View source for Byzantine Empire

{{complex|date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| native_name            = {{Native_name|grc|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων}}<br> {{Native_name|la|Imperium Romanum}}
| conventional_long_name = Roman Empire
| common_name            = Byzantium
| status                 = Eastern division of the [[Roman Empire]]{{Ref|b}}
| life_span              = 330/395–1453{{Ref|lifespan|b}}
| image_map              = Justinian555AD.png
| image_map_caption      = The empire in 555 under [[Justinian the Great]], at its greatest extent since the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] (its [[vassal state|vassals]] in pink)
| image_map2             = Territorial evolution of the Eastern Roman Empire.gif
| image_map2_caption     = The territorial evolution of the Eastern Roman Empire under each imperial dynasty until its fall in 1453.
| capital                = [[Constantinople]] (modern-day [[Istanbul]]){{Ref|capital|c}}
| largest_city           = 
| common_languages       = {{Plainlist|
* [[Medieval&nbsp;Greek|Greek]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Byzantine-Greek-language|title=Byzantine Greek language|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|access-date=21 August 2021|archive-date=17 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717175804/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Byzantine-Greek-language|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Late Latin|Latin]]
* [[Languages of the Roman Empire|Regional{{\}}local languages]]
}}
| religion               = {{Plainlist|
* [[Nicene Christianity]] (official)
* [[Religion in ancient Rome|Roman polytheism]] (until AD 380)
* [[Ancient Greek religion|Greek polytheism]] (until AD 380)
}}
| title_leader           = [[List of Byzantine emperors|Notable emperors]]
| leader1                = [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] (first)
| year_leader1           = 306–337
| leader2                = [[Theodosius II]]
| year_leader2           = 408–450
| leader3                = [[Zeno (emperor)|Zeno]]
| year_leader3           = 474–475, 476–491
| leader4                = [[Justinian I]]
| year_leader4           = 527–565
| leader5                = [[Maurice (emperor)|Maurice]]
| year_leader5           = 582–602
| leader6                = [[Heraclius]]
| year_leader6           = 610–641
| leader7                = [[Leo III the Isaurian|Leo III]]
| year_leader7           = 717–741
| leader8                = [[Irene of Athens|Irene]]
| year_leader8           = 797–802
| leader9                = [[Basil I]]
| year_leader9           = 867–886
| leader10               = [[Basil II]]
| year_leader10          = 976–1025
| leader11               = [[Alexios I Komnenos|Alexios I]]
| year_leader11          = 1081–1118
| leader12               = [[Manuel I Komnenos|Manuel I]]
| year_leader12          = 1143–1180
| leader13               = [[Michael VIII]]
| year_leader13          = 1261–1282
| leader14               = [[Constantine XI Palaiologos|Constantine XI]]
| year_leader14          = 1449–1453
| era                    = [[Late Antiquity]] to [[Late&nbsp;Middle&nbsp;Ages]]
| event_start            = [[Tetrarchy#Creation|First East–West division]] of the Roman Empire
| year_start             = 1 April 286
| event1                 = [[Constantinople#History|Inauguration of Constantinople]]
| date_event1            = 11 May 330
| event2                 = Final East–West division after the death&nbsp;of&nbsp;[[Theodosius&nbsp;I]]
| date_event2            = 17 January 395
| event3                 = [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|Fall of the West]]; deposition of [[Romulus Augustulus|Romulus]]
| date_event3            = 4 September 476
| event4                 = Assassination of<br/>[[Julius Nepos]]
| date_event4            = 9 May 480
| event5                 = [[Early&nbsp;Muslim&nbsp;conquests]]; start of the [[Byzantine Dark Ages|Dark Ages]]
| date_event5            = 634–750
| event6                 = [[Battle of Manzikert]]; loss of [[Anatolia]] due to following civil war
| date_event6            = 26 August 1071
| event7                 = [[Sack of Constantinople]] by Catholic crusaders
| date_event7            = 12 April 1204
| event8                 = [[Reconquest of Constantinople]]
| date_event8            = 25 July 1261
| event9                 = [[Fall of Constantinople]]
| date_event9            = 29 May 1453
| event10                = [[Despotate of the Morea|Fall of Morea]]
| date_event10           = 29 May 1460
| event_post             = [[Siege of Trebizond (1461)|Fall of Trebizond]]
| date_post              = 15 August 1461
| stat_year1             = 457
| stat_pop1              = 16,000,000{{Ref|population|f}}
<!--
| stat_year2               = 555–450 
| stat_area2               = 2,700,000 - 2,800,000 <ref>Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222–223. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.</ref><ref>Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 121–122, 124–129, 132–133. {{Doi|10.2307/1170959}}. JSTOR 1170959.</ref>
-->| stat_year2             = 565
| stat_area2             = 
| stat_pop2              = 26,000,000
| stat_year3             = 775
| stat_area3             = 
| stat_pop3              = 7,000,000
| stat_year4             = 1025
| stat_area4             = 
| stat_pop4              = 12,000,000
| stat_year5             = 1320
| stat_area5             = 
| stat_pop5              = 2,000,000
| currency               = [[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]], [[denarius]] and [[hyperpyron]]<!--
| p1                     = Roman Empire | p2                     = Diocese of Dacia{{!}}'''∟'''Diocese of Dacia
| p3                     = Diocese of Macedonia{{!}}'''∟'''Diocese of Macedonia
| p4                     = Praetorian prefecture of the East{{!}}'''∟'''Praetorian prefecture of the East 
| s1                     = Ottoman Empire-->
| footnote_a             = {{Note|name||{{Lang|grc|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων}} may be transliterated in Latin as ''{{Transliteration|grc|Basileia Rhōmaiōn}}'', literally meaning "Monarchy of the Romans", but commonly rendered "Empire of the Romans".}}
| footnote_b             = {{Note|lifespan||Between 1204 and 1261 there was an [[interregnum]] when the [[Latin Empire]] took control of Constantinople, causing the Byzantine Empire itself to be divided into the [[Empire of Nicaea]], the [[Empire of Trebizond]], and the [[Despotate of Epirus]]. The Empire of Nicaea is traditionally considered by historians to be the legitimate continuation of the Byzantine Empire because it managed to retake Constantinople.<ref>{{Harvnb|Treadgold|1997|p=734}}</ref>}}
| footnote_c             = {{Note|capital||Constantinople became the capital of the (united) empire in 330. In 395, the empire was permanently divided in two halves after the death of [[Theodosius I]].}}
| footnote_d             = {{Note|religion1||Tolerated after the Edicts of [[Edict of Serdica|Serdica]] (311) and [[Edict of Milan|Milan]] (313); [[State church of the Roman Empire|state religion]] after 380.}}
| footnote_e             = {{Note|religion2||Following the [[East–West Schism]] of 1054.}}
| footnote_f             = {{Note|population||See [[Population of the Byzantine Empire]] for more detailed figures taken provided by McEvedy and Jones (1978) ''Atlas of World Population History'', as well as Angeliki E. Laiou (2002), ''The Economic History of Byzantium''.}}
| demonym                = [[Byzantine Greeks|Rhōmaîoi]]
| area_km2               = 
| area_rank              = 
| GDP_PPP                = 
| GDP_PPP_year           = 
| HDI                    = 
| HDI_year               = 
}}

The '''Byzantine Empire''', also referred to as the '''Eastern Roman Empire''', was the continuation of the [[Roman Empire]] primarily in its eastern provinces that survived into the [[Late Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]]. The [[capital city|capital]] of the empire was [[Constantinople]]. It survived the [[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire|fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in the 5th century AD and continued to exist until the [[fall of Constantinople]] to the [[Ottoman Empire]] in 1453. During most of its existence, the empire remained the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in the [[History of the Mediterranean region|Mediterranean world]]. Its citizens continued to refer to their empire as the Roman Empire and to themselves as Romans, a term which [[Greeks]] continued to use for themselves into Ottoman times. Modern historians distinguish the Byzantine Empire from the earlier Roman Empire due to the imperial seat moving from Rome to [[Istanbul|Byzantium]], the [[Christianity as the Roman sate Religion|Empire's integration of Christianity]] , and the predominance of [[Greek]] instead of [[Latin]].

During the high period of the Roman Empire known as the [[Pax Romana]], the western parts of the empire went through [[Latinization]], while the eastern parts of the empire maintained to a large degree their [[Hellenistic period]] culture. Several events from the 4th to 6th centuries mark the period of transition during which the Roman Empire's  Greek East and Latin West diverged. [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] (<abbr>r.</abbr> 324–337) reorganised the empire, made Constantinople the capital, and legalised [[Christianity]]. Under [[Theodosius I]] (<abbr>r.</abbr> 379–395), Christianity became the [[state religion]], and other religious practices [[Persecution|were proscribed]]. In the reign of [[Heraclius]] (<abbr>r.</abbr> 610–641), the empire's military and administration were restructured and Greek was gradually adopted for official use in place of Latin.

The borders of the empire fluctuated through several cycles of decline and recovery. During the reign of [[Justinian I]] (<abbr>r.</abbr> 527–565), the empire reached its greatest extent after the fall of the [[western Roman Empire]], reconquering much of the historically Roman western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean coast]], including [[Africa]], [[Italy]], and [[Rome]], which it held for two more centuries. The [[Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628]] exhausted the empire's resources, and during the [[early Muslim conquests]] of the 7th century, it lost its richest provinces—[[Roman Egypt|Egypt]] and [[Roman Syria|Syria]]—to the [[Rashidun Caliphate]]. It then lost Africa to the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyads]] in 698, before the empire was stabilized by the [[Isaurian Dynasty|Isaurian]] dynasty.

The [[Macedonian dynasty]] (9th–11th centuries) expanded the empire again and came to an end with the defeat by the [[Seljuk Turks]] at the [[Battle of Manzikert]] in 1071. Civil wars and the ensuing Seljuk invasion led to the loss of most of [[Anatolia|Asia Minor]]. The empire recovered during the [[Alexios I Komnenos|Komnenian restoration]], and up until the [[Fourth Crusade]], Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe.

The empire was first dissolved during the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204, when Constantinople was [[Looting|sacked]] by the Latins and the territories that the empire formerly governed [[Partitio terrarum imperii Romaniae|were divided]] into competing Byzantine Greek and [[Frankokratia|Latin realms]]. Despite the eventual [[Palaiologos|recovery of Constantinople]] in 1261, the Byzantine Empire remained a mere regional power for the final two centuries of its existence. Its remaining territories were progressively annexed by the Ottomans in the [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars]] over the 14th and 15th centuries.

The [[fall of Constantinople]] to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 marked the end of the Byzantine Empire. Refugees fleeing the city after its capture would settle in Italy and other parts of Europe, helping to ignite the [[Renaissance]]. The [[Empire of Trebizond]] was conquered eight years later when its eponymous capital surrendered to Ottoman forces after it was [[Siege of Trebizon (1461)|besieged in 1461]]. The fall of the Byzantine Empire to the Ottomans is sometimes used to mark the end of the Middle Ages and the start of the [[early modern period]].

== Name ==
The Byzantine Empire did not get that name until a century after its fall. The empire was known at the time as the following:
* the "Roman Empire" or the "Empire of the Romans" (Latin: ''Imperium Romanum'', ''Imperium Romanorum''; Greek: {{lang|grc|Βασιλεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}} ''Basileia tōn Rhōmaiōn'', {{lang|grc|Ἀρχὴ τῶν Ῥωμαίων}} ''Archē tōn Rhōmaiōn''),
* "Romania" (Latin: ''Romania''; Greek: {{lang|grc|Ῥωμανία}} ''Rhōmania''),{{refn|"Romania" was a popular name of the empire that was used mainly unofficially; it meant "land of the Romans".<ref>{{harvnb|Fossier|Sondheimer|1997|p=104}}.</ref> The term does not refer to modern [[Romania]].|group="n"}}
* the "[[Roman Republic]]" (Latin: ''Res Publica Romana''; Greek: {{lang|grc|Πολιτεία τῶν Ῥωμαίων}}, ''Politeia tōn Rhōmaiōn''),
* "Graecia" (Greek: {{lang|grc|Γραικία}} meaning "land of the Greeks"),<ref>{{harvnb|Constantelos|2001–2002}}</ref>
* "Rhōmais" (Greek: {{lang|grc|Ῥωμαΐς}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Cinnamus|1976|p=240}}.</ref>

== Beginning (330–476 AD) ==
{{main|Fall of the Western Roman Empire}}
[[File:Theodosius I's empire.png|thumb|Western and Eastern Roman Empire]]
In 324, Roman Emperor [[Constantine I]] moved the capital of the [[Roman Empire]] from [[Rome]] to the Greek city of ''Byzantium'', which he renamed [[Constantinople]]. By the 5th century, the Roman Empire had lost its territories in the west, and the [[Western Roman Empire]] had been taken over by [[Germanic peoples]] during the [[Migration period]]. The surviving parts of the Roman Empire became known as the Eastern Roman Empire and is now called the Byzantine Empire.

== Problems (476–717 AD) ==
=== Wars in west ===
The Eastern Roman Empire tried to take back [[Rome]] and the rest of [[Italian Peninsula]] from the [[Germanic peoples]]. Between 530 and 555 AD, the [[Byzantine Greeks]] won many battles and took back Rome.

The Byzantines controlled Rome for a long time. Eventually, more Germanic peoples came, and Italy was lost again. Later, [[Eurasian Avars|Avars]] and [[Slavs]] took parts of [[Southeast Europe]] from the Byzantines. After the 560s, invaders slowly conquered the [[Balkans]] except for parts of modern [[Greece]] and [[Albania]]. [[Bulgars]] from the [[steppe]]s formed the [[First Bulgarian Empire]] north of the Byzantine Empire. At first, both the Avars and the Bulgars were [[Turkic peoples]]. They ruled over the [[Slavs|Slavic people]], who were called ''Sklavinai'', and slowly absorbed the Slavic language and [[culture]].

=== Wars in east ===
After Rome had been captured by the Germanic peoples, the Eastern Roman Empire continued to control what is now [[Egypt]], [[Greece]], [[Palestine]], [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]]. However, another empire, known as the Persian or the [[Sassanid Empire]], tried to take the lands for itself. Between 224 and 628, the Greco-Romans and the Persians fought many battles, and many men were killed in the fighting. Eventually, the Persians were defeated in 627 by Emperor [[Heraclius]] in what is now [[Iraq]], near the ancient city of [[Nineveh]], which allowed the Byzantines to keep those lands.

The centuries-long struggle between the Byzantines and the Persians shaped the political and religious landscape of the Middle East, leaving behind a complex legacy that continues to influence the region today.

Then, another enemy appeared, the [[Arabs]]. The Byzantines did not have much money to spend on war because of their battles with the Persians and so they could not withstand the Arabs. Palestine, Syria and Egypt were lost between 635 and 645 by Heraclius. However, the Byzantines defended [[Asia Minor]] (now in Turkey), and the Arab advance stopped there. Heraclius ordered the use of Greek as the only language of the empire, erased forever the name "Eastern Roman Empire" and cut the last links with Rome.

== Recovery (717–1025 AD) ==
In 718, the Arabs were defeated but left the Byzantines very weak. In the west, the Byzantines [[Byzantine–Bulgarian wars|fought]] the [[First Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarians]] many times. Some battles were successful, but others were not. Many emperors died fighting. Over time, the Byzantine Empire weakened as it lost land to outside invaders.

=== Recovery in west ===
Between 1007 and 1014, Emperor [[Basil II]] ambitiously attacked Bulgaria many times and eventually won a great victory. Later, he fully recaptured Greece and recovered it for the empire. He then went on to take over Bulgaria, which was fully conquered in 1018.

=== Recovery in east ===
In the east, the Arabs once again became a threat to the Byzantines. However, Basil II kept attacking and won many more victories. Much of Syria was restored to the empire, and Turkey and Armenia were secured. After 1025, the Arabs were no longer a threat to the Byzantines.

== Decline (1025–1453 AD) ==
=== Start of decline (1025–1071) ===
After Basil II died, many unskilled emperors came to the throne, wasted the empire's money and reduced its army. This meant that it could not defend itself well against enemies if they attacked. Later, the Byzantines relied on [[mercenary|mercenaries]], soldiers who fought for money, not for their country. That made them less loyal and reliable and more expensive. The mercenaries allowed military generals to come to power and to grab it from the elaborate [[bureaucracy]], a system of administration in which tasks are divided by departments.

=== Rise of Turks (1071–1091) ===
A large number of people, known as the [[Turkish people|Turks]], rode on horseback from [[Central Asia]] and attacked the Byzantine Empire. The [[Seljuk Empire]] took most of [[Anatolia]] from the Byzantines by 1091. However, they received help from people in Western Europe in what is known as the [[First Crusade]]. Many [[knight]]s and [[soldiers]] left to help the Byzantines and to secure [[Jerusalem]] for the Christians. The city wad then controlled by the Muslims.

=== Survival (1091–1185) ===
The Byzantine Empire survived and, with the help of the European empires, took back half of Anatolia from the Turks, who managed to hold the other half of the region. The Byzantines survived due to three primarily good emperors in a row, that allowed the empire to recover from their recent conflicts.

=== Another weakening (1185-1261) ===
The next few emperors ruled poorly and spent much of the existing treasury on many mercenary soldiers.

In the west, the Western Europeans betrayed the Byzantines and attacked their capital, Constantinople in in 1204. The Byzantines did not take it back until 1261. They were then divided into many smaller Greek states, which fought one another for control.

=== Fall to Turks (1261–1453) ===
After the Byzantines had taken back Constantinople, they were too busy fighting the Europeans who had betrayed them and so they could not find enough soldiers or money to fight the Turks' new [[Ottoman Empire]]. All of Asia Minor had been lost by 1331, and in 1369, the Turks crossed over from Turkey and into [[Greece]]. They took over much of Greece between 1354 and 1450.

The Byzantines lost so much land, money and soldiers that they became very weak and begged for help from the Western Europeans. Italy and the [[Pope]] sent soldiers and ships to help the Byzantines when the Turks attacked Constantinople in April 1453. The Byzantines were badly outnumbered, however, and the walls of Constantinople were very damaged by cannons used by the Turks. In late May 1453, the Turks captured Constantinople by entering through one of the gates along the walls, and the empire came to an end.

The city was plundered for three days. In the end, the people who had not been able to escape was deported to [[Edirne]], [[Bursa, Turkey|Bursa]] and other Ottoman cities. There was nobody in the city except for the Jews of Balat and the Genoese of Pera. Constantinople was later renamed [[Istanbul]] and became the capital of the Ottoman Empire. After the empire fell in the 1900s, the Turkish capital was moved to [[Ankara]], a city in Asia Minor.

== Legacy ==
The Byzantines had many achievements:
* They protected Europe from eastern invasions.
* They blocked the Islamic conquest of Christian Europe by the Arabs.
* They initially blocked the second Islamic tentative to conquer Christian Europe by the Turks (until 1453).
* They preserved the Greek language and culture.
* They preserved many Roman political traditions that had been lost in Western Europe.
* They kept a lot of knowledge that can be read about today.
* They produced much fine art with a distinctive style.
* They were the protectors and sponsors of the Eastern Church, which later becomes the Orthodox Church.
* They used good architecture that is still used.
* They had cities with plumbing, which is still in use.
* They built many beautiful churches, some of which are now mosques, in what are now Turkey and Greece. They are made from or inspired by Byzantine buildings.
* They made several inventions like the [[flamethrower]] and "Greek fire", a kind of [[napalm]].
* They made advances in many fields like political studies, diplomacy and military sciences.

== Related pages ==
* [[Byzantine art]]
* [[Byzantine Greeks]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=n}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite book|last=Ahrweiler|first=Helene|year=1975|title=L'Ideologie Politique de l'Empire Byzantine [The Political Ideology of the Byzantine Empire]|location=Paris|publisher=Presses Universitaires de France|language=French}}
* {{cite book|last1=Baynes|first1=Norman Hepburn|last2=Moss|first2=Henry St. Lawrence Beaufort|title=Byzantium: An Introduction to East Roman Civilization|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1948|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aPRHQwAACAAJ}}
* {{cite web|last=Cartwright|first=Mark|title=Byzantine Government|publisher=Ancient History Encyclopedia|date=13 April 2018|url=https://www.ancient.eu/Byzantine_Government/}}
* {{cite book|last=Cinnamus|first=Ioannes|year=1976|title=Deeds of John and Manuel Comnenus|url=https://archive.org/details/deedsofjohnmanue0000kinn|location=New York and West Sussex|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=0-231-04080-6}}
* {{cite book|last1=Clover|first1=F. M.|last2=Humphreys|first2=R. S.|year=1989|title=Tradition and Innovation in Late Antiquity|location=Madison|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|isbn=9780299120009}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Constantelos|first=Demetrios I.|title=Μαρτυρίες για την Ταυτότητα των Βυζαντινών και των Ρωμιών σε Ελληνικές Πηγές|year=2001–2002|magazine=Πεμπτουσία|language=Greek|url=http://www.myriobiblos.gr/texts/greek/constantelos_martiries_ch1.html#3}}
* {{cite book|last1=Fossier|first1=Robert|last2=Sondheimer|first2=Janet|year=1997|title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the Middle Ages|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-26644-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Lemerle|first=Paul|year=1971|title=Le Premier Humanisme Byzantin [The First Byzantine Humanism]|location=Paris|publisher=Presses Universitaires de France|language=French|url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k4803604c/}}
* {{cite book|last=Linnér|first=Sture|year=1994|title=Bysantinsk kulturhistoria [History of Byzantine Culture]|location=Stockholm|publisher=Norstedt|isbn=978-9-11-941512-7|language=Swedish}}

== Other websites ==
{{commonscat|Byzantine Empire}}
* [https://www.worldhistory.org/Byzantine_Empire/ World History Encyclopedia: Byzantine Empire]
* [http://www.roman-emperors.org/ Roman Emperors (De Imperatoribus Romanis)]
* [https://howardwiseman.me/Roman/RomanEmpire.html 18 Centuries of Roman Empire: A Cartography by Howard Wiseman]
* [https://12byzantinerulers.com/ 12 Byzantine Rulers: The History of the Byzantine Empire (Lars Brownworth)]
* [http://www.cit.gu.edu.au/~s285238/Roman/RomanEmpire.html 18 centuries of Roman Empire by Howard Wiseman] (Maps of the Roman/Byzantine Empire throughout its lifetime).
* [http://www.byzantinemuseum.gr/en/ Byzantine & Christian Museum]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080410123427/http://www.doaks.org/Byzantine.html Dumbarton Oaks: Byzantine Studies]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ Byzantium: Byzantine Studies on the Internet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008060507/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/ |date=2014-10-08 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111107172532/http://homepage.mac.com/paulstephenson/trans.html Translations from Byzantine Sources: The Imperial Centuries, c. 700–1204]
* [http://www.deremilitari.org/ De Re Militari: The Society for Medieval Military History]
* [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html Medieval Sourcebook: Byzantium] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814170022/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook1c.html |date=2014-08-14 }}
* [http://www.univie.ac.at/byzantine/ Bibliography on Byzantine Material Culture and Daily Life (University of Vienna)]
* [http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/greek-resources-constantinople.asp Constantinople Home Page]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160816053828/http://graal.org.ua/en/theodoro-principality Byzantium in Crimea: Political History, Art and Culture].
* [http://www.oeaw.ac.at/byzanz/ Byzanzforschung: Institute for Byzantine Studies of the Austrian Academy of Sciences]

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