View source for History of Stockholm

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
[[Image:Vädersoltavlan cropped.JPG|thumb|250px|''[[Vädersolstavlan]]'' ("The [[Sun dog]] Painting"), the oldest image depicting Stockholm. The original painting, painted by [[Urban målare]] in 1535, is lost, this copy from the 1630s, painted by [[Jacob Elbfas]], hangs in [[Storkyrkan]].]]
The '''history of Stockholm''', capital of Sweden, for many centuries coincided with the development of what is today known as [[Gamla stan]], the [[Stockholm]] Old Town.  Stockholm's ''[[wikt:raison d'être|raison d'être]]'' always was to be the Swedish capital and by far the largest city in the country.

== Origins ==
[[File:Västerbron och vattenstånd.jpg|thumb|left|Illustration of historical waterlevels in the Stockholm region, using the Västerbron bridge.]]
[[Image:Kakbrinken Prastgatan runestone March 2007.JPG|thumb|left|[[Uppland Runic Inscription 53|U 53]], a fragment of a [[runestone]] built into a wall in the intersection of [[Prästgatan]] and [[Kåkbrinken]], is believed to have been brought from an [[Iron Age]] settlement not far from today's old town.]]
{{main|Pre-history and origin of Stockholm}}
The name 'Stockholm' easily splits into two distinct parts – Stock-holm, "Log-islet", but as no serious explanation to the name has been produced, various myths and legends have attempted to fill in the gap.  According to a 17th-century myth the population at the [[viking]] settlement [[Birka]] decided to found a new settlement, and to determine its location had a log bound with gold drifting in [[Mälaren|Lake Mälaren]].  It landed on present day [[Riddarholmen]] where today the [[Birger Jarls torn|Tower of Birger Jarl]] stands, a building, as a consequence, still often erroneously mentioned as the oldest building in Stockholm.<ref name="Gatunamn">''Stockholms gatunamn'', "Namnet Stockholm", pp 30–32.</ref>  The most established explanation for the name are logs driven into the strait passing north of today's [[Gamla stan|old town]] which [[Dendrochronology|dendrochronological]] examinations in the late 1970s dated to around 1000.  While no solid proofs exists, it is often assumed the [[Tre kronor (castle)|Three Crown Castle]], which preceded the present [[Stockholm Palace]], originated from these wooden structures, and that the medieval city quickly expanded around it in the mid 13th century.<ref name="Hall-23-25">Hall, ''Huvudstad i omvandling'', pp 23–25</ref>  In a wider historical context, Stockholm can be thought of as the capital of the [[Mälaren Valley|Lake Mälaren Region]], and as such can trace its origin back to at least two much older cities: [[Birka]] (c. 790–975) and [[Sigtuna]], which still exists but dominated the region c. 1000–1240 — a capital which has simply been relocated at a number of occasions.<ref name="Hall-13-16">Hall, pp 13–16</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
[[Image:Stockholms stads äldsta sigill.png|thumb|[[Seal (device)|Seal]] of Stockholm known from an imprint from 1296; most likely the city's first seal mentioned in a letter from 1281.<ref name="Hall-21">Hall, p 21</ref>]]
[[Image:Sten Sture d.ä. intåg i Stockholm (1864) målning av Georg von Rosen.jpg|thumb|200px|Sten Sture the Elder enters Stockholm in 1471 <br />Painting by [[Georg von Rosen]], 1864]]
{{main|Stockholm during the Middle Ages}}

The name Stockholm first appears in historical records in letters written by [[Birger Jarl]] and King [[Valdemar of Sweden|Valdemar]] dated 1252. However, the two letters give no information about the appearance of the city and events during the following decades remain diffuse.  While the absence of a perpendicular city plan in medieval Stockholm seems to indicate a spontaneous growth, it is known German merchants invited by Birger Jarl played an important role in the foundation of the city.<ref name="Hall-43">Hall, p 43</ref><ref name="Hall-46">Hall, p 46</ref>  Under any circumstance, during the end of the 13th century, Stockholm quickly grew to become not only the largest city in Sweden, but also the ''de facto'' Swedish political centre and royal residence. Thus, from its foundation, Stockholm has been the largest and most important Swedish city, inseparable from and dependent on the Swedish government.<ref name="Hall-47">Hall, p 47</ref> However, as late as the 16th century, reigns of Kings [[Eric XIV of Sweden|Eric XIV]] and [[John III of Sweden|John III]], whose Swedish government often travelled with them elsewhere (see below), the city was still not what could be called a national capital in modern terms.<ref>Erik Pettersson in ''Den skoningslöse, en biografi över Karl IX'' [[Natur & Kultur]] 2008 {{ISBN|978-91-27-02687-2}} p. 46</ref>

[[Image:Stora Gramunkegrand 5 detail March 2007.JPG|thumb|left|During the late Middle Ages, most buildings were made of brick, which gave the city its character. Some prominent façades were, however, painted red to accentuate their importance — like the restored façade of 5, [[Stora Gråmunkegränd]], also featuring several other aesthetic details.<ref name="Hall-40">Hall, p. 40</ref>]]
During the [[Kalmar Union]] (1397–1523), controlling Stockholm was crucial to anyone aspiring to control the kingdom, and the city was consequently repeatedly besieged by various Swedish-Danish factions. In 1471, [[Sten Sture the Elder]] defeated [[Christian I of Denmark]] at the [[Battle of Brunkeberg]] only to lose the city to [[John, King of Denmark|Hans of Denmark]] in 1497. Sten Sture managed to seize power again in 1501 which resulted in a Danish blockade lasting 1502–1509 and eventually a short peace.  Hans' son [[Christian II of Denmark]] finally conquered it in 1520 and had many leading nobles and burghers of Stockholm beheaded in the so-called [[Stockholm Bloodbath]].  When King [[Gustav I of Sweden|Gustav Vasa]] finally besieged and conquered the city three years later, an event which ended the Kalmar Union and the Swedish Middle Ages, he noted every second building in the city was abandoned.<ref name="Nilsson-59-63">Nilsson, ''Staden på vattnet 1'', pp 59–63</ref>

By the end of the 15th century, the population in Stockholm can be estimated to 5,000–7,000 people, which made it a relatively small town compared to several other contemporary European cities.  On the other hand, it was far larger than any other city in Sweden. Many of its inhabitants were Germans and Finns, with the former forming a political and economic elite in the city.<ref name="Nilsson-24-27">Nilsson, pp 24–27</ref>

During the Middle Ages, export was administered mostly by German merchants living by the squares [[Kornhamnstorg]] ("Grain Harbour Square") and [[Järntorget (Stockholm)|Järntorget]] ("Iron Square") on the southern corner of the city.  Regional peasantry supplied the city with food and raw materials, while the craftsmen in the city produced handicrafts, most of whom lived by the central square [[Stortorget]] or by the oldest two streets in Stockholm, the names of which still reflects their trade: [[Köpmangatan]] ("Merchant Street") and [[Skomakargatan]] ("Shoemaker Street") in the central part of the city.  Other groups lived by the eastern or western thoroughfares, [[Västerlånggatan]] and [[Österlånggatan]].<ref name="Nilsson-42-47">Nilsson, pp 43–47</ref>

{{clear}}

== Early Vasa era ==
{{main|Stockholm during the early Vasa era}}
[[Image:Stockholm-from-north-1570-braun-hogenberg-civitates-orbis-terrarum.jpg|thumb|250px|Panoramic view showing the northern city gate with fortifications.<br />Copperplate by [[Frans Hogenberg]] around 1570–80.]]
[[Image:Stockholm-from-south-1570-braun-hogenberg-civitates-orbis-terrarum.jpg|thumb|250px|The southern city gate with parts of the eastern harbour called ''Koggabron'' ("[[Cog (ship)|Cog]] Harbour").<br />Copperplate by [[Frans Hogenberg]].]]
{{See also|Historical fires of Stockholm}}
After [[Gustav I of Sweden|Gustav Vasa's]] siege of Stockholm, he restored the [[Stad (Sweden)|privileges of the city]] which was beneficiary to the burghers of the city.  The king maintained his control over the city by controlling the elections of aldermen and magistrates. By the mid-century, the numbers of officials increased in order to make the management of the city more professional and to ensure the state-controlled trade.  Stockholm thus lost much of the independence it had had during the Middle Ages and became politically and financially bound to the state.<ref name="Nilsson-64-66">Nilsson, pp 64–66</ref>  During the reign of his sons (1561–1611), the city council remained escorted by a royal representative and both magistrates and aldermen were appointed by the king.<ref name="Nilsson-80-82">Nilsson, pp 80–82</ref>

Gustav Vasa invited the clergyman [[Olaus Petri]] (1493–1552) to become the city secretary of Stockholm.  With the two side by side, the new ideas of the [[Protestant Reformation]] could be quickly implemented, and sermons in the church were held in Swedish starting in 1525 and Latin was abolished in 1530.  A consequence of this development was a need for separate churches for the numerous German and [[Sweden Finns|Finnish-speaking]] citizens and during the 1530 the still-existent [[German Church, Stockholm|German]] and [[Finnish Church, Stockholm|Finnish parishes]] were created.  The king was, however, not favourably disposed to older chapels and churches in the city, and he ordered churches and monasteries on the ridges surrounding the city to be demolished, together with the numerous charitable institutions.<ref name="Nilsson-66-68">Nilsson, pp 66–68</ref>

[[Image:Karta över Stockholm på 1500-talet.png|thumb|250px|left|Map of Stockholm in 1547]]
<!---
[[Image:Birger Jarls torn.jpg|thumb|The lower walls of [[Birger Jarls torn]] are the only surviving part of the medieval defensive structures.]]
---->
Because Stockholm had a city wall, it was exempted from the tax paid by other Swedish cities.  During the reign of Gustav Vasa the city's fortifications were reinforced and in the [[Stockholm Archipelago]], [[Vaxholm]] was created to guard the inlet from the Baltic.  While the medieval structure of Stockholm remained mostly unaltered during the 16th century, the city's social and economic importance grew to the extent that no king could permit the city to determine its own faith – the most important export item being [[bar iron]] and the most important destination [[Lübeck]].<ref name="Nilsson-68-72">Nilsson, pp 68–72</ref>  During the reign of Vasa's sons, trade led many Swedes to settle in the city, but the trade and the capital needed to control it was largely in the hands of the king and German merchants from Lübeck and Danzig.  Throughout the era, Sweden could hardly claim the level of government and bureaucracy requisite to a capital in the modern sense, but Stockholm was the kingdom's strongest bastion and the king's main residence.  As Eric XIV's pretensions were on par with those of Renaissance princes on the continent, he afforded himself the largest court his finances could possibly support, and the royal castle was thus the biggest employer in the city.<ref name="Nilsson-80-82" />

Around 1560–80, most of the citizens, some 8.000 people, still lived on [[Stadsholmen]].  This central island was at this time densely settled and the city was now expanding on the ridges surrounding the city.  Stockholm had no private palaces at this time and the only larger buildings were the castle, the church, and the former [[Franciscan|Greyfriars]] monastery on [[Riddarholmen]].  The surrounding ridges, unable to boast a single [[Timber framing|timber framed]] building, were mostly used for activities that either required a lot of space, produced odours, or could cause fire.  Even though some burghers had secondary residences outside the city, the population living on the ridges, perhaps a quarter of the city's population, were mostly poor, including the royal personnel occupying the ridges north of the city.<ref name="Nilsson-80-82" />

== Great Power era==
[[Image:Suecia 1-013 ; Stockholm från öster.jpg|thumb|center|500px|Stockholm presented as a capital worthy a powerful nation.<br />Engraving from ''[[Suecia Antiqua et Hodierna]]'' around 1690.]]
{{main|Stockholm during the Great Power Era}}
[[Image:Oxenstierna Palace Facade Storkyrkobrinken March 2007.JPG|thumb|One of the finest surviving examples of the ambitions of the era is undoubtedly Axel Oxenstierna's own palace built from 1653 to the design of [[Jean de la Vallée]] (1620–1696).]]
Following the [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648), Sweden was determined never to repeat the embarrassment experienced following the death of [[Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden|Gustavus II Adolphus]] (1594–1632) when Stockholm, still medieval in character, caused hesitation on whether to invite foreign statesmen for fear the lamentable appearance might undermine the nation's authority.  Therefore, Stockholm saw many ambitious city plans during the era, of which those for the ridges surrounding today's old town still stands.  In accordance to the [[mercantilism]] of the era, trade and industry was concentrated to cities where it was easier to control, and Stockholm was of central importance.  In a letter in 1636, [[Lord High Chancellor of Sweden|Chancellor]] [[Axel Oxenstierna]] (1583–1654) wrote that evolving the Swedish capital was a prerequisite for the nation's power and strength and that this would bring all the other cities on their feet.  Increased state intervention on city level was not unique to Sweden at this time, but it was probably more prominent in the case of Stockholm than anywhere else in Europe.  To this end, the government of the city was reformed and the former volunteered magistrates gradually replaced by professionals with a theoretical education.<ref name="hall-53-58">Hall, pp 53–58</ref>

=== Population and city plans ===
[[Image:Gamla Stan swe.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Skeppsbron]].]]
{{See also|Historical fires of Stockholm|The plague during the Great Northern War}}
The process of reshaping Stockholm was initiated by a major fire in 1625 which destroyed the south-western part of today's old town.  As a result, two new [[boulevard]]-like streets were created — [[Stora Nygatan]] and [[Lilla Nygatan]] — and along the eastern waterfront the medieval wall was replaced by a row of prestigious palaces — [[Skeppsbron]].<ref name="hall-60-63">Hall, pp 60–63.</ref>

For the ridges surrounding the city – [[Norrmalm]], [[Östermalm]], [[Kungsholmen]], and [[Södermalm]] – new city plans were worked out to create wide and straight artery streets.  The project was implemented so thoroughly, in several parts of the city no traces exist of the previous medieval structures.  Many of the streets from this era are still extant, and some of those proposed have been realised with some minor modifications.<ref name="hall-63-70">Hall, pp 63–70,</ref><ref name="hall-70-74">Hall, pp 70–74.</ref><ref name="hall-74-75">Hall, pp 74–75.</ref>

The population grew from less than 10,000 in the early 17th century to more than 50,000 in the mid-1670s.
The city's income rose from 18,595 [[Swedish riksdaler|daler]] in 1635–36 to 81,480 daler in 1644. In 1642, approximately 60 per cent of that sum was spent on construction works.<ref name="hall-53-58" />

===Trade===
[[File:Map of Stockholm (1713).tif|thumb|Map of Stockholm (1713)]]
Other Swedish cities were deprived of their export privileges by the so-called "[[Gulf of Bothnia|Bothnian]] [[Coercive monopoly|Trade Coercion]]" (''Bottniska handelstvånget'').  Most Swedish cities were granted a trade monopoly over a limited surrounding area, but for Stockholm most of the lands surrounding the [[Gulf of Bothnia]] formed part of the city's trade territory.  However, the state-granted monopoly was not the only thing that favoured Stockholm at that time.  It was one of the best natural harbours of the era and throughout the 17th century, countless foreign visitors marvelled at the sight of large ships "with 60 or 70 cannons" moored along the eastern quay next to the royal castle.<ref name="Nilsson-86-88">Nilsson, pp 86–88</ref>

In contrast with other Swedish cities, all of which were self-supporting, Stockholm was completely dependent of the transit passing through the city—it had, for example, about the same number of domestic animals as [[Uppsala]], which only had ten per cent the population of the capital.  All goods brought into Stockholm had to pass through one of six customs stations, and approximately three-fourths of them were exported from the city.  Half of the remaining items, mostly fishery products, were delivered from the Baltic, and corn came from the Lake Mälaren region.  However, during the latter half of the century, the rapidly growing capital could not be supported by the Lake Mälaren region alone and therefore became dependent on corn imported from the provinces.<ref name="Nilsson-89-100">Nilsson, pp 89–100</ref>

Sweden had played a passive role in international trade during the 16th century; German merchants and ships managed the export of Swedish primary products such as [[osmond process|osmond iron]], raw copper, and butter.  This export was largely regarded as a means of securing the import of items not available in Sweden, such as salt, wine, and luxury goods demanded at the court.  With the introduction of a [[mercantilism|mercantile]] doctrine around 1620, trade became a keystone to governmental income and the Swedish economy subsequently focused on export, not of raw materials, but of refined products.  Over the entire period (c. 1590–1685), Stockholm's share of the national economy remained stable at around two-thirds, but during the first half of the 17th century, export grew fourfold and import fivefold. Most goods were delivered to the Netherlands in the mid-17th century and to the UK in the early 18th century.<ref name="Nilsson-89-100" />

In the 17th century, the textile industry was developed with the establishments of the textile manufactures ''[[Paulinska manufakturerna]]'' (active 1673–1776) and the ''[[Barnängens manufaktur]]'' (active 1691–1826), which became two of the greatest sources of employments in the Swedish capital during the entire 18th-century.<ref>Du Rietz, Anita, Kvinnors entreprenörskap: under 400 år, 1. uppl., Dialogos, Stockholm, 2013</ref>

== Age of Liberty (1718–1772) ==
{{main|Stockholm during the Age of Liberty}}
{| class="wikitable" align="right"
! colspan="3" | Population<ref name="Nilsson-189-195">Nilsson, pp 189–195.</ref>
|-
| colspan="2" | Late 17th century || 55–66.000 
|-
| colspan="2" | Around 1720 || 45.000 
|-
| colspan="2" | Mid 18th century || 60.000
|-
| colspan="2" | Mid 19th century || 90.000
|-
! colspan="3" | Social stratification<br />1769–1850 (per cent)<ref name="Nilsson-189-195" />
|-
! Class !! 1769 !! 1850
|-
| Upper || 13 || 7
|-
| Middle || 40 || 12
|-
| Lower || 47 || 81
|}
Following the [[Greater Wrath]] and the [[Treaty of Nystad]] in 1722, Sweden's role as a major European power was over, and the decades that followed brought even more disasters. [[Black death]] and the sufferings caused by the [[Great Northern War]]s made Stockholm the capital of a shrinking nation, despair which would deepen even further when [[History of Sweden (1772-1809)#The loss of Finland|Sweden lost Finland]] in 1809.  Notwithstanding Sweden's partial recover of spirit with the [[Union between Sweden and Norway|union with Norway]] in 1814, during the period 1750–1850, Stockholm was a stagnating city, with a dwindling population and widespread unemployment, marked by ill-health, poverty, alcoholism, and rampant mortality.  The Mälaren region lost in influence to the benefit of south-western Sweden, and as population and welfare dwindled in the capital, there was a leveling of social classes.<ref name="Nilsson-187-188">Nilsson, pp 187–188.</ref>  Wars and alcohol abuse resulted in a surplus of women during the period, with widows outnumbering widowers six to one in 1850.  Stockholm was marked by an absence of children, caused by the number of unmarried people and high infant mortality.  Average length of life was limited to 44, but those who survived infancy were likely to get about as old as people do today, except those born to a life of hard labour.<ref name="Nilsson-189-195" />

A stratification into three social groups can be made for this era :
# individuals of rank and officers
# craftsmen, small-scale entrepreneurs, and officials
# journeymen, assistants, workers, soldiers, servants, paupers, and prisoners.
Women were associated with their husband's status.  However, as craftsmen saw their status sink with the introduction of industrialism, the proletarian class grew during the period.  There also was an economic segregation in the city, with the present old town and the lower parts of Norrmalm being the wealthiest (more than 150% above average); the suburbs (today part of central Stockholm) were poor (50% below average).<ref name="Nilsson-189-195" />

[[Image:Stockholm-Storkyrkan 01.jpg|thumb|The medieval [[Storkyrkan]] was given its present Baroque exterior in 1636–72, in order to match the new royal palace<ref name="Andersson-41-48">Andersson, ''Stockholms årsringar'', pp 41–48.</ref>]]
[[Image:Borshuset-2003-04-14.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Stockholm Stock Exchange Building|Stock Exchange Building]], on its completion in the 1770s the main representative building in the city, replaced the medieval town hall.<ref name="Andersson-41-48" />]]
During the 18th century, the [[Mercantilism|Mercantile]] model introduced the previous century was further developed, with domestic production promoted by loans and bounties and import limited to raw materials not available in Sweden by tolls.  The era saw the rise of the so-called "Skeppsbro Nobility" (''Skeppsbroadeln''), the wealthy wholesalers at [[Skeppsbron]] who made a fortune by delivering [[bar iron]] to the international market and by controlling the [[Chartered company|chartered companies]].<ref name="Nilsson-196-222">Nilsson, pp 196–222.</ref>  The most successful of them was the [[Swedish East India Company]] (1731–1813) which had its headquarters in [[Gothenburg]], but was of significant importance to Stockholm because of the shipbuilding yards, the trade houses, and the exotic products imported by the company.  Furthermore, before these ships left Stockholm some 100–150 men per ship were recruited, most of them in the city, and as a single trip to China would take 1–2 years the company had a huge impact on Stockholm during this era.<ref name="Hallerdt-9-20">Hallerdt, pp 9–20.</ref>

During the 18th century, several devastating fires destroyed entire neighbourhoods which resulted in [[building code]]s being introduced.  They improved fire safety by prohibiting wooden buildings and further embellished the city by implementing the 17th-century city plans.  In the old town, the [[Stockholm Palace|new royal palace]] was gradually completed and the exterior of the [[Storkyrkan]] church was adopted to it.  The skilled artists and craftsmen working for the royal court formed an elite which considerably raised the artistic standards in the capital.<ref name="Andersson-41-48" />

== Gustavian era (1772–1809) ==
<!---
[[Image:Trofeer från slaget vid Svensksund bäres in i Storkyrkan, målning av Pehr Hilleström.jpg|thumb|Trophies from the [[Battle of Svensksund (1790)|Battle of Svensksund]] brought into the [[Storkyrkan|Stockholm Cathedral]].<br /><small>Painting by [[Pehr Hilleström]].</small>]]
---->
[[Image:Norrbro Stockholm July 2006.jpg|thumb|The [[Norrbro]] bridge was one of the most ambitious projects of the era.]]
[[Image:Tullhuset pano mars 2007.jpg|thumb|left|The customs house at [[Skeppsbron]] designed by [[Erik Palmstedt|Palmstedt]] 1783–90 is one of the finest surviving examples of the Gustavian classicism.]]
[[Image:The Inner Gallery of the Royal Museum at the Royal Palace, Stockholm (Pehr Hilleström d.ä.) - Nationalmuseum - 17967.tif|thumb|Interior from the museum of Gustav III, c. 1796.]]
During the [[History of Sweden (1772-1809)|enlightened absolute monarchy]] of [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]] Stockholm managed to maintain its role as the political centre of Sweden and developed culturally.

The king had a great interest for the city's development.  He created the [[Gustav Adolfs torg, Stockholm|Gustav Adolf square]] and had the [[Royal Swedish Opera|Royal Opera]] inaugurated there in 1782 — in accordance to the original intentions of [[Nicodemus Tessin the Younger|Tessin the Younger]] for a monumental square north of the palace. The façade of [[Arvfurstens palats]] on the opposite side is identical to the now replaced façade of the opera.<ref name="Andersson-41-48" />

The neoclassical bridge [[Norrbro]], designed by [[Erik Palmstedt]] (1741–1807) and was completed in ten years. It was a very ambitious project that caused the centre of the city to gradually move out of the medieval city.<ref name="Andersson-49-56">Andersson, pp 49–56</ref>

The colourful and often burlesque descriptions of Stockholm by troubadour and composer [[Carl Michael Bellman]] are still popular.

The period ended as King [[Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden|Gustav IV Adolf]] was deposed in 1809 in a coup d'état.  The loss of Finland that same year meant Stockholm ceased to be the geographical centre of the Swedish kingdom.<ref name="Andersson-49-56" />

== Early industrial era (1809–1850) ==
[[Image:Skeppsholmskyrkan i Stockholm.jpg|thumb|The [[Skeppsholmskyrkan|Skeppsholmen Church]] by [[Fredrik Blom]]]]
For Stockholm, the early 19th century meant the only larger-scale projects to be realised were those initiated by the military which favoured a more stiff classicism, the local Swedish version of the [[Empire style]] (in Sweden named ''Karl Johansstil'' after King [[Charles XIV of Sweden|Charles XIV John]]).  The architects dominating the era, [[Fredrik Blom]] and [[Carl Christoffer Gjörwell]], both were commissioned by the military.  Due to the general stagnation, few other constructions were realised — in average ten smaller residential buildings per year — additions which the ambitious city plans of the 17th century could easily handle.<ref name="Andersson-49-56" />

During the later half of the 18th century [[real income]] dwindled to reach an all-time low in 1810 when it corresponded to roughly half that of the 1730s; public officials being those worst affected.<ref name="Nilsson-187-188" />  [[Norrköping]] became the greatest manufacturing city of Sweden and [[Gothenburg]] developed into the key trading port because of its location on the [[North Sea]].

Most people still lived within the present Old Town, with a growth along the eastern shore. Population also grew on the surrounding ridges, more so in the wealthy district [[Norrmalm]] and less so in the poor district [[Södermalm]].<ref name="Nilsson-189-195" />  However, many of the ridges surrounding the city were slums mostly rural in character without water and sewage and frequently ravaged by [[cholera]].<ref name="Andersson-49-56" />
<!---
* [[Charles XIII of Sweden|Charles XIII]]
* [[Karl Johanslussen]]
---->

== Late industrial era (1850–1910) ==
{{Wide image|Stockholm 1881 by Roesler.jpg|1000px|align-cap=center|1881 panoramic view of Stockholm}}
[[File:Stockholm panorama 1868.jpg|thumb|200px|Panorama over Stockholm around 1868 as seen from a hot air balloon.]] 
[[File:Karte Stockholm MK1888.png|thumb|200px|1888 German map of Stockholm]]
In the second half of the century, Stockholm regained its leading economic role. New industries emerged, and Stockholm transformed into an important trade and service centre, as well as a key gateway point within Sweden.

While steam engines were introduced in Stockholm in 1806 with the [[Eldkvarn]] mill, it took until the mid-19th century for industrialization to take off.  Two factories, Ludvigsberg and Bolinder, constructed in the 1840s were followed by many others, and the economic development that succeeded resulted in some 800 new buildings being constructed 1850–70 — many of which were located in the [[Klara (Stockholm)|Klara]] district and subsequently demolished in the [[Redevelopment of Norrmalm]] 1950–70.<ref name="Andersson-49-56" />

[[Image:Lyran Bredäng Stockholm 2005-09-17.JPG|thumb|left|''Lyran'' in [[Bredäng]] built in 1867 is one of the many surviving summer residences built around central Stockholm during the steam engine era.]]
During the 1850s and 1860s, gas works, sewage, and running water was introduced.  Many streets were paved, including [[Skeppsbron]] and [[Strandvägen]], and the railway brought Stockholm closer to continental Europe — an event which additionally lead to the creation of the first suburb [[Liljeholmen]] where railway workshops were located.  As the railway was extended further north, [[Stockholm Central Station]] was inaugurated in 1871.  The first horse-pulled trams were introduced in 1877.  Long before the railway, steam engines became common on boats which resulted in many summertime residences being built around Stockholm.  But the booming urban development was also notable in central Stockholm where several prominent [[Neo-Renaissance]] buildings were built, including the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Music|Academy of Music]] and [[Södra Teatern]].<ref name="Andersson-49-56" />

[[Image:Lindhagens plan 1866.jpg|thumb|City plan of 1866.]]
[[Image:Birger Jarlsgatan 1898.jpg|thumb|[[Birger Jarlsgatan]] being paved in 1898, the continental system of esplanades taking shape.]]
[[Image:Stockholm-03.jpg|thumb|left|Characteristics of the 1890s, the towers and spires of Mariaberget are today well-known features of the city skyline.]]
In 1866, a commission led by [[Albert Lindhagen]] produced a city plan for the ridges (''malmarna'') designed to offer citizens light, fresh air and access to Swedish nature by mean of parks and plantations.  To this goal, he proposed a system of [[esplanade]]s culminating in [[Sveavägen]], a 2&nbsp;km long and 70 m wide boulevard inspired by [[Champs Elysées]]. 1877–80 new city plans were finally passed for central Stockholm, which made the city well-prepared for the major expansion that followed.<ref name="Andersson-49-56" />  During the 1880s more than 2.000 buildings were added on the ridges and the population grew from 168.000 to 245.000.<ref name="Andersson-57-63">Andersson, pp 57–63</ref>  At the end of the century, less than 40 per cent of the residents were born in Stockholm.

While this demand for housing was mostly dealt with by private entrepreneurs who built on pure speculation, street width and building heights were strictly regulated by the new city plans which ensured the city that evolved was given a uniform design.  A trend initiated by the Bünsow House at [[Strandvägen]], the 1880s saw many monumental brick buildings evolve, including [[Gamla Riksarkivet]] and the [[Norstedt Building]] on [[Riddarholmen]].  Before the end of the decade, most new buildings were equipped with electricity and telephones were increasingly common.  During the 1890s, the Neo-Renaissance plaster architecture was replaced by structures in brick and natural stone, largely inspired by French Renaissance architecture.  Around what still was factories outside the customs of Stockholm, shacks whose sanitary conditions defied all description evolved.  Before the end of the century, however, these were transformed into municipal societies, which facilitated regulation of health and construction, and by the turn of the century, the expansion had continued far beyond the city limits, with villa suburbs initiated by individuals adding a mix of purely speculative structures and more qualitative ambitions.  The new century saw the introduction of [[Art Nouveau]] with the [[Central Post Office Building (Stockholm)|Central Post Office Building]] by [[Ferdinand Boberg|Boberg]] (1898–1904) and [[Baroque Revival architecture|Neo-Baroque]] with the [[Riksdag building|Riksdag]] (1894–1906).  Throughout the 1910s, trams were electrified and cars were rolling on the streets of Stockholm.<ref name="Andersson-57-63" />

During this period, Stockholm further developed as a cultural and educational centre.  In the 19th century, a number of scientific institutes opened in Stockholm, for example the [[Karolinska Institutet]]. The [[General Art and Industrial Exposition of Stockholm (1897)|General Art and Industrial Exposition]], an international exhibition of [[World's Fair]] status, was held on the island of [[Djurgården]] in 1897.

== 20th century ==
[[File:Cohrs atlas över Sverige Stockholm map.jpg|thumb|250px|Map of Stockholm in 1928]]
[[File:Gustaf Adolfs torg 1934.jpg|thumb|200px|left|The Royal Swedish Opera in 1934 ([[Autochrome]]).]]
[[File:Flygvy över Stockholm.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Aerial view of Stockholm before 1935]]
[[File:Dar Pomorza Gdynia Sztokholm 1938.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Meeting of training ships from Baltic States in Stockholm (Strandvägen) in June 1938 ([[Agfacolor]]).]]
[[File:Sthlm sergelstorg MH5Y4176.jpg|250px|thumb|[[Sergels torg]], centre of modernized Stockholm]]
In the late 20th century, Stockholm became a modern, technologically advanced and ethnically diverse city. Throughout the century, many industries shifted away from work-intensive activities into more high-technology and service-industry knowledge-based areas.

The city continued to expand and new districts were created, some with high proportions of immigrants. Meanwhile, the inner city ([[Norrmalm]]) went through a criticised as well as an admired wave of modernisation in the [[post-war]] period, the [[Redevelopment of Norrmalm]], securing the city's geographical center as the political and business center for the future.

<!--From 1909, the [[Social Democrats]] along with the Liberals have had the majority in the [[Stockholm Council]]. (As it reads now, the sentence is not correct. Power has shifted between different constellations. There might have been a Social Democrat-Liberal coalition in the early 20th century, though, but later, and up to approx. 1950 the Social Democrats were in power in the city.-->In 1923 the Stockholm municipal government moved to a new building, the [[Stockholm City Hall]]. The [[Stockholm International Exhibition (1930)|Stockholm International Exhibition]] was held in 1930. In 1967 the city of Stockholm was integrated into [[Stockholm County]].

===The "Stockholm Initiative" ===
On April 22, 1991, thirty world leaders gathered in Stockholm, among them [[Ingvar Carlsson]], then Prime Minister of Sweden; [[Willy Brandt]], Chair of the Socialist International and former Chancellor of Germany; [[Julius Nyerere]], former President of Tanzania; [[Gro Harlem Brundtland]], prime minister of Norway; [[Kalevi Sorsa]], former prime minister of Finland; [[Edward Heath]], former prime minister of the U. K.; and Benazir Bhutto, former prime minister of Pakistan.<ref> {{jstor| 41393928 }} The Stockholm Initiative on Global Security and Governance. ''Pakistan Horizon''. Vol. 44, No. 4 (October 1991), pp. 89-139 (51 pages)
Published By: [[Pakistan Institute of International Affairs]]</ref>

== See also ==
{{Wikivoyage|Stockholm history tour}}
*[[Timeline of Stockholm history]]
*[[Gamla stan]]
*[[History of Sweden]]
*[[History of Uppland]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist}}

== References ==
* {{cite book
 | title = Stockholms gatunamn
 | edition = 2nd | year = 1992
 | publisher = Kommittén för Stockholmsforskning
 | location = Stockholm | isbn = 91-7031-042-4
 | language = sv
}}
* {{cite book
 | last = Söderlund | first = Kerstin | title = Slussen vid Söderström
 | year = 2004 | publisher = [[Samfundet S:t Erik]] | language = sv
 | location = Stockholm | isbn = 91-85267-21-X
 | chapter = Stockholm heter det som sprack av – Söderström i äldsta tid
}}
* {{cite book
 | last = Söderlund | first = Kerstin
 | title = Upptaget – Sankt Eriks årsbok 2002 | year = 2002 | language = sv
 | publisher = [[Samfundet S:t Erik]]
 | location = Stockholm | isbn = 91-974091-1-1
}}
* {{cite book
  | last = Hall | first = Thomas
  | title = Huvudstad i omvandling – Stockholms planering och utbyggnad under 700 år
  | publisher = [[Sveriges Radio|Sveriges Radios förlag]]
  | year = 1999 | location = Stockholm | isbn = 91-522-1810-4 | language = sv
}}
* {{cite book
 |editor-last=Nilsson |editor-first=Lars |editor2=Rye, Margareta
  | title = Staden på vattnet 1 | publisher = Stockholmia förlag
  | year = 2002 | location = Stockholm | isbn = 91-7031-122-6
}} (Göran Dahlbäck pp 17–72, Robert Sandberg pp 75–184, Eva Eggeby and Klas Nyberg pp 187–276.)
* {{cite book
 | title = Sankt Eriks årsbok 1994: Yppighet och armod i 1700-talets Stockholm
 | author = Björn Hallerdt | publisher = [[Samfundet S:t Erik]] | location = Stockholm
 | year = 1994 | isbn = 91-972165-0-X | language = sv
}}
* {{cite book
 | first = Magnus | last = Andersson
 | title = Stockholms årsringar – En inblick i stadens framväxt
 | publisher = Stockholmia förlag | year = 1997
 | isbn = 91-7031-068-8 | language = sv
}}
==Further reading==
* Åberg, Veijo. "Conspiracy or political purge? The Stockholm trial of 1536." ''Scandinavian Journal of History'' 21.4 (1996): 315–330.
* Anton, Thomas Julius. ''Governing Greater Stockholm: A study of policy development and system change'' (Univ of California Press, 1975).
* De Geer, Sten. "Greater Stockholm: a geographical interpretation." ''Geographical Review'' 13.4 (1923): 497–506. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/208158.pdf online]
* Emanuel, Martin. "Constructing the Cyclist Ideology and Representations in Urban Traffic Planning in Stockholm, 1930–70." ''Journal of Transport History'' 33.1 (2012): 67–91. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Martin_Emanuel3/publication/269761546_Constructing_the_cyclist_Ideology_and_representations_in_urban_traffic_planning_in_Stockholm_1930-70/links/5c26baf492851c22a34c4096/Constructing-the-cyclist-Ideology-and-representations-in-urban-traffic-planning-in-Stockholm-1930-70.pdf online]
* Gullberg, Anders, and Arne Kaijser. "City-building regimes in post-war Stockholm." ''Journal of Urban Technology'' 11.2 (2004): 13–39.
* Hurd, Madeleine. "Education, Morality, and the Politics of Class in Hamburg and Stockholm, 1870-1914." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 31.4 (1996): 619–650.
* Jarrick, Arne. ''Back to Modern Reason: Johan Hjerpe and other petit bourgeois in Stockholm in the Age of Enlightenment'' (Oxford University Press, 1999).
* Kolbe, Laura. "Symbols of civic pride, national history or European tradition? City halls in Scandinavian capital cities." ''Urban History'' 35.3 (2008): 382–413, covers Copenhagen, Stockholm, and Oslo.
* Meynell, Hildamarie. "The Stockholm conference of 1917." ''International Review of Social History'' 5.1 (1960): 1-25; international peace conference for socialists.
* Müller, Leos. "“Merchants” and “Gentlemen” in Eighteenth-Century Sweden." in ''The Self-Perception of Early Modern Capitalists'' (Palgrave Macmillan, New York, 2008) pp. 125-146.
* Müller, Leos. "The Swedish East India trade and international markets: Re-exports of teas, 1731–1813." ''Scandinavian Economic History Review'' 51.3 (2003): 28–44.
* Murdie, Robert A., and Lars-Erik Borgegard. "Immigration, spatial segregation and housing segmentation of immigrants in metropolitan Stockholm, 1960-95." ''Urban studies'' 35.10 (1998): 1869–1888.
* Porfyriou, Heleni. "Artistic urban design and cultural myths: The garden city idea in Nordic countries, 1900–1925." ''Planning Perspective'' 7.3 (1992): 263–302.
* Riden, Philip. "An English factor at stockholm in the 1680s." ''Scandinavian Economic History Review'' 35.2 (1987): 191–207. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03585522.1987.10408092 online]
* Sandell, Kaj. ''Stockholm'' (2012), guidebook [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780756684020 online]
* Sidenbladh, Göran. "Stockholm." ''Scientific American'' 213.3 (1965): 106–121. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/24931115 online]
* Söderberg, Johan. "Real wage trends in urban Europe, 1730–1850: Stockholm in a comparative perspective." ''Social History'' 12.2 (1987): 155–176.
* Waldenström, Daniel. "Understanding the Emergence of Stock Exchanges: The Case of pre-WWI Stockholm." ''NBER Conference Developing and Sustaining Financial Markets'' Vol. 2000. pp  1820+ [http://www2.nber.org/conferences/2003/URCDAE03/waldenstrom.pdf online].
* Wickman, Mats. ''The Stockholm city hall'' (Sellin & Partner Publishing Company, 1993).
* William-Olsson, William. "Stockholm: Its structure and development." ''Geographical Review'' 30.3 (1940): 420–438. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/210240 online]


{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Stockholm}}
[[Category:History of Stockholm| ]]

[[he:סטוקהולם#היסטוריה]]