Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Texhomex

2024-10-18T15:17:07Z

Uruiamme: /* top */ There are 2 markers

{{Short description|Texas-New Mexico-Oklahoma border tripoint}}
'''Texhomex''' is a marker showing the [[tri-point]] of [[Oklahoma]], [[Texas]] and [[New Mexico]]. The marker is off [[U.S. Highway 56]] about two miles east on Texas State Line Road at the corner of Oklahoma State Line Road, and is at an elevation of 4712 feet.<ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> There are no signs on Highway 56 in either direction.

The tri-state marker is typically covered by soil, but a nearby concrete pillar marker can be seen across the fence a few feet away. A witness post and sign are a few inches from the underground marker.<ref name=ngs3>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=GL1435 TEXHOMEX], 1931</ref><ref name=ngs4>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=GL1439 BOUNDARY COR OK NM TX], 1932</ref><ref>[https://www.usends.com/nm-ok-tx.html "NM-OK-TX" ''USEnds.com''] Accessed Nov. 29, 2021</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190916165358/http://coloradoguy.com/tristate-marker-tx-ok-nm/photos.htm Tri-state marker Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico]</ref><ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref>

==Other Nearby Geographic Points==

The Northwest corner of the [[Texas panhandle]] is located 2.2 miles west of this point, although it should theoretically be at the same spot. The great distance is due to surveying errors in 1859 by the surveyor John H. Clark. The joint congressional resolution in 1911 declared the line surveyed by Clark to be the actual boundary line between Texas and New Mexico. The northwest corner of the Texas panhandle had been previously marked<ref>[coloradoguy.com/nw-texas-marker/photos.htm "The Northwest corner of Texas - near Clayton, New Mexico"]</ref> but the marker was either removed or buried when the highway was widened in 2016.<ref>[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html "Trip report - Nov. 20, 1990 by Jack Parsell" ''HighPointers.org'' Nov. 20, 1990]</ref>

The marker for the [[Cimarron Meridian]] initial point is located approximately 350 feet north of the Texhomex corner, and is marked by a concrete pillar and a sign.<ref>[http://www.pmproject.org/Cimarron.htm "Cimarron Principal Meridian (Clayton, NM)"]</ref>

<gallery>
File:Txnmok.jpg|Marker location
File:Txnmok-marker (1).jpg|New Mexico top right, Oklahoma bottom right, Texas on the left.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of tripoints of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[International Boundary Marker]]: monument on the Louisiana-Texas border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Preston Monument]]: monument on the Colorado-New Mexico-Oklahoma tripoint

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121208034948/http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/10NMOKTX.html "New Mexico - Oklahoma - Texas" ''David Mark's homepage'' Archived Dec. 8, 2012]

{{coord|36|30|01.66694|N|103|0|8.57933|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Dallam County, Texas]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Dallam County, Texas]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

{{geo-term-stub}}
{{NewMexico-geo-stub}}
{{Oklahoma-geo-stub}}
{{DallamCountyTX-geo-stub}}

Texhomex

2024-10-18T14:48:51Z

Uruiamme: /* Other Nearby Geographic Points */ fixes

{{Short description|Texas-New Mexico-Oklahoma border tripoint}}
'''Texhomex''' is a marker showing the [[tri-point]] of [[Oklahoma]], [[Texas]] and [[New Mexico]]. The marker is off [[U.S. Highway 56]] about two miles east on Texas State Line Road at the corner of Oklahoma State Line Road, and is at an elevation of 4712 feet.<ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> There are no signs on Highway 56 in either direction.

The tri-state marker is in a pasture and can be accessed by walking over a cattle guard.<ref>[https://www.usends.com/nm-ok-tx.html "NM-OK-TX" ''USEnds.com''] Accessed Nov. 29, 2021</ref><ref>[coloradoguy.com/tristate-marker-tx-ok-nm/photos.htm "Tri-state marker Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico"]</ref><ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref>

It is a concrete post a few feet tall with a metal circle at the top which describes the technical position of the post.

==Other Nearby Geographic Points==

The Northwest corner of the [[Texas panhandle]] is located 2.2 miles west of this point, although it should theoretically be at the same spot. The great distance is due to surveying errors in 1859 by the surveyor John H. Clark. The joint congressional resolution in 1911 declared the line surveyed by Clark to be the actual boundary line between Texas and New Mexico. The northwest corner of the Texas panhandle had been previously marked<ref>[coloradoguy.com/nw-texas-marker/photos.htm "The Northwest corner of Texas - near Clayton, New Mexico"]</ref> but the marker was either removed or buried when the highway was widened in 2016.<ref>[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html "Trip report - Nov. 20, 1990 by Jack Parsell" ''HighPointers.org'' Nov. 20, 1990]</ref>

The marker for the [[Cimarron Meridian]] initial point is located approximately 350 feet north of the Texhomex corner, and is marked by a concrete pillar and a sign.<ref>[http://www.pmproject.org/Cimarron.htm "Cimarron Principal Meridian (Clayton, NM)"]</ref>

<gallery>
File:Txnmok.jpg|Marker location
File:Txnmok-marker (1).jpg|New Mexico top right, Oklahoma bottom right, Texas on the left.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of tripoints of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[International Boundary Marker]]: monument on the Louisiana-Texas border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Preston Monument]]: monument on the Colorado-New Mexico-Oklahoma tripoint

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121208034948/http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/10NMOKTX.html "New Mexico - Oklahoma - Texas" ''David Mark's homepage'' Archived Dec. 8, 2012]

{{coord|36|30|01.66694|N|103|0|8.57933|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Dallam County, Texas]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Dallam County, Texas]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

{{geo-term-stub}}
{{NewMexico-geo-stub}}
{{Oklahoma-geo-stub}}
{{DallamCountyTX-geo-stub}}

Texhomex

2024-10-18T14:46:38Z

Uruiamme: tweaks

{{Short description|Texas-New Mexico-Oklahoma border tripoint}}
'''Texhomex''' is a marker showing the [[tri-point]] of [[Oklahoma]], [[Texas]] and [[New Mexico]]. The marker is off [[U.S. Highway 56]] about two miles east on Texas State Line Road at the corner of Oklahoma State Line Road, and is at an elevation of 4712 feet.<ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> There are no signs on Highway 56 in either direction.

The tri-state marker is in a pasture and can be accessed by walking over a cattle guard.<ref>[https://www.usends.com/nm-ok-tx.html "NM-OK-TX" ''USEnds.com''] Accessed Nov. 29, 2021</ref><ref>[coloradoguy.com/tristate-marker-tx-ok-nm/photos.htm "Tri-state marker Texas, Oklahoma, and New Mexico"]</ref><ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref>

It is a concrete post a few feet tall with a metal circle at the top which describes the technical position of the post.

==Other Nearby Geographic Points==

'''The Northwest corner of the [[Texas panhandle]]''' is located 2.2 miles west of this point, although they should theoretically be at the same spot. The great distance is due to surveying errors in 1859 by the surveyor John H. Clark. The joint congressional resolution in 1911 declared the line surveyed by Clark to be the actual boundary line between Texas and New Mexico. The northwest corner of the Texas panhandle had been previously marked<ref>[coloradoguy.com/nw-texas-marker/photos.htm "The Northwest corner of Texas - near Clayton, New Mexico"]</ref> but the marker was either removed or buried when the highway was widened in 2016.<ref>[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html "Trip report - Nov. 20, 1990 by Jack Parsell" ''HighPointers.org'' Nov. 20, 1990]</ref>

The marker for the [[Cimarron Meridian]] initial point is located approximately 350 feet north of the Texhomex corner, and is marked by a concrete pillar and a sign.<ref>[http://www.pmproject.org/Cimarron.htm "Cimarron Principal Meridian (Clayton, NM)"]</ref>

<gallery>
File:Txnmok.jpg|Marker location
File:Txnmok-marker (1).jpg|New Mexico top right, Oklahoma bottom right, Texas on the left.
</gallery>

==See also==
* [[List of tripoints of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[International Boundary Marker]]: monument on the Louisiana-Texas border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Preston Monument]]: monument on the Colorado-New Mexico-Oklahoma tripoint

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121208034948/http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/10NMOKTX.html "New Mexico - Oklahoma - Texas" ''David Mark's homepage'' Archived Dec. 8, 2012]

{{coord|36|30|01.66694|N|103|0|8.57933|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Dallam County, Texas]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Dallam County, Texas]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

{{geo-term-stub}}
{{NewMexico-geo-stub}}
{{Oklahoma-geo-stub}}
{{DallamCountyTX-geo-stub}}

Cimarron meridian

2024-10-18T14:16:51Z

Uruiamme: wl x 2

The '''Cimarron meridian''' is a survey line in the United States at longitude [[103rd meridian west|103° west]] from Greenwich. It extends from latitude [[Parallel 36°30′ north|36° 30′]] to [[37th parallel north|37° north]], and, with the [[Baseline (surveying)|baseline]] in latitude [[Parallel 36°30′ north|36° 30′ north]], governs the surveys in [[Oklahoma]] west of [[100th meridian west|100° west]] longitude from Greenwich, i.e. the [[Oklahoma Panhandle]].

The meridian was established by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith in the fall of 1881.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.</ref>

The [[initial point]] for the Cimarron meridian is confused with the marker known as [[Texhomex]], which was placed during a resurvey. The Cimarron meridian initial point marker establishes the place where the 103° west meridian intersects the baseline from whence land in the Oklahoma Panhandle (formerly [[Oklahoma panhandle|No Man's Land]]) is surveyed.<ref name=NGS /> It was the last meridian established in the Continental United States.

The initial point is about 2 miles east of the northwest corner of Texas, both of which were surveyed to lie on the 103° west meridian in the 19th century before longitudinal accuracy was assured. While theoretically in the same location, the surveys used radically different methods.

The northern end of the meridian was established for the northwestern point of Oklahoma. While instrumental in establishing the 103° west meridian still being used for the border between Oklahoma and New Mexico, its position about {{Convert|929|ft}} north of the line used as the 37° north line makes it of little importance to surveyors.<ref name=NGS2 />

==Northern marker==
When [[Levi S. Preston]] found the Cimarron meridian markers, he used them to re-establish the 103° west meridian during his 1900 resurvey. But he setup his own marker at the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]] that would follow the Colorado-New Mexico border established by John J. Major in 1874.

The 1881 Chaney monument is located at {{coord|37|0|9.72817|N|103|00|8.40630|W|display=inline,title|type:landmark_region:US-OK}}, nearly 1000 feet north of the [[Preston monument]] that marks the tri-state corner.<ref name=NGS>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0488 PID HJ0488] CBN Control Station</ref><ref name=NGS2>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0392 PID HJ0392] CBN Control Station</ref>

==Southern marker==
The southern Cimarron meridian marker was replaced by a modern one in 1932.<ref name=s>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/OPUS/getDatasheet.jsp?PID=BBFV27 PID BBFV27] OPUS Station</ref> It is located at {{Coord|36|30|5.26313|N|103|0|8.59234|W|display=inline}}. It is about {{Convert|350|ft}} north of [[Texhomex]].

==Sources==
*{{cite book
| last = Raymond
| first = William Galt
| title = Plane Surveying for Use in the Classroom and Field
| url = https://archive.org/details/planesurveyingf00raymgoog
| format = via Internet Archive
| date = 1914
| publisher = American Book Company
| location = New York}}
* [https://www.nvlandsurveyors.org/traverse/2018%20-%2045.4.pdf The Nevada Traverse, Journal of the Professional Land Surveyors of Nevada], Vol. 45, No.4, December 2018
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273/pdf/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273.pdf Surveys and Surveyors of the Public Domain, 1785-1975], Lola Cazier, US Department of Interior, USGPO, Washington, 1978, p.202

==See also==
*[[List of principal and guide meridians and base lines of the United States]]

==External links==
*{{cite web
|url =http://www.blm.gov/cadastral/meridians/oklahoma.htm
|title =Oklahoma
|publisher =U.S. Bureau of Land Management
|accessdate =2012-09-25
|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130222075628/http://www.blm.gov/cadastral/meridians/oklahoma.htm
|archive-date =2013-02-22
|url-status =dead
}}
*{{cite web
|url =http://www.clui.org/section/cimarron-meridian
|title =Cimarron Meridian
|publisher =The Center for Land Use Interpretation
|accessdate =2012-09-25}}
*{{cite web
|url =http://www.pmproject.org/Cimarron.htm
|title =Cimarron Principal Meridian Oklahoma (Clayton, NM)
|publisher =Principal Meridian Project
|accessdate =2012-09-25}}
*[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.
{{Principal meridians of the United States}}

[[Category:Meridians and base lines of the United States]]
[[Category:Named meridians]]
[[Category:Geography of Oklahoma]]

Cimarron meridian

2024-10-18T14:12:09Z

Uruiamme: yeah, more

The '''Cimarron meridian''' is a survey line in the United States at longitude [[103rd meridian west|103° west]] from Greenwich. It extends from latitude [[Parallel 36°30′ north|36° 30′]] to [[37th parallel north|37° north]], and, with the [[Baseline (surveying)|baseline]] in latitude [[Parallel 36°30′ north|36° 30′ north]], governs the surveys in [[Oklahoma]] west of [[100th meridian west|100° west]] longitude from Greenwich, i.e. the [[Oklahoma Panhandle]].

The meridian was established by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith in the fall of 1881.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.</ref>

The [[initial point]] for the Cimarron meridian is confused with the marker known as [[Texhomex]], which was placed during a resurvey. The Cimarron meridian initial point marker establishes the place where the 103° west meridian intersects the baseline from whence land in the Oklahoma Panhandle (formerly [[Oklahoma panhandle|No Man's Land]]) is surveyed. It was the last meridian established in the Continental United States.

The initial point is about 2 miles east of the northwest corner of Texas, both of which were surveyed to lie on the 103° west meridian in the 19th century before longitudinal accuracy was assured. While theoretically in the same location, the surveys used radically different methods.

The northern end of the meridian was established for the northwestern point of Oklahoma. While instrumental in establishing the 103° west meridian still being used for the border between Oklahoma and New Mexico, its position about {{Convert|929|ft}} north of the line used as the 37° north line makes it of little importance to surveyors.

==Northern marker==
When [[Levi S. Preston]] found the Cimarron meridian markers, he used them to re-establish the 103° west meridian during his 1900 resurvey. But he setup his own marker at the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]] that would follow the Colorado-New Mexico border established by John J. Major in 1874.

The 1881 Chaney monument is located at {{coord|37|0|9.72817|N|103|00|8.40630|W|display=inline,title|type:landmark_region:US-OK}}, nearly 1000 feet north of the [[Preston monument]] that marks the tri-state corner.<ref name=NGS>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0488 PID HJ0488] CBN Control Station</ref><ref name=NGS2>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0392 PID HJ0392] CBN Control Station</ref>

==Southern marker==
The southern Cimarron meridian marker was replaced by a modern one in 1932.<ref name=s>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/OPUS/getDatasheet.jsp?PID=BBFV27 PID BBFV27] OPUS Station</ref> It is located at {{Coord|36|30|5.26313|N|103|0|8.59234|W|display=inline}}. It is about {{Convert|350|ft}} north of [[Texhomex]].

==Sources==
*{{cite book
| last = Raymond
| first = William Galt
| title = Plane Surveying for Use in the Classroom and Field
| url = https://archive.org/details/planesurveyingf00raymgoog
| format = via Internet Archive
| date = 1914
| publisher = American Book Company
| location = New York}}
* [https://www.nvlandsurveyors.org/traverse/2018%20-%2045.4.pdf The Nevada Traverse, Journal of the Professional Land Surveyors of Nevada], Vol. 45, No.4, December 2018
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273/pdf/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273.pdf Surveys and Surveyors of the Public Domain, 1785-1975], Lola Cazier, US Department of Interior, USGPO, Washington, 1978, p.202

==See also==
*[[List of principal and guide meridians and base lines of the United States]]

==External links==
*{{cite web
|url =http://www.blm.gov/cadastral/meridians/oklahoma.htm
|title =Oklahoma
|publisher =U.S. Bureau of Land Management
|accessdate =2012-09-25
|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20130222075628/http://www.blm.gov/cadastral/meridians/oklahoma.htm
|archive-date =2013-02-22
|url-status =dead
}}
*{{cite web
|url =http://www.clui.org/section/cimarron-meridian
|title =Cimarron Meridian
|publisher =The Center for Land Use Interpretation
|accessdate =2012-09-25}}
*{{cite web
|url =http://www.pmproject.org/Cimarron.htm
|title =Cimarron Principal Meridian Oklahoma (Clayton, NM)
|publisher =Principal Meridian Project
|accessdate =2012-09-25}}
*[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.
{{Principal meridians of the United States}}

[[Category:Meridians and base lines of the United States]]
[[Category:Named meridians]]
[[Category:Geography of Oklahoma]]

Preston Monument

2024-10-18T14:12:02Z

Uruiamme: lnk fix

{{Short description|Tri-Point Marker}}
[[File:Preston Monument south.JPG|The tourist-friendly version of the Preston Monument showing its southern facets. The original Preston Monument was replaced by this modern granite marker in 1990.|thumb]]
The '''Preston Monument''' is the common name for a stone marker at the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]]. It is named after Levi S. Preston who surveyed a portion of the New Mexico–Colorado border in 1900.<ref name=sc>''State of New Mexico v. State of Colorado''. (267 U.S. 30 (1925))</ref> The marker that bears his name was erected by the [[Bureau of Land Management]] in 1990.

Preston evaluated and established several monuments during his survey of 1900. He was contracted on October 25, 1899 with the [[United States General Land Office]] to survey the eastern New Mexico and western [[Texas]] borders and compare his results with prior surveys.

Besides determining the boundaries between Texas and New Mexico, Preston was tasked with determining the true location of (1) the northwest corner of Texas, a point of some contention and believed to be lost, (2) the [[Texhomex|tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico]] some 2 miles to the east, and (3) the tri-point of Colorado, Oklahoma, and New Mexico, some 34 miles north, the tri-point bearing his name.

In 1902, Preston's success in establishing the northwest corner of the State of Texas was published in a bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey. He was lauded for his "zeal, intelligence, and faithfulness."<ref name=Report />

Solving the contentious Texas-New Mexico border dispute was not his only legacy. The tri-point monument bearing his name would be called upon in the Supreme Court Case of ''New Mexico v. Colorado'', 267 U.S. 30 (1925) to help establish the permanent border between New Mexico and Colorado.<ref name=sc />

==Tri-point of Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico==
The tri-point marker for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is at an elevation of 4,445 feet at {{Coord|37|0|0.54029|N|103|0|8.39385|W|display=title}}.<ref name=NGS>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0488 PID HJ0488] CBN Control Station</ref><ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> The current marker is of a modern concrete rectangular base with an erect, granite stone pillar, with its brass disk removed by vandals and replaced by a nail.<ref name=NGS /> An 1881 marker is nearby<ref name=NGS2 /> which matches the description of the one erected by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith in the fall of 1881 when they surveyed the [[Cimarron meridian]], the western border of Oklahoma.<ref name=Report /> The old limestone marker is about {{Convert|929|ft}} north of the granite Preston monument.

===37th parallel north and 103rd meridian west===
The tri-point for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is supposed to be the intersection between the [[37th parallel north]] and the [[103rd meridian west]]. This point had been located by several surveys before 1900. None of them had agreed. The State of Texas had decided to enter the Union as a slave state, and therefore had been forced to limit its northern extent to 36° 30" north. Areas to the north of the Texas panhandle had become part of "No Man's Land," now the Oklahoma Panhandle. The establishment of the borders of the land eventually known as Oklahoma had required a western limit of 103° west longitude, which is the same as the Texas-New Mexico border. Therefore, the southwest corner of Oklahoma and the northwest corner of Texas should be the same point, and the 37°N, 103°W point should be due north and around 34 miles distant.

By 1900, it had become obvious that the original Texas-New Mexico border was a few miles west of the intended 103° meridian. The 1881 surveyors for the [[Cimarron meridian]], Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith, had set their meridian very close to modern 103° meridian and essentially ignored the erroneous Clark 103° meridian to the south. They also ignored the Macomb and Johnston markers to their west.

All of these were supposed to mark 37°N, 103°W:
* Johnston monument (1857) by John H. Clark (also reused by John J. Major in 1874 for the New Mexico border)
* No marker (1859) by John H. Clark, but its location was established by Preston in 1900 from Clark's 103° meridian
* Macomb monument (1859) by Capt. J. N. Macomb, supposedly the NE corner of New Mexico
* Darling monument (1868) was in the same place as Macomb's but rebuilt by Ehud N. Darling
* Major's monument (1874) was Darling's and Macomb's monument, rebuilt like Macomb's original by John J. Major
* Chaney monument (1881) by Chaney and Smith, used for the Cimarron meridian. Still extant.<ref name=NGS2>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0392 PID HJ0392] CBN Control Station</ref>
* Preston monument (1900) by Preston. He found all of the above previous monuments and measured to them. No longer extant.
* The new monument (1990). There is a granite marker for tourism located here. It was a reset of the Preston monument. Still extant.

==Northwest corner of Texas and the 1900 survey==
John Major searched for the lost northwest corner of Texas on his 1874 survey, but did not find it. He actually found the benchmark stone that was intended for the corner, but it had been repurposed at a survey station about 8 miles away for a gravestone.<ref name=103rd>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/30242331 New Mexico Boundary along the 103rd Meridian], Ralph H. Brock, The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Vol. 109, No. 4 (Apr., 2006), pp. 431-462 (33 pages)</ref><ref name=sc />

After much searching, Preston found the old 1859 John H. Clark corner in 1900. He laid a stone marker where he had found two previous posts, the earlier of which he was convinced was the original marker from 1859, stating:
<blockquote>At this northwest corner of the [Capitol Syndicate Company's] [[XIT Ranch|XIT [Ranch]]] pasture fence, I remove wire fencing, dig up the corner post, which I find set 18 inches in the ground, and set on top of the rotted stump of an old cedar post. Excavating carefully around this old stub, I find the bottom of it at 26 inches below surface of ground, and remove a segment of the old post 8 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, greatly decayed and reduced almost to a dry pulpy ash. The dark mould and pieces of decayed cedar indicated that the original post was about 10 X 12 inches in diameter at bottom.

This old cedar post could easily have been in the ground more than the eighteen years since 1882, and very likely for ten years longer.</blockquote>

Thus, Preston re-established the northwest corner of Texas that had been in use since the incomplete 1859 survey. He continues:

<blockquote>I set a sandstone 60 X 12 X 10 inches 36 inches in the ground for the northwest corner of the State of Texas, marked

<pre>"N.W. Cor.
---------
Texas"
</pre>
on east; "N. M.," on east; "1859," on south, and "1900," on north faces.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.</ref></blockquote> The marker, if still intact, is apparently under the road surface of [[U.S. Route 56]].<ref name=club>"[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html Mick Dunn reports on Nov 12, 2016, that Clark's Monument is buried below the shoulder pavement.]"</ref>

==Texhomex at the tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico==
Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith established the Cimarron meridian in 1881, setting the monuments at two tri-points on the western edge of No Man's Land before Oklahoma was admitted as a State. The southern one would become known as Texhomex. It was re-established and checked by Preston in 1900. Its location was instrumental in finding the northwest corner of Texas.

==See also==
* [[List of tri-points of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Texhomex]]: monument on the New Mexico-Oklahoma-Texas tripoint

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705130104/http://www.public.asu.edu/~redsall/triplepoints/june2004/8.htm Preston Monument]
* [http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/09CONMOK.html David Mark's homepage]
* [http://simpsonfamilyokc.com/oktript.htm Simpson Family website "Oklahoma Tripoints"]
* [https://www.mckimcreed.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Southeast-Corner-of-NM_Texas-Surveyor_May-2015.pdf The Texas Surveyor], May 2015
* [https://www.newspapers.com/article/el-paso-herald-1902-texas-boundary-artic/103964693/ Boundary of Texas], El Paso Herald, May 9, 1902.
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000/pdf/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000.pdf 47th U.S. Congress, 1st Session Senate Executive Document No. 70, 1882, Serial #1987], Survey of the United States and Texas Boundary Commission, Commissioner of the General Land Office, Government Printing Office, 1882.
* [https://www.nvlandsurveyors.org/traverse/2018%20-%2045.4.pdf The Nevada Traverse, Journal of the Professional Land Surveyors of Nevada], Vol. 45, No.4, December 2018
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273/pdf/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273.pdf Surveys and Surveyors of the Public Domain, 1785-1975], Lola Cazier, US Department of Interior, USGPO, Washington, 1978, p.202

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Colorado]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

{{colorado-geo-stub}}
{{newMexico-geo-stub}}
{{oklahoma-geo-stub}}

Preston monument

2024-10-18T13:39:17Z

Uruiamme: new

#REDIRECT [[Preston Monument]]

Preston Monument

2024-10-18T11:47:17Z

Uruiamme: old one is gone

{{Short description|Tri-Point Marker}}
[[File:Preston Monument south.JPG|The tourist-friendly version of the Preston Monument showing its southern facets. The original Preston Monument was replaced by this modern granite marker in 1990.|thumb]]
The '''Preston Monument''' is the common name for a stone marker at the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]]. It is named after Levi S. Preston who surveyed a portion of the New Mexico–Colorado border in 1900.<ref name=sc>''State of New Mexico v. State of Colorado''. (267 U.S. 30 (1925))</ref> The marker that bears his name was erected by the [[Bureau of Land Management]] in 1990.

Preston evaluated and established several monuments during his survey of 1900. He was contracted on October 25, 1899 with the [[United States General Land Office]] to survey the eastern New Mexico and western [[Texas]] borders and compare his results with prior surveys.

Besides determining the boundaries between Texas and New Mexico, Preston was tasked with determining the true location of (1) the northwest corner of Texas, a point of some contention and believed to be lost, (2) the [[Texhomex|tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico]] some 2 miles to the east, and (3) the tri-point of Colorado, Oklahoma, and New Mexico, some 34 miles north, the tri-point bearing his name.

In 1902, Preston's success in establishing the northwest corner of the State of Texas was published in a bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey. He was lauded for his "zeal, intelligence, and faithfulness."<ref name=Report />

Solving the contentious Texas-New Mexico border dispute was not his only legacy. The tri-point monument bearing his name would be called upon in the Supreme Court Case of ''New Mexico v. Colorado'', 267 U.S. 30 (1925) to help establish the permanent border between New Mexico and Colorado.<ref name=sc />

==Tri-point of Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico==
The tri-point marker for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is at an elevation of 4,445 feet at {{Coord|37|0|0.54029|N|103|0|8.39385|W|display=title}}.<ref name=NGS>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0488 PID HJ0488] CBN Control Station</ref><ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> The current marker is of a modern concrete rectangular base with an erect, granite stone pillar, with its brass disk removed by vandals and replaced by a nail.<ref name=NGS /> An 1881 marker is nearby<ref name=NGS2 /> which matches the description of the one erected by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith in the fall of 1881 when they surveyed the [[Cimarron meridian]], the western border of Oklahoma.<ref name=Report /> The old limestone marker is about {{Convert|929|ft}} north of the granite Preston monument.

===37th parallel north and 103rd meridian west===
The tri-point for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is supposed to be the intersection between the [[37th parallel north]] and the [[103rd meridian west]]. This point had been located by several surveys before 1900. None of them had agreed. The State of Texas had decided to enter the Union as a slave state, and therefore had been forced to limit its northern extent to 36° 30" north. Areas to the north of the Texas panhandle had become part of "No Man's Land," now the Oklahoma Panhandle. The establishment of the borders of the land eventually known as Oklahoma had required a western limit of 103° west longitude, which is the same as the Texas-New Mexico border. Therefore, the southwest corner of Oklahoma and the northwest corner of Texas should be the same point, and the 37°N, 103°W point should be due north and around 34 miles distant.

By 1900, it had become obvious that the original Texas-New Mexico border was a few miles west of the intended 103° meridian. The 1881 surveyors for the [[Cimarron meridian]], Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith, had set their meridian very close to modern 103° meridian and essentially ignored the erroneous Clark 103° meridian to the south. They also ignored the Macomb and Johnston markers to their west.

All of these were supposed to mark 37°N, 103°W:
* Johnston monument (1857) by John H. Clark (also reused by John J. Major in 1874 for the New Mexico border)
* No marker (1859) by John H. Clark, but its location was established by Preston in 1900 from Clark's 103° meridian
* Macomb monument (1859) by Capt. J. N. Macomb, supposedly the NE corner of New Mexico
* Darling monument (1868) was in the same place as Macomb's but rebuilt by Ehud N. Darling
* Major's monument (1874) was Darling's and Macomb's monument, rebuilt like Macomb's original by John J. Major
* Chaney monument (1881) by Chaney and Smith, used for the Cimarron meridian. Still extant.<ref name=NGS2>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0392 PID HJ0392] CBN Control Station</ref>
* Preston monument (1900) by Preston. He found all of the above previous monuments and measured to them. No longer extant.
* The new monument (1990). There is a granite marker for tourism located here. It was a reset of the Preston monument. Still extant.

==Northwest corner of Texas and the 1900 survey==
John Major searched for the lost northwest corner of Texas on his 1874 survey, but did not find it. He actually found the benchmark stone that was intended for the corner, but it had been repurposed at a survey station about 8 miles away for a gravestone.<ref name=103rd>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/30242331 Mexico Boundary along the 103rd Meridian], Ralph H. Brock
The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Vol. 109, No. 4 (Apr., 2006), pp. 431-462 (33 pages)</ref><ref name=sc />

After much searching, Preston found the old 1859 John H. Clark corner in 1900. He laid a stone marker where he had found two previous posts, the earlier of which he was convinced was the original marker from 1859, stating:
<blockquote>At this northwest corner of the [Capitol Syndicate Company's] [[XIT Ranch|XIT [Ranch]]] pasture fence, I remove wire fencing, dig up the corner post, which I find set 18 inches in the ground, and set on top of the rotted stump of an old cedar post. Excavating carefully around this old stub, I find the bottom of it at 26 inches below surface of ground, and remove a segment of the old post 8 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, greatly decayed and reduced almost to a dry pulpy ash. The dark mould and pieces of decayed cedar indicated that the original post was about 10 X 12 inches in diameter at bottom.

This old cedar post could easily have been in the ground more than the eighteen years since 1882, and very likely for ten years longer.</blockquote>

Thus, Preston re-established the northwest corner of Texas that had been in use since the incomplete 1859 survey. He continues:

<blockquote>I set a sandstone 60 X 12 X 10 inches 36 inches in the ground for the northwest corner of the State of Texas, marked

<pre>"N.W. Cor.
---------
Texas"
</pre>
on east; "N. M.," on east; "1859," on south, and "1900," on north faces.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.</ref></blockquote> The marker, if still intact, is apparently under the road surface of [[U.S. Route 56]].<ref name=club>"[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html Mick Dunn reports on Nov 12, 2016, that Clark's Monument is buried below the shoulder pavement.]"</ref>

==Texhomex at the tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico==
Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith established the Cimarron meridian in 1881, setting the monuments at two tri-points on the western edge of No Man's Land before Oklahoma was admitted as a State. The southern one would become known as Texhomex. It was re-established and checked by Preston in 1900. Its location was instrumental in finding the northwest corner of Texas.

==See also==
* [[List of tri-points of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Texhomex]]: monument on the New Mexico-Oklahoma-Texas tripoint

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705130104/http://www.public.asu.edu/~redsall/triplepoints/june2004/8.htm Preston Monument]
* [http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/09CONMOK.html David Mark's homepage]
* [http://simpsonfamilyokc.com/oktript.htm Simpson Family website "Oklahoma Tripoints"]
* [https://www.mckimcreed.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Southeast-Corner-of-NM_Texas-Surveyor_May-2015.pdf The Texas Surveyor], May 2015
* [https://www.newspapers.com/article/el-paso-herald-1902-texas-boundary-artic/103964693/ Boundary of Texas], El Paso Herald, May 9, 1902.
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000/pdf/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000.pdf 47th U.S. Congress, 1st Session Senate Executive Document No. 70, 1882, Serial #1987], Survey of the United States and Texas Boundary Commission, Commissioner of the General Land Office, Government Printing Office, 1882.
* [https://www.nvlandsurveyors.org/traverse/2018%20-%2045.4.pdf The Nevada Traverse, Journal of the Professional Land Surveyors of Nevada], Vol. 45, No.4, December 2018
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273/pdf/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273.pdf Surveys and Surveyors of the Public Domain, 1785-1975], Lola Cazier, US Department of Interior, USGPO, Washington, 1978, p.202

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Colorado]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

{{colorado-geo-stub}}
{{newMexico-geo-stub}}
{{oklahoma-geo-stub}}

Preston Monument

2024-10-18T11:42:46Z

Uruiamme: fixes

{{Short description|Tri-Point Marker}}
[[File:Preston Monument south.JPG|Southern faces of tourist version of the Preston Monument. The original Preston Monument may have been replaced by this modern granite marker.|thumb]]
The '''Preston Monument''' is the common name for a stone marker at the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]]. It is named after Levi S. Preston who surveyed a portion of the New Mexico–Colorado border in 1900.<ref name=sc>''State of New Mexico v. State of Colorado''. (267 U.S. 30 (1925))</ref> The marker that bears his name was erected by the [[Bureau of Land Management]] in 1990.

Preston evaluated and established several monuments during his survey of 1900. He was contracted on October 25, 1899 with the [[United States General Land Office]] to survey the eastern New Mexico and western [[Texas]] borders and compare his results with prior surveys.

Besides determining the boundaries between Texas and New Mexico, Preston was tasked with determining the true location of (1) the northwest corner of Texas, a point of some contention and believed to be lost, (2) the [[Texhomex|tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico]] some 2 miles to the east, and (3) the tri-point of Colorado, Oklahoma, and New Mexico, some 34 miles north, the tri-point bearing his name.

In 1902, Preston's success in establishing the northwest corner of the State of Texas was published in a bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey. He was lauded for his "zeal, intelligence, and faithfulness."<ref name=Report />

Solving the contentious Texas-New Mexico border dispute was not his only legacy. The tri-point monument bearing his name would be called upon in the Supreme Court Case of ''New Mexico v. Colorado'', 267 U.S. 30 (1925) to help establish the permanent border between New Mexico and Colorado.<ref name=sc />

==Tri-point of Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico==
The tri-point marker for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is at an elevation of 4,445 feet at {{Coord|37|0|0.54029|N|103|0|8.39385|W|display=title}}.<ref name=NGS>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0488 PID HJ0488] CBN Control Station</ref><ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> The current marker is of a modern concrete rectangular base with an erect, granite stone pillar, with its brass disk removed by vandals and replaced by a nail.<ref name=NGS /> An 1881 marker is nearby<ref name=NGS2 /> which matches the description of the one erected by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith in the fall of 1881 when they surveyed the [[Cimarron meridian]], the western border of Oklahoma.<ref name=Report /> The old limestone marker is about {{Convert|929|ft}} north of the granite Preston monument.

===37th parallel north and 103rd meridian west===
The tri-point for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is supposed to be the intersection between the [[37th parallel north]] and the [[103rd meridian west]]. This point had been located by several surveys before 1900. None of them had agreed. The State of Texas had decided to enter the Union as a slave state, and therefore had been forced to limit its northern extent to 36° 30" north. Areas to the north of the Texas panhandle had become part of "No Man's Land," now the Oklahoma Panhandle. The establishment of the borders of the land eventually known as Oklahoma had required a western limit of 103° west longitude, which is the same as the Texas-New Mexico border. Therefore, the southwest corner of Oklahoma and the northwest corner of Texas should be the same point, and the 37°N, 103°W point should be due north and around 34 miles distant.

By 1900, it had become obvious that the original Texas-New Mexico border was a few miles west of the intended 103° meridian. The 1881 surveyors for the [[Cimarron meridian]], Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith, had set their meridian very close to modern 103° meridian and essentially ignored the erroneous Clark 103° meridian to the south. They also ignored the Macomb and Johnston markers to their west.

All of these were supposed to mark 37°N, 103°W:
* Johnston monument (1857) by John H. Clark (also reused by John J. Major in 1874 for the New Mexico border)
* No marker (1859) by John H. Clark, but its location was established by Preston in 1900 from Clark's 103° meridian
* Macomb monument (1859) by Capt. J. N. Macomb, supposedly the NE corner of New Mexico
* Darling monument (1868) was in the same place as Macomb's but rebuilt by Ehud N. Darling
* Major's monument (1874) was Darling's and Macomb's monument, rebuilt like Macomb's original by John J. Major
* Chaney monument (1881) by Chaney and Smith, used for the Cimarron meridian. Still extant.<ref name=NGS2>[https://geodesy.noaa.gov/datasheets/passive-marks/index.html?PID=HJ0392 PID HJ0392] CBN Control Station</ref>
* Preston monument (1900) by Preston. He found all of the above previous monuments and measured to them. No longer extant.
* The new monument (1990). There is a granite marker for tourism located here. It was a reset of the Preston monument. Still extant.

==Northwest corner of Texas and the 1900 survey==
John Major searched for the lost northwest corner of Texas on his 1874 survey, but did not find it. He actually found the benchmark stone that was intended for the corner, but it had been repurposed at a survey station about 8 miles away for a gravestone.<ref name=103rd>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/30242331 Mexico Boundary along the 103rd Meridian], Ralph H. Brock
The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Vol. 109, No. 4 (Apr., 2006), pp. 431-462 (33 pages)</ref><ref name=sc />

After much searching, Preston found the old 1859 John H. Clark corner in 1900. He laid a stone marker where he had found two previous posts, the earlier of which he was convinced was the original marker from 1859, stating:
<blockquote>At this northwest corner of the [Capitol Syndicate Company's] [[XIT Ranch|XIT [Ranch]]] pasture fence, I remove wire fencing, dig up the corner post, which I find set 18 inches in the ground, and set on top of the rotted stump of an old cedar post. Excavating carefully around this old stub, I find the bottom of it at 26 inches below surface of ground, and remove a segment of the old post 8 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, greatly decayed and reduced almost to a dry pulpy ash. The dark mould and pieces of decayed cedar indicated that the original post was about 10 X 12 inches in diameter at bottom.

This old cedar post could easily have been in the ground more than the eighteen years since 1882, and very likely for ten years longer.</blockquote>

Thus, Preston re-established the northwest corner of Texas that had been in use since the incomplete 1859 survey. He continues:

<blockquote>I set a sandstone 60 X 12 X 10 inches 36 inches in the ground for the northwest corner of the State of Texas, marked

<pre>"N.W. Cor.
---------
Texas"
</pre>
on east; "N. M.," on east; "1859," on south, and "1900," on north faces.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.</ref></blockquote> The marker, if still intact, is apparently under the road surface of [[U.S. Route 56]].<ref name=club>"[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html Mick Dunn reports on Nov 12, 2016, that Clark's Monument is buried below the shoulder pavement.]"</ref>

==Texhomex at the tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico==
Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith established the Cimarron meridian in 1881, setting the monuments at two tri-points on the western edge of No Man's Land before Oklahoma was admitted as a State. The southern one would become known as Texhomex. It was re-established and checked by Preston in 1900. Its location was instrumental in finding the northwest corner of Texas.

==See also==
* [[List of tri-points of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Texhomex]]: monument on the New Mexico-Oklahoma-Texas tripoint

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705130104/http://www.public.asu.edu/~redsall/triplepoints/june2004/8.htm Preston Monument]
* [http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/09CONMOK.html David Mark's homepage]
* [http://simpsonfamilyokc.com/oktript.htm Simpson Family website "Oklahoma Tripoints"]
* [https://www.mckimcreed.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Southeast-Corner-of-NM_Texas-Surveyor_May-2015.pdf The Texas Surveyor], May 2015
* [https://www.newspapers.com/article/el-paso-herald-1902-texas-boundary-artic/103964693/ Boundary of Texas], El Paso Herald, May 9, 1902.
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000/pdf/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000.pdf 47th U.S. Congress, 1st Session Senate Executive Document No. 70, 1882, Serial #1987], Survey of the United States and Texas Boundary Commission, Commissioner of the General Land Office, Government Printing Office, 1882.
* [https://www.nvlandsurveyors.org/traverse/2018%20-%2045.4.pdf The Nevada Traverse, Journal of the Professional Land Surveyors of Nevada], Vol. 45, No.4, December 2018
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273/pdf/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273.pdf Surveys and Surveyors of the Public Domain, 1785-1975], Lola Cazier, US Department of Interior, USGPO, Washington, 1978, p.202

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Colorado]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

{{colorado-geo-stub}}
{{newMexico-geo-stub}}
{{oklahoma-geo-stub}}

Preston Monument

2024-10-18T10:34:18Z

Uruiamme: marker location from source

{{Short description|Tri-Point Marker}}
[[File:Preston Monument south.JPG|Southern faces of tourist version of the Preston Monument. The original Preston Monument may have been replaced by this modern granite marker.|thumb]]
The '''Preston Monument''' is the common name for a stone marker at the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]]. It is named after Levi S. Preston who surveyed a portion of the New Mexico–Colorado border in 1900.<ref name=sc>''State of New Mexico v. State of Colorado''. (267 U.S. 30 (1925))</ref> The marker that bears his name may be an earlier monument placed by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith.

Preston evaluated and established several monuments during his survey of 1900. He was contracted on October 25, 1899 with the [[United States General Land Office]] to survey the eastern New Mexico and western [[Texas]] borders and compare his results with prior surveys.

Besides determining the boundaries between Texas and New Mexico, Preston was tasked with determining the true location of (1) the northwest corner of Texas, a point of some contention and believed to be lost, (2) the [[Texhomex|tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico]] some 2 miles to the east, and (3) the tri-point of Colorado, Oklahoma, and New Mexico, some 34 miles north, the tri-point bearing his name.

In 1902, Preston's success in establishing the northwest corner of the State of Texas was published in a bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey. He was lauded for his "zeal, intelligence, and faithfulness."<ref name=Report />

Solving the contentious Texas-New Mexico border dispute was not his only legacy. The tri-point monument bearing his name would be called upon in the Supreme Court Case of ''New Mexico v. Colorado'', 267 U.S. 30 (1925) to help establish the permanent border between New Mexico and Colorado.<ref name=sc />

==Tri-point of Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico==
The tri-point marker for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is at an elevation of 4,445 feet at {{Coord|37|0|0.54029|N|103|0|8.39385|W|display=title}}.<ref name=NGS>[https://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=HJ0488 PID HJ0488] CBN Control Station</ref><ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> The current marker is of a modern concrete rectangular base with an erect, granite stone pillar, with its brass disk removed by vandals and replaced by a nail.<ref name=NGS /> An 1881 marker is nearby which matches the description of the one erected by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith in the fall of 1881 when they surveyed the [[Cimarron meridian]], the western border of Oklahoma.<ref name=Report />

===37th parallel north and 103rd meridian west===
The tri-point for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is supposed to be the intersection between the [[37th parallel north]] and the [[103rd meridian west]]. This point had been located by several surveys before 1900. None of them had agreed. The State of Texas had decided to enter the Union as a slave state, and therefore had been forced to limit its northern extent to 36° 30" north. Areas to the north of the Texas panhandle had become part of "No Man's Land," now the Oklahoma Panhandle. The establishment of the borders of the land eventually known as Oklahoma had required a western limit of 103° west longitude, which is the same as the Texas-New Mexico border. Therefore, the southwest corner of Oklahoma and the northwest corner of Texas should be the same point, and the 37°N, 103°W point should be due north and around 34 miles distant.

By 1900, it had become obvious that the original Texas-New Mexico border was a few miles west of the intended 103° meridian. The 1881 surveyors for the [[Cimarron meridian]], Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith, had set their meridian very close to modern 103° meridian and essentially ignored the erroneous Clark 103° meridian to the south. They also ignored the Macomb and Johnston markers to their west.

All of these were supposed to mark 37°N, 103°W:
* Johnston monument (1857) by John H. Clark (also reused by John J. Major in 1874 for the New Mexico border)
* No marker (1859) by John H. Clark, but its location was established by Preston in 1900 from Clark's 103° meridian
* Macomb monument (1859) by Capt. J. N. Macomb, supposedly the NE corner of New Mexico
* Darling monument (1868) was in the same place as Macomb's but rebuilt by Ehud N. Darling
* Major's monument (1874) was Darling's and Macomb's monument, rebuilt like Macomb's original by John J. Major
* Chaney monument (1881) by Chaney and Smith, used for the Cimarron meridian
* Preston monument (1900) by Preston. He found all of the above previous monuments and measured to them. No longer extant.
* The new monument (1990). There is a granite marker for tourism located here. Still extant.

==Northwest corner of Texas and the 1900 survey==
John Major searched for the lost northwest corner of Texas on his 1874 survey, but did not find it. He actually found the benchmark stone that was intended for the corner, but it had been repurposed at a survey station about 8 miles away for a gravestone.<ref name=103rd>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/30242331 Mexico Boundary along the 103rd Meridian], Ralph H. Brock
The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Vol. 109, No. 4 (Apr., 2006), pp. 431-462 (33 pages)</ref><ref name=sc />

After much searching, Preston found the old 1859 John H. Clark corner in 1900. He laid a stone marker where he had found two previous posts, the earlier of which he was convinced was the original marker from 1859, stating:
<blockquote>At this northwest corner of the [Capital Land and Cattle Company] XIT pasture fence, I remove wire fencing, dig up the corner post, which I find set 18 inches in the ground, and set on top of the rotted stump of an old cedar post. Excavating carefully around this old stub, I find the bottom of it at 26 inches below surface of ground, and remove a segment of the old post 8 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, greatly decayed and reduced almost to a dry pulpy ash. The dark mould and pieces of decayed cedar indicated that the original post was about 10 X 12 inches in diameter at bottom.

This old cedar post could easily have been in the ground more than the eighteen years since 1882, and very likely for ten years longer.</blockquote>

Thus, Preston re-established the northwest corner of Texas that had been in use since the incomplete 1859 survey. He continues:

<blockquote>I set a sandstone 60 X 12 X 10 inches 36 inches in the ground for the northwest corner of the State of Texas, marked

<pre>"N.W. Cor.
---------
Texas"
</pre>
on east; "N. M.," on east; "1859," on south, and "1900," on north faces.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.</ref></blockquote> The marker, if still intact, is apparently under the road surface of [[U.S. Route 56]].<ref name=club>"[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html Mick Dunn reports on Nov 12, 2016, that Clark's Monument is buried below the shoulder pavement.]"</ref>

==Texhomex at the tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico==
Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith established the Cimarron meridian in 1881, setting the monuments at two tri-points on the western edge of No Man's Land before Oklahoma was admitted as a State. The southern one would become known as Texhomex. It was re-established and checked by Preston in 1900. Its location was instrumental in finding the northwest corner of Texas.

==See also==
* [[List of tri-points of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Texhomex]]: monument on the New Mexico-Oklahoma-Texas tripoint

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705130104/http://www.public.asu.edu/~redsall/triplepoints/june2004/8.htm Preston Monument]
* [http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/09CONMOK.html David Mark's homepage]
* [http://simpsonfamilyokc.com/oktript.htm Simpson Family website "Oklahoma Tripoints"]
* [https://www.mckimcreed.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Southeast-Corner-of-NM_Texas-Surveyor_May-2015.pdf The Texas Surveyor], May 2015
* [https://www.newspapers.com/article/el-paso-herald-1902-texas-boundary-artic/103964693/ Boundary of Texas], El Paso Herald, May 9, 1902.
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000/pdf/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000.pdf 47th U.S. Congress, 1st Session Senate Executive Document No. 70, 1882, Serial #1987], Survey of the United States and Texas Boundary Commission, Commissioner of the General Land Office, Government Printing Office, 1882.
* [https://www.nvlandsurveyors.org/traverse/2018%20-%2045.4.pdf The Nevada Traverse, Journal of the Professional Land Surveyors of Nevada], Vol. 45, No.4, December 2018
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273/pdf/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273.pdf Surveys and Surveyors of the Public Domain, 1785-1975], Lola Cazier, US Department of Interior, USGPO, Washington, 1978, p.202

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Colorado]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

{{colorado-geo-stub}}
{{newMexico-geo-stub}}
{{oklahoma-geo-stub}}

Preston Monument

2024-10-18T09:55:26Z

Uruiamme: refs

{{Short description|Tri-Point Marker}}
[[File:Preston Monument south.JPG|Southern faces of tourist version of the Preston Monument. The original Preston Monument may have been replaced by this modern granite marker.|thumb]]
The '''Preston Monument''' is the common name for a stone marker at the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]]. It is named after Levi S. Preston who surveyed a portion of the New Mexico–Colorado border in 1900.<ref name=sc>''State of New Mexico v. State of Colorado''. (267 U.S. 30 (1925))</ref> The marker that bears his name may be an earlier monument placed by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith.

Preston evaluated and established several monuments during his survey of 1900. He was contracted on October 25, 1899 with the [[United States General Land Office]] to survey the eastern New Mexico and western [[Texas]] borders and compare his results with prior surveys.

Besides determining the boundaries between Texas and New Mexico, Preston was tasked with determining the true location of (1) the northwest corner of Texas, a point of some contention and believed to be lost, (2) the [[Texhomex|tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico]] some 2 miles to the east, and (3) the tri-point of Colorado, Oklahoma, and New Mexico, some 34 miles north, the tri-point bearing his name.

In 1902, Preston's success in establishing the northwest corner of the State of Texas was published in a bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey. He was lauded for his "zeal, intelligence, and faithfulness."<ref name=Report />

Solving the contentious Texas-New Mexico border dispute was not his only legacy. The tri-point monument bearing his name would be called upon in the Supreme Court Case of ''New Mexico v. Colorado'', 267 U.S. 30 (1925) to help establish the permanent border between New Mexico and Colorado.<ref name=sc />

==Tri-point of Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico==
The tri-point marker for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is at an elevation of 4,444 feet at {{Coord|37.000154|-103.002362|display=title}}.<ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> The current marker is of a modern concrete rectangular base with an erect, granite stone pillar. An 1881 marker is nearby which matches the description of the one erected by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith in the fall of 1881 when they surveyed the [[Cimarron meridian]], the western border of Oklahoma.<ref name=Report />

===37th parallel north and 103rd meridian west===
The tri-point for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is supposed to be the intersection between the [[37th parallel north]] and the [[103rd meridian west]]. This point had been located by several surveys before 1900. None of them had agreed. The State of Texas had decided to enter the Union as a slave state, and therefore had been forced to limit its northern extent to 36° 30" north. Areas to the north of the Texas panhandle had become part of "No Man's Land," now the Oklahoma Panhandle. The establishment of the borders of the land eventually known as Oklahoma had required a western limit of 103° west longitude, which is the same as the Texas-New Mexico border. Therefore, the southwest corner of Oklahoma and the northwest corner of Texas should be the same point, and the 37°N, 103°W point should be due north and around 34 miles distant.

By 1900, it had become obvious that the original Texas-New Mexico border was a few miles west of the intended 103° meridian. The 1881 surveyors for the [[Cimarron meridian]], Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith, had set their meridian very close to modern 103° meridian and essentially ignored the erroneous Clark 103° meridian to the south. They also ignored the Macomb and Johnston markers to their west.

All of these were supposed to mark 37°N, 103°W:
* Johnston monument (1857) by John H. Clark (also reused by John J. Major in 1874 for the New Mexico border)
* No marker (1859) by John H. Clark, but its location was established by Preston in 1900 from Clark's 103° meridian
* Macomb monument (1859) by Capt. J. N. Macomb, supposedly the NE corner of New Mexico
* Darling monument (1868) was in the same place as Macomb's but rebuilt by Ehud N. Darling
* Major's monument (1874) was Darling's and Macomb's monument, rebuilt like Macomb's original by John J. Major
* Chaney monument (1881) by Chaney and Smith, used for the Cimarron meridian
* Preston monument (1900) by Preston. He found all of the above previous monuments and measured to them. This is actually Chaney and Smith's monument for the Cimarron meridian, and so it bears an 1881 date. May still be extant.
* The new monument (unknown). There is a granite marker for tourism located here. Still extant.

==Northwest corner of Texas and the 1900 survey==
John Major searched for the lost northwest corner of Texas on his 1874 survey, but did not find it. He actually found the benchmark stone that was intended for the corner, but it had been repurposed at a survey station about 8 miles away for a gravestone.<ref name=103rd>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/30242331 Mexico Boundary along the 103rd Meridian], Ralph H. Brock
The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Vol. 109, No. 4 (Apr., 2006), pp. 431-462 (33 pages)</ref><ref name=sc />

After much searching, Preston found the old 1859 John H. Clark corner in 1900. He laid a stone marker where he had found two previous posts, the earlier of which he was convinced was the original marker from 1859, stating:
<blockquote>At this northwest corner of the [Capital Land and Cattle Company] XIT pasture fence, I remove wire fencing, dig up the corner post, which I find set 18 inches in the ground, and set on top of the rotted stump of an old cedar post. Excavating carefully around this old stub, I find the bottom of it at 26 inches below surface of ground, and remove a segment of the old post 8 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, greatly decayed and reduced almost to a dry pulpy ash. The dark mould and pieces of decayed cedar indicated that the original post was about 10 X 12 inches in diameter at bottom.

This old cedar post could easily have been in the ground more than the eighteen years since 1882, and very likely for ten years longer.</blockquote>

Thus, Preston re-established the northwest corner of Texas that had been in use since the incomplete 1859 survey. He continues:

<blockquote>I set a sandstone 60 X 12 X 10 inches 36 inches in the ground for the northwest corner of the State of Texas, marked

<pre>"N.W. Cor.
---------
Texas"
</pre>
on east; "N. M.," on east; "1859," on south, and "1900," on north faces.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.</ref></blockquote> The marker, if still intact, is apparently under the road surface of [[U.S. Route 56]].<ref name=club>"[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html Mick Dunn reports on Nov 12, 2016, that Clark's Monument is buried below the shoulder pavement.]"</ref>

==Texhomex at the tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico==
Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith established the Cimarron meridian in 1881, setting the monuments at two tri-points on the western edge of No Man's Land before Oklahoma was admitted as a State. The southern one would become known as Texhomex. It was re-established and checked by Preston in 1900. Its location was instrumental in finding the northwest corner of Texas.

==See also==
* [[List of tri-points of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Texhomex]]: monument on the New Mexico-Oklahoma-Texas tripoint

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705130104/http://www.public.asu.edu/~redsall/triplepoints/june2004/8.htm Preston Monument]
* [http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/09CONMOK.html David Mark's homepage]
* [http://simpsonfamilyokc.com/oktript.htm Simpson Family website "Oklahoma Tripoints"]
* [https://www.mckimcreed.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Southeast-Corner-of-NM_Texas-Surveyor_May-2015.pdf The Texas Surveyor], May 2015
* [https://www.newspapers.com/article/el-paso-herald-1902-texas-boundary-artic/103964693/ Boundary of Texas], El Paso Herald, May 9, 1902.
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000/pdf/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000.pdf 47th U.S. Congress, 1st Session Senate Executive Document No. 70, 1882, Serial #1987], Survey of the United States and Texas Boundary Commission, Commissioner of the General Land Office, Government Printing Office, 1882.
* [https://www.nvlandsurveyors.org/traverse/2018%20-%2045.4.pdf The Nevada Traverse, Journal of the Professional Land Surveyors of Nevada], Vol. 45, No.4, December 2018
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273/pdf/GOVPUB-I53-PURL-gpo81273.pdf Surveys and Surveyors of the Public Domain, 1785-1975], Lola Cazier, US Department of Interior, USGPO, Washington, 1978, p.202

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Colorado]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

{{colorado-geo-stub}}
{{newMexico-geo-stub}}
{{oklahoma-geo-stub}}

Preston Monument

2024-10-17T13:32:18Z

Uruiamme: coord

{{Short description|Tri-Point Marker}}
[[File:Preston Monument south.JPG|Southern faces of tourist version of the Preston Monument. The original Preston Monument may have been replaced by this modern granite marker.|thumb]]
The '''Preston Monument''' is the common name for a stone marker at the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]]. It is named after Levi S. Preston who surveyed a portion of the New Mexico–Colorado border in 1900.<ref name=sc>''State of New Mexico v. State of Colorado''. (267 U.S. 30 (1925))</ref> The marker that bears his name may be an earlier monument placed by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith.

Preston evaluated and established several monuments during his survey of 1900. He was contracted on October 25, 1899 with the [[United States General Land Office]] to survey the eastern New Mexico and western [[Texas]] borders and compare his results with prior surveys.

Besides determining the boundaries between Texas and New Mexico, Preston was tasked with determining the true location of (1) the northwest corner of Texas, a point of some contention and believed to be lost, (2) the [[Texhomex|tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico]] some 2 miles to the east, and (3) the tri-point of Colorado, Oklahoma, and New Mexico, some 34 miles north, the tri-point bearing his name.

In 1902, Preston's success in establishing the northwest corner of the State of Texas was published in a bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey. He was lauded for his "zeal, intelligence, and faithfulness."<ref name=Report />

Solving the contentious Texas-New Mexico border dispute was not his only legacy. The tri-point monument bearing his name would be called upon in the Supreme Court Case of ''New Mexico v. Colorado'', 267 U.S. 30 (1925) to help establish the permanent border between New Mexico and Colorado.<ref name=sc />

==Tri-point of Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico==
The tri-point marker for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is at an elevation of 4,444 feet at {{Coord|37.000154|-103.002362|display=title}}.<ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> The current marker is of a modern concrete rectangular base with an erect, granite stone pillar. An 1881 marker is nearby which matches the description of the one erected by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith in the fall of 1881 when they surveyed the [[Cimarron meridian]], the western border of Oklahoma.<ref name=Report />

===37th parallel north and 103rd meridian west===
The tri-point for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is supposed to be the intersection between the [[37th parallel north]] and the [[103rd meridian west]]. This point had been located by several surveys before 1900. None of them had agreed. The State of Texas had decided to enter the Union as a slave state, and therefore had been forced to limit its northern extent to 36° 30" north. Areas to the north of the Texas panhandle had become part of "No Man's Land," now the Oklahoma Panhandle. The establishment of the borders of the land eventually known as Oklahoma had required a western limit of 103° west longitude, which is the same as the Texas-New Mexico border. Therefore, the southwest corner of Oklahoma and the northwest corner of Texas should be the same point, and the 37°N, 103°W point should be due north and around 34 miles distant.

By 1900, it had become obvious that the original Texas-New Mexico border was a few miles west of the intended 103° meridian. The 1881 surveyors for the [[Cimarron meridian]], Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith, had set their meridian very close to modern 103° meridian and essentially ignored the erroneous Clark 103° meridian to the south. They also ignored the Macomb and Johnston markers to their west.

All of these were supposed to mark 37°N, 103°W:
* Johnston monument (1857) by John H. Clark (also reused by John J. Major in 1874 for the New Mexico border)
* No marker (1859) by John H. Clark, but its location was established by Preston in 1900 from Clark's 103° meridian
* Macomb monument (1859) by Capt. J. N. Macomb, supposedly the NE corner of New Mexico
* Darling monument (1868) was in the same place as Macomb's but rebuilt by Ehud N. Darling
* Major's monument (1874) was Darling's and Macomb's monument, rebuilt like Macomb's original by John J. Major
* Chaney monument (1881) by Chaney and Smith, used for the Cimarron meridian
* Preston monument (1900) by Preston. He found all of the above previous monuments and measured to them. This is actually Chaney and Smith's monument for the Cimarron meridian, and so it bears an 1881 date. May still be extant.
* The new monument (unknown). There is a granite marker for tourism located here. Still extant.

==Northwest corner of Texas and the 1900 survey==
John Major searched for the lost northwest corner of Texas on his 1874 survey, but did not find it. He actually found the benchmark stone that was intended for the corner, but it had been repurposed at a survey station about 8 miles away for a gravestone.<ref name=103rd>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/30242331 Mexico Boundary along the 103rd Meridian], Ralph H. Brock
The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Vol. 109, No. 4 (Apr., 2006), pp. 431-462 (33 pages)</ref><ref name=sc />

After much searching, Preston found the old 1859 John H. Clark corner in 1900. He laid a stone marker where he had found two previous posts, the earlier of which he was convinced was the original marker from 1859, stating:
<blockquote>At this northwest corner of the [Capital Land and Cattle Company] XIT pasture fence, I remove wire fencing, dig up the corner post, which I find set 18 inches in the ground, and set on top of the rotted stump of an old cedar post. Excavating carefully around this old stub, I find the bottom of it at 26 inches below surface of ground, and remove a segment of the old post 8 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, greatly decayed and reduced almost to a dry pulpy ash. The dark mould and pieces of decayed cedar indicated that the original post was about 10 X 12 inches in diameter at bottom.

This old cedar post could easily have been in the ground more than the eighteen years since 1882, and very likely for ten years longer.</blockquote>

Thus, Preston re-established the northwest corner of Texas that had been in use since the incomplete 1859 survey. He continues:

<blockquote>I set a sandstone 60 X 12 X 10 inches 36 inches in the ground for the northwest corner of the State of Texas, marked

<pre>"N.W. Cor.
---------
Texas"
</pre>
on east; "N. M.," on east; "1859," on south, and "1900," on north faces.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.</ref></blockquote> The marker, if still intact, is apparently under the road surface of [[U.S. Route 56]].<ref name=club>"[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html Mick Dunn reports on Nov 12, 2016, that Clark's Monument is buried below the shoulder pavement.]"</ref>

==Texhomex at the tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico==
Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith established the Cimarron meridian in 1881, setting the monuments at two tri-points on the western edge of No Man's Land before Oklahoma was admitted as a State. The southern one would become known as Texhomex. It was re-established and checked by Preston in 1900. Its location was instrumental in finding the northwest corner of Texas.

==See also==
* [[List of tri-points of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Texhomex]]: monument on the New Mexico-Oklahoma-Texas tripoint

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705130104/http://www.public.asu.edu/~redsall/triplepoints/june2004/8.htm Preston Monument]
* [http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/09CONMOK.html David Mark's homepage]
* [http://simpsonfamilyokc.com/oktript.htm Simpson Family website "Oklahoma Tripoints"]
* [https://www.mckimcreed.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Southeast-Corner-of-NM_Texas-Surveyor_May-2015.pdf The Texas Surveyor], May 2015
* [https://www.newspapers.com/article/el-paso-herald-1902-texas-boundary-artic/103964693/ Boundary of Texas], El Paso Herald, May 9, 1902.
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000/pdf/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000.pdf 47th U.S. Congress, 1st Session Senate Executive Document No. 70, 1882, Serial #1987], Survey of the United States and Texas Boundary Commission, Commissioner of the General Land Office, Government Printing Office, 1882.
==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Colorado]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

{{colorado-geo-stub}}
{{newMexico-geo-stub}}
{{oklahoma-geo-stub}}

Preston Monument

2024-10-17T13:10:18Z

Uruiamme: The current marker is not from 1900, it's 1891

{{Short description|Tri-Point Marker}}
[[File:Preston Monument south.JPG|Southern faces of tourist version of the Preston Monument. The original Preston Monument may have been replaced by this modern granite marker.|thumb]]
The '''Preston Monument''' is the common name for a stone marker at the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]]. It is named after Levi S. Preston who surveyed a portion of the New Mexico–Colorado border in 1900.<ref name=sc>''State of New Mexico v. State of Colorado''. (267 U.S. 30 (1925))</ref> The marker that bears his name may be an earlier monument placed by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith.

Preston evaluated and established several monuments during his survey of 1900. He was contracted on October 25, 1899 with the [[United States General Land Office]] to survey the eastern New Mexico and western [[Texas]] borders and compare his results with prior surveys.

Besides determining the boundaries between Texas and New Mexico, Preston was tasked with determining the true location of (1) the northwest corner of Texas, a point of some contention and believed to be lost, (2) the [[Texhomex|tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico]] some 2 miles to the east, and (3) the tri-point of Colorado, Oklahoma, and New Mexico, some 34 miles north, the tri-point bearing his name.

In 1902, Preston's success in establishing the northwest corner of the State of Texas was published in a bulletin of the U.S. Geological Survey. He was lauded for his "zeal, intelligence, and faithfulness."<ref name=Report />

Solving the contentious Texas-New Mexico border dispute was not his only legacy. The tri-point monument bearing his name would be called upon in the Supreme Court Case of ''New Mexico v. Colorado'', 267 U.S. 30 (1925) to help establish the permanent border between New Mexico and Colorado.<ref name=sc />

==Tri-point of Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico==
The tri-point marker for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is at an elevation of 4,444 feet at {{Coord|37.000154|-103.002362}}.<ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref> The current marker is of a modern concrete rectangular base with an erect, granite stone pillar. An 1881 marker is nearby which matches the description of the one erected by Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith in the fall of 1881 when they surveyed the [[Cimarron meridian]], the western border of Oklahoma.<ref name=Report />

===37th parallel north and 103rd meridian west===
The tri-point for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is supposed to be the intersection between the [[37th parallel north]] and the [[103rd meridian west]]. This point had been located by several surveys before 1900. None of them had agreed. The State of Texas had decided to enter the Union as a slave state, and therefore had been forced to limit its northern extent to 36° 30" north. Areas to the north of the Texas panhandle had become part of "No Man's Land," now the Oklahoma Panhandle. The establishment of the borders of the land eventually known as Oklahoma had required a western limit of 103° west longitude, which is the same as the Texas-New Mexico border. Therefore, the southwest corner of Oklahoma and the northwest corner of Texas should be the same point, and the 37°N, 103°W point should be due north and around 34 miles distant.

By 1900, it had become obvious that the original Texas-New Mexico border was a few miles west of the intended 103° meridian. The 1881 surveyors for the [[Cimarron meridian]], Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith, had set their meridian very close to modern 103° meridian and essentially ignored the erroneous Clark 103° meridian to the south. They also ignored the Macomb and Johnston markers to their west.

All of these were supposed to mark 37°N, 103°W:
* Johnston monument (1857) by John H. Clark (also reused by John J. Major in 1874 for the New Mexico border)
* No marker (1859) by John H. Clark, but its location was established by Preston in 1900 from Clark's 103° meridian
* Macomb monument (1859) by Capt. J. N. Macomb, supposedly the NE corner of New Mexico
* Darling monument (1868) was in the same place as Macomb's but rebuilt by Ehud N. Darling
* Major's monument (1874) was Darling's and Macomb's monument, rebuilt like Macomb's original by John J. Major
* Chaney monument (1881) by Chaney and Smith, used for the Cimarron meridian
* Preston monument (1900) by Preston. He found all of the above previous monuments and measured to them. This is actually Chaney and Smith's monument for the Cimarron meridian, and so it bears an 1881 date. May still be extant.
* The new monument (unknown). There is a granite marker for tourism located here. Still extant.

==Northwest corner of Texas and the 1900 survey==
John Major searched for the lost northwest corner of Texas on his 1874 survey, but did not find it. He actually found the benchmark stone that was intended for the corner, but it had been repurposed at a survey station about 8 miles away for a gravestone.<ref name=103rd>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/30242331 Mexico Boundary along the 103rd Meridian], Ralph H. Brock
The Southwestern Historical Quarterly, Vol. 109, No. 4 (Apr., 2006), pp. 431-462 (33 pages)</ref><ref name=sc />

After much searching, Preston found the old 1859 John H. Clark corner in 1900. He laid a stone marker where he had found two previous posts, the earlier of which he was convinced was the original marker from 1859, stating:
<blockquote>At this northwest corner of the [Capital Land and Cattle Company] XIT pasture fence, I remove wire fencing, dig up the corner post, which I find set 18 inches in the ground, and set on top of the rotted stump of an old cedar post. Excavating carefully around this old stub, I find the bottom of it at 26 inches below surface of ground, and remove a segment of the old post 8 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, greatly decayed and reduced almost to a dry pulpy ash. The dark mould and pieces of decayed cedar indicated that the original post was about 10 X 12 inches in diameter at bottom.

This old cedar post could easily have been in the ground more than the eighteen years since 1882, and very likely for ten years longer.</blockquote>

Thus, Preston re-established the northwest corner of Texas that had been in use since the incomplete 1859 survey. He continues:

<blockquote>I set a sandstone 60 X 12 X 10 inches 36 inches in the ground for the northwest corner of the State of Texas, marked

<pre>"N.W. Cor.
---------
Texas"
</pre>
on east; "N. M.," on east; "1859," on south, and "1900," on north faces.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf The Northwest Boundary of Texas], No. 194, Bulletin of the United States Geological Survey, 1902.</ref></blockquote> The marker, if still intact, is apparently under the road surface of [[U.S. Route 56]].<ref name=club>"[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html Mick Dunn reports on Nov 12, 2016, that Clark's Monument is buried below the shoulder pavement.]"</ref>

==Texhomex at the tri-point of Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico==
Richard O. Chaney and William W. Smith established the Cimarron meridian in 1881, setting the monuments at two tri-points on the western edge of No Man's Land before Oklahoma was admitted as a State. The southern one would become known as Texhomex. It was re-established and checked by Preston in 1900. Its location was instrumental in finding the northwest corner of Texas.

==See also==
* [[List of tri-points of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Texhomex]]: monument on the New Mexico-Oklahoma-Texas tripoint

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705130104/http://www.public.asu.edu/~redsall/triplepoints/june2004/8.htm Preston Monument]
* [http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/09CONMOK.html David Mark's homepage]
* [http://simpsonfamilyokc.com/oktript.htm Simpson Family website "Oklahoma Tripoints"]
* [https://www.mckimcreed.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/Southeast-Corner-of-NM_Texas-Surveyor_May-2015.pdf The Texas Surveyor], May 2015
* [https://www.newspapers.com/article/el-paso-herald-1902-texas-boundary-artic/103964693/ Boundary of Texas], El Paso Herald, May 9, 1902.
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000/pdf/SERIALSET-01987_00_00-034-0070-0000.pdf 47th U.S. Congress, 1st Session Senate Executive Document No. 70, 1882, Serial #1987], Survey of the United States and Texas Boundary Commission, Commissioner of the General Land Office, Government Printing Office, 1882.
==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|37|00|00|N|103|00|08|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Borders of Texas]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Colorado]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Texas]]
[[Category:Geography of Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

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Levi S. Preston

2024-10-17T12:58:29Z

Uruiamme: new one

#REDIRECT[[Preston Monument]]

Cimarron meridian

2024-10-17T02:21:05Z

Uruiamme: Details added

Preston Monument

2024-10-17T00:43:41Z

Uruiamme: /* top */ More than one Preston monument

{{Short description|Tri-Point Marker}}
[[File:Preston Monument south.JPG|Southern faces of Preston Monument|thumb]]
The '''Preston Monument''' is a stone marker that shows the [[tri-point]] (the place where three states meet) of [[Oklahoma]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]]. It is named after Levi S. Preston, who surveyed a portion of the New Mexico–Colorado border.<ref>''State of New Mexico v. State of Colorado''. (267 U.S. 30 (1925))</ref>

While Preston was determining the northern boundary of Texas, he was tasked with determining the true location of both the northwest corner, a point of some contention, the Tri-point some 2 miles to the east, and the northeast corner of the Texas panhandle, some 170 miles to the east.

==Northwest corner of Texas, 1900 survey==
Preston laid a stone marker in 1900 on top of two previous posts, the earlier of which he was convinced was the original John H. Clark marker from 1859, stating:
<blockquote>At this northwest corner of the [Capital Land and Cattle Company] XIT pasture fence, I remove wire fencing, dig up the corner post, which I find set 18 inches in the ground, and set on top of the rotted stump of an old cedar post. Excavating carefully around this old stub, I find the bottom of it at 26 inches below surface of ground, and remove a segment of the old post 8 inches in diameter and 8 inches long, greatly decayed and reduced almost to a dry pulpy ash. The dark mould and pieces of decayed cedar indicated that the original post was about 10 X 12 inches in diameter at bottom.

This old cedar post could easily have been in the ground more than the eighteen years since 1882, and very likely for ten years longer.</blockquote>

Thus, Preston re-established the northwest corner of Texas that had been in use since the incomplete 1859 survey. Hr continues:

<blockquote>I set a sandstone 60 X 12 X 10 inches 36 inches in the ground for the northwest corner of the State of Texas, marked

<pre>"N.W. Cor.
---------
Texas"
</pre>
on east; "N. M.," on east; "1859," on south, and "1900," on north faces.<ref name=Report>[https://pubs.usgs.gov/bul/0194/report.pdf Northwest Boundary of Texas], p.42</ref></blockquote> The marker, if still intact, is apparently under the road surface of [[U.S. Route 56]].<ref name=club>"[https://highpointers.org/wp-content/uploads/tripoints/pages/3ptNM-OK-TX.html Mick Dunn reports on Nov 12, 2016, that Clark's Monument is buried below the shoulder pavement.]"</ref>

==Tri-point of Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico==
The tri-point marker for Oklahoma, Colorado, and New Mexico is at an elevation of 4,444 feet at {{Coord|37.000154|-103.002362}}.<ref>Clark, Patterson & Denise Lu [https://www.washingtonpost.com/graphics/lifestyle/trifinia/ "Cornering America's tri-points: A guide to 65 lonely spots where at least three states converge" (Sept. 17, 2015)] (Accessed Nov. 29, 2021)</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of tri-points of U.S. states]]
* [[Four Corners Monument]]: monument on the Arizona-Colorado-New Mexico-Utah border
* [[OKKAMO Tri-State Marker]]: monument on the Arkansas-Missouri-Oklahoma tripoint
* [[Texhomex]]: monument on the New Mexico-Oklahoma-Texas tripoint

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080705130104/http://www.public.asu.edu/~redsall/triplepoints/june2004/8.htm Preston Monument]
* [http://www.geog.buffalo.edu/~dmark/tristate/09CONMOK.html David Mark's homepage]
* [http://simpsonfamilyokc.com/oktript.htm Simpson Family website "Oklahoma Tripoints"]
==References==
{{reflist}}

{{coord|37|00|00|N|103|00|08|W|display=title}}

[[Category:Buildings and structures in Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of Colorado]]
[[Category:Borders of New Mexico]]
[[Category:Borders of Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Cimarron County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Border tripoints]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Union County, New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in New Mexico]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Colorado]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Geography of Baca County, Colorado]]
[[Category:Boundary markers]]

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Caltrop

2024-10-06T04:40:46Z

Uruiamme: /* Via drones */ that made no sense

{{short description|Anti-cavalry device}}
{{for|the plant or its fruit|water caltrop|Tribulus terrestris}}
{{use dmy dates|cs1-dates=ly|date=June 2023}}
[[File:Roman caltrop.jpg|thumb|Roman caltrop at the Westphalian Museum of Archeology (German: Westfälisches Museum für Archäologie), [[Herne, North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany]]
[[File:Löffelholz-Codex Ms-Berol-Germ-Qu-132 Fol 030v.png|thumb|Different types of caltrops and metal soles that can be buckled underneath as a countermeasure from Codex Löffelholz, Nuremberg, 1505]]

A '''caltrop''' (also known as '''caltrap''', '''galtrop''', '''cheval trap''', '''galthrap''',<ref>{{cite book|title=A Genealogical and Heraldic Dictionary of the Landed Gentry of Great Britain and Ireland | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2FE4AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA672 |last= Burke| first= John| publisher = Henry Colburn | year = 1846 | page = 672 }}</ref> '''galtrap''', '''calthrop''', '''jackrock''' or '''crow's foot'''<ref>{{cite book|title=An Elementary Course of Military Engineering – Part I: Field Fortification, Military Mining and Siege Operations | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7P1BAAAAYAAJ |last= Mahan| first= D.H.| publisher = John Wiley & Son | year = 1867 | page = 76 }}</ref><ref name = "Alesia-2006" >''[[Battle of Alesia]]'' ([[Julius Caesar|Caesar]]'s conquest of [[Gaul]] in 52 BC), Battlefield Detectives program, (2006), rebroadcast: 2008-09-08 on History Channel International (13:00-14:00 hrs EDST); Note: No mention of name caltrop at all, but illustrated and given as battle key to defend Roman lines of circumvallation per recent digs evidence.</ref>) is an [[area denial weapon]] made up of usually four, but possibly more, sharp nails or spines arranged in such a manner that one of them always points upward from a stable base (for example, a [[tetrahedron]]). Historically, caltrops were part of defences that served to slow the advance of troops, especially [[Cavalry|horse]]s, [[chariot]]s, and [[war elephant]]s, and were particularly effective against the soft feet of [[Camel cavalry|camel]]s.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Seven Great Monarchies Of The Ancient Eastern World, Vol 6. (of 7): Parthia| url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16166/16166-h/16166-h.htm#2HCH0023|last= Rawlinson| first= George}}</ref> In modern times, caltrops are effective when used against wheeled vehicles with pneumatic [[tire]]s.<ref name=HistoryNet>{{cite web |title=The Caltrop: A weapon that's barely changed over 2,300 years |author=Robert W. Reid |date=2006-09-01 |website=HistoryNet |url=https://www.historynet.com/weaponry-the-caltrop/#What%20Is%20A%20Caltrop? |access-date=2023-06-24 |quote=Today, it has reclaimed its old Greek name and reappeared as the tetrahedron, the bane of all vehicles running on pneumatic tires, and is used by both the military and police.}}</ref>

==Name==
The modern name "caltrop" is derived from the Old English {{lang|ang|calcatrippe}} (heel-trap),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/caltrop |title=Definition of Caltrop |website=www.merriam-webster.com |access-date=2 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/caltrop |title=Definition of Caltrop |website=www.dictionary.com |access-date=21 March 2021}}</ref> such as in the French usage {{lang|fr|chausse-trape}} (shoe-trap). The Latin word {{lang|la|[[tribulus]]}} originally referred to this and provides part of the modern scientific name of a plant commonly called the caltrop, ''[[Tribulus terrestris]]'', whose spiked seed cases resemble caltrops and can injure feet and puncture bicycle tires. This plant can also be compared to ''[[Centaurea calcitrapa]]'', which is also sometimes referred to as the "caltrop". ''Trapa natans'', a water plant with similarly shaped spiked seeds and edible fruit, is called the "[[water caltrop]]".

==History==
[[File:Three Kingdoms Shu Bronze Caltrops (40512948263).jpg|thumb|Bronze caltrops from the [[Three Kingdoms]] era]]
[[File:Drevnosti RG v3 ill130c - Caltrop.jpg|right|thumb|A 16th-century caltrop]]
[[File:Imperial Encyclopaedia - Military Administration - pic553.svg|thumb|Illustration from the 18th-century Chinese book ''[[Gujin Tushu Jicheng]]'', showing caltrops with spikes that stick in the ground]]
The caltrop was called {{lang|la|tribulus}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[A Latin Dictionary]] |title=trĭbŭlus |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |date=1879}}</ref> by the ancient Romans, or sometimes {{lang|la|murex ferreus}},<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[A Latin Dictionary]] |title=mūrex |last1=Lewis |first1=Charlton T. |last2=Short |first2=Charles |date=1879}}</ref> the latter meaning "jagged iron" (literally "iron spiny snail-shell"). The former term derives from the ancient Greek word {{lang|grc-Latn|tribolos}} meaning three spikes.<ref>{{LSJ|tri/bolos|τρίβολος|ref}}</ref> Caltrops were used in the [[Battle of Carrhae]] in 53 [[Common Era|BC]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Jarymowycz |first=Roman Johann |title=Cavalry from Hoof to Track: The Quest for Mobility |year=2007 |publisher=Praeger |isbn=978-0-275-98726-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nQDBUgwGae4C&q=Makibishi&pg=PA21 |page=20}}</ref>

The late [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] writer [[Vegetius]], referring in his work ''[[De re militari]]'' to [[scythed chariot]]s, wrote:<ref>{{cite book| url=http://www.pvv.ntnu.no/~madsb/home/war/vegetius/dere07.php#21| title=The Military Institutions of the Romans Book III: Dispositions for Action| first=Flavius Vegetius| last=Renatus| year=390| chapter=Armed Chariots and Elephants| access-date=2005-10-22| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051224005323/http://www.pvv.ntnu.no/~madsb/home/war/vegetius/dere07.php#21#21| archive-date=2005-12-24| url-status=dead}}</ref>

{{blockquote|The armed [[chariot]]s used in war by Antiochus and Mithridates at first terrified the Romans, but they afterwards made a jest of them. As a chariot of this sort does not always meet with plain and level ground, the least obstruction stops it. And if one of the horses be either killed or wounded, it falls into the enemy's hands. The [[Roman legion|Roman soldiers]] rendered them useless chiefly by the following contrivance: at the instant the engagement began, they strewed the field of battle with caltrops, and the horses that drew the chariots, running full speed on them, were infallibly destroyed. A caltrop is a device composed of four spikes or points arranged so that in whatever manner it is thrown on the ground, it rests on three and presents the fourth upright.}}

Another example of the use of caltrops was found in [[Jamestown, Virginia]], in the United States:<ref>[http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1963/3/1963_3_66.shtml ''American Heritage'']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060710083644/http://www.americanheritage.com/articles/magazine/ah/1963/3/1963_3_66.shtml |date=2006-07-10 }}, March 1963.</ref>

{{blockquote|Undoubtedly the most unusual weapon or military device surviving from seventeenth-century Virginia is known as a caltrop, a single example of which has been found at Jamestown. It amounts to a widely spread iron tripod about three inches long with another leg sticking vertically upward, so that however you throw it down, one spike always sticks up. ... There is no doubt that the most inscrutable Indian treading on a caltrop would be shocked into noisy comment. ... The fact that only one has been found would seem to suggest that they were used little, if at all. As with all military equipment designed for European wars, the caltrop's presence in Virginia must be considered in the light of possible attacks by the Spaniards as well as assaults from the Indians.}}

The Japanese version of the caltrop is called {{lang|ja-Latn|[[makibishi]]}}. Makibishi were sharp spiked objects that were used in feudal Japan to slow pursuers and also were used in the defence of samurai fortifications. Iron makibishi were called {{lang|ja-Latn|tetsubishi}}, while the makibishi made from the dried seed pod of the [[water caltrop]], or water chestnut (genus ''Trapa''), formed a natural type of makibashi called {{lang|ja-Latn|tennenbishi}}. Both types of makibishi could penetrate the thin soles of shoes, such as the {{lang|ja-Latn|[[waraji]]}} sandals, which were commonly worn in feudal Japan.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U02pzwXNxBIC&pg=PA32 |title=Japanese Castles AD 250–1540 |first=Stephen |last=Turnbull |date=22 April 2008 |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |isbn=9781846032530 |access-date=2 April 2018 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=eyMYelZlKekC&pg=PA119 ''Samurai, Warfare and the State in Early Medieval Japan''], [[Karl Friday]], Psychology Press, 2004 P. 119.</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights=160>
File:Weapons (1496876265).jpg|Traditional caltrops and mines from the [[Mongol Empire]]
</gallery>

==Modern uses==
[[File:Crows feet 2, Balaclava 1854.jpg|thumb|right|Crow's feet boards studded with spikes. These were laid on the ground to prevent the enemy from approaching the defences. This board was used by the Russian Army during the [[Battle of Balaclava]]. On display at Royal Engineers Museum, Kent.]]

===World War I===
During service in [[World War I]], [[Australian Light Horse]] troops collected caltrops as keepsakes. These caltrops were either made by welding two pieces of wire together to form a four-pointed star or pouring molten steel into a mould to form a solid, seven-pointed star. The purpose of these devices was to disable horses. They were exchanged with French troops for bullets. The Australian Light Horse troops referred to them as "Horse Chestnuts".{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

===World War II===
Caltrops were used extensively and effectively during [[World War II]]. The modifications and variants produced by the [[Special Operations Executive]] (SOE) and the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (OSS) of the United States{{sfn|Lovell|1964|pp=42–43}} are still in use today within special forces and law enforcement bodies.{{who|date=January 2012}}

The Germans dropped ''crow's feet'' ({{lang-de|Krähenfüße}}).{{sfn|Civil Defence Training Pamphlet No 2|p=25}} These were made from two segments of sheet metal welded together into a tetrapod with four barbed points and then painted in camouflage colours. They came in two sizes with a side length of either {{convert|65|or|75|mm|in}}. They were dropped from aircraft in containers the same size as {{convert|500|kg|abbr=on}} bombs and were dispersed by a small explosive charge.{{sfn|Civil Defence Training Pamphlet No 2|p=25}}<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.lonesentry.com/articles/ttt08/german-spikes.html
| title = German Metal Spikes (Crowsfoot)
| work = Tactical and Technical Trends
| date = 5 November 1942
| access-date = 30 April 2015
}}</ref>

===Tire deflation device===
{{See also|Spike strip}}
[[File:Caltrop.jpg|thumb|right|Caltrop used by the US [[Office of Strategic Services]]. The hollow spikes puncture self-sealing rubber tires. The hole in the center allows air to escape even if other ends of the tube are sealed by soft ground.]]
Inventors patented caltrop-like devices to deflate vehicle tires in a manner useful to law enforcement agencies or the military.<ref>
{{cite web
| url= http://v3.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US2346713&F=0&QPN=US2346713
| title= Caltrop
| access-date=11 April 2008
| first= Walker
| last= Brooks
| date= 18 April 1944
| work= US2346713
| publisher= European Patent Office}}
</ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://v3.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5921703&F=0
| title= Caltrop
| access-date=11 April 2008
| first= Jonathan
| last= Becker
| date= 13 July 1999
| work= US5921703
| publisher= European Patent Office|display-authors=etal}}
</ref> They are currently used by the military and police.<ref name=HistoryNet/>

===Labour disputes===
Caltrops have been used at times during [[labour strike]]s and other disputes. Such devices were used by some to destroy the tires of management and replacement workers.

Caltrops, referred to as "jack rocks" in news articles, were used during the [[Caterpillar Inc.|Caterpillar]] strike in 1995, puncturing tires on vehicles crossing the picket line in [[Peoria, Illinois]]. Because of their small size and the difficulty proving their source, both the company and the [[United Auto Workers]] blamed each other. Collateral damage included a school bus and a walking mail carrier.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.nwitimes.com/uncategorized/spiky-jack-rocks-newest-weapon-in-cat-strike/article_497e117d-f0ae-5829-8ac8-0846bb8e136e.html |title=Spiky 'jack rocks' newest weapon in CAT strike |agency=Associated Press |newspaper=The New York Times|access-date=2017-01-11}}</ref> In [[Illinois]], the [[state legislature]] passed a law making the possession of such devices a [[misdemeanor]].<ref>{{ILCS|720|5|21-1.4 |title=Jackrocks violation |accessdate=21 October 2007}}{{Dead link|date=February 2024}}</ref>

=== Via drones ===
During the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine]], Ukraine has used drones to drop caltrops on key roads to disrupt wheeled vehicles carrying Russian military [[materiel]], and make them easier to target with [[loitering munition]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hambling |first=David |title=Ukraine Drops Ancient Roman Weapons From Drones To Stop Russian Trucks |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/davidhambling/2024/04/12/ukraine-teams-ancient-and-modern-weapons-to-stop-russian-trucks/ |access-date=2024-04-13 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

==Symbol==

A caltrop has a variety of symbolic uses and is commonly found as a [[Charge (heraldry)|charge]] in [[heraldry]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.burkes-peerage.net/articles/heraldry_c.aspx| work=Burkes Peerage and Gentry| title=A to Z Guide to Heraldic Terms| access-date=21 October 2007}}</ref> For instance, the Finnish noble family Fotangel ([[Swedish language|Swedish]] for 'caltrop') had arms ''gules'', three caltrops ''argent''.{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

It has also been adopted by military units: the caltrop is the symbol of the [[US Army's III Corps]], which is based at [[Fort Cavazos]], [[Texas]]. III Corps traces its lineage to the days of horse [[cavalry]], which used the caltrop as a defensive [[area denial weapon]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2023}}

The caltrop is also the symbol of the [[United States Marine Corps]]' [[3rd Marine Division (United States)|3rd Division]], formed on 16 September 1942.{{Citation needed|date=July 2018}}

<gallery mode=packed upright=160>
File:Coat of arms of Stirling.svg|Coat of arms of [[Stirling]]
File:3 Corps Shoulder Sleeve Insignia.svg|Shoulder insignia of [[III Corps (United States)]]
File:3DMARDIV Vector Caltrap.png|[[3rd Marine Division (United States)]]
</gallery>

==Similar devices==
[[Image:Rozsochac.JPG|thumb|Czech hedgehogs deployed at the [[Stachelberg|Stachelberg fortress]] in Czechoslovakia, 1938]]
[[Punji stick]]s perform a similar role to caltrops. These are sharpened sticks placed vertically in the ground. Their use in modern times targets the body and limbs of a falling victim by means of a pit or tripwire.{{citation needed|date = December 2019}}

During the [[Second World War]], large caltrop-shaped objects made from [[reinforced concrete]] were used as [[anti-tank]] devices, although it seems that these were rare.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.britarch.ac.uk/projects/dob/crom1b.html| title=The 'Caltrop' as Anti-Tank Obstacle| publisher=British Archaeology| access-date=4 March 2006| archive-date=2005-12-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051220132749/http://www.britarch.ac.uk/projects/dob/crom1b.html| url-status=dead}}</ref> Much more common were concrete devices called [[dragon's teeth (fortification)|dragon's teeth]], which were designed to wedge into [[tank]] treads. Large ones weighing over {{convert|1|tonne}} are still used defensively to deny access to wheeled vehicles, especially in camp areas. As dragon's teeth are immobile, the analogy with the caltrop is inexact. Another caltrop-like defence during World War II was the massive steel, freestanding [[Czech hedgehog]]; the works were designed as anti-tank obstacles and could also damage [[landing craft]] and [[warship]]s that came too close to shore. These were used by the Germans to defend beaches at [[Normandy Landings|Normandy]] and other coastal areas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=D-Day Beach Obstacles|url=https://www.d-daytoursnormandy.com/beach-obstacles-of-the-d-day-normandy-invasion/|access-date=January 1, 2021|website=D-Day Tours of Normandy|date=14 December 2019 }}</ref> [[Czech hedgehog]]s are heavily featured and plainly visible in the 1998 [[Steven Spielberg]]-directed American [[Epic film|epic]] [[war film]] ''[[Saving Private Ryan]]'', throughout the scenes early in the film depicting the June{{spaces}}6, 1944 [[Omaha Beach]] assault (part of the [[Normandy landings]] during [[World War II]]).

[[Tetrapod (structure)|Tetrapods]] are concrete blocks shaped like caltrops, which interlock when piled up. They are used as [[riprap]] in the construction of [[breakwaters]] and other sea defences, as they have been found to let the water pass through them and interrupt natural processes less than some other defenses.{{citation needed|date = December 2019}}

==See also==
{{Commons category|Caltrops (weapon)}}
* [[Area denial weapon]]
* [[Booby trap]]
* [[Knucklebones]], a game, with similar hazards
* [[Triskelion]]

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070517095337/http://www.scotclans.com/clans/Drummond/history.html Clan Drummond], a brief history, at Scot Clans
* John L. Cotter and J. Paul Hudson, ''New Discoveries at Jamestown, Site of the First Successful English Settlement in America'', 1957 [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16277/16277-h/16277-h.htm#caltrop Project Gutenberg]
* {{cite book
| last = Lovell
| year = 1964
| first = Stanley P
| title = Of spies & stratagems
| url = https://archive.org/details/ofspiesstratagem00love
| url-access = registration
| publisher = Pocket Books
| asin = B0007ESKHE
}}

;Official documents
* {{cite book
| title = Civil Defence Training Pamphlet No 2: Objects Dropped From the Air
| author = Ministry of Home Security
| publisher = His Majesty's Stationery Office
| year = 1944
| ref = {{harvid|Civil Defence Training Pamphlet No 2}}
}}

{{Fortifications}}

[[Category:Roman weapons]]
[[Category:Roman fortifications]]
[[Category:Area denial weapons]]
[[Category:Engineering barrages]]
[[Category:Fortification (obstacles)]]
[[Category:Medieval weapons]]
[[Category:Guerrilla warfare tactics]]
[[Category:Metallic objects]]
[[Category:Tetrahedra]]

Legal doublet

2024-09-29T23:35:45Z

Uruiamme: /* List of common legal triplets */ Ingels

{{Short description|Standardized phrase used frequently in English legal language}}
A '''legal doublet''' is a standardized [[phrase]] used frequently in English [[legal language]] consisting of two or more words that are [[irreversible binomial]]s and frequently [[synonym]]s, usually connected by "and", such as "null and void". The order of the words cannot be reversed, as it would be particularly unusual to ask someone to ''desist and cease'' or to have property owned ''clear and free''; these common legal phrases are universally known as ''cease and desist'' and ''free and clear''.

The doubling—and sometimes even tripling—often originates in the transition from use of one language for legal purposes to another: in Britain, from a native English term to a [[Latin language|Latin]] or [[Law French]] term; in [[Romance languages|Romance]]-speaking countries, from [[Latin language|Latin]] to the vernacular. To ensure understanding, the terms from both languages were used. This reflected the interactions between [[Germanic Law|Germanic]] and [[Roman law|Roman]] law following the decline of the [[Roman Empire]]. These phrases are often [[pleonasm]]s<ref name="Espenschied">{{cite book |last=Espenschied |first=Lenné Eidson |title=Contract Drafting: Powerful Prose in Transactional Practice |series=ABA Fundamentals |date=2010 |publisher=American Bar Association |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-60442-795-0 |pages=164–165 |chapter=10.1 Eliminate clutter and redundant language § Eliminate common doublets and triplets |lccn=2010003298 |oclc=505017586 |ol=15443452W |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRNUshLwjMgC&pg=PA164}}</ref> and form [[irreversible binomial]]s.

In other cases the two components have differences which are subtle, appreciable only to lawyers, or obsolete. For example, ''[[ways and means committee|ways and means]]'', referring to methods and resources respectively,<ref name="AHD">{{Citation |author=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://ahdictionary.com/ |postscript=. |access-date=2018-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925104737/https://ahdictionary.com/ |archive-date=2015-09-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> are differentiable, in the same way that ''tools and materials'', or ''equipment and funds'', are differentiable—but the difference between them is often practically irrelevant to the contexts in which the irreversible binomial ''ways and means'' is used today in non-legal contexts as a mere [[cliché]].

Doublets may also have arisen or persisted because the solicitors and clerks who drew up [[Conveyancing|conveyances]] and other documents were paid by the word, which tended to encourage verbosity.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=English |first2=John |last2=Saville |author2-link=John Saville |title=Strict Settlement: a guide for historians |publisher=University of Hull Press |location=Hull |year=1983 |isbn=0-85958-439-9 |pages=18–19 }}</ref>

Their habitual use has been decried by some legal scholars as superfluous in modern legal briefs.<ref name="Espenschied"/>

==List of common legal doublets==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*[[abuttals and boundaries]]
* [[accord and satisfaction]]
* acknowledge and confess
* [[aid and abet]]<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* all and sundry<ref name="Ingels">{{cite book |last=Ingels |first=Mia B. |title=Legal English Communication Skills |series=Learning English |date=2006 |publisher={{lang|nl|Academische Coöperatieve Vennootschap}} |location=Leuven, Belgium |isbn=90-334-6112-9 |pages=60–61 |chapter=2.2.1.3.{{nbsp}}Doublets and triplets |oclc=150389897 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyF_RYr0-McC&pg=PA60}}</ref>
* alter or change<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* appropriate and proper<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[arbitrary and capricious]]
* [[art and part]]
* asked and answered<ref name="Ingels" />
* assault and battery
* attached and annexed<ref name="Ingels" />
* bind and obligate<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[breaking and entering]]
* [[butts and bounds]]
* by and between<ref name="TransLegal">{{cite web|url=https://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |title=Doublets |date=12 January 2010 |website=TransLegal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908063149/http://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |archive-date=2013-09-08 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* care and attention
* [[cease and desist]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* covenant and agree<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* deem and consider<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* demise and lease<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[devise and bequeath]]
* depose and say
* due and payable<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* each and all<ref name="Ingels" />
* expressed or implied
* facts and circumstances
* final and conclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* fit and proper
* [[for all intents and purposes]]
* for and on behalf of
* [[free and clear]]
* from now and henceforth
* full faith and credit<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* furnish and supply<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* goods and chattels
* have and hold<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* heirs and successors
* [[high crimes and misdemeanors]]
* [[hue and cry]]
* indemnify and hold harmless<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[infangthief and outfangthief]]
*[[joint and several liability]]
* keep and perform<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* kind and nature<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]]
* legal and valid<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* let or hindrance
* lewd and lascivious conduct
* liens and encumbrances<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* make and enter into<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[marque and reprisal]]
*[[metes and bounds]]
* mind and memory<ref name="Garner">{{cite book |last=Garner |first=Bryan A. |author-link=Bryan A. Garner |others=Rev. ed. of: A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage |title=Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwLiALrHLCEC&pg=PA577 |edition=3rd |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-538420-8 |page=577 |lccn=2011004242 |oclc=671709669 |ol=24973858M}}</ref>
* [[null and void]]<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* over and above<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[oyer and terminer]]
* part and parcel<ref name="Espenschied"/>
*peace and quiet<ref name="Ingels" />
* perform and discharge<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* power and authority<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[sac and soc]]
* sale or transfer<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed and sealed<ref name="pairs">[http://www.sightwordsgame.com/vocabulary-words/word-pairs/ Word Pairs]</ref>
* sole and exclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
*son and heir<ref name="Ingels" />
* successors and assigns<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[terms and conditions]]<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* then and in that event<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[toll and team]]
* trade or business
* true and correct<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* [[waif and stray]]
* [[ways and means committee|ways and means]]
* [[will and testament]]<ref name="Ingels" />
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal triplets==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* arbitrary, capricious and unreasonable
* cancel, annul and set aside<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* convey, transfer and set over<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[give, devise, and bequeath]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* grant, bargain and sell<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* name, constitute and appoint<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* null, void and of no effect
* tamper with, damage, or destroy
* ordered, adjudged and decreed<ref name="Ingels"/>
* remise, release and forever quit claim<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* rest, residue and remainder<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* right, title and interest<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed, sealed and delivered<ref name="Ingels"/>
* to all intents, constructions and purposes<ref name=Inc>[https://www.inc.com/christina-desmarais/20-embarrassing-phrases-even-smart-people-misuse.html 20 Embarrassing Phrases Even Smart People Misuse], Christina DesMarais, 13 Mar 2015, Inc.com.</ref>
* way, shape or form
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal quadruplets==
* [[Signed, sealed, published, and declared]]

==See also==
{{wiktionary category 2|English legal doublets}}
* [[Antanaclasis]]
* [[Cognate object]]
* [[Figura etymologica]]
* [[Hendiadys]]
* [[Legal English]]
* [[Merism]]
* [[Polyptoton]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Legal Doublet}}
[[Category:Legal terminology]]
[[Category:Legal writing]]

Legal doublet

2024-09-29T23:34:07Z

Uruiamme: /* List of common legal doublets */ Added more from Ingels

{{Short description|Standardized phrase used frequently in English legal language}}
A '''legal doublet''' is a standardized [[phrase]] used frequently in English [[legal language]] consisting of two or more words that are [[irreversible binomial]]s and frequently [[synonym]]s, usually connected by "and", such as "null and void". The order of the words cannot be reversed, as it would be particularly unusual to ask someone to ''desist and cease'' or to have property owned ''clear and free''; these common legal phrases are universally known as ''cease and desist'' and ''free and clear''.

The doubling—and sometimes even tripling—often originates in the transition from use of one language for legal purposes to another: in Britain, from a native English term to a [[Latin language|Latin]] or [[Law French]] term; in [[Romance languages|Romance]]-speaking countries, from [[Latin language|Latin]] to the vernacular. To ensure understanding, the terms from both languages were used. This reflected the interactions between [[Germanic Law|Germanic]] and [[Roman law|Roman]] law following the decline of the [[Roman Empire]]. These phrases are often [[pleonasm]]s<ref name="Espenschied">{{cite book |last=Espenschied |first=Lenné Eidson |title=Contract Drafting: Powerful Prose in Transactional Practice |series=ABA Fundamentals |date=2010 |publisher=American Bar Association |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-60442-795-0 |pages=164–165 |chapter=10.1 Eliminate clutter and redundant language § Eliminate common doublets and triplets |lccn=2010003298 |oclc=505017586 |ol=15443452W |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRNUshLwjMgC&pg=PA164}}</ref> and form [[irreversible binomial]]s.

In other cases the two components have differences which are subtle, appreciable only to lawyers, or obsolete. For example, ''[[ways and means committee|ways and means]]'', referring to methods and resources respectively,<ref name="AHD">{{Citation |author=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://ahdictionary.com/ |postscript=. |access-date=2018-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925104737/https://ahdictionary.com/ |archive-date=2015-09-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> are differentiable, in the same way that ''tools and materials'', or ''equipment and funds'', are differentiable—but the difference between them is often practically irrelevant to the contexts in which the irreversible binomial ''ways and means'' is used today in non-legal contexts as a mere [[cliché]].

Doublets may also have arisen or persisted because the solicitors and clerks who drew up [[Conveyancing|conveyances]] and other documents were paid by the word, which tended to encourage verbosity.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=English |first2=John |last2=Saville |author2-link=John Saville |title=Strict Settlement: a guide for historians |publisher=University of Hull Press |location=Hull |year=1983 |isbn=0-85958-439-9 |pages=18–19 }}</ref>

Their habitual use has been decried by some legal scholars as superfluous in modern legal briefs.<ref name="Espenschied"/>

==List of common legal doublets==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*[[abuttals and boundaries]]
* [[accord and satisfaction]]
* acknowledge and confess
* [[aid and abet]]<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* all and sundry<ref name="Ingels">{{cite book |last=Ingels |first=Mia B. |title=Legal English Communication Skills |series=Learning English |date=2006 |publisher={{lang|nl|Academische Coöperatieve Vennootschap}} |location=Leuven, Belgium |isbn=90-334-6112-9 |pages=60–61 |chapter=2.2.1.3.{{nbsp}}Doublets and triplets |oclc=150389897 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyF_RYr0-McC&pg=PA60}}</ref>
* alter or change<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* appropriate and proper<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[arbitrary and capricious]]
* [[art and part]]
* asked and answered<ref name="Ingels" />
* assault and battery
* attached and annexed<ref name="Ingels" />
* bind and obligate<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[breaking and entering]]
* [[butts and bounds]]
* by and between<ref name="TransLegal">{{cite web|url=https://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |title=Doublets |date=12 January 2010 |website=TransLegal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908063149/http://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |archive-date=2013-09-08 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* care and attention
* [[cease and desist]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* covenant and agree<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* deem and consider<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* demise and lease<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[devise and bequeath]]
* depose and say
* due and payable<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* each and all<ref name="Ingels" />
* expressed or implied
* facts and circumstances
* final and conclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* fit and proper
* [[for all intents and purposes]]
* for and on behalf of
* [[free and clear]]
* from now and henceforth
* full faith and credit<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* furnish and supply<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* goods and chattels
* have and hold<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* heirs and successors
* [[high crimes and misdemeanors]]
* [[hue and cry]]
* indemnify and hold harmless<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[infangthief and outfangthief]]
*[[joint and several liability]]
* keep and perform<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* kind and nature<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]]
* legal and valid<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* let or hindrance
* lewd and lascivious conduct
* liens and encumbrances<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* make and enter into<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[marque and reprisal]]
*[[metes and bounds]]
* mind and memory<ref name="Garner">{{cite book |last=Garner |first=Bryan A. |author-link=Bryan A. Garner |others=Rev. ed. of: A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage |title=Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwLiALrHLCEC&pg=PA577 |edition=3rd |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-538420-8 |page=577 |lccn=2011004242 |oclc=671709669 |ol=24973858M}}</ref>
* [[null and void]]<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* over and above<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[oyer and terminer]]
* part and parcel<ref name="Espenschied"/>
*peace and quiet<ref name="Ingels" />
* perform and discharge<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* power and authority<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[sac and soc]]
* sale or transfer<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed and sealed<ref name="pairs">[http://www.sightwordsgame.com/vocabulary-words/word-pairs/ Word Pairs]</ref>
* sole and exclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
*son and heir<ref name="Ingels" />
* successors and assigns<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[terms and conditions]]<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* then and in that event<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[toll and team]]
* trade or business
* true and correct<ref name="Espenschied"/><ref name="Ingels" />
* [[waif and stray]]
* [[ways and means committee|ways and means]]
* [[will and testament]]<ref name="Ingels" />
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal triplets==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* arbitrary, capricious and unreasonable
* cancel, annul and set aside<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* convey, transfer and set over<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[give, devise, and bequeath]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* grant, bargain and sell<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* name, constitute and appoint<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* null, void and of no effect
* tamper with, damage, or destroy
* ordered, adjudged and decreed<ref name="Ingels"/>
* remise, release and forever quit claim<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* rest, residue and remainder<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* right, title and interest<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed, sealed and delivered<ref name="Ingels"/>
* to all intents, constructions and purposes<ref name=Inc>[https://www.inc.com/christina-desmarais/20-embarrassing-phrases-even-smart-people-misuse.html 20 Embarrassing Phrases Even Smart People Misuse], Christina DesMarais, 13 Mar 2015, Inc.com.</ref>
* way, shape or form
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal quadruplets==
* [[Signed, sealed, published, and declared]]

==See also==
{{wiktionary category 2|English legal doublets}}
* [[Antanaclasis]]
* [[Cognate object]]
* [[Figura etymologica]]
* [[Hendiadys]]
* [[Legal English]]
* [[Merism]]
* [[Polyptoton]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Legal Doublet}}
[[Category:Legal terminology]]
[[Category:Legal writing]]

Legal doublet

2024-09-29T23:14:59Z

Uruiamme: /* List of common legal triplets */ wikilink

{{Short description|Standardized phrase used frequently in English legal language}}
A '''legal doublet''' is a standardized [[phrase]] used frequently in English [[legal language]] consisting of two or more words that are [[irreversible binomial]]s and frequently [[synonym]]s, usually connected by "and", such as "null and void". The order of the words cannot be reversed, as it would be particularly unusual to ask someone to ''desist and cease'' or to have property owned ''clear and free''; these common legal phrases are universally known as ''cease and desist'' and ''free and clear''.

The doubling—and sometimes even tripling—often originates in the transition from use of one language for legal purposes to another: in Britain, from a native English term to a [[Latin language|Latin]] or [[Law French]] term; in [[Romance languages|Romance]]-speaking countries, from [[Latin language|Latin]] to the vernacular. To ensure understanding, the terms from both languages were used. This reflected the interactions between [[Germanic Law|Germanic]] and [[Roman law|Roman]] law following the decline of the [[Roman Empire]]. These phrases are often [[pleonasm]]s<ref name="Espenschied">{{cite book |last=Espenschied |first=Lenné Eidson |title=Contract Drafting: Powerful Prose in Transactional Practice |series=ABA Fundamentals |date=2010 |publisher=American Bar Association |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-60442-795-0 |pages=164–165 |chapter=10.1 Eliminate clutter and redundant language § Eliminate common doublets and triplets |lccn=2010003298 |oclc=505017586 |ol=15443452W |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRNUshLwjMgC&pg=PA164}}</ref> and form [[irreversible binomial]]s.

In other cases the two components have differences which are subtle, appreciable only to lawyers, or obsolete. For example, ''[[ways and means committee|ways and means]]'', referring to methods and resources respectively,<ref name="AHD">{{Citation |author=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://ahdictionary.com/ |postscript=. |access-date=2018-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925104737/https://ahdictionary.com/ |archive-date=2015-09-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> are differentiable, in the same way that ''tools and materials'', or ''equipment and funds'', are differentiable—but the difference between them is often practically irrelevant to the contexts in which the irreversible binomial ''ways and means'' is used today in non-legal contexts as a mere [[cliché]].

Doublets may also have arisen or persisted because the solicitors and clerks who drew up [[Conveyancing|conveyances]] and other documents were paid by the word, which tended to encourage verbosity.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=English |first2=John |last2=Saville |author2-link=John Saville |title=Strict Settlement: a guide for historians |publisher=University of Hull Press |location=Hull |year=1983 |isbn=0-85958-439-9 |pages=18–19 }}</ref>

Their habitual use has been decried by some legal scholars as superfluous in modern legal briefs.<ref name="Espenschied"/>

==List of common legal doublets==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*[[abuttals and boundaries]]
* [[accord and satisfaction]]
* acknowledge and confess
* [[aid and abet]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* all and sundry<ref name="Ingels">{{cite book |last=Ingels |first=Mia B. |title=Legal English Communication Skills |series=Learning English |date=2006 |publisher={{lang|nl|Academische Coöperatieve Vennootschap}} |location=Leuven, Belgium |isbn=90-334-6112-9 |pages=60–61 |chapter=2.2.1.3.{{nbsp}}Doublets and triplets |oclc=150389897 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyF_RYr0-McC&pg=PA60}}</ref>
* alter or change<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* appropriate and proper<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[arbitrary and capricious]]
* [[art and part]]
* assault and battery
* bind and obligate<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[breaking and entering]]
* [[butts and bounds]]
* by and between<ref name="TransLegal">{{cite web|url=https://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |title=Doublets |date=12 January 2010 |website=TransLegal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908063149/http://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |archive-date=2013-09-08 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* care and attention
* [[cease and desist]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* covenant and agree<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* deem and consider<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* demise and lease<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[devise and bequeath]]
* depose and say
* due and payable<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* expressed or implied
* facts and circumstances
* final and conclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* fit and proper
* [[for all intents and purposes]]
* for and on behalf of
* [[free and clear]]
* from now and henceforth
* full faith and credit<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* furnish and supply<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* goods and chattels
* have and hold<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* heirs and successors
* [[high crimes and misdemeanors]]
* [[hue and cry]]
* indemnify and hold harmless<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[infangthief and outfangthief]]
*[[joint and several liability]]
* keep and perform<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* kind and nature<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]]
* legal and valid<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* let or hindrance
* lewd and lascivious conduct
* liens and encumbrances<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* make and enter into<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[marque and reprisal]]
*[[metes and bounds]]
* mind and memory<ref name="Garner">{{cite book |last=Garner |first=Bryan A. |author-link=Bryan A. Garner |others=Rev. ed. of: A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage |title=Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwLiALrHLCEC&pg=PA577 |edition=3rd |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-538420-8 |page=577 |lccn=2011004242 |oclc=671709669 |ol=24973858M}}</ref>
* [[null and void]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* over and above<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[oyer and terminer]]
* part and parcel<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* perform and discharge<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* power and authority<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[sac and soc]]
* sale or transfer<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed and sealed<ref name="pairs">[http://www.sightwordsgame.com/vocabulary-words/word-pairs/ Word Pairs]</ref>
* sole and exclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* successors and assigns<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[terms and conditions]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* then and in that event<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[toll and team]]
* trade or business
* true and correct<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[waif and stray]]
* [[ways and means committee|ways and means]]
* [[will and testament]]
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal triplets==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* arbitrary, capricious and unreasonable
* cancel, annul and set aside<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* convey, transfer and set over<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[give, devise, and bequeath]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* grant, bargain and sell<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* name, constitute and appoint<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* null, void and of no effect
* tamper with, damage, or destroy
* ordered, adjudged and decreed<ref name="Ingels"/>
* remise, release and forever quit claim<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* rest, residue and remainder<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* right, title and interest<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed, sealed and delivered<ref name="Ingels"/>
* to all intents, constructions and purposes<ref name=Inc>[https://www.inc.com/christina-desmarais/20-embarrassing-phrases-even-smart-people-misuse.html 20 Embarrassing Phrases Even Smart People Misuse], Christina DesMarais, 13 Mar 2015, Inc.com.</ref>
* way, shape or form
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal quadruplets==
* [[Signed, sealed, published, and declared]]

==See also==
{{wiktionary category 2|English legal doublets}}
* [[Antanaclasis]]
* [[Cognate object]]
* [[Figura etymologica]]
* [[Hendiadys]]
* [[Legal English]]
* [[Merism]]
* [[Polyptoton]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Legal Doublet}}
[[Category:Legal terminology]]
[[Category:Legal writing]]

Give, devise, and bequeath

2024-09-29T23:14:41Z

Uruiamme: new one

#REDIRECT[[Devise and bequeath]]

Talk:Bequest and devise

2024-09-29T23:11:45Z

Uruiamme: Uruiamme moved page Talk:Bequest and devise to Talk:Devise and bequeath: Changed to the terms most often seen in legal documents, such as wills

#REDIRECT [[Talk:Devise and bequeath]]

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Talk:Devise and bequeath

2024-09-29T23:11:45Z

Uruiamme: Uruiamme moved page Talk:Bequest and devise to Talk:Devise and bequeath: Changed to the terms most often seen in legal documents, such as wills

{{WikiProject banner shell|class=C|1=
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I'd suggest that the [[Bequest#Oudh_bequest|Oudh bequest]] is not a relevant example here: [[waqf]] endowments are peculiar to Islamic law, and this is a general article. Further, even in Islamic law they are untypical bequests, since there is no legal recipient.
[[User:Eteb3|Eteb3]] ([[User talk:Eteb3|talk]]) 08:04, 6 August 2018 (UTC)

Bequest and devise

2024-09-29T23:11:44Z

Uruiamme: Uruiamme moved page Bequest and devise to Devise and bequeath: Changed to the terms most often seen in legal documents, such as wills

#REDIRECT [[Devise and bequeath]]

{{Redirect category shell|
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Devise and bequeath

2024-09-29T23:11:44Z

Uruiamme: Uruiamme moved page Bequest and devise to Devise and bequeath: Changed to the terms most often seen in legal documents, such as wills

{{short description|Property given by will}}
[[File:Shakespeare-Testament.jpg|thumb|Part of the will of William Shakespeare, which uses "give, device, and bequeath."]]
A '''devise''' is [[real property]] given by [[Will and testament|will]].<ref name=black2>[https://thelawdictionary.org/devise/ Devise]</ref> A '''bequest''' is [[personal property]] given by will.<ref>Black's Law Dictionary 8th ed, (West Group, 2004)</ref> Today, the two words are often used interchangeably due to their combination in many wills as ''devise and bequeath'', a [[legal doublet]]. The phrase ''give, devise, and bequeath'', a legal triplet, has been used for centuries, including the will of [[William Shakespeare]].

The word ''bequeath'' is a verb form for the act of making a ''bequest''.<ref>{{EB1911|inline=1 |wstitle=Bequest |volume=3 |page=761}}</ref>

==Etymology==
Bequest comes from [[Old English]] ''becwethan'', "to declare or express in words" — cf. "quoth".

== Interpretations ==
Part of the process of [[probate]] involves interpreting the instructions in a will. Some wordings that define the scope of a bequest have specific interpretations. "All the estate I own" would involve all of the decedent's possessions at the moment of death.<ref name=lawd>[http://dictionary.law.com/default2.asp?selected=2389& Law.com], Law Dictionary: all the estate I own</ref>

A ''conditional bequest'' is a bequest that will be granted only if a particular event has occurred by the time of its operation. For example, a [[testator]] might write in the will that "Mary will receive the house held in trust if she is married" or "if she has children," etc.

An ''executory bequest'' is a bequest that will be granted only if a particular event occurs in the future. For example, a testator might write in the will that "Mary will receive the house held in a trust set when she marries" or "when she has children".

In some jurisdictions a bequest can also be a deferred payment, as held in ''[[Wolder v. Commissioner]]'', which will impact its tax status.

== Explanations ==
In [[microeconomics]], theorists have engaged the issue of bequest from the perspective of [[Consumption (economics)|consumption theory]], in which they seek to explain the phenomenon in terms of a [[bequest motive]].

==Oudh Bequest==
{{main|Oudh Bequest}}
The '''Oudh Bequest''' is a ''[[waqf]]''<ref name="Hamid">{{cite book|last1=Algar|first1=Hamid|title=Religion and State in Iran, 1785–1906: The Role of the Ulama in the Qajar Period|date=January 1980|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=9780520041004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVk5frfBQjIC&pg=PA237 |access-date=19 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> which led to the gradual transfer of more than six million [[rupee]]s from the [[Indian Princely States|Indian kingdom]] of [[Oudh]] (Awadh) to the [[Shia]] holy cities of [[Najaf]] and [[Karbala]] between 1850 and 1903.<ref name="Meir">{{cite journal|last1=Litvak|first1=Meir|title=Money, Religion, and Politics: The Oudh Bequest in Najaf and Karbala', 1850–1903|journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies|date=1 January 2001|volume=33|issue=1|pages=1–21|doi=10.1017/S0020743801001015|jstor=259477|s2cid=155865344}}</ref> The bequest first reached the cities in 1850.<ref name="Y-N">{{cite book|last1=Nakash|first1=Yitzhak|title=The Shi'is of Iraq|date=16 February 2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0691115753|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BXJqeTr6p78C&pg=PA228 |access-date=13 November 2016|language=en}}</ref> It was distributed by two ''[[mujtahid]]s'', one from each city. The British later gradually took over the bequest and its distribution; according to scholars, they intended to use it as a "power lever" to influence Iranian ''ulama'' and Shia.<ref name="Meir3">{{cite journal|last1=Litvak|first1=Meir|title=A Failed Manipulation: The British, the Oudh Bequest and the Shī'ī 'Ulamā' of Najaf and Karbalā'|journal=British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies|date=1 January 2000|volume=27|issue=1|pages=69–89|jstor=826171|doi=10.1080/13530190050010994|s2cid=153498972}}</ref>

==American tax law==
===Recipients===
In order to calculate a taxpayer's income tax obligation, the gross income of the taxpayer must be determined. Under Section 61 of the U.S. [[Internal Revenue Code]] gross income is "all income from whatever source derived".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/61- |title=US CODE: Title 26,61. Gross income defined |publisher=Law.cornell.edu |access-date=2013-01-20}}</ref> On its face, the receipt of a bequest would seemingly fall within gross income and thus be subject to tax. However, in other sections of the code, exceptions are made for a variety of things that do not need to be included in gross income. Section 102(a) of the Code makes an exception for bequests stating that "Gross income does not include the value of property acquired by gift, bequest, or inheritance."<ref name='cornell_gifts'>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/26/102- |title=US CODE: Title 26,102. Gifts and inheritances |publisher=Law.cornell.edu |access-date=2013-01-20}}</ref> In general this means that the value or amount of the bequest does not need to be included in a taxpayer's gross income. This rule is not exclusive, however, and there are some exceptions under Section 102(b) of the code where the amount of value must be included.<ref name='cornell_gifts' /> There is great debate about whether or not bequests should be included in gross income and subject to income taxes; however, there has been some type of exclusion for bequests in every [[federal income tax|Federal Income Tax Act]].<ref name='donaldson_2007'>Samuel A. Donaldson (2007). Federal Income Taxation of Individuals: Cases, Problems and Materials, 2nd Edition, St. Paul: Thomson/West, 93</ref>

=== Donors ===
One reason that the recipient of a bequest is usually not taxed on the bequest is because the donor may be taxed on it. Donors of bequests may be taxed through other mechanisms such as federal wealth transfer taxes.<ref name='donaldson_2007' /> Wealth Transfer taxes, however, are usually imposed against only the very wealthy.<ref name='donaldson_2007' />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bequest merriam-webster.com]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Wills and trusts]]

Devise and bequeath

2024-09-29T23:09:42Z

Uruiamme: famous will, several fixes, wikilinks, clarification, and references

Legal doublet

2024-09-29T23:07:25Z

Uruiamme: /* List of common legal doublets */ devise

{{Short description|Standardized phrase used frequently in English legal language}}
A '''legal doublet''' is a standardized [[phrase]] used frequently in English [[legal language]] consisting of two or more words that are [[irreversible binomial]]s and frequently [[synonym]]s, usually connected by "and", such as "null and void". The order of the words cannot be reversed, as it would be particularly unusual to ask someone to ''desist and cease'' or to have property owned ''clear and free''; these common legal phrases are universally known as ''cease and desist'' and ''free and clear''.

The doubling—and sometimes even tripling—often originates in the transition from use of one language for legal purposes to another: in Britain, from a native English term to a [[Latin language|Latin]] or [[Law French]] term; in [[Romance languages|Romance]]-speaking countries, from [[Latin language|Latin]] to the vernacular. To ensure understanding, the terms from both languages were used. This reflected the interactions between [[Germanic Law|Germanic]] and [[Roman law|Roman]] law following the decline of the [[Roman Empire]]. These phrases are often [[pleonasm]]s<ref name="Espenschied">{{cite book |last=Espenschied |first=Lenné Eidson |title=Contract Drafting: Powerful Prose in Transactional Practice |series=ABA Fundamentals |date=2010 |publisher=American Bar Association |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-60442-795-0 |pages=164–165 |chapter=10.1 Eliminate clutter and redundant language § Eliminate common doublets and triplets |lccn=2010003298 |oclc=505017586 |ol=15443452W |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRNUshLwjMgC&pg=PA164}}</ref> and form [[irreversible binomial]]s.

In other cases the two components have differences which are subtle, appreciable only to lawyers, or obsolete. For example, ''[[ways and means committee|ways and means]]'', referring to methods and resources respectively,<ref name="AHD">{{Citation |author=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://ahdictionary.com/ |postscript=. |access-date=2018-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925104737/https://ahdictionary.com/ |archive-date=2015-09-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> are differentiable, in the same way that ''tools and materials'', or ''equipment and funds'', are differentiable—but the difference between them is often practically irrelevant to the contexts in which the irreversible binomial ''ways and means'' is used today in non-legal contexts as a mere [[cliché]].

Doublets may also have arisen or persisted because the solicitors and clerks who drew up [[Conveyancing|conveyances]] and other documents were paid by the word, which tended to encourage verbosity.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=English |first2=John |last2=Saville |author2-link=John Saville |title=Strict Settlement: a guide for historians |publisher=University of Hull Press |location=Hull |year=1983 |isbn=0-85958-439-9 |pages=18–19 }}</ref>

Their habitual use has been decried by some legal scholars as superfluous in modern legal briefs.<ref name="Espenschied"/>

==List of common legal doublets==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*[[abuttals and boundaries]]
* [[accord and satisfaction]]
* acknowledge and confess
* [[aid and abet]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* all and sundry<ref name="Ingels">{{cite book |last=Ingels |first=Mia B. |title=Legal English Communication Skills |series=Learning English |date=2006 |publisher={{lang|nl|Academische Coöperatieve Vennootschap}} |location=Leuven, Belgium |isbn=90-334-6112-9 |pages=60–61 |chapter=2.2.1.3.{{nbsp}}Doublets and triplets |oclc=150389897 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyF_RYr0-McC&pg=PA60}}</ref>
* alter or change<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* appropriate and proper<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[arbitrary and capricious]]
* [[art and part]]
* assault and battery
* bind and obligate<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[breaking and entering]]
* [[butts and bounds]]
* by and between<ref name="TransLegal">{{cite web|url=https://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |title=Doublets |date=12 January 2010 |website=TransLegal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908063149/http://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |archive-date=2013-09-08 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* care and attention
* [[cease and desist]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* covenant and agree<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* deem and consider<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* demise and lease<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[devise and bequeath]]
* depose and say
* due and payable<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* expressed or implied
* facts and circumstances
* final and conclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* fit and proper
* [[for all intents and purposes]]
* for and on behalf of
* [[free and clear]]
* from now and henceforth
* full faith and credit<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* furnish and supply<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* goods and chattels
* have and hold<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* heirs and successors
* [[high crimes and misdemeanors]]
* [[hue and cry]]
* indemnify and hold harmless<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[infangthief and outfangthief]]
*[[joint and several liability]]
* keep and perform<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* kind and nature<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]]
* legal and valid<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* let or hindrance
* lewd and lascivious conduct
* liens and encumbrances<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* make and enter into<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[marque and reprisal]]
*[[metes and bounds]]
* mind and memory<ref name="Garner">{{cite book |last=Garner |first=Bryan A. |author-link=Bryan A. Garner |others=Rev. ed. of: A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage |title=Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwLiALrHLCEC&pg=PA577 |edition=3rd |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-538420-8 |page=577 |lccn=2011004242 |oclc=671709669 |ol=24973858M}}</ref>
* [[null and void]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* over and above<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[oyer and terminer]]
* part and parcel<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* perform and discharge<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* power and authority<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[sac and soc]]
* sale or transfer<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed and sealed<ref name="pairs">[http://www.sightwordsgame.com/vocabulary-words/word-pairs/ Word Pairs]</ref>
* sole and exclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* successors and assigns<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[terms and conditions]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* then and in that event<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[toll and team]]
* trade or business
* true and correct<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[waif and stray]]
* [[ways and means committee|ways and means]]
* [[will and testament]]
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal triplets==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* arbitrary, capricious and unreasonable
* cancel, annul and set aside<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* convey, transfer and set over<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* give, devise and bequeath<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* grant, bargain and sell<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* name, constitute and appoint<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* null, void and of no effect
* tamper with, damage, or destroy
* ordered, adjudged and decreed<ref name="Ingels"/>
* remise, release and forever quit claim<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* rest, residue and remainder<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* right, title and interest<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed, sealed and delivered<ref name="Ingels"/>
* to all intents, constructions and purposes<ref name=Inc>[https://www.inc.com/christina-desmarais/20-embarrassing-phrases-even-smart-people-misuse.html 20 Embarrassing Phrases Even Smart People Misuse], Christina DesMarais, 13 Mar 2015, Inc.com.</ref>
* way, shape or form
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal quadruplets==
* [[Signed, sealed, published, and declared]]

==See also==
{{wiktionary category 2|English legal doublets}}
* [[Antanaclasis]]
* [[Cognate object]]
* [[Figura etymologica]]
* [[Hendiadys]]
* [[Legal English]]
* [[Merism]]
* [[Polyptoton]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Legal Doublet}}
[[Category:Legal terminology]]
[[Category:Legal writing]]

Attestation clause

2024-09-29T22:38:51Z

Uruiamme: /* United States */ such clauses existed much earlier, formal or otherwise, and were used in common law

{{short description|In statutory law, a type of clause found in wills}}
{{Globalize|article|USA|2name=the United States|date=December 2010}}
{{Wills, trusts, estates}}
In the [[statute|statutory]] law of [[will (law)|will]]s and [[Trust law|trust]]s, an '''attestation clause''' is a clause that is typically appended to a will, often just below the place of the [[testator]]'s signature. It is often of the form ''signed, sealed, published, and declared'',<ref name=USL>[https://definitions.uslegal.com/a/attestation-clause/ Attestation clause]</ref> a [[legal quadruplet]].

==United States==

In the United States, attestation clauses were formally introduced into probate law with the promulgation of the first version of the Model Probate Code in the 1940s. Statutes that authorize self-proved wills typically provide that a will that contains this language will be admitted to probate without affidavits from the attesting witnesses.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mann|first1=Bruce H.|title=Formalities and Formalism in the Uniform Probate Code|journal=University of Pennsylvania Law Review|date=1993|volume=142|issue=3|page=1033|doi=10.2307/3312502|jstor=3312502|url=http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3607&context=penn_law_review|accessdate=30 May 2017}}</ref>

An attestation clause modeled on the Model Probate Code's language might provide:

:We, the undersigned testator and the undersigned witnesses, respectively, whose names are signed to the attached or foregoing instrument declare:

::(1) that the testator executed the instrument as the testator's will;
::(2) that, in the presence of both witnesses, the testator signed or acknowledged the signature already made or directed another to sign for the testator in the testator's presence;
::(3) that the testator executed the will as a free and voluntary act for the purposes expressed in it;
::(4) that each of the witnesses, in the presence of the testator and of each other, signed the will as a witness;
::(5) that the testator was of sound mind when the will was executed; and
::(6) that to the best knowledge of each of the witnesses the testator was, at the time the will was executed, at least eighteen (18) years of age or was a member of the armed forces or of the [[merchant marine]] of the United States or its allies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estate of Dellinger v. 1st Source Bank, 771 N.E.2d 1271 (Ind.Ct.App.2002)|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=481004198549146302|website=Google Scholar|accessdate=30 May 2017}}</ref>

The validity and form of an attestation clause is usually a matter of [[U.S. state]] law, and will vary from state to state. Many states allow attestation clauses to be added as [[Codicil (will)|codicils]] to wills that were originally drafted without them.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Spencer|first1=Patti S.|title=Your Estate Matters|date=2015|publisher=AuthorHouse|location=Bloomington, Indiana|isbn=978-1-4969-3529-8}}</ref>

== Other uses ==
Often synonymical with witness, an attestation "testifies to the accuracy or authenticity of something".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Garner|first=Bryan A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O1m1bI5vCooC&dq=attestation+clause+legal+document&pg=PA886|title=Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-538420-8|language=en}}</ref> [[Thomson Reuters]] define an attestation clause as where "a document has been ''executed'' in the presence of one or more witnesses (who attest the execution)".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Attestation clause|url=http://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/4-382-5563?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&firstPage=true|access-date=2021-12-17|website=Practical Law|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Affidavit]]
* [[Police oath]]
* [[Testator]]
* [[Testimony]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Burns' Annotated Indiana Statutes, ss. 29-1-5-3.1

{{DEFAULTSORT:Attestation Clause}}
[[Category:Wills and trusts]]

Legal doublet

2024-09-29T22:30:46Z

Uruiamme: /* List of common legal triplets */ quad

{{Short description|Standardized phrase used frequently in English legal language}}
A '''legal doublet''' is a standardized [[phrase]] used frequently in English [[legal language]] consisting of two or more words that are [[irreversible binomial]]s and frequently [[synonym]]s, usually connected by "and", such as "null and void". The order of the words cannot be reversed, as it would be particularly unusual to ask someone to ''desist and cease'' or to have property owned ''clear and free''; these common legal phrases are universally known as ''cease and desist'' and ''free and clear''.

The doubling—and sometimes even tripling—often originates in the transition from use of one language for legal purposes to another: in Britain, from a native English term to a [[Latin language|Latin]] or [[Law French]] term; in [[Romance languages|Romance]]-speaking countries, from [[Latin language|Latin]] to the vernacular. To ensure understanding, the terms from both languages were used. This reflected the interactions between [[Germanic Law|Germanic]] and [[Roman law|Roman]] law following the decline of the [[Roman Empire]]. These phrases are often [[pleonasm]]s<ref name="Espenschied">{{cite book |last=Espenschied |first=Lenné Eidson |title=Contract Drafting: Powerful Prose in Transactional Practice |series=ABA Fundamentals |date=2010 |publisher=American Bar Association |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1-60442-795-0 |pages=164–165 |chapter=10.1 Eliminate clutter and redundant language § Eliminate common doublets and triplets |lccn=2010003298 |oclc=505017586 |ol=15443452W |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRNUshLwjMgC&pg=PA164}}</ref> and form [[irreversible binomial]]s.

In other cases the two components have differences which are subtle, appreciable only to lawyers, or obsolete. For example, ''[[ways and means committee|ways and means]]'', referring to methods and resources respectively,<ref name="AHD">{{Citation |author=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |title=The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://ahdictionary.com/ |postscript=. |access-date=2018-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925104737/https://ahdictionary.com/ |archive-date=2015-09-25 |url-status=dead }}</ref> are differentiable, in the same way that ''tools and materials'', or ''equipment and funds'', are differentiable—but the difference between them is often practically irrelevant to the contexts in which the irreversible binomial ''ways and means'' is used today in non-legal contexts as a mere [[cliché]].

Doublets may also have arisen or persisted because the solicitors and clerks who drew up [[Conveyancing|conveyances]] and other documents were paid by the word, which tended to encourage verbosity.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Barbara |last1=English |first2=John |last2=Saville |author2-link=John Saville |title=Strict Settlement: a guide for historians |publisher=University of Hull Press |location=Hull |year=1983 |isbn=0-85958-439-9 |pages=18–19 }}</ref>

Their habitual use has been decried by some legal scholars as superfluous in modern legal briefs.<ref name="Espenschied"/>

==List of common legal doublets==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
*[[abuttals and boundaries]]
* [[accord and satisfaction]]
* acknowledge and confess
* [[aid and abet]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* all and sundry<ref name="Ingels">{{cite book |last=Ingels |first=Mia B. |title=Legal English Communication Skills |series=Learning English |date=2006 |publisher={{lang|nl|Academische Coöperatieve Vennootschap}} |location=Leuven, Belgium |isbn=90-334-6112-9 |pages=60–61 |chapter=2.2.1.3.{{nbsp}}Doublets and triplets |oclc=150389897 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xyF_RYr0-McC&pg=PA60}}</ref>
* alter or change<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* appropriate and proper<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[arbitrary and capricious]]
* [[art and part]]
* assault and battery
* bind and obligate<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[breaking and entering]]
* [[butts and bounds]]
* by and between<ref name="TransLegal">{{cite web|url=https://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |title=Doublets |date=12 January 2010 |website=TransLegal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908063149/http://www.translegal.com/grammar-and-writing/doublets |archive-date=2013-09-08 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* care and attention
* [[cease and desist]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* covenant and agree<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* deem and consider<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* demise and lease<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* depose and say
* due and payable<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* expressed or implied
* facts and circumstances
* final and conclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* fit and proper
* [[for all intents and purposes]]
* for and on behalf of
* [[free and clear]]
* from now and henceforth
* full faith and credit<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* furnish and supply<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* goods and chattels
* have and hold<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* heirs and successors
* [[high crimes and misdemeanors]]
* [[hue and cry]]
* indemnify and hold harmless<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[infangthief and outfangthief]]
*[[joint and several liability]]
* keep and perform<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* kind and nature<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]]
* legal and valid<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* let or hindrance
* lewd and lascivious conduct
* liens and encumbrances<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* make and enter into<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[marque and reprisal]]
*[[metes and bounds]]
* mind and memory<ref name="Garner">{{cite book |last=Garner |first=Bryan A. |author-link=Bryan A. Garner |others=Rev. ed. of: A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage |title=Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YwLiALrHLCEC&pg=PA577 |edition=3rd |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-538420-8 |page=577 |lccn=2011004242 |oclc=671709669 |ol=24973858M}}</ref>
* [[null and void]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* over and above<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[oyer and terminer]]
* part and parcel<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* perform and discharge<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* power and authority<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[sac and soc]]
* sale or transfer<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed and sealed<ref name="pairs">[http://www.sightwordsgame.com/vocabulary-words/word-pairs/ Word Pairs]</ref>
* sole and exclusive<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* successors and assigns<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[terms and conditions]]<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* then and in that event<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[toll and team]]
* trade or business
* true and correct<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* [[waif and stray]]
* [[ways and means committee|ways and means]]
* [[will and testament]]
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal triplets==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* arbitrary, capricious and unreasonable
* cancel, annul and set aside<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* convey, transfer and set over<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* give, devise and bequeath<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* grant, bargain and sell<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* name, constitute and appoint<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* null, void and of no effect
* tamper with, damage, or destroy
* ordered, adjudged and decreed<ref name="Ingels"/>
* remise, release and forever quit claim<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* rest, residue and remainder<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* right, title and interest<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* signed, sealed and delivered<ref name="Ingels"/>
* to all intents, constructions and purposes<ref name=Inc>[https://www.inc.com/christina-desmarais/20-embarrassing-phrases-even-smart-people-misuse.html 20 Embarrassing Phrases Even Smart People Misuse], Christina DesMarais, 13 Mar 2015, Inc.com.</ref>
* way, shape or form
{{div col end}}

==List of common legal quadruplets==
* [[Signed, sealed, published, and declared]]

==See also==
{{wiktionary category 2|English legal doublets}}
* [[Antanaclasis]]
* [[Cognate object]]
* [[Figura etymologica]]
* [[Hendiadys]]
* [[Legal English]]
* [[Merism]]
* [[Polyptoton]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Legal Doublet}}
[[Category:Legal terminology]]
[[Category:Legal writing]]

Signed, sealed, published, and declared

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Uruiamme: new one

#REDIRECT[[Attestation clause]]

Attestation clause

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Uruiamme: quad

{{short description|In statutory law, a type of clause found in wills}}
{{Globalize|article|USA|2name=the United States|date=December 2010}}
{{Wills, trusts, estates}}
In the [[statute|statutory]] law of [[will (law)|will]]s and [[Trust law|trust]]s, an '''attestation clause''' is a clause that is typically appended to a will, often just below the place of the [[testator]]'s signature. It is often of the form ''signed, sealed, published, and declared'',<ref name=USL>[https://definitions.uslegal.com/a/attestation-clause/ Attestation clause]</ref> a [[legal quadruplet]].

==United States==

In the United States, attestation clauses were introduced into probate law with the promulgation of the first version of the Model Probate Code in the 1940s. Statutes that authorize self-proved wills typically provide that a will that contains this language will be admitted to probate without affidavits from the attesting witnesses.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mann|first1=Bruce H.|title=Formalities and Formalism in the Uniform Probate Code|journal=University of Pennsylvania Law Review|date=1993|volume=142|issue=3|page=1033|doi=10.2307/3312502|jstor=3312502|url=http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3607&context=penn_law_review|accessdate=30 May 2017}}</ref>

An attestation clause modeled on the Model Probate Code's language might provide:

:We, the undersigned testator and the undersigned witnesses, respectively, whose names are signed to the attached or foregoing instrument declare:

::(1) that the testator executed the instrument as the testator's will;
::(2) that, in the presence of both witnesses, the testator signed or acknowledged the signature already made or directed another to sign for the testator in the testator's presence;
::(3) that the testator executed the will as a free and voluntary act for the purposes expressed in it;
::(4) that each of the witnesses, in the presence of the testator and of each other, signed the will as a witness;
::(5) that the testator was of sound mind when the will was executed; and
::(6) that to the best knowledge of each of the witnesses the testator was, at the time the will was executed, at least eighteen (18) years of age or was a member of the armed forces or of the [[merchant marine]] of the United States or its allies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Estate of Dellinger v. 1st Source Bank, 771 N.E.2d 1271 (Ind.Ct.App.2002)|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=481004198549146302|website=Google Scholar|accessdate=30 May 2017}}</ref>

The validity and form of an attestation clause is usually a matter of [[U.S. state]] law, and will vary from state to state. Many states allow attestation clauses to be added as [[Codicil (will)|codicils]] to wills that were originally drafted without them.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Spencer|first1=Patti S.|title=Your Estate Matters|date=2015|publisher=AuthorHouse|location=Bloomington, Indiana|isbn=978-1-4969-3529-8}}</ref>

== Other uses ==
Often synonymical with witness, an attestation "testifies to the accuracy or authenticity of something".<ref>{{Cite book|last=Garner|first=Bryan A.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O1m1bI5vCooC&dq=attestation+clause+legal+document&pg=PA886|title=Garner's Dictionary of Legal Usage|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-538420-8|language=en}}</ref> [[Thomson Reuters]] define an attestation clause as where "a document has been ''executed'' in the presence of one or more witnesses (who attest the execution)".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Attestation clause|url=http://uk.practicallaw.thomsonreuters.com/4-382-5563?transitionType=Default&contextData=(sc.Default)&firstPage=true|access-date=2021-12-17|website=Practical Law|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Affidavit]]
* [[Police oath]]
* [[Testator]]
* [[Testimony]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* Burns' Annotated Indiana Statutes, ss. 29-1-5-3.1

{{DEFAULTSORT:Attestation Clause}}
[[Category:Wills and trusts]]

Legal quadruplet

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Uruiamme: new one

#REDIRECT[[legal doublet]]

Irreversible binomial

2024-09-29T22:22:39Z

Uruiamme: /* Quadrinomials */ legal quad

{{Short description|A fixed phrase of two or more joined words}}
[[File:Original Mac n Cheese_.jpg|thumb|The expression "[[macaroni and cheese]]" is an irreversible binomial. The order of the two keywords of this familiar expression cannot be reversed [[idiom (language structure)|idiomatically]].]]

In [[linguistics]] and [[stylistics]], an '''irreversible binomial''',<ref name="modern2"/> '''frozen binomial, binomial freeze''', '''binomial expression, binomial pair''', or '''nonreversible word pair'''<ref name="pairs"/> is a pair of words used together in fixed order as an [[idiom]]atic expression or [[collocation]]. The words have a [[Semantics|semantic]] relationship usually involving the words ''and'' or ''or''. They also belong to the same [[part of speech]]: nouns (''milk and honey''), adjectives (''short and sweet''), or verbs (''do or die''). The order of word elements cannot be reversed.<ref name="modern2"/>

The term "irreversible binomial" was introduced by [[Yakov Malkiel]] in 1954, though various aspects of the phenomenon had been discussed since at least 1903 under different names: a "terminological imbroglio".<ref name="Yakov Malkiel"/> [[Ernest Gowers]] used the name '''Siamese twins''' (i.e., [[conjoined twins]]) in the 1965 edition of [[A Dictionary of Modern English Usage|Fowler's ''Modern English Usage'']]. The 2015 edition reverts to the scholarly name, "irreversible binomials", as "Siamese twins" had become offensive.<ref name="Jeremy Butterfield"/>

Many irreversible binomials are [[catchiness|catchy]] due to [[alliteration]], [[rhyme|rhyming]], or [[apophony#Ablaut-motivated compounding|ablaut reduplication]], so becoming [[cliché]]s or [[catchphrase]]s. Idioms like ''rock and roll'', ''the birds and the bees'', and collocations like ''mix and match'', and ''wear and tear'' have particular meanings apart from or beyond those of their constituent words. Ubiquitous collocations like ''loud and clear'' and ''life or death'' are [[fixed expression]]s, making them a standard part of the [[vocabulary]] of native English speakers.

Some English words have become [[archaism|obsolete]] in general but are still found in an irreversible binomial. For example, ''spick'' is a [[fossil word]] that never appears outside the phrase ''spick and span''.<ref name="phrases"/> Some other words, like ''vim'' in ''vim and vigor'' or ''abet'' in ''aid and abet'',<ref name="Espenschied" /> have become rare and [[archaism|archaic]] outside the collocation.

Numerous irreversible binomials are used in [[legalese]]. Due to the use of [[precedent]] in [[common law]], many lawyers use the same collocations found in legal documents centuries old. Many of these [[legal doublet]]s contain two synonyms, often one of [[Old English]] origin and the other of [[Latin]] origin: ''deposes and says'', ''ways and means''.

While many irreversible binomials are literal expressions (like ''washer and dryer, rest and relaxation, rich and famous, savings and loan''), some are entirely figurative (like ''come hell or high water, nip and tuck, [[surf and turf]]'') or mostly so (like ''between a rock and a hard place, [[five and dime]]''). Somewhat in between are more subtle [[figures of speech]], [[synecdoche]]s, [[metaphor]]s, or [[hyperbole]]s (like ''cat and mouse, sick and tired, barefoot and pregnant''). The terms are often the targets of [[eggcorn]]s, [[malapropism]]s, [[mondegreen]]s, and [[folk etymology]].

Some irreversible binomials can have minor variations without loss of understanding: ''time and time again'' is frequently shortened to ''time and again''; a person who is ''[[tarring and feathering|tarred and feathered]]'' (verb) can be said to be covered in ''tar and feathers'' (noun).

However, in some cases small changes to wording change the meaning. The accommodating attitude of an activity's participants would be called ''give and take'', while ''give or take'' means "approximately". Undertaking some act whether it is ''right or wrong'' excludes the insight from knowing the difference between ''right and wrong''; each pair has a subtly differing meaning. And while ''five and dime'' is a noun phrase for a [[Variety store#North America|low-priced variety store]], ''nickel and dime'' is a verb phrase for penny-pinching.

== Structure ==
The words in an irreversible binomial belong to the same [[part of speech]], have some semantic relationship, and are usually connected by ''and'' or ''or''. They are often near-[[synonyms]] or [[antonyms]], [[alliterations|alliterate]], or [[rhyme]].

Examples below are split into various tables; some may belong in more than one table but are listed only once.

=== With opposites and antonyms ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins employing antonyms}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials employing antonyms}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''addition and subtraction''
* ''[[assets and liabilities]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''back and forth''
* ''[[balls and strikes]]''
* ''beginning to end''
* ''[[black and white]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''big and small''
* ''a blessing and a curse''
* ''boom or bust''
* ''bride and groom''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[Sibling|brother and sister]]''
* ''butt and pass''
* ''buy and sell''
* ''[[catch and release]]''
* ''[[cause and effect]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[church and state]]''
* ''cops and robbers''
* ''come and go''
* ''coming and going''
* ''cowboys and Indians''
* ''days and nights''
* ''deep and wide''
* ''dos and don'ts''
* ''ebb and flow''
* ''fire and ice''
* ''first and last''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''floor to ceiling''
* ''food and drink''
* ''[[fore and aft]]''
* ''foreign and domestic''
* ''forward and backward''
* ''friend or foe''
* ''front to back''
* ''fruits and vegetables''
* ''give and take''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[good and evil]]''
* ''hail and farewell''{{#tag:ref|[[Etymologically]] [[synonym]]s; functionally [[antonym]]s.|group=note|name=hailfarewell}}
* ''[[hand and foot]]''
* ''head over heels''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''Heaven and Hell''
* ''here and there''
* ''[[hide and seek]]''
* ''hill and dale''
* ''him and her''
* ''high and low''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''hills and valleys''
* ''his and hers''
* ''hither and thither''
* ''hither and yon''
* ''hot and cold''
* ''hurry up and wait''
* ''husband and wife''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''in and out''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''in the (right/wrong) place at the (right/wrong) time''
* ''ladies and gentlemen''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''land and sea''
* ''life or death''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''long and short''
* ''[[lost and found]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''love and hate''
* ''love and war''
* ''man and wife''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[mom and pop]]''
* ''naughty or nice''
* ''near and far''
* ''night and day (difference)''
* ''[[nip and tuck (cosmetic surgery)|nip and tuck]]''
* ''north to south''
* ''now and then''
* ''[[now and later]]''
* ''on and off''
* ''open and shut''
* ''over and under''
* ''[[park and ride]]''
* ''[[port and starboard]]''
* ''pros and cons''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''push and pull''
* ''[[wikt:rank and file|rank and file]]''
* ''rise and fall''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[savings and loan]]''
* ''in sickness and in health''
* ''[[soap and water]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''start to finish''
* ''(from) stem to stern''
* ''stop and go''
* ''[[strike and dip]]''
* ''[[sweet and sour]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[the quick and the dead (idiom)|the quick and the dead]]''
* ''thick and thin''
* ''(there's) a time and a place''
* ''[[tip and ring]]''
* ''to and fro''
* ''top to bottom''
* ''town and country''
* ''up and down''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''ups and downs''
* ''uptown and downtown''
* ''[[war and peace]]''<ref name="modern2"/><ref name="pairs"/>
* ''washer and dryer''
* ''wax and wane''
* ''[[yes and no]]''
* ''[[yin and yang]]''
{{Div col end}}

=== With related words and synonyms ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins employing synonyms}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials employing synonyms}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''ages and generations''
* ''aid and comfort''
* ''alas and alack''
* ''bits and pieces''
* ''body and soul''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''born and raised/bred''
* ''bright and early''
* ''[[brick and mortar]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[by hook or by crook]]''
* ''cheek by jowl''
* ''clean and tidy''
* ''chapter and verse''
* ''cup and saucer''
* ''[[It was a dark and stormy night|(it was a) dark and stormy (night)]]''
* ''(this) day and age''
* ''dollars and cents''
* ''dot the i's and cross the t's''
* ''[[fear and loathing]]''
* ''[[fish and chips]]''
* ''first and foremost''
* ''hail and farewell''<ref group=note name=hailfarewell/>
* ''hand over fist''
* ''haughty and high minded''
* ''head and shoulders''
* ''heart and soul''
* ''herbs and spices''
* ''[[Highest and best use|highest and best (use)]]''
* ''house and home''
* ''[[hunger and thirst]]''
* ''knife and fork''
* ''leaps and bounds''
* ''[[:wikt:like mother, like daughter|like mother, like daughter]]''
* ''lo and behold''
* ''neat and tidy''
* ''nickel and dime''
* ''nook and cranny''
* ''[[null and void]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''nuts and bolts''
* ''over and done with''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''[[pain and suffering]]''
* ''peace and quiet''
* ''[[pen and ink]]''
* ''pick and choose''
* ''(on) [[pins and needles]]''
* ''plain and simple''
* ''prim and proper''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''rant and rave''
* ''[[rocks and shoals]]''
* ''[[shock and awe]]''
* ''[[signs and wonders]]''
* ''six of one, half a dozen of the other''
* ''[[skull and bones]]''
* ''[[skull and crossbones (symbol)|skull and crossbones]]''
* ''strait and narrow''
* ''straight and narrow''
* ''stress and strain''
* ''swings and roundabouts''
* ''ticks and chiggers''
* ''whine and complain''
* ''wind and rain''
* ''(up) close and personal''
* ''yea and amen''
{{Div col end}}

=== With alliteration ===
{{anchor|Examples of twins employing alliteration}}

Also see [[Reduplication#English|the English section of the Reduplication article]] for cases like ''walkie-talkie'', ''ragtag'', ''chit-chat'', ''hip-hop'', ''bing-bang-boom'', ''etc.''

{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''bag and baggage''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''baubles and beads''
* ''beams and balance''
* ''[[bed and breakfast]]''<ref name="modern2"/><ref name="pairs"/>
* ''belt and braces''
* ''bench and bar''
* ''big and bad''
* ''[[the birds and the bees]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''bish bash bosh''
* ''black and blue''
* ''bold and beautiful''
* ''[[bootleggers and Baptists]]''
* ''boxers or briefs''
* ''[[wikt:bread and butter|bread and butter]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''bull and boar''
* ''cash and carry''
* ''chalk and cheese''
* ''cliques and clans''
* ''[[command and control]]''
* ''[[cookies and cream]]''
* ''[[deaf and dumb]]''
* ''(between the) devil and the deep blue sea''
* ''[[dine and dash]]''
* ''down and dirty''
* ''dribs and drabs''
* ''[[drink and drive]]''
* ''[[drunk and disorderly]]''
* ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]''
* ''[[fast and furious]]''
* ''feast or famine''
* ''[[fire and forget]]''
* ''[[fire and fury]]''
* ''fit in or fuck off''
* ''[[flip-flop (politics)|flip-flop]]''
* ''[[flora and fauna]]''
* ''footloose and fancy-free''
* ''forgive and forget''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''form and function''
* ''friend or foe''
* ''fun and frolics''
* ''fur and feathers''
* ''ghosts and goblins''
* ''grins and giggles''
* ''to have and to hold''
* ''hearth and home''
* ''hem and haw''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[hoot and holler]]''
* ''[[Horseshoes and Handgrenades (disambiguation)|horseshoes and handgrenades]]''
* ''Jew and Gentile''
* ''juking and jiving''
* ''king and country''
* ''kit and caboodle''<ref name="rd"/>
* ''kith and kin''
* ''last but not least''
* ''[[latitude and longitude]]''
* ''[[Lend-Lease]]''
* ''life and limb''<ref name="ldoceonline"/>
* ''live and learn''
* ''lock and load''
* ''love ‘em and leave ‘em''
* ''love it or leave it''
* ''mix and match''
* ''meek and mild''
* ''[[name and number]]''
* ''part and parcel''<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* ''peas in a pod''
* ''pen and pencil''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''pen(cil) and paper''
* ''[[pig in a poke]]''
* ''pillar to post''
* ''pitter-patter''
* ''[[pots and pans]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[publish or perish]]''
* ''[[rags to riches]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''ranting and raving''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''read and write''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''ready to rumble''
* ''rest and relaxation'' ([[R&R (military)|R&R/R'n'R]])
* ''(without) rhyme or reason''
* ''right and wrong''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[rock and roll]]''
* ''rough and ready''
* ''rules and regulations''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''safe and secure''
* ''safe and sound''
* ''shot and shell''
* ''shower and shave''
* ''[[signs and symptoms]]''
* ''[[slip and slide]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''spick and span''<ref name="phrases"/>
* ''spit and shine''
* ''[[Flag of the United States|Stars and Stripes]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[sticks and stones]]''
* ''sugar and spice''
* ''this or that''
* ''ticky-tacky''
* ''tit for tat''
* ''top and tail''
* ''toss and turn''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[trick or treat]]''
* ''trials and tribulations''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''tried and tested''
* ''tried and true''
* ''truck and trailer''
* ''wash and wear''
* ''watching and waiting''
* ''weep and wail''
* ''wet and wild''
* ''whooping and hollering''
* ''wild and woolly''
* ''wise and wonderful''
* ''witches and warlocks''
* ''wrack and ruin''
{{Div col end}}

=== With rhymes and similar-sounding words ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins employing similar-sounding words}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials employing similar-sounding words}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''break and take''
*''[[boom and zoom]]''
* ''box and cox''
* ''chalk and talk''
* ''charts and darts''
* ''chips and dip''
* ''dive and drive''
* ''double trouble''
* ''even Steven''
* ''fair and square''
* ''fender bender''
* ''five and dime''
* ''[[flotsam and jetsam]]''<ref name="rd"/>
* ''handy-dandy''
* ''hanky-panky''
* ''harum-scarum''
* ''helter skelter''
* ''higgledy piggledy''
* ''high and dry''<ref name="modern2"/><ref name="pairs"/>
* ''hire and fire''<ref name="modern2"/>
*''[[hit and split]]''
* ''hit it and quit''
* ''hither and thither''
* ''[[Hocus Pocus (magic)|hocus pocus]]''
* ''hoity-toity''
* ''hot to trot''
* ''hotch-potch''
* ''huff and puff''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''hurly-burly''
* ''hustle and bustle''
* ''itty-bitty''
* ''itsy-bitsy''
* ''lap and gap''
* ''latest and greatest''
* ''lean, mean, fightin' machine''
* ''lick 'em and stick 'em''
* ''loud and proud''
* ''mean, green, fightin' machine''
* ''meet and greet''
* ''might makes right''
* ''motor voter''
* ''my way or the highway''
* ''namby-pamby''
* ''[[name and shame]]''
* ''[[name it and claim it]]''
* ''near and dear''
* ''never, ever''
* ''nitty gritty''
* ''odds and sods''
* ''onwards and upwards''
* ''orgy porgy''
* ''out and about''
* ''out and proud''
* ''pell-mell''
* ''[[pump and dump]]''
* ''rough and tough''
* ''run and gun''
* ''shout and clout''
* ''saggy baggy''
* ''shake and bake''
* ''slowly but surely''
* ''smoke and joke''
* ''son of a gun''
* ''stash and dash''
* ''stitch and bitch''
* ''stop and drop''
* ''[[wikt:so far so good|so far, so good]]''
* ''[[surf and turf]]''
* ''teeny-weeny''
* ''time and tide''
* ''[[town and gown]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''true blue''
* ''use it or lose it''
* ''wake and bake''
* ''wear and tear''
* ''weed and feed''
* ''wham, bam, thank you, ma'am''
* ''[[Willy-nilly (idiom)|willy nilly]]''
* ''wine and dine''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''yea or nay''
* ''(the) yeas and (the) nays''
{{Div col end}}

== Legal terminology ==
{{main|Legal doublet}}
In law and official documents, there are many irreversible binomials and triplets consisting of near synonyms, such as the oft-heard ''[[terms and conditions]]''<ref name="Espenschied" /> and ''[[cease and desist]]''.<ref name="Espenschied" /> See the [[Legal doublet]] article for a list.

== Conjunction ==
The most common conjunctions in an irreversible binomial are ''and'' or ''or.''

=== With "and" as the conjunction ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins with ''"and"'' as the conjunction}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials with ''"and"'' as the conjunction}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''above and beyond''
* ''airs and graces''
* ''alarm and muster''
* ''alive and kicking''
* ''alive and well''
* ''an arm and a leg''
* ''armed and dangerous''
* ''[[apples and oranges]]''
* ''back and fill''
* ''back and forth''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[full breakfast|bacon and eggs]]''<ref name="modern2"/><ref name="pairs"/>{{#tag:ref|In the United Kingdom ''eggs and bacon'' is the common term and saying ''bacon and eggs'' would [[wikt:outing|out]] the user as [[United States|American]].|group=note|name=baconeggs}}
* ''[[bangers and mash]]''
* ''[[bait and switch]]''
* ''bait and tackle''
* ''(old) [[wikt:ball and chain|ball and chain]]''
* ''[[barefoot and pregnant]]''
* ''bargain and sale''
* ''bed and breakfast''
* ''beck and call''
* ''bells and whistles''
* ''[[belt and suspenders]]''
* ''big and bold''
* ''big and tall''
* ''bigger and better''
* ''binge and purge''
* ''[[bit and bridle]]''
* ''bits and bobs''
* ''bits and pieces''
* ''black and blue ''
* ''block and tackle''
* ''blood and guts''
* ''blood and gore''
* ''[[bob and weave]]''
* ''[[bow and arrow]]''
* ''bound and determined''
* ''bound and gagged''
* ''bow and scrape''
* ''brace and bit''
* ''bread and water''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[bread and circuses]]''
* ''[[bread and roses]]''
* ''brown and serve''
* ''bucket and spade''
* ''bump and grind''
* ''by and large''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''by guess and by golly''
* ''[[cap and gown]]''
* ''[[car and driver]]''
* ''[[cat and mouse]]''
* ''[[checks and balances]]''
* ''[[chicken and dumplings]]''
* ''chop and change''
* ''clean and sober''
* ''[[cloak and dagger]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[coat and tie]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[coffee and doughnuts]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''cock-and-bull''
* ''crash and burn''
* ''cream and sugar''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[crime and punishment]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''cup and saucer''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''cut and dried (dry)''
* ''cut and paste''
* ''cut and run''
* ''[[dandelion and burdock]]''
* ''day and night''
* ''dead and buried''
* ''dead and gone''
* ''[[death and taxes (idiom)|death and taxes]]''
* ''dine and dash''
* ''[[divide and rule|divide and conquer]]''
* ''[[dog and pony show]]''
* ''down and out''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[duck and cover]]''
* ''duck and dive''{{#tag:ref|In the United Kingdom, synonymous to ''[[bob and weave]]'' in common parlance and origin from the world of [[boxing]] (i.e. [[punch (combat)|pugilistic]]).|group=note|name=duckdive}}
* ''each and every''
* ''eyes and ears''
* ''far and wide''
* ''[[fast and furious]]''
* ''fast and loose''
* ''fine and dandy''
* ''fingers and thumbs''
* ''[[fire and brimstone]]''
* ''[[fish and chips]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''(by) fits and starts''
* ''flesh and blood''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''flesh and bone''
* ''forever and a day''
* ''forever and ever''
* ''front and center''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''fun and games''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''fuss and bother''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''goals and aspirations''
* ''good and plenty''
* ''goodness and light''
* ''grin and bear it''
* ''ground and pound''
* ''[[hack and slash]]''
* ''hale and hearty''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''hard and fast''
* ''[[ham and eggs]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''hammer and nail''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[hammer and sickle]]''
* ''[[wikt:hammer and tongs|hammer and tongs]]''
* ''hearts and minds''
* ''(move) heaven and earth''
* ''here and now''
* ''hide and seek''
* ''hide and watch''
* ''high and mighty''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''high and dry''
* ''[[high and tight]]''
* ''[[hit and run]]''
* ''hit it and quit it''
* ''hither and yon''
* ''hither and thither''
* ''home and hosed''
* ''home and dry''
* ''[[hook and eye]]''
* ''[[hook and loop]]''
* ''[[horse and buggy]]''
* ''[[horse and carriage]]''
* ''hot and heavy''
* ''[[hot and high]]''
* ''hot and bothered''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[hugs and kisses]]'' (XOXO)
* ''if and when''
* ''(for all) intents and purposes''
* ''kippers and custard''{{#tag:ref|A [[jocular]] nonsense reply to the question (usually a child's) of "what's for dinner (breakfast, or lunch)?" London usage, now all but archaic.|group=note|name=kipperscustard}}
* ''[[kiss and tell]]''
* ''kiss and make up''
* ''kith and kin''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''knife and fork''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''kicking and screaming''
* ''lakes and streams''
* ''[[last will and testament]]''
* ''[[law and order (politics)|law and order]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''lo and behold''
* ''[[lock and dam]]''
* ''[[lock and key]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[look and feel]]''
* ''loud and clear''
* ''make do and mend''
* ''man and boy''
* ''meat and potatoes''
* ''men and women''
* ''milk and cookies''
* ''milk and honey''
* ''[[mortise and tenon]]''
* ''name and address''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''names and faces''
* ''nice and easy''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''nook and cranny''
* ''[[noughts and crosses]]''
* ''nuts and bolts''
* ''odds and ends''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''off and away''
* ''once and for all''
* ''one and done''
* ''out and about''
* ''[[wikt:over and out|over and out]]''
*[[oyer and terminer]]
* ''[[peaches and cream]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[Ps and Qs]]''
* ''[[peanut butter and jelly]]''
* ''peas and carrots''
* ''pickles and ice cream''
* ''pick and axe''
* ''piss and moan''
* ''piss and vinegar''
* ''piss and whine''
* ''prim and proper''
* ''prize and booty''
* ''[[pork and beans]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''pure and simple''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''quick and dirty''
* ''[[rack and pinion]]''
* ''rack and ruin''
* ''raining cats and dogs''
* ''[[rape and pillage]]''
* ''[[research and development]]'' (R&D)
* ''[[rhythm and blues]]'' (R&B)
* ''rich and famous''
* ''rise and shine''
* ''[[wikt:between a rock and a hard place|(between a) rock and a hard place]]''
* ''[[room and board]]''
* ''rough and tumble''
* ''run and jump''
* ''(all's) said and done''
* ''[[salt and pepper]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''salt and vinegar''
* ''[[scratch and sniff]]''
* ''[[search and rescue]]''
* ''[[seek and destroy]]''
* ''(different) shapes and sizes''
* ''shirt and tie''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''short and fat''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''short and sweet''
* ''short and stout''
* ''[[wikt:show and tell|show and tell]]''
* ''[[shuck and jive]]''
* ''sick and tired''
* ''[[slash and burn]]''
* ''[[slings and arrows]]''
* ''[[slip and fall]]''
* ''slow and steady''
* ''skin and bone(s)''
* ''[[smash and grab]]''
* ''[[smoke and mirrors]]''
* ''[[snakes and ladders]]''
* ''[[song and dance]]''
* ''[[sound and fury]]''
* ''(in) spirit and (in) truth''
* ''[[spit and polish]]''
* ''stand and deliver''
* ''stress and strain''
* ''[[Sturm und Drang]]''
* ''suave and debonair''
* ''[[suit and tie]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''sunshine and rainbows''
* ''[[supply and demand]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[sweetness and light]]''
* ''a swing and a miss''
* ''[[sword and sandal]]''
* ''tables and chairs''
* ''tall and thin''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[tarring and feathering|tar(red) and feather(ed)]]''
* ''[[tar and feathers]]''
* ''tea and crumpets''
* ''(through) thick and thin''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''thunder and lightning''
* ''tits and ass''
* ''to and fro''
* ''tooth and nail''
* ''touch and go''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[track and field]]''
* ''[[trial and error]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''trials and tribulations''
* ''tuck and roll''
* ''twist and turn''
* ''up and about''
* ''vim and vigor''
* ''wait and see''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''warm and fuzzy''
* ''[[warp and weft]]''
* ''watch and ward''
* ''wax and wane''
* ''ways and means''
* ''well and good''
* ''whinge and whine''
* ''wine and roses''
* ''words and phrases''
* ''X's and O's''
* ''[[yes and no]]''
* ''a [[year and a day rule|year and a day]]''
{{Div col end}}

=== With "or" or "nor" as the conjunction ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins with ''"or"'' or ''"nor"'' or as the conjunction}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials with ''"or"'' or ''"nor"'' or as the conjunction}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''all or nothing''
* ''better or worse''
* ''big or small''
* ''black or white''
* ''business or pleasure''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''the [[chicken or the egg]]''
* ''day or night''
* ''dead or alive''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''do or die''
* ''fight or flight''
* ''(neither) fish nor fowl''
* ''give or take''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''good or bad''
* ''gentle or simple''
* ''he or she''
* ''[[heads or tails]]''
* ''(come) hell or high water''
* ''(neither) here nor there''
* ''(neither) hide nor hair''
* ''[[his or her]]''
* ''hit or miss''
* ''(not one) jot or tittle''
* ''kill or cure''
* ''kill or be killed''
* ''(neither) love nor money''
* ''make or break''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''more or less''
* ''now or never''
* ''[[wikt:put up or shut up|put up or shut up]]''
* ''rain or shine''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''rhyme or reason''
* ''right or wrong''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''sink or swim''
* ''sooner or later''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''take it or leave it''
* ''two or more''
* ''up or down''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''(neither) use nor ornament''
* ''victory or death''
* ''win or lose''
* ''[[yes and no|yes or no]]''
{{Div col end}}

=== With no conjunction ===
* ''hoity toity''
* ''[[hunter-gatherer]]''
* ''corn cheese''

== People and fictional characters ==
{{Further|Category:Duos}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Abbott and Costello]]
* [[Abraham and Isaac (disambiguation)|Abraham and Isaac]]
* [[Achilles and Patroclus]]
* [[Adam and Eve]]<ref name="pairs"/>
* [[Alexiares and Anicetus]]
* [[Antony and Cleopatra]]
* [[Ant & Dec]]
* [[Batman and Robin (disambiguation)|Batman and Robin]]
* [[Bonnie and Clyde]]
* [[Cain and Abel]]
* [[Cannon and Ball]]
* [[Castor and Pollux]]
* [[Cupid and Psyche]]
* [[Tom and Ray Magliozzi|Click and Clack]]
* [[Damon and Pythias]]
* [[David and Goliath]]
* [[Deleuze and Guattari]]
* [[Dick and Jane]]
* [[Faust]] and Marguerite
* [[Flanders and Swann]]
* [[French and Saunders]]
* [[Frick and Frack]]
* [[Fry and Laurie]]
* [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]
* [[Gilgamesh and Aga]]
* [[Hansel and Gretel]]
* [[Hellman & Friedman]]
* [[Jaya-Vijaya|Jaya and Vijaya]]
* [[Jacob and Esau]]
* [[Jack and Jill (nursery rhyme)|Jack and Jill]]<ref name="pairs"/>
* [[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde|Jekyll & Hyde]]
* [[Still Game|Jack and Victor]]
* [[Laurel and Hardy]]
* [[Lennon and McCartney]]
* [[Lerner and Loewe]]
* [[Lewis and Clark]]
* [[Little and Large]]
* [[Lugal-irra and Meslamta-ea]]
* [[Martin and Lewis]]
* [[Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen]]
* [[Mel and Sue]]
* [[Morecambe and Wise]]
* [[Mork and Mindy]]
* [[Orpheus and Eurydice]]
* [[Ox-Head and Horse-Face]]
* [[Penn & Teller]]
* [[Phyllis and Aristotle]]
* [[Phineas and Ferb]]
* [[Pinky & The Brain]]
* [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]] and [[Galatea (mythology)|Galatea]]
* [[Ren & Stimpy]]
* [[Rhett & Link]]
* [[Rick and Morty]]
* [[Rodgers and Hart]]
* [[Rodgers and Hammerstein]]
* ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''
* [[Romulus and Remus]]
* [[Rosencrantz and Guildenstern]]
* [[Sam and Max]]
* [[Samson]] and [[Delilah]]
* [[Sonny & Cher]]<ref name="rd"/>
* [[Thomson and Thompson]]
* [[Tom & Jerry]]
* [[Tristan and Isolde]]
* [[Tim & Eric]]
* [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and [[Adonis]]
* [[Vic & Bob]]
* [[Watson and Crick]]{{Div col end}}

== Rhyming slang ==
{{main|Rhyming slang}}
{{Anchor|Examples of Siamese twins from [[Rhyming slang]]}}
{{Anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials from [[Rhyming slang]]}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''Adam and Eve''
* ''apples and pears''
* ''bottle and glass''{{#tag:ref|Or more commonly just ''bottle'', which leads on to ''aris'' from ''aristotle'' that is the rhyming slang for ''bottle''.|group=note|name=bottleglass}}
* ''Brahms and Liszt''
* ''dog and bone''
* ''frog and toad''
* ''hand and blister''
* ''north and south''
* ''rabbit and pork''
* ''trouble and strife''
* ''two and eight''
* ''whistle and flute''
{{Div col end}}

== Variants ==
Irreversible binomials are sometimes [[isocolon]]s (bicolons, tricolons, etc.) which have become [[set phrase]]s.

They may also be called simply binomials.

With three words, they may be called trinomials, and may satisfy the [[rule of three (writing)|rule of three]] in writing.

=== Common trinomials ===
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''[[Abraham's family tree|Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob]]''
* ''[[animal, vegetable, or mineral]]''
* '' [[male waxing|back, sack, and crack]]''
* ''[[materiel|beans, bullets, and bandages]]''
* ''[[poverty|beg, borrow, or steal]]''
* ''[[bell, book, and candle]]''
* ''blood, sweat, and tears''
* ''calm, cool, and collected''
* ''Coffee, tea, or me?''
* ''[[wikt:could have, would have, should have|could've, would've, should've]]''
* ''[[Eagle, Globe, and Anchor]]''
** ''bird, ball, and chain''{{#tag:ref|Jocular variant|group=note|name=birdballchain}}
* ''[[ear, nose, and throat]]''
* ''eat, drink, and be merry''
* ''fat, dumb, and happy''
* ''[[Trinity|Father, Son, and Holy Ghost]]''
* ''[[fear, uncertainty, and doubt]]''
* ''[[Medicare fraud|fraud, waste, and abuse]]''
* ''[[friends, Romans, countrymen]]''
* ''[[Punched_card#Do_Not_Fold,_Spindle_or_Mutilate|(do not) fold, spindle, or mutilate]]''
* ''Get it? Got it? Good.''
* ''[[Biblical Magi|gold, frankincense, and myrrh]]''
* ''[[Imperialism|gold, God, and glory]]''
* ''[[Olympic medal|gold, silver, and bronze]]''
* ''good, bad, and indifferent''
* ''[[the good, the bad, and the ugly]]''
* ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]''
* ''[[hand, foot, and mouth disease|hand, foot, and mouth]]''
* ''[[Poor Richard's Almanack|healthy, wealthy, and wise]]''
* ''here, there, and everywhere''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''[[hook, line, and sinker (idiom)|hook, line, and sinker]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''[[hop, skip, and a jump]]''
* ''[[Huey, Dewey, and Louie]]''
* ''[[veni, vidi, vici|I came, I saw, I conquered]]''
* ''(no) ifs, ands, or buts''
* ''[[extrajudicial punishment|judge, jury, and executioner]]''
* ''[[lather, rinse, repeat]]''
* ''left, right and center''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''[[lie, cheat, or steal]]''
* ''[[lies, damned lies, and statistics]]''
* ''[[life, liberty, and property]]''
* ''[[wikt:lights, camera, action|lights, camera, action]]''
* ''[[real estate broker|location, location, location]]''
* ''[[lock, stock, and barrel]]''
* ''mad, bad, and dangerous''
* ''me, myself, and I''
* ''name, rank, and serial number''
* ''[[nasty, brutish, and short]]''
* ''The [[Niña (ship)|Niña]], the [[Pinta (ship)|Pinta]], and the [[Santa María (ship)|Santa María]]''
* ''[[Planes, Trains, and Automobiles]]''
* ''[[United States Postal Service|(neither) rain, nor sleet, nor snow]]''
* ''[[the three Rs|reading, writing and 'rithmetic]]''
* ''ready, willing, and able''
* ''[[Red White and Blue (disambiguation)|red, white, and blue]]''
* ''[[SCP Foundation|secure, contain, protect]]''
* ''[[hippie#1970–present: Aftershocks|sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll]]''
* ''[[Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego]]''
* ''[[Shake, Rattle, and Roll]]''
* ''short and sweet and to the point''
* ''slips, trips, and falls''
* ''small, medium, and large''
* ''[[Snap, Crackle and Pop]]''
* ''[[stop, drop, and roll]]''
* ''[[stop, look, and listen]]''
* ''[[homeless shelter#Religious shelters|soup, soap, and salvation]]''
* ''[[sugar and spice and everything nice]]''
* ''tall, dark, and handsome''
* ''this, that, and the other''
* ''[[tic-tac-toe]]''
* ''[[Tom, Dick, and Harry]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''up, down, and sideways''
* ''(in no) way, shape, or form''
* ''[[Gospel of John|the way, the truth, and the life]]''
* ''whats, whys, and wherefores''
* ''win, lose, or draw''
* ''[[horse racing|win, place, or show]]''
* [[The New Colossus|''your tired, your poor, your huddled masses'']]
{{Div col end}}

=== Quadrinomials ===
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''[[Envelope (music)|attack, decay, sustain, release]]''
* ''[[blood, toil, tears, and sweat]]''
* ''[[CRUD|Create, Read, Update, Delete]]''
* ''[[EGOT|Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, Tony]]''
* ''[[The Beatles|John, Paul, George, and Ringo]]''
* ''[[Four Evangelists|Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John]]''
* ''[[SATB|soprano, alto, tenor, bass]]''
* ''Signed, sealed, published, and declared''
* ''[[Sign of the cross|spectacles, testicles, wallet, and watch]]''
* ''[[suck, squeeze, bang, blow]]''
* ''[[The Four Horsemen|War, Pestilence, Famine, Death]]''
{{div col end}}

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Anastrophe]]
* [[Collocation]]
* [[Fossil word]]
* [[Hendiadys]]
* [[Hendiatris]]
* [[Isocolon]]
* [[Meme]]
* [[Merism]]
* [[Phraseme]]
* [[Set phrase]]
* [[Trope (literature)|Trope]]
* [[Word order]]
* [[Adjective order]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|1=30em|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Espenschied">{{cite book | last = Espenschied | first = Lenné Eidson | title = Contract Drafting: Powerful Prose in Transactional Practice | series = ABA Fundamentals0 | date = 2010 | publisher = [[American Bar Association]] | location = Chicago | isbn = 978-1-60442-795-0 | pages = 164–165 | chapter = 10.1 Eliminate clutter and redundant language § Eliminate common doublets and triplets | lccn = 2010003298 | oclc = 505017586 | ol = 15443452W | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NRNUshLwjMgC&pg=PA164}}</ref>

<ref name="modern2">{{cite book | last1 = Gramley & Pätzold | title = A Survey of Modern English | edition = 2 | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2004 | location = London | url = https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Survey_of_Modern_English.html?id=qFZsXfJsa8kC | access-date = 2024-04-28 | isbn = 9781134420469 | page = 58 }}</ref>

<ref name="pairs">[http://www.sightwordsgame.com/vocabulary-words/word-pairs/ Word Pairs]</ref>

<ref name="phrases">Martin, Gary. [http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/spick-and-span.html Spick-and-span], Phrases.org.uk</ref>

<ref name="rd">{{cite web | url = http://www.rd.com/slideshows/8-amusing-stories-behind-common-expressions/6/ | title = 8 Amusing Stories Behind Common Expressions | Reader's Digest | work = [[Reader's Digest]] | date = 2011-11-13 | access-date = 2011-12-18 | archive-date = 2015-02-04 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150204031345/http://www.rd.com/slideshows/8-amusing-stories-behind-common-expressions/6/ | url-status = dead }}</ref>

<ref name="Yakov Malkiel">Malkiel, Yakov (1959) [http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/myl/Malkiel1959.pdf Studies in irreversible binomials]''Lingua'' '''8''':113–160</ref>

<ref name="Jeremy Butterfield">Butterfield, Jeremy (2015) ''[[A Dictionary of Modern English Usage|Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage]]'', 4th edition, {{isbn|0199661359}}, p. 436, ''s.v.'' "irreversible binomials"</ref>

<ref name="ldoceonline">{{cite web |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/life-and-limb |title=life and limb {{!}} meaning of life and limb in Longman Dictionary of contemporary English {{!}} LDOCE |website=[[Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]] Online |publisher=[[LDOCE]] |access-date=7 December 2018 |quote=life and limb formal your life and physical health – used especially when this is threatened in some way}}</ref>
}}

==Bibliography==

* Cooper, William E. and Ross, John R. (1975). World order. In Robin E. Grossman et al. (Eds.), ''Papers from the Parasession on Functionalism,'' Chicago Linguistic Society, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 63–111.
* [[Sarah Bunin Benor]], Roger Levy, "The Chicken or the Egg?: A Probabilistic Analysis of English Binomials", ''[[Language (journal)|Language]]'' '''82''':2:233-278 (June 2006) {{JSTOR|4490157}} [http://idiom.ucsd.edu/~rlevy/papers/binomials-accepted.pdf full text]
* Ourania Hatzidaki, "Binomials and the Computer: a Study in Corpus-Based Phraseology", ALLC/ACH Conference, University of Glasgow, July 2000 [http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/allcach2k/Programme/session5.html#513 abstract]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Idioms]]

Project Azorian

2024-09-22T10:29:20Z

Uruiamme: cleanup, add refs

{{short description|1974 CIA project to recover the sunken Soviet submarine K-129}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Project Azorian
|Image_Name = USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193).jpg
|Imagesize = 300
|Image_Alt =
|Image_Caption = ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''
|Thumb_Time =
|AKA =
|Participants = [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]
|Location = {{convert|16500|ft|m}} below the [[Pacific Ocean]]
|Date = 1974
|nongregorian =
|Deaths =
|Result = Successful recovery of a portion of [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine K-129]]
|URL =
}}

'''Project Azorian''' (also called "Jennifer" by the press after its Top Secret Security Compartment)<ref>{{cite web | via = GWU | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | title = Project Azorian: The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer | date = February 12, 2010 | first1 = Matthew | last1 = Aid | first2 = William | last2 = Burr | first3 = Thomas | last3 = Blanton | publisher = The National Security Archive | access-date = February 13, 2010 | archive-date = June 3, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603102439/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | url-status = live }}</ref> was a U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) project to recover the sunken [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine ''K-129'']] from the Pacific Ocean floor in 1974 using the purpose-built ship [[Glomar Explorer|''Hughes Glomar Explorer'']].<ref name= "p30">Wiegley, Roger D., LT (JAG) USN "The Recovered Sunken Warship: Raising a Legal Question" ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'' January 1979 p. 30.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining The secret on the ocean floor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918072757/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining |date=September 18, 2019 }}. David Shukman, ''BBC News''. February 19, 2018.</ref> The 1968 sinking of ''K-129'' occurred about {{convert|1560|mi|km|}} northwest of Hawaii.<ref name= "StudiesIntell85" /> Project Azorian was one of the most complex, expensive, and covert intelligence operations of the [[Cold War]] at a cost of about $800 million, or ${{inflation|US|0.8|1974|r=1}} billion today.

The US designed the recovery ship and its lifting cradle using concepts developed with Global Marine (see [[Project Mohole]]) that used their precision stability equipment to keep the ship nearly stationary above the target while lowering nearly {{convert |3|mi|km|spell= in}} of pipe. They worked with scientists to develop methods for preserving paper that had been underwater for years in hopes of being able to recover and read the submarine's codebooks. The reasons that this project was undertaken included the recovery of an intact [[R-21 (missile)|R-21]] nuclear missile and cryptological documents and equipment.

The Soviet Union was unable to locate ''K-129'', but the US determined its general location from data recorded by four [[Air Force Technical Applications Center]] (AFTAC) sites and the Adak [[SOSUS|Sound Surveillance System]] (SOSUS) array. {{Clarify span|The US identified an acoustic event on March 8 that likely originated from an explosion aboard the submarine, and was able to determine the location to within {{convert|5|nmi|mi km|spell= in}}.|Did this take place after the US determined the general location, as described in the previous sentence? Or do both sentences describe the same process?|date=July 2024}}

The submarine {{USS |Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} located the boat using the Fish, a towed, {{convert|12|ft|adj=on}}, {{convert |2|ST|adj=on|spell=in}} collection of cameras, strobe lights, and sonar that was built to withstand extreme depths. The recovery operation in international waters about six years later used mining for [[manganese nodule]]s as its [[disinformation|cover story]].

The mining company and ship was nominally owned by reclusive billionaire [[Howard Hughes]], but secretly backed by the CIA, who paid for the construction of the ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Polmar|first1=Norman|author-link= Norman Polmar|title= Project Azorian: the CIA and the Raising of the K-129 |year=2010|publisher= Naval Institute Press|location= Annapolis, MD |isbn= 978-1-59114-690-2 | last2 = White | first2 = Michael}}</ref> The ship recovered a portion of ''K-129'', but a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery.<ref name="AzorianDVD" /><ref name="Netflix" />

== The wreck of ''K-129'' ==
{{anchor|Target: the wreck of the K-129}}
[[File:Soviet ballistic missile submarine K-129.jpg|thumb|The ''K-129'' submarine]]{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
On February 24, 1968, ''K-129'', a Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Project 629A]] [[ballistic missile submarine]] attached to the 15th Submarine Squadron of the [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]], left Rybachiy Naval Base in [[Kamchatka]] on a routine missile patrol, the boat's third since completing a major modernization the previous year. On the first day, the sub cruised out to deep water, conducted a test dive, surfaced to radio in, and embarked for its patrol station. The sub was to make standard radio contact with its commanders in Kamchatka when crossing the [[180th meridian]] and when arriving on station. But ''K-129'' missed its designated check-ins and did not respond to communication attempts. By the third week of March, the submarine was declared missing.

In April 1968, many [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]] surface and air assets deployed to the [[North Pacific Ocean]] and performed some unusual search operations. The activity was evaluated by the United States [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI) as a possible reaction to the loss of a Soviet submarine. Soviet surface ship searches were centered on a location known to be associated with Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Golf II-class]] strategic ballistic missile (SSB) diesel submarine patrol routes. These submarines carried three nuclear missiles in an extended sail/conning tower, and routinely deployed within missile range of the US west coast. After weeks of searching, the Soviets were unable to locate the sunken boat, and Soviet Pacific Fleet operations gradually returned to normal.

The US Navy analyzed acoustic data recorded by the [[SOSUS]] [[hydrophone]] network in the northern Pacific—four AFTAC sites and the [[Adak, Alaska]] SOSUS array—and found evidence of the implosion that had sunk the Russian sub.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} [[Naval Facility Point Sur|Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Point Sur]], south of [[Monterey, California]], isolated a sonic signature on its low-frequency array recordings of an implosion that had occurred on March 8, 1968. Using NavFac Point Sur's date and time of the event, [[NavFac Adak]] and the US West Coast NAVFAC were also able to isolate the acoustic event. With five SOSUS lines-of-bearing, Naval Intelligence was able to localize the site of the ''K-129'' wreck to the vicinity of 40.1° N latitude and 179.9° E longitude (close to the [[International Date Line]]).<ref name="AzorianDVD">{{cite AV media | people = Michael White | date = February 8, 2011 | medium = DVD | ISBN = 978-1591146902 | publisher = Michael White Films | ASIN =B0047H7PYQ | title = Azorian: The Raising of the K-129 | url = http://www.projectjennifer.at | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ | archive-date = February 5, 2009 }}</ref>

In July 1968, the [[United States Navy]] began "Operation Sand Dollar" with the deployment of {{USS|Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} from [[Pearl Harbor]] to the wreck site. Sand Dollar's objective was to find and photograph ''K-129''. In 1968 ''Halibut'', which had been configured to use deep submergence search equipment, was the US Navy's only such specially-equipped submarine. ''Halibut'' located the wreck after three weeks of visual search using robotic remote-controlled cameras. (It took almost five months of search to find the wreck of the US nuclear-powered submarine {{USS|Scorpion|SSN-589|2}} in the Atlantic, also in 1968). ''Halibut'' is reported to have spent the next several weeks taking more than 20,000 closeup photos of every aspect of the ''K-129'' wreck, a feat for which ''Halibut'' received a special classified [[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citation]] signed by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in 1968.

The photos were sent to the [[National Photographic Interpretation Center]] at the CIA to determine what, if anything, could be determined about the status of the wreck. CIA analysts wrote a report indicating that there was a good probability that the nuclear missile in the #3 missile tube was still intact.<ref name="Netflix" />

In 1970, based upon this photography, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Melvin Laird]] and [[Henry Kissinger]], then [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]], proposed a clandestine plan to recover the wreckage so that the US could study Soviet nuclear missile technology, as well as possibly recover [[cryptography|cryptographic]] materials. The proposal was accepted by President [[Richard Nixon]], and the CIA was tasked to attempt the recovery.

==Building ''Glomar Explorer'' and its cover story==
{{Main|Glomar Explorer}}
Global Marine Development Inc., the research and development arm of Global Marine Inc., a pioneer in deepwater offshore drilling operations, was contracted to design, build and operate ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' to secretly salvage the sunken Soviet submarine. The ship was built at the [[Sun Shipbuilding]] yard near Philadelphia. Billionaire businessman [[Howard Hughes]] – whose companies were already contractors on numerous classified [[US military]] weapons, aircraft and satellite contracts{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} – agreed to lend his name to the project to support the cover story that the ship was mining [[manganese nodules]] from the ocean floor, but Hughes and his companies had no actual involvement in the project. ''K-129'' was photographed at a depth of over {{convert|16000|ft|m}}, and thus the salvage operation would be well beyond the depth of any ship salvage operation ever attempted.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} On November 1, 1972, work began on the {{convert|63000|ST|adj=on}}, {{convert|619|foot|m|adj=mid|-long}} ''[[USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193)|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]'' (HGE).

At least two preparatory missions were carried out in the general area of the recovery site using other ships. From September 1970 to January 1971, the drilling ship GLOMAR II collected site data as part of [[Project AXMINSTER]].<ref>{{cite web |title=186. Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |website=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXXV, National Security Policy, 1973–1976 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |date=May 28, 1974 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref> From January to July 1972, the R.V. SEASCOPE surveyed the general area to within 45 nm of the recovery site. Both missions also probed the Soviet reactions to research ships in the region.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss"/>

The primary objective was to recover a major portion of the submarine. In particular, the [[National_Intelligence_Board|United States Intelligence Board]] (USIB) expected to recover [[Cryptography|cryptographic]] equipment, a [[nuclear warhead]], a [[SS-N-5]] missile, the [[navigation system]], [[fire control system]], [[sonar]] system, [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] countermeasures, and related documentation.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss">{{cite journal |date=May 28, 1974 |title=Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |journal=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976 |volume=XXXV |access-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Recovery==
''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' employed a large mechanical claw, which [[Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company|Lockheed]] officially titled the "Capture Vehicle" but affectionately called ''Clementine''. The capture vehicle was designed to be lowered to the ocean floor, grasp the targeted submarine section, and then lift that section into the ship's [[moon pool]] for processing. One requirement of this technology was to keep the floating base stable and in position over a fixed point {{convert|16000|ft|m}} below the ocean surface.

The capture vehicle was lowered and raised on a pipe string similar to those used on oil drilling rigs. Section by section, pairs of {{convert|30|ft|m|adj=on}} steel pipes were strung together to lower the claw through a hole in the middle of the ship. This configuration was designed by Western Gear Corp. of [[Everett, Washington]]. Upon a successful capture by the claw, the lift reversed the process: {{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on}} pairs drawn up and removed one at a time. The salvaged "Target Object" was thus to be drawn into the moon pool in the center of the vessel, the doors of which could then be closed to form a floor for the salvaged section. This allowed for the entire salvage process to take place underwater, away from the view of other ships, aircraft, or spy satellites.

''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' arrived at the recovery site ({{coord|40.1|N|179.9|E|display=it|scale:50000000}})<ref name=prc>[http://www.prc68.com/I/crypto.shtml The Project Azorian video by Michael White has these coordinates confirmed by other sources]</ref> on July 4, 1974, after departing from [[Long Beach, California]], on June 20, and traveling sailing {{convert|3008|nmi|km}}. The ship conducted salvage operations for over a month. During this period, at least two Soviet Navy ships visited ''Hughes Glomar Explorer''{{'}}s work site, the oceangoing [[tugboat]] ''SB-10'', and the Soviet missile range instrumentation ship ''Chazma''.<ref name="StudiesIntell85">{{cite web
|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|title=Project Azorian: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer
|date=Fall 1985
|publisher=Studies in Intelligence, [[CIA]]
|access-date=February 13, 2010
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131100657/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|url-status=live
}}</ref> It was found out after 1991 that the Soviets were tipped off about the operation and were aware that the CIA was planning some kind of salvage operation, but the military command believed it impossible that they could perform such a task and disregarded further intelligence warnings. Later, Soviet Ambassador [[Anatoly Dobrynin]] started sending urgent messages back to the Soviet Navy warning that an operation was imminent. Soviet military engineering experts reevaluated their positions and claimed that it was indeed possible (though highly unlikely) to recover ''K-129'', and ships in the area were ordered to report any unusual activity, although the lack of knowledge as to where ''K-129'' was located impeded their ability to stop any salvage operation.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/>

US Army Major General [[Roland Lajoie]] stated that, according to a briefing he received by the CIA during recovery operations, ''Clementine'' suffered a catastrophic failure, causing two-thirds of the already raised portion of ''K-129'' to sink back to the ocean floor.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Former Lockheed and Hughes Global Marine employees who worked on the operation have stated that several of the "claws" intended to grab the submarine fractured, possibly because they were manufactured from [[maraging steel]], which is very [[tensile strength|strong]], but not very [[ductility|ductile]] compared with other kinds of steel.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> Video evidence and eyewitness reports have stated that multiple claws of Clementine sheared off, causing a {{convert|100|ft|adj=on}} section of the submarine to fall back to the seafloor.<ref name="Netflix" /> Eyewitnesses have stated that only the {{convert|38|ft|adj=on}} bow section was raised, while the sail portion containing the nuclear missiles was lost during the raising operation.<ref name="Netflix" />

[[File:Burial At Sea of Soviet Submariners from Hughes Glomar Explorer.webm|thumb|Video of the Soviet sailors being buried at sea]]

The recovered section included two [[nuclear torpedo]]es, and thus Project Azorian was not a complete failure. The bodies of six crewmen were also recovered, and were given a memorial service and with military honors, [[Burial at sea|buried at sea]] in a metal casket because of radioactivity concerns. Other crew members have reported that code books and other materials of apparent interest to CIA employees aboard the vessel were recovered, {{Original research span|and images of inventory printouts exhibited in the documentary<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> suggest that various submarine components, such as hatch covers, instruments and sonar equipment were also recovered.|date=July 2024}} White's documentary also states that the [[ship's bell]] from ''K-129'' was recovered, and was subsequently returned to the Soviet Union as part of a diplomatic effort. The CIA considered the project one of the greatest intelligence coups of the Cold War.<ref name="intel coup">{{cite web|title=Project AZORIAN|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|publisher=CIA|access-date=July 9, 2013|date=November 21, 2012|archive-date=September 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927005022/https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The entire salvage operation was recorded by a CIA documentary film crew, but this film remains classified. A short portion of the film, showing the recovery and subsequent burial at sea of the six bodies recovered in the forward section of ''K-129'', was given to the Russian government in 1992.

==Public disclosure==

===''The New York Times'' story===
''[[Time Magazine]]'' credited [[Jack Anderson (columnist)|Jack Anderson]] as breaking the story in a March 1975 radio broadcast.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Press: Show and Tell? (Monday, Mar. 31, 1975) |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |magazine=Time |date=March 31, 1975 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408202541/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Robarge">{{cite journal |last=Robarge |first=David |date=March 2012 |title=The ''Glomar Explorer'' in Film and Print |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005000/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |journal=Studies in Intelligence |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=28–29 |access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Rejecting a plea from the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[William Colby]] to suppress the story, Anderson said he released the story because "Navy experts have told us that the sunken sub contains no real secrets and that the project, therefore, is a waste of the taxpayers' money."<ref name="Robarge"/>

In February 1975, investigative reporter and former ''[[New York Times]]'' writer [[Seymour Hersh]] had planned to publish a story on Project Azorian. [[Bill Kovach]], the ''New York Times'' Washington bureau chief at the time, said in 2005 that the government offered a convincing argument to delay publication – exposure at that time, while the project was ongoing, "would have caused an international incident." ''The New York Times'' published its account in March 1975,<ref>Phelan, James. [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0716FF395E157493C5AB1788D85F418785F9&scp=3&sq=Glomar%20Hughes&st=cse "An Easy Burglary Led to the Disclosure of Hughes-C.I.A. Plan to Salvage Soviet Sub" (fee)]. ''The New York Times'' March 27, 1975, p. 18.</ref> after a story appeared in the ''Los Angeles Times'', and included a five-paragraph explanation of the many twists and turns in the path to publication.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manjoo |first1=Farhad |title=Prying open the Times |url=https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |website=Salon |access-date=September 22, 2021 |language=en |date=December 22, 2005 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921061814/https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |url-status=live }}</ref> CIA director [[George H. W. Bush]] reported on several occasions to U.S. president [[Gerald Ford]] on media reports and the future use of the ship.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817012757/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 1. December 1976, 9:00 to 9:30 a.m.|date=December 2, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817062928/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 12. July 1976, 8:00 a.m.|date=July 12, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> The CIA concluded that it seemed unclear what, if any, action was taken by the Soviet Union after learning of the story.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| title=Implications for US-Soviet Relations of Certain Soviet Activities: Microwaves in Moscow (section 13)| date=June 1976| publisher=Central Intelligence Agency| access-date=January 2, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124652/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| archive-date=November 5, 2010| url-status=dead}}</ref>

===FOIA request and the Glomar response===
After stories had been published about the CIA's attempts to stop publication of information about Project Azorian, [[Hank Phillippi Ryan|Harriet Ann Phillippi]], a journalist, filed a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request with the CIA for any records about the CIA's attempts. The CIA refused to either confirm or deny the existence of such documents.<ref>Philippi v. CIA (Turner et al.), U.S. Court of Appeals, 211 U.S. App. D.D. 95, June 25, 1981</ref> This type of non-responsive reply has since come to be known as the "[[Glomar response]]" or "Glomarization".<ref name="FOIA1986">{{cite web |author=FOIA Update, Vol. VII, No. 1, Page 3 |title=OIP Guidance: Privacy 'Glomarization' |publisher=United States Department of Justice |year=1986 |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |access-date=February 19, 2010 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724101407/http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 1998 release of video ===
A video showing the 1974 memorial services for the six Soviet seamen whose bodies were recovered by Project Azorian was forwarded by the U.S. to [[Russia]] in the early 1990s. Portions of this video were shown on television documentaries concerning Project Azorian, including a 1998 [[Discovery Channel]] special called ''A Matter of National Security'' (based on Clyde W. Burleson's book, ''The Jennifer Project'' (1977)) and again in 1999, on a PBS Cold War submarine episode of ''[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |title=Clyde W, Burleson, author, "The Jennifer Project", 1977 |access-date=January 4, 2011 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708165755/http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |title=PBS, ''Nova'', "Submarines, Secrets and Spies". Broadcast January, 1999. |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=September 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618183135/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 2010 release of 1985 CIA article ===
In February 2010, the CIA released an article from the fall 1985 edition of the CIA internal journal ''[[Studies in Intelligence]]'' following an application by researcher Matthew Aid at the [[National Security Archive]]<ref>{{cite news|author=Calvin Woodward|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|agency=Associated Press|title=Gone fishing: Secret hunt for a sunken Soviet sub|date=February 13, 2010|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195816/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> to declassify the information under the Freedom of Information Act. Exactly what the operation managed to salvage remained unclear.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |title="US admits salvaging sunken Soviet submarine – The American government has finally revealed details of a secret mission to raise a sunken Soviet submarine |date=February 14, 2010 |access-date=April 2, 2018 |archive-date=December 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225075309/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The report was written by an unidentified participant in Project Azorian.

=== 2010 release of President Ford cabinet meeting ===
President [[Gerald Ford]], Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]], Philip Buchen (Counsel to the President), [[John O. Marsh, Jr.]] (Counselor to the President), Ambassador [[Donald Rumsfeld]], USAF Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] (Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs), and [[William Colby]] (Director of Central Intelligence) discussed the leak and whether the Ford administration would react to Hersh's story in a cabinet meeting on March 19, 1975, the same day that ''The New York Times'' published the story. Secretary of Defense Schlesinger is quoted as saying,
{{Blockquote|This episode has been a major American accomplishment. The operation is a marvel – technically, and with maintaining secrecy.<ref name=cabinetmeeting>{{Cite web |url=http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |title=Matador Meeting |access-date=July 4, 2012 |archive-date=October 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006025318/http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Doc3>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063212/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf |date=August 16, 2012 }} nsarchiv</ref>}}
Schlesinger indicated at least some form of success that should be confirmed publicly.<ref name=declassified>[http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ Document Friday: The Origins of "Glomar" Declassified] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619093301/http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ |date=June 19, 2012 }}, William Burr, June 15, 2012.</ref> CIA Director William Colby dissented, recalling the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 crisis]], saying:
{{Blockquote|I think we should not put the Soviet Union under such pressure to respond.<ref name=cabinetmeeting /><ref name=Doc3 />}}
The ''Los Angeles Times'' published a four-page story the next day by [[Jack Nelson (journalist)|Jack Nelson]] with the headline "Administration Won't Talk About Sub Raised by CIA."<ref name=declassified />

==Conspiracy theory==

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204225855/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=February 4, 2013| title=Espionage: The Great Submarine Snatch|date=March 31, 1975 |publisher=Time Magazine}}</ref> and a court filing by Felice D. Cohen and [[Morton H. Halperin]] on behalf of the Military Audit Project <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|title=Military Audit Project v. {{!}} 656 F.2d 724 (1981) {{!}} f2d72411252 {{!}} Leagle.com|work=Leagle|access-date=September 17, 2017|language=en|archive-date=May 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504010619/http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|url-status=live}}</ref> suggest that the alleged project goal of raising a Soviet submarine might itself have been a cover story for another secret mission. Tapping undersea communication cables, the cover up of an assassination, the discovery of Atlantis, the installation of a missile silo, and installation and repair of [[SOSUS|surveillance systems to monitor ship and submarine movements]] are listed as possibilities for the actual purpose of such a secret mission.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| title=656 F.2d 724; 211 U.S.App.D.C. 135, 7 Media L. Rep. 1708: Military Audit Project, Felice D. Cohen, Morton H. Halperin, Appellants, v. William Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, et al.; No. 80-1110.| year=1981| publisher=United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325093649/http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref>

==Eyewitness accounts==
W. Craig Reed told an inside account of Project Azorian in his book ''Red November: Inside the Secret U.S. – Soviet Submarine War'' (2010). The account was provided by Joe Houston, the senior engineer who designed leading-edge camera systems used by the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' team to photograph ''K-129'' on the ocean floor. The team needed pictures that offered precise measurements to design the grappling arm and other systems used to bring the sunken submarine up from the bottom. Houston worked for the mysterious "Mr. P" (John Parangosky) who worked for CIA Deputy Director [[Carl E. Duckett]], the two leaders of Project Azorian. Duckett later worked with Houston at another company, and intimated that the CIA may have recovered much more from the ''K-129'' than admitted publicly. Reed also details how the deep submergence towed sonar array<ref>USS Halibut Crew Member</ref> technology was used for subsequent [[Operation Ivy Bells]] missions to wiretap underwater Soviet communications cables.

The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' features interviews with Sherman Wetmore, Global Marine heavy lift operations manager; Charlie Johnson, Global Marine heavy lift engineer; and Raymond Feldman, Lockheed Ocean Systems senior staff engineer. They were the three principals in the design of the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' heavy lift system and the Lockheed capture vehicle (CV or claw). They were also on board the ship during the mission and were intimately involved with the recovery operation. They confirmed that only {{cvt|38|ft}} of the bow was eventually recovered. The intent was to recover the forward two thirds ({{cvt|138|ft|disp=sqbr}}) of ''K-129'', which had broken off from the rear section of the submarine and was designated the Target Object (TO). The capture vehicle successfully lifted the TO from the ocean floor, but a failure of part of the capture vehicle on the way up caused the loss of {{cvt|100|ft}} of the TO, including the sail. [[Norman Polmar]] and Michael White published ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'' in 2010. The book contains additional documentary evidence about the effort to locate the submarine and the recovery operation.<ref name=AzorianDVD />

== CIA Museum artifacts ==
A number of artifacts from Project Azorian and ''Glomar Explorer'' are on display at the [[CIA Museum]]. The museum has shared declassified images and video featuring the artifacts through its website; however the physical grounds of the museum are on the compound of the [[George Bush Center for Intelligence]] and thus physically inaccessible to the public.<gallery widths="170" perrow="5">
File:Painting-of-AZORIAN-mission-approved.jpg|Sherman Wetmore, lead engineer on the Glomar Explorer, looking at an oil painting of the ship raising the Soviet submarine.
File:Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.jpg|Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.
File:Glomar Manganese Nodule Encased in Lucite.jpg|One of the manganese nodules that Glomar recovered from the Pacific, now encased in lucite.
File:Glomar Patch.jpg|Hughes Glomar / Summa Corporation crew patch
File:The Debrief Behind The Artifact Glomar.webm|A video discussing the Glomar Explorer, produced as part of the CIA Debrief series on YouTube
</gallery>

==Documentaries==
The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' was produced by Michael White and released in 2009.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ Azorian – The Raising of the K-129 / 2009 – Two Part TV Documentary / Michael White Films Vienna]</ref>

Spy Ops: Project Azorian (Season 1, Episode 8) is a short documentary also produced by Michael White which adds some details to his earlier work. Two former CIA officials (Robert Wallace, John Cardwell) make their appearance in this film for Netflix.<ref name="Netflix">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt29026398/ Spy Ops: Project Azorian Episode aired Sep 8, 2023]</ref>

''Neither Confirm Nor Deny'' is a documentary on Project Azorian.<ref name="latimes/nCnD-review">{{cite news |last1=Abele |first1=Robert |title=Review: 'Neither Confirm Nor Deny' tells a real-life tale of spies, nukes and Howard Hughes |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 23, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203212940/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes/deny-review">{{cite news |last1=Rapold |first1=Nicolas |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny' Review: Exhumation at Sea |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/21/movies/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review.html |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=September 21, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="978-0-231-55032-1">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter/4091883">{{cite news |last1=DeFore |first1=John |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny': Film Review - DOC NYC 2020 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/neither-confirm-nor-deny-film-review-doc-nyc-2020-4091883/ |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[HMS L55]], a British submarine sunk in 1919 and raised by the Soviets in 1928
* {{HMS|Poseidon|P99|6}}, a British submarine sunk in 1931 and secretly raised by China in 1972
* ''[[Hughes Mining Barge]]'', a submersible barge designed to keep the ''Glomar Explorer'''s true nature secret
* [[The Laundry Files#The Jennifer Morgue|''The Jennifer Morgue'']] novel by Charles Stross, uses the ''K-129'' scenario as a basis for supernatural horror.
* [[Harry Turtledove bibliography | ''Three Miles Down'']] novel by Harry Turtledove, based on Project Azorian.
* [[List of sunken nuclear submarines]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Sources'''
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Craven |first=John |author-link=John P. Craven PhD%2C JD |title=The Silent War: The Cold War Battle Beneath the Sea |year=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-684-87213-7 |chapter=The Hunt for Red September: A Tale of Two Submarines |pages=[https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 198–222] |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Taking of K-129: How the CIA Used Howard Hughes to Steal a Russian Sub in the Most Daring Covert Operation in History |last=Dean |first=Josh |year=2018 |publisher=Dutton Caliber |isbn=978-1101984451}}
* Dunham, Roger C. (1996) ''Spy Sub – Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific'' New York: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-451-40797-0}}
* Reed, W. Craig (2010) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140320042056/http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Red-November-W-Craig-Reed/?isbn=9780061806766 Red November: Inside the Secret U.S.–Soviet Submarine War]'' New York: William Morrow. {{ISBN|978-0-06-180676-6}}
* [[Norman Polmar|Polmar, Norman]] and White, Michael (2010) ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'', Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59114-690-2}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030160024/http://users.erols.com/marelk/Vets%20Page%20Rework/PUC-%20Citation.htm Presidential Unit Citation – USS ''Halibut'' – 1968]
* {{cite book|last=Sharp|first=David|title=The CIA's Greatest Covert Operation: Inside the Daring Mission to Recover a Nuclear-Armed Soviet Sub|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1834-7|page=344|url=http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728214106/http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|archive-date=July 28, 2012}}
* {{cite book |last=Sontag |first=Sherry |title=Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=New York |isbn=0-06-103004-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/blindmansbluffun00sont }}
* Varner, Roy and Collier, Wayne. (1978) ''A Matter of Risk: The Incredible Inside Story of the CIA's Hughes Glomar Explorer Mission to Raise a Russian Submarine''

==External links==
{{Commons category|Project Azorian}}
* [https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/jennifer.htm Project Jennifer and the Hughes Glomar Explorer] [[fas.org]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041227062724/http://intellit.muskingum.edu/cia_folder/cia70s_folder/cia70sglomar.html bibliography] intellit.[[Muskingum University|muskingum.edu]]

[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations|Jennifer, Project]]
[[Category:Cold War intelligence operations]]
[[Category:K-129 submarine sinking accident]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:Marine salvage operations]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:1974 in military history]]

Project Azorian

2024-09-22T10:08:41Z

Uruiamme: /* Eyewitness account */ there are several books, videos, with these accounts

{{short description|1974 CIA project to recover the sunken Soviet submarine K-129}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Project Azorian
|Image_Name = USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193).jpg
|Imagesize = 300
|Image_Alt =
|Image_Caption = ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''
|Thumb_Time =
|AKA =
|Participants = [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]
|Location = {{convert|16500|ft|m}} below the [[Pacific Ocean]]
|Date = 1974
|nongregorian =
|Deaths =
|Result = Successful recovery of a portion of [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine K-129]]
|URL =
}}

'''Project Azorian''' (also called "Jennifer" by the press after its Top Secret Security Compartment)<ref>{{cite web | via = GWU | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | title = Project Azorian: The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer | date = February 12, 2010 | first1 = Matthew | last1 = Aid | first2 = William | last2 = Burr | first3 = Thomas | last3 = Blanton | publisher = The National Security Archive | access-date = February 13, 2010 | archive-date = June 3, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603102439/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | url-status = live }}</ref> was a U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) project to recover the sunken [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine ''K-129'']] from the Pacific Ocean floor in 1974 using the purpose-built ship [[Glomar Explorer|''Hughes Glomar Explorer'']].<ref name= "p30">Wiegley, Roger D., LT (JAG) USN "The Recovered Sunken Warship: Raising a Legal Question" ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'' January 1979 p. 30.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining The secret on the ocean floor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918072757/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining |date=September 18, 2019 }}. David Shukman, ''BBC News''. February 19, 2018.</ref> The 1968 sinking of ''K-129'' occurred about {{convert|1560|mi|km|}} northwest of Hawaii.<ref name= "StudiesIntell85" /> Project Azorian was one of the most complex, expensive, and covert intelligence operations of the [[Cold War]] at a cost of about $800 million, or ${{inflation|US|0.8|1974|r=1}} billion today.

The US designed the recovery ship and its lifting cradle using concepts developed with Global Marine (see [[Project Mohole]]) that used their precision stability equipment to keep the ship nearly stationary above the target while lowering nearly {{convert |3|mi|km|spell= in}} of pipe. They worked with scientists to develop methods for preserving paper that had been underwater for years in hopes of being able to recover and read the submarine's codebooks. The reasons that this project was undertaken included the recovery of an intact [[R-21 (missile)|R-21]] nuclear missile and cryptological documents and equipment.

The Soviet Union was unable to locate ''K-129'', but the US determined its general location from data recorded by four [[Air Force Technical Applications Center]] (AFTAC) sites and the Adak [[SOSUS|Sound Surveillance System]] (SOSUS) array. {{Clarify span|The US identified an acoustic event on March 8 that likely originated from an explosion aboard the submarine, and was able to determine the location to within {{convert|5|nmi|mi km|spell= in}}.|Did this take place after the US determined the general location, as described in the previous sentence? Or do both sentences describe the same process?|date=July 2024}} The submarine {{USS |Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} located the boat using the Fish, a towed, {{convert|12|ft|adj=on}}, {{convert |2|ST|adj=on|spell=in}} collection of cameras, strobe lights, and sonar that was built to withstand extreme depths. The recovery operation in international waters about six years later used mining for [[manganese nodule]]s as its cover. The company was nominally owned by [[Howard Hughes]], secretly backed by the CIA, who had paid for the construction of the ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Polmar|first1=Norman|author-link= Norman Polmar|title= Project Azorian: the CIA and the Raising of the K-129 |year=2010|publisher= Naval Institute Press|location= Annapolis, MD |isbn= 978-1-59114-690-2 | last2 = White | first2 = Michael}}</ref> The ship recovered a portion of ''K-129'', but a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery.

== The wreck of ''K-129'' ==
{{anchor|Target: the wreck of the K-129}}
[[File:Soviet ballistic missile submarine K-129.jpg|thumb|The ''K-129'' submarine]]{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
On February 24, 1968, ''K-129'', a Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Project 629A]] [[ballistic missile submarine]] attached to the 15th Submarine Squadron of the [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]], left Rybachiy Naval Base in [[Kamchatka]] on a routine missile patrol, the boat's third since completing a major modernization the previous year. On the first day, the sub cruised out to deep water, conducted a test dive, surfaced to radio in, and embarked for its patrol station. The sub was to make standard radio contact with its commanders in Kamchatka when crossing the [[180th meridian]] and when arriving on station. But ''K-129'' missed its designated check-ins and did not respond to communication attempts. By the third week of March, the submarine was declared missing.

In April 1968, many [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]] surface and air assets deployed to the [[North Pacific Ocean]] and performed some unusual search operations. The activity was evaluated by the United States [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI) as a possible reaction to the loss of a Soviet submarine. Soviet surface ship searches were centered on a location known to be associated with Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Golf II-class]] strategic ballistic missile (SSB) diesel submarine patrol routes. These submarines carried three nuclear missiles in an extended sail/conning tower, and routinely deployed within missile range of the US west coast. After weeks of searching, the Soviets were unable to locate the sunken boat, and Soviet Pacific Fleet operations gradually returned to normal.

The US Navy analyzed acoustic data recorded by the [[SOSUS]] [[hydrophone]] network in the northern Pacific—four AFTAC sites and the [[Adak, Alaska]] SOSUS array—and found evidence of the implosion that had sunk the Russian sub.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} [[Naval Facility Point Sur|Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Point Sur]], south of [[Monterey, California]], isolated a sonic signature on its low-frequency array recordings of an implosion that had occurred on March 8, 1968. Using NavFac Point Sur's date and time of the event, [[NavFac Adak]] and the US West Coast NAVFAC were also able to isolate the acoustic event. With five SOSUS lines-of-bearing, Naval Intelligence was able to localize the site of the ''K-129'' wreck to the vicinity of 40.1° N latitude and 179.9° E longitude (close to the [[International Date Line]]).<ref name="AzorianDVD">{{cite AV media | people = Michael White | date = February 8, 2011 | medium = DVD | ISBN = 978-1591146902 | publisher = Michael White Films | ASIN =B0047H7PYQ | title = Azorian: The Raising of the K-129 | url = http://www.projectjennifer.at | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ | archive-date = February 5, 2009 }}</ref>

In July 1968, the [[United States Navy]] began "Operation Sand Dollar" with the deployment of {{USS|Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} from [[Pearl Harbor]] to the wreck site. Sand Dollar's objective was to find and photograph ''K-129''. In 1968 ''Halibut'', which had been configured to use deep submergence search equipment, was the US Navy's only such specially-equipped submarine. ''Halibut'' located the wreck after three weeks of visual search using robotic remote-controlled cameras. (It took almost five months of search to find the wreck of the US nuclear-powered submarine {{USS|Scorpion|SSN-589|2}} in the Atlantic, also in 1968). ''Halibut'' is reported to have spent the next several weeks taking more than 20,000 closeup photos of every aspect of the ''K-129'' wreck, a feat for which ''Halibut'' received a special classified [[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citation]] signed by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in 1968.

The photos were sent to the [[National Photographic Interpretation Center]] at the CIA to determine what, if anything, could be determined about the status of the wreck. CIA analysts wrote a report indicating that there was a good probability that the nuclear missile in the #3 missile tube was still intact.<ref name="Netflix" />

In 1970, based upon this photography, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Melvin Laird]] and [[Henry Kissinger]], then [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]], proposed a clandestine plan to recover the wreckage so that the US could study Soviet nuclear missile technology, as well as possibly recover [[cryptography|cryptographic]] materials. The proposal was accepted by President [[Richard Nixon]], and the CIA was tasked to attempt the recovery.

==Building ''Glomar Explorer'' and its cover story==
{{Main|Glomar Explorer}}
Global Marine Development Inc., the research and development arm of Global Marine Inc., a pioneer in deepwater offshore drilling operations, was contracted to design, build and operate ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' to secretly salvage the sunken Soviet submarine. The ship was built at the [[Sun Shipbuilding]] yard near Philadelphia. Billionaire businessman [[Howard Hughes]] – whose companies were already contractors on numerous classified [[US military]] weapons, aircraft and satellite contracts{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} – agreed to lend his name to the project to support the cover story that the ship was mining [[manganese nodules]] from the ocean floor, but Hughes and his companies had no actual involvement in the project. ''K-129'' was photographed at a depth of over {{convert|16000|ft|m}}, and thus the salvage operation would be well beyond the depth of any ship salvage operation ever attempted.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} On November 1, 1972, work began on the {{convert|63000|ST|adj=on}}, {{convert|619|foot|m|adj=mid|-long}} ''[[USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193)|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]'' (HGE).

At least two preparatory missions were carried out in the general area of the recovery site using other ships. From September 1970 to January 1971, the drilling ship GLOMAR II collected site data as part of [[Project AXMINSTER]].<ref>{{cite web |title=186. Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |website=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXXV, National Security Policy, 1973–1976 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |date=May 28, 1974 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref> From January to July 1972, the R.V. SEASCOPE surveyed the general area to within 45 nm of the recovery site. Both missions also probed the Soviet reactions to research ships in the region.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss"/>

The primary objective was to recover a major portion of the submarine. In particular, the [[National_Intelligence_Board|United States Intelligence Board]] (USIB) expected to recover [[Cryptography|cryptographic]] equipment, a [[nuclear warhead]], a [[SS-N-5]] missile, the [[navigation system]], [[fire control system]], [[sonar]] system, [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] countermeasures, and related documentation.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss">{{cite journal |date=May 28, 1974 |title=Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |journal=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976 |volume=XXXV |access-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Recovery==
''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' employed a large mechanical claw, which [[Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company|Lockheed]] officially titled the "Capture Vehicle" but affectionately called ''Clementine''. The capture vehicle was designed to be lowered to the ocean floor, grasp the targeted submarine section, and then lift that section into the ship's [[moon pool]] for processing. One requirement of this technology was to keep the floating base stable and in position over a fixed point {{convert|16000|ft|m}} below the ocean surface.

The capture vehicle was lowered and raised on a pipe string similar to those used on oil drilling rigs. Section by section, pairs of {{convert|30|ft|m|adj=on}} steel pipes were strung together to lower the claw through a hole in the middle of the ship. This configuration was designed by Western Gear Corp. of [[Everett, Washington]]. Upon a successful capture by the claw, the lift reversed the process: {{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on}} pairs drawn up and removed one at a time. The salvaged "Target Object" was thus to be drawn into the moon pool in the center of the vessel, the doors of which could then be closed to form a floor for the salvaged section. This allowed for the entire salvage process to take place underwater, away from the view of other ships, aircraft, or spy satellites.

''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' arrived at the recovery site ({{coord|40.1|N|179.9|E|display=it|scale:50000000}})<ref name=prc>[http://www.prc68.com/I/crypto.shtml The Project Azorian video by Michael White has these coordinates confirmed by other sources]</ref> on July 4, 1974, after departing from [[Long Beach, California]], on June 20, and traveling sailing {{convert|3008|nmi|km}}. The ship conducted salvage operations for over a month. During this period, at least two Soviet Navy ships visited ''Hughes Glomar Explorer''{{'}}s work site, the oceangoing [[tugboat]] ''SB-10'', and the Soviet missile range instrumentation ship ''Chazma''.<ref name="StudiesIntell85">{{cite web
|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|title=Project Azorian: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer
|date=Fall 1985
|publisher=Studies in Intelligence, [[CIA]]
|access-date=February 13, 2010
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131100657/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|url-status=live
}}</ref> It was found out after 1991 that the Soviets were tipped off about the operation and were aware that the CIA was planning some kind of salvage operation, but the military command believed it impossible that they could perform such a task and disregarded further intelligence warnings. Later, Soviet Ambassador [[Anatoly Dobrynin]] started sending urgent messages back to the Soviet Navy warning that an operation was imminent. Soviet military engineering experts reevaluated their positions and claimed that it was indeed possible (though highly unlikely) to recover ''K-129'', and ships in the area were ordered to report any unusual activity, although the lack of knowledge as to where ''K-129'' was located impeded their ability to stop any salvage operation.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/>

US Army Major General [[Roland Lajoie]] stated that, according to a briefing he received by the CIA during recovery operations, ''Clementine'' suffered a catastrophic failure, causing two-thirds of the already raised portion of ''K-129'' to sink back to the ocean floor.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Former Lockheed and Hughes Global Marine employees who worked on the operation have stated that several of the "claws" intended to grab the submarine fractured, possibly because they were manufactured from [[maraging steel]], which is very [[tensile strength|strong]], but not very [[ductility|ductile]] compared with other kinds of steel.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> Video evidence and eyewitness reports have stated that multiple claws of Clementine sheared off, causing a {{convert|100|ft|adj=on}} section of the submarine to fall back to the seafloor.<ref name="Netflix" /> Eyewitnesses have stated that only the {{convert|38|ft|adj=on}} bow section was raised, while the sail portion containing the nuclear missiles was lost during the raising operation.<ref name="Netflix" />

[[File:Burial At Sea of Soviet Submariners from Hughes Glomar Explorer.webm|thumb|Video of the Soviet sailors being buried at sea]]

The recovered section included two [[nuclear torpedo]]es, and thus Project Azorian was not a complete failure. The bodies of six crewmen were also recovered, and were given a memorial service and with military honors, [[Burial at sea|buried at sea]] in a metal casket because of radioactivity concerns. Other crew members have reported that code books and other materials of apparent interest to CIA employees aboard the vessel were recovered, {{Original research span|and images of inventory printouts exhibited in the documentary<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> suggest that various submarine components, such as hatch covers, instruments and sonar equipment were also recovered.|date=July 2024}} White's documentary also states that the [[ship's bell]] from ''K-129'' was recovered, and was subsequently returned to the Soviet Union as part of a diplomatic effort. The CIA considered the project one of the greatest intelligence coups of the Cold War.<ref name="intel coup">{{cite web|title=Project AZORIAN|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|publisher=CIA|access-date=July 9, 2013|date=November 21, 2012|archive-date=September 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927005022/https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The entire salvage operation was recorded by a CIA documentary film crew, but this film remains classified. A short portion of the film, showing the recovery and subsequent burial at sea of the six bodies recovered in the forward section of ''K-129'', was given to the Russian government in 1992.

==Public disclosure==

===''The New York Times'' story===
''[[Time Magazine]]'' credited [[Jack Anderson (columnist)|Jack Anderson]] as breaking the story in a March 1975 radio broadcast.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Press: Show and Tell? (Monday, Mar. 31, 1975) |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |magazine=Time |date=March 31, 1975 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408202541/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Robarge">{{cite journal |last=Robarge |first=David |date=March 2012 |title=The ''Glomar Explorer'' in Film and Print |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005000/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |journal=Studies in Intelligence |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=28–29 |access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Rejecting a plea from the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[William Colby]] to suppress the story, Anderson said he released the story because "Navy experts have told us that the sunken sub contains no real secrets and that the project, therefore, is a waste of the taxpayers' money."<ref name="Robarge"/>

In February 1975, investigative reporter and former ''[[New York Times]]'' writer [[Seymour Hersh]] had planned to publish a story on Project Azorian. [[Bill Kovach]], the ''New York Times'' Washington bureau chief at the time, said in 2005 that the government offered a convincing argument to delay publication – exposure at that time, while the project was ongoing, "would have caused an international incident." ''The New York Times'' published its account in March 1975,<ref>Phelan, James. [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0716FF395E157493C5AB1788D85F418785F9&scp=3&sq=Glomar%20Hughes&st=cse "An Easy Burglary Led to the Disclosure of Hughes-C.I.A. Plan to Salvage Soviet Sub" (fee)]. ''The New York Times'' March 27, 1975, p. 18.</ref> after a story appeared in the ''Los Angeles Times'', and included a five-paragraph explanation of the many twists and turns in the path to publication.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manjoo |first1=Farhad |title=Prying open the Times |url=https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |website=Salon |access-date=September 22, 2021 |language=en |date=December 22, 2005 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921061814/https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |url-status=live }}</ref> CIA director [[George H. W. Bush]] reported on several occasions to U.S. president [[Gerald Ford]] on media reports and the future use of the ship.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817012757/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 1. December 1976, 9:00 to 9:30 a.m.|date=December 2, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817062928/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 12. July 1976, 8:00 a.m.|date=July 12, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> The CIA concluded that it seemed unclear what, if any, action was taken by the Soviet Union after learning of the story.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| title=Implications for US-Soviet Relations of Certain Soviet Activities: Microwaves in Moscow (section 13)| date=June 1976| publisher=Central Intelligence Agency| access-date=January 2, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124652/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| archive-date=November 5, 2010| url-status=dead}}</ref>

===FOIA request and the Glomar response===
After stories had been published about the CIA's attempts to stop publication of information about Project Azorian, [[Hank Phillippi Ryan|Harriet Ann Phillippi]], a journalist, filed a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request with the CIA for any records about the CIA's attempts. The CIA refused to either confirm or deny the existence of such documents.<ref>Philippi v. CIA (Turner et al.), U.S. Court of Appeals, 211 U.S. App. D.D. 95, June 25, 1981</ref> This type of non-responsive reply has since come to be known as the "[[Glomar response]]" or "Glomarization".<ref name="FOIA1986">{{cite web |author=FOIA Update, Vol. VII, No. 1, Page 3 |title=OIP Guidance: Privacy 'Glomarization' |publisher=United States Department of Justice |year=1986 |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |access-date=February 19, 2010 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724101407/http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 1998 release of video ===
A video showing the 1974 memorial services for the six Soviet seamen whose bodies were recovered by Project Azorian was forwarded by the U.S. to [[Russia]] in the early 1990s. Portions of this video were shown on television documentaries concerning Project Azorian, including a 1998 [[Discovery Channel]] special called ''A Matter of National Security'' (based on Clyde W. Burleson's book, ''The Jennifer Project'' (1977)) and again in 1999, on a PBS Cold War submarine episode of ''[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |title=Clyde W, Burleson, author, "The Jennifer Project", 1977 |access-date=January 4, 2011 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708165755/http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |title=PBS, ''Nova'', "Submarines, Secrets and Spies". Broadcast January, 1999. |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=September 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618183135/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 2010 release of 1985 CIA article ===
In February 2010, the CIA released an article from the fall 1985 edition of the CIA internal journal ''[[Studies in Intelligence]]'' following an application by researcher Matthew Aid at the [[National Security Archive]]<ref>{{cite news|author=Calvin Woodward|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|agency=Associated Press|title=Gone fishing: Secret hunt for a sunken Soviet sub|date=February 13, 2010|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195816/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> to declassify the information under the Freedom of Information Act. Exactly what the operation managed to salvage remained unclear.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |title="US admits salvaging sunken Soviet submarine – The American government has finally revealed details of a secret mission to raise a sunken Soviet submarine |date=February 14, 2010 |access-date=April 2, 2018 |archive-date=December 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225075309/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The report was written by an unidentified participant in Project Azorian.

=== 2010 release of President Ford cabinet meeting ===
President [[Gerald Ford]], Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]], Philip Buchen (Counsel to the President), [[John O. Marsh, Jr.]] (Counselor to the President), Ambassador [[Donald Rumsfeld]], USAF Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] (Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs), and [[William Colby]] (Director of Central Intelligence) discussed the leak and whether the Ford administration would react to Hersh's story in a cabinet meeting on March 19, 1975, the same day that ''The New York Times'' published the story. Secretary of Defense Schlesinger is quoted as saying,
{{Blockquote|This episode has been a major American accomplishment. The operation is a marvel – technically, and with maintaining secrecy.<ref name=cabinetmeeting>{{Cite web |url=http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |title=Matador Meeting |access-date=July 4, 2012 |archive-date=October 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006025318/http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Doc3>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063212/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf |date=August 16, 2012 }} nsarchiv</ref>}}
Schlesinger indicated at least some form of success that should be confirmed publicly.<ref name=declassified>[http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ Document Friday: The Origins of "Glomar" Declassified] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619093301/http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ |date=June 19, 2012 }}, William Burr, June 15, 2012.</ref> CIA Director William Colby dissented, recalling the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 crisis]], saying:
{{Blockquote|I think we should not put the Soviet Union under such pressure to respond.<ref name=cabinetmeeting /><ref name=Doc3 />}}
The ''Los Angeles Times'' published a four-page story the next day by [[Jack Nelson (journalist)|Jack Nelson]] with the headline "Administration Won't Talk About Sub Raised by CIA."<ref name=declassified />

==Conspiracy theory==

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204225855/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=February 4, 2013| title=Espionage: The Great Submarine Snatch|date=March 31, 1975 |publisher=Time Magazine}}</ref> and a court filing by Felice D. Cohen and [[Morton H. Halperin]] on behalf of the Military Audit Project <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|title=Military Audit Project v. {{!}} 656 F.2d 724 (1981) {{!}} f2d72411252 {{!}} Leagle.com|work=Leagle|access-date=September 17, 2017|language=en|archive-date=May 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504010619/http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|url-status=live}}</ref> suggest that the alleged project goal of raising a Soviet submarine might itself have been a cover story for another secret mission. Tapping undersea communication cables, the cover up of an assassination, the discovery of Atlantis, the installation of a missile silo, and installation and repair of [[SOSUS|surveillance systems to monitor ship and submarine movements]] are listed as possibilities for the actual purpose of such a secret mission.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| title=656 F.2d 724; 211 U.S.App.D.C. 135, 7 Media L. Rep. 1708: Military Audit Project, Felice D. Cohen, Morton H. Halperin, Appellants, v. William Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, et al.; No. 80-1110.| year=1981| publisher=United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325093649/http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref>

==Eyewitness accounts==
W. Craig Reed told an inside account of Project Azorian in his book ''Red November: Inside the Secret U.S. – Soviet Submarine War'' (2010). The account was provided by Joe Houston, the senior engineer who designed leading-edge camera systems used by the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' team to photograph ''K-129'' on the ocean floor. The team needed pictures that offered precise measurements to design the grappling arm and other systems used to bring the sunken submarine up from the bottom. Houston worked for the mysterious "Mr. P" (John Parangosky) who worked for CIA Deputy Director [[Carl E. Duckett]], the two leaders of Project Azorian. Duckett later worked with Houston at another company, and intimated that the CIA may have recovered much more from the ''K-129'' than admitted publicly. Reed also details how the deep submergence towed sonar array<ref>USS Halibut Crew Member</ref> technology was used for subsequent [[Operation Ivy Bells]] missions to wiretap underwater Soviet communications cables.

The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' features interviews with Sherman Wetmore, Global Marine heavy lift operations manager; Charlie Johnson, Global Marine heavy lift engineer; and Raymond Feldman, Lockheed Ocean Systems senior staff engineer. They were the three principals in the design of the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' heavy lift system and the Lockheed capture vehicle (CV or claw). They were also on board the ship during the mission and were intimately involved with the recovery operation. They confirmed that only {{cvt|38|ft}} of the bow was eventually recovered. The intent was to recover the forward two thirds ({{cvt|138|ft|disp=sqbr}}) of ''K-129'', which had broken off from the rear section of the submarine and was designated the Target Object (TO). The capture vehicle successfully lifted the TO from the ocean floor, but a failure of part of the capture vehicle on the way up caused the loss of {{cvt|100|ft}} of the TO, including the sail. [[Norman Polmar]] and Michael White published ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'' in 2010. The book contains additional documentary evidence about the effort to locate the submarine and the recovery operation.<ref name=AzorianDVD />

== CIA Museum artifacts ==
A number of artifacts from Project Azorian and ''Glomar Explorer'' are on display at the [[CIA Museum]]. The museum has shared declassified images and video featuring the artifacts through its website; however the physical grounds of the museum are on the compound of the [[George Bush Center for Intelligence]] and thus physically inaccessible to the public.<gallery widths="170" perrow="5">
File:Painting-of-AZORIAN-mission-approved.jpg|Sherman Wetmore, lead engineer on the Glomar Explorer, looking at an oil painting of the ship raising the Soviet submarine.
File:Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.jpg|Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.
File:Glomar Manganese Nodule Encased in Lucite.jpg|One of the manganese nodules that Glomar recovered from the Pacific, now encased in lucite.
File:Glomar Patch.jpg|Hughes Glomar / Summa Corporation crew patch
File:The Debrief Behind The Artifact Glomar.webm|A video discussing the Glomar Explorer, produced as part of the CIA Debrief series on YouTube
</gallery>

==Documentaries==
The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' was produced by Michael White and released in 2009.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ Azorian – The Raising of the K-129 / 2009 – Two Part TV Documentary / Michael White Films Vienna]</ref>

Spy Ops: Project Azorian (Season 1, Episode 8) is a short documentary also produced by Michael White which adds some details to his earlier work. Two former CIA officials (Robert Wallace, John Cardwell) make their appearance in this film for Netflix.<ref name="Netflix">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt29026398/ Spy Ops: Project Azorian Episode aired Sep 8, 2023]</ref>

''Neither Confirm Nor Deny'' is a documentary on Project Azorian.<ref name="latimes/nCnD-review">{{cite news |last1=Abele |first1=Robert |title=Review: 'Neither Confirm Nor Deny' tells a real-life tale of spies, nukes and Howard Hughes |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 23, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203212940/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes/deny-review">{{cite news |last1=Rapold |first1=Nicolas |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny' Review: Exhumation at Sea |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/21/movies/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review.html |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=September 21, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="978-0-231-55032-1">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter/4091883">{{cite news |last1=DeFore |first1=John |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny': Film Review - DOC NYC 2020 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/neither-confirm-nor-deny-film-review-doc-nyc-2020-4091883/ |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[HMS L55]], a British submarine sunk in 1919 and raised by the Soviets in 1928
* {{HMS|Poseidon|P99|6}}, a British submarine sunk in 1931 and secretly raised by China in 1972
* ''[[Hughes Mining Barge]]'', a submersible barge designed to keep the ''Glomar Explorer'''s true nature secret
* [[The Laundry Files#The Jennifer Morgue|''The Jennifer Morgue'']] novel by Charles Stross, uses the ''K-129'' scenario as a basis for supernatural horror.
* [[Harry Turtledove bibliography | ''Three Miles Down'']] novel by Harry Turtledove, based on Project Azorian.
* [[List of sunken nuclear submarines]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Sources'''
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Craven |first=John |author-link=John P. Craven PhD%2C JD |title=The Silent War: The Cold War Battle Beneath the Sea |year=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-684-87213-7 |chapter=The Hunt for Red September: A Tale of Two Submarines |pages=[https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 198–222] |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Taking of K-129: How the CIA Used Howard Hughes to Steal a Russian Sub in the Most Daring Covert Operation in History |last=Dean |first=Josh |year=2018 |publisher=Dutton Caliber |isbn=978-1101984451}}
* Dunham, Roger C. (1996) ''Spy Sub – Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific'' New York: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-451-40797-0}}
* Reed, W. Craig (2010) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140320042056/http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Red-November-W-Craig-Reed/?isbn=9780061806766 Red November: Inside the Secret U.S.–Soviet Submarine War]'' New York: William Morrow. {{ISBN|978-0-06-180676-6}}
* [[Norman Polmar|Polmar, Norman]] and White, Michael (2010) ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'', Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59114-690-2}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030160024/http://users.erols.com/marelk/Vets%20Page%20Rework/PUC-%20Citation.htm Presidential Unit Citation – USS ''Halibut'' – 1968]
* {{cite book|last=Sharp|first=David|title=The CIA's Greatest Covert Operation: Inside the Daring Mission to Recover a Nuclear-Armed Soviet Sub|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1834-7|page=344|url=http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728214106/http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|archive-date=July 28, 2012}}
* {{cite book |last=Sontag |first=Sherry |title=Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=New York |isbn=0-06-103004-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/blindmansbluffun00sont }}
* Varner, Roy and Collier, Wayne. (1978) ''A Matter of Risk: The Incredible Inside Story of the CIA's Hughes Glomar Explorer Mission to Raise a Russian Submarine''

==External links==
{{Commons category|Project Azorian}}
* [https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/jennifer.htm Project Jennifer and the Hughes Glomar Explorer] [[fas.org]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041227062724/http://intellit.muskingum.edu/cia_folder/cia70s_folder/cia70sglomar.html bibliography] intellit.[[Muskingum University|muskingum.edu]]

[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations|Jennifer, Project]]
[[Category:Cold War intelligence operations]]
[[Category:K-129 submarine sinking accident]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:Marine salvage operations]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:1974 in military history]]

Project Azorian

2024-09-22T10:02:18Z

Uruiamme: Corrected coordinate scaling to show the continents

{{short description|1974 CIA project to recover the sunken Soviet submarine K-129}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Project Azorian
|Image_Name = USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193).jpg
|Imagesize = 300
|Image_Alt =
|Image_Caption = ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''
|Thumb_Time =
|AKA =
|Participants = [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]
|Location = {{convert|16500|ft|m}} below the [[Pacific Ocean]]
|Date = 1974
|nongregorian =
|Deaths =
|Result = Successful recovery of a portion of [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine K-129]]
|URL =
}}

'''Project Azorian''' (also called "Jennifer" by the press after its Top Secret Security Compartment)<ref>{{cite web | via = GWU | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | title = Project Azorian: The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer | date = February 12, 2010 | first1 = Matthew | last1 = Aid | first2 = William | last2 = Burr | first3 = Thomas | last3 = Blanton | publisher = The National Security Archive | access-date = February 13, 2010 | archive-date = June 3, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603102439/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | url-status = live }}</ref> was a U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) project to recover the sunken [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine ''K-129'']] from the Pacific Ocean floor in 1974 using the purpose-built ship [[Glomar Explorer|''Hughes Glomar Explorer'']].<ref name= "p30">Wiegley, Roger D., LT (JAG) USN "The Recovered Sunken Warship: Raising a Legal Question" ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'' January 1979 p. 30.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining The secret on the ocean floor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918072757/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining |date=September 18, 2019 }}. David Shukman, ''BBC News''. February 19, 2018.</ref> The 1968 sinking of ''K-129'' occurred about {{convert|1560|mi|km|}} northwest of Hawaii.<ref name= "StudiesIntell85" /> Project Azorian was one of the most complex, expensive, and covert intelligence operations of the [[Cold War]] at a cost of about $800 million, or ${{inflation|US|0.8|1974|r=1}} billion today.

The US designed the recovery ship and its lifting cradle using concepts developed with Global Marine (see [[Project Mohole]]) that used their precision stability equipment to keep the ship nearly stationary above the target while lowering nearly {{convert |3|mi|km|spell= in}} of pipe. They worked with scientists to develop methods for preserving paper that had been underwater for years in hopes of being able to recover and read the submarine's codebooks. The reasons that this project was undertaken included the recovery of an intact [[R-21 (missile)|R-21]] nuclear missile and cryptological documents and equipment.

The Soviet Union was unable to locate ''K-129'', but the US determined its general location from data recorded by four [[Air Force Technical Applications Center]] (AFTAC) sites and the Adak [[SOSUS|Sound Surveillance System]] (SOSUS) array. {{Clarify span|The US identified an acoustic event on March 8 that likely originated from an explosion aboard the submarine, and was able to determine the location to within {{convert|5|nmi|mi km|spell= in}}.|Did this take place after the US determined the general location, as described in the previous sentence? Or do both sentences describe the same process?|date=July 2024}} The submarine {{USS |Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} located the boat using the Fish, a towed, {{convert|12|ft|adj=on}}, {{convert |2|ST|adj=on|spell=in}} collection of cameras, strobe lights, and sonar that was built to withstand extreme depths. The recovery operation in international waters about six years later used mining for [[manganese nodule]]s as its cover. The company was nominally owned by [[Howard Hughes]], secretly backed by the CIA, who had paid for the construction of the ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Polmar|first1=Norman|author-link= Norman Polmar|title= Project Azorian: the CIA and the Raising of the K-129 |year=2010|publisher= Naval Institute Press|location= Annapolis, MD |isbn= 978-1-59114-690-2 | last2 = White | first2 = Michael}}</ref> The ship recovered a portion of ''K-129'', but a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery.

== The wreck of ''K-129'' ==
{{anchor|Target: the wreck of the K-129}}
[[File:Soviet ballistic missile submarine K-129.jpg|thumb|The ''K-129'' submarine]]{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
On February 24, 1968, ''K-129'', a Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Project 629A]] [[ballistic missile submarine]] attached to the 15th Submarine Squadron of the [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]], left Rybachiy Naval Base in [[Kamchatka]] on a routine missile patrol, the boat's third since completing a major modernization the previous year. On the first day, the sub cruised out to deep water, conducted a test dive, surfaced to radio in, and embarked for its patrol station. The sub was to make standard radio contact with its commanders in Kamchatka when crossing the [[180th meridian]] and when arriving on station. But ''K-129'' missed its designated check-ins and did not respond to communication attempts. By the third week of March, the submarine was declared missing.

In April 1968, many [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]] surface and air assets deployed to the [[North Pacific Ocean]] and performed some unusual search operations. The activity was evaluated by the United States [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI) as a possible reaction to the loss of a Soviet submarine. Soviet surface ship searches were centered on a location known to be associated with Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Golf II-class]] strategic ballistic missile (SSB) diesel submarine patrol routes. These submarines carried three nuclear missiles in an extended sail/conning tower, and routinely deployed within missile range of the US west coast. After weeks of searching, the Soviets were unable to locate the sunken boat, and Soviet Pacific Fleet operations gradually returned to normal.

The US Navy analyzed acoustic data recorded by the [[SOSUS]] [[hydrophone]] network in the northern Pacific—four AFTAC sites and the [[Adak, Alaska]] SOSUS array—and found evidence of the implosion that had sunk the Russian sub.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} [[Naval Facility Point Sur|Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Point Sur]], south of [[Monterey, California]], isolated a sonic signature on its low-frequency array recordings of an implosion that had occurred on March 8, 1968. Using NavFac Point Sur's date and time of the event, [[NavFac Adak]] and the US West Coast NAVFAC were also able to isolate the acoustic event. With five SOSUS lines-of-bearing, Naval Intelligence was able to localize the site of the ''K-129'' wreck to the vicinity of 40.1° N latitude and 179.9° E longitude (close to the [[International Date Line]]).<ref name="AzorianDVD">{{cite AV media | people = Michael White | date = February 8, 2011 | medium = DVD | ISBN = 978-1591146902 | publisher = Michael White Films | ASIN =B0047H7PYQ | title = Azorian: The Raising of the K-129 | url = http://www.projectjennifer.at | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ | archive-date = February 5, 2009 }}</ref>

In July 1968, the [[United States Navy]] began "Operation Sand Dollar" with the deployment of {{USS|Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} from [[Pearl Harbor]] to the wreck site. Sand Dollar's objective was to find and photograph ''K-129''. In 1968 ''Halibut'', which had been configured to use deep submergence search equipment, was the US Navy's only such specially-equipped submarine. ''Halibut'' located the wreck after three weeks of visual search using robotic remote-controlled cameras. (It took almost five months of search to find the wreck of the US nuclear-powered submarine {{USS|Scorpion|SSN-589|2}} in the Atlantic, also in 1968). ''Halibut'' is reported to have spent the next several weeks taking more than 20,000 closeup photos of every aspect of the ''K-129'' wreck, a feat for which ''Halibut'' received a special classified [[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citation]] signed by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in 1968.

The photos were sent to the [[National Photographic Interpretation Center]] at the CIA to determine what, if anything, could be determined about the status of the wreck. CIA analysts wrote a report indicating that there was a good probability that the nuclear missile in the #3 missile tube was still intact.<ref name="Netflix" />

In 1970, based upon this photography, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Melvin Laird]] and [[Henry Kissinger]], then [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]], proposed a clandestine plan to recover the wreckage so that the US could study Soviet nuclear missile technology, as well as possibly recover [[cryptography|cryptographic]] materials. The proposal was accepted by President [[Richard Nixon]], and the CIA was tasked to attempt the recovery.

==Building ''Glomar Explorer'' and its cover story==
{{Main|Glomar Explorer}}
Global Marine Development Inc., the research and development arm of Global Marine Inc., a pioneer in deepwater offshore drilling operations, was contracted to design, build and operate ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' to secretly salvage the sunken Soviet submarine. The ship was built at the [[Sun Shipbuilding]] yard near Philadelphia. Billionaire businessman [[Howard Hughes]] – whose companies were already contractors on numerous classified [[US military]] weapons, aircraft and satellite contracts{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} – agreed to lend his name to the project to support the cover story that the ship was mining [[manganese nodules]] from the ocean floor, but Hughes and his companies had no actual involvement in the project. ''K-129'' was photographed at a depth of over {{convert|16000|ft|m}}, and thus the salvage operation would be well beyond the depth of any ship salvage operation ever attempted.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} On November 1, 1972, work began on the {{convert|63000|ST|adj=on}}, {{convert|619|foot|m|adj=mid|-long}} ''[[USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193)|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]'' (HGE).

At least two preparatory missions were carried out in the general area of the recovery site using other ships. From September 1970 to January 1971, the drilling ship GLOMAR II collected site data as part of [[Project AXMINSTER]].<ref>{{cite web |title=186. Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |website=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXXV, National Security Policy, 1973–1976 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |date=May 28, 1974 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref> From January to July 1972, the R.V. SEASCOPE surveyed the general area to within 45 nm of the recovery site. Both missions also probed the Soviet reactions to research ships in the region.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss"/>

The primary objective was to recover a major portion of the submarine. In particular, the [[National_Intelligence_Board|United States Intelligence Board]] (USIB) expected to recover [[Cryptography|cryptographic]] equipment, a [[nuclear warhead]], a [[SS-N-5]] missile, the [[navigation system]], [[fire control system]], [[sonar]] system, [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] countermeasures, and related documentation.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss">{{cite journal |date=May 28, 1974 |title=Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |journal=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976 |volume=XXXV |access-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Recovery==
''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' employed a large mechanical claw, which [[Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company|Lockheed]] officially titled the "Capture Vehicle" but affectionately called ''Clementine''. The capture vehicle was designed to be lowered to the ocean floor, grasp the targeted submarine section, and then lift that section into the ship's [[moon pool]] for processing. One requirement of this technology was to keep the floating base stable and in position over a fixed point {{convert|16000|ft|m}} below the ocean surface.

The capture vehicle was lowered and raised on a pipe string similar to those used on oil drilling rigs. Section by section, pairs of {{convert|30|ft|m|adj=on}} steel pipes were strung together to lower the claw through a hole in the middle of the ship. This configuration was designed by Western Gear Corp. of [[Everett, Washington]]. Upon a successful capture by the claw, the lift reversed the process: {{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on}} pairs drawn up and removed one at a time. The salvaged "Target Object" was thus to be drawn into the moon pool in the center of the vessel, the doors of which could then be closed to form a floor for the salvaged section. This allowed for the entire salvage process to take place underwater, away from the view of other ships, aircraft, or spy satellites.

''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' arrived at the recovery site ({{coord|40.1|N|179.9|E|display=it|scale:50000000}})<ref name=prc>[http://www.prc68.com/I/crypto.shtml The Project Azorian video by Michael White has these coordinates confirmed by other sources]</ref> on July 4, 1974, after departing from [[Long Beach, California]], on June 20, and traveling sailing {{convert|3008|nmi|km}}. The ship conducted salvage operations for over a month. During this period, at least two Soviet Navy ships visited ''Hughes Glomar Explorer''{{'}}s work site, the oceangoing [[tugboat]] ''SB-10'', and the Soviet missile range instrumentation ship ''Chazma''.<ref name="StudiesIntell85">{{cite web
|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|title=Project Azorian: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer
|date=Fall 1985
|publisher=Studies in Intelligence, [[CIA]]
|access-date=February 13, 2010
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131100657/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|url-status=live
}}</ref> It was found out after 1991 that the Soviets were tipped off about the operation and were aware that the CIA was planning some kind of salvage operation, but the military command believed it impossible that they could perform such a task and disregarded further intelligence warnings. Later, Soviet Ambassador [[Anatoly Dobrynin]] started sending urgent messages back to the Soviet Navy warning that an operation was imminent. Soviet military engineering experts reevaluated their positions and claimed that it was indeed possible (though highly unlikely) to recover ''K-129'', and ships in the area were ordered to report any unusual activity, although the lack of knowledge as to where ''K-129'' was located impeded their ability to stop any salvage operation.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/>

US Army Major General [[Roland Lajoie]] stated that, according to a briefing he received by the CIA during recovery operations, ''Clementine'' suffered a catastrophic failure, causing two-thirds of the already raised portion of ''K-129'' to sink back to the ocean floor.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Former Lockheed and Hughes Global Marine employees who worked on the operation have stated that several of the "claws" intended to grab the submarine fractured, possibly because they were manufactured from [[maraging steel]], which is very [[tensile strength|strong]], but not very [[ductility|ductile]] compared with other kinds of steel.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> Video evidence and eyewitness reports have stated that multiple claws of Clementine sheared off, causing a {{convert|100|ft|adj=on}} section of the submarine to fall back to the seafloor.<ref name="Netflix" /> Eyewitnesses have stated that only the {{convert|38|ft|adj=on}} bow section was raised, while the sail portion containing the nuclear missiles was lost during the raising operation.<ref name="Netflix" />

[[File:Burial At Sea of Soviet Submariners from Hughes Glomar Explorer.webm|thumb|Video of the Soviet sailors being buried at sea]]

The recovered section included two [[nuclear torpedo]]es, and thus Project Azorian was not a complete failure. The bodies of six crewmen were also recovered, and were given a memorial service and with military honors, [[Burial at sea|buried at sea]] in a metal casket because of radioactivity concerns. Other crew members have reported that code books and other materials of apparent interest to CIA employees aboard the vessel were recovered, {{Original research span|and images of inventory printouts exhibited in the documentary<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> suggest that various submarine components, such as hatch covers, instruments and sonar equipment were also recovered.|date=July 2024}} White's documentary also states that the [[ship's bell]] from ''K-129'' was recovered, and was subsequently returned to the Soviet Union as part of a diplomatic effort. The CIA considered the project one of the greatest intelligence coups of the Cold War.<ref name="intel coup">{{cite web|title=Project AZORIAN|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|publisher=CIA|access-date=July 9, 2013|date=November 21, 2012|archive-date=September 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927005022/https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The entire salvage operation was recorded by a CIA documentary film crew, but this film remains classified. A short portion of the film, showing the recovery and subsequent burial at sea of the six bodies recovered in the forward section of ''K-129'', was given to the Russian government in 1992.

==Public disclosure==

===''The New York Times'' story===
''[[Time Magazine]]'' credited [[Jack Anderson (columnist)|Jack Anderson]] as breaking the story in a March 1975 radio broadcast.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Press: Show and Tell? (Monday, Mar. 31, 1975) |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |magazine=Time |date=March 31, 1975 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408202541/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Robarge">{{cite journal |last=Robarge |first=David |date=March 2012 |title=The ''Glomar Explorer'' in Film and Print |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005000/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |journal=Studies in Intelligence |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=28–29 |access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Rejecting a plea from the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[William Colby]] to suppress the story, Anderson said he released the story because "Navy experts have told us that the sunken sub contains no real secrets and that the project, therefore, is a waste of the taxpayers' money."<ref name="Robarge"/>

In February 1975, investigative reporter and former ''[[New York Times]]'' writer [[Seymour Hersh]] had planned to publish a story on Project Azorian. [[Bill Kovach]], the ''New York Times'' Washington bureau chief at the time, said in 2005 that the government offered a convincing argument to delay publication – exposure at that time, while the project was ongoing, "would have caused an international incident." ''The New York Times'' published its account in March 1975,<ref>Phelan, James. [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0716FF395E157493C5AB1788D85F418785F9&scp=3&sq=Glomar%20Hughes&st=cse "An Easy Burglary Led to the Disclosure of Hughes-C.I.A. Plan to Salvage Soviet Sub" (fee)]. ''The New York Times'' March 27, 1975, p. 18.</ref> after a story appeared in the ''Los Angeles Times'', and included a five-paragraph explanation of the many twists and turns in the path to publication.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manjoo |first1=Farhad |title=Prying open the Times |url=https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |website=Salon |access-date=September 22, 2021 |language=en |date=December 22, 2005 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921061814/https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |url-status=live }}</ref> CIA director [[George H. W. Bush]] reported on several occasions to U.S. president [[Gerald Ford]] on media reports and the future use of the ship.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817012757/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 1. December 1976, 9:00 to 9:30 a.m.|date=December 2, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817062928/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 12. July 1976, 8:00 a.m.|date=July 12, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> The CIA concluded that it seemed unclear what, if any, action was taken by the Soviet Union after learning of the story.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| title=Implications for US-Soviet Relations of Certain Soviet Activities: Microwaves in Moscow (section 13)| date=June 1976| publisher=Central Intelligence Agency| access-date=January 2, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124652/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| archive-date=November 5, 2010| url-status=dead}}</ref>

===FOIA request and the Glomar response===
After stories had been published about the CIA's attempts to stop publication of information about Project Azorian, [[Hank Phillippi Ryan|Harriet Ann Phillippi]], a journalist, filed a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request with the CIA for any records about the CIA's attempts. The CIA refused to either confirm or deny the existence of such documents.<ref>Philippi v. CIA (Turner et al.), U.S. Court of Appeals, 211 U.S. App. D.D. 95, June 25, 1981</ref> This type of non-responsive reply has since come to be known as the "[[Glomar response]]" or "Glomarization".<ref name="FOIA1986">{{cite web |author=FOIA Update, Vol. VII, No. 1, Page 3 |title=OIP Guidance: Privacy 'Glomarization' |publisher=United States Department of Justice |year=1986 |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |access-date=February 19, 2010 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724101407/http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 1998 release of video ===
A video showing the 1974 memorial services for the six Soviet seamen whose bodies were recovered by Project Azorian was forwarded by the U.S. to [[Russia]] in the early 1990s. Portions of this video were shown on television documentaries concerning Project Azorian, including a 1998 [[Discovery Channel]] special called ''A Matter of National Security'' (based on Clyde W. Burleson's book, ''The Jennifer Project'' (1977)) and again in 1999, on a PBS Cold War submarine episode of ''[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |title=Clyde W, Burleson, author, "The Jennifer Project", 1977 |access-date=January 4, 2011 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708165755/http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |title=PBS, ''Nova'', "Submarines, Secrets and Spies". Broadcast January, 1999. |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=September 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618183135/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 2010 release of 1985 CIA article ===
In February 2010, the CIA released an article from the fall 1985 edition of the CIA internal journal ''[[Studies in Intelligence]]'' following an application by researcher Matthew Aid at the [[National Security Archive]]<ref>{{cite news|author=Calvin Woodward|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|agency=Associated Press|title=Gone fishing: Secret hunt for a sunken Soviet sub|date=February 13, 2010|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195816/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> to declassify the information under the Freedom of Information Act. Exactly what the operation managed to salvage remained unclear.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |title="US admits salvaging sunken Soviet submarine – The American government has finally revealed details of a secret mission to raise a sunken Soviet submarine |date=February 14, 2010 |access-date=April 2, 2018 |archive-date=December 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225075309/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The report was written by an unidentified participant in Project Azorian.

=== 2010 release of President Ford cabinet meeting ===
President [[Gerald Ford]], Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]], Philip Buchen (Counsel to the President), [[John O. Marsh, Jr.]] (Counselor to the President), Ambassador [[Donald Rumsfeld]], USAF Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] (Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs), and [[William Colby]] (Director of Central Intelligence) discussed the leak and whether the Ford administration would react to Hersh's story in a cabinet meeting on March 19, 1975, the same day that ''The New York Times'' published the story. Secretary of Defense Schlesinger is quoted as saying,
{{Blockquote|This episode has been a major American accomplishment. The operation is a marvel – technically, and with maintaining secrecy.<ref name=cabinetmeeting>{{Cite web |url=http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |title=Matador Meeting |access-date=July 4, 2012 |archive-date=October 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006025318/http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Doc3>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063212/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf |date=August 16, 2012 }} nsarchiv</ref>}}
Schlesinger indicated at least some form of success that should be confirmed publicly.<ref name=declassified>[http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ Document Friday: The Origins of "Glomar" Declassified] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619093301/http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ |date=June 19, 2012 }}, William Burr, June 15, 2012.</ref> CIA Director William Colby dissented, recalling the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 crisis]], saying:
{{Blockquote|I think we should not put the Soviet Union under such pressure to respond.<ref name=cabinetmeeting /><ref name=Doc3 />}}
The ''Los Angeles Times'' published a four-page story the next day by [[Jack Nelson (journalist)|Jack Nelson]] with the headline "Administration Won't Talk About Sub Raised by CIA."<ref name=declassified />

==Conspiracy theory==

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204225855/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=February 4, 2013| title=Espionage: The Great Submarine Snatch|date=March 31, 1975 |publisher=Time Magazine}}</ref> and a court filing by Felice D. Cohen and [[Morton H. Halperin]] on behalf of the Military Audit Project <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|title=Military Audit Project v. {{!}} 656 F.2d 724 (1981) {{!}} f2d72411252 {{!}} Leagle.com|work=Leagle|access-date=September 17, 2017|language=en|archive-date=May 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504010619/http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|url-status=live}}</ref> suggest that the alleged project goal of raising a Soviet submarine might itself have been a cover story for another secret mission. Tapping undersea communication cables, the cover up of an assassination, the discovery of Atlantis, the installation of a missile silo, and installation and repair of [[SOSUS|surveillance systems to monitor ship and submarine movements]] are listed as possibilities for the actual purpose of such a secret mission.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| title=656 F.2d 724; 211 U.S.App.D.C. 135, 7 Media L. Rep. 1708: Military Audit Project, Felice D. Cohen, Morton H. Halperin, Appellants, v. William Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, et al.; No. 80-1110.| year=1981| publisher=United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325093649/http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref>

==Eyewitness account==
W. Craig Reed told an inside account of Project Azorian in his book ''Red November: Inside the Secret U.S. – Soviet Submarine War'' (2010). The account was provided by Joe Houston, the senior engineer who designed leading-edge camera systems used by the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' team to photograph ''K-129'' on the ocean floor. The team needed pictures that offered precise measurements to design the grappling arm and other systems used to bring the sunken submarine up from the bottom. Houston worked for the mysterious "Mr. P" (John Parangosky) who worked for CIA Deputy Director [[Carl E. Duckett]], the two leaders of Project Azorian. Duckett later worked with Houston at another company, and intimated that the CIA may have recovered much more from the ''K-129'' than admitted publicly. Reed also details how the deep submergence towed sonar array<ref>USS Halibut Crew Member</ref> technology was used for subsequent [[Operation Ivy Bells]] missions to wiretap underwater Soviet communications cables.

The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' features interviews with Sherman Wetmore, Global Marine heavy lift operations manager; Charlie Johnson, Global Marine heavy lift engineer; and Raymond Feldman, Lockheed Ocean Systems senior staff engineer. They were the three principals in the design of the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' heavy lift system and the Lockheed capture vehicle (CV or claw). They were also on board the ship during the mission and were intimately involved with the recovery operation. They confirmed that only {{cvt|38|ft}} of the bow was eventually recovered. The intent was to recover the forward two thirds ({{cvt|138|ft|disp=sqbr}}) of ''K-129'', which had broken off from the rear section of the submarine and was designated the Target Object (TO). The capture vehicle successfully lifted the TO from the ocean floor, but a failure of part of the capture vehicle on the way up caused the loss of {{cvt|100|ft}} of the TO, including the sail. [[Norman Polmar]] and Michael White published ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'' in 2010. The book contains additional documentary evidence about the effort to locate the submarine and the recovery operation.<ref name=AzorianDVD />

== CIA Museum artifacts ==
A number of artifacts from Project Azorian and ''Glomar Explorer'' are on display at the [[CIA Museum]]. The museum has shared declassified images and video featuring the artifacts through its website; however the physical grounds of the museum are on the compound of the [[George Bush Center for Intelligence]] and thus physically inaccessible to the public.<gallery widths="170" perrow="5">
File:Painting-of-AZORIAN-mission-approved.jpg|Sherman Wetmore, lead engineer on the Glomar Explorer, looking at an oil painting of the ship raising the Soviet submarine.
File:Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.jpg|Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.
File:Glomar Manganese Nodule Encased in Lucite.jpg|One of the manganese nodules that Glomar recovered from the Pacific, now encased in lucite.
File:Glomar Patch.jpg|Hughes Glomar / Summa Corporation crew patch
File:The Debrief Behind The Artifact Glomar.webm|A video discussing the Glomar Explorer, produced as part of the CIA Debrief series on YouTube
</gallery>

==Documentaries==
The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' was produced by Michael White and released in 2009.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ Azorian – The Raising of the K-129 / 2009 – Two Part TV Documentary / Michael White Films Vienna]</ref>

Spy Ops: Project Azorian (Season 1, Episode 8) is a short documentary also produced by Michael White which adds some details to his earlier work. Two former CIA officials (Robert Wallace, John Cardwell) make their appearance in this film for Netflix.<ref name="Netflix">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt29026398/ Spy Ops: Project Azorian Episode aired Sep 8, 2023]</ref>

''Neither Confirm Nor Deny'' is a documentary on Project Azorian.<ref name="latimes/nCnD-review">{{cite news |last1=Abele |first1=Robert |title=Review: 'Neither Confirm Nor Deny' tells a real-life tale of spies, nukes and Howard Hughes |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 23, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203212940/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes/deny-review">{{cite news |last1=Rapold |first1=Nicolas |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny' Review: Exhumation at Sea |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/21/movies/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review.html |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=September 21, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="978-0-231-55032-1">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter/4091883">{{cite news |last1=DeFore |first1=John |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny': Film Review - DOC NYC 2020 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/neither-confirm-nor-deny-film-review-doc-nyc-2020-4091883/ |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[HMS L55]], a British submarine sunk in 1919 and raised by the Soviets in 1928
* {{HMS|Poseidon|P99|6}}, a British submarine sunk in 1931 and secretly raised by China in 1972
* ''[[Hughes Mining Barge]]'', a submersible barge designed to keep the ''Glomar Explorer'''s true nature secret
* [[The Laundry Files#The Jennifer Morgue|''The Jennifer Morgue'']] novel by Charles Stross, uses the ''K-129'' scenario as a basis for supernatural horror.
* [[Harry Turtledove bibliography | ''Three Miles Down'']] novel by Harry Turtledove, based on Project Azorian.
* [[List of sunken nuclear submarines]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Sources'''
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Craven |first=John |author-link=John P. Craven PhD%2C JD |title=The Silent War: The Cold War Battle Beneath the Sea |year=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-684-87213-7 |chapter=The Hunt for Red September: A Tale of Two Submarines |pages=[https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 198–222] |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Taking of K-129: How the CIA Used Howard Hughes to Steal a Russian Sub in the Most Daring Covert Operation in History |last=Dean |first=Josh |year=2018 |publisher=Dutton Caliber |isbn=978-1101984451}}
* Dunham, Roger C. (1996) ''Spy Sub – Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific'' New York: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-451-40797-0}}
* Reed, W. Craig (2010) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140320042056/http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Red-November-W-Craig-Reed/?isbn=9780061806766 Red November: Inside the Secret U.S.–Soviet Submarine War]'' New York: William Morrow. {{ISBN|978-0-06-180676-6}}
* [[Norman Polmar|Polmar, Norman]] and White, Michael (2010) ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'', Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59114-690-2}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030160024/http://users.erols.com/marelk/Vets%20Page%20Rework/PUC-%20Citation.htm Presidential Unit Citation – USS ''Halibut'' – 1968]
* {{cite book|last=Sharp|first=David|title=The CIA's Greatest Covert Operation: Inside the Daring Mission to Recover a Nuclear-Armed Soviet Sub|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1834-7|page=344|url=http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728214106/http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|archive-date=July 28, 2012}}
* {{cite book |last=Sontag |first=Sherry |title=Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=New York |isbn=0-06-103004-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/blindmansbluffun00sont }}
* Varner, Roy and Collier, Wayne. (1978) ''A Matter of Risk: The Incredible Inside Story of the CIA's Hughes Glomar Explorer Mission to Raise a Russian Submarine''

==External links==
{{Commons category|Project Azorian}}
* [https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/jennifer.htm Project Jennifer and the Hughes Glomar Explorer] [[fas.org]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041227062724/http://intellit.muskingum.edu/cia_folder/cia70s_folder/cia70sglomar.html bibliography] intellit.[[Muskingum University|muskingum.edu]]

[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations|Jennifer, Project]]
[[Category:Cold War intelligence operations]]
[[Category:K-129 submarine sinking accident]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:Marine salvage operations]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:1974 in military history]]

Project Azorian

2024-09-22T09:49:20Z

Uruiamme: /* Recovery */ adjective

{{short description|1974 CIA project to recover the sunken Soviet submarine K-129}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Project Azorian
|Image_Name = USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193).jpg
|Imagesize = 300
|Image_Alt =
|Image_Caption = ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''
|Thumb_Time =
|AKA =
|Participants = [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]
|Location = {{convert|16500|ft|m}} below the [[Pacific Ocean]]
|Date = 1974
|nongregorian =
|Deaths =
|Result = Successful recovery of a portion of [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine K-129]]
|URL =
}}

'''Project Azorian''' (also called "Jennifer" by the press after its Top Secret Security Compartment)<ref>{{cite web | via = GWU | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | title = Project Azorian: The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer | date = February 12, 2010 | first1 = Matthew | last1 = Aid | first2 = William | last2 = Burr | first3 = Thomas | last3 = Blanton | publisher = The National Security Archive | access-date = February 13, 2010 | archive-date = June 3, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603102439/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | url-status = live }}</ref> was a U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) project to recover the sunken [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine ''K-129'']] from the Pacific Ocean floor in 1974 using the purpose-built ship [[Glomar Explorer|''Hughes Glomar Explorer'']].<ref name= "p30">Wiegley, Roger D., LT (JAG) USN "The Recovered Sunken Warship: Raising a Legal Question" ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'' January 1979 p. 30.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining The secret on the ocean floor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918072757/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining |date=September 18, 2019 }}. David Shukman, ''BBC News''. February 19, 2018.</ref> The 1968 sinking of ''K-129'' occurred about {{convert|1560|mi|km|}} northwest of Hawaii.<ref name= "StudiesIntell85" /> Project Azorian was one of the most complex, expensive, and covert intelligence operations of the [[Cold War]] at a cost of about $800 million, or ${{inflation|US|0.8|1974|r=1}} billion today.

The US designed the recovery ship and its lifting cradle using concepts developed with Global Marine (see [[Project Mohole]]) that used their precision stability equipment to keep the ship nearly stationary above the target while lowering nearly {{convert |3|mi|km|spell= in}} of pipe. They worked with scientists to develop methods for preserving paper that had been underwater for years in hopes of being able to recover and read the submarine's codebooks. The reasons that this project was undertaken included the recovery of an intact [[R-21 (missile)|R-21]] nuclear missile and cryptological documents and equipment.

The Soviet Union was unable to locate ''K-129'', but the US determined its general location from data recorded by four [[Air Force Technical Applications Center]] (AFTAC) sites and the Adak [[SOSUS|Sound Surveillance System]] (SOSUS) array. {{Clarify span|The US identified an acoustic event on March 8 that likely originated from an explosion aboard the submarine, and was able to determine the location to within {{convert|5|nmi|mi km|spell= in}}.|Did this take place after the US determined the general location, as described in the previous sentence? Or do both sentences describe the same process?|date=July 2024}} The submarine {{USS |Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} located the boat using the Fish, a towed, {{convert|12|ft|adj=on}}, {{convert |2|ST|adj=on|spell=in}} collection of cameras, strobe lights, and sonar that was built to withstand extreme depths. The recovery operation in international waters about six years later used mining for [[manganese nodule]]s as its cover. The company was nominally owned by [[Howard Hughes]], secretly backed by the CIA, who had paid for the construction of the ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Polmar|first1=Norman|author-link= Norman Polmar|title= Project Azorian: the CIA and the Raising of the K-129 |year=2010|publisher= Naval Institute Press|location= Annapolis, MD |isbn= 978-1-59114-690-2 | last2 = White | first2 = Michael}}</ref> The ship recovered a portion of ''K-129'', but a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery.

== The wreck of ''K-129'' ==
{{anchor|Target: the wreck of the K-129}}
[[File:Soviet ballistic missile submarine K-129.jpg|thumb|The ''K-129'' submarine]]{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
On February 24, 1968, ''K-129'', a Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Project 629A]] [[ballistic missile submarine]] attached to the 15th Submarine Squadron of the [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]], left Rybachiy Naval Base in [[Kamchatka]] on a routine missile patrol, the boat's third since completing a major modernization the previous year. On the first day, the sub cruised out to deep water, conducted a test dive, surfaced to radio in, and embarked for its patrol station. The sub was to make standard radio contact with its commanders in Kamchatka when crossing the [[180th meridian]] and when arriving on station. But ''K-129'' missed its designated check-ins and did not respond to communication attempts. By the third week of March, the submarine was declared missing.

In April 1968, many [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]] surface and air assets deployed to the [[North Pacific Ocean]] and performed some unusual search operations. The activity was evaluated by the United States [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI) as a possible reaction to the loss of a Soviet submarine. Soviet surface ship searches were centered on a location known to be associated with Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Golf II-class]] strategic ballistic missile (SSB) diesel submarine patrol routes. These submarines carried three nuclear missiles in an extended sail/conning tower, and routinely deployed within missile range of the US west coast. After weeks of searching, the Soviets were unable to locate the sunken boat, and Soviet Pacific Fleet operations gradually returned to normal.

The US Navy analyzed acoustic data recorded by the [[SOSUS]] [[hydrophone]] network in the northern Pacific—four AFTAC sites and the [[Adak, Alaska]] SOSUS array—and found evidence of the implosion that had sunk the Russian sub.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} [[Naval Facility Point Sur|Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Point Sur]], south of [[Monterey, California]], isolated a sonic signature on its low-frequency array recordings of an implosion that had occurred on March 8, 1968. Using NavFac Point Sur's date and time of the event, [[NavFac Adak]] and the US West Coast NAVFAC were also able to isolate the acoustic event. With five SOSUS lines-of-bearing, Naval Intelligence was able to localize the site of the ''K-129'' wreck to the vicinity of 40.1° N latitude and 179.9° E longitude (close to the [[International Date Line]]).<ref name="AzorianDVD">{{cite AV media | people = Michael White | date = February 8, 2011 | medium = DVD | ISBN = 978-1591146902 | publisher = Michael White Films | ASIN =B0047H7PYQ | title = Azorian: The Raising of the K-129 | url = http://www.projectjennifer.at | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ | archive-date = February 5, 2009 }}</ref>

In July 1968, the [[United States Navy]] began "Operation Sand Dollar" with the deployment of {{USS|Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} from [[Pearl Harbor]] to the wreck site. Sand Dollar's objective was to find and photograph ''K-129''. In 1968 ''Halibut'', which had been configured to use deep submergence search equipment, was the US Navy's only such specially-equipped submarine. ''Halibut'' located the wreck after three weeks of visual search using robotic remote-controlled cameras. (It took almost five months of search to find the wreck of the US nuclear-powered submarine {{USS|Scorpion|SSN-589|2}} in the Atlantic, also in 1968). ''Halibut'' is reported to have spent the next several weeks taking more than 20,000 closeup photos of every aspect of the ''K-129'' wreck, a feat for which ''Halibut'' received a special classified [[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citation]] signed by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in 1968.

The photos were sent to the [[National Photographic Interpretation Center]] at the CIA to determine what, if anything, could be determined about the status of the wreck. CIA analysts wrote a report indicating that there was a good probability that the nuclear missile in the #3 missile tube was still intact.<ref name="Netflix" />

In 1970, based upon this photography, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Melvin Laird]] and [[Henry Kissinger]], then [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]], proposed a clandestine plan to recover the wreckage so that the US could study Soviet nuclear missile technology, as well as possibly recover [[cryptography|cryptographic]] materials. The proposal was accepted by President [[Richard Nixon]], and the CIA was tasked to attempt the recovery.

==Building ''Glomar Explorer'' and its cover story==
{{Main|Glomar Explorer}}
Global Marine Development Inc., the research and development arm of Global Marine Inc., a pioneer in deepwater offshore drilling operations, was contracted to design, build and operate ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' to secretly salvage the sunken Soviet submarine. The ship was built at the [[Sun Shipbuilding]] yard near Philadelphia. Billionaire businessman [[Howard Hughes]] – whose companies were already contractors on numerous classified [[US military]] weapons, aircraft and satellite contracts{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} – agreed to lend his name to the project to support the cover story that the ship was mining [[manganese nodules]] from the ocean floor, but Hughes and his companies had no actual involvement in the project. ''K-129'' was photographed at a depth of over {{convert|16000|ft|m}}, and thus the salvage operation would be well beyond the depth of any ship salvage operation ever attempted.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} On November 1, 1972, work began on the {{convert|63000|ST|adj=on}}, {{convert|619|foot|m|adj=mid|-long}} ''[[USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193)|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]'' (HGE).

At least two preparatory missions were carried out in the general area of the recovery site using other ships. From September 1970 to January 1971, the drilling ship GLOMAR II collected site data as part of [[Project AXMINSTER]].<ref>{{cite web |title=186. Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |website=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXXV, National Security Policy, 1973–1976 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |date=May 28, 1974 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref> From January to July 1972, the R.V. SEASCOPE surveyed the general area to within 45 nm of the recovery site. Both missions also probed the Soviet reactions to research ships in the region.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss"/>

The primary objective was to recover a major portion of the submarine. In particular, the [[National_Intelligence_Board|United States Intelligence Board]] (USIB) expected to recover [[Cryptography|cryptographic]] equipment, a [[nuclear warhead]], a [[SS-N-5]] missile, the [[navigation system]], [[fire control system]], [[sonar]] system, [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] countermeasures, and related documentation.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss">{{cite journal |date=May 28, 1974 |title=Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |journal=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976 |volume=XXXV |access-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Recovery==
''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' employed a large mechanical claw, which [[Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company|Lockheed]] officially titled the "Capture Vehicle" but affectionately called ''Clementine''. The capture vehicle was designed to be lowered to the ocean floor, grasp the targeted submarine section, and then lift that section into the ship's [[moon pool]] for processing. One requirement of this technology was to keep the floating base stable and in position over a fixed point {{convert|16000|ft|m}} below the ocean surface.

The capture vehicle was lowered and raised on a pipe string similar to those used on oil drilling rigs. Section by section, pairs of {{convert|30|ft|m|adj=on}} steel pipes were strung together to lower the claw through a hole in the middle of the ship. This configuration was designed by Western Gear Corp. of [[Everett, Washington]]. Upon a successful capture by the claw, the lift reversed the process: {{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on}} pairs drawn up and removed one at a time. The salvaged "Target Object" was thus to be drawn into the moon pool in the center of the vessel, the doors of which could then be closed to form a floor for the salvaged section. This allowed for the entire salvage process to take place underwater, away from the view of other ships, aircraft, or spy satellites.

''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' arrived at the recovery site ({{coord|40.1|N|179.9|E|display=it}})<ref name=prc>[http://www.prc68.com/I/crypto.shtml The Project Azorian video by Michael White has these coordinates confirmed by other sources]</ref> on July 4, 1974, after departing from [[Long Beach, California]], on June 20, and traveling sailing {{convert|3008|nmi|km}}. The ship conducted salvage operations for over a month. During this period, at least two Soviet Navy ships visited ''Hughes Glomar Explorer''{{'}}s work site, the oceangoing [[tugboat]] ''SB-10'', and the Soviet missile range instrumentation ship ''Chazma''.<ref name="StudiesIntell85">{{cite web
|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|title=Project Azorian: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer
|date=Fall 1985
|publisher=Studies in Intelligence, [[CIA]]
|access-date=February 13, 2010
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131100657/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|url-status=live
}}</ref> It was found out after 1991 that the Soviets were tipped off about the operation and were aware that the CIA was planning some kind of salvage operation, but the military command believed it impossible that they could perform such a task and disregarded further intelligence warnings. Later, Soviet Ambassador [[Anatoly Dobrynin]] started sending urgent messages back to the Soviet Navy warning that an operation was imminent. Soviet military engineering experts reevaluated their positions and claimed that it was indeed possible (though highly unlikely) to recover ''K-129'', and ships in the area were ordered to report any unusual activity, although the lack of knowledge as to where ''K-129'' was located impeded their ability to stop any salvage operation.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/>

US Army Major General [[Roland Lajoie]] stated that, according to a briefing he received by the CIA during recovery operations, ''Clementine'' suffered a catastrophic failure, causing two-thirds of the already raised portion of ''K-129'' to sink back to the ocean floor.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Former Lockheed and Hughes Global Marine employees who worked on the operation have stated that several of the "claws" intended to grab the submarine fractured, possibly because they were manufactured from [[maraging steel]], which is very [[tensile strength|strong]], but not very [[ductility|ductile]] compared with other kinds of steel.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> Video evidence and eyewitness reports have stated that multiple claws of Clementine sheared off, causing a {{convert|100|ft|adj=on}} section of the submarine to fall back to the seafloor.<ref name="Netflix" /> Eyewitnesses have stated that only the {{convert|38|ft|adj=on}} bow section was raised, while the sail portion containing the nuclear missiles was lost during the raising operation.<ref name="Netflix" />

[[File:Burial At Sea of Soviet Submariners from Hughes Glomar Explorer.webm|thumb|Video of the Soviet sailors being buried at sea]]

The recovered section included two [[nuclear torpedo]]es, and thus Project Azorian was not a complete failure. The bodies of six crewmen were also recovered, and were given a memorial service and with military honors, [[Burial at sea|buried at sea]] in a metal casket because of radioactivity concerns. Other crew members have reported that code books and other materials of apparent interest to CIA employees aboard the vessel were recovered, {{Original research span|and images of inventory printouts exhibited in the documentary<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> suggest that various submarine components, such as hatch covers, instruments and sonar equipment were also recovered.|date=July 2024}} White's documentary also states that the [[ship's bell]] from ''K-129'' was recovered, and was subsequently returned to the Soviet Union as part of a diplomatic effort. The CIA considered the project one of the greatest intelligence coups of the Cold War.<ref name="intel coup">{{cite web|title=Project AZORIAN|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|publisher=CIA|access-date=July 9, 2013|date=November 21, 2012|archive-date=September 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927005022/https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The entire salvage operation was recorded by a CIA documentary film crew, but this film remains classified. A short portion of the film, showing the recovery and subsequent burial at sea of the six bodies recovered in the forward section of ''K-129'', was given to the Russian government in 1992.

==Public disclosure==

===''The New York Times'' story===
''[[Time Magazine]]'' credited [[Jack Anderson (columnist)|Jack Anderson]] as breaking the story in a March 1975 radio broadcast.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Press: Show and Tell? (Monday, Mar. 31, 1975) |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |magazine=Time |date=March 31, 1975 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408202541/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Robarge">{{cite journal |last=Robarge |first=David |date=March 2012 |title=The ''Glomar Explorer'' in Film and Print |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005000/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |journal=Studies in Intelligence |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=28–29 |access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Rejecting a plea from the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[William Colby]] to suppress the story, Anderson said he released the story because "Navy experts have told us that the sunken sub contains no real secrets and that the project, therefore, is a waste of the taxpayers' money."<ref name="Robarge"/>

In February 1975, investigative reporter and former ''[[New York Times]]'' writer [[Seymour Hersh]] had planned to publish a story on Project Azorian. [[Bill Kovach]], the ''New York Times'' Washington bureau chief at the time, said in 2005 that the government offered a convincing argument to delay publication – exposure at that time, while the project was ongoing, "would have caused an international incident." ''The New York Times'' published its account in March 1975,<ref>Phelan, James. [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0716FF395E157493C5AB1788D85F418785F9&scp=3&sq=Glomar%20Hughes&st=cse "An Easy Burglary Led to the Disclosure of Hughes-C.I.A. Plan to Salvage Soviet Sub" (fee)]. ''The New York Times'' March 27, 1975, p. 18.</ref> after a story appeared in the ''Los Angeles Times'', and included a five-paragraph explanation of the many twists and turns in the path to publication.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manjoo |first1=Farhad |title=Prying open the Times |url=https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |website=Salon |access-date=September 22, 2021 |language=en |date=December 22, 2005 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921061814/https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |url-status=live }}</ref> CIA director [[George H. W. Bush]] reported on several occasions to U.S. president [[Gerald Ford]] on media reports and the future use of the ship.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817012757/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 1. December 1976, 9:00 to 9:30 a.m.|date=December 2, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817062928/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 12. July 1976, 8:00 a.m.|date=July 12, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> The CIA concluded that it seemed unclear what, if any, action was taken by the Soviet Union after learning of the story.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| title=Implications for US-Soviet Relations of Certain Soviet Activities: Microwaves in Moscow (section 13)| date=June 1976| publisher=Central Intelligence Agency| access-date=January 2, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124652/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| archive-date=November 5, 2010| url-status=dead}}</ref>

===FOIA request and the Glomar response===
After stories had been published about the CIA's attempts to stop publication of information about Project Azorian, [[Hank Phillippi Ryan|Harriet Ann Phillippi]], a journalist, filed a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request with the CIA for any records about the CIA's attempts. The CIA refused to either confirm or deny the existence of such documents.<ref>Philippi v. CIA (Turner et al.), U.S. Court of Appeals, 211 U.S. App. D.D. 95, June 25, 1981</ref> This type of non-responsive reply has since come to be known as the "[[Glomar response]]" or "Glomarization".<ref name="FOIA1986">{{cite web |author=FOIA Update, Vol. VII, No. 1, Page 3 |title=OIP Guidance: Privacy 'Glomarization' |publisher=United States Department of Justice |year=1986 |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |access-date=February 19, 2010 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724101407/http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 1998 release of video ===
A video showing the 1974 memorial services for the six Soviet seamen whose bodies were recovered by Project Azorian was forwarded by the U.S. to [[Russia]] in the early 1990s. Portions of this video were shown on television documentaries concerning Project Azorian, including a 1998 [[Discovery Channel]] special called ''A Matter of National Security'' (based on Clyde W. Burleson's book, ''The Jennifer Project'' (1977)) and again in 1999, on a PBS Cold War submarine episode of ''[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |title=Clyde W, Burleson, author, "The Jennifer Project", 1977 |access-date=January 4, 2011 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708165755/http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |title=PBS, ''Nova'', "Submarines, Secrets and Spies". Broadcast January, 1999. |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=September 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618183135/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 2010 release of 1985 CIA article ===
In February 2010, the CIA released an article from the fall 1985 edition of the CIA internal journal ''[[Studies in Intelligence]]'' following an application by researcher Matthew Aid at the [[National Security Archive]]<ref>{{cite news|author=Calvin Woodward|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|agency=Associated Press|title=Gone fishing: Secret hunt for a sunken Soviet sub|date=February 13, 2010|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195816/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> to declassify the information under the Freedom of Information Act. Exactly what the operation managed to salvage remained unclear.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |title="US admits salvaging sunken Soviet submarine – The American government has finally revealed details of a secret mission to raise a sunken Soviet submarine |date=February 14, 2010 |access-date=April 2, 2018 |archive-date=December 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225075309/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The report was written by an unidentified participant in Project Azorian.

=== 2010 release of President Ford cabinet meeting ===
President [[Gerald Ford]], Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]], Philip Buchen (Counsel to the President), [[John O. Marsh, Jr.]] (Counselor to the President), Ambassador [[Donald Rumsfeld]], USAF Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] (Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs), and [[William Colby]] (Director of Central Intelligence) discussed the leak and whether the Ford administration would react to Hersh's story in a cabinet meeting on March 19, 1975, the same day that ''The New York Times'' published the story. Secretary of Defense Schlesinger is quoted as saying,
{{Blockquote|This episode has been a major American accomplishment. The operation is a marvel – technically, and with maintaining secrecy.<ref name=cabinetmeeting>{{Cite web |url=http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |title=Matador Meeting |access-date=July 4, 2012 |archive-date=October 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006025318/http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Doc3>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063212/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf |date=August 16, 2012 }} nsarchiv</ref>}}
Schlesinger indicated at least some form of success that should be confirmed publicly.<ref name=declassified>[http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ Document Friday: The Origins of "Glomar" Declassified] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619093301/http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ |date=June 19, 2012 }}, William Burr, June 15, 2012.</ref> CIA Director William Colby dissented, recalling the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 crisis]], saying:
{{Blockquote|I think we should not put the Soviet Union under such pressure to respond.<ref name=cabinetmeeting /><ref name=Doc3 />}}
The ''Los Angeles Times'' published a four-page story the next day by [[Jack Nelson (journalist)|Jack Nelson]] with the headline "Administration Won't Talk About Sub Raised by CIA."<ref name=declassified />

==Conspiracy theory==

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204225855/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=February 4, 2013| title=Espionage: The Great Submarine Snatch|date=March 31, 1975 |publisher=Time Magazine}}</ref> and a court filing by Felice D. Cohen and [[Morton H. Halperin]] on behalf of the Military Audit Project <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|title=Military Audit Project v. {{!}} 656 F.2d 724 (1981) {{!}} f2d72411252 {{!}} Leagle.com|work=Leagle|access-date=September 17, 2017|language=en|archive-date=May 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504010619/http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|url-status=live}}</ref> suggest that the alleged project goal of raising a Soviet submarine might itself have been a cover story for another secret mission. Tapping undersea communication cables, the cover up of an assassination, the discovery of Atlantis, the installation of a missile silo, and installation and repair of [[SOSUS|surveillance systems to monitor ship and submarine movements]] are listed as possibilities for the actual purpose of such a secret mission.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| title=656 F.2d 724; 211 U.S.App.D.C. 135, 7 Media L. Rep. 1708: Military Audit Project, Felice D. Cohen, Morton H. Halperin, Appellants, v. William Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, et al.; No. 80-1110.| year=1981| publisher=United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325093649/http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref>

==Eyewitness account==
W. Craig Reed told an inside account of Project Azorian in his book ''Red November: Inside the Secret U.S. – Soviet Submarine War'' (2010). The account was provided by Joe Houston, the senior engineer who designed leading-edge camera systems used by the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' team to photograph ''K-129'' on the ocean floor. The team needed pictures that offered precise measurements to design the grappling arm and other systems used to bring the sunken submarine up from the bottom. Houston worked for the mysterious "Mr. P" (John Parangosky) who worked for CIA Deputy Director [[Carl E. Duckett]], the two leaders of Project Azorian. Duckett later worked with Houston at another company, and intimated that the CIA may have recovered much more from the ''K-129'' than admitted publicly. Reed also details how the deep submergence towed sonar array<ref>USS Halibut Crew Member</ref> technology was used for subsequent [[Operation Ivy Bells]] missions to wiretap underwater Soviet communications cables.

The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' features interviews with Sherman Wetmore, Global Marine heavy lift operations manager; Charlie Johnson, Global Marine heavy lift engineer; and Raymond Feldman, Lockheed Ocean Systems senior staff engineer. They were the three principals in the design of the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' heavy lift system and the Lockheed capture vehicle (CV or claw). They were also on board the ship during the mission and were intimately involved with the recovery operation. They confirmed that only {{cvt|38|ft}} of the bow was eventually recovered. The intent was to recover the forward two thirds ({{cvt|138|ft|disp=sqbr}}) of ''K-129'', which had broken off from the rear section of the submarine and was designated the Target Object (TO). The capture vehicle successfully lifted the TO from the ocean floor, but a failure of part of the capture vehicle on the way up caused the loss of {{cvt|100|ft}} of the TO, including the sail. [[Norman Polmar]] and Michael White published ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'' in 2010. The book contains additional documentary evidence about the effort to locate the submarine and the recovery operation.<ref name=AzorianDVD />

== CIA Museum artifacts ==
A number of artifacts from Project Azorian and ''Glomar Explorer'' are on display at the [[CIA Museum]]. The museum has shared declassified images and video featuring the artifacts through its website; however the physical grounds of the museum are on the compound of the [[George Bush Center for Intelligence]] and thus physically inaccessible to the public.<gallery widths="170" perrow="5">
File:Painting-of-AZORIAN-mission-approved.jpg|Sherman Wetmore, lead engineer on the Glomar Explorer, looking at an oil painting of the ship raising the Soviet submarine.
File:Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.jpg|Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.
File:Glomar Manganese Nodule Encased in Lucite.jpg|One of the manganese nodules that Glomar recovered from the Pacific, now encased in lucite.
File:Glomar Patch.jpg|Hughes Glomar / Summa Corporation crew patch
File:The Debrief Behind The Artifact Glomar.webm|A video discussing the Glomar Explorer, produced as part of the CIA Debrief series on YouTube
</gallery>

==Documentaries==
The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' was produced by Michael White and released in 2009.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ Azorian – The Raising of the K-129 / 2009 – Two Part TV Documentary / Michael White Films Vienna]</ref>

Spy Ops: Project Azorian (Season 1, Episode 8) is a short documentary also produced by Michael White which adds some details to his earlier work. Two former CIA officials (Robert Wallace, John Cardwell) make their appearance in this film for Netflix.<ref name="Netflix">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt29026398/ Spy Ops: Project Azorian Episode aired Sep 8, 2023]</ref>

''Neither Confirm Nor Deny'' is a documentary on Project Azorian.<ref name="latimes/nCnD-review">{{cite news |last1=Abele |first1=Robert |title=Review: 'Neither Confirm Nor Deny' tells a real-life tale of spies, nukes and Howard Hughes |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 23, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203212940/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes/deny-review">{{cite news |last1=Rapold |first1=Nicolas |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny' Review: Exhumation at Sea |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/21/movies/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review.html |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=September 21, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="978-0-231-55032-1">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter/4091883">{{cite news |last1=DeFore |first1=John |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny': Film Review - DOC NYC 2020 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/neither-confirm-nor-deny-film-review-doc-nyc-2020-4091883/ |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[HMS L55]], a British submarine sunk in 1919 and raised by the Soviets in 1928
* {{HMS|Poseidon|P99|6}}, a British submarine sunk in 1931 and secretly raised by China in 1972
* ''[[Hughes Mining Barge]]'', a submersible barge designed to keep the ''Glomar Explorer'''s true nature secret
* [[The Laundry Files#The Jennifer Morgue|''The Jennifer Morgue'']] novel by Charles Stross, uses the ''K-129'' scenario as a basis for supernatural horror.
* [[Harry Turtledove bibliography | ''Three Miles Down'']] novel by Harry Turtledove, based on Project Azorian.
* [[List of sunken nuclear submarines]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Sources'''
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Craven |first=John |author-link=John P. Craven PhD%2C JD |title=The Silent War: The Cold War Battle Beneath the Sea |year=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-684-87213-7 |chapter=The Hunt for Red September: A Tale of Two Submarines |pages=[https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 198–222] |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Taking of K-129: How the CIA Used Howard Hughes to Steal a Russian Sub in the Most Daring Covert Operation in History |last=Dean |first=Josh |year=2018 |publisher=Dutton Caliber |isbn=978-1101984451}}
* Dunham, Roger C. (1996) ''Spy Sub – Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific'' New York: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-451-40797-0}}
* Reed, W. Craig (2010) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140320042056/http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Red-November-W-Craig-Reed/?isbn=9780061806766 Red November: Inside the Secret U.S.–Soviet Submarine War]'' New York: William Morrow. {{ISBN|978-0-06-180676-6}}
* [[Norman Polmar|Polmar, Norman]] and White, Michael (2010) ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'', Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59114-690-2}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030160024/http://users.erols.com/marelk/Vets%20Page%20Rework/PUC-%20Citation.htm Presidential Unit Citation – USS ''Halibut'' – 1968]
* {{cite book|last=Sharp|first=David|title=The CIA's Greatest Covert Operation: Inside the Daring Mission to Recover a Nuclear-Armed Soviet Sub|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1834-7|page=344|url=http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728214106/http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|archive-date=July 28, 2012}}
* {{cite book |last=Sontag |first=Sherry |title=Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=New York |isbn=0-06-103004-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/blindmansbluffun00sont }}
* Varner, Roy and Collier, Wayne. (1978) ''A Matter of Risk: The Incredible Inside Story of the CIA's Hughes Glomar Explorer Mission to Raise a Russian Submarine''

==External links==
{{Commons category|Project Azorian}}
* [https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/jennifer.htm Project Jennifer and the Hughes Glomar Explorer] [[fas.org]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041227062724/http://intellit.muskingum.edu/cia_folder/cia70s_folder/cia70sglomar.html bibliography] intellit.[[Muskingum University|muskingum.edu]]

[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations|Jennifer, Project]]
[[Category:Cold War intelligence operations]]
[[Category:K-129 submarine sinking accident]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:Marine salvage operations]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:1974 in military history]]

Project Azorian

2024-09-22T09:26:29Z

Uruiamme: /* Recovery */ New doc evidence

{{short description|1974 CIA project to recover the sunken Soviet submarine K-129}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Project Azorian
|Image_Name = USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193).jpg
|Imagesize = 300
|Image_Alt =
|Image_Caption = ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''
|Thumb_Time =
|AKA =
|Participants = [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]
|Location = {{convert|16500|ft|m}} below the [[Pacific Ocean]]
|Date = 1974
|nongregorian =
|Deaths =
|Result = Successful recovery of a portion of [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine K-129]]
|URL =
}}

'''Project Azorian''' (also called "Jennifer" by the press after its Top Secret Security Compartment)<ref>{{cite web | via = GWU | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | title = Project Azorian: The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer | date = February 12, 2010 | first1 = Matthew | last1 = Aid | first2 = William | last2 = Burr | first3 = Thomas | last3 = Blanton | publisher = The National Security Archive | access-date = February 13, 2010 | archive-date = June 3, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603102439/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | url-status = live }}</ref> was a U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) project to recover the sunken [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine ''K-129'']] from the Pacific Ocean floor in 1974 using the purpose-built ship [[Glomar Explorer|''Hughes Glomar Explorer'']].<ref name= "p30">Wiegley, Roger D., LT (JAG) USN "The Recovered Sunken Warship: Raising a Legal Question" ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'' January 1979 p. 30.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining The secret on the ocean floor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918072757/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining |date=September 18, 2019 }}. David Shukman, ''BBC News''. February 19, 2018.</ref> The 1968 sinking of ''K-129'' occurred about {{convert|1560|mi|km|}} northwest of Hawaii.<ref name= "StudiesIntell85" /> Project Azorian was one of the most complex, expensive, and covert intelligence operations of the [[Cold War]] at a cost of about $800 million, or ${{inflation|US|0.8|1974|r=1}} billion today.

The US designed the recovery ship and its lifting cradle using concepts developed with Global Marine (see [[Project Mohole]]) that used their precision stability equipment to keep the ship nearly stationary above the target while lowering nearly {{convert |3|mi|km|spell= in}} of pipe. They worked with scientists to develop methods for preserving paper that had been underwater for years in hopes of being able to recover and read the submarine's codebooks. The reasons that this project was undertaken included the recovery of an intact [[R-21 (missile)|R-21]] nuclear missile and cryptological documents and equipment.

The Soviet Union was unable to locate ''K-129'', but the US determined its general location from data recorded by four [[Air Force Technical Applications Center]] (AFTAC) sites and the Adak [[SOSUS|Sound Surveillance System]] (SOSUS) array. {{Clarify span|The US identified an acoustic event on March 8 that likely originated from an explosion aboard the submarine, and was able to determine the location to within {{convert|5|nmi|mi km|spell= in}}.|Did this take place after the US determined the general location, as described in the previous sentence? Or do both sentences describe the same process?|date=July 2024}} The submarine {{USS |Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} located the boat using the Fish, a towed, {{convert|12|ft|adj=on}}, {{convert |2|ST|adj=on|spell=in}} collection of cameras, strobe lights, and sonar that was built to withstand extreme depths. The recovery operation in international waters about six years later used mining for [[manganese nodule]]s as its cover. The company was nominally owned by [[Howard Hughes]], secretly backed by the CIA, who had paid for the construction of the ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Polmar|first1=Norman|author-link= Norman Polmar|title= Project Azorian: the CIA and the Raising of the K-129 |year=2010|publisher= Naval Institute Press|location= Annapolis, MD |isbn= 978-1-59114-690-2 | last2 = White | first2 = Michael}}</ref> The ship recovered a portion of ''K-129'', but a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery.

== The wreck of ''K-129'' ==
{{anchor|Target: the wreck of the K-129}}
[[File:Soviet ballistic missile submarine K-129.jpg|thumb|The ''K-129'' submarine]]{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
On February 24, 1968, ''K-129'', a Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Project 629A]] [[ballistic missile submarine]] attached to the 15th Submarine Squadron of the [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]], left Rybachiy Naval Base in [[Kamchatka]] on a routine missile patrol, the boat's third since completing a major modernization the previous year. On the first day, the sub cruised out to deep water, conducted a test dive, surfaced to radio in, and embarked for its patrol station. The sub was to make standard radio contact with its commanders in Kamchatka when crossing the [[180th meridian]] and when arriving on station. But ''K-129'' missed its designated check-ins and did not respond to communication attempts. By the third week of March, the submarine was declared missing.

In April 1968, many [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]] surface and air assets deployed to the [[North Pacific Ocean]] and performed some unusual search operations. The activity was evaluated by the United States [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI) as a possible reaction to the loss of a Soviet submarine. Soviet surface ship searches were centered on a location known to be associated with Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Golf II-class]] strategic ballistic missile (SSB) diesel submarine patrol routes. These submarines carried three nuclear missiles in an extended sail/conning tower, and routinely deployed within missile range of the US west coast. After weeks of searching, the Soviets were unable to locate the sunken boat, and Soviet Pacific Fleet operations gradually returned to normal.

The US Navy analyzed acoustic data recorded by the [[SOSUS]] [[hydrophone]] network in the northern Pacific—four AFTAC sites and the [[Adak, Alaska]] SOSUS array—and found evidence of the implosion that had sunk the Russian sub.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} [[Naval Facility Point Sur|Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Point Sur]], south of [[Monterey, California]], isolated a sonic signature on its low-frequency array recordings of an implosion that had occurred on March 8, 1968. Using NavFac Point Sur's date and time of the event, [[NavFac Adak]] and the US West Coast NAVFAC were also able to isolate the acoustic event. With five SOSUS lines-of-bearing, Naval Intelligence was able to localize the site of the ''K-129'' wreck to the vicinity of 40.1° N latitude and 179.9° E longitude (close to the [[International Date Line]]).<ref name="AzorianDVD">{{cite AV media | people = Michael White | date = February 8, 2011 | medium = DVD | ISBN = 978-1591146902 | publisher = Michael White Films | ASIN =B0047H7PYQ | title = Azorian: The Raising of the K-129 | url = http://www.projectjennifer.at | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ | archive-date = February 5, 2009 }}</ref>

In July 1968, the [[United States Navy]] began "Operation Sand Dollar" with the deployment of {{USS|Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} from [[Pearl Harbor]] to the wreck site. Sand Dollar's objective was to find and photograph ''K-129''. In 1968 ''Halibut'', which had been configured to use deep submergence search equipment, was the US Navy's only such specially-equipped submarine. ''Halibut'' located the wreck after three weeks of visual search using robotic remote-controlled cameras. (It took almost five months of search to find the wreck of the US nuclear-powered submarine {{USS|Scorpion|SSN-589|2}} in the Atlantic, also in 1968). ''Halibut'' is reported to have spent the next several weeks taking more than 20,000 closeup photos of every aspect of the ''K-129'' wreck, a feat for which ''Halibut'' received a special classified [[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citation]] signed by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in 1968.

The photos were sent to the [[National Photographic Interpretation Center]] at the CIA to determine what, if anything, could be determined about the status of the wreck. CIA analysts wrote a report indicating that there was a good probability that the nuclear missile in the #3 missile tube was still intact.<ref name="Netflix" />

In 1970, based upon this photography, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Melvin Laird]] and [[Henry Kissinger]], then [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]], proposed a clandestine plan to recover the wreckage so that the US could study Soviet nuclear missile technology, as well as possibly recover [[cryptography|cryptographic]] materials. The proposal was accepted by President [[Richard Nixon]], and the CIA was tasked to attempt the recovery.

==Building ''Glomar Explorer'' and its cover story==
{{Main|Glomar Explorer}}
Global Marine Development Inc., the research and development arm of Global Marine Inc., a pioneer in deepwater offshore drilling operations, was contracted to design, build and operate ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' to secretly salvage the sunken Soviet submarine. The ship was built at the [[Sun Shipbuilding]] yard near Philadelphia. Billionaire businessman [[Howard Hughes]] – whose companies were already contractors on numerous classified [[US military]] weapons, aircraft and satellite contracts{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} – agreed to lend his name to the project to support the cover story that the ship was mining [[manganese nodules]] from the ocean floor, but Hughes and his companies had no actual involvement in the project. ''K-129'' was photographed at a depth of over {{convert|16000|ft|m}}, and thus the salvage operation would be well beyond the depth of any ship salvage operation ever attempted.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} On November 1, 1972, work began on the {{convert|63000|ST|adj=on}}, {{convert|619|foot|m|adj=mid|-long}} ''[[USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193)|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]'' (HGE).

At least two preparatory missions were carried out in the general area of the recovery site using other ships. From September 1970 to January 1971, the drilling ship GLOMAR II collected site data as part of [[Project AXMINSTER]].<ref>{{cite web |title=186. Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |website=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXXV, National Security Policy, 1973–1976 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |date=May 28, 1974 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref> From January to July 1972, the R.V. SEASCOPE surveyed the general area to within 45 nm of the recovery site. Both missions also probed the Soviet reactions to research ships in the region.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss"/>

The primary objective was to recover a major portion of the submarine. In particular, the [[National_Intelligence_Board|United States Intelligence Board]] (USIB) expected to recover [[Cryptography|cryptographic]] equipment, a [[nuclear warhead]], a [[SS-N-5]] missile, the [[navigation system]], [[fire control system]], [[sonar]] system, [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] countermeasures, and related documentation.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss">{{cite journal |date=May 28, 1974 |title=Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |journal=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976 |volume=XXXV |access-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Recovery==
''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' employed a large mechanical claw, which [[Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company|Lockheed]] officially titled the "Capture Vehicle" but affectionately called ''Clementine''. The capture vehicle was designed to be lowered to the ocean floor, grasp the targeted submarine section, and then lift that section into the ship's [[moon pool]] for processing. One requirement of this technology was to keep the floating base stable and in position over a fixed point {{convert|16000|ft|m}} below the ocean surface.

The capture vehicle was lowered and raised on a pipe string similar to those used on oil drilling rigs. Section by section, pairs of {{convert|30|ft|m|adj=on}} steel pipes were strung together to lower the claw through a hole in the middle of the ship. This configuration was designed by Western Gear Corp. of [[Everett, Washington]]. Upon a successful capture by the claw, the lift reversed the process: {{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on}} pairs drawn up and removed one at a time. The salvaged "Target Object" was thus to be drawn into the moon pool in the center of the vessel, the doors of which could then be closed to form a floor for the salvaged section. This allowed for the entire salvage process to take place underwater, away from the view of other ships, aircraft, or spy satellites.

''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' arrived at the recovery site ({{coord|40.1|N|179.9|E|display=it}})<ref name=prc>[http://www.prc68.com/I/crypto.shtml The Project Azorian video by Michael White has these coordinates confirmed by other sources]</ref> on July 4, 1974, after departing from [[Long Beach, California]], on June 20, and traveling sailing {{convert|3008|nmi|km}}. The ship conducted salvage operations for over a month. During this period, at least two Soviet Navy ships visited ''Hughes Glomar Explorer''{{'}}s work site, the oceangoing [[tugboat]] ''SB-10'', and the Soviet missile range instrumentation ship ''Chazma''.<ref name="StudiesIntell85">{{cite web
|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|title=Project Azorian: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer
|date=Fall 1985
|publisher=Studies in Intelligence, [[CIA]]
|access-date=February 13, 2010
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131100657/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|url-status=live
}}</ref> It was found out after 1991 that the Soviets were tipped off about the operation and were aware that the CIA was planning some kind of salvage operation, but the military command believed it impossible that they could perform such a task and disregarded further intelligence warnings. Later, Soviet Ambassador [[Anatoly Dobrynin]] started sending urgent messages back to the Soviet Navy warning that an operation was imminent. Soviet military engineering experts reevaluated their positions and claimed that it was indeed possible (though highly unlikely) to recover ''K-129'', and ships in the area were ordered to report any unusual activity, although the lack of knowledge as to where ''K-129'' was located impeded their ability to stop any salvage operation.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/>

US Army Major General [[Roland Lajoie]] stated that, according to a briefing he received by the CIA during recovery operations, ''Clementine'' suffered a catastrophic failure, causing two-thirds of the already raised portion of ''K-129'' to sink back to the ocean floor.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Former Lockheed and Hughes Global Marine employees who worked on the operation have stated that several of the "claws" intended to grab the submarine fractured, possibly because they were manufactured from [[maraging steel]], which is very [[tensile strength|strong]], but not very [[ductility|ductile]] compared with other kinds of steel.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> Video evidence and eyewitness reports have stated that multiple claws of Clementine sheared off, causing a {{convert|100|ft}} section of the submarine to fall back to the seafloor.<ref name="Netflix" /> Eyewitnesses have stated that only the {{convert|38|ft}} bow section was raised, while the sail portion containing the nuclear missiles was lost during the raising operation.<ref name="Netflix" />

[[File:Burial At Sea of Soviet Submariners from Hughes Glomar Explorer.webm|thumb|Video of the Soviet sailors being buried at sea]]

The recovered section included two [[nuclear torpedo]]es, and thus Project Azorian was not a complete failure. The bodies of six crewmen were also recovered, and were given a memorial service and with military honors, [[Burial at sea|buried at sea]] in a metal casket because of radioactivity concerns. Other crew members have reported that code books and other materials of apparent interest to CIA employees aboard the vessel were recovered, {{Original research span|and images of inventory printouts exhibited in the documentary<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> suggest that various submarine components, such as hatch covers, instruments and sonar equipment were also recovered.|date=July 2024}} White's documentary also states that the [[ship's bell]] from ''K-129'' was recovered, and was subsequently returned to the Soviet Union as part of a diplomatic effort. The CIA considered the project one of the greatest intelligence coups of the Cold War.<ref name="intel coup">{{cite web|title=Project AZORIAN|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|publisher=CIA|access-date=July 9, 2013|date=November 21, 2012|archive-date=September 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927005022/https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The entire salvage operation was recorded by a CIA documentary film crew, but this film remains classified. A short portion of the film, showing the recovery and subsequent burial at sea of the six bodies recovered in the forward section of ''K-129'', was given to the Russian government in 1992.

==Public disclosure==

===''The New York Times'' story===
''[[Time Magazine]]'' credited [[Jack Anderson (columnist)|Jack Anderson]] as breaking the story in a March 1975 radio broadcast.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Press: Show and Tell? (Monday, Mar. 31, 1975) |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |magazine=Time |date=March 31, 1975 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408202541/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Robarge">{{cite journal |last=Robarge |first=David |date=March 2012 |title=The ''Glomar Explorer'' in Film and Print |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005000/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |journal=Studies in Intelligence |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=28–29 |access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Rejecting a plea from the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[William Colby]] to suppress the story, Anderson said he released the story because "Navy experts have told us that the sunken sub contains no real secrets and that the project, therefore, is a waste of the taxpayers' money."<ref name="Robarge"/>

In February 1975, investigative reporter and former ''[[New York Times]]'' writer [[Seymour Hersh]] had planned to publish a story on Project Azorian. [[Bill Kovach]], the ''New York Times'' Washington bureau chief at the time, said in 2005 that the government offered a convincing argument to delay publication – exposure at that time, while the project was ongoing, "would have caused an international incident." ''The New York Times'' published its account in March 1975,<ref>Phelan, James. [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0716FF395E157493C5AB1788D85F418785F9&scp=3&sq=Glomar%20Hughes&st=cse "An Easy Burglary Led to the Disclosure of Hughes-C.I.A. Plan to Salvage Soviet Sub" (fee)]. ''The New York Times'' March 27, 1975, p. 18.</ref> after a story appeared in the ''Los Angeles Times'', and included a five-paragraph explanation of the many twists and turns in the path to publication.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manjoo |first1=Farhad |title=Prying open the Times |url=https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |website=Salon |access-date=September 22, 2021 |language=en |date=December 22, 2005 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921061814/https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |url-status=live }}</ref> CIA director [[George H. W. Bush]] reported on several occasions to U.S. president [[Gerald Ford]] on media reports and the future use of the ship.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817012757/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 1. December 1976, 9:00 to 9:30 a.m.|date=December 2, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817062928/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 12. July 1976, 8:00 a.m.|date=July 12, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> The CIA concluded that it seemed unclear what, if any, action was taken by the Soviet Union after learning of the story.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| title=Implications for US-Soviet Relations of Certain Soviet Activities: Microwaves in Moscow (section 13)| date=June 1976| publisher=Central Intelligence Agency| access-date=January 2, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124652/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| archive-date=November 5, 2010| url-status=dead}}</ref>

===FOIA request and the Glomar response===
After stories had been published about the CIA's attempts to stop publication of information about Project Azorian, [[Hank Phillippi Ryan|Harriet Ann Phillippi]], a journalist, filed a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request with the CIA for any records about the CIA's attempts. The CIA refused to either confirm or deny the existence of such documents.<ref>Philippi v. CIA (Turner et al.), U.S. Court of Appeals, 211 U.S. App. D.D. 95, June 25, 1981</ref> This type of non-responsive reply has since come to be known as the "[[Glomar response]]" or "Glomarization".<ref name="FOIA1986">{{cite web |author=FOIA Update, Vol. VII, No. 1, Page 3 |title=OIP Guidance: Privacy 'Glomarization' |publisher=United States Department of Justice |year=1986 |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |access-date=February 19, 2010 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724101407/http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 1998 release of video ===
A video showing the 1974 memorial services for the six Soviet seamen whose bodies were recovered by Project Azorian was forwarded by the U.S. to [[Russia]] in the early 1990s. Portions of this video were shown on television documentaries concerning Project Azorian, including a 1998 [[Discovery Channel]] special called ''A Matter of National Security'' (based on Clyde W. Burleson's book, ''The Jennifer Project'' (1977)) and again in 1999, on a PBS Cold War submarine episode of ''[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |title=Clyde W, Burleson, author, "The Jennifer Project", 1977 |access-date=January 4, 2011 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708165755/http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |title=PBS, ''Nova'', "Submarines, Secrets and Spies". Broadcast January, 1999. |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=September 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618183135/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 2010 release of 1985 CIA article ===
In February 2010, the CIA released an article from the fall 1985 edition of the CIA internal journal ''[[Studies in Intelligence]]'' following an application by researcher Matthew Aid at the [[National Security Archive]]<ref>{{cite news|author=Calvin Woodward|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|agency=Associated Press|title=Gone fishing: Secret hunt for a sunken Soviet sub|date=February 13, 2010|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195816/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> to declassify the information under the Freedom of Information Act. Exactly what the operation managed to salvage remained unclear.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |title="US admits salvaging sunken Soviet submarine – The American government has finally revealed details of a secret mission to raise a sunken Soviet submarine |date=February 14, 2010 |access-date=April 2, 2018 |archive-date=December 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225075309/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The report was written by an unidentified participant in Project Azorian.

=== 2010 release of President Ford cabinet meeting ===
President [[Gerald Ford]], Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]], Philip Buchen (Counsel to the President), [[John O. Marsh, Jr.]] (Counselor to the President), Ambassador [[Donald Rumsfeld]], USAF Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] (Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs), and [[William Colby]] (Director of Central Intelligence) discussed the leak and whether the Ford administration would react to Hersh's story in a cabinet meeting on March 19, 1975, the same day that ''The New York Times'' published the story. Secretary of Defense Schlesinger is quoted as saying,
{{Blockquote|This episode has been a major American accomplishment. The operation is a marvel – technically, and with maintaining secrecy.<ref name=cabinetmeeting>{{Cite web |url=http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |title=Matador Meeting |access-date=July 4, 2012 |archive-date=October 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006025318/http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Doc3>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063212/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf |date=August 16, 2012 }} nsarchiv</ref>}}
Schlesinger indicated at least some form of success that should be confirmed publicly.<ref name=declassified>[http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ Document Friday: The Origins of "Glomar" Declassified] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619093301/http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ |date=June 19, 2012 }}, William Burr, June 15, 2012.</ref> CIA Director William Colby dissented, recalling the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 crisis]], saying:
{{Blockquote|I think we should not put the Soviet Union under such pressure to respond.<ref name=cabinetmeeting /><ref name=Doc3 />}}
The ''Los Angeles Times'' published a four-page story the next day by [[Jack Nelson (journalist)|Jack Nelson]] with the headline "Administration Won't Talk About Sub Raised by CIA."<ref name=declassified />

==Conspiracy theory==

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204225855/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=February 4, 2013| title=Espionage: The Great Submarine Snatch|date=March 31, 1975 |publisher=Time Magazine}}</ref> and a court filing by Felice D. Cohen and [[Morton H. Halperin]] on behalf of the Military Audit Project <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|title=Military Audit Project v. {{!}} 656 F.2d 724 (1981) {{!}} f2d72411252 {{!}} Leagle.com|work=Leagle|access-date=September 17, 2017|language=en|archive-date=May 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504010619/http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|url-status=live}}</ref> suggest that the alleged project goal of raising a Soviet submarine might itself have been a cover story for another secret mission. Tapping undersea communication cables, the cover up of an assassination, the discovery of Atlantis, the installation of a missile silo, and installation and repair of [[SOSUS|surveillance systems to monitor ship and submarine movements]] are listed as possibilities for the actual purpose of such a secret mission.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| title=656 F.2d 724; 211 U.S.App.D.C. 135, 7 Media L. Rep. 1708: Military Audit Project, Felice D. Cohen, Morton H. Halperin, Appellants, v. William Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, et al.; No. 80-1110.| year=1981| publisher=United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325093649/http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref>

==Eyewitness account==
W. Craig Reed told an inside account of Project Azorian in his book ''Red November: Inside the Secret U.S. – Soviet Submarine War'' (2010). The account was provided by Joe Houston, the senior engineer who designed leading-edge camera systems used by the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' team to photograph ''K-129'' on the ocean floor. The team needed pictures that offered precise measurements to design the grappling arm and other systems used to bring the sunken submarine up from the bottom. Houston worked for the mysterious "Mr. P" (John Parangosky) who worked for CIA Deputy Director [[Carl E. Duckett]], the two leaders of Project Azorian. Duckett later worked with Houston at another company, and intimated that the CIA may have recovered much more from the ''K-129'' than admitted publicly. Reed also details how the deep submergence towed sonar array<ref>USS Halibut Crew Member</ref> technology was used for subsequent [[Operation Ivy Bells]] missions to wiretap underwater Soviet communications cables.

The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' features interviews with Sherman Wetmore, Global Marine heavy lift operations manager; Charlie Johnson, Global Marine heavy lift engineer; and Raymond Feldman, Lockheed Ocean Systems senior staff engineer. They were the three principals in the design of the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' heavy lift system and the Lockheed capture vehicle (CV or claw). They were also on board the ship during the mission and were intimately involved with the recovery operation. They confirmed that only {{cvt|38|ft}} of the bow was eventually recovered. The intent was to recover the forward two thirds ({{cvt|138|ft|disp=sqbr}}) of ''K-129'', which had broken off from the rear section of the submarine and was designated the Target Object (TO). The capture vehicle successfully lifted the TO from the ocean floor, but a failure of part of the capture vehicle on the way up caused the loss of {{cvt|100|ft}} of the TO, including the sail. [[Norman Polmar]] and Michael White published ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'' in 2010. The book contains additional documentary evidence about the effort to locate the submarine and the recovery operation.<ref name=AzorianDVD />

== CIA Museum artifacts ==
A number of artifacts from Project Azorian and ''Glomar Explorer'' are on display at the [[CIA Museum]]. The museum has shared declassified images and video featuring the artifacts through its website; however the physical grounds of the museum are on the compound of the [[George Bush Center for Intelligence]] and thus physically inaccessible to the public.<gallery widths="170" perrow="5">
File:Painting-of-AZORIAN-mission-approved.jpg|Sherman Wetmore, lead engineer on the Glomar Explorer, looking at an oil painting of the ship raising the Soviet submarine.
File:Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.jpg|Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.
File:Glomar Manganese Nodule Encased in Lucite.jpg|One of the manganese nodules that Glomar recovered from the Pacific, now encased in lucite.
File:Glomar Patch.jpg|Hughes Glomar / Summa Corporation crew patch
File:The Debrief Behind The Artifact Glomar.webm|A video discussing the Glomar Explorer, produced as part of the CIA Debrief series on YouTube
</gallery>

==Documentaries==
The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' was produced by Michael White and released in 2009.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ Azorian – The Raising of the K-129 / 2009 – Two Part TV Documentary / Michael White Films Vienna]</ref>

Spy Ops: Project Azorian (Season 1, Episode 8) is a short documentary also produced by Michael White which adds some details to his earlier work. Two former CIA officials (Robert Wallace, John Cardwell) make their appearance in this film for Netflix.<ref name="Netflix">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt29026398/ Spy Ops: Project Azorian Episode aired Sep 8, 2023]</ref>

''Neither Confirm Nor Deny'' is a documentary on Project Azorian.<ref name="latimes/nCnD-review">{{cite news |last1=Abele |first1=Robert |title=Review: 'Neither Confirm Nor Deny' tells a real-life tale of spies, nukes and Howard Hughes |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 23, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203212940/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes/deny-review">{{cite news |last1=Rapold |first1=Nicolas |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny' Review: Exhumation at Sea |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/21/movies/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review.html |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=September 21, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="978-0-231-55032-1">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter/4091883">{{cite news |last1=DeFore |first1=John |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny': Film Review - DOC NYC 2020 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/neither-confirm-nor-deny-film-review-doc-nyc-2020-4091883/ |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[HMS L55]], a British submarine sunk in 1919 and raised by the Soviets in 1928
* {{HMS|Poseidon|P99|6}}, a British submarine sunk in 1931 and secretly raised by China in 1972
* ''[[Hughes Mining Barge]]'', a submersible barge designed to keep the ''Glomar Explorer'''s true nature secret
* [[The Laundry Files#The Jennifer Morgue|''The Jennifer Morgue'']] novel by Charles Stross, uses the ''K-129'' scenario as a basis for supernatural horror.
* [[Harry Turtledove bibliography | ''Three Miles Down'']] novel by Harry Turtledove, based on Project Azorian.
* [[List of sunken nuclear submarines]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Sources'''
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Craven |first=John |author-link=John P. Craven PhD%2C JD |title=The Silent War: The Cold War Battle Beneath the Sea |year=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-684-87213-7 |chapter=The Hunt for Red September: A Tale of Two Submarines |pages=[https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 198–222] |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Taking of K-129: How the CIA Used Howard Hughes to Steal a Russian Sub in the Most Daring Covert Operation in History |last=Dean |first=Josh |year=2018 |publisher=Dutton Caliber |isbn=978-1101984451}}
* Dunham, Roger C. (1996) ''Spy Sub – Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific'' New York: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-451-40797-0}}
* Reed, W. Craig (2010) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140320042056/http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Red-November-W-Craig-Reed/?isbn=9780061806766 Red November: Inside the Secret U.S.–Soviet Submarine War]'' New York: William Morrow. {{ISBN|978-0-06-180676-6}}
* [[Norman Polmar|Polmar, Norman]] and White, Michael (2010) ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'', Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59114-690-2}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030160024/http://users.erols.com/marelk/Vets%20Page%20Rework/PUC-%20Citation.htm Presidential Unit Citation – USS ''Halibut'' – 1968]
* {{cite book|last=Sharp|first=David|title=The CIA's Greatest Covert Operation: Inside the Daring Mission to Recover a Nuclear-Armed Soviet Sub|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1834-7|page=344|url=http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728214106/http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|archive-date=July 28, 2012}}
* {{cite book |last=Sontag |first=Sherry |title=Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=New York |isbn=0-06-103004-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/blindmansbluffun00sont }}
* Varner, Roy and Collier, Wayne. (1978) ''A Matter of Risk: The Incredible Inside Story of the CIA's Hughes Glomar Explorer Mission to Raise a Russian Submarine''

==External links==
{{Commons category|Project Azorian}}
* [https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/jennifer.htm Project Jennifer and the Hughes Glomar Explorer] [[fas.org]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041227062724/http://intellit.muskingum.edu/cia_folder/cia70s_folder/cia70sglomar.html bibliography] intellit.[[Muskingum University|muskingum.edu]]

[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations|Jennifer, Project]]
[[Category:Cold War intelligence operations]]
[[Category:K-129 submarine sinking accident]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:Marine salvage operations]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:1974 in military history]]

Project Azorian

2024-09-22T08:58:18Z

Uruiamme: /* The wreck of K-129 */ They saw a missile

{{short description|1974 CIA project to recover the sunken Soviet submarine K-129}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Project Azorian
|Image_Name = USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193).jpg
|Imagesize = 300
|Image_Alt =
|Image_Caption = ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''
|Thumb_Time =
|AKA =
|Participants = [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]
|Location = {{convert|16500|ft|m}} below the [[Pacific Ocean]]
|Date = 1974
|nongregorian =
|Deaths =
|Result = Successful recovery of a portion of [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine K-129]]
|URL =
}}

'''Project Azorian''' (also called "Jennifer" by the press after its Top Secret Security Compartment)<ref>{{cite web | via = GWU | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | title = Project Azorian: The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer | date = February 12, 2010 | first1 = Matthew | last1 = Aid | first2 = William | last2 = Burr | first3 = Thomas | last3 = Blanton | publisher = The National Security Archive | access-date = February 13, 2010 | archive-date = June 3, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603102439/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | url-status = live }}</ref> was a U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) project to recover the sunken [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine ''K-129'']] from the Pacific Ocean floor in 1974 using the purpose-built ship [[Glomar Explorer|''Hughes Glomar Explorer'']].<ref name= "p30">Wiegley, Roger D., LT (JAG) USN "The Recovered Sunken Warship: Raising a Legal Question" ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'' January 1979 p. 30.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining The secret on the ocean floor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918072757/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining |date=September 18, 2019 }}. David Shukman, ''BBC News''. February 19, 2018.</ref> The 1968 sinking of ''K-129'' occurred about {{convert|1560|mi|km|}} northwest of Hawaii.<ref name= "StudiesIntell85" /> Project Azorian was one of the most complex, expensive, and covert intelligence operations of the [[Cold War]] at a cost of about $800 million, or ${{inflation|US|0.8|1974|r=1}} billion today.

The US designed the recovery ship and its lifting cradle using concepts developed with Global Marine (see [[Project Mohole]]) that used their precision stability equipment to keep the ship nearly stationary above the target while lowering nearly {{convert |3|mi|km|spell= in}} of pipe. They worked with scientists to develop methods for preserving paper that had been underwater for years in hopes of being able to recover and read the submarine's codebooks. The reasons that this project was undertaken included the recovery of an intact [[R-21 (missile)|R-21]] nuclear missile and cryptological documents and equipment.

The Soviet Union was unable to locate ''K-129'', but the US determined its general location from data recorded by four [[Air Force Technical Applications Center]] (AFTAC) sites and the Adak [[SOSUS|Sound Surveillance System]] (SOSUS) array. {{Clarify span|The US identified an acoustic event on March 8 that likely originated from an explosion aboard the submarine, and was able to determine the location to within {{convert|5|nmi|mi km|spell= in}}.|Did this take place after the US determined the general location, as described in the previous sentence? Or do both sentences describe the same process?|date=July 2024}} The submarine {{USS |Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} located the boat using the Fish, a towed, {{convert|12|ft|adj=on}}, {{convert |2|ST|adj=on|spell=in}} collection of cameras, strobe lights, and sonar that was built to withstand extreme depths. The recovery operation in international waters about six years later used mining for [[manganese nodule]]s as its cover. The company was nominally owned by [[Howard Hughes]], secretly backed by the CIA, who had paid for the construction of the ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Polmar|first1=Norman|author-link= Norman Polmar|title= Project Azorian: the CIA and the Raising of the K-129 |year=2010|publisher= Naval Institute Press|location= Annapolis, MD |isbn= 978-1-59114-690-2 | last2 = White | first2 = Michael}}</ref> The ship recovered a portion of ''K-129'', but a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery.

== The wreck of ''K-129'' ==
{{anchor|Target: the wreck of the K-129}}
[[File:Soviet ballistic missile submarine K-129.jpg|thumb|The ''K-129'' submarine]]{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
On February 24, 1968, ''K-129'', a Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Project 629A]] [[ballistic missile submarine]] attached to the 15th Submarine Squadron of the [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]], left Rybachiy Naval Base in [[Kamchatka]] on a routine missile patrol, the boat's third since completing a major modernization the previous year. On the first day, the sub cruised out to deep water, conducted a test dive, surfaced to radio in, and embarked for its patrol station. The sub was to make standard radio contact with its commanders in Kamchatka when crossing the [[180th meridian]] and when arriving on station. But ''K-129'' missed its designated check-ins and did not respond to communication attempts. By the third week of March, the submarine was declared missing.

In April 1968, many [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]] surface and air assets deployed to the [[North Pacific Ocean]] and performed some unusual search operations. The activity was evaluated by the United States [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI) as a possible reaction to the loss of a Soviet submarine. Soviet surface ship searches were centered on a location known to be associated with Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Golf II-class]] strategic ballistic missile (SSB) diesel submarine patrol routes. These submarines carried three nuclear missiles in an extended sail/conning tower, and routinely deployed within missile range of the US west coast. After weeks of searching, the Soviets were unable to locate the sunken boat, and Soviet Pacific Fleet operations gradually returned to normal.

The US Navy analyzed acoustic data recorded by the [[SOSUS]] [[hydrophone]] network in the northern Pacific—four AFTAC sites and the [[Adak, Alaska]] SOSUS array—and found evidence of the implosion that had sunk the Russian sub.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} [[Naval Facility Point Sur|Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Point Sur]], south of [[Monterey, California]], isolated a sonic signature on its low-frequency array recordings of an implosion that had occurred on March 8, 1968. Using NavFac Point Sur's date and time of the event, [[NavFac Adak]] and the US West Coast NAVFAC were also able to isolate the acoustic event. With five SOSUS lines-of-bearing, Naval Intelligence was able to localize the site of the ''K-129'' wreck to the vicinity of 40.1° N latitude and 179.9° E longitude (close to the [[International Date Line]]).<ref name="AzorianDVD">{{cite AV media | people = Michael White | date = February 8, 2011 | medium = DVD | ISBN = 978-1591146902 | publisher = Michael White Films | ASIN =B0047H7PYQ | title = Azorian: The Raising of the K-129 | url = http://www.projectjennifer.at | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ | archive-date = February 5, 2009 }}</ref>

In July 1968, the [[United States Navy]] began "Operation Sand Dollar" with the deployment of {{USS|Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} from [[Pearl Harbor]] to the wreck site. Sand Dollar's objective was to find and photograph ''K-129''. In 1968 ''Halibut'', which had been configured to use deep submergence search equipment, was the US Navy's only such specially-equipped submarine. ''Halibut'' located the wreck after three weeks of visual search using robotic remote-controlled cameras. (It took almost five months of search to find the wreck of the US nuclear-powered submarine {{USS|Scorpion|SSN-589|2}} in the Atlantic, also in 1968). ''Halibut'' is reported to have spent the next several weeks taking more than 20,000 closeup photos of every aspect of the ''K-129'' wreck, a feat for which ''Halibut'' received a special classified [[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citation]] signed by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in 1968.

The photos were sent to the [[National Photographic Interpretation Center]] at the CIA to determine what, if anything, could be determined about the status of the wreck. CIA analysts wrote a report indicating that there was a good probability that the nuclear missile in the #3 missile tube was still intact.<ref name="Netflix" />

In 1970, based upon this photography, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Melvin Laird]] and [[Henry Kissinger]], then [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]], proposed a clandestine plan to recover the wreckage so that the US could study Soviet nuclear missile technology, as well as possibly recover [[cryptography|cryptographic]] materials. The proposal was accepted by President [[Richard Nixon]], and the CIA was tasked to attempt the recovery.

==Building ''Glomar Explorer'' and its cover story==
{{Main|Glomar Explorer}}
Global Marine Development Inc., the research and development arm of Global Marine Inc., a pioneer in deepwater offshore drilling operations, was contracted to design, build and operate ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' to secretly salvage the sunken Soviet submarine. The ship was built at the [[Sun Shipbuilding]] yard near Philadelphia. Billionaire businessman [[Howard Hughes]] – whose companies were already contractors on numerous classified [[US military]] weapons, aircraft and satellite contracts{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} – agreed to lend his name to the project to support the cover story that the ship was mining [[manganese nodules]] from the ocean floor, but Hughes and his companies had no actual involvement in the project. ''K-129'' was photographed at a depth of over {{convert|16000|ft|m}}, and thus the salvage operation would be well beyond the depth of any ship salvage operation ever attempted.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} On November 1, 1972, work began on the {{convert|63000|ST|adj=on}}, {{convert|619|foot|m|adj=mid|-long}} ''[[USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193)|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]'' (HGE).

At least two preparatory missions were carried out in the general area of the recovery site using other ships. From September 1970 to January 1971, the drilling ship GLOMAR II collected site data as part of [[Project AXMINSTER]].<ref>{{cite web |title=186. Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |website=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXXV, National Security Policy, 1973–1976 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |date=May 28, 1974 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref> From January to July 1972, the R.V. SEASCOPE surveyed the general area to within 45 nm of the recovery site. Both missions also probed the Soviet reactions to research ships in the region.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss"/>

The primary objective was to recover a major portion of the submarine. In particular, the [[National_Intelligence_Board|United States Intelligence Board]] (USIB) expected to recover [[Cryptography|cryptographic]] equipment, a [[nuclear warhead]], a [[SS-N-5]] missile, the [[navigation system]], [[fire control system]], [[sonar]] system, [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] countermeasures, and related documentation.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss">{{cite journal |date=May 28, 1974 |title=Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |journal=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976 |volume=XXXV |access-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Recovery==
''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' employed a large mechanical claw, which [[Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company|Lockheed]] officially titled the "Capture Vehicle" but affectionately called ''Clementine''. The capture vehicle was designed to be lowered to the ocean floor, grasp the targeted submarine section, and then lift that section into the ship's hold. One requirement of this technology was to keep the floating base stable and in position over a fixed point {{convert|16000|ft|m}} below the ocean surface.

The capture vehicle was lowered and raised on a pipe string similar to those used on oil drilling rigs. Section by section, pairs of {{convert|30|ft|m|adj=on}} steel pipes were strung together to lower the claw through a hole in the middle of the ship. This configuration was designed by Western Gear Corp. of [[Everett, Washington]]. Upon a successful capture by the claw, the lift reversed the process: {{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on}} pairs drawn up and removed one at a time. The salvaged "Target Object" was thus to be drawn into a [[moon pool]], the doors of which could then be closed to form a floor for the salvaged section. This allowed for the entire salvage process to take place underwater, away from the view of other ships, aircraft, or spy satellites.

''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' arrived at the recovery site ({{coord|40.1|N|179.9|E|display=it}})<ref name=prc>[http://www.prc68.com/I/crypto.shtml The Project Azorian video by Michael White has these coordinates confirmed by other sources]</ref> on July 4, 1974, after departing from [[Long Beach, California]], on June 20, and traveling sailing {{convert|3008|nmi|km}}. The ship conducted salvage operations for over a month. During this period, at least two Soviet Navy ships visited ''Hughes Glomar Explorer''{{'}}s work site, the oceangoing [[tugboat]] ''SB-10'', and the Soviet missile range instrumentation ship ''Chazma''.<ref name="StudiesIntell85">{{cite web
|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|title=Project Azorian: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer
|date=Fall 1985
|publisher=Studies in Intelligence, [[CIA]]
|access-date=February 13, 2010
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131100657/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|url-status=live
}}</ref> It was found out after 1991 that the Soviets were tipped off about the operation and were aware that the CIA was planning some kind of salvage operation, but the military command believed it impossible that they could perform such a task and disregarded further intelligence warnings. Later, Soviet Ambassador [[Anatoly Dobrynin]] started sending urgent messages back to the Soviet Navy warning that an operation was imminent. Soviet military engineering experts reevaluated their positions and claimed that it was indeed possible (though highly unlikely) to recover ''K-129'', and ships in the area were ordered to report any unusual activity, although the lack of knowledge as to where ''K-129'' was located impeded their ability to stop any salvage operation.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/>

US Army Major General [[Roland Lajoie]] stated that, according to a briefing he received by the CIA during recovery operations, ''Clementine'' suffered a catastrophic failure, causing two-thirds of the already raised portion of ''K-129'' to sink back to the ocean floor.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Former Lockheed and Hughes Global Marine employees who worked on the operation have stated that several of the "claws" intended to grab the submarine fractured, possibly because they were manufactured from [[maraging steel]], which is very [[tensile strength|strong]], but not very [[ductility|ductile]] compared with other kinds of steel.

[[File:Burial At Sea of Soviet Submariners from Hughes Glomar Explorer.webm|thumb|Video of the Soviet sailors being buried at sea]]

The recovered section included two [[nuclear torpedo]]es, and thus Project Azorian was not a complete failure. The bodies of six crewmen were also recovered, and were given a memorial service and with military honors, [[Burial at sea|buried at sea]] in a metal casket because of radioactivity concerns. Other crew members have reported that code books and other materials of apparent interest to CIA employees aboard the vessel were recovered, {{Original research span|and images of inventory printouts exhibited in the documentary<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> suggest that various submarine components, such as hatch covers, instruments and sonar equipment were also recovered.|date=July 2024}} White's documentary also states that the [[ship's bell]] from ''K-129'' was recovered, and was subsequently returned to the Soviet Union as part of a diplomatic effort. The CIA considered the project one of the greatest intelligence coups of the Cold War.<ref name="intel coup">{{cite web|title=Project AZORIAN|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|publisher=CIA|access-date=July 9, 2013|date=November 21, 2012|archive-date=September 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927005022/https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The entire salvage operation was recorded by a CIA documentary film crew, but this film remains classified. A short portion of the film, showing the recovery and subsequent burial at sea of the six bodies recovered in the forward section of ''K-129'', was given to the Russian government in 1992.

==Public disclosure==

===''The New York Times'' story===
''[[Time Magazine]]'' credited [[Jack Anderson (columnist)|Jack Anderson]] as breaking the story in a March 1975 radio broadcast.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Press: Show and Tell? (Monday, Mar. 31, 1975) |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |magazine=Time |date=March 31, 1975 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408202541/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Robarge">{{cite journal |last=Robarge |first=David |date=March 2012 |title=The ''Glomar Explorer'' in Film and Print |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005000/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |journal=Studies in Intelligence |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=28–29 |access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Rejecting a plea from the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[William Colby]] to suppress the story, Anderson said he released the story because "Navy experts have told us that the sunken sub contains no real secrets and that the project, therefore, is a waste of the taxpayers' money."<ref name="Robarge"/>

In February 1975, investigative reporter and former ''[[New York Times]]'' writer [[Seymour Hersh]] had planned to publish a story on Project Azorian. [[Bill Kovach]], the ''New York Times'' Washington bureau chief at the time, said in 2005 that the government offered a convincing argument to delay publication – exposure at that time, while the project was ongoing, "would have caused an international incident." ''The New York Times'' published its account in March 1975,<ref>Phelan, James. [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0716FF395E157493C5AB1788D85F418785F9&scp=3&sq=Glomar%20Hughes&st=cse "An Easy Burglary Led to the Disclosure of Hughes-C.I.A. Plan to Salvage Soviet Sub" (fee)]. ''The New York Times'' March 27, 1975, p. 18.</ref> after a story appeared in the ''Los Angeles Times'', and included a five-paragraph explanation of the many twists and turns in the path to publication.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manjoo |first1=Farhad |title=Prying open the Times |url=https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |website=Salon |access-date=September 22, 2021 |language=en |date=December 22, 2005 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921061814/https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |url-status=live }}</ref> CIA director [[George H. W. Bush]] reported on several occasions to U.S. president [[Gerald Ford]] on media reports and the future use of the ship.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817012757/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 1. December 1976, 9:00 to 9:30 a.m.|date=December 2, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817062928/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 12. July 1976, 8:00 a.m.|date=July 12, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> The CIA concluded that it seemed unclear what, if any, action was taken by the Soviet Union after learning of the story.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| title=Implications for US-Soviet Relations of Certain Soviet Activities: Microwaves in Moscow (section 13)| date=June 1976| publisher=Central Intelligence Agency| access-date=January 2, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124652/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| archive-date=November 5, 2010| url-status=dead}}</ref>

===FOIA request and the Glomar response===
After stories had been published about the CIA's attempts to stop publication of information about Project Azorian, [[Hank Phillippi Ryan|Harriet Ann Phillippi]], a journalist, filed a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request with the CIA for any records about the CIA's attempts. The CIA refused to either confirm or deny the existence of such documents.<ref>Philippi v. CIA (Turner et al.), U.S. Court of Appeals, 211 U.S. App. D.D. 95, June 25, 1981</ref> This type of non-responsive reply has since come to be known as the "[[Glomar response]]" or "Glomarization".<ref name="FOIA1986">{{cite web |author=FOIA Update, Vol. VII, No. 1, Page 3 |title=OIP Guidance: Privacy 'Glomarization' |publisher=United States Department of Justice |year=1986 |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |access-date=February 19, 2010 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724101407/http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 1998 release of video ===
A video showing the 1974 memorial services for the six Soviet seamen whose bodies were recovered by Project Azorian was forwarded by the U.S. to [[Russia]] in the early 1990s. Portions of this video were shown on television documentaries concerning Project Azorian, including a 1998 [[Discovery Channel]] special called ''A Matter of National Security'' (based on Clyde W. Burleson's book, ''The Jennifer Project'' (1977)) and again in 1999, on a PBS Cold War submarine episode of ''[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |title=Clyde W, Burleson, author, "The Jennifer Project", 1977 |access-date=January 4, 2011 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708165755/http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |title=PBS, ''Nova'', "Submarines, Secrets and Spies". Broadcast January, 1999. |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=September 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618183135/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 2010 release of 1985 CIA article ===
In February 2010, the CIA released an article from the fall 1985 edition of the CIA internal journal ''[[Studies in Intelligence]]'' following an application by researcher Matthew Aid at the [[National Security Archive]]<ref>{{cite news|author=Calvin Woodward|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|agency=Associated Press|title=Gone fishing: Secret hunt for a sunken Soviet sub|date=February 13, 2010|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195816/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> to declassify the information under the Freedom of Information Act. Exactly what the operation managed to salvage remained unclear.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |title="US admits salvaging sunken Soviet submarine – The American government has finally revealed details of a secret mission to raise a sunken Soviet submarine |date=February 14, 2010 |access-date=April 2, 2018 |archive-date=December 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225075309/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The report was written by an unidentified participant in Project Azorian.

=== 2010 release of President Ford cabinet meeting ===
President [[Gerald Ford]], Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]], Philip Buchen (Counsel to the President), [[John O. Marsh, Jr.]] (Counselor to the President), Ambassador [[Donald Rumsfeld]], USAF Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] (Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs), and [[William Colby]] (Director of Central Intelligence) discussed the leak and whether the Ford administration would react to Hersh's story in a cabinet meeting on March 19, 1975, the same day that ''The New York Times'' published the story. Secretary of Defense Schlesinger is quoted as saying,
{{Blockquote|This episode has been a major American accomplishment. The operation is a marvel – technically, and with maintaining secrecy.<ref name=cabinetmeeting>{{Cite web |url=http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |title=Matador Meeting |access-date=July 4, 2012 |archive-date=October 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006025318/http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Doc3>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063212/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf |date=August 16, 2012 }} nsarchiv</ref>}}
Schlesinger indicated at least some form of success that should be confirmed publicly.<ref name=declassified>[http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ Document Friday: The Origins of "Glomar" Declassified] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619093301/http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ |date=June 19, 2012 }}, William Burr, June 15, 2012.</ref> CIA Director William Colby dissented, recalling the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 crisis]], saying:
{{Blockquote|I think we should not put the Soviet Union under such pressure to respond.<ref name=cabinetmeeting /><ref name=Doc3 />}}
The ''Los Angeles Times'' published a four-page story the next day by [[Jack Nelson (journalist)|Jack Nelson]] with the headline "Administration Won't Talk About Sub Raised by CIA."<ref name=declassified />

==Conspiracy theory==

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204225855/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=February 4, 2013| title=Espionage: The Great Submarine Snatch|date=March 31, 1975 |publisher=Time Magazine}}</ref> and a court filing by Felice D. Cohen and [[Morton H. Halperin]] on behalf of the Military Audit Project <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|title=Military Audit Project v. {{!}} 656 F.2d 724 (1981) {{!}} f2d72411252 {{!}} Leagle.com|work=Leagle|access-date=September 17, 2017|language=en|archive-date=May 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504010619/http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|url-status=live}}</ref> suggest that the alleged project goal of raising a Soviet submarine might itself have been a cover story for another secret mission. Tapping undersea communication cables, the cover up of an assassination, the discovery of Atlantis, the installation of a missile silo, and installation and repair of [[SOSUS|surveillance systems to monitor ship and submarine movements]] are listed as possibilities for the actual purpose of such a secret mission.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| title=656 F.2d 724; 211 U.S.App.D.C. 135, 7 Media L. Rep. 1708: Military Audit Project, Felice D. Cohen, Morton H. Halperin, Appellants, v. William Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, et al.; No. 80-1110.| year=1981| publisher=United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325093649/http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref>

==Eyewitness account==
W. Craig Reed told an inside account of Project Azorian in his book ''Red November: Inside the Secret U.S. – Soviet Submarine War'' (2010). The account was provided by Joe Houston, the senior engineer who designed leading-edge camera systems used by the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' team to photograph ''K-129'' on the ocean floor. The team needed pictures that offered precise measurements to design the grappling arm and other systems used to bring the sunken submarine up from the bottom. Houston worked for the mysterious "Mr. P" (John Parangosky) who worked for CIA Deputy Director [[Carl E. Duckett]], the two leaders of Project Azorian. Duckett later worked with Houston at another company, and intimated that the CIA may have recovered much more from the ''K-129'' than admitted publicly. Reed also details how the deep submergence towed sonar array<ref>USS Halibut Crew Member</ref> technology was used for subsequent [[Operation Ivy Bells]] missions to wiretap underwater Soviet communications cables.

The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' features interviews with Sherman Wetmore, Global Marine heavy lift operations manager; Charlie Johnson, Global Marine heavy lift engineer; and Raymond Feldman, Lockheed Ocean Systems senior staff engineer. They were the three principals in the design of the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' heavy lift system and the Lockheed capture vehicle (CV or claw). They were also on board the ship during the mission and were intimately involved with the recovery operation. They confirmed that only {{cvt|38|ft}} of the bow was eventually recovered. The intent was to recover the forward two thirds ({{cvt|138|ft|disp=sqbr}}) of ''K-129'', which had broken off from the rear section of the submarine and was designated the Target Object (TO). The capture vehicle successfully lifted the TO from the ocean floor, but a failure of part of the capture vehicle on the way up caused the loss of {{cvt|100|ft}} of the TO, including the sail. [[Norman Polmar]] and Michael White published ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'' in 2010. The book contains additional documentary evidence about the effort to locate the submarine and the recovery operation.<ref name=AzorianDVD />

== CIA Museum artifacts ==
A number of artifacts from Project Azorian and ''Glomar Explorer'' are on display at the [[CIA Museum]]. The museum has shared declassified images and video featuring the artifacts through its website; however the physical grounds of the museum are on the compound of the [[George Bush Center for Intelligence]] and thus physically inaccessible to the public.<gallery widths="170" perrow="5">
File:Painting-of-AZORIAN-mission-approved.jpg|Sherman Wetmore, lead engineer on the Glomar Explorer, looking at an oil painting of the ship raising the Soviet submarine.
File:Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.jpg|Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.
File:Glomar Manganese Nodule Encased in Lucite.jpg|One of the manganese nodules that Glomar recovered from the Pacific, now encased in lucite.
File:Glomar Patch.jpg|Hughes Glomar / Summa Corporation crew patch
File:The Debrief Behind The Artifact Glomar.webm|A video discussing the Glomar Explorer, produced as part of the CIA Debrief series on YouTube
</gallery>

==Documentaries==
The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' was produced by Michael White and released in 2009.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ Azorian – The Raising of the K-129 / 2009 – Two Part TV Documentary / Michael White Films Vienna]</ref>

Spy Ops: Project Azorian (Season 1, Episode 8) is a short documentary also produced by Michael White which adds some details to his earlier work. Two former CIA officials (Robert Wallace, John Cardwell) make their appearance in this film for Netflix.<ref name="Netflix">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt29026398/ Spy Ops: Project Azorian Episode aired Sep 8, 2023]</ref>

''Neither Confirm Nor Deny'' is a documentary on Project Azorian.<ref name="latimes/nCnD-review">{{cite news |last1=Abele |first1=Robert |title=Review: 'Neither Confirm Nor Deny' tells a real-life tale of spies, nukes and Howard Hughes |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 23, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203212940/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes/deny-review">{{cite news |last1=Rapold |first1=Nicolas |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny' Review: Exhumation at Sea |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/21/movies/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review.html |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=September 21, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="978-0-231-55032-1">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter/4091883">{{cite news |last1=DeFore |first1=John |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny': Film Review - DOC NYC 2020 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/neither-confirm-nor-deny-film-review-doc-nyc-2020-4091883/ |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[HMS L55]], a British submarine sunk in 1919 and raised by the Soviets in 1928
* {{HMS|Poseidon|P99|6}}, a British submarine sunk in 1931 and secretly raised by China in 1972
* ''[[Hughes Mining Barge]]'', a submersible barge designed to keep the ''Glomar Explorer'''s true nature secret
* [[The Laundry Files#The Jennifer Morgue|''The Jennifer Morgue'']] novel by Charles Stross, uses the ''K-129'' scenario as a basis for supernatural horror.
* [[Harry Turtledove bibliography | ''Three Miles Down'']] novel by Harry Turtledove, based on Project Azorian.
* [[List of sunken nuclear submarines]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Sources'''
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Craven |first=John |author-link=John P. Craven PhD%2C JD |title=The Silent War: The Cold War Battle Beneath the Sea |year=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-684-87213-7 |chapter=The Hunt for Red September: A Tale of Two Submarines |pages=[https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 198–222] |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Taking of K-129: How the CIA Used Howard Hughes to Steal a Russian Sub in the Most Daring Covert Operation in History |last=Dean |first=Josh |year=2018 |publisher=Dutton Caliber |isbn=978-1101984451}}
* Dunham, Roger C. (1996) ''Spy Sub – Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific'' New York: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-451-40797-0}}
* Reed, W. Craig (2010) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140320042056/http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Red-November-W-Craig-Reed/?isbn=9780061806766 Red November: Inside the Secret U.S.–Soviet Submarine War]'' New York: William Morrow. {{ISBN|978-0-06-180676-6}}
* [[Norman Polmar|Polmar, Norman]] and White, Michael (2010) ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'', Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59114-690-2}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030160024/http://users.erols.com/marelk/Vets%20Page%20Rework/PUC-%20Citation.htm Presidential Unit Citation – USS ''Halibut'' – 1968]
* {{cite book|last=Sharp|first=David|title=The CIA's Greatest Covert Operation: Inside the Daring Mission to Recover a Nuclear-Armed Soviet Sub|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1834-7|page=344|url=http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728214106/http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|archive-date=July 28, 2012}}
* {{cite book |last=Sontag |first=Sherry |title=Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=New York |isbn=0-06-103004-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/blindmansbluffun00sont }}
* Varner, Roy and Collier, Wayne. (1978) ''A Matter of Risk: The Incredible Inside Story of the CIA's Hughes Glomar Explorer Mission to Raise a Russian Submarine''

==External links==
{{Commons category|Project Azorian}}
* [https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/jennifer.htm Project Jennifer and the Hughes Glomar Explorer] [[fas.org]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041227062724/http://intellit.muskingum.edu/cia_folder/cia70s_folder/cia70sglomar.html bibliography] intellit.[[Muskingum University|muskingum.edu]]

[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations|Jennifer, Project]]
[[Category:Cold War intelligence operations]]
[[Category:K-129 submarine sinking accident]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:Marine salvage operations]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:1974 in military history]]

Project Azorian

2024-09-22T08:44:10Z

Uruiamme: /* Recovery */ Ok, that map was great. It was on Wikipedia for 12 years, but it's just Original Research. The location has been released since the Azorian video by White was released, about 15 years ago.

{{short description|1974 CIA project to recover the sunken Soviet submarine K-129}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Project Azorian
|Image_Name = USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193).jpg
|Imagesize = 300
|Image_Alt =
|Image_Caption = ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''
|Thumb_Time =
|AKA =
|Participants = [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]
|Location = {{convert|16500|ft|m}} below the [[Pacific Ocean]]
|Date = 1974
|nongregorian =
|Deaths =
|Result = Successful recovery of a portion of [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine K-129]]
|URL =
}}

'''Project Azorian''' (also called "Jennifer" by the press after its Top Secret Security Compartment)<ref>{{cite web | via = GWU | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | title = Project Azorian: The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer | date = February 12, 2010 | first1 = Matthew | last1 = Aid | first2 = William | last2 = Burr | first3 = Thomas | last3 = Blanton | publisher = The National Security Archive | access-date = February 13, 2010 | archive-date = June 3, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603102439/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | url-status = live }}</ref> was a U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) project to recover the sunken [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine ''K-129'']] from the Pacific Ocean floor in 1974 using the purpose-built ship [[Glomar Explorer|''Hughes Glomar Explorer'']].<ref name= "p30">Wiegley, Roger D., LT (JAG) USN "The Recovered Sunken Warship: Raising a Legal Question" ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'' January 1979 p. 30.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining The secret on the ocean floor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918072757/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining |date=September 18, 2019 }}. David Shukman, ''BBC News''. February 19, 2018.</ref> The 1968 sinking of ''K-129'' occurred about {{convert|1560|mi|km|}} northwest of Hawaii.<ref name= "StudiesIntell85" /> Project Azorian was one of the most complex, expensive, and covert intelligence operations of the [[Cold War]] at a cost of about $800 million, or ${{inflation|US|0.8|1974|r=1}} billion today.

The US designed the recovery ship and its lifting cradle using concepts developed with Global Marine (see [[Project Mohole]]) that used their precision stability equipment to keep the ship nearly stationary above the target while lowering nearly {{convert |3|mi|km|spell= in}} of pipe. They worked with scientists to develop methods for preserving paper that had been underwater for years in hopes of being able to recover and read the submarine's codebooks. The reasons that this project was undertaken included the recovery of an intact [[R-21 (missile)|R-21]] nuclear missile and cryptological documents and equipment.

The Soviet Union was unable to locate ''K-129'', but the US determined its general location from data recorded by four [[Air Force Technical Applications Center]] (AFTAC) sites and the Adak [[SOSUS|Sound Surveillance System]] (SOSUS) array. {{Clarify span|The US identified an acoustic event on March 8 that likely originated from an explosion aboard the submarine, and was able to determine the location to within {{convert|5|nmi|mi km|spell= in}}.|Did this take place after the US determined the general location, as described in the previous sentence? Or do both sentences describe the same process?|date=July 2024}} The submarine {{USS |Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} located the boat using the Fish, a towed, {{convert|12|ft|adj=on}}, {{convert |2|ST|adj=on|spell=in}} collection of cameras, strobe lights, and sonar that was built to withstand extreme depths. The recovery operation in international waters about six years later used mining for [[manganese nodule]]s as its cover. The company was nominally owned by [[Howard Hughes]], secretly backed by the CIA, who had paid for the construction of the ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Polmar|first1=Norman|author-link= Norman Polmar|title= Project Azorian: the CIA and the Raising of the K-129 |year=2010|publisher= Naval Institute Press|location= Annapolis, MD |isbn= 978-1-59114-690-2 | last2 = White | first2 = Michael}}</ref> The ship recovered a portion of ''K-129'', but a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery.

== The wreck of ''K-129'' ==
{{anchor|Target: the wreck of the K-129}}
[[File:Soviet ballistic missile submarine K-129.jpg|thumb|The ''K-129'' submarine]]{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
On February 24, 1968, ''K-129'', a Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Project 629A]] [[ballistic missile submarine]] attached to the 15th Submarine Squadron of the [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]], left Rybachiy Naval Base in [[Kamchatka]] on a routine missile patrol, the boat's third since completing a major modernization the previous year. On the first day, the sub cruised out to deep water, conducted a test dive, surfaced to radio in, and embarked for its patrol station. The sub was to make standard radio contact with its commanders in Kamchatka when crossing the [[180th meridian]] and when arriving on station. But ''K-129'' missed its designated check-ins and did not respond to communication attempts. By the third week of March, the submarine was declared missing.

In April 1968, many [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]] surface and air assets deployed to the [[North Pacific Ocean]] and performed some unusual search operations. The activity was evaluated by the United States [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI) as a possible reaction to the loss of a Soviet submarine. Soviet surface ship searches were centered on a location known to be associated with Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Golf II-class]] strategic ballistic missile (SSB) diesel submarine patrol routes. These submarines carried three nuclear missiles in an extended sail/conning tower, and routinely deployed within missile range of the US west coast. After weeks of searching, the Soviets were unable to locate the sunken boat, and Soviet Pacific Fleet operations gradually returned to normal.

The US Navy analyzed acoustic data recorded by the [[SOSUS]] [[hydrophone]] network in the northern Pacific—four AFTAC sites and the [[Adak, Alaska]] SOSUS array—and found evidence of the implosion that had sunk the Russian sub.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} [[Naval Facility Point Sur|Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Point Sur]], south of [[Monterey, California]], isolated a sonic signature on its low-frequency array recordings of an implosion that had occurred on March 8, 1968. Using NavFac Point Sur's date and time of the event, [[NavFac Adak]] and the US West Coast NAVFAC were also able to isolate the acoustic event. With five SOSUS lines-of-bearing, Naval Intelligence was able to localize the site of the ''K-129'' wreck to the vicinity of 40.1° N latitude and 179.9° E longitude (close to the [[International Date Line]]).<ref name="AzorianDVD">{{cite AV media | people = Michael White | date = February 8, 2011 | medium = DVD | ISBN = 978-1591146902 | publisher = Michael White Films | ASIN =B0047H7PYQ | title = Azorian: The Raising of the K-129 | url = http://www.projectjennifer.at | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ | archive-date = February 5, 2009 }}</ref>

In July 1968, the [[United States Navy]] began "Operation Sand Dollar" with the deployment of {{USS|Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} from [[Pearl Harbor]] to the wreck site. Sand Dollar's objective was to find and photograph ''K-129''. In 1968 ''Halibut'', which had been configured to use deep submergence search equipment, was the US Navy's only such specially-equipped submarine. ''Halibut'' located the wreck after three weeks of visual search using robotic remote-controlled cameras. (It took almost five months of search to find the wreck of the US nuclear-powered submarine {{USS|Scorpion|SSN-589|2}} in the Atlantic, also in 1968). ''Halibut'' is reported to have spent the next several weeks taking more than 20,000 closeup photos of every aspect of the ''K-129'' wreck, a feat for which ''Halibut'' received a special classified [[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citation]] signed by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in 1968.

In 1970, based upon this photography, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Melvin Laird]] and [[Henry Kissinger]], then [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]], proposed a clandestine plan to recover the wreckage so that the US could study Soviet nuclear missile technology, as well as possibly recover [[cryptography|cryptographic]] materials. The proposal was accepted by President [[Richard Nixon]] and the CIA was tasked to attempt the recovery.

==Building ''Glomar Explorer'' and its cover story==
{{Main|Glomar Explorer}}
Global Marine Development Inc., the research and development arm of Global Marine Inc., a pioneer in deepwater offshore drilling operations, was contracted to design, build and operate ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' to secretly salvage the sunken Soviet submarine. The ship was built at the [[Sun Shipbuilding]] yard near Philadelphia. Billionaire businessman [[Howard Hughes]] – whose companies were already contractors on numerous classified [[US military]] weapons, aircraft and satellite contracts{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} – agreed to lend his name to the project to support the cover story that the ship was mining [[manganese nodules]] from the ocean floor, but Hughes and his companies had no actual involvement in the project. ''K-129'' was photographed at a depth of over {{convert|16000|ft|m}}, and thus the salvage operation would be well beyond the depth of any ship salvage operation ever attempted.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} On November 1, 1972, work began on the {{convert|63000|ST|adj=on}}, {{convert|619|foot|m|adj=mid|-long}} ''[[USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193)|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]'' (HGE).

At least two preparatory missions were carried out in the general area of the recovery site using other ships. From September 1970 to January 1971, the drilling ship GLOMAR II collected site data as part of [[Project AXMINSTER]].<ref>{{cite web |title=186. Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |website=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXXV, National Security Policy, 1973–1976 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |date=May 28, 1974 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref> From January to July 1972, the R.V. SEASCOPE surveyed the general area to within 45 nm of the recovery site. Both missions also probed the Soviet reactions to research ships in the region.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss"/>

The primary objective was to recover a major portion of the submarine. In particular, the [[National_Intelligence_Board|United States Intelligence Board]] (USIB) expected to recover [[Cryptography|cryptographic]] equipment, a [[nuclear warhead]], a [[SS-N-5]] missile, the [[navigation system]], [[fire control system]], [[sonar]] system, [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] countermeasures, and related documentation.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss">{{cite journal |date=May 28, 1974 |title=Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |journal=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976 |volume=XXXV |access-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Recovery==
''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' employed a large mechanical claw, which [[Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company|Lockheed]] officially titled the "Capture Vehicle" but affectionately called ''Clementine''. The capture vehicle was designed to be lowered to the ocean floor, grasp the targeted submarine section, and then lift that section into the ship's hold. One requirement of this technology was to keep the floating base stable and in position over a fixed point {{convert|16000|ft|m}} below the ocean surface.

The capture vehicle was lowered and raised on a pipe string similar to those used on oil drilling rigs. Section by section, pairs of {{convert|30|ft|m|adj=on}} steel pipes were strung together to lower the claw through a hole in the middle of the ship. This configuration was designed by Western Gear Corp. of [[Everett, Washington]]. Upon a successful capture by the claw, the lift reversed the process: {{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on}} pairs drawn up and removed one at a time. The salvaged "Target Object" was thus to be drawn into a [[moon pool]], the doors of which could then be closed to form a floor for the salvaged section. This allowed for the entire salvage process to take place underwater, away from the view of other ships, aircraft, or spy satellites.

''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' arrived at the recovery site ({{coord|40.1|N|179.9|E|display=it}})<ref name=prc>[http://www.prc68.com/I/crypto.shtml The Project Azorian video by Michael White has these coordinates confirmed by other sources]</ref> on July 4, 1974, after departing from [[Long Beach, California]], on June 20, and traveling sailing {{convert|3008|nmi|km}}. The ship conducted salvage operations for over a month. During this period, at least two Soviet Navy ships visited ''Hughes Glomar Explorer''{{'}}s work site, the oceangoing [[tugboat]] ''SB-10'', and the Soviet missile range instrumentation ship ''Chazma''.<ref name="StudiesIntell85">{{cite web
|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|title=Project Azorian: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer
|date=Fall 1985
|publisher=Studies in Intelligence, [[CIA]]
|access-date=February 13, 2010
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131100657/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|url-status=live
}}</ref> It was found out after 1991 that the Soviets were tipped off about the operation and were aware that the CIA was planning some kind of salvage operation, but the military command believed it impossible that they could perform such a task and disregarded further intelligence warnings. Later, Soviet Ambassador [[Anatoly Dobrynin]] started sending urgent messages back to the Soviet Navy warning that an operation was imminent. Soviet military engineering experts reevaluated their positions and claimed that it was indeed possible (though highly unlikely) to recover ''K-129'', and ships in the area were ordered to report any unusual activity, although the lack of knowledge as to where ''K-129'' was located impeded their ability to stop any salvage operation.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/>

US Army Major General [[Roland Lajoie]] stated that, according to a briefing he received by the CIA during recovery operations, ''Clementine'' suffered a catastrophic failure, causing two-thirds of the already raised portion of ''K-129'' to sink back to the ocean floor.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Former Lockheed and Hughes Global Marine employees who worked on the operation have stated that several of the "claws" intended to grab the submarine fractured, possibly because they were manufactured from [[maraging steel]], which is very [[tensile strength|strong]], but not very [[ductility|ductile]] compared with other kinds of steel.

[[File:Burial At Sea of Soviet Submariners from Hughes Glomar Explorer.webm|thumb|Video of the Soviet sailors being buried at sea]]

The recovered section included two [[nuclear torpedo]]es, and thus Project Azorian was not a complete failure. The bodies of six crewmen were also recovered, and were given a memorial service and with military honors, [[Burial at sea|buried at sea]] in a metal casket because of radioactivity concerns. Other crew members have reported that code books and other materials of apparent interest to CIA employees aboard the vessel were recovered, {{Original research span|and images of inventory printouts exhibited in the documentary<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> suggest that various submarine components, such as hatch covers, instruments and sonar equipment were also recovered.|date=July 2024}} White's documentary also states that the [[ship's bell]] from ''K-129'' was recovered, and was subsequently returned to the Soviet Union as part of a diplomatic effort. The CIA considered the project one of the greatest intelligence coups of the Cold War.<ref name="intel coup">{{cite web|title=Project AZORIAN|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|publisher=CIA|access-date=July 9, 2013|date=November 21, 2012|archive-date=September 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927005022/https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The entire salvage operation was recorded by a CIA documentary film crew, but this film remains classified. A short portion of the film, showing the recovery and subsequent burial at sea of the six bodies recovered in the forward section of ''K-129'', was given to the Russian government in 1992.

==Public disclosure==

===''The New York Times'' story===
''[[Time Magazine]]'' credited [[Jack Anderson (columnist)|Jack Anderson]] as breaking the story in a March 1975 radio broadcast.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Press: Show and Tell? (Monday, Mar. 31, 1975) |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |magazine=Time |date=March 31, 1975 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408202541/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Robarge">{{cite journal |last=Robarge |first=David |date=March 2012 |title=The ''Glomar Explorer'' in Film and Print |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005000/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |journal=Studies in Intelligence |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=28–29 |access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Rejecting a plea from the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[William Colby]] to suppress the story, Anderson said he released the story because "Navy experts have told us that the sunken sub contains no real secrets and that the project, therefore, is a waste of the taxpayers' money."<ref name="Robarge"/>

In February 1975, investigative reporter and former ''[[New York Times]]'' writer [[Seymour Hersh]] had planned to publish a story on Project Azorian. [[Bill Kovach]], the ''New York Times'' Washington bureau chief at the time, said in 2005 that the government offered a convincing argument to delay publication – exposure at that time, while the project was ongoing, "would have caused an international incident." ''The New York Times'' published its account in March 1975,<ref>Phelan, James. [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0716FF395E157493C5AB1788D85F418785F9&scp=3&sq=Glomar%20Hughes&st=cse "An Easy Burglary Led to the Disclosure of Hughes-C.I.A. Plan to Salvage Soviet Sub" (fee)]. ''The New York Times'' March 27, 1975, p. 18.</ref> after a story appeared in the ''Los Angeles Times'', and included a five-paragraph explanation of the many twists and turns in the path to publication.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manjoo |first1=Farhad |title=Prying open the Times |url=https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |website=Salon |access-date=September 22, 2021 |language=en |date=December 22, 2005 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921061814/https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |url-status=live }}</ref> CIA director [[George H. W. Bush]] reported on several occasions to U.S. president [[Gerald Ford]] on media reports and the future use of the ship.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817012757/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 1. December 1976, 9:00 to 9:30 a.m.|date=December 2, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817062928/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 12. July 1976, 8:00 a.m.|date=July 12, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> The CIA concluded that it seemed unclear what, if any, action was taken by the Soviet Union after learning of the story.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| title=Implications for US-Soviet Relations of Certain Soviet Activities: Microwaves in Moscow (section 13)| date=June 1976| publisher=Central Intelligence Agency| access-date=January 2, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124652/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| archive-date=November 5, 2010| url-status=dead}}</ref>

===FOIA request and the Glomar response===
After stories had been published about the CIA's attempts to stop publication of information about Project Azorian, [[Hank Phillippi Ryan|Harriet Ann Phillippi]], a journalist, filed a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request with the CIA for any records about the CIA's attempts. The CIA refused to either confirm or deny the existence of such documents.<ref>Philippi v. CIA (Turner et al.), U.S. Court of Appeals, 211 U.S. App. D.D. 95, June 25, 1981</ref> This type of non-responsive reply has since come to be known as the "[[Glomar response]]" or "Glomarization".<ref name="FOIA1986">{{cite web |author=FOIA Update, Vol. VII, No. 1, Page 3 |title=OIP Guidance: Privacy 'Glomarization' |publisher=United States Department of Justice |year=1986 |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |access-date=February 19, 2010 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724101407/http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 1998 release of video ===
A video showing the 1974 memorial services for the six Soviet seamen whose bodies were recovered by Project Azorian was forwarded by the U.S. to [[Russia]] in the early 1990s. Portions of this video were shown on television documentaries concerning Project Azorian, including a 1998 [[Discovery Channel]] special called ''A Matter of National Security'' (based on Clyde W. Burleson's book, ''The Jennifer Project'' (1977)) and again in 1999, on a PBS Cold War submarine episode of ''[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |title=Clyde W, Burleson, author, "The Jennifer Project", 1977 |access-date=January 4, 2011 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708165755/http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |title=PBS, ''Nova'', "Submarines, Secrets and Spies". Broadcast January, 1999. |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=September 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618183135/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 2010 release of 1985 CIA article ===
In February 2010, the CIA released an article from the fall 1985 edition of the CIA internal journal ''[[Studies in Intelligence]]'' following an application by researcher Matthew Aid at the [[National Security Archive]]<ref>{{cite news|author=Calvin Woodward|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|agency=Associated Press|title=Gone fishing: Secret hunt for a sunken Soviet sub|date=February 13, 2010|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195816/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> to declassify the information under the Freedom of Information Act. Exactly what the operation managed to salvage remained unclear.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |title="US admits salvaging sunken Soviet submarine – The American government has finally revealed details of a secret mission to raise a sunken Soviet submarine |date=February 14, 2010 |access-date=April 2, 2018 |archive-date=December 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225075309/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The report was written by an unidentified participant in Project Azorian.

=== 2010 release of President Ford cabinet meeting ===
President [[Gerald Ford]], Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]], Philip Buchen (Counsel to the President), [[John O. Marsh, Jr.]] (Counselor to the President), Ambassador [[Donald Rumsfeld]], USAF Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] (Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs), and [[William Colby]] (Director of Central Intelligence) discussed the leak and whether the Ford administration would react to Hersh's story in a cabinet meeting on March 19, 1975, the same day that ''The New York Times'' published the story. Secretary of Defense Schlesinger is quoted as saying,
{{Blockquote|This episode has been a major American accomplishment. The operation is a marvel – technically, and with maintaining secrecy.<ref name=cabinetmeeting>{{Cite web |url=http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |title=Matador Meeting |access-date=July 4, 2012 |archive-date=October 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006025318/http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Doc3>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063212/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf |date=August 16, 2012 }} nsarchiv</ref>}}
Schlesinger indicated at least some form of success that should be confirmed publicly.<ref name=declassified>[http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ Document Friday: The Origins of "Glomar" Declassified] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619093301/http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ |date=June 19, 2012 }}, William Burr, June 15, 2012.</ref> CIA Director William Colby dissented, recalling the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 crisis]], saying:
{{Blockquote|I think we should not put the Soviet Union under such pressure to respond.<ref name=cabinetmeeting /><ref name=Doc3 />}}
The ''Los Angeles Times'' published a four-page story the next day by [[Jack Nelson (journalist)|Jack Nelson]] with the headline "Administration Won't Talk About Sub Raised by CIA."<ref name=declassified />

==Conspiracy theory==

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204225855/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=February 4, 2013| title=Espionage: The Great Submarine Snatch|date=March 31, 1975 |publisher=Time Magazine}}</ref> and a court filing by Felice D. Cohen and [[Morton H. Halperin]] on behalf of the Military Audit Project <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|title=Military Audit Project v. {{!}} 656 F.2d 724 (1981) {{!}} f2d72411252 {{!}} Leagle.com|work=Leagle|access-date=September 17, 2017|language=en|archive-date=May 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504010619/http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|url-status=live}}</ref> suggest that the alleged project goal of raising a Soviet submarine might itself have been a cover story for another secret mission. Tapping undersea communication cables, the cover up of an assassination, the discovery of Atlantis, the installation of a missile silo, and installation and repair of [[SOSUS|surveillance systems to monitor ship and submarine movements]] are listed as possibilities for the actual purpose of such a secret mission.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| title=656 F.2d 724; 211 U.S.App.D.C. 135, 7 Media L. Rep. 1708: Military Audit Project, Felice D. Cohen, Morton H. Halperin, Appellants, v. William Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, et al.; No. 80-1110.| year=1981| publisher=United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325093649/http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref>

==Eyewitness account==
W. Craig Reed told an inside account of Project Azorian in his book ''Red November: Inside the Secret U.S. – Soviet Submarine War'' (2010). The account was provided by Joe Houston, the senior engineer who designed leading-edge camera systems used by the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' team to photograph ''K-129'' on the ocean floor. The team needed pictures that offered precise measurements to design the grappling arm and other systems used to bring the sunken submarine up from the bottom. Houston worked for the mysterious "Mr. P" (John Parangosky) who worked for CIA Deputy Director [[Carl E. Duckett]], the two leaders of Project Azorian. Duckett later worked with Houston at another company, and intimated that the CIA may have recovered much more from the ''K-129'' than admitted publicly. Reed also details how the deep submergence towed sonar array<ref>USS Halibut Crew Member</ref> technology was used for subsequent [[Operation Ivy Bells]] missions to wiretap underwater Soviet communications cables.

The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' features interviews with Sherman Wetmore, Global Marine heavy lift operations manager; Charlie Johnson, Global Marine heavy lift engineer; and Raymond Feldman, Lockheed Ocean Systems senior staff engineer. They were the three principals in the design of the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' heavy lift system and the Lockheed capture vehicle (CV or claw). They were also on board the ship during the mission and were intimately involved with the recovery operation. They confirmed that only {{cvt|38|ft}} of the bow was eventually recovered. The intent was to recover the forward two thirds ({{cvt|138|ft|disp=sqbr}}) of ''K-129'', which had broken off from the rear section of the submarine and was designated the Target Object (TO). The capture vehicle successfully lifted the TO from the ocean floor, but a failure of part of the capture vehicle on the way up caused the loss of {{cvt|100|ft}} of the TO, including the sail. [[Norman Polmar]] and Michael White published ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'' in 2010. The book contains additional documentary evidence about the effort to locate the submarine and the recovery operation.<ref name=AzorianDVD />

== CIA Museum artifacts ==
A number of artifacts from Project Azorian and ''Glomar Explorer'' are on display at the [[CIA Museum]]. The museum has shared declassified images and video featuring the artifacts through its website; however the physical grounds of the museum are on the compound of the [[George Bush Center for Intelligence]] and thus physically inaccessible to the public.<gallery widths="170" perrow="5">
File:Painting-of-AZORIAN-mission-approved.jpg|Sherman Wetmore, lead engineer on the Glomar Explorer, looking at an oil painting of the ship raising the Soviet submarine.
File:Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.jpg|Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.
File:Glomar Manganese Nodule Encased in Lucite.jpg|One of the manganese nodules that Glomar recovered from the Pacific, now encased in lucite.
File:Glomar Patch.jpg|Hughes Glomar / Summa Corporation crew patch
File:The Debrief Behind The Artifact Glomar.webm|A video discussing the Glomar Explorer, produced as part of the CIA Debrief series on YouTube
</gallery>

==Documentaries==
The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' was produced by Michael White and released in 2009.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ Azorian – The Raising of the K-129 / 2009 – Two Part TV Documentary / Michael White Films Vienna]</ref>

Spy Ops: Project Azorian (Season 1, Episode 8) is a short documentary also produced by Michael White which adds some details to his earlier work. Two former CIA officials (Robert Wallace, John Cardwell) make their appearance in this film for Netflix.<ref name="Netflix">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt29026398/ Spy Ops: Project Azorian Episode aired Sep 8, 2023]</ref>

''Neither Confirm Nor Deny'' is a documentary on Project Azorian.<ref name="latimes/nCnD-review">{{cite news |last1=Abele |first1=Robert |title=Review: 'Neither Confirm Nor Deny' tells a real-life tale of spies, nukes and Howard Hughes |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 23, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203212940/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes/deny-review">{{cite news |last1=Rapold |first1=Nicolas |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny' Review: Exhumation at Sea |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/21/movies/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review.html |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=September 21, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="978-0-231-55032-1">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter/4091883">{{cite news |last1=DeFore |first1=John |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny': Film Review - DOC NYC 2020 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/neither-confirm-nor-deny-film-review-doc-nyc-2020-4091883/ |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[HMS L55]], a British submarine sunk in 1919 and raised by the Soviets in 1928
* {{HMS|Poseidon|P99|6}}, a British submarine sunk in 1931 and secretly raised by China in 1972
* ''[[Hughes Mining Barge]]'', a submersible barge designed to keep the ''Glomar Explorer'''s true nature secret
* [[The Laundry Files#The Jennifer Morgue|''The Jennifer Morgue'']] novel by Charles Stross, uses the ''K-129'' scenario as a basis for supernatural horror.
* [[Harry Turtledove bibliography | ''Three Miles Down'']] novel by Harry Turtledove, based on Project Azorian.
* [[List of sunken nuclear submarines]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Sources'''
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Craven |first=John |author-link=John P. Craven PhD%2C JD |title=The Silent War: The Cold War Battle Beneath the Sea |year=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-684-87213-7 |chapter=The Hunt for Red September: A Tale of Two Submarines |pages=[https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 198–222] |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Taking of K-129: How the CIA Used Howard Hughes to Steal a Russian Sub in the Most Daring Covert Operation in History |last=Dean |first=Josh |year=2018 |publisher=Dutton Caliber |isbn=978-1101984451}}
* Dunham, Roger C. (1996) ''Spy Sub – Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific'' New York: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-451-40797-0}}
* Reed, W. Craig (2010) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140320042056/http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Red-November-W-Craig-Reed/?isbn=9780061806766 Red November: Inside the Secret U.S.–Soviet Submarine War]'' New York: William Morrow. {{ISBN|978-0-06-180676-6}}
* [[Norman Polmar|Polmar, Norman]] and White, Michael (2010) ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'', Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59114-690-2}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030160024/http://users.erols.com/marelk/Vets%20Page%20Rework/PUC-%20Citation.htm Presidential Unit Citation – USS ''Halibut'' – 1968]
* {{cite book|last=Sharp|first=David|title=The CIA's Greatest Covert Operation: Inside the Daring Mission to Recover a Nuclear-Armed Soviet Sub|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1834-7|page=344|url=http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728214106/http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|archive-date=July 28, 2012}}
* {{cite book |last=Sontag |first=Sherry |title=Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=New York |isbn=0-06-103004-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/blindmansbluffun00sont }}
* Varner, Roy and Collier, Wayne. (1978) ''A Matter of Risk: The Incredible Inside Story of the CIA's Hughes Glomar Explorer Mission to Raise a Russian Submarine''

==External links==
{{Commons category|Project Azorian}}
* [https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/jennifer.htm Project Jennifer and the Hughes Glomar Explorer] [[fas.org]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041227062724/http://intellit.muskingum.edu/cia_folder/cia70s_folder/cia70sglomar.html bibliography] intellit.[[Muskingum University|muskingum.edu]]

[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations|Jennifer, Project]]
[[Category:Cold War intelligence operations]]
[[Category:K-129 submarine sinking accident]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:Marine salvage operations]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:1974 in military history]]

Project Azorian

2024-09-22T08:14:08Z

Uruiamme: /* Documentaries */ Spy Ops

{{short description|1974 CIA project to recover the sunken Soviet submarine K-129}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2024}}
{{Infobox historical event
|Event_Name = Project Azorian
|Image_Name = USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193).jpg
|Imagesize = 300
|Image_Alt =
|Image_Caption = ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''
|Thumb_Time =
|AKA =
|Participants = [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]], [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]]
|Location = {{convert|16500|ft|m}} below the [[Pacific Ocean]]
|Date = 1974
|nongregorian =
|Deaths =
|Result = Successful recovery of a portion of [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine K-129]]
|URL =
}}

'''Project Azorian''' (also called "Jennifer" by the press after its Top Secret Security Compartment)<ref>{{cite web | via = GWU | url = http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | title = Project Azorian: The CIA's Declassified History of the Glomar Explorer | date = February 12, 2010 | first1 = Matthew | last1 = Aid | first2 = William | last2 = Burr | first3 = Thomas | last3 = Blanton | publisher = The National Security Archive | access-date = February 13, 2010 | archive-date = June 3, 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100603102439/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/ | url-status = live }}</ref> was a U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA) project to recover the sunken [[Soviet submarine K-129 (1960)|Soviet submarine ''K-129'']] from the Pacific Ocean floor in 1974 using the purpose-built ship [[Glomar Explorer|''Hughes Glomar Explorer'']].<ref name= "p30">Wiegley, Roger D., LT (JAG) USN "The Recovered Sunken Warship: Raising a Legal Question" ''United States Naval Institute Proceedings'' January 1979 p. 30.</ref><ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining The secret on the ocean floor] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190918072757/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/resources/idt-sh/deep_sea_mining |date=September 18, 2019 }}. David Shukman, ''BBC News''. February 19, 2018.</ref> The 1968 sinking of ''K-129'' occurred about {{convert|1560|mi|km|}} northwest of Hawaii.<ref name= "StudiesIntell85" /> Project Azorian was one of the most complex, expensive, and covert intelligence operations of the [[Cold War]] at a cost of about $800 million, or ${{inflation|US|0.8|1974|r=1}} billion today.

The US designed the recovery ship and its lifting cradle using concepts developed with Global Marine (see [[Project Mohole]]) that used their precision stability equipment to keep the ship nearly stationary above the target while lowering nearly {{convert |3|mi|km|spell= in}} of pipe. They worked with scientists to develop methods for preserving paper that had been underwater for years in hopes of being able to recover and read the submarine's codebooks. The reasons that this project was undertaken included the recovery of an intact [[R-21 (missile)|R-21]] nuclear missile and cryptological documents and equipment.

The Soviet Union was unable to locate ''K-129'', but the US determined its general location from data recorded by four [[Air Force Technical Applications Center]] (AFTAC) sites and the Adak [[SOSUS|Sound Surveillance System]] (SOSUS) array. {{Clarify span|The US identified an acoustic event on March 8 that likely originated from an explosion aboard the submarine, and was able to determine the location to within {{convert|5|nmi|mi km|spell= in}}.|Did this take place after the US determined the general location, as described in the previous sentence? Or do both sentences describe the same process?|date=July 2024}} The submarine {{USS |Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} located the boat using the Fish, a towed, {{convert|12|ft|adj=on}}, {{convert |2|ST|adj=on|spell=in}} collection of cameras, strobe lights, and sonar that was built to withstand extreme depths. The recovery operation in international waters about six years later used mining for [[manganese nodule]]s as its cover. The company was nominally owned by [[Howard Hughes]], secretly backed by the CIA, who had paid for the construction of the ''[[Glomar Explorer|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]''.<ref>{{cite book|last1= Polmar|first1=Norman|author-link= Norman Polmar|title= Project Azorian: the CIA and the Raising of the K-129 |year=2010|publisher= Naval Institute Press|location= Annapolis, MD |isbn= 978-1-59114-690-2 | last2 = White | first2 = Michael}}</ref> The ship recovered a portion of ''K-129'', but a mechanical failure in the grapple caused two-thirds of the recovered section to break off during recovery.

== The wreck of ''K-129'' ==
{{anchor|Target: the wreck of the K-129}}
[[File:Soviet ballistic missile submarine K-129.jpg|thumb|The ''K-129'' submarine]]{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
On February 24, 1968, ''K-129'', a Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Project 629A]] [[ballistic missile submarine]] attached to the 15th Submarine Squadron of the [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]], left Rybachiy Naval Base in [[Kamchatka]] on a routine missile patrol, the boat's third since completing a major modernization the previous year. On the first day, the sub cruised out to deep water, conducted a test dive, surfaced to radio in, and embarked for its patrol station. The sub was to make standard radio contact with its commanders in Kamchatka when crossing the [[180th meridian]] and when arriving on station. But ''K-129'' missed its designated check-ins and did not respond to communication attempts. By the third week of March, the submarine was declared missing.

In April 1968, many [[Soviet Pacific Fleet]] surface and air assets deployed to the [[North Pacific Ocean]] and performed some unusual search operations. The activity was evaluated by the United States [[Office of Naval Intelligence]] (ONI) as a possible reaction to the loss of a Soviet submarine. Soviet surface ship searches were centered on a location known to be associated with Soviet [[Golf-class submarine|Golf II-class]] strategic ballistic missile (SSB) diesel submarine patrol routes. These submarines carried three nuclear missiles in an extended sail/conning tower, and routinely deployed within missile range of the US west coast. After weeks of searching, the Soviets were unable to locate the sunken boat, and Soviet Pacific Fleet operations gradually returned to normal.

The US Navy analyzed acoustic data recorded by the [[SOSUS]] [[hydrophone]] network in the northern Pacific—four AFTAC sites and the [[Adak, Alaska]] SOSUS array—and found evidence of the implosion that had sunk the Russian sub.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} [[Naval Facility Point Sur|Naval Facility (NAVFAC) Point Sur]], south of [[Monterey, California]], isolated a sonic signature on its low-frequency array recordings of an implosion that had occurred on March 8, 1968. Using NavFac Point Sur's date and time of the event, [[NavFac Adak]] and the US West Coast NAVFAC were also able to isolate the acoustic event. With five SOSUS lines-of-bearing, Naval Intelligence was able to localize the site of the ''K-129'' wreck to the vicinity of 40.1° N latitude and 179.9° E longitude (close to the [[International Date Line]]).<ref name="AzorianDVD">{{cite AV media | people = Michael White | date = February 8, 2011 | medium = DVD | ISBN = 978-1591146902 | publisher = Michael White Films | ASIN =B0047H7PYQ | title = Azorian: The Raising of the K-129 | url = http://www.projectjennifer.at | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ | archive-date = February 5, 2009 }}</ref>

In July 1968, the [[United States Navy]] began "Operation Sand Dollar" with the deployment of {{USS|Halibut|SSGN-587|6}} from [[Pearl Harbor]] to the wreck site. Sand Dollar's objective was to find and photograph ''K-129''. In 1968 ''Halibut'', which had been configured to use deep submergence search equipment, was the US Navy's only such specially-equipped submarine. ''Halibut'' located the wreck after three weeks of visual search using robotic remote-controlled cameras. (It took almost five months of search to find the wreck of the US nuclear-powered submarine {{USS|Scorpion|SSN-589|2}} in the Atlantic, also in 1968). ''Halibut'' is reported to have spent the next several weeks taking more than 20,000 closeup photos of every aspect of the ''K-129'' wreck, a feat for which ''Halibut'' received a special classified [[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citation]] signed by [[Lyndon B. Johnson]] in 1968.

In 1970, based upon this photography, [[United States Secretary of Defense|Defense Secretary]] [[Melvin Laird]] and [[Henry Kissinger]], then [[National Security Advisor (United States)|National Security Advisor]], proposed a clandestine plan to recover the wreckage so that the US could study Soviet nuclear missile technology, as well as possibly recover [[cryptography|cryptographic]] materials. The proposal was accepted by President [[Richard Nixon]] and the CIA was tasked to attempt the recovery.

==Building ''Glomar Explorer'' and its cover story==
{{Main|Glomar Explorer}}
Global Marine Development Inc., the research and development arm of Global Marine Inc., a pioneer in deepwater offshore drilling operations, was contracted to design, build and operate ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' to secretly salvage the sunken Soviet submarine. The ship was built at the [[Sun Shipbuilding]] yard near Philadelphia. Billionaire businessman [[Howard Hughes]] – whose companies were already contractors on numerous classified [[US military]] weapons, aircraft and satellite contracts{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} – agreed to lend his name to the project to support the cover story that the ship was mining [[manganese nodules]] from the ocean floor, but Hughes and his companies had no actual involvement in the project. ''K-129'' was photographed at a depth of over {{convert|16000|ft|m}}, and thus the salvage operation would be well beyond the depth of any ship salvage operation ever attempted.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} On November 1, 1972, work began on the {{convert|63000|ST|adj=on}}, {{convert|619|foot|m|adj=mid|-long}} ''[[USNS Glomar Explorer (T-AG-193)|Hughes Glomar Explorer]]'' (HGE).

At least two preparatory missions were carried out in the general area of the recovery site using other ships. From September 1970 to January 1971, the drilling ship GLOMAR II collected site data as part of [[Project AXMINSTER]].<ref>{{cite web |title=186. Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |website=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXXV, National Security Policy, 1973–1976 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |date=May 28, 1974 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref> From January to July 1972, the R.V. SEASCOPE surveyed the general area to within 45 nm of the recovery site. Both missions also probed the Soviet reactions to research ships in the region.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss"/>

The primary objective was to recover a major portion of the submarine. In particular, the [[National_Intelligence_Board|United States Intelligence Board]] (USIB) expected to recover [[Cryptography|cryptographic]] equipment, a [[nuclear warhead]], a [[SS-N-5]] missile, the [[navigation system]], [[fire control system]], [[sonar]] system, [[Anti-submarine warfare|ASW]] countermeasures, and related documentation.<ref name="Memo19740528_KIss">{{cite journal |date=May 28, 1974 |title=Memorandum to the Chairman of the 40 Committee (Kissinger) |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |journal=Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976 |volume=XXXV |access-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-date=August 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230822120303/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v35/d186 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Recovery==
[[File:K129 HGE recoverysite.png|thumb|280px|The recovery site of ''К-129'' based on the intersection of three circles marking the distances to Long Beach, CA, Pearl Harbor, HI, and Petropavlovsk, Kamchatka.]]{{More citations needed|section|date=July 2024}}
''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' employed a large mechanical claw, which [[Lockheed Shipbuilding and Construction Company|Lockheed]] officially titled the "Capture Vehicle" but affectionately called ''Clementine''. The capture vehicle was designed to be lowered to the ocean floor, grasp the targeted submarine section, and then lift that section into the ship's hold. One requirement of this technology was to keep the floating base stable and in position over a fixed point {{convert|16000|ft|m}} below the ocean surface.

The capture vehicle was lowered and raised on a pipe string similar to those used on oil drilling rigs. Section by section, pairs of {{convert|30|ft|m|adj=on}} steel pipes were strung together to lower the claw through a hole in the middle of the ship. This configuration was designed by Western Gear Corp. of [[Everett, Washington]]. Upon a successful capture by the claw, the lift reversed the process: {{convert|60|ft|m|adj=on}} pairs drawn up and removed one at a time. The salvaged "Target Object" was thus to be drawn into a [[moon pool]], the doors of which could then be closed to form a floor for the salvaged section. This allowed for the entire salvage process to take place underwater, away from the view of other ships, aircraft, or spy satellites.

''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' arrived at the recovery site on July 4, 1974, after departing from [[Long Beach, California]], on June 20, and traveling sailing {{convert|3008|nmi|km}}. The ship conducted salvage operations for over a month. During this period, at least two Soviet Navy ships visited ''Hughes Glomar Explorer''{{'}}s work site, the oceangoing [[tugboat]] ''SB-10'', and the Soviet missile range instrumentation ship ''Chazma''.<ref name="StudiesIntell85">{{cite web
|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|title=Project Azorian: The Story of the Hughes Glomar Explorer
|date=Fall 1985
|publisher=Studies in Intelligence, [[CIA]]
|access-date=February 13, 2010
|archive-date=January 31, 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131100657/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc01.pdf
|url-status=live
}}</ref> It was found out after 1991 that the Soviets were tipped off about the operation and were aware that the CIA was planning some kind of salvage operation, but the military command believed it impossible that they could perform such a task and disregarded further intelligence warnings. Later, Soviet Ambassador [[Anatoly Dobrynin]] started sending urgent messages back to the Soviet Navy warning that an operation was imminent. Soviet military engineering experts reevaluated their positions and claimed that it was indeed possible (though highly unlikely) to recover ''K-129'', and ships in the area were ordered to report any unusual activity, although the lack of knowledge as to where ''K-129'' was located impeded their ability to stop any salvage operation.<ref name="AzorianDVD"/>

US Army Major General [[Roland Lajoie]] stated that, according to a briefing he received by the CIA during recovery operations, ''Clementine'' suffered a catastrophic failure, causing two-thirds of the already raised portion of ''K-129'' to sink back to the ocean floor.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Former Lockheed and Hughes Global Marine employees who worked on the operation have stated that several of the "claws" intended to grab the submarine fractured, possibly because they were manufactured from [[maraging steel]], which is very [[tensile strength|strong]], but not very [[ductility|ductile]] compared with other kinds of steel.

[[File:Burial At Sea of Soviet Submariners from Hughes Glomar Explorer.webm|thumb|Video of the Soviet sailors being buried at sea]]

The recovered section included two [[nuclear torpedo]]es, and thus Project Azorian was not a complete failure. The bodies of six crewmen were also recovered, and were given a memorial service and with military honors, [[Burial at sea|buried at sea]] in a metal casket because of radioactivity concerns. Other crew members have reported that code books and other materials of apparent interest to CIA employees aboard the vessel were recovered, {{Original research span|and images of inventory printouts exhibited in the documentary<ref name="AzorianDVD"/> suggest that various submarine components, such as hatch covers, instruments and sonar equipment were also recovered.|date=July 2024}} White's documentary also states that the [[ship's bell]] from ''K-129'' was recovered, and was subsequently returned to the Soviet Union as part of a diplomatic effort. The CIA considered the project one of the greatest intelligence coups of the Cold War.<ref name="intel coup">{{cite web|title=Project AZORIAN|url=https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|publisher=CIA|access-date=July 9, 2013|date=November 21, 2012|archive-date=September 27, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927005022/https://www.cia.gov/about-cia/cia-museum/experience-the-collection/text-version/stories/project-azorian.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The entire salvage operation was recorded by a CIA documentary film crew, but this film remains classified. A short portion of the film, showing the recovery and subsequent burial at sea of the six bodies recovered in the forward section of ''K-129'', was given to the Russian government in 1992.

==Public disclosure==

===''The New York Times'' story===
''[[Time Magazine]]'' credited [[Jack Anderson (columnist)|Jack Anderson]] as breaking the story in a March 1975 radio broadcast.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=The Press: Show and Tell? (Monday, Mar. 31, 1975) |url=http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |magazine=Time |date=March 31, 1975 |access-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-date=April 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408202541/http://content.time.com/time/subscriber/article/0,33009,879475-1,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Robarge">{{cite journal |last=Robarge |first=David |date=March 2012 |title=The ''Glomar Explorer'' in Film and Print |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412005000/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA585911.pdf |url-status=live |archive-date=April 12, 2022 |journal=Studies in Intelligence |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=28–29 |access-date=August 4, 2014}}</ref> Rejecting a plea from the [[Director of Central Intelligence]] [[William Colby]] to suppress the story, Anderson said he released the story because "Navy experts have told us that the sunken sub contains no real secrets and that the project, therefore, is a waste of the taxpayers' money."<ref name="Robarge"/>

In February 1975, investigative reporter and former ''[[New York Times]]'' writer [[Seymour Hersh]] had planned to publish a story on Project Azorian. [[Bill Kovach]], the ''New York Times'' Washington bureau chief at the time, said in 2005 that the government offered a convincing argument to delay publication – exposure at that time, while the project was ongoing, "would have caused an international incident." ''The New York Times'' published its account in March 1975,<ref>Phelan, James. [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0716FF395E157493C5AB1788D85F418785F9&scp=3&sq=Glomar%20Hughes&st=cse "An Easy Burglary Led to the Disclosure of Hughes-C.I.A. Plan to Salvage Soviet Sub" (fee)]. ''The New York Times'' March 27, 1975, p. 18.</ref> after a story appeared in the ''Los Angeles Times'', and included a five-paragraph explanation of the many twists and turns in the path to publication.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Manjoo |first1=Farhad |title=Prying open the Times |url=https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |website=Salon |access-date=September 22, 2021 |language=en |date=December 22, 2005 |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921061814/https://www.salon.com/2005/12/22/nytimes_8/ |url-status=live }}</ref> CIA director [[George H. W. Bush]] reported on several occasions to U.S. president [[Gerald Ford]] on media reports and the future use of the ship.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817012757/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191287.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 1. December 1976, 9:00 to 9:30 a.m.|date=December 2, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817062928/https://www.cia.gov/library/readingroom/docs/DOC_0000191284.pdf| url-status=dead| archive-date=August 17, 2016| title=Meeting with the President, Oval Office, 12. July 1976, 8:00 a.m.|date=July 12, 1976|first=George H.W.| last=Bush|publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> The CIA concluded that it seemed unclear what, if any, action was taken by the Soviet Union after learning of the story.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| title=Implications for US-Soviet Relations of Certain Soviet Activities: Microwaves in Moscow (section 13)| date=June 1976| publisher=Central Intelligence Agency| access-date=January 2, 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101105124652/http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000283807/DOC_0000283807.pdf| archive-date=November 5, 2010| url-status=dead}}</ref>

===FOIA request and the Glomar response===
After stories had been published about the CIA's attempts to stop publication of information about Project Azorian, [[Hank Phillippi Ryan|Harriet Ann Phillippi]], a journalist, filed a [[Freedom of Information Act (United States)|Freedom of Information Act]] (FOIA) request with the CIA for any records about the CIA's attempts. The CIA refused to either confirm or deny the existence of such documents.<ref>Philippi v. CIA (Turner et al.), U.S. Court of Appeals, 211 U.S. App. D.D. 95, June 25, 1981</ref> This type of non-responsive reply has since come to be known as the "[[Glomar response]]" or "Glomarization".<ref name="FOIA1986">{{cite web |author=FOIA Update, Vol. VII, No. 1, Page 3 |title=OIP Guidance: Privacy 'Glomarization' |publisher=United States Department of Justice |year=1986 |url=http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |access-date=February 19, 2010 |archive-date=July 24, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724101407/http://www.usdoj.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_VII_1/page3.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 1998 release of video ===
A video showing the 1974 memorial services for the six Soviet seamen whose bodies were recovered by Project Azorian was forwarded by the U.S. to [[Russia]] in the early 1990s. Portions of this video were shown on television documentaries concerning Project Azorian, including a 1998 [[Discovery Channel]] special called ''A Matter of National Security'' (based on Clyde W. Burleson's book, ''The Jennifer Project'' (1977)) and again in 1999, on a PBS Cold War submarine episode of ''[[Nova (American TV series)|NOVA]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |title=Clyde W, Burleson, author, "The Jennifer Project", 1977 |access-date=January 4, 2011 |archive-date=July 8, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708165755/http://www.clydewburleson.com/work2.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |title=PBS, ''Nova'', "Submarines, Secrets and Spies". Broadcast January, 1999. |website=[[PBS]] |access-date=September 8, 2017 |archive-date=June 18, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618183135/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/subsecrets/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 2010 release of 1985 CIA article ===
In February 2010, the CIA released an article from the fall 1985 edition of the CIA internal journal ''[[Studies in Intelligence]]'' following an application by researcher Matthew Aid at the [[National Security Archive]]<ref>{{cite news|author=Calvin Woodward|url=http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|agency=Associated Press|title=Gone fishing: Secret hunt for a sunken Soviet sub|date=February 13, 2010|access-date=March 28, 2017|archive-date=March 28, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328195816/http://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/sdut-gone-fishing-secret-hunt-for-a-sunken-soviet-sub-2010feb13-story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> to declassify the information under the Freedom of Information Act. Exactly what the operation managed to salvage remained unclear.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |title="US admits salvaging sunken Soviet submarine – The American government has finally revealed details of a secret mission to raise a sunken Soviet submarine |date=February 14, 2010 |access-date=April 2, 2018 |archive-date=December 25, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171225075309/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/7237002/US-admits-salvaging-sunken-Soviet-submarine.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The report was written by an unidentified participant in Project Azorian.

=== 2010 release of President Ford cabinet meeting ===
President [[Gerald Ford]], Secretary of Defense [[James R. Schlesinger]], Philip Buchen (Counsel to the President), [[John O. Marsh, Jr.]] (Counselor to the President), Ambassador [[Donald Rumsfeld]], USAF Lieutenant General [[Brent Scowcroft]] (Deputy Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs), and [[William Colby]] (Director of Central Intelligence) discussed the leak and whether the Ford administration would react to Hersh's story in a cabinet meeting on March 19, 1975, the same day that ''The New York Times'' published the story. Secretary of Defense Schlesinger is quoted as saying,
{{Blockquote|This episode has been a major American accomplishment. The operation is a marvel – technically, and with maintaining secrecy.<ref name=cabinetmeeting>{{Cite web |url=http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |title=Matador Meeting |access-date=July 4, 2012 |archive-date=October 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131006025318/http://nsarchive.files.wordpress.com/2012/06/glomar.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Doc3>[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf memorandum] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120816063212/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb305/doc03.pdf |date=August 16, 2012 }} nsarchiv</ref>}}
Schlesinger indicated at least some form of success that should be confirmed publicly.<ref name=declassified>[http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ Document Friday: The Origins of "Glomar" Declassified] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120619093301/http://nsarchive.wordpress.com/2012/06/15/document-friday-the-origins-of-glomar-declassified/ |date=June 19, 2012 }}, William Burr, June 15, 2012.</ref> CIA Director William Colby dissented, recalling the [[1960 U-2 incident|U-2 crisis]], saying:
{{Blockquote|I think we should not put the Soviet Union under such pressure to respond.<ref name=cabinetmeeting /><ref name=Doc3 />}}
The ''Los Angeles Times'' published a four-page story the next day by [[Jack Nelson (journalist)|Jack Nelson]] with the headline "Administration Won't Talk About Sub Raised by CIA."<ref name=declassified />

==Conspiracy theory==

[[Time (magazine)|''Time'' magazine]]<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| archive-url=https://archive.today/20130204225855/http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,879453,00.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=February 4, 2013| title=Espionage: The Great Submarine Snatch|date=March 31, 1975 |publisher=Time Magazine}}</ref> and a court filing by Felice D. Cohen and [[Morton H. Halperin]] on behalf of the Military Audit Project <ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|title=Military Audit Project v. {{!}} 656 F.2d 724 (1981) {{!}} f2d72411252 {{!}} Leagle.com|work=Leagle|access-date=September 17, 2017|language=en|archive-date=May 4, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504010619/http://www.leagle.com/decision/19811380656F2d724_11252|url-status=live}}</ref> suggest that the alleged project goal of raising a Soviet submarine might itself have been a cover story for another secret mission. Tapping undersea communication cables, the cover up of an assassination, the discovery of Atlantis, the installation of a missile silo, and installation and repair of [[SOSUS|surveillance systems to monitor ship and submarine movements]] are listed as possibilities for the actual purpose of such a secret mission.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| title=656 F.2d 724; 211 U.S.App.D.C. 135, 7 Media L. Rep. 1708: Military Audit Project, Felice D. Cohen, Morton H. Halperin, Appellants, v. William Casey, Director of Central Intelligence, et al.; No. 80-1110.| year=1981| publisher=United States Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit.| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325093649/http://ftp.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/656/656.F2d.724.80-1110.html#fn2_ref| archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref>

==Eyewitness account==
W. Craig Reed told an inside account of Project Azorian in his book ''Red November: Inside the Secret U.S. – Soviet Submarine War'' (2010). The account was provided by Joe Houston, the senior engineer who designed leading-edge camera systems used by the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' team to photograph ''K-129'' on the ocean floor. The team needed pictures that offered precise measurements to design the grappling arm and other systems used to bring the sunken submarine up from the bottom. Houston worked for the mysterious "Mr. P" (John Parangosky) who worked for CIA Deputy Director [[Carl E. Duckett]], the two leaders of Project Azorian. Duckett later worked with Houston at another company, and intimated that the CIA may have recovered much more from the ''K-129'' than admitted publicly. Reed also details how the deep submergence towed sonar array<ref>USS Halibut Crew Member</ref> technology was used for subsequent [[Operation Ivy Bells]] missions to wiretap underwater Soviet communications cables.

The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' features interviews with Sherman Wetmore, Global Marine heavy lift operations manager; Charlie Johnson, Global Marine heavy lift engineer; and Raymond Feldman, Lockheed Ocean Systems senior staff engineer. They were the three principals in the design of the ''Hughes Glomar Explorer'' heavy lift system and the Lockheed capture vehicle (CV or claw). They were also on board the ship during the mission and were intimately involved with the recovery operation. They confirmed that only {{cvt|38|ft}} of the bow was eventually recovered. The intent was to recover the forward two thirds ({{cvt|138|ft|disp=sqbr}}) of ''K-129'', which had broken off from the rear section of the submarine and was designated the Target Object (TO). The capture vehicle successfully lifted the TO from the ocean floor, but a failure of part of the capture vehicle on the way up caused the loss of {{cvt|100|ft}} of the TO, including the sail. [[Norman Polmar]] and Michael White published ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'' in 2010. The book contains additional documentary evidence about the effort to locate the submarine and the recovery operation.<ref name=AzorianDVD />

== CIA Museum artifacts ==
A number of artifacts from Project Azorian and ''Glomar Explorer'' are on display at the [[CIA Museum]]. The museum has shared declassified images and video featuring the artifacts through its website; however the physical grounds of the museum are on the compound of the [[George Bush Center for Intelligence]] and thus physically inaccessible to the public.<gallery widths="170" perrow="5">
File:Painting-of-AZORIAN-mission-approved.jpg|Sherman Wetmore, lead engineer on the Glomar Explorer, looking at an oil painting of the ship raising the Soviet submarine.
File:Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.jpg|Sherman Wetmore poses next to a collection of Project AZORIAN artifacts on display.
File:Glomar Manganese Nodule Encased in Lucite.jpg|One of the manganese nodules that Glomar recovered from the Pacific, now encased in lucite.
File:Glomar Patch.jpg|Hughes Glomar / Summa Corporation crew patch
File:The Debrief Behind The Artifact Glomar.webm|A video discussing the Glomar Explorer, produced as part of the CIA Debrief series on YouTube
</gallery>

==Documentaries==
The documentary film ''Azorian: The Raising Of The K-129'' was produced by Michael White and released in 2009.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20090205063115/http://projectjennifer.at/ Azorian – The Raising of the K-129 / 2009 – Two Part TV Documentary / Michael White Films Vienna]</ref>

Spy Ops: Project Azorian (Season 1, Episode 8) is a short documentary also produced by Michael White which adds some details to his earlier work. Two former CIA officials (Robert Wallace, John Cardwell) make their appearance in this film for Netflix.<ref name="Netflix">[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt29026398/ Spy Ops: Project Azorian Episode aired Sep 8, 2023]</ref>

''Neither Confirm Nor Deny'' is a documentary on Project Azorian.<ref name="latimes/nCnD-review">{{cite news |last1=Abele |first1=Robert |title=Review: 'Neither Confirm Nor Deny' tells a real-life tale of spies, nukes and Howard Hughes |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=September 23, 2023 |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203212940/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/movies/story/2023-09-23/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review-cia-howard-hughes-project-azorian |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="nytimes/deny-review">{{cite news |last1=Rapold |first1=Nicolas |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny' Review: Exhumation at Sea |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2023/09/21/movies/neither-confirm-nor-deny-review.html |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=The New York Times|date=September 21, 2023 }}</ref><ref name="978-0-231-55032-1">{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="hollywoodreporter/4091883">{{cite news |last1=DeFore |first1=John |title='Neither Confirm Nor Deny': Film Review - DOC NYC 2020 |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/movies/movie-reviews/neither-confirm-nor-deny-film-review-doc-nyc-2020-4091883/ |access-date=December 3, 2023 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |date=November 13, 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[HMS L55]], a British submarine sunk in 1919 and raised by the Soviets in 1928
* {{HMS|Poseidon|P99|6}}, a British submarine sunk in 1931 and secretly raised by China in 1972
* ''[[Hughes Mining Barge]]'', a submersible barge designed to keep the ''Glomar Explorer'''s true nature secret
* [[The Laundry Files#The Jennifer Morgue|''The Jennifer Morgue'']] novel by Charles Stross, uses the ''K-129'' scenario as a basis for supernatural horror.
* [[Harry Turtledove bibliography | ''Three Miles Down'']] novel by Harry Turtledove, based on Project Azorian.
* [[List of sunken nuclear submarines]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

'''Sources'''
* {{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=M. Todd |title=Neither Confirm nor Deny: How the Glomar Mission Shielded the CIA from Transparency |date=January 3, 2023 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-55032-1 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Craven |first=John |author-link=John P. Craven PhD%2C JD |title=The Silent War: The Cold War Battle Beneath the Sea |year=2001 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |location=New York |isbn=0-684-87213-7 |chapter=The Hunt for Red September: A Tale of Two Submarines |pages=[https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 198–222] |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/silentwarcoldwar00crav/page/198 }}
* {{cite book |title=The Taking of K-129: How the CIA Used Howard Hughes to Steal a Russian Sub in the Most Daring Covert Operation in History |last=Dean |first=Josh |year=2018 |publisher=Dutton Caliber |isbn=978-1101984451}}
* Dunham, Roger C. (1996) ''Spy Sub – Top Secret Mission To The Bottom Of The Pacific'' New York: Penguin Books. {{ISBN|0-451-40797-0}}
* Reed, W. Craig (2010) ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20140320042056/http://www.harpercollins.com/books/Red-November-W-Craig-Reed/?isbn=9780061806766 Red November: Inside the Secret U.S.–Soviet Submarine War]'' New York: William Morrow. {{ISBN|978-0-06-180676-6}}
* [[Norman Polmar|Polmar, Norman]] and White, Michael (2010) ''Project Azorian: The CIA And The Raising of the K-129'', Naval Institute Press. {{ISBN|978-1-59114-690-2}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071030160024/http://users.erols.com/marelk/Vets%20Page%20Rework/PUC-%20Citation.htm Presidential Unit Citation – USS ''Halibut'' – 1968]
* {{cite book|last=Sharp|first=David|title=The CIA's Greatest Covert Operation: Inside the Daring Mission to Recover a Nuclear-Armed Soviet Sub|year=2012|publisher=University Press of Kansas|location=Lawrence, Kansas|isbn=978-0-7006-1834-7|page=344|url=http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120728214106/http://www.kansaspress.ku.edu/shacia.html|archive-date=July 28, 2012}}
* {{cite book |last=Sontag |first=Sherry |title=Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage |year=1998 |publisher=Harper |location=New York |isbn=0-06-103004-X |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/blindmansbluffun00sont }}
* Varner, Roy and Collier, Wayne. (1978) ''A Matter of Risk: The Incredible Inside Story of the CIA's Hughes Glomar Explorer Mission to Raise a Russian Submarine''

==External links==
{{Commons category|Project Azorian}}
* [https://fas.org/irp/program/collect/jennifer.htm Project Jennifer and the Hughes Glomar Explorer] [[fas.org]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041227062724/http://intellit.muskingum.edu/cia_folder/cia70s_folder/cia70sglomar.html bibliography] intellit.[[Muskingum University|muskingum.edu]]

[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency operations|Jennifer, Project]]
[[Category:Cold War intelligence operations]]
[[Category:K-129 submarine sinking accident]]
[[Category:Soviet Union–United States relations]]
[[Category:Marine salvage operations]]
[[Category:Conspiracy theories]]
[[Category:1974 in military history]]

Template:AMD Ryzen 8000 desktop APUs

2024-09-04T02:13:50Z

Uruiamme: Memory must be slower for some configs

Common features of Ryzen 8000G desktop APUs:
* Socket: [[Socket AM5|AM5]].
* All the CPUs support [[DDR5 SDRAM|DDR5]]-5200 RAM in [[Multi-channel memory architecture#Dual-channel architecture|dual-channel]] mode in 2x1R and 2x2R configuration, but only DDR5-3600 for 4x1R and 4x2R.
* L1 [[Cache (computing)|cache]]: 64 KB (32 KB data + 32 KB instruction) per core.
* L2 cache: 1 MB per core.
* Models with [[Zen_4#Zen_4c|Zen 4c]] cores (codenamed ''Phoenix 2'') support 14 [[PCI Express#PCI Express 4.0|PCIe 4.0]] lanes, while models without them support 20 lanes. 4 of the lanes are reserved as link to the chipset.
* Includes integrated [[RDNA 3]] GPU.
* Includes XDNA AI Engine (Ryzen AI) on models without Zen 4c cores.
* Fabrication process: [[TSMC]] [[5 nm process|4 nm]] FinFET.
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan=2 rowspan=3 | Branding and model
! colspan=7 | [[Central processing unit|CPU]]
! colspan=3 | [[Graphics processing unit|GPU]]
! rowspan=3 | [[AI accelerator|NPU]]
! rowspan=3 |Thermal solution
! rowspan=3 | [[Thermal design power|TDP]]
! rowspan=3 | Release date
! rowspan=3 | [[MSRP]]
|-
! colspan=3 | [[Multi-core processor|Cores]] ([[Thread (computing)|threads]])
! colspan=2 | [[Clock rate]] ([[Hertz|GHz]])
! rowspan=2 | [[CPU cache|L3 cache]] (total)
! rowspan=2 | Core config{{efn|Core Complexes (CCX) × cores per CCX, or Zen 4 + Zen 4c cores}}
! rowspan=2 | Model
! rowspan=2 |Core config{{efn|name="Core config"|[[Unified shader model|Unified shaders]] : [[Texture mapping unit]]s : [[Render output unit]]s : [[Ray tracing (graphics)|Ray accelerators]] : [[AI accelerator]]s and [[Graphics Core Next#Compute units|Compute units]] (CU)}}{{efn|name="Stream processors"|GPUs based on [[RDNA 3]] have dual-issue '''stream processors''' so that up to two shader instructions can be executed per [[Instructions per cycle|clock cycle]] under certain [[Instruction-level parallelism|parallelism]] conditions.}}
! rowspan=2 | Clock (GHz)
|-
! Total
! [[Zen 4]]
! [[Zen 4c]]
! {{tooltip|2=3+ active cores|Base}}
! {{tooltip|2=1–2 active cores|Boost}}
|-
! rowspan=1 | Ryzen 7
! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-value="sku4" | [https://www.amd.com/en/product/14066 8700G]
| 8 (16)
| 8 (16)
| rowspan=2 {{NA}}
| 4.2
| 5.1
| rowspan=3 | 16 MB
| 1 × 8
| 780M
| 12 CUs 768:48:24:12
| 2.9
| rowspan=2 {{yes|[[Ryzen AI]] Up to 16 TOPS}}
|[[AMD Wraith#Wraith Spire|Wraith Spire]]
| rowspan=4 | 65 W
| rowspan=3 | Jan 31, 2024<ref name="Anandtech-8000G">{{cite web |last1=Bonshor |first1=Gavin |title=AMD Unveils Ryzen 8000G Series Processors: Zen 4 APUs For Desktop with Ryzen AI |url=https://www.anandtech.com/show/21208/amd-unveils-ryzen-8000g-series-processors-zen-4-apus-for-desktop-with-ryzen-ai |website=www.anandtech.com |access-date=9 January 2024 |date=8 January 2024}}</ref>
| US $329
|-
! rowspan=2 | Ryzen 5
! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-value="sku3" | [https://www.amd.com/en/product/14071 8600G]
| rowspan=2 | 6 (12)
| 6 (12)
| 4.3
| 5.0
| 1 × 6
| 760M
| 8 CUs 512:32:16:8
| rowspan=2 | 2.8
| rowspan=3 |[[AMD Wraith#Wraith Stealth|Wraith Stealth]]
| US $229
|-
! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-value="sku2" | [https://www.amd.com/en/product/14086 8500G]
| 2 (4)
| 4 (8)
| 4.1 / 3.2{{efn|Zen 4 cores' base frequency / Zen 4c cores' base frequency|name="zen4c-base"}}
| 5.0 / 3.7{{efn|Zen 4 cores' boost frequency / Zen 4c cores' boost frequency|name="zen4c-boost"}}
| 2 + 4
| rowspan=2 | 740M
| rowspan=2 | 4 CUs 256:16:8:4
| rowspan=2 {{no}}
| US $179
|-
! rowspan=1 | Ryzen 3
! style="text-align:left;" data-sort-value="sku1" | [https://www.amd.com/en/product/14091 8300G]
| 4 (8)
| 1 (2)
| 3 (6)
| 4.0 / 3.2{{efn|name="zen4c-base"}}
| 4.9 / 3.6{{efn|name="zen4c-boost"}}
| 8 MB
| 1 + 3
| 2.6
| Jan 2024 (OEM) / Q1 2024 (retail)
| OEM / TBA
|}
{{navbar|AMD Ryzen 8000 desktop APUs|mini=y|plain=y|style=float: left;position: relative;top: -15px;right: 0px;}}
{{notelist}}<noinclude>
{{Documentation|content=
{{Consensus|Common place to discuss layout and style of the AMD APU tables at: [[Talk:List of AMD processors with 3D graphics]].}}
{{Vedit notice}}
{{template reference list}}
[[Category:Computer hardware templates]]
[[Category:AMD products]]
[[Category:Templates that generate named references]]
}}</noinclude>

Soybean

2024-08-31T04:10:36Z

Uruiamme: /* North America */ That was terrible

{{Short description|Legume grown for its edible bean}}
{{Redirect|Soy}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Soybean.USDA.jpg
| genus = Glycine
| species = max
| authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Elmer Drew Merrill|Merr.]]
| synonyms =
* ''Dolichos soja'' L.
* ''Glycine angustifolia'' [[Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel|Miq.]]
* ''Glycine gracilis'' [[Boris Vassilievich Skvortsov|Skvortsov]]
* ''Glycine hispida'' ([[Conrad Moench|Moench]]) [[Carl Maximowicz|Maxim.]]
* ''Glycine soja'' sensu [[auctorum|auct.]]
* ''Phaseolus max'' L.
* ''Soja angustifolia'' Miq.
* ''Soja hispida'' Moench
* ''Soja japonica'' [[Gaetano Savi|Savi]]
* ''Soja max'' ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Charles Vancouver Piper|Piper]]
* ''Soja soja'' [[Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten|H. Karst.]]
* ''Soja viridis'' Savi
| synonyms_ref = <ref name=eol>{{cite web |url=http://eol.org/pages/641527/overview |title=''Glycine max''|publisher=[[Encyclopedia of Life]] (EoL)|access-date=16 February 2012}}</ref>
}}
{{Infobox Chinese
|c=大豆
|l="large bean"
|p=dàdòu
|mi={{IPAc-cmn|d|a|4|.|d|ou|4}}
|altname=Southern Chinese name
|s2=黄豆
|t2=黃豆
|l2="yellow bean"
|p2=huángdòu
|j2=wong4-dau6
|y2=wòhng-dauh
|ci2={{IPAc-yue|w|ong|4|-|d|au|6}}
|h2=vòng-theu
|poj2=n̂g-tāu
|kanji=大豆<ref>Generally written in ''katakana'', not ''kanji''.</ref>
|kana=ダイズ
|romaji=daizu
|hanja=大豆
|hangul=대두 (or 메주콩)
|rr=daedu (or mejukong)
|qn=đậu tương (or đỗ tương) đậu nành
|chuhan=豆漿
|chunom=豆𥢃
}}

The '''soybean''', '''soy bean''', or '''soya bean''' ('''''Glycine max''''')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Glycine.html#max |title=''Glycine max'' |publisher=[[Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database]] |access-date=16 February 2012}}</ref> is a species of [[legume]] native to [[East Asia]], widely grown for its edible [[bean]], which has numerous uses.

Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include [[soy milk]], from which [[tofu]] and [[tofu skin]] are made. Fermented soy foods include [[soy sauce]], [[fermented bean paste]], [[nattō]], and [[tempeh]]. Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds and many [[TV dinner|packaged meals]]. For example, soybean products, such as [[textured vegetable protein]] (TVP), are ingredients in many meat and [[dairy]] substitutes.<ref name=Riaz2006>{{cite book |last=Riaz |first=Mian N. |title=Soy Applications in Food |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, FL |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8493-2981-4 }}</ref>

Soybeans contain significant amounts of [[phytic acid]], [[dietary minerals]] and [[B vitamins]]. [[Soybean oil|Soy vegetable oil]], used in food and industrial applications, is another product of processing the soybean crop. Soybean is the most important protein source for feed farm animals (that in turn yields animal protein for human consumption).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/674 |title=Soybean meal |access-date= 16 April 2019}}</ref>

==Etymology==
The word "soy" originated as a corruption of the [[Cantonese]] or Japanese names for [[soy sauce]] ({{zh|c=豉油|cy=sihyàuh|j=si6jau4}}) {{Nihongo||醤油||lead=yes|''shōyu''}}.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Hymowitz |first1=T. |last2=Newell |first2=C.A. |date=1981-07-01 |title=Taxonomy of the genus ''Glycine'', domestication and uses of soybeans |journal=[[Economic Botany]] |language=en |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=272–88 |doi=10.1007/BF02859119 |s2cid=21509807 }}</ref>

The name of the genus, ''Glycine'', comes from [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]. When naming the genus, Linnaeus observed that one of the species within the genus had a sweet root. Based on the sweetness, the Greek word for sweet, ''glykós'', was Latinized.<ref name=":1" /> The genus name is not related to the amino acid [[glycine]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}}

==Classification==

The genus ''Glycine'' may be divided into two subgenera, ''[[Glycine (subgenus)|Glycine]]'' and ''[[Soja (subgenus)|Soja]]''. The subgenus ''Soja'' includes the cultivated soybean, ''G. max'', and the wild soybean, treated either as a separate species ''[[Glycine soja|G. soja]]'',<ref name=SingNelsChun06/> or as the subspecies ''G. max'' subsp. ''soja''.<ref name="POWO_920989-1">{{cite web |title=''Glycine max subsp. soja'' (Siebold & Zucc.) H.Ohashi |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:920989-1 |access-date=2023-01-28 }}</ref> The cultivated and wild soybeans are [[Annual plant|annuals]]. The wild soybean is native to [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and [[Russia]].<ref name=SingNelsChun06>{{cite book |first1=Ram J. |last1=Singh |first2=Randall L. |last2=Nelson |first3=Gyuhwa |last3=Chung |title=Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement: Oilseed Crops, Volume 4 |publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=[[London]] |date= November 2, 2006 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQ9bcjETlrIC&pg=PA15 |isbn=978-0-8493-3639-3}}</ref> The subgenus ''Glycine'' consists of at least 25 wild [[perennial]] species: for example, ''[[Glycine canescens|G. canescens]]'' and ''[[Glycine tomentella|G. tomentella]]'', both found in [[Australia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]].<ref>{{cite conference |first=Theodore |last=Hymowitz |editor-first=J.B. |editor-last=Sinclair |editor2-first=G.L. |editor2-last=Hartman |title=Evaluation of Wild Perennial ''Glycine'' Species and Crosses For Resistance to Phakopsora |book-title=Proceedings of the Soybean Rust Workshop |pages=33–37 |publisher=National Soybean Research Laboratory |date=August 9, 1995 |location=[[Urbana, IL]], US}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/2443241 |first1=C.A. |last1=Newell |first2=T. |last2=Hymowitz |title=Hybridization in the Genus ''Glycine'' Subgenus ''Glycine'' Willd. (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae) |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=334–48 |date=March 1983 |jstor=2443241}}</ref> Perennial soybean (''[[Neonotonia wightii]]'') belongs to a different genus. It originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the tropics.<ref>Heuzé V., Tran G., Giger-Reverdin S., Lebas F., 2015. Perennial soybean (''Neonotonia wightii''). Feedipedia, a programme by [[Institut national de la recherche agronomique|INRA]], [[CIRAD]], Association Française de Zootechnie and [[FAO]]. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/293 Last updated on September 30, 2015, 15:09</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://plants.jstor.org/compilation/Neonotonia.wightii |title=''Neonotonia wightii'' in Global Plants on JSTOR |website=Global Plants on JSTOR}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Neonotonia_wightii.htm |title=Factsheet – ''Neonotonia wightii'' |work=tropicalforages.info |access-date=January 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601233037/http://tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Neonotonia_wightii.htm |archive-date=June 1, 2017 }}</ref>

Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Shekhar, Hossain |author2=Uddin, Howlader |author3=Zakir Hossain |author4=Kabir, Yearul |title=Exploring the Nutrition and Health Benefits of Functional Foods |date=July 22, 2016 |publisher=IGI Global |page=223 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2m_DAAAQBAJ&q=the+relationship+of+the+modern+soybean+to+wild-growing+species+can+no+longer+be+traced+with+any+degree+of+certainty&pg=PA223 |access-date=22 November 2017 |isbn=978-1-5225-0592-1}}</ref> It is a [[cultigen]] with a very large number of [[cultivar]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Ghulam Raza |author2=Mohan B. Singh |author3=Prem L. Bhalla |editor1-last=Atanassov |editor1-first=Atanas |title=In Vitro Plant Regeneration from Commercial Cultivars of Soybean |journal=[[BioMed Research International]] |date=June 11, 2017 |pmc=5485301 |pmid=28691031 |doi=10.1155/2017/7379693 |volume=2017 |page=7379693 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Description==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}
[[File:Soy beans.jpg|thumb|left|160px|Soybean crops in [[Minnesota]]]]
[[File:Soybeans 01.jpg|thumb|alt=Beans in a supermarket in China|Beans for sale at a [[supermarket]] in [[China]]]]
[[File:Soybeanvarieties.jpg|frameless|right|upright|alt=Varieties used for many purposes]]
Like most plants, soybeans grow in distinct [[Plant morphology|morphological]] stages as they develop from seeds into fully mature plant.

===Germination===
The first stage of growth is [[germination]], a method which first becomes apparent as a seed's [[radicle]] emerges.<ref name=MP197Chapter2>{{cite book |last1=Purcell |first1=Larry C. |last2=Salmeron |first2=Montserrat |last3=Ashlock |first3=Lanny |title=Arkansas Soybean Production Handbook – MP197 |date=2014 |chapter=Chapter 2 |chapter-url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/mp197/chapter2.pdf |publisher=University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service|location=Little Rock|pages=1–8 |url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/mp-197.aspx |access-date=21 February 2016 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304011452/http://www.uaex.edu/publications/mp-197.aspx }}</ref> This is the first stage of root growth and occurs within the first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions. The first [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] structures, the [[cotyledon]]s, develop from the [[hypocotyl]], the first plant structure to emerge from the soil. These cotyledons both act as leaves and as a source of nutrients for the immature plant, providing the seedling nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days.<ref name=MP197Chapter2 />

[[File:Glycine max 003.JPG|upright=0.9|frameless|right|alt=Fruits/pods]]
[[File:Bhatmaas.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|[[Bhatmaas]] – [[Nepal]]i fried soybeans]]

===Maturation===
The first true leaves develop as a pair of [[Leaf#Divisions of the blade|single blades]].<ref name=MP197Chapter2 /> Subsequent to this first pair, mature [[Plant stem|nodes]] form compound leaves with three blades. Mature [[trifoliolate]] leaves, having three to four [[leaflet (botany)|leaflets]] per leaf, are often between {{convert|6|and|15|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|and|7|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} broad. Under ideal conditions, stem growth continues, producing new nodes every four days. Before flowering, roots can grow {{convert|2|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} per day. If [[rhizobia]] are present, [[root nodule|root nodulation]] begins by the time the third node appears. Nodulation typically continues for 8 weeks before the [[Rhizobia#Infection and signal exchange|symbiotic infection]] process stabilizes.<ref name=MP197Chapter2 /> The final characteristics of a soybean plant are variable, with factors such as genetics, [[soil quality]], and climate affecting its form; however, fully mature soybean plants are generally between {{convert|50|and|125|cm|in|-1|abbr=on}} in height<ref name=MP197Chapter19>{{cite book |last1=Purcell |first1=Larry C. |last2=Salmeron |first2=Montserrat |last3=Ashlock |first3=Lanny |title=Arkansas Soybean Production Handbook – MP197 |date=2000 |chapter=Chapter 19: Soybean Facts |chapter-url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/mp197/chapter19.pdf |publisher=University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service |location=Little Rock, AR |page=1 |url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/mp-197.aspx |access-date=5 September 2016 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304011452/http://www.uaex.edu/publications/mp-197.aspx }}</ref> and have rooting depths between {{convert|75|and|150|cm|in|-1|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=J. Michael |last2=Rhetoric |first2=Emeritus |last3=Hicks |first3=Dale R. |last4=Naeve |first4=Seth L. |last5=Bennett |first5=Nancy Bush |title=The Minnesota Soybean Field Book |date=2014 |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Extension]]|location=St Paul, MN |page=33 |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/soybean/docs/minnesota-soybean-field-book.pdf |access-date=16 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930151502/http://www1.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/soybean/docs/minnesota-soybean-field-book.pdf |archive-date=September 30, 2013 }}</ref>

===Flowering===
Flowering is [[Photoperiodism|triggered by day length]], often beginning once days become shorter than 12.8 hours.<ref name=MP197Chapter2 /> This trait is highly variable however, with different [[Variety (botany)|varieties]] reacting differently to changing day length.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Shurtleff |first1=William |author-link=William Shurtleff |last2=Aoyagi |first2=Akiko |author-link2=Akiko Aoyagi |title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland (1735–2015): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook |date=2015 |publisher=Soyinfo Center|location=Lafayette|isbn=978-1-928914-80-8 |page=490 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gtpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA490}}</ref> Soybeans form inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers which are borne in the [[axil]] of the leaf and are white, pink or purple. Though they do not require pollination, they are attractive to bees, because they produce nectar that is high in sugar content.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Reisig |first=Dominic |title=Soybean flowering, pollination, and bees |url=http://www.ncagr.gov/pollinators/documents/DominicReisig-NCPollinatorProtectionSoybeans.pdf |website=[[North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services]] |access-date=July 15, 2021 |archive-date=June 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628160525/http://www.ncagr.gov/pollinators/documents/DominicReisig-NCPollinatorProtectionSoybeans.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Depending on the soybean variety, node growth may cease once flowering begins. Strains that continue nodal development after flowering are termed "[[Indeterminate growth|indeterminates]]" and are best suited to climates with longer growing seasons.<ref name=MP197Chapter2 /> Often soybeans drop their leaves before the seeds are fully mature.

[[File:Soybean flowers.png|frameless|right|alt=Small, purple flowers]]

The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of three to five, each pod is {{convert|3|–|8|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long and usually contains two to four (rarely more) [[seed]]s 5–11 mm in diameter. Soybean seeds come in a wide variety of sizes and [[husk|hull]] colors such as black, brown, yellow, and green.<ref name=MP197Chapter19 /> Variegated and bicolored seed coats are also common.

===Seed resilience===
The hull of the mature bean is hard, water-resistant, and protects the [[cotyledon]] and [[hypocotyl]] (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked, the seed will not [[germinate]]. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the [[Hilum (biology)|hilum]] (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the [[Micropyle (botany)|micropyle]], or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water for sprouting.

Some seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of [[soy protein|protein]] can undergo [[desiccation]], yet survive and revive after water absorption. [[A. Carl Leopold]] began studying this capability at the [[Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research]] at [[Cornell University]] in the mid-1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have a range of soluble [[carbohydrate]]s protecting the seed's cell viability.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=225–30 |doi=10.1104/pp.100.1.225 |title=Maturation Proteins and Sugars in Desiccation Tolerance of Developing Soybean Seeds |year=1992 |last1=Blackman |first1=S.A. |last2=Obendorf |first2=R.L. |last3=Leopold |first3=A.C. |journal=[[Plant Physiology (journal)|Plant Physiology]] |volume=100 |pmid=16652951 |issue=1 |pmc=1075542}}</ref> Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting biological membranes and proteins in the dry state.

===Nitrogen-fixing ability===
Like many legumes, soybeans can [[nitrogen fixation|fix atmospheric nitrogen]], due to the presence of [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] bacteria from the [[Rhizobia]] group.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Nitrogen cycle and Nitrogen fixation |author=Jim Deacon |date=April 5, 2023 |publisher=Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, The University of Edinburgh |url=http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/archive/jdeacon/microbes/nitrogen.htm}}</ref>

==Chemical composition==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}
Together, [[protein]] and [[soybean oil]] content account for 56% of dry soybeans by weight (36% protein and 20% [[fat]], table). The remainder consists of 30% [[carbohydrate]]s, 9% water and 5% [[Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash]] (table). Soybeans comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% [[cotyledon]]s and 2% [[hypocotyl]] axis or germ.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Grain Science |last=Corke, Walker and Wrigley |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-12-765490-4}}</ref>{{Page needed|date=November 2015}}

===Nutrition===
{{further|Soy protein}}
{{nutritionalvalue
| name=Soybean, mature seeds, raw
| water=8.54 g
| cholesterol=0 mg
| kJ=1866
| protein=36.49 g
| fat=19.94 g
| satfat=2.884 g
| monofat = 4.404 g
| polyfat = 11.255 g
| omega3fat=1.330 g
| omega6fat=9.925 g
| carbs=30.16 g
| fiber=9.3 g
| sugars=7.33 g
| calcium_mg=277
| copper_mg = 1.658
| iron_mg=15.7
| magnesium_mg=280
| phosphorus_mg=704
| potassium_mg=1797
| sodium_mg=2
| manganese_mg=2.517
| zinc_mg=4.89
| vitC_mg=6.0
| thiamin_mg=0.874
| riboflavin_mg=0.87
| niacin_mg=1.623
| pantothenic_mg=0.793
| vitB6_mg=0.377
| folate_ug=375
| choline_mg=115.9
| vitA_ug=1
| vitE_mg=0.85
| vitK_ug=47

| tryptophan=0.591 g
| threonine=1.766 g
| isoleucine=1.971 g
| leucine=3.309 g
| lysine=2.706 g
| methionine=0.547 g
| cystine=0.655 g
| phenylalanine=2.122 g
| tyrosine=1.539 g
| valine=2.029 g
| arginine=3.153 g
| histidine=1.097 g
| alanine=1.915 g
| aspartic acid=5.112 g
| glutamic acid=7.874 g
| glycine=1.880 g
| proline=2.379 g
| serine=2.357 g
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/174270/nutrients Link to USDA FoodData Central Entry]
}}

A 100-gram reference quantity of raw soybeans supplies {{convert|1866|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and are 9% water, 30% [[carbohydrate]]s, 20% total [[fat]] and 36% [[protein]] (table).

Soybeans are a rich source of [[essential nutrient]]s, providing in a 100-gram serving (raw, for reference) high contents of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) especially for protein (36% DV), [[dietary fiber]] (37%), [[iron]] (121%), [[manganese]] (120%), [[phosphorus]] (101%) and several [[B vitamins]], including [[folate]] (94%) (table). High contents also exist for [[vitamin K]], [[magnesium]], [[zinc]] and [[potassium]] (table).

For human consumption, soybeans must be processed prior to consumption–either by cooking, roasting, or fermenting–to destroy the [[trypsin inhibitor]]s ([[serine protease inhibitor]]s).<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Enzymatic Reduction of Anti-nutritional Factors in Fermenting Soybeans by Lactobacillus plantarum Isolates from Fermenting Cereals |journal=Nigerian Food Journal |last1=Adeyemo |first1=S.M. |issue=2 |volume=31 |pages=84–90 |last2=Onilude |first2=A.A. |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2013|doi=10.1016/S0189-7241(15)30080-1 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Raw soybeans, including the immature green form, are toxic to all [[monogastric]] animals.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Circle, Sidney Joseph |author2=Smith, Allan H. |title=Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology |publisher=Avi Publishing |location=Westport, CT |year=1972 |pages=104, 163 |isbn=978-0-87055-111-6}}</ref>

====Protein====
{{further|Complete protein|Protein quality|Soy protein}}
Most soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as [[tofu]], [[soy milk]] and [[textured vegetable protein]] (soy flour) to be made. [[Soy protein]] is essentially identical to the protein of other [[legume]] seeds and [[pulse (legume)|pulse]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Derbyshire |first1=E. |last2=Wright |first2=D.J. |last3=Boulter |first3=D. |title=Legumin and Vicilin, Storage Proteins of Legume Seeds |journal=[[Phytochemistry (journal)|Phytochemistry]] |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=3–24 |year=1976 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(00)89046-9|bibcode=1976PChem..15....3D }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=16748534 |pmc=1274878 |year=1949 |last1=Danielsson |first1=C.E. |title=Seed Globulins of the Gramineae and Leguminosae |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=387–400 |journal=The Biochemical Journal |doi=10.1042/bj0440387 }}</ref>

Soy is a good source of protein for vegetarians and [[Veganism|vegans]] or for people who want to reduce the amount of meat they eat, according to the [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|US Food and Drug Administration]]:<ref name="fda-chd">{{Cite web |url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1999-10-26/pdf/99-27693.pdf |title=Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soy Protein and Coronary Heart Disease; Docket No. 98P–0683 |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration; Federal Register, Vol. 64, No. 206 |location=Washington, DC |date=26 October 1999}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|Soy protein products can be good substitutes for animal products because, unlike some other beans, soy offers a 'complete' protein profile. ... Soy protein products can replace animal-based foods—which also have complete proteins but tend to contain more fat, especially saturated fat—without requiring major adjustments elsewhere in the diet.}}

Although soybeans have high protein content, soybeans also contain high levels of [[Protease inhibitor (biology)|protease inhibitors]], which can prevent digestion.<ref name="pmid16001874">{{cite journal |vauthors=Gilani GS, Cockell KA, Sepehr E |title=Effects of antinutritional factors on protein digestibility and amino acid availability in foods |journal=[[Journal of AOAC International]] |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=967–987 |year=2005 |doi=10.1093/jaoac/88.3.967 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7742226 |pmid=16001874 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Protease inhibitors are reduced by cooking soybeans, and are present in low levels in soy products such as [[tofu]] and [[soy milk]].<ref name="pmid16001874" />

The [[PDCAAS|Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score]] (PDCAAS) of soy protein is the nutritional equivalent of meat, eggs, and [[casein]] for human growth and health. Soybean protein isolate has a [[biological value]] of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and eggs 97.<ref name="1991Report">{{cite book|title=Protein Quality Evaluation: Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Food and Nutrition Paper No. 51)|location=Bethesda, MD |year=1989|isbn=978-92-5-103097-4}}</ref>

[[File:Graded Seed.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|Graded seed]]
All [[spermatophytes]], except for the family of grasses and cereals ([[Poaceae]]), contain 7S (vicilin) and 11S (legumin) soy protein-like globulin storage proteins; or only one of these [[globulin]] proteins. S denotes [[Svedberg]], sedimentation coefficients. Oats and rice are anomalous in that they also contain a majority of soybean-like protein.<ref name="Seed Proteins 1999">Seed Proteins; Peter R. Shewery and Rod Casey (Eds) 1999. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands</ref> Cocoa, for example, contains the 7S globulin, which contributes to cocoa/chocolate taste and aroma,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND44131228 |title=Subunit structure of the vicilin-like globular storage... |work=usda.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707233616/http://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND44131228 |archive-date=July 7, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND20412524 |title=Cocoa-specific aroma precursors are generated by proteolytic... |work=usda.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707234934/http://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND20412524 |archive-date=July 7, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://library.osu.edu/assets/Uploads/ScienceCafe/Barringer020310.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=August 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324131437/http://library.osu.edu/assets/Uploads/ScienceCafe/Barringer020310.pdf |archive-date=March 24, 2012 }}</ref> whereas coffee beans (coffee grounds) contain the 11S globulin responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Comparative Proteomical Analysis of Zygotic Embryo and Endosperm from ''Coffea arabica'' Seeds |first1=Lívia L. |last1=Koshino |first2=Clarissa P. |last2=Gomes |first3=Luciano P. |last3=Silva |first4=Mirian T.S. |last4=Eira |first5=Carlos |last5=Bloch Jr. |first6=Octávio L. |last6=Franco |first7=Ângela |last7=Mehta |date=November 26, 2008 |journal=[[J. Agric. Food Chem.]] |volume=56 |issue=22 |pages=10922–26 |doi=10.1021/jf801734m |pmid=18959416 |url=http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/alice/handle/doc/190361}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/bitstream/doc/880533/1/Comparativeproteomical.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203144038/http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/bitstream/doc/880533/1/Comparativeproteomical.pdf |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }}</ref>

Vicilin and legumin proteins belong to the [[cupin superfamily]], a large family of functionally diverse proteins that have a common origin and whose evolution can be followed from bacteria to eukaryotes including animals and higher plants.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Evolution of seed storage globulins and cupin superfamily |doi=10.1134/S0026893311030162 |volume=45 |issue=4 |journal=[[Molecular Biology (journal)|Molecular Biology]] |pages=529–35 |year=2011 |last1=Shutov |first1=A.D. |pmid=21954589 |s2cid=26111362 }}</ref>

2S [[albumins]] form a major group of homologous storage proteins in many [[dicot]] species and in some [[monocots]] but not in grasses (cereals).<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |last1=Youle |first1=RJ |last2=Huang |first2=AHC |year=1981 |title=Occurrence of low molecular weight and high cysteine containing albumin storage proteins in oilseed of diverse species |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=44–48 |doi=10.2307/2442990 |jstor=2442990 }}</ref> Soybeans contain a small but significant 2S storage protein.<ref>{{cite journal |pmc=2570561 |pmid=18949071 |doi= 10.2174/1874091X00802010016 |doi-access=free|volume=2 |title=2S Albumin Storage Proteins: What Makes them Food Allergens? |year=2008 |journal=[[Open Biochemistry Journal]] |pages=16–28 |last1=Moreno |first1=FJ |last2=Clemente |first2=A}}</ref><ref name="Seber-et-al-2012">{{cite journal |pmc=3326064 |pmid=22514740 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0035409 |volume=7 |issue=4 |title=Scalable purification and characterization of the anticancer lunasin peptide from soybean |year=2012 |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |pages=e35409 |last1=Seber |first1=LE |last2=Barnett |first2=BW |last3=McConnell |first3=EJ |display-authors=etal |bibcode=2012PLoSO...735409S |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/12/091202153946.htm |title=Soy peptide lunasin has anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory properties |website=ScienceDaily}}</ref> 2S albumin are grouped in the [[prolamin]] superfamily.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.meduniwien.ac.at/allergens/allfam/factsheet.php?allfam_id=AF050 |title=AllFam – AllFam Allergen Family Factsheet |work=meduniwien.ac.at |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045912/http://www.meduniwien.ac.at/allergens/allfam/factsheet.php?allfam_id=AF050 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 }}</ref> Other allergenic proteins included in this 'superfamily' are the non-specific [[plant lipid transfer proteins]], [[alpha amylase inhibitor]], [[trypsin inhibitors]], and prolamin storage proteins of cereals and grasses.<ref name="Seed Proteins 1999" />

[[Peanut]]s, for instance, contain 20% 2S albumin but only 6% 7S globulin and 74% 11S.<ref name="ReferenceA" /> It is the high 2S albumin and low 7S globulin that is responsible for the relatively low lysine content of peanut protein compared to soy protein.

====Carbohydrates====
The principal soluble [[carbohydrate]]s of mature soybeans are the disaccharide [[sucrose]] (range 2.5–8.2%), the trisaccharide [[raffinose]] (0.1–1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of [[galactose]], and the tetrasaccharide [[stachyose]] (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=removed citation associated with a predatory publisher}} While the [[oligosaccharide]]s raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars, so contribute to [[flatulence]] and abdominal discomfort in humans and other [[monogastric]] animals, comparable to the disaccharide [[trehalose]]. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes, producing gases such as [[carbon dioxide]], [[hydrogen]], and [[methane]].

Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found in the [[whey]] and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous [[Bifidobacterium|bifidobacteria]] in the colon against putrefactive bacteria.

The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides [[cellulose]], [[hemicellulose]], and [[pectin]]. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to [[dietary fiber]].

====Fats====
Raw soybeans are 20% fat, including [[saturated fat]] (3%), [[monounsaturated fat]] (4%) and polyunsaturated fat, mainly as [[linoleic acid]] (table).

Within [[soybean oil]] or the [[lipid]] portion of the seed is contained four [[phytosterol]]s: [[stigmasterol]], [[sitosterol]], [[campesterol]], and [[brassicasterol]] accounting for about 2.5% of the lipid fraction; and which can be converted into [[steroid hormone]]s.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=removed citation associated with a predatory publisher}} Additionally soybeans are a rich source of [[sphingolipid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sphingolipids in Food and the Emerging Importance of Sphingolipids to Nutrition |first1=Hubert |last1=Vesper |first2=Eva-Maria |last2=Schmelz |first3=Mariana N. |last3=Nikolova-Karakashian |first4=Dirck L. |last4=Dillehay |first5=Daniel V. |last5=Lynch |first6=Alfred H. |last6=Merrill |date=July 1, 1999 |journal=[[Journal of Nutrition]] |volume=129 |issue=7 |pages=1239–50 |pmid=10395583 |doi=10.1093/jn/129.7.1239 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

====Other constituents====
Soy contains [[isoflavone]]s—[[polyphenol]]ic compounds, produced by legumes including peanuts and [[chickpea]]s. Isoflavones are closely related to [[flavonoid]]s found in other plants, vegetables and flowers.<ref name=lpi/>

Soy contains the [[phytoestrogen]] [[coumestans]], also are found in beans and split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. [[Coumestrol]], an isoflavone [[coumarin]] derivative, is the only coumestan in foods.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=11823590 |date=February 2002 |last1=De Kleijn |first1=M.J. |last2=Van Der Schouw |first2=Y.T. |last3=Wilson |first3=P.W. |last4=Grobbee |first4=D.E. |last5=Jacques |first5=P.F. |title=Dietary Intake of Phytoestrogens is Associated With a Favorable Metabolic Cardiovascular Risk Profile in Postmenopausal U.S. Women: The Framingham Study |volume=132 |issue=2 |pages=276–82 | journal=The Journal of Nutrition |doi=10.1093/jn/132.2.276 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pages=S31–S38 |doi=10.1079/BJN2002794 |pmid=12725654 |title=Phyto-oestrogen Database of Foods and Average Intake in Finland |date=June 2003 |last1=Valsta |first1=L.M. |last2=Kilkkinen |first2=A. |last3=Mazur |first3=W. |last4=Nurmi |first4=T. |last5=Lampi |first5=A-M. |last6=Ovaskainen |first6=M-L. |last7=Korhonen |first7=T. |last8=Adlercreutz |first8=H. |last9=Pietinen |first9=P. |display-authors=8 |journal=[[British Journal of Nutrition]] |volume=89 |issue=5 |s2cid=14175754 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

[[Saponins]], a class of natural [[surfactants]] (soaps), are sterols that are present in small amounts in various [[whole food|plant foods]], including soybeans, other [[legume]]s, and cereals, such as oats.<ref name="Hu">{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Chengshen |last2=Wong |first2=Wing-Tak |last3=Wu |first3=Runyu |last4=Lai |first4=Wing-Fu |title=Biochemistry and use of soybean isoflavones in functional food development |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition]] |date=5 July 2019 |volume=60 |issue=12 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2019.1630598 |pages=2098–2112 |pmid=31272191 |s2cid=195806006 |hdl=10397/101521 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=25286183 |pmc=4266039 |year=2014 |last1=Moses |first1=T |title=Metabolic and functional diversity of saponins, biosynthetic intermediates and semi-synthetic derivatives |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology]] |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=439–62 |last2=Papadopoulou |first2=K.K. |last3=Osbourn |first3=A |author-link3=Anne Osbourn |doi=10.3109/10409238.2014.953628}}</ref>

===Comparison to other major staple foods===
The following table shows the nutrient content of green soybean and other major staple foods, each in respective raw form on a [[Dry matter#Dry matter basis|dry weight basis]] to account for their different water contents. Raw soybeans, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table. The nutritional value of soybean and each cooked staple depends on the processing and the method of cooking: boiling, frying, roasting, baking, etc.
{{Comparison of major staple foods}}

==Cultivation==
[[File:AreialSeedingPlane.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[United States]]|alt=[[Biplane]], US field, [[cropduster|cropdusting]]]]
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}

===Uses===
During World War II, soybeans became important in both North America and Europe chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil. During the war, the soybean was discovered as [[fertilizer]] due to [[nitrogen fixation]] by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]].

===Conditions===
[[File:Sembrado de soja en argentina.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|left|[[Argentina]]|alt=Fields in [[Argentina]]]]
Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of {{convert|20|to|30|C|F|round=5}}; temperatures of below {{convert|20|C|F|round=5}} and over {{convert|40|C|F|round=5}} stunt growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist [[Alluvium|alluvial soil]]s with good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform [[nitrogen fixation]] by establishing a [[symbiotic]] relationship with the bacterium ''[[Bradyrhizobium japonicum]]'' ([[synonym (taxonomy)|syn.]] ''Rhizobium japonicum''; Jordan 1982). This ability to fix nitrogen allows farmers to reduce nitrogen [[fertilizer]] use and increase yields when growing other crops in [[Crop rotation|rotation]] with soy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Corn and Soybean Rotation Effect - Wisconsin Corn Agronomy |url=http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/AA/A014.aspx |website=corn.agronomy.wisc.edu |access-date=2020-05-17 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807071753/http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/AA/A014.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> There may be some trade-offs, however, in the long-term abundance of [[Soil organic matter|organic material in soils]] where soy and other crops (for example, [[Maize|corn]]) are grown in rotation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Corn and soybean rotation could pose long-term tradeoffs for soil health |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-10-corn-soybean-rotation-pose-long-term.html |website=phys.org |language=en |access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref> For best results, though, an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop [[cultivar]]s generally reach a height of around {{convert|1|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting.

===Soils===
Soil scientists [[Edson Lobato]] (Brazil), [[Andrew McClung]] (U.S.), and [[Alysson Paolinelli]] (Brazil) were awarded the 2006 [[World Food Prize]] for transforming the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the [[Cerrado]] region of Brazil into highly productive cropland that could grow profitable soybeans.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/20002009_laureates/2006_lobato_mcclung_paolinelli/|title=2006: Lobato, McClung, Paolinelli - The World Food Prize - Improving the Quality, Quantity and Availability of Food in the World|first=Global Reach Internet Productions, LLC-Ames, IA-|last=globalreach.com|website=www.worldfoodprize.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first = Susan|last = Lang|title = Cornell Alumnus Andrew Colin McClung Reaps 2006 World Food Prize|url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/June06/World.Food.prize.ssl.html|work =Chronicle Online |publisher = Cornell University|date = June 21, 2006|access-date =February 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://e360.yale.edu/feature/the_cerrado_brazils_other_biodiversity_hotspot_loses_ground/2393/ |title=The Cerrado: Brazil's Other Biodiverse Region Loses Ground|date=April 14, 2011|last=Pearce|first=Fred|publisher=Yale University|access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1023/A:1024191913296|title = The success of BNF in soybean in Brazil| journal=[[Plant and Soil]]| volume=252| pages=1–9|year = 2003|last1 = Alves|first1 = Bruno J.R.| last2=Boddey| first2=Robert M.| last3=Urquiaga| first3=Segundo| issue=1 | bibcode=2003PlSoi.252....1A |s2cid = 10143668}}</ref>
[[File:Soybean rust.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|[[Soybean rust]]]]

===Contamination concerns===
Human [[sewage sludge]] can be used as fertilizer to grow soybeans. Soybeans grown in sewage sludge likely contain elevated concentrations of metals.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Molybdenum Uptake by Forage Crops Grown on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soils in the Field and Greenhouse|url=http://soilandwater.bee.cornell.edu/publications/McBrideJEQ00.pdf|journal=[[Journal of Environmental Quality]]|date=May–June 2000|volume=29|issue=3|last1=McBride|first1=M.B.|last2=Richards|first2=B.K.|last3=Steenhuis|first3=T.|last4=Spiers|first4=G.|pages=848–54|doi=10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900030021x|bibcode=2000JEnvQ..29..848M }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Residual Effects of Sewage Sludge on Soybean: II. Accumulation of Soil and Symbiotically Fixed Nitrogen|journal=[[Journal of Environmental Quality]]|date=December 9, 1985|volume=16|issue=2|last1=Heckman|first1=J.R.|last2=Angle|first2=J.S.|last3=Chaney|first3=R.L.|pages=118–24|doi=10.2134/jeq1987.00472425001600020005x}}</ref>

===Pests===
{{Further|List of soybean diseases}}
Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of [[bacterial crop disease|bacterial diseases]], [[fungal crop disease|fungal diseases]], [[viral crop disease|viral diseases]], and parasites.

====Bacteria====
The primary bacterial diseases include [[bacterial blight]], [[bacterial pustule]] and [[downy mildew]] affecting the soybean plant.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gardenandme.com/soybean/|title=Soybean plant - How to grow, care, pest control and uses of soybeans|date=June 5, 2020|website=Garden And Me}}</ref>

====Animals====
The [[Japanese beetle]] ('''''Popillia japonica''''') poses a significant threat to agricultural crops, including soybeans, due to its voracious feeding habits. Found commonly in both urban and suburban areas, these beetles are frequently observed in agricultural landscapes where they can cause considerable damage to crops like corn, soybeans, and various fruits. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Japanese beetle - Popillia japonica |url=https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/beetles/japanese_beetle.htm |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=entnemdept.ufl.edu}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=EENY350/IN630: Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica Newman (Insecta: Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) |url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN630 |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=Ask IFAS - Powered by EDIS |language=en-US}}</ref>

=====Nematodes=====
[[Soybean cyst nematode]] (SCN) is the worst pest of soybean in the US. Losses of 30%<ref name="Missouri" /> or 40%<ref group="RM" name="Tylka-40-sympt">"You can literally have 40% yield loss with no symptoms," says Greg Tylka, [[Iowa State University Extension|Iowa State University (ISU) Extension]] nematologist.</ref> are common even without symptoms.

=====Arthropods=====
======Insects======
The [[Helicoverpa zea|corn earworm moth and bollworm]] (Helicoverpa zea) is a common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia.<ref>Herbert, Ames, Cathy Hull, and Eric Day. "Corn Earworm Biology and Management in Soybeans." [[Virginia Cooperative Extension]], [[Virginia State University]] (2009).</ref>

=====Vertebrates=====
======Mammals======
Soybeans are consumed by [[whitetail deer]] which may damage soybean plants through feeding, trampling and bedding, reducing [[crop yield]]s by as much as 15%.<ref name="ag">{{cite web|url=https://www.morningagclips.com/controlling-white-tailed-deer-in-soybeans|title=Controlling white-tailed deer in soybeans|date=16 January 2018|publisher=Morning AgClips – Michigan|access-date=9 May 2019}}</ref> [[Groundhog]]s are also a common pest in soybean fields, living in burrows underground and feeding nearby. One den of groundhogs can consume a tenth to a quarter of an acre of soybeans.<ref name="brant">{{cite web|url=https://www.lancasterfarming.com/news/columnists/soybean-farmers-warranted-in-waging-war-on-groundhogs/article_f6e6a210-2995-521f-8655-aa19efe373c3.html|title=Soybean Farmers Warranted in Waging War on Groundhogs|date=9 September 2016|publisher=[[Lancaster Farming]]|author=Brant, Jesse D|access-date=9 May 2019}}</ref> [[animal repellent|Chemical repellents]] or [[firearm]]s are effective for controlling pests in soybean fields.<ref name=ag/><ref name=brant/>

{{anchor|Fungus|Funguses}}

====Fungi====
Soybeans suffer from ''[[Pythium spinosum]]'' in [[Arkansas]] and [[Indiana]] (United States), and China.<ref name="P-spinosum-US-Nat-Fung-Coll">{{cite web
| title=U.S. National Fungus Collections Database results
| website=Fungal Databases, [[U.S. National Fungus Collections]]
| date=2020-12-08
| url=http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/new_allViewGenBank.cfm?thisName=Pythium%20spinosum&organismtype=Fungus
| access-date=2020-12-08
}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Cultivars===
====Disease resistant cultivars====
[[plant disease resistance|Resistant varieties]] are available. In Indian cultivars, Nataraj ''et al.'' 2020 find that anthracnose caused by ''[[Colletotrichum truncatum]]'' is resisted by a combination of 2 [[major gene]]s.<ref name="identification">
:{{Cite journal|issue=4|pages=393–409|year=2021|volume=22|last1=Boufleur|first1=Thais R.|last2=Ciampi-Guillardi|first2=Maisa|last3=Tikami|first3=Ísis|last4=Rogério|first4=Flávia|last5=Thon|first5=Michael R.|last6=Sukno|first6=Serenella A.|last7=Massola Júnior|first7=Nelson S.|last8=Baroncelli|first8=Riccardo|journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]]|s2cid=231969160|pmid=33609073|pmc=7938629|doi=10.1111/mpp.13036|title=Soybean anthracnose caused by ''Colletotrichum'' species: Current status and future prospects}}
:
:This review cites this research.
:
:{{Cite journal|issue=6|volume=67|year=2020|last1=Nataraj|first1=Vennampally|last2=Maranna|first2=Shivakumar|last3=Kumawat|first3=Giriraj|last4=Gupta|first4=Sanjay|last5=Rajput|first5=Laxman Singh|last6=Kumar|first6=Sanjeev|last7=Sharma|first7=Amar Nath|last8=Bhatia|first8=Virender Singh|journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution|s2cid=211730576|doi=10.1007/s10722-020-00917-4|pages=1449–1456|title=Genetic inheritance and identification of germplasm sources for anthracnose resistance in soybean [''Glycine max'' (L.) Merr.]}}
</ref>

=====PI 88788=====
The vast majority of cultivars in the US have [[soybean cyst nematode resistance]] (SCN resistance), but rely on [[soybean cyst nematode#PI 88788|only one breeding line (PI 88788)]] as their sole source of resistance.<ref group="RM" name="PI-88788">Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance (PI 88788)may be helping SCN to overcome SCN-resistant varieties. Out of 807 resistant varieties listed by ISU this year, just 18 had a genetic background outside of PI 88788. "We have lots of varieties to pick from, but the genetic background is not as diverse as we would like it to be," says Tylka.</ref> (The resistance genes provided by PI 88788, {{Visible anchor|Peking}}, and {{Visible anchor|PI 90763}} were [[genome mapping|characterized]] in 1997.)<ref name="Concibido-et-al-1997">{{cite journal|issue=1|last1=Concibido|first1=Vergel C.|last2=Lange|first2=Douglas A.|last3=Denny|first3=Roxanne L.|last4=Orf|first4=James H.|last5=Young|first5=Nevin D.|title=Genome Mapping of Soybean Cyst Nematode Resistance Genes in 'Peking', PI 90763, and PI 88788 Using DNA Markers|journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=37|year=1997|doi=10.2135/cropsci1997.0011183x003700010046x|pages=258–264}}</ref> As a result, for example, in 2012 only 18 cultivars out of 807 recommended by the [[Iowa State University Extension]] had any ancestry outside of PI 88788. By 2020 the situation was still about the same: Of 849 there were 810 with some ancestry from PI 88788,<ref name="Iowa-other-resist">{{cite web | title=Soybean varieties with SCN resistance other than PI 88788 | website=Integrated Crop Management | publisher=[[Iowa State University#Birth of cooperative extension|Iowa State University Extension]] | url=http://crops.extension.iastate.edu/cropnews/2020/12/soybean-varieties-scn-resistance-other-pi-88788 | access-date=2021-03-12}}</ref><ref name="Iowa-resist">{{cite web | title=SCN-resistant Soybean Varieties for Iowa - By the Numbers | website=Integrated Crop Management | publisher=[[Iowa State University#Birth of cooperative extension|Iowa State University Extension]] | url=http://crops.extension.iastate.edu/cropnews/2020/11/scn-resistant-soybean-varieties-iowa-numbers | access-date=2021-03-12}}</ref> 35 from Peking, and only 2 from PI 89772. (On the question of exclusively PI 88788 ancestry, that number was not available for 2020.)<ref name="Iowa-resist" /> That was speculated to be in 2012<ref group="RM" name="overcome-resis">There have been cases where SCN has clipped yields of SCN-resistant varieties. Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance (PI 88788)may be helping SCN to overcome SCN-resistant varieties.</ref>—and was clearly by 2020<ref name="Iowa-other-resist" />—producing SCN populations that are virulent on PI 88788.

==Production==
{{main|List of countries by soybean production}}
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em; text-align:center;"
! colspan=2|Soybean production – 2020
|-
! style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country
! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| Production (millions of [[tonne]]s)
|-
| {{BRA}} ||122
|-
| {{USA}} ||113
|-
| {{ARG}} ||49
|-
| {{CHN}} ||20
|-
| {{IND}} ||11
|-
| {{PAR}} ||11
|-
| '''World'''||'''353'''
|-
| colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Source: [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database|FAOSTAT]]<ref name="faostat19">{{cite web|publisher=United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division, FAOSTAT|title=Soybean production in 2019, Crops/World regions/Production quantity (from pick lists)|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/|access-date=8 February 2021|date=2019}}</ref>
|}
[[File:PRODUCTION OF SOYBEANS (2018).svg|thumb|<ref name="FAO-2020-production-map" />|alt=Production of soybeans (2018)<ref name="FAO-2020-production-map">{{Cite book|title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2020|publisher=[[FAO]]|year=2020|isbn=978-92-5-133394-5|location=[[Rome]]|doi=10.4060/cb1329en|s2cid=242794287}}</ref>]]
In 2020, world production of soybeans was over 353 million tonnes, led by Brazil and the United States combined with 66% of the total (table). Production has dramatically increased across the globe since the 1960s, but particularly in South America after a cultivar that grew well in low latitudes was developed in the 1980s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cattelan|first1=Alexandre José|last2=Dall'Agnol|first2=Amélio|date=2018-01-01|title=The rapid soybean growth in Brazil|url=https://www.ocl-journal.org/articles/ocl/abs/2018/01/ocl170039/ocl170039.html|journal=[[OCL (journal)|OCL]]|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=D102|doi=10.1051/ocl/2017058|doi-access=free}}</ref> The rapid growth of the industry has been primarily fueled by large increases in [[Western pattern diet|worldwide demand for meat]] products, particularly in developing countries like China, which alone accounts for more than 60% of imports.<ref>{{Cite web|title=OEC - Soybeans (HS92: 1201) Product Trade, Exporters and Importers|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/1201/|website=oec.world|language=en|access-date=2020-05-17|archive-date=April 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404122328/https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/1201/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===Environmental issues===
{{Seealso|Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest}}
In spite of the Amazon "Soy Moratorium", soy production continues to play a significant role in [[deforestation]] when its indirect impacts are taken into account, as land used to grow soy continues to increase. This land either comes from [[pasture]] land (which increasingly supplants forested areas), or areas outside the Amazon not covered by the moratorium, such as the [[Cerrado]] region. Roughly one-fifth of deforestation can be attributed to expanding land use to produce oilseeds, primarily for soy and [[palm oil]], whereas the expansion of [[beef]] production accounts for 41%. The main driver of deforestation is the global demand for meat, which in turn requires huge tracts of land to grow feed crops for livestock.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation |title=Drivers of Deforestation |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |author1-link=Hannah Ritchie |date= February 9, 2021|journal=[[Our World in Data]] |access-date=March 20, 2021 }}</ref> Around 80% of the global soybean crop is used to feed livestock.<ref>{{cite news |last= Liotta|first= Edoardo|date=August 23, 2019 |title=Feeling Sad About the Amazon Fires? Stop Eating Meat|url=https://www.vice.com/en_in/article/bjwzk4/feeling-sad-about-the-amazon-fires-stop-eating-meat |work=[[Vice Media|Vice]] |access-date=August 25, 2019|quote=Soy is the most important protein in animal feed, with 80 percent of the world's soybean crop fed to livestock.}}</ref>

==History==
{{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}}
Soybeans were a crucial crop in East Asia long before written records began.<ref>Shurtleff, William; Aoyagi, Akiko. 2013. History of Whole Dry Soybeans, Used as Beans, or Ground, Mashed or Flaked (240 BCE to 2013). Lafayette, California. 950 pp.</ref> The origin of soy bean cultivation remains scientifically debated. The closest living relative of the soybean is ''[[Glycine soja]]'' (previously called ''G. ussuriensis''), a legume native to central China.<ref name=britannica>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/557184/soybean |title=Soybean |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online |access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> There is evidence for soybean domestication between 7000 and 6600 BC in China, between 5000 and 3000 BC in Japan and 1000 BC in Korea.<ref name="Lee-et-al-2011">{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Gyoung-Ah |last2=Crawford |first2=Gary W. |last3=Liu |first3=Li |last4=Sasaki |first4=Yuka |last5=Chen |first5=Xuexiang |title=Archaeological Soybean (''Glycine max'') in East Asia: Does Size Matter? |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |date=November 4, 2011 |volume=6 |issue=11 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0026720 |pages=e26720 |pmid=22073186 |pmc=3208558|bibcode=2011PLoSO...626720L |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The first unambiguously domesticated, [[cultigen]]-sized soybean was discovered in Korea at the [[Mumun pottery period|Mumun]]-period Daundong site.<ref name="Lee-et-al-2011" /><ref name="Stark-2017">{{cite book|last1=Stark|first1=Miriam T.|title=Archaeology of Asia|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5303-4|page=81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4_bT2SJ-HUC&pg=PA81|access-date=18 April 2017|language=en|date=15 April 2008}}</ref> Prior to [[Fermentation (food)|fermented]] products such as fermented black soybeans (''[[douchi]]''), ''jiang'' (Chinese miso), [[soy sauce]], [[tempeh]], [[nattō]], and [[miso]], soy was considered sacred for its beneficial effects in [[crop rotation]], and it was eaten by itself, and as [[bean curd]] and [[soy milk]].

Soybeans were introduced to [[Java]] in [[Malay Archipelago]] circa 13th century or probably earlier. By the 17th century through their trade with Far East, soybeans and its products were traded by European traders (Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch) in Asia, and reached Indian Subcontinent by this period.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} By the 18th century, soybeans were introduced to the Americas and Europe from China. Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century, and is now widespread across the continent.

===East Asia===
[[File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 18, page 023 - 穭豆 - Glycine max (L.) Merr., 1804.jpg|thumb|''[[Seikei Zusetsu]]'' (1804)|alt=[[Botanical illustration]], ''[[Seikei Zusetsu]]'' (1804)]]

The cultivation of soybeans began in the eastern half of northern China by 2000 BC, but is almost certainly much older.<ref name=Murphy>{{cite book |title=People, Plants and Genes: The Story of Crops and Humanity |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleplantsgene00murp_652 |url-access=limited |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peopleplantsgene00murp_652/page/n146 122]–123 |year=2007 |last= Murphy |first= Denis J.}}</ref> The earliest documented evidence for the use of ''Glycine'' of any kind comes from charred plant remains of wild soybean recovered from Jiahu in [[Henan province]] China, a [[Neolithic]] site occupied between 9000 and 7800 calendar years ago (cal bp).<ref name="Lee-et-al-2011" /> An abundance of archeological charred soybean specimens have been found centered around this region.<ref>Zhao Z. 2004. "Floatation: a paleobotanic method in field archaeology". [[Archaeology (journal)|Archaeology]] 3: 80–87.</ref>

According to the ancient Chinese myth, in 2853 BC, the legendary [[Shennong|Emperor Shennong]] of China proclaimed that five plants were sacred: soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and [[millet]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soya.be/history-of-soybeans.php|title=History of Soybeans|publisher=Soya – Information about Soy and Soya Products|access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> Early Chinese records mention that soybeans were a gift from the region of [[Yangtze River delta]] and Southeast China.<ref name="Britannica Educational Publishing p. 48">The History of Agriculture By Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 48</ref> The ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'' claims soybean cultivation originated in China about 5000 years ago.<ref>''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'', ed. A. M. Prokhorov (New York: Macmillan, London: Collier Macmillan, 1974–1983) 31 volumes, three volumes of indexes. Translation of third Russian edition of ''Bol'shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya''</ref> Some scholars suggest that soybean originated in China and was domesticated about 3500 BC.<ref name=Siddiqi>{{cite book |last=Siddiqi |first=Mohammad Rafiq |year=2001 |title=Tylenchida: Parasites of Plants and Insects |location=New York |publisher=CABI Pub.}}</ref> Recent research, however, indicates that seeding of wild forms started early (before 5000 BC) in multiple locations throughout East Asia.<ref name="Lee-et-al-2011" />

Soybeans became an important crop by the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC) in China. However, the details of where, when, and under what circumstances soybean developed a close relationship with people are poorly understood. Soybean was unknown in South China before the Han period.<ref name="Lee-et-al-2011" /> From about the first century AD to the [[Age of Discovery]] (15–16th centuries), soybeans were introduced into across South and Southeast Asia. This spread was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic ''[[Kojiki]]'' (''Records of Ancient Matters''), which was completed in AD 712.

The oldest preserved soybeans resembling modern varieties in size and shape were found in [[archaeological site]]s in [[Korea]] dated about 1000 BC.<ref name="Britannica Educational Publishing p. 48"/><ref name=stark>{{cite book |last=Stark|first=Miriam T. |title=Archaeology of Asia (Blackwell Studies in Global Archaeology) |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Hoboken, NJ |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoDFdOstSNwC&pg=PA81|page=81|isbn=978-1-4051-0213-1|access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> [[Radiocarbon dating]] of soybean samples recovered through [[flotation (archaeology)|flotation]] during excavations at the Early [[Mumun]] period Okbang site in Korea indicated soybean was cultivated as a food crop in around 1000–900 BC.<ref name=stark /> Soybeans from the Jōmon period in Japan from 3000 BC<ref name="Lee-et-al-2011" /> are also significantly larger than wild varieties.<ref name="Lee-et-al-2011" /><ref>Shurtleff, William; Aoyagi, Akiko. 2012. ''History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Japan''. Lafayette, California.</ref>

===Southeast Asia===
Soybeans were mentioned as ''kadêlê'' (modern [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] term: {{Lang|id|kedelai}})<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/indonesian-english/kedelai|title=kedelai translate Indonesian to English: Cambridge Dictionary|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|language=en|access-date=2018-01-21}}</ref> in an [[old Javanese]] manuscript, Serat [[Sri Tanjung]], which dates to 12th- to 13th-century [[Java]].<ref name="Historia">{{cite web | title=Sejarah Tempe| author=Hendri F. Isnaeni | date=9 July 2014| publisher=Historia |url=http://historia.id/kuliner/sejarah-tempe | language=id | access-date= 21 January 2018}}</ref> By the 13th century, the soybean had arrived and cultivated in Indonesia; it probably arrived much earlier however, carried by traders or merchants from Southern China.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/139|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Southeast Asia (1770–2010)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-30-3|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2010}}</ref>

The earliest known reference to it as "[[tempeh]]" appeared in 1815 in the [[Serat Centhini]] manuscript.<ref>''The Book of Tempeh'', 2nd ed., by W. Shurtleff and A. Aoyagi (2001, Ten Speed Press, p. 145)</ref> The development of tempeh fermented soybean cake probably took place earlier, circa 17th century in Java.

===Indian subcontinent===
By the 1600s, soy sauce spread from southern Japan across the region through the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC).
[[File:Soya Bean.jpg|thumb|From a high-altitude area of [[Nepal]]]]
[[File:Soyabean field.jpg|thumb|[[India]]|alt=Field in India]]

The soybean probably arrived from southern China, moving southwest into northern parts of Indian subcontinent by this period.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/140|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in South Asia / Indian Subcontinent (1656–2010)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-31-0|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2010}}</ref>

===Iberia===
In 1603, "[[Nippo Jisho|Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam]]", a famous Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, was compiled and published by Jesuit priests in Nagasaki. It contains short but clear definitions for about 20 words related to soyfoods—the first in any European language.

The Luso-Hispanic traders were familiar with soybeans and soybean product through their trade with Far East since at least the 17th century. However, it was not until the late 19th century that the first attempt to cultivate soybeans in the Iberian peninsula was undertaken. In 1880, the soybean was first cultivated in Portugal in the [[Botanical Garden of the University of Coimbra|Botanical Gardens at Coimbra]] (Crespi 1935).

In about 1910 in Spain the first attempts at Soybean cultivation were made by the Count of San Bernardo, who cultivated soybeans on his estates at Almillo (in southwest Spain) about 48 miles east-northeast of Seville.<ref>Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. 2015. "History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Spain and Portugal (1603–2015)." Lafayette, California: Soyinfo Center. (624 references; 23 photos and illustrations. Free online.)</ref>

===North America===
Soybeans were first introduced to North America from China in 1765, by [[Samuel Bowen]], a former [[East India Company]] sailor who had visited China in conjunction with [[James Flint (merchant)|James Flint]], the first Englishman legally permitted by the Chinese authorities to learn Chinese.<ref>{{cite book
| title = An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730–1815
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_I0_gkKKMM8C&pg=PA147
| last1 = Chaplin
| first1 = J.E.
| year = 1996
| isbn = 978-0-8078-4613-1
| publisher = University of North Carolina Press
| page = 147}}</ref> The first "New World" soybean crop was grown on [[Skidaway Island, Georgia]], in 1765 by Henry Yonge from seeds given him by Samuel Bowen.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hymowitz|first=T.|date=1970-10-01|title=On the domestication of the soybean|journal=[[Economic Botany]]|language=en|volume=24|issue=4|pages=408–21|doi=10.1007/BF02860745|s2cid=26735964|url=http://elartu.tntu.edu.ua/handle/lib/43629 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caes.uga.edu/extension/irwin/anr/Vol29.1.pdf.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923195804/http://www.caes.uga.edu/extension/irwin/anr/Vol29.1.pdf.pdf |archive-date=September 23, 2015 |publisher=Georgia Soybean News |website=caes.uga.edu |title=Another First for Georgia Agriculture |author=Roger Boerma |page=5 |volume=1 |issue=1 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=360&dat=19940831&id=9eMyAAAAIBAJ&pg=6901,2669493&hl=en|publisher=The Rockmart Journal|title=Soybeans planted first in Georgia|date=21 August 1994|website=Google News Archive}}</ref> Bowen grew soy near [[Savannah, Georgia]], possibly using funds from Flint, and made soy sauce for sale to England.<ref name="Coastalfields Press">{{cite book|title=Eat Your Food! Gastronomical Glory from Garden to Gut: A Coastalfields Cookbook, Nutrition Textbook, Farming Manual and Sports Manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtZ2oNGyv6AC&pg=PR2|access-date=4 May 2013|date=April 2007|publisher=Coastalfields Press|isbn=978-0-9785944-8-0}}</ref> Although soybean was introduced into North America in 1765, for the next 155 years, the crop was grown primarily for [[forage]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nsrl.uiuc.edu/aboutsoy/history4.html |title=NSRL: About Soy |date=November 22, 2003 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031122134643/http://www.nsrl.uiuc.edu/aboutsoy/history4.html |archive-date=November 22, 2003 }}</ref>

In 1831, the first soy product "a few dozen India Soy" [sauce] arrived in Canada. Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855, and definitely in 1895 at [[Ontario Agricultural College]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/137|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Canada (1831–2010)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-28-0|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2010}}</ref>

It was not until [[Lafayette Mendel]] and [[Thomas Burr Osborne (chemist)|Thomas Burr Osborne]] showed that the nutritional value of soybean seeds could be increased by cooking, moisture or heat, that soy went from a farm animal feed to a human food.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/irspsm91/kunitz.html|title=The Kunitz Soybean Variety|work=uiuc.edu|date=2018-02-20|first = Theodore|last =Hymowitz}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cropsci.illinois.edu/news/scientists-create-new-low-allergen-soybean|title= Scientists create new low-allergen soybean|work=illinois.edu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605195117/http://cropsci.illinois.edu/news/scientists-create-new-low-allergen-soybean|archive-date=June 5, 2015}}</ref>

William Morse is considered the "father" of modern soybean agriculture in America. In 1910, he and [[Charles Piper]] (Dr. C. V. Piper) began to popularize what was regarded as a relatively unknown Oriental peasant crop in America into a "golden bean", with the soybean becoming one of America's largest and most nutritious farm crops.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/morse_and_piper.php|title=William J. Morse and Charles V. Piper|work=soyinfocenter.com|first1= William |last1=Shurtleff |first2=Akiko|last2= Aoyagi|date =2004}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/147|title=William J. Morse – History of His Work with Soybeans and Soyfoods (1884–1959) – SoyInfo Center |publisher=soyinfocenter.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Piper |first1=Charles V. |author1-link=Charles Piper |last2=Morse |first2=William J. |year=1923 |title=The Soybean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6hRCAAAAYAAJ |series=Agricultural and Biological Publications |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company |oclc=252589754 |via=Google Books}}</ref>

[[File:Soybeans 2021 US map.pdf|frameless|alt=Planted area 2021 US map by state|left|upright=2.0]]

Prior to the 1920s in the US, the soybean was mainly a [[forage]] crop, a source of oil, meal (for feed) and industrial products, with very little used as food. However, it took on an important role after World War I. During the [[Great Depression]], the drought-stricken ([[Dust Bowl]]) regions of the United States were able to use soy to regenerate their soil because of its nitrogen-fixing properties. Farms were increasing production to meet with government demands, and [[Henry Ford]] became a promoter of soybeans.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-12-07/history-of-soybeans-in-u-s-could-take-turn-in-trump-s-trade-war?srnd=premium|title=How Soybeans Became Ubiquitous |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=December 7, 2019 |publisher=Bloomberg News |access-date=2019-12-07}}</ref> In 1931, Ford hired chemists [[Robert Boyer (chemist)|Robert Boyer]] and Frank Calvert to produce [[artificial silk]]. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a [[formaldehyde]] bath, which was given the name [[Azlon]]. It never reached the commercial market. Soybean oil was used by [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] in [[Soy paint|paint]] for the automobiles,<ref name="Schwarcz">{{cite book |author=Joe Schwarcz|title=The Fly in the Ointment: 63 Fascinating Commentaries on the Science of Everyday Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rmIbClRzfeoC&pg=PA193 |access-date=4 May 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=ECW Press |isbn=978-1-55022-621-8|page=193}}</ref> as well as a fluid for shock absorbers.

Prior to the 1970s, Asian-Americans and Seventh-Day Adventists were essentially the only users of soy foods in the United States.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roth |first=Matthew |year=2018 |title=Magic Bean: The Rise of Soy in America |location=Lawrence, KS |publisher=University Press of Kansas|page=109 |isbn=978-0-7006-2633-5 |oclc=1012618664 }}</ref> "The soy foods movement began in small pockets of the counterculture, notably the Tennessee commune named simply [[The Farm (Tennessee)|The Farm]], but by the mid-1970s a vegetarian revival helped it gain momentum and even popular awareness through books such as [[William Shurtleff|''The Book of Tofu'']]."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roth |first=Matthew |year=2018 |title=Magic Bean: The Rise of Soy in America |location=Lawrence, KS |publisher=University Press of Kansas|page=201 |isbn=978-0-7006-2633-5 |oclc=1012618664 }}</ref>

Although practically unseen in 1900, by 2000 soybean plantings covered more than 70 million acres,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Roth |first=Matthew |year=2018 |title=Magic Bean: The Rise of Soy in America |location=Lawrence, KS |publisher=University Press of Kansas|page=8 |isbn=978-0-7006-2633-5 |oclc=1012618664 }}</ref> second only to corn, and it became America's largest cash crop.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}} In 2021, 87,195,000 acres were planted, with the largest acreage in the states of Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota.<ref>{{cite web |title=2021 Soybean Planted Area (000) Acres and Percent Change from Previous Year |url=https://www.nass.usda.gov/Charts_and_Maps/graphics/soyacm.pdf |website=USDA-National Agricultural Statistics Service |publisher=USDA |access-date=4 February 2022 |date=12 January 2022}}</ref>

===Caribbean and West Indies===
The soybean arrived in the Caribbean in the form of soy sauce made by Samuel Bowen in Savannah, Georgia, in 1767. It remains only a minor crop there, but its uses for human food are growing steadily.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/126|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in the Caribbean / West Indies (1767–2008)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi}}</ref>

===Mediterranean area===
The soybean was first cultivated in Italy by 1760 in the Botanical Garden of Turin. During the 1780s, it was grown in at least three other botanical gardens in Italy.<ref>Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. (2015). ''History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Italy (1597–2015)''. Lafayette, California: Soyinfo Center. 618 pp. (1,381 references; 93 photos and illustrations. Free online.)</ref> The first soybean product, soy oil, arrived in [[Anatolia]] during 1909 under [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urb6IPmxwU8C&q=soybean+turkey&pg=PA7|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in the Middle East: Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook|last1=Shurtleff|first1=William|last2=Aoyagi|first2=Akiko|date=2008|publisher=Soyinfo Center|isbn=978-1-928914-15-0|language=en}}</ref> The first clear cultivation occurred in 1931.<ref name=":2" /> This was also the first time that soybeans were cultivated in Middle East.<ref name=":2" /> By 1939, soybeans were cultivated in Greece.<ref>Matagrin. 1939. "Le Soja et les Industries du Soja," p. 47–48</ref><ref>Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. 2015. "History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Greece, the European Union and Small Western European Countries (1939–2015)." Lafayette, California: Soyinfo Center. 243 pp. (462 references; 20 photos and illustrations. Free online. {{ISBN|978-1-928914-81-5}}).</ref>

===Australia===
Wild soybeans were discovered in northeastern Australia in 1770 by explorers Banks and Solander. In 1804, the first soyfood product ("Fine India Soy" [sauce]) was sold in Sydney. In 1879, the first domesticated soybeans arrived in Australia, a gift of the Minister of the Interior Department, Japan.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/138|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Australia, New Zealand and Oceania (1770–2010)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-29-7|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2010}}</ref>

===France===
The soybean was first cultivated in France by 1779 (and perhaps as early as 1740). The two key early people and organizations introducing the soybean to France were the Society of Acclimatization (starting in 1855) and [[Li Shizeng|Li Yu-ying]] (from 1910). Li started a large tofu factory, where the first commercial soyfoods in France were made.<ref>Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A.; 2015. "History of Soybeans and Soyfood in France (1665–2015)". Lafayette, California; Soyinfo Center. 1,202 pp. (3,405 references; 145 photos and illustrations. Free online).</ref>

===Africa===
The soybean first arrived in Africa via Egypt in 1857.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/134|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Africa (1857–2009)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-25-9|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|date=2009}}</ref> Soya Meme (Baked Soya) is produced in the village called Bame Awudome near [[Ho, Ghana|Ho]], the capital of the [[Volta Region]] of [[Ghana]], by the [[Ewe people]] of Southeastern Ghana and southern Togo.

===Central Europe===
In 1873, Professor [[Friedrich J. Haberlandt]] first became interested in soybeans when he obtained the seeds of 19 soybean varieties at the [[Vienna World Exposition]] (Wiener Weltausstellung). He cultivated these seeds in Vienna, and soon began to distribute them throughout Central and Western Europe. In 1875, he first grew the soybeans in Vienna, then in early 1876 he sent samples of seeds to seven cooperators in central Europe, who planted and tested the seeds in the spring of 1876, with good or fairly good results in each case.<ref name="shurtleff">Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. 2015. "History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Austria and Switzerland (1781–2015)." Lafayette, California: Soyinfo Center. 705 pp. (1444 references; 128 photos and illustrations). Free online. {{ISBN|978-1-928914-77-8}}.</ref> Most of the farmers who received seeds from him cultivated them, then reported their results. Starting in February 1876, he published these results first in various journal articles, and finally in his ''magnum opus'', Die Sojabohne (The Soybean) in 1878.<ref name=shurtleff/> In northern Europe, [[lupin]] (lupine) is known as the "soybean of the north".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/17/business/energy-environment/soy-substitute-edges-its-way-into-european-meals.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title=Soy Substitute Edges Its Way Into European Meals|last=Ross|first=Kate|newspaper=New York Times|date=November 16, 2011|access-date=February 28, 2015}}</ref>

===Central Asia===
The soybean is first in cultivated Transcaucasia in Central Asia in 1876, by the Dungans. This region has never been important for soybean production.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/123|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Central Asia (1876–2008)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi}}</ref>

===Central America===
The first reliable reference to the soybean in this region dates from Mexico in 1877.<ref name=book-128>{{cite web|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/128|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Mexico and Central America (1877–2009)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi}}</ref>

===South America===
The soybean first arrived in South America in Argentina in 1882.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/132|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in South America (1882–2009)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-23-5|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2009}}</ref>

Andrew McClung showed in the early 1950s that with soil amendments the [[Cerrado]] region of Brazil would grow soybeans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/2006/06/cornellian-reaps-2006-world-food-prize|title=Cornell alumnus Andrew Colin McClung reaps 2006 World Food Prize|publisher=news.cornell.edu – Cornell Chronicle}}</ref> In June 1973, when soybean futures markets mistakenly portended a major shortage, the [[Presidency of Richard Nixon|Nixon administration]] imposed an embargo on soybean exports. It lasted only a week, but Japanese buyers felt that they could not rely on U.S. supplies, and the rival Brazilian soybean industry came into existence.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.agpolicy.org/weekcol/217.html|title=Policy Pennings, by Daryll E. Ray, Agricultural Policy Analysis Center|website=www.agpolicy.org|access-date=2019-12-07}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> This led Brazil to become the world's largest producer of soybeans in 2020, with 131 million tons.<ref>[https://revistagloborural.globo.com/Noticias/Agricultura/noticia/2020/06/brasil-deve-colher-131-milhoes-de-toneladas-de-soja-na-safra-202021-aponta-usda.html Brasil deve colher 131 milhões de toneladas de soja na safra 2020/21, aponta USDA]</ref>

Industrial soy production in South America is characterized by wealthy management who live far away from the production site which they manage remotely. In Brazil, these managers depend heavily on advanced technology and machinery, and agronomic practices such as zero tillage, high pesticide use, and intense fertilization. One contributing factor is the increased attention on the Brazilian [[Cerrado]] in [[Bahia]], Brazil by US farmers in the early 2000s. This was due to rising values of scarce farmland and high production costs in the US Midwest. There were many promotions of the Brazilian Cerrado by US farm producer magazines and market consultants who portrayed it as having cheap land with ideal production conditions, with infrastructure being the only thing it was lacking. These same magazines also presented Brazilian soy as inevitably out-competing American soy. Another draw to investing was the insider information about the climate and market in Brazil. A few dozen American farmers purchased varying amounts of land by a variety of means including finding investors and selling off land holdings. Many followed the [[Ethanol fuel|ethanol]] company model and formed an [[Limited liability company|LLC]] with investments from neighboring farmers, friends, and family while some turned to investment companies. Some soy farmers either [[Liquidation|liquidated]] their Brazilian assets or switched to remote management from the US to return to farming there and implement new farming and business practices to make their US farms more productive. Others planned to sell their now expensive Bahia land to buy land cheaper land in the frontier regions of [[Piauí]] or [[Tocantins]] to create more soybean farms.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ofstehage |first=Andrew L. |date=2018-05-10 |title=Financialization of work, value, and social organization among transnational soy farmers in the Brazilian Cerrado |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sea2.12123 |journal=Economic Anthropology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=274–285 |doi=10.1002/sea2.12123 |issn=2330-4847}}</ref>

==Genetics==

Chinese [[landrace]]s were found to have a slightly higher genetic diversity than inbred lines by Li ''et al.'', 2010.<ref name="Hinze-et-al-2017" /> Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) has been used by Han ''et al.'', 2015 to study the genetic history of the [[crop domestication|domestication process]], perform [[genome-wide association study|genome-wide association studies]] (GWAS) of [[agronomic trait|agronomically relevant traits]], and produce [[high-density linkage map]]s.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017">{{cite journal | last1=Rasheed | first1=Awais | last2=Hao | first2=Yuanfeng | last3=Xia | first3=Xianchun | last4=Khan | first4=Awais | last5=Xu | first5=Yunbi | last6=Varshney | first6=Rajeev K. | last7=He | first7=Zhonghu | title=Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives | journal=[[Molecular Plant]] | volume=10 | issue=8 | year=2017 | doi=10.1016/j.molp.2017.06.008 | pages=1047–1064 | s2cid=33780984 | pmid=28669791| doi-access=free }}</ref> An [[SNP array]] was developed by Song ''et al.'', 2013 and has been used for research and [[crop breeding|breeding]];<ref name="Hulse-Kemp-et-al-2015">{{cite journal |display-authors=3 | last1=Hulse-Kemp | first1=Amanda M|last2=Lemm | first2=Jana | last3=Plieske | first3=Joerg | last4=Ashrafi | first4=Hamid | last5=Buyyarapu | first5=Ramesh | last6=Fang | first6=David D | last7=Frelichowski | first7=James | last8=Giband | first8=Marc | last9=Hague | first9=Steve | last10=Hinze | first10=Lori L | last11=Kochan | first11=Kelli J | last12=Riggs | first12=Penny K | last13=Scheffler | first13=Jodi A | last14=Udall | first14=Joshua A | last15=Ulloa | first15=Mauricio | last16=Wang | first16=Shirley S | last17=Zhu | first17=Qian-Hao | last18=Bag | first18=Sumit K | last19=Bhardwaj | first19=Archana | last20=Burke | first20=John J | last21=Byers | first21=Robert L | last22=Claverie | first22=Michel | last23=Gore | first23=Michael A | last24=Harker | first24=David B | last25=Islam | first25=Mohammad Sariful | last26=Jenkins | first26=Johnie N | last27=Jones | first27=Don C | last28=Lacape | first28=Jean-Marc | last29=Llewellyn | first29=Danny J | last30=Percy | first30=Richard G | last31=Pepper | first31=Alan E | last32=Poland | first32=Jesse A | last33=Mohan Rai | first33=Krishan | last34=Sawant | first34=Samir V | last35=Singh | first35=Sunil Kumar | last36=Spriggs | first36=Andrew | last37=Taylor | first37=Jen M | last38=Wang | first38=Fei | last39=Yourstone | first39=Scott M | last40=Zheng | first40=Xiuting | last41=Lawley | first41=Cindy T | last42=Ganal | first42=Martin W | last43=Van Deynze | first43=Allen | last44=Wilson | first44=Iain W | last45=Stelly | first45=David M | title=Development of a 63K SNP Array for Cotton and High-Density Mapping of Intraspecific and Interspecific Populations of ''Gossypium'' spp. | journal=[[G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics]] | volume=5 | issue=6 | date=2015-06-01 | doi=10.1534/g3.115.018416 | pages=1187–1209 | pmid=25908569 | pmc=4478548 | s2cid=11590488}}</ref> the same team applied their array in Song ''et al.'', 2015 against the USDA Soybean Germplasm Collection and obtained mapping data that are expected to yield [[association mapping]] data for such traits.<ref name="Hinze-et-al-2017">{{cite journal | display-authors=3|last1=Hinze | first1=Lori L. | last2=Hulse-Kemp | first2=Amanda M. | last3=Wilson | first3=Iain W. | last4=Zhu | first4=Qian-Hao | last5=Llewellyn | first5=Danny J. | last6=Taylor | first6=Jen M. | last7=Spriggs | first7=Andrew | last8=Fang | first8=David D. | last9=Ulloa | first9=Mauricio | last10=Burke | first10=John J. | last11=Giband | first11=Marc | last12=Lacape | first12=Jean-Marc | last13=Van Deynze | first13=Allen | last14=Udall | first14=Joshua A. | last15=Scheffler | first15=Jodi A. | last16=Hague | first16=Steve | last17=Wendel | first17=Jonathan F. | last18=Pepper | first18=Alan E. | last19=Frelichowski | first19=James | last20=Lawley | first20=Cindy T. | last21=Jones | first21=Don C. | last22=Percy | first22=Richard G. | last23=Stelly | first23=David M. | title=Diversity analysis of cotton (''Gossypium hirsutum'' L.) germplasm using the CottonSNP63K Array | journal=BMC Plant Biology | volume=17 | issue=1 | date=2017-02-03 | doi=10.1186/s12870-017-0981-y | page=Article number 37 | pmid=28158969 | pmc=5291959 | s2cid=3969205 | doi-access=free }}</ref>

{{Vanchor|Rpp1-R1}} is a [[crop fungal disease resistance gene|resistance gene]] against [[soybean rust]].<ref name="Show-Me-Your-ID" /> Rpp1-R1 is an [[R gene]] (NB-LRR) providing resistance against the rust pathogen ''[[Phakopsora pachyrhizi]]''.<ref name="Show-Me-Your-ID" /> Its synthesis product includes a [[ULP1 protease]].<ref name="Show-Me-Your-ID">
{{ Cite journal
| doi=10.1042/ebc20210084
| pmc=9528084
| pmid=35635051
| title=Show me your ID: NLR immune receptors with integrated domains in plants
| date=2022
| last1=Marchal
| first1=Clemence
| last2=Michalopoulou
| first2=Vassiliki A.
| last3=Zou
| first3=Zhou
| last4=Cevik
| first4=Volkan
| last5=Sarris
| first5=Panagiotis F.
| journal=Essays in Biochemistry
| volume=66
| issue=5
| pages=527–539
}}</ref>

Qijian ''et al.'', 2017 provides the {{Vanchor|SoySNP50K}} [[gene array]].<ref name = "Array" >
:{{ Cite journal | issue = 8 | volume = 10 | year = 2017 | last1=Rasheed | first1=Awais | last2=Hao | first2=Yuanfeng | last3=Xia | first3=Xianchun | last4=Khan | first4=Awais | last5=Xu | first5=Yunbi | last6=Varshney | first6=Rajeev K. | last7=He | first7=Zhonghu |s2cid=33780984|pmid=28669791|doi=10.1016/j.molp.2017.06.008|pages=1047–1064|title=Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives | journal=[[Molecular Plant]] | doi-access=free }}
:
:This review cites this research.
:
:{{ Cite journal | issue = 1 | volume = 8 | year = 2013 | journal = [[PLoS ONE]] | last1 = Song | first1 = Qijian | last2 = Hyten | first2 = David | last3 = Jia | first3 = Gaofeng | last4 = Quigley | first4 = Charles | last5 = Fickus | first5 = Edward | last6 = Nelson | first6 = Randall | last7 = Cregan | first7 = Perry | page = e54985 | s2cid = 1850673 | pmc = 3555945 | pmid = 23372807 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0054985 | title = Development and Evaluation of SoySNP50K, a High-Density Genotyping Array for Soybean | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...854985S | doi-access = free }}
</ref>

===Genetic modification===
{{further|Genetically modified soybean}}
[[File:Multicolor soybeans in Hale Township.jpg|thumb|Different varieties of soybeans being grown together]]
Soybeans are one of the "[[Biotechnology|biotech]] food" crops that have been [[Genetically modified food|genetically modified]], and genetically modified soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. In 1995, [[Monsanto]] company introduced [[Genetically modified crops|glyphosate-tolerant]] soybeans that have been genetically modified to be resistant to Monsanto's [[glyphosate]] herbicides through substitution of the ''[[Agrobacterium]] sp.'' (strain CP4) [[gene]] EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-3-phosphate) synthase. The substituted version is not sensitive to [[glyphosate]].<ref>{{cite journal |pages=1451–61 |doi=10.2135/cropsci1995.0011183X003500050032x |title=Development, Identification, and Characterization of a Glyphosate-Tolerant Soybean Line |year=1995 |last1=Padgette |first1=S.R. |last2=Kolacz |first2=K.H. |last3=Delannay |first3=X. |last4=Re |first4=D.B. |last5=Lavallee |first5=B.J. |last6=Tinius |first6=C.N. |last7=Rhodes |first7=W.K. |last8=Otero |first8=Y.I. |last9=Barry |first9=G.F. | display-authors=8 |journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=35 |issue=5}}</ref>

In 1997, about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2010, the figure was 93%.<ref>National Agricultural Statistics Board annual report, June 30, 2010. Retrieved July 23, 2010.</ref> As with other glyphosate-tolerant crops, concern is expressed over damage to [[biodiversity]].<ref>{{cite book |last= Liu |first= KeShun |title= Soybeans: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization |url= https://archive.org/details/soybeanschemistr00liuk |url-access= limited |year=1997 |publisher= Springer |location=Berlin|isbn= 978-0-8342-1299-2 |page= [https://archive.org/details/soybeanschemistr00liuk/page/n555 532]}}</ref> A 2003 study<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.2135/cropsci2003.0409 |author=Sneller CH |title=Impact of Transgenic Genotypes and Subdivision on Diversity Within Elite North American Soybean Germplasm |journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=43 |pages=409–14 |year=2003}}</ref> concluded the "Roundup Ready" (RR) gene had been bred into so many different soybean cultivars, there had been little decline in genetic diversity, but "diversity was limited among elite lines from some companies".

The widespread use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems with exports to some regions. GM crops require extensive certification before they can be legally imported into the [[European Union]], where there is considerable supplier and consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer or animal use. Difficulties with [[Co-existence of genetically modified and conventional crops and derived food and feed|coexistence]] and subsequent traces of cross-contamination of non-GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy.<ref>{{cite news|title= EU Caught in Quandary Over GMO Animal Feed Imports |newspaper=The Guardian|date= December 7, 2007}}</ref>

A 2006 [[United States Department of Agriculture]] report found the adoption of genetically engineered (GE) soy, corn and cotton reduced the amount of pesticides used overall, but did result in a slightly greater amount of [[herbicide]]s used for soy specifically. The use of GE soy was also associated with greater [[No-till farming|conservation tillage]], indirectly leading to better soil conservation, as well as increased income from off-farming sources due to the greater ease with which the crops can be managed. Though the overall estimated benefits of the adoption of GE soybeans in the United States was $310 million, the majority of this benefit was experienced by the companies selling the seeds (40%), followed by biotechnology firms (28%) and farmers (20%).<ref>{{cite web| publisher = United States Department of Agriculture|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib11/eib11.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614154639/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib11/eib11.pdf|archive-date=2010-06-14 |title = The First Decade of Genetically Engineered Crops in the United States |last = Fernandez-Cornejo | first = J. | author2 = Caswell, Margriet|date = April 1, 2006|access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> The patent on glyphosate-tolerant soybeans expired in 2014,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/18/business/18seed.html|title=As Patent Ends, a Seed's Use Will Survive|date=December 18, 2009|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Pollack|first1=Andrew}}</ref> so benefits can be expected to shift.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://extension.udel.edu/kentagextension/2008/11/18/soybean-seed-decisions-2009/|title=Cooperative Extension ‹ Log In}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Uses==
[[File:Global-soy-production-to-end-use.png|frameless|right|alt=Breakdown of what the world's soy was used for in 2018]]
[[File:TofuWithSoySauceAndCarrot.jpg|thumb|[[Tofu]] and [[soy sauce]]]]
Among the [[legume]]s, the soybean is valued for its high (38–45%) [[protein]] content as well as its high (approximately 20%) oil content. Soybeans are the most valuable agricultural export of the United States.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Top U.S. Agricultural Exports in 2017|url = https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/top-us-agricultural-exports-2017|website = US [[Foreign Agricultural Service]]| date=March 23, 2018 |access-date = 2019-05-01}}</ref> Approximately 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and soybean oil, the remainder processed in other ways or eaten whole.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soyatech.com/soy_facts.htm|title=Soy Facts|publisher=Soyatech|access-date=Jan 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112075924/http://www.soyatech.com/soy_facts.htm|archive-date=January 12, 2017}}</ref>

Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild, nutty flavor, and better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and are lower in oil than field types. [[Tofu]], [[soy milk]], and [[soy sauce]] are among the top edible commodities made using soybeans. Producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because there is a tendency for the pods to shatter upon reaching maturity.

===Soybean oil===
{{Main|Soybean oil}}
Soybean seed contains 18–19% oil.<ref name=":0" /> To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes, and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Friedrich | first1=John | last2=Gary | first2=R | title=Characterization of soybean oil extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide and hexane. | url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jf00109a044 | journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]]| year=1982 | volume=30 | issue=1 | pages=192–193 | doi=10.1021/jf00109a044 }}</ref> The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil," or end up in a wide variety of processed foods.

===Soybean meal===
{{Main|Soybean meal}}
[[Soybean meal]], or soymeal, is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean flakes, with a 50% [[soy protein]] content. The meal is 'toasted' (a [[misnomer]] because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a [[hammer mill]]. Ninety-seven percent of soybean meal production globally is used as livestock feed.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|title = Livestock's long shadow: environmental issues and options|url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM|website = www.fao.org|access-date = 2016-01-15}}</ref> Soybean meal is also used in some [[dog food]]s.<ref name="Lusas">{{cite journal|first1 = Edmund W.|last1 = Lusas|first2 = Mian N.|last2 = Riaz|year = 1995|url = http://jn.nutrition.org/content/125/3_Suppl/573S.full.pdf|title = Soy Protein Products: Processing and Use|journal=[[Journal of Nutrition]]|volume = 125|issue = 125|pages = 573S–80S|doi = 10.1093/jn/125.3_Suppl.573S|doi-broken-date = January 31, 2024|pmid = 7884536|access-date = January 20, 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121207023240/http://jn.nutrition.org/content/125/3_Suppl/573S.full.pdf|archive-date = December 7, 2012}}</ref>

===Livestock feed===
One of the major uses of soybeans globally is as livestock feed, predominantly in the form of soybean meal. In the European Union, for example, though it does not make up most of the weight of livestock [[Animal feed|feed]], soybean meal provides around 60% of the protein fed to livestock.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Soybean meal {{!}} Feedipedia|url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/674|website=www.feedipedia.org|access-date=2020-05-17}}</ref> In the United States, 70 percent of soybean production is used for animal feed, with poultry being the number one livestock sector of soybean consumption.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/coexistence-soybeans-factsheet.pdf | title=USDA Coexistence Fact Sheet Soybeans | author= | date=Feb 12, 2015 | website=www.usda.gov | access-date=Jan 11, 2023 }}</ref> [[Vernal grass|Spring grasses]] are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, whereas soy is predominantly omega-6. The soybean hulls, which mainly consist of the outer coats of the beans removed before oil extraction, can also be fed to livestock and whole soybean seeds after processing.<ref>Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lessire M., Lebas F., 2017. Soybean hulls. Feedipedia, a program by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ, and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/719</ref><ref>Heuzé V., Tran G., Nozière P., Lessire M., Lebas F., 2017. Soybean seeds. Feedipedia, a program by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ, and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/42 Last updated on July 4, 2017, 10:37</ref>

===Food for human consumption===
[[File:Tempeh 003.jpg|thumb|[[Tempeh]]]]
In addition to their use in livestock feed, soybean products are widely used for human consumption. Common soybean products include [[soy sauce]], [[soy milk]], [[tofu]], [[#Meal|soy meal]], [[#Flour|soy flour]], [[textured vegetable protein]] (TVP), [[soy curls]], [[tempeh]], soy [[lecithin]] and [[#Oil|soybean oil]]. Soybeans may also be eaten with minimal processing, for example, in the Japanese food {{Nihongo|''[[edamame]]''|枝豆|edamame}}, in which immature soybeans are boiled whole in their pods and served with [[edible salt|salt]].

[[File:Aesthetic meal maker of Salem.jpg|thumb|Soy chunks]]
In China, Japan, Vietnam and [[Korea]], soybean and soybean products are a standard part of the diet.<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Lindsay | first1=Shirley | last2=Lora | first2=G | title=Considering soy | url=https://www.nwhjournal.org/article/S1091-5923(15)30123-0/abstract | journal=Nursing for Women's Health| volume=2 | issue=1 | pages=41–44 }}</ref> [[Tofu]] (豆腐 ''dòufu'') is thought to have originated in China, along with [[soy sauce]] and several varieties of [[soybean paste]] used as seasonings.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} Japanese foods made from soya include ''[[miso]]'' ({{Lang|ja|味噌}}), ''[[nattō]]'' ({{Lang|ja|納豆}}), ''[[kinako]]'' ({{Lang|ja|黄粉}}) and ''edamame'' ({{Lang|ja|枝豆}}), as well as products made with tofu such as [[atsuage]] and [[aburaage]]. In China, whole dried soybeans are sold in supermarkets and used to cook various dishes, usually after rehydration by soaking in water; they find their use in soup or as a savory dish. In [[Korean cuisine]], soybean sprouts ([[:ko:콩나물|콩나물]] ''[[kongnamul]]'') are used in a variety of dishes, and soybeans are the base ingredient in ''[[doenjang]]'', ''[[cheonggukjang]]'' and [[Kanjang|''ganjang'']]. In Vietnam, soybeans are used to make soybean paste (''[[tương]]'') in the North with the most popular products are ''tương Bần'', ''tương Nam Đàn'', ''tương Cự Đà'' as a garnish for ''[[phở]]'' and ''[[gỏi cuốn]]'' dishes, as well as tofu ({{Lang|vi|đậu hũ}} or {{Lang|vi|đậu phụ}} or {{Lang|vi|tàu hũ}}), soy sauce ({{Lang|vi|nước tương}}), soy milk ({{Lang|vi|nước đậu}} in the North or {{Lang|vi|sữa đậu nành}} in the South), and {{Lang|vi|đậu hũ nước đường}} (tofu sweet soup).

====Flour====
{{Commons category|Soy powder|Soybean flour}} 
[[File:JapaneseSoybeanMeat.jpg|thumb|Japanese soybean meat]]
Soy flour refers to soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100-mesh or smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) to minimize [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] of the protein to retain a high [[protein dispersibility index]], for uses such as [[food extrusion]] of [[textured vegetable protein]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Shao | first1=Suquin | title=Tracking isoflavones: From soybean to soy flour, soy protein isolates to functional soy bread. | journal=Journal of Functional Foods| year=2009 | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=119–127 | doi=10.1016/j.jff.2008.09.013 | doi-access=free }}</ref> It is the starting material for soy concentrate and protein isolate production.

Soy flour can also be made by roasting the soybean, removing the coat (hull), and grinding it into flour. Soy flour is manufactured with different fat levels.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} Alternatively, raw soy flour omits the roasting step.
* Defatted soy flour is obtained from [[solvent]] [[extraction (chemistry)|extracted]] flakes and contains less than 1% oil.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}}
* "Natural or full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans and contains about 18% to 20% oil."{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} Its high oil content requires the use of a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill to grind rather than the usual [[hammer mill]]. Full-fat soy flour has a lower protein concentration than defatted flour. Extruded full-fat soy flour, ground in an Alpine mill, can replace/extend eggs in baking and cooking.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/BF02664977 | volume=41 | issue=9 | title=Production and nutritional evaluation of extrusion-cooked full-fat soybean flour | journal=[[Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society]]| pages=607–14 | year=1964 | last1 = Mustakas | first1 = G.C.| s2cid=84967811 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=World Protein Resources|year=1966|volume=57|pages=101–11|doi=10.1021/ba-1966-0057.ch008|chapter = Full-Fat Soybean Flours by Continuous Extrusion Cooking|series = Advances in Chemistry|last1 = Mustakas|first1 = GUS C.|last2=Griffin|first2=Edward L.|last3=Sohns|first3=Virgil E.|isbn=978-0-8412-0058-6}}</ref> Full-fat soy flour is a component of the famous [[Cornell bread]] recipe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cornell-classic.univcomm.cornell.edu/search/?tab=facts&id=188 |title=Cornell University |date=May 9, 2015 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509122617/http://cornell-classic.univcomm.cornell.edu/search/?tab=facts&id=188 |archive-date=May 9, 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.motherearthnews.com/real-food/whole-wheat-bread-mccays-miracle-loaf-zmaz81sozhun.aspx|title=Whole Wheat Bread Recipe: McCay's Miracle Loaf – Real Food |date=September 1981 |publisher=Mother Earth News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1987-05-21/entertainment/8702070654_1_amino-acids-soy-flour-nonfat-dry-milk|title=Cornell Bread A Heavyweight When It Comes To Nutrition And Fiber|date=May 21, 1987 }}</ref>
* Low-fat soy flour is made by adding some oil back into defatted soy flour. Fat levels range from 4.5% to 9%.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}}
* High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour, usually at 15%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/3/t0532e/t0532e05.htm|title=Technology of production of edible flours and protein products from soybeans. Chapter 4.|website=www.fao.org}}</ref>

[[Soy lecithin]] can be added (up to 15%) to soy flour to make lecithinated soy flour. It increases dispersibility and gives it emulsifying properties.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}}

Soy flour has 50% protein and 5% fiber. It has higher levels of protein, thiamine, riboflavin, phosphorus, calcium, and iron than [[wheat flour]]. It does not contain [[gluten]].{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} As a result, [[yeast]]-raised [[bread]]s made with soy flour are dense in texture. Among many uses, soy flour thickens sauces, prevents [[staling]] in baked food, and reduces oil absorption during frying. Baking food with soy flour gives it tenderness, moistness, a rich color, and a fine texture.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}}

Soy grits are similar to soy flour, except the soybeans have been toasted and cracked into coarse pieces.

''[[Kinako]]'' is a soy flour used in [[Japanese cuisine]].

{{resize|''Section reference'': {{harvtxt|Smith|Circle|1972|p=442|note=Reference for soy flour section}}}}

{{anchor|Soy-based infant formula}}

====Soy-based infant formula====
Soy-based [[infant formula]] (SBIF) is sometimes given to infants who are not being strictly breastfed; it can be useful for infants who are either allergic to pasteurized cow milk proteins or who are being fed a [[Veganism|vegan]] diet. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid forms.

Some reviews have expressed the opinion that more research is needed to determine what effect the phytoestrogens in soybeans may have on infants.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=14599051 |year=2003 |last1=Miniello |first1=VL |last2=Moro |first2=GE |last3=Tarantino |first3=M |last4=Natile |first4=M |last5=Granieri |first5=L |last6=Armenio |first6=L |title=Soy-based Formulas and Phyto-oestrogens: A Safety Profile |volume=91 |issue=441 |pages=93–100 |journal=[[Acta Paediatrica]]|doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2003.tb00655.x|s2cid=25762109 }}</ref> Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=191–96 |doi=10.1515/JPEM.2004.17.2.191 |title=Soy Protein Formulas in Children: No Hormonal Effects in Long-term Feeding |year=2004 |last1=Giampietro |first1=P.G. |last2=Bruno |first2=G. |last3=Furcolo |first3=G. |last4=Casati |first4=A. |last5=Brunetti |first5=E. |last6=Spadoni |first6=G.L. |last7=Galli |first7=E. |journal=Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=17 |issue=2 |pmid=15055353|s2cid=43304969 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pages=807–14 |doi=10.1001/jama.286.7.807 |title=Exposure to Soy-Based Formula in Infancy and Endocrinological and Reproductive Outcomes in Young Adulthood |year=2001 |last1=Strom |first1=B.L. |journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=286 |issue=7 |pmid=11497534 |last2=Schinnar |first2=R |last3=Ziegler |first3=EE |last4=Barnhart |first4=KT |last5=Sammel |first5=MD |last6=MacOnes |first6=GA |last7=Stallings |first7=VA |last8=Drulis |first8=JM |last9=Nelson |first9=SE| display-authors=8 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Nutri>{{cite journal |first1=Russell J. |last1=Merritt |first2=Belinda H. |last2=Jenks |title=Safety of Soy-Based Infant Formulas Containing Isoflavones: The Clinical Evidence |journal=The Journal of Nutrition|pmid=15113975 |year=2004 |volume=134 |issue=5 |pages=1220S–24S|doi=10.1093/jn/134.5.1220S |doi-access=free }}</ref> One of these studies, published in the ''[[Journal of Nutrition]]'',<ref name=Nutri /> concludes that there are:

<blockquote>... no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition.</blockquote>

====Meat and dairy alternatives and extenders====
[[File:Chives Cream Sheese.jpg|thumb|[[Cream cheese]] alternative with [[chives]]|alt=Package of a soy-based [[cream cheese]] alternative with [[chives]]]]
Soybeans can be processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to many other foods. For example, soybeans are the primary ingredient in many [[dairy product]] substitutes (e.g., [[soy milk]], [[margarine]], soy ice cream, [[soy yogurt]], [[soy cheese]], and soy cream cheese) and meat alternatives (e.g. [[veggie burgers]]). These substitutes are readily available in most supermarkets. Soy milk does not naturally contain significant amounts of digestible [[calcium]]. Many manufacturers of soy milk sell calcium-enriched products, as well.

Soy products also are used as a low-cost substitute for meat and poultry products.<ref>{{cite book |author=Hoogenkamp, Henk W. |title=Soy Protein and Formulated Meat Products |publisher=CABI Publishing |location=Wallingford, Oxon|year=2005 |page=14 |isbn=978-0-85199-864-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRIRBOd_oTcC&q=soy+protein |access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Endres|first=Joseph G.|title=Soy Protein Products |publisher=AOCS Publishing |location=Champaign-Urbana, IL |year=2001 |pages=43–44 |isbn=978-1-893997-27-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RNa1vS0sZYC&q=Soy+Protein+Products++endres&pg=PA15 |access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> Food service, retail and institutional (primarily school lunch and correctional) facilities regularly use such "extended" products. The extension may result in diminished flavor, but fat and cholesterol are reduced. Vitamin and mineral fortification can be used to make soy products nutritionally equivalent to animal protein; the protein quality is already roughly equivalent. The soy-based meat substitute [[textured vegetable protein]] has been used for more than 50 years as a way of inexpensively extending [[ground beef]] without reducing its nutritional value.<ref name=Riaz2006 /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Circle|first1=Sidney Joseph|last2=Smith|first2=Allan H. |title=Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology |publisher=Avi Publishing |location=Westport, CT|year=1972 |pages=7, 350 |isbn=978-0-87055-111-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3NRAAAAMAAJ&q=without+reducing+its+nutritional+value |access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Liu|first=KeShun |title=Soybeans: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization |publisher=Aspen Publishers |location=Gaithersburg, MD |year=1997 |page= 69|isbn=978-0-8342-1299-2 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Plmi4WfHos4C&q=reducing+nutritional+value|access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref>

====Soy nut butter====
The soybean is used to make a product called soy [[nut butter]] which is similar in texture to peanut butter.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.soyfoods.org/soy-products/soy-fact-sheets/soy-nut-butter-fact-sheet | title=Soy fact sheets: soy nut butter | publisher=Soyfoods Association of North America, Washington, DC | date=2016 | access-date=1 November 2016 | archive-date=January 31, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131081150/http://www.soyfoods.org/soy-products/soy-fact-sheets/soy-nut-butter-fact-sheet }}</ref>

==== Sweetened soybean ====
Sweet-boiled beans are popular in Japan and Korea, and the sweet-boiled soybeans are called "Daizu no {{interlanguage link|Nimame|ja|煮豆}}" in Japan and Kongjorim ({{lang-ko|콩조림}}) in Korea. Sweet-boiled beans are even used in sweetened buns, especially in {{interlanguage link|Mame Pan|ja|豆パン}}.

The boiled and pasted edamame, called {{interlanguage link|Zunda|ja|ずんだ}}, is used as one of the [[Sweet bean paste]]s in [[Wagashi|Japanese confections]].

==== Coffee substitute ====
Roasted and ground soybeans can be a caffeine-free substitute for [[coffee]]. After the soybeans are roasted and ground, they look similar to regular coffee beans or can be used as a powder similar to instant coffee, with the aroma and flavor of roasted soybeans.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIP-szICnhIC|title=History of Whole Dry Soybeans, Used as Beans, or Ground, Mashed or Flaked (240 BCE to 2013); see page 254|author=William Shurtleff, Akiko Aoyagi|publisher=Soyinfo Center|year=2013|isbn=978-1-928914-57-0}}</ref>

===Other products===
[[File:Display of soybean wax candle in Texas store.jpg|thumb|[[Texas]]|alt=Display of soybean wax candle in Texas store]]
Soybeans with black hulls are used in Chinese fermented black beans, ''[[douchi]]'', not to be confused with [[black turtle bean]]s.

Soybeans are also used in industrial products, including oils, soap, cosmetics, [[resin]]s, plastics, inks, crayons, [[solvent]]s, and clothing. Soybean oil is the primary source of [[biodiesel]] in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic biodiesel production.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sustainability Fact Sheet|publisher=National Biodiesel Board|date=April 2008|url=http://biodiesel.org/resources/sustainability/pdfs/SustainabilityFactSheet.pdf|access-date=February 18, 2012|archive-date=May 28, 2008|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080528055311/http://biodiesel.org/resources/sustainability/pdfs/SustainabilityFactSheet.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Soybeans have also been used since 2001 as fermenting stock in the manufacture of a brand of [[vodka]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.martinimuse.com/vodka_brands_and_types.shtml|title=How Vodka is Made|publisher=Martini Muse|access-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> In 1936, Ford Motor Company developed a method where soybeans and fibers were rolled together producing a soup which was then pressed into various parts for their cars, from the distributor cap to knobs on the dashboard. Ford also informed in public relation releases that in 1935 over five million acres (20,000 km{{sup|2}}) was dedicated to growing soybeans in the United States.<ref name="PM Apr 1936">{{cite journal |title=Soy Bean Soup is Pressed into Auto Parts |journal=[[Popular Mechanics]]|volume=64 |issue=4 |page=513 |date=April 1936 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA513 }}</ref>

==Health effects==


===Reducing risk of cancer===
According to the [[American Cancer Society]], "There is growing evidence that eating traditional soy foods such as tofu may lower the risk of cancers of the breast, prostate, or endometrium (lining of the uterus), and there is some evidence it may lower the risk of certain other cancers." There is insufficient research to indicate whether taking soy [[dietary supplement]]s (e.g., as a pill or capsule) has any effect on health or cancer risk.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.cancer.org/expertvoices/2012/08/02/the-bottom-line-on-soy-and-breast-cancer-risk/ |title=How Your Diet May Affect Your Risk of Breast Cancer |date=1 October 2018 |publisher=[[American Cancer Society]] |access-date=16 March 2019}}</ref>

As of 2018, rigorous dietary [[clinical research]] in people with cancer has proved inconclusive.<ref name=lpi/><ref name=Yu/><ref name=Tse/><ref name="acs">{{cite web |title=Soy: How Your Diet May Affect Your Risk of Breast Cancer |url=https://www.cancer.org/latest-news/how-your-diet-may-affect-your-risk-of-breast-cancer.html |publisher=American Cancer Society |access-date=9 May 2019 |date=1 October 2018}}</ref><ref name="vandie" />

====Breast cancer====
Although considerable research has examined the potential for soy consumption to lower the risk of [[breast cancer]] in women, as of 2016 there is insufficient evidence to reach a conclusion about a relationship between soy consumption and any effects on breast cancer.<ref name=lpi/> A 2011 [[meta-analysis]] stated: "Our study suggests soy isoflavones intake is associated with a significant reduced risk of breast cancer incidence in Asian populations, but not in Western populations."<ref>{{cite journal |pages=315–323 |doi=10.1007/s10549-010-1270-8 |title=Soy Isoflavones Consumption and Risk of Breast Cancer Incidence or Recurrence: A Meta-analysis of Prospective Studies |date=January 2011 |last1=Dong |first1=Jia-Yi |last2=Qin |first2=Li-Qiang |journal=[[Breast Cancer Research and Treatment]]|volume=125 |issue=2 |pmid=21113655|s2cid=13647788 }}</ref>

====Gastrointestinal and colorectal cancer====
Reviews of preliminary clinical trials on people with [[colorectal cancer|colorectal]] or [[gastrointestinal cancer]] suggest that soy isoflavones may have a slight protective effect against such cancers.<ref name="Yu">{{cite journal | last1=Yu | first1=Yi | last2=Jing | first2=Xiaoli | last3=Li | first3=Hui | last4=Zhao | first4=Xiang | last5=Wang | first5=Dongping | title=Soy isoflavone consumption and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal=[[Scientific Reports]]| volume=6 | issue=1 | page=25939 | year=2016 | doi=10.1038/srep25939 | pmid=27170217|pmc=4864327| bibcode=2016NatSR...625939Y }}</ref><ref name="Tse">{{cite journal | last1=Tse | first1=Genevieve | last2=Eslick | first2=Guy D. | title=Soy and isoflavone consumption and risk of gastrointestinal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal=[[European Journal of Nutrition]]| volume=55 | issue=1 | date=30 December 2014 | doi=10.1007/s00394-014-0824-7 | pages=63–73|pmid=25547973| s2cid=32112249 }}</ref>

====Prostate cancer====
A 2016 review concluded that "current evidence from [[observational study|observational studies]] and small clinical trials is not robust enough to understand whether soy protein or [[isoflavone]] supplements may help prevent or inhibit the progression of [[prostate cancer]]."<ref name=lpi/> A 2010 review showed that neither soy foods nor isoflavone supplements alter measures of bioavailable [[testosterone]] or [[estrogen]] concentrations in men.<ref>{{cite journal |pages=997–1007 |doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.04.038 |title=Clinical studies show no effects of soy protein or isoflavones on reproductive hormones in men: Results of a meta-analysis |year=2010 |last1=Hamilton-Reeves |first1=Jill M. |last2=Vazquez |first2=Gabriela |last3=Duval |first3=Sue J. |last4=Phipps |first4=William R. |last5=Kurzer |first5=Mindy S. |last6=Messina |first6=Mark J. |journal=[[Fertility and Sterility]]|volume=94 |issue=3 |pmid=19524224}}</ref> Soy consumption has been shown to have no effect on the levels and quality of [[sperm]].<ref>{{cite journal |pages=2095–2104 |doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.03.002 |title=Soybean isoflavone exposure does not have feminizing effects on men: A critical examination of the clinical evidence |year=2010 |last1=Messina |first1=Mark |journal=[[Fertility and Sterility]]|volume=93 |issue=7 |pmid=20378106|doi-access=free }}</ref> [[Meta-analysis|Meta-analyses]] on the association between soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men concluded that dietary soy may lower the risk of prostate cancer.<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Lin |last1=Yan |first2=Edward L |last2=Spitznagel |title=Soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men: a revisit of a meta-analysis |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|pmid=19211820 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2008.27029 |year=2009 |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=1155–63|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="vandie">{{cite journal | last1=van Die | first1=MD | last2=Bone | first2=KM | last3=Williams | first3=SG | last4=Pirotta | first4=MV | title=Soy and soy isoflavones in prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. | journal=[[BJU International]]| volume=113 | issue=5b | year=2014 | pmid=24053483 | doi=10.1111/bju.12435 | pages=E119–30| s2cid=39315041 }}</ref>

===Cardiovascular health===
The [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) granted the following health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in [[saturated fat]] and [[cholesterol]], may reduce the risk of [[heart disease]]."<ref name=fda-chd/> One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein.

An [[American Heart Association]] (AHA) review of a decade long study of soy protein benefits did not recommend [[isoflavone]] supplementation. The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post-menopausal "hot flashes" and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. AHA concluded that "many soy products should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of [[polyunsaturated fat]]s, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat".<ref name="cardio" /> Other studies found that soy protein consumption could lower the [[concentration]] of [[low-density lipoprotein]]s (LDL) transporting fats in the extracellular water to [[Cell (biology)|cells]].<ref>{{cite journal |first1=David J.A. |last1=Jenkins |first2=Arash |last2=Mirrahimi |first3=Korbua |last3=Srichaikul |first4=Claire E. |last4=Berryman |first5=Li |last5=Wang |first6=Amanda |last6=Carleton |first7=Shahad |last7=Abdulnour |first8=John L. |last8=Sievenpiper |first9=Cyril W.C. |last9=Kendall | display-authors=8 |title=Soy Protein Reduces Serum Cholesterol by Both Intrinsic and Food Displacement Mechanisms |journal=The Journal of Nutrition|date=December 2010 |volume=140 |issue=12 |pages=2302S–11S |doi=10.3945/jn.110.124958|pmid=20943954|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pmid=18534601 |date=September 2008 |last1=Harland |first1=J.I. |last2=Haffner |first2=T.A. |title=Systematic Review, Meta-analysis and Regression of Randomised Controlled Trials Reporting an Association Between an Intake of Circa 25 g Soya Protein Per Day and Blood Cholesterol |volume=200 |issue=1 |pages=13–27 |doi=10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2008.04.006 |journal=[[Atherosclerosis (journal)|Atherosclerosis]]}}</ref>

===Soy allergy===
{{Main|Soy allergy}}
Allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause allergy, such as milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish. The problem has been reported among younger children, and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms reported by parents and results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy. Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last = Cantani | first = A. |author2=Lucenti P. | date = August 1997 | title = Natural History of Soy Allergy and/or Intolerance in Children, and Clinical Use of Soy-protein Formulas |journal=Pediatric Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology| volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 59–74 | doi = 10.1111/j.1399-3038.1997.tb00146.x | pmid = 9617775 | s2cid = 35264190 }}</ref> It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population. To the extent that it does exist, soy allergy may cause cases of [[urticaria]] and [[angioedema]], usually within minutes to hours of ingestion. In rare cases, true [[anaphylaxis]] may also occur. The reason for the discrepancy is likely that soy proteins, the causative factor in [[allergy]], are far less potent at triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Cordle | first = C.T. | date = May 2004 | title = Soy Protein Allergy: Incidence and Relative Severity |journal=[[Journal of Nutrition]]| volume = 134 | issue = 5 | pages = 1213S–19S | pmid = 15113974 | doi = 10.1093/jn/134.5.1213S | doi-access = free }}</ref> An allergy test that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy proteins. However, this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being digested, in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms.

Soy can also trigger symptoms via [[food intolerance]], a situation where no allergic mechanism can be proven. One scenario is seen in very young infants who have vomiting and [[Diarrhea|diarrhoea]] when fed soy-based formula, which resolves when the formula is withdrawn. Older infants can suffer a more severe disorder with vomiting, diarrhoea that may be bloody, [[anemia]], weight loss and failure to thrive. The most common cause of this unusual disorder is a sensitivity to cow's milk, but soy formulas can also be the trigger. The precise mechanism is unclear and it could be immunologic, although not through the IgE-type antibodies that have the leading role in urticaria and anaphylaxis. However, it is also self-limiting and will often disappear in the [[toddler]] years.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Sampson | first = H.A. | date = May 1999 | title = Food Allergy, Part 1: Immunopathogenesis and Clinical Disorders |journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology| volume = 103 | issue = 5 | pages = 717–728 | doi = 10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70411-2 | pmid = 10329801 | url = http://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091674999704112/pdf }}</ref>

In the [[European Union]], identifying the presence of soy either as an ingredient or unintended contaminant in packaged food is compulsory. The regulation (EC) 1169/2011 on food-labeling lists 14 allergens, including soy, in packaged food must be clearly indicated on the label as part of the list of ingredients, using a distinctive typography (such as bold type or capital letters).<ref>{{cite web |title=Regulation (EG) 1169/2011 |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32011R1169|publisher=Eur-Lex - European Union Law, European Union|date=25 October 2011 |access-date=7 October 2020}}</ref>

===Thyroid function===
One review noted that soy-based foods may inhibit absorption of thyroid hormone medications required for treatment of [[hypothyroidism]].<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=16571087|year=2006|last1=Messina|first1=M|title=Effects of soy protein and soybean isoflavones on thyroid function in healthy adults and hypothyroid patients: A review of the relevant literature|journal=[[Thyroid (journal)|Thyroid]]|volume=16|issue=3|pages=249–58|last2=Redmond|first2=G|doi=10.1089/thy.2006.16.249}}</ref> A 2015 scientific review by the [[European Food Safety Authority]] concluded that intake of isoflavones from supplements did not affect thyroid hormone levels in [[postmenopausal]] women.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/4246|journal=[[EFSA Journal]]|year=2015|volume=13|issue=10|page=4246|doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4246|title=Risk assessment for peri- and postmenopausal women taking food supplements containing isolated isoflavones|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Research by constituent===
====Lignans====
Plant [[lignans]] are associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor [[secoisolariciresinol]] containing 13–273 μg/100 g dry weight.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=10702603 |date=March 2000 |last1=Adlercreutz |first1=H. |last2=Mazur |first2=W. |last3=Bartels |first3=P. |last4=Elomaa |first4=V. |last5=Watanabe |first5=S. |last6=Wähälä |first6=K. |last7=Landström |first7=M. |last8=Lundin |first8=E. |last9=Bergh |first9=A. | display-authors=8 |title=Phytoestrogens and Prostate Disease |volume=130 |issue=3 |pages=658S–59S |journal=The Journal of Nutrition|doi=10.1093/jn/130.3.658S |doi-access=free }}</ref>

====Phytochemicals====
{{See also|Phytochemicals}}

Soybeans and processed soy foods are among the richest foods in total [[phytoestrogen]]s (wet basis per 100 g), which are present primarily in the form of the [[isoflavone]]s, [[daidzein]] and [[genistein]].<ref name="lpi">{{cite web | url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/soy-isoflavones | title=Soy isoflavones | publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis | date=2016 | access-date=4 March 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |pages=184–201 |doi=10.1207/s15327914nc5402_5 |title=Phytoestrogen Content of Foods Consumed in Canada, Including Isoflavones, Lignans, and Coumestan |year=2006 |last1=Thompson |first1=Lilian U. |last2=Boucher |first2=Beatrice A. |last3=Liu |first3=Zhen |last4=Cotterchio |first4=Michelle |last5=Kreiger |first5=Nancy |journal=[[Nutrition and Cancer]]|volume=54 |issue=2 |pmid=16898863|s2cid=60328 }}</ref> Because most naturally occurring phytoestrogens act as [[selective estrogen receptor modulators]], or SERMs, which do not necessarily act as direct agonists of estrogen receptors, normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans.<ref name="pmid11352776">{{cite journal |pages=613–18 |doi=10.1042/CS20000212 |title=Effect of a Phytoestrogen Food Supplement on Reproductive Health in Normal Males |date=June 2001 |last1=Mitchell |first1=Julie H. |last2=Cawood |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Kinniburgh |first3=David |last4=Provan |first4=Anne |last5=Collins |first5=Andrew R. |last6=Irvine |first6=D. Stewart |journal=[[Clinical Science (journal)|Clinical Science]]|volume=100 |issue=6 |pmid=11352776}}</ref><ref>{{ cite journal | last1 = Oseni | first1 = T | last2 = Patel | first2 = R | last3 = Pyle | first3 = J | last4 = Jordan | first4 = VC | year = 2008 | title = Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators and Phytoestrogens. |journal=[[Planta Med]]| volume = 74 | issue = 13 | pages = 1656–65 | doi = 10.1055/s-0028-1088304 | pmid = 18843590 | pmc = 2587438 }}</ref> The major product of daidzein microbial metabolism is [[equol]].<ref name="pmid30614249">{{cite journal | vauthors=Luca SV, Macovei I, Bujor A, Trifan A | title=Bioactivity of dietary polyphenols: The role of metabolites | journal=[[Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition]] | volume=60 | issue=4 | pages=626–659 | year=2020 | doi = 10.1080/10408398.2018.1546669 | pmid=30614249| s2cid=58651581 }}</ref> Only 33% of Western Europeans have a [[microbiome]] that produces equol, compared to 50–55% of Asians.<ref name="pmid30614249" />

Soy isoflavones—[[polyphenol]]ic compounds that are also produced by other legumes like peanuts and [[chickpea]]s<ref name=lpi/>—are under preliminary research. As of 2016, no [[causality|cause-and-effect]] relationship has been shown in [[clinical research]] to indicate that soy isoflavones lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases.<ref name=lpi/><ref name="cardio">{{cite journal |date=February 21, 2006|pages=1034–44 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052 |title=Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals from the Nutrition Committee|last1=Sacks |first1=F.M. |journal=[[Circulation (journal)|Circulation]]|volume=113 |issue=7 |pmid=16418439 |last2=Lichtenstein |first2=A. |last3=Van Horn |first3=L. |last4=Harris |first4=W. |last5=Kris-Etherton |first5=P. |last6=Winston |first6=M. |author7=American Heart Association Nutrition Committee|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | title=Isoflavones for hypercholesterolaemia in adults |vauthors=Qin Y, Niu K, Zeng Y, Liu P, Yi L, Zhang T, Zhang QY, Zhu JD, Mi MT | journal=[[Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]]| year=2013 | volume=2013 | issue=6 | pages=CD009518 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009518.pub2 | pmid=23744562|pmc=10163823 }}</ref>

====Phytic acid====
Soybeans contain [[phytic acid]], which may act as a [[Chelation|chelating agent]] and inhibit mineral absorption, especially for diets already low in minerals.<ref>{{cite book | chapter = Phytates | title = Toxicants Occurring Naturally in Foods | author = Committee on Food Protection, Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council | publisher = National Academy of Sciences | location = Washington, DC | year = 1973 | isbn = 978-0-309-02117-3 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/toxicantsoccurri0000unse/page/363 363–71] | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lIsrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA363 | url = https://archive.org/details/toxicantsoccurri0000unse/page/363 }}</ref>

==In culture==

Although observations of soy consumption inducing [[gynecomastia]] on men<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jorge Martinez, Jack E Lewi |title=An unusual case of gynecomastia associated with soy product consumption |journal=[[Endocrine Practice]]|date=2008|volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=415–418 |doi=10.4158/EP.14.4.415 |pmid=18558591 }}</ref> are not conclusive,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Glenn D. Braunstein |author2=James R. Klinenberg |title=Environmental Gynecomastia |journal=[[Endocrine Practice]]|volume=14 |number=4 |pages=409–411 |date=1 May 2008 | url=https://www.endocrinepractice.org/article/S1530-891X(20)43301-4/fulltext |doi=10.4158/EP.14.4.409|pmid=18558589 }}</ref> a pejorative term, "[[soy boy]]", has emerged to describe perceived emasculated young men with [[Femininity|feminine]] traits.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/soy-boy-insult-what-is-definition-far-right-men-masculinity-women-a8027816.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/soy-boy-insult-what-is-definition-far-right-men-masculinity-women-a8027816.html |archive-date=May 24, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Soy Boy: What is this new online insult used by the far right?|first=Rachel|last=Hosie|website=The Independent|date=September 30, 2020}}</ref>

==Futures==
Soybean [[Futures contract|futures]] are traded on the [[Chicago Board of Trade]] and have delivery dates in January (F), March (H), May (K), July (N), August (Q), September (U), November (X).

They are also traded on other commodity futures exchanges under different contract specifications:
* SAFEX: [[The South African Futures Exchange]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jse.co.za/Markets/Commodity-Derivatives-Market.aspx|title=SAFEX Commodity Derivatives Market|publisher=Johannesburg Stock Exchange|access-date=February 19, 2012|archive-date=March 9, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309211057/http://www.jse.co.za/Markets/Commodity-Derivatives-Market.aspx}}</ref>
* DC: [[Dalian Commodity Exchange]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dce.com.cn/|title=交易所动态|publisher=Dalian Commodity Exchange|access-date=February 19, 2012|archive-date=February 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220091624/http://www.dce.com.cn/}}</ref>
* ODE: [[Osaka Dojima Commodity Exchange]] (formerly Kansai Commodities Exchange, KEX) in Japan<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ode.or.jp/english/index.html|title=Exchange Introduction|website=Osaka Dojima Commodity Exchange|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=March 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303074858/http://ode.or.jp/english/index.html}}</ref>
* NCDEX: National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange, India.
* ROFEX: Rosario Grain Exchange in Argentina


{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|Glycine max|Soybean}}
{{Americana Poster|Soy bean|year=1920}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Food}}
{{div col|small=yes|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Fodder#Common plants specifically grown for fodder|Alternative fodders]]
* [[Cash crop]]
* [[List of soy-based foods]]
* [[Organic infant formula]]
* [[Soy molasses]]
* [[Soybean in Paraguay]]
* [[Soybean management practices]]
* [[Soybean agglutinin]], a lectin
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
* da Silva, Claiton Marcio; de Majo, Claudio, eds. ''The Age of the Soybean: An Environmental History of Soy during the Great Acceleration'' (White Horse Press, 2022) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58897 online review]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Missouri">{{Cite web|url=https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/g4450|title=Soybean Cyst Nematode: Diagnosis and Management|website=extension.missouri.edu|date=August 2010 }}</ref>
}}
{{reflist|group="RM"}}

{{Soy}}
{{Agriculture country lists}}
{{Vegetarianism}}
{{Bioenergy}}
{{Nuts}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q11006}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Soybeans| ]]
[[Category:Chinese cuisine]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Crops originating from China]]
[[Category:Edible legumes]]
[[Category:Energy crops]]
[[Category:Fabales of Asia]]
[[Category:Fiber plants]]
[[Category:Fodder]]
[[Category:Glycine (plant)]]
[[Category:Japanese cuisine]]
[[Category:Korean cuisine]]
[[Category:Nitrogen-fixing crops]]
[[Category:Phaseoleae]]
[[Category:Soy products|Soy products]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Elmer Drew Merrill]]

The captain goes down with the ship

2024-08-19T06:05:54Z

Uruiamme: that was her pen name

{{Short description|Maritime tradition}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=January 2023}}
[[File:EJ Smith.jpg|thumb|right|Captain [[Edward Smith (sea captain)|Edward Smith]] died in the [[sinking of the RMS Titanic|''Titanic'' disaster]].]]
"'''The captain goes down with the ship'''" is a [[Maritime transport|maritime]] [[tradition]] that a [[sea captain]] holds the ultimate responsibility for both the [[ship]] and everyone embarked on it, and in an emergency they will devote their time to save those on board or die trying. Although often connected to the [[Sinking of the RMS Titanic|sinking of RMS ''Titanic'']] in 1912 and its captain, [[Edward Smith (sea captain)|Edward Smith]], the tradition precedes ''Titanic'' by several years.<ref>[[Alice Jones (author)|Alice Jones]], pen name {{cite book |last=John |first=Alix |title=The Night-hawk: A Romance of the '60s|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DrUXAAAAYAAJ |date=1901 |publisher=Frederick A. Stokes |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DrUXAAAAYAAJ/page/n258 249] |quote=...for, if anything goes wrong a woman may be saved where a captain goes down with his ship.}}</ref> In most instances, captains forgo their own rapid departure of a ship in distress, and concentrate instead on saving other people. It often results in either the death or belated rescue of the captain as the last person on board.

==History==
The tradition is related to another protocol from the 19th century: "[[women and children first]]". Both reflect the [[Victorian era|Victorian]] ideal of [[chivalry]], in which the upper classes were expected to adhere to a morality tied to sacred honor, service, and responsibility for the disadvantaged. The actions of the captain and men during the sinking of {{HMS|Birkenhead|1845|6}} in 1852 prompted praise from many, due to the sacrifice of the men who saved the women and children by evacuating them first. [[Rudyard Kipling]]'s poem "Soldier an' Sailor Too" and [[Samuel Smiles]]'s book ''[[Self-Help (book)|Self-Help]]'' both highlighted the valour of the men who stood at attention and played in the band as their ship was sinking.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0d7sCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA33|title=Re-Thinking Men: Heroes, Villains and Victims|first= Anthony |last=Synnott|year=2016 |page=33|publisher=Taylor and Francis|isbn=978-1317063940}}</ref>

==Social and legal responsibility==
The tradition says that the captain should be the last person to leave their ship alive before its sinking, and if they are unable to evacuate the crew and passengers from the ship, the captain will refuse self-rescue even with an opportunity to do so.<ref name=bbc2012>{{cite web |url= https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-16611371 |title=Must a captain be the one-off a sinking ship? |work=[[BBC News]] |date=18 January 2012 |access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref> In a social context, especially as a [[sailor|mariner]], the captain will feel compelled to take this responsibility as a [[norm (social)|social norm]].{{efn|There is no equivalent law or tradition in aviation disaster, yet [[Neerja Bhanot]], a female flight attendant, laid down her life trying to save passengers during the Pan Am Flight 73 hijacking in 1986.}}

In [[maritime law]], the ship's master's responsibility for their vessel is paramount, no matter what its condition, so abandoning a ship has legal consequences, including the nature of [[salvage rights]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3Sw1AAAAIAAJ&pg=RA1-PA1|title=A Digest of Maritime Law Cases, from 1837 to 1860, Shipping Law Cases |page=1|year=1865|publisher=H. Cox}}</ref>

Abandoning a ship in distress may be considered a crime that can lead to imprisonment.<ref name=bbc2012 /> Captain [[Francesco Schettino]], who left his ship in the midst of the [[Costa Concordia disaster|''Costa Concordia'' disaster]] of 2012, was not only widely reviled for his actions, but received a 16-year sentence including one year for abandoning his passengers. Abandoning ship has been recorded as a [[maritime crime]] for centuries in Spain, Greece, and Italy.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/17/travel/cruise-ship-passenger-safety/index.html?_s=PM:TRAVEL |title=In a cruise ship crisis, what should happen? |first=Katia |last=Hetter |work=CNN |date=19 January 2012 |access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref> South Korean law may also require captains to rescue themselves last.<ref name=drewmouawad>{{cite news |title=Breaking Proud Tradition, Captains Flee and Let Others Go Down With Ship |first1=Christopher |last1=Drew |first2=Jad |last2=Mouawad |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=April 19, 2014 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/04/20/world/asia/in-sad-twist-on-proud-tradition-captains-let-others-go-down-with-ship.html?_r=0 |access-date=April 20, 2014}}</ref> In Finland, the Maritime Law (''Merilaki'') states that the captain must do everything in their power to save everyone on board the ship in distress, and that unless the captain's life is in immediate danger, they shall not leave the vessel as long as there is reasonable hope that it can be saved.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/ajantasa/1994/19940674 |title=Merilaki 6 Luku 12 §. 15.7.1994/674 - Ajantasainen lainsäädäntö |work=FINLEX, database of Finnish Acts and Decrees |year=2015 |access-date=6 June 2015 |language=fi}}</ref> In the United States, abandoning the ship is not explicitly illegal, but the captain could be charged with other crimes, such as [[manslaughter]], which encompass [[common law]] precedent passed down through centuries. It is not illegal under [[international maritime law]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Longstreth |first=Andrew |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-italy-ship-maritimelaw-idUSTRE80J1R020120120 |title=Cowardice at sea is no crime – at least in the U.S. |date=20 January 2012 |work=Reuters |access-date=13 June 2013}}</ref>

==Notable examples==
* September 27, 1854: James F. Luce was in command of the [[Collins Line]] steamer {{SS|Arctic}} when it [[SS Arctic disaster|collided]] with {{SS|Vesta}} off the coast of Newfoundland. Captain Luce was able to escape the wreck and swim to the surface after initially going down with the ship. He was rescued two days later drifting on wreckage of the same paddle-wheel box that killed his youngest son Willie.<ref>{{cite book|last=Shaw|first=David|title=The Sea Shall Embrace Them|url=http://books.simonandschuster.com/The-Sea-Shall-Embrace-Them/David-W-Shaw/9780743235037|date=2002|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|page=256|isbn=9780743235037}}</ref>
* September 12, 1857: [[William Lewis Herndon]] was in command of the commercial mail steamer {{SS|Central America||2}} when it encountered a hurricane. Two ships came to the rescue, but could save only a fraction of the passengers, so Captain Herndon chose to remain with the rest.
* September 17, 1894: Captain [[Deng Shichang]], in command of the ''[[Chinese cruiser Zhiyuan|Zhiyuan]]'' during the [[Battle of the Yalu River (1894)|Battle of the Yalu River]], went down with the ship and refused to be rescued, after the ship was struck by a Japanese shell, causing a massive explosion.
* March 27, 1904: Commander [[Takeo Hirose]], in command of the [[blockship]] ''Fukui Maru'' at the [[Battle of Port Arthur]], went down with the ship while searching for survivors, after the ship sustained a direct strike from Russian coastal artillery, causing it to explode.
* April 13, 1904: Vice Admiral [[Stepan Makarov]] of the Imperial Russian Navy went down with his ship, {{ship|Russian battleship|Petropavlovsk|1894|2}}, after his ship hit a Japanese [[naval mine]] during the early phase of the [[Siege of Port Arthur]].
* April 15, 1912: Captain [[Edward Smith (sea captain)|Edward Smith]], in command of {{RMS|Titanic}} when it [[Sinking of the RMS Titanic|sank in the North Atlantic]] after striking an iceberg, was seen returning to the bridge just before the ship began its final plunge.<ref name="titanicinquiry.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq09Brown01.php |title=Day 9 - Testimony of Edward Brown (First Class Steward, SS Titanic) |work=British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry |date=16 May 1912 |access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref> Conflicting accounts of Smith's death followed; initial rumours claimed that Smith shot himself,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/capt-smith-ended-life-when-titanic-began-founder.html |title=Capt. Smith Ended Life When ''Titanic'' Began To Founder (''Washington Times'') |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Titanica |date=19 April 1912 |access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref> while others suggest that he died on the bridge when it submerged.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bartlett|first=W.B.|date=2011|title=''Titanic'': 9 Hours to Hell, the Survivors' Story|publisher=Amberley Publishing|location=Stroud, Gloucestershire|isbn=978-1-4456-0482-4|url=https://archive.org/details/titanic9hourstoh0000bart|url-access=registration|page=224}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Spignesi|first=Stephen|title=The Titanic for Dummies|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jqO__ScTpnMC&pg=PA207|access-date=November 6, 2012|page=207|isbn=9781118206508}}</ref> Careful evidence suggests reliable<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq14Bride01.php |title=Day 14 - Testimony of Harold S. Bride, recalled |work=United States Senate Inquiry |date=4 May 1912 |access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref> accounts claim that Smith jumped overboard from the bridge, and subsequently perished in the water, possibly near lifeboat Collapsible B.<ref name=ANTR>[https://books.google.com/books?id=67R5gy-fZhEC&pg=PT87 A Night to Remember]</ref><ref name="seaofglass">''On a Sea of Glass: The Life & Loss of the RMS Titanic'' by Tad Fitch, J. Kent Layton & Bill Wormstedt. Amberley Books, March 2012. p 335</ref>
* August 26, 1914: Captain Zimro Moore was in command of the {{SS|Admiral Sampson}}, a U.S. cargo and passenger steamship, when it was rammed by the steamship, ''Princess Victoria'', in fog near Seattle, Washington. He refused to leave the ship and with other crew managed to help most passengers to safety on the ''Princess Victoria''. He went down with the ship.
* December 30, 1917: The troop transport [[HMT Aragon|HMT ''Aragon'']] was torpedoed outside [[Alexandria]], [[Egypt]], after being ordered by the senior naval officer on depot ship [[HMS Hannibal (1896)|HMS ''Hannibal'']] to turn around when having just entered the entrance channel. Confusion over mine clearance and communication procedures resulted in the loss of approximately 610 men from ''Aragon'' and [[HMS Attack (1911)|HMS ''Attack'']], her escort, which had just rescued approximately 700 men from ''Aragon''. Captain Francis Bateman had overseen the full evacuation and is reported as shouting his last words demanding an inquiry as to why he was ordered out to sea after reaching safe channel. He then jumped overboard going down with his ship. Both ships were torpedoed by the same German U-boat, {{SMS|UC-34|sub=y}}, within less than thirty minutes.
* May 27, 1918: HMT ''[[SS Leasowe Castle|Leasowe Castle]]'' was torpedoed and sunk carrying ~2900 troops and ship's company {{convert|104|mi|km}} out of Alexandria. Captain Edward John Holl went down with his ship with the exhortation to his crew "...they must be saved!"<ref>{{Cite book |last=Knight |first=Edward Frederick |title=The Union-Castle and the War 1914-1919 |publisher=Union-Castle Mail Steamship Company |year=1920 |pages=32}}</ref>
* May 30, 1918: When the Italian [[Steamship|steamer]] ''Pietro Maroncelli'' was torpedoed by the German submarine {{SMU|UB-49||2}} and started to sink, Italian Rear Admiral Giovanni Viglione, who was on board as the convoy commodore, ordered all the survivors into the lifeboats, then chose to stay aboard and to go down with the ship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://uboat.net/wwi/ships_hit/4800.html|title=Steamer Pietro Maroncelli - Ships hit by U-boats - German and Austrian U-boats of World War One - Kaiserliche Marine - uboat.net|website=uboat.net}}</ref>
* October 25, 1927. Captain Simone Gulì went down with his ship {{SS|Principessa Mafalda}} off the coast of Brazil, five hours after a propeller shaft fractured and damaged the hull; there were 314 fatalities out of the 1,252 passengers and crew on board the ship.
* June 27, 1940. When {{ship|Italian submarine|Console Generale Liuzzi}} was forced to surface by British destroyers in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], her commanding officer, Lieutenant Commander Lorenzo Bezzi, ordered his crew to abandon ship and then scuttled the submarine, going down with it.
* October 21, 1940. During the [[Attack on convoy BN 7|Action off Harmil Island]], Italian destroyer ''[[Italian destroyer Francesco Nullo (1925)|Francesco Nullo]]'' was disabled by {{HMS|Kimberley|F50|6}} and later finished off by [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) [[Blenheim bomber|Blenheim bombers]]. Her commanding officer, Lieutenant Commander [[Costantino Borsini]], chose to go down with his ship; seaman Vincenzo Ciaravolo, his attendant, chose to follow him.
* November 5, 1940: German pocket battleship {{ship|German cruiser|Admiral Scheer||2}} encountered Allied [[Convoy HX 84]] in the North Atlantic. The convoy consisted of 38 merchant ships escorted by {{HMS|Jervis Bay}}, an ocean liner newly armed with guns of 1890s design. Her captain, [[Edward Fegen]] [[Victoria Cross|VC]], signalled the convoy to scatter, and attacked the enemy. ''Jervis Bay'' was hopelessly outranged and outgunned, and was sunk; her captain and many of her crew went down with her. The sacrifice bought enough time for 31 of the convoy to make it to safety.
* May 24, 1941: During the [[Battle of the Denmark Strait]], {{HMS|Hood||6}} suffered a direct hit and magazine explosion, which sank the ship in three minutes. There were only three survivors; one, [[Ted Briggs]], said in interviews after the sinking that [[Lancelot Holland|Vice Admiral Lancelot Holland]] was last seen sitting in his chair, in utter dejection, making no attempt to escape.
* May 27, 1941: Captain [[Ernst Lindemann]] of the {{ship|German battleship|Bismarck}} was said to be with his combat messenger, a leading seaman, and apparently trying to persuade his messenger to save himself. In this account, his messenger took Lindemann's hand and the two walked to the forward flagmast. As the ship turned over, the two stood briefly to attention, then Lindemann and his messenger saluted. As the ship rolled to port, the messenger fell into the water. Lindemann continued his salute while clinging to the flagmast, going under with the ship.<ref>{{cite book|last=Grützner|first=Jens|date=2010|title=Kapitän zur See Ernst Lindemann: Der Bismarck-Kommandant – Eine Biographie|trans-title=Captain at Sea Ernst Lindemann: The Bismarck-Commander – A Biography|publisher=VDM Heinz Nickel|location=Zweibrücken|isbn=978-3-86619-047-4|language=de|page=202}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=McGowen|first=Tom|date=1999|title=Sink the Bismarck: Germany's Super-Battleship of World War II|publisher=Twenty-First Century Books|location=Brookfield, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-7613-1510-0|url=https://archive.org/details/sinkbismarckgerm0000mcgo|url-access=registration|via=Archive.org|pages=58–59}}</ref>
* December 7, 1941: Rear Admiral [[Isaac C. Kidd]] and Captain [[Franklin Van Valkenburgh]] were killed on the bridge of the {{USS|Arizona|BB-39}} during the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] after an armor-piercing bomb detonated the ship's ammunition magazine.
* December 10, 1941: Admiral [[Tom Phillips (Royal Navy officer)|Sir Tom Phillips]] and Captain [[John Leach (Royal Navy officer)|John Leach]] went down with {{HMS|Prince of Wales|53|6}} after an [[sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|attack by Japanese warplanes]] off the coast of [[Pahang]], [[British Malaya]].
* February 28, 1942: Rear Admiral [[Karel Doorman]] was killed in action when his flagship {{HNLMS|De Ruyter|1935|6}} was torpedoed in the [[Battle of the Java Sea]]. Part of the crew was rescued before the sinking, but the Dutch admiral chose to go down with the ship. Captain Lieutenant [[Eugène Lacomblé]] also died in the sinking.
[[File:Renzo Kita, Last Moment of Admiral Yamaguchi.jpg|thumb|right|Japanese painting, "Last Moments of Admiral Yamaguchi"]]
* June 5, 1942: Rear Admiral [[Tamon Yamaguchi]], on board the aircraft carrier {{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Hiryū||2}}, insisted on staying with the stricken ship during the [[Battle of Midway]]. The ship's commander, Captain Kaku, followed his example. Yamaguchi refused to allow his staff officers to stay with them. Yamaguchi and Kaku were last seen on the bridge waving to the crew who were abandoning ship.<ref>{{cite book|last=Lord|first=Walter|author-link=Walter Lord|date=1967|title=Incredible Victory|publisher=Harper and Row|location=New York|isbn=1-58080-059-9|pages=249–251}}</ref> In addition, Captain [[Ryusaku Yanagimoto]] chose to remain with his ship {{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Sōryū||2}} when it was scuttled after being destroyed in the same battle.
* September 27, 1942. Captain [[Paul Buck (seaman)|Paul Buck]] of {{ship|SS|Stephen Hopkins}}, a lightly-armed US [[liberty ship]], went down with his ship after fighting German [[commerce raider]] {{ship|German auxiliary cruiser|Stier||2}} to a standstill. Captain Buck was posthumously awarded the [[Merchant Marine Distinguished Service Medal]].
* February 3, 1943: Captain Preston Krecker of the ''[[SS Dorchester]]'' went down with the ship after it was struck by a German U-boat. He was last seen on the deck assisting his men into lifeboats. The sinking was made famous by the story of the [[Four Chaplains]]. Captain Krecker's body was never found.
* February 7, 1943: Commander [[Howard W. Gilmore]], captain of the American submarine {{USS|Growler|SS-215|6}}, gave the order for crew to "clear the bridge" and leave the exposed deck of the submarine, as his crew was being attacked by a Japanese gunboat. Two men had been shot dead; Gilmore and two others were wounded. After all others had entered the sub and Gilmore found that time was critically short, he gave his [[last words|last order]]: "Take her down." The executive officer, hearing his order, closed the hatch and submerged the crippled boat, saving the rest of the crew from the attack of the Japanese convoy escort. Commander Gilmore, who was never seen again, received the [[Medal of Honor]] posthumously for his "distinguished gallantry", making him the second submariner to receive this award.
[[File:U-boat Warfare 1939-1945 C3780.jpg|thumb|right|''U-459'' sinking]]
* 24 July, 1943: Author Norman Franks writes that ''[[Kapitänleutnant]]'' Georg von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff was seen on the bridge of German submarine {{GS|U-459||2}}, saluting his crew before disappearing into the conning tower hatch to complete the [[Scuttling|scuttling]]. He seemingly made no attempt to escape, going down with his boat.<ref name="Harmes">{{cite book |last=Franks |first=Norman L.R.|date=1997 |title=Dark sky, deep water |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=M74hAQAAIAAJ&q=U-373+%C2%A0nielsen+liberator |location=[[Lanham, Maryland]] |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |page=41 |isbn= 978-1442232853 |access-date=6 August 2023 }}</ref>
* November 19, 1943: Captain [[John P. Cromwell]] went down on the sinking sub {{USS|Sculpin|SS-191|6}}.
* October 24, 1944: Rear Admiral [[Toshihira Inoguchi]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://ww2db.com/person_bio.php?person_id=308 |title=Toshihira Inoguchi |work=World War II Database |year=2015 |access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref> chose to go down with the {{ship|Japanese battleship|Musashi}}, during the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], even though he could have escaped. Over half of the ship's crew, 1,376 of 2,399, were rescued.
* October 25, 1944: Commander [[Ernest E. Evans]], in the Battle off Samar, a part of the Battle of Leyte Gulf, captained Fletcher Class destroyer ''[[USS Johnston (DD-557)|Johnston]]'' in a torpedo attack until it was sunk by a Japanese force that was vastly superior in number, firepower, and armor. Evans did not survive. Evans posthumously received the Medal of Honor.
*November 29, 1944: Captain Toshio Abe went down with the {{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Shinano}} after she was torpedoed by [[USS Archerfish (SS-311)|USS ''Archerfish'']].
*December 24, 1944: Captain Charles Limbor went down with the [[SS Léopoldville (1928)|''Léopoldville'']] after it was torpedoed and sank by [[German submarine U-486|''U-486'']] 5 miles from [[Cherbourg]].
* April 7, 1945: Vice Admiral [[Seiichi Itō]], the fleet admiral, and Captain [[Kosaku Aruga]] went down with the {{ship|Japanese battleship|Yamato}} during [[Operation Ten-Go]].
* December 30, 1950: [[Luis González de Ubieta]] (born 1899), [[exile]]d Admiral of the [[Spanish Republican Navy]], went down with his ship. He refused to be rescued when ''Chiriqui'', a merchant vessel under his command, sank in the [[Caribbean Sea]] not far from [[Barranquilla]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Javier (coord.) |last=García Fernández |title=25 militares de la República; "El Ejército Popular de la República y sus mandos profesionales |publisher=Ministerio de Defensa |location=Madrid |date=2011 }}</ref>
*January 10, 1952: After his ship was struck by a pair of rogue waves, Captain [[Kurt Carlsen]] of the {{SS|Flying Enterprise}} remained aboard his ship once her passengers and crew had been evacuated in order to oversee attempts to tow the crippled vessel into port. He was eventually joined by Ken Dancy, a member of the salvage tug's crew. When the time came to abandon ship, Carlsen said to Dancy that they would jump together; Dancy refused, saying he should go first so that Carlsen could be the last to leave the ship. The ''Flying Enterprise'' sank 48 minutes later.
*July 26, 1956: [[Piero Calamai]], the captain of the Italian liner [[SS Andrea Doria|''Andrea Doria'']], after satisfying himself that all 1,660 passengers and crew had been safely evacuated following a collision with the {{MS|Stockholm|1948|6}} had determined to go down with the ship. During his supervision of the rescue operation, one of the largest in maritime history, Calamai turned to one of his officers and said softly, "If you are saved, maybe you can reach [[Genoa, Italy|Genoa]] and see my family. ... Tell them I did everything I could." His officers finally convinced him to reluctantly board a lifeboat by refusing to leave him behind; nevertheless, Calamai made certain he was the last person off his doomed ship.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/news/the-sinking-of-andrea-doria|title=The Sinking of Andrea Doria|first=Evan|last=Andrews|website=History|date=May 8, 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2012/01/18/opinion/pecota-cruise-captain/index.html|title=In Andrea Doria wreck, a captain who shone|first=Samuel |last=Pecota|website=CNN| date=18 January 2012 }}</ref> Captain Calamai, who never commanded another vessel, reportedly asked repeatedly on his deathbed in 1972, "Are the passengers safe? Are the passengers off?".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.baltimoresun.com/maryland/bs-md-backstory-maritime-disasters-20120226-story.html|title=Some captains show bravery, others cowardice in face of maritime disasters|last=Rasmussen|first=Frederick N.|work=The Baltimore Sun|date=2012-02-26|access-date=2023-01-12}}</ref>
* December 9, 1971: [[Captain (Indian Navy)|Captain]] [[Mahendra Nath Mulla]], {{small|[[Maha Vir Chakra|MVC]]}}, the captain of the Indian frigate {{INS|Khukri|1958|6}}, went down with the ship after it was attacked by a submarine in the [[Indo-Pakistani War of 1971]]. At least 194 members of the crew died in the sinking, which reportedly took two minutes.
* September 28, 1994: Captain Arvo Andresson sank with {{MS|Estonia}} off the coasts of [[Estonia]] and [[Finland]]. Of the 989 people on board, 137 were rescued and 95 were later found dead in freezing waters or rafts.
* July 19, 1996: Lieutenant Commander Parakrama Samaraweera, [[Rana Sura Padakkama|RSP]], the captain of the [[Sri Lanka Navy]] ship [[SLNS Ranaviru]], went down with the ship after it was attacked by [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|LTTE]] during the [[Battle of Mullaitivu (1996)|first battle of Mullaitivu]]. Samaraweera was last seen on the bridge firing a rifle; his body was never recovered.<ref>{{cite news |title=Gentle giant who fought to the death |date=July 12, 2021 |url=https://island.lk/gentle-giant-who-fought-to-the-death/ |work=The Island |access-date=8 March 2023}}</ref>
*[[File:Bounty Sinking 2012.jpg|thumb| {{ship||Bounty|1960 ship|2}} sinking during [[Hurricane Sandy]].]]October 29, 2012: Captain Robin Walbridge of the ''[[Bounty (1960 ship)|Bounty]]'', a replica of {{HMS|Bounty}}, stayed on the ship until it [[capsized]] during [[Hurricane Sandy]]. Walbridge and one crew member died, while the fourteen crew members who made it to liferafts survived.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://thechronicleherald.ca/novascotia/696424-witness-recounts-claudene-christian%E2%80%99s-last-minutes-on-bounty |title=Witness recounts Claudene Christian's last minutes on ''Bounty'' |first=Beverley |last=Ware |work=[[The Chronicle Herald]] |location=[[Halifax, Nova Scotia]] |date=15 February 2013 |access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |work=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/nova-scotia/story/2012/10/29/ns-hms-bounty-hurricane-sandy.html |title=Bounty crew member's body found, captain still missing |date=29 October 2012 |access-date=2012-10-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite press release|url=http://www.uscgnews.com/go/doc/4007/1593871/Coast-Guard-suspends-search-for-missing-captain-of-HMS-Bounty|title=Coast Guard suspends search for missing captain of HMS Bounty|date=1 November 2012|publisher=[[United States Coast Guard]]|access-date=2012-11-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103034103/http://www.uscgnews.com/go/doc/4007/1593871/Coast-Guard-suspends-search-for-missing-captain-of-HMS-Bounty|archive-date = 3 November 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* October 2, 2015: Captain Michael Davidson, master of the cargo ship {{SS|El Faro||2}}, was recorded on the voyage data recorder encouraging the ship's helmsman, not moving due to fear and exhaustion, to join him in abandoning the vessel, before the recording ended with both still on the bridge of the sinking ship.

==Counter-examples==
In some cases the captain may choose to [[Scuttling|scuttle]] the ship and escape danger rather than die as it sinks. This choice is usually available only if the damage does not immediately imperil a vast portion of the ship's company and occupants. If a [[distress call]] was successful and the crew and occupants, the ship's cargo, and other items of interest are rescued, then the vessel may not be worth anything as [[marine salvage]] and be allowed to sink. In other cases a military organization or [[navy]] might wish to destroy a ship to prevent it being taken as a [[prize (law)|prize]] or captured for [[espionage]], such as occurred in the {{USS|Pueblo|AGER-2|6}} incident. Commodities and war [[materiel]] carried as [[cargo]] might also need to be destroyed to prevent capture by the opposing side.

In other cases a captain may decide to save themselves to the detriment of their crew, the vessel, or its mission. A decision that shirks the responsibilities of the command of a vessel will usually bring upon the captain a legal, criminal, or social penalty, with military commanders often facing dishonor.

* July 17, 1880: The captain and crew of {{SS|Jeddah}} abandoned the ship and their passengers in a storm expecting it would sink, but the ship was found with all passengers alive three days later. A key part of [[Joseph Conrad]]'s 1899–1900 novel ''[[Lord Jim]]'' is based on this incident; Conrad had been a captain in the merchant marine before turning to writing.
* September 8, 1934: When a fire broke out on the [[SS Morro Castle (1930)|SS ''Morro Castle'']], First Officer William Warms, in command after the death of Captain Robert Wilmott, led the crew in abandoning ship. 137 people died, mostly passengers.
* September 10, 1941: When the [[German submarine U-501|German submarine ''U-501'']] was forced to surface alongside a Canadian corvette, ''Korvettenkapitän'' Hugo Förster surrendered himself by jumping onto the Canadian ship. The First Watch Officer took over and had the U-boat scuttled just as the Canadians boarded. One Canadian and 11 Germans died.
* May 8, 1942: The [[USS Lexington (CV-2)|USS ''Lexington'']] was sunk during the [[Battle of the Coral Sea]]. The ''Lexington'' was hit by two bombs and two torpedoes. ''Lexington'' listed but was still afloat. A previously undetected leak of aircraft fuel resulted in multiple explosions and uncontrollable fires, dooming the ship. In the afternoon, [[Captain (United States O-6)|Captain]] [[Frederick C. Sherman]] gave the order to abandon ship. So ''Lexington'' would not be captured as a war prize for the Japanese, the [[USS Phelps|USS ''Phelps'']] was ordered to scuttle the ''Lexington'' with torpedoes. Frederick Sherman abandoned ship as well and would later be promoted to flag rank. He was onboard the [[USS Missouri (BB-63)|USS ''Missouri'']] when the [[Surrender of Japan|Japanese surrendered]].
* June 7 1942: Captain [[Elliott Buckmaster|Elliot Buckmaster]] had the USS ''Yorktown'' evacuated except a skeleton crew to try to control damage and keep the listing ship afloat after repeated attacks during the [[Battle of Midway]]. ''Yorktown'' along with the [[USS Hammann (DD-412)|USS ''Hammann'']] were later torpedoed and sunk by the [[Japanese submarine I-168|Japanese submarine ''I-168'']]. Buckmaster was promoted to Rear Admiral after the Battle of Midway. He later played a pivotal role in the rescue of the survivors of the [[USS Indianapolis (CA-35)|USS ''Indianapolis'']] after it too was sunk by a Japanese submarine.
* September 15, 1942: The [[USS Wasp (CV-7)|USS ''Wasp'']] was scuttled after being attacked by [[Japanese submarine I-19|Japanese submarine ''I-19'']]. After conferring with his commander, Admiral [[Leigh Noyes]], Captain [[Forrest Sherman]] gave the order to abandon ship. He was the last one to leave the ship once he was certain no survivors were left on board. ''Wasp'' was later scuttled by the [[USS Lansdowne|USS ''Lansdowne'']]. Sherman retired from the Navy at the rank of [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] after having served as the [[Chief of Naval Operations]].
* October 27, 1942: The USS ''Hornet'' was attacked during the [[Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands]] by Japanese naval aircraft. ''Hornet'' had been ordered abandoned by Captain [[Charles P. Mason]] and US Navy destroyers tried scuttling her afterwards but the faulty [[Mark 14 torpedo|Mark 14 torpedoes]] wouldn't detonate. The US fleet gave up and fled when Japanese destroyers approached then successfully scuttled the ''Hornet'' with their [[Type 93 torpedo|Type 93 torpedoes]]. Charles Mason retired at the rank of [[Vice admiral (United States)|Vice Admiral]] and would later serve as the [[Mayor of Pensacola|Mayor of Pensacola, Florida]] twice.
* October 1944: [[Lieutenant commander (United States)|Lieutenant Commander]] [[Richard O'Kane]] of the {{USS|Tang|SS-306}} was one of nine survivors of the ''Tang'' during its sinking by its own torpedo. With his submarine scuttled, he was one of three survivors to have made it off the bridge and up to the surface, before being captured by a Japanese destroyer crew later that morning. O'Kane was at first secretly held captive at the Ōfuna navy detention center, then later moved to the regular army Omori POW camp. Following his release, O'Kane was awarded the Medal of Honor for "conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity" during his submarine's final operations against Japanese shipping.
* November 12, 1965: When a fire broke out aboard {{SS|Yarmouth Castle}}, Captain Byron Voustinas was on the first lifeboat, which had only crew and no passengers aboard. 90 people died.
* April 7, 1990: Having been erroneously informed the ship was evacuated, Captain Hugo Larsen abandoned {{MS|Scandinavian Star}} after arson caused the ship to burn. 159 people died.
* August 3–4, 1991: Captain [[Yiannis Avranas]] of the cruise ship {{ship|MTS|Oceanos}} abandoned ship without informing passengers that the ship was sinking. All 571 people on the ship survived. A Greek board of inquiry found Avranas and four officers negligent in their handling of the disaster.
* September 26, 2000: Captain Vassilis Giannakis and the crew abandoned the {{MS|Express Samina}} after the ship hit the rocks off the Portes Inlets. 82 people died. The captain was sentenced to 16 years in prison while the first officer received a 19-year sentence.
* January 13, 2012: Captain [[Francesco Schettino]] abandoned his ship before hundreds of passengers had been evacuated during the [[Costa Concordia disaster|''Costa Concordia'' disaster]]. 32 people died in the accident. Schettino was sentenced to 16 years in prison for his role in the disaster.
* April 16, 2014: Captain Lee Joon-seok abandoned the South Korean ferry [[Sinking of MV Sewol|MV ''Sewol'']]. The captain and much of the crew were saved, while hundreds of students from [[Danwon High School]] embarked for their trip remained in their cabins, according to instructions provided by the crew.<ref>{{cite news |title=참사 2주째 승무원도 제대로 파악 안돼 |trans-title=Exact Number of Crew still not known 2 weeks after the ferry disaster |url=http://www.hani.co.kr/arti/society/society_general/634984.html |access-date=3 May 2014 |newspaper=[[The Hankyoreh]] |date=20 April 2014 |language=ko}}</ref><ref name=drewmouawad/> Many passengers apparently remained on the sinking vessel and died. Following this incident, the captain was arrested and put on trial beginning in early June 2014, when video footage filmed by some survivors and news broadcasters showed him being rescued by a coast guard vessel. Orders to abandon ship never came, and the vessel sank with all [[life raft]]s still in their stowage position. The captain was subsequently sentenced to 36 years in prison for his role in the deaths of the passengers, and was also given a life sentence, after being found guilty of murder of the 304 passengers that did not survive.
* June 1, 2015: The Chinese captain of the river cruise ship {{ship||Dong Fang Zhi Xing}} left the ship before most passengers were rescued. In the end, 442 deaths were confirmed with 12 rescued among 454 on board.<ref>{{cite web |title=Yangtze River Ship Captain Faces Questions on Sinking |publisher=The Wall Street Journal |date=June 2, 2015 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/yangtze-river-ferry-captain-faces-questions-on-sinking-1433237962}}</ref>

==Extended or metaphorical use==
When used metaphorically, the "captain" may be simply the leader of a group of people, "the ship" may refer to some other place that is threatened by catastrophe, and "going down" with it may refer to a situation that implies a severe penalty or death. It is common for references to be made in the case of the military and when leadership during the situation is clear. So when a raging fire threatens to destroy a mine, the mine's supervisor, the "captain", may perish in the fire trying to rescue their workers trapped inside, and acquaintances might say that they went down with their ship or that they "died trying".

In other metaphorical use, the phrase "Going down with the ship" may imply a person who is displaying stubborn defiance in a hopeless situation, even if this situation is not a matter of life and death. For example a stockholder might say "This company is on the verge of going bankrupt, but I'm not selling my stock. I'm going down with the ship."

===In aviation===
[[File:561016PanAmDitches-5.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pan Am Flight 6]] successfully ditches in the Pacific Ocean with Captain Ogg on the second of two life rafts. The airplane sank a few minutes after this photo was taken.]]
The concept has been explicitly extended in law to the [[pilot in command]] of an aircraft, in the form of laws stating that they "[have] final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the flight".<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-I/subchapter-A/part-1/section-1.1 |title=Title 14 Chapter I Subchapter A Part 1 §1.1 |work=[[Code of Federal Regulations]] |year=2015 |access-date=6 June 2015}}</ref><ref name="annex2">{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=ICAO Annex 2 – "Rules of the Air"|url=https://www.icao.int/Meetings/anconf12/Document%20Archive/an02_cons%5B1%5D.pdf|access-date=|website=|publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization}}</ref> [[Jurisprudence]] has explicitly interpreted this by analogy with the captain of a sea vessel.{{citation needed|date=June 2020}}

This is particularly relevant when an aircraft is forced to [[ditching|ditch]] in the ocean and becomes a floating vessel that will almost certainly sink. For example, following the water landing of [[US Airways Flight 1549]] on the [[Hudson River]] in 2009, [[pilot in command]] [[Chesley Sullenberger]] was the last person to exit the partially submerged aircraft, and performed a final check for any others on board before doing so. All 155 passengers and crew survived.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sturcke |first1=James |title=Chesley 'Sully' Sullenberger: US Airways crash pilot |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jan/17/hudson-plane-crash-pilot-sullenberger |website=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=29 March 2021 |date=16 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=McFadden |first1=Robert D. |author-link=Robert D. McFadden |title=Pilot Is Hailed After Jetliner's Icy Plunge |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/16/nyregion/16crash.html |website=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=29 March 2021 |date=16 January 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Goldman |first1=Russell |title=US Airways Hero Pilot Searched Plane Twice Before Leaving |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/story?id=6658493 |website=[[ABC News (United States)|ABC News]] |access-date=29 March 2021 |language=en |date=15 January 2009}}</ref>

Similarly, on October 16, 1956, [[Pan Am Flight 6]] was a [[Boeing 377 Stratocruiser]] (en route from Honolulu to San Francisco) that was forced to ditch in the Pacific Ocean due to multiple engine failures. The airliner broke apart when one of its wings collided with a wave swell. Airline Captain Richard N. Ogg was the last to exit the airplane during the successful mid-ocean ditching and rescue of all 31 on board by the US Coast Guard cutter {{USCGC|Pontchartrain|WHEC-70|6}}.<ref name=cutter>[https://www.thisdayinaviation.com/16-october-1956/ This Day in Aviation, 16 October 1956], 2016, Bryan R. Swopes</ref> The airplane fuselage sank with no one on board a few minutes later.<ref name=cutter />

Kohei Asoh, the captain of a [[Douglas DC-8]] conducting [[Japan Air Lines Flight 2]], gained notoriety for his honest assessment of his mistake ([[Japan_Airlines_Flight_2#The_"Asoh_defense"|the "Asoh defense"]]) in the 1988 book ''[[The Abilene Paradox]]''. Asoh was the pilot in command during the 1968 accidental ditching in [[San Francisco Bay]] a few miles short of the runway.<ref name=Silagi>{{cite web|url=http://www.myabx.com/flightweb/abx%20air%20history/abx_air/dc8_bay.htm|title=The DC-8 that was too young to die|last=Silagi|first=Richard|publisher=Airliners.net|date=March 9, 2001|access-date=August 25, 2016|archive-date=March 24, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160324070139/http://www.myabx.com/flightweb/abx%20air%20history/abx_air/dc8_bay.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> With the plane resting on the shallow bottom of the bay, he was the last one of the 107 occupants to exit the airplane; all survived with no injuries.<ref name=Blade-681122>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=MPdOAAAAIBAJ&sjid=qAEEAAAAIBAJ&pg=6556%2C1452567 |title=107 On Board Uninjured As Jetliner Lands In Bay |author= |agency=AP |date=22 November 1968 |newspaper=Toledo Blade |access-date=12 October 2016}}</ref>

On June 2, 1983, [[Air Canada Flight 797]], a [[Douglas DC-9]], was enroute from Dallas-Fort Worth to Toronto when a fire began in the washroom, filling the cabin with smoke, forcing the pilots to divert to [[Cincinnati/Northern Kentucky International Airport]]. Captain Donald Cameron was the last to leave the plane before a flash fire engulfed the cabin 90 seconds after the plane came to a stop, killing 23 out of the 46 passengers and crew that had yet to exit the plane.{{Cn|date=August 2024}}

During the [[2024 Haneda Airport runway collision]], the captain was the last to leave the on-fire Japan Airlines [[Airbus A350]] on runway 34R at [[Haneda Airport]]. All 367 passengers and 12 crew members on board Flight 516 survived, with 15 people on board surviving with minor injuries. <ref>{{Cite web |last=Muntean |first=Pete |date=2024-01-03 |title=Japan coast guard plane not cleared for takeoff before runway crash, traffic control transcript suggests |url=https://www.cnn.com/2024/01/03/asia/japan-plane-crash-transcript-intl/index.html |access-date=2024-01-08 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref>

===In academia===
After a [[Baylor University sexual assault scandal|major sexual assault scandal]] at [[Baylor University]], the university fired President [[Kenneth Starr]] and appointed him chancellor. A week later, Starr resigned as chancellor and "willingly accepted responsibility" for the actions at Baylor that "clearly fell short". He stated that his resignation for the scandal was "a matter of conscience", and said, "The captain goes down with the ship."<ref name=espn>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/college-sports/story/_/id/15875833/kenneth-starr-resign-chancellor-baylor-continue-teach|title=Starr won't be Baylor chancellor, will teach|date=June 1, 2016|website=ESPN.com}}</ref> He indicated that his resignation was necessary even though he "didn't know what was happening".

==See also==
{{portal|Oceans}}
*[[Barratry (admiralty law)]]
*[[Desertion]]
*[[Don't Give Up the Ship (disambiguation)]]
*[[Last words]]
*[[Man overboard]]
*[[Mutiny]]
*[[Women and children first]]

==Footnotes==
{{notelist|1}}

==References==
{{reflist|32em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:captain goes down with the ship}}
[[Category:Captains who went down with the ship| ]]
[[Category:Maritime culture]]
[[Category:Etiquette]]
[[Category:English phrases]]
[[Category:Maritime disasters]]
[[Category:English-language idioms]]
[[Category:19th-century neologisms]]
[[Category:19th-century quotations]]
[[Category:RMS Titanic]]

Triangular trade

2024-08-12T16:38:37Z

Uruiamme: some cleanup

{{short description|Trade among three ports or regions}}
[[Image:Triangle trade2.png|right|thumb|350px|Depiction of the classical model of the triangular trade]]
[[Image:Triangular trade.jpg|right|thumb|350px|Depiction of the triangular trade of slaves, sugar, and rum with New England instead of Europe as the third corner]]

'''Triangular trade''' or '''triangle trade''' is [[trade]] between three ports or regions. Triangular trade usually evolves when a region has [[export]] commodities that are not required in the region from which its major [[import]]s come. It has been used to offset [[trade imbalance]]s between different regions.

The [[Atlantic slave trade]] used a system of three-way transatlantic exchanges – known historically as the triangular trade – which operated between Europe, Africa, and the Americas from the 16th to 19th centuries. European workers outfitted [[Slave ships]], and they shipped manufactured European goods owned by the trading companies to West Africa to get slaves, which they shipped to the Americas, in particular, to Brazil and the Caribbean Islands. First, in West Africa, merchants sold or bartered European manufactured goods to local slavers in exchange for slaves. Then crews transported the slaves, and remaining European manufactured goods, to the Americas where ship merchants sold the slaves and European manufactured goods to plantation owners. Merchants then purchased sugar and molasses from the plantation owners and crews shipped them to North American colonies (later the US), where the merchants sold the remaining supplies of European manufactured goods and slaves, as well as sugar and molasses from planations to local buyers, and then purchased North American commodities to sell in Europe, including tobacco, sugar, cotton, rum, rice, lumber, and animal pelts.

This trade, in trade volume, was primarily with South America, where most slaves were sold, but a classic example taught in 20th century studies is the [[colonial molasses trade]], which involved the circuitous trading of [[Slavery|slaves]], sugar (often in liquid form, as [[molasses]]), and rum between [[West Africa]], the [[West Indies]] and the northern colonies of [[British North America]] in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref name="Emert 1995 p. ">{{cite book | last=Emert | first=Phyllis | title=Colonial triangular trade: an economy based on human misery | publisher=Discovery Enterprises Ltd | publication-place=Carlisle, Massachusetts | year=1995 | isbn=978-1-878668-48-6 | oclc=32840704 | page=}}</ref><ref name="Merritt 1960 pp. 1–7">{{cite journal | last=Merritt | first=J. E. | title=The Triangular Trade | journal=Business History | publisher=Informa UK Limited | volume=3 | issue=1 | year=1960 | issn=0007-6791 | doi=10.1080/00076796000000012 | pages=1–7| s2cid=153930643 }}</ref> In this triangular trade slaves grew the sugar that was used to brew rum, which in turn was traded for more slaves. In this circuit the [[sea lane]] west from Africa to the West Indies (and later, also to [[Brazil]]) was known as the [[Middle Passage]]; its cargo consisted of abducted or recently purchased [[Slavery in Africa|African people]].

During the [[Age of Sail]], the particular routes were also shaped by the powerful influence of [[Winds in the Age of Sail|winds and currents]]. For example, from the main trading nations of Western Europe, it was much easier to sail westwards after first going south of [[30th parallel north|30° N latitude]] and reaching the so-called "[[trade winds]]", thus arriving in the Caribbean rather than going straight west to the [[Northern America|North American mainland]]. Returning from North America, it was easiest to follow the [[Gulf Stream]] in a northeasterly direction using the [[westerlies]]. (Even before the [[voyages of Christopher Columbus]], the Portuguese had been using [[Volta do mar|a similar triangle]] to sail to the [[Canary Islands]] and the [[Azores]], and it was then expanded outwards.)

The countries that controlled the transatlantic slave market until the 18th century in terms of the number of enslaved people shipped were Great Britain, Portugal, and France.

==Atlantic triangular slave trade==
{{Slavery}}
{{See also|Atlantic slave trade|Slave Coast of West Africa}}

The most historically significant triangular trade was the [[Atlantic slave trade|transatlantic slave trade]] which operated between Europe, Africa, and the Americas from the 16th to 19th centuries. [[Slave ship]]s would leave European ports (such as [[Bristol slave trade|Bristol]] and [[Role of Nantes in the slave trade|Nantes]]) and sail to African ports loaded with goods manufactured in Europe. There, the slave traders would purchase enslaved Africans by exchanging the goods, then sail to the Americas via the [[Middle Passage]] to sell their enslaved cargo in [[European colonization of the Americas|European colonies]]. In what was referred to as a "golden triangle", the slave ship would sail back to Europe to begin the cycle again.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gold |first1=Susan Dudley |title=United States V. Amistad: Slave Ship Mutiny |date=2006 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-2143-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesvami0000gold/page/35 35] |url=https://archive.org/details/unitedstatesvami0000gold |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref> The enslaved Africans were primarily purchased for the purpose of working on [[plantation]]s to work producing valuable [[cash crop]]s (such as [[sugar]], [[cotton]], and [[tobacco]]) which were in high demand in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web | last1=Weber |first1=Jacques | url = http://www.esclavages.cnrs.fr/IMG/pdf/Bernard_Michon_Nantes_et_la_traite_negriere.pdf | website=Centre national de la recherche scientifique |language=fr|title=La traite négrière nantaise de 1763 à 1793 }}</ref><ref name="Vindt">{{Cite journal|last1=Vindt|first1=Gérard|last2=Consil|first2=Jean-Michel|date=June 2013|title=Nantes, Bordeaux et l'économie esclavagiste – Au XVIIIe siècle, les villes de Nantes et de Bordeaux profitent toutes deux de la "traite négrière" et de l'économie esclavagiste|journal=[[Alternatives économiques]]|volume=325|pages=17–21}}</ref><ref name="Morgan 2007">{{cite book |last1=Morgan |first1=Kenneth |title=Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=9780191566271 |page=62 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA62 |access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref><ref name="Kowaleski2006">{{cite book |last1=Kowaleski-Wallace, A.P.o.E.E. |first1=Elizabeth |title=The British slave trade and public memory |date=2006 |publisher=Columbia University Press |location=New York |isbn=9780231137140}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=lDNFtAEACAAJ Liverpool and the Slave Trade], by Anthony Tibbles, Director of the Merseyside Maritime Museum</ref> Slave traders from European colonies would occasionally travel to Africa themselves, eliminating the European portion of the voyage.<ref>[http://africanhistory.about.com/library/weekly/aa080601a.htm About.com: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014190833/http://africanhistory.about.com/library/weekly/aa080601a.htm |date=2008-10-14 }}. Accessed 6 November 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Triangular Trade|url=http://www.nmm.ac.uk/freedom/viewTheme.cfm/theme/triangular|website=[[National Maritime Museum]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125125048/http://www.nmm.ac.uk/freedom/viewTheme.cfm/theme/triangular|archive-date=25 November 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Slaves embarked to America from 1450 until 1800 by country.jpg|left|thumb|400px|Slaves embarked to America from 1450 until 1800 by country{{cn|date=March 2024}}]]
A classic example is the [[colonial molasses trade]]. Merchants purchased raw sugar (often in its liquid form, molasses) from plantations in the Caribbean and shipped it to [[New England]] and Europe, where it was sold to distillery companies that produced rum. Merchant capitalists used cash from the sale of sugar to purchase rum, furs, and lumber in New England which their crews shipped to Europe. With the profits from the European sales, merchants purchased Europe's manufactured goods, including tools and weapons and on the next leg, shipped those manufactured goods, along with the American sugar and rum, to West Africa where they bartered the goods for slaves seized by local potentates. Crews then transported the slaves to the Caribbean and sold them to sugar plantation owners. The cash from the sale of slaves in Brazil, the Caribbean islands, and the American South was used to buy more raw materials, restarting the cycle. The full triangle trip took a calendar year on average, according to historian Clifford Shipton.<ref name="Curtis 2006">Curtis, Wayne (2006–2007). ''And a Bottle of Rum''. New York: Three Rivers Press. pp. 117-119 {{ISBN|978-0-307-33862-4}}.</ref>

[[File:Luxborough galley burnt nearly to the water, 25 June 1727.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The loss of the slave ship ''[[Luxborough Galley]]'' in 1727 ("I.C. 1760"), lost in the last leg of the triangular trade, between the Caribbean and Britain.]]
[[File:North Atlantic Gyre.png|thumb|[[North Atlantic Gyre]]|250x250px]]

The first leg of the triangle was from a European port to one in West Africa (then known as the "[[Slave Coast of West Africa|Slave Coast]]"), in which ships carried supplies for sale and trade, such as [[copper]], [[cloth]], trinkets, [[slave beads]], [[guns]] and [[ammunition]].<ref>[http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/abolition/ Scotland and the Abolition of the Slave Trade] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103172434/http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/abolition/ |date=2012-01-03 }}. Accessed 28 March 2007.</ref> When the ship arrived, its cargo would be sold or bartered for slaves. Ports that exported these enslaved people from Africa include [[Ouidah]], [[Lagos]], [[Aného]] (Little Popo), [[Grand-Popo]], [[Agoué]], [[Godomey|Jakin]], [[Porto-Novo]], and [[Badagry]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mann |first=K |date=2007 |title=An African Family Archive: The Lawsons of Little Popo/Aneho (Togo), 1841-1938 |journal=The English Historical Review |volume=CXXII |issue=499 |pages=1438–1439 |doi=10.1093/ehr/cem350 |issn=0013-8266}}</ref> These ports traded slaves who were supplied from African communities, tribes and kingdoms, including the [[Allada]]h and [[Ouidah]], which were later taken over by the [[Dahomey]] kingdom.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lombard |first=J |chapter=The Kingdom of Dahomey |title=West African Kingdoms in the Nineteenth Century |year=2018|pages=70–92 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9780429491641-3 |isbn=978-0-429-49164-1 |s2cid=204268220 }}</ref>

On the second leg, ships made the journey of the [[Middle Passage]] from Africa to the [[New World]]. Many slaves died of disease in the crowded holds of the slave ships. Once the ship reached the New World, enslaved survivors were sold in the Caribbean or the American colonies. The ships were then prepared to get them thoroughly cleaned, drained, and loaded with export goods for a return voyage, the third leg, to their home port,<ref>A. P. Middleton, ''Tobacco Coast''.</ref> from the West Indies the main export cargoes were sugar, rum, and molasses; from [[Virginia]], [[tobacco]] and [[hemp]]. The ship then returned to Europe to complete the triangle.

The triangle route was not generally followed by individual ships. Slave ships were built to carry large numbers of people, rather than cargo, and variations in the duration of the Atlantic crossing meant that they often arrived in the Americas out-of-season. Slave ships thus often returned to their home port carrying whatever goods were readily available in the Americas but with a large part or all of their capacity with ballast.<ref name="Duquette 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Duquette |first1=Nicolas J. |title=Revealing the Relationship Between Ship Crowding and Slave Mortality |journal=[[The Journal of Economic History]] |date=June 2014 |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=535–552 |doi=10.1017/S0022050714000357 |s2cid=59449310 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-economic-history/article/abs/revealing-the-relationship-between-ship-crowding-and-slave-mortality/E978DC4E5FE7CC560734D75A277D4787 |issn=0022-0507}}</ref><ref name="EV Wolfe">{{cite book |last1=Wolfe |first1=Brendan |editor1-last=Miller |editor1-first=Patti |title=Encyclopedia Virginia |date=1 February 2021 |publisher=Virginia Humanities – Library of Virginia |location=Charlottesville, VA |url=https://encyclopediavirginia.org/entries/slave-ships-and-the-middle-passage/ |access-date=4 March 2021 |chapter=Slave Ships and the Middle Passage}}</ref> Cash crops were transported mainly by a separate fleet which only sailed from Europe to the Americas and back.<ref>Emmer, P.C.: ''The Dutch in the Atlantic Economy, 1580–1880''. Trade, Slavery and Emancipation. Variorum Collected Studies Series CS614, 1998.</ref> In his books, [[Herbert S. Klein]] has argued that in many fields (cost of trade, ways of transport, mortality levels, earnings and benefits of trade for the Europeans and the "so-called triangular trade"), the non-scientific literature portrays a situation which the contemporary historiography refuted a long time ago.<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Atlantic Slave Trade |last=Klein |first=Herbert S. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |date=1999 |isbn=0-521-46020-4}}</ref>
<blockquote>Finally, even if the "triangle trade" idea is essentially incorrect, the Atlantic slave trade was one of the more complex of international trades that existed in the modern period. (…) Thus, while an actual "triangle trade" may not have existed as a significant development for ships in the trade, the economic ties between Asia, Europe, Africa, and America clearly involved a web of relationships that spanned the globe.<ref>Klein, Herbert S. ''The Atlantic Slave Trade''. Cambridge University Press 1999. p. 101.</ref></blockquote>

A 2017 study provides evidence for the hypothesis that the export of gunpowder to Africa increased the transatlantic slave trade: "A one percent increase in gunpowder set in motion a 5-year gun-slave cycle that increased slave exports by an average of 50%, and the impact continued to grow over time."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Whatley |first=Warren C. |title=The Gun-Slave Hypothesis and the 18th Century British Slave Trade |journal=Explorations in Economic History |volume=67 |pages=80–104 |doi=10.1016/j.eeh.2017.07.001 |year=2017 |url=https://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/80050/1/MPRA_paper_80050.pdf }}</ref>

===New England===
[[File:Graph of the Number of Slaves Imported From Africa.png|thumb|248x248px|Graph depicting the number of slaves imported from Africa from 1501 to 1866]]

New England also made rum from Caribbean sugar and [[molasses]], which it shipped to Africa as well as within the [[New World]].<ref>[http://www.slavenorth.com/rhodeisland.htm "Slavery in Rhode Island"]. Slavery in the North. Accessed 11 September 2011.</ref> Yet, the "triangle trade" as considered in relation to New England was a piecemeal operation. No New England traders are known to have completed a sequential circuit of the full triangle, which took a calendar year on average, according to historian Clifford Shipton.<ref name="Curtis 2006" /> The concept of the New England Triangular trade was first suggested, inconclusively, in an 1866 book by George H. Moore, was picked up in 1872 by historian George C. Mason, and reached full consideration from a lecture in 1887 by American businessman and historian William B. Weeden.<ref name="Curtis 2006" />

In the context of an incohesive operation rather than a sequential circuit, expansive eastern seaboard "Farms" had, in earnest after 1690, sustained southern New England proprietorship, land banks, and [[Rhode Island pound|currency]] within a Greater Caribbean plantation complex. Historian Sean Kelley examines nineteenth-century "American slavers" because "the North American transatlantic slave trade before 1776 was, in essence, merely another branch of the carrying trade."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kelley |first1=Sean M. |title=American Slavers: Merchants, Mariners, and the Transatlantic Commerce in Captives, 1644-1865 |date=30 May 2023 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-27155-3 |page=81 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Oakes |first1=James |title=Ships Going Out |journal=New York Review of Books |date=September 2023 |url=https://www.nybooks.com/articles/2023/09/21/ships-going-out-american-slavers-sean-m-kelley/ |language=en |issn=0028-7504}}</ref> During the seventeenth century, colonial charters and royal commissioners precluded earlier attempts to establish a New England carrying trade by, for example, the [[Atherton Trading Company]] and [[John Hull (merchant)|John Hull]]. But proposals by [[Peleg Sanford]] provided implementation frameworks for "Farms" and carriers. Linkages within the complex would also ebb and flow with the tides of war and [[Impact of hurricanes on Caribbean history|hurricanes]]. Before [[1780 Atlantic hurricane season|1780]], the [[Atlantic hurricane season]] contributed to New England and Greater Caribbean circumvention of mercantile trade restrictions. Newport carriers, for instance, provisioned Dutch, Danish, and especially French plantations in the Greater Caribbean, periodically more than lackluster British sites, to recompense for hurricane reductions in exports and imports.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schwartz |first1=Stuart B. |title=Sea of Storms: A History of Hurricanes in the Greater Caribbean from Columbus to Katrina |date=2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-17360-3 |pages=48–49 |language=en}}</ref> Periodic trials and executions of notorious smugglers diminshed royal peacetime embargoes, particularly in response to illegal carrying as well as General Assembly endorsement of [[Aquidneck Island|Aquidneck]] as a haven for pirates. These pirates began to disperse from Newport between [[Queen Anne's War]] and 1723 mass executions, establishing the seaport as the dominant carrying hub, with Providence coming in a distant second. British carriers continued to provision plantations outside the boundaries of empire.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Burgess |first1=Douglas R. |title=A Crisis of Charter and Right: Piracy and Colonial Resistance in Seventeenth-Century Rhode Island |journal=Journal of Social History |date=2012 |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=605–622 |issn=0022-4529}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Hanna |first1=Mark G. |title=Pirate Nests and the Rise of the British Empire, 1570-1740 |date=22 October 2015 |publisher=UNC Press Books |isbn=978-1-4696-1795-4 |pages=365–392 |language=en}}</ref>

Wartime embargoes that reduced overseas trade would, in turn, spur speculative ventures as well as land and estuary auctions of [[Narragansett people|Narragansett]] tribal reserves, under legislature (public) jurisdiction, by private trusts, a specific type of fiduciary relationship for subsidizing expense accounts, purveying regular annuities, or both. Bidders at vendue were frequently interior "composite"<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bushman |first1=Richard Lyman |title=Markets and Composite Farms in Early America |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |date=1998 |volume=55 |issue=3 |pages=351–374 |issn=0043-5597}}</ref> yeomen and fishermen,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kulik |first1=Gary |title=Dams, Fishes, and Farmers: Defense of Public Rights in Eighteenth-Century Rhode Island |journal=The Countryside in the Age of Capitalist Transformation: Essays in the Social History of Rural America |date=1985 |volume=University of North Carolina Press |issue=Chapel Hill |pages=25–50}}</ref> who (according to certain historians) misconceived<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kulikoff |first1=Allan |title=From British Peasants to Colonial American Farmers |date=1 February 2014 |publisher=Univ of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill |isbn=978-0-8078-6078-6 |pages=104 and 207 |language=en}}</ref> of revenue derived from the carrying trade as income "competency." Bidders included competitive carriers in secondary seaports such as Providence as well.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Vickers |first1=Daniel |title=Competency and Competition: Economic Culture in Early America |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |date=1990 |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=3–29 |doi=10.2307/2938039 |jstor=2938039 |issn=0043-5597}}</ref> Despite the antebellum rise of "Greater Northeast" industrial agriculture,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ron |first1=Ariel |title=Grassroots Leviathan: Agricultural Reform and the Rural North in the Slaveholding Republic |date=2020 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-1-4214-3932-7 |page=12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UIYIEAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> the southern New England "Farms" and the carrying trade<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clark-Pujara |first1=Christy |title=Dark Work: The Business of Slavery in Rhode Island |date=2016 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-1-4798-7042-4 |pages=24–27 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgvMCgAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> in [[Sugar plantations in the Caribbean|Caribbean sugar]], [[Colonial molasses trade|molasses]], rice, coffee, indigo, mahogany, and pre-1740 "[[Seasoning (slavery)|seasoned slaves]]",<ref>{{cite book |last1=O'Malley |first1=Gregory E. |title=Final Passages: The Intercolonial Slave Trade of British America, 1619-1807 |date=2014 |publisher=UNC Press Books |isbn=978-1-4696-1535-6 |page=213 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K7_qCQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> began to dissipate by the [[Election of 1800]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Clark-Pujara |first1=Christy |title=Dark Work: The Business of Slavery in Rhode Island |date=2016 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-1-4798-7042-4 |page=90 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FgvMCgAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> and largely collapsed into agrarian ruins by the [[War of 1812]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Alan |title=The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies |date=2010 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=978-1-4000-4265-4 |pages=31 and 119 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XpKLDQAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>

[[Newport, Rhode Island|Newport]] and [[Bristol, Rhode Island]], were major ports involved in the colonial triangular slave trade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.projo.com/extra/2006/slavery/day1/ |title=The Unrighteous Traffick |website=[[The Providence Journal]] |date=March 12, 2006 |access-date=July 31, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090912032147/http://www.projo.com/extra/2006/slavery/day1/ |archive-date=September 12, 2009 }}</ref> Many significant Newport merchants and traders participated in the trade, working closely with merchants and traders in the Caribbean and [[Charleston, South Carolina]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deutsch|first=Sarah|date=1982|title=The Elusive Guineamen: Newport Slavers, 1735–1774|jstor=365360|journal=[[The New England Quarterly]]|volume=55|issue=2|pages=229–253|doi=10.2307/365360}}</ref>

==Statistics==
According to research provided by [[Emory University]]<ref>[https://slavevoyages.org/assessment/estimates Slave Voyages], Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade - Estimates</ref> as well as [[Henry Louis Gates Jr.]], an estimated 12.5 million slaves were transported from Africa to colonies in North and South America. The website [[Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database]] assembles data regarding past trafficking in slaves from Africa. It shows that the top four nations were Portugal, Great Britain, France, and Spain.

{{mw-datatable}}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-datatable" style=text-align:right;
! !! colspan=7 | Flag of vessels carrying the slaves !!
|-
! Destination !! Portuguese !! British !! French !! Spanish !! Dutch !! American !! Danish !! Total
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| [[Colonial Brazil|Portuguese Brazil]] || 4,821,127 || 3,804 || 9,402 || 1,033 || 27,702 || 1,174 || 130 || 4,864,372
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| [[British West Indies|British Caribbean]] || 7,919 || 2,208,296 || 22,920 || 5,795 || 6,996 || 64,836 || 1,489 || 2,318,251
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| [[French West Indies#French Caribbean|French Caribbean]] || 2,562 || 90,984 || 1,003,905 || 725 || 12,736 || 6,242 || 3,062 || 1,120,216
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| [[Hispanic America|Spanish Americas]] || 195,482 || 103,009 || 92,944 || 808,851 || 24,197 || 54,901 || 13,527 || 1,292,911
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| [[Dutch colonization of the Americas|Dutch Americas]] || 500 || 32,446 || 5,189 || 0 || 392,022 || 9,574 || 4,998 || 444,729
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| [[United States]] || 382 || 264,910 || 8,877 || 1,851 || 1,212 || 110,532 || 983 || 388,747
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| [[Danish West Indies]] || 0 || 25,594 || 7,782 || 277 || 5,161 || 2,799 || 67,385 || 108,998
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| [[Europe]] || 2,636 || 3,438 || 664 || 0 || 2,004 || 119 || 0 || 8,861
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| Africa || 69,206 || 841 || 13,282 || 66,391 || 3,210 || 2,476 || 162 || 155,568
|-
| scope=row style=text-align:left;| ''did not arrive'' || 748,452 || 526,121 || 216,439 || 176,601 || 79,096 || 52,673 || 19,304 || 1,818,686
|-
! scope=row style=text-align:left;| Total !! 5,848,266 !! 3,259,443 !! 1,381,404 !! 1,061,524 !! 554,336 !! 305,326 !! 111,040 !! 12,521,339
|}

==Other triangular trades==
The term "triangular trade" also refers to a variety of other trades.
* A triangular trade is hypothesized to have taken place among ancient East Greece (and possibly [[Attica]]), [[Kommos (Crete)|Kommos]], and Egypt.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jones|first=Donald W.|author2=Archaeological Institute of America|author3=University of Pennsylvania. University Museum|year=2000|title=External relations of early Iron Age Crete, 1100–600 B.C.|chapter=Crete's External Relations in the Early Iron Age|page=97|isbn=9780924171802|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KldoAAAAMAAJ&pg=97}}</ref>
* A trade pattern which evolved before the [[American Revolutionary War]] among [[Great Britain]], the [[Thirteen Colonies|Colonies of British North America]], and [[British West Indies|British colonies in the Caribbean]]. This typically involved exporting raw resources, such as [[fish]] (especially [[salt cod]]), agricultural produce or [[lumber]], from British North American colonies to slaves and planters in the [[West Indies]]; sugar and molasses from the Caribbean; and various manufactured commodities from Great Britain.<ref>[[Kurlansky, Mark]]. ''Cod: A Biography of the Fish That Changed the World''. New York: Walker, 1997. {{ISBN|0-8027-1326-2}}.</ref>
* The shipment of [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] salt cod and [[grain|corn]] from [[Boston]] in British vessels to southern Europe.<ref>Morgan, Kenneth. ''Bristol and the Atlantic Trade in the Eighteenth Century''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0-521-33017-3}}. pp. 64–77.</ref> This also included the shipment of wine and olive oil to Britain.
* A new "sugar triangle" developed in the 1820s and 1830s whereby American ships took local produce to [[Cuba]], then brought sugar or coffee from Cuba to the [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]] coast ([[Russian Empire]] and [[Sweden]]), then [[wrought iron|bar iron]] and hemp back to New England.<ref>Chris Evans and Göran Rydén, ''Baltic Iron in the Atlantic World in the Eighteenth Century'' : Brill, 2007 {{ISBN|978-90-04-16153-5}}, 273.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Mercantilism]]
*[[North Atlantic triangle]]
*[[Transatlantic relations]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Triangular trade}}
* [http://www.slavevoyages.org The Transatlantic Slave Trade Database], a portal to data concerning the history of the triangular trade of transatlantic slave trade voyages.
* [http://www.brown.edu/Research/Slavery_Justice/documents/SlaveryAndJustice.pdf Report of the Brown University Steering Committee on Slavery and Justice]

{{Sugar}}
{{Trade route 2}}

[[Category:History of the Atlantic Ocean]]
[[Category:Sea lanes]]
[[Category:Slavery in North America]]
[[Category:History of sugar]]
[[Category:Atlantic slave trade]]
[[Category:Age of Sail]]
[[Category:Maritime folklore]]

Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano

2024-08-11T22:24:08Z

Uruiamme: Restored revision 1239747982 by Uruiamme (talk): What was that for? He is mentioned on the page linked as exemplary

{{short description|Aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{| {{Infobox ship begin
| infobox caption = ''Shinano''
}}
{{Infobox ship image
| Ship image = Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano.jpg
| Ship caption = ''Shinano'' underway during her sea trials in [[Tokyo Bay]]
}}
{{Infobox ship career
| Hide header =
| Ship country = [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]
| Ship flag = {{Shipboxflag|Empire of Japan|naval}}
| Ship name = ''Shinano''
| Ship namesake = [[Shinano Province]]
| Ship ordered =
| Ship builder = [[Yokosuka Naval Arsenal]]
| Ship laid down = 4 May 1940
| Ship launched = 8 October 1944
| Ship completed = 19 November 1944 (for trials)
| Ship struck =
| Ship fate = Sunk by the submarine {{USS|Archerfish|SS-311|6}}, 29 November 1944
| Ship notes =
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
| Hide header =
| Header caption =
| Ship type = [[Aircraft carrier]]
| Ship displacement = *{{cvt|64800|LT|t|order=flip|lk=on}} ([[Standard displacement|standard]])
| Ship length = {{convert|872|ft|2|in|m|abbr=on|1|order=flip|sp=us}} ([[Length overall|o/a]])
| Ship beam = {{convert|119|ft|1|in|m|abbr=on|1|order=flip|sp=us}}
| Ship draught = {{convert|33|ft|10|in|m|abbr=on|1|order=flip|sp=us}}
| Ship power = * 12 × [[water-tube boiler]]s
* {{convert|150000|shp|kW|lk=on|abbr=on}}
| Ship propulsion = *4 × shafts; 4 × geared [[steam turbine]]s
| Ship speed = {{convert|28|kn|lk=in}}
| Ship range = {{convert|10000|nmi|lk=in|abbr=on}} at {{convert|18|kn}}
| Ship complement = 2,400
| Ship armament = *8 × twin [[12.7 cm/40 Type 89 naval gun|{{cvt|12.7|cm|0}}]] [[DP gun]]s
* 35 × triple [[Type 96 25 mm AT/AA gun|{{cvt|2.5|cm|0}}]] [[AA gun]]s
* 12 × 28-barrel {{cvt|12|cm|1}} AA [[rocket launcher]]s
| Ship aircraft = 47
| Ship armor = *[[Belt armor|Waterline belt]]: {{convert|160|-|400|mm|in|abbr=on|1}}
* [[Flight deck]]: {{convert|75|mm|in|abbr=on|0}}
| Ship notes =
}}
|}

{{Nihongo|'''''Shinano'''''|信濃|lead=yes||named after the ancient [[Shinano Province]]}} was an [[aircraft carrier]] built by the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] (IJN) during [[World War II]], the largest such built up to that time. [[Keel laying|Laid down]] in May 1940 as the third of the {{Sclass|Yamato|battleship}}s, ''Shinano''{{'}}s partially complete hull was ordered to be converted to an aircraft carrier following Japan's disastrous loss of four of its original six [[fleet carrier]]s at the [[Battle of Midway]] in mid-1942. The advanced state of her construction prevented her conversion into a fleet carrier, so the IJN decided to convert her into a carrier that supported other carriers.

Her conversion was still not finished in November 1944 when she was ordered to sail from the [[Yokosuka Naval Arsenal]] to [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure Naval Base]] to complete [[fitting out]] and transfer a load of 50 [[Yokosuka MXY7 Ohka|Yokosuka MXY7 ''Ohka'']] rocket-propelled ''[[kamikaze]]'' [[flying bomb]]s. She was sunk en route, 10 days after [[Ship commissioning|commissioning]], on 29 November 1944, by four [[torpedo]]es from the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] [[submarine]] {{USS|Archerfish|SS-311|2}}. Over a thousand sailors and civilians were rescued and 1,435 were lost, including her captain. She remains the largest ship ever sunk by a submarine.<ref name=":0">Enright & Ryan, p. xiv</ref>

==Design and description==
One of two additional ''Yamato''-class [[battleships]] ordered as part of the [[4th Naval Armaments Supplement Programme|4th Naval Armaments Supplement Program]] of 1939,<ref name=":1">Enright & Ryan, p. 2</ref> ''Shinano'' was named after the old province of [[Shinano Province|Shinano]], following the [[Japanese ship-naming conventions]] for battleships.<ref>Silverstone, p. 336</ref> She was laid down on 4 May 1940 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal to a modified ''Yamato''-class design: her armor would be {{convert|10|-|20|mm|sp=us|1}} thinner than that of the earlier ships, as it had proved to be thicker than it needed to be for the desired level of protection, and her heavy [[Anti-aircraft gun|anti-aircraft (AA) guns]] would be the new 65-[[caliber (artillery)|caliber]] [[10 cm/65 Type 98 naval gun|10 cm Type 98]] [[dual-purpose gun]], as it had superior ballistic characteristics and a higher rate of fire than the [[12.7 cm/40 Type 89 naval gun|40-caliber 12.7 cm Type 89]] guns used by her [[sister ship|half-sisters]].<ref name=":2">Garzke & Dulin, pp. 74–75</ref>

===Construction and conversion===
As with ''Shinano''{{'}}s half-sisters {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Yamato||2}} and {{Ship|Japanese battleship|Musashi||2}}, the new ship's existence was kept a closely guarded secret. A tall fence was erected on three sides of the [[graving dock]], and those working on the conversion were confined to the yard compound. Serious punishment—up to and including death—awaited any worker who mentioned the new ship. As a result, ''Shinano'' was the only major warship built in the 20th century that was never officially photographed during its construction. The ship is only known to have been photographed on three occasions. The first photograph, taken by a Japanese aircraft in mid-October 1944, was intended to review the camouflage efforts made to conceal the carrier while in drydock.<ref>{{Cite web |date=July 1, 2020 |title=Yokosuka City Historical Materials Room - July 1, 2020 |url=https://www.city.yokosuka.kanagawa.jp/8150/shishi/documents/oakiyama-tsushin04.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Imperial Flattops |url=http://www.combinedfleet.com/Shinano.htm |access-date=2023-11-20 |website=www.combinedfleet.com}}</ref> Later, on 1 November 1944, a [[Boeing B-29 Superfortress]] [[reconnaissance aircraft]] captured ''Shinano'' near the entrance of Yokosuka Harbor from an altitude of {{convert|32000|ft|m|sp=us|order=flip}}. Ten days later a civilian photographer aboard a harbor [[Tugboat|tug]] photographed ''Shinano''{{'}}s initial [[Sea trial|sea trials]] in [[Tokyo Bay]].<ref name=":0" />

In December 1941, construction on ''Shinano''{{'}}s hull was temporarily suspended to allow the IJN time to decide what to do with the ship. She was not expected to be completed until 1945, and the [[Sinking of Prince of Wales and Repulse|sinking]] of the British [[capital ship]]s {{HMS|Prince of Wales|53|2}} and {{HMS|Repulse|1916|2}} by IJN bombers had called into question the viability of battleships in the war. The navy also wanted to make the large [[drydock]] in which the ship was being built available, which required either [[ship breaking|scrapping]] the portion already completed or finishing it enough to [[Ceremonial ship launching|launch]] it and clear the drydock. The IJN decided on the latter, albeit with a reduced work force which was expected to be able to launch the ship in one year.<ref>Garzke & Dulin, p. 75</ref>

In the month following the disastrous loss of four [[fleet carrier]]s at the June 1942 [[Battle of Midway]], the IJN ordered the ship's unfinished hull converted into an aircraft carrier. Her hull was only 45 percent complete by that time, with structural work complete up to the lower deck and most of her machinery installed. The main deck, lower side armor, and upper side armor around the ship's [[magazine (artillery)|magazines]] had been completely installed, and the forward [[barbette]]s for the main guns were also nearly finished. The navy decided that ''Shinano'' would become a heavily armored support carrier<ref name=gd8>Garzke & Dulin, p. 78</ref>—carrying reserve aircraft, fuel and ordnance in support of other carriers—rather than a fleet carrier.<ref name=c5>Chesneau, p. 185</ref>

As completed, ''Shinano'' had a length of {{convert|265.8|m|ftin|sp=us}} [[length overall|overall]], a [[beam (nautical)|beam]] of {{convert|36.3|m|ftin|sp=us}} and a [[draft (ship)|draft]] of {{convert|10.3|m|ftin|sp=us}}. She [[Displacement (ship)|displaced]] {{convert|64800|LT|t|order=flip|sp=us|lk=on}} at [[Standard displacement|standard]] load, {{convert|68059|LT|t|order=flip|sp=us}} at normal load and {{convert|72000|LT|t|order=flip|sp=us}} at full load. ''Shinano'' was the heaviest aircraft carrier yet built, a record she held until the {{convert|80000|LT|t|order=flip|sp=us|adj=on}} {{USS|Forrestal|CV-59|6}} was launched in 1954. She was designed for a crew of 2,400 officers and enlisted men.<ref name=j5>Jentschura, Jung & Mickel, p. 55</ref><ref name="Preston91">Preston, p. 91</ref>

===Machinery===
''Shinano''{{'}}s machinery was identical to that of her half-sisters. The ships were fitted with four geared [[steam turbine]] sets with a total of {{convert|150000|shp|kW|lk=on}}, each driving one [[propeller shaft (ship)|propeller shaft]], using steam provided by 12 Kampon [[water-tube boiler]]s. The ships had a designed speed of {{convert|27|kn|lk=in}}, but ''Shinano'' never conducted full-speed sea trials so her actual performance is unknown.<ref name="Brown32-33">Brown, pp. 32–33</ref> She carried {{convert|8904|LT|t|order=flip|sp=us}} of [[fuel oil]] which gave her an estimated range of {{convert|10000|nmi|lk=in}} at {{convert|18|kn}}.<ref name=c5/>

===Flight deck and hangar===
''Shinano'' was designed to load and fuel her aircraft on deck where it was safer for the ship; experiences in the Battles of Midway and [[Battle of the Coral Sea|the Coral Sea]] had demonstrated that the existing doctrine of fueling and arming their aircraft below decks was a real danger to the carriers if they were attacked while doing so. Much of ''Shinano''{{'}}s [[hangar]] was left open for better ventilation, although steel shutters could close off most of the hangar sides if necessary. This also allowed ordnance or burning aircraft to be jettisoned into the sea, something that the earlier carriers could not do with their enclosed hangars.<ref name=gd8/>

The carrier's {{convert|256|m|ftin|sp=us|adj=on}} [[flight deck]] was {{convert|131|ft|3|in|0|order=flip|sp=us}} wide and overhung her hull at both ends, supported by pairs of pillars.<ref name="Brown32-33" /> A large [[island (aircraft carrier)|island]], modeled on that fitted on the earlier {{ship|Japanese aircraft carrier|Taihō||2}}, was [[sponson]]ed off the starboard side and integrated with the ship's [[funnel (ship)|funnel]]. Much like ''Taihō'', the only other Japanese carrier with an [[armored flight deck]], ''Shinano''{{'}}s flight deck functioned as the ship's strength deck and copied British practice as seen in their {{Sclass|Illustrious|aircraft carrier|0}} carriers. Designed to resist penetration by {{convert|500|kg|adj=on|sp=us}} bombs dropped by a [[dive bomber]], the flight deck consisted of {{convert|75|mm|sp=us|0}} of armor plate laid over {{convert|20|mm|sp=us|1}} of ordinary steel.<ref name=gd8/> It was equipped with 15 transverse [[arrestor wire]]s and three [[crash barrier]]s that could stop a {{convert|7500|kg|adj=on|sp=us}} aircraft;<ref name=b2>Brown, p. 32</ref> five of these wires were positioned further forward to allow the ship to land aircraft over the bow in case the aft portion of the flight deck was unusable.<ref name=gd8/>

Unlike the British carriers, ''Taihō'' and ''Shinano'' had unarmored sides to their hangars. For stability reasons, the latter only had a single hangar that was {{convert|536|by|111|ft|m|1|order=flip|sp=us}}, with a minimum width of {{convert|65|ft|m|1|order=flip|sp=us}} aft, and had a height of {{convert|16|ft|6|in|m|0|order=flip|sp=us}}. The forward area of the hangar was dedicated to maintenance and storage facilities. Aircraft were transported between the hangar and the flight deck by two [[Elevator#Aircraft elevators|elevators]], one at each end of the hangar on the centerline of the flight deck. The larger of the two measured {{convert|49.25|by|45.9|ft|m|0|order=flip|sp=us}}. They were capable of lifting aircraft weighing up to {{convert|7500|kg|lbs|sp=us}}. The ship had an [[aviation gasoline]] (avgas) capacity of {{convert|720000|L|sp=us}}.<ref name="Brown32-33" /> Because ''Taihō'' had been sunk by an explosion of gasoline fumes, large ventilation fans were installed on the hangar deck to expel fumes in case of damage to the gasoline system. Canvas wind scoops could also be rigged over the elevator opening to force more air inside.<ref name=gd9/>

The ship's organic air group was intended to consist of 18 [[Mitsubishi A7M]] ''Reppū'' ([[World War II Allied names for Japanese aircraft|Allied reporting name]] "Sam") fighters (plus two in storage), 18 [[Aichi B7A]] ''Ryusei'' ("Grace") [[torpedo bomber|torpedo]]-dive bombers (plus two in storage), and 6 [[Nakajima C6N]] ''Saiun'' ("Myrt") reconnaissance aircraft (plus one in storage).<ref name=gd8/> The remainder of the hangar space would have held up to 120 replacement aircraft for other carriers and land bases.<ref name=c5/> The steel flight deck was covered with a thin, shock-absorbent latex-sawdust compound.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/1953/february/shinano-jinx-carrier|title=Shinano: The Jinx Carrier|date=1 February 1953|website=U.S. Naval Institute}}</ref>

===Armament===
''Shinano''{{'}}s primary armament consisted of sixteen 40-caliber {{convert|12.7|cm|in|adj=on|sp=us|0}} Type 89 [[dual-purpose gun]]s in eight twin mounts, two at each corner of the hull.<ref name=b2/> When firing at surface targets, the guns had a range of {{convert|14700|m|yd|sp=us}}; they had a maximum ceiling of {{convert|9440|m|ft|sp=us}} at their maximum [[elevation (ballistics)|elevation]] of 90 degrees. Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute; their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute.<ref>Campbell, pp. 192–193</ref>

The ship also carried 105 [[Type 96 25 mm AT/AA Gun|Type 96 25 mm (1 in)]] light AA guns in 35 triple-gun mounts.<ref name=gd9>Garzke & Dulin, p. 79</ref> These {{convert|25|mm|in|adj=on|sp=us}} guns had an effective range of {{convert|1500|-|3000|m|yd|sp=us}}, and an effective ceiling of {{convert|5500|m|ft|sp=us}} at an elevation of +85 degrees. The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen-round [[magazine (firearms)|magazines]].<ref>Campbell, p. 200</ref> This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II, but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective. According to historian Mark Stille, the weapon had many faults including an inability to "handle high-speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power, its sights were inadequate for high-speed targets, it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast"....<ref>Stille, p. 51</ref> These guns were supplemented by a dozen 28-round AA rocket launchers.<ref name="Brown32-33" /> Each {{convert|12|cm|adj=on|sp=us}} rocket weighed {{convert|22.5|kg|lb|order=flip}} and had a maximum velocity of {{convert|200|m/s|ft/s|abbr=on|sp=us}}. Their maximum range was {{convert|4800|m|yd|sp=us}}.<ref>Campbell, p. 216</ref>

Four Type 94 high-angle [[fire-control director]]s were fitted to control the Type 89 guns. The two controlling the port-side guns were adjacent to their guns while the starboard directors were mounted fore and aft on the island. They could control all of the forward and rear guns respectively as necessary.<ref name=b2/> [[Type 22 (radar)|Type 22]] and [[Type 13 (radar)|Type 13]] air search [[radar]]s may have been fitted.<ref name=c5/>

===Armor===
The ship's original [[waterline]] [[belt armor|armor belt]] thickness of {{convert|400|mm|in|sp=us|1}} was retained only where it had already been installed abreast the magazines, and reduced to {{convert|160|mm|in|sp=us|1}} elsewhere. Below it was a [[strake]] of armor that tapered in thickness from {{convert|200|mm|in|sp=us|1}} to 75 millimeters at its bottom edge. The flat portion of the armor deck over the machinery and magazine spaces, ranging from {{convert|100|to|190|mm|in|sp=us|1}}, was retained, and the sloped portion that angled downward towards the bottom of the main armor belt was {{convert|230|mm|in|sp=us|1}} thick. Large external [[anti-torpedo bulge]]s below the waterline provided the main defense against torpedoes, backed up by an armored bulkhead extending down from the belt armor; the bulkhead was intended to prevent splinters from piercing the main hull and, though not watertight, was backed by a second one which was. The joint between the upper and lower armor belts was weak and proved to be a serious problem when struck by torpedoes.<ref>Garzke & Dulin, pp. 79–80</ref>

Even though ''Shinano''{{'}}s avgas tanks were protected by armor that could resist a {{convert|155|mm|in|sp=us|1|adj=on}} shell, the IJN attempted to isolate the tanks from the rest of the ship with a [[Cofferdam#Naval architecture|cofferdam]]. However the investigation into the loss of ''Taihō'' had revealed that her avgas tanks had sprung leaks after she was torpedoed. The resulting fumes then penetrated the cofferdam and exploded. Therefore, the IJN thought it prudent to fill the empty spaces between the tanks and the cofferdam with {{convert|2400|t|LT|sp=us|0}} of concrete to prevent any fumes from escaping.<ref name=gd9/>

===Launching===
[[File:Toshio Abe.jpg|thumb|200px|Toshio Abe]]
The ship was originally scheduled for completion in April 1945, but construction was expedited after the defeat at the [[Battle of the Philippine Sea]] in June 1944 as the IJN anticipated that the United States would now be able to bomb Japan with long-range aircraft from bases in the [[Mariana Islands]]. The builder was unable to increase the number of workers on ''Shinano'' and could not meet the new deadline of October. Even so, the pressure to finish as quickly as possible led to poor workmanship by the workforce.<ref name=gd0>Garzke & Dulin, p. 80</ref>

''Shinano''{{'}}s launch on 8 October 1944, with Captain {{ill|Toshio Abe|ja|阿部俊雄}} in command, was marred by what some considered an ill-omened accident. During the floating-out procedure, one of the [[caisson (engineering)|caissons]] at the end of the dock that had not been properly ballasted with seawater unexpectedly lifted as the water rose to the level of the harbor. The sudden inrush of water into the graving dock pushed the carrier into the forward end, damaging the bow structure below the waterline and requiring repairs in drydock. These were completed by 26 October.<ref name=gd0/>

==Commissioning and sinking==

===Departure from Yokosuka===
On 19 November 1944, ''Shinano'' was formally commissioned at Yokosuka, having spent the previous two weeks [[fitting out]] and performing sea trials.<ref name="cfrecord">Tully</ref> Worried about her safety after a U.S. reconnaissance bomber fly-over,<ref name="cfrecord" /> the [[Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff|Navy General Staff]] ordered ''Shinano'' to depart for [[Kure, Hiroshima|Kure]] by no later than 28 November, where the remainder of her fitting-out would take place. Abe asked for a delay in the sailing date<ref name=er19/> as the majority of her watertight doors had yet to be installed, the compartment air tests had not been conducted, and many holes in the compartment bulkheads for electrical cables, ventilation ducts and pipes had not been sealed. Importantly, fire mains and bailing systems lacked pumps and were inoperable; even though most of the crew had sea-going experience,<ref>Holtzworth, pp. 26–27</ref> they lacked training in the portable pumps on board.<ref>Garzke & Dulin, pp. 83–84</ref> The escorting destroyers, {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Isokaze|1939|2}}, {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Yukikaze|1939|2}} and {{ship|Japanese destroyer|Hamakaze|1940|2}}, had just returned from the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]] and required more than three days to conduct repairs and to allow their crews to recuperate.<ref>Enright & Ryan, pp. 31–32</ref>

Abe's request was denied, and ''Shinano'' departed as scheduled with the escorting destroyers at 18:00 on 28 November. Abe commanded a crew of 2,175 officers and men. Also on board were 300 shipyard workers and 40 civilian employees. Watertight doors and hatches were left open for ease of access to machinery spaces, as were some [[manhole]]s in the double and triple-bottomed hull.<ref name="battleships">Garzke & Dulin, p. 82</ref> Abe preferred a daylight passage, since it would have allowed him extra time to train his crew and given the destroyer crews time to rest. However, he was forced to make a nighttime run when he learned the Navy General Staff could not provide air support.<ref name=er19>Enright & Ryan, p. 25</ref> ''Shinano'' carried six [[Shinyo (suicide boat)|''Shinyo'']] suicide boats, and 50 ''Ohka'' suicide flying bombs;<ref name="cfrecord" /> her other aircraft were not planned to come aboard until later. Her orders were to go to Kure, where she would complete fitting out and then deliver the ''kamikaze'' craft to the [[Philippines]] and [[Okinawa]]. Traveling at an average speed of {{convert|20|kn}}, she needed sixteen hours to cover the 300 miles (480 km) to Kure. As a measure of how important ''Shinano'' was to the naval command, Abe was slated for promotion to [[rear admiral]] once the fitting-out was complete.<ref>Enright & Ryan, pp. 19–20</ref>

===Attacked===
[[File:ArcherfishJune1945.jpg|thumb|left|''Archerfish'' on the surface, June 1945]]
At 20:48, the American submarine {{USS|Archerfish|SS-311|2}}, commanded by [[Commander]] [[Joseph F. Enright]], detected ''Shinano'' and her escorts on her radar and pursued them on a parallel course. Over an hour and a half earlier, ''Shinano'' had detected the submarine's radar.<ref>Enright & Ryan, pp. 21, 29</ref> Normally, ''Shinano'' would have been able to outrun ''Archerfish'', but the zig-zagging movement of the carrier and her escorts—intended to evade any American submarines in the area—inadvertently turned the task group back into the Archerfish's path on several occasions. At 22:45, the carrier's lookouts spotted ''Archerfish'' on the surface, and ''Isokaze'' broke formation, against orders, to investigate. Abe ordered the destroyer to return to the formation without attacking because he believed that the submarine was part of an American [[Wolfpack (naval tactic)|wolfpack]]. He assumed ''Archerfish'' was being used as a decoy to lure away one of the escorts to allow the rest of the pack a clear shot at ''Shinano''. He ordered his ships to turn away from the submarine with the expectation of outrunning it, counting on his {{convert|2|kn|adj=on}} margin of speed over the submarine. Around 23:22, the carrier was forced to reduce speed to {{convert|18|kn}}, the same speed as ''Archerfish'', to prevent damage to the [[propeller shaft]] when a [[bearing (mechanical)|bearing]] overheated.<ref>Enright & Ryan, pp. 66, 94–101</ref>
At 02:56 on 29 November, ''Shinano'' turned to the southwest and headed straight for ''Archerfish''. Eight minutes later, ''Archerfish'' turned east and submerged in preparation to attack. Enright ordered his torpedoes set for a depth of {{convert|10|ft|m|1}} in case they ran deeper than set; he also intended to increase the chances of [[capsizing]] the ship by punching holes higher up in the hull. A few minutes later, ''Shinano'' turned south, exposing her entire side to ''Archerfish''—a nearly ideal firing situation for a submarine. The escorting destroyer on that side passed right over ''Archerfish'' without detecting her. At 03:15 ''Archerfish'' fired six torpedoes before diving to {{convert|400|ft|m}} to escape a [[depth charge]] attack from the escorts.<ref>Enright & Ryan, pp. 141–143, 150–158, 161</ref>

Four torpedoes struck ''Shinano'', at an average depth of {{convert|4.27|m|ftin|sp=us}}.<ref name="battleships"/> The first hit towards the stern, flooding refrigerated storage compartments and one of the empty aviation gasoline storage tanks and killing many of the sleeping engineering personnel in the compartments above. The second hit the compartment where the starboard outboard propeller shaft entered the hull and flooded the outboard [[engine room]]. The third hit further forward, flooding the No. 3 boiler room and killing every man on watch. Structural failures caused the two adjacent boiler rooms to flood as well. The fourth flooded the starboard air compressor room, adjacent anti-aircraft gun magazines, and the No. 2 [[Damage control (maritime)|damage control station]] and ruptured the adjacent oil tank.<ref>Enright & Ryan, pp. 159–160</ref>

===Sinking===
[[File:Torpedo impact damage to the aircraft carrier Shinano, 1944.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Diagram showing locations of torpedo hits and ensuing flooding: Red shows compartments immediately flooded, orange slowly flooded, and yellow deliberate flooding to offset the ship's list]]

Though severe, the damage to ''Shinano'' was at first judged to be manageable.<ref name="cfrecord" /> The crew were confident in the ship's armor and strength, which translated into lax initial efforts to save the ship.<ref name="battleships" /> This overconfidence extended to Abe. He doubted the sub's torpedoes could inflict serious damage, since he knew that American torpedoes were less potent than Japanese torpedoes. He ordered the carrier to maintain its maximum speed even after the last torpedo hit.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.questia.com/read/1G1-4973376|title=The Sinking of a Supercarrier|last=Enright|first=Joseph|author-link=Joseph F. Enright|work=[[Washington Monthly]]|date=1987-05-01}}</ref> This pushed more water through the holes in the hull resulting in extensive flooding. Within a few minutes the ship was [[list (watercraft)|listing]] 10 degrees to starboard. Despite the crew pumping {{convert|3000|LT|t}} of water into the port [[bilge]]s, the list increased to 13 degrees.<ref>Enright & Ryan, pp. 162–165</ref> When it became apparent the damage was more severe than first thought, Abe ordered a change of course towards [[Cape Shionomisaki|Shiono Point]], the southernmost tip of Honshu's [[Kii Peninsula]]. Progressively increasing flooding increased the list to 15 degrees by 03:30. Fifty minutes later, Abe ordered the empty port outboard tanks to be counter-flooded, reducing the list to 12 degrees for a brief time. After 05:00 he ordered the civilian workers to be transferred to the escorts as they were impeding the crew in their duties.<ref>Enright & Ryan, pp. 172–175</ref>

A half-hour later, ''Shinano'' was making 10 knots with a 13-degree list. At 06:00 her list had increased to 20 degrees after the starboard boiler room flooded, at which point the valves of the port trimming tanks rose above the waterline and became ineffective. The engines shut down for lack of steam around 07:00, and Abe ordered all of the propulsion compartments evacuated an hour later. He then ordered the three outboard port boiler rooms flooded in a futile attempt to reduce the carrier's list. He also ordered ''Hamakaze'' and ''Isokaze'' to take her in tow. However, the two destroyers displaced only {{convert|5000|t|LT|sp=us}} between them, about one-fourteenth of ''Shinano''{{'}}s displacement and not nearly enough to overcome her deadweight. The first tow cables snapped under the strain and the second attempt was aborted for fear of injury to the crews if they snapped again. The ship lost all power around 09:00 and was now listing over 20 degrees. At 10:18, Abe released the crew to save themselves, refusing to issue any orders to abandon ship; by this time ''Shinano'' had a list of 30 degrees. As she heeled water flowed into the open elevator well on her flight deck, sucking many swimming sailors back into the ship as she sank. A large exhaust vent below the flight deck also sucked many other sailors into the ship as she submerged.<ref>Enright & Ryan, pp. 185–198</ref>

At 10:57 ''Shinano'' finally capsized and sank stern-first at coordinates ({{coord|33|07|N|137|04|E|display=inline,title}}), {{convert|65|mi}} from the nearest land, in approximately {{convert|4000|m|sp=us}} of water, taking 1,435 officers, men and civilians to their deaths. The dead included Abe and both of his navigators, [[The captain goes down with the ship|who chose to go down with the ship]]. Rescued were 55 officers and 993 petty officers and enlisted men, plus 32 civilians for a total of 1,080 survivors.<ref name="cfrecord" /> After their rescue, the survivors were isolated on the island of Mitsuko-jima until January 1945 to suppress the news of the carrier's loss.<ref>Enright & Ryan, p. 213</ref> The carrier was formally struck from the Naval Register on 31 August.<ref name="cfrecord" />

[[US Naval Intelligence]] did not initially believe Enright's claim to have sunk a carrier. ''Shinano''{{'}}s construction had not been detected through [[signals intelligence|decoded radio messages]] or other means, and the American analysts believed that they had located all of Japan's surviving carriers,<ref name=blair779780 >Blair, pp. 779–780</ref> even though a captured Japanese aviator had revealed in July 1943 that a third ''Yamato''-class battleship was being converted into a carrier.<ref>{{cite web| last = Czarnecki | first = Joseph | year = 2002 | url = http://navweaps.com/index_tech/tech-084.php | title = What did the USN know about Yamato and when? | publisher = NavWeaps.com | access-date = 19 July 2020}}</ref> Enright was eventually credited with sinking a {{convert|28000|LT|adj=on}} ''Hayatake'' ({{sclass|Hiyō|aircraft carrier|0}}) carrier by the acting commander of the Pacific Fleet's submarine force on the basis of a drawing Enright submitted depicting the ship he had attacked. Once the existence of ''Shinano'' was discovered, Enright was credited with her sinking and awarded the [[Navy Cross]].<ref name=blair779780 />

==Post-war analysis of the sinking==
Post-war analysis by the U.S. Naval Technical Mission to Japan noted that ''Shinano'' had serious design flaws. Specifically, the joint between the waterline armor belt on the upper hull and the anti-torpedo bulge on the underwater portion was poorly designed, a trait shared by the ''Yamato''-class battleships; ''Archerfish''{{'}}s torpedoes all exploded along this joint. The force of the torpedo explosions also dislodged an [[I-beam]] in one of the boiler rooms, which punched a hole into another boiler room. In addition, the failure to test for watertightness in each compartment played a role as potential leaks could not be found and patched before ''Shinano'' put to sea.<ref>Holtzworth, pp. 26–28</ref> The [[executive officer]] blamed the large amount of water that entered the ship on the failure to air-test the compartments for leaks. He reported hearing air rushing through gaps in the watertight doors just minutes after the last torpedo hit—a sign that seawater was rapidly entering the ship, proving the doors were unseaworthy.<ref>Enright & Ryan, p. 164</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of ships sunk by submarines by death toll]]
* [[:ja:深江章喜|Shoki Fukae]] (Japanese actor who played villains in movies and TV show. One of the surviving crew members. He was rescued after drifting for 12 hours at the time of sinking. ）
{{clear}}

==Footnotes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
* {{cite book|last=Blair|first=Clay|author-link=Clay Blair|title=Silent Victory: The U.S. Submarine War Against Japan|edition=[1975]|year=2001|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis, Maryland|isbn=1-55750-217-X}}
* {{cite book|last=Brown |first=David |title=WWII Fact Files: Aircraft Carriers|location=New York |publisher=Arco Publishing |year=1977 |isbn=0-668-04164-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Campbell|first=John|title=Naval Weapons of World War II|year=1985|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis, Maryland|isbn=0-87021-459-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Chesneau|first=Roger|title=Aircraft Carriers of the World, 1914 to the Present: An Illustrated Encyclopedia|edition=New, Revised|year=1995|publisher=Naval Institute Press|location=Annapolis, Maryland|isbn=0-87021-902-2|url=https://archive.org/details/aircraftcarriers00ches}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Enright | first1 = Joseph F. | last2 = Ryan | first2 = James W. | year = 1987 | title = Shinano!: The Sinking of Japan's Secret Supership | location = New York | publisher = St. Martin's Press | isbn = 0-312-00186-X |name-list-style=amp| url = https://archive.org/details/shinanosinkingof00enri }}
* {{cite book
| last1 = Garzke
| first1 = William H.
| last2 = Dulin
| first2 = Robert O.
| year = 1985
| title = Battleships: Axis and Neutral Battleships in World War II
| publisher = Naval Institute Press
| location = Annapolis, Maryland
| isbn = 978-0-87021-101-0|name-list-style=amp
}}
* {{cite web | url = https://www.fischer-tropsch.org/primary_documents/gvt_reports/USNAVY/USNTMJ%20Reports/USNTMJ-200H-0745-0786%20Report%20S-06-2.pdf | last1 = Holtzworth | first1 = ((E.C., Commander)) | title = Reports of the US Naval Technical Mission to Japan: Ship and Related Targets – Article 2: Yamato (BB), Musashi (BB), Taiho (CV), Shinano (CV) | access-date = 6 December 2023 | publisher = United States Navy | date = January 1946 | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20131018053426/https://www.fischer-tropsch.org/primary_documents/gvt_reports/USNAVY/USNTMJ%20Reports/USNTMJ-200H-0745-0786%20Report%20S-06-2.pdf | archive-date = 18 October 2013}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Jentschura | first1 = Hansgeorg | last2 = Jung | first2 = Dieter | last3 = Mickel | first3 = Peter | year = 1977 | title = Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1869–1945 | publisher = United States Naval Institute | location = Annapolis, Maryland | isbn = 0-87021-893-X|name-list-style=amp}}
* {{cite book | last = Preston | first = Antony | year = 1999 | title = The World's Great Aircraft Carriers | location = London | publisher = Brown Books | isbn = 1-897884-58-3 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/worldsgreataircr0000pres }}
* {{cite book|last=Silverstone|first=Paul H.|title=Directory of the World's Capital Ships|year=1984|publisher=Hippocrene Books|location=New York|isbn=0-88254-979-0}}
* {{cite book| last = Stille| first = Mark| series =Duel|volume=6| year = 2007| title = USN Carriers vs IJN Carriers: The Pacific 1942| publisher = Osprey Publishing| location = Oxford, UK| isbn = 978-1-84603-248-6}}
* {{cite web
| last = Tully
| first = Anthony P.
| year = 2001
| url = http://www.combinedfleet.com/Shinano.htm
| title = IJN Shinano: Tabular Record of Movement
| work = Kido Butai
| publisher = Combinedfleet.com
| access-date = 16 June 2013
}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* Two plans of the ship have been located in the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] files and are available for download at [https://catalog.archives.gov/id/76028759] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101142400/https://catalog.archives.gov/id/76028759 |date=1 November 2021 }} and [https://catalog.archives.gov/id/76028757] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101142400/https://catalog.archives.gov/id/76028757 |date=1 November 2021 }}.

{{Yamato class battleship}}
{{WWII Japanese ships}}
{{Maiden voyage sinkings}}
{{November 1944 shipwrecks}}

{{Featured article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shinano}}
[[Category:Yamato-class battleships]]
[[Category:Ships built by Yokosuka Naval Arsenal]]
[[Category:1944 ships]]
[[Category:Aircraft carriers of the Imperial Japanese Navy]]
[[Category:World War II aircraft carriers of Japan]]
[[Category:Ships sunk by American submarines]]
[[Category:World War II shipwrecks in the Pacific Ocean]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in November 1944]]

Joseph F. Enright

2024-08-11T08:30:46Z

Uruiamme: /* US Navy career */ 400

{{Short description|United States Navy officer}}
{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Joseph Francis Enright
| honorific_suffix =
| image = Joseph F. Enright.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Joseph Enright in 1957
| native_name =
| native_name_lang =
| birth_name =
| nickname =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1910|09|18}}
| birth_place = [[Minot, North Dakota]], US
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2000|07|20|1910|09|18}}
| death_place = [[Fairfax, Virginia]], US
| placeofburial = [[Arlington National Cemetery]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ancexplorer.army.mil/publicwmv/#/arlington-national/search/results/1/CgdlbnJpZ2h0EgZqb3NlcGg-/|accessdate=January 27, 2023|website=ANC Explorer|title=Burial detail: Enright, Joseph F}}</ref>
| placeofburial_label =
| placeofburial_coordinates = 
| allegiance = [[United States of America]]
| branch = [[United States Navy]]
| serviceyears = 1933–1963
| rank = [[Captain (United States O-6)]]
| servicenumber = 
| unit =
| commands = {{USS|O-10|SS-71}} {{USS|Dace|SS-247}} {{USS|Archerfish|SS-311}}
| battles = [[World War II]]
| battles_label =
| awards = [[Navy Cross]] [[Legion of Merit]] with [["V" Device]]
| memorials =
| spouse = 
| relations =
| laterwork =
| signature =
| signature_size =
| signature_alt =
| website = 
| module =
}}

'''Joseph Francis Enright''' (September 18, 1910 – July 20, 2000)<ref name=NYT>{{cite news | title=Joseph Enright, 89, Dies; Sank WWII Carrier | author=Goldstein, Richard | newspaper=[[The New York Times]], July 26, 2000 | url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9503E4DB113AF935A15754C0A9669C8B63&sec=&spon=&&scp=1&sq=Joseph%20Enright&st=cse | date=July 26, 2000 | access-date=May 7, 2010}}</ref> was a [[submarine]] captain in the [[United States Navy]]. He is best known as the man who sank the [[Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano|Japanese aircraft carrier ''Shinano'']]–the "most significant single submarine sinking of [[World War II]]."<ref name=WC98>Wilson, Callo p. 98</ref>

== US Navy career ==
Enright was born in [[Minot, North Dakota]]. He graduated from [[United States Naval Academy]] in 1933, served three years on {{USS|Maryland |BB-46}}<ref name=NYT /> and achieved submariner's qualification in 1936.<ref name=WC98 /> During World War II, [[Lieutenant commander (United States)|Lieutenant Commander]] Enright commanded {{USS|O-10|SS-71}}, {{USS|Dace|SS-247}} and {{USS|Archerfish|SS-311}}.<ref name=WC98 />

Enright assumed command of the newly built USS ''Dace'' on July 23, 1943,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/sh-usn/usnsh-d/ss247.htm | title=USS ''Dace'' (SS-247), 1943–1955 | publisher=Department of the Navy. Naval Historical Center | accessdate=August 11, 2009 }}</ref> and in October sailed out on her first war patrol into busy Japanese waters. On November 15<ref name=N186>Newpower, p. 186</ref> an [[Ultra (cryptography)|Ultra]] message alerted him to intercept [[Japanese aircraft carrier Shōkaku|aircraft carrier ''Shōkaku'']]; Enright located the target and "made a timid approach, abandoning the effort as daylight approached".<ref name=N186 /> He then found another target, a [[Tank ship|tanker]], but was [[depth charge]]d by escort ships and withdrew from active pursuit.<ref name=N186 /> In the end the 49-day patrol brought no results.<ref name=N186 /><ref name=GA78>Galantin, p. 78</ref> Enright took the blame for failure: "I was responsible for an unproductive patrol and request to be relieved by an officer who can perform more satisfactorily".<ref name=GA78 /> Admiral [[Charles A. Lockwood|Lockwood]]<ref name=N186 /> granted the request and demoted Enright to administrative duties ashore.<ref name=GA78 /> After half a year at [[Midway Atoll|Midway]] submarine base,<ref name=USN>{{cite web | title=Captain Joseph Francis Enright, USN | url=https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/our-collections/photography/numerical-list-of-images/nhhc-series/nh-series/NH-90000/NH-90520.html | publisher=Department of the Navy, Naval History and Heritage Command | accessdate=October 9, 2020 }}</ref> Enright requested to be given another submarine command<ref name=GA78 /> and received "a rare second chance",<ref name=N186 /> command of {{USS|Archerfish|SS-311}} in September 1944.<ref name=USN />

''Archerfish'' left [[Pearl Harbor]] on October 30, 1944, and reached [[Saipan]] on November 9.<ref name=N186 /> For the next two weeks the submarine provided [[search and rescue]] support to American aviators in the areas of planned air strikes.<ref name=N186 /> On November 28, when the submarine was patrolling south from [[Nagoya]], [[radar]] identified a surface contact {{convert|12|mi|km}} away.<ref name=N186 /> Visual contact became possible at 2140, and by 2300 Enright identified it as an aircraft carrier protected by three [[destroyer]]s.<ref name=N187>Newpower, p. 187</ref>

Enright had initially assumed the target was a tanker. Once he realized it was a carrier, he ordered it tracked "from ahead" in hopes that he could get ahead and attack from below.<ref name=EnrightRyan>{{cite book | last1 = Enright | first1 = Joseph F. | last2 = Ryan | first2 = James W. | year = 1987 | title = Shinano!: The Sinking of Japan's Secret Supership | location = New York | publisher = St. Martin's Press | isbn = 0-312-00186-X |name-list-style=amp| url = https://archive.org/details/shinanosinkingof00enri }}</ref>

At 0241, on November 29, the target turned away from ''Archerfish'' and then straight at her.<ref name=N187 /> At 0305, Enright ordered ''Archerfish'' to dive.<ref name=EnrightRyan/> At 0317 at a mere {{convert|1400|yd|m}} from the target, Enright fired all six available torpedoes at the carrier.<ref name=N187 /> He deliberately set the torpedoes to run shallow ({{convert|10|ft|m|disp=sqbr}}); he not only wanted to ensure a hit in case they ran deeper than set, but also hoped to increase the likelihood of [[capsizing]] the carrier by holing it further up on its hull.<ref name=EnrightRyan/> Enright stayed at [[periscope depth]] to see the first two torpedoes hit ''Shinano'', then dived down to {{convert|400|ft|m}} in order to escape [[depth charge]] revenge from her escorts. While rigged for silent running, Enright and his crew heard loud breaking-up noises for 47 minutes, and were certain they had sent their quarry to the bottom.<ref name=N187 /> It was only after the war that the carrier was identified as ''Shinano'', the long-rumored third battleship of the [[Yamato-class battleship|''Yamato'' class]]. Her keel had been converted into a supercarrier while still under construction. Four of his sub's torpedoes had found their mark. Due to crew inexperience and design flaws, she struggled with damage for more than seven hours and finally capsized at 10:57. The damage was magnified because ''Shinano''{{'}}s commander, Captain {{ill|Toshio Abe|ja|阿部俊雄}}, had inadvertently exposed his ship's entire side to ''Archerfish'' in his haste to escape, creating an ideal firing situation for a submarine. With a full-load displacement of 72,000 tons, ''Shinano'' is the largest warship in history to be sunk by a submarine. The action earned Enright his [[Navy Cross (United States)|Navy Cross]].<ref name=USN /><ref name=EnrightRyan/>

On September 2, 1945, Enright and his crew, along with eleven other submarines, were honored with the task of protecting {{USS|Missouri|BB-63}} during the signing of the [[Japanese Instrument of Surrender]].<ref name=NYT />

After the end of the war, Enright commanded Submarine Division 31 (1949–1950), {{USS|Fulton|AS-11}} (1953–1954), Submarine Squadron 8 (1954–1955), was chief of staff for the submarine force of the [[United States Atlantic Fleet]] (1955–1957) and commander of {{USS|Boston|CA-69}} (1959–1963).<ref name=WC98 />

== Retirement years ==
After retirement in 1963 Enright worked at [[Northrop Corporation|Northrop]] on the [[OMEGA Navigation System]].<ref name=WC98 />

He died in [[Fairfax, Virginia]], and is buried at [[Arlington National Cemetery]].

== Awards and decorations ==
{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|colspan="3"|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=oak|ribbon=Submarine_Officer_badge.jpg|width=205|alt=}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=|type=oak|ribbon=Navy Cross ribbon.svg|width=110}}
|{{ribbon devices|number=|type=oak|other_device=v|ribbon=Legion of Merit ribbon.svg|width=110}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=1|type=service-star|ribbon=United States Navy Presidential Unit Citation ribbon.svg|width=110}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=1|type=service-star|ribbon=American Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=110}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=American Campaign Medal ribbon.svg|width=110}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=4|type=service-star|ribbon=Asiatic-Pacific Campaign ribbon.svg|width=110}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=110}}
|{{ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=Army of Occupation ribbon.svg|width=110}}
|{{ribbon devices|number=1|type=service-star|ribbon=National Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=110}}
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|colspan="3"|[[Submarine Warfare insignia]]
|-
|[[Navy Cross]]
|[[Legion of Merit]] w/ [["V" Device]]
|[[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Navy Presidential Unit Citation]] w/ {{frac|3|16}}" [[service star|bronze star]]
|-
|[[American Defense Service Medal]] w/ [[medal bar|Fleet Clasp]] ({{frac|3|16}}" bronze star)
|[[American Campaign Medal]]
|[[Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal]] w/ four {{frac|3|16}}" bronze stars
|-
|[[World War II Victory Medal]]
|[[Navy Occupation Service Medal]] w/ 'Japan' clasp
|[[National Defense Service Medal]] w/ {{frac|3|16}}" bronze star
|-
|}

{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|{{ribbon devices|number=|ribbon=Submarine Combat Patrol Insignia.png|width=256}}
|-
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|[[Submarine Combat Patrol Insignia]]
|-
|}

===Navy Cross citation===
[[File:Navy_Cross.png|50px|left]]
:Commander Joseph Francis Enright
:U.S. Navy
:Date Of Action: 30 October 1944 to 15 December 1944
<blockquote>
The President of the United States of America takes pleasure in presenting the Navy Cross to Commander Joseph Francis Enright, United States Navy, for extraordinary heroism and distinguished service in the line of his profession as Commanding Officer of the USS Archerfish (SS-311), during the Fifth War Patrol of that vessel in enemy Japanese-controlled waters in the Pacific War Area, from 30 October to 15 December 1944. Quick to act when his ship contacted a high-speed Japanese Task Force on 28 November Commander Enright commenced an all-out pursuit, maneuvering his vessel at top speed to outdistance the zigzagging enemy aircraft carrier. After six hours of determined chase, he succeeded in bringing the submarine to a favorable attack position ahead and, submerging to attack, expertly directed his ship in penetrating the escort screen. Still undetected by the enemy, he launched a full torpedo salvo against the carrier to strike the target with four torpedoes and inflict severe damage which later sank the carrier. Although counterattacked by his victim's escorts, he skillfully evaded all hostile countermeasures and brought the Archer Fish safe to port. By his courage and determination in the face of overwhelming odds, Commander Enright contributed materially to the success of his vessel in sinking the 72,000-ton Japanese carrier. His leadership and zealous devotion to duty throughout were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service.<ref name="Enright">{{cite web|url=https://valor.militarytimes.com/hero/199605 |title=Joseph Enright|publisher=Military Times Hall of Valor |accessdate=December 4, 2023}}</ref>
</blockquote>

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book | title=Shinano: The Sinking of Japan's Secret Supership | author=Enright, Joseph F. | publisher=St. Martin's Paperbacks | year=2000 | isbn=0312977468 }}
* {{cite book | title=Submarine Admiral | author=Galantin, Ignatius J. | author-link=Ignatius J. Galantin | publisher=University of Illinois Press | year=1997 | isbn=0252066758 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vPblkvoBtF8C&q=joseph+enright+dace&pg=PA78 }}
* {{cite book | title=Iron men and tin fish: the race to build a better torpedo during World War II | author=Newpower, Anthony | publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group | year=2006 | isbn=027599032X | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VKzgzOfGRbgC&q=joseph+enright+dace&pg=PA186 }}
* {{cite book | title=Who's who in naval history |author1=Wilson, Alastair |author2=Callo, Joseph F | publisher=[[Routledge]] | year=2004 |isbn=0415308283 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0oLpTXHQ3rkC&q=enright }}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://www.ussarcherfish.com/captjoe/captjoe.htm USS ''Archerfish'' tribute site]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Enright, Joseph Francis}}
[[Category:1910 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]
[[Category:United States Navy personnel of World War II]]
[[Category:United States Naval Academy alumni]]
[[Category:United States submarine commanders]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Legion of Merit]]
[[Category:People from Minot, North Dakota]]
[[Category:Burials at Arlington National Cemetery]]
[[Category:United States Navy captains]]
[[Category:Military personnel from North Dakota]]

Japanese aircraft carrier Shinano

2024-08-11T08:30:29Z

Uruiamme: /* Sinking */ The captain goes down with the ship

Irreversible binomial

2024-08-10T09:39:51Z

Uruiamme: restored a reference

{{Short description|A fixed phrase of two or more joined words}}
[[File:Original Mac n Cheese_.jpg|thumb|The expression "[[macaroni and cheese]]" is an irreversible binomial. The order of the two keywords of this familiar expression cannot be reversed [[idiom (language structure)|idiomatically]].]]

In [[linguistics]] and [[stylistics]], an '''irreversible binomial''',<ref name="modern2"/> '''frozen binomial, binomial freeze''', '''binomial expression, binomial pair''', or '''nonreversible word pair'''<ref name="pairs"/> is a pair of words used together in fixed order as an [[idiom]]atic expression or [[collocation]]. The words have a [[Semantics|semantic]] relationship usually involving the words ''and'' or ''or''. They also belong to the same [[part of speech]]: nouns (''milk and honey''), adjectives (''short and sweet''), or verbs (''do or die''). The order of word elements cannot be reversed.<ref name="modern2"/>

The term "irreversible binomial" was introduced by [[Yakov Malkiel]] in 1954, though various aspects of the phenomenon had been discussed since at least 1903 under different names: a "terminological imbroglio".<ref name="Yakov Malkiel"/> [[Ernest Gowers]] used the name '''Siamese twins''' (i.e., [[conjoined twins]]) in the 1965 edition of [[A Dictionary of Modern English Usage|Fowler's ''Modern English Usage'']]. The 2015 edition reverts to the scholarly name, "irreversible binomials", as "Siamese twins" had become offensive.<ref name="Jeremy Butterfield"/>

Many irreversible binomials are [[catchiness|catchy]] due to [[alliteration]], [[rhyme|rhyming]], or [[apophony#Ablaut-motivated compounding|ablaut reduplication]], so becoming [[cliché]]s or [[catchphrase]]s. Idioms like ''rock and roll'', ''the birds and the bees'', and collocations like ''mix and match'', and ''wear and tear'' have particular meanings apart from or beyond those of their constituent words. Ubiquitous collocations like ''loud and clear'' and ''life or death'' are [[fixed expression]]s, making them a standard part of the [[vocabulary]] of native English speakers.

Some English words have become [[archaism|obsolete]] in general but are still found in an irreversible binomial. For example, ''spick'' is a [[fossil word]] that never appears outside the phrase ''spick and span''.<ref name="phrases"/> Some other words, like ''vim'' in ''vim and vigor'' or ''abet'' in ''aid and abet'',<ref name="Espenschied" /> have become rare and [[archaism|archaic]] outside the collocation.

Numerous irreversible binomials are used in [[legalese]]. Due to the use of [[precedent]] in [[common law]], many lawyers use the same collocations found in legal documents centuries old. Many of these [[legal doublet]]s contain two synonyms, often one of [[Old English]] origin and the other of [[Latin]] origin: ''deposes and says'', ''ways and means''.

While many irreversible binomials are literal expressions (like ''washer and dryer, rest and relaxation, rich and famous, savings and loan''), some are entirely figurative (like ''come hell or high water, nip and tuck, [[surf and turf]]'') or mostly so (like ''between a rock and a hard place, [[five and dime]]''). Somewhat in between are more subtle [[figures of speech]], [[synecdoche]]s, [[metaphor]]s, or [[hyperbole]]s (like ''cat and mouse, sick and tired, barefoot and pregnant''). The terms are often the targets of [[eggcorn]]s, [[malapropism]]s, [[mondegreen]]s, and [[folk etymology]].

Some irreversible binomials can have minor variations without loss of understanding: ''time and time again'' is frequently shortened to ''time and again''; a person who is ''[[tarring and feathering|tarred and feathered]]'' (verb) can be said to be covered in ''tar and feathers'' (noun).

However, in some cases small changes to wording change the meaning. The accommodating attitude of an activity's participants would be called ''give and take'', while ''give or take'' means "approximately". Undertaking some act whether it is ''right or wrong'' excludes the insight from knowing the difference between ''right and wrong''; each pair has a subtly differing meaning. And while ''five and dime'' is a noun phrase for a [[Variety store#North America|low-priced variety store]], ''nickel and dime'' is a verb phrase for penny-pinching.

== Structure ==
The words in an irreversible binomial belong to the same [[part of speech]], have some semantic relationship, and are usually connected by ''and'' or ''or''. They are often near-[[synonyms]] or [[antonyms]], [[alliterations|alliterate]], or [[rhyme]].

Examples below are split into various tables; some may belong in more than one table but are listed only once.

=== With opposites and antonyms ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins employing antonyms}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials employing antonyms}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''addition and subtraction''
* ''[[assets and liabilities]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''back and forth''
* ''[[balls and strikes]]''
* ''beginning to end''
* ''[[black and white]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''big and small''
* ''a blessing and a curse''
* ''boom or bust''
* ''bride and groom''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[Sibling|brother and sister]]''
* ''butt and pass''
* ''buy and sell''
* ''[[catch and release]]''
* ''[[cause and effect]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[church and state]]''
* ''cops and robbers''
* ''come and go''
* ''coming and going''
* ''cowboys and Indians''
* ''days and nights''
* ''deep and wide''
* ''dos and don'ts''
* ''ebb and flow''
* ''fire and ice''
* ''first and last''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''floor to ceiling''
* ''food and drink''
* ''[[fore and aft]]''
* ''foreign and domestic''
* ''forward and backward''
* ''friend or foe''
* ''front to back''
* ''fruits and vegetables''
* ''give and take''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[good and evil]]''
* ''hail and farewell''{{#tag:ref|[[Etymologically]] [[synonym]]s; functionally [[antonym]]s.|group=note|name=hailfarewell}}
* ''[[hand and foot]]''
* ''head over heels''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''Heaven and Hell''
* ''here and there''
* ''[[hide and seek]]''
* ''hill and dale''
* ''him and her''
* ''high and low''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''hills and valleys''
* ''his and hers''
* ''hither and thither''
* ''hither and yon''
* ''hot and cold''
* ''hurry up and wait''
* ''husband and wife''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''in and out''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''in the (right/wrong) place at the (right/wrong) time''
* ''ladies and gentlemen''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''land and sea''
* ''life or death''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''long and short''
* ''[[lost and found]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''love and hate''
* ''love and war''
* ''man and wife''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[mom and pop]]''
* ''naughty or nice''
* ''near and far''
* ''night and day (difference)''
* ''[[nip and tuck (cosmetic surgery)|nip and tuck]]''
* ''north to south''
* ''now and then''
* ''[[now and later]]''
* ''on and off''
* ''open and shut''
* ''over and under''
* ''[[park and ride]]''
* ''[[port and starboard]]''
* ''pros and cons''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''push and pull''
* ''[[wikt:rank and file|rank and file]]''
* ''rise and fall''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[savings and loan]]''
* ''in sickness and in health''
* ''[[soap and water]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''start to finish''
* ''(from) stem to stern''
* ''stop and go''
* ''[[strike and dip]]''
* ''[[sweet and sour]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[the quick and the dead (idiom)|the quick and the dead]]''
* ''thick and thin''
* ''(there's) a time and a place''
* ''[[tip and ring]]''
* ''to and fro''
* ''top to bottom''
* ''town and country''
* ''up and down''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''ups and downs''
* ''uptown and downtown''
* ''[[war and peace]]''<ref name="modern2"/><ref name="pairs"/>
* ''washer and dryer''
* ''wax and wane''
* ''[[yes and no]]''
* ''[[yin and yang]]''
{{Div col end}}

=== With related words and synonyms ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins employing synonyms}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials employing synonyms}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''ages and generations''
* ''aid and comfort''
* ''alas and alack''
* ''bits and pieces''
* ''body and soul''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''born and raised/bred''
* ''bright and early''
* ''[[brick and mortar]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[by hook or by crook]]''
* ''cheek by jowl''
* ''clean and tidy''
* ''chapter and verse''
* ''cup and saucer''
* ''[[It was a dark and stormy night|(it was a) dark and stormy (night)]]''
* ''(this) day and age''
* ''dollars and cents''
* ''dot the i's and cross the t's''
* ''[[fear and loathing]]''
* ''[[fish and chips]]''
* ''first and foremost''
* ''hail and farewell''<ref group=note name=hailfarewell/>
* ''hand over fist''
* ''haughty and high minded''
* ''head and shoulders''
* ''heart and soul''
* ''herbs and spices''
* ''[[Highest and best use|highest and best (use)]]''
* ''house and home''
* ''[[hunger and thirst]]''
* ''knife and fork''
* ''leaps and bounds''
* ''[[:wikt:like mother, like daughter|like mother, like daughter]]''
* ''lo and behold''
* ''neat and tidy''
* ''nickel and dime''
* ''nook and cranny''
* ''[[null and void]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''nuts and bolts''
* ''over and done with''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''[[pain and suffering]]''
* ''peace and quiet''
* ''[[pen and ink]]''
* ''pick and choose''
* ''(on) [[pins and needles]]''
* ''plain and simple''
* ''prim and proper''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''rant and rave''
* ''[[rocks and shoals]]''
* ''[[shock and awe]]''
* ''[[signs and wonders]]''
* ''six of one, half a dozen of the other''
* ''[[skull and bones]]''
* ''[[skull and crossbones (symbol)|skull and crossbones]]''
* ''strait and narrow''
* ''straight and narrow''
* ''stress and strain''
* ''swings and roundabouts''
* ''ticks and chiggers''
* ''whine and complain''
* ''wind and rain''
* ''(up) close and personal''
* ''yea and amen''
{{Div col end}}

=== With alliteration ===
{{anchor|Examples of twins employing alliteration}}

Also see [[Reduplication#English|the English section of the Reduplication article]] for cases like ''walkie-talkie'', ''ragtag'', ''chit-chat'', ''hip-hop'', ''bing-bang-boom'', ''etc.''

{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''bag and baggage''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''baubles and beads''
* ''beams and balance''
* ''[[bed and breakfast]]''<ref name="modern2"/><ref name="pairs"/>
* ''belt and braces''
* ''bench and bar''
* ''big and bad''
* ''[[the birds and the bees]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''bish bash bosh''
* ''black and blue''
* ''bold and beautiful''
* ''[[bootleggers and Baptists]]''
* ''boxers or briefs''
* ''[[wikt:bread and butter|bread and butter]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''bull and boar''
* ''cash and carry''
* ''chalk and cheese''
* ''cliques and clans''
* ''[[command and control]]''
* ''[[cookies and cream]]''
* ''[[deaf and dumb]]''
* ''(between the) devil and the deep blue sea''
* ''[[dine and dash]]''
* ''down and dirty''
* ''dribs and drabs''
* ''[[drink and drive]]''
* ''[[drunk and disorderly]]''
* ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]''
* ''[[fast and furious]]''
* ''feast or famine''
* ''[[fire and forget]]''
* ''[[fire and fury]]''
* ''fit in or fuck off''
* ''[[flip-flop (politics)|flip-flop]]''
* ''[[flora and fauna]]''
* ''footloose and fancy-free''
* ''forgive and forget''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''form and function''
* ''friend or foe''
* ''fun and frolics''
* ''fur and feathers''
* ''ghosts and goblins''
* ''grins and giggles''
* ''to have and to hold''
* ''hearth and home''
* ''hem and haw''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[hoot and holler]]''
* ''[[Horseshoes and Handgrenades (disambiguation)|horseshoes and handgrenades]]''
* ''Jew and Gentile''
* ''juking and jiving''
* ''king and country''
* ''kit and caboodle''<ref name="rd"/>
* ''kith and kin''
* ''last but not least''
* ''[[latitude and longitude]]''
* ''[[Lend-Lease]]''
* ''life and limb''<ref name="ldoceonline"/>
* ''live and learn''
* ''lock and load''
* ''love ‘em and leave ‘em''
* ''love it or leave it''
* ''mix and match''
* ''meek and mild''
* ''[[name and number]]''
* ''part and parcel''<ref name="Espenschied"/>
* ''peas in a pod''
* ''pen and pencil''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''pen(cil) and paper''
* ''[[pig in a poke]]''
* ''pillar to post''
* ''pitter-patter''
* ''[[pots and pans]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[publish or perish]]''
* ''[[rags to riches]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''ranting and raving''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''read and write''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''ready to rumble''
* ''rest and relaxation'' ([[R&R (military)|R&R/R'n'R]])
* ''(without) rhyme or reason''
* ''right and wrong''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[rock and roll]]''
* ''rough and ready''
* ''rules and regulations''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''safe and secure''
* ''safe and sound''
* ''shot and shell''
* ''shower and shave''
* ''[[signs and symptoms]]''
* ''[[slip and slide]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''spick and span''<ref name="phrases"/>
* ''spit and shine''
* ''[[Flag of the United States|Stars and Stripes]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[sticks and stones]]''
* ''sugar and spice''
* ''this or that''
* ''ticky-tacky''
* ''tit for tat''
* ''top and tail''
* ''toss and turn''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[trick or treat]]''
* ''trials and tribulations''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''tried and tested''
* ''tried and true''
* ''truck and trailer''
* ''wash and wear''
* ''watching and waiting''
* ''weep and wail''
* ''wet and wild''
* ''whooping and hollering''
* ''wild and woolly''
* ''wise and wonderful''
* ''witches and warlocks''
* ''wrack and ruin''
{{Div col end}}

=== With rhymes and similar-sounding words ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins employing similar-sounding words}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials employing similar-sounding words}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''break and take''
*''[[boom and zoom]]''
* ''box and cox''
* ''chalk and talk''
* ''charts and darts''
* ''chips and dip''
* ''dive and drive''
* ''double trouble''
* ''even Steven''
* ''fair and square''
* ''fender bender''
* ''five and dime''
* ''[[flotsam and jetsam]]''<ref name="rd"/>
* ''handy-dandy''
* ''hanky-panky''
* ''harum-scarum''
* ''helter skelter''
* ''higgledy piggledy''
* ''high and dry''<ref name="modern2"/><ref name="pairs"/>
* ''hire and fire''<ref name="modern2"/>
*''[[hit and split]]''
* ''hit it and quit''
* ''hither and thither''
* ''[[Hocus Pocus (magic)|hocus pocus]]''
* ''hoity-toity''
* ''hot to trot''
* ''hotch-potch''
* ''huff and puff''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''hurly-burly''
* ''hustle and bustle''
* ''itty-bitty''
* ''itsy-bitsy''
* ''lap and gap''
* ''latest and greatest''
* ''lean, mean, fightin' machine''
* ''lick 'em and stick 'em''
* ''loud and proud''
* ''mean, green, fightin' machine''
* ''meet and greet''
* ''might makes right''
* ''motor voter''
* ''my way or the highway''
* ''namby-pamby''
* ''[[name and shame]]''
* ''[[name it and claim it]]''
* ''near and dear''
* ''never, ever''
* ''nitty gritty''
* ''odds and sods''
* ''onwards and upwards''
* ''orgy porgy''
* ''out and about''
* ''out and proud''
* ''pell-mell''
* ''[[pump and dump]]''
* ''rough and tough''
* ''run and gun''
* ''shout and clout''
* ''saggy baggy''
* ''shake and bake''
* ''slowly but surely''
* ''smoke and joke''
* ''son of a gun''
* ''stash and dash''
* ''stitch and bitch''
* ''stop and drop''
* ''[[wikt:so far so good|so far, so good]]''
* ''[[surf and turf]]''
* ''teeny-weeny''
* ''time and tide''
* ''[[town and gown]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''true blue''
* ''use it or lose it''
* ''wake and bake''
* ''wear and tear''
* ''weed and feed''
* ''wham, bam, thank you, ma'am''
* ''[[Willy-nilly (idiom)|willy nilly]]''
* ''wine and dine''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''yea or nay''
* ''(the) yeas and (the) nays''
{{Div col end}}

== Legal terminology ==
{{main|Legal doublet}}
In law and official documents, there are many irreversible binomials and triplets consisting of near synonyms, such as the oft-heard ''[[terms and conditions]]''<ref name="Espenschied" /> and ''[[cease and desist]]''.<ref name="Espenschied" /> See the [[Legal doublet]] article for a list.

== Conjunction ==
The most common conjunctions in an irreversible binomial are ''and'' or ''or.''

=== With "and" as the conjunction ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins with ''"and"'' as the conjunction}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials with ''"and"'' as the conjunction}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''above and beyond''
* ''airs and graces''
* ''alarm and muster''
* ''alive and kicking''
* ''alive and well''
* ''an arm and a leg''
* ''armed and dangerous''
* ''[[apples and oranges]]''
* ''back and fill''
* ''back and forth''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[full breakfast|bacon and eggs]]''<ref name="modern2"/><ref name="pairs"/>{{#tag:ref|In the United Kingdom ''eggs and bacon'' is the common term and saying ''bacon and eggs'' would [[wikt:outing|out]] the user as [[United States|American]].|group=note|name=baconeggs}}
* ''[[bangers and mash]]''
* ''[[bait and switch]]''
* ''bait and tackle''
* ''(old) [[wikt:ball and chain|ball and chain]]''
* ''[[barefoot and pregnant]]''
* ''bargain and sale''
* ''bed and breakfast''
* ''beck and call''
* ''bells and whistles''
* ''[[belt and suspenders]]''
* ''big and bold''
* ''big and tall''
* ''bigger and better''
* ''binge and purge''
* ''[[bit and bridle]]''
* ''bits and bobs''
* ''bits and pieces''
* ''black and blue ''
* ''block and tackle''
* ''blood and guts''
* ''blood and gore''
* ''[[bob and weave]]''
* ''[[bow and arrow]]''
* ''bound and determined''
* ''bound and gagged''
* ''bow and scrape''
* ''brace and bit''
* ''bread and water''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[bread and circuses]]''
* ''[[bread and roses]]''
* ''brown and serve''
* ''bucket and spade''
* ''bump and grind''
* ''by and large''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''by guess and by golly''
* ''[[cap and gown]]''
* ''[[car and driver]]''
* ''[[cat and mouse]]''
* ''[[checks and balances]]''
* ''[[chicken and dumplings]]''
* ''chop and change''
* ''clean and sober''
* ''[[cloak and dagger]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[coat and tie]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[coffee and doughnuts]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''cock-and-bull''
* ''crash and burn''
* ''cream and sugar''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[crime and punishment]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''cup and saucer''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''cut and dried (dry)''
* ''cut and paste''
* ''cut and run''
* ''[[dandelion and burdock]]''
* ''day and night''
* ''dead and buried''
* ''dead and gone''
* ''[[death and taxes (idiom)|death and taxes]]''
* ''dine and dash''
* ''[[divide and rule|divide and conquer]]''
* ''[[dog and pony show]]''
* ''down and out''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[duck and cover]]''
* ''duck and dive''{{#tag:ref|In the United Kingdom, synonymous to ''[[bob and weave]]'' in common parlance and origin from the world of [[boxing]] (i.e. [[punch (combat)|pugilistic]]).|group=note|name=duckdive}}
* ''each and every''
* ''eyes and ears''
* ''far and wide''
* ''[[fast and furious]]''
* ''fast and loose''
* ''fine and dandy''
* ''fingers and thumbs''
* ''[[fire and brimstone]]''
* ''[[fish and chips]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''(by) fits and starts''
* ''flesh and blood''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''flesh and bone''
* ''forever and a day''
* ''forever and ever''
* ''front and center''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''fun and games''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''fuss and bother''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''goals and aspirations''
* ''good and plenty''
* ''goodness and light''
* ''grin and bear it''
* ''ground and pound''
* ''[[hack and slash]]''
* ''hale and hearty''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''hard and fast''
* ''[[ham and eggs]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''hammer and nail''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[hammer and sickle]]''
* ''[[wikt:hammer and tongs|hammer and tongs]]''
* ''hearts and minds''
* ''(move) heaven and earth''
* ''here and now''
* ''hide and seek''
* ''hide and watch''
* ''high and mighty''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''high and dry''
* ''[[high and tight]]''
* ''[[hit and run]]''
* ''hit it and quit it''
* ''hither and yon''
* ''hither and thither''
* ''home and hosed''
* ''home and dry''
* ''[[hook and eye]]''
* ''[[hook and loop]]''
* ''[[horse and buggy]]''
* ''[[horse and carriage]]''
* ''hot and heavy''
* ''[[hot and high]]''
* ''hot and bothered''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[hugs and kisses]]'' (XOXO)
* ''if and when''
* ''(for all) intents and purposes''
* ''kippers and custard''{{#tag:ref|A [[jocular]] nonsense reply to the question (usually a child's) of "what's for dinner (breakfast, or lunch)?" London usage, now all but archaic.|group=note|name=kipperscustard}}
* ''[[kiss and tell]]''
* ''kiss and make up''
* ''kith and kin''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''knife and fork''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''kicking and screaming''
* ''lakes and streams''
* ''[[last will and testament]]''
* ''[[law and order (politics)|law and order]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''lo and behold''
* ''[[lock and dam]]''
* ''[[lock and key]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[look and feel]]''
* ''loud and clear''
* ''make do and mend''
* ''man and boy''
* ''meat and potatoes''
* ''men and women''
* ''milk and cookies''
* ''milk and honey''
* ''[[mortise and tenon]]''
* ''name and address''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''names and faces''
* ''nice and easy''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''nook and cranny''
* ''[[noughts and crosses]]''
* ''nuts and bolts''
* ''odds and ends''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''off and away''
* ''once and for all''
* ''one and done''
* ''out and about''
* ''[[wikt:over and out|over and out]]''
*[[oyer and terminer]]
* ''[[peaches and cream]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[Ps and Qs]]''
* ''[[peanut butter and jelly]]''
* ''peas and carrots''
* ''pickles and ice cream''
* ''pick and axe''
* ''piss and moan''
* ''piss and vinegar''
* ''piss and whine''
* ''prim and proper''
* ''prize and booty''
* ''[[pork and beans]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''pure and simple''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''quick and dirty''
* ''[[rack and pinion]]''
* ''rack and ruin''
* ''raining cats and dogs''
* ''[[rape and pillage]]''
* ''[[research and development]]'' (R&D)
* ''[[rhythm and blues]]'' (R&B)
* ''rich and famous''
* ''rise and shine''
* ''[[wikt:between a rock and a hard place|(between a) rock and a hard place]]''
* ''[[room and board]]''
* ''rough and tumble''
* ''run and jump''
* ''(all's) said and done''
* ''[[salt and pepper]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''salt and vinegar''
* ''[[scratch and sniff]]''
* ''[[search and rescue]]''
* ''[[seek and destroy]]''
* ''(different) shapes and sizes''
* ''shirt and tie''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''short and fat''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''short and sweet''
* ''short and stout''
* ''[[wikt:show and tell|show and tell]]''
* ''[[shuck and jive]]''
* ''sick and tired''
* ''[[slash and burn]]''
* ''[[slings and arrows]]''
* ''[[slip and fall]]''
* ''slow and steady''
* ''skin and bone(s)''
* ''[[smash and grab]]''
* ''[[smoke and mirrors]]''
* ''[[snakes and ladders]]''
* ''[[song and dance]]''
* ''[[sound and fury]]''
* ''(in) spirit and (in) truth''
* ''[[spit and polish]]''
* ''stand and deliver''
* ''stress and strain''
* ''[[Sturm und Drang]]''
* ''suave and debonair''
* ''[[suit and tie]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''sunshine and rainbows''
* ''[[supply and demand]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[sweetness and light]]''
* ''a swing and a miss''
* ''[[sword and sandal]]''
* ''tables and chairs''
* ''tall and thin''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[tarring and feathering|tar(red) and feather(ed)]]''
* ''[[tar and feathers]]''
* ''tea and crumpets''
* ''(through) thick and thin''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''thunder and lightning''
* ''tits and ass''
* ''to and fro''
* ''tooth and nail''
* ''touch and go''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''[[track and field]]''
* ''[[trial and error]]''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''trials and tribulations''
* ''tuck and roll''
* ''twist and turn''
* ''up and about''
* ''vim and vigor''
* ''wait and see''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''warm and fuzzy''
* ''[[warp and weft]]''
* ''watch and ward''
* ''wax and wane''
* ''ways and means''
* ''well and good''
* ''whinge and whine''
* ''wine and roses''
* ''words and phrases''
* ''X's and O's''
* ''[[yes and no]]''
* ''a [[year and a day rule|year and a day]]''
{{Div col end}}

=== With "or" or "nor" as the conjunction ===
{{anchor|Examples of Siamese twins with ''"or"'' or ''"nor"'' or as the conjunction}}
{{anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials with ''"or"'' or ''"nor"'' or as the conjunction}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''all or nothing''
* ''better or worse''
* ''big or small''
* ''black or white''
* ''business or pleasure''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''the [[chicken or the egg]]''
* ''day or night''
* ''dead or alive''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''do or die''
* ''fight or flight''
* ''(neither) fish nor fowl''
* ''give or take''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''good or bad''
* ''gentle or simple''
* ''he or she''
* ''[[heads or tails]]''
* ''(come) hell or high water''
* ''(neither) here nor there''
* ''(neither) hide nor hair''
* ''[[his or her]]''
* ''hit or miss''
* ''(not one) jot or tittle''
* ''kill or cure''
* ''kill or be killed''
* ''(neither) love nor money''
* ''make or break''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''more or less''
* ''now or never''
* ''[[wikt:put up or shut up|put up or shut up]]''
* ''rain or shine''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''rhyme or reason''
* ''right or wrong''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''sink or swim''
* ''sooner or later''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''take it or leave it''
* ''two or more''
* ''up or down''<ref name="pairs"/>
* ''(neither) use nor ornament''
* ''victory or death''
* ''win or lose''
* ''[[yes and no|yes or no]]''
{{Div col end}}

=== With no conjunction ===
* ''hoity toity''
* ''[[hunter-gatherer]]''
* ''corn cheese''

== People and fictional characters ==
{{Further|Category:Duos}}
{{div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Abbott and Costello]]
* [[Abraham and Isaac (disambiguation)|Abraham and Isaac]]
* [[Achilles and Patroclus]]
* [[Adam and Eve]]<ref name="pairs"/>
* [[Alexiares and Anicetus]]
* [[Antony and Cleopatra]]
* [[Ant & Dec]]
* [[Batman and Robin (disambiguation)|Batman and Robin]]
* [[Bonnie and Clyde]]
* [[Cain and Abel]]
* [[Cannon and Ball]]
* [[Castor and Pollux]]
* [[Cupid and Psyche]]
* [[Tom and Ray Magliozzi|Click and Clack]]
* [[Damon and Pythias]]
* [[David and Goliath]]
* [[Deleuze and Guattari]]
* [[Dick and Jane]]
* [[Faust]] and Marguerite
* [[Flanders and Swann]]
* [[French and Saunders]]
* [[Frick and Frack]]
* [[Fry and Laurie]]
* [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]
* [[Gilgamesh and Aga]]
* [[Hansel and Gretel]]
* [[Hellman & Friedman]]
* [[Jaya-Vijaya|Jaya and Vijaya]]
* [[Jacob and Esau]]
* [[Jack and Jill (nursery rhyme)|Jack and Jill]]<ref name="pairs"/>
* [[Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde|Jekyll & Hyde]]
* [[Still Game|Jack and Victor]]
* [[Laurel and Hardy]]
* [[Lennon and McCartney]]
* [[Lerner and Loewe]]
* [[Lewis and Clark]]
* [[Little and Large]]
* [[Lugal-irra and Meslamta-ea]]
* [[Martin and Lewis]]
* [[Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen]]
* [[Mel and Sue]]
* [[Morecambe and Wise]]
* [[Mork and Mindy]]
* [[Orpheus and Eurydice]]
* [[Ox-Head and Horse-Face]]
* [[Penn & Teller]]
* [[Phyllis and Aristotle]]
* [[Phineas and Ferb]]
* [[Pinky & The Brain]]
* [[Pygmalion (mythology)|Pygmalion]] and [[Galatea (mythology)|Galatea]]
* [[Ren & Stimpy]]
* [[Rhett & Link]]
* [[Rick and Morty]]
* [[Rodgers and Hart]]
* [[Rodgers and Hammerstein]]
* ''[[Romeo and Juliet]]''
* [[Romulus and Remus]]
* [[Rosencrantz and Guildenstern]]
* [[Sam and Max]]
* [[Samson]] and [[Delilah]]
* [[Sonny & Cher]]<ref name="rd"/>
* [[Thomson and Thompson]]
* [[Tom & Jerry]]
* [[Tristan and Isolde]]
* [[Tim & Eric]]
* [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and [[Adonis]]
* [[Vic & Bob]]
* [[Watson and Crick]]{{Div col end}}

== Rhyming slang ==
{{main|Rhyming slang}}
{{Anchor|Examples of Siamese twins from [[Rhyming slang]]}}
{{Anchor|Examples of irreversible binomials from [[Rhyming slang]]}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''Adam and Eve''
* ''apples and pears''
* ''bottle and glass''{{#tag:ref|Or more commonly just ''bottle'', which leads on to ''aris'' from ''aristotle'' that is the rhyming slang for ''bottle''.|group=note|name=bottleglass}}
* ''Brahms and Liszt''
* ''dog and bone''
* ''frog and toad''
* ''hand and blister''
* ''north and south''
* ''rabbit and pork''
* ''trouble and strife''
* ''two and eight''
* ''whistle and flute''
{{Div col end}}

== Variants ==
Irreversible binomials are sometimes [[isocolon]]s (bicolons, tricolons, etc.) which have become [[set phrase]]s.

They may also be called simply binomials.

With three words, they may be called trinomials, and may satisfy the [[rule of three (writing)|rule of three]] in writing.

=== Common trinomials ===
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''[[Abraham's family tree|Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob]]''
* ''[[animal, vegetable, or mineral]]''
* '' [[male waxing|back, sack, and crack]]''
* ''[[materiel|beans, bullets, and bandages]]''
* ''[[poverty|beg, borrow, or steal]]''
* ''[[bell, book, and candle]]''
* ''blood, sweat, and tears''
* ''calm, cool, and collected''
* ''Coffee, tea, or me?''
* ''[[wikt:could have, would have, should have|could've, would've, should've]]''
* ''[[Eagle, Globe, and Anchor]]''
** ''bird, ball, and chain''{{#tag:ref|Jocular variant|group=note|name=birdballchain}}
* ''[[ear, nose, and throat]]''
* ''eat, drink, and be merry''
* ''fat, dumb, and happy''
* ''[[Trinity|Father, Son, and Holy Ghost]]''
* ''[[fear, uncertainty, and doubt]]''
* ''[[Medicare fraud|fraud, waste, and abuse]]''
* ''[[friends, Romans, countrymen]]''
* ''[[Punched_card#Do_Not_Fold,_Spindle_or_Mutilate|(do not) fold, spindle, or mutilate]]''
* ''Get it? Got it? Good.''
* ''[[Biblical Magi|gold, frankincense, and myrrh]]''
* ''[[Imperialism|gold, God, and glory]]''
* ''[[Olympic medal|gold, silver, and bronze]]''
* ''good, bad, and indifferent''
* ''[[the good, the bad, and the ugly]]''
* ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]''
* ''[[hand, foot, and mouth disease|hand, foot, and mouth]]''
* ''[[Poor Richard's Almanack|healthy, wealthy, and wise]]''
* ''here, there, and everywhere''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''[[hook, line, and sinker (idiom)|hook, line, and sinker]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''[[hop, skip, and a jump]]''
* ''[[Huey, Dewey, and Louie]]''
* ''[[veni, vidi, vici|I came, I saw, I conquered]]''
* ''(no) ifs, ands, or buts''
* ''[[extrajudicial punishment|judge, jury, and executioner]]''
* ''[[lather, rinse, repeat]]''
* ''left, right and center''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''[[lie, cheat, or steal]]''
* ''[[lies, damned lies, and statistics]]''
* ''[[life, liberty, and property]]''
* ''[[wikt:lights, camera, action|lights, camera, action]]''
* ''[[real estate broker|location, location, location]]''
* ''[[lock, stock, and barrel]]''
* ''mad, bad, and dangerous''
* ''me, myself, and I''
* ''name, rank, and serial number''
* ''[[nasty, brutish, and short]]''
* ''The [[Niña (ship)|Niña]], the [[Pinta (ship)|Pinta]], and the [[Santa María (ship)|Santa María]]''
* ''[[Planes, Trains, and Automobiles]]''
* ''[[United States Postal Service|(neither) rain, nor sleet, nor snow]]''
* ''[[the three Rs|reading, writing and 'rithmetic]]''
* ''ready, willing, and able''
* ''[[Red White and Blue (disambiguation)|red, white, and blue]]''
* ''[[SCP Foundation|secure, contain, protect]]''
* ''[[hippie#1970–present: Aftershocks|sex, drugs, and rock 'n' roll]]''
* ''[[Shadrach, Meshach, and Abednego]]''
* ''[[Shake, Rattle, and Roll]]''
* ''short and sweet and to the point''
* ''slips, trips, and falls''
* ''small, medium, and large''
* ''[[Snap, Crackle and Pop]]''
* ''[[stop, drop, and roll]]''
* ''[[stop, look, and listen]]''
* ''[[homeless shelter#Religious shelters|soup, soap, and salvation]]''
* ''[[sugar and spice and everything nice]]''
* ''tall, dark, and handsome''
* ''this, that, and the other''
* ''[[tic-tac-toe]]''
* ''[[Tom, Dick, and Harry]]''<ref name="modern2"/>
* ''up, down, and sideways''
* ''(in no) way, shape, or form''
* ''[[Gospel of John|the way, the truth, and the life]]''
* ''whats, whys, and wherefores''
* ''win, lose, or draw''
* ''[[horse racing|win, place, or show]]''
* [[The New Colossus|''your tired, your poor, your huddled masses'']]
{{Div col end}}

=== Quadrinomials ===
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* ''[[Envelope (music)|attack, decay, sustain, release]]''
* ''[[blood, toil, tears, and sweat]]''
* ''[[CRUD|Create, Read, Update, Delete]]''
* ''[[EGOT|Emmy, Grammy, Oscar, Tony]]''
* ''[[The Beatles|John, Paul, George, and Ringo]]''
* ''[[Four Evangelists|Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John]]''
* ''[[SATB|soprano, alto, tenor, bass]]''
* ''[[Sign of the cross|spectacles, testicles, wallet, and watch]]''
* ''[[suck, squeeze, bang, blow]]''
* ''[[The Four Horsemen|War, Pestilence, Famine, Death]]''
{{div col end}}

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Anastrophe]]
* [[Collocation]]
* [[Fossil word]]
* [[Hendiadys]]
* [[Hendiatris]]
* [[Isocolon]]
* [[Meme]]
* [[Merism]]
* [[Phraseme]]
* [[Set phrase]]
* [[Trope (literature)|Trope]]
* [[Word order]]
* [[Adjective order]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist|1=30em|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Espenschied">{{cite book | last = Espenschied | first = Lenné Eidson | title = Contract Drafting: Powerful Prose in Transactional Practice | series = ABA Fundamentals0 | date = 2010 | publisher = [[American Bar Association]] | location = Chicago | isbn = 978-1-60442-795-0 | pages = 164–165 | chapter = 10.1 Eliminate clutter and redundant language § Eliminate common doublets and triplets | lccn = 2010003298 | oclc = 505017586 | ol = 15443452W | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=NRNUshLwjMgC&pg=PA164}}</ref>

<ref name="modern2">{{cite book | last1 = Gramley & Pätzold | title = A Survey of Modern English | edition = 2 | publisher = [[Routledge]] | year = 2004 | location = London | url = https://books.google.com/books/about/A_Survey_of_Modern_English.html?id=qFZsXfJsa8kC | access-date = 2024-04-28 | isbn = 9781134420469 | page = 58 }}</ref>

<ref name="pairs">[http://www.sightwordsgame.com/vocabulary-words/word-pairs/ Word Pairs]</ref>

<ref name="phrases">Martin, Gary. [http://www.phrases.org.uk/meanings/spick-and-span.html Spick-and-span], Phrases.org.uk</ref>

<ref name="rd">{{cite web | url = http://www.rd.com/slideshows/8-amusing-stories-behind-common-expressions/6/ | title = 8 Amusing Stories Behind Common Expressions | Reader's Digest | work = [[Reader's Digest]] | date = 2011-11-13 | access-date = 2011-12-18}}</ref>

<ref name="Yakov Malkiel">Malkiel, Yakov (1959) [http://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/myl/Malkiel1959.pdf Studies in irreversible binomials]''Lingua'' '''8''':113–160</ref>

<ref name="Jeremy Butterfield">Butterfield, Jeremy (2015) ''[[A Dictionary of Modern English Usage|Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage]]'', 4th edition, {{isbn|0199661359}}, p. 436, ''s.v.'' "irreversible binomials"</ref>

<ref name="ldoceonline">{{cite web |url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/life-and-limb |title=life and limb {{!}} meaning of life and limb in Longman Dictionary of contemporary English {{!}} LDOCE |website=[[Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English]] Online |publisher=[[LDOCE]] |access-date=7 December 2018 |quote=life and limb formal your life and physical health – used especially when this is threatened in some way}}</ref>
}}

==Bibliography==

* Cooper, William E. and Ross, John R. (1975). World order. In Robin E. Grossman et al. (Eds.), ''Papers from the Parasession on Functionalism,'' Chicago Linguistic Society, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, pp. 63–111.
* [[Sarah Bunin Benor]], Roger Levy, "The Chicken or the Egg?: A Probabilistic Analysis of English Binomials", ''[[Language (journal)|Language]]'' '''82''':2:233-278 (June 2006) {{JSTOR|4490157}} [http://idiom.ucsd.edu/~rlevy/papers/binomials-accepted.pdf full text]
* Ourania Hatzidaki, "Binomials and the Computer: a Study in Corpus-Based Phraseology", ALLC/ACH Conference, University of Glasgow, July 2000 [http://www.arts.gla.ac.uk/allcach2k/Programme/session5.html#513 abstract]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:English language]]
[[Category:Idioms]]

San Jacinto

2024-07-21T23:04:13Z

Uruiamme: Cleaned up. This needed to explain who "Jacinto" is, giving meaning for all of the places named after him. This particular person has several names in different languages. And several people share one of them.

'''San Jacinto''' is the Spanish form for [[Hyacinth of Poland|Święty Jacek (Polish name) or Hyacinth (Latinized name)]], a man who lived in Europe in the 12th and 13th centuries. The Polish [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[priest]] and [[missionary]] was [[canonized|canonized by the Catholic Church]] in 1594. He was one of several men to be called [[St. Hyacinth]]. San Jacinto may also refer to:
{{TOC right}}
==Military==
* [[Battle of San Jacinto]], an 18-minute battle between [[First Mexican Republic|Mexico]] and revolutionary [[Texians]] across from the mouth of the [[San Jacinto River (Texas)|San Jacinto River of Texas]] in 1836
* [[Battle of San Jacinto (1856)]], between Nicaraguans under José Dolores Estrada and American filibusters
* [[Battle of San Jacinto (1899)]], between the United States and Philippine insurgents
* [[San Jacinto Ordnance Depot]], a US Army ammunition depot
* [[SS San Jacinto (1903)|SS ''San Jacinto'' (1903)]], a commercial passenger-cargo ship under United States Army charter during World War I
* [[USS San Jacinto (1850)|USS ''San Jacinto'' (1850)]], an early screw frigate of the U.S. Navy
* [[USS San Jacinto (CVL-30)|USS ''San Jacinto'' (CVL-30)]], a light aircraft carrier that saw action in the latter half of World War II
* [[USS San Jacinto (CG-56)|USS ''San Jacinto'' (CG-56)]], a guided missile cruiser commissioned in 1988
* [[San Jacinto Monument]], Built in honor of the [[Battle of San Jacinto]], The final battle of the [[Texas Revolution]].

==Places==
===United States===
* [[San Jacinto, California]]
* San Jacinto Canyon, former name of [[Railroad Canyon]], California
* [[San Jacinto Mountains]], California
* [[San Jacinto Peak]], California
* [[San Jacinto River (California)]]
* [[San Jacinto Fault Zone]], a Southern Californian fault zone
* [[San Jacinto Valley]], California
* [[San Jacinto, Indiana]]
* [[San Jacinto, Nevada]]
* [[San Jacinto Monument]], Texas
* [[San Jacinto Plaza]], El Paso, Texas
* [[San Jacinto College]], Texas
* [[San Jacinto County, Texas]]
* [[San Jacinto River (Texas)]]

===Other countries===
* [[San Jacinto, Bolívar]], Colombia
* [[San Jacinto del Cauca]], Bolívar, Colombia
* [[San Jacinto, Chiquimula]], Guatemala
* San Jacinto, [[Comondú Municipality|Comondú]], Mexico
* San Jacinto, [[Lerdo (municipality)|Lerdo]], Mexico
* [[San Jacinto Amilpas]], Oaxaca, Mexico
* [[San Jacinto Tlacotepec]], Oaxaca, Mexico
* San Jacinto, [[Ancash Region|Ancash]], Peru
* [[San Jacinto, Masbate]], Philippines
* [[San Jacinto, Pangasinan]], Philippines
* [[San Jacinto, Uruguay]]

==Religion==
* [[Jacinto Casteneda|Jacinto Casteñeda]] of the Vietnamese Martyrs

==Other uses==
* "[[San Jacinto (song)|San Jacinto]]", a 1982 song by Peter Gabriel from ''[[Peter Gabriel (1982 album)|Peter Gabriel]]''
* [[San Jacinto Day]], a Texas state holiday
* [[San Jacinto High School (disambiguation)]]
* [[USS San Jacinto|USS ''San Jacinto'']], a list of ships of the United States Navy

==See also==
* [[St. Hyacinth (disambiguation)]]

{{disambiguation|geo}}