View source for Barley

{{Short description|Cereal grain}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use British English|date=February 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Speciesbox
|image        = Barley (Hordeum vulgare) - United States National Arboretum - 24 May 2009.jpg 
|genus        = Hordeum
|species      = vulgare
|authority    = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]<ref>{{ITIS |id=40874 |taxon=''Hordeum vulgare'' }}</ref>
|synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-419563 |title=Hordeum vulgare L. |website=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species |access-date=2 February 2016 |url-status=dead<!--?--> |archive-date=8 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200408144717/http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-419563 }}</ref>
|synonyms     = {{Collapsible list |{{Plainlist |style=margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
*''Frumentum hordeum'' <small>E.H.L.Krause</small> nom. illeg.
*''Frumentum sativum'' <small>E.H.L.Krause</small>
*''Hordeum aestivum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> [[Validly published name|nom. inval.]]
*''Hordeum americanum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum bifarium'' <small>Roth</small>
*''Hordeum brachyatherum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum caspicum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum coeleste'' <small>(L.) P.Beauv.</small>
*''Hordeum daghestanicum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum defectoides'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum durum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum elongatum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum gymnodistichum'' <small>Duthie</small>
*''Hordeum heterostychon'' <small>P.Beauv. [Spelling variant]</small>
*''Hordeum hexastichon'' <small>L.</small>
*''Hordeum hibernaculum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum hibernans'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum himalayense'' <small>Schult.</small>
*''Hordeum hirtiusculum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum horsfordianum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum ircutianum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum jarenskianum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum juliae'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum kalugense'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum karzinianum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum kiarchanum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum laevipaleatum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum lapponicum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum leptostachys'' <small>Griff.</small>
*''Hordeum macrolepis'' <small>A.Braun</small>
*''Hordeum mandshuricum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum mandshuroides'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum michalkowii'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum nekludowii'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum nigrum'' <small>Willd.</small>
*''Hordeum pamiricum'' <small>Vavilov</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum parvum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum pensanum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum polystichon'' <small>Haller</small>
*''Hordeum praecox'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum pyramidatum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum revelatum'' <small>(Körn.) A.Schulz</small>
*''Hordeum sativum'' <small>Jess.</small> nom. illeg.
*''Hordeum sativum'' <small>Pers.</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum scabriusculum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum septentrionale'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum stassewitschii'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum strobelense'' <small>Chiov.</small>
*''Hordeum taganrocense'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum tanaiticum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum tetrastichum'' <small>Stokes</small>
*''Hordeum transcaucasicum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum violaceum'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Hordeum walpersii'' <small>R.E.Regel</small> nom. inval.
*''Secale orientale'' <small>Schreb. ex Roth</small> nom. inval.
}} }}
}}

'''Barley''' ({{lang|la|Hordeum vulgare}}), a member of the [[Poaceae|grass family]], is a major [[cereal grain]] grown in [[temperate climate]]s globally. It was one of the [[founder crops|first cultivated grains]]; it was domesticated in the [[Fertile Crescent]] around 9000 BC, giving it [[Shattering (agriculture)|nonshattering]] [[spikelet]]s and making it much easier to [[harvest]]. Its use then spread throughout [[Eurasia]] by 2000 BC. Barley prefers relatively low temperatures and well-drained soil to grow. It is relatively [[Drought tolerance in barley|tolerant of drought]] and [[soil salinity]] but is less [[Hardiness (plants)|winter-hardy]] than [[wheat]] or [[rye]].

In 2022, barley was fourth among grains in quantity produced, 155 million [[tonne]]s, behind [[maize]], wheat, and [[rice]]. Globally, 70% of barley production is used as [[animal feed]], while 30% is used as a source of fermentable material for [[beer]], or further [[Distillation|distilled]] into [[whisky]], and as a component of various foods. It is used in soups and stews and in [[barley bread]] of various cultures. Barley grains are commonly made into [[malt]] using a traditional and ancient method of preparation. In English folklore, [[John Barleycorn]] personifies the grain and the alcoholic beverages made from it. English [[Pub names#Beer and wine|pub names]] such as The Barley Mow allude to its role in the production of beer.<!--materials here in lead are a summary of article body, which is fully cited-->

{{anchor|Name}}

== Etymology ==

[[File:Barley Barn (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[The Barley Barn]] at [[Cressing]], Essex, built around 1220; its name means "<!--barley- -->barley-store".<ref name=Ayto1990/>]]

The [[Old English]] word for barley was ''bere''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Clark Hall |first=J. R. |author-link=John Richard Clark Hall |entry=bere |title=A Concise Anglo-Saxon Dictionary |date=2002 |orig-year=1894 |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]] |edition=4th |page=43 }}</ref> This survives in the north of Scotland as ''[[Bere (grain)|bere]]''; it is used for a strain of six-row barley grown there.<ref name=DSLbear>{{cite web |url=http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?plen=18327&startset=1964317&query=BEAR&fhit=bere&dregion=form&dtext=snd#fhit |title=''Dictionary of the Scots Language'': "DSL - DOST Bere, Beir" |access-date=19 November 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110526194225/http://www.dsl.ac.uk/dsl/getent4.php?plen=18327&startset=1964317&query=BEAR&fhit=bere&dregion=form&dtext=snd |archive-date=26 May 2011 }}</ref> Modern English ''barley'' derives from the [[Old English]] adjective ''bærlic'', meaning "of barley".<ref name=Ayto1990/><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Barley |encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary |editor1=J. Simpson |editor2=E. Weiner |url=https://www.oed.com/dictionary/barley_n?tab=factsheet#27369726 |year=1989 |edition=2nd |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-861186-8 }}</ref> The word ''[[barn]]'' derives from Old English ''bere-aern'' meaning "barley-store".<ref name=Ayto1990/>
The name of the [[genus]] is from Latin ''hordeum'', barley, likely related to Latin ''horrere'', to bristle<!-- for the bristly awns of barley ears-->.<ref>{{cite web |title=hordeum noun |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hordeum |publisher=Merriam-Webster |access-date=13 January 2024 }}</ref>

== Description ==
[[File:Illustration Hordeum vulgare1.jpg|thumb|Botanical illustration of leafy stem with roots, flowers, and 2- and 6-row ears]]

Barley is a [[cereal]], a member of the [[Poaceae|grass family]] with edible grains. Its flowers are clusters of [[spikelet]]s arranged in a distinctive [[herringbone pattern]]. Each spikelet has a long thin [[Awn (botany)|awn]] (to {{convert|160|mm|in|abbr=on}} long), making the ears look tufted. The spikelets are in clusters of three. In six-row barley, all three spikelets in each cluster are fertile; in two-row barley, only the central one is fertile.<ref name="Native Plant Trust">{{cite web |title=''Hordeum vulgare'' — common barley |url=https://gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org/species/hordeum/vulgare/ |publisher=Native Plant Trust |access-date=13 January 2024 }}</ref> It is a [[self-pollination|self-pollinating]], [[diploid]] species with 14 [[chromosome]]s.<ref name=Zohary/>

The genome of barley was sequenced in 2012 by the International Barley Genome Sequencing Consortium and the UK Barley Sequencing Consortium.<ref name="The International Barley Genome Sequencing Consortium 2012">{{cite journal |author=The International Barley Genome Sequencing Consortium |title=A physical, genetic and functional sequence assembly of the barley genome |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=491 |issue=7426 |date=2012 |doi=10.1038/nature11543 |pages=711–716 |pmid=23075845 |bibcode=2012Natur.491..711T |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nature11543 |hdl=2440/76951 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The genome is organised into seven pairs<ref name="Hayes-et-al-2003" /> of [[nuclear DNA|nuclear chromosome]]s (recommended designations: 1H, 2H, 3H, 4H, 5H, 6H and 7H), and one [[mitochondrial DNA|mitochondrial]] and one [[chloroplast DNA|chloroplast chromosome]], with a total of 5000 Mbp.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/map_search.cgi?chr=barley.inf |title=barley genome at ncbi.nlm.nih.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041029124034/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/mapview/map_search.cgi?chr=barley.inf |archive-date=29 October 2004 |url-status=dead |author=mapview |access-date=6 October 2014 }}</ref> Details of the genome are freely available in several barley databases.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.barleygenome.org.uk/genome/background |title=Background: The barley genome |publisher=UK Barley Sequencing Consortium |date=2024 |access-date=12 January 2024 }}</ref>

== Origin ==

=== External phylogeny ===

The barley [[genus]] ''Hordeum'' is relatively closely related to wheat and [[rye]] within the [[Triticeae]], and more distantly to rice within the [[BOP clade]] of grasses ([[Poaceae]]).<ref name="Soreng Peterson Romaschenko Davidse 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Soreng |first1=Robert J. |last2=Peterson |first2=Paul M. |last3=Romaschenko |first3=Konstantin |last4=Davidse |first4=Gerrit |last5=Zuloaga |first5=Fernando O. |last6=Judziewicz |first6=Emmet J. |last7=Filgueiras |first7=Tarciso S. |last8=Davis |first8=Jerrold I. |last9=Morrone |first9=Osvaldo |display-authors=5 |title=A worldwide phylogenetic classification of the Poaceae (Gramineae) |journal=Journal of Systematics and Evolution |volume=53 |issue=2 |date=2015 |doi=10.1111/jse.12150 |pages=117–137 |hdl=11336/25248 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> The [[phylogeny]] of the Triticeae is complicated by [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] between species, so there is a [[Reticulate evolution|network of relationships]] rather than a simple inheritance-based tree.<ref name="Escobar Scornavacca Cenci Guilhaumon 2011">{{cite journal |last1=Escobar |first1=Juan S |last2=Scornavacca |first2=Céline |last3=Cenci |first3=Alberto |last4=Guilhaumon |first4=Claire |last5=Santoni |first5=Sylvain |last6=Douzery |first6=Emmanuel J. P. |last7=Ranwez |first7=Vincent |last8=Glémin |first8=Sylvain |last9=David |first9=Jacques |display-authors=5 |title=Multigenic phylogeny and analysis of tree incongruences in Triticeae (Poaceae) |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=11 |issue=1 |date=2011 |page=181 |pmid=21702931 |pmc=3142523 |doi=10.1186/1471-2148-11-181 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2011BMCEE..11..181E }}</ref>

{{clade|style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%
|label1=(Part of [[Poaceae]])
|1={{clade
   |label1= [[BOP clade]]
   |1={{clade
      |1=[[Bambusoideae]] (bamboos)
      |2={{clade
         |label1=[[Pooideae]]
         |1={{clade
            |label1=other grasses 
            |1=([[fescue]], [[ryegrass]])
            |label2=[[Triticeae]]
            |2={{clade
               |1='''''[[Hordeum]]'' (barley)'''
               |2={{clade
                  |1=''[[Triticum]]'' (wheat)
                  |2=''[[Secale]]'' (rye)
                  }}
               }}
            }}
         |2=''[[Oryza]]'' (rice)
         }}
      }}
   |label2= [[PACMAD clade]] 
   |2={{clade
      |1=other grasses
      |2={{clade
         |1=''[[Sorghum]]'' (sorghum)
         |2=''[[Zea (plant)|Zea]]'' (maize)
         }}
      }}
   }}
}}

=== Domestication ===

[[File:Genetic analysis on the spread of barley from 9000 to 2000 BCE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Genetic analysis on the spread of barley from 9,000 to 2,000 BC<ref name="BHE"/>]]

Barley was one of the [[Neolithic founder crops|first grains to be domesticated]] in the [[Fertile Crescent]], an area of relatively abundant water in Western Asia,<ref name="Badr Sch El Rabey 2000">{{cite journal |last1=Badr |first1=A. |last2=M |first2=K. |last3=Sch |first3=R. |last4=El Rabey |first4=H. |last5=Effgen |first5=S. |last6=Ibrahim |first6=H. H. |last7=Pozzi |first7=C. |last8=Rohde |first8=W. |last9=Salamini |first9=F. |display-authors=5 |title=On the Origin and Domestication History of Barley (''Hordeum vulgare'') |journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=17 |issue=4 |date=1 April 2000 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a026330 |pages=499–510 |pmid=10742042 }}</ref> around 9,000 BC.<ref name="BHE"/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mascher |first1=Martin |last2=Schuenemann |first2=Verena J |last3=Davidovich |first3=Uri |last4=Marom |first4=Nimrod |last5=Himmelbach |first5=Axel |last6=HUbner |first6=Sariel |last7=Korol |first7=Abraham |last8=David |first8=Michal |last9=Reiter |first9=Ella |last10=Riehl |first10=Simone |last11=Schreiber |first11=Mona |last12=Vohr |first12=Samuel H |last13=Green |first13=Richard E |last14=Dawson |first14=Ian K |last15=Russel |first15=Joanne |last16=Kilian |first16=Benjamin |last17=Muehlbauer |first17=Gary J |last18=Waugh |first18=Robbie |last19=Fahima |first19=Tzion |last20=Krause |first20=Johannes |last21=Weiss |first21=Ehud |last22=Stein |first22=Nils |display-authors=5 |title=Genomic analysis of 6,000-year-old cultivated grain illuminates the domestication history of barley |journal=Nature Genetics |date=2016 |volume=48 |issue=9 |pages=1089–1093 |doi=10.1038/ng.3611 |pmid=27428749 |s2cid=11574248 |url=https://discovery.dundee.ac.uk/en/publications/15d655f0-3be9-4ed4-9338-7c34a1e08754 }}</ref> Wild barley (''H. vulgare'' ssp. ''spontaneum'') ranges from North Africa and [[Crete]] in the west to [[Tibet]] in the east.<ref name=Zohary>{{cite book |last1=Zohary |first1=Daniel |first2=Maria |last2=Hopf |title=Domestication of Plants in the Old World: The Origin and Spread of Cultivated Plants in West Asia, Europe, and the Nile Valley |edition=3rd |year=2000 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-850357-6 |pages=59–69 }}</ref> A study of genome-wide diversity markers found [[Tibet]]  to be an additional center of domestication of cultivated barley.<ref name="Dai Nevo Wu Comadran 2012">{{cite journal |last1=Dai |first1=Fei |last2=Nevo |first2=Eviatar |last3=Wu |first3=Dezhi |last4=Comadran |first4=Jordi |last5=Zhou |first5=Meixue |display-authors=etal |title=Tibet is one of the centers of domestication of cultivated barley |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=109 |issue=42 |date=16 October 2012 |pmid=23033493 |pmc=3479512 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1215265109 |pages=16969–16973 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2012PNAS..10916969D }}</ref> The earliest [[archaeology|archaeological]] evidence of the consumption of [[wild barley]], ''Hordeum spontaneum'', comes from the [[Epipaleolithic]] at [[Ohalo II]] at the southern end of the [[Sea of Galilee]], where grinding stones with traces of starch were found. The remains were dated to about 23,000 BC.<ref name=Zohary/><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nadel |first1=Dani |last2=Piperno |first2=Dolores R. |last3=Holst |first3=Irene |last4=Snir |first4=Ainit |last5=Weiss |first5=Ehud |title=New evidence for the processing of wild cereal grains at Ohalo II, a 23 000-year-old campsite on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, Israel |journal=[[Antiquity (journal)|Antiquity]] |date=December 2012 |volume=86 |issue=334 |pages=990–1003 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00048201 |s2cid=162019976 |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00048201 |quote=Traces of starch found on a large flat stone discovered in the hunter-fisher-gatherer site of Ohalo II famously represent the first identification of Upper Palaeolithic grinding of grasses. Given the importance of this discovery for the use of edible grain, further analyses have now been undertaken. Meticulous sampling combined with good preservation allow the authors to demonstrate that the Ohalo II stone was certainly used for the routine processing of wild cereals, wheat, barley and now oats among them, around 23 000 years ago. |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Snir, et al. 2015">{{cite journal |last1=Snir |first1=Ainit |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Groman-Yaroslavski |first3=Iris |last4=Melamed |first4=Yoel |last5=Sternberg |first5=Marcelo |last6=Bar-Yosef |first6=Ofer |last7=Weiss |first7=Ehud |title=The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming |journal=PLOS ONE |date=22 July 2015 |volume=10 |issue=7 |page=e0131422 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422 |doi-access=free |pmid=26200895 |pmc=4511808 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1031422S }}</ref> The earliest evidence for the domestication of barley, in the form of cultivars that cannot reproduce without human assistance, comes from Mesopotamia, specifically the [[Jarmo]] region of modern-day Iraq, around 9,000–7,000 BC.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ucko |first1=Peter John |last2=Dimbleby |first2=G. W. |title=The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals |date=1 January 2007 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-202-36557-2 |page=164 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6lY9Q4vnrCEC&pg=PA164 |quote=This feature allows us to describe the Jarmo barley as the earliest "domesticated" two-row barley yet found. }}</ref><!--<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mitchell |first1=John William |last2=Loegering |first2=William Quenn |last3=Livingston |first3=George Adelbert |title=Barley: Origin, Botany, Culture, Winterhardiness, Genetics, Utilization, Pests |date=1967 |publisher=Agricultural Research Service, [[U.S. Department of Agriculture]] |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dmFsRJ48XEsC&pg=RA5-PA14 }}</ref>--><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=Helena H. |title=The Origin and Early History of the Cultivated Barleys: A Botanical and Archaeological Synthesis |journal=The Agricultural History Review |date=1967 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=10–11 |jstor=40273219 }}</ref><!--<ref name="BHE"/>-->

Domestication changed the [[Plant morphology|morphology]] of the barley grain substantially, from an elongated shape to a more rounded spherical one.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=N. |last2=Oliveira |first2=H. R. |last3=Fradgley |first3=N. |last4=Corke |first4=F. |last5=Cockram |first5=J. |last6=Doonan |first6=J. H. |last7=Nibau |first7=C. |title=μCT trait analysis reveals morphometric differences between domesticated temperate small grain cereals and their wild relatives |journal=[[The Plant Journal]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |volume=99 |issue=1 |pages=98–111 |date=14 March 2019 |doi=10.1111/tpj.14312 |pmid=30868647 |pmc=6618119 }}</ref> Wild barley has distinctive [[gene]]s, [[allele]]s, and regulators with potential for resistance to [[abiotic]] or [[biotic stress]]es; these may help cultivated barley to adapt to climatic changes.<ref name="Wang Chen Yang Zhang 2018">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Xiaolei |last2=Chen |first2=Zhong-Hua |last3=Yang |first3=Chongyi |last4=Zhang |first4=Xuelei |last5=Jin |first5=Gulei |display-authors=etal |title=Genomic adaptation to drought in wild barley is driven by edaphic natural selection at the Tabigha Evolution Slope |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=115 |issue=20 |date=15 May 2018 |pmid=29712833 |pmc=5960308 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1721749115 |pages=5223–5228 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.5223W }}</ref> Wild barley has a brittle [[spike (botany)|spike]]; upon maturity, the [[spikelet]]s separate, facilitating [[seed dispersal]]. Domesticated barley has [[shattering (agriculture)|nonshattering]] spikelets, making it much easier to harvest the mature ears.<ref name=Zohary/> The nonshattering condition is caused by a [[mutation]] in one of two [[Genetic linkage|tightly linked]] genes known as Bt<sub>1</sub> and Bt<sub>2</sub>; many [[cultivar]]s possess both mutations. The nonshattering condition is [[recessive]], so varieties of barley that exhibit this condition are [[homozygous]] for the mutant [[allele]].<ref name=Zohary/> Domestication in barley is followed by the change of key [[phenotype|phenotypic traits]] at the genetic level.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yan |first1=S. |last2=Sun |first2=D. |last3=Sun |first3=G. |title=Genetic divergence in domesticated and non-domesticated gene regions of barley chromosomes |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=e0121106 |date=26 March 2015 |pmid=25812037 |pmc=4374956 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0121106 |bibcode=2015PLoSO..1021106Y |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The wild barley found currently in the [[Fertile Crescent]] may not be the progenitor of the barley cultivated in [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopia]], indicating that it may have been domesticated separately in eastern Africa.<ref name="Orabi Backes Wolday Yahyaoui 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Orabi |first1=Jihad |last2=Backes |first2=Gunter |last3=Wolday |first3=Asmelash |last4=Yahyaoui |first4=Amor |last5=Jahoor |first5=Ahmed |title=The Horn of Africa as a centre of barley diversification and a potential domestication site |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |volume=114 |issue=6 |date=29 March 2007 |doi=10.1007/s00122-007-0505-5 |pages=1117–1127 |pmid=17279366 |s2cid=31695204 }}</ref>

=== Spread ===

{{Further|Neolithic Revolution}}

[[File:Issue of barley rations.JPG |thumb|left|upright=0.9|An [[accounting|account]] of barley rations issued monthly to adults (30 or 40 [[pint]]s) and children (20 pints) written in [[cuneiform]] on clay tablet in year 4 of King [[Urukagina]] (''circa'' 2350 BCE), from [[Girsu]], Iraq]]

Archaeobotanical evidence shows that barley had spread throughout Eurasia by 2,000 BC.<ref name="BHE"/> Genetic analysis demonstrates that cultivated barley followed several different routes over time.<ref name="BHE">[[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Material was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Martin K. |last2=Kovaleva |first2=Olga |title=Barley heads east: Genetic analyses reveal routes of spread through diverse Eurasian landscapes |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |date=18 July 2018 |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=e0196652 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0196652 |pmid=30020920 |pmc=6051582 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1396652L |doi-access=free }}</ref> By 4200 BC domesticated barley had reached Eastern Finland.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/ajankohtaista/2013/01/0128b.htm |title=Maanviljely levisi Suomeen Itä-Aasiasta jo 7000 vuotta sitten - Ajankohtaista - Tammikuu 2013 - Humanistinen tiedekunta - Helsingin yliopisto |access-date=6 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006205242/http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/ajankohtaista/2013/01/0128b.htm |archive-date=6 October 2014 |language=Finnish }}</ref> Barley has been grown in the Korean Peninsula since the Early [[Mumun Pottery Period]] (''circa'' 1500–850 BC).<ref>{{cite journal |last=Crawford |first=Gary W. |author2=Gyoung-Ah Lee |year=2003 |title=Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula |journal=[[Antiquity (journal)|Antiquity]] |volume=77 |issue=295 |pages=87–95 |doi=10.1017/s0003598x00061378 |s2cid=163060564 }}</ref> Barley ({{IAST|Yava}} in [[Sanskrit]]) is mentioned many times in the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and other Indian scriptures as a principal grain in ancient India.<ref name="yava">{{cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael E. J. |title=The Linguistic History of Some Indian Domestic Plants |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/8954814/Witzel_Linguistic.pdf?sequence=1 |journal=Journal of Biosciences |date=2009 |volume=34 |issue=6 |pages=829–833 |access-date=25 August 2016 |doi=10.1007/s12038-009-0096-1 |pmid=20093735 |s2cid=6245657 }}</ref> Traces of barley cultivation have been found in [[Indus Valley Civilization|post-Neolithic Bronze Age Harappan civilization]] 5,700–3,300 years ago.<ref name="IVS">{{cite web |title=IIT KGP Researchers say Indus Valley civilization in India is older than thought before |url=https://iitkgp.org/content/iit-kgp-researchers-say-indus-valley-civilization-india-older-thought |website=iitkgp.org |publisher=IIT Kharagpur |access-date=25 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918225301/https://iitkgp.org/content/iit-kgp-researchers-say-indus-valley-civilization-india-older-thought |archive-date=18 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Barley beer was probably one of the first alcoholic drinks developed by Neolithic humans;<ref name=Pellechia2006>{{cite book |last=Pellechia |first=Thomas |year=2006 |title=Wine: the 8,000-year-old story of the wine trade |page=10 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DSwqswEACAAJ |isbn=978-1-56025-871-1 |publisher=Running Press |location=Philadelphia }}</ref> later it was used as currency.<ref name=Pellechia2006/> The [[Sumerian language]] had a word for barley, ''akiti''. In ancient [[Mesopotamia]], a stalk of barley was the primary symbol of the goddess [[Shala]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Black |first1=Jeremy |last2=Green |first2=Anthony |title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana |publisher=[[British Museum|The British Museum]] Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-7141-1705-8 |page=39 }}</ref>

{|style="float:right;clear:right;font-size:9pt;margin:2em 0 1em 1em;"
|-
|+''' Barley in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s'''
|''jt'' [[ideogram]]
|<hiero>M34</hiero>
|-
|''jt'' spelling
|<hiero>i-t-U9:M33</hiero>
|-
|''šma'' ideogram
|<hiero>U9</hiero>
|}

Rations of barley for workers appear in [[Linear B]] tablets in Mycenaean contexts at [[Knossos]] and at [[Pylos#Prehistoric and Mycenaean Pylos|Mycenaean Pylos]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Chadwick |first=John |author-link=John Chadwick |title=The Mycenaean World |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1976 |isbn=0-521-29037-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mycenaeanworld00chad |pages=118– }}</ref> In mainland Greece, the ritual significance of barley possibly dates back to the earliest stages of the [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]. The preparatory ''[[kykeon]]'' or mixed drink of the initiates, prepared from barley and herbs, mentioned in the [[Homeric hymn]] to [[Demeter]]. The goddess's name may have meant "barley-mother", incorporating the [[ancient Cretan]] word ''δηαί'' (dēai<!--same as zea, now used for "maize"-->), "barley".<ref name="Tobin 1991">{{cite journal |last=Tobin |first=Vincent Arieh |title=Isis and Demeter: symbols of divine motherhood |journal=Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt |year=1991 |volume=28 |oclc=936727983 |pages=187–200 |quote=Demeter's name, therefore, could be interpreted in Greek to mean 'barley-mother' |jstor=40000579 |doi=10.2307/40000579 }}</ref><ref name="cereals_and_cereal_products_technology_and_chemistry">{{cite book |last=J. Dobraszczyk |first=Bogdan |title=Cereals and cereal products: chemistry and technology |year=2001 |publisher=[[Aspen Publishers]] |location=Gaithersburg, Maryland |isbn=978-0-8342-1767-6 |page=7 }}</ref> The practice was to dry the barley [[groats]] and roast them before preparing the porridge, according to [[Pliny the Elder]]'s ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Natural History]]''.<ref>[[Pliny the Elder]]. ''[[Pliny's Natural History|Natural History]]'', xviii.72.</ref> Tibetan barley has been a [[staple food]] in [[Tibetan cuisine]] since the fifth century AD. This grain, along with a cool climate that permitted storage, produced a civilization that was able to raise great armies.<ref name=Fernandez2001>{{Cite book |last=Fernandez |first=Felipe Armesto |year=2001 |title=Civilizations: Culture, Ambition and the Transformation of Nature |page=265 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-7432-1650-0 }}</ref> It is made into a flour product called ''[[tsampa]]'' that is still a staple in Tibet.<ref name=By2006>{{cite book |last1=Dreyer |first1=June Teufel |last2=Sautman |first2=Barry |year=2006 |title=Contemporary Tibet: politics, development, and society in a disputed region |page=262 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ou4f4q8gGcIC&q=tsampa&pg=PA262 |isbn=978-0-7656-1354-7 |publisher=Sharpe |location=Armonk, New York }}</ref> In medieval Europe, bread made from barley and rye was peasant food, while wheat products were consumed by the upper classes.<ref name=Mcgee235/>

== Taxonomy and varieties ==

{{Further|List of barley cultivars}}

{{anchor|Two-row|Two-row barley|Six-row|Six-row barley}}

=== Two-row and six-row barley ===

Spikelets are arranged in triplets which alternate along the [[rachis]]. In wild barley (and other [[Old World]] species of ''[[Hordeum]]''), only the central spikelet is fertile, while the other two are reduced. This condition is retained in certain cultivars known as two-row barleys. A pair of mutations (one dominant, the other recessive) result in fertile lateral spikelets to produce six-row barleys.<ref name=Zohary/> {{anchor|vrs1}}A mutation in one gene, ''vrs1'', is responsible for the transition from two-row to six-row barley.<ref name="Komatsuda Pourkheirandish He Azhaguvel 2007">{{cite journal |last1=Komatsuda |first1=Takao |last2=Pourkheirandish |first2=Mohammad |last3=He |first3=Congfen |last4=Azhaguvel |first4=Perumal |last5=Kanamori |first5=Hiroyuki |display-authors=etal |title=Six-rowed barley originated from a mutation in a homeodomain-leucine zipper I-class homeobox gene |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=104 |issue=4 |date=23 January 2007 |pmid=17220272 |pmc=1783110 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0608580104 |pages=1424–1429 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2007PNAS..104.1424K }}</ref> Brewers in Europe tend to use two-row cultivars and breweries in North America use six-row barley (or a mix), and there are important differences in enzyme content, kernel shape, and other factors that malters and brewers must take into consideration.<ref>{{cite book |date=2012 |title=The Oxford Companion to Beer |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |page=734 |isbn=9780195367133 |last1=Oliver |first1=Garrett }}</ref>

In traditional taxonomy, different forms of barley were classified as different species based on morphological differences. Two-row barley with shattering spikes (wild barley) was named ''[[Hordeum spontaneum]]''. Two-row barley with nonshattering spikes was named as ''[[Hordeum distichon|H. distichon]]'', six-row barley with nonshattering spikes as ''H. vulgare'' (or ''H. hexastichum''), and six-row with shattering spikes as ''H. agriocrithon''. Because these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled with [[cell biology|cytological]] and [[molecular biology|molecular]] evidence, most recent classifications treat these forms as a single species, ''H. vulgare''.<ref name=Zohary/>
<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225 heights=200>
File:Hordeum vulgare (6 row barley) (3885627341).jpg|6-row barley has three fertile [[spikelet]]s per cluster
File:BarleyEars.JPG|Two-row and six-row|alt=Heads of 2-row and 6-row barley
</gallery>

=== Hulless barley ===

Hulless or "naked" barley (''Hordeum vulgare '' var.'' nudum'') is a form of domesticated barley with an easier-to-remove [[Husk|hull]]. Naked barley is an ancient food crop, but a new industry has developed around uses of selected hulless barley to increase the digestibility of the grain, especially for pigs and poultry.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bhatty |first=R. S. |title=The potential of hull-less barley |journal=Cereal Chemistry |year=1999 |volume=76 |pages=589–599 |doi=10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.5.589 |issue=5 }}</ref> Hulless barley has been investigated for several potential new applications as whole grain, bran, and flour.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bhatty |first=R. S. |title=β-glucan and flour yield of hull-less barley |journal=Cereal Chemistry |year=2011 |volume=76 |pages=314–315 |doi=10.1094/CCHEM.1999.76.2.314 |issue=2 }}</ref>

{|class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:right; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;"
! colspan=2|Barley production – 2022
|-
! style="background:#ddf; width:50%;"|Country
! style="background:#ddf; width:50%;"|<small> Millions of [[tonne]]s </small>
|-
|{{RUS}} ||23.4
|-
|{{AUS}} ||14.4
|-
|{{FRA}} ||11.3
|-
|{{GER}} ||11.2
|-
|{{CAN}} ||10.0
|-
|{{TUR}} ||8.5
|-
|{{UK}} ||7.4
|-
|{{ESP}} ||7.0
|-
|'''World''' ||'''154.9'''<ref name="faostat">{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC |title=Barley production in 2022; Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (from pick lists) |date=2024 |publisher=[[FAOSTAT]], UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database |access-date=12 January 2024 }}</ref>
|}

== Production ==

{{See also|List of countries by barley production}}

In 2022, world production of barley was 155 million tonnes, led by Russia accounting for 15% of the world total (table). France, Germany, and Canada were secondary producers. Worldwide barley production was fourth among grains, following maize (1.2 billion tonnes), wheat (808 million tonnes), and rice (776 million tonnes).<ref name="faostat-compare">{{cite web |title=Comparison of world production values in 2022; maize-wheat-rice-barley |url=https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#compare |publisher=FAOSTAT, UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database |access-date=12 January 2024 |date=2024 }}</ref>

== Cultivation ==

Barley is a crop that prefers relatively low temperatures, {{convert|15|to|20|C}} in the growing season; it is grown around the world in temperate areas. It grows best in well-drained soil in full sunshine. In the tropics and subtropics, it is grown for food and straw in South Asia, North and East Africa, and in the Andes of South America. In dry regions it requires irrigation.<ref name="PlantVillage"/> It has a short growing season and is [[Drought tolerance in barley|relatively drought-tolerant]].<ref name=Mcgee235>{{harvnb|McGee|1986|p=235 }}</ref> Barley is more tolerant of [[soil salinity]] than other cereals, varying in different cultivars.<ref name="Witzel Matros Strickert Kaspar 2014">{{cite journal |last1=Witzel |first1=Katja |last2=Matros |first2=Andrea |last3=Strickert |first3=Marc |last4=Kaspar |first4=Stephanie |last5=Peukert |first5=Manuela |last6=Mühling |first6=Karl H. |last7=Börner |first7=Andreas |last8=Mock |first8=Hans-Peter |title=Salinity Stress in Roots of Contrasting Barley Genotypes Reveals Time-Distinct and Genotype-Specific Patterns for Defined Proteins |journal=Molecular Plant |volume=7 |issue=2 |date=2014 |doi=10.1093/mp/sst063 |pages=336–355 |pmid=24004485 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It has less [[Hardiness (plants)#Winter hardiness|winter-hardiness]] than [[winter wheat]] and far less than rye.<ref>{{cite web |title=Winter-hardiness |url=https://stockingerlab.osu.edu/winter-hardiness |publisher=Stockinger Lab, Ohio State University |access-date=14 January 2024 }}</ref>

Like other cereals, barley is typically planted on [[Tillage|tilled]] land. Seed was [[sowing|traditionally scattered]], but in developed countries is usually [[seed drill|drilled]]. As it grows it requires soil nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium), often supplied as fertilizers. It needs to be monitored for pests and diseases, and if necessary treated before these become serious. The stems and ears turn yellow when ripe, and the ears begin to droop. Traditional harvesting was by hand with [[sickle]]s or [[scythe]]s; in developed countries, harvesting is mechanised with [[combine harvester]]s.<ref name="PlantVillage"/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=225 heights=200>
File:Tramlines in the sun - geograph.org.uk - 1565399.jpg|Young winter barley in early November,<br/>Scotland, 2009
File:Cessna188AGWagonZKCSE.jpg|Spraying barley for [[Rust (fungus)|rust fungus]],<br/>New Zealand, 1979
File:In The Barley Harvest.jpg|Traditional barley harvest by hand with [[scythe]]s, England, c. 1886.<br/>Photo [[Peter Henry Emerson]]
File:Claas Dominator 85 harvesting winter barley at Ostrittrum.jpg|Harvesting winter barley with a [[combine harvester]], Germany, 2017
</gallery>

== Pests and diseases ==

{{Further|List of barley diseases}}

Among the insect pests of barley are [[aphid]]s such as [[Russian wheat aphid]], caterpillars such as of the [[Mythimna unipuncta|armyworm moth]], [[Mealybug|barley mealybug]], and [[wireworm]] larvae of click beetle genera such as ''[[Aeolus (beetle)|Aeolus]]''. Aphid damage can often be tolerated, whereas armyworms can eat whole leaves. Wireworms kill seedlings, and require [[seed treatment|seed]] or preplanting treatment.<ref name="PlantVillage">{{cite web |title=Barley |url=https://plantvillage.psu.edu/topics/barley/infos |website=PlantVillage (PennState University) |access-date=14 January 2024 }}</ref>

<!--Fungi-->
Serious fungal diseases of barley include powdery mildew caused by ''[[Blumeria graminis]]'', leaf scald caused by ''[[Rhynchosporium secalis]]'', barley rust caused by ''[[Puccinia hordei]]'', crown rust caused by ''[[Puccinia coronata]]'', various diseases caused by ''[[Cochliobolus sativus]]'', [[Fusarium ear blight]],<ref name="Parry-1995">{{Cite journal |last1=Parry |first1=D. W. |last2=Jenkinson |first2=P. |last3=McLeod |first3=L. |year=1995 |title=Fusarium ear blight (scab) in small grain cereals—a review |journal=Plant Pathology |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=207–238 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-3059.1995.tb02773.x }}</ref>
and [[stem rust]] (''Puccinia graminis'').<ref name="Djurle Young Berlin Vågsholm 2022">{{cite journal |last1=Djurle |first1=Annika |last2=Young |first2=Beth |last3=Berlin |first3=Anna |last4=Vågsholm |first4=Ivar |last5=Blomström |first5=Anne-Lie |last6=Nygren |first6=Jim |last7=Kvarnheden |first7=Anders |title=Addressing biohazards to food security in primary production |journal=Food Security |year=2022 |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=1475–1497 |doi=10.1007/s12571-022-01296-7 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
<!--Bacteria-->
Bacterial diseases of barley include [[Bacterial blight (barley)|bacterial blight]] caused by  [[Xanthomonas campestris pv. translucens|''Xanthomonas campestris'' pv. ''translucens'']].<ref name=BarleyCompendium>{{cite book |last=Mathre |first=D. E. |title=Compendium of barley diseases |publisher=American Phytopathological Society |year=1997 |pages=120 }}</ref>
<!--Viruses-->
Barley is susceptible to several viral diseases, such as [[barley mild mosaic bymovirus]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/refs.htm |editor=Brunt, A. A. |editor2=Crabtree, K. |editor3=Dallwitz, M. J. |editor4=Gibbs, A. J. |editor5=Watson, L. |editor6=Zurcher, E. J. |title=Plant Viruses Online: Descriptions and Lists from the VIDE Database |date=20 August 1996 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061018063001/http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/refs.htm |archive-date=18 October 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/descr059.htm |title=Barley mild mosaic bymovirus |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061208214019/http://image.fs.uidaho.edu/vide/descr059.htm |archive-date=8 December 2006 }}</ref> Some viruses, such as [[barley yellow dwarf virus]], [[Disease vector|vectored]] by the [[Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominale|rice root aphid]], can cause serious crop injury.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Jedlinski |first=H. |date=1981 |title=Rice Root Aphid, ''Rhopalosiphum rufiabdominalis'', a Vector of ''Barley Yellow Dwarf Virus'' in Illinois, and the Disease Complex |journal=[[Plant Disease (journal)|Plant Disease]] |publisher=[[American Phytopathological Society]] |volume=65 |issue=12 |page=975 |doi=10.1094/pd-65-975 }}</ref>

For durable disease resistance, [[quantitative resistance]] is more important than [[qualitative resistance]]. The most important [[foliar disease]]s have corresponding resistance gene regions on all chromosomes of barley.<ref name="Hayes-et-al-2003"/> 
A large number of [[molecular marker]]s are available for breeding of resistance to leaf rust, powdery mildew, ''[[Rhynchosporium secalis]]'', [[Pyrenophora teres f. teres|''Pyrenophora teres'' f. ''teres'']], ''[[Barley yellow dwarf virus]]'', and the [[Barley yellow mosaic virus complex|''Barley yellow mosaic virus'' complex]].<ref>{{Cite journal |first1=Jerzy |last1=Chelkowski |first2=Miroslaw |last2=Tyrka |first3=Andrzej |last3=Sobkiewicz |title=Resistance genes in barley (''Hordeum vulgare'' L.) and their identification with molecular marker |journal=Journal of Applied Genetics |volume=44 |issue=3 |year=2003 |pages=291–309 |pmid=12923305 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Miedaner |first1=T. |last2=Korzun |first2=V. |year=2012 |journal=Phytopathology |doi=10.1094/PHYTO-05-11-0157 |title=Marker-Assisted Selection for Disease Resistance in Wheat and Barley Breeding |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=560–566 |pmid=22568813 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights=150>
File:Coleoptera larvae (ritnaalden).jpg|[[Wireworm]]s, the larvae of click beetles, kill barley seedlings.
File:Puccinia hordei G.H. Otth 5410688.jpg|Barley rust, a [[plant disease|disease]] caused by the fungus ''[[Puccinia hordei]]''
</gallery>

== Food ==

{{Infobox nutritional value
|name=Cooked barley
|image=Barley grains 3.jpg
|image_alt=
|caption=
|kJ=515
|protein=2.3 g
|fat=0.4 g
|carbs=28.2 g
|fiber=3.8 g
|sugars=0.3 g
|calcium_mg=11
|iron_mg=1.3
|magnesium_mg=22
|phosphorus_mg=54
|potassium_mg=93
|sodium_mg=3
|zinc_mg=0.82
|copper_mg=0.105
|manganese_mg=0.259
|vitC_mg=0
|thiamin_mg=0.083
|riboflavin_mg=0.062
|niacin_mg=2.063
|pantothenic_mg=0.135
|vitB6_mg=0.115
|folate_ug=16
|vitB12_ug=0
|vitA_ug=0
|choline_mg=13.4
|betacarotene_ug=5
|lutein_ug=56
|vitD_iu =0
|vitE_mg=0.01
|vitK_ug=0.8
|water =68.8 g
|cholesterol =0 mg
|note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170285/nutrients= Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

=== Preparation ===

Hulled barley (or covered barley) is eaten after removing the inedible, fibrous, outer husk or hull. Once removed, it is called dehulled barley (or pot barley or scotch barley).<ref name=Simon>{{cite book |last=Simon |first=André |year=1963 |title=Guide to Good Food and Wines: A Concise Encyclopedia of Gastronomy Complete and Unabridged |publisher=Collins |location=London |page=150 }}</ref> [[Pearl barley]] (or pearled barley) is dehulled to remove most of the bran, and polished.<ref name=Simon/> Barley meal, a wholemeal [[barley flour]] lighter than wheat meal but darker in colour, is used in [[gruel]].<ref name=Simon/> This gruel is known as سويق : ''sawīq'' in the [[Arab world]].<ref name=Tabarip89>{{cite book |title=The History of Al-Tabari |volume=VII: The Foundation of the Community |chapter=Muhammad at Al-Madina, A. D. 622-626/ijrah-4 A. H. |author=Tabari |translator=W. Montgomery Watt |translator2=M. V. McDonald |publisher=[[SUNY Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-88706-344-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ctvk-fdtklYC&q=barley+sawiq&pg=PA89 |page=89 }}</ref>

With a long history of cultivation in the [[Middle East]], barley is used in a wide range of traditional [[Arab cuisine|Arabic]], [[Assyrian cuisine|Assyrian]], [[Ancient Israelite cuisine|Israelite]], [[Kurdish cuisine|Kurdish]], and [[Persian cuisine|Persian]] foodstuffs including [[keşkek]], [[kashk]], and [[Murri (condiment)|murri]]. Barley soup is traditionally eaten during [[Ramadan]] in Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite book |last=Long |first=David E. |title=Culture and customs of Saudi Arabia |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=2005 |page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long/page/50 50] |isbn=978-0-313-32021-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long/page/50 }}</ref> [[Cholent|''Cholent'' or ''hamin'']] (in Hebrew) is a traditional Jewish [[stew]] often eaten on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]], in numerous recipes by both [[Mizrahi Jews|Mizrachi]] and [[Ashkenazi Jews]]; its original form was a barley porridge.<ref name=Marks>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Marks |first=Gil |title=Cholent/Schalet |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Jewish Foods |publisher=[[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]] |date=2010 |pages=40 }}</ref>

In [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Central Europe|Central]] Europe, barley is used in soups and stews such as [[ričet]]. In Africa, where it is a traditional food plant, it has the potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development, and support sustainable landcare.<ref>{{cite book |author=National Research Council |title=Lost Crops of Africa: Volume I: Grains |url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305 |access-date=25 July 2008 |volume=1 |date=14 February 1996 |publisher=[[National Academies Press]] |isbn=978-0-309-04990-0 |doi=10.17226/2305 |page=243 |chapter=Other Cultivated Grains |chapter-url=http://books.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=2305&page=237 }}</ref>

The six-row variety ''[[Bere (grain)|bere]]'' is cultivated in [[Orkney]], Shetland, [[Caithness]] and the [[Western Isles]] of the Scottish [[Highlands and Islands]]. When milled into ''beremeal'', it is used locally in [[bread]], [[biscuit]]s, and the traditional beremeal [[Bannock (British food)|bannock]].<ref name='Whisky'>{{cite journal |first1=Peter |last1=Martin |first2=Xianmin |last2=Chang |title=Bere Whisky: rediscovering the spirit of an old barley |journal=The Brewer & Distiller International |date=June 2008 |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=41–43 |url=http://www.ibd.org.uk |access-date=14 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201011938/http://www.ibd.org.uk/ |archive-date=1 December 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In [[Japanese cuisine|Japanese]] cuisine, barley is mixed with rice and steamed as ''mugimeshi''.<ref name="Sano Tsuyukubo Mabashi Murakami 2017">{{cite journal |last1=Sano |first1=Anna |last2=Tsuyukubo |first2=Mika |last3=Mabashi |first3=Yuka |last4=Murakami |first4=Yukie |last5=Narita |first5=Hiroshi |last6=Kasai |first6=Midori |last7=Ookura |first7=Tetsuya |title=Translocation of Barley β-amylase into Rice Grains during Cooking Rice Mixed with Barley (Mugimeshi) |journal=Food Science and Technology Research |volume=23 |issue=4 |date=2017 |doi=10.3136/fstr.23.621 |pages=621–625 }}</ref> The naval surgeon [[Takaki Kanehiro]] introduced it into institutional cooking to combat [[beriberi]], endemic in the armed forces in the 19th century. It became standard prison fare, and remains a staple in the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yoji |first1=Yamazaki |title=Kanehiro Takaki : The Great Naval Surgeon Nicknamed the "Barley Baron" |journal=日本腹部救急医学会雑誌 |date=2008 |volume=28 |url=https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/1390001204733516160?lang=en |publisher=CiNii |access-date=11 January 2024 |doi=10.11231/jaem.28.873 }}</ref>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=200 heights=150>
File:Barley Seeds.jpg|Barley grains with and without the outer [[husk]]
File:BannockBeremeal.jpg|[[Bere (grain)|Bere]]meal [[Bannock (British food)|bannock]], Orkney, 2008
File:Mugimeshi.jpg|''Mugimeshi'', Japanese steamed barley rice
File:Tokat_keshkek.jpg|[[Keşkek]], a Middle Eastern barley stew
</gallery>

=== Nutrition ===

Cooked barley is 69% water, 28% [[carbohydrate]]s, 2% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], and 0.4% fat (table). In a 100-gram (3.5&nbsp;oz) reference serving, cooked barley provides {{convert|515|kJ|kcal}} of [[food energy]] and is a good source (10% or more of the [[Daily Value]], DV) of [[essential nutrients]], including, [[dietary fibre]], the B vitamin [[Niacin (nutrient)|niacin]] (14% DV), and [[dietary minerals]], including iron (10% DV) and [[manganese]] (12% DV) (table).<ref>[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170285/nutrients= USDA Database entry] Accessed 14 January 2024.</ref>

=== Health implications ===

According to [[Health Canada]] and the US [[Food and Drug Administration]], consuming at least 3 grams per day of barley [[beta-glucan]] can lower levels of [[blood cholesterol]], a risk factor for [[cardiovascular diseases]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/cfrsearch.cfm?fr=101.81 |title=21 CFR Part 101 [Docket No. 2004P-0512], Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soluble Dietary Fiber From Certain Foods and Coronary Heart Disease |publisher=[[US Food and Drug Administration]] |date=22 May 2006 |access-date=2 December 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/label-etiquet/claims-reclam/assess-evalu/barley-orge-eng.php |title=Summary of Health Canada's Assessment of a Health Claim about Barley Products and Blood Cholesterol Lowering |publisher=[[Health Canada]] |date=12 July 2012 |access-date=2 December 2015 }}</ref>
Eating whole-grain barley, a high-fibre grain, improves regulation of [[blood sugar]] (i.e., reduces blood glucose response to a meal).<ref name="Harris Kris-Etherton 2010">{{cite journal |last1=Harris |first1=Kristina A. |last2=Kris-Etherton |first2=Penny M. |title=Effects of Whole Grains on Coronary Heart Disease Risk |journal=Current Atherosclerosis Reports |volume=12 |issue=6 |date=2010 |doi=10.1007/s11883-010-0136-1 |pages=368–376 |pmid=20820954 |s2cid=29100975 }}</ref> Consuming [[breakfast cereal]]s containing barley over weeks to months improves cholesterol levels and glucose regulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Williams |first=P. G. |title=The benefits of breakfast cereal consumption: a systematic review of the evidence base |journal=[[Advances in Nutrition]] |volume=5 |issue=5 |pages=636S–673S |date=September 2014 |pmid=25225349 |pmc=4188247 |doi=10.3945/an.114.006247 }}</ref>
Barley contains [[gluten]], which makes it an unsuitable grain for consumption by people with [[gluten-related disorders]], such as [[coeliac disease]], [[non-coeliac gluten sensitivity]] and [[wheat allergy]] sufferers.<ref name=TovoliMasi>{{cite journal |last1=Tovoli |first1=F. |last2=Masi |first2=C. |last3=Guidetti |first3=E. |last4=Negrini |first4=G. |last5=Paterini |first5=P. |last6=Bolondi |first6=L. |title=Clinical and Diagnostic Aspects of Gluten Related Disorders |journal=[[World Journal of Clinical Cases]] |volume=3 |issue=3 |pages=275–84 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25789300 |pmc=4360499 |doi=10.12998/wjcc.v3.i3.275 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Nevertheless, some wheat allergy patients can tolerate barley.<ref name=Pietzak>{{cite journal |last=Pietzak |first=M. |title=Celiac disease, wheat allergy, and gluten sensitivity: when gluten free is not a fad |journal=[[Journal of Parenteral and Enteral Nutrition]] |volume=36 |issue=1 Suppl |pages=68S–75S |date=January 2012 |pmid=22237879 |doi=10.1177/0148607111426276 }}</ref>

== Uses ==

=== Beer, whisky, and soft drinks ===

{{Further|List of barley-based beverages}}

Barley, made into [[malt]], is a key ingredient in [[beer]] and [[whisky]] production.<ref name=Mcgee490/> Two-row barley is traditionally used in [[German beer|German]] and [[Beer in England|English]] beers. Six-row barley was traditionally used in [[Beer in the United States|US beers]], but both varieties are in common usage now.<ref name=Ogle2006>{{Cite book |last=Ogle |first=Maureen |year=2006 |title=Ambitious brew : the story of American beer |pages=[https://archive.org/details/ambitiousbrewsto00maur/page/70 70]–72 |url=https://archive.org/details/ambitiousbrewsto00maur |url-access=registration |quote=and six-row barley was traditionally used in US beers. |isbn=978-0-15-101012-7 |location=[[Orlando, Florida|Orlando]] |publisher=[[Harcourt (publisher)|Harcourt]] }}</ref> Distilled from green beer,<ref name=Mcgee481>{{harvnb|McGee|1986|p=481 }}</ref> Scottish and Irish whisky are made primarily from barley.<ref name=Mcgee490>{{harvnb|McGee|1986|p=490 }}</ref> About 25% of American barley is used for malting, for which barley is the best-suited grain.<ref name=Mcgee471>{{harvnb|McGee|1986|p=471 }}</ref> Accordingly, barley is often assessed by its [[malting enzyme]] content.<ref name="Hayes-et-al-2003">{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Patrick M. |last2=Castro |first2=Ariel |last3=Marquez-Cedillo |first3=Luis |last4=Corey |first4=Ann |last5=Henson |first5=Cynthia |display-authors=etal |chapter=Genetic diversity for quantitatively inherited agronomic and malting quality traits |editor=Roland von Bothmer |editor2=Theo van Hintum |editor3=Helmut Knüpffer |editor4=Kazuhiro Sato |title=Diversity in Barley (''Hordeum vulgare'') |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |publication-place=[[Amsterdam]], [[Boston]] |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-444-50585-9 |oclc=162130976 |pages=201–226 |doi=10.1016/S0168-7972(03)80012-9 }}</ref> [[Barley wine]] is a style of strong beer from the English brewing tradition. An 18th-century alcoholic drink of the same name was made by boiling barley in water, then mixing the barley water with white wine, [[borage]], lemon and sugar. In the 19th century, a different barley wine was prepared from recipes of ancient Greek origin.<ref name=Ayto1990/>

Nonalcoholic drinks such as [[barley water]]<ref name=Ayto1990>{{cite book |last=Ayto |first=John |year=1990 |title=The glutton's glossary : a dictionary of food and drink terms |pages=[https://archive.org/details/gluttonsglossary00ayto/page/16 16]–17 |url=https://archive.org/details/gluttonsglossary00ayto |url-access=registration |quote=barley water was used. |isbn=978-0-415-02647-5 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London }}</ref> and [[roasted barley tea]] have been made by boiling barley in water.<ref name=Clarke1988>{{Cite book |editor-last=Clarke |editor-first=R. J. |year=1988 |title=Coffee |page=84 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n9ZEMquvPoYC&q=mugicha&pg=PA84 |isbn=978-1-85166-103-9 |publisher=Elsevier Applied Science |location=London }}</ref> In Italy, roasted barley is sometimes used as coffee substitute, ''[[caffè d'orzo]]'' (barley coffee).<ref>{{cite web |title=Caffè d'orzo: il caffè senza caffeina |url=https://www.cibo360.it/alimentazione/cibi/bevande_analcoliche/caffe_orzo.htm |website=cibo360 |access-date=13 January 2024 |language=Italian |trans-title=Barley Coffee: Coffee without Caffeine }}</ref>

<gallery mode=packed heights=150>
File:HectorTurning (cropped).jpg|Traditional [[floor malting]] in Scotland for [[malt whisky]] 
File:Mash-Jinx (cropped).jpg|Barley grains [[mashing|being mashed]] (heated with water) for brewing beer
File:Hauf an a hauf 1 (cropped).jpg|[[Scotch whisky]] and beer are both made from barley.
File:Boricha (barley tea) (cropped).jpg|''Boricha'', Korean<br/>roasted [[barley tea]]
</gallery>

=== Animal feed ===

[[File:LPCC-467-Pinso amb farina d'ordi, granulat.jpg|thumb|upright|Barley-based [[animal feed]] pellets]]

Some 70% of the world's barley production is used as livestock feed,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Akar |first1=Taner |last2=Avci |first2=Muzaffer |last3=Dusunceli |first3=Fazil |title=Barley: Post-Harvest Operations |date=15 June 2004 |url=https://www.fao.org/3/a-au997e.pdf |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |archive-date=21 January 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121033135/https://www.fao.org/3/au997e/au997e.pdf }}</ref> for example for [[cattle feeding]] in western Canada.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/beef/news/vbn0804a3.htm |title=Corn or Barley for Feeding Steers? |publisher=Government of Ontario |access-date=6 October 2014 |archive-date=20 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061220062612/http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/livestock/beef/news/vbn0804a3.htm }}</ref> In 2014, an enzymatic process was devised to make a high-protein fish feed from barley, suitable for carnivorous fish such as [[trout]] and [[salmon]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Avant |first=Sandra |title=Process Turns Barley into High-protein Fish Food |work=USDA Agricultural Research Service |access-date=9 September 2014 |date=14 July 2014 |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/is/pr/2014/140714.htm }}</ref>

=== Other uses ===

Barley straw has been placed in mesh bags and floated in fish ponds or water gardens to help prevent algal growth without harming pond plants and animals. The technique's effectiveness is at best mixed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.btny.purdue.edu/pubs/APM/APM-1-W.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030408210226/http://www.btny.purdue.edu/Pubs/APM/APM-1-W.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 April 2003 |title=Barley straw for algae control |author=Lembi, Carole A. |publisher=Department of Botany and Plant Pathology, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana }}</ref> 
Barley grains were once used for measurement in England, there being nominally three or four [[Barleycorn (unit)|barleycorns]] to the inch.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Barleycorn |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/barleycorn |publisher=Collins Dictionary |year=2023 |access-date=18 September 2023 }}</ref> By the 19th century, this had been superseded by standard inch measures.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Standard Measure, Weight |url=https://archive.org/details/pennycyclopdias16longgoog |page=[https://archive.org/details/pennycyclopdias16longgoog/page/n440 436] |encyclopedia=The Penny Cyclopædia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge |author=George Long |volume=26, Ungulata - Wales |year=1842 |publisher=C. Knight }}</ref> In ancient [[Mesopotamia]], barley was used as a form of money, the standard unit of weight for barley, and hence of value, being the [[shekel]].<!--<ref>{{cite book |last=Peterson |first=Timothy F. |title=The Debauchery of Currency A Bloody History of Money |date=2023 |publisher=Freedom Fortune Press |isbn=9798218215552 |pages=PT30 |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Debauchery_of_Currency/-vLUEAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=barley+currency&pg=PT30&printsec=frontcover |chapter=2. Good Money: A Mildly Bloody History. "Barley Instead of Barter" }}</ref>--><ref>{{cite journal |last=Powell |first=Marvin A. |title=Money in the Orient: Money in Mesopotamia |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |date=1996 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=224–242 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |doi=10.1163/1568520962601225 |jstor=3632646 }}</ref>

== Culture and folklore ==

In the [[Old English]] poem ''[[Beowulf]]'', and in [[Norse mythology]], [[Scyld Scefing]] (the second name meaning "with a [[Sheaf (agriculture)|sheaf]]") and his son [[Beow]] ("Barley") are associated with the grain, or are possibly corn-gods; [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] wrote a poem "King Sheave" about them, and based a major element of [[Tolkien's legendarium|his legendarium]], the [[Old Straight Road]] from [[Middle-earth]] to the [[earthly paradise]] of [[Valinor]], on their story.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shippey |first=Tom |author-link=Tom Shippey |chapter='King Sheave' and 'The Lost Road' |editor1-last=Ovenden |editor1-first=Richard |editor1-link=Richard Ovenden |editor2-last=McIlwaine |editor2-first=Catherine |title=The Great Tales Never End: Essays in Memory of Christopher Tolkien |year=2022 |publisher=[[Bodleian Library Publishing]] |isbn=978-1-8512-4565-9 |pages=166–180 }}</ref> [[William of Malmesbury]]'s 12th century ''Chronicle'' tells the story of the related figure [[Sceafa]] as a sleeping child in a boat without oars with a sheaf of corn at his head.<ref>{{cite book |author-link=Gale Owen-Crocker |last=Owen-Crocker |first=Gale R. |year=2000 |title=The Four Funerals in ''Beowulf'' |publisher=Manchester University Press }}</ref> [[Axel Olrik]] identified [[Peko]], a parallel "barley-figure" in Finnish culture, in turn connected by R.D. Fulk with the Eddaic [[Bergelmir]].<ref name=Fulk-1989>{{cite journal |last=Fulk |first=R.D. |year=1989 |title=An eddic analogue to the Scyld Scefing story |journal=The Review of English Studies |issue=159 |pages=313–322 |doi=10.1093/res/XL.159.313 }}</ref>
 
In [[English folklore]], the figure of [[John Barleycorn]] in the [[folksong]] of the same name is a personification of barley, and of the alcoholic beverages made from it: beer and whisky. In the song, John Barleycorn is represented as suffering attacks, death, and indignities that correspond to the various stages of barley cultivation, such as reaping and malting; but he is revenged by getting the men drunk: "And little Sir John and the nut-brown bowl / Proved the strongest man at last."<ref name="deVries76">{{cite book |last=de Vries |first=Ad |title=Dictionary of Symbols and Imagery |year=1976 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsymb0000vrie/page/34 34–35] |publisher=[[North-Holland Publishing Company]] |location=[[Amsterdam]] |isbn=978-0-7204-8021-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofsymb0000vrie/page/34 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=John Barleycorn Must Die |url=https://www.uapress.com/product/john-barleycorn-must-die/ |publisher=University of Arkansas Press |access-date=14 January 2024 |url-status=live |archive-date=14 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240114155053/https://www.uapress.com/product/john-barleycorn-must-die/ }}</ref> The folksong "[[Elsie Marley]]" celebrates an [[Alewife (trade)|alewife]] of [[County Durham]] with lines such as "And do you ken Elsie Marley, honey? / The wife that sells the barley, honey". The antiquary [[Cuthbert Sharp]] records that Elsie Marley was "a handsome, buxom, bustling landlady, and brought good custom to the [ale] house by her civility and attention."<ref>{{cite web |last=Sharp |first=Cuthbert |author-link=Cuthbert Sharp |title=The Bishoprick Garland or a Collection of Legends, Songs, Ballads, &c. |year=1834 |url=https://gredos.usal.es/bitstream/handle/10366/82881/SC_CuthbertSharp_ed_Bishoprick_1834.pdf;jsessionid=B5030120D13E39DBC005322747FB6553?sequence=2 |page=48 |website=Universitas Studii Salamantini |access-date=15 January 2024 }}</ref>

English [[pub names]] such as The Barley Mow,<ref name="History Press">{{cite web |title=A history of British pub names |url=https://www.thehistorypress.co.uk/articles/a-history-of-british-pub-names/ |publisher=The History Press |access-date=30 December 2023 }}</ref> John Barleycorn,<ref name="deVries76"/> Malt Shovel,<ref name="Middle Level">{{cite news |title=Middle Level |newspaper=[[Lynn Advertiser]] |date=19 March 1870 |page=8 }}</ref> and Mash Tun<ref>{{cite web |title=The Mash Tun: Brighton's Beating Heart |url=https://www.mashtun.pub/ |website=Mash Tun |access-date=13 January 2024 }}</ref> allude to barley's role in the production of beer.<ref name="History Press"/>

<gallery class=center mode=nolines widths=275 heights=200>
File:John Barleycorn MET DP-300-063 (cropped).jpg|Porcelain figurine of [[John Barleycorn]], complete with songsheet and little brown jug of beer
File:The Barley Mow, Clifton Hampden (wide).jpg|English [[pub names]] such as The Barley Mow (like this pub at [[Clifton Hampden]]) allude to the use of barley to make the beer available inside.<ref name="History Press"/>
</gallery>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===
{{Commons category}}
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen |publisher=Unwin |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-04-440277-0}}
{{refend}}

{{Barley}}
{{Cereals}}
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{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Barley|Barley]]
[[Category:Forages]]
[[Category:Hordeum|vulgare]]
[[Category:Phytoremediation plants]]
[[Category:Founder crops]]
[[Category:Millets]]