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{{short description|Polish composer and pianist}}
{{featured article}}
{{EngvarB|date=July 2019}}
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[[File:Frederic Chopin photo.jpeg|thumb|Chopin, [[daguerreotype]] by [[Louis-Auguste Bisson|Bisson]], c. 1849
[[File:Chopins Unterschrift.svg|center|150px|alt=Chopin's signature]]]]
'''Frédéric François Chopin''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|ʃ|ɒ|p|æ̃}}; {{IPAc-en|US|ʃ|oʊ|ˈ|p|æ|n}};<ref>{{cite LPD|3}}</ref><ref>{{cite EPD|18}}</ref> {{IPA|fr|ʃɔpɛ̃|lang}}; {{IPA-pl|ˈʂɔpɛn|lang}}), born '''Fryderyk Franciszek Chopin''' (1 March 1810{{spaced ndash}}17 October 1849) was a Polish<!--DO NOT CHANGE without prior consensus; see [[Talk:Frédéric Chopin#RfC:Chopin's nationality]]. --> composer and [[virtuoso]] pianist of the [[Romantic music|Romantic]] era who wrote primarily for solo piano. He has maintained worldwide renown as a leading musician of his era, one whose "poetic genius was based on a professional technique that was without equal in his generation."<ref>Rosen (1995), p. 284.</ref>

Chopin was born in [[Żelazowa Wola]] in the [[Duchy of Warsaw]] and grew up in [[Warsaw]], which in 1815 became part of [[Congress Poland]]. A [[child prodigy]], he completed his musical education and composed his earlier works in Warsaw before leaving Poland at the age of 20, less than a month before the outbreak of the [[November Uprising|November 1830 Uprising]]. At 21, he settled in Paris. Thereafter&nbsp;– in the last 18 years of his life&nbsp;– he gave only 30 public performances, preferring the more intimate atmosphere of the [[Salon (gathering)|salon]]. He supported himself by selling his compositions and by giving piano lessons, for which he was in high demand. Chopin formed a friendship with [[Franz Liszt]] and was admired by many of his other musical contemporaries, including [[Robert Schumann]]. 

After a failed engagement to [[Maria Wodzińska]] from 1836 to 1837, he maintained an often troubled relationship with the French writer Amantine Dupin (known by her pen name, [[George Sand]]). A brief and unhappy visit to [[Mallorca]] with Sand in 1838–39 would prove one of his most productive periods of composition. In his final years, he was supported financially by his admirer [[Jane Stirling]], who also arranged for him to visit [[Scotland]] in 1848. For most of his life, Chopin was in poor health. He died in Paris in 1849 at the age of 39, probably of [[pericarditis]] aggravated by [[tuberculosis]].

All of Chopin's compositions include the piano. Most are for solo piano, though he also wrote two [[piano concerto]]s, a few [[chamber music|chamber pieces]], and some 19 [[Polish songs (Chopin)|songs set to Polish lyrics]]. His piano writing was technically demanding and expanded the limits of the instrument, his own performances noted for their nuance and sensitivity. His major piano works also include [[mazurka]]s, [[waltz]]es, [[nocturne]]s, [[polonaise (dance)|polonaise]]s, the [[ballade (classical music)#Instrumental ballades|instrumental ''ballade'']] (which Chopin created as an instrumental genre), [[étude]]s, [[impromptu]]s, [[scherzo]]s, [[prelude (music)|preludes]] and [[sonata]]s, some published only posthumously. Among the influences on his style of composition were Polish [[folk music]], the [[classical music|classical tradition]] of [[Johann Sebastian Bach|J.&nbsp;S. Bach]], [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], and [[Franz Schubert|Schubert]], and the atmosphere of the Paris salons of which he was a frequent guest. His innovations in style, [[harmony]], and [[musical form]], and his association of music with [[nationalism]], were influential throughout and after the late [[romanticism|Romantic]] period.

Chopin's music, his status as one of music's earliest celebrities, his indirect association with political insurrection, his high-profile love-life, and his early death have made him a leading symbol of the Romantic era. His works remain popular, and he has been the subject of [[#In literature, stage, film and television|numerous films and biographies]] of varying historical fidelity.

==Life==

===Early Life===

====Childhood====
[[File:Manor house in Żelazowa Wola.JPG|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Chopin's birthplace in [[Żelazowa Wola]]]]

Fryderyk Chopin was born in [[Żelazowa Wola]],<ref name="Zamoyski (2010), pp. 4–5 ">Zamoyski (2010), pp. 4–5 (locs. 115–130).</ref> 46 kilometres ({{convert|46|km|abbr=off|disp=output only}}) west of Warsaw, in what was then the [[Duchy of Warsaw]], a Polish state established by [[Napoleon]]. The parish baptismal record gives his birthday as 22 February 1810, and cites his [[given name]]s in the Latin form ''Fridericus Franciscus''<ref name="Zamoyski (2010), pp. 4–5 "/> (in Polish, he was ''Fryderyk Franciszek'').<ref>Hedley (1980), p. 292.</ref> However, the composer and his family used the birthdate 1 March,{{refn|According to his letter of 16 January 1833 to the chairman of the [[Bibliothèque Polonaise de Paris|Société historique et littéraire polonaise]] (Polish Literary Society) in Paris, he was "born 1 March 1810 at the village of Żelazowa Wola in the Province of Mazowsze."<ref>Chopin (1962), p. 116.</ref> |group=n}}<ref name="Zamoyski (2010), pp. 4–5 "/> which is now generally accepted as the correct date.<ref>Rose Cholmondeley, [http://www.chopin-society.org.uk/articles/chopin-birthday.htm "The Mystery of Chopin's Birthday"], Chopin Society UK website, accessed 21 December 2013.</ref>
[[File:Mikołaj Chopin.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Chopin's father, [[Nicolas Chopin]], by [[Ambroży Mieroszewski]], 1829]] 
[[File:Catalani-Chopin watch.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Watch given by soprano [[Angelica Catalani]] to 9-year-old Chopin on 3 January 1820]] 
Fryderyk's father, [[Nicolas Chopin]], was a Frenchman from [[Lorraine]] who had emigrated to Poland in 1787 at the age of sixteen.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 3 (loc. 100).</ref> Nicolas tutored children of the Polish [[List of szlachta|aristocracy]], and in 1806 married [[Justyna Krzyżanowska|Tekla Justyna Krzyżanowska]],<ref>Walker (2018), p. 32.</ref> a poor relative of the Skarbeks, one of the families for whom he worked.<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §1, para. 1.</ref> Fryderyk was baptised on Easter Sunday, 23 April 1810, in the same church where his parents had married, in [[Brochów, Masovian Voivodeship|Brochów]].<ref name="Zamoyski (2010), pp. 4–5 "/> His eighteen-year-old [[Godparent|godfather]], for whom he was named, was [[Fryderyk Skarbek]], a pupil of Nicolas Chopin.<ref name="Zamoyski (2010), pp. 4–5 "/> Fryderyk was the couple's second child and only son; he had an elder sister, [[Ludwika Jędrzejewicz|Ludwika]] (1807–1855), and two younger sisters, Izabela (1811–1881) and [[Emilia Chopin|Emilia]] (1812–1827).<ref>Zamoyski (2010) p. 7 (loc. 158).</ref> Nicolas was devoted to his adopted homeland, and insisted on the use of the [[Polish language]] in the household.<ref name="Zamoyski (2010), pp. 4–5 "/>

In October 1810, six months after Fryderyk's birth, the family moved to Warsaw, where his father acquired a post teaching French at the [[Warsaw Lyceum]], then housed in the [[Saxon Palace]]. Fryderyk lived with his family in the Palace grounds. The father played the [[flute]] and violin;<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp.&nbsp;5–6 (locs. 130–144).</ref> the mother played the piano and gave lessons to boys in the boarding house that the Chopins kept.<ref name="woyciechowski"/> Chopin was of slight build, and even in early childhood was prone to illnesses.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), 6 (loc. 144).</ref>

Fryderyk may have had some piano instruction from his mother, but his first professional music tutor, from 1816 to 1821, was the Czech pianist [[Wojciech Żywny]].<ref name="Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §1, para. 3">Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §1, para. 3.</ref> His elder sister Ludwika also took lessons from Żywny, and occasionally played duets with her brother.<ref>Samson (1996), p. 8.</ref> It quickly became apparent that he was a [[child prodigy]]. By the age of seven Fryderyk had begun giving public concerts, and in 1817 he composed two [[polonaise (dance)|polonaise]]s, in [[G minor]] and [[B-flat major]].<ref>[http://chopin.wordpress.com/the-complete-solo-works/chopin-the-complete-keyboard-works/ "The Complete Keyboard Works"], Chopin Project website, accessed 21 December 2013.</ref> His next work, a polonaise in A-flat major of 1821, dedicated to Żywny, is his earliest surviving musical manuscript.<ref name="Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §1, para. 3"/>

In 1817 the Saxon Palace was requisitioned by Warsaw's Russian governor for military use, and the [[Warsaw Lyceum]] was reestablished in the [[Kazimierz Palace]] (today the rectorate of [[Warsaw University]]). Fryderyk and his family moved to a building, which still survives, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace. During this period, Fryderyk was sometimes invited to the [[Belweder|Belweder Palace]] as playmate to the son of the ruler of [[Congress Poland|Russian Poland]], [[Grand Duke Konstantin Pavlovich of Russia]]; he played the piano for Konstantin Pavlovich and composed a march for him. [[Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz]], in his dramatic [[eclogue]], "''Nasze Przebiegi''" ("Our Discourses", 1818), attested to "little Chopin's" popularity.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp. 11–12 (locs. 231–248).</ref>

====Education====
From September 1823 to 1826, Chopin attended the Warsaw Lyceum, where he received [[organ (music)|organ]] lessons from the [[Czechs|Czech]] musician [[Wilhelm Würfel]] during his first year. In the autumn of 1826 he began a three-year course under the [[Silesia]]n composer [[Józef Elsner]] at the [[Fryderyk Chopin University of Music|Warsaw Conservatory]], studying [[music theory]], [[figured bass]], and [[musical composition|composition]].<ref name="Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §1, para. 5">Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §1, para. 5.</ref>{{refn|The Conservatory was affiliated with the [[University of Warsaw]]; hence Chopin is counted among the [[University of Warsaw#Notable alumni|university's alumni]].|group=n}} Throughout this period he continued to compose and to give recitals in concerts and salons in Warsaw. He was engaged by the inventors of the "aeolomelodicon" (a combination of piano and mechanical organ), and on this instrument, in May 1825 he performed his own improvisation and part of a concerto by [[Ignaz Moscheles|Moscheles]]. The success of this concert led to an invitation to give a recital on a similar instrument (the "aeolopantaleon") before [[Alexander I of Russia|Tsar Alexander I]], who was visiting Warsaw; the Tsar presented him with a diamond ring. At a subsequent aeolopantaleon concert on 10 June 1825, Chopin performed his [[Rondo in C minor (Chopin)|Rondo Op. 1]]. This was the first of his works to be commercially published and earned him his first mention in the foreign press, when the Leipzig ''[[Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung|Allgemeine Musikalische Zeitung]]'' praised his "wealth of musical ideas".<ref>Walker (2018), pp. 83–84.</ref>
[[File:Józef Elsner.PNG|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Józef Elsner]] (after 1853)]]
During 1824–28 Chopin spent his vacations away from Warsaw, at a number of locales.{{refn|At [[Szafarnia, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship|Szafarnia]] (in 1824&nbsp;– perhaps his first solo travel away from home&nbsp;– and in 1825), [[Duszniki-Zdrój|Duszniki]] (1826), [[Pomerania]] (1827) and [[Sanniki, Masovian Voivodeship|Sanniki]] (1828).<ref>Szklener (2010), p. 8.</ref>|group=n}} In 1824 and 1825, at [[Szafarnia, Kuyavian-Pomeranian Voivodeship|Szafarnia]], he was a guest of [[Dominik Dziewanowski]], the father of a schoolmate. Here for the first time, he encountered Polish rural [[folk music]].<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §1 para. 2.</ref> His letters home from Szafarnia (to which he gave the title "The Szafarnia Courier"), written in a very modern and lively Polish, amused his family with their [[parody|spoofing]] of the Warsaw newspapers and demonstrated the youngster's literary gift.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp. 19–20 (locs. 334–352).</ref>

In 1827, soon after the death of Chopin's youngest sister Emilia, the family moved from the Warsaw University building, adjacent to the Kazimierz Palace, to [[Chopin family parlor|lodgings just across the street from the university]], in the south annex of the [[Czapski Palace#History|Krasiński Palace]] on [[Krakowskie Przedmieście]],{{refn|The Krasiński Palace is now the [[Academy of Fine Arts in Warsaw|Warsaw Academy of Fine Arts]].|group=n}} where Chopin lived until he left Warsaw in 1830.{{refn|An 1837–39 resident here, the artist-poet [[Cyprian Norwid]], would later write a poem, "Chopin's Piano", about the instrument's [[defenestration]] by Russian troops during the [[January Uprising#Influence on art and literature|January 1863 Uprising]].<ref name="redniowiecza"/>|group=n}} Here his parents continued running their boarding house for male students; the [[Chopin Family Parlor|Chopin Family Parlour]] (''Salonik Chopinów'') became a museum in the 20th century. In 1829 the artist [[Ambroży Mieroszewski]] executed a set of portraits of Chopin family members, including the first known portrait of the composer.{{refn|The originals perished in World War II. Only photographs survive.<ref>See Kuhnke (2010).</ref>|group=n}}

Four boarders at his parents' apartments became Chopin's intimates: [[Tytus Woyciechowski]], [[Jan Nepomucen Białobłocki]], [[Jan Matuszyński]] and [[Julian Fontana]]; the latter two would become part of his Paris milieu. He was friendly with members of Warsaw's young artistic and intellectual world, including Fontana, [[Józef Bohdan Zaleski]] and [[Stefan Witwicki]].<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 43 (loc. 696).</ref> His final Conservatory report (July 1829) read: "Chopin F., third-year student, exceptional talent, musical genius."<ref name="Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §1, para. 5"/>

===Career===

====Travel and domestic success====
[[File:Chopin concert.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.4|Chopin plays for the [[Antoni Radziwiłł|Radziwiłłs]], 1829 (painting by [[Henryk Siemiradzki]], 1887)]]
In September 1828 Chopin, while still a student, visited Berlin with a family friend, zoologist [[Feliks Paweł Jarocki|Feliks Jarocki]], enjoying operas directed by [[Gaspare Spontini]] and attending concerts by [[Carl Friedrich Zelter]], [[Felix Mendelssohn]] and other celebrities. On an 1829 return trip to Berlin, he was a guest of Prince [[Antoni Radziwiłł]], governor of the [[Grand Duchy of Posen]]&nbsp;– himself an accomplished composer and aspiring cellist. For the prince and his pianist daughter Wanda, he composed his [[Introduction and Polonaise brillante (Chopin)|Introduction and Polonaise brillante in C major for cello and piano]], Op.&nbsp;3.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 45 (loc. 731).</ref>

Back in Warsaw that year, Chopin heard [[Niccolò Paganini]] play the violin, and composed a set of variations, ''Souvenir de Paganini''. It may have been this experience which encouraged him to commence writing his first [[Études (Chopin)|Études]] (1829–32), exploring the capacities of his own instrument.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 35 (loc. 569).</ref> On 11 August, three weeks after completing his studies at the Warsaw Conservatory, he made his debut in [[Vienna]]. He gave two piano concerts and received many favourable reviews&nbsp;– in addition to some commenting (in Chopin's own words) that he was "too delicate for those accustomed to the piano-bashing of local artists". In the first of these concerts, he premiered his [[Variations on "Là ci darem la mano" (Chopin)|Variations on ''Là ci darem la mano'']], Op.&nbsp;2 (variations on a duet from [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]]'s opera ''[[Don Giovanni]]'') for piano and orchestra.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp.&nbsp;37–39 (locs. 599–632).</ref> He returned to Warsaw in September 1829,<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 43 (loc. 689).</ref> where he premiered his [[Piano Concerto No. 2 (Chopin)|Piano Concerto No. 2 in F minor]], Op.&nbsp;21 on 17 March 1830.<ref name="Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §1, para. 5"/>

Letters from Chopin to [[Tytus Woyciechowski]] in the period 1829–30 (when Chopin was about twenty) contain erotic references to dreams and to offered kisses and embraces. According to [[Adam Zamoyski]], such expressions "were, and to some extent still are, common currency in Polish and carry no greater implication than the 'love{{'"}} concluding letters today. "The spirit of the times, pervaded by the Romantic movement in art and literature, favoured extreme expression of feeling&nbsp;... Whilst the possibility cannot be ruled out entirely, it is unlikely that the two were ever lovers."<ref>Zamoyski (2010), locs 850-86.</ref> Chopin's biographer [[Alan Walker (musicologist)|Alan Walker]] considers that, insofar as such expressions could be perceived as homosexual in nature, they would not denote more than a passing phase in Chopin's life.<ref>Walker (2018), pp.&nbsp;[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ThIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT109 109]–[https://books.google.com/books?id=6ThIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT110 110].</ref> Kallberg, writing in 1994, says that concepts of sexual practice and identity were very different in Chopin's time, so modern interpretation is problematic.<ref>Kallberg (2006), p. 66.</ref>{{refn|Based on these letters, a 2020 broadcast by music journalist Moritz Weber claimed that Chopin had an erotic involvement with Woyciechowski which had been deliberately ignored.{{sfn|Weber|2020}} In Poland, the broadcast gave rise to discussion: conservatives in church and public life were upset, whereas the [[LGBT]] activist [[Bart Staszewski]] wrote, "Let's say it openly. Yes, Chopin was at least bisexual." A spokesman for the [[Fryderyk Chopin Institute]] commented, "Because Chopin was rather discreet about revealing his intimate life even to his closest friends&nbsp;... it is difficult to build theories about this aspect of his life."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/11/29/europe/chopin-sexuality-poland-lgbtq-debate-scli-intl/index.html |title=Was Chopin gay? The awkward question in one of the EU's worst countries for LGBTQ rights |last=Picheta |first=Rob |date=29 November 2020 |website=CNN World |publisher=CNN |access-date=11 December 2020 |quote=}}</ref>|group=n}}

Chopin's successes as a composer and performer opened the door to western Europe for him, and on 2 November 1830, he set out, in the words of [[Zdzisław Jachimecki]], "into the wide world, with no very clearly defined aim, forever."<ref name="Jachimecki 1937, 422">Jachimecki (1937), p. 422.</ref> With Woyciechowski, he headed for Austria again, intending to go on to Italy. Later that month, in Warsaw, the [[November Uprising|November 1830 Uprising]] broke out, and Woyciechowski returned to Poland to enlist. Chopin, now alone in Vienna, was nostalgic for his homeland, and wrote to a friend, "I curse the moment of my departure."<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §2, para. 1.</ref> When in September 1831 he learned, while travelling from Vienna to Paris, that the uprising had been crushed, he expressed his anguish in the pages of his private journal: "Oh God!&nbsp;... You are there, and yet you do not take vengeance!"<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §2, para. 3. The journal is now in the [[National Library of Poland]].</ref> Jachimecki ascribes to these events the composer's maturing "into an inspired [[national bard]] who intuited the past, present and future of his native Poland."<ref name="Jachimecki 1937, 422"/>

====Paris====
[[File:Chopin, by Wodzinska.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|Chopin at 25, by his fiancée [[Maria Wodzińska]], 1835]]
When he left Warsaw in late 1830, Chopin had intended to go to Italy, but violent unrest there made that a dangerous destination. His next choice was Paris; difficulties obtaining a visa from Russian authorities resulted in him getting transit permission from the French. In later years he would quote the passport's endorsement ''Passeport en passant par Paris à Londres'' ("In transit to London via Paris"), joking that he was in the city "only in passing."<ref>Walker (2018), p. 202.</ref>

Chopin arrived in Paris in late September 1831; he would never return to Poland,<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §1, para. 6.</ref> thus becoming one of many expatriates of the Polish [[Great Emigration]]. In France, he used the French versions of his given names, and after receiving French citizenship in 1835, he travelled on a French passport.<ref>A French passport used by Chopin is shown at Emmanuel Langavant, ''[http://diaph16.free.fr/chopin//chopin7.htm Passeport français de Chopin]'', Chopin&nbsp;– musicien français website, accessed 13 August 2014.</ref> However, Chopin remained close to his fellow Poles in exile as friends and confidants and he never felt fully comfortable speaking French. Chopin's biographer [[Adam Zamoyski]] writes that he never considered himself to be French, despite his father's French origins, and always saw himself as a Pole.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 128 (loc. 2027).</ref>

In Paris, Chopin encountered artists and other distinguished figures and found many opportunities to exercise his talents and achieve celebrity. During his years in Paris, he was to become acquainted with, among many others, [[Hector Berlioz]], [[Franz Liszt]], [[Ferdinand Hiller]], [[Heinrich Heine]], [[Eugène Delacroix]], [[Alfred de Vigny]]<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 106 (loc. 1678).</ref> and [[Friedrich Kalkbrenner]], who introduced him to the piano manufacturer [[Camille Pleyel]].<ref>Walker (2018), p. 219.</ref> This was the beginning of a long and close association between the composer and Pleyel's instruments.<ref>Eigeldinger (2001), passim.</ref> Chopin was also acquainted with the poet [[Adam Mickiewicz]], principal of the Polish Literary Society, some of whose verses he set as songs.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 137 (loc. 2164).</ref> He also was more than once guest of Marquis [[Marquis de Custine|Astolphe de Custine]], one of his fervent admirers, playing his works in Custine's salon.<ref>Walker (2018), pp. 302 ff,. 309, 365</ref>

Two Polish friends in Paris were also to play important roles in Chopin's life there. His fellow student at the Warsaw Conservatory, Julian Fontana, had originally tried unsuccessfully to establish himself in England; Fontana was to become, in the words of Michałowski and Samson, Chopin's "general [[servant|factotum]] and copyist".<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §3, para. 2.</ref> [[Wojciech Grzymała|Albert Grzymała]], who in Paris became a wealthy financier and society figure, often acted as Chopin's adviser and "gradually began to fill the role of elder brother in [his] life."<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp.&nbsp;106–07 (locs. 1678–1696).</ref>

On 7 December 1831, Chopin received the first major endorsement from an outstanding contemporary when [[Robert Schumann]], reviewing the Op. 2 Variations in the ''Allgemeine musikalische Zeitung'' (his first published article on music), declared: "Hats off, gentlemen! A genius."<ref>Schumann (1988), pp. 15–17.</ref> On 25 February 1832 Chopin gave a debut Paris concert in the "salons de MM Pleyel" at 9 rue Cadet, which drew universal admiration. The critic [[François-Joseph Fétis]] wrote in the ''[[Revue et gazette musicale]]'': "Here is a young man who&nbsp;... taking no model, has found, if not a complete renewal of piano music,&nbsp;... an abundance of original ideas of a kind to be found nowhere else&nbsp;..."<ref>cited in Zamoyski (2010), p. 88 (loc. 1384).</ref> After this concert, Chopin realised that his essentially intimate keyboard technique was not optimal for large concert spaces. Later that year he was introduced to the wealthy [[Rothschild family|Rothschild]] banking family, whose patronage also opened doors for him to other private [[salon (gathering)|salons]] (social gatherings of the aristocracy and artistic and literary elite).<ref name="rjsfih"/> By the end of 1832 Chopin had established himself among the Parisian musical elite and had earned the respect of his peers such as Hiller, Liszt, and Berlioz. He no longer depended financially upon his father, and in the winter of 1832, he began earning a handsome income from publishing his works and teaching piano to affluent students from all over Europe.<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §2, paras. 4–5.</ref> This freed him from the strains of public concert-giving, which he disliked.<ref name="rjsfih"/>

Chopin seldom performed publicly in Paris. In later years he generally gave a single annual concert at the Salle Pleyel, a venue that seated three hundred. He played more frequently at salons but preferred playing at his own Paris apartment for small groups of friends. The musicologist [[Arthur Hedley]] has observed that "As a pianist Chopin was unique in acquiring a reputation of the highest order on the basis of a minimum of public appearances&nbsp;– few more than thirty in the course of his lifetime."<ref>Hedley (2005), pp. 263–64.</ref> The list of musicians who took part in some of his concerts indicates the richness of Parisian artistic life during this period. Examples include a concert on 23 March 1833, in which Chopin, Liszt, and Hiller performed (on pianos) a [[Harpsichord concertos (J. S. Bach)#Concertos for three harpsichords|concerto by J.S. Bach for three keyboards]]; and, on 3 March 1838, a concert in which Chopin, his pupil [[Adolphe Gutmann]], [[Charles-Valentin Alkan]], and Alkan's teacher [[Pierre-Joseph-Guillaume Zimmermann|Joseph Zimmermann]] performed Alkan's arrangement, for eight hands, of two movements from [[Ludwig van Beethoven|Beethoven]]'s [[Symphony No. 7 (Beethoven)|7th symphony]].<ref>Conway (2012), p. 226 and n. 9.</ref> Chopin was also involved in the composition of Liszt's ''[[Hexameron (musical composition)|Hexameron]]''; he wrote the sixth (and final) variation on [[Vincenzo Bellini|Bellini]]'s theme. Chopin's music soon found success with publishers, and in 1833 he contracted with [[Maurice Schlesinger]], who arranged for it to be published not only in France but, through his family connections, also in Germany and England.<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d), §2, para. 5. For Schlesinger's international network see Conway (2012), pp. 185–87, 238–39.</ref>
[[File:Maria Wodzińska.jpeg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[Maria Wodzińska]], self-portrait]]
In the spring of 1834, Chopin attended the Lower Rhenish Music Festival in [[Aachen|Aix-la-Chapelle]] with Hiller, and it was there that Chopin met Felix Mendelssohn. After the festival, the three visited [[Düsseldorf]], where Mendelssohn had been appointed musical director. They spent what Mendelssohn described as "a very agreeable day", playing and discussing music at his piano, and met [[Friedrich Wilhelm Schadow]], director of the Academy of Art, and some of his eminent pupils such as [[Karl Friedrich Lessing|Lessing]], [[Eduard Bendemann|Bendemann]], [[Eduard Hildebrandt|Hildebrandt]] and [[Karl Ferdinand Sohn|Sohn]].<ref>Niecks (1980), p. 313.</ref> In 1835 Chopin went to [[Karlovy Vary|Carlsbad]], where he spent time with his parents; it was the last time he would see them. On his way back to Paris, he met old friends from Warsaw, the Wodzińskis. He had made the acquaintance of their daughter [[Maria Wodzińska|Maria]] in Poland five years earlier when she was eleven. This meeting prompted him to stay for two weeks in Dresden, when he had previously intended to return to Paris via [[Leipzig]].<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp.&nbsp;118–19 (locs. 1861–1878).</ref> The sixteen-year-old girl's portrait of the composer is considered, along with Delacroix's, as among Chopin's best likenesses.<ref name="demonstrated"/> 

In October he finally reached Leipzig, where he met Schumann, [[Clara Schumann|Clara Wieck]] and Mendelssohn, who organised for him a performance of his own oratorio ''[[St. Paul (oratorio)|St. Paul]]'', and who considered him "a perfect musician".<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp.&nbsp;119–20 (locs. 1878–1896).</ref> In July 1836 Chopin travelled to [[Marienbad]] and [[Dresden]] to be with the Wodziński family, and in September he proposed to Maria, whose mother Countess Wodzińska approved in principle. Chopin went on to Leipzig, where he presented Schumann with his [[Ballades (Chopin)#Ballade No. 1|G minor Ballade]].<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp.&nbsp;126–27 (locs. 1983–2001).</ref> At the end of 1836, he sent Maria an album in which his sister Ludwika had inscribed seven of his songs, and his 1835 [[Nocturnes, Op. 27 (Chopin)#Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. 27, No. 1|Nocturne in C-sharp minor, Op. 27, No. 1]].<ref>Jachimecki (1937), p. 423.</ref> The anodyne thanks he received from Maria proved to be the last letter he was to have from her.<ref>Chopin (1962), p. 144.</ref> Chopin placed the letters he had received from Maria and her mother into a large envelope, wrote on it the words "My sorrow" (''"Moja bieda"''), and to the end of his life retained in a desk drawer this keepsake of the second love of his life.<ref>Jachimecki, p. 423.</ref>{{refn|A photo of the letters packet survives, though the originals seem to have been lost during World War II. [https://www.facebook.com/instytut.chopina/photos/moja-bieda-my-trouble-packet-of-letters-written-by-maria-wodzi%C5%84ska-and-her-famil/10154081618360520/]|group=n}}

====Franz Liszt====
[[File:Franz-liszt-in-hungarian-costume-watercolour-by-josef-friehuber-1838.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|[[Franz Liszt]], [[watercolor]] by [[Josef Kriehuber]], 1838]]
Although it is not known exactly when Chopin first met [[Franz Liszt]] after arriving in Paris, on 12 December 1831 he mentioned in a letter to his friend Woyciechowski that "I have met [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]], [[Luigi Cherubini|Cherubini]], [[Pierre Baillot|Baillot]], etc.&nbsp;– also Kalkbrenner. You would not believe how curious I was about [[Henri Herz|Herz]], Liszt, Hiller, etc."<ref>Hall-Swadley (2011), p. 31.</ref> Liszt was in attendance at Chopin's Parisian debut on 26 February 1832 at the [[Salle Pleyel]], which led him to remark: "The most vigorous applause seemed not to suffice to our enthusiasm in the presence of this talented musician, who revealed a new phase of poetic sentiment combined with such happy innovation in the form of his art."<ref name="Hall 32"/>

The two became friends, and for many years lived close to each other in Paris, Chopin at 38 [[Rue de la Chaussée-d'Antin]], and Liszt at the Hôtel de France on the [[Rue Laffitte]], a few blocks away.<ref name="Schonberg 151"/> They performed together on seven occasions between 1833 and 1841. The first, on 2 April 1833, was at a benefit concert organised by [[Hector Berlioz]] for his bankrupt Shakespearean actress wife [[Harriet Smithson]], during which they played [[George Onslow (composer)|George Onslow]]'s ''Sonata in F minor'' for piano duet.<ref name="Hall 32">Hall-Swadley (2011), p. 32.</ref> Later joint appearances included a benefit concert for the Benevolent Association of Polish Ladies in Paris.<ref name="Hall 32"/> Their last appearance together in public was for a charity concert conducted for the [[Beethoven Monument]] in Bonn, held at the Salle Pleyel and the Paris Conservatory on 25 and 26 April 1841.<ref name="Hall 32"/>

Although the two displayed great respect and admiration for each other, their friendship was uneasy and had some qualities of a love-hate relationship. [[Harold C. Schonberg]] believes that Chopin displayed a "tinge of jealousy and spite" towards Liszt's virtuosity on the piano,<ref name="Schonberg 151">Schonberg (1987), p. 151.</ref> and others have also argued that he had become enchanted with Liszt's theatricality, showmanship and success.<ref>Hall-Swadley (2011), p. 33.</ref> Liszt was the dedicatee of Chopin's Op. 10 Études, and his performance of them prompted the composer to write to Hiller, "I should like to rob him of the way he plays my studies."<ref name="Walker 1988 184">Walker (1988), p. 184.</ref> However, Chopin expressed annoyance in 1843 when Liszt performed one of his nocturnes with the addition of numerous intricate embellishments, at which Chopin remarked that he should play the music as written or not play it at all, forcing an apology. Most biographers of Chopin state that after this the two had little to do with each other, although in his letters dated as late as 1848 he still referred to him as "my friend Liszt".<ref name="Schonberg 151"/> Some commentators point to events in the two men's romantic lives which led to a rift between them; there are claims that Liszt had displayed jealousy of his mistress [[Marie d'Agoult]]'s obsession with Chopin, while others believe that Chopin had become concerned about Liszt's growing relationship with [[George Sand]].<ref name="Hall 32"/>

====George Sand====
[[File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 043.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|Chopin at 28, from [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]]'s [[Portrait of Frédéric Chopin and George Sand|joint portrait of Chopin and Sand]], 1838]]
In 1836, at a party hosted by Marie d'Agoult, Chopin met the French author [[George Sand]] (born [Amantine] Aurore [Lucile] Dupin).<ref name="Schonberg 151"/> Short (under five feet, or 152&nbsp;cm), dark, big-eyed and a cigar smoker,<ref>Schonberg (1987), p. 152.</ref> she initially repelled Chopin, who remarked, "What an unattractive person ''la Sand'' is. Is she really a woman?"<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d.) §3, para. 3.</ref> However, by early 1837 Maria Wodzińska's mother had made it clear to Chopin in correspondence that a marriage with her daughter was unlikely to proceed.<ref>Chopin (1962), p. 141.</ref> It is thought that she was influenced by his poor health and possibly also by rumours about his associations with women such as d'Agoult and Sand.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp.&nbsp;137–38 (locs. 2169–2186).</ref> Chopin finally placed the letters from Maria and her mother in a package on which he wrote, in Polish, "My tragedy".<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 147 (loc. 2318).</ref> Sand, in a letter to Grzymała of June 1838, admitted strong feelings for the composer and debated whether to abandon a current affair in order to begin a relationship with Chopin; she asked Grzymała to assess Chopin's relationship with Maria Wodzińska, without realising that the affair, at least from Maria's side, was over.<ref>Chopin (1962), pp. 151–61.</ref>

In June 1837 Chopin visited London incognito in the company of the piano manufacturer [[Camille Pleyel]], where he played at a musical soirée at the house of English piano maker [[James Broadwood]].<ref>Załuski (1992), p. 226.</ref> On his return to Paris his association with Sand began in earnest, and by the end of June 1838 they had become lovers.<ref name="ReferenceB">Michałowski and Samson (n.d.) §3, para. 4.</ref> Sand, who was six years older than the composer and had had a series of lovers, wrote at this time: "I must say I was confused and amazed at the effect this little creature had on me&nbsp;... I have still not recovered from my astonishment, and if I were a proud person I should be feeling humiliated at having been carried away&nbsp;..."<ref>Cited in Zamoyski (2010), p. 154 (loc. 2417).</ref> The two spent a miserable winter on [[Majorca]] (8 November 1838 to 13 February 1839), where, together with Sand's two children, they had journeyed in the hope of improving Chopin's health and that of Sand's 15-year-old son Maurice, and also to escape the threats of Sand's former lover [[Félicien Mallefille]].<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 159 (loc. 2514).</ref> After discovering that the couple were not married, the deeply traditional Catholic people of Majorca became inhospitable,<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp.&nbsp;161–62 (locs. 2544–2560).</ref> making accommodation difficult to find. This compelled the group to take lodgings in a former [[Carthusian]] monastery in [[Valldemossa]], which gave little shelter from the cold winter weather.<ref name="ReferenceB"/>
[[File:Eugène Ferdinand Victor Delacroix 041.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[George Sand]] sewing, from [[Eugène Delacroix|Delacroix]]'s [[Portrait of Frédéric Chopin and George Sand|joint portrait of Chopin and Sand]], 1838]]
On 3 December 1838, Chopin complained about his bad health and the incompetence of the doctors in Majorca, commenting: "Three doctors have visited me&nbsp;... The first said I was dead; the second said I was dying; and the third said I was about to die."<ref>cited in Zamoyski (2010), p. 162 (loc. 2560).</ref> He also had problems having his [[Pleyel et Cie|Pleyel piano]] sent to him, having to rely in the meantime on a piano made in [[Palma, Majorca|Palma]] by Juan Bauza.<ref name=Appleyard>Appleyard, Brian (2018), "It Holds the Key", ''[[Sunday Times]]'' Culture Supplement, 3 June 2018, pp. 8–9.</ref>{{refn|The Bauza piano eventually entered the collection of [[Wanda Landowska]] in Paris and was seized following the [[Battle of France|Fall of Paris]] in 1940 and transported by the invaders to [[Leipzig]] in 1943. It was returned to France in 1946, but subsequently went missing.<ref name=Appleyard />|group=n}} The Pleyel piano finally arrived from Paris in December, just shortly before Chopin and Sand left the island. Chopin wrote to Pleyel in January 1839: "I am sending you my [[Preludes (Chopin)|Preludes]] [(Op. 28)]. I finished them on your little piano, which arrived in the best possible condition in spite of the sea, the bad weather and the Palma customs."<ref name="ReferenceB"/> Chopin was also able to undertake work while in Majorca on his [[Ballades (Chopin)#Ballade No. 2|Ballade No. 2]], Op. 38; on two Polonaises, Op. 40; and on the [[Scherzo No. 3 (Chopin)|Scherzo No. 3]], Op. 39.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 168 (loc. 2646).</ref>

Although this period had been productive, the bad weather had such a detrimental effect on Chopin's health that Sand determined to leave the island. To avoid further customs duties, Sand sold the piano to a local French couple, the Canuts.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 168 (loc. 2654).</ref>{{refn|Two neighbouring apartments at the Valldemossa monastery, each long hosting a Chopin museum, have been claimed to be the retreat of Chopin and Sand, and to hold Chopin's Pleyel piano. In 2011 a Spanish court on Majorca, partly by ruling out a piano that had been built after Chopin's visit there&nbsp;– probably after his death&nbsp;– decided which was the correct apartment.<ref>Fiona Govan, [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/8296219/Row-over-Chopins-Majorcan-residence-solved-by-piano.html "Row over Chopin's Majorcan residence solved by piano"], ''[[Daily Telegraph]]'' 1 February 2011, accessed 31 August 2013.</ref>|group=n}} The group travelled first to [[Barcelona]], then to [[Marseilles]], where they stayed for a few months while Chopin convalesced.<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d.) §3, para. 5.</ref> While in Marseilles Chopin made a rare appearance at the organ during a requiem mass for the tenor [[Adolphe Nourrit]] on 24 April 1839, playing a transcription of [[Franz Schubert]]'s ''[[lied]]'' ''Die Gestirne'' (D. 444).<ref name="canton-notre-dame-du-mont-marseille">{{cite web|url=http://canton-notre-dame-du-mont-marseille.over-blog.com/article-george-sand-frederic-chopin-et-l-orgue-de-nd-du-mont-68393551.html|title=George Sand, Frederic Chopin et l'orgue de ND du Mont | date=15 March 2011 |accessdate=16 April 2019}}</ref><ref name=FCJF>Chopin (1988), p. 200 (letter of 25 April 1839 to Julian Fontana).</ref>{{refn|Nourrit's body was being escorted via Marseilles to his funeral in Paris, following his suicide in Naples.<ref name=FCJF />|group=n}} In May 1839 they headed to Sand's estate at [[Nohant-Vic|Nohant]] for the summer, where they spent most of the following summers until 1846. In autumn they returned to Paris, where Chopin's apartment at 5 rue Tronchet was close to Sand's rented accommodation on the rue Pigalle. He frequently visited Sand in the evenings, but both retained some independence.<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d.) §4, para. 1.</ref> In 1842 he and Sand moved to the [[Square d'Orléans]], living in adjacent buildings.<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d.) §4, para. 4.</ref>

On 26 July 1840 Chopin and Sand were present at the dress rehearsal of Berlioz's ''[[Grande symphonie funèbre et triomphale]]'', composed to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the [[July Revolution]]. Chopin was reportedly unimpressed with the composition.<ref>Goldberg (2004), p. 8.</ref>

During the summers at Nohant, particularly in the years 1839–43, Chopin found quiet, productive days during which he composed many works, including his [[Polonaise in A-flat major, Op. 53 (Chopin)|Polonaise in A-flat major]], Op. 53. Among the visitors to Nohant were Delacroix and the mezzo-soprano [[Pauline Viardot]], whom Chopin had advised on piano technique and composition.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 197 (loc. 3100).</ref> Delacroix gives an account of staying at Nohant in a letter of 7 June 1842:
<blockquote>The hosts could not be more pleasant in entertaining me. When we are not all together at dinner, lunch, playing billiards, or walking, each of us stays in his room, reading or lounging around on a couch. Sometimes, through the window which opens on the garden, a gust of music wafts up from Chopin at work. All this mingles with the songs of nightingales and the fragrance of roses.<ref>Cited in Atwood (1999), p. 315.</ref></blockquote>

====Decline====
{{main|Health of Frédéric Chopin}}
[[File:Frédéric Chopin.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|Chopin by [[Charles Louis Gratia]], 1838]]
From 1842 onwards Chopin showed signs of serious illness. After a solo recital in Paris on 21 February 1842, he wrote to Grzymała: "I have to lie in bed all day long, my mouth and tonsils are aching so much."<ref>Zamoyski (2010) p. 212 (loc. 3331).</ref> He was forced by illness to decline a written invitation from Alkan to participate in a repeat performance of the Beethoven 7th Symphony arrangement at Érard's on 1 March 1843.<ref>Eddie (2013), p. 8.</ref> Late in 1844, [[Charles Hallé]] visited Chopin and found him "hardly able to move, bent like a half-opened penknife and evidently in great pain", although his spirits returned when he started to play the piano for his visitor.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 227 (loc. 3571).</ref> Chopin's health continued to deteriorate, particularly from this time onwards. Modern research suggests that apart from any other illnesses, he may also have suffered from [[temporal lobe epilepsy]].<ref>Sara Reardon, [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/31/AR2011013104713.html "Chopin's hallucinations may have been caused by epilepsy"], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', 31 January 2011, accessed 10 January 2014.</ref>

Chopin's relations with Sand were soured in 1846 by problems involving her daughter Solange and Solange's fiancé, the young fortune-hunting sculptor [[Auguste Clésinger]].<ref name="MichaowskiSamson">Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §5, para. 2.</ref> The composer frequently took Solange's side in quarrels with her mother; he also faced jealousy from Sand's son Maurice.<ref>Samson (1996), p. 194.</ref> Chopin was utterly indifferent to Sand's radical political pursuits, while Sand looked on his society friends with disdain.<ref name="Chen 32">Chen (2009), p. 32.</ref> As the composer's illness progressed, Sand had become less of a lover and more of a nurse to Chopin, whom she called her "third child". In letters to third parties she vented her impatience, referring to him as a "child," a "little angel", a "sufferer" and a "beloved little corpse."<ref name="gredxn"/> In 1847 Sand published her novel ''Lucrezia Floriani'', whose main characters&nbsp;– a rich actress and a prince in weak health&nbsp;– could be interpreted as Sand and Chopin; the story was uncomplimentary to Chopin, who could not have missed the allusions as he helped Sand correct the printer's galleys. 

In 1847 Chopin did not visit Nohant, and that year he quietly ended their ten-year relationship following an angry correspondence which, in Sand's words, made "a strange conclusion to nine years of exclusive friendship".<ref name="MichaowskiSamson" /> 

Count Wojciech Grzymała, who had followed their romance from the beginning, commented, "If [Chopin] had not had the misfortune of meeting G.S. [George Sand], who poisoned his whole being, he would have lived to be [[Luigi Cherubini|Cherubini]]'s age." Chopin would die two years later at thirty-nine; his friend Cherubini had died in Paris in 1842 at the age of eighty-one.<ref>[[Tad Szulc]], ''Chopin in Paris'', p. 403.</ref> The two composers are buried four meters apart at [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]].

Chopin's output as a composer throughout this period declined in quantity year by year. Whereas in 1841 he had written a dozen works, only six were written in 1842 and six shorter pieces in 1843. In 1844 he wrote only the [[Piano Sonata No. 3 (Chopin)|Op. 58 sonata]]. 1845 saw the completion of three mazurkas (Op. 59). Although these works were more refined than many of his earlier compositions, Zamoyski concludes that "his powers of concentration were failing and his inspiration was beset by anguish, both emotional and intellectual."<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 233 (loc. 3668).</ref>

====Tour of Great Britain====

Chopin's public popularity as a virtuoso began to wane, as did the number of his pupils, and this, together with the political strife and instability of the time, caused him to struggle financially.<ref name="Chen 34"/> In February 1848, with the cellist [[Auguste Franchomme]], he gave his last Paris concert, which included three movements of the [[Cello Sonata (Chopin)|Cello Sonata Op. 65]].<ref name="gredxn"/><ref name="Chen 34">Chen (2009), p. 34.</ref>

[[File:Jane stirling par deveria.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Jane Stirling]], by [[Achille Devéria|Devéria]], c. 1830]]
In April, during the [[French Revolution of 1848|Revolution of 1848]] in Paris, he left for London, where he performed at several concerts and numerous receptions in great houses.<ref name="gredxn"/> This tour was suggested to him by his Scottish pupil [[Jane Stirling]] and her elder sister. Stirling also made all the logistical arrangements and provided much of the necessary funding.<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §5, para. 3.</ref>

In London, Chopin took lodgings at [[Dover Street]], where the firm of Broadwood provided him with a grand piano. At his first engagement, on 15 May at [[Stafford House]], the audience included [[Queen Victoria]] and [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]]. The Prince, who was himself a talented musician, moved close to the keyboard to view Chopin's technique. Broadwood also arranged concerts for him; among those attending were [[William Makepeace Thackeray|Thackeray]] and the singer [[Jenny Lind]]. Chopin was also sought after for piano lessons, for which he charged the high fee of one [[Guinea (British coin)|guinea]] per hour, and for private recitals for which the fee was 20 guineas. At a concert on 7 July he shared the platform with Viardot, who sang arrangements of some of his mazurkas to Spanish texts.<ref>Załuski (1992), pp. 227–29.</ref> On 28 August he played at a concert in Manchester's Concert Hall, sharing the stage with [[Marietta Alboni]] and [[Lorenzo Salvi]].<ref>[https://www.theguardian.com/music/2016/mar/09/from-the-classical-archive-chopin-alboni-review-manchester-1848 "Review: Frédéric Chopin and Marietta Alboni perform in Manchester"], ''[[The Manchester Guardian]]'', 30 August 1848; also singing was Amalia Colbari; the conductor was Charles Seymour, who was later the first violinist in [[The Hallé]] orchestra. The Manchester Concert Hall is now the site of the [[Midland Hotel, Manchester|Midland Hotel]].</ref>

In late summer he was invited by Jane Stirling to visit Scotland, where he stayed at Calder House near [[Edinburgh]] and at [[Johnstone Castle]] in [[Renfrewshire]], both owned by members of Stirling's family.<ref name="Chopin's Scottish autumn&nbsp;– Frederick Chopin" /> She clearly had a notion of going beyond mere friendship, and Chopin was obliged to make it clear to her that this could not be so. He wrote at this time to Grzymała: "My Scottish ladies are kind, but such bores", and responding to a rumour about his involvement, answered that he was "closer to the grave than the nuptial bed".<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 279 (loc. 4385). Letter of 30 October 1848.</ref> He gave a public concert in Glasgow on 27 September,<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp. 276–78 (locs. 4340–4357).</ref> and another in Edinburgh at the Hopetoun Rooms on Queen Street (now Erskine House) on 4 October.<ref name="monuments" /> In late October 1848, while staying at 10 Warriston Crescent in Edinburgh with the Polish physician Adam Łyszczyński, he wrote out his last will and testament&nbsp;– "a kind of disposition to be made of my stuff in the future, if I should drop dead somewhere", he wrote to Grzymała.<ref name="gredxn"/>

Chopin made his last public appearance on a concert platform at London's [[Guildhall, London|Guildhall]] on 16 November 1848, when, in a final patriotic gesture, he played for the benefit of Polish refugees. This gesture proved to be a mistake, as most of the participants were more interested in the dancing and refreshments than in Chopin's piano artistry, which drained him.<ref>[[Tad Szulc]], ''Chopin in Paris'', p. 383.</ref>

By this time he was very seriously ill, weighing under 99 pounds (less than 45&nbsp;kg), and his doctors were aware that his sickness was at a terminal stage.<ref name="Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §5, para. 4">Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §5, para. 4.</ref>

At the end of November Chopin returned to Paris. He passed the winter in unremitting illness, but gave occasional lessons and was visited by friends, including Delacroix and Franchomme. Occasionally he played, or accompanied the singing of [[Delfina Potocka]], for his friends. During the summer of 1849, his friends found him an apartment in [[Chaillot]], out of the centre of the city, for which the rent was secretly subsidised by an admirer, Princess Obreskoff. He was visited here by [[Jenny Lind]] in June 1849.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), pp. 283–86 (locs. 4446–4487).</ref>

===Death and funeral===
{{main|Health of Frédéric Chopin}}
[[File:Ostatnie chwile Fryderyka Chopina.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|''Chopin on His Deathbed'', by [[Teofil Kwiatkowski]], 1849, commissioned by [[Jane Stirling]]. Present are ''(from left)'' Aleksander Jełowicki, Chopin's sister Ludwika, Princess [[Marcelina Czartoryska]], Wojciech Grzymała, Kwiatkowski.]]
With his health further deteriorating, Chopin desired to have a family member with him. In June 1849 his sister Ludwika came to Paris with her husband and daughter, and in September, supported by a loan from Jane Stirling, he took an apartment at [[Place Vendôme|Place Vendôme 12]].<ref>Zamoyski (2010) p. 288 (loc. 4512).</ref> After 15 October, when his condition took a marked turn for the worse, only a handful of his closest friends remained with him. Viardot remarked sardonically, though, that "all the grand Parisian ladies considered it ''de rigueur'' to faint in his room."<ref name="Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §5, para. 4"/>

Some of his friends provided music at his request; among them, Potocka sang and Franchomme played the cello. Chopin bequeathed his unfinished notes on a piano tuition method, ''Projet de méthode'', to Alkan for completion.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), 291–93 (locs. 4566–4591).</ref> On 17 October, after midnight, the physician leaned over him and asked whether he was suffering greatly. "No longer", he replied. He died a few minutes before two o'clock in the morning. He was 39. Those present at the deathbed appear to have included his sister Ludwika, Princess Marcelina Czartoryska, Sand's daughter Solange, and his close friend Thomas Albrecht. Later that morning, Solange's husband Clésinger made Chopin's [[death mask]] and a cast of his left hand.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 293 (locs. 4591–4601).</ref>

{{multiple image
|align= right
|footer=Chopin's death mask, by [[Auguste Clésinger|Clésinger]] (photos: [[Jack Gibbons]])
|width=150
|direction=vertical
|image1=Chopin death mask (collection of Jack Gibbons).jpg
|image2=Chopin death mask, side view (collection of Jack Gibbons).jpg}}The funeral, held at the [[Église de la Madeleine|Church of the Madeleine]] in Paris, was delayed almost two weeks until 30 October.<ref name="Zamoyski 2010, p.294">Zamoyski (2010), pp. 293–94 (locs. 4601–4616).</ref> Entrance was restricted to ticket holders, as many people were expected to attend.<ref name="Zamoyski 2010, p.294"/><ref name="Zamoyski 2010, p.1">Zamoyski (2010), p. 1 (loc. 70).</ref> Over 3,000 people arrived without invitations, from as far as London, Berlin and Vienna, and were excluded.<ref name=niecks/>

[[Requiem (Mozart)|Mozart's Requiem]] was sung at the funeral;<ref name="Zamoyski 2010, p.1"/> the soloists were the soprano [[Jeanne-Anaïs Castellan]], the mezzo-soprano [[Pauline Viardot]], the tenor [[Alexis Dupont]], and the bass [[Luigi Lablache]]; Chopin's Preludes No.&nbsp;4 in E minor and No.&nbsp;6 in B minor were also played. The organist was [[Louis James Alfred Lefébure-Wély|Louis Lefébure-Wély]].<ref>"Funeral of Frédéric Chopin", in ''Revue et Gazette Musicale'', 4 November 1847, printed in translation in Atwood (1999), pp. 410–11.</ref> The funeral procession to [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]], which included Chopin's sister Ludwika, was led by the aged Prince [[Adam Jerzy Czartoryski|Adam Czartoryski]]. The pallbearers included Delacroix, Franchomme, and Camille Pleyel.<ref name="Maria Barcz 2010 p. 16"/> At the graveside, the ''Funeral March'' from [[Piano Sonata No. 2 (Chopin)|Chopin's Piano Sonata No. 2]] was played, in [[Napoléon Henri Reber|Reber]]'s instrumentation.<ref>"Funeral of Frédéric Chopin", in ''Revue et Gazette Musicale'', 4 November 1847, printed in translation in Atwood (1999), pp. 412–13.</ref>

Chopin's tombstone, featuring the [[muse]] of music, [[Euterpe]], weeping over a broken [[lyre]], was designed and sculpted by Clésinger. The expenses of the funeral and monument, amounting to 5,000 francs, were covered by Jane Stirling, who also paid for the return of the composer's sister Ludwika to Warsaw.<ref name="Maria Barcz 2010 p. 16"/> As requested by Chopin, Ludwika took his heart (which had been removed by his doctor [[Jean Cruveilhier]] and preserved in alcohol in a vase), back to Poland in 1850.<ref name="Samson 1996, 193">Samson (1996), p. 193.</ref><ref>Walker (2018), p. 618.</ref>{{refn|In 1879 the heart was sealed within a pillar of the [[Holy Cross Church, Warsaw|Holy Cross Church]], behind a tablet carved by [[Leonard Marconi]].<ref>''[http://www.inyourpocket.com/poland/warsaw/sightseeing/churches/Holy-Cross-Church_21356v Holy Cross Church (Kościół Św. Krzyża)]'' on Inyourpocket.com website, accessed 7 December 2013.</ref> During the German invasion of Warsaw in World War II, the heart was removed for safekeeping and held in the quarters of the German commander, [[Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski]]. It was later returned to the church authorities but it was not yet considered safe to return it to its former resting place. It was taken to the town of [[Milanówek]], where the casket was opened and the heart was viewed (its large size was noted). It was stored in St. Hedwig's Church there. On 17 October 1945, the 96th anniversary of Chopin's death, it was returned to its place in Holy Cross Church.<ref>Alex Ross, "Chopin's Heart". [http://www.newyorker.com/culture/culture-desk/chopins-heart ''The New Yorker'', 5 February 2014]. Retrieved 3 November 2014</ref>|group=n}} She also took a collection of two hundred letters from Sand to Chopin; after 1851 these were returned to Sand, who destroyed them.<ref>Walker (2018), p. 633.</ref>

Chopin's disease and the cause of his death have been a matter of discussion. His death certificate gave the cause of death as [[tuberculosis]], and his physician, Cruveilhier, was then the leading French authority on this disease.<ref>Zamoyski (2010), p. 286 (loc. 4479).</ref> Other possibilities that have been advanced have included [[cystic fibrosis]],<ref>Majka et al. (2003), p. 77.</ref> [[cirrhosis]], and [[alpha 1-antitrypsin deficiency]].<ref>Kuzemko (1994), p. 771. See also Kubba and Young (1998), ''passim''.</ref> A visual examination of Chopin's preserved heart (the jar was not opened), conducted in 2014 and first published in the [[American Journal of Medicine]] in 2017, suggested that the likely cause of his death was a rare case of [[pericarditis]] caused by complications of chronic tuberculosis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Witt |first1=Michał |last2=Szklener |first2=Artur |last3=Marchwica |first3=Wojciech |last4=Dobosz |first4=Tadeusz |date=25 July 2018 |title=Disease not genetic but infectious: multiple tuberculomas and fibrinous pericarditis as symptoms pathognomonic for tuberculosis of Frederic Chopin |url=https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs13353-018-0456-3.pdf |journal=Journal of Applied Genetics |volume=59 |issue=4 |pages=471–473 |doi=10.1007/s13353-018-0456-3 |pmid=30047032 |s2cid=51718815 |access-date=20 May 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=McKie|first1=Robin|title=Examination of Chopin's pickled heart solves riddle of his early death|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2017/nov/05/frederic-chopin-pickled-heart-solves-riddle-of-early-death|newspaper=The Guardian|accessdate=5 November 2017|date=4 November 2017}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-29915863|title=The mystery of Chopin's death|last=Pruszewicz|first=Marek|date=2014-12-22|access-date=2019-01-31|language=en-GB}}</ref>

==Music==
{{See also|List of compositions by Frédéric Chopin by genre|List of compositions by Frédéric Chopin by opus number|Ballades (Chopin)|Études (Chopin)|Mazurkas (Chopin)|Nocturnes (Chopin)|Polonaises (Chopin)|Preludes (Chopin)|Waltzes (Chopin)|Miscellaneous compositions (Chopin)}}

===Overview===
[[File:Chopinamqsop53.jpg|thumb|left|225px|Autographed musical quotation from the Polonaise [[Polonaise in A-flat major, Op. 53 (Chopin)|Op. 53]], signed by Chopin on 25 May 1845]]
Over 230 works of Chopin survive; some compositions from early childhood have been lost. All his known works involve the piano, and only a few range beyond solo piano music, as either [[piano concerto]]s, songs or [[chamber music]].<ref>Hedley (1980), p. 298.</ref>

Chopin was educated in the tradition of Beethoven, Haydn, Mozart and Clementi; he used Clementi's piano method with his students. He was also influenced by [[Johann Nepomuk Hummel|Hummel]]'s development of virtuoso, yet Mozartian, piano technique. He cited [[Johann Sebastian Bach|Bach]] and Mozart as the two most important composers in shaping his musical outlook.<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §6 para 7.</ref> Chopin's early works are in the style of the "brilliant" keyboard pieces of his era as exemplified by the works of [[Ignaz Moscheles]], [[Friedrich Kalkbrenner]], and others. Less direct in the earlier period are the influences of Polish folk music and of [[Italian opera]]. Much of what became his typical style of ornamentation (for example, his ''[[fioritura|fioriture]]'') is taken from singing. His melodic lines were increasingly reminiscent of the [[mode (music)|modes]] and features of the music of his native country, such as [[drone (music)|drones]].<ref>Michałowski and Samson (n.d.). §6, paras 1–4.</ref>

Chopin took the new salon genre of the [[nocturne]], invented by the Irish composer [[John Field (composer)|John Field]], to a deeper level of sophistication. He was the first to write [[ballade (classical music)|ballades]]<ref name="scholesballade"/> and [[Scherzo|scherzi]] as individual concert pieces. He essentially established a new genre with his own set of free-standing preludes (Op.&nbsp;28, published 1839). He exploited the poetic potential of the concept of the concert [[étude]], already being developed in the 1820s and 1830s by Liszt, Clementi, and Moscheles, in his two sets of studies (Op.&nbsp;10 published in 1833, Op.&nbsp;25 in 1837).<ref>Ferguson (1980), pp. 304–05.</ref>

Chopin also endowed popular dance forms with a greater range of melody and expression. [[Mazurkas (Chopin)|Chopin's mazurkas]], while originating in the traditional Polish dance (the ''[[mazurka|mazurek]]''), differed from the traditional variety in that they were written for the concert hall rather than the dance hall; as J. Barrie Jones puts it, "it was Chopin who put the mazurka on the European musical map."<ref>Jones (1998b), p. 177.</ref> The series of seven [[Polonaises (Chopin)|polonaises]] published in his lifetime (another nine were published posthumously), beginning with the Op.&nbsp;26 pair (published 1836), set a new standard for music in the form.<ref name="chopin13"/> His [[Waltzes (Chopin)|waltzes]] were also written specifically for the salon recital rather than the ballroom and are frequently at rather faster tempos than their dance-floor equivalents.<ref name="Jones 1998a p 162">Jones (1998a), p. 162.</ref>

===Titles, opus numbers and editions===
Some of Chopin's well-known pieces have acquired descriptive titles, such as the [[Étude Op. 10, No. 12 (Chopin)|''Revolutionary'' Étude]] (Op.&nbsp;10,&nbsp;No.&nbsp;12), and the ''[[Minute Waltz]]'' (Op.&nbsp;64,&nbsp;No.&nbsp;1). However, except for his ''Funeral March'', the composer never named an instrumental work beyond genre and number, leaving all potential extramusical associations to the listener; the names by which many of his pieces are known were invented by others.<ref>Hedley (2005), p. 264; Kennedy (1980), p. 130, ''Chopin, Fryderyk''.</ref> There is no evidence to suggest that the ''Revolutionary'' Étude was written with the failed Polish uprising against Russia in mind; it merely appeared at that time.<ref>Hedley and Brown (1980), p. 294.</ref> The ''Funeral March'', the third movement of his Sonata No. 2 (Op.&nbsp;35), the one case where he did give a title, was written before the rest of the sonata, but no specific event or death is known to have inspired it.<ref>Kallberg (2001), pp. 4–8.</ref>

The last opus number that Chopin himself used was 65, allocated to the Cello Sonata in G minor. He expressed a deathbed wish that all his unpublished manuscripts be destroyed. At the request of the composer's mother and sisters, however, his musical executor Julian Fontana selected 23 unpublished piano pieces and grouped them into eight further opus numbers (Opp. 66–73), published in 1855.<ref name="Piano Society"/> In 1857, [[Polish songs (Chopin)|17 Polish songs]] that Chopin wrote at various stages of his life were collected and published as Op. 74, though their order within the opus did not reflect the order of composition.<ref name="Classical Archives"/>

Works published since 1857 have received alternative catalogue designations instead of opus numbers. The present standard musicological reference for Chopin's works is the Kobylańska Catalogue (usually represented by the initials 'KK'), named for its compiler, the Polish musicologist [[Krystyna Kobylańska]].<ref>[http://chopin.wordpress.com/2007/12/11/what-does-the-kk-mean/ "What does the "KK" Mean?"], The Chopin Project Website, accessed 21 December 2013.</ref>

Chopin's original publishers included Maurice Schlesinger and Camille Pleyel.<ref>Atwood (1999), pp.&nbsp;166–67.</ref> His works soon began to appear in popular 19th-century piano anthologies.<ref>de Val (1998), p. 127.</ref> The first collected edition was by [[Breitkopf & Härtel]] (1878–1902).<ref>de Val (1998), p. 129.</ref> Among modern scholarly editions of Chopin's works are the version under the name of [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski|Paderewski]], published between 1937 and 1966, and the more recent Polish "National Edition", edited by [[Jan Ekier]]. Both of these contain detailed explanations and discussions regarding choices and sources.<ref>Temperley (1980), p. 306.</ref><ref>Jan Ekier, "[http://en.chopin.nifc.pl/chopin/institutions/text/cat/1/page/2/id/1527 Foundation for the National Edition of the Works of Fryderyk Chopin] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140809202325/http://en.chopin.nifc.pl/chopin/institutions/text/cat/1/page/2/id/1527 |date=9 August 2014 }}" on the website of the Fryderyk Chopin Institute, (accessed 4 August 2014).</ref>

Chopin published his music in France, England and the German states due to the copyright laws of the time. As such there are often three different kinds of "first editions". Each edition is different from the other, as Chopin edited them separately and at times he did some revision to the music while editing it. Furthermore, Chopin provided his publishers with varying sources, including autographs, annotated proofsheets, and scribal copies. Only recently have these differences gained greater recognition.<ref>{{cite web|title=Historical Background|url=http://www.chopinonline.ac.uk/cfeo/contexts/historical-background/|website=Chopin's First Editions Online|accessdate=14 September 2016}}</ref>

===Form and harmony===
[[File:Chopin Museum in Warsaw 03.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|Chopin's last ([[Pleyel et Cie|Pleyel]]) piano, on which he composed in 1848–49. [[Fryderyk Chopin Museum]], Warsaw]]
[[Musical improvisation|Improvisation]] stands at the centre of Chopin's creative processes. However, this does not imply impulsive rambling: Nicholas Temperley writes that "improvisation is designed for an audience, and its starting-point is that audience's expectations, which include the current conventions of musical form."<ref>Temperley (1980), p. 298.</ref> The works for piano and orchestra, including the two concertos, are held by Temperley to be "merely vehicles for brilliant piano playing&nbsp;... formally longwinded and extremely conservative".<ref>Temperley (1980), p. 305.</ref> After the piano concertos (which are both early, dating from 1830), Chopin made no attempts at large-scale multi-movement forms, save for his late sonatas for piano and cello; "instead he achieved near-perfection in pieces of simple general design but subtle and complex cell-structure."<ref name="Hutchings 1968, p. 137">Hutchings (1968), p. 137.</ref> Rosen suggests that an important aspect of Chopin's individuality is his flexible handling of the four-bar [[phrase (music)|phrase]] as a structural unit.<ref>Rosen (1995), pp.&nbsp;262–78.</ref>

J. Barrie Jones suggests that "amongst the works that Chopin intended for concert use, the four ballades and four scherzos stand supreme", and adds that "the [[Barcarole (Chopin)|Barcarolle]] Op.&nbsp;60 stands apart as an example of Chopin's rich harmonic palette coupled with an Italianate warmth of melody."<ref>Jones (1998a), pp.&nbsp;161–62.</ref> Temperley opines that these works, which contain "immense variety of mood, thematic material and structural detail", are based on an extended "departure and return" form; "the more the middle section is extended, and the further it departs in key, mood and theme, from the opening idea, the more important and dramatic is the reprise when it at last comes."<ref>Temperley (1980), p. 304.</ref>
{{Listen|type=music|pos=left|filename=Giorgi Latsabidze Plays Mazurka Op. 17, No. 4.oga|title=Mazurka in A minor, Op. 17, No. 4|description=[[Giorgi Latso]], piano|filename2=Muriel-Nguyen-Xuan-Chopin-valse-opus64-1.ogg
|title2=Waltz in D-flat major, Op. 64, No. 1 (so-called ''Minute Waltz'')|description2=Muriel Nguyen Xuan, piano|filename3=Frederic Chopin - Opus 10 - Twelve Grand Etudes - c minor.ogg|title3 = Étude Op. 10, No. 12 (so-called ''Revolutionary'')|description3 = [[Martha Goldstein]] playing an 1851 [[Sébastien Érard|Érard]] piano|filename4=Chopin Prelude Op 28 N 15 Giorgi Latsabidze performs.ogg|title4=Prelude Op. 28, No. 15 in D-flat major|description4=[[Giorgi Latso]], piano}}
Chopin's mazurkas and waltzes are all in straightforward [[ternary form|ternary]] or episodic form, sometimes with a [[coda (music)|coda]].<ref>Jones (1998b), p. 177; Temperley (1980), p. 304.</ref> The mazurkas often show more folk features than many of his other works, sometimes including modal scales and harmonies and the use of drone basses. However, some also show unusual sophistication, for example, Op.&nbsp;63 No.&nbsp;3, which includes a [[canon (music)|canon]] at one beat's distance, a great rarity in music.<ref>Jones (1998b), pp.&nbsp;177–79.</ref>

[[Polonaises (Chopin)|Chopin's polonaises]] show a marked advance on those of his Polish predecessors in the form (who included his teachers Żywny and Elsner). As with the traditional polonaise, Chopin's works are in triple time and typically display a martial rhythm in their melodies, accompaniments, and cadences. Unlike most of their precursors, they also require a formidable playing technique.<ref>Reiss (1980), p. 51.</ref>

[[Nocturnes (Chopin)|The 21 nocturnes]] are more structured, and of greater emotional depth, than those of Field, whom Chopin met in 1833. Many of the Chopin nocturnes have middle sections marked by agitated expression (and often making very difficult demands on the performer), which heightens their dramatic character.<ref>Brown (1980), p. 258.</ref>

[[Études (Chopin)|Chopin's études]] are largely in straightforward ternary form.<ref name="Jones 1998a, p. 160">Jones (1998a), p. 160.</ref> He used them to teach his own technique of piano playing<ref name="rjsfih"/>&nbsp;– for instance playing double [[third (chord)|thirds]] ([[Étude Op. 25, No. 6 (Chopin)|Op.&nbsp;25, No.&nbsp;6]]), playing in octaves ([[Étude Op. 25, No. 10 (Chopin)|Op.&nbsp;25, No.&nbsp;10]]), and playing repeated notes ([[Étude Op. 10, No. 7 (Chopin)|Op.&nbsp;10, No.&nbsp; 7]]).<ref>Jones (1998a), pp.&nbsp;160–61.</ref>

[[Preludes (Chopin)|The preludes]], many of which are very brief (some consisting of simple statements and developments of a single theme or figure), were described by Schumann as "the beginnings of studies".<ref>Jones (1998a), p. 161.</ref> Inspired by J.S. Bach's ''[[The Well-Tempered Clavier]]'', Chopin's preludes move up the [[circle of fifths]] (rather than Bach's [[chromatic scale]] sequence) to create a prelude in each major and minor tonality.<ref>Rosen (1995), p. 83.</ref> The preludes were perhaps not intended to be played as a group, and may even have been used by him and later pianists as generic preludes to others of his pieces, or even to music by other composers. This is suggested by [[Kenneth Hamilton]], who has noted a 1922 recording by [[Ferruccio Busoni]] in which the Prelude Op.&nbsp;28 No.&nbsp;7 is followed by the Étude Op.&nbsp;10 No.&nbsp;5.<ref>Hamilton (2008), pp.&nbsp;101–02.</ref>

The two mature [[Piano sonatas (Chopin)|Chopin piano sonatas]] ([[Piano Sonata No. 2 (Chopin)|No.&nbsp;2]], Op.&nbsp;35, written in 1839 and No.&nbsp;3, Op.&nbsp;58, written in 1844) are in four movements. In Op.&nbsp;35, Chopin was able to combine within a formal large musical structure many elements of his virtuosic piano technique&nbsp;– "a kind of dialogue between the public pianism of the brilliant style and the German sonata principle".<ref name="ReferenceC">Michałowski and Samson (n.d.), §9 para. 2.</ref> This sonata has been considered as showing the influences of both Bach and Beethoven. The Prelude from Bach's [[Cello Suites (Bach)#Suite No. 6 in D major, BWV 1012|Suite No. 6 in D major for cello]] (BWV 1012) is quoted;<ref>Lekin (1994), pp. 191–92</ref> and there are references to two sonatas of Beethoven: the [[Piano Sonata No. 32 (Beethoven)|Sonata Opus 111]] in C minor, and the [[Piano Sonata No. 12 (Beethoven)|Sonata Opus 26]] in A-flat major, which, like Chopin's Op. 35, has a funeral march as its slow movement.<ref>Leikin (1994), p. 177.</ref><ref>Petty (1999), p. 289.</ref> The last movement of Chopin's Op. 35, a brief (75-bar) [[perpetuum mobile]] in which the hands play in unmodified octave unison throughout, was found shocking and unmusical by contemporaries, including Schumann.<ref>Rosen (1995), pp.&nbsp;294–97.</ref> The Op.&nbsp;58 sonata is closer to the German tradition, including many passages of complex [[counterpoint]], "worthy of [[Johannes Brahms|Brahms]]" according to the music historians Kornel Michałowski and Jim Samson.<ref name="ReferenceC"/>

Chopin's harmonic innovations may have arisen partly from his keyboard improvisation technique. In his works, Temperley says, novel harmonic effects often result from the combination of ordinary [[appoggiatura]]s or [[passing notes]] with melodic figures of accompaniment", and [[cadence (music)|cadences]] are delayed by the use of chords outside the home key ([[neapolitan sixth]]s and [[diminished seventh]]s) or by sudden shifts to remote keys. [[Chord progression]]s sometimes anticipate the shifting [[tonality]] of later composers such as [[Claude Debussy]], as does Chopin's use of modal harmony.<ref>Temperley (1980), pp.&nbsp;302–03.</ref>

===Technique and performance style===
[[File:Op 62-1ms.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|Extract from Chopin Nocturne Op. 62 no. 1 (1846, composer's manuscript)]]
[[File:Chopin op 62-1 pr.png|thumb|right|upright=1.4|The same passage (1881 [[G. Schirmer Inc.|Schirmer]] edition). The examples show typical use by Chopin of [[trill (music)|trills]], [[grace note]]s and detailed [[pedal (piano)|pedalling]] and [[tempo]] instructions.]]
In 1841 [[Léon Escudier]] wrote of a recital given by Chopin that year, "One may say that Chopin is the creator of a school of piano and a school of composition. In truth, nothing equals the lightness, the sweetness with which the composer preludes on the piano; moreover nothing may be compared to his works full of originality, distinction and grace."<ref>Samson (1994), p. 136.</ref> Chopin refused to conform to a standard method of playing and believed that there was no set technique for playing well. His style was based extensively on his use of a very independent finger technique. In his ''Projet de méthode'' he wrote: "Everything is a matter of knowing good fingering&nbsp;... we need no less to use the rest of the hand, the wrist, the forearm and the upper arm."<ref>Cited in Eigeldinger (1988), p. 18.</ref> He further stated: "One needs only to study a certain position of the hand in relation to the keys to obtain with ease the most beautiful quality of sound, to know how to play short notes and long notes, and [to attain] unlimited dexterity."<ref>Cited in Eigeldinger (1988), p. 23.</ref> The consequences of this approach to technique in Chopin's music include the frequent use of the entire range of the keyboard, passages in double octaves and other chord groupings, swiftly repeated notes, the use of [[grace notes]], and the use of contrasting rhythms (four against three, for example) between the hands.<ref>Eigeldinger (1988), pp.&nbsp;18–20.</ref>

[[Jonathan Bellman]] writes that modern concert performance style&nbsp;– set in the "[[music school|conservatory]]" tradition of late 19th- and 20th-century music schools, and suitable for large auditoria or recordings&nbsp;– militates against what is known of Chopin's more intimate performance technique.<ref>Bellman (2000), pp. 149–50.</ref> The composer himself said to a pupil that "concerts are never real music, you have to give up the idea of hearing in them all the most beautiful things of art."<ref>Cited in Bellman (2000), p. 150; the pupil was Emilie von Gretsch.</ref> Contemporary accounts indicate that in performance, Chopin avoided rigid procedures sometimes incorrectly attributed to him, such as "always crescendo to a high note", but that he was concerned with expressive phrasing, rhythmic consistency and sensitive colouring.<ref>Bellman (2000), pp. 153–54.</ref> Berlioz wrote in 1853 that Chopin "has created a kind of chromatic embroidery&nbsp;... whose effect is so strange and piquant as to be impossible to describe&nbsp;... virtually nobody but Chopin himself can play this music and give it this unusual turn."<ref>Cited in Eigeldinger (1988), p. 272.</ref> Hiller wrote that "What in the hands of others was elegant embellishment, in his hands became a colourful wreath of flowers."<ref>Cited in Bellman (2000), p. 154.</ref>

Chopin's music is frequently played with ''[[Tempo rubato|rubato]]'', "the practice in performance of disregarding strict time, 'robbing' some note-values for expressive effect".<ref>Latham (n.d.).</ref> There are differing opinions as to how much, and what type, of ''rubato'' is appropriate for his works. [[Charles Rosen]] comments that "most of the written-out indications of rubato in Chopin are to be found in his mazurkas&nbsp;... It is probable that Chopin used the older form of rubato so important to Mozart&nbsp;... [where] the melody note in the right hand is delayed until after the note in the bass&nbsp;... An allied form of this rubato is the [[arpeggio|arpeggiation]] of the chords thereby delaying the melody note; according to Chopin's pupil [[Karol Mikuli]], Chopin was firmly opposed to this practice."<ref>Rosen (1995), p. 413.</ref>

Friederike Müller, a pupil of Chopin, wrote: "[His] playing was always noble and beautiful; his tones sang, whether in full ''[[forte (dynamic)|forte]]'' or softest ''[[Dynamics (music)|piano]]''. He took infinite pains to teach his pupils this ''[[legato]]'', ''[[cantabile]]'' style of playing. His most severe criticism was 'He&nbsp;– or she&nbsp;– does not know how to join two notes together.' He also demanded the strictest adherence to rhythm. He hated all lingering and dragging, misplaced ''rubatos'', as well as exaggerated ''[[Tempo|ritardandos]]''&nbsp;... and it is precisely in this respect that people make such terrible errors in playing his works."<ref name="nifc14"/>

===Polish heritage===
{| class="toccolours" style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:0; margin-right:0; margin:10px; background:khaki; color:black; width:40em; max-width:25%;" cellspacing="5"
| style="text-align: left;" |
The "Polish character" of Chopin's work is unquestionable; not because he also wrote polonaises and mazurkas&nbsp;... which forms&nbsp;... were often stuffed with alien ideological and literary contents from the outside.&nbsp;... As an artist he looked for forms that stood apart from the literary-dramatic character of music which was a feature of Romanticism, as a Pole he reflected in his work the very essence of the tragic break in the history of the people and instinctively aspired to give the deepest expression of his nation&nbsp;... For he understood that he could invest his music with the most enduring and truly Polish qualities only by liberating art from the confines of dramatic and historical contents. This attitude toward the question of "national music"&nbsp;– an inspired solution to his art&nbsp;– was the reason why Chopin's works have come to be understood everywhere outside of Poland&nbsp;... Therein lies the strange riddle of his eternal vigour.
|-
| style="text-align: left; font-size: 100%;" |[[Karol Szymanowski]], 1923<ref>Cited from Szymanowski's 1923 essay, "Fryderyk Chopin", in Downes (2001), p. 63 and n. 58.</ref>
|}With his mazurkas and polonaises, Chopin has been credited with introducing to music a new sense of [[nationalism]]. Schumann, in his 1836 review of the piano concertos, highlighted the composer's strong feelings for his native Poland, writing that "Now that the Poles are in deep mourning [after the failure of the [[November Uprising]] of 1830], their appeal to us artists is even stronger&nbsp;... If the mighty autocrat in the north [i.e. [[Nicholas I of Russia]]] could know that in Chopin's works, in the simple strains of his mazurkas, there lurks a dangerous enemy, he would place a ban on his music. Chopin's works are cannon buried in flowers!"<ref>Schumann (1988), p. 114.</ref> The biography of Chopin published in 1863 under the name of Franz Liszt (but probably written by [[Carolyne zu Sayn-Wittgenstein]])<ref>Cooke (1966), pp. 856–61.</ref> states that Chopin "must be ranked first among the first musicians&nbsp;... individualizing in themselves the poetic sense of an entire nation."<ref>Liszt (1880), loc. 1503.</ref>

Some modern commentators have argued against exaggerating Chopin's primacy as a "nationalist" or "patriotic" composer. George Golos refers to earlier "nationalist" composers in Central Europe, including Poland's [[Michał Kleofas Ogiński]] and [[Franciszek Lessel]], who utilised polonaise and mazurka forms.<ref>Golos (1960), pp. 439–42.</ref> Barbara Milewski suggests that Chopin's experience of Polish music came more from "urbanised" Warsaw versions than from folk music, and that attempts by Jachimecki and others to demonstrate genuine folk music in his works are without basis.<ref>Milewski (1999), pp. 113–21.</ref> [[Richard Taruskin]] impugns Schumann's attitude toward Chopin's works as patronising,<ref>Taruskin (2010), pp. 344–45.</ref> and comments that Chopin "felt his Polish patriotism deeply and sincerely" but consciously modelled his works on the tradition of Bach, Beethoven, Schubert, and Field.<ref>Taruskin (2010), p. 346; see also Rosen (1995), pp. 361–63.</ref>

A reconciliation of these views is suggested by William Atwood: "Undoubtedly [Chopin's] use of traditional musical forms like the polonaise and mazurka roused nationalistic sentiments and a sense of cohesiveness amongst those Poles scattered across Europe and the New World&nbsp;... While some sought solace in [them], others found them a source of strength in their continuing struggle for freedom. Although Chopin's music undoubtedly came to him intuitively rather than through any conscious patriotic design, it served all the same to symbolize the will of the Polish people&nbsp;..."<ref>Atwood (1999), p. 57.</ref>

===Reception and influence===
{{See also|List of memorials to Frédéric Chopin}}
[[File:Pillar containing Chopin's heart.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|Funerary monument on a pillar in [[Holy Cross Church, Warsaw]], enclosing Chopin's heart]]
Jones comments that "Chopin's unique position as a composer, despite the fact that virtually everything he wrote was for the piano, has rarely been questioned."<ref name="Jones 1998a, p. 160"/> He also notes that Chopin was fortunate to arrive in Paris in 1831&nbsp;– "the artistic environment, the publishers who were willing to print his music, the wealthy and aristocratic who paid what Chopin asked for their lessons"&nbsp;– and these factors, as well as his musical genius, also fuelled his contemporary and later reputation.<ref name="Jones 1998a p 162"/> While his illness and his love affairs conform to some of the stereotypes of [[romanticism]], the rarity of his public recitals (as opposed to performances at fashionable Paris soirées) led Arthur Hutchings to suggest that "his lack of [[Lord Byron|Byronic]] flamboyance [and] his aristocratic reclusiveness make him exceptional" among his romantic contemporaries such as Liszt and Henri Herz.<ref name="Hutchings 1968, p. 137"/>

Chopin's qualities as a pianist and composer were recognised by many of his fellow musicians. Schumann named a piece for him in his suite ''[[Carnaval (Schumann)|Carnaval]]'', and Chopin later dedicated his [[Ballade No. 2 (Chopin)|Ballade No. 2 in F major]] to Schumann. Elements of Chopin's music can be found in many of Liszt's later works.<ref name="Walker 1988 184"/> Liszt later transcribed for piano six of Chopin's Polish songs. A less-fraught friendship was with Alkan, with whom he discussed elements of folk music, and who was deeply affected by Chopin's death.<ref>Conway (2012), pp. 229–30.</ref>

Two of Chopin's long-standing pupils, Karol Mikuli (1821–1897) and Georges Mathias, were themselves piano teachers and passed on details of his playing to their students, some of whom (such as [[Raoul Koczalski]]) were to make recordings of his music. Other pianists and composers influenced by Chopin's style include [[Louis Moreau Gottschalk]], Édouard Wolff (1816–1880), and Pierre Zimmermann.<ref>Bellman (2000), pp. 150–51.</ref> Debussy dedicated [[Études (Debussy)|his own 1915 piano Études]] to the memory of Chopin; he frequently played Chopin's music during his studies at the [[Paris Conservatoire]], and undertook the editing of Chopin's piano music for the publisher [[Jacques Durand (publisher)|Jacques Durand]].<ref>Wheeldon (2009), {{pp.|55|62}}.</ref>

[[File:Pomnik Fryderyka Chopina w Łazienkach (1 of 1).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.9|[[Frédéric Chopin Monument in Warsaw|Frédéric Chopin Monument]], [[Łazienki Park]], Warsaw]]
Polish composers of the following generation included virtuosi such as [[Moritz Moszkowski]]; but, in the opinion of J. Barrie Jones, his "one worthy successor" among his compatriots was [[Karol Szymanowski]] (1882–1937).<ref>Jones (1998b), p. 180.</ref> [[Edvard Grieg]], [[Antonín Dvořák]], [[Isaac Albéniz]], [[Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky]] and [[Sergei Rachmaninoff]], among others, are regarded by critics as having been influenced by Chopin's use of national modes and idioms.<ref>Temperley (1980), p. 307.</ref> [[Alexander Scriabin]] was devoted to the music of Chopin, and his early published works include nineteen mazurkas as well as numerous études and preludes; his teacher [[Nikolai Zverev]] drilled him in Chopin's works to improve his virtuosity as a performer.<ref>Bowers (1996), p. 134.</ref> In the 20th century, composers who paid homage to (or in some cases parodied) the music of Chopin included [[George Crumb]], [[Bohuslav Martinů]], [[Darius Milhaud]],
[[Igor Stravinsky]],<ref>Mariola Wojtkiewicz, tr. Jerzy Ossowski, [http://www.chopin.pl/reception_works.en.html "The Impact of Chopin's Music on the Work of 19th and 20th Century Composers"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023044226/http://www.chopin.pl/reception_works.en.html |date=23 October 2013 }}, in chopin.pl website, accessed 4 January 2014.</ref> and [[Heitor Villa-Lobos]].<ref>[http://imslp.org/wiki/Hommage_%C3%A0_Chopin,_W474_(Villa-Lobos,_Heitor) Hommage á Chopin] on [[IMSLP]] website, accessed 27 October 2014.</ref>

Chopin's music was used in the 1909 ballet ''[[Les Sylphides|Chopiniana]]'', choreographed by [[Michel Fokine]] and orchestrated by [[Alexander Glazunov]]. [[Sergei Diaghilev]] commissioned additional orchestrations&nbsp;– from Stravinsky, [[Anatoly Lyadov]], [[Sergei Taneyev]] and [[Nikolai Tcherepnin]]&nbsp;– for later productions, which used the title ''Les Sylphides''.<ref>Taruskin (1996), pp.&nbsp;546–47.</ref>

Chopin's music remains very popular and is regularly performed, recorded and broadcast worldwide. The world's oldest monographic music competition, the [[International Chopin Piano Competition]], founded in 1927, is held every five years in Warsaw.<ref>[http://konkurs.chopin.pl/en/about/competition "About Competition"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130707105707/http://konkurs.chopin.pl/en/about/competition |date=7 July 2013 }}, International Chopin Competition website, accessed 12 January 2014.</ref> The [[Fryderyk Chopin Institute]] of Poland lists on its website over eighty societies worldwide devoted to the composer and his music.<ref>[http://en.chopin.nifc.pl/chopin/institutions/search/cat/1/page/1 "Institutions related to Chopin&nbsp;– Associations"], Fryderyk Chopin Institute website, accessed 5 January 2014.</ref> The Institute site also lists nearly 1500 performances of Chopin works on YouTube {{as of|2014|January|lc=y}}.<ref>[http://en.chopin.nifc.pl/chopin/youtube/search "Chopin on YouTube"], Fryderyk Chopin Institute website, accessed 5 January 2014.</ref>

===Sexuality===
The musicologist Antoni Pizá writes that "Chopin's sexual life has never failed to awaken the curiosity of music lovers and to generate discourse among experts".{{sfn|Pizá|2010}} The music historian Jeffrey Kallberg says that in Chopin's time, "listeners to the genre of the piano nocturne often couched their reactions in feminine imagery", and he cites many examples of such reactions to Chopin's nocturnes.<ref>Kallberg (2010), pp. 104–106.</ref> One reason for this may be "demographic" – there were more female than male piano players, and playing such "romantic" pieces was seen by male critics as a female domestic pastime. Such genderization was not commonly applied to other piano genres such as the scherzo or the polonaise.<ref>Kallberg (2010), pp. 106–107.</ref> "To be associated with the feminine was also often to be devalorized",<ref>Kallberg (2010), p. 110.</ref> and such associations of Chopin's music with the "feminine" did not begin to shift until the early twentieth century, when pianists such as [[Artur Rubinstein]] began to militate against a sentimental "salon" style of playing these works and when musical analysis of a more rigorous nature (such as that of [[Heinrich Schenker]]) began to assert itself.<ref>Kallberg (2010), pp. 111-112.</ref>

Such attitudes may also have influenced opinion about the composer's personal sexuality; debate on this topic began to expand towards the end of the 20th century. Comments on Chopin's letters to Woyciechowski are mentioned above. Research in this area also considered views of Chopin's other social contacts. Chopin's relationship with [[George Sand]] was certainly physical in its early stages. Sand claimed (not entirely reliably) that it ceased to be so after June 1839 until the end of their affair in 1847.<ref>Zamoyski (2010) locs 2694-2707</ref> Sand's daughter Solange, aged 13 at the time, referred to Chopin in 1842 as "Sexless" ("{{lang|fr|Sans-sexe}}"), although in later years she seemed to display affection for him herself.<ref>Kallberg (2006), p. 64.</ref> Chopin was a friend of the [[Marquis de Custine]], who had been associated with homosexual scandals. A letter from de Custine to Chopin, inviting Chopin to visit, refers to the composer as an "inconstant sylph"; Kallberg recognizes the "impossibility of 'discovering' the truth" of what this may imply.<ref>Kallberg (2006) p. 65.</ref>

==Recordings==
The British Library notes that "Chopin's works have been recorded by all the great pianists of the recording era." The earliest recording was an 1895 performance by [[Pavel Pabst|Paul Pabst]] of the Nocturne in E major, Op. 62, No. 2. The British Library site makes available a number of historic recordings, including some by [[Alfred Cortot]], [[Ignaz Friedman]], [[Vladimir Horowitz]], [[Benno Moiseiwitsch]], [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]], [[Arthur Rubinstein]], [[Xaver Scharwenka]], and many others.<ref>[http://sounds.bl.uk/classical-music/chopin "Chopin"], British Library website, accessed 22 December 2013. Recordings accessible free online throughout the [[European Union]].</ref> A select discography of recordings of Chopin works by pianists representing the various pedagogic traditions stemming from Chopin is given by Methuen-Campbell in his work tracing the lineage and character of those traditions.<ref>Methuen-Campbell (1981), pp. 241–67.</ref>

Numerous recordings of Chopin's works are available. On the occasion of the composer's bicentenary, the critics of ''[[The New York Times]]'' recommended performances by the following contemporary pianists (among many others):<ref>[[Anthony Tommasini]] et al., [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/28/arts/music/28chopinweb.html "1 Composer, 2 Centuries, Many Picks"], ''The New York Times'', 27 May 2010, accessed 28 December 2013.</ref> [[Martha Argerich]], [[Vladimir Ashkenazy]], [[Emanuel Ax]], [[Evgeny Kissin]], [[Murray Perahia]], [[Maurizio Pollini]] and [[Krystian Zimerman]]. The Warsaw Chopin Society organises the ''Grand prix du disque de F. Chopin'' for notable Chopin recordings, held every five years.<ref>[http://www.grandprix.chopin.pl/hist_en.html Grand Prix du Disque Frédéric Chopin website], accessed 2 January 2014.</ref>

==In literature, stage, film and television==
[[File:Pere-Lachaise Chopin grave.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Chopin's grave, [[Père-Lachaise cemetery]], Paris]]
Chopin has figured extensively in Polish literature, both in serious critical studies of his life and music and in fictional treatments. The earliest manifestation was probably an 1830 sonnet on Chopin by Leon Ulrich. French writers on Chopin (apart from Sand) have included [[Marcel Proust]] and [[André Gide]], and he has also featured in works of [[Gottfried Benn]] and [[Boris Pasternak]].<ref>Andrzej Hejmej, tr. Philip Stoeckle, [http://www.chopin.pl/chopin_literature.en.html "Chopin and his music in literature"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131122073940/http://www.chopin.pl/chopin_literature.en.html |date=22 November 2013 }}, in chopin.pl website, accessed 4 January 2014.</ref> There are numerous biographies of Chopin in English (see [[#Bibliography|bibliography]] for some of these).

Possibly the first venture into fictional treatments of Chopin's life was a fanciful operatic version of some of its events. ''[[Chopin (opera)|Chopin]]'' was written by [[Giacomo Orefice]] and produced in Milan in 1901. All the music is derived from Chopin's.<ref>Ashbrooke (n.d.); Lanza (n.d.).</ref>

Chopin's life and romantic tribulations have been fictionalised in numerous films.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.chopin.nifc.pl/chopin/filmography/search/page/1|title=Fryderyk Chopin – Information Centre – Filmography|website=en.chopin.nifc.pl |publisher=chopin.nifc.pl|year=2003–2018 |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref> As early as 1919, Chopin's relationships with three women&nbsp;– his youth sweetheart Mariolka, then with Polish singer Sonja Radkowska, and later with George Sand&nbsp;– were portrayed in the German silent film [[Nocturne of Love (1919 film)|''Nocturno der Liebe'']] (1919), with Chopin's music serving as a backdrop.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Soister|first=John T.|title=Conrad Veidt on Screen: A Comprehensive Illustrated Filmography|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|year=2002|isbn=978-0-7864-4511-0|location=Jefferson, North Carolina and London|pages=62}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Niemy kraj. Polskie motywy w europejskim kinie niemym (1896–1930) – Silent State, Polish themes in the European Silent Film|last=Maśnicki|first=Jerzy|publisher=|year=2006|isbn=978-83-7453-633-2|location=Gdańsk|pages=25}}</ref><ref>"Der Film" magazine, Berlin, 1919 (nr. 2), p. 40</ref><ref>"Der Kinematograph" magazine, Düsseldorf, 1919 (nr. 627)<br /></ref> The 1945 biographical film ''[[A Song to Remember]]'' earned [[Cornel Wilde]] an Academy Award nomination as Best Actor for his portrayal of the composer. Other film treatments have included: ''La valse de l'adieu'' (France, 1928) by [[Henry Roussel]], with [[Pierre Blanchar]] as Chopin; ''[[Impromptu (1991 film)|Impromptu]]'' (1991), starring [[Hugh Grant]] as Chopin; ''La note bleue'' (1991); and ''[[Chopin: Desire for Love]]'' (2002).<ref>Iwona Sowińska, tr. Philip Stoeckle, [http://www.chopin.pl/chopin_films.en.html#1 "Chopin goes to the movies"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023044224/http://www.chopin.pl/chopin_films.en.html#1#1 |date=23 October 2013 }}, in chopin.pl website, accessed 4 January 2014. The site gives details of numerous other films featuring Chopin.</ref>

Chopin's life was covered in a 1999 [[BBC]] [[Omnibus (British TV programme)|''Omnibus'']] documentary by [[András Schiff]] and [[Mischa Scorer]],<ref>{{cite news|author=Michael Church |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/an-exile-from-the-modern-world-1093449.html |title=An exile from the modern world |newspaper=The Independent |date= 13 May 1999|accessdate=2018-05-03}}</ref> in a 2010 documentary realised by Angelo Bozzolini and [[Roberto Prosseda]] for Italian television,<ref>[http://media.wix.com/ugd//fe68c6_2a30e1d2176eba8097dd0b4b0f91e4bd.pdf Film poster] (in Italian), media.wix website, accessed 25 August 2013.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/608937 |title=Fryderyk Chopin by Angelo Bozzolini and Roberto Prosseda (review) |first=Brian Christopher |last=Thompson |date=10 February 2016 |journal=Notes |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=600–601 |via=Project MUSE|doi=10.1353/not.2016.0042 |s2cid=193316471 |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref> and in a [[BBC Four]] documentary ''Chopin – The Women Behind The Music'' (2010).<ref name="lind"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iconsofeurope.com/bbc.chopin2010.htm |title=BBC TV Documentary Film 2010: Chopin – The Women Behind the Music |website=www.iconsofeurope.com |date= |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2010/oct/15/city-with-too-many-people-tv-review1 |title=TV review: The City with Too Many People and Chopin: The Women Behind the Music |first=Sam |last=Wollaston |date=15 October 2010 |via=www.theguardian.com |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Chopin Piano Fest Pristina]]
* [[International Chopin Piano Competition]]
* [[The 1st International Chopin Competition on Period Instruments]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{Reflist|group=n|colwidth=35em}}

'''Citations'''
{{Reflist|25em|refs=
<ref name="niecks">Niecks (1902), loc. 11118.</ref>

<ref name="woyciechowski">Szulc (1998), pp. 41–42.</ref>

<ref name = "rjsfih">Hedley (2005), p. 263.</ref>

<ref name="Chopin's Scottish autumn&nbsp;– Frederick Chopin">{{cite news|url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Chopin's+Scottish+autumn.-a014234524|date=2 June 2009|accessdate=4 January 2014|first=Iwo and Pamela| last=Załuski|title=Chopin's Scottish autumn&nbsp;– Frederick Chopin|work=Contemporary Review}}</ref>

<ref name="Classical Archives">{{cite web|url=http://www.classicalarchives.com/work/7303.html#about |title=Frédéric François Chopin&nbsp;– 17 Polish Songs, Op. 74|publisher=Classical Archives |accessdate=14 February 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="Maria Barcz 2010 p. 16">Barcz (2010), p. 16.</ref>

<ref name="Piano Society">{{cite web|url=http://www.pianosociety.com/cms/index.php?section=636 |title=Chopin's Works&nbsp;– Complete list |publisher=Piano Society |accessdate=14 February 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="chopin13">Szulc (1998), p. 115.</ref>

<ref name="demonstrated">Szulc (1998), p. 137.</ref>

<ref name="gredxn">Jachimecki, p. 424.</ref>

<ref name="lind">[http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/proginfo/tv/2010/wk41/fri.shtml ''Chopin&nbsp;– The Women Behind The Music''], [[BBC Four]] documentary (15 October 2010), accessed 25 August 2013.</ref>

<ref name="monuments">Turnbull (1989), p. 53.</ref>

<ref name="nifc14">Müller-Streicher (1949).</ref>

<ref name="redniowiecza">Jakubowski (1979), pp. 514–15.</ref>

<ref name="scholesballade">Scholes (1938), "Ballade".</ref>
}}
{{anchor|"Bibliography"}}
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{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
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* {{cite journal |last1=Kuhnke |first1=Monica  |last2= |first2= |date=2010 |title=Oryginalne kopie, czyli historia portretów rodziny Chopinów |url=http://cennebezcenne.pl/wp-content/uploads/2017/12/CBU_2010_1-s-08-12_KUHNKE.pdf |journal=Cenne Bezcenne Utracone |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=8-12 |doi= |access-date=16 December 2020|language=Polish}}([https://web.archive.org/web/20140122020235/http://www.nimoz.pl/upload/wydawnictwa/cenne_bezcenne_utracone/2010_1/Strony_48.pdf English summary]). Summary accessed 28 December 2013.
* Kuzemko, J.A. (1994). [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1294992/pdf/jrsocmed00078-0059.pdf "Chopin's Illnesses"] in ''[[Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine]]'' volume 87 (December 1994) pp.&nbsp;769–72, accessed 16 August 2014.
* Lanza, Andrea (n.d.). "[http://0-www.oxfordmusiconline.com.catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/subscriber/article/grove/music/2042 Orefice, Giacomo]" in ''Oxford Companion to Music'', ''[[Oxford Music Online]]'', accessed 8 August 2014. {{subscription}}.
* Latham, Alison (n.d.). "[http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com.catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/subscriber/article/opr/t114/e5796 Rubato]" in ''Oxford Companion to Music'', ''[[Oxford Music Online]]'' {{subscription}}, accessed 15 July 2014.
* {{Cite book|url=https://play.google.com/store/books/details/Jim_Samson_The_Cambridge_Companion_to_Chopin?id=CGAgAwAAQBAJ|title=The Cambridge Companion to Chopin|series=[[Cambridge Companions to Music]]|last=Leikin|first=Anatole|contribution=The sonatas|editor-last=Samson|editor-first=Jim|date=1994-12-08|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-82499-6|language=en|ref=Cambridge}}
* Liszt, Franz, tr. M.W. Cook (1880). ''Life of Chopin'' (4th edition). [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4386.kindle.noimages E-text] in [[Amazon Kindle|Kindle]] version at [[Project Gutenberg]] accessed 27 December 2013.
* Majka, Lucyna, Joanna Gozdzik and Michał Witt (2003). [http://www.romania-muzical.ro/info/boala%20chopin.pdf "Cystic fibrosis&nbsp;– a probable cause of Frédéric Chopin's suffering and death"] in ''Journal of Applied Genetics'', vol 44(1), pp.&nbsp;77–84, accessed 16 August 2014.
* Methuen-Campbell, James (1981). ''Chopin Playing from the Composer to the Present Day.'' London: Victor Gollancz Ltd.
* Michałowski, Kornel, and Jim Samson (n.d.), "[http://0-www.oxfordmusiconline.com.catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/subscriber/article/grove/music/51099 Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek]", [[Grove Music Online]] (accessed 25 July 2013). {{subscription}}
* Milewski, Barbara (1999). "Chopin's Mazurkas and the Myth of the Folk", in ''19th-Century Music'', vol. 23, no. 2 (Autumn 1999), pp.&nbsp;113–35.
* Müller-Streicher, Friederike (1949). "Aus dem Tagebuch einer Wiener Chopin-Schülerin (1839–1841, 1844–1845)" in ''Chopin Almanach'', Potsdam, pp.&nbsp;134–42. In German.
* Niecks, Frederick (1902). ''Frederick Chopin as a Man and Musician'', 3rd edition. [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4973.kindle.noimages E-text] in [[Amazon Kindle|Kindle]] version at [[Project Gutenberg]] accessed 4 January 2014.
* {{cite journal | title = Chopin and the Ghost of Beethoven | journal = 19th-Century Music | date = Spring 1999 | first = Wayne C. | last = Petty | volume = 22 | issue = 3 | pages = 281–299 | jstor = 746802 | ref = Petty| doi = 10.2307/746802 }}
* {{Cite journal| issn = 2386-8260| volume = 3| last = Pizá| first = Antoni| title = La vida sexual de Chopin| journal = Itamaer. Revista de investigación musical: territorios para el arte| date = 2010}}
* Reiss, Jozef and Maurice Brown (1980). "Polonaise", in ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'', ed. [[Stanley Sadie]] (20 vols.). London: Macmillan Publishers. {{ISBN|0-333-23111-2}}. Vol. 15, pp.&nbsp;49–52.
* [[Charles Rosen|Rosen, Charles]] (1995). ''The Romantic Generation''. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-77933-4}}.
* {{cite book|last=Samson|first=Jim|title=The Cambridge Companion to Chopin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=spdmAgb78xwC&pg=PA136|date=8 December 1994|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-47752-9}}
* Samson, Jim (1996). ''Chopin''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-816703-7}}
* Scholes, Percy (1938). ''The Oxford Companion to Music''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
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* Schumann, Robert (1988), tr. and ed. Henry Pleasants. ''Schumann on Music: A Selection from the Writings''. New York: Dover Publications. {{ISBN|978-0-486-25748-8}}.
* {{cite journal|first=Artur|last=Szklener|title=Fryckowe lato: czyli wakacyjne muzykowanie Chopina| trans-title =Fritz's Summers: Chopin's Musical Vacations|journal=Magazyn Chopin: Miesięcznik Narodowego Instytutu Fryderyka Chopina|year=2010| pages=8–9|language=Polish|issue=4}}
* {{cite book|last=Szulc|first=Tad|authorlink=Tad Szulc|title=Chopin in Paris: the Life and Times of the Romantic Composer|location=New York|publisher=Scribner|year=1998|isbn=978-0-684-82458-1|url=https://archive.org/details/chopininparislif00szul}}
* [[Richard Taruskin|Taruskin, Richard]] (1996). ''Stravinsky and the Russian Traditions''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|0-19-816250-2}}.
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* Temperley, Nicholas (1980). "Chopin, Fryderyk Franciszek [Frédéric François]", sections 1–7 in [[Stanley Sadie|S. Sadie]] (ed.), ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'', vol. 4. London: Macmillan, pp.&nbsp;298–307.
* Turnbull, Michael T.R.B. (1989). ''Monuments and Statues of Edinburgh''. Edinburgh: Chambers. {{ISBN|0-550-20050-9}}.
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* {{cite web
 |url=https://www.srf.ch/kultur/musik/spaetes-outing-chopin-war-schwul-und-niemand-sollte-davon-erfahren
 |title=Chopin war schwul – und niemand sollte davon erfahren
 |last=Weber
 |first=Moritz
 |date=7 December 2020
 |website=[[Schweizer Radio und Fernsehen]]
 |language=de
 |trans-title=Chopin was gay and no one must know about it
 }}
* Wheeldon, Marianne (2009). ''Debussy's Late Style''. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-253-35239-2}}.
* Young, Pablo et al. (2014) [http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/rmc/v142n4/art18.pdf "Federico Chopin (1810–1849) y su enfermedad"], ''[[Revista Médica de Chile|Revista médica de Chile]]'', vol. 142, no. 4, pp.&nbsp;529–35. In Spanish (summary in English). Accessed 16 August 2014.
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* {{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_OqgmBgPd5IC|author-link=Adam Zamoyski|last=Zamoyski|first=Adam|title=Chopin: Prince of the Romantics|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|location=London|year=2010|isbn=978-0-00-735182-4|edition=e-book|oclc=891811930|postscript=. Revised from ''Chopin: A Biography'' (1979)}}
{{div col end}}

==Further reading==
* Driver, Paul, "Heartless Romantic: A biography of Chopin finds the dark side of the composer", ''[[The New York Times]]'' on the Web: Books, 5 April 1998 [https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/98/04/05/reviews/980405.05drivert.html].

==External links==
{{Sister project links|wikt=no|b=no|s=no|n=no|v=no}}
{{wikisourcelang|pl}}
* {{BBC composer page|chopin|Chopin}}
* {{Internet Archive author |search=(Chopin AND (Fryderyk OR Fr*d*ric))}}
* [http://en.chopin.nifc.pl/chopin/life/calendar Biography] on official site of Fryderyk Chopin Institute
* [http://www.fortepian.instrumenty.edu.pl/en/pianos/show/piano/10 Chopin's last piano (Pleyel 14810)]
* [http://ikonografiachopina.pl/wstep.html Chopin iconography] – website in Polish with detailed comment on genuine (and not-so-genuine) representations of the composer.
* [https://teatrwielki.pl/en/activity/opera-gallery/exhibitions-of-201718/chopins-pianos/ Chopin's pianos]
* [http://iccpi.eu/en//The 1st International Chopin Competition on Period Instruments]
* [https://chopin.nifc.pl/en/chopin/listy Letters written by Chopin]

'''Music scores'''
* {{IMSLP|id=Chopin, Frédéric|cname=Frédéric Chopin}}
* [http://chopin.lib.uchicago.edu/ ''Chopin Early Editions''], a collection of over 400 first and early printed editions of musical compositions by Frédéric Chopin published before 1881
* [http://www.cfeo.org.uk/jsp/browsecollection.jsp ''Chopin's First Editions Online''] features an interface that allows three navigable scores to be open simultaneously in frames to facilitate comparison.

{{Chopin}}
{{Romanticism|state=collapsed}}
{{Musical nationalism}}
{{Portal bar|Classical music|Biography|Music}}

{{Authority control}}

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