Storm Pulasan|Pulasan]]"
from:20/09/2024 till:22/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"Igme"
from:22/09/2024 till:24/09/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC
barset:break
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
barset:skip
from:25/09/2024 till:27/09/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"[[Hurricane John (2024)|John]]"
from:24/09/2024 till:27/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"Cimaron"
from:24/09/2024 till:27/09/2024 color:NATL text:"[[Hurricane Helene|Helene]]"
from:25/09/2024 till:01/10/2024 color:WPAC text:"Jebi"
from:26/09/2024 till:30/09/2024 color:NATL text:"Isaac"
from:26/09/2024 till:27/09/2024 color:WPAC text:"TD"
from:26/09/2024 till:04/10/2024 color:WPAC text:"[[Typhoon Krathon|Krathon]]"
from:27/09/2024 till:30/09/2024 color:NATL text:"Joyce"
from:29/09/2024 till:07/10/2024 color:NATL text:"[[Hurricane Kirk (2024)|Kirk]]"
from:30/09/2024 till:04/10/2024 color:SWIO text:"Ancha"
from:01/10/2024 till:04/10/2024 color:EPAC/CPAC text:"Eleven-E"
from:02/10/2024 till:12/10/2024 color:NATL text:"Leslie"
barset:break
from:05/10/2024 till:11/10/2024 color:WPAC text:"Barijat"
from:05/10/2024 till:10/10/2024 color:NATL text:"[[Hurricane Milton|Milton]]"
from:06/10/2024 till:07/10/2024 color:WPAC text:"TD"
from:12/10/2024 till:13/10/2024 color:WPAC text:"TD"
from:13/10/2024 till:15/10/2024 color:NIO text:"ARB 01"

bar:Month width:5 align:center fontsize:S shift:(0,-20) anchor:middle color:canvas
from:20/12/2023 till:31/12/2023 text:Dec. '23
from:01/01/2024 till:31/01/2024 text:January
from:01/02/2024 till:29/02/2024 text:February
from:01/03/2024 till:31/03/2024 text:March
from:01/04/2024 till:30/04/2024 text:April
from:01/05/2024 till:31/05/2024 text:May
from:01/06/2024 till:30/06/2024 text:June
from:01/07/2024 till:31/07/2024 text:July
from:01/08/2024 till:31/08/2024 text:August
from:01/09/2024 till:30/09/2024 text:September
from:01/10/2024 till:31/10/2024 text:October
from:01/11/2024 till:30/11/2024 text:November
from:01/12/2024 till:31/12/2024 text:December
from:01/01/2025 till:15/01/2025 text:Jan. '25
TextData =
pos:(690,30)
text:"This table is based on the"
pos:(810,30)
text:"[[tropical cyclone basins]]"
</timeline>

=== North Atlantic Ocean ===

{{Main|2024 Atlantic hurricane season}}
[[File:2024 Atlantic hurricane season summary.png|280px|thumb|2024 Atlantic hurricane season summary map]]
Though the 2024 Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1, it got off to the slowest start since [[2014 Atlantic hurricane season|2014]]. This was due to a large stationary [[heat dome]] over [[Central America]] and [[Mexico]], as [[tropical cyclogenesis]] in June often occurs over the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and northern [[Caribbean Sea]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sistek |first=Scott |date=June 5, 2024 |title=Atlantic hurricane season off to slowest start in a decade: Will aggressive forecasts still hold? |url=https://www.foxweather.com/weather-news/atlantic-hurricane-season-slowest-start-2014 |access-date=June 6, 2024 |publisher=FOX Weather }}</ref> The season's first named storm, Tropical Storm Alberto, formed in the western Gulf of Mexico on June 19,{{#tag:ref|The average formation date of the first named Atlantic tropical storm is June 20.<ref>{{cite news|title=Tropical Storm Alberto: First named storm of 2024 season forms in Gulf of Mexico|url=https://www.wsbtv.com/weather/tropical-storm-alberto-first-named-storm-2024-season-forms-gulf-mexico/I2H5KRT3ABE47NMJG46CM3L43Y/|date=June 19, 2024|publisher=[[WSB-TV]]|location=Atlanta, Georgia|access-date=June 20, 2024}}</ref>|group="nb"}}<ref name="Alberto-Discussion-8">{{cite report|last=Berg|first=Robbie|title=Tropical Storm Alberto Discussion Number 8|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/al01/al012024.discus.008.shtml?|publisher=National Hurricane Center|location=Miami, Florida|language=en-US|date=June 19, 2024|access-date=June 19, 2024}}</ref> then proceeded to make landfall on the northeastern coast of Mexico the following day.<ref name=":4">{{cite report|title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 08:36 am UTC 11 January 2024|publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology|date=11 January 2024|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/|archive-date=11 January 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240111120259/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/|access-date=11 January 2024}}</ref> On June 28, Tropical Storm Beryl formed at [[43rd meridian west|43.6° W]], being the second-easternmost cyclone on record in the [[tropical Atlantic]], behind only [[2023 Atlantic hurricane season#Tropical Storm Bret|Tropical Storm Bret]] in 2023.<ref>{{cite tweet|user=philklotzbach|first=Philip|last=Klotzbach|title=Tropical Storm Beryl has formed in the central tropical Atlantic at 43.6°W. Only Tropical Storm Bret (2023) has formed farther east in the tropical Atlantic (<=23.5°N) in June on record.|url=https://x.com/philklotzbach/status/1806882310148530470 |access-date=June 28, 2024|date=June 29, 2024|number=1806882310148530470}}</ref> The next day, Beryl intensified into a hurricane at [[49th meridian west|49.3° W]],<ref name=":2">{{cite report |url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/al02/al022024.discus.005.shtml? |title=Hurricane Beryl Discussion Number 5 |last=Cangialosi |first=John |date=June 29, 2024 |publisher=National Hurricane Center |location=Miami, Florida |language=en-US |access-date=June 29, 2024}}</ref> becoming the easternmost June hurricane in the tropical Atlantic on record, ahead of the [[1933 Trinidad hurricane]].<ref name="June29AP">{{cite web|last=Coto|first=Dánica|title=Beryl strengthens into a hurricane in the Atlantic, forecast to become a major storm|date=June 29, 2024|url=https://apnews.com/article/tropical-system-beryl-caribbean-0a61043f36a9439f8037147d60e3c9e3|website=apnews.com|agency=[[Associated Press]]|access-date=June 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240629210614/https://apnews.com/article/tropical-system-beryl-caribbean-0a61043f36a9439f8037147d60e3c9e3|archive-date=June 29, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> Reaching [[53rd meridian west|53.9 °W]], Beryl became the easternmost June major hurricane in the tropical Atlantic, and the first June major hurricane since [[Hurricane Alma (1966)|Alma]] in [[1966 Atlantic hurricane season|1966]].<ref>{{cite web|date=June 30, 2024|url=https://www.theweathernetwork.com/en/news/weather/forecasts/beryl-expected-to-hit-the-caribbean-as-a-hurricane-this-week |title=Historic Hurricane Beryl on track to hit Caribbean as major hurricane |website=[[The Weather Network]] |publisher=[[Pelmorex]] |access-date=30 June 2024}}</ref> Beryl [[List of Atlantic hurricane records#Earliest / latest formations for each category|also became]] the earliest [[List of Category 4 Atlantic hurricanes|Category 4]] Atlantic hurricane on record, ahead of [[2005 Atlantic hurricane season|2005]]'s [[Hurricane Dennis]].<ref>{{cite tweet|user=philklotzbach|first=Philip|last=Klotzbach|title=#Hurricane #Beryl is now a Category 4 hurricane with max winds of 130 mph - the earliest calendar year Atlantic Category 4 hurricane on record. Old Atlantic record for earliest Category 4 hurricane was Hurricane Dennis on July 8, 2005 at 0UTC.|url=https://x.com/philklotzbach/status/1807440817801384401 |access-date=30 June 2024|date=30 June 2024|number=1807440817801384401}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Hurricane Beryl intensifies into an 'extremely dangerous' Category 4 storm as it approaches the Caribbean |url=https://amp.cnn.com/cnn/2024/06/30/weather/hurricane-beryl-barbados-caribbean-sunday |access-date=June 30, 2024 |publisher=[[CNN]] |date=June 30, 2024}}</ref> On June 30, Tropical Depression Three formed in the Bay of Campeche,<ref>{{cite report|last=Roberts|first=Dave|date=June 30, 2024|title=Tropical Depression Three Discussion Number 1|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/al03/al032024.discus.001.shtml?|publisher=National Hurricane Center|location=Miami, Florida|language=en-US|access-date=June 30, 2024}}</ref> becoming [[Tropical Storm Chris (2024)|Tropical Storm Chris]] only six hours later. Chris quickly moved ashore in Mexico the following morning.<ref name="MND Chris">{{cite news|title=Tropical Storm Chris makes landfall in Veracruz, bringing heavy rain to Eastern Mexico|date=July 1, 2024|url=https://mexiconewsdaily.com/news/tropical-storm-chris-makes-landfall-in-veracruz/|newspaper=[[Mexico News Daily]]|access-date=July 1, 2024}}</ref> Hurricane Beryl became a Category 5 that same morning, becoming the earliest Category 5 hurricane on record in the Atlantic, and beating out [[Hurricane Emily (2005)|Hurricane Emily]] of 2005. After Beryl dissipated on July 11, the Atlantic basin would fall under a period of inactivity due to the [[Saharan air layer]], which suppresses tropical activity, persisting over the open Atlantic alongside dry air typically occurring during this period of the season.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kay |first=Christana |date=July 17, 2024 |title=The tropics turned eerily quiet after Hurricane Beryl. Why? |url=https://www.wapt.com/article/the-tropics-turned-eerily-quiet-after-hurricane-beryl-why/61624756 |access-date=July 24, 2024 |website=WAPT |language=en}}</ref>

Activity resumed at the start of August, with [[Hurricane Debby (2024)|Hurricane Debby]] developing in the [[Gulf of Mexico]] on August 3,<ref name=":6" /><ref name=":7" /> before making landfall in [[Florida]] as a Category 1 hurricane two days later. It then slowed down over land afterwards and dropped heavy rain and caused widespread flooding in the [[Southeastern United States]]. A week after, [[Hurricane Ernesto (2024)|Hurricane Ernesto]] moved through the Caribbean, and strengthened to a Category 2 hurricane, before eventually weakening and making landfall on Bermuda as a Category 1. This made Ernesto the first hurricane to make landfall on the island since [[Hurricane Paulette]] in 2020. Ernesto continued to move northward, passing by [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] as it turned post-tropical.

After nearly three weeks of inactivity, the longest in over fifty years at that point in the season,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Rich |first=Ben |date=2024-09-09 |title=Tropical Storm Francine: Southern US bracing for hurricane |url=https://www.bbc.com/weather/articles/c4gd13l35qpo |access-date=2024-09-10 |website=BBC Weather |language=en-GB}}</ref> [[Hurricane Francine]] formed on September 9.<ref name=":9" /> Tropical Storm Gordon followed suit two days later on September 11,<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Blake |first1=Eric |last2=Mullinax |date=2024-09-11 |title=Tropical Depression Seven Discussion Number 1 |url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/al07/al072024.discus.001.shtml? |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=National Hurricane Center}}</ref> with Francine making landfall in [[Louisiana]] as a Category 2 system later that day.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sosnowski |first=Alex |date=2024-09-11 |title=Hurricane Francine makes landfall in southern Louisiana as a Category 2 storm |url=https://www.accuweather.com/en/hurricane/hurricane-francine-makes-landfall-in-southern-louisiana-as-a-category-2-storm/1689883 |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=Accuweather}}</ref> Four systems developed during the final week of September, starting with [[Hurricane Helene]] on September 24.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/al09/al092024.discus.005.shtml? |title=Tropical Storm Helene Discussion Number 5 |last1=Berg |first1=Robbie |date=September 24, 2024 |publisher=National Hurricane Center |location=Miami, Florida |language=en-US |access-date=September 24, 2024}}</ref> The system affected the [[Yucatán Peninsula]] on September 25, before making landfall in the Big Bend region of Florida late on September 26 as a Category 4 hurricane, where it rapidly weakened into a tropical depression by noon of September 27.<ref name=":42">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-09-25 |title=Helene leaves Cancun behind and more than 120,000 without power |url=https://riviera-maya-news.com/helene-leaves-cancun-behind-and-more-than-120000-without-power/2024.html |access-date=2024-09-25 |website=Riviera Maya News |language=en-US}}</ref> Hurricane Isaac formed on September 26 and later peaked as a Category 2 hurricane.<ref name=":I 010">{{Cite report|last=Roberts|first=Dave|date=September 28, 2024|title=Hurricane Isaac Advisory Number 10|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/al10/al102024.public.010.shtml?|access-date=September 28, 2024|publisher=National Hurricane Center|location=Miami, Florida}}</ref> On September 27, Tropical Storm Joyce formed just west of the [[Cabo Verde Islands]].<ref name=":16" /> September's activity ended with the formation of Hurricane Kirk on September 29, which reached its peak intensity on October 4.

Early October saw the formations of Hurricanes Leslie and Milton, which along with Kirk, marked the first time on record that there were three hurricanes simultaneously present in the Atlantic basin after September.<ref name=":17" /><ref name=":18" /><ref>{{cite report |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/153426/three-storms-churn-in-an-active-atlantic |title=Three Storms Churn in an Active Atlantic |last1=Cassidy |first1=Emily |date=October 6, 2024 |publisher=NASA Earth Observatory |language=en-US |access-date=October 7, 2024}}</ref> Milton notably underwent explosive rapid intensification within the Gulf of Mexico to become the second Category 5 hurricane of the season, making 2024 the first Atlantic hurricane season since [[2019 Atlantic hurricane season|2019]] to feature multiple Category 5 hurricanes.<ref name=":19" /> It became the first Atlantic hurricane since [[Hurricane Wilma]] to reach a pressure below {{convert|900|mb|inHg|sigfig=4|abbr=on}} and the second-most intense tropical cyclone ever recorded over the Gulf of Mexico, only after [[Hurricane Rita]].

=== Eastern & Central Pacific Oceans ===

{{Main|2024 Pacific hurricane season}}
[[File:2024 Pacific hurricane season summary.png|280px|thumb|2024 Pacific hurricane season summary map]]
On June 29, the [[National Hurricane Center]] (NHC) noted that a low-pressure area could form off the coast of Mexico. On July 2, a broad area of low pressure formed south of the coast of Mexico. Showers and thunderstorms within the disturbance became better-organized beginning late the following day, and Tropical Depression 01E formed during the morning of July 4. Slightly intensifying, the compact system became Tropical Storm Aletta a few hours later. Three weeks later, Tropical Storm Bud formed off the southern tip of Baja California. A week later on July 31, Tropical Storm Carlotta formed out of a [[low-pressure area]]. Three storms formed quickly during the first week of August: Daniel, Emilia, and Fabio. After a brief lull in activity, [[Hurricane Gilma (2024)|Hurricane Gilma]] formed, undergoing a few rounds of intensification, one of which, being a Category 4 peak, making Gilma the first major hurricane of the Eastern Pacific season. [[Hurricane Hone (2024)|Hurricane Hone]] formed soon after, becoming the Central Pacific's first named storm in the basin since [[2019 Pacific hurricane season|2019]].They were joined by Tropical Storm Hector on August 25 in the eastern Pacific proper.<ref name=Hector1>{{cite report|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/ep08/ep082024.discus.001.shtml?|title=Tropical Storm Hector Discussion Number 1|last=Pasch|first=Richard|date=August 25, 2024|publisher=National Hurricane Center|location=Miami, Florida|language=en-US|access-date=August 25, 2024}}</ref> Hone would later move out of the basin into the Western Pacific.

Tropical Storm Ileana broke a two-week break in activity with its formation on September 12.<ref name = "Ileana1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.jornada.com.mx/noticia/2024/09/15/estados/ileana-provoca-cortes-de-luz-desborde-de-rios-e-inundaciones-en-sinaloa-217|title='Ileana' provoca cortes de luz, desborde de ríos e inundaciones en Sinaloa|trans-title='Ileana' causes power outages, rivers overflow and flooding in Sinaloa|author1=Vicente Juárez|author2=Raymundo León|author3=Juan Montoya|author4=Irene Sánchez|work=La Jornada|date=September 15, 2024|access-date=September 15, 2024|language=es-mx}}</ref> The storm grazed northwestern Mexico twice before dissipating.<ref name=Ileana7>{{Cite web |title=Tropical Storm ILEANA |url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/ep09/ep092024.discus.007.shtml? |access-date=2024-09-14 |website=www.nhc.noaa.gov}}</ref><ref name=Ileana9>{{Cite web |title=Tropical Storm ILEANA |url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/ep09/ep092024.discus.010.shtml? |access-date=2024-09-15 |website=www.nhc.noaa.gov}}</ref> Hurricane John developed over a week later and rapidly intensified into the second major hurricane of the season prior to making landfall in southern Mexico.<ref name=John1>{{Cite report|title=Tropical Depression Ten-E Advisory Number 1|last=Reinhart|first=Brad|url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/ep10/ep102024.public.001.shtml?|date=September 22, 2024|publisher=National Hurricane Center|location=Miami, Florida|access-date=September 22, 2024}}</ref><ref name=JohnUpdate>{{Cite report |title=Hurricane John Update |url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/ep10/ep102024.update.09240322.shtml? |last=Papin |first=Philippe |date=September 23, 2024 |publisher=National Hurricane Center |location=Miami, Florida |access-date=September 23, 2024}}</ref>

=== Western Pacific Ocean ===

{{Main|2024 Pacific typhoon season}}
[[File:2024 Pacific typhoon season summary.png|280px|thumb|2024 Pacific typhoon season summary map]]
The [[Pacific typhoon season]] began abnormally late, with no systems forming for five months until May 22, when a tropical storm named ''Ewiniar'' formed southeast of [[Palau]], marking it as the fifth-latest start of a Pacific typhoon season since reliable records began.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Wulfeck |first=Andrew |date=May 25, 2024 |title=Tracking the tropics: Northern Hemisphere finally sees its first tropical depression |url=https://www.foxweather.com/weather-news/tracking-tropics-northern-hemisphere-finally-sees-its-first-tropical-depression |access-date=May 25, 2024 |website=FOX Weather |language=en-US}}</ref>  Ewiniar went straight to the Philippines to make nine landfalls in [[Homonhon Island]]; [[Giporlos, Eastern Samar]]; [[Basiao Island]]; Cagduyong Island; [[Batuan, Masbate]]; [[Masbate City]]; [[Torrijos, Marinduque]]; [[Lucena, Quezon]] and [[Patnanungan]]. It began to move over the warm tropical waters of Lamon Bay, where the JTWC and the JMA upgraded Ewiniar into a minimal typhoon. Ewiniar began to deteriorate as it moved away from land due to its topographical effects from the island. On May 30, another tropical depression formed southeast of [[Haikou, China]]. The next day, at 03:00 UTC, JTWC designated the disturbance as ''Tropical Depression 02W''. A few hours later, JMA assigned the name ''Maliksi'' as they upgraded 02W into a tropical storm. Shortly after being named, on May 31, Maliksi made landfall in [[Southern China]]. JMA and JTWC discontinued warnings as Maliksi moved inland and dissipated on June 2.

After many weeks of inactivity, on July 13, a tropical depression formed east of Vietnam. Shortly after, it tracked into Vietnam, dissipating soon after. On July 19, two tropical disturbances were recognized by the JTWC: one southeast of [[Manila]] while the second is east of [[Palau]]. Soon after, the two disturbances on either side were upgraded into a depression and named by the PAGASA. The first west of [[Batangas]] was named ''Butchoy'' while the second east of [[Virac, Catanduanes|Virac]] was named ''Carina''. JTWC followed suit and designated Butchoy as ''Tropical Depression 04W'' and Carina as ''Tropical Depression 05W''. At 16:05 JST (00:05 UTC) of the next day, 05W was given the name ''Gaemi'' by the JMA. On July 21, Butchoy also intensified into a tropical storm, assigning the name ''Prapiroon'' from the JMA. Prapiroon moved through the South China Sea as a mild tropical storm before landfall over [[Wanning, Hainan]]. Prapiroon moved through the Gulf of Tonkin, where it further intensified into a severe tropical storm. Early on July 23, Prapiroon made its second and final landfall in [[Quảng Ninh province|Quảng Ninh, Vietnam]]. Rapid weakening ensued as Prapiroon moved inland.

Being in a favorable environment in the Philippine Sea, Gaemi continues to strengthen into a severe tropical storm as it moves northeastward slowly. Early the next day, JMA upgraded Gaemi into a typhoon, the second to occur in this season. JTWC also followed suit and upgraded Gaemi into a Category-1 typhoon. Owing to its warm sea surface temperature and low vertical wind shear, on July 24, Gaemi rapidly intensified into a Category-4 typhoon, with 10-minute sustained winds of 155 km/h (100 mph), equivalent to a very strong typhoon category by the JMA. Gaemi stalled and executed a counterclockwise loop near the coast and slightly weakened into a Category-3 typhoon. Overnight, Gaemi made landfall over [[Hualien, Taiwan]] at that intensity. The mountain ranges of the country made the structure of the storm torn apart, causing Gaemi to further weaken into a Category-2 typhoon. The country's mountain ranges tore apart the structure of the storm, causing Gaemi to weaken further into a Category-2 typhoon. The next day, Gaemi made its final landfall at [[Xiuyu, Putian]] at [[Fujian Province]] as a weakening tropical storm. Moving inland, the storm rapidly weakened until it dissipated on July 27.

On August 5, a low-pressure area was formed in the Bonin Islands. The disturbance was in an environment with low to moderate wind shear and warm SSTs. JTWC later classified the disturbance into a depression the next day, giving the designation 06W. Early on August 8, JMA upgraded the depression into a storm, naming it ''Maria''. The storm further strengthened into a severe tropical storm on the same day, and eventually made landfall in [[Ōfunato|Ofunato]]. Shortly after, [[Typhoon Ampil (2024)|Typhoon Ampil]] and Tropical Storms Son-Tinh and Wukong formed; Ampil became a very strong typhoon, brushing the city of [[Tokyo]] and eastern Japan. Tropical Storm Jongdari was also named, as well as [[Typhoon Shanshan (2024)|Shanshan]], which is currently a weakening storm near [[Tokyo]]. On August 30, a tropical disturbance formed near [[Palau]]. On the same day, JMA started to issue advisories for the system as a depression. As it entered the [[Philippine Area of Responsibility]] (PAR), the agency gave it the name ''Enteng'' on the first day of September. At 21:00 JST (13:00 UTC), JMA developed into a tropical storm, naming the system as ''Yagi''. The storm made its first landfall in Casiguran in the province of Aurora. The mountainous terrain of the Cordillera Central had made Yagi weakened as it moved inland. It left PAR on early September 4 as it continues to intensify in the South China Sea.

Yagi later strengthened into a typhoon due to its highly favorable environmental conditions. The following day, it rapidly intensified, developing a distinct eye and briefly reaching Category 5-equivalent super typhoon status as it approached Hainan. The whole cloud system of Yagi covered the entire South China Sea. Although Yagi slightly weakened, it made its second landfall over Wenchang City in Hainan. The storm then moved over Haikou, China, and continued to make another landfall in Xuwen County, Guangdong. Afterward, Yagi entered the open waters of the Gulf of Tonkin.

Yagi became one of only four Category-5 typhoons recorded in the South China Sea, alongside Pamela (1954), Rammasun (2014), and Rai (2021). It also marked the most powerful typhoon to strike Hainan in autumn since Typhoon Rammasun in 2014. On September 7, Yagi underwent a period of reorganization and regained Category 4 status before making a historic landfall between Haiphong and Quang Ninh in Vietnam. Upon landfall, Yagi became the strongest storm to impact Northern Vietnam. The typhoon then weakened rapidly into a remnant low as it moved inland, dissipating on September 8. Even after dissipation, it still wreaked havoc, bringing heavy floods to Myanmar, Laos, and Thailand.

While Yagi was on its way to making landfall in the Philippines, JTWC announced another formation of a tropical disturbance in the open Pacific Ocean on September 2. JMA also started issuing advisories, and it was recognized as a tropical depression in the same location. Two days later, as JTWC upgraded it into a depression, it received its designation as 13W. A day later, JMA reported that 13W developed into a tropical storm, giving the name Leepi as the twelfth named storm of this season. Leepi then accelerated northeastwards before it became an extratropical cyclone on September 6.

On September 9, a tropical depression formed over the Micronesian Islands. The following day, the JTWC designated it as 14W. As it moved over Guam, 14W intensified into a tropical storm and was named Bebinca by the JMA. Despite encountering dry air, Bebinca strengthened as it began its northwestward movement. At 18:00 PHT on September 13, Bebinca entered the Philippine Area of Responsibility and was named Ferdie by PAGASA. Bebinca later strengthened into a minimal typhoon on the next day. On September 16, Bebinca landed in Shanghai, China as a weakening Category-1 typhoon, and became the strongest typhoon to hit Shanghai since Typhoon Gloria of 1949.

As Bebinca moved toward eastern China, two tropical depressions formed in the Pacific on September 15—one near Guam and another within the Philippine Area of Responsibility (PAR). The JTWC designated the depression near Guam as 15W. It soon intensified into a tropical storm and was named Pulasan by the JMA. The PAR tropical depression was given the name Gener by PAGASA. At 02:00 PHT the following day, Gener landed over Palanan, Isabela. The storm continued to move westward over Northern Luzon, maintaining its strength as a depression. Meanwhile, Pulasan briefly entered the PAR at 18:30 PHT (10:30 UTC) and was assigned the name Helen. Gener was upgraded by the JTWC into a tropical depression, getting the designation 16W. On September 19, 16W was upgraded to a tropical storm and named Soulik by the JMA. Soulik made landfall over Vĩnh Linh District, Quảng Trị, in Vietnam. Meanwhile, Pulasan also made landfall over Zhoushan, China, similar to where Bebinca had made landfall three days earlier. After that, it made a second landfall over Shanghai, marking the first time since reliable meteorological records exist that two typhoons make landfall over Shanghai with only two days in between.

On September 20, a low-pressure area formed over Northern Luzon. The JTWC later designated the disturbance as Invest 90W upon its formation. Being inside the PAR, PAGASA initiated advisories and named the system Igme. The JTWC soon upgraded it into a tropical depression, designating it as 17W. Igme later curved southwestwards, passing closely to Taiwan. The storm later dissipated on September 22 after topographical interaction and high vertical wind shear had weakened the system significantly.

Following, on September 24, a tropical depression formed in the Pacific south of Japan. That day, JTWC designated the system as 18W. The following day, the JMA upgraded the depression into a tropical storm, earning the name Cimaron. The storm moved southwestwards, maintaining its intensity. As it moved westwards, Cimaron weakened into a tropical depression as an unfavorable environment hindered any intensification. Cimaron later dissipated on September 27. Shortly later the same day, another low-pressure area formed near the Northern Mariana Islands. Despite being in a marginal environment, the disturbance managed to be organized and designated as 19W by the JTWC. On September 27, the JMA upgraded 19W into a tropical storm, naming it Jebi.

Shortly after Cimaron weakened into a depression, an area of low pressure formed in the Philippine Sea near extreme Northern Luzon on September 26, PAGASA shortly issued bulletins regarding the disturbance and was named Julian as it developed into a depression. The following day, the JTWC designated Julian as 20W, upgrading it into a tropical depression. On September 28, the JMA upgraded 20W into a tropical storm, naming it Krathon, a replacement name for Mangkhut. It then intensified into a Category-1 typhoon, heading towards Sabtang, Batanes. Shortly after, the typhoon began its rapid intensification and in two days, the system reached its peak intensity equivalent to a Category-4 super typhoon. On October 3, Krathon made landfall over Siaogang District in Kaohsiung, Taiwan. The typhoon became the first storm to make landfall in Taiwan's densely populated western plains since Typhoon Thelma in 1977. The storm weakened through inland, marking the first time it had happened in Taiwan since Tropical Storm Trami in 2001. The JMA continued to track the system to the South China Sea before it dissipated on October 4.

On October 5, a tropical depression formed near Guam. The following day, the JTWC designated it as 21W. Despite moving through warm waters, high wind shear hindered any further development, causing it to weaken back into a depression. On October 8, the JTWC issued its final warning, with dissipation expected in the next 12 hours. The next day, 21W intensified into a tropical storm, receiving the name Barijat from the JMA. Later in the day, JTWC reissued advisories on Barijat and intensified into a tropical storm. However, both agencies later made their final warning for the last time as the storm dissipated on October 11.

=== North Indian Ocean ===
{{update section|date=September 2024}}
[[File:2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season summary.png|280px|thumb|2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season summary map]]
{{Main|2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season}}After months of inactivity, on 21 May, a low-pressure area (LPA) started to develop due to an upper-air circulation over the [[Bay of Bengal]]. The LPA got strengthened by favorable conditions such as [[Rossby wave|Rossby waves]], [[Madden–Julian oscillation]] and the beginning of the [[Monsoon of South Asia|Monsoonal flow]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]. Hence, [[India Meteorological Department|IMD]] (India Meteorological Department) began monitoring the cyclonic circulation. Later that day, [[Joint Typhoon Warning Center]] (JTWC) also began tracking the system, noting that the system could become a monsoon depression. On 23 May, the IMD upgraded the system to a well-marked low, stating that it was rapidly coalescing. The system then intensified into a depression (BOB 01/Invest 99B) on 24 May. Owing to favorable conditions and high [[Sea surface temperature]] over Northern [[Bay of Bengal]], the depression intensified into a cyclone named ''Remal''. On May 26, Remal intensified into a severe cyclonic storm before making landfall at [[Bangladesh]]. Remal later moved inland and dissipated on May 28.

On July 19, IMD marked an area of low pressure off the coast of Odisha. The disturbance was later upgraded into a depression, designated as BOB 02. However, the depression moved inland, weakening into a well-marked low-pressure area before dissipating the next day. On August 4, a low-pressure area developed over Gangetic West Bengal, and adjoining Jharkhand. Hours later, the land depression intensified into a depression.

===South-West Indian Ocean===
====January - June====
{{Main|2023–24 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season}}
[[File:2023-2024 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season summary.png|280px|thumb|2023-2024 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season summary map]]
The first system of the season, Tropical Storm Alvaro, formed on December 30, 2023 and persisted into 2024. Before becoming post-tropical on January 3,<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/activiteope/bulletins/cmrs/CMRSA_202401031857.pdf |title=Post-Tropical Depression 01 (Alvaro) Warning Number (20/1/20232024) |date=3 January 2024 |publisher=[[Météo-France]] |access-date=3 January 2024}}</ref> it made landfall in [[Morombe District]], [[Madagascar]],<ref name=":0">{{cite report |url=https://www.meteomadagascar.mg/cyclone/ |title=Bulletin Cyclonique Special du 01 Janvier 2024 a 20 heures locales |date=1 January 2024 |publisher=Météo Madagascar |access-date=1 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101185314/https://www.meteomadagascar.mg/cyclone/ |archive-date=1 January 2024 |lang=fr}}</ref> killing nineteen people. After a brief lull in activity, Tropical Cyclone Belal formed on January 11.<ref>{{Cite web |date=January 11, 2024 |title=TC Map |url=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240111130819/http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/index.html |archive-date=January 11, 2024 |access-date=January 11, 2024}}</ref> severely affecting Mauritius and Réunion, with the latter suffering the brunt of the storm, causing six deaths in the process.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-15 |title=One dead as storm hits French Indian Ocean island |url=https://news.yahoo.com/reunion-island-highest-alert-major-040230512.html |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=Yahoo News |lang=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-16 |title=Mauritius and Reunion assess damage from Indian Ocean cyclone that killed at least 4 people |url=https://apnews.com/article/cyclone-tropical-reunion-mauritius-flood-3c0bbe47ebeea2351ef554231415ccec |access-date=2024-01-31 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref> On January 22, Moderate Tropical Storm Candice formed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-22 |title=CYCLONE et ACTIVITE CYCLONIQUE par Météo-France La Réunion |url=https://meteofrance.re/fr/cyclone |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122143939/https://meteofrance.re/fr/cyclone |archive-date=2024-01-22 |access-date=2024-01-22 |website=Meteo-France}}</ref> Eight days later, Intense Tropical Cyclone Anggrek entered the basin,<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/activiteope/bulletins/cmrs/CMRSA_202401251434.pdf |title=Tropical Cyclone 04 (Anggrek) Warning Number (1/4/20232024) |date=25 January 2024 |publisher=[[Météo-France]] |access-date=25 January 2024 |archive-date=25 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125173732/http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/activiteope/bulletins/cmrs/CMRSA_202401251434.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> while Tropical Depression 05 formed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-30 |title=CYCLONE et ACTIVITE CYCLONIQUE par Météo-France La Réunion |url=https://meteofrance.re/fr/cyclone |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=Meteo-France|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054741/https://meteofrance.re/fr/cyclone |archive-date=2024-01-30 }}</ref> Intense Tropical Cyclone Djoungou formed on 13 February and exited the basin less than a week later.<ref name="JTWC">{{cite JTWC|date=19 February 2024|type=warn|category=TC|designation=13S|no=9|name=Djoungou|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/sh0323web.txt|archive-url=https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/text/2024-02-19-1930-sh1324web.txt|url-status=live|archive-date=19 February 2024|access-date=19 February 2024}}</ref> Severe Tropical Storm Eleanor formed on 17 February, bringing intense rainfall and winds causing massive damage.<ref name=damage-Eleanor>{{cite web |language=fr |url=https://www.catnat.net/veille-catastrophes-naturelles/veille-des-catastrophes-naturelles/archive-des-catastrophes/223-cyclones-et-tempetes-tropicales-monde/33951-la-tempete-tropicale-eleanor-affecte-lile-maurice |title=La tempête tropicale Eleanor affecte l'île Maurice. |trans-title=Tropical storm Eleanor affects Mauritius. |date=February 22, 2024 |website=www.catnat.net |access-date=February 22, 2024}}</ref> Severe Tropical Storm Filipo emerged on 2 March near [[Mozambique]] displacing 48,000 people and damaging 8,000 houses.<ref name=Filipo-deaths>{{cite report |language=en |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/mozambique/mozambique-tropical-storm-filipo-flash-update-no-2-15-march-2024 |title=Mozambique - Tropical Storm Filipo - Flash Update No. 2 (15 March 2024) |author=[[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs|OCHA]] |date=2024-03-15 |website=reliefweb.int |access-date=2024-03-15}}</ref> Tropical Depression Neville crossed into the basin on 24 March but MFR discontinued warning issuance.<ref>{{cite report|title=Bulletin for Cyclonic Activity and Significant Tropical Weather in the Southwest Indian Ocean|url=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/activiteope/bulletins/zcit/ZCITA_202403241211.pdf|publisher=[[Météo-France]]|date=24 March 2024|access-date=24 March 2024|url-status=live|archive-date=24 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324131955/http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/activiteope/bulletins/zcit/ZCITA_202403241211.pdf}}</ref> Short-lived Tropical Cyclone Gamane emerged on 25 March, causing a total of 19 deaths, 3 people missing and at least 90,000 affected.<ref name=Deaths-Gamane>{{cite news |language=fr |title=Madagascar: une semaine après le passage du cyclone Gamane, l'état des dégâts se précise. |journal=RFI |date=2024-04-03 |url=https://www.rfi.fr/fr/afrique/20240403-madagascar-semaine-passage-cyclone-gamane-l-%C3%A9tat-des-d%C3%A9g%C3%A2ts-se-pr%C3%A9cise |access-date=2024-04-04}}</ref>

Off-season Tropical Cyclone Hidaya made rare landfall in [[Tanzania]] on 30 April. Another off-season, Tropical Cyclone Ialy, formed on 16 May near [[Comoros]], killing a girl and injuring four others, while another person died due to a fallen wall.<ref name="nat522">{{cite news|date=May 22, 2024|title=Two dead in Coast region in aftermath of Cyclone Ialy|newspaper=The Nation (Kenya)|author=Jurgen Nambeka|author2=Maureen Ongala|accessdate=May 22, 2024|url=https://nation.africa/kenya/counties/two-confirmed-dead-in-coast-region-cyclone-ialy-4631338}}</ref>

====July - December====
{{Main|2024–25 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season}}

A low-pressure system formed near the equator in mid-August 2024. Despite unfavourable conditions, it briefly intensified into a tropical depression before weakening and dissipating. In early late September MFR started tracking an area of low pressure in the far north-eastern part of the basin, it was named Ancha late on 1 October, making it the first off-season named storm since [[2023–24 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season#Tropical Cyclone Ialy|Ialy]] during the previous season.
{{clear}}

===Australian Region===
====January - June====
{{Main|2023–24 Australian region cyclone season}}
[[File:2023-2024 Australian region cyclone season summary.png|280px|thumb|2023-2024 Australian region cyclone season summary map]]
The season started early on 1 December where [[Cyclone Jasper]] crossed into the basin as a tropical low from the South Pacific and made landfall in Far North Queensland as a Category 2 tropical cyclone on 13 December.<ref name=":2" />

After a significant lull in activity, Tropical Cyclone Anggrek and Tropical Low 03U formed on 10 and 11 January respectively,<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 11:54 pm UTC 10 January 2024 |date=10 January 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=11 January 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240111061235/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |archive-date=11 January 2024}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> with the latter dissipating on 23 January.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |date=24 January 2024 |title=Tropical Cyclone 7 Day forecast |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |access-date=24 January 2024 |website=Bureau of Meteorology|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240124004105/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |archive-date=24 January 2024 }}</ref> The next day, [[Cyclone Kirrily]] formed.<ref name=":6">{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 12:16 am UTC 12 January 2024 |date=12 January 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=12 January 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240112014028/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |archive-date=12 January 2024}}</ref> Tropical Low 06U formed on 30 January, dancing out of basin the next day and waltzing back in on 5 February.<ref name="BoM TC Database">{{cite report|title=Tropical Cyclone Anthony: 23 – 31 January 2011|author=Auden, Tony|date=21 June 2011|publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology's Brisbane Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre|url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/history/database/Anthony-Final-Report.pdf|access-date=13 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="TDS 02-02-24 00z">{{Cite report|date=2 February 2024|title=Tropical Disturbance Summary February 2, 2024 00z|url=https://www.met.gov.fj/index.php?page=warn1#20036.txt|publisher=Fiji Meteorological Service|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240202133249/https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/NFFN/Alphanumeric/Warning/Warnings_and_weather_summary/20240202/000000/A_WWPS21NFFN020000_C_RJTD_20240202003131_37.txt|archive-date=2 February 2024|access-date=29 February 2024}}</ref> Tropical Cyclone Lincoln formed on 16 February and made landfall on the Gulf of Carpentaria coast.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/products/IDD65011.shtml |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast Track Map for Tropical Cyclone Lincoln (07U) |date=16 February 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216070211/http://www.bom.gov.au/products/IDD65011.shtml |archive-date=16 February 2024}}</ref> Severe Tropical Cyclone Neville formed north of the [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands|Cocos Islands]]<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 08:22 am UTC 1 March 2024 |date=1 March 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=6 March 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240301182408/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/|archive-date=1 March 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref> on 1 March and left the basin 20 days later.<ref>{{cite report|title=Bulletin for Cyclonic Activity and Significant Tropical Weather in the Southwest Indian Ocean|url=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/activiteope/bulletins/zcit/ZCITA_202403241211.pdf|publisher=[[Météo-France]]|date=24 March 2024|access-date=24 March 2024|url-status=live|archive-date=24 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324131955/http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/activiteope/bulletins/zcit/ZCITA_202403241211.pdf}}</ref> Severe Tropical Cyclone Megan formed on 13 March from a tropical low over the coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 08:31 am UTC 4 March 2024 |date=4 March 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=4 March 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240304100551/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/|archive-date=4 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> Short-lived Tropical Low 10U formed and weakened within the same day of 14 March.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 08:23 am UTC 14 March 2024 |date=14 March 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240314111504/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/|archive-date=14 March 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Severe Tropical Cyclone Olga formed within a monsoon trough south of [[Sumba]]<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 11:31 am UTC 4 April 2024 |date=4 April 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=4 April 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240404002319/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/|archive-date=4 April 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/abpwweb.txt |title=Significant Tropical Weather Advisory for the Indian Ocean April 3 2024 12:30z |date=3 April 2024 |publisher=United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240403000000/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/abpwweb.txt |archive-date=3 April 2024 |url-status=dead |accessdate=4 April 2024 }} [https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/text/2024-04-03-1210-abioweb.txt Alt URL]</ref> on 4 April. Tropical Cyclone Paul formed 5 days later over the [[Louisiade Archipelago]].<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 09:02 am UTC 8 April 2024 |date=8 April 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=4 April 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240408133316/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/|archive-date=8 April 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Tropical Low 12U formed on 12 April and remained traceable.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 08:24 am UTC 7 April 2024 |date=7 April 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=7 April 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240407122746/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/|archive-date=7 April 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Off-season Tropical Low 16U formed on 4 May and ended the season.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/ |title=Tropical Cyclone Forecast 08:33 am UTC 4 May 2024 |date=4 May 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=4 May 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240504125201/http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/|archive-date=4 May 2024 |url-status=dead}}</ref>
====July - December====
{{Main|2024–25 Australian region cyclone season}}

===South Pacific Ocean===

====January - June====
{{Main|2023–24 South Pacific cyclone season}}
[[File:2023-2024 South Pacific cyclone season summary.png|280px|thumb|2023-2024 South Pacific cyclone season summary map]]
After a significant lull in activity, Tropical Disturbance 04F formed on January 25 and dissipated the next day.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-25 |title=Tropical Disturbance Summary For area Equator to 25S, 160E to 120W |url=https://www.met.gov.fj/index.php?page=warn1#20036.txt |access-date=2024-01-25 |website=Fiji Meteorological Service|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125051257/https://www.met.gov.fj/index.php?page=warn1#20036.txt |archive-date=2024-01-25 }}</ref> On February 1, 06U entered the South Pacific basin and was designated ''05F'' by the FMS.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 2, 2024 |title=Tropical Disturbance Summary For area Equator to 25S, 160E to 120W ISSUED FROM RSMC NADI Feb 02 00:30 UTC. |url=https://www.met.gov.fj/index.php?page=warn1#20036.txt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202024946/https://www.met.gov.fj/index.php?page=warn1#20036.txt |archive-date=February 2, 2024 |access-date=February 2, 2024 |website=www.met.gov.fj}}</ref> After the system exited to the Australian region and struggled against moderate wind shear, 05F re-entered on February 7 and JTWC designated it tropical storm ''12P''.<ref>{{cite JTWC|date=February 8, 2024|type=warn|category=tc|designation=12P|no=1|name=Twelve|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208024638/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/sh1224web.txt|archive-url=https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/prog/2024-01-23-0300-sh0724prog.txt|archive-date=February 8, 2024|access-date=February 8, 2024}}</ref> On February 3, the FMS designated ''06F'' and was later named ''Nat'' on February 5. The FMS upgraded Nat to a Category 2 tropical cyclone the next day before wind shear led to the system's demise.<ref>{{cite report|title=Tropical Disturbance Advisory Number A7 |url=https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/NFFN/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20240206/120000/A_WTPS11NFFN061200CCA_C_RJTD_20240206140817_66.txt|publisher=[[Fiji Meteorological Service]]|date=February 6, 2024|access-date=February 6, 2024|archive-date=February 6, 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240206142528/https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/NFFN/Alphanumeric/Warning/Tropical_cyclone/20240206/120000/A_WTPS11NFFN061200CCA_C_RJTD_20240206140817_66.txt}}</ref> Simultaneously, Tropical Disturbance 07F formed on February 5 before dissipating.<ref>{{Cite report|date=February 6, 2024|title=Tropical Disturbance Summary February 5, 2024 10z|url=https://www.met.gov.fj/index.php?page=warn1#20036.txt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240205130849/https://www.met.gov.fj/index.php?page=warn1%2320036.txt|archive-date=February 5, 2024|access-date=February 5, 2024|publisher=Fiji Meteorological Service}}</ref> ''08F'' quickly developed and the FMS named ''Osai'' on February 7 before an increase in wind shear caused the storm to dissipate.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 7, 2024 |title=NWPS01 NFFN 071200 |url=https://tgftp.nws.noaa.gov/data/raw/nw/nwps01.nffn..txt |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240207133742/https://tgftp.nws.noaa.gov/data/raw/nw/nwps01.nffn..txt |archive-date=February 7, 2024 |access-date=February 7, 2024 |website=www.met.gov.fj}}</ref> On February 11, ''09F'' developed and was short-lived due to high wind shear. On February 14, the FMS designated ''10F'' and soon the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Cyclone ''15P''. However, ''10F'' was short-lived due to increasing wind shear.<ref>{{cite JTWC|date=February 15, 2024|type=warn|category=tc|designation=15P|no=1|name=Firteen|url=https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/sh1524web.txt|archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240215000000/https://www.metoc.navy.mil/jtwc/products/sh1524web.txt|archive-date=February 15, 2024|access-date=February 15, 2024}} [https://wiki.chlod.net/jtwc/prog/2024-02-15-2100-sh1524prog.txt Alt URL]</ref>

====July - December====
{{Main|2024–25 South Pacific cyclone season}}

=== South Atlantic Ocean ===
{{Main|South Atlantic tropical cyclone}}
On February 16, the CHM stated that a subtropical depression had formed in the Rio de Janeiro basin.<ref>{{cite web |date=16 February 2024 |title=Hidrografia da Marinha - Special Warning |url=https://www.marinha.mil.br/chm/dados-do-smm-warnings_and_forecasts/warnings |access-date=18 February 2024 |archive-date=16 February 2024 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240216024426/https://www.marinha.mil.br/chm/dados-do-smm-warnings_and_forecasts/warnings |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> Two days later, the cyclone acquired tropical characteristics and became a tropical depression. In the early hours of 19 February, the depression developed into a tropical storm, thus receiving the name Akará.

==Systems==
===January===
[[File:Anggrek 2024-01-28 0825Z.jpg|thumb|[[Cyclone Anggrek (2024)|Cyclone Anggrek]]]]
January was slightly active featuring eight systems forming with four of them being named.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NCEI.Monitoring.Info@noaa.gov |title=January 2024 Tropical Cyclones Report {{!}} National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) |url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/tropical-cyclones/202401 |access-date=2024-03-18 |website=www.ncei.noaa.gov |language=en}}</ref> [[Tropical Storm Alvaro (2023)|Tropical Storm Alvaro]] from the South-West Indian Ocean persisted into 2024 and made landfall in [[Madagascar]], killing nineteen and causing some damages. [[Cyclone Belal]] affected Reunion and Mauritius, causing six fatalities. In the Australian region, [[Cyclone Kirrily]] affected Queensland while [[Cyclone Anggrek (2024)|Cyclone Anggrek]] formed in the basin, entered the South-West Indian Ocean on January 25, and became a Category 4-equivalent tropical cyclone on January 28, making it the strongest storm of the month, as well as the first major tropical cyclone of the year.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in January 2024
! width="2%" | Storm name
! width="10%" | Dates active
! width="5%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="3%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="20%" | Areas affected
! width="5%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="3%" | Deaths
! width="2%" | Refs
|-
![[Cyclone Anggrek (2024)|Anggrek]]
|January 10–30
|185 (115)
|950
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2023–24 Australian region cyclone season#Tropical Low 03U|03U]]
|January 11–23
|{{unknown}}
|991
|[[Northern Territory]], [[Western Australia]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Cyclone Belal|Belal]]
|January 11–18
|140 (85)
|969
|[[Mascarene Islands]]
|$570 million
|6
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 January 2024 |title=One dead as storm hits French Indian Ocean island |url=https://news.yahoo.com/reunion-island-highest-alert-major-040230512.html |access-date=15 January 2024 |website=Yahoo News |lang=en-US |archive-date=15 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115043739/https://news.yahoo.com/reunion-island-highest-alert-major-040230512.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/cyclone-tropical-reunion-mauritius-flood-3c0bbe47ebeea2351ef554231415ccec |title=Mauritius and Reunion assess damage from Indian Ocean cyclone that killed at least 4 people |website=[[Associated Press News]] |date=16 January 2024 |access-date=17 January 2024 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201155705/https://apnews.com/article/cyclone-tropical-reunion-mauritius-flood-3c0bbe47ebeea2351ef554231415ccec |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=https://www.aon.com/getmedia/a3bb33ae-0424-421c-a4fb-eec805171cff/20241107-q2-2024-catastrophe-recap.pdf|title=Global Catastrophe Recap: First Half 2024 |publisher=[[Aon (company)|Aon]]|access-date=28 September 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[Cyclone Kirrily|Kirrily]]
|January 12–February 5
|120 (75)
|978
|[[Queensland]], [[Northern Territory]], [[South Australia]], [[New South Wales]]
|Unknown
|None
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Coral Sea: Tropical Cyclone Kirrily tracking westward toward the north-central Queensland coast Jan. 24 /update 1 |url=https://crisis24.garda.com/alerts/2024/01/coral-sea-tropical-cyclone-kirrily-tracking-westward-toward-the-north-central-queensland-coast-jan-24-update-1 |access-date=2024-01-27 |website=Coral Sea: Tropical Cyclone Kirrily tracking westward toward the north-central Queensland coast Jan. 24 /update 1 {{!}} Crisis24 |language=en |archive-date=2024-01-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127145234/https://crisis24.garda.com/alerts/2024/01/coral-sea-tropical-cyclone-kirrily-tracking-westward-toward-the-north-central-queensland-coast-jan-24-update-1 |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Candice (2024)|Candice]]
|January 23–27
|100 (65)
|980
|[[Mauritius]]
|None
|None
|<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/activiteope/bulletins/cmrs/CMRSA_202401270720.pdf |title=Moderate Tropical Storm 04 (Candice) Warning Number (20/4/20232024) |date=27 January 2024 |publisher=[[Météo-France]] |access-date=27 January 2024 |archive-date=1 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240201155732/http://www.meteo.fr/temps/domtom/La_Reunion/webcmrs9.0/anglais/activiteope/bulletins/cmrs/CMRSA_202401270720.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
![[2023–24 South Pacific cyclone season#Tropical Disturbance 04F|04F]]
|January 25–26
|{{unknown}}
|1002
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2023–24 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season#Tropical Depression 05|05]]
|January 28–February 2
|55 (35)
|999
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Depression 05F (2024)|05F]]
|January 30–February 28
|55 (35)
|996
|[[New Caledonia]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Fiji]]
|None
|None
|
|-
|}

===February===
[[File:Djoungou 2024-02-18 0835Z.jpg|thumb|[[Cyclone Djoungou (2024)|Cyclone Djoungou]]]]
February was slightly above-average, featuring nine systems with six of them being named.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NCEI.Monitoring.Info@noaa.gov |title=February 2024 Tropical Cyclones Report {{!}} National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) |url=https://www.ncei.noaa.gov/access/monitoring/monthly-report/tropical-cyclones/202402 |access-date=2024-03-18 |website=www.ncei.noaa.gov |language=en}}</ref> In the South Pacific, Cyclones [[Cyclone Nat (2024)|Nat]] and [[Cyclone Osai (2024)|Osai]] affected Samoa, with the former peaking as a Category 2 tropical cyclone before dissipating on February 10. In the South-West Indian ocean, [[2023–24 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season#Intense Tropical Cyclone Djoungou|Cyclone Djoungou]] is the strongest system this month. [[2023–24 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season#Severe Tropical Storm Eleanor|Cyclone Eleanor]] affected sparsely over the Mascarene Islands. In the South Atlantic, [[South Atlantic tropical cyclone#Tropical Storm Akará|Tropical Storm Akará]] affected Southern Brazil. In the Australian region, [[Cyclone Lincoln (2024)|Cyclone Lincoln]] crossed through the Northern Territory inland just after making landfall in that particular area.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in February 2024
! width="2%" | Storm name
! width="10%" | Dates active
! width="5%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="3%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="20%" | Areas affected
! width="5%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="3%" | Deaths
! width="2%" | Refs
|-
![[Cyclone Nat (2024)|Nat]]
|February 3–10
|95 (60)
|985
|[[Samoa]], [[American Samoa]], [[Southern Cook Islands]], [[French Polynesia]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2023–24 South Pacific cyclone season#Tropical Disturbance 07F|07F]]
|February 5–8
|{{unknown}}
|1002
|[[French Polynesia]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Cyclone Osai (2024)|Osai]]
|February 6–12
|85 (50)
|991
|[[Samoa]], [[American Samoa]], Southern [[Cook Islands]]
|None
|None
|<ref>{{Cite report|date=February 12, 2024|title=Tropical Disturbance Summary February 12, 2024 21z|url=https://www.met.gov.fj/index.php?page=warn1#20036.txt|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213141446/https://www.wis-jma.go.jp/d/o/NFFN/Alphanumeric/Warning/Warnings_and_weather_summary/20240212/210000/A_WWPS21NFFN122100_C_RJTD_20240212225417_41.txt|archive-date=February 13, 2024|access-date=February 13, 2024|publisher=Fiji Meteorological Service}}</ref>
|-
![[2023–24 South Pacific cyclone season#Tropical Disturbance 09F|09F]]
|February 11–13
|{{unknown}}
|1004
|[[French Polynesia]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2023–24 South Pacific cyclone season#Tropical Depression 10F|10F]]
|February 14–17
|55 (35)
|995
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Cyclone Lincoln (2024)|Lincoln]]
|February 13–25
|75 (45)
|993
|[[Northern Territory]], [[Queensland]], [[Western Australia]]
|None
|None
|<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/tropical-note/ |title=Tropical Climate Update |date=20 February 2024 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Meteorology |access-date=2 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240302132903/http://www.bom.gov.au/climate/tropical-note/archive/20240220.archive.shtml |archive-date=2 March 2024}}</ref>{{clear}}
|-
![[Cyclone Djoungou (2024)|Djoungou]]
|February 13–19
|215 (130)
|922
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Akará (2024)|Akará]]
|February 16–22
|85 (50)
|994
|Southern [[Brazil]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Eleanor (2024)|Eleanor]]
|February 17–24
|100 (65)
|984
|[[Mauritius]], [[Réunion]]
|None
|None
|<ref name=damage-Eleanor/>
|}

===March===
[[File:Neville 2024-03-22 0240Z.jpg|thumb|[[Cyclone Neville (2024)|Cyclone Neville]]]]
March was near-average, featuring seven systems, with four of which have been named. The month began in the South-West Indian Ocean with [[Tropical Storm Filipo (2024)|Tropical Storm Filipo]], which recently affected Madagascar and Mozambique as a severe tropical storm. On the other side of the basin, [[Cyclone Megan (2024)|Cyclone Megan]] made landfall in [[Borroloola]], Australia just after reaching its peak as a Category-3 cyclone, bringing destructive winds and heavy rain in the area. [[Cyclone Neville (2024)|Cyclone Neville]], is the strongest tropical cyclone in this month. Before the end of the month, [[Cyclone Gamane]] made landfall in the northeastern tip of Madagascar as a Category-2 cyclone before it dissipated on March 28.
{|class="wikitable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in March 2024
! width="2%" | Storm name
! width="10%" | Dates active
! width="5%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="3%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="20%" | Areas affected
! width="5%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="3%" | Deaths
! width="2%" | Refs
|-
![[Tropical Storm Filipo (2024)|Filipo]]
|March 2–14
|100 (65)
|989
|[[Madagascar]], [[Mayotte]], [[Mozambique]], [[Eswatini]], [[South Africa]]
|Unknown
|2
|<ref name=Filipo-deaths/><ref>{{cite web |language=fr |url=https://www.meteosuisse.admin.ch/portrait/meteosuisse-blog/fr/2024/03/filipo.html |title=Tempête tropicale Filipo |date=2024-03-13 |work=[[MeteoSwiss]] |access-date=2024-03-14}}</ref>
|-
![[Cyclone Neville (2024)|Neville]]
|March 4–24
|175 (110)
|952
|[[Cocos (Keeling) Islands|Cocos Islands]], [[Christmas Island]]
|None
|None
|<ref name="08U TCR">{{Cite report |url=http://www.bom.gov.au/cyclone/history/neville24.shtml|title=Severe Tropical Cyclone Neville|publisher=[[Bureau of Meteorology]] |publication-date= |access-date=24 May 2024 }}</ref>
|-
![[2023–24 South Pacific cyclone season#Tropical Disturbance 11F|11F]]
|March 8–15
|65 (40)
|1000
|[[Vanuatu]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Cyclone Megan (2024)|Megan]]
|March 13–21
|165 (105)
|955
|[[Northern Territory]], [[Queensland]]
|None
|None
|<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |title=Cyclone weakens to a tropical low while bringing rain and wind to Australia's northern coast |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/tropical-cyclone-megan-crossing-australias-northern-coast-strong-108258018 |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=ABC News |language=en}}</ref>
|-
![[2023–24 Australian region cyclone season#Tropical Low 10U|10U]]
|March 14
|{{Unknown}}
|1003
|[[Cape York Peninsula]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2023–24 South Pacific cyclone season#Tropical Disturbance 12F|12F]]
|March 19–20
|{{Unknown}}
|1005
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Cyclone Gamane|Gamane]]
|March 25–28
|150 (90)
|970
|[[Madagascar]]
|$50 million
|19
|<ref>{{cite web |language=en |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/madagascar/madagascar-tropical-cyclone-gamane-flash-update-no-1-28-march-2024 |title=Madagascar: Tropical Cyclone Gamane Flash Update No. 1, 28 March 2024 |author=[[United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs]] |date=2024-03-28 |website=reliefweb.int |access-date=2024-03-28}}</ref><ref name=":1" />
|-
|}

===April===
[[File:Olga 2024-04-07 0605Z.jpg|thumb|[[Cyclone Olga (2024)|Cyclone Olga]]]]
April was an unusually inactive month, featuring four systems, with three getting named. The month started with [[Cyclone Olga (2024)|Cyclone Olga]], which formed over the open waters of Western Australia and peaked as a Category 4-equivalent major cyclone as it remains over the Indian Ocean. Shortly after Olga degenerated into a tropical low, short-lived [[Cyclone Paul (2024)|Cyclone Paul]] would also form in the Coral Sea. 12U formed on April 12 and dissipated 2 days later. On the last day of April, [[Cyclone Hidaya (2024)|Cyclone Hidaya]] formed near Seychelles and made a rare landfall in Tanzania as a weakening tropical storm.
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in April 2024
! width="5%" | Storm name
! width="15%" | Dates active
! width="10%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="5%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="30%" | Areas affected
! width="10%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="5%" | Deaths
! width="5%" | Refs
|-
![[Cyclone Olga (2024)|Olga]]
|April 4–11
|205 (125)
|933
|[[Lesser Sunda Islands]], [[Western Australia]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Cyclone Paul (2024)|Paul]]
|April 10–13
|95 (60)
|994
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2023–24 Australian region cyclone season#Tropical Low 12U|12U]]
|April 12–14
|{{unknown}}
|1006
|[[Lesser Sunda Islands]], [[East Timor]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Cyclone Hidaya|Hidaya]]
|April 30–May 4
|140 (85)
|975
|[[Seychelles]], [[Comoro Islands]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]]
|Unknown
|5
|<ref name="tea510">{{cite news|publisher=The East African|title=Tanzania counts losses after Cyclone Hidaya swept coastline|accessdate=May 22, 2024|newspaper=The Citizen|url=https://www.theeastafrican.co.ke/tea/news/east-africa/tanzania-counts-losses-after-cyclone-hidaya-4618970}}</ref>
|}

===May===
[[File:Ewiniar 2024-05-26 2310Z.jpg|thumb|[[Typhoon Ewiniar (2024)| Typhoon Ewiniar]]]]
May was an average month, featuring five cyclones, with four receiving names, the month started with [[Tropical Storm Ialy|Category 1]] [[Tropical Storm Ialy|Tropical Cyclone Ialy]], which formed near Comoros and intensified into a compact tropical cyclone. On May 22, [[Typhoon Ewiniar (2024)|Typhoon Ewiniar]] formed southeast of Palau, traversing the Philippines before strengthening as a potent Category-2 typhoon over [[Lamon Bay]]. [[Cyclone Remal]] formed in the Bay of Bengal on May 24. In the latter part of May, [[Tropical Storm Maliksi (2024)|Tropical Storm Maliksi]] formed in the South China Sea and made landfall in Guangdong Province as a weak tropical storm.
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in May 2024
! width="5%" | Storm name
! width="15%" | Dates active
! width="10%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="5%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="30%" | Areas affected
! width="10%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="5%" | Deaths
! width="5%" | Refs
|-
![[2023–24 Australian region cyclone season#Tropical Low 16U|16U]]
|May 4–5
|{{unknown}}
|1004
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Cyclone Ialy|Ialy]]
|May 16–22
|120 (75)
|983
|[[Seychelles]], [[Madagascar]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[Somalia]]
|Unknown
|2
|<ref name="nat522"/>
|-
![[Typhoon Ewiniar (2024)|Ewiniar (Aghon)]]
|May 22–30
|140 (85)
|970
|[[Philippines]], [[Japan]], [[Alaska]]
|$20.88 million
|6
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-05-28 |title=Typhoon leaves at least seven people dead and thousands displaced in the Philippines |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2024/05/28/typhoon-ewiniar-philippines/999c568c-1cd4-11ef-becb-2cf8dbfd9eb9_story.html |access-date=2024-05-28 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite report |url=https://monitoring-dashboard.ndrrmc.gov.ph/assets/uploads/situations/SitRep_No__12_for_TC_AGHON.pdf |title=Situational Report No. 12 for TC AGHON (2024) |date=June 6, 2024 |publisher=[[National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council]] |access-date=June 6, 2024 }}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
|-
![[Cyclone Remal|Remal]]
|May 24–28
|110 (70)
|978
|[[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Northeast India]], [[Myanmar]].
|$600 million
|84
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-26 |title=Cyclone Remal slams into Bangladesh coast as hundreds of thousands evacuate |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/5/26/cyclone-remal-slams-into-bangladesh-coast-as-hundreds-of-thousands-evacuate |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=27 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527042910/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/5/26/cyclone-remal-slams-into-bangladesh-coast-as-hundreds-of-thousands-evacuate |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Cyclone Remal causes death and damage in Bangladesh, India |url=https://www.dw.com/en/cyclone-remal-causes-death-and-damage-in-bangladesh-india/a-69189078 |access-date=2024-05-27 |website=dw.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Maliksi (2024)|Maliksi]]
|May 30–June 2
|65 (40)
|998
|[[South China]], [[Taiwan]]
|None
|None
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-06-01 |title=Typhoon Maliksi wanes upon landing in Guangdong|url=https://global.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202406/01/WS665ae36fa31082fc043ca647.html|access-date=2024-06-01 |website=ChinaDaily |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
|}

===June===
[[File:Beryl 2024-07-02 1230Z.jpg|thumb|[[Hurricane Beryl]]]]
June was abnormally inactive. It was the least active June since reliable records began, and one of the least active months in any given year on record, with only three named storms, all forming in the North Atlantic basin. This month started very late, with no storms developing until June 19, when [[Tropical Storm Alberto (2024)|Tropical Storm Alberto]] formed in the [[Bay of Campeche]] and made landfall in [[Ciudad Madero, Tamaulipas]] as a mild tropical storm. On June 28, [[Hurricane Beryl]] formed south of [[Cabo Verde]] and [[rapidly intensified]] into a major hurricane. It brushed through the [[Windward Islands]] as a high-end Category 4 major hurricane. Beryl entered the Caribbean Sea, and strengthened further into a Category 5 major hurricane, becoming the strongest tropical cyclone of this month. Tropical Depression Three formed on June 30 near [[Veracruz]], becoming [[Tropical Storm Chris (2024)|Tropical Storm Chris]] soon after. Chris would be short-lived as it made landfall in [[Tuxpan|Tuxpan, Veracruz]] before it dissipated the next day.
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in June 2024
! width="5%" | Storm name
! width="15%" | Dates active
! width="10%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="5%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="30%" | Areas affected
! width="10%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="5%" | Deaths
! width="5%" | Refs
|-
![[Tropical Storm Alberto (2024)|Alberto]]
|June 17–20
|85 (50)
|993
|[[Yucatán Peninsula]], Northeastern [[Mexico]], [[Texas]], [[Louisiana]]
|$179 million
|2 (3)
|<ref>{{Cite web |title=Alberto falls apart after causing four deaths in Mexico |url=https://www.bermudareinsurancemagazine.com/alberto-falls-apart-after-causing-four-deaths-in-mexico |access-date=June 25, 2024 |website=Bermuda Insurance Magazine |language=en}}</ref>
|-
![[Hurricane Beryl|Beryl]]
|June 28–July 9
|270 (165)
|934
|[[Barbados]], [[Windward Islands]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Venezuela]], [[Hispaniola]], [[Jamaica]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Yucatán Peninsula]], [[United States]], [[Eastern Canada]]
|$6.86 billion
|70
|<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-07-05 |title=Beryl Rakes Mexico's Yucatan With High Winds and Heavy Rain |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2024-07-05/beryl-rakes-mexico-s-yucatan-with-hurricane-winds-and-heavy-rain |access-date=2024-07-05 |work=Bloomberg.com |language=en}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Chris (2024)|Chris]]
|June 30–July 1
|65 (40)
|1005
|[[Yucatán Peninsula]], Eastern [[Mexico]]
|$1 million
|6
|<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mil |first=Noticias Cabo |date=2024-07-01 |title=Tormenta tropical 'Chris' tocó tierra en Veracruz |url=https://www.cabomil.net/post/tormenta-tropical-chris-toc%C3%B3-tierra-en-veracruz |access-date=2024-07-01 |website=Cabo Mil Radio |language=es}}</ref>
|}

===July===
[[File:Gaemi 2024-07-24 0500Z.jpg|thumb|[[Typhoon Gaemi]]]]
July was moderately active, with seven systems and five of them being named, the month started with [[Tropical Storm Aletta (2024)|Tropical Storm Aletta]], which formed off the coast of [[Mexico]] on July 4. On July 19, two tropical cyclones were formed on either side of the basin. [[Typhoon Gaemi]] formed east of [[Palau]] and peaked as a Category-4 typhoon on July 24, making it the strongest tropical cyclone of this month. Gaemi later made landfall on the northeastern coast of [[Taiwan]] as a Category-3 typhoon. Meanwhile, [[Tropical Storm Prapiroon (2024)|Severe Tropical Storm Prapiroon]] formed southeast of [[Manila]] and hit [[Hainan]] and [[Vietnam]] as a tropical storm. In the Eastern Pacific, short-lived [[Tropical Storm Bud (2024)|Tropical Storm Bud]] unexpectedly formed off the southern tip of [[Baja California]]. A week later, [[Hurricane Carlotta (2024)|Hurricane Carlotta]] formed off the coast of Mexico and became a Category-1 hurricane on August 2nd.
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in July 2024
! width="5%" | Storm name
! width="15%" | Dates active
! width="10%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="5%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="30%" | Areas affected
! width="10%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="5%" | Deaths
! width="5%" | Refs
|-
![[Tropical Storm Aletta (2024)|Aletta]]
|July 4–6
|65 (40)
|1005
|[[Socorro Island]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Depression 03W (2024)|03W]]
|July 13–15
|55 (35)
|1000
|[[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]]
|None
|None
|<ref name=landfall>{{Cite web |date=July 16, 2024 |title=Tropical depression makes landfall, causes heavy rain|url=https://vietnamnet.vn/en/tropical-depression-makes-landfall-causes-heavy-rain-2302202.html|access-date=July 16, 2024 |website=Vietnet Global |language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Prapiroon (2024)|Prapiroon (Butchoy)]]
|July 19–24
|110 (70)
|980
|[[Philippines]], [[Vietnam]], [[South China]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Cambodia]]
|$32.9 million
|23
|<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://ndrrmc.gov.ph/attachments/article/4259/SitRep_No_7_for_the_Combined_Effects_of_Southwest_Monsoon_and_TD_Butchoy_2024.pdf |title=SitRep No. 7 for the Combined Effects of SW Monsoon and TD "Butchoy" (2024) |date=July 20, 2024 |publisher=[[National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council]] |access-date=July 20, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.pattayamail.com/thailandnews/tropical-storm-prapiroon-causing-heavy-rainfall-in-some-parts-of-thailand-466538 |title=Tropical Storm 'Prapiroon' causing heavy rainfall in some parts of Thailand|work=Pattaya Mail|date=July 24, 2024 |access-date=July 26, 2024}}</ref><ref name="KhmerTimes1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.khmertimeskh.com/501528432/severe-weather-causes-fatal-tuk-tuk-accident-in-siem-reap-video/|title=Severe weather causes fatal Tuk-Tuk accident in Siem Reap (VIDEO)|work=Khmer Times|date=July 24, 2024|access-date=July 26, 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[Typhoon Gaemi|Gaemi (Carina)]]
|July 19–28
|165 (105)
|940
|[[Philippines]], [[Taiwan]], [[Yaeyama Islands]], [[Indonesia]], [[Vietnam]], [[East China]], [[Cambodia]], [[Singapore]], [[North Korea]]
|$2.31 billion
|126
|<ref name = "Tribune1">{{Cite news|url=https://tribune.net.ph/amp/story/2024/07/23/agri-damage-from-carina-now-exceeds-p79m|title=Agri damage from 'Carina' now exceeds P79M|author1=Vivienne Angeles|author2=Aldwin Quitasol|work=[[Daily Tribune (Philippines)|Daily Tribune]]|date=July 23, 2024|access-date=July 23, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/climate-change/news/typhoon-gaemi-taiwan-china-philippines-terra-nova-tracker-b2586233.html | title=Taiwan races to rescue sailors stranded by Typhoon Gaemi as China warns of wide impacts: Live updates | newspaper=The Independent | date=24 July 2024 | last1=Mishra | first1=Stuti }}</ref>
|-
![[2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season#Depression BOB 02|BOB 02]]
|July 19–20
|45 (30)
|990
|[[Odisha]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Bud (2024)|Bud]]
|July 24–26
|95 (60)
|1001
|[[Clarion Island]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane Carlotta (2024)|Carlotta]]
|July 31–August 6
|150 (90)
|979
|[[Clarion Island]]
|None
|None
|
|-
|}
{{clear}}

===August===
[[File:Yagi 2024-09-05 0000Z.jpg|thumb|[[Typhoon Yagi]]]]
August was an above average month, featuring twenty-three systems, with sixteen being named. The month started on August 2, when a land depression developed over India in the North Indian basin. In the Eastern Pacific, a tropical cyclone outbreak saw the formation of three tropical storms in a quick session: [[Tropical Storm Daniel (2024)|Daniel]] on August 3, [[Tropical Storm Emilia (2024)|Emilia]] on August 4, and [[Tropical Storm Fabio (2024)|Fabio]] on August 5. Also on August 3, [[Hurricane Debby (2024)|Hurricane Debby]] formed in the North Atlantic and made landfall near [[Steinhatchee, Florida]] as a mid-range hurricane. In the Western Pacific, [[Tropical Storm Maria (2024)|Severe Tropical Storm Maria]] formed on August 5. About a week later, [[Tropical Storm Son-Tinh (2024)|Tropical Storm Son-Tinh]] developed just southeast of Maria. It was later followed by the formations of [[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Typhoon Ampil|Typhoon Ampil]] and [[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Tropical Storm Wukong|Tropical Storm Wukong]] that both developed just a day of August 13. Back in the North Atlantic, [[Hurricane Ernesto (2024)|Hurricane Ernesto]] developed southeast of [[Cabo Verde]]. It then traversed through the [[Leeward Islands]] and [[Puerto Rico]] as a tropical storm and made landfall in [[Bermuda]] as a Category 1 hurricane. On August 15, a rare early-season cyclone formed in the South-West Indian Ocean. Two days later, [[Tropical Storm Jongdari (2024)|Tropical Storm Jongdari]] formed east of Taiwan and affected the [[Korean Peninsula]]. A day later, [[Hurricane Gilma (2024)|Hurricane Gilma]] developed south of [[Mexico]]. Activity continued in the Pacific with [[Typhoon Shanshan (2024)|Typhoon Shanshan]], which made landfall in Japan on August 30. On August 23, [[Hurricane Hone]] formed in the Central Pacific, becoming the first storm to form in the basin since [[Tropical Storm Ema (2019)|Ema]] of 2019. Soon after, on August 25, [[Tropical Storm Hector (2024)|Tropical Storm Hector]] was named. In the North Indian Ocean, [[2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season#Cyclone Asna|Cyclone Asna]] formed between Madhya and [[Uttar Pradesh]] on August 30. On August 31, [[Typhoon Yagi]] formed, later affecting the Philippines and became a powerful Category 5 super typhoon in the South China Sea before striking northern Vietnam, becoming the strongest storm of the month.
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in August 2024
! width="5%" | Storm name
! width="15%" | Dates active
! width="10%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="5%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="30%" | Areas affected
! width="10%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="5%" | Deaths
! width="5%" | Refs
|-
![[2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season#Deep Depression LAND 01|LAND 01]]
|August 2–6
|55 (35)
|995
|[[Jharkhand]], [[West Bengal]], [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane Debby (2024)|Debby]]
|August 3–9
|130 (80)
|979
|[[Lucayan Archipelago]], [[Greater Antilles]], [[Eastern United States]], [[Quebec]], [[Atlantic Canada]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Faroe Islands]]
|>$2.8 billion
|10
|<ref name = "Gallagher">{{Cite news|url=https://www.artemis.bm/news/hurricane-debby-private-public-market-insured-loss-seen-below-2bn-gallagher-re/|title=Hurricane Debby private & public market insured loss seen below $2bn: Gallagher Re|author1=Steve Evans|work=Artemis|date=August 9, 2024|access-date=August 9, 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Daniel (2024)|Daniel]]
|August 3–6
|65 (40)
|1005
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Typhoon Ampil (2024)|Ampil]]
|August 4–19
|155 (100)
|950
|[[Bonin Islands]], [[Japan]]
|None
|None
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/08/16/japan/typhoon-ampil-severe-storm/|title=Typhoon Ampil lashes eastern Japan with heavy rain and wind|author1=Daniel Traylor|author2=Karin Kaneko|author3=Jessica Speed|work=The Japan Times|date=August 16, 2024|access-date=August 19, 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Emilia (2024)|Emilia]]
|August 4–9
|110 (70)
|988
|[[Clarion Island]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Maria (2024)|Maria]]
|August 5–14
|100 (65)
|980
|[[Bonin Islands]], [[Japan]]
|None
|None
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/severe-tropical-storm-maria-makes-landfall-in-japan-forces-flights-to-be-cancelled|title=Tropical storm Maria hits Japan with record rain|work=[[The Straits Times]]|date=August 12, 2024|access-date=August 15, 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Fabio (2024)|Fabio]]
|August 5–7
|100 (65)
|993
|[[Revillagigedo Islands]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Son-Tinh (2024)|Son-Tinh]]
|August 10–14
|65 (40)
|992
|Alaska
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Wukong (2024)|Wukong]]
|August 12–15
|65 (40)
|1004
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane Ernesto (2024)|Ernesto]]
|August 12–20
|155 (100)
|968
|[[Leeward Islands]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Bermuda]], [[Atlantic Canada]], [[British Isles]]
|$24.3 million
|3
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://abcnews.go.com/amp/US/ernesto-near-hurricane-force-winds-tropical-storm/story?id=112824561|title=Ernesto becomes hurricane after leaving 728,000 without power in Puerto Rico|author1=Nadine El-Bawab|author2=Max Golembo|author3=Melissa Griffin|work=ABC News|date=August 14, 2024|access-date=August 14, 2024|archive-url=https://archive.today/20240814221053/https://abcnews.go.com/amp/US/ernesto-near-hurricane-force-winds-tropical-storm/story?id=112824561|archive-date=August 14, 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[2024–25 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season#Tropical Disturbance 01|01]]
|August 15–17
|55 (35)
|1000
|[[Chagos Archipelago]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Jongdari (2024)|Jongdari (Dindo)]]
|August 17–22
|75 (45)
|998
|[[Taiwan]], [[Miyako Islands]], [[Yaeyama Islands]], [[Korean Peninsula]]
|None
|None
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 20, 2024 |title=Tropical storm Jongdari weakens as it nears South Korea with heavy rain and winds |url=https://apnews.com/article/south-korea-tropical-storm-jongdari-a73ffabd23b55f98e7f3c1056e80c678 |access-date=August 21, 2024 |website=[[AP News]]}}</ref>
|-
![[Hurricane Gilma (2024)|Gilma]]
|August 18–30
|215 (130)
|949
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Other systems|TD]]
|August 1 9–26
|{{unknown}}
|1008
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Other systems|TD]]
|August 19
|{{unknown}}
|1006
|[[Kyushu]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Other systems|TD]]
|August 20
|{{unknown}}
|1012
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Typhoon Shanshan (2024)|Shanshan]]
|August 21–September 1
|175 (110)
|935
|[[Guam]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Amami Islands]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]]
|>$6 billion
|8
|<ref>{{cite web | url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2024/08/d020abcba419-powerful-typhoon-hitting-southwestern-japan-island-of-kyushu.html | title=3 dead, over 80 hurt as typhoon makes landfall in southwest Japan }}</ref>
|-
![[Hurricane Hone|Hone]]
|August 22–September 8
|140 (85)
|988
|[[Hawaii]]
|None
|None
|<ref name=FoxImpact>{{cite news|author=Steven Yablonski|title= Hurricane Hone continues to strengthen as Hawaii's Big Island gets slammed with flooding rain, damaging wind|url= https://www.foxweather.com/weather-news/tracking-hurricane-hone-hawaii-impacts.amp|work=FOX Weather|date=August 25, 2024|access-date=August 25, 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[Cyclone Asna|Asna]]
|August 25– September 3
|75 (45)
|988
|[[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Gujarat]] [[Pakistan]]
|$30 million
|73
|<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-28 |title=Gujarat sees massive flooding after heavy rain, 15 dead, 20,000 evacuated |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/gujarat-floods-heavy-rain-vadodara-surat-ahmedabad-narmada-tapi-over-safety-mark-2589089-2024-08-28 |access-date=2024-08-28 |website=India Today |language=en}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Hector (2024)|Hector]]
|August 25–29
|85 (50)
|1000
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Other systems|TD]]
|August 30
|{{unknown}}
|1006
|[[Japan]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Typhoon Yagi|Yagi (Enteng)]]
|August 31–September 8
|195 (120)
|915
|[[Palau]], [[Philippines]], [[Vietnam]], [[China]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], [[Thailand]], [[Laos]], [[Myanmar]]
|>$16.5 billion
|830
|<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://monitoring-dashboard.ndrrmc.gov.ph/exports/infographics/tc-enteng-and-southwest-monsoon-2024/6874/04-1725417208|title=SitRep No. 03 for the Combined Effects of TC ENTENG (2024) and Southwest Monsoon |date=September 4, 2024 |publisher=[[National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council]] |access-date=September 4, 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season#Depression BOB 03|BOB 03]]
|August 31–September 2
|45 (30)
|996
|[[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Odisha]]
|Unknown
|27
|
|}
{{clear}}

===September===
[[File:Krathon 2024-10-01 0505Z.jpg |thumb|[[Typhoon Krathon]]]]
September was very active, with twenty-one storms forming, and sixteen receiving names, with another system – [[Tropical Depression 17W (2024)|17W]] – receiving a name that is deemed unofficial outside the Philippines. The month ramped off with [[Tropical Storm Leepi (2024)|Tropical Storm Leepi]], which formed in the open Pacific ocean. On September 9, [[Typhoon Bebinca (2024)|Typhoon Bebinca]] and [[Hurricane Francine]] both formed in the West Pacific and Atlantic, respectively. A couple of days later, tropical storms [[Tropical Storm Ileana (2024)|Ileana]], [[Tropical Storm Gordon (2024)|Gordon]], [[Tropical Storm Pulasan|Pulasan]], and [[Tropical Storm Soulik (2024)|Soulik]] later joined the formation. On September 22, [[Hurricane John (2024)|Hurricane John]] formed off the coast of southern Mexico and rapidly strengthened into a hurricane. It then made landfall in southern Mexico as a Category 3 hurricane. Simultaneously, on September 24, [[Tropical Storm Cimaron (2024)|Tropical Storm Cimaron]] and [[Hurricane Helene]] formed on the same day, with Helene later becoming a major hurricane and made landfall over the Big Bend region in [[Florida]] two days later. Hurricanes [[Hurricane Isaac (2024)|Isaac]] and [[Hurricane Kirk (2024)|Kirk]], [[Typhoon Krathon]] and tropical storms [[Tropical Storm Jebi (2024)|Jebi]] and [[Tropical Storm Joyce (2024)|Joyce]] also developed in the succeeding days. The month ended with the formation of [[Tropical Storm Ancha|Moderate Tropical Storm Ancha]] in the South-West Indian Ocean basin.
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in September 2024
! width="5%" | Storm name
! width="15%" | Dates active
! width="10%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="5%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="30%" | Areas affected
! width="10%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="5%" | Deaths
! width="5%" | Refs
|-
![[Tropical Storm Leepi (2024)|Leepi]]
|September 2–6
|65 (40)
|1002
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Other systems|TD]]
|September 4–12
|55 (35)
|998
|[[Japan]]
|Unknown
|None
|
|-
![[2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season#Deep Depression BOB 04|BOB 04]]
|September 7–13
|55 (35)
|990
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane Francine|Francine]]
|September 9–12
|155 (100)
|972
|Eastern [[Mexico]], [[Gulf Coast of the United States]]
|$1.5 billion
|None
|<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cangialosi |first1=John |last2=Bucci |first2=Lisa |date=2024-09-11 |title=Hurricane Francine Tropical Cyclone Update |url=https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/archive/2024/al06/al062024.update.09112157.shtml? |access-date=2024-09-11 |website=National Hurricane Center}}</ref>
|-
![[Typhoon Bebinca (2024)|Bebinca (Ferdie)]]
|September 9–17
|140 (85)
|965
|[[Guam]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Philippines]], [[China]]
|$1.42 billion
|8
|<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://monitoring-dashboard.ndrrmc.gov.ph/assets/uploads/situations/SitRep_No__5_for_the_Effects_of_Trough_of_TC_FERDIE_BEBINCA_and_Enhanced_Southwest_Monsoon_2024.pdf |title=SitRep No. 5 for the Effects of Trough of TC Ferdie (Bebinca) and Enhanced Southwest Monsoon (2024) |date=September 15, 2024 |publisher=[[National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council]] |access-date=September 15, 2024}}</ref><ref name="f414">{{Cite web |date=2024-09-16 |title=Strongest typhoon to hit Shanghai since 1949 shuts down megacity |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20240916-strongest-typhoon-to-hit-shanghai-since-1949-shuts-down-megacity |access-date=2024-09-16 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Gordon (2024)|Gordon]]
|September 11–17
|75 (45)
|1004
|[[Cabo Verde]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Ileana (2024)|Ileana]]
|September 12–15
|75 (45)
|999
|[[Baja California Peninsula]], Northwestern [[Mexico]]
|Unknown
|1
|<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.elsoldesinaloa.com.mx/local/ileana-no-deja-danos-ni-afectaciones-en-culiacan-12557435.html|title="Ileana" no deja daños ni afectaciones en Culiacán|trans-title="Ileana" leaves no damage or effects in Culiacán|author1=Estefanía López|work=El Sol de Sinaloa|date=September 14, 2024|access-date=September 15, 2024|language=es-mx}}</ref>
|-
![[Deep Depression BOB 05 (2024)|BOB 05]]
|September 13–18
|55 (35)
|989
|[[Bangladesh]]
|Unknown
|27
|<ref name="telegraphindia1">{{cite news |title=Deep depression brings over 125 mm of rain to Calcutta, halts traffic in parts of the city |url=https://www.telegraphindia.com/west-bengal/kolkata/heavy-rain-lashes-south-bengal-more-showers-expected/cid/2048032 |access-date=15 September 2024 |work=The Telegraph |date=14 September 2024}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Soulik (2024)|Soulik (Gener)]]
|September 15–20
|65 (40)
|992
|[[Philippines]], [[Vietnam]]
|$22.63 million
|29
|<ref name=gener>{{Cite web |date=2024-09-18 |title=20 reported dead, 14 missing due to Habagat, Ferdie, Gener —NDRRMC |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/nation/920838/ndrrmc-habagat-ferdie-gener/story/ |access-date=2024-09-18 |website=GMA News|language=en-US}}</ref>
|-
![[Tropical Storm Pulasan|Pulasan (Helen)]]
|September 15–21
|85 (50)
|992
|[[Guam]], Northern [[Mariana Islands]], [[Philippines]], [[China]]
|Unknown
|15
|<ref name=gener/>
|-
![[Tropical Depression 17W (2024)|17W (Igme)]]
|September 20–22
|55 (35)
|1004
|[[Philippines]], [[Ryukyu Islands]], [[Taiwan]], [[China]]
|Unknown
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane John (2024)|John]]
|September 22–27
|195 (120)
|959
|Southwestern [[Mexico]]
|$50.8 million
|29
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Cimaron (2024)|Cimaron]]
|September 24–27
|65 (40)
|1002
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane Helene|Helene]]
|September 24–27
|220 (140)
|938
|[[Cayman Islands]], [[Cuba]], [[Yucatan Peninsula]], [[Southeastern United States|Southeastern]] and [[Midwestern United States]]
|$38.5 billion
|241
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Jebi (2024)|Jebi]]
|September 25–October 2
|110 (70)
|985
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane Isaac (2024)|Isaac]]
|September 26–30
|165 (105)
|968
|[[Azores]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Tropical Depression|TD]]
|September 26–27
|{{Unknown}}
|1006
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Typhoon Krathon|Krathon (Julian)]]
|September 26–October 4
|195 (120)
|915
|[[Ryukyu Islands]], [[Philippines]], [[Taiwan]]
|>$38.8 million
|18
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Joyce (2024)|Joyce]]
|September 27–30
|85 (50)
|1001
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane Kirk (2024)|Kirk]]
|September 29–October 7
|230 (145)
|934
|None
|Unknown
|1
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Ancha|Ancha]]
|September 30–October 4
|85 (50)
|992
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
|}

===October===
[[File:Milton 2024-10-07 1920Z.jpg|thumb|[[Hurricane Milton]]]]
So far, seven systems has formed and three have been named. The month kicked off with the formation of [[2024 Pacific hurricane season#Tropical Depression Eleven-E|Tropical Depression Eleven-E]] in the Eastern Pacific Ocean basin on October 1. It was then followed by the formation of [[2024 Atlantic hurricane season#Hurricane Leslie|Hurricane Leslie]] in the Atlantic the next day. On October 5, two systems formed, [[Tropical Storm Barijat (2024)|Tropical Storm Barijat]] and [[Hurricane Milton]] on either side of the world, with Milton later becoming one of the strongest in the Atlantic basin and made landfall in Florida as a Category 3 hurricane.
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+ Tropical cyclones formed in October 2024
! width="5%" | Storm name
! width="15%" | Dates active
! width="10%" | Max wind km/h (mph)
! width="5%" | Pressure (hPa)
! width="30%" | Areas affected
! width="10%" | Damage ([[USD]])
! width="5%" | Deaths
! width="5%" | Refs
|-
![[Tropical Depression Eleven-E (2024)|Eleven-E]]
|October 1–3
|55 (35)
|1004
|Southern [[Mexico]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane Leslie (2024)|Leslie]]
|October 2–12
|165 (105)
|972
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Tropical Storm Barijat (2024)|Barijat]]
|October 5–11
|65 (40)
|998
|[[Guam]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]]
|None
|None
|
|-
![[Hurricane Milton|Milton]]
|October 5–10
|285 (180)
|897
|[[Gulf Coast of Mexico]], [[Yucatán Peninsula]], [[Florida]]
|$30 billion
|26
|
|-
![[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Other system|TD]]
|October 6–7
|55 (35)
|1006
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2024 Pacific typhoon season#Tropical Depression|TD]]
|October 12–14
|55 (35)
|1008
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
![[2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season#Depression ARB 01|ARB 01]]
|October 13 - present
|45 (30)
|1004
|None
|None
|None
|
|-
|}


== Global effects ==
There are a total of seven [[tropical cyclone basins]] that tropical cyclones typically form in this table, data from all these basins are added. <ref name="Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential Seven Basins">{{cite web |title=Tropical Cyclone Heat Potential Seven Basins |url=https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/phod/cyclone/data/seven.php |publisher=NOAA |access-date=20 October 2021}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!colspan=2|Season name
! width="250" | Areas affected
! width="65" | Systems formed
! width="65" | Named storms
! width="65"| Hurricane-force tropical cyclones
! width="100" | Damage (2024 [[USD]])
! width="70" | Deaths
! width="40" | Ref.
|-
! colspan=2|[[2024 Atlantic hurricane season|North Atlantic Ocean]]{{efn|name=1-minute"|The wind speeds for this tropical cyclone/basin are based on the [[Tropical cyclone scales#Atlantic, Eastern and Central Pacific|Saffir Simpson Scale]] which uses 1-minute sustained winds.}}
|[[Yucatán Peninsula]], [[Mexico]], [[Texas]], [[Louisiana]], [[Barbados]], [[Windward Islands]], [[Trinidad and Tobago]], [[Venezuela]], [[Hispaniola]], [[Jamaica]], [[Cayman Islands]], [[Ohio Valley]], [[Lower Michigan]], [[Eastern Canada]], [[Cuba]], [[Lucayan Archipelago]], [[East Coast of the United States]], [[Quebec]], [[Atlantic Canada]], [[United Kingdom]], [[Ireland]], [[Leeward Islands]], [[Puerto Rico]], [[Bermuda]], [[Faroe Islands]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Honduras]]
|13
|13
|9
|$49.867 billion 
|320 (15)
|
|-
!colspan=2|[[2024 Pacific hurricane season|Eastern and Central Pacific Ocean]]{{efn|name=1-minute"}}
|[[Revillagigedo Islands]], [[Clarion Island]], [[Socorro Island]], [[Hawaii]], [[Baja California Peninsula]], Northwestern Mexico
|12
|11
|4
|≥$50.8 million
|30
|
|-
!colspan=2|[[2024 Pacific typhoon season|Western Pacific Ocean]]{{efn|name="onbefore"|Only systems that formed either '''before or on December 31, 2024''' are counted in the seasonal totals.}}
|[[Philippines]], [[Japan]], [[China]], [[Taiwan]], [[Yaeyama Islands]], [[Alaska]], [[Vietnam]], [[Laos]], [[Thailand]], [[Indonesia]], [[Cambodia]], [[Singapore]], [[Bonin Islands]], [[Miyako Islands]], [[Korean Peninsula]], [[Guam]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]], [[Amami Islands]], [[Palau]], [[Hong Kong]], [[Myanmar]]
|26
|18
|7
|$27.377 billion
|1,056
|{{cn|date=May 2024}}
|-
!colspan=2|[[2024 North Indian Ocean cyclone season|North Indian Ocean]]{{efn|name=3-minute"|The wind speeds for this tropical cyclone/basin are based on the [[Tropical cyclone scales#North Indian Ocean|IMD Scale]] which uses 3-minute sustained winds.}}
|[[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]], [[Jharkhand]], [[Bangladesh]], [[Northeast India]], [[Myanmar]], [[Bihar]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Gujarat]], [[Pakistan]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]]
|5
|2
|{{N/A}}
|$630 million
|209
|{{cn|date=May 2024}}
|-
!rowspan=2 width=100| South-West Indian Ocean
|width=130|[[2023–24 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season|January – June]]{{efn|name="onafter0101"|Only systems that formed either '''on or after January 1, 2024''' are counted in the seasonal totals.}}{{efn|name="wind gusts"|The wind speeds for this tropical cyclone are based on [[Météo-France]], which uses wind gusts.}}
|[[Mascarene Islands]], [[Mauritius]], [[Réunion]], [[Madagascar]], [[Mayotte]], [[Mozambique]], [[Eswatini]], [[South Africa]], [[Seychelles]], [[Comoro Islands]], [[Tanzania]], [[Kenya]], [[Somalia]]
|9
|8
|5
|{{Unknown}}
|53
|{{cn|date=May 2024}}
|-
|[[2024–25 South-West Indian Ocean cyclone season|July – December]]{{efn|name="onbefore"}}
|[[Chagos Archipelago]]
|2
|1
|{{N/A}}
|{{Unknown}}
|{{N/A}}
|
|-
!rowspan=2| Australian region
|[[2023–24 Australian region cyclone season|January – June]]{{efn|name="onafter0101"}}
|[[Northern Territory]], [[Western Australia]], [[Queensland]], [[South Australia]], [[New South Wales]], [[Cocos Islands]], [[Christmas Island]], [[Cape York Peninsula]], [[Lesser Sunda Islands]]
|10
|7
|5
|{{Unknown}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{cn|date=May 2024}}
|-
|[[2024–25 Australian region cyclone season|July – December]]{{efn|name="onbefore"}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{Unknown}}
|{{N/A}}
|
|-
!rowspan=2| South Pacific Ocean
|[[2023–24 South Pacific cyclone season|January – June]]{{efn|name="onafter0101"}}
|[[Fiji]], [[New Caledonia]], [[Vanuatu]], [[Samoa]], [[American Samoa]], [[Southern Cook Islands]], [[French Polynesia]]
|9
|2
|0
|{{Unknown}}
|2
|{{cn|date=May 2024}}
|-
|[[2024–25 South Pacific cyclone season|July – December]]{{efn|name="onbefore"}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{N/A}}
|{{Unknown}}
|{{N/A}}
|
|-
!colspan=2|[[South Atlantic tropical cyclone|South Atlantic Ocean]]
|[[Rio de Janeiro]]
|1
|1
|{{n/a}}
|{{n/a}}
|{{n/a}}
|{{cn|date=May 2024}}
|-
!colspan=2|Worldwide
!
!{{#expr:13+12+28+5+9+2+10+0+9+0+1}}{{efn|name=System Counting|The sum of the number of systems in each basin will not equal the number shown as the total. This is because when systems move between basins, it creates a discrepancy in the actual number of systems.}} 
!{{#expr:13+11+19+2+8+1+7+0+2+0+1}} 
!{{#expr:9+4+8+0+5+0+5+0+0+0+0+0}}
!{{ntsp|{{#expr:49867900000+50800000+27377590000+630000000}}||$}} 
!1,645 (15)
!
|}
{{Notelist}}

== See also ==
{{portal|Tropical cyclones}}
* [[Tropical cyclones by year]]
* [[List of earthquakes in 2024]]
* [[Tornadoes in 2024]]
* [[Weather of 2024]]
* [[2023–2024 El Niño event]]


==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Tropical cyclones by decade/2020–present}}
{{TC year external links}}
{{Tropical cyclone season|2024}}

[[Category:Tropical cyclones in 2024| ]]
[[Category:Tropical cyclones by year]]

Taiyi shenshu

2024-10-13T18:25:24Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Form of Chinese divination}}
{{More citations needed|date=September 2018}}

{{title language|zh}}
{{chinese
|t=太乙神數
|s=太乙神数
|p=tàiyǐshénshù
}}

[[Image:Yangdun01.JPG|thumb|200px|A rendering of the position of the symbols and counts of No. 1 Yang Dun array for Tai Yi divination. The entire series consists of 72 Yang Dun and 72 Yin Dun arrays for Taiyi]]

'''Taiyishenshu''' is a form of divination originating in China. It is one of the Three Styles ({{zhi|c=三式|p=sānshì|l=three styles}}) of divination. The others are [[Da Liu Ren]] and [[Qi Men Dun Jia]].

Taiyishenshu is used to predict events such as wars or the meaning of supernovae. One form of Taiyishenshu popularized over the centuries predicts personal fortunes. [[Genghis Khan]], founder of the [[Mongol Empire]], referred to Taiyi at one point to decide whether or not his planned invasion of Japan would succeed. When the Taiyi count indicated that invasion would prove unsuccessful, Khan canceled his plans. Numerous examples appear in classical Chinese literature, especially in the dynastic histories.

The methodology is similar to other arts, with a rotating heavenly plate and fixed earthly plate. While the art makes use of the 8 trigrams as well as the 64 hexagrams as a foundation. Analysis is conducted from the Taiyi Cosmic Board and the array of symbols found thereon, with special reference to the position of symbols in specific palaces. Important symbols include the Calculator, the Scholar, Taiyi and Taiyi.

Spirits rotate around the sixteen palaces of the Taiyi cosmic board. 72 cosmic boards apply to the Yin Dun period of each year, and 72 cosmic boards for the Yang Dun period. The spirits land in different palaces with each configuration of the cosmic board. Each board contains "counts" or numbers – the Host Count and the Guest Count taking primary importance over the Fixed Count.

==See also==

*[[Chinese astrology]]
*[[Chinese astronomy]]
*[[Chinese classics|Chinese classical texts]]
*[[Classical Chinese literature]]
*[[Da Liu Ren]]
*[[Feng shui]]
*[[Hexagram (I Ching)|Hexagram]]s
*''[[I Ching]]'' & [[I Ching divination]]
*[[Jiaobei]] & [[Poe divination]]
*[[Kau Cim]]
*[[Qi Men Dun Jia]]
*''[[Shaobing Song]]''
*[[Complete Library of the Four Treasuries]]
*[[Tie Ban Shen Shu]]
*''[[Tui bei tu]]''
*[[Tung Shing]]

==Further reading==

*{{cite book |title=Chinese mathematical astrology: reaching out to the stars |author=Ho Peng Yoke |date=2013 |orig-year=2003 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9780415863100 |chapter=The Taiyi System in the Three Cosmic Boards: Method of the Taiyi Deity}}

[[Category:Chinese books of divination]]
[[Category:Chinese culture]]
[[Category:Divination]]
[[Category:Taoist divination]]

Tung Shing

2024-10-13T18:23:53Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Chinese divination guide}}
{{Italic title|reason=[[:Category:Chinese words and phrases]]}}
{{Chinese
|pic=Tungshing.jpg
|t=通勝
|s=通胜
|j=Tung1 sing3
|poj=Thong-sèng
|y=Tūng sing
|p=Tōngshèng
|w=T'ung1-sheng4
}}
{{Chinese
|t=通書
|p=Tōngshu
|poj=thong-su
}}
{{Chinese
|t=農民曆
|p=nóngmínlì
|poj=lông-bîn-li̍k
}}

'''''Tung Shing''''' ({{zh|t=通勝}}), also called the '''Yellow Calendar''' or the '''Imperial Calendar''' is a Chinese divination guide and [[almanac]]. It consists primarily of a [[calendar]] based on the Chinese [[solar terms]] rather than the [[Chinese calendar|Chinese lunar-solar calendar]].

==History==
''Tung Shing'' originated from ''Wong Lik'' ({{lang|zh-hant|黃曆}}, the "Yellow Calendar"), which legend attributes to the [[Yellow Emperor]]. It has changed its form numerous times throughout the years during all the dynasties; the latest version was said to have been edited under the [[Qing dynasty]] and was called the '''''Tung Shu''''' ({{lang|zh-hant|通書}}). ''Tung'' ({{lang|zh-hant|通}}) means "all", ''Shu'' ({{lang|zh-hant|書}}) means "book", so ''Tung Shu'' literally meant "All-knowing Book". However, in [[Cantonese Chinese]] and [[Mandarin Chinese]], the pronunciation of the word for "book" is a homophone of a word for ''defeated'' ({{lang|zh-hant|輸}}), so ''Tung Shu'' sounded like "Defeated in All Things" ({{lang|zh-hant|通輸}}). Therefore, the name was changed to ''Tung Shing'' ({{lang|zh-hant|通勝}}), which means "Victorious in All Things".{{sfn|Palmer|1986|p=9}}

==Contents==
Most of the contents of the book deals with what is suitable to do on each day. Some Chinese families still follow these days for wedding ceremonies, funerals, etc.

''Tung Shing'' is also used by many [[fung shui]] practitioners and [[destiny]] [[diviners]] to complement other date selection methods for selecting dates and times for important events like marriages, official opening ceremonies, house moving-in and big contract signings, as well as smaller events like time to start renovations or travel.

The most common use of ''Tung Shing'' is in choosing a wedding date. ''Tung Shing'' contains information on the auspicious and inauspicious days for weddings and/or engagements. In addition, it provides the auspicious timing in which to carry out such activities.

''Tung Shing'' also provide a conversion of years and date between the lunar year and the common year. In more detailed versions, the calendar will list eclipses (both solar and lunar), the start of each season, and days when it will be cold or hot. It also teaches ethics and values through stories.

''Tung Shing'' sold in [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]] and [[Taiwan]] are based on two late-Qing versions.<ref>{{cite news |script-title=zh:全台最暢銷農民曆年印600萬本 | url=http://udn.com/NEWS/NATIONAL/NAT3/4628948.shtml | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205010450/http://udn.com/NEWS/NATIONAL/NAT3/4628948.shtml | url-status=dead | archive-date=2008-12-05 | publisher={{lang|zh|聯合報}} | date=2008-12-04 | access-date=2008-12-04 | author={{lang|zh|梁玉芳}}}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | author={{lang|zh|梁玉芳}} |script-title=zh:院士黃一農：古人賣黃曆像麥當勞 | url=http://udn.com/NEWS/NATIONAL/NAT3/4628954.shtml | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081205010450/http://udn.com/NEWS/NATIONAL/NAT3/4628948.shtml | url-status=dead | archive-date=2008-12-05 | publisher={{lang|zh|聯合報}} | date=2008-12-04 | access-date=2008-12-04 }}</ref> It{{clarify|date=October 2011}} is known for its English definitions and words transliterated into Cantonese characters.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Tōngshèng_通勝_cover.jpg|Cover of a version of {{lang|zh-hant|通勝}} Tung Shing from year 2010
</gallery>

==Other specialties==
* Interpret one's fate
* Measure one's soul weight (requires [[Four Pillars of Destiny]])
* Face reading and palm reading charts
* "For many centuries the T'ung Shu was known as the Farmers' Almanac, and most of its practical information was geared to weather, crops, sowing, harvesting and so forth."{{sfn|Palmer|1986|p=10}}

==See also==
* [[Chinese astrology]]
* ''[[Da Liu Ren]]'' (大六壬)
* [[Fuji (planchette writing)]]
* [[Fulu]]
* [[I Ching divination]]
* [[Lingqijing]]
* [[Kau Cim]]
* ''[[Qi Men Dun Jia]]'' (奇門遁甲)
* ''[[Shaobing Song]]''
* [[Tai Sui]]
* ''[[Tai Yi Shen Shu]]'' (太乙神數)
* [[Tangki]]
* ''[[Tui bei tu]]''
* [[Wen Wang Gua]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
* {{cite book |first=Martin |last=Palmer |title=T'ung Shu: the Ancient Chinese Almanac |publisher=Shambhala |location=Boston |year=1986 |isbn=9780394742212 }}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.angelfire.com/magic/tungshing/main.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070124225557/http://www.angelfire.com/magic/tungshing/main.htm |archive-date=January 24, 2007 |url-status=live |script-title=zh:中國語文及文化科報告主頁 ─ 什麼是通勝?}}
* {{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090906050945/http://www.absolutelyfengshui.com/others/tong-sing-tung-shu.php |archive-date=September 6, 2009 |url=http://www.absolutelyfengshui.com/others/tong-sing-tung-shu.php |title=The Chinese Almanac (a.k.a. Tong Sing) }} Includes list of chapters

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110626141350/http://www.shkp.com/en-US/Pages/tung-shing Online Tung shing] {{in lang|zh}}
* [http://www.singaporegrooms.com/auspicious-wedding-dates-2010/ List of Auspicious Wedding dates from the 2010 Tung Shu]
*[http://www.librarything.com/work/188394 ''T'ung Shu'' 1986] at Library Thing
*[https://openlibrary.org/b/OL3022295M/T'ung_shu__the_ancient_Chinese_almanac ''T'ung Shu'' 1986] at Open Library
*[https://openlibrary.org/b/OL7858802M/T'Ung_Shu_Almanac_2001 ''T'ung Shu'' 2001] at Open Library

[[Category:Almanacs]]
[[Category:Chinese calendars]]

Astrological aspect

2024-10-13T18:03:01Z

Tc14Hd: /* top */Fixed capitalization

{{Short description|Angle the planets make to each other in the horoscope}}
{{more citations needed|date=September 2014}}
[[File:Natal Chart -- Adam.svg|500px|thumb|right|Astrological aspects are illustrated in the center of this [[natal chart]]. Different symbols and colors illustrate different aspects, such as the red square or green trine.]]

In [[astrology]], an '''aspect''' is an [[angle]] that [[Planets in astrology|planets]] make to each other in the [[horoscope]]; as well as to the [[Ascendant]], [[Midheaven]], [[descendant (astrology)|Descendant]], [[Imum coeli|Lower Midheaven]], and other points of astrological interest. As viewed from [[Earth]], aspects are measured by the [[angular distance]] in degrees and minutes of [[ecliptic]] longitude between two points. According to astrological tradition, they indicate the timing of transitions and developmental changes in the lives of people and affairs relative to the Earth.

For example, if an [[astrologer]] creates a [[Horoscope]] that shows the apparent positions of the celestial bodies at the time of a person's birth ([[Natal astrology|Natal Chart]]), and the angular distance between [[Planets in astrology#Mars|Mars]] and [[Planets in astrology#Venus|Venus]] is 92° ecliptic longitude, the chart is said to have the aspect "Venus [[#Square|Square]] Mars" with an [[Celestial orb|orb]] of 2° (i.e., it is 2° away from being an exact Square; a Square being a 90° aspect). The more exact an aspect, the stronger or more dominant it is said to be in shaping character or manifesting change.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://astrologyclub.org/guide/aspects/
|title=The Aspects
|access-date=2016-10-30
|archive-date=2014-08-06
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806094634/http://astrologyclub.org/guide/aspects/
|url-status=live
}}</ref>

With Natal charts, other signs may take precedence over a Sun sign. For example, an Aries may have several other planets in Cancer or Pisces. Therefore, the two latter signs may be more influential.

==History and approach==
In medieval astrology, certain aspects and [[planet]]s were considered to be either favorable ([[Benefic planet|benefic]]) or unfavorable ([[Malefic planet|malefic]]). Modern usage places less emphasis on these fatalistic distinctions. The more modern approach to astrological aspects is exemplified by research on astrological harmonics. In 1619, [[Johannes Kepler]] advocates this in his book ''[[Harmonice Mundi]]''. Thereafter, [[John Addey (astrologer)|John Addey]] was a major proponent. However, even in modern times, aspects are considered to be either easy (60° ''[[Astrological aspect#Sextile|Sextile]]'' or
120° ''[[trine (astrological aspect)|Trine]]'') or hard (90° ''[[Square]]'' or 180° ''[[opposition (astrology)|Opposition]]''). Depending on the involved planets, a ''[[Conjunction (astrology)|Conjunction]]'' (0°, which is a discounting [[Celestial orb|orb]]) may be in either category.

Easy aspects may be positive, because they enhance opportunity for talent to grow.
Hard aspects may be negative, because they enhance a challenge where an adjustment must be made to reach balance. Typically, manifestation may occur with a Conjunction, Square or Opposition.

Planets may be considered. [[Mars]] and [[Uranus]] tend to ignite while [[Saturn]] and [[Neptune]] inhibit. Whether a planet is [[Retrograde and prograde motion|direct]] or [[Retrograde and prograde motion|retrograde]] is of great significance. An [[eclipse]] of the Sun or Moon is even more significant. The [[South Node]] of the Moon denotes innate wisdom from past experience while the [[North Node]] denotes karma and evolution.

Astrological [[Astrological sign|Signs]] may be considered. For example, the fire signs of [[Aries (astrology)|Aries]], [[Leo (astrology)|Leo]] and [[Sagittarius (astrology)|Sagittarius]] are more compatible with the air signs of [[Gemini (astrology)|Gemini]], [[Libra (astrology)|Libra]] and [[Aquarius (astrology)|Aquarius]]. The Earth signs of [[Taurus (astrology)|Taurus]], [[Virgo (astrology)|Virgo]] and [[Capricorn (astrology)|Capricorn]] are more compatible with the water signs of [[Cancer]], [[Scorpio (astrology)|Scorpio]] and [[Pisces (astrology)|Pisces]]. The mutable signs of Gemini, Virgo, Sagittarius and Pisces may be flexible. The cardinal signs of Aries, Cancer, Libra and Capricorn may change their mind. The fixed signs of Taurus, Leo, Scorpio and Aquarius may be difficult.

Astrological [[House (astrology)|Houses]] may be considered.

=== Ptolemaic Aspects===
Since they were defined and used by [[Ptolemy]] in the 1st Century AD, the traditional major aspects are sometimes called '''Ptolemaic Aspects'''. These aspects are the Conjunction (0°), Sextile (60°), Square (90°), Trine (120°), and Opposition (180°). Major aspects are those that are divisible by 10 and evenly divided in relation to 360° (with the exception of the Semisextile and the Novile).<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=iqOODwAAQBAJ Claudius Ptolemy, Harmonics, book III, Chapter 9]</ref>

When calculating or using aspects, it is important to note that different astrologers and separate astrological systems/traditions utilize differing [[Celestial orb|orbs]], which is the degree of separation between exactitude. Orbs may also be subject to variation, depending on the need for detail and personal preferences. Although, when compared to other aspects, almost all astrologers use a larger orb for a Conjunction.

=== Kepler's Aspects===
Collective astrological data along with [[Johannes Kepler]] described 13 aspects in his book ''[[Harmonice Mundi]]''. Astrological data grouped together in five degrees of influentially picked from symbol ratios encountered in geometry and music: 0/2, 1/2, 1/5, 2/6, 1/3, 1/12 along with 1/5, 2/5, 15/5, 10, 10/3, 8, and 8/3. The general names for whole divisors are ([[Numeral prefix|Latin]]) ''n''-ile for whole fractions 1/''n'', and ''m''-''n''-ile for fraction ''m''/''n''. A Semi-''n''-tile is a ''2n''-tile, 1/(2''n''), and Sesqui-n-tile is a Tri-2''n''-tile, 3/(2''n'').

All aspects can be seen as small whole number [[harmonic]]s, (1/''n'' of 360°). Multiples of ''m''/''n'' create new aspects where there are no common factors between ''n'' and ''m'', [[greatest common divisor|gcd]](n,m)=1.

{| class=wikitable
|+ General Aspects
!Degree of Influentiality||colspan=2|First|| colspan="2" |Second
! colspan="2" |Third|| colspan="3" |Fourth||colspan=4|Fifth
|-
!Aspect|| [[#Conjunction|Conjunction]]||[[#Opposition|Opposition]]||[[#Trine|Trine]] Bisextile
![[#Square|Square]] Quartile||[[#Sextile|Sextile]] Semitrine||[[#Semisextile|Semisextile]] Duodecile||[[#Quincunx|Quincunx]] Quinduodecile||[[#Quintile|Quintile]] Bidecile||Biquintile||[[#Octile|Octile]] Semisquare||Trioctile Sesquiquadrate||[[#Decile|Decile]] Semiquintile||Tridecile Sesquiquintile
|- align=center
!Glyph
|[[Image:Conjunction symbol.svg|64px]]||[[Image:Opposition symbol.svg|64px]]||[[Image:Trine symbol.svg|64px]]
|[[Image:Square symbol.svg|64px]]||[[Image:Sextile symbol.svg|64px]]||[[File:Semisextile symbol.svg|54px]]
|[[File:Quincunx symbol.svg|54px]]||<big><big>Q</big></big>||<big><big>bQ</big></big>||[[File:Semisquare symbol.svg|64px]]||[[File:Sesquisquare symbol.svg|64px]]||[[File:Up_tack.svg|56px]]||[[File:Up_tack.svg|56px]]3

|- align=center
!Angle
|0°||180°||120°
|90°||60°||30°||150°||72°||144°||45°||135°||36°||108°
|- align=center
!Fraction
| '''0/2''' ||'''1/2'''|| '''1/3'''
|'''1/4'''||'''1/6'''||'''1/12'''||5/12||'''1/5'''||2/5||'''1/8'''||3/8||'''1/10'''||3/10
|- align=center valign=bottom
!valign=center|[[Regular polygon|Regular Polygon]]
|[[File:Monogon.svg|64px]] [[Monogon]] || [[File:Digon.svg|64px]] [[Digon]] || [[File:Regular_polygon_3_annotated.svg|64px]] [[Equilateral triangle|Triangle]]
|[[File:Regular_polygon_4_annotated.svg|64px]] [[Square]]|| [[File:Regular_polygon_6_annotated.svg|64px]] [[Regular hexagon|Hexagon]] ||[[File:Regular_polygon_12_annotated.svg|64px]] [[Dodecagon]]
|[[File:Regular star polygon 12-5.svg|64px]] [[Dodecagram]]||[[File:Regular_polygon_5_annotated.svg|64px]] [[Pentagon]] || [[File:Five_Pointed_Star_Lined.svg|64px]] [[Pentagram]]||[[File:Regular_polygon_8_annotated.svg|64px]] [[Octagon]] || [[File:Regular star polygon 8-3.svg|64px]] [[Octagram]]||[[File:Regular_polygon_10_annotated.svg|64px]] [[Decagon]] ||[[File:Regular star polygon 10-3.svg|64px]] [[Decagram (geometry)|Decagram]]
|}

==Major aspects==
[[File:12 astrological aspects.png|thumb|The primary astrological aspects around the sky are: 0° conjunction, 30° semi-sextile, 60° sextile, 90° square, 120° trine, 150° quincunx, and 180° opposition. Five of them exist in east/west pairs.]]
{{Further|Astrological symbols#Aspects}}

===Conjunction===
{{unsourced section|date=February 2024}}
[[Image:Conjunction symbol.svg|left|50px]] A [[astronomical conjunction|'''Conjunction''']] (abbreviated as "Con") is an angle of approximately (~) 0–⁠10°. Typically, an [[Celestial orb|orb]] of ~10° is considered to be a Conjunction. If neither the [[Sun]] or [[Moon]] are involved, some astrologers consider a maximum orb of 8°.

Conjunctions are a major aspect in a horoscope chart. They are said to be the most powerful aspects, because they mutually intensify the effects of the involved planets.

Depending on the involved planets, a Conjunction may be beneficial or detrimental. Highly favourable Conjunctions may involve the Sun, [[Venus]], and/or [[Jupiter]] as well as any of the three possible combinations. Highly ''un''favourable Conjunctions may involve the Moon, [[Mars]], and/or [[Saturn]] as well as any of the three possible combinations.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://astrologyclub.org/aspects/ |first=Eleanor |last=Buckwalter |title=Depth analysis of the Astrological Aspects |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=2016-10-30 |archive-date=2016-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161031085714/http://astrologyclub.org/aspects/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Exceptionally, on November 9–10 of 1970, the [[Sun]], [[Venus]], and [[Jupiter]] were in a three-way beneficial Conjunction. In that same year, on March 10, the [[Moon]], [[Mars]], and [[Saturn]] were in 3-way detrimental Conjunction.

If either of two planets involved in a Conjunction is also under tension from one or more hard aspects with one or more other planets, then the added presence of a Conjunction will further intensify the tension of that hard aspect.

If a planet is in ''very'' close Conjunction to the Sun (within 17 minutes of arc or only about 0.28°), the Conjunction is of great strength. The planet is said to be ''Cazimi'', which is an ancient{{clarify|date=February 2024}} astrological term meaning "in the heart" (of the Sun). For example, "Venus ''Cazimi''" means Venus is in Conjunction with the Sun with an orb of less than ~⁠0.28°.

If a planet is moderately close to the Sun, the specific orb limit may depend on the particular planet. It is said to be ''Combust''.
⁠
Every month of the year, during the [[New Moon]], the Sun and Moon experience a Conjunction.

====Great Conjunctions====
{| class=wikitable align=right width=400
|[[File:Jupiter-Saturn-great-conjunctions.png|200px]] As illustrated, Jupiter and Saturn's Great Conjunctions repeat every ~120°. The three-fold pattern comes from a near 2:5 resonance while their period ratio is closer to 60:149. This creates 89 Conjunctions, which lead to a slow precession of a triangular pattern.
|[[File:Keplers trigon.jpg|200px]] In 1606, [[Johannes Kepler]]'s book, entitled as ''[[De Stella Nova]]'', illustrated the Trigons of Great Conjunctions.
|}

In the past, Great Conjunctions between the two slowest classical planets, [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]], have attracted considerable attention as celestial omens. This interest can be traced back to Arabic translations found in Europe; most notably [[Albumasar]]'s book on Conjunctions.<ref>''De Magnis Coniunctionibus'' was translated in the 12th Century, a modern edition-translation by K. Yamamoto and Ch. Burnett, Leiden, 2000</ref> During the late [[Middle Ages]] and the [[Renaissance]], these omens were a topic broached by most astronomers. This included scholastic thinkers, such as [[Roger Bacon]]<ref>''The Opus Majus'' of Roger Bacon, ed. J. H. Bridges, Oxford:Clarendon Press, 1897, Vol. I, p. 263.</ref> and [[Pierre D'Ailly]].<ref>'' De Concordia Astronomice Veritatis et Narrationis Historice'' (1414) [http://warburg.sas.ac.uk/pdf/fah1620p.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150208234424/http://warburg.sas.ac.uk/pdf/fah1620p.pdf|date=2015-02-08}}</ref> Omens are also mentioned in popular literary writings by authors, such as [[Dante]]<ref name=Woody>Woody K., ''Dante and the Doctrine of the Great Conjunctions'', Dante Studies, with the Annual Report of the Dante Society, No. 95 (1977), pp. 119–134</ref> and [[Shakespeare]].<ref name=Aston>Aston M., ''The Fiery Trigon Conjunction: An Elizabethan Astrological Prediction'', Isis, Vol. 61, No. 2 (Summer, 1970), pp. 158–187</ref> This interest continued up to the times of [[Tycho Brahe]] and [[Kepler]].

Every 20 years, successive Great Conjunctions move retrograde ~120°. Sequential Conjunctions appear as triangular patterns. They repeat after every third Conjunction; they return after some 60 years to the vicinity of the first. These returns are observed to be shifted by ~8° relative to the fixed stars; no more than four of them occur in the same zodiac sign. Typically, Conjunctions occur in one of the following ''[[Triplicity|Triplicities]]'' or ''Trigons'' of [[Zodiac#Twelve signs|Zodiac]] signs:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
! rowspan=2 scope="col" | [[Classical element|Element]]
!colspan=3|Conjunction 1||colspan=3|Conjunction 2||colspan=3|Conjunction 3
|-
! Sign||Symbol||Ecliptic Longitude
! Sign||Symbol||Ecliptic Longitude
! Sign||Symbol||Ecliptic Longitude
|-
![[Fire (classical element)|Fire]] Trigon
! scope="row" | [[Aries (astrology)|Aries]]
|[[Image:Aries symbol (fixed width).svg|20px]]
|1 (0° to 30°)
! scope="row" | [[Leo (astrology)|Leo]]
|[[Image:Leo symbol (fixed width).svg|20px]]
|5 (120° to 150°)
! scope="row" | [[Sagittarius (astrology)|Sagittarius]]
|[[Image:Sagittarius symbol (fixed width).svg|20px]]
|9 (240° to 270°)
|-
![[Earth (classical element)|Earth]] Trigon
! scope="row" | [[Taurus (astrology)|Taurus]]
|[[Image:Taurus symbol (fixed width).svg|20px]]
|2 (30° to 60°)
! scope="row" | [[Virgo (astrology)|Virgo]]
|[[Image:Virgo symbol (fixed width).svg|20px]]
|6 (150° to 180°)
! scope="row" | [[Capricorn (astrology)|Capricorn]]
|[[Image:Capricornus symbol (fixed width).svg|26px]]
|10 (270° to 300°)
|-
![[Air (classical element)|Air]] Trigon
! scope="row" | [[Gemini (astrology)|Gemini]]
|[[Image:Gemini symbol (fixed width).svg|20px]]
|3 (60° to 90°)
! scope="row" | [[Libra (astrology)|Libra]]
|[[Image:Libra symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]]
|7 (180° to 210°)
! scope="row" | [[Aquarius (astrology)|Aquarius]]
|[[Image:Aquarius symbol (fixed width).svg|24px]]
|11 (300° to 330°)
|-
![[Water (classical element)|Water]] Trigon
! scope="row" | [[Cancer (astrology)|Cancer]]
|[[Image:Cancer symbol (fixed width).svg|20px]]
|4 (90° to 120°)
! scope="row" | [[Scorpio (astrology)|Scorpio]]
|[[Image:Scorpius symbol (fixed width).svg|20px]]
|8 (210° to 240°)
! scope="row" | [[Pisces (astrology)|Pisces]]
|[[Image:Pisces symbol (fixed width).svg|20px]]
|12 (330° to 360°)
|}
After about 220 years the pattern shifts to the next Trigon; in ~900 years, the pattern returns to the first Trigon.<ref>If {{mvar|J}} and {{mvar|P}} designate the periods of Jupiter and Saturn then the return takes <math>1/(5/S-2/J)</math> which comes to 883.15 years, but to be a whole number of Conjunction intervals it must be sometimes 913 years and sometimes 854. See Etz.</ref>

To each triangular pattern, astrologers have ascribed one from a series of [[Classical element|four elements]]. Particular importance has been accorded to the occurrence of a Great Conjunction in a new Trigon, which is bound to happen after ~240 years at most.<ref name=Etz>Etz D., (2000), [http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2000JRASC..94..174E ''Conjunctions of Jupiter and Saturn''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113092414/http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/2000JRASC..94..174E |date=2020-01-13 }}, Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada, Vol. 94, p.174</ref> Greater importance is attributed to the beginning of a new cycle, which may occur after all four Trigons have been visited, which occurs in ~900 years.

Typically, medieval astrologers used 960 years as the length of the full cycle, because, in some cases, it took 240 years to pass from one trigon to the next.<ref name=Etz/> If a cycle is defined by when the Conjunctions return to the same [[right ascension]] rather than to the same constellation, the cycle is only ~800 years, because of [[axial precession]]. Use of the [[Alphonsine tables]] apparently led to the use of precessing signs; [[Kepler]] gave a value of 794 years, which created 40 Conjunctions.<ref name=Etz/><ref name="Woody"/>

Up to the end of the 16th century, despite the inaccuracies and some disagreement about the beginning of the cycle, the belief in the significance of such events generated a steady stream of publications. In 1583, the last Great Conjunction occurred in the watery trigon. It was widely supposed to herald apocalyptic changes. In 1586, a [[Papal Bull]] was issued against divinations. By 1603, public interest rapidly died, because nothing really significant had happened with the advent of a new Trigon.

{| class="wikitable sortable" align=right
|+ Aspect Angles as Harmonic Ratios<ref name="L217020">{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17020r2-fdbk-extra-aspect-sym.pdf|title=L2/17-020R2: Feedback on Extra Aspect Symbols for Astrology|date=2017-01-24|first=Michel|last=Suignard|access-date=2021-03-18|archive-date=2022-01-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119073024/http://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17020r2-fdbk-extra-aspect-sym.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
!Symbol||[[Turn (angle)|Harmonic]]||Angle||Name
|-
|[[Image:Conjunction symbol.svg|24px]]||'''1/1'''||360° (0°)||'''[[Conjunction (astrology)|Conjunction]]'''
|- bgcolor="#FFFFF0"
|[[Image:Opposition-symbol.svg|24px]] ||'''1/2'''||180°||'''[[Opposition (astrology)|Opposition]]'''
|- bgcolor="#FFFFF0"
|[[Image:Square-symbol.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_polygon_4_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/4'''||90°||'''[[Square]]''' or Quartile or Quadrate
|- bgcolor="#FFFFF0"
|[[File:Semisquare symbol.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_polygon_8_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/8'''||45°||'''Octile''' or Semisquare

|- bgcolor="#FFFFF0"
|[[File:Sesquisquare-symbol.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_star_polygon_8-3.svg|24px]]||3/8||135°||'''Trioctile''' or Sesquiquadrate
|- bgcolor="#FFFFF0"
|align=right|[[File:Regular_polygon_16_annotated.svg|24px]] ||'''1/16''' ||22.5°||'''Sexdecile''' or Semioctile
|- bgcolor="#FFFFF0"
| align=right|[[File:Regular_star_polygon_16-3.svg|24px]]||3/16||67.5°||'''Sesquioctile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFFFF0"
| align=right|[[File:Regular_star_polygon_16-5.svg|24px]]||5/16||112.5°||'''Quinsemioctile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFFFF0"
| align=right|[[File:Regular_star_polygon_16-7.svg|24px]]||7/16||157.5°||'''Sepsemioctile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0FF"
|[[Image:Trine-symbol.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_polygon_3_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/3'''||120°||'''[[Trine (astrological aspect)|Trine]]''' or Trinovile
|- bgcolor="#FFF0FF"
|[[Image:Sextile-symbol.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_polygon_6_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/6'''||60°||'''[[Astrological aspect#Sextile|Sextile]]''' or Semitrine
|- bgcolor="#FFF0FF"
|[[File:Semisextile-symbol.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_star_figure_6(2,1).svg|24px]]||'''1/12'''||30°||'''Duodecile''' or Semisextile
|- bgcolor="#FFF0FF"
|[[File:Quincunx symbol.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_star_polygon_12-5.svg|24px]]||5/12||150°||'''[[Quincunx]]''' or Quinduodecile or Inconjunct
|- bgcolor="#FFF0FF"
|align=right|[[File:Regular_star_figure_12(2,1).svg|24px]]||'''1/24''' ||15°||'''Quattuorvigintile''' or Semiduodecile
|- bgcolor="#FFF0FF"
|align=right|[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-5.svg|24px]]||5/24||75°||'''Squile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0FF"
|align=right|[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-7.svg|24px]]||7/24||105°||'''Squine'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0FF"
|align=right|[[File:Regular_star_polygon_24-11.svg|24px]]||11/24||165°||'''Quindecile'''<ref>Ricki Reeves, 2001, The Quindecile: The Astrology & Psychology of Obsession</ref> or Contraquindecile
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|Q}} [[File:Russian astrological symbol quintile.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_polygon_5_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/5'''||72°||'''[[Quintile (astrology)|Quintile]]'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|bQ}} [[File:Pentagram (bold).svg|24px]]||2/5||144°||'''Biquintile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|D}} [[File:Up_tack.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_polygon_10_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/10'''||36°||'''Decile''' or Semiquintile
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|D3}} [[File:Russian astrological symbol tredecile.svg|24px]] [[File:Star_polygon_10-3.svg|24px]]||3/10||108°||'''Tridecile''' or Sesquiquintile
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|√}} [[File:Regular_polygon_15_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/15'''||24°||'''Quindecile''' or Trientquintile
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|√2}} [[File:Regular_star_polygon_15-2.svg|24px]]||2/15||48°||'''Biquindecile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|√4}} [[File:Regular_star_polygon_15-4.svg|24px]]||4/15||96°||'''Quadraquindecile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|√7}} [[File:Regular_star_polygon_15-7.svg|24px]]||7/15||168°||'''Sepquindecile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|V}} [[File:Russian astrological symbol vigintile.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_star_figure_10(2,1).svg|24px]]||'''1/20'''||18°||'''Vigintile''' or Semidecile
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|V3}} [[File:Regular_star_polygon_20-3.svg|24px]]||3/20||54°||'''Trivigintile''' or Sesquidecile
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|V7}} [[File:Regular_star_polygon_20-7.svg|24px]]||7/20||126°||'''Sepvigintile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|{{huge|V9}} [[File:Regular_star_polygon_20-9.svg|24px]]||9/20||162°||'''Nonvigintile'''
|- bgcolor="#FFF0F0"
|align=right| [[File:Regular_star_figure_20(2,1).svg|24px]]||'''1/40'''||9°||'''Quadragintile''' or Semivigintile
|- bgcolor="#F0FFF0"
|{{huge|S}} [[File:Regular_polygon_7_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/7''' ||51.43°||'''[[Septile]]'''
|- bgcolor="#F0FFF0"
|{{huge|S2}} [[File:Septagram-starofbabalon.svg|24px]]||2/7||102.86°||'''Biseptile'''
|- bgcolor="#F0FFF0"
|{{huge|S3}} [[File:Regular_star_polygon_7-3.svg|24px]]||3/7||154.29°||'''Triseptile'''
|- bgcolor="#F0FFF0"
|align=right|[[File:Regular_star_figure_7(2,1).svg|24px]] ||'''1/14''' ||25.71°||'''Semiseptile'''
|- bgcolor="#F0FFF0"
|align=right|[[File:Regular_star_polygon_14-3.svg|24px]] ||3/14||77.14°||'''Tresemiseptile''' or Sesquiseptile
|- bgcolor="#F0FFF0"
|align=right|[[File:Regular_star_polygon_14-5.svg|24px]] ||5/14||128.57°||'''Quinsemiseptile'''
|- bgcolor="#F0F0FF"
|{{huge|N}} [[File:Russian astrological symbol novile.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_polygon_9_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/9'''||40°||'''[[Novile]]'''
|- bgcolor="#F0F0FF"
|{{huge|N2}} [[File:Russian astrological symbol binovile.svg|24px]] [[File:Regular_star_polygon_9-2.svg|24px]]||2/9||80°||'''Binovile'''
|- bgcolor="#F0F0FF"
|{{huge|N4}} [[File:Regular_star_polygon_9-4.svg|24px]]||4/9||160°||'''Quadranovile'''
|- bgcolor="#F0F0FF"
|align=right| [[File:Regular_star_figure_9(2,1).svg|24px]]||'''1/18'''||20°||'''Octodecile''' or Seminovile or Vigintile
|- bgcolor="#F0F0FF"
| align=right|[[File:Regular_star_figure_18(2,1).svg|24px]]||'''1/36'''||10°||'''Trigintasextile'''
|- bgcolor="#F0F0F0"
|{{huge|U}} [[File:Regular_polygon_11_annotated.svg|24px]]||'''1/11'''||32.83°||'''Undecile''' or Undecim or Elftile<ref name="elf">[https://www.aquariuspapers.com/astrology/2015/10/the-spiritual-aspect-series-the-novile-septile-and-elftile-harmonic-aspects-and-their-glyphs.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413225432/https://www.aquariuspapers.com/astrology/2015/10/the-spiritual-aspect-series-the-novile-septile-and-elftile-harmonic-aspects-and-their-glyphs.html|date=2021-04-13}} The German word for 11 is elf.</ref>
|- bgcolor="#F0F0F0"
|{{huge|U2}} [[File:Star_polygon_11-2.svg|24px]]||2/11||65.45°||'''Biundecile''' or Bielftile
|- bgcolor="#F0F0F0"
|{{huge|U3}} [[File:Star_polygon_11-3.svg|24px]]||3/11||98.18°||'''Triundecile''' or Trielftile
|- bgcolor="#F0F0F0"
|{{huge|U4}} [[File:Star_polygon_11-4.svg|24px]]||4/11||130.91°||'''Quadundecile''' or Quadrelftile
|- bgcolor="#F0F0F0"
|{{huge|U5}} [[File:Star_polygon_11-5.svg|24px]]||5/11||163.63°||'''Quinundecile''' or Quinelftile
|}

===Opposition===
[[Image:Opposition-symbol.svg|left|50px]] An [[Opposition (astronomy and astrology)|'''Opposition''']] (abbreviated as "Opp") is an angle of 180°, which is {{frac|1|2}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]]. Depending on the involved planets, an [[Celestial orb|orb]] of 5-10° is allowed.<ref name="Greene"/>

An Opposition is said by Ibn Ezra to be the most powerful aspect. An opposition is fundamentally relational but not unifying or blending like a conjunction. Some astrologers say the energies in opposition are prone to exaggeration, because it has a dichotomous quality and issues arising from it are often tense.

All important axes in astrology are essentially Oppositions. Therefore, at its most basic level, an Opposition may often signify a relationship that can be oppositional or complementary.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

===Sextile===
[[Image:Sextile-symbol.svg|left|50px]] A [[sextile (astrological aspect)|'''Sextile''']] (abbreviated as "SXt or Sex") is an angle of 60°, which is {{frac|1|6}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]] or {{frac|1|2}} a trine (120°). Depending on the involved planets, an [[Celestial orb|orb]] of 4-5° is allowed. The symbol is the radii of a hexagon.

Traditionally, a Sextile is said to be similar in influence to a Trine, but less intense. It indicates compatibility and harmony, which eases communication between the two involved elements. It also provides opportunity. {{citation needed|date=March 2021}} See information below on the [[#Semisextile|Semisextile]].

===Square===
[[Image:Square-symbol.svg|left|50px]] A [[square (astrological aspect)|'''Square''']] or ''Quartile'' (abbreviated as "SQr or Squ") is an angle of 90°, which is {{frac|1|4}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]] or {{frac|1|2}} an opposition (180°). Depending on the involved planets, an [[Celestial orb|orb]] of 5-10° is allowed.<ref name="Greene">Orbs used by [[Liz Greene]], see [http://www.astro.com/astrology/in_aspect_e.htm Astrodienst] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125184849/http://www.astro.com/astrology/in_aspect_e.htm |date=2021-01-25 }}</ref>

Typically, with a Square, Trine or Sextile, the outer or [[superior planet]] has an effect on the inner or inferior planet. A Square creates a strong and usable tension. It may integrate between two different areas of your life or it may offer a turning point where an important decision needs to be made that involves an opportunity at a cost. Typically, it involves [[House (astrology)|Houses]] in different [[Quadrant (circle)|quadrants]], {{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

===Trine===
[[Image:Trine-symbol.svg|left|50px]] A [[trine (astrological aspect)|Trine]] (abbreviated as "Tri") is an angle of 120°, which is {{frac|1|3}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]]. Depending on the involved planets, an [[Celestial orb|orb]] of 5-10° is allowed.

Traditionally, a Trine is extremely beneficial. It indicates harmony, ease and what is natural. A Trine may involve innate talent or ability. In [[Transit (astrology)|transit]], an event may emerge from a current or past situation in a natural way.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

== Minor aspects==

===Semisextile===
[[File:Semisextile-symbol.svg|50px]] A '''Semisextile''' or ''Duodecile'' is an angle of 30°, which is {{frac|1|12}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]]. An [[Orb (astrology)|orb]] of ±1.2° is allowed. The symbol is {{frac|1|2}} a Sextile (60°), which is the top radii of a hexagon; the internal angles are 60°.

Of the minor aspects, it may be the most often used, because it can be easily seen. It indicates a mental interaction between planets; it is more sensually than externally experienced.

With a Semisextile, energy gradually builds and potentiates. Consider other planets, [[Astrological sign|Signs]] and [[House (astrology)|Houses]]. A major aspect transit may be involved. To gain its benefit, make an effort.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

===Quincunx===
[[File:Quincunx symbol.svg|left|50px]] A '''[[Quincunx (disambiguation)|Quincunx]]''' or ''Quinduodecile'' or ''Inconjunct'' is an angle of 150°, which is {{frac|5|12}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]]. Depending on the involved planets, an [[Orb (astrology)|orb]] of ±3.5° is allowed. The symbol is the bottom radii of a hexagon, which is {{frac|1|2}} a Sextile (60°) less than a semicircle; the internal angles are 60°.

An interpretation of a Quincunx may mostly rely on the involved planets, [[Astrological sign|Signs]] and [[House (astrology)|Houses]]. Different areas of your life, that are not usually in communication, may come together. Planets may be far apart in different house quadrants. With a shift in perspective, clarity may reveal what was not previously seen. If a third planet, in a major aspect, triangulates a Qunicunx, the effect may be very obvious.

For Quincunx, keywords are karmic, mystery, unpredictable, imbalance, surreal, resourceful, creative, and humor.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

A Quincunx does not offer equal divisions of a circle. It represents the 150° [[turn angle]]s of a [[dodecagram]], {12/5}.

<gallery>
Regular star polygon 12-5.svg|[[Dodecagram]] {12/5}
</gallery>

==Other minor aspects==

===Septile===
{{huge|{{huge|S}}}} A '''Septile''' is an angle of about 51.43°, which is {{frac|1|7}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]]. An [[Orb (astrology)|orb]] of ±1° is allowed.

A Septile is a mystical aspect that indicates a hidden flow of energy between the involved planets. Often, it involves spiritual or energetic sensitivity as well as an inner awareness of a more subtle, hidden level of reality.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

;Irreducible multiples:
: {{huge|S2}} A '''Biseptile''' is an angle of 102.86°, which is {{frac|2|7}} of the 360° ecliptic.
: {{huge|S3}} A '''Triseptile''' is an angle of 154.29°, which is {{frac|3|7}} of the 360° ecliptic.
<gallery>
Regular star polygon 7-2.svg|[[Heptagram]] {7/2}
Regular star polygon 7-3.svg|[[Heptagram]] {7/3}
</gallery>

===Octile===
[[File:Semisquare symbol.svg|left|50px]] An '''Octile''' or ''Semisquare'' is an angle of 45°, which is {{frac|1|8}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]]. An [[Celestial orb|orb]] of ±3° is allowed. The symbol is drawn with a 60-90° angle; the original angle is 90°, which is {{frac|1|2}} a Square.

An Octile is an important minor aspect. It indicates stimulating or challenging energy. It is similar to a Square, but doesn't last as long as it has a smaller orb.

;Irreducible Multiples:
[[File:Sesquisquare-symbol.svg|left|50px]] A '''Sesquiquadrate''' or ''Trioctile'' is an angle of 135°, which is {{frac|3|8}} of the 360° ecliptic. An orb of ±1.5° is allowed.

A Sesquiquadrate is a harmonic of a Semisquare, which involves challenge. It is not an exact division of the 360° ecliptic. Therefore, when a Semisquare is present, it does not function as a standalone aspect, but as part of a series. {{citation needed|date=March 2021}}
<gallery>
Regular star polygon 8-3.svg|[[Octagram]] {8/3}
</gallery>

===Novile===
{{huge|{{huge|N}}}} A '''Novile''' is an angle of 40°, which is {{frac|1|9}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]]. An [[Celestial orb|orb]] of ±1° is allowed.

A Novile indicates an energy of perfection and/or idealization.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}}

;Irreducible Multiples:
: {{huge|N2}} A '''Binovile''' is an angle of 80°, which is {{frac|2|9}} of the 360° ecliptic.
: {{huge|N4}} A '''Quadnovile''' is an angle of 160°, which is {{frac|4|9}} of the 360° ecliptic.

<gallery>
Regular star polygon 9-2.svg|[[Enneagram (geometry)|Enneagram]] {9/2}
Regular star polygon 9-4.svg|[[Enneagram (geometry)|Enneagram]] {9/4}
</gallery>

===Decile===
[[File:Up_tack.svg|50px]] A '''Decile''' is an angle of 36°, which is {{frac|1|10}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]].

;Irreducible Multiples:
: [[File:Up_tack.svg|50px]]3 A '''Tridecile''' is an angle of 108°, which is {{frac|3|10}} of the 360° ecliptic.

<gallery>
Regular star polygon 10-3.svg|[[Decagram (geometry)|Decagram]] {10/3}
</gallery>

===Undecile===
{{huge|{{huge|U}}}} An '''Undecile''' or ''Elftile''<ref name=elf/> is an angle of 32.73°, which is {{frac|1|11}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]]. An [[Celestial orb|orb]] of ±1° is allowed.

;Irreducible Multiples:
: {{huge|U2}} A '''Biundecile''' is an angle of 65.45°, which is {{frac|2|11}} of the 360° ecliptic.
: {{huge|U3}} A '''Triundecile''' is an angle of 98.18°, which is {{frac|3|11}} of the 360° ecliptic.
: {{huge|U4}} A '''Quadundecile''' is an angle of 130.91°, which is {{frac|4|11}} of the 360° ecliptic.
: {{huge|U5}} A '''Quinundecile''' is an angle of 163.63°, which is {{frac|5|11}} of the 360° ecliptic.

<gallery>
Regular star polygon 11-2.svg|[[Hendecagram]] {11/2}
Regular star polygon 11-3.svg|[[Hendecagram]] {11/3}
Regular star polygon 11-4.svg|[[Hendecagram]] {11/4}
Regular star polygon 11-5.svg|[[Hendecagram]] {11/5}
</gallery>

===Semioctile===
A '''Semioctile''' or ''Sexdecile'' is an angle of 22.5°, which is {{frac|1|16}} of the 360° [[ecliptic]]. An [[Celestial orb|orb]] of ±0.75° is allowed.

A Semioctile is part of the square family. It is considered to be a version of the Semisquare, which triggers challenge. Its harmonic aspects are 45°, '''67.5°''', 90°, '''112.5°''', 135°, '''157.5°''' and 180°. It was discovered by Uranian astrologers.

;Irreducible Multiples:
: A '''Sesquioctile''' or ''Bisexdecile'' is an angle of 67.5°, which is {{frac|3|16}} of the 360° ecliptic.
: A '''Quinsemioctile''' or ''Quinsexdecile'' is an angle of 112.5°, which is {{frac|5|16}} of the 360° ecliptic.
: A '''Sepsemioctile''' or ''Sepsexdecile'' is an angle of 157.5°, which is {{frac|7|16}} of the 360° ecliptic.

<gallery>
Regular star polygon 16-3.svg|[[Hexadecagram]] {16/3}
Regular star polygon 16-5.svg|[[Hexadecagram]] {16/5}
Regular star polygon 16-7.svg|[[Hexadecagram]] {16/7}
</gallery>

==Declinations==
The '''Parallel''' and '''Contraparallel''' or ''Antiparallel'' are two other aspects which refer to degrees of [[declination]] above or below the [[Celestial Equator]]. They are not widely used by astrologers.

===<big>Parallel and Contra Parallel</big>===
A The same declination of two planets. The declination is the vertical angle between a planet and the celestial equator, in a southern (S) or northern (N) direction. Planets in a parallel relationship are compared to a conjunction. A '''contra parallel''' or "split" parallel occurs when two planets have the same number of degrees of declination, but in opposite hemispheres. For example, the moon might be at 20 degrees north latitude, while Pluto appears at 20 degrees south latitude. Its meaning is similar to that of the opposition.

==See also==
*[[Astrological symbols]]
*[[Conjunction (astronomy and astrology)|Conjunction]]
*[[Opposition (astronomy and astrology)|Opposition]]
*[[Cosmobiology]]
*[[Hamburg School of Astrology]]
*[[Quadrature (astronomy)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Astrological aspects}}
*[http://www.skyscript.co.uk/aspects.html ''The Classical Origin & Traditional Use of Aspects''] Deborah Houlding
*[http://www.khaldea.com/ephemcenter.shtml Online Ephemeris from Khaldea.com]—600BC to 2400AD—Calculated for [[Midnight]] [[GMT]]; also with an Aspectarian included for years 1900 to 2005
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081212093141/http://posner.library.cmu.edu/Posner/books/book.cgi?call=520_K38PI ''Harmonices mundi''] ("The Harmony of the Worlds") in fulltext facsimile; [[Carnegie-Mellon University]]

{{Astrology-footer}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Astrological aspects| ]]
[[Category:Technical factors of Western astrology]]

Radical 214

2024-10-13T01:41:07Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 214 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|214|uni=9FA0
|meaning=flute
|pny= yuè
|bopo= ㄩㄝˋ
|wade= yüeh4
|jyutping= joek6
|yale= yeuk6
|hi= ヤク yaku ふえ fue
|kanji= 龠 yaku
|hang= 피리 piri
|hanja= 약 yak
}}

'''Radical 214''' meaning '''"[[Dizi (instrument)|flute]]"''' is the only one of the 214 [[Kangxi radical]]s that is composed of 17 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]], making it the radical that requires the most strokes.

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 21 characters (out of 40,000) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

{{Lang|zh-Hans|龠}} is also the 201st indexing component in the ''[[Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components]]'' predominantly adopted by [[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified Chinese]] dictionaries published in [[mainland China]].

==Characters with Radical 214==
{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龠}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|䶳}} {{Linktext|龡}} {{Linktext|𪛊}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龢}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|䶴}} {{Linktext|龣}} {{Linktext|𪛋}} {{Linktext|𪛌}} {{Linktext|𪛍}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龤}} {{Linktext|龥}} {{Linktext|𪛎}} {{Linktext|𪛏}} {{Linktext|𪛐}} {{Linktext|𪛑}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|䶵}} {{Linktext|𪛒}}
|----
| +11 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|𪛓}}
|----
| +12 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|𫜴}}
|----
| +14 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|𪛔}}
|----
| +16 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|𪛕}}
|----
| +20 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|𪛖}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 龠}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*Leyi Li: “Tracing the Roots of Chinese Characters: 500 Cases”. Beijing 1993, {{ISBN|978-7-5619-0204-2}}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9FA0 Unihan Database – U+9FA0]

{{Commons category|Radical 214}}
{{Wiktionary|龠}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|214]]
[[Category:Flutes]]

Radical 213

2024-10-13T01:34:11Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 213 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|213|uni=9F9C
|meaning=turtle
|pny= guī
|bopo= ㄍㄨㄟ
|wade= kuei1
|jyutping= gau1, gwai1, gwan1
|yale= gau1, gwai1, gwan1
|hi= キ, キュー ki, kyū かめ kame
|kanji= 亀 kame
|hang= 거북 geobuk
|hanja= 귀, 구 gwi, gu
}}

'''Radical 213''' meaning '''"[[turtle]]"''' is one of only two of the 214 [[Kangxi radical]]s that are composed of 16 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are only 24 characters (out of 40,000) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

In [[Taoism#Cosmology|Taoist cosmology]], 龜 ([[Polyhedron]]) is the nature component of the [[Ba gua]] diagram [[wikt:坎|坎]] Kǎn.

== Characters with Radical 213 ==
{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龜}} {{Linktext|龟}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龝}}
|----
| +12 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龞}}
|----
| +21 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|𪛖}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 龜}}

== Variant characters ==
There are a number of [[Variant Chinese character|variant characters]] that appear different but mean the same thing:

=== Gallery ===
<gallery>
File:Character Gui Oracle.svg|[[Oracle bone script]] form of radical 213
File:龜-bronze.svg|[[Bronze script]] form of radical 213
File:Radical 213 Guwen.jpg|''[[Ancient Script Texts|Guwen]]'' version of radical 213 in [[Shuowen Jiezi|''Shuowen'' dictionary]] ([[seal script]] form of {{unichar|24563}})
File:Radical 213 Shuowen.jpg|Radical 213 in [[small seal script]] in the ''[[Shuowen Jiezi|Shuowen]]''
File:Character Gui1 Cler.svg|Radical 213 in [[clerical script]]
File:亀-red.png|Stroke order of [[Shinjitai]] of radical 213
File:Regular Style CJKV Radical 213 (4).svg|Radical 213 in [[Simplified Chinese]]
File:Variations of the 213th Chinese radical, gui 'tortoise'.png|Variants of the character 龜, collected ca. 1800 from printed sources.
</gallery>

=== By typefont ===

As a [[CJK Unified Ideograph]], {{unichar|9F9C}} has seven separate reference glyphs shown in the Unicode code charts, no two of which are exactly identical:<ref name="codechart">{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U4E00.pdf#page=530 |title=CJK Unified Ideographs |work=The Unicode Standard, Version 15.1 |institution=[[Unicode Consortium]] |year=2023}}</ref>

* "G" ([[Mainland China]]), for [[Traditional Chinese]] in Mainland China (i.e. the forms listed alongside their [[Simplified Chinese]] equivalents in the [[List of Commonly Used Standard Chinese Characters]]), as in the [[Guobiao]] standard [[GB/T 12345]] (the form for [[Simplified Chinese]] is encoded separately; [[#Unified Repertoire and Ordering (URO)|see below]])
* "H" ([[Hong Kong]]) for use in Traditional Chinese
* "T" ([[Taiwan]]) for use in Traditional Chinese
* "J" ([[Japan]]) for Japanese [[kyūjitai]] (the form for Japanese [[shinjitai]] is encoded separately; [[#Unified Repertoire and Ordering (URO)|see below]])
* "K" ([[South Korea]]) for use in Korean [[hanja]]
* "KP" ([[North Korea]]) for use in Korean [[hanja]]
* "V" ([[Vietnam]]) for use in Vietnamese [[Hán Nôm]]

As such, appearance may subtly vary between [[font (typography)|fonts]] intended for different regions:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!scope=row|Region
!Mainland China ([[GB 12345|traditional]])
!Hong Kong
!Taiwan
!Japan ([[kyūjitai]])
!South Korea
!North Korea{{efn|name=unlikelysupport|Unlikely to be displayed correctly.}}
!Vietnam{{efn|name=unlikelysupport}}
|-
!Preview with local font{{efn|Appearance may vary depending on fonts installed and configured on your system.}}
|lang="zh-CN" style="font-size:6em;font-family:serif;line-height:100%;"|龜
|lang="zh-HK" style="font-size:6em;font-family:serif;line-height:100%;"|龜
|lang="zh-TW" style="font-size:6em;font-family:serif;line-height:100%;"|龜
|lang="ja" style="font-size:6em;font-family:serif;line-height:100%;"|龜
|lang="ko-KR" style="font-size:6em;font-family:serif;line-height:100%;"|龜
|lang="ko-KP" style="font-size:6em;font-family:serif;line-height:100%;"|龜
|lang="vi-Hani" style="font-size:6em;font-family:serif;line-height:100%;"|龜
|-
!colspan=8|Features of Unicode reference glyph<ref name="codechart"/>{{efn|Does not necessarily match the system fonts used above.}}
|-
!Very top<ref name="codechart"/>
|[[Stroke (CJK character)#Basic strokes|Dot stroke]]
|colspan=4|⺈ shape (like top of 鱼), crosses corner of box below
|colspan=2|⺈ shape (like top of 鱼), does not cross corner of box below
|-
!Vertical strokes<ref name="codechart"/>
|From bottom of upper box to tail
|colspan=2|From top of upper box to bottom of turtleshell
|From top of upper box to between turtleshell and tail
|colspan=2|From top of upper box to tail
|From bottom of upper box to tail
|-
!Horizontal strokes<ref name="codechart"/>
|Legs and turtleshell entirely separate strokes
|Legs and turtleshell separate strokes but aligned
|colspan=2|Legs and turtleshell single strokes crossing verticals
|Legs and turtleshell separate strokes but aligned
|Legs and turtleshell single strokes crossing verticals
|Legs and turtleshell entirely separate strokes
|}

=== In Unicode ===
Due to an especially large number of [[itaiji|variant forms]] associated with Radical 213, an exceptionally large number of Unicode characters exist displaying variants of the character itself, as opposed to derived characters.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ken-lunde.medium.com/the-road-to-ideograph-hell-6f50549b6d6e |last=Lunde |first=Ken |author-link=Ken Lunde |title=The Road to 'Ideograph Hell'… |website=[[Medium (website)|Medium]]  |date=2023-08-11}}</ref>

==== Kangxi Radicals / CJK Radicals Supplement ====
{{further|Kangxi Radicals (Unicode block)|CJK Radicals Supplement}}
{{charmap
|2EF1|name1=CJK Radical Turtle
|2EF2|name2=CJK Radical J-Simplified Turtle
|2EF3|name3=CJK Radical C-Simplified Turtle
|2FD4|name4=Kangxi Radical Turtle

|map1=[[GB 18030]]
|map1char1=81 39 89 37
|map1char2=81 39 89 38
|map1char3=81 39 89 39
|map1char4=81 39 A0 34

|map2=[[EUC-TW]]<ref name="euc-tw-2014">{{cite web |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unicode-org/icu-data/main/charset/data/ucm/euc-tw-2014.ucm |title=euc-tw-2014.ucm - Update of EUC-TW based on IBM-964 |publisher=[[IBM]] / [[Unicode Consortium]] |work=[[International Components for Unicode|ICU]] Data Repository |year=2014}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=554070&SN=&lang=en |title=[⻱] 8-7456 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=554071&SN=&lang=en |title=[⻲] 8-7457 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=554072&SN=&lang=en |title=[⻳] 8-7458 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref>
|map2char1=8E A8 F4 D6|map2char2=8E A8 F4 D7|map2char3=8E A8 F4 D8|map2char4=A9 B8
}}

==== Unified Repertoire and Ordering (URO) ====
{{further|CJK Unified Ideographs (Unicode block)}}
{{charmap
|4E80|name1=CJK Unified Ideograph-4E80
|9F9C|name2=CJK Unified Ideograph-9F9C
|9F9F|name3=CJK Unified Ideograph-9F9F
|map1=[[EUC-CN]]<ref name="macsimpchinese">{{cite web|url=https://unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/VENDORS/APPLE/CHINSIMP.TXT|title=Map (external version) from Mac OS Chinese Simplified encoding to Unicode 3.0 and later.|publisher=[[Apple, Inc]]}}</ref>
|map1char3=B9 EA

|map2=[[GBK (character encoding)|GBK]] / [[GB 18030]]
|map2char1=81 77
|map2char2=FD 94
|map2char3=B9 EA

|map3=[[EUC-KR]]<ref name="euc-kr-ibm970">{{cite web |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unicode-org/icu/master/icu4c/source/data/mappings/ibm-970_P110_P110-2006_U2.ucm |title=IBM-970 |author1=Unicode Consortium |author-link1=Unicode Consortium |author2=IBM |author-link2=IBM |work=[[International Components for Unicode]]}}</ref> / [[Unified Hangul Code|UHC]]<ref name="uhc-ms949">{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/VENDORS/MICSFT/WINDOWS/CP949.TXT |title=cp949 to Unicode table |last=Steele |first=Shawn |publisher=[[Microsoft]] / [[Unicode Consortium]] |date=2000}}</ref>
|map3char2=CF CF

|map4=[[Big5]] (generic)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://moztw.org/docs/big5/table/big5_1984.txt |title=Big5:1984 vs Unicode mapping table |date=2002-02-24 |publisher=[[Mozilla]] Taiwan}}</ref>
|map4char2=C0 74

|map5=[[Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set|Big5-HKSCS]]<ref name="big5hkscs-html5">{{cite web |url=https://encoding.spec.whatwg.org/big5.html |title=big5 |work=Encoding Standard |publisher=[[WHATWG]] |last=van Kesteren |first=Anne |author-link=Anne van Kesteren}}</ref>
|map5char1=89 D0
|map5char2=C0 74

|map6=[[EUC-TW]]<ref name="euc-tw-2014"/><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=938277&SN=&lang=en |title=[龟] 14-5125 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref>
|map6char1=8E A3 B9 EC
|map6char2=F3 BF
|map6char3=8E AE D1 A5

|map7=[[KPS 9566|EUC-KPS-9566]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/VENDORS/MISC/KPS9566.TXT |title=KPS 9566-2003 to Unicode |date=2011-04-27 |author=Unicode Consortium |author-link=Unicode Consortium}}</ref>
|map7char2=D1 B7

|map8=[[KPS 10721]]<ref name="kps10721-reconstruction"/>
|map8char1=34 65
|map8char2=92 7E

|map9=[[Shift JIS]]<ref name="shift_jis-utc">{{cite web |url=https://www.unicode.org/Public/MAPPINGS/OBSOLETE/EASTASIA/JIS/SHIFTJIS.TXT |title=Shift-JIS to Unicode |author=Unicode Consortium |author-link=Unicode Consortium |date=2015-12-02 |orig-year=1994-03-08}}</ref>
|map9char1=8B 54
|map9char2=EA 9D

|map10=[[EUC-JP]]<ref name="euc-jp-2007">{{cite web |url=https://raw.githubusercontent.com/unicode-org/icu/master/icu4c/source/data/mappings/euc-jp-2007.ucm |title=EUC-JP-2007 |author1=Unicode Consortium |author-link1=Unicode Consortium |author2=IBM |author-link2=IBM |work=[[International Components for Unicode]]}}</ref>
|map10char1=B5 B5
|map10char2=F3 FD

|namedref1=Moji Jōhō Kiban
|ref1char1=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ006424 MJ006424]
|ref1char2=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ030155 MJ030155]{{efn|1=Additional Moji Jōhō Kiban identifiers for [[Variation Selectors Supplement|Ideographic Variation Sequences]]:{{plainlist|1=
* [https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ030154 MJ030154]
* [https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ030156 MJ030156]
* [https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ030157 MJ030157]
* [https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ030158 MJ030158]
* [https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ059288 MJ059288]}}}}
}}

==== CJK Compatibility Ideographs ====
{{further|CJK Compatibility Ideographs}}
{{charmap
|F907|name1=CJK Compatibility Ideograph-F907
|F908|name2=CJK Compatibility Ideograph-F908
|FACE|name3=CJK Compatibility Ideograph-FACE
|IncludeGB=yes
|map1=[[EUC-KR]]<ref name="euc-kr-ibm970" /> / [[Unified Hangul Code|UHC]]<ref name="uhc-ms949" />|map1char1=D0 A2|map1char2=D0 B8
|map2=[[Hong Kong Supplementary Character Set|Big5-HKSCS]]<ref name="big5hkscs-html5"/>|map2char1=8B F8
|map3=[[KPS 10721]]<ref name="kps10721-reconstruction">{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927102005/http://cheonhyeong.com/PDF/KP1-reconstitution.pdf |archive-date=2023-09-27 |url=http://cheonhyeong.com/PDF/KP1-reconstitution.pdf |url-status=live |title=KPS 10721:2000 (Unicode KP1源) 文件重构 (修订版) |lang=zh-Hans |date=2022-06-19 |first=CheonHyeong |last=Sim}}</ref>|map3char3=92 7F
|map4=[[EUC-TW]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=470074&SN=&lang=en |title=[龜] 7-2C3A |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref>|map4char3=8E A7 AC BA
}}

==== Supplementary Ideographic Plane ====
{{further|Supplementary Ideographic Plane|Variant Chinese character}}
{{charmap
|20074|name1=CJK Unified Ideograph-20074
|200FE|name2=CJK Unified Ideograph-200FE
|24563|name3=CJK Unified Ideograph-24563
|259A3|name4=CJK Unified Ideograph-259A3
|27474|name5=CJK Unified Ideograph-27474
|IncludeGB=yes

|map1=[[EUC-TW]]<ref name="euc-tw-2014"/>
|map1char1=8E A6 C6 BF|map1char2=8E A6 BC FD|map1char3=8E A6 CB A3|map1char5=8E A7 C2 EA

|map2=[[KPS 10721]]<ref name="kps10721-reconstruction"/>
|map2char3=56 89

|namedref1=Moji Jōhō Kiban
|ref1char1=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ030364 MJ030364]
|ref1char2=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ030438 MJ030438]
|ref1char3=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ040283 MJ040283]
|ref1char4=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ043469 MJ043469]
|ref1char5=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ047883 MJ047883]
}}
{{charmap
|2A6A6|name1=CJK Unified Ideograph-2A6A6
|2A6A7|name2=CJK Unified Ideograph-2A6A7
|2A6A8|name3=CJK Unified Ideograph-2A6A8
|2A6B4|name4=CJK Unified Ideograph-2A6B4
|2A6BA|name5=CJK Unified Ideograph-2A6BA
|2A6BE|name6=CJK Unified Ideograph-2A6BE
|IncludeGB=yes

|map1=[[EUC-TW]]<ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=472690&SN=&lang=en |title=[𪚦] 7-3672 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=474740&SN=&lang=en |title=[𪚧] 7-3E74 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=476710&SN=&lang=en |title=[𪚨] 7-4626 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=1009470&SN=&lang=en |title=[𪚴] 15-673E |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=355178&SN=&lang=en |title=[𪚺] 5-6B6A |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref>
|map1char1=8E A7 B6 F2|map1char2=8E A7 BE F4|map1char3=8E A7 C6 A6|map1char4=8E AF E7 BE|map1char5=8E A5 EB EA|map1char6=8E A7 CD B9

|namedref1=Moji Jōhō Kiban
|ref1char1=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ056778 MJ056778]
|ref1char2=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ056779 MJ056779]
|ref1char3=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ056780 MJ056780]
|ref1char5=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ056795 MJ056795]
|ref1char6=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ056799 MJ056799]
}}
{{charmap
|2A6BF|name1=CJK Unified Ideograph-2A6BF
|2A6C3|name2=CJK Unified Ideograph-2A6C3
|2A6C9|name3=CJK Unified Ideograph-2A6C9
|2C7CF|name4=CJK Unified Ideograph-2C7CF
|2CE5D|name5=CJK Unified Ideograph-2CE5D
|2CE9E|name6=CJK Unified Ideograph-2CE9E
|IncludeGB=yes
|map1=[[EUC-TW]]<ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=478521&SN=&lang=en |title=[𪚾] 7-4D39 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=478520&SN=&lang=en |title=[𪚿] 7-4D38 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=358226&SN=&lang=en |title=[𪛃] 5-7752 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=993574&SN=&lang=en |title=[𪛉] 15-2926 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=865403&SN=&lang=en |title=[𬹝] 13-347B |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref><ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.cns11643.gov.tw/wordView.jsp?ID=803621&SN=&lang=en |title=[𬺞] 12-4325 |work=CNS 11643 Word Information |institution=[[National Development Council (Taiwan)|National Development Council]]}}</ref>
|map1char1=8E A7 CD B8|map1char2=8E A5 F7 D2|map1char3=8E AF A9 A6|map1char5=8E AD B4 FB|map1char6=8E AC C3 A5

|namedref1=Moji Jōhō Kiban
|ref1char1=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ056800 MJ056800]
|ref1char2=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ056804 MJ056804]
}}
{{charmap
|2E4AE|name1=CJK Unified Ideograph-2E4AE
|2EBDB|name2=CJK Unified Ideograph-2EBDB
|2EBDC|name3=CJK Unified Ideograph-2EBDC
|2EBDD|name4=CJK Unified Ideograph-2EBDD
|2EBDE|name5=CJK Unified Ideograph-2EBDE
|2EBDF|name6=CJK Unified Ideograph-2EBDF
|IncludeGB=yes

|namedref1=Moji Jōhō Kiban
|ref1char2=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ060379 MJ060379]
|ref1char3=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ059291 MJ059291]
|ref1char4=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ059290 MJ059290]
|ref1char5=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ059289 MJ059289]
|ref1char6=[https://moji.or.jp/mojikibansearch/info?MJ%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97%E5%9B%B3%E5%BD%A2%E5%90%8D=MJ059287 MJ059287]
}}

== Literature ==
* {{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
* Leyi Li: “Tracing the Roots of Chinese Characters: 500 Cases”. Beijing 1993, {{ISBN|978-7-5619-0204-2}}

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F9C Unihan Database - U+9F9C]

{{Commonscat|Radical 213}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|213]]
[[Category:Turtles]]

Radical 212

2024-10-13T01:32:47Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 212 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|212|uni=9F8D
|meaning=dragon
|pny= lóng
|bopo= ㄌㄨㄥˊ
|wade= lung2
|jyutping= lung4
|yale= lung4
|hi= リョー・リュー ryō, ryū たつ tatsu
|kanji= 竜 ryū
|hang= 용 yong
|hanja= 룡 ryong
}}

[[File:龍-seal.svg|thumb|Radical 212（龍）in [[seal script]]]]

'''Radical 212''', '''龍''', '''龙''', or '''竜''' meaning '''"[[Chinese dragon|dragon]]"''', is one of the two of the 214 [[Kangxi radical]]s that are composed of 16 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]]. The character arose as a stylized drawing of a Chinese dragon,<ref><big>龍</big>: bottom left: jaws (open downwards); top left: back of head; right side: body and legs; right bottommost stroke: tail</ref> and refers to a version of the [[dragon]] in each [[East Asia]]n [[East Asian cultural sphere|culture]]:
*[[Chinese dragon]], ''Lóng'' in Chinese
*[[Japanese dragon]], ''Ryū'' or ''Tatsu'' in Japanese
*[[Korean dragon]], ''Ryong'' or ''Yong'' in Korean
*[[Vietnamese dragon]], ''Rồng'' in Vietnamese

It may also refer to the [[Dragon (zodiac)|Dragon]] as it appears in the [[Chinese zodiac]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] 14 characters (out of 40,000) are under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

It occurs as a [[phonetic complement]] in some fairly common Chinese characters, for example <big>聾</big> = "[[deaf]]", which is composed of 龍 "dragon" and the "[[ear]]" 耳 radical, "a word with meaning related to ears and pronounced similarly to 龍": "dragon gives sound, ear gives meaning".

==Characters with Radical 212==
{|class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龍}}
|----
| +2 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龎}}
|----
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龏}} {{Linktext|龐}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龑}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龒}}
|----
| +6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龓}} {{Linktext|龔}} {{Linktext|龕}}
|----
| +16 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龖}}
|----
| +17 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龗}}
|----
| +32 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|龘}}
|----
| +48 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|𪚥}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 龍}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*Leyi Li: “Tracing the Roots of Chinese Characters: 500 Cases”. Beijing 1993, {{ISBN|978-7-5619-0204-2}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F8D Unihan Database - U+9F8D]
{{wiktionary|龍}}

{{Commons category|Radical 212}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|212]]
[[Category:Chinese dragons]]

Radical 211

2024-10-13T01:30:58Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 211 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{for|the four stroke ''tooth'' radical|Radical 92}}

{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|211|uni=9F52
|meaning= teeth
|pny= chǐ
|bopo= ㄔˇ
|gr= chyy
|wade= ch{{wg-apos}}ih3
|jyutping= ci2
|yale= chí
|hi= シ shi は ha
|kanji= 歯偏 hahen
|hang= 이 i
|hanja= 치 chi
|hanviet= xỉ
}}

[[File:Radical 211 Shuowen.jpg|thumb|radical 211 in the Shuowen Dictionary]]
'''Radical 211''' meaning '''"[[tooth|teeth]]"''' is the only one of the 214 [[Kangxi radical]]s that is composed of 15 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are only 21 characters (out of 40 000) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 211==
{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齒}} {{Linktext|齿}}SC {{Linktext|歯}}JP
|----
| +1 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齓}}
|----
| +2 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齔}}
|----
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齕}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齖}} {{Linktext|齗}} {{Linktext|齘}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齙}} {{Linktext|齚}} {{Linktext|齛}} {{Linktext|齜}} {{Linktext|齝}} {{Linktext|齞}} {{Linktext|齟}} {{Linktext|齠}} {{Linktext|齡}} {{Linktext|齢}} {{Linktext|齣}}
|----
| +6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齤}} {{Linktext|齥}} {{Linktext|齦}} {{Linktext|齧}} {{Linktext|齨}} {{Linktext|齩}}
|----
| +7 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齪}} {{Linktext|齫}} {{Linktext|齬}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齭}} {{Linktext|齮}} {{Linktext|齯}} {{Linktext|齰}} {{Linktext|齱}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齲}} {{Linktext|齳}} {{Linktext|齴}} {{Linktext|齵}} {{Linktext|齶}} {{Linktext|齷}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齸}} {{Linktext|齹}} {{Linktext|齺}} {{Linktext|齻}}
|----
| +13 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齼}} {{Linktext|齽}}
|----
| +20 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齾}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 齒}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*Leyi Li: "Tracing the Roots of Chinese Characters: 500 Cases". Beijing 1993, {{ISBN|978-7-5619-0204-2}}

== External links ==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=%E9%BD%92 Unihan Database – U+9F52]
*[http://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en&rad=211 齒 radical - Chinese Text Project] Ancient forms of the character and list of Unicode characters with the radical.

{{Commons category|Radical 211}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|211]]

Radical 210

2024-10-13T01:29:44Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 210 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|210|uni=9F4A
|meaning=even, uniformly
|pny= qí
|bopo= ㄑㄧˊ
|wade= ch'i2
|jyutping = cai4
|yale = cai4
|hi= セイ, サイ sei, sai そろう sorō
|kanji= 斉 sei
|hang= 가지런할 gajireonhal
|hanja= 제 jae
|hanviet= tày
}}

'''Radical 210''' meaning '''"[[wikt:even|even]]"''' or '''"[[wikt:uniformly|uniformly]]"''' is 1 of 2 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 14 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 18 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 210==
{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齊}} {{Linktext|斉}} {{Linktext|齐}}
|----
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|斎}} {{Linktext|齋}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齌}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齍}}
|----
| +7 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齎}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齏}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 齊}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*{{cite book|last= Lunde |first= Ken |title= CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing |edition= Second |date= Jan 5, 2009 |publisher= [[O'Reilly Media]] |location= [[Sebastopol, California|Sebastopol, Calif.]] |isbn= 978-0-596-51447-1 |chapter= Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets |chapter-url= http://examples.oreilly.com/9780596514471/cjkvip2e-appJ.pdf }}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F4A Unihan Database - U+9F4A]

{{Commons category|Radical 210}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|210]]

Radical 209

2024-10-13T01:29:35Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 209 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|209|uni=9F3B
|meaning=nose
|pny= bí
|bopo= ㄅㄧˊ
|wade= pi2
|jyutping= bei6
|yale =bei6
|hi= ヒ, ビ hi, bi hana はな
|kanji= 鼻偏 hanaben
|hang= 코 ko
|hanja= 비 bi
|hanviet= tị
}}

'''Radical 209''' meaning '''"[[nose]]"''' is 1 of 2 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 14 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 49 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 209==
{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼻}}
|----
| +2 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼼}} {{Linktext|鼽}}
|----
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼾}} {{Linktext|鼿}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齀}} {{Linktext|齁}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齂}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齃}} {{Linktext|齄}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齅}} {{Linktext|齆}}
|----
| +11 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齇}}
|----
| +13 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齈}}
|----
| +22 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齉}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 鼻}}

==Sinogram==

As an independent sinogram 鼻 is a [[Chinese character]]. It is one of the [[Kyōiku kanji]] or Kanji taught in elementary school in [[Japan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=The Kyoiku Kanji (教育漢字) - Kanshudo |url=https://www.kanshudo.com/collections/kyoiku_kanji |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324010221/https://www.kanshudo.com/collections/kyoiku_kanji |archive-date=March 24, 2022 |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=www.kanshudo.com}}</ref> Specifically it is a third grade kanji.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}

== External links ==

*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F3B Unihan Database - U+9F3B]

{{Commons category|Radical 209}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|209]]
[[Category:Kyōiku kanji]]
[[Category:Kanji]]

Radical 208

2024-10-13T01:29:25Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 208 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|208|uni=9F20
|meaning=rat, mouse
|pny= shǔ
|bopo= ㄕㄨˇ
|wade= shu3
|jyutping= syu2
|yale= syu2
|hi= ショ, ソ sho, so ねずみ nezumi
|kanji= 鼠 nezumi
|hang= 쥐 jwi
|hanja= 서 seo
|hanviet= thử
}}

'''Radical 208''' meaning '''"[[rat]]"''' or '''"[[mouse]]"''' is 1 of 4 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 13 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 92 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 208==
{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼠}} {{Linktext|鼡}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼢}} {{Linktext|鼣}} {{Linktext|鼤}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼥}} {{Linktext|鼦}} {{Linktext|鼧}} {{Linktext|鼨}} {{Linktext|鼩}} {{Linktext|鼪}} {{Linktext|鼫}} {{Linktext|鼬}}
|----
| +6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼭}}
|----
| +7 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼮}} {{Linktext|鼯}} {{Linktext|鼰}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼱}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼲}} {{Linktext|鼳}} {{Linktext|鼴}} {{Linktext|鼵}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼶}} {{Linktext|鼷}} {{Linktext|鼸}} {{Linktext|鼹}}
|----
| +15 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼺}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 鼠}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*{{cite book|last= Lunde |first= Ken |title= CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing |edition= Second |date= Jan 5, 2009 |publisher= [[O'Reilly Media]] |location= [[Sebastopol, California|Sebastopol, Calif.]] |isbn= 978-0-596-51447-1 |chapter= Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets |chapter-url= http://examples.oreilly.com/9780596514471/cjkvip2e-appJ.pdf }}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F20 Unihan Database - U+9F20]

{{Commons category|Radical 208}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|208]]
[[Category:Rodents in culture]]

Radical 208

2024-10-13T01:28:39Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 208 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|208|uni=9F20
|meaning=rat, mouse
|pny= shǔ
|bopo= ㄕㄨˇ
|wade= shu3
|jyutping= syu2
|yale= syu2
|hi= ショ, ソ sho, so ねずみ nezumi
|kanji= 鼠 nezumi
|hang= 쥐 jwi
|hanja= 서 seo
|hanviet= thử
}}

'''Radical 208''' meaning '''"[[rat]]"''' or '''"[[mouse]]"''' is 1 of 4 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 13 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 92 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 208==

{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼠}} {{Linktext|鼡}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼢}} {{Linktext|鼣}} {{Linktext|鼤}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼥}} {{Linktext|鼦}} {{Linktext|鼧}} {{Linktext|鼨}} {{Linktext|鼩}} {{Linktext|鼪}} {{Linktext|鼫}} {{Linktext|鼬}}
|----
| +6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼭}}
|----
| +7 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼮}} {{Linktext|鼯}} {{Linktext|鼰}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼱}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼲}} {{Linktext|鼳}} {{Linktext|鼴}} {{Linktext|鼵}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼶}} {{Linktext|鼷}} {{Linktext|鼸}} {{Linktext|鼹}}
|----
| +15 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼺}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 鼠}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*{{cite book|last= Lunde |first= Ken |title= CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing |edition= Second |date= Jan 5, 2009 |publisher= [[O'Reilly Media]] |location= [[Sebastopol, California|Sebastopol, Calif.]] |isbn= 978-0-596-51447-1 |chapter= Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets |chapter-url= http://examples.oreilly.com/9780596514471/cjkvip2e-appJ.pdf }}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F20 Unihan Database - U+9F20]

{{Commons category|Radical 208}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|208]]
[[Category:Rodents in culture]]

Radical 210

2024-10-13T01:28:11Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 210 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|210|uni=9F4A
|meaning=even, uniformly
|pny= qí
|bopo= ㄑㄧˊ
|wade= ch'i2
|jyutping = cai4
|yale = cai4
|hi= セイ, サイ sei, sai そろう sorō
|kanji= 斉 sei
|hang= 가지런할 gajireonhal
|hanja= 제 jae
|hanviet= tày
}}

'''Radical 210''' meaning '''"[[wikt:even|even]]"''' or '''"[[wikt:uniformly|uniformly]]"''' is 1 of 2 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 14 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 18 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 210==

{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齊}} {{Linktext|斉}} {{Linktext|齐}}
|----
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|斎}} {{Linktext|齋}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齌}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齍}}
|----
| +7 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齎}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齏}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 齊}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*{{cite book|last= Lunde |first= Ken |title= CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing |edition= Second |date= Jan 5, 2009 |publisher= [[O'Reilly Media]] |location= [[Sebastopol, California|Sebastopol, Calif.]] |isbn= 978-0-596-51447-1 |chapter= Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets |chapter-url= http://examples.oreilly.com/9780596514471/cjkvip2e-appJ.pdf }}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F4A Unihan Database - U+9F4A]

{{Commons category|Radical 210}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|210]]

Radical 209

2024-10-13T01:25:49Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 209 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|209|uni=9F3B
|meaning=nose
|pny= bí
|bopo= ㄅㄧˊ
|wade= pi2
|jyutping= bei6
|yale =bei6
|hi= ヒ, ビ hi, bi hana はな
|kanji= 鼻偏 hanaben
|hang= 코 ko
|hanja= 비 bi
|hanviet= tị
}}

'''Radical 209''' meaning '''"[[nose]]"''' is 1 of 2 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 14 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 49 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 209==

{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼻}}
|----
| +2 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼼}} {{Linktext|鼽}}
|----
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼾}} {{Linktext|鼿}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齀}} {{Linktext|齁}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齂}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齃}} {{Linktext|齄}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齅}} {{Linktext|齆}}
|----
| +11 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齇}}
|----
| +13 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齈}}
|----
| +22 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|齉}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 鼻}}

==Sinogram==

As an independent sinogram 鼻 is a [[Chinese character]]. It is one of the [[Kyōiku kanji]] or Kanji taught in elementary school in [[Japan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=The Kyoiku Kanji (教育漢字) - Kanshudo |url=https://www.kanshudo.com/collections/kyoiku_kanji |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324010221/https://www.kanshudo.com/collections/kyoiku_kanji |archive-date=March 24, 2022 |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=www.kanshudo.com}}</ref> Specifically it is a third grade kanji.<ref name=":0" />

== References ==

{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==

*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}

== External links ==

*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F3B Unihan Database - U+9F3B]

{{Commons category|Radical 209}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|209]]
[[Category:Kyōiku kanji]]
[[Category:Kanji]]

Radical 208

2024-10-13T01:23:16Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 208 */

Radical 207

2024-10-13T01:19:47Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 207 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|207|uni=9F13
|meaning=drum
|pny= gǔ
|bopo= ㄍㄨˇ
|wade= ku3
|jyutping= gu2
|yale= gu2
|hi= コ, ク ko, ku つづみ tsuzumi
|kanji= 鼓 tsuzumi
|hang= 북 buk
|hanja= 고 go
|hanviet= cổ
}}

'''Radical 207''' meaning '''"[[drum]]"''' is 1 of 4 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 13 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 46 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 207==
{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼓}} {{Linktext|鼔}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼕}} {{Linktext|鼖}}
|----
| +6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼗}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼘}} {{Linktext|鼙}} {{Linktext|鼚}} {{Linktext|鼛}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼜}}
|----
| +11 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼝}} {{Linktext|鼞}}
|----
| +12 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼟}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 鼓}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*{{cite book|last= Lunde |first= Ken |title= CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing |edition= Second |date= Jan 5, 2009 |publisher= [[O'Reilly Media]] |location= [[Sebastopol, California|Sebastopol, Calif.]] |isbn= 978-0-596-51447-1 |chapter= Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets |chapter-url= http://examples.oreilly.com/9780596514471/cjkvip2e-appJ.pdf }}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F13 Unihan Database - U+9F13]

{{Commons category|Radical 207}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|207]]

Radical 206

2024-10-13T01:15:57Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 206 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|206|uni=9F0E
|meaning=sacrificial tripod, cauldron
|pny= dǐng
|bopo= ㄉㄧㄥˇ
|wade= ting3
|jyutping= ding2
|yale= ding2
|hi= テイ tei かなえ kanae
|kanji= 鼎 kanae
|hang= 솥 sot
|hanja= 정 jeong
|hanviet= đỉnh
}}

'''Radical 206''' meaning '''"[[sacrificial tripod]]"''' or '''"three-legged [[cauldron]]"''' is 1 of 4 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 13 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 14 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 206==
[[File:鼎-seal.svg|thumb|150px|[[seal script]] character]]
{| class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼎}}
|----
| +2 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼏}} {{Linktext|鼑}} {{Linktext|鼐}}
|----
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼒}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 鼎}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*{{cite book|last= Lunde |first= Ken |title= CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing |edition= Second |date= Jan 5, 2009 |publisher= [[O'Reilly Media]] |location= [[Sebastopol, California|Sebastopol, Calif.]] |isbn= 978-0-596-51447-1 |chapter= Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets |chapter-url= http://examples.oreilly.com/9780596514471/cjkvip2e-appJ.pdf }}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9F0E Unihan Database - U+9F0E]

{{Commons category|Radical 206}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|206]]

Radical 204

2024-10-13T01:13:01Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 204 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|204|uni=9EF9
|meaning=embroidery, needlework
|pny= zhǐ
|bopo= ㄓˇ
|wade= chih3
|jyutping= zi2
|yale= ji2
|hi= チ chi ぬいとり nuitori
|kanji= 黹偏 futsuhen (ふつへん)
|hang= 바느질할치 baneujilhal
|hanja= 치 chi
|hanviet= chỉ
}}

'''Radical 204''' or '''radical embroidery''' meaning '''"[[embroidery]]"''' or '''"[[needlework]]"''' is 1 of 4 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 12 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are only eight characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 204==
{| class="wikitable"
! Strokes !! Characters
|-
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|黹}}
|-
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|黺}}
|-
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|黻}}
|-
| +7 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|黼}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 黹}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*{{cite book|last= Lunde |first= Ken |title= CJKV Information Processing: Chinese, Japanese, Korean & Vietnamese Computing |edition= Second |date= Jan 5, 2009 |publisher= [[O'Reilly Media]] |location= [[Sebastopol, California|Sebastopol, Calif.]] |isbn= 978-0-596-51447-1 |chapter= Appendix J: Japanese Character Sets |chapter-url= http://examples.oreilly.com/9780596514471/cjkvip2e-appJ.pdf }}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9EF9 Unihan Database - U+9EF9]

{{Commons category|Radical 204}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|204]]
[[Category:Embroidery]]

Radical 205

2024-10-13T01:11:53Z

Tc14Hd: /* Characters with Radical 205 */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Kangxi Radical Infobox|205|uni=9EFD
|meaning=frog, amphibian
|pny= mǐn
|bopo= ㄇㄧㄣˇ
|wade= min3
|jyutping= man5
|yale= man5
|hi= ベン, ボー ben, bō つとめる tsutomeru
|kanji= 黽足 benashi<ref name="kanjibox">{{cite web |url=http://www15.atpages.jp/sa2700v/parts_name.htm |title=Kanji Box - Radicals list with names |access-date=2011-04-08 }}</ref> (べんあし)
|hang= 맹꽁이 maengkkongi
|hanja= 맹 maeng
|hanviet= mãnh
}}

'''Radical 205''' meaning '''"[[frog]]"''' or '''"[[amphibian]]"''' is 1 of 4 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals total) composed of 13 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the [[Kangxi Dictionary]] there are 40 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

==Characters with Radical 205==
{|class="wikitable"
! strokes !! character
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|黽}} {{Linktext|黾}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|黿}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼀}} {{Linktext|鼁}} {{Linktext|鼂}}
|----
| +6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼃}} {{Linktext|鼄}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼅}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼆}}
|----
| +11 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼇}}
|----
| +12 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|鼈}} {{Linktext|鼉}} {{Linktext|鼊}}
|}
{{Main|wikt:Wiktionary:Chinese radical index 黽}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}

==External links==
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=9EFD Unihan Database - U+9EFD]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Commons category|Radical 205}}
{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|205]]
[[Category:Amphibians in culture]]

Chinese language

2024-10-12T22:19:47Z

Tc14Hd: /* top */Removed empty line

{{Short description|National language of China}}
{{About|the Chinese language, which includes many varieties|the standardized form|Standard Chinese|other languages in China|Languages of China|different varieties|Sinitic languages}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Chinese
| states = The [[Sinophone]] world: {{hlist|[[China]]|[[Taiwan]]|[[Malaysia]]|[[Indonesia]]|[[Singapore]]}}
| speakers = {{sigfig|1.352664750|3}} billion
| date = 2017–2022
| ref = e27
| familycolor = Sino-Tibetan
| fam2 = [[Sinitic]]
| ancestor = [[Proto-Sino-Tibetan]]
| ancestor2 = [[Old Chinese]]
| ancestor3 = [[Eastern Han Chinese]]
| ancestor4 = [[Middle Chinese]]{{efn|The colloquial layers of many varieties, particularly Min varieties, reflect features that predate Middle Chinese.{{sfnmp|Norman|1988|1pp=211–214|Pulleyblank|1984|2p=3}}}}
| dialect_label = [[Varieties of Chinese|Varieties]]
| dia1 = [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
| dia2 = [[Jin Chinese|Jin]]
| dia3 = [[Wu Chinese|Wu]]
| dia4 = [[Gan Chinese|Gan]]
| dia5 = [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]]
| dia6 = [[Min Chinese|Min]]
| dia7 = [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]
| dia8 = [[Yue Chinese|Yue]]
| dia9 = [[Pinghua|Ping]]
| dia10 = [[Huizhou Chinese|Huizhou]]
| stand1 = [[Standard Chinese]]
| stand2 = [[Standard Cantonese]]
| script = {{hlist|[[Chinese characters]]|[[Bopomofo]]|[[Pinyin]]|[[Xiao'erjing]]|[[Dungan language#Writing system|Dungan]]|[[Chinese braille (disambiguation)|Chinese Braille]]|[[ʼPhags-pa]]}}
| nation = {{hlist|China{{efn|Standard Chinese is an official language throughout China. Cantonese is a co-official language specifically in Hong Kong and Macao.}}|Taiwan{{efn|Mandarin, Hakka, and Hokkien.}}|Singapore}}
| minority = Malaysia
| agency = {{blist
| China: [[State Language Commission]]
| Taiwan: [[National Languages Committee]], [[Hakka Affairs Council]]
| Malaysia: [[Chinese Language Standardisation Council]]
| Singapore: [[Ministry of Education (Singapore)|Ministry of Education]], [[Promote Mandarin Council]]
}}
| iso1 = zh
| iso2b = chi
| iso2t = zho
| iso3 = zho
| image = Chineselanguage.svg
| imagescale = 0.5
| imagecaption = {{tlit|zh|Hànyǔ}} written in [[Traditional Chinese characters|traditional]] (top) and [[Simplified Chinese characters|simplified]] (middle) forms, {{tlit|zh|Zhōngwén}} (bottom)
| notice = IPA
| listclass = hlist
| glotto = sini1245
| glottorefname = Sinitic
| glottofoot = no
| map = Map-Sinophone World.png
| mapscale = 1
| mapcaption = Map of the Chinese-speaking world
{{legend|#00A800|Majority Chinese-speaking}}
{{legend|#80C534|Significant Chinese-speaking population}}
{{legend|#b1ff72|Status as an official or educational language}}
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| order = st
| s = {{linktext|汉语}}
| t = {{linktext|漢語}}
| l = [[Han Chinese|Han]] language
| p = Hànyǔ
| gr = Hannyeu
| w = {{tonesup|Han4-yu3}}
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|h|an|4|.|yu|3}}
| myr = Hàn-yǔ
| tp = Hàn-yǔ
| h = Hon Ngi
| j = Hon3 jyu5
| y = Hon yúh
| gd = {{tonesup|Hon3 yü5}}
| ci = {{IPA-yue|hɔ̄ːn.jy̬ː}}
| buc = Háng-ngṳ̄
| poj = {{ubl|Hàn-gí|Hàn-gú}}
| wuu = {{tonesup|Hoe3 nyiu2}}
| c2 = {{linktext|lang=zh|中文}}
| l2 = [[Names of China|Chinese]] writing
| p2 = Zhōngwén
| gr2 = Jongwen
| h2 = Chung-Vun
| w2 = {{tonesup|Chung1-wen2}}
| mi2 = {{IPAc-cmn|zh|ong|1|.|wen|2}}
| myr2 = Jūng-wén
| tp2 = Jhong-wún
| buc2 = Dṳng-ùng
| poj2 = Tiong-bûn
| wuu2 = {{tonesup|Tson1 ven1}}
| j2 = Zung1 man4*2
| y2 = Jūng mán
| gd2 = Zung1 men4*2
| s3 = {{linktext|汉文}}
| t3 = {{linktext|漢文}}
| l3 = Han writing
| p3 = Hànwén
| bpmf = {{bpmfsp|ㄏㄢˋ|ㄩˇ}}
| bpmf2 = {{bpmfsp|ㄓㄨㄥ|ㄨㄣˊ}}
| bpmf3 = {{bpmfsp|ㄏㄢˋ|ㄨㄣˊ}}
| gr3 = Hannwen
| w3 = {{tonesup|Han4-wen2}}
| tp3 = Hàn-wún
| mi3 = {{IPAc-cmn|h|an|4|.|wen|2}}
| ci2 = {{ubl|{{IPAc-yue|z|ong|1|-|m|an|4}}|{{IPAc-yue|z|ong|1|-|m|an|2}}}}
}}

'''Chinese''' ({{zh|s=汉语|t=漢語|p=Hànyǔ|l=[[Han Chinese|Han]] language}} or {{zhi|c=中文|p=Zhōngwén|l=Chinese writing}}) is a group of [[language]]s{{efn|name=dialect-perspective|"Chinese" refers collectively to the various language varieties that have descended from Old Chinese: native speakers often consider these to be "dialects" of a single language—though the Chinese term {{zhi|c=方言|p=fāngyán|l=dialect}} does not carry the precise connotations of "dialect" in English—while linguists typically analyze them as separate languages. See [[Dialect continuum]] and [[Varieties of Chinese]] for details.}} spoken natively by the ethnic [[Han Chinese]] majority and [[List of ethnic groups in China|many minority ethnic groups]] in [[China]]. Approximately 1.35 billion people, or 17% of the global population, speak a [[variety of Chinese]] as their [[first language]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |title=Summary by language size |website=Ethnologue |date=3 October 2018 |access-date=2021-03-07}}</ref> [[File:WIKITONGUES- Ying speaking Henan Chinese.webm|thumb|Ying, a speaker of Henan Chinese]]

Chinese languages form the [[Sinitic languages|Sinitic branch]] of the [[Sino-Tibetan language]] family. The spoken varieties of Chinese are usually considered by native speakers to be [[dialect]]s of a single language. However, their lack of [[mutual intelligibility]] means they are sometimes considered to be separate languages in a [[Language family|family]].{{efn|Various examples include:{{blist|David Crystal, ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 312. "The mutual unintelligibility of the varieties is the main ground for referring to them as separate languages."
|Charles N. Li, Sandra A. Thompson. ''Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar'' (1989), p. 2. "The Chinese language family is genetically classified as an independent branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family."
|{{harvp|Norman|1988|p=1}}. "[...] the modern Chinese dialects are really more like a family of languages [...]"
|{{harvp|DeFrancis|1984|p=56}}. "To call Chinese a single language composed of dialects with varying degrees of difference is to mislead by minimizing disparities that according to Chao are as great as those between English and Dutch. To call Chinese a family of languages is to suggest extralinguistic differences that in fact do not exist and to overlook the unique linguistic situation that exists in China."}}
Linguists in China often use a formulation introduced by [[Fu Maoji]] in the ''[[Encyclopedia of China]]'': {{zhi|c=《汉语在语言系属分类中相当于一个语族的地位。》|tr=In language classification, Chinese has a status equivalent to a language family.}}{{sfnp|Mair|1991|pp=10, 21}}
}} Investigation of the historical relationships among the varieties of Chinese is ongoing. Currently, most classifications posit 7 to 13 main regional groups based on phonetic developments from [[Middle Chinese]], of which the most spoken by far is [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] with 66%, or around 800 million speakers, followed by [[Min Chinese|Min]] (75 million, e.g. [[Southern Min]]), [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] (74 million, e.g. [[Shanghainese]]), and [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] (68 million, e.g. [[Cantonese]]).{{sfnp|Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|2012|pp=3, 125}} These branches are unintelligible to each other, and many of their subgroups are unintelligible with the other varieties within the same branch (e.g. Southern Min). There are, however, transitional areas where varieties from different branches share enough features for some limited intelligibility, including [[New Xiang]] with [[Southwestern Mandarin]], [[Xuanzhou Wu Chinese]] with [[Lower Yangtze Mandarin]], [[Jin Chinese|Jin]] with [[Central Plains Mandarin]] and certain divergent dialects of [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] with [[Gan Chinese|Gan]]. All varieties of Chinese are [[Tone (linguistics)|tonal]] at least to some degree, and are largely [[Analytic language|analytic]].

The earliest attested [[written Chinese]] consists of the [[oracle bone inscriptions]] created during the [[Shang dynasty]] {{circa|1250 BCE}}. The phonetic categories of [[Old Chinese]] can be reconstructed from the rhymes of ancient poetry. During the [[Northern and Southern period]], Middle Chinese went through several [[sound change]]s and split into several varieties following prolonged geographic and political separation. The ''[[Qieyun]]'', a [[rime dictionary]], recorded a compromise between the pronunciations of different regions. The royal courts of the Ming and early [[Qing dynasties]] operated using a [[koiné language]] known as ''[[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|Guanhua]]'', based on the [[Nanjing dialect]] of Mandarin.

[[Standard Chinese]] is an official language of both the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]] (Taiwan), one of the four [[Languages of Singapore|official languages of Singapore]], and one of the six [[official languages of the United Nations]]. Standard Chinese is based on the [[Beijing dialect]] of Mandarin and was first officially adopted in the 1930s. The language is written primarily using a [[logography]] of [[Chinese characters]], largely shared by readers who may otherwise speak mutually unintelligible varieties. Since the 1950s, the use of [[simplified characters]] has been promoted by the government of the People's Republic of China, with Singapore officially adopting them in 1976. [[Traditional characters]] are used in Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macau, and among Chinese-speaking [[Overseas Chinese|communities overseas]].

==Classification==
Linguists classify all varieties of Chinese as part of the [[Sino-Tibetan language family]], together with [[Burmese language|Burmese]], [[Tibetic languages|Tibetan]] and many other languages spoken in the [[Himalayas]] and the [[Southeast Asian Massif]].{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=12–13}} Although the relationship was first proposed in the early 19th century and is now broadly accepted, reconstruction of Sino-Tibetan is much less developed than that of families such as [[Indo-European]] or [[Austroasiatic]]. Difficulties have included the great diversity of the languages, the lack of [[inflection]] in many of them, and the effects of language contact. In addition, many of the smaller languages are spoken in mountainous areas that are difficult to reach and are often also sensitive border zones.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|pp=422, 434–436}} Without a secure reconstruction of Proto-Sino-Tibetan, the higher-level structure of the family remains unclear.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|p=426}} A top-level branching into Chinese and [[Tibeto-Burman languages]] is often assumed, but has not been convincingly demonstrated.{{sfnp|Handel|2008|p=431}}

==History==
{{Main|History of the Chinese language}}
The first written records appeared over 3,000 years ago during the [[Shang dynasty]]. As the language evolved over this period, the various local varieties became mutually unintelligible. In reaction, central governments have repeatedly sought to promulgate a unified standard.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=183–185}}

===Old and Middle Chinese===
{{Main|Old Chinese|Middle Chinese}}
{{Further|Reconstruction of Old Chinese}}
The earliest examples of Old Chinese are divinatory inscriptions on [[oracle bone]]s dated to {{circa|1250 BCE}}, during the [[Late Shang]].{{sfnp|Schüssler|2007|p=1}} The next attested stage came from [[Chinese bronze inscriptions|inscriptions on bronze artifacts]] dating to the [[Western Zhou]] period (1046–771 BCE), the ''[[Classic of Poetry]]'' and portions of the ''[[Book of Documents]]'' and ''[[I Ching]]''.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=2–3}} Scholars have attempted to reconstruct the [[phonology of Old Chinese]] by comparing later varieties of Chinese with the rhyming practice of the ''Classic of Poetry'' and the phonetic elements found in the majority of Chinese characters.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=42–45}} Although many of the finer details remain unclear, most scholars agree that Old Chinese differs from Middle Chinese in lacking retroflex and palatal obstruents but having initial [[consonant cluster]]s of some sort, and in having voiceless nasals and liquids.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|p=177}} Most recent reconstructions also describe an atonal language with consonant clusters at the end of the syllable, developing into [[tone (linguistics)|tone]] distinctions in Middle Chinese.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=181–183}} Several [[derivational affix]]es have also been identified, but the language lacks [[inflection]], and indicated grammatical relationships using word order and [[grammatical particle]]s.{{sfnp|Schüssler|2007|p=12}}

Middle Chinese was the language used during [[Northern and Southern dynasties]] and the [[Sui dynasty|Sui]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties (6th–10th centuries CE). It can be divided into an early period, reflected by the ''[[Qieyun]]'' rime dictionary (601 CE), and a late period in the 10th century, reflected by [[rhyme table]]s such as the {{tlit|zh|[[Yunjing]]}} constructed by ancient Chinese philologists as a guide to the ''Qieyun'' system.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=14–15}} These works define phonological categories but with little hint of what sounds they represent.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=125}} Linguists have identified these sounds by comparing the categories with pronunciations in modern [[varieties of Chinese]], [[Sino-Xenic vocabularies|borrowed Chinese words]] in Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean, and transcription evidence.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=34–42}} The resulting system is very complex, with a large number of consonants and vowels, but they are probably not all distinguished in any single dialect. Most linguists now believe it represents a [[diasystem]] encompassing 6th-century northern and southern standards for reading the classics.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=24}}

===Classical and vernacular written forms===
{{Main|Classical Chinese|Written vernacular Chinese}}
The complex relationship between spoken and written Chinese is an example of [[diglossia]]: as spoken, Chinese varieties have evolved at different rates, while the written language used throughout China changed comparatively little, crystallizing into a prestige form known as [[Classical Chinese|Classical or Literary Chinese]]. Literature written distinctly in the Classical form began to emerge during the [[Spring and Autumn period]]. Its use in writing remained nearly universal until the late 19th century, culminating with the widespread adoption of [[written vernacular Chinese]] with the [[May Fourth Movement]] beginning in 1919.

===Rise of northern dialects===
After the fall of the [[Northern Song]] dynasty and subsequent reign of the Jurchen [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin]] and Mongol [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] dynasties in northern China, a common speech (now called [[Old Mandarin]]) developed based on the dialects of the [[North China Plain]] around the capital.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=48}}
The 1324 ''[[Zhongyuan Yinyun]]'' was a dictionary that codified the rhyming conventions of new ''[[sanqu]]'' verse form in this language.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=48–49}}
Together with the slightly later ''[[Menggu Ziyun]]'', this dictionary describes a language with many of the features characteristic of modern Mandarin dialects.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=49–51}}

Up to the early 20th century, most Chinese people only spoke their local variety.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|pp=133, 247}}
Thus, as a practical measure, officials of the [[Ming]] and [[Qing]] dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a [[Mandarin (late imperial lingua franca)|common language based on Mandarin varieties]], known as {{zhi|s=官话|t=官話|p=Guānhuà|l=language of officials}}.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=136}}
For most of this period, this language was a koiné based on dialects spoken in the [[Nanjing]] area, though not identical to any single dialect.{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|pp=549–550}}
By the middle of the 19th century, the Beijing dialect had become dominant and was essential for any business with the imperial court.{{sfnp|Coblin|2000|pp=540–541}}

In the 1930s, a [[Standard Chinese|standard national language]] ({{zhi|s=国语|t=國語|p=Guóyǔ}}), was adopted. After much dispute between proponents of northern and southern dialects and an abortive attempt at an artificial pronunciation, the [[National Languages Committee|National Language Unification Commission]] finally settled on the Beijing dialect in 1932. The People's Republic founded in 1949 retained this standard but renamed it {{zhi|s=普通话|t=普通話|p=pǔtōnghuà|l=common speech}}.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|pp=3–15}} The national language is now used in education, the media, and formal situations in both mainland China and Taiwan.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=133}}

In [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]], Cantonese is the dominant spoken language due to cultural influence from Guangdong immigrants and colonial-era policies, and is used in education, media, formal speech, and everyday life—though Mandarin is increasingly taught in schools due to the mainland's growing influence.{{sfnp|Zhang|Yang|2004}}

===Influence===
{{see also|Adoption of Chinese literary culture|Sino-Xenic vocabularies}}
[[File:Tripitaka Koreana.jpg|thumb|right|The ''[[Tripitaka Koreana]]'', a Korean collection of the [[Chinese Buddhist canon]]]]

Historically, the Chinese language has spread to its neighbors through a variety of means. Northern Vietnam was incorporated into the [[Han dynasty]] (202 BCE{{snd}}220 CE) in 111 BCE, marking the beginning of a [[Chinese domination of Vietnam|period of Chinese control]] that ran almost continuously for a millennium. The [[Four Commanderies of Han]] were established in northern Korea in the 1st century BCE but disintegrated in the following centuries.{{sfnp|Sohn|Lee|2003|p=23}} [[Chinese Buddhism]] spread over East Asia between the 2nd and 5th centuries CE, and with it the study of scriptures and literature in Literary Chinese.{{sfnp|Miller|1967|pp=29–30}} Later, strong central governments modeled on Chinese institutions were established in Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, with Literary Chinese serving as the language of administration and scholarship, a position it would retain until the late 19th century in Korea and (to a lesser extent) Japan, and the early 20th century in Vietnam.{{sfnp|Kornicki|2011|pp=75–77}} Scholars from different lands could communicate, albeit only in writing, using Literary Chinese.{{sfnp|Kornicki|2011|p=67}}

Although they used Chinese solely for written communication, each country had its own tradition of reading texts aloud using what are known as [[Sino-Xenic pronunciations]]. Chinese words with these pronunciations were also extensively imported into the [[Korean language|Korean]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]] languages, and today comprise over half of their vocabularies.{{sfnp|Miyake|2004|pp=98–99}} This massive influx led to changes in the phonological structure of the languages, contributing to the development of [[Mora (linguistics)|mora]]ic structure in Japanese{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|pp=120–121}} and the disruption of [[vowel harmony]] in Korean.{{sfnp|Sohn|2001|p=89}}

Borrowed Chinese morphemes have been used extensively in all these languages to coin compound words for new concepts, in a similar way to the use of [[Latin]] and [[Ancient Greek]] roots in European languages.{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|p=146}} Many new compounds, or new meanings for old phrases, were created in the late 19th and early 20th centuries to name Western concepts and artifacts. These coinages, written in shared Chinese characters, have then been borrowed freely between languages. They have even been accepted into Chinese, a language usually resistant to loanwords, because their foreign origin was hidden by their written form. Often different compounds for the same concept were in circulation for some time before a winner emerged, and sometimes the final choice differed between countries.{{sfnp|Wilkinson|2000|p=43}} The proportion of vocabulary of Chinese origin thus tends to be greater in technical, abstract, or formal language. For example, in Japan, [[Sino-Japanese words]] account for about 35% of the words in entertainment magazines, over half the words in newspapers, and 60% of the words in science magazines.{{sfnp|Shibatani|1990|p=143}}

Vietnam, Korea, and Japan each developed writing systems for their own languages, initially based on [[Chinese characters]], but later replaced with the {{tlit|ko|[[hangul]]}} alphabet for Korean and supplemented with {{tlit|ja|[[kana]]}} syllabaries for Japanese, while Vietnamese continued to be written with the complex {{lang|vi|[[chữ Nôm]]}} script. However, these were limited to popular literature until the late 19th century. Today Japanese is written with a composite script using both Chinese characters called [[kanji]], and kana. Korean is written exclusively with hangul in North Korea, although knowledge of the supplementary Chinese characters called [[hanja]] is still required, and hanja are increasingly rarely used in South Korea. As a result of its historical colonization by France, Vietnamese now uses the Latin-based [[Vietnamese alphabet]].

[[List of English words of Chinese origin|English words of Chinese origin]] include ''tea'' from [[Hokkien]] {{zhc|c=茶|poj=tê}}, ''[[dim sum]]'' from Cantonese {{zhc|c=點心|j=dim2 sam1}}, and ''[[kumquat]]'' from Cantonese {{zhc|c=金橘|j=gam1 gwat1}}.

==Varieties==
{{Main|Varieties of Chinese}}
{{OSM Location map
| coord = {{coord|23|112}} 
| mark-coord1 = {{coord|22.252|112.794}} | label1 = Taishan
| mark-coord2 = {{coord|23.477|111.279}} | label2 = Wuzhou
| mark-coord3 = {{coord|23.13 |113.26 }} | label3 = Guangzhou
| map-data = Q201463
| map-data-color = #0000FF
| zoom = 7
| nolabels = 1
}}
The sinologist [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] has estimated that there are hundreds of mutually unintelligible varieties of Chinese.{{sfnp|Norman|2003|p=72}} These varieties form a [[dialect continuum]], in which differences in speech generally become more pronounced as distances increase, though the rate of change varies immensely. Generally, mountainous South China exhibits more linguistic diversity than the [[North China Plain]]. Until the late 20th century, Chinese emigrants to Southeast Asia and North America came from southeast coastal areas, where Min, Hakka, and Yue dialects were spoken. Specifically, most Chinese immigrants to North America until the mid-20th century spoke [[Taishanese]], a variety of Yue from a small coastal area around [[Taishan, Guangdong]].{{sfnmp|Norman|1988|1pp=189–191|Ramsey|1987|2p=98}}

In parts of South China, the dialect of a major city may be only marginally intelligible to its neighbors. For example, [[Wuzhou]] and Taishan are located approximately {{cvt|260|km|mi}} and {{cvt|190|km|mi}} away from [[Guangzhou]] respectively, but the Yue variety spoken in Wuzhou is more similar to the Guangzhou dialect than is Taishanese. Wuzhou is located directly upstream from Guangzhou on the [[Pearl River]], whereas Taishan is to Guangzhou's southwest, with the two cities separated by several river valleys.{{sfnp|Ramsey|1987|p=23}} In parts of [[Fujian]], the speech of some neighbouring counties or villages is mutually unintelligible.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=188}}

===Grouping===
[[File:Map_of_sinitic_languages_cropped-en.svg|upright=1.1|thumb|right|Range of dialect groups in [[China proper]] and Taiwan according to the ''Language Atlas of China''{{sfnp|Wurm|Li|Baumann|Lee|1987}}]]

Local varieties of Chinese are conventionally classified into seven dialect groups, largely based on the different evolution of [[Middle Chinese]] voiced initials:{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=181}}{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|pp=53–55}}
* [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]], including [[Standard Chinese]], the [[Beijing dialect]], [[Sichuanese Mandarin|Sichuanese]], and also the [[Dungan language]] spoken in [[Central Asia]]
* [[Wu Chinese|Wu]], including [[Shanghainese]], [[Suzhounese]], and [[Wenzhounese]]
* [[Gan Chinese|Gan]]
* [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]]
* [[Min Chinese|Min]], including [[Fuzhounese]], [[Hainanese]], [[Hokkien]] and [[Teochew dialect|Teochew]]
* [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]]
* [[Yue Chinese|Yue]], including Cantonese and [[Taishanese]]
{{pie chart
| caption = Proportions of first-language speakers{{sfnp|Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|2012|pp=3, 125}}
| label1 = [[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]] | color1 = #ac8761 | value1 = 65.7 
| label2 = [[Min Chinese|Min]] | color2 = #b1bab6 | value2 = 6.2 
| label3 = [[Wu Chinese|Wu]] | color3 = #c8c8a8 | value3 = 6.1 
| label4 = [[Yue Chinese|Yue]] | color4 = #bf6e7b | value4 = 5.6 
| label5 = [[Jin Chinese|Jin]] | color5 = #96642c | value5 = 5.2 
| label6 = [[Gan Chinese|Gan]] | color6 = #fbd98d | value6 = 3.9 
| label7 = [[Hakka Chinese|Hakka]] | color7 = #eeb36a | value7 = 3.5 
| label8 = [[Xiang Chinese|Xiang]] | color8 = #a5ae87 | value8 = 3.0 
| label9 = [[Huizhou Chinese|Huizhou]] | color9 = #9b987f | value9 = 0.3 
| label10 = [[Pinghua]], others | color10 = #946565 | value10 = 0.6 
| others = yes
}}
The classification of [[Li Rong (linguist)|Li Rong]], which is used in the ''[[Language Atlas of China]]'' (1987), distinguishes three further groups:{{sfnp|Wurm|Li|Baumann|Lee|1987}}{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|pp=55–56}}
* [[Jin Chinese|Jin]], previously included in Mandarin.
* [[Huizhou Chinese|Huizhou]], previously included in Wu.
* [[Pinghua]], previously included in Yue.

Some varieties remain unclassified, including the [[Danzhou dialect]] on [[Hainan]], [[Waxianghua]] spoken in western [[Hunan]], and [[Shaozhou Tuhua]] spoken in northern [[Guangdong]].{{sfnp|Kurpaska|2010|pp=72–73}}

===Standard Chinese===
{{Main|Standard Chinese}}
{{See also|List of countries and territories where Chinese is an official language}}

Standard Chinese is the [[standard language]] of China (where it is called {{zhi|s=普通话|p=pǔtōnghuà}}) and Taiwan, and one of the four official languages of Singapore (where it is called either {{zhi|s=华语|t=華語|p=Huáyǔ}} or {{zhi|s=汉语|t=漢語|p=Hànyǔ}}). Standard Chinese is based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin. The governments of both China and Taiwan intend for speakers of all Chinese speech varieties to use it as a common language of communication. Therefore, it is used in government agencies, in the media, and as a language of instruction in schools.

[[Diglossia]] is common among Chinese speakers. For example, a Shanghai resident may speak both Standard Chinese and [[Shanghainese]]; if they grew up elsewhere, they are also likely fluent in the dialect of their home region. In addition to Standard Chinese, a majority of [[Taiwanese people]] also speak [[Taiwanese Hokkien]] (also called {{zhi|t=台語|l=Taiwanese}}<ref>{{cite news |last1=何 |first1=信翰 |title=自由廣場》Taigi與台語 |url=https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601 |access-date=11 July 2021 |agency=自由時報 |date=2019-08-10 |archive-date=11 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711235128/https://talk.ltn.com.tw/amp/article/paper/1309601 |url-status=dead }}</ref>{{sfnp|Li|2010}}), [[Hakka language|Hakka]], or an [[Austronesian language]].{{sfnp|Klöter|2004}} A speaker in Taiwan may mix pronunciations and vocabulary from Standard Chinese and other [[languages of Taiwan]] in everyday speech.{{sfnp|Kuo|2005}} In part due to traditional cultural ties with [[Guangdong]], Cantonese is used as an everyday language in [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]].

===Nomenclature===
The designation of various Chinese branches remains controversial. Some linguists and most ordinary Chinese people consider all the spoken varieties as one single language, as speakers share a common national identity and a common written form.{{sfnp|Baxter|1992|pp=7–8}} Others instead argue that it is inappropriate to refer to major branches of Chinese such as Mandarin, Wu, and so on as "dialects" because the mutual unintelligibility between them is too great.{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1984|pp=55–57}}{{sfnp|Thomason|1988|pp=27–28}} However, calling major Chinese branches "languages" would also be wrong under the same criterion, since a branch such as Wu, itself contains many mutually unintelligible varieties, and could not be properly called a single language.{{sfnp|Norman|2003|p=72}}

There are also viewpoints pointing out that linguists often ignore mutual intelligibility when varieties share intelligibility with a central variety (i.e. prestige variety, such as Standard Mandarin), as the issue requires some careful handling when mutual intelligibility is inconsistent with language identity.{{sfnp|Campbell|2008}}

The Chinese government's official Chinese designation for the major branches of Chinese is {{zhi|c=方言|p=fāngyán|l=regional speech}}, whereas the more closely related varieties within these are called {{zhi|s=地点方言|t=地點方言|p=dìdiǎn fāngyán|l=local speech}}.{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1984|p=57}}

Because of the difficulties involved in determining the difference between language and dialect, other terms have been proposed. These include ''topolect'',{{sfnp|Mair|1991|p=7}} ''[[lect]]'',<ref>{{Harv|Bailey|1973|p=11}}, cited in {{Harvp|Groves|2010|p=531}}</ref> ''[[vernacular]]'',{{sfnp|Haugen|1966|p=927}} ''[[Regional language|regional]]'',{{sfnp|DeFrancis|1984|p=57}} and ''[[language variety|variety]]''.{{sfnp|Hudson|1996|p=22}}{{sfnp|Mair|1991|p=17}}

==Phonology==
{{Further|Standard Chinese phonology|Historical Chinese phonology|Varieties of Chinese#Phonology}}

[[File:Edmund Yeo - voice - ch 150127 1828.wav|thumb|A man speaking Mandarin with a Malaysian accent]]

Syllables in the Chinese languages have some unique characteristics. They are tightly related to the [[Morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] and also to the characters of the writing system, and [[phonologically]] they are structured according to fixed rules.

The structure of each syllable consists of a [[syllable nucleus|nucleus]] that has a [[vowel]] (which can be a [[monophthong]], [[diphthong]], or even a [[triphthong]] in certain varieties), preceded by an [[syllable onset|onset]] (a single [[consonant]], or consonant + [[semivowel|glide]]; a zero onset is also possible), and followed (optionally) by a [[syllable coda|coda]] consonant; a syllable also carries a [[tone (linguistics)|tone]]. There are some instances where a vowel is not used as a nucleus. An example of this is in Cantonese, where the nasal sonorant consonants {{IPA|/m/}} and {{IPA|/ŋ/}} can stand alone as their own syllable.

In Mandarin much more than in other spoken varieties, most syllables tend to be open syllables, meaning they have no coda (assuming that a final glide is not analyzed as a coda), but syllables that do have codas are restricted to nasals {{IPA|/m/}}, {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, the retroflex approximant {{IPA|/ɻ/}}, and voiceless stops {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, or {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. Some varieties allow most of these codas, whereas others, such as Standard Chinese, are limited to only {{IPA|/n/}}, {{IPA|/ŋ/}}, and {{IPA|/ɻ/}}.

The number of sounds in the different spoken dialects varies, but in general, there has been a tendency to a reduction in sounds from Middle Chinese. The Mandarin dialects in particular have experienced a dramatic decrease in sounds and so have far more polysyllabic words than most other spoken varieties. The total number of syllables in some varieties is therefore only about a thousand, including tonal variation, which is only about an eighth as many as English.{{efn|{{harvp|DeFrancis|1984|p=42}} counts Chinese as having 1,277 tonal syllables, and about 398 to 418 if tones are disregarded; he cites Jespersen, Otto (1928) ''Monosyllabism in English''; London, p. 15 for a count of over 8000 syllables for English.|name=DeFrancis p42}}

===Tones===
All varieties of spoken Chinese use tones to distinguish words.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=52}} A few dialects of north China may have as few as three tones, while some dialects in south China have up to 6 or 12 tones, depending on how one counts. One exception from this is Shanghainese which has reduced the set of tones to a two-toned [[pitch accent]] system much like modern Japanese.

A very common example used to illustrate the use of tones in Chinese is the application of the four tones of Standard Chinese, along with the neutral tone, to the syllable {{transliteration|cmn|ma}}. The tones are exemplified by the following five Chinese words:
{{Chinese tones}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Examples of Standard Chinese tones
! scope=col | Tone !! scope=col | Character !! scope=col | Gloss !! scope=col | Pinyin
![[Chao tone]]!! scope="col" | Pitch contour
|-
! scope="row" | 1
| {{zhi|s=妈|t=媽}}
| 'mother' || {{tlit|cmn|mā}}
|{{IPA|˥}}|| style="text-align:left" | high, level
|-
! scope="row" | 2
| {{zhi|c=麻}}
| 'hemp' || {{tlit|cmn|má}}
|{{IPA|˧˥}}|| style="text-align:left" | high, rising
|-
! scope="row" | 3
| {{zhi|s=马|t=馬}}
| 'horse' || {{tlit|cmn|mǎ}}
|{{IPA|˨˩˦}}|| style="text-align:left" | low falling, then rising
|-
! scope="row" | 4
| {{zhi|s=骂|t=罵}}
| 'scold' || {{tlit|cmn|mà}}
|{{IPA|˥˩}}|| style="text-align:left" | high falling
|- align=center
! scope="row" | [[Neutral tone|Neutral]]
| {{zhi|s=吗|t=嗎}}
| {{gcl|INTR|interrogative}}.{{gcl|PTC}} || {{tlit|cmn|ma}}
| {{varies|''varies''}}
| {{varies|''varies''}}
|}

In contrast, Standard Cantonese has six tones. Historically, finals that end in a [[stop consonant]] were considered to be "[[checked tone]]s" and thus counted separately for a total of nine tones. However, they are considered to be duplicates in modern linguistics and are no longer counted as such:{{sfnp|Matthews|Yip|1994|pp=20–22}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Examples of Standard Cantonese tones
! scope=col | Tone !! scope=col | Character !! scope=col | Gloss !! scope=col | [[Jyutping]] !! scope=col | [[Yale romanization of Cantonese|Yale]]
![[Chao tone]]!! scope="col" | Pitch contour
|-
! scope="row" | 1
| {{zhi|s=诗|t=詩}} || 'poem' || {{tlit|yue|si1}} || {{tlit|yue|sī}}
|{{IPA|˥}}|| style="text-align:left" | {{ubl|high, level|high, falling}}
|-
! scope="row" | 2
| {{zhi|c=史}} || 'history' || {{tlit|yue|si2}} || {{tlit|yue|sí}}
|{{IPA|˧˥}}|| style="text-align:left" | high, rising
|-
! scope="row" | 3
| {{zhi|c=弒}} || 'assassinate' || {{tlit|yue|si3}} || {{tlit|yue|si}}
|{{IPA|˧}}|| style="text-align:left" | mid, level
|-
! scope="row" | 4
| {{zhi|s=时|t=時}} || 'time' || {{tlit|yue|si4}} || {{tlit|yue|sìh}}
|{{IPA|˨˩}}|| style="text-align:left" | low, falling
|-
! scope="row" | 5
| {{zhi|c=市}} || 'market' || {{tlit|yue|si5}} || {{tlit|yue|síh}}
|{{IPA|˨˧}}|| style="text-align:left" | low, rising
|-
! scope="row" | 6
| {{zhi|c=是}} || 'yes' || {{tlit|yue|si6}} || {{tlit|yue|sih}}
|{{IPA|˨}}|| style="text-align:left" | low, level
|}

==Grammar==
{{Main|Chinese grammar}}
{{See also|Chinese classifiers}}

Chinese is often described as a 'monosyllabic' language. However, this is only partially correct. It is largely accurate when describing Old and Middle Chinese; in Classical Chinese, around 90% of words consist of a single character that corresponds one-to-one with a ''[[morpheme]]'', the smallest unit of meaning in a language. In modern varieties, it usually remains the case that morphemes are monosyllabic—in contrast, English has many multi-syllable morphemes, both [[Bound and free morphemes|bound and free]], such as 'seven', 'elephant', 'para-' and '-able'. Some of the more conservative modern varieties, usually found in the south, have largely monosyllabic {{em|[[words]]}}, especially with basic vocabulary. However, most nouns, adjectives, and verbs in modern Mandarin are disyllabic. A significant cause of this is [[phonetic erosion]]: sound changes over time have steadily reduced the number of possible syllables in the language's inventory. In modern Mandarin, there are only around 1,200 possible syllables, including the tonal distinctions, compared with about 5,000 in Vietnamese (still a largely monosyllabic language), and over 8,000 in English.{{efn|name=DeFrancis p42}}

Most modern varieties tend to form new words through polysyllabic [[compound word|compounds]]. In some cases, monosyllabic words have become disyllabic formed from different characters without the use of compounding, as in {{zhi|c=窟窿|p=kūlong}} from {{zhi|c=孔|p=kǒng}}; this is especially common in Jin varieties. This phonological collapse has led to a corresponding increase in the number of [[homophone]]s. As an example, the small ''Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary''<ref>{{cite book |title= Langenscheidt Pocket Chinese Dictionary |editor-first= Peter |editor-last= Terrell |publisher= Langenscheidt KG |year= 2005 |isbn= 978-1-58573-057-5 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/langenscheidtpoc00lang }}</ref> lists six words that are commonly pronounced as {{tlit|zh|shí}} in Standard Chinese:
{| cellpadding=5
! Character !! Gloss !! {{abbr|MC|Middle Chinese}}{{efn|Using [[Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese]]}} !! Cantonese
|-
| {{zhi|c=十}}
| 'ten' || {{tlit|ltc|dzyip}} || {{tlit|yue|sap6}}
|-
|{{zhi|s=实|t=實}}
| 'actual' || {{tlit|ltc|zyit}} || {{tlit|yue|sat6}}
|-
| {{zhi|s=识|t=識}}
| 'recognize' || {{tlit|ltc|syik}} | {{tlit|lmc|dzyek}} || {{tlit|yue|sik1}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=石}}
| 'stone' || {{tlit|ltc|dzyi}} || {{tlit|yue|sek6}}
|-
| {{zhi|s=时|t=時}}
| 'time' || {{tlit|ltc|dzyi}} || {{tlit|yue|si4}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=食}}
| 'food' || {{tlit|ltc|zyik}} || {{tlit|yue|sik6}}
|}

In modern spoken Mandarin, however, tremendous ambiguity would result if all of these words could be used as-is. The 20th century [[Yuen Ren Chao]] poem ''[[Lion-Eating Poet in the Stone Den]]'' exploits this, consisting of 92 characters all pronounced {{transliteration|cmn|shi}}. As such, most of these words have been replaced in speech, if not in writing, with less ambiguous disyllabic compounds. Only the first one, {{zhi|c=十}}, normally appears in monosyllabic form in spoken Mandarin; the rest are normally used in the polysyllabic forms of
{| cellpadding=5
! Word !! Pinyin !! Gloss
|-
| {{zhi|s=实际|t=實際}}
| {{tlit|cmn|shíjì}} || 'actual-connection'
|-
| {{zhi|s=认识|t=認識}}
| {{tlit|cmn|rènshi}} || 'recognize-know'
|-
| {{zhi|s=石头|t=石頭}}
| {{tlit|cmn|shítou}} || 'stone-head'
|-
| {{zhi|s=时间|t=時間}}
| {{tlit|cmn|shíjiān}} || 'time-interval'
|-
| {{zhi|c=食物}}
| {{tlit|cmn|shíwù}} || 'foodstuff'
|}
respectively. In each, the homophone was disambiguated by the addition of another morpheme, typically either a near-synonym or some sort of generic word (e.g. 'head', 'thing'), the purpose of which is to indicate which of the possible meanings of the other, homophonic syllable is specifically meant.

However, when one of the above words forms part of a compound, the disambiguating syllable is generally dropped and the resulting word is still disyllabic. For example, {{zhi|c=石|p=shí}} alone, and not {{zhi|s=石头|t=石頭|p=shítou}}, appears in compounds as meaning 'stone' such as {{zhi|c=石膏|p=shígāo|l=plaster}}, {{zhi|c=石灰|p=shíhuī|l=lime}}, {{zhi|c=石窟|p=shíkū|l=grotto}}, {{zhi|c=石英|l=quartz}}, and {{zhi|c=石油|p=shíyóu|l=petroleum}}. Although many single-syllable morphemes ({{zhi|c=字|p=zì}}) can stand alone as individual words, they more often than not form multi-syllable compounds known as {{zhi|s=词|t=詞|p=cí}}, which more closely resembles the traditional Western notion of a word. A Chinese {{tlit|zh|cí}} can consist of more than one character–morpheme, usually two, but there can be three or more.

Examples of Chinese words of more than two syllables include {{zhi|s=汉堡包|t=漢堡包|p=hànbǎobāo|l=hamburger}}, {{zhi|s=守门员|t=守門員|p=shǒuményuán|l=goalkeeper}}, and {{zhi|s=电子邮件|t=電子郵件|p=diànzǐyóujiàn|l=e-mail}}.

All varieties of modern Chinese are [[analytic language]]s: they depend on [[syntax]] (word order and sentence structure), rather than [[inflectional morphology]] (changes in the form of a word), to indicate a word's function within a sentence.{{sfnp|Norman|1988|p=10}} In other words, Chinese has very few [[grammatical inflection]]s—it possesses no [[tenses]], no [[grammatical voice|voices]], no [[grammatical number]],{{efn|There are plural markers in the language, such as {{zhi|s=们|t=們|p=men}}, used with personal pronouns.}} and only a few [[Article (grammar)|articles]].{{efn|A distinction is made between {{zhi|c=他|l=he}} and {{zhi|c=她|l=she}} in writing, but this was only introduced in the 20th century—both characters remain exactly homophonous.}} They make heavy use of [[grammatical particle]]s to indicate [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and [[grammatical mood|mood]]. In Mandarin, this involves the use of particles such as {{zhi|c=了|p=le|l={{gcl|PFV}}}}, {{zhi|s=还|t=還|p=hái|l=still}}, and {{zhi|s=已经|t=已經|p=yǐjīng|l=already}}.

Chinese has a [[subject–verb–object word order]], and like many other languages of East Asia, makes frequent use of the [[topic–comment]] construction to form sentences. Chinese also has an extensive system of [[classifier (linguistics)|classifiers]] and [[measure word]]s, another trait shared with neighboring languages such as Japanese and Korean. Other notable grammatical features common to all the spoken varieties of Chinese include the use of [[serial verb construction]], [[pro-drop language|pronoun dropping]], and the related [[null subject language|subject dropping]]. Although the grammars of the spoken varieties share many traits, they do possess differences.

==Vocabulary==
The entire Chinese character corpus since antiquity comprises well over 50,000 characters, of which only roughly 10,000 are in use and only about 3,000 are frequently used in Chinese media and newspapers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/chinese/real_chinese/mini_guides/characters/characters_howmany.shtml|title= Languages - Real Chinese - Mini-guides - Chinese characters|website=BBC }}</ref> However, Chinese characters should not be confused with Chinese words. Because most Chinese words are made up of two or more characters, there are many more Chinese words than characters. A more accurate equivalent for a Chinese character is the morpheme, as characters represent the smallest grammatical units with individual meanings in the Chinese language.

Estimates of the total number of Chinese words and lexicalized phrases vary greatly. The ''[[Hanyu Da Zidian]]'', a compendium of Chinese characters, includes 54,678 head entries for characters, including oracle bone versions. The ''[[Zhonghua Zihai]]'' (1994) contains 85,568 head entries for character definitions and is the largest reference work based purely on character and its literary variants. The [[CC-CEDICT]] project (2010) contains 97,404 contemporary entries including idioms, technology terms, and names of political figures, businesses, and products. The 2009 version of the Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary (WDCD),<ref>Timothy Uy and Jim Hsia, Editors, ''Webster's Digital Chinese Dictionary – Advanced Reference Edition'', July 2009</ref> based on CC-CEDICT, contains over 84,000 entries.

The most comprehensive pure linguistic Chinese-language dictionary, the 12-volume ''[[Hanyu Da Cidian]]'', records more than 23,000 head Chinese characters and gives over 370,000 definitions. The 1999 revised ''[[Cihai]]'', a multi-volume encyclopedic dictionary reference work, gives 122,836 vocabulary entry definitions under 19,485 Chinese characters, including proper names, phrases, and common zoological, geographical, sociological, scientific, and technical terms.

The 2016 edition of ''[[Xiandai Hanyu Cidian]]'', an authoritative one-volume dictionary on modern standard Chinese language as used in mainland China, has 13,000 head characters and defines 70,000 words.

===Loanwords===
Like many other languages, Chinese has absorbed a sizable number of [[loanword]]s from other cultures. Most Chinese words are formed out of native Chinese morphemes, including words describing imported objects and ideas. However, direct phonetic borrowing of foreign words has gone on since ancient times.

Some early Indo-European loanwords in Chinese have been proposed, notably {{zhl|c=蜜|p=mì|l=honey}}, {{zhl|s=狮|t=獅|p=shī|l=lion}}, and perhaps {{zhl|s=马|t=馬|p=mǎ|l=horse}}, {{zhl|s=猪|t=豬|p=zhū|l=pig}}, {{zhl|c=犬|p=quǎn|l=dog}}, and {{zhl|s=鹅|t=鵝|p=é|l=goose}}.<ref>{{multiref| {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Chinese languages |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Chinese-languages |last=Egerod |first=Søren Christian |date=12 April 2024 |quote=Old Chinese vocabulary already contained many words not generally occurring in the other Sino-Tibetan languages. The words for 'honey' and 'lion', and probably also 'horse', 'dog', and 'goose', are connected with Indo-European and were acquired through trade and early contacts. (The nearest known Indo-European languages were Tocharian and Sogdian, a middle Iranian language.) Some words have Austroasiatic cognates and point to early contacts with the ancestral language of Muong–Vietnamese and Mon–Khmer.}} | {{Citation |last=Ulenbrook |first=Jan |title=Einige Übereinstimmungen zwischen dem Chinesischen und dem Indogermanischen |year=1967 |lang=de}} proposes 57 items. | {{Cite journal |last=Chang |first=Tsung-tung |author1-link=Tsung-Tung Chang |year=1988 |title=Indo-European Vocabulary in Old Chinese |url=http://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp007_old_chinese.pdf |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers}} }}</ref>
Ancient words borrowed from along the [[Silk Road]] during the Old Chinese period include {{zhl|c=葡萄|p=pútáo|l=grape}}, {{zhl|c=石榴|p=shíliú|l=pomegranate}}, and {{zhl|s=狮子|t=獅子|p=shīzi|l=lion}}. Some words were borrowed from Buddhist scriptures, including {{zhl|c=佛|p=Fó|l=Buddha}} and {{zhl|s=菩萨|t=菩薩|p=Púsà|l=bodhisattva}}. Other words came from nomadic peoples to the north, such as {{zhl|c=胡同|l=[[hutong]]}}. Words borrowed from the peoples along the Silk Road, such as {{zhl|c=葡萄|l=grape}}, generally have Persian etymologies. Buddhist terminology is generally derived from [[Sanskrit]] or [[Pali]], the liturgical languages of northern India. Words borrowed from the nomadic tribes of the [[Gobi]], Mongolian or northeast regions generally have [[Altaic]] etymologies, such as {{zhl|c=琵琶|p=pípá}}, the Chinese lute, or {{zhl|c=酪|p=lào|l=cheese or yogurt}}, but from exactly which source is not always clear.{{sfnp|Kane|2006|p=161}}

===Modern borrowings===
{{Excessive examples|section|date=April 2024}}
{{See also|Translation of neologisms into Chinese|Transcription into Chinese characters}}
Modern neologisms are primarily translated into Chinese in one of three ways: free translation ([[calque]]s), phonetic translation (by sound), or [[phono-semantic matching|a combination of the two]]. Today, it is much more common to use existing Chinese morphemes to coin new words to represent imported concepts, such as technical expressions and [[international scientific vocabulary]], wherein the Latin and Greek components are usually converted one-for-one into the corresponding Chinese characters. The word 'telephone' was initially loaned phonetically as {{zhc|s=德律风|t=德律風}} ({{tlit|zh|délǜfēng}}; Shanghainese {{tlit|wuu|télífon}} {{IPA|[təlɪfoŋ]}})—this word was widely used in Shanghai during the 1920s, but the later {{zhc|s=电话|t=電話|p=diànhuà|l=electric speech}}, built out of native Chinese morphemes became prevalent. Other examples include
{| cellpadding="5"
| {{zhc|s=电视|t=電視|p=diànshì|l=electric vision}} || 'television'
|-
| {{zhc|s=电脑|t=電腦|p=diànnǎo|l=electric brain}} || 'computer'
|-
| {{zhc|s=手机|t=手機|p=shǒujī|l=hand machine}} || 'mobile phone'
|-
| {{zhc|s=蓝牙|t=藍牙|p=lányá|l=blue tooth}} || '[[Bluetooth]]'
|-
| {{zhc|s=网志|t=網誌|p=wǎngzhì|l=internet logbook}}{{efn|Hong Kong and Macau Cantonese}} || 'blog'
|}

Occasionally, compromises between the transliteration and translation approaches become accepted, such as {{zhc|s=汉堡包|t=漢堡包|p=hànbǎobāo|l=hamburger}} from {{zhc|s=汉堡|l=Hamburg}} + {{zhc|c=包|l=bun}}. Sometimes translations are designed so that they sound like the original while incorporating Chinese morphemes ([[phono-semantic matching]]), such as {{zhc|s=马利奥|t=馬利奧|p=Mǎlì'ào}} for the video game character '[[Mario]]'. This is often done for commercial purposes, for example {{zhc|s=奔腾|t=奔騰|p=bēnténg|l=dashing-leaping}} for '[[Pentium]]' and {{zhc|s=赛百味|t=賽百味|p=Sàibǎiwèi|l=better-than hundred tastes}} for '[[Subway (restaurant)|Subway]]'.

Foreign words, mainly [[proper noun]]s, continue to enter the Chinese language by transcription according to their pronunciations. This is done by employing Chinese characters with similar pronunciations. For example, 'Israel' becomes {{zhc|c=以色列|p=Yǐsèliè}}, and 'Paris' becomes {{zhc|c=巴黎|p=Bālí}}. A rather small number of direct transliterations have survived as common words, including {{zhc|s=沙发|t=沙發|p=shāfā|l=sofa}}, {{zhc|s=马达|t=馬達|p=mǎdá|l=motor}}, {{zhc|c=幽默|p=yōumò|l=humor}}, {{zhc|s=逻辑|t=邏輯|p=luóji, luójí|l=logic}}, {{zhc|s=时髦|t=時髦|p=shímáo|l=smart (fashionable)}}, and {{zhc|c=歇斯底里|p=xiēsīdǐlǐ|l=hysterics}}. The bulk of these words were originally coined in Shanghai during the early 20th century and later loaned from there into Mandarin, hence their Mandarin pronunciations occasionally being quite divergent from the English. For example, in Shanghainese {{zhc|s=沙发|t=沙發|p=sofa}} and {{zhc|s=马达|t=馬達|l=motor}} sound more like their English counterparts. Cantonese differs from Mandarin with some transliterations, such as {{zhc|c=梳化|j=so1 faa3,2|l=sofa}} and {{zhc|c=摩打|j=mo1 daa2|l=motor}}.

Western foreign words representing Western concepts have influenced Chinese since the 20th century through transcription. From French, {{zhc|c=芭蕾|p=bālěi}} and {{zhc|s=香槟|t=香檳|p=xiāngbīn}} were borrowed for 'ballet' and 'champagne' respectively; {{zhc|c=咖啡|p=kāfēi}} was borrowed from Italian {{lang|it|caffè}} 'coffee'. The influence of English is particularly pronounced: from the early 20th century, many English words were borrowed into Shanghainese, such as {{zhc|s=高尔夫|t=高爾夫|p=gāo'ěrfū|l=golf}} and the aforementioned {{zhc|s=沙发|t=沙發|p=shāfā|l=sofa}}. Later, American [[soft power]] gave rise to {{zhc|c=迪斯科|p=dísīkē|l=disco}}, {{zhc|s=可乐|t=可樂|p=kělè|l=cola}}, and {{zhc|迷你|p=mínǐ|l=miniskirt}}. Contemporary colloquial Cantonese has distinct loanwords from English, such as {{zhc|c=卡通|j=kaa1 tung1|l=cartoon}}, {{zhc|c=基佬|j=gei1 lou2|l=gay people}}, {{zhc|c=的士|j=dik1 si6,2|l=taxi}}, and {{zhc|c=巴士|j=baa1 si6,2|l=bus}}. With the rising popularity of the Internet, there is a current vogue in China for coining English transliterations, for example, {{zhc|s=粉丝|t=粉絲|p=fěnsī|l=fans}}, {{zhc|c=黑客|p=hēikè|l=hacker}}, and {{zhc|c=博客|p=bókè|l=blog}}. In Taiwan, some of these transliterations are different, such as {{zhc|c=駭客|p=hàikè|l=hacker}} and {{zhc|c=部落格|p=bùluògé|l=interconnected tribes}} for 'blog'.

Another result of English influence on Chinese is the appearance of so-called {{zhc|s=字母词|t=字母詞|p=zìmǔcí|l=lettered words}} spelled with letters from the English alphabet. These have appeared in colloquial usage, as well as in magazines and newspapers, and on websites and television:
{| cellpadding=5
|{{zhi|s=三G手机}} 'third generation of cell phones' || ← || {{zhc|c=三|p=sān|l=three}} || + || ''G''; 'generation' || + || {{zhc|s=手机|p=shǒujī|l=cell phone}}
|-
|{{zhi|c=IT界}} 'IT circles' || ← || ''IT'' ||+|| {{zhc|c=界|p=jiè|l=industry}}
|-
| {{zhi|s=CIF价}} 'Cost, Insurance, Freight' || ← || ''CIF'' || + || {{zhi|s=价|p=jià|l=price}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=e家庭}} 'e-home' || ← || ''e''; 'electronic' || + || {{zhi|c=家庭|p=jiātíng|l=home}}
|-
| {{zhi|s=W时代}} 'wireless era' || ← || ''W''; 'wireless' || + || {{zhi|s=时代|p=shídài|l=era}}
|-
| {{zhi|c=TV族}} 'TV-watchers' || ← || ''TV''; 'television' || + || {{zhi|c=族|p=TV zú|l=clan}}
|}

Since the 20th century, another source of words has been kanji: Japan re-molded European concepts and inventions into {{lang-ja|和製漢語|[[wasei-kango]]|lit=Japanese-made Chinese|label=none}}, and many of these words have been re-loaned into modern Chinese. Other terms were coined by the Japanese by giving new senses to existing Chinese terms or by referring to expressions used in classical Chinese literature. For example, {{zhi|s=经济|t=經濟|p=jīngjì}}; {{lang-ja|経済|keizai|label=none}} in Japanese, which in the original Chinese meant 'the workings of the state', narrowed to 'economy' in Japanese; this narrowed definition was then re-imported into Chinese. As a result, these terms are virtually indistinguishable from native Chinese words: indeed, there is some dispute over some of these terms as to whether the Japanese or Chinese coined them first. As a result of this loaning, Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese share a corpus of linguistic terms describing modern terminology, paralleling the similar corpus of terms built from Greco-Latin and shared among European languages.

==Writing system==
{{Main|Written Chinese|Mainland Chinese Braille|Taiwanese Braille}}
[[File:XingshuLantingxv.jpg|thumb|right|"[[Lantingji Xu|Preface to the Poems Composed at the Orchid Pavilion]]" by [[Wang Xizhi]], written in [[Semi-cursive script|semi-cursive style]]]]

The Chinese [[orthography]] centers on [[Chinese characters]], which are written within imaginary square blocks, traditionally arranged in vertical columns, read from top to bottom down a column, and right to left across columns, despite alternative arrangement with rows of characters from left to right within a row and from top to bottom across rows (like English and other Western writing systems) having become more popular since the 20th century.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.w3.org/TR/clreq/ |title=Requirements for Chinese Text Layout |script-title=zh:中文排版需求}}</ref> Chinese characters denote [[morpheme]]s independent of phonetic variation in different languages. Thus the character {{zhc|c=一|l=one}} is pronounced as {{tlit|cmn|yī}} in Standard Chinese, {{tlit|yue|yat1}} in Cantonese and {{tlit|nan|it}} in Hokkien, a form of Min.

Most modern written Chinese is in the form of [[written vernacular Chinese]], based on spoken Standard Chinese, regardless of dialectical background. Written vernacular Chinese largely replaced Literary Chinese in the early 20th century as the country's standard written language.{{sfnp|Huang|2014}} However, vocabularies from different Chinese-speaking areas have diverged, and the divergence can be observed in written Chinese.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stedu.stheadline.com/sec/article/628/%E7%B2%B5%E6%99%AE%E4%B9%8B%E7%88%AD-%E7%82%BA%E4%BD%A0%E4%B8%AD%E6%96%87%E8%A7%A3%E6%AF%92|script-title=zh:粵普之爭為你中文解毒|lang=zh|access-date=15 February 2020|archive-date=15 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215095039/https://stedu.stheadline.com/sec/article/628/%25E7%25B2%25B5%25E6%2599%25AE%25E4%25B9%258B%25E7%2588%25AD-%25E7%2582%25BA%25E4%25BD%25A0%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E6%2596%2587%25E8%25A7%25A3%25E6%25AF%2592|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2024}}

Due to the divergence of variants, some unique morphemes are not found in Standard Chinese. Characters rarely used in Standard Chinese have also been created or inherited from archaic literary standards to represent these unique morphemes. For example, characters like {{zhi|c=冇}} and {{zhi|c=係}} are actively used in Cantonese and Hakka, while being archaic or unused in standard written Chinese. The most prominent example of a non-Standard Chinese orthography is [[Written Cantonese]], which is used in tabloids and on the internet among Cantonese speakers in Hong Kong and elsewhere.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://m.thepaper.cn/wifiKey_detail.jsp?contid=1298257 |script-title=zh:粤语：中国最强方言是如何炼成的_私家历史_澎湃新闻|work=The Paper |script-work=zh:澎湃新闻}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=April 2024}}

Chinese had no uniform system of phonetic transcription until the mid-20th century, although enunciation patterns were recorded in early [[rime book]]s and dictionaries. Early Indian translators, working in [[Sanskrit]] and [[Pali]], were the first to attempt to describe the sounds and enunciation patterns of Chinese in a foreign language. After the 15th century, the efforts of Jesuits and Western court missionaries resulted in some Latin character transcription/writing systems, based on various variants of Chinese languages. Some of these Latin character-based systems are still being used to write various Chinese variants in the modern era.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newmsgr.pct.org.tw/Magazine.aspx?strTID=1&strISID=125&strMagID=M2011081602899|script-title=zh:白話字滄桑|author=陳宇碩|script-work=zh:新使者雜誌|work=The New Messenger|lang=zh}}</ref>

In [[Hunan]], women in certain areas write their local Chinese language variant in [[Nüshu]], a [[syllabary]] derived from Chinese characters. The [[Dungan language]], considered by many a dialect of Mandarin, is nowadays written in [[Cyrillic]] and was previously written in the [[Arabic script]]. The [[Dungan people]] are primarily Muslim and live mainly in Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia; many [[Hui people]], living mainly in China, also speak the language.

===Chinese characters===
{{Main|Chinese characters}}
{{see also|Chinese character classification}}
[[File:8 strokes of 永-zh.svg|thumb|{{zhc|c=永}} is often used to illustrate the eight basic types of strokes of Chinese characters]]

Each Chinese character represents a monosyllabic Chinese word or morpheme. In 100 CE, the famed Han dynasty scholar [[Xu Shen]] classified characters into six categories: [[pictograph]]s, simple [[ideograph]]s, compound ideographs, phonetic loans, phonetic compounds, and derivative characters. Only 4% were categorized as pictographs, including many of the simplest characters, such as {{zhc|c=人|p=rén|l=human}}, {{zhc|c=日|p=rì|l=Sun}}, {{zhc|c=山|p=shān|l=mountain}}, and {{zhc|c=水|p=shuǐ|l=water}}. Between 80% and 90% were classified as phonetic compounds such as {{zhc|c=沖|p=chōng|l=pour}}, combining a phonetic component {{zhc|c=中|p=zhōng}} with a semantic component of the [[Radical (Chinese character)|radical]] {{zhi|c=氵}}, a reduced form of {{zhi|c=水|l=water}}. Almost all characters created since have been made using this format. The 18th-century ''[[Kangxi Dictionary]]'' classified characters under a now-common set of 214 radicals.

Modern characters are styled after the [[regular script]]. Various other written styles are also used in [[Chinese calligraphy]], including [[seal script]], [[cursive script (East Asia)|cursive script]] and [[clerical script]]. Calligraphy artists can write in Traditional and Simplified characters, but they tend to use Traditional characters for traditional art.

There are currently two systems for Chinese characters. [[Traditional characters]], used in Hong Kong, Taiwan, Macau, and many overseas Chinese-speaking communities, largely take their form from received character forms dating back to the late Han dynasty and standardized during the Ming. [[Simplified characters]], introduced by the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1954 to promote mass literacy, simplifies most complex traditional [[glyph]]s to fewer strokes, especially by adopting common cursive [[shorthand]] variants and merging characters with similar pronunciations to the one with the least strokes, among other methods. Singapore, which has a large Chinese community, was the second nation to officially adopt simplified characters—first by [[Singapore Chinese characters|creating its own simplified characters]], then by adopting entirely the PRC simplified characters. It has also become the de facto standard for younger ethnic Chinese in Malaysia.

The Internet provides practice reading each of these systems, and most Chinese readers are capable of, if not necessarily comfortable with, reading the alternative system through experience and guesswork.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/compete/writing/big5event_winner2-2.htm|script-title=zh:全球華文網-華文世界，數位之最|lang=zh|access-date=15 February 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806192001/http://edu.ocac.gov.tw/compete/writing/big5event_winner2-2.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

A well-educated Chinese reader today recognizes approximately 4,000 to 6,000 characters; approximately 3,000 characters are required to read a [[Newspapers of the People's Republic of China|mainland newspaper]]. The PRC defines literacy amongst workers as a knowledge of 2,000 characters, though this would be only functional literacy. School children typically learn around 2,000 characters whereas scholars may memorize up to 10,000.{{sfnp|Zimmermann|2010|pages=27–43}} A large unabridged dictionary like the ''Kangxi'' dictionary, contains over 40,000 characters, including obscure, variant, rare, and archaic characters; fewer than a quarter of these characters are now commonly used.

===Romanization===
{{Main|Romanization of Chinese}}
[[File:Gwoyu.svg|thumb|right|upright=0.6|{{zhi|t=國語|s=国语|p=Guóyǔ|l=National language}} written in traditional and simplified forms, followed by various romanizations]]

[[Romanization]] is the process of transcribing a language into the [[Latin script]]. There are many systems of romanization for the Chinese varieties, due to the lack of a native phonetic transcription until modern times. Chinese is first known to have been written in Latin characters by Western [[Christianity in China|Christian missionaries]] in the 16th century.

Today the most common romanization for Standard Chinese is [[Hanyu Pinyin]], introduced in 1956 by the PRC, and later adopted by Singapore and Taiwan. Pinyin is almost universally employed now for teaching standard spoken Chinese in schools and universities across the Americas, Australia, and Europe. Chinese parents also use Pinyin to teach their children the sounds and tones of new words. In school books that teach Chinese, the pinyin romanization is often shown below a picture of the thing the word represents, with the Chinese character alongside.

The second-most common romanization system, the [[Wade–Giles]], was invented by Thomas Wade in 1859 and modified by Herbert Giles in 1892. As this system approximates the phonology of Mandarin Chinese into English consonants and vowels–it is largely an [[anglicization]], it may be particularly helpful for beginner Chinese speakers of an English-speaking background. Wade–Giles was found in academic use in the United States, particularly before the 1980s, and was widely used in Taiwan until 2009.

When used within European texts, the tone transcriptions in both pinyin and Wade–Giles are often left out for simplicity; Wade–Giles's extensive use of apostrophes is also usually omitted. Thus, most Western readers will be much more familiar with ''Beijing'' than they will be with {{tlit|zh|Běijīng}} (pinyin), and with {{tlit|zh|Taipei}} than {{tlit|zh|T'ai2-pei3}} (Wade–Giles). This simplification presents syllables as homophones which are not, and therefore exaggerates the number of homophones almost by a factor of four.

For comparison:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Comparison of Mandarin romanizations
|-
! Characters !! Wade–Giles !! Pinyin !! Meaning
|-
| {{zhi|s=中国|t=中國}}
| {{tlit|zh|Chung1-kuo2}} || {{tlit|zh|Zhōngguó}} || [[China]]
|-
| {{zhi|s=台湾|t=臺灣}}
| {{tlit|zh|T'ai2-wan1}} || {{tlit|zh|Táiwān}} || [[Taiwan]]
|-
| {{zhi|c=北京}}
| {{tlit|zh|Pei3-ching1}} || {{tlit|zh|Běijīng}} || [[Beijing]]
|-
| {{zhi|s=台北|t=臺北}}
| {{tlit|zh|T'ai2-pei3}} || {{tlit|zh|Táiběi}} || [[Taipei]]
|-
| {{zhi|c=孫文}}
| {{tlit|zh|Sun1-wên2}} || {{tlit|zh|Sūn Wén}} || [[Sun Yat-sen]]
|-
| {{zhi|s=毛泽东|t=毛澤東}}
| {{tlit|zh|Mao2 Tse2-tung1}} || {{tlit|zh|Máo Zédōng}} || [[Mao Zedong]]
|-
| nowrap | {{zhi|s=蒋介石|t=蔣介石}}
| nowrap | {{tlit|zh|Chiang3 Chieh4-shih2}} || {{tlit|zh|Jiǎng Jièshí}} || [[Chiang Kai-shek]]
|-
| {{zhi|c=孔子}}
| {{tlit|zh|K'ung3 Tsu3}} || {{tlit|zh|Kǒngzǐ}} || [[Confucius]]
|}

Other systems include [[Gwoyeu Romatzyh]], the French [[EFEO Chinese transcription|EFEO]], the [[Yale romanization of Mandarin|Yale system]] (invented for use by US troops during World War II), as well as distinct systems for the phonetic requirements of Cantonese, Min Nan, Hakka, and other varieties.

===Other phonetic transcriptions===
Chinese varieties have been phonetically transcribed into many other writing systems over the centuries. The [['Phags-pa script]], for example, has been very helpful in reconstructing the pronunciations of premodern forms of Chinese. [[Bopomofo]] (or ''zhuyin'') is a [[semi-syllabary]] that is still widely used in Taiwan to aid standard pronunciation. There are also at least two systems of [[cyrillization]] for Chinese. The most widespread is the [[Palladius system]].

==As a foreign language==
{{Main|Chinese as a foreign language}}
[[File:Chinese Language Training at CASA.PNG|thumb|upright=1.35|Yang Lingfu, former curator of the [[National Museum of China]], giving Chinese language instruction at the [[Civil Affairs Staging Area]] in 1945]]

With the growing importance and influence of China's economy globally, Standard Chinese instruction has been gaining popularity in schools throughout East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Western world.<ref>{{cite news |url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/magazine/4617646.stm |work = BBC News |title = How hard is it to learn Chinese? |date = 17 January 2006 |access-date = 28 April 2010 }}</ref>

Besides Mandarin, Cantonese is the only other Chinese language that is widely taught as a foreign language, largely due to the economic and cultural influence of Hong Kong and its widespread usage among significant Overseas Chinese communities.{{sfnp|Wakefield|2019|p=45}}

In 1991, there were 2,000 foreign learners taking China's official Chinese Proficiency Test, called [[Hanyu Shuiping Kaoshi]] (HSK), comparable to the English [[University of Cambridge ESOL examination|Cambridge Certificate]], but by 2005 the number of candidates had risen sharply to 117,660<ref>{{in lang|zh}} "汉语水平考试中心：2005年外国考生总人数近12万",[http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2006-01/16/content_160707.htm Gov.cn] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119094121/http://www.gov.cn/jrzg/2006-01/16/content_160707.htm |date=19 November 2018 }} [[Xinhua News Agency]], 16 January 2006.</ref> and in 2010 to 750,000.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chinese language proficiency test becoming popular in Mexico|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-06/27/c_13951048.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629055803/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english2010/china/2011-06/27/c_13951048.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 29, 2011|access-date=12 September 2013|author=Liu lili|website=Xinhua|date=27 June 2011}}</ref>

==See also==
* ''[[Chengyu]]''
* [[Chinese computational linguistics]]
* [[Chinese exclamative particles]]
* [[Chinese honorifics]]
* [[Chinese language law]]
* [[Chinese numerals]]
* [[Chinese punctuation]]
* [[Chinese word-segmented writing]]
* [[Classical Chinese grammar]]
* [[Han unification]]
* [[Languages of China]]
* [[North American Conference on Chinese Linguistics]]
* [[Protection of the Varieties of Chinese]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist|colwidth=60em}}

==References==
===Citations===
{{Reflist|23em}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|33em|indent=yes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Bailey |first=Charles James Nice |title=Variation and linguistic theory |date=1973 |publisher=Center for Applied Linguistics |isbn=978-0-87281-032-7 |location=Arlington, Va }}
* {{Cite book |last=Baxter |first=William H. |title=A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |year=1992 |isbn=978-3-11-012324-1 |location=Berlin |author-link=William H. Baxter}}
* {{Citation |title=[Untitled review of ''Ethnologue'', 15th edition] |work=Language |volume=84 |issue=3 |pages=636–641 |year=2008 |doi=10.1353/lan.0.0054 |s2cid=143663395 |given=Lyle |surname=Campbell |title-link=Ethnologue}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Chappell |first=Hilary |year=2008 |title=Variation in the grammaticalization of complementizers from verba dicendi in Sinitic languages |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/LITY.2008.032/html |journal=Linguistic Typology |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=45–98 |doi=10.1515/LITY.2008.032 |issn=1430-0532 |s2cid=201097561|hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-0013-1A8D-4 |hdl-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |title=Zhōngguó yǔyán dìtú jí (dì 2 bǎn): Hànyǔ fāngyán juǎn |publisher=The Commercial Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-7-100-07054-6 |edition=2nd |location=Beijing |script-title=zh:中国语言地图集(第2版):汉语方言卷 |trans-title=Language Atlas of China: Chinese dialects |editor=Chinese Academy of Social Sciences}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Coblin |first=W. South |author-link=Weldon South Coblin |year=2000 |title=A Brief History of Mandarin |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/606615 |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=537–552 |doi=10.2307/606615 |jstor=606615}}
* {{Cite book |last=DeFrancis |first=John |title=The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-8248-1068-9 |author-link=John DeFrancis}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Groves |first=Julie May |date=2010 |title=Language or dialect, topolect or regiolect? A comparative study of language attitudes towards the status of Cantonese in Hong Kong |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01434632.2010.509507 |journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development |language=en |volume=31 |issue=6 |pages=531–551 |doi=10.1080/01434632.2010.509507 |s2cid=144374994 |issn=0143-4632}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Handel |first=Zev |date=2008|title=What is Sino-Tibetan? Snapshot of a Field and a Language Family in Flux |url=https://compass.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x |journal=Language and Linguistics Compass |language=en |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=422–441 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00061.x |issn=1749-818X}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Haugen |first=Einar |author-link=Einar Haugen|year=1966 |title=Dialect, Language, Nation |journal=American Anthropologist |language=en |volume=68 |issue=4 |pages=922–935 |doi=10.1525/aa.1966.68.4.02a00040 |issn=0002-7294 |jstor=670407 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c142-201309003.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221010/http://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c142-201309003.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-10 |url-status=live|publisher=Chinese University of Hong Kong|year=2014|script-title=zh:白話為何在五四時期「活」起來了？|lang=zh|last=Huang|first=Hua|author-mask=Huang Hua (黃華)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hudson |first=R. A. |title=Sociolinguistics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-56514-1 |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hymes |first=Dell |title=Social Anthropology and Language |publisher=Routledge |year=1971 |isbn=978-1-136-53941-1 |editor-last=Ardener |editor-first=Edwin |pages=47–92 |chapter=Sociolinguistics and the ethnography of speaking}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kane |first=Daniel |title=The Chinese language: its history and current usage |date=2006 |publisher=Tuttle |isbn=978-0-8048-3853-5 |location=North Clarendon, VT}}
* {{cite journal|last=Klöter|first=Henning|doi=10.4000/chinaperspectives.442|date=2004 |journal=China Perspectives |volume=56 |issn=1996-4617 |url=http://chinaperspectives.revues.org/442 |title=Language Policy in the KMT and DPP eras |issue=6 |access-date=30 May 2015|publisher=Centre d'études français sur la Chine Contemporaine}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kornicki |first=P.F. |title=New Word Order: Transnational Themes in Book History |publisher=Worldview Publications |year=2011 |isbn=978-81-920651-1-3 |editor-last=Chakravorty |editor-first=Swapan |pages=65–79 |chapter=A transnational approach to East Asian book history |author-link=Peter Kornicki |editor-last2=Gupta |editor-first2=Abhijit}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Kuo |first=Yun-Hsuan |date=2005 |title=New dialect formation: the case of Taiwanese Mandarin|type=Doctor of Philosophy|publisher=University of Essex|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/34241289|access-date=26 June 2015}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kurpaska |first=Maria |title=Chinese language(s): a look through the prism of the Great dictionary of modern Chinese dialects |date=2010 |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-021914-2 |series=Trends in linguistics |location=Berlin}}
* {{Citation |title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World |url=http://www.ethnologue.com |year=2015 |editor-last=Lewis |editor-first=M. Paul |edition=Eighteenth |place=Dallas, Texas |publisher=SIL International |editor-given2=Gary F. |editor-surname2=Simons |editor-given3=Charles D. |editor-surname3=Fennig}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Siok-Hong |title=台、華語接觸所引起的台語語音的變化趨勢 |journal=台語研究 |date=2010-03-01 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=56–71 |url=https://www.airitilibrary.com/Publication/alDetailedMesh?docid=20763611-201003-201004230089-201004230089-56-71 |access-date=11 July 2021}}
* {{Cite book |last=Liang |first=Sihua |title=Language attitudes and identities in multilingual China: a linguistic ethnography |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-319-12619-7 |location=Cham}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |author-link=Victor H. Mair |year=1991 |title=What Is a Chinese "Dialect/Topolect"? Reflections on Some Key Sino-English Linguistic terms |url=https://sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf |journal=Sino-Platonic Papers|publisher=University of Pennsylvania|volume=29 |pages=1–31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510155608/http://www.sino-platonic.org/complete/spp029_chinese_dialect.pdf |archive-date=10 May 2018 |access-date=2023-11-17}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Matthews |first1=Stephen |title=Cantonese: A Comprehensive Grammar |last2=Yip |first2=Virginia |publisher=Routledge |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-415-08945-6 |author-link=Stephen Matthews (linguist) |author-link2=Virginia Yip}}
* {{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Roy Andrew |url=https://archive.org/details/japaneselanguage0000mill_o3y1 |title=The Japanese Language |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-226-52717-8 |author-link=Roy Andrew Miller |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Miyake |first=Marc Hideo |title=Old Japanese: A Phonetic Reconstruction |publisher=Routledge–Curzon |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-415-30575-4 |author-link=Marc Hideo Miyake}}
* {{Cite book |last=Norman |first=Jerry |title=Chinese |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-521-29653-3 |series=Cambridge language surveys |author-link=Jerry Norman (sinologist)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Norman |first=Jerry |title=The Sino-Tibetan languages |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-7007-1129-1 |editor-last=Thurgood |editor-first=Graham |pages=72–83 |chapter=The Chinese dialects: phonology |editor-last2=LaPolla |editor-first2=Randy J.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pulleyblank |first=Edwin G. |title=Middle Chinese: A study in Historical Phonology |publisher=University of British Columbia Press |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-7748-0192-8 |location=Vancouver |author-link=Edwin G. Pulleyblank}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ramsey |first=S. Robert |title=The Languages of China |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-691-01468-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Romaine |first=Suzanne |title=Language in Society: an Introduction to Sociolinguistics |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-19-875133-5 }}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Sagart |first1=Laurent |author-link=Laurent Sagart |last2=Jacques |first2=Guillaume |author-link2=Guillaume Jacques |last3=Lai |first3=Yunfan |last4=Ryder |first4=Robin J. |last5=Thouzeau |first5=Valentin |last6=Greenhill |first6=Simon J. |last7=List |first7=Johann-Mattis |date=2019-05-21 |title=Dated language phylogenies shed light on the ancestry of Sino-Tibetan |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=116 |issue=21 |pages=10317–10322 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1817972116 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=6534992 |pmid=31061123 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11610317S |doi-access=free }}
* {{Cite book |last=Schüssler |first=Axel |title=ABC Etymological Dictionary of Old Chinese |date=2007 |publisher=University of Hawaiʻi Press |isbn=978-0-8248-2975-9 |series=ABC Chinese dictionary series |location=Honolulu}}
* {{Cite book |last=Shibatani |first=Masayoshi |title=The Languages of Japan |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-36918-3 |series=Cambridge language surveys |location=Cambridge}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sohn |first=Ho-Min |url=https://archive.org/details/koreanlanguage0000sohn |title=The Korean Language |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-36943-5 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Sohn |first1=Ho-Min |title=A History of Korean Literature |last2=Lee |first2=Peter H. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-521-82858-1 |editor-last=Lee |editor-first=Peter H. |pages=15–51 |chapter=Language, forms, prosody, and themes}}
* {{Cite book |last=Thomason |first=Sarah Grey |title=International Handbook of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education |date=1988 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-24484-1 |editor-last=Paulston |editor-first=Christina Bratt |edition=1st |location=New York |pages=17–45 |chapter=Languages of the World}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Tsu-lin |first=Mei |author-link=Mei Tsu-lin |date=1970 |title=Tones and Prosody in Middle Chinese and The Origin of The Rising Tone |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2718766 |journal=Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies |volume=30 |pages=86–110 |doi=10.2307/2718766 |jstor=2718766}}
* {{Cite book |last=Van Herk |first=Gerard |title=What is sociolinguistics? |date=2012 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-9319-1 |edition=1st |series=Linguistics in the world |location=Chichester, West Sussex}}
* {{cite book|editor-last1=Wakefield|editor-first1=John C.|title=Cantonese as a Second Language: Issues, Experiences, and Suggestions for Teaching and Learning|series=Routledge Studies in Applied Linguistics|publisher=Routledge|location=Manhattan, New York|year=2019|page=45|isbn=9781032093161}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Wardaugh |first1=Ronald |title=An Introduction to Sociolinguistics |last2=Fuller |first2=Janet |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-118-73229-8}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilkinson |first=Endymion Porter |title=Chinese History: A Manual |publisher=Harvard University Press |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-674-00249-4 |series=Harvard-Yenching Institute monograph series |location=Cambridge, Mass. |author-link=Endymion Wilkinson}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Wurm |first1=Stephen Adolphe |title=Language Atlas of China |last2=Li |first2=Rong |last3=Baumann |first3=Theo |last4=Lee |first4=Mei W. |publisher=Longman |year=1987 |isbn=978-962-359-085-3}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Zhang |first1=Bennan |title=Language policy in the People's Republic of China: theory and practice since 1949 |last2=Yang |first2=Robin R. |date=2004 |publisher=Kluwer Academic Publishers |isbn=978-1-4020-8038-8 |editor-last=Zhou |editor-first=Minglang |location=Boston |pages=143–161 |chapter=''Putonghua'' education and language policy in postcolonial Hong Kong}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Zimmermann|first=Basile|year=2010|title=Redesigning Culture: Chinese Characters in Alphabet-Encoded Networks|journal=Design and Culture|volume=2|issue=1|pages=27–43|doi=10.2752/175470710X12593419555126|s2cid=53981784|url=https://archive-ouverte.unige.ch/unige:87901|issn=1754-7075}}
** {{Cite press release |title=Origin of Sino-Tibetan language family revealed by new research |date=May 6, 2019 |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/05/190506151822.htm |website=[[ScienceDaily]]}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite web |last1=Arablouei |first1=Ramtin |author2=Rund Abdelfatah |date=26 May 2022 |title=The Characters That Built China |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/05/25/1101378470/the-characters-that-built-china |work=[[Throughline]] |publisher=[[NPR]] |access-date=27 August 2023}} On the history of the standardization of Mandarin as the Chinese primary national dialect.
* {{Citation |last=Hannas |first=William C. |year=1997 |title=Asia's Orthographic Dilemma |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1892-0 |postscript=.|ref=none}}
* {{Citation
| last1 = Huang
| first1 = Cheng-Teh James
| last2 = Li
| first2 = Yen-Hui Audrey
| last3 = Li
| first3 = Yafei
| year = 2009
| title = The Syntax of Chinese
| series = Cambridge Syntax Guides
| publisher = Cambridge University Press
| location = Cambridge
| isbn = 978-0-521-59958-0
| doi = 10.1017/CBO9781139166935
| s2cid = 209828119
| postscript = .
| ref = none
}}
* {{citation |last=Qiu |first=Xigui |author-link=Qiu Xigui |year=2000 |title=Chinese Writing |translator=Gilbert Louis Mattos and [[Jerry Norman (sinologist)|Jerry Norman]] |publisher=Society for the Study of Early China and Institute of East Asian Studies, [[University of California]], Berkeley |isbn=978-1-55729-071-7 |postscript=.|ref=none}}
* {{Cite magazine |author=R. L. G. |date=6 June 2013 |title=Why So Little Chinese in English? |url=http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/06/language-borrowing |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130620054846/http://www.economist.com/blogs/johnson/2013/06/language-borrowing |archive-date=20 June 2013 |url-status=live |department=''Johnson'' (blog): Language Borrowing (topic) |magazine=[[The Economist]] |access-date=27 August 2023}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tsu |first=Jing |year=2022 |title=Kingdom of Characters: The Language Revolution That Made China Modern |location=New York |publisher=Riverhead Books |isbn=9780735214729 |oclc=1246726702}}

==External links==
{{InterWiki |code = zh }}
{{Commons category|Chinese languages}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikivoyage|Chinese phrasebook|Chinese|a phrasebook}}
* [http://ctext.org/ Classical Chinese texts] – Chinese Text Project
* [http://chinalinks.osu.edu/ Marjorie Chan's ChinaLinks] at the Ohio State University with hundreds of links to Chinese related web pages. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720030244/http://chinalinks.osu.edu/ |date=20 July 2011 }}.

{{Chinese language}}
{{Navboxes
|list =
{{Languages of China}}
{{Languages of Macau}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Languages of Singapore}}
{{Languages of Malaysia}}
{{Chinese loan vocabularies}}
}}
{{Portal bar|Language|China|Taiwan|Singapore|Hong Kong}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Chinese Language}}
[[Category:Chinese language| ]]
[[Category:Analytic languages]]
[[Category:Isolating languages]]
[[Category:Languages of China]]
[[Category:Languages of Hong Kong]]
[[Category:Languages of Macau]]
[[Category:Languages of Singapore]]
[[Category:Languages of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Lingua francas]]
[[Category:Sinology|Language]]

Radical 109

2024-10-12T16:25:26Z

Tc14Hd: /* Derived characters */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Infobox Kangxi radical
|109|uni=76EE
|meaning= eye
|pny= mù
|bopo= ㄇㄨˋ
|gr= muh
|wade= mu4
|jyutping= muk6
|yale= muhk
|cn= 目字旁 mùzìpáng and added 眼睛 YANJiNG
|onyomi= ボク boku / モク moku
|kunyomi= め me
|jp= 目/め me (Left) 目偏/めへん mehen
|hang= 눈 nun
|hanja= 목 mok
}}

'''Radical 109''' or '''radical eye''' ({{Lang|zh-Hant|目部}}) meaning '''"[[eye]]"''' is one of the 23 [[Kangxi radical]]s (214 radicals in total) composed of 5 [[stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the ''[[Kangxi Dictionary]]'', there are 647 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

{{Lang|zh-Hans|目}} is also the 105th indexing component in the ''[[Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components]]'' predominantly adopted by [[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified Chinese]] dictionaries published in [[mainland China]].

==Evolution==
<gallery>
File:目-oracle.svg|[[Oracle bone script]] character
File:目-bronze.svg|[[Chinese bronze inscriptions|Bronze script]] character
File:目-bigseal.svg|[[Large seal script]] character
File:目-seal.svg|[[Small seal script]] character
</gallery>

==Derived characters==
{| class="wikitable"
! Strokes !! Characters
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|目}}
|----
| +2 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|盯}}
|----
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|盰}} {{Linktext|盱}} {{Linktext|盲}} {{Linktext|盳}} {{Linktext|直}} {{Linktext|盵}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|盶}} {{Linktext|盷}} {{Linktext|相}} {{Linktext|盹}} {{Linktext|盺}} {{Linktext|盻}} {{Linktext|盼}} {{Linktext|盽}} {{Linktext|盾}} {{Linktext|盿}} {{Linktext|眀}} {{Linktext|省}} {{Linktext|眂}} {{Linktext|眃}} {{Linktext|眄}} {{Linktext|眅}} {{Linktext|眆}} {{Linktext|眇}} {{Linktext|眈}} {{Linktext|眉}} {{Linktext|眊}} {{Linktext|看}} {{Linktext|県}} {{Linktext|眍}}
|----
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|眎}} {{Linktext|眏}} {{Linktext|眐}} {{Linktext|眑}} {{Linktext|眒}} {{Linktext|眓}} {{Linktext|眔}} {{Linktext|眕}} {{Linktext|眖}} {{Linktext|眗}} {{Linktext|眘}} {{Linktext|眙}} {{Linktext|眚}} {{Linktext|眛}} {{Linktext|眜}} {{Linktext|眝}} {{Linktext|眞}} {{Linktext|真}} {{Linktext|眠}} {{Linktext|眡}} {{Linktext|眢}} {{Linktext|眣}} {{Linktext|眤}} {{Linktext|眥}} {{Linktext|眦}} {{Linktext|眧}} {{Linktext|眨}} {{Linktext|眩}} {{Linktext|眪}} {{Linktext|眫}} {{Linktext|眬}} {{Linktext|眿}}
|----
| +6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|眭}} {{Linktext|眮}} {{Linktext|眯}} {{Linktext|眰}} {{Linktext|眱}} {{Linktext|眲}} {{Linktext|眳}} {{Linktext|眴}} {{Linktext|眵}} {{Linktext|眶}} {{Linktext|眷}} {{Linktext|眸}} {{Linktext|眹}} {{Linktext|眺}} {{Linktext|眻}} {{Linktext|眼}} {{Linktext|眽}} {{Linktext|眾}}
|----
| +7 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|着}} {{Linktext|睁}} {{Linktext|睂}} {{Linktext|睃}} {{Linktext|睄}} {{Linktext|睅}} {{Linktext|睆}} {{Linktext|睇}} {{Linktext|睈}} {{Linktext|睉}} {{Linktext|睊}} {{Linktext|睋}} {{Linktext|睌}} {{Linktext|睍}} {{Linktext|睎}} {{Linktext|睏}} {{Linktext|睐}} {{Linktext|睑}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|睒}} {{Linktext|睓}} {{Linktext|睔}} {{Linktext|睕}} {{Linktext|睖}} {{Linktext|睗}} {{Linktext|睘}} {{Linktext|睙}} {{Linktext|睚}} {{Linktext|睛}} {{Linktext|睜}} {{Linktext|睝}} {{Linktext|睞}} {{Linktext|睟}} {{Linktext|睠}} {{Linktext|睡}} {{Linktext|睢}} {{Linktext|督}} {{Linktext|睤}} {{Linktext|睥}} {{Linktext|睦}} {{Linktext|睧}} {{Linktext|睨}} {{Linktext|睩}} {{Linktext|睪}} {{Linktext|睫}} {{Linktext|睬}} {{Linktext|睭}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|煛}} {{Linktext|睮}} {{Linktext|睯}} {{Linktext|睰}} {{Linktext|睱}} {{Linktext|睲}} {{Linktext|睳}} {{Linktext|睴}} {{Linktext|睵}} {{Linktext|睶}} {{Linktext|睸}} {{Linktext|睹}} {{Linktext|睺}} {{Linktext|睻}} {{Linktext|睼}} {{Linktext|睽}} {{Linktext|睾}} {{Linktext|睿}} {{Linktext|瞀}} {{Linktext|瞁}} {{Linktext|瞂}} {{Linktext|瞃}} {{Linktext|瞄}} {{Linktext|瞅}} {{Linktext|瞆}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|瞇}} {{Linktext|瞈}} {{Linktext|瞉}} {{Linktext|瞊}} {{Linktext|瞋}} {{Linktext|瞌}} {{Linktext|瞍}} {{Linktext|瞎}} {{Linktext|瞏}} {{Linktext|瞐}} {{Linktext|瞑}} {{Linktext|瞒}} {{Linktext|瞓}}
|----
| +11 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|瞔}} {{Linktext|瞕}} {{Linktext|瞖}} {{Linktext|瞗}} {{Linktext|瞘}} {{Linktext|瞙}} {{Linktext|瞚}} {{Linktext|瞛}} {{Linktext|瞜}} {{Linktext|瞝}} {{Linktext|瞞}} {{Linktext|瞟}} {{Linktext|瞠}} {{Linktext|瞡}} {{Linktext|瞢}} {{Linktext|瞣}}
|----
| +12 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|瞤}} {{Linktext|瞥}} {{Linktext|瞦}} {{Linktext|瞧}} {{Linktext|瞨}} {{Linktext|瞩}} {{Linktext|瞪}} {{Linktext|瞫}} {{Linktext|瞬}} {{Linktext|瞭}} {{Linktext|瞮}} {{Linktext|瞯}} {{Linktext|瞰}} {{Linktext|瞱}} {{Linktext|瞲}} {{Linktext|瞳}} {{Linktext|瞴}} {{Linktext|瞵}} {{Linktext|瞶}} {{Linktext|瞷}}
|----
| +13 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|瞸}} {{Linktext|瞹}} {{Linktext|瞺}} {{Linktext|瞻}} {{Linktext|瞼}} {{Linktext|瞽}} {{Linktext|瞾}} {{Linktext|瞿}} {{Linktext|矀}} {{Linktext|矁}} {{Linktext|矂}}
|----
| +14 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|矃}} {{Linktext|矄}} {{Linktext|矅}} {{Linktext|矆}} {{Linktext|矇}} {{Linktext|矈}} {{Linktext|矉}} {{Linktext|矊}}
|----
| +15 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|矋}} {{Linktext|矌}} {{Linktext|矍}} {{Linktext|矎}} {{Linktext|矏}}
|----
| +16 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|矐}} {{Linktext|矑}} {{Linktext|矒}} {{Linktext|矓}}
|----
| +18 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|矔}}
|----
| +19 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|睷}} {{Linktext|矕}} {{Linktext|矗}}
|----
| +20 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|矘}} {{Linktext|矙}}
|----
| +21 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|矖}} {{Linktext|矚}}
|}

==Sinogram==
In isolation it is a [[Chinese character]] meaning eye. It is one of the [[Kyōiku kanji]] or Kanji taught in elementary school in [[Japan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=The Kyoiku Kanji (教育漢字) - Kanshudo |url=https://www.kanshudo.com/collections/kyoiku_kanji |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324010221/https://www.kanshudo.com/collections/kyoiku_kanji |archive-date=March 24, 2022 |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=www.kanshudo.com}}</ref> It is a first grade kanji<ref name=":0" />


==References==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Radical 109}}
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=76EE Unihan Database - U+76EE]

{{Kangxi Radicals}}
{{Simplified Chinese radicals}}

[[Category:Kyōiku kanji]]
[[Category:Kangxi radicals|109]]
[[Category:Simplified Chinese radicals|105]]

Radical 102

2024-10-12T16:19:53Z

Tc14Hd: /* Derived characters */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Infobox Kangxi radical
|102|uni=7530
|meaning=rice paddy
|pny= tián
|bopo= ㄊㄧㄢˊ
|gr= tyan
|wade= t{{wg-apos}}ien2
|jyutping= tin4
|yale= tìhn
|cn= 田字旁 tiánzìpáng
|onyomi= デン den
|kunyomi= た ta
|jp= 田/た ta (Left) 田偏/たへん tahen
|hang= 밭 bat
|hanja= 전 jeon
}}

{{stroke order|strokes=5|name=田}}
{{stroke order|strokes=5|name=田|type=jbw}}

'''Radical 102''' or '''radical field''' ({{Lang|zh-Hant|田部}}) meaning '''"[[field (agriculture)|field]]"''' is number 102 out of 214 [[Kangxi radical]]s. It is one of the 23 radicals composed of 5 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]]. With 192 signs derived from this character in the ''[[Kangxi Dictionary]]'', it has a frequency somewhat below average.

{{Lang|zh-Hans|田}} is also the 106th indexing component in the ''[[Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components]]'' predominantly adopted by [[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified Chinese]] dictionaries published in [[mainland China]].

The character {{Linktext|田}} is a pictograph of a rice field with irrigation channels. There are several variants of the radical, which may also have other meanings. Signs derived from this character mostly belong to the agricultural sphere, such as {{Linktext|亩}}, a unit of area, {{Linktext|男}}, a field worker, or {{Linktext|畜}} "cattle".

==Evolution==
<gallery>
File:田-oracle.svg|[[Oracle bone script]] character
File:田-bronze.svg|[[Chinese bronze inscriptions|Bronze script]] character
File:田-bigseal.svg|[[Large seal script]] character
File:田-seal.svg|[[Small seal script]] character
</gallery>

==Derived characters==
{| class="wikitable"
! Strokes !! Characters
|-
| + 0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|田}} {{Linktext|由}} {{Linktext|甲}} {{Linktext|申}} {{Linktext|甴}} {{Linktext|电}}
|-
| + 1 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|甶}}
|-
| + 2 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|男}} {{Linktext|甸}} {{Linktext|甹}} {{Linktext|町}} {{Linktext|甼}}
|-
| + 3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|画}} {{Linktext|甽}} {{Linktext|甾}} {{Linktext|甿}} {{Linktext|畀}} {{Linktext|畁}} {{Linktext|畂}} {{Linktext|畃}} {{Linktext|畄}} {{Linktext|畅}}
|-
| + 4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|畆}} {{Linktext|畇}} {{Linktext|畈}} {{Linktext|畉}} {{Linktext|畊}} {{Linktext|畋}} {{Linktext|界}} {{Linktext|畍}} {{Linktext|畎}} {{Linktext|畏}} {{Linktext|畐}} {{Linktext|畑}} {{Linktext|畒}} {{Linktext|畓}}
|-
| + 5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|畔}} {{Linktext|畕}} {{Linktext|畖}} {{Linktext|畗}} {{Linktext|畘}} {{Linktext|留}} {{Linktext|畚}} {{Linktext|畛}} {{Linktext|畜}} {{Linktext|畝}} {{Linktext|畞}} {{Linktext|畟}} {{Linktext|畠}}
|-
| + 6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|畡}} {{Linktext|畢}} {{Linktext|畣}} {{Linktext|畤}} {{Linktext|略}} {{Linktext|畦}} {{Linktext|畧}} {{Linktext|畨}} {{Linktext|畩}} {{Linktext|異}}
|-
| + 7 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|番}} {{Linktext|畫}} {{Linktext|畬}} {{Linktext|畭}} {{Linktext|畮}} {{Linktext|畯}} {{Linktext|畱}} {{Linktext|畲}} {{Linktext|畳}} {{Linktext|畴}}
|-
| + 8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|畵}} {{Linktext|當}} {{Linktext|畷}} {{Linktext|畸}} {{Linktext|畹}} {{Linktext|畺}}
|-
| + 9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|畻}} {{Linktext|畼}} {{Linktext|畽}}
|-
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|畾}} {{Linktext|畿}}
|-
| +11 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|疀}} {{Linktext|疁}} {{Linktext|疂}}
|-
| +12 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|疃}} {{Linktext|疄}}
|-
| +13 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|疅}}
|-
| +14 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|疆}} {{Linktext|疇}}
|-
| +15 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|疈}}
|-
| +17 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|疉}} {{Linktext|疊}}
|}

In [[Chinese astrology]], {{Linktext|申}} represents the ninth [[Earthly Branches|Earthly Branch]] and corresponds to the [[Monkey (zodiac)|Monkey]] in
the [[Chinese zodiac]]. In other signs such as {{Linktext|钿}} "coin", the radical has merely phonetic significance. In other cases, it is present due to assimilation of a similar but originally distinct radical, as in {{Linktext|胃}} "stomach". In the ancient [[China|Chinese]] cyclic character numeral system ''tiāngān'', {{Linktext|甲}} represents the first [[Celestial stem]].

==Sinogram==
The radical is also used as an independent [[Chinese character]]. It is one of the [[kyōiku kanji]] or kanji taught in elementary school in [[Japan]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=The Kyoiku Kanji (教育漢字) - Kanshudo |url=https://www.kanshudo.com/collections/kyoiku_kanji |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220324010221/https://www.kanshudo.com/collections/kyoiku_kanji |archive-date=March 24, 2022 |access-date=2023-05-06 |website=www.kanshudo.com}}</ref> It is a first grade kanji.<ref name=":0" />
==References==
{{reflist}}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*Leyi Li: "Tracing the Roots of Chinese Characters: 500 Cases". Beijing 1993, {{ISBN|978-7-5619-0204-2}}
*Rick Harbaugh, ''Chinese Characters: A Genealogy and Dictionary'', Yale University Press (1998), {{ISBN|978-0-9660750-0-7}}.[http://zhongwen.com/d/165/d208.htm]

==External links==
{{wiktionary|Appendix:Chinese radical/田}}
{{Commonscat|Radical 102}}

*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=7530 Unihan Database - U+7530]

{{Kangxi Radicals}}
{{Simplified Chinese radicals}}

[[Category:Kyōiku kanji]]
[[Category:Kangxi radicals|102]]
[[Category:Simplified Chinese radicals|106]]

Radical 24

2024-10-12T15:43:12Z

Tc14Hd: /* Derived characters */

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Infobox Kangxi radical
|24|uni=5341
|meaning= [[10 (number)|ten]]
|pny= shí
|bopo= ㄕˊ
|gr= shyr
|wade= shih2
|jyutping= sap6
|yale= sahp
|poj= cha̍p (col.) si̍p (lit.)
|onyomi= ジュウ jū
|kunyomi= と to / とお tō
|jp= 十偏 jūhen
|hang= 열 yeol
|hanja= 십 sip
}}

'''Radical 24''' or '''radical ten''' ({{Lang|zh-Hant|十部}}) meaning '''[[10|ten]]''', '''[[Wiktionary:complete|complete]]''', or '''[[perfection|perfect]]''', is one of 23 of the 214 [[Kangxi radical]]s that are composed of 2 [[Stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the ''[[Kangxi Dictionary]]'', there are 55 characters (out of 40,000) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

{{Lang|zh-Hans|十}} is also the 6th indexing component in the ''[[Table of Indexing Chinese Character Components]]'' predominantly adopted by [[Simplified Chinese characters|Simplified Chinese]] dictionaries published in [[mainland China]].

==Evolution==
<gallery>
File:十-oracle.svg|[[Oracle bone script]] character
File:十-bronze.svg|[[Chinese bronze inscriptions|Bronze script]] character
File:十-bigseal.svg|[[Large seal script]] character
File:十-seal.svg|[[Small seal script]] character
</gallery>

{{Linktext|十}} is two crossed lines. It was originally a vertical line, a pictogram of a needle (now {{Linktext|針}}/针), later supplemented by a dot in the center of the stroke which became a short cross-stroke and expanded to the current shape.

==Derived characters==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
! Strokes !! Characters
|----
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|十}}
|-
| +1 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|卂}} {{Linktext|千}} {{Linktext|卄}}
|----
| +2 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|卅}} {{Linktext|卆}}JP nonstandard (=卒) {{Linktext|升}} {{Linktext|午}}
|----
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|卉}} {{Linktext|半}}
|----
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|卋}} (={{Linktext|世}} -> [[Radical 1|一]]) {{Linktext|卌}} {{Linktext|卍}} {{Linktext|华}}SC (={{Linktext|華}} -> [[Radical 140|艸]]) {{Linktext|协}}SC (=協) {{Linktext|卐}} {{Linktext|毕}}SC (={{Linktext|畢}} -> [[Radical 102|田]])
|----
| +6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|丧}}SC (={{Linktext|喪}} -> [[Radical 30|口]]) {{Linktext|卑}} {{Linktext|卒}} {{Linktext|卓}} {{Linktext|協}} {{Linktext|单}}SC (={{Linktext|單}} -> [[Radical 30|口]]) {{Linktext|卖}}SC (={{Linktext|賣}} -> [[Radical 154|貝]])
|----
| +7 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|南}}
|----
| +8 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|単}}
|----
| +9 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|卙}}
|----
| +10 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|博}}
|-
| +19 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|卛}} {{Linktext|颦}}SC (={{Linktext|顰}} -> [[Radical 181|頁]])
|}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*Leyi Li: “Tracing the Roots of Chinese Characters: 500 Cases”. Beijing 1993, {{ISBN|978-7-5619-0204-2}}
* KangXi: [http://www.kangxizidian.com/kangxi/0155.gif page 155], character 17
* Dai Kanwa Jiten: character 2695
* Dae Jaweon: page 348, character 6
* Hanyu Da Zidian: volume 1, page 58, character 9

==See also==
* [[Cross]]

==External links==
{{Commons category|Radical 024}}
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=U+5341 Unihan data for U+5341]

{{Kangxi Radicals}}
{{Simplified Chinese radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|024]]
[[Category:Simplified Chinese radicals|006]]

Radical 7

2024-10-12T15:36:19Z

Tc14Hd: /* Derived characters */ Removed Vietnamese-only characters

{{Short description|Chinese character radical}}
{{Infobox Kangxi radical
|7|uni=4E8C
|meaning = two
|pny = èr
|bopo = ㄦˋ
|gr = ell
|wade = êrh4
|jyutping = ji6
|yale = yih
|poj = jī
|hang = 두 du
|hanja = 이 i
|onyomi = ニ ni
|kunyomi = ふた(つ) futa(tsu)
}}

'''Radical 7''' or '''radical two''' ({{Lang|zh-Hant|二部}}) meaning '''"[[2|two]]"''' is one of 23 of the 214 [[Kangxi radical]]s that are composed of 2 [[stroke (CJK character)|strokes]].

In the ''[[Kangxi Dictionary]]'', there are 29 characters (out of 49,030) to be found under this [[Radical (Chinese characters)|radical]].

In [[Simplified Chinese]] dictionaries and some Hong Kong Traditional Chinese dictionaries, radical 7 (radical two) is merged with [[radical 1]] (Radical one, {{Lang|zh-cn|一}}).

==Evolution==
<gallery>
File:二-oracle.svg|[[Oracle bone script]] character
File:二-bronze.svg|[[Chinese bronze inscriptions|Bronze script]] character
File:二-bigseal.svg|[[Large seal script]] character
File:二-seal.svg|[[Small seal script]] character
</gallery>

==Derived characters==
{| class="wikitable"
! Strokes !! Characters

|-
| +0 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|二}}
|-
| +1 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|亍}} {{Linktext|于}} {{Linktext|亏}}
|-
| +2 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|云}} {{Linktext|互}} {{Linktext|亓}} {{Linktext|五}} {{Linktext|井}} {{Linktext|亖}}
|-
| +3 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|亗}}
|-
| +4 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|亚}} {{Linktext|亘}} {{Linktext|亙}}
|-
| +5 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|些}} {{Linktext|亜}}
|-
| +6 || style="font-size: large;" | {{Linktext|亝}} {{Linktext|亞}} {{Linktext|亟}} {{Linktext|㐩}}
|}

== Literature ==
*{{cite book|last= Fazzioli |first= Edoardo |others= calligraphy by Rebecca Hon Ko |title= Chinese calligraphy : from pictograph to ideogram : the history of 214 essential Chinese/Japanese characters |year= 1987 |publisher= [[Abbeville Publishing Group (Abbeville Press, Inc.)|Abbeville Press]] |location= New York |isbn= 0-89659-774-1 }}
*Leyi Li: “Tracing the Roots of Chinese Characters: 500 Cases”. Beijing 1993, {{ISBN|978-7-5619-0204-2}}

==See also==
*[[Chinese numerals]]

==External links==
{{Commonscat|Radical 007}}
*[https://www.unicode.org/cgi-bin/GetUnihanData.pl?codepoint=4E8C Unihan Database - U+4E8C]

{{Kangxi Radicals}}

[[Category:Kangxi radicals|007]]

Romanian lexis

2024-10-11T18:37:40Z

Tc14Hd: Updated short description

{{short description|Provenance of the words of the Romanian language}}

The '''[[lexis (linguistics)|lexis]]''' of the '''[[Romanian language]]''' (or [[Daco-Romanian]]), a [[Romance language]], has changed over the centuries as the language evolved from [[Vulgar Latin]], to [[Common Romanian]], to medieval, modern and contemporary [[Romanian language|Romanian]]. A large proportion (about 42%) of present-day Romanian lexis is not inherited from Latin and in some semantic areas loanwords far outnumber inherited ones making Romanian an example of a language with a high degree of lexical permeability.<ref>{{cite book |last=Schulte |first=Kim |editor1-last=Haspelmath |editor1-first=Martin |editor2-last=Tadmor |editor2-first=Uri |title=Loanwords in the World's Languages: A Comparative Handbook |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |year=2009 |pages=249–250 |chapter=Loanwords in Romanian |isbn=978-3-11-021843-5 }}</ref>

== Thraco-Dacian substrate ==
{{See also|Substrate in Romanian}}
Romanian has around 90 words from [[Classification of Thracian|Thraco-Dacian]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Berciu-Drăghicescu, Adina (coord.) |first=Frățilă, Vasile |trans-title= ''Aromanian, Megleno-Romanians, and Istro-Romanians: Aspects of Identity and Culture'', chapter ''Istro-Romanian dialect.General View'' |title=''Aromâni, Meglenoromâni și Istroromâni: Aspecte identitare și culturale'', capitolul ''Dialectul istroromân.Privire generală'' |publisher=Editura Universității din București |year=2012 |isbn= 978-606-16-0148-6 |page=678 }}</ref><ref name="Sala 2012 39">{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română] |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |page=39 }}</ref><ref name="Brâncuș 2005 31">{{Cite book|last=Brâncuș |first=Grigore |trans-title=Introduction to the History of Romanian Language |title=Introducere în istoria limbii române] |publisher=Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine |year=2005 |isbn=973-725-219-5 |page=31 }}</ref>

''abur, argea, baci, balaur, bală, balegă, baltă, barză, bască, bâlc, bâr, brad, brânză, brâu, brusture, buc, bucur, bunget, buză, căciulă, călbează, căpuşă, cătun, ceafă, cioară, cioc, ciucă, ciuf, ciump, ciupi, ciut, coacăză, copac, copil, curpen, cursă, droaie, druete, fărâmă, fluier, gard, gata, ghimpe, ghionoaie, ghiuj, grapă, gresie, groapă, grumaz, grunz, guşă, jumătate, lete, leurdă, mal, mare (adj.), mazăre, măgar, măgură, mărar, mânz, moş, mugur, murg, muşcoi, năpârcă, noian, pârâu, pupăză, raţă, rânză, sarbăd, scăpăra, scrum, sâmbure, spânz, strepede, strugure, strungă, şopârlă, ştiră, ţap, ţarc, ţeapă, urdă, vatră, viezure, vizuină, zară, zgardă.''

== Latin ==
[[File:Romance 20c en.png|thumb|right|350px |Current distribution of Romance Languages in Europe]]
{{See also|Vulgar Latin |Common Romanian}}
Romanian has inherited about 2000 [[Latin]] words through [[Vulgar Latin]], sometimes referred to as Danubian Latin in this context, that form the essential part of the lexis and without them communication would not be possible. 500 of these words are found in all other Romance languages, and they include prepositions and conjunctions (ex: ''cu, de, pe, spre''), numerals (ex: ''unu, doi, trei''), pronouns (ex: ''eu, tu, noi, voi''), adjectives, adverbs and verbs with multiple meanings (ex: ''bun, dulce, foarte, avea, veni'').<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brâncuș |first=Grigore |trans-title=Introduction to the History of Romanian Language |title=Introducere în istoria limbii române] |publisher=Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine |year=2005 |isbn=973-725-219-5 |pages=19–31 }}</ref> Complete phrases can be built using only inherited Latin words.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română] |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |page=65 }}</ref>

Of the remaining words some are common to [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and only one other [[Romance languages|Romance language]], such as ''înțelege'' "to understand" also found in [[Romansh language|Romansh]] (Lat. ''intelligere''), ''trece'' "to pass" found in [[Occitan language|Occitan]] (Lat. ''traicere''), or ''sui'' "to climb up" found in [[Old Spanish]] (Lat. ''subire''), and around 100 of these words are not found in any other [[Romance languages]]. Some examples of the latter are:<ref name="Sala 2012 39"/><ref name="Brâncuș 2005 31"/>

''adăpost, ager, agest, apuca, armar, asuda, aşterne, cântec, ceață, cerceta, creştin, dezmierda, feri, ferice, flămând, ierta, întâi, judeţ, lânced, lângoare, legăna, leşina, lingură, mărgea, negustor, oaie, ospăț, plăcintă, plăsa, plimba, purcede, puroi, putred, sănătoare (sunătoare), suoară (subsoară), treaptă, trepăda, urca, vânăt, vătăma, veşted, urî.''

Of the words preserved in other [[Romance languages]] some have not only changed their shape, but also their meaning during their evolution from Latin to Romanian. Such are:<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română] |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |pages=70–71 }}</ref>

* ''bărbat'' "man" (< Latin ''barbātus'' "bearded")
* ''ceață'' "fog" (< Latin ''caecia'' "blindness")
* ''femeie'' "woman" (< Latin ''familia'' "people belonging to a household")
* ''inimă'' "heart" (< Latin ''anima'' "soul")
* ''soț'' and ''soție'' "husband" and "wife" (< Latin ''socius'' "fellow")

== Pre-Modern loanwords ==

=== Slavic loanwords ===
(see also [[Slavic influence on Romanian]])

Contact with Slavic languages has brought numerous loanwords (about 15% of the current lexis) that permeated all the semantic fields of the language. It also brought prefixes (''ne-, pre-, răs-'') and suffixes (''-an,-eț, -iște''), introduced new sounds (for example [[j]] like in ''jar'' from [[Old Church Slavonic]] ''žarŭ''), calques (''limbă'' with initial meaning of tongue, language gained the additional sense of people, after [[Old Church Slavonic]] ''językŭ''- tongue, language, people) adverbs and interjections (''da, ba, iată''). The influence of the [[Slavic languages]] on [[Romanian language|Romanian]] forms the [[adstratum]] of the language.

Among the basic Slavic loanwords are:

ceas ''clock'', citi ''to read'', [[covaci]] ''blacksmith'', crai ''king'', curvă ''whore'', da ''yes'', drag ''dear'', dragoste ''love'', duh ''spirit, ghost'',
haină ''shirt'', iubi ''to love'', izvor ''source'', mândru ''proud'', muncă ''work'', noroc ''luck'', opri ''stop'', porni ''start'',
praf ''dust'', prieten ''friend'', prost ''stupid; simple'', rând ''row; order'', sărac ''poor'', sfânt ''holy'', sfert ''quarter''
slănină ''bacon'', smântână ''sour cream'', sută ''hundred'', târg ''market'', tigaie ''pan'', trup ''body'', veac ''century'',
vreme ''weather; time'', zid ''wall''.

Slavic languages also mediated the entry of Medieval Greek words in the language. Out of 278 words of Greek origin before 15th century 2 were borrowed through [[Medieval Latin]], 22 directly, and 254 through [[South Slavic languages]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Brâncuș |first=Grigore |trans-title=Introduction to the History of Romanian Language |title=Introducere în istoria limbii române] |publisher=Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine |year=2005 |isbn=973-725-219-5 |page=83 }}</ref> Slavic loanwords represent about 9% of the basic vocabulary.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română] |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |page= 90 }}</ref>

=== Greek loanwords ===

From the [[Latin]] spoken in the [[Danube]] area, Romanian has inherited a number of words from [[Ancient Greek]] that did not get transmitted in other [[Romance languages]], for example: ''cir, ciumă, frică, jur, papură, părângă, plai, spân, sterp, stup''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română] |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |page=87 }}</ref>

From [[Medieval Greek]] words like ''folos, lipsi, părăsi, prisos, sosi'' entered the language.<ref name="Sala 2012 99">{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română] |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |page=99 }}</ref>

During the [[Phanariots|Phanariot]] Period, Romanian, in particular the southern subdialects, borrowed numerous words like ''argat'',
''crivăț'', ''chivernisi'' that have since gone out of use, while others, like ''stafidă'' for example, have remained part of the vocabulary.<ref name="Sala 2012 99"/> According to linguist László Gáldi only about 10% of the words loaned during this period remained in use in the language.<ref name="Brâncuș 2005 84">{{Cite book|last=Brâncuș |first=Grigore |trans-title=Introduction to the History of Romanian Language |title=Introducere în istoria limbii române] |publisher=Editura Fundaţiei România de Mâine |year=2005 |isbn=973-725-219-5 |page=84 }}</ref>

Some of the Greek words in Romanian can be recognise by the ''-isi'' (''-asi, -esi, -osi, -arisi'') (ex: chivernisi, fandosi),'' -os, -icos'' (plicticos, politicos), ''-adă'', or ''-ache'' (in particular with names for example Costache, Manolache).<ref name="Brâncuș 2005 84"/>

=== Hungarian loanwords ===

Hungarian loanwords are notably absent from the other 3 [[Eastern Romance languages]].<ref name="Sala 2012 98">{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română] |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |page= 98 }}</ref>

Words of Hungarian origin have entered the basic vocabulary and represent 1.27% of this category.<ref name="Sala 2012 98"/>

Some examples of Hungarian loanwords in Romanian are:<ref>{{Cite web |title=dexonline |url=https://dexonline.ro/ |access-date=2023-07-28 |website=dexonline.ro}}</ref>
* ''acaț'' "black locust" (from Hungarian ''akác'')
* ''ademeni'' "to lure, to seduce" (from Hungarian ''adomány'')
* ''alcătui'' "to create, to form, to make" (from Hungarian ''alkotni'')
* ''altoi'' "to graft" (from Hungarian ''oltani'')
* ''belșug'' "abundance" (from Hungarian ''bőség'')
* ''birui'' "to overcome, to subdue" (from Hungarian ''bírni'')
* ''bănui'' "to suspect" (from Hungarian ''bánni'')
* ''bântui'' "to haunt" (from Hungarian ''bántani'')
* ''cheltui'' "to spend" (from Hungarian ''költeni'')
* ''chin'' "pain" (from Hungarian ''kín'')
* ''chip'' "face, image" (from Hungarian ''kép'')
* ''ciopor'' "group" (from Hungarian ''csoport'')
* ''covaci'' "blacksmith" (from Hungarian ''kovács'')
* ''dâmb'' "small hill" (from Hungarian ''domb'')
* ''făgădui'' "to promise, to pledge" (from Hungarian ''fogadni'')
* ''gând'' "thought, care" (from Hungarian ''gond'')
* ''hotar'' "border" (from Hungarian ''határ'')
* ''ic'' "wedge" (from Hungarian ''ék'')
* ''iobag'' "serf" (from Hungarian ''jobbágy'')
* ''jale'' "sage" (from Hungarian ''zsálya'')
* ''fel'' "sort, type, kind" (from Hungarian ''féle'')
* ''labă'' "palm, paw" (from Hungarian ''láb'')
* ''lacăt'' "padlock" (from Hungarian ''lakat'')
* ''locui'' "to dwell" (from Hungarian ''lakni'')
* ''mai'' "liver" (from Hungarian ''máj'')
* ''marfă'' "goods" (from Hungarian ''marha'')
* ''neam'' "family, kin, ancestry, nation" (from Hungarian ''nem'')
* ''nemeș'' "landowner" (from Hungarian ''nemes'')
* ''oraș'' "city" (from Hungarian ''város'')
* ''pa'' "bye" (from Hungarian ''pá'')
* ''panglică'' "ribbon, hatband" (from Hungarian ''pántlika'')
* ''seamă'' "account" (from Hungarian ''szám'')
*''servus'' "salute" (from Hungarian ''szervusz'')
* ''sicriu'' "coffin" (from Hungarian ''szekrény'')
* ''sobă'' "room" (from Hungarian ''szoba'')
* ''șoim'' "falcon" (from Hungarian ''solyóm'')
* ''șuvoi'' "stream, current, torrent" (from Hungarian ''sió'')
* ''tobă'' "drum" (from Hungarian ''dob'')
* ''tobă'' "holder, case" (from Hungarian ''tok'')
* ''uliu'' "buzzard, goshawk" (from Hungarian ''ölyv'')
* ''vaida'' "[[voivode]]" (from Hungarian ''vajda'')
* ''vamă'' "custom, toll" (from Hungarian ''vám'')
* ''zăbală'' "bit (for a horse)" (from Hungarian ''zabola'')

Food and beverage words of Hungarian origin:

* ''doboș'' "[[dobos]]" (from Hungarian ''dobos'')
* ''gulaș'' "[[goulash]]" (from Hungarian ''gulyás'')
* ''pălincă'' "[[palinka]]" (from Hungarian ''pálinka'')
* ''papricaș'' "[[pörkölt|paprika stew]]" (from Hungarian ''pörkölt'')

=== Turkish loanwords ===

Large parts of modern-day Romania were under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] suzerainty for several centuries. As a result, exchanges in language, food and culture occurred, and Romanian has absorbed several loanwords of [[Turkish language|Turkish]] origin. Even though Turkish language had an influence on the Romanian language, only a few loanwords remain used today on a daily basis. [[Dobruja|Dobrogea]] region was part of [[Rumelia]] for centuries, as a result there exists a [[Turks in Romania|Turkish]] community there. [[Ada Kaleh]] was a small island located in [[Banat]] region on [[Danube]] river that was inhabited entirely by Turkish people from all parts of the Ottoman Empire who mostly produced Turkish goods for the region.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/38635881|title = From Dobrudja to Ada-Kaleh: A Bridge between Empires|journal = Romano-Arabica|date = January 2019|last1 = Vainovski-Mihai, Irina and Grigore|first1 = George}}</ref>

Examples of Turkish loanwords in Romanian language are:

* ''aba'' "against" (< Turkish ''aba'')
* ''abanos'' "ebony" (< Turkish ''abanoz'')
* ''abitir'' "more" (< Turkish ''beter'')
* ''aga'' "military officer" (< Turkish ''ağa'')
* ''alai'' "group of people" (< Turkish ''alay'')
* ''arnăut'' "mercenary" (< Turkish ''arnavud'')
* ''arpagic'' "chive" (< Turkish ''arpacık'')
* ''arșic'' "bone of the leg joint" (< Turkish ''așık'')
* ''bacșiș'' "tip, gratuity" (< Turkish ''bahşiş'')
* ''basma'' "kerchief" (< Turkish ''basma'')
* ''batal'' "wether" (< Turkish ''batal'')
* ''băbalac'' "old early" (< Turkish ''babalıc'')
* ''băcan'' "merchant" (< Turkish ''bakkal'')
* ''bairam'' "big party" (< Turkish ''bayram'')
* ''baltag'' "ax" (< Turkish ''balta'')
* ''barbut'' "gambling" (< Turkish ''barbut'')
* ''bașca'' "different" (< Turkish ''başka'')
* ''basma'' "handkerchief" (< Turkish ''basma'')
* ''beci'' "cellar" (< Turkish ''beç'')
* ''bei'' "guvernor" (< Turkish ''bey'')
* ''belea'' "misfortune" (< Turkish ''bela'')
* ''beizadea'' "son of gentle" (< Turkish ''beyzade'')
* ''boi'' "to paint" (< Turkish ''boy'')
* ''bre'' "hey" (< Turkish ''bre'')
* ''briceag'' "pocket knife" (< Turkish ''bıçak'')
* ''buluc'' "pile" (< Turkish ''bölük'')
* ''burghiu'' "drill" (< Turkish ''bürgü'')
* ''bursuc'' "badger" (< Turkish ''porsuk'')
* ''buzdugan'' "iron rod" (< Turkish ''bozdoğan'')
* ''cabazlâc'' "joke" (< Turkish ''kabazlık'')
* ''cacealma'' "trick" (< Turkish ''kaçırma'')
* ''cadână'' "lady" (< Turkish ''kadin'')
* ''calcană'' "turbot" (< Turkish ''kalkan balığı'')
* ''caldarâm'' "pavement" (< Turkish ''kaldırım'')
* ''cântar'' "weighing" (< Turkish ''kantar'')
* ''capcană'' "trap" (< Turkish ''kapkan'')
* ''caraghios'' "funny" (< Turkish ''[[Karagöz and Hacivat|Karagöz]]'')
* ''cat'' "storey" (< Turkish ''kat'')
* ''capac'' "cork" (< Turkish ''kapak'')
* ''cazan'' "metal" (< Turkish ''kazan'')
* ''cearșaf'' "sheet" (< Turkish ''çarşaf'')
* ''chef'' "big party" (< Turkish ''keyif'')
* ''cherem'' "stay" (<Turkisk ''kerem'')
* ''chiabur'' "rich peasant" (< Turkish ''kibār'')
* ''chibrit'' "lighter" (< Turkish ''kibrit'')
* ''chioșc'' "kiosk" (< Turkish ''köşk'')
* ''chior'' "sees with one eye" (< Turkish ''kör'')
* ''ciob'' "fragment" (< Turkish ''çöp'')
* ''cioban'' "shepard" (< Turkish ''çoban'')
* ''ciorapi'' "socks" (< Turkish ''çorab'')
* ''cișmea'' "installation" (< Turkish ''çeșme'')
* ''ciubuc'' "beading" (< Turkish ''çubuk'')
* ''cizmă'' "boot" (< Turkish ''çizme'')
* ''colan'' "girdle" (< Turkish ''kolan'')
* ''covată'' "trough" (< Turkish ''kuvata'')
* ''cusur'' "defective" (< Turkish ''kusur'')
* ''cutie'' "box" (< Turkish ''kûtu'')
*''dulap'' "wardrobe" (< Turkish ''dolap'')
* ''dovleac'' "pumpkin" (< Turkish ''dövlek'')
* ''dugheană'' "impoverished" (< Turkish ''dükkân'')
* ''dușman'' "enemy" (< Turkish ''düşman'')
* ''dușumea'' "flooring" (< Turkish ''döşeme'')
* ''făraș'' "shovel" (< Turkish ''faraş'')
* ''farfurie'' "plate" (< Turkish ''farfuri'')
* ''felinar'' "lantern" (< Turkish ''fener'')
* ''fes'' "[[Fez (hat)|fez]]" (< Turkish ''fes'')
* ''fildeș'' "[[tusk]]" (< Turkish ''fildişi'')
* ''fitil'' "suppository" (< Turkish ''fitil'')
* ''furtun'' "hose" (< Turkish ''hortum'')
* ''geantă'' "smaller bag" (< Turkish ''çanta'')
* ''geam'' "window" (< Turkish ''cam'')
* ''get-beget'' "from ancestor to ancestor" (< Turkish ''ğedd bi ğedd'')
* ''ghiveci'' "pot" (< Turkish ''güvec'')
* ''habar'' "idea" (< Turkish ''haber'')
* ''haide/hai'' "come on" (< Turkish ''haydi'')
* ''haiduc'' "hajduk" (< Turkish ''haydut'')
* ''haimana'' "stray" (< Turkish ''haymana'')
* ''hal'' "bad condition" (< Turkish ''hal'')
* ''hamal'' "carrier" (< Turkish ''hamal'')
* ''hamam'' "[[hamam|bath]]" (< Turkish ''hamam'')
* ''harem'' "the cauldrons" (< Turkish ''harem'')
* ''hașiș'' "hashish" (< Turkish ''haşiş'')
* ''hatâr'' "service" (< Turkish ''hatır'')
* ''hazna'' "reservoir" (< Turkish ''hazne'')
* ''ibric'' "[[ibrik]]" (< Turkish ''ibrik'')
* ''imam'' "reciter in prayer" (< Turkish ''imam'')
* ''iorgovan'' "lilac" (< Turkish ''erguvan'')
* ''iureș'' "impetuous" (< Turkish ''yürügüş'')
* ''lighean'' "basin" (< Turkish ''liğen'')
* ''macara'' "[[Crane (machine)|crane]]" (< Turkish ''makara'')
* ''mahmur'' "sleepy" (< Turkish ''mahmur'')
* ''maimuță'' "monkey" (< Turkish ''maymun'')
* ''moft'' "whim" (< Turkish ''müft'')
* ''moșmodi'' "slow" (< Turkish ''moşmon'')
* ''murdar'' "dirty" (< Turkish ''murdar'')
* ''musafir'' "guest" (< Turkish ''misāfir'')
* ''mușteriu'' "client" (< Turkish ''müşteri'')
* ''năframă'' "cloth" (< Turkish ''mahrama'')
* ''nai'' "flute" (< Turkish ''ney'')
* ''narghilea'' "hookah" (< Turkish ''nargile'')
* ''nur'' "glory" (< Turkish ''nur'')
* ''oca'' "unit of measure" (< Turkish ''okka'')
* ''pafta'' "threader" (< Turkish ''pafta'')
* ''pașă'' "high titled" (< Turkish ''paşa'')
* ''pașalâc'' "despotic rule" (< Turkish ''paşalik'')
* ''patalama'' "diploma" (< Turkish ''batalama'')
* ''perdea'' "curtain" (< Turkish ''perde'')
* ''sadea'' "pure" (< Turkish ''sade'')
* ''șah'' "chess" (< Turkish ''şah'')
* ''șal'' "shawl" (< Turkish ''şal'')
* ''șerbet'' "sherbet" (< Turkish ''şerbet'')
* ''sictir'' "trivial swearing (< Turkish ''siktir'')
* ''șiret'' "profiter" (< Turkish ''şirret'')
* ''sultan'' "ruler" (< Turkish ''sultan'')
* ''suliman'' "herbaceous plant" (< Turkish ''sülümen'')
* ''surghiuni'' "exile" (< Turkish ''sürgün'')
* ''tabiet'' "pleasure" (< Turkish ''tabῑat'')
* ''tacâm'' "set" (< Turkish ''takim'')
* ''tacla'' "conversation" (< Turkish ''takla'')
* ''tain'' "provision" (< Turkish ''tayin'')
* ''talaș'' "sawdust" (< Turkish ''talaş'')
* ''tarabă'' "type of table" (< Turkish ''tarab'')
* ''taraf'' "party" (< Turkish ''taraf'')
* ''taman'' "complete" (< Turkish ''tamam'')
* ''tavă'' "plate" (< Turkish ''tava'')
* ''tavan'' "ceiling" (< Turkish ''tavan'')
* ''tembel'' "idiot" (< Turkish ''tembel'')
* ''tertip'' "arrangement" (< Turkish ''tertib'')
* ''teșcherea'' "memorandum" (< Turkish ''tezkere'')
* ''tevatură'' "loud" (< Turkish ''tevatür'')
* ''tichie'' "skullcap" (< Turkish ''takke'')
* ''tinichea'' "tin" (< Turkish ''teneke'')
* ''tipsie'' "tray" (< Turkish ''tepsi'')
* ''tiptil'' "slowly" (< Turkish ''tebdil'')
* ''tizic'' "prismatic cake" (< Turkish ''tezek'')
* ''toi'' "banquet" (< Turkish ''toy'')
* ''tuci'' "cast iron" (< Turkish ''tuç'')
* ''tutun'' "tobacco" (< Turkish ''tütün'')
* ''ursuz'' "sinister" (< Turkish ''uğursuz'')
* ''vizir'' "minister" (< Turkish ''vezir'')
* ''zaiafet'' "party" (< Turkish ''ziyāfet'')
* ''zar'' "dice" (< Turkish ''zar'')
* ''zaraf'' "moneychanger" (< Turkish ''sarraf'')
* ''zeflemea'' "kidding" (< Turkish ''zevklenmek'')
* ''zor'' "hurry" (< Turkish ''zor'')
Food and beverage loanwords of Turkish origin:
* ''airan'' "[[ayran|doogh]]" (< Turkish ''ayran'')
* ''baclava'' "[[baclava]]" (< Turkish ''baklava'')
* ''cafea'' "[[turkish coffee|coffee]]" (< Turkish ''kahve'')
* ''caimac'' "cream" (< Turkish ''[[kaymak]]'')
* ''caisă'' "[[apricot]]" (< Turkish ''kayısı'')
* ''cașcaval'' "[[chesse]]" (< Turkish ''kaşkaval'')
* ''cataif'' "[[knafeh]]" (< Turkish ''künefe'')
* ''ceai'' "tea" (< Turkish ''çay'')
* ''covrig'' "[[simit]]" (< Turkish ''gevrek'')
* ''chefir'' "[[kefir]]" (< Turkish ''kefír'')
*''chiftea'' "[[köfte|meatballs]]" (< Turkish ''köfte'')
* ''ciorbă'' "[[chorba]]" (< Turkish ''çorba'')
* ''dolma'' "[[dolma]]" (< Turkish ''dolma'')
* ''halva'' "[[halva|sweet]]" (< Turkish ''halva'')
* ''iaurt'' "[[yogurt]]" (< Turkish ''yoğurt'')
* ''musaca'' "[[moussaka]] (< Turkish ''musakka'')
* ''pilaf'' "[[pilaf]]" (< Turkish ''pilav'')
* ''rachiu/rachie'' "[[rakia|fruit spirit]]" (< Turkish ''rakı'')
* ''rahat'' "[[turkish delight]] (< Turkish ''rahat lokkum'')
* ''sarmale'' "[[Sarma (food)|cabbage rolls]]" (< Turkish ''sarma'')
* ''șofran'' "[[saffron]]" (< Turkish ''şafran'')
* ''susan'' "sesame" (< Turkish ''susam'')
* ''telemea'' "[[telemea]]" (< Turkish ''teleme'')
* ''tulumbă'' "[[tulumba]]" (< Turkish ''tulumba'')

Many Ottoman and [[Phanariot]] Greek words have acquired [[pejorative]] meanings compared with their original meaning:
* Turkish {{Wikt-lang|tr|çubuk|}} ("stick") became {{wikt-lang|ro|ciubuc}} ("the tube of a [[hookah]]") and now is "[[Corruption in Romania|bribe]]", since, like a pipe, it is offered to ease a deal.<ref name="turcisme">{{cite book |last1=Funeriu |first1=Ionel |title=Biografii lexicale |date=2019 |publisher=Brumar |url=https://dexonline.ro/articol/turcisme |access-date=17 October 2020 |language=ro |chapter=Turcisme}}</ref>
* Ottoman {{wikt-lang|ota|خزینه|خزینه, hazine}} ("treasure, treasure chamber") became {{wikt-lang|ro|hazna}} ("septic tank, latrine").<ref name="turcisme"/>
* Phanariot Greek {{wikt-lang|el|πραγματεία|πρα(γ)ματεία, pra(gh)matia}} ("practical-minded man") became {{wikt-lang|ro|pramatie}} ("immoral person"). Its cognate {{wikt-lang|ro|pragmatic}} from French {{Lang|fr|pragmatique}} has maintained a neutral meaning.<ref name="turcisme"/>
* Arabic {{wikt-lang|ar|رَاحَة الْحُلْقُوم}}, ''rāḥa(t) al-ḥulqūm'' ("throat comfort"), through Turkish {{wikt-lang|tr|lokum|rahat lokum}} ("[[Turkish delights]]") became Romanian {{wikt-lang|ro|rahat}} ("shit").<ref name="rahat">{{cite book |last1=Cioranescu |first1=Alexandru |title=Dicționarul etimologic român |date=1958–1966 |publisher=Universidad de la Laguna |location=Tenerife |url=https://dexonline.ro/definitie/rahat |access-date=17 October 2020 |language=ro |chapter=rahát}}</ref>

=== German loanwords ===

Less numerous, German loanwords first entered the language with the contact with [[Transylvanian Saxons|Saxons]] colonists. Words like ''turn'' - tower referring to medieval architecture, but also ''şanţ; joagăr, buştean, şindrilă, leaț, şopron, şură'' from the field of woodwork<ref name="Sala 2012 100–101">{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română] |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |pages=100–101 }}</ref> were then joined by others such as ''cartof'', ''bere'', ''șurub'', ''șvaițer'', ''șpriț'', and ''șnițel''.

== Modern Romanian ==

Romanian dialect, called Daco-Romanian in specialty literature to distinguish it from the other dialects of Common Romanian, inherited from Latin about 2000 words (a similar number to other Romance languages), a relatively small number compared to its modern lexis of 150000.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Sala |first=Marius |trans-title=From Latin to Romanian |title=De la Latină la Română] |publisher=Editura Pro Universitaria |year=2012 |isbn=978-606-647-435-1 |pages=37–49 }}</ref> In the 19th century, as the Romanian society transitioned from rural and agricultural towards urban and industrial, the lexis underwent a vigorous enrichment with loanwords from its Romance relatives, French and Italian. Many scholarly and technical terms were also imported from [[Neo-Latin]]. Some words, especially of Greek (''{{wikt-lang|ro|arvună}}'', ''{{wikt-lang|ro|ipochimen}}'', ''{{wikt-lang|ro|simandicos}}'') and Turkish (''{{wikt-lang|ro|acadea}}'', ''{{wikt-lang|ro|beizadea}}'', ''{{wikt-lang|ro|hatâr}}'') origin, fell into relative disuse or acquired an ironic connotation.

Among the words which entered the language:
* ''deja'' "already" (from French ''déjà'')
* ''jena'' "disturb" (from French ''gener'')
* ''medic'' "physician" (from Latin ''medicus'')
* ''servi'' "serve" (from French or Italian)
* ''ziar'' "newspapers" (from Italian ''diario'')

[[File:CuvinteleLimbiiRomane.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|Romanian's core lexicon (2,581 words); Marius Sala, ''VRLR'' (1988)]]

A statistical analysis sorting Romanian words by etymological source carried out by Macrea (1961)<ref name="Macrea">{{Cite book |title=Probleme de lingvistică română |last=Macrea |first=Dimitrie |publisher=Editura Științifică |year=1961 |location=Bucharest |page=32 |language=Romanian |chapter=Originea și structura limbii româneb (7–45)}}</ref> based on the DLRM<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Dictionarul limbii române moderne |publisher=Academia Română |location=Bucharest |year=1958 |editor-last=Macrea |editor-first=Dimitrie |language=Romanian}}</ref> (49,649 words) showed the following makeup:<ref name="Dindelegan">{{Cite book |title=The Grammar of Romanian |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2013 |isbn=9780199644926 |editor-last=Pană Dindelegan |editor-first=Gabriela |editor-link=Gabriela Pană Dindelegan |edition=First |pages=3}}</ref>

* 43% recent Romance loans (mainly French: 38.42%, Latin: 2.39%, Italian: 1.72%)
* 20% inherited Latin
* 11.5% Slavic ([[Old Church Slavonic]]: 7.98%, Bulgarian: 1.78%, Bulgarian-Serbian: 1.51%)
* 8.31% Unknown/unclear origin
* 3.62% Turkish
* 2.40% Modern Greek
* 2.17% Hungarian
* 1.77% German (including [[Austrian German|Austrian High German]])<ref name="iit.iit.tuiasi.ro">Hans Dama, [http://iit.iit.tuiasi.ro/philippide/asociatia/asociatia_admin/upload/II_1_Dama.pdf "Lexikale Einflüsse im Rumänischen aus dem österreichischen Deutsch" ("Lexical influences of 'Austrian'-German on the Romanian Language")] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110818085432/http://iit.iit.tuiasi.ro/philippide/asociatia/asociatia_admin/upload/II_1_Dama.pdf |date=18 August 2011 }} {{in lang|de}}</ref>
* 2.24% Onomatopoeic

If the analysis is restricted to a core vocabulary of 2,500 frequent, semantically rich and productive words, then the Latin inheritance comes first, followed by Romance and classical Latin neologisms, whereas the Slavic borrowings come third.

Romanian has a [[lexical similarity]] of 77% with Italian, 75% with French, 74% with [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]], 73% with [[Catalan language|Catalan]], 72% with Portuguese and [[Rheto-Romance]], 71% with Spanish.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/ron |title=Romanian |work=Ethnologue}}</ref>

{{bar box
| width = 250px
| title = Romanian according to word origin<ref name="VRLR">Marius Sala (coord), Mihaela Bîrlădeanu, Maria Iliescu, Liliana Macarie, Ioana Nichita, Mariana Ploae-Hanganu, Maria Theban, Ioana Vintilă-Rădulescu, ''Vocabularul reprezentativ al limbilor romanice'' (VRLR) (Bucharest: Editura Științifică și Enciclopedică, 1988).</ref><ref>Vocabularul reprezentativ diferă de vocabularul fundamental (VF) și de fondul principal lexical (FP). Cf. SCL (Studii și cercetări lingvistice), an XXVII (1976), nr. 1, p. 61-66 și SCL (1974) nr. 3, p. 247. Cf. Theodor Hristea, "Structura generală a lexicului românesc", ''Sinteze de limba română'', eds., Theodor Hristea (coord.), Mioara Avram, Grigore Brâncuș, Gheorghe Bulgăr, Georgeta Ciompec, Ion Diaconescu, Rodica Bogza-Irimie & Flora Șuteu (Bucharest: 1984), 13.</ref>
| titlebar = #ddd
| bars =
{{bar percent|[[Romance languages|Romance]] and Latin|red|78}}
{{bar percent|[[Slavic languages|Slavic]]|lightgreen|14}}
{{bar percent|[[Germanic languages|Germanic]] (German-based influence, English loanwords)|gold|2.54}}
{{bar percent|[[Modern Greek|Greek]]|darkgreen|1.7}}
{{bar percent|Others|black|5.49}}
}}

Nowadays, the [[longest word in Romanian]] is {{lang|ro|pneumonoultramicroscopicsilicovolcaniconioză}}, with 44 letters,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://adevarul.ro/locale/iasi/cate-litere-mai-lung-cuvant-limba-romana-singurul-termen-contine-vocalele-1_587a0aa75ab6550cb86dda62/index.html|title=Câte litere are cel mai lung cuvânt din limba română și care este singurul termen ce conține toate vocalele|first=Paul|last=Bălhuc|newspaper=[[Adevărul]]|date=15 January 2017|language=ro}}</ref> but the longest one admitted by the ''[[Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române]]'' ("Explanatory Dictionary of the Romanian Language", DEX) is {{lang|ro|electroglotospectrografie}}, with 25 letters.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.webdex.ro/online/dictionarul_explicativ_al_limbii_romane_dex98/51078/electroglotospectrografie|title=Electroglotospectrografie|dictionary=[[Dicționarul explicativ al limbii române]]|access-date=10 February 2021|language=ro}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dictie.ro/curiozitati-lingvistice-cele-mai-lungi-cuvinte-din-limba-romana|title=Curiozități lingvistice: cele mai lungi cuvinte din limba română|website=Dicție.ro|access-date=10 February 2021|language=ro}}</ref>

== English loanwords ==

An increasing number of words from English entered the language in recent times. Among them are: interviu, miting, manager.<ref name="Sala 2012 100–101"/>

==See also==
*[[Substrate in Romanian]]
*[[List of Romanian words of possible Dacian origin]]
*[[Romanian Academy]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Romanian language}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Romanian Lexis}}
[[Category:History of the Romanian language|Lexis, Romanian]]
[[Category:Lexis (linguistics)]]

Model building

2024-10-11T17:45:45Z

Tc14Hd: Added short description

{{Short description|Hobby}}
{{More references|date=December 2009}}
[[File:model-building-p1030188.jpg|thumb|right|A builder working on a model]]

'''Model building''' is a [[hobby]] and career<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Model Builder: What Is It? and How to Become One? |url=https://www.ziprecruiter.com/Career/Model-Builder/What-Is-How-to-Become |access-date=2022-03-07 |website=ZipRecruiter |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=How to become a model maker - CareerExplorer |url=https://www.careerexplorer.com/careers/model-maker/how-to-become/ |access-date=2022-03-07 |website=www.careerexplorer.com}}</ref> that involves the creation of [[physical model]]s either from kits or from materials and components acquired by the builder. The kits contain several pieces that need to be assembled in order to make a final model. Most model-building categories have a range of common [[scale model|scales]] that make them manageable for the average person both to complete and display.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |url=https://hobbyandtoycentral.com/?q=blog/beginner%E2%80%99s-guide-model-building-part-1-4-part-series |title=A Beginner’s Guide to Model Building - Part 1 of a 4 part series {{!}} Hobby and Toy Central |website=hobbyandtoycentral.com |language=en |access-date=2018-07-20}}</ref> A model is generally considered physical representations of an [[physical object|object]] and maintains accurate relationships between all of its aspects.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Building Model Boats - Including Sailing and Steam Vessels |last=Hasluck |first=Paul |publisher=Read Books Ltd. |year=2013 |isbn=9781473347410 }}</ref>

The model building kits can be classified according to skill levels that represent the degree of difficulty for the hobbyist. These include skill level 1 with snap-together pieces that do not require glue or paint; skill level 2, which requires glue and paint; and, skill level 3 kits that include smaller and more detailed parts.<ref name=":0" /> Advanced skill levels 4 and 5 kits ship with components that have extra-fine details. Particularly, level 5 requires expert-level skills.

== Model building as career ==
Model building is not exclusively a hobbyist pursuit. The complexity of assembling representations of actual objects has become a career for several people, and is heavily applicable in film making.{{cn|date=April 2022}} There are, for instance, those who build models/props to commemorate historic events, employed to construct models using past events as a basis to predict future events of high commercial interest.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Stevenson |first=Lynne Warner |last2=Davis |first2=Roger B. |date=2016-08-01 |title=Model Building as an Educational Hobby |url=http://circheartfailure.ahajournals.org/content/9/8/e003457 |journal=Circulation: Heart Failure |language=en |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=e003457 |doi=10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.116.003457 |issn=1941-3289 |pmid=27514752|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

== The categories of modelling include ==
* [[Scale model]] building
* [[Live steam]] models
* [[Model engineering]]
* [[Matchstick model]]s
* [[Military model]]s
* [[Model aircraft]]
* [[Model car]]s
* [[Model construction vehicle]]s
* [[Building model]]s
* [[Architectural model]]s
* [[Model figure]]s
* [[Model military vehicle]]s
* [[Rail transport modelling]]
* [[Model rocket]]s
* [[Ship model]]s
* [[Freelance model]]
* [[Cardboard engineering]]
* Firearm models (such as [[Airsoft gun]]s)
* [[Gundam model]]s

== References ==
<references />

== External links ==
*[http://www.barnorama.com/war-on-the-table/ All the models presented at the exhibition “War on the Table” at the Museum of Fine Arts located in Yekaterinburg Russia (Foto)]

{{Scale model}}
{{scale model brands}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Scale modeling]]
[[Category:Hobbies]]

{{Decorative-art-stub}}

Am Sklavenmarkt

2024-10-11T14:22:06Z

Tc14Hd: Updated short description

{{Short description|1907 Austro-Hungarian pornographic film}}
{{Infobox film
| name = Am Sklavenmarkt
| image = "Am Sklavenmarkt", a.k.a. "The Slave Market" (1906).webm
| caption = The film
| director = [[Johann Schwarzer]]
| producer = [[:de:Saturn-Film|Saturn-Film]]
| writer =
| starring =
| music =
| cinematography =
| editing =
| distributor =
| released = {{Film date|1907}}
| runtime =
| country = [[Austria-Hungary]]
| language = [[Silent film]]
| budget =
}}

'''''Am Sklavenmarkt''' (German: "at the [[slavery|slave market]]")'' is a 1907 [[Short film|short]] [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] [[pornographic film]] [[Film director|directed]] by [[Johann Schwarzer]] (1880-1914) at his studio [[:de:Saturn-Film|Saturn-Film]] company. The film is {{convert|50|m|ft}} long.

The first image is taken from ''Am Sklavenmarkt''.<ref>''Im Kino erlebe ich die Welt - 100 Jahre Kino und Film in Österreich'' (1996) by Walter Fritz Vienna, p.146, {{ISBN|978-3-85447-661-0}}</ref>

==Story==
A [[pasha]] sits on a mat on the grass in front of a round tent, smoking from his water-pipe, ready to buy some new slave girls. His servant calls the seller and his two [[henchmen]], who bring forth four girls in patterned [[burnoose]]s. The first is totally undressed and sent into the tent; the next girl gets [[Toplessness|topless]] and is also sent into the tent; the third is forced to undress by the henchmen and also sent inside. The fourth, apparently a younger girl, is dismissed by the [[Arab]] after showing her small, firm breasts, and she goes back with the henchmen. After a customary argument over the price, the slave master goes away happy.

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{IMDb title|1032849}}

{{Pornography}}
{{Sexual fetishism}}

[[Category:1907 films]]
[[Category:Austrian black-and-white films]]
[[Category:1900s pornographic films]]
[[Category:History of film]]
[[Category:Austrian silent short films]]
[[Category:Austro-Hungarian films]]

{{porn-film-stub}}
{{Austria-film-stub}}