Ājīvika - Revision history

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Reverted 2 edits by Pandiya Ilavarasan (talk): Breaking syntax

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	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') ~~"AASIVAGAM" in Tamil "ஆசீவகம்"~~ is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />
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	Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as Ājīvikism in [[Indology\|Western scholarship]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> reached the height of its popularity during the rule of the [[Maurya Empire\|Mauryan emperor]] [[Bindusara]], around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in the [[South India\|Southern Indian]] states of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="natalia" /><ref name="philtar" /><ref name="bashamzysk">Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991), ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195073492}}, Chapter 4</ref> The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the [[Cārvāka]] philosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of [[History of India#Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)\|ancient Indian society]].<ref name="riepe39">DM Riepe (1996), ''Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\|978-8120812932}}, pages 39-40</ref>		Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as Ājīvikism in [[Indology\|Western scholarship]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> reached the height of its popularity during the rule of the [[Maurya Empire\|Mauryan emperor]] [[Bindusara]], around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in the [[South India\|Southern Indian]] states of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="natalia" /><ref name="philtar" /><ref name="bashamzysk">Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991), ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195073492}}, Chapter 4</ref> The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the [[Cārvāka]] philosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of [[History of India#Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)\|ancient Indian society]].<ref name="riepe39">DM Riepe (1996), ''Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\|978-8120812932}}, pages 39-40</ref>

			==Etymology and meaning==
	==Etymology and meaning=driven from the ancient Tamil word called ஆசு ஈவு அகம்.(Aasu Yeavu Agam) Which means a place wisdom or place of give solution for doubts.
	{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}		{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}

Pandiya Ilavarasan at 05:46, 31 October 2024

2024-10-31T05:46:54Z

← Previous revision		Revision as of 05:46, 31 October 2024
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	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') "AASIVAGAM" in Tamil "ஆசீவகம்" is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />

Pandiya Ilavarasan at 05:39, 31 October 2024

2024-10-31T05:39:32Z

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	Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as Ājīvikism in [[Indology\|Western scholarship]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> reached the height of its popularity during the rule of the [[Maurya Empire\|Mauryan emperor]] [[Bindusara]], around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in the [[South India\|Southern Indian]] states of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="natalia" /><ref name="philtar" /><ref name="bashamzysk">Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991), ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195073492}}, Chapter 4</ref> The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the [[Cārvāka]] philosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of [[History of India#Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)\|ancient Indian society]].<ref name="riepe39">DM Riepe (1996), ''Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\|978-8120812932}}, pages 39-40</ref>		Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as Ājīvikism in [[Indology\|Western scholarship]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> reached the height of its popularity during the rule of the [[Maurya Empire\|Mauryan emperor]] [[Bindusara]], around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in the [[South India\|Southern Indian]] states of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="natalia" /><ref name="philtar" /><ref name="bashamzysk">Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991), ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195073492}}, Chapter 4</ref> The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the [[Cārvāka]] philosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of [[History of India#Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)\|ancient Indian society]].<ref name="riepe39">DM Riepe (1996), ''Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\|978-8120812932}}, pages 39-40</ref>

			==Etymology and meaning=driven from the ancient Tamil word called ஆசு ஈவு அகம்.(Aasu Yeavu Agam) Which means a place wisdom or place of give solution for doubts.
	==Etymology and meaning==
	{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}		{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}

Utcursch: /* Decline */ expand selective insertion by 103.110.48.85 - Basham actually dismisses this theory

2024-10-22T17:38:45Z

Decline: expand selective insertion by 103.110.48.85 - Basham actually dismisses this theory

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	=== Decline ===		=== Decline ===

	After the decline of the [[Maurya Empire]] in the 2nd century BCE, the Ajivikas find only occasional mentions in the Sanskrit literature and do not appear to have been serious rivals to other sects. The final version of the Buddhist and Jain scriptures were compiled at a later period, but the description of Ajivikas in these texts likely represents the conditions of the Maurya and pre-Maurya times.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|p=161}} The term ''Aajivikehi'' is often found erased in nearly all Mauryan cave inscriptions of [[Barabar\|Barabar and Nagarjuni Caves]]. It seems that during the reign of the [[Maukhari]] ruler Anantavarma, when idols of Krishna and Shiva were installed in these caves, this term was erased, leading to a decline in the influence of the Aajivikas.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=158–159}}		After the decline of the [[Maurya Empire]] in the 2nd century BCE, the Ajivikas find only occasional mentions in the Sanskrit literature and do not appear to have been serious rivals to other sects. The final version of the Buddhist and Jain scriptures were compiled at a later period, but the description of Ajivikas in these texts likely represents the conditions of the Maurya and pre-Maurya times.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|p=161}}

	In northern India, Ajivikas may have become insignificant by the [[Shunga Empire\|Shunga period]] (1st century BCE), although they may have survived until the 15th century, as suggested by stray references to them in various texts.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|p=185}} References in the ''[[Vayu Purana]]'' suggest that during the [[Gupta Empire\|Gupta period]] (fourth-6th century CE) the Ajivika practices had changed substantially, and their sect was declining rapidly.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=162-165}}		In northern India, Ajivikas may have become insignificant by the [[Shunga Empire\|Shunga period]] (1st century BCE), although they may have survived until the 15th century, as suggested by stray references to them in various texts.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|p=185}} References in the ''[[Vayu Purana]]'' suggest that during the [[Gupta Empire\|Gupta period]] (fourth-6th century CE) the Ajivika practices had changed substantially, and their sect was declining rapidly.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=162-165}}

			In some of the [[Barabar Caves]] inscriptions, the words referring to the Ajivikas appear to have been defaced, although the rest of the text appears intact. The selective nature of these defacements suggests that they were carried out by the religious rivals of the Ajivikas. This defacement must have taken place when the Brahmi script had still not been forgotten, likely some time before the 5th century CE. The Caves were subsequently occupied by Buddhists, Hindus and Muslims. It is unlikely that the Muslims defaced the inscriptions, as the Brahmi script was illegible to them. [[E. Hultzsch]] theorized that the defacement took place when the [[Maukhari dynasty\|Maukhari]] (c. 6th century) ruler Ananta-varman installed Hindu images at the Caves. However, Basham dismisses this theory, noting that there is little evidence to support this view and the only cave in which the word ''Ajivikehi'' remains intact is among the three caves where Ananta-varman installed a Hindu image. Based on similarities of carvings at the Barabar and the [[Udayagiri and Khandagiri caves\|Udaygiri Caves]], scholar A. Banerji Sastri theorized that the Kalinga monarch [[Kharavela]] (1st-2nd century BCE) evicted the Ajivikas to favour Jains, but Basham finds this evidence inconclusive. According to Basham, any ruler of Magadha between the Maurya and the Gupta periods may have been responsible for the persecution of the Ajivikas.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=157–159}}

	The ''[[Brihat Jataka\|Brhaj-jataka]]'' of [[Varahamihira]] (6th century) mentions the Ajivikas (among other major ascetic groups) in an astrological context, stating that a person born under a certain planetary influence becomes an Ajivika ascetic. According to the 9th-10th century commentator [[Utpala (astronomer)\|Utpala]], "Ajivika" in this context refers to the [[Vaishnavite]] Ekadandin ascetics. However, according to historian [[Ajay Mitra Shastri]], Varahamihira indeed refers to the Ajivikas, who may have existed as an influential sect in the 6th century.<ref>{{cite book \|author=A.M. Shastri \|author-link=Ajay Mitra Shastri \|title=Varāhamihira and His Times \|year=1991 \|publisher=Kusumanjali \|oclc=28644897 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf0MAQAAMAAJ \|pages=135–139 \|access-date=22 March 2023 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135614/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf0MAQAAMAAJ \|url-status=live}}</ref> [[A.L. Basham]] notes that there are several such instances of Ajivikas being confused with other major sects: for example, the commentator of ''Achara-sara'' believes them to be Buddhist, and in ''[[Neelakesi]]'', the Ajivika leader clarifies that his followers should not be mistaken for [[Digambara]]s. According to Basham, this suggests that the surviving Ajivikas adopted some of the beliefs and customs of the more popular faiths and possibly merged with them.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=185-186}}		The ''[[Brihat Jataka\|Brhaj-jataka]]'' of [[Varahamihira]] (6th century) mentions the Ajivikas (among other major ascetic groups) in an astrological context, stating that a person born under a certain planetary influence becomes an Ajivika ascetic. According to the 9th-10th century commentator [[Utpala (astronomer)\|Utpala]], "Ajivika" in this context refers to the [[Vaishnavite]] Ekadandin ascetics. However, according to historian [[Ajay Mitra Shastri]], Varahamihira indeed refers to the Ajivikas, who may have existed as an influential sect in the 6th century.<ref>{{cite book \|author=A.M. Shastri \|author-link=Ajay Mitra Shastri \|title=Varāhamihira and His Times \|year=1991 \|publisher=Kusumanjali \|oclc=28644897 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf0MAQAAMAAJ \|pages=135–139 \|access-date=22 March 2023 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135614/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mf0MAQAAMAAJ \|url-status=live}}</ref> [[A.L. Basham]] notes that there are several such instances of Ajivikas being confused with other major sects: for example, the commentator of ''Achara-sara'' believes them to be Buddhist, and in ''[[Neelakesi]]'', the Ajivika leader clarifies that his followers should not be mistaken for [[Digambara]]s. According to Basham, this suggests that the surviving Ajivikas adopted some of the beliefs and customs of the more popular faiths and possibly merged with them.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=185-186}}
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	The 14th century ''[[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha\|Sarva-Darshana-Sangraha]]'', a compendium of the Indian philosophical systems, makes no mention of Ajivikas, which indicates the decline of their sect.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|p=185}}		The 14th century ''[[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha\|Sarva-Darshana-Sangraha]]'', a compendium of the Indian philosophical systems, makes no mention of Ajivikas, which indicates the decline of their sect.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|p=185}}


	==Reliability of sources==		==Reliability of sources==

Monkbot: Task 20: replace {lang-??} templates with {langx|??} ‹See Tfd› (Replaced 2);

2024-10-21T04:03:41Z

Task 20: replace {lang-??} templates with {langx|??} ‹See Tfd› (Replaced 2);

← Previous revision		Revision as of 04:03, 21 October 2024
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	{{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2015}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2015}}

	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{~~Lang-~~sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />
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	==Etymology and meaning==		==Etymology and meaning==
	{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{~~lang-~~sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}		{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}

	The name ''Ajivika'' for an entire philosophy resonates with its core belief in "no free will" and complete ''niyati'', literally "inner order of things, self-command, [[predeterminism]]", leading to the premise that good simple living is not a means to salvation or [[moksha]], just a means to true livelihood, predetermined profession and way of life.<ref name="hoernle" /><ref name="jarl">Jarl Charpentier (July 1913), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 Ajivika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413072444/http://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 \|date=13 April 2016 }}, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pages 669-674</ref> The name came to imply that school of Indian philosophy which lived a good simple mendicant-like livelihood for its own sake and as part of its predeterministic beliefs, rather than for the sake of after-life or motivated by any [[soteriology\|soteriological]] reasons.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}<ref name="hoernle" />		The name ''Ajivika'' for an entire philosophy resonates with its core belief in "no free will" and complete ''niyati'', literally "inner order of things, self-command, [[predeterminism]]", leading to the premise that good simple living is not a means to salvation or [[moksha]], just a means to true livelihood, predetermined profession and way of life.<ref name="hoernle" /><ref name="jarl">Jarl Charpentier (July 1913), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 Ajivika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413072444/http://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 \|date=13 April 2016 }}, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pages 669-674</ref> The name came to imply that school of Indian philosophy which lived a good simple mendicant-like livelihood for its own sake and as part of its predeterministic beliefs, rather than for the sake of after-life or motivated by any [[soteriology\|soteriological]] reasons.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}<ref name="hoernle" />

Asteramellus: Undid revision 1246389462 by Ashwiniasu (talk) revert good-faith edit - overlinking - see WP:LINK. Also, "Buddhists" (plural) would be appropriate here.

2024-09-18T21:53:08Z

Undid revision 1246389462 by Ashwiniasu (talk) revert good-faith edit - overlinking - see WP:LINK. Also, "Buddhists" (plural) would be appropriate here.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 21:53, 18 September 2024
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	{{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2015}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2015}}

	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the ~~[[Buddhist]]~~ or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />

Ashwiniasu at 17:14, 18 September 2024

2024-09-18T17:14:19Z

← Previous revision		Revision as of 17:14, 18 September 2024
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	{{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2015}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2015}}

	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the ~~Buddhists~~ or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the [[Buddhist]] or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />

Asteramellus: /* Etymology and meaning */ ce to remove bold

2024-09-07T14:31:59Z

Etymology and meaning: ce to remove bold

← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:31, 7 September 2024
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	==Etymology and meaning==		==Etymology and meaning==
	~~'''~~{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}~~'''~~ means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}		{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}

	The name ''Ajivika'' for an entire philosophy resonates with its core belief in "no free will" and complete ''niyati'', literally "inner order of things, self-command, [[predeterminism]]", leading to the premise that good simple living is not a means to salvation or [[moksha]], just a means to true livelihood, predetermined profession and way of life.<ref name="hoernle" /><ref name="jarl">Jarl Charpentier (July 1913), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 Ajivika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413072444/http://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 \|date=13 April 2016 }}, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pages 669-674</ref> The name came to imply that school of Indian philosophy which lived a good simple mendicant-like livelihood for its own sake and as part of its predeterministic beliefs, rather than for the sake of after-life or motivated by any [[soteriology\|soteriological]] reasons.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}<ref name="hoernle" />		The name ''Ajivika'' for an entire philosophy resonates with its core belief in "no free will" and complete ''niyati'', literally "inner order of things, self-command, [[predeterminism]]", leading to the premise that good simple living is not a means to salvation or [[moksha]], just a means to true livelihood, predetermined profession and way of life.<ref name="hoernle" /><ref name="jarl">Jarl Charpentier (July 1913), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 Ajivika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413072444/http://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 \|date=13 April 2016 }}, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pages 669-674</ref> The name came to imply that school of Indian philosophy which lived a good simple mendicant-like livelihood for its own sake and as part of its predeterministic beliefs, rather than for the sake of after-life or motivated by any [[soteriology\|soteriological]] reasons.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}<ref name="hoernle" />

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	The Ājīvika school is known for its ''Niyati'' ("[[Fate]]") doctrine of absolute [[fatalism]] or [[determinism]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="james" /><ref name="Leaman 1999">{{cite book \|editor-last=Leaman \|editor-first=Oliver \|editor-link=Oliver Leaman \|year=1999 \|chapter=Fatalism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_4crBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 \|title=Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Key Guides \|pages=80–81 \|isbn=978-0-415-17363-6 \|quote='''Fatalism.''' Some of the teachings of [[Indian philosophy]] are fatalistic. For example, the Ajivika school argued that fate (''nyati'') governs both the [[Saṃsāra\|cycle of birth and rebirth]], and also individual lives. Suffering is not attributed to past actions, but just takes place without any cause or rationale, as does relief from suffering. There is nothing we can do to achieve '''''[[moksha]]''''', we just have to hope that all will go well with us. [...] But the Ajivikas were committed to '''[[asceticism]]''', and they justified this in terms of its practice being just as determined by fate as anything else. \|access-date=20 February 2022 \|archive-date=20 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220193756/https://books.google.com/books?id=_4crBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 \|url-status=live}}</ref> the premise that there is no [[free will]], that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="james" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The predetermined fate of living beings was the major distinctive doctrine of their school, along with withholding judgement on how to achieve liberation (''[[moksha]]'') from the [[Saṃsāra\|eternal cycle of birth, death, and rebirth]], instead believing that fate would lead us there.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="Leaman 1999" /> Ājīvikas further considered the ''[[karma]]'' doctrine as a fallacy.<ref name="philtar" /> Ājīvika [[metaphysics]] included a [[Atomism#Ancient_Indian_atomism\|theory of atoms]], which was later adapted in the [[Vaisheshika\|Vaiśeṣika]] school, where everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms were predetermined by cosmic laws and forces.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=262-270}} Ājīvikas were mostly considered as [[Hindu atheism\|atheists]].<ref>Johannes Quack (2014), ''The Oxford Handbook of Atheism'' (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0199644650}}, page 654</ref> They believed that in every living being there is an ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)\|ātman]]''—a central premise of Vedic religion and Jainism.<ref>Analayo (2004), ''Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization'', {{ISBN\|978-1899579549}}, pp. 207-208</ref>{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=240-261}}{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=270-273}}		The Ājīvika school is known for its ''Niyati'' ("[[Fate]]") doctrine of absolute [[fatalism]] or [[determinism]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="james" /><ref name="Leaman 1999">{{cite book \|editor-last=Leaman \|editor-first=Oliver \|editor-link=Oliver Leaman \|year=1999 \|chapter=Fatalism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_4crBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 \|title=Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Key Guides \|pages=80–81 \|isbn=978-0-415-17363-6 \|quote='''Fatalism.''' Some of the teachings of [[Indian philosophy]] are fatalistic. For example, the Ajivika school argued that fate (''nyati'') governs both the [[Saṃsāra\|cycle of birth and rebirth]], and also individual lives. Suffering is not attributed to past actions, but just takes place without any cause or rationale, as does relief from suffering. There is nothing we can do to achieve '''''[[moksha]]''''', we just have to hope that all will go well with us. [...] But the Ajivikas were committed to '''[[asceticism]]''', and they justified this in terms of its practice being just as determined by fate as anything else. \|access-date=20 February 2022 \|archive-date=20 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220193756/https://books.google.com/books?id=_4crBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 \|url-status=live}}</ref> the premise that there is no [[free will]], that everything that has happened, is happening and will happen is entirely preordained and a function of cosmic principles.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="james" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The predetermined fate of living beings was the major distinctive doctrine of their school, along with withholding judgement on how to achieve liberation (''[[moksha]]'') from the [[Saṃsāra\|eternal cycle of birth, death, and rebirth]], instead believing that fate would lead us there.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="Leaman 1999" /> Ājīvikas further considered the ''[[karma]]'' doctrine as a fallacy.<ref name="philtar" /> Ājīvika [[metaphysics]] included a [[Atomism#Ancient_Indian_atomism\|theory of atoms]], which was later adapted in the [[Vaisheshika\|Vaiśeṣika]] school, where everything was composed of atoms, qualities emerged from aggregates of atoms, but the aggregation and nature of these atoms were predetermined by cosmic laws and forces.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=262-270}} Ājīvikas were mostly considered as [[Hindu atheism\|atheists]].<ref>Johannes Quack (2014), ''The Oxford Handbook of Atheism'' (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0199644650}}, page 654</ref> They believed that in every living being there is an ''[[Ātman (Hinduism)\|ātman]]''—a central premise of Vedic religion and Jainism.<ref>Analayo (2004), ''Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization'', {{ISBN\|978-1899579549}}, pp. 207-208</ref>{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=240-261}}{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=270-273}}

	Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as ~~'''~~Ājīvikism~~'''~~ in [[Indology\|Western scholarship]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> reached the height of its popularity during the rule of the [[Maurya Empire\|Mauryan emperor]] [[Bindusara]], around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in the [[South India\|Southern Indian]] states of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="natalia" /><ref name="philtar" /><ref name="bashamzysk">Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991), ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195073492}}, Chapter 4</ref> The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the [[Cārvāka]] philosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of [[History of India#Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)\|ancient Indian society]].<ref name="riepe39">DM Riepe (1996), ''Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\|978-8120812932}}, pages 39-40</ref>		Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as Ājīvikism in [[Indology\|Western scholarship]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> reached the height of its popularity during the rule of the [[Maurya Empire\|Mauryan emperor]] [[Bindusara]], around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in the [[South India\|Southern Indian]] states of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="natalia" /><ref name="philtar" /><ref name="bashamzysk">Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991), ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195073492}}, Chapter 4</ref> The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the [[Cārvāka]] philosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of [[History of India#Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)\|ancient Indian society]].<ref name="riepe39">DM Riepe (1996), ''Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\|978-8120812932}}, pages 39-40</ref>

	==Etymology and meaning==		==Etymology and meaning==

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2024-08-15T05:33:42Z

Clearly vandalism, Undid revision 1237773282 by 2409:408C:2CBB:ED8C:E6C0:29DA:D68B:A (talk)

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	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ~~religion~~ and a major rival of [[~~Hinduism~~]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />

← Previous revision		Revision as of 08:02, 31 October 2024
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	{{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2015}}		{{Use dmy dates\|date=May 2015}}

	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') ~~"AASIVAGAM" in Tamil "ஆசீவகம்"~~ is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />
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	Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as Ājīvikism in [[Indology\|Western scholarship]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> reached the height of its popularity during the rule of the [[Maurya Empire\|Mauryan emperor]] [[Bindusara]], around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in the [[South India\|Southern Indian]] states of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="natalia" /><ref name="philtar" /><ref name="bashamzysk">Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991), ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195073492}}, Chapter 4</ref> The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the [[Cārvāka]] philosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of [[History of India#Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)\|ancient Indian society]].<ref name="riepe39">DM Riepe (1996), ''Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\|978-8120812932}}, pages 39-40</ref>		Ājīvika philosophy, otherwise referred to as Ājīvikism in [[Indology\|Western scholarship]],<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> reached the height of its popularity during the rule of the [[Maurya Empire\|Mauryan emperor]] [[Bindusara]], around the 4th century BCE. This school of thought declined but survived for nearly 2,000 years through the 13th and 14th centuries CE in the [[South India\|Southern Indian]] states of [[Karnataka]] and [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="natalia" /><ref name="philtar" /><ref name="bashamzysk">Arthur Basham, Kenneth Zysk (1991), ''The Origins and Development of Classical Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, {{ISBN\|978-0195073492}}, Chapter 4</ref> The Ājīvika philosophy, along with the [[Cārvāka]] philosophy, appealed most to the warrior, industrial, and mercantile classes of [[History of India#Second urbanisation (c. 600 – 200 BCE)\|ancient Indian society]].<ref name="riepe39">DM Riepe (1996), ''Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN\|978-8120812932}}, pages 39-40</ref>

			==Etymology and meaning==
	==Etymology and meaning=driven from the ancient Tamil word called ஆசு ஈவு அகம்.(Aasu Yeavu Agam) Which means a place wisdom or place of give solution for doubts.
	{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}		{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}

← Previous revision		Revision as of 05:46, 31 October 2024
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	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') "AASIVAGAM" in Tamil "ஆசீவகம்" is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />

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	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{~~Lang-~~sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />
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	==Etymology and meaning==		==Etymology and meaning==
	{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{~~lang-~~sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}		{{IAST\|Ājīvika}} means "Follower of the Way of Life".<ref name="Johnson 2009">{{cite book \|last=Johnson \|first=W. J. \|year=2009 \|chapter=Ājīvika \|chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|chapter-url-access=subscription \|title=A Dictionary of Hinduism \|location=[[Oxford]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] \|edition=1st \|isbn=978-0-19-172670-5 \|quote='''Ājīvika''' (‘Follower of the Way of Life’): Name given to members of a heterodox [[Asceticism\|ascetic]] order, apparently founded at the same time as the [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|Buddhist]] and [[Jainism\|Jaina]] orders, and now extinct, although active in [[South India]] as late as the 13th century. No first-hand record survives of Ājīvika doctrines, so what is known about them is derived largely from the accounts of their rivals. According to Jaina sources, the Ājīvika's founder, [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], was for six years a disciple and companion of the Jina-to-be, [[Mahavira\|Mahāvīra]], until they fell out. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=1 March 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220301205407/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198610250.001.0001/acref-9780198610250-e-99 \|url-status=live}}</ref> Ajivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀚𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ājīvika}};<ref name="archive.org">{{cite book \|last1=Hultzsch \|first1=Eugen \|title=Inscriptions of Asoka. New Edition by E. Hultzsch \|date=1925 \|page=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch/page/n292 132] \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfAsoka.NewEditionByE.Hultzsch \|language=sa}}</ref> {{langx\|sa\|आजीविक}}, IAST: {{IAST\|ājīvika}}) or adivika ([[Prakrit]]: {{lang\|pra\|𑀆𑀤𑀻𑀯𑀺𑀓}}, {{IAST\|ādīvika}})<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Senart \|title=Inscriptions Of Piyadasi Tome Second \|date=1876 \|pages=[https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle/page/n218 209]–210 \|url=https://archive.org/details/InscriptionsOfPiyadasiTomeSecondFrenchGoogle \|language=en}}</ref> are both derived from Sanskrit {{lang\|sa\|आजीव}} ({{IAST\|ājīva}}) which literally means "livelihood, lifelong, mode of life".<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html AjIvika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820092052/http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/tamil/index.html \|date=20 August 2016 }} Monier Williams Sanskrit English Dictionary, Cologne Sanskrit Digital Lexicon, Germany</ref><ref name="hoernle">A Hoernle, {{Google books\|uiJBAQAAIAAJ\|Encyclopædia of Religion and Ethics, Volume 1\|page=PA259}}, Editor: James Hastings, Charles Scribner & Sons, Edinburgh, pages 259-268</ref> The term ''Ajivika'' means "those following special rules with regard to Iivelihood", sometimes connoting "religious mendicants" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts.<ref name="natalia" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}

	The name ''Ajivika'' for an entire philosophy resonates with its core belief in "no free will" and complete ''niyati'', literally "inner order of things, self-command, [[predeterminism]]", leading to the premise that good simple living is not a means to salvation or [[moksha]], just a means to true livelihood, predetermined profession and way of life.<ref name="hoernle" /><ref name="jarl">Jarl Charpentier (July 1913), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 Ajivika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413072444/http://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 \|date=13 April 2016 }}, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pages 669-674</ref> The name came to imply that school of Indian philosophy which lived a good simple mendicant-like livelihood for its own sake and as part of its predeterministic beliefs, rather than for the sake of after-life or motivated by any [[soteriology\|soteriological]] reasons.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}<ref name="hoernle" />		The name ''Ajivika'' for an entire philosophy resonates with its core belief in "no free will" and complete ''niyati'', literally "inner order of things, self-command, [[predeterminism]]", leading to the premise that good simple living is not a means to salvation or [[moksha]], just a means to true livelihood, predetermined profession and way of life.<ref name="hoernle" /><ref name="jarl">Jarl Charpentier (July 1913), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 Ajivika] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413072444/http://www.jstor.org/stable/25189032 \|date=13 April 2016 }}, The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, Cambridge University Press, pages 669-674</ref> The name came to imply that school of Indian philosophy which lived a good simple mendicant-like livelihood for its own sake and as part of its predeterministic beliefs, rather than for the sake of after-life or motivated by any [[soteriology\|soteriological]] reasons.{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}}<ref name="hoernle" />

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	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the ~~[[Buddhist]]~~ or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the Buddhists or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />

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	'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the ~~Buddhists~~ or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>		'''''Ajivika''''' ({{Lang-sa\|आजीविक}}, [[IAST]]: '''{{IAST\|Ājīvika}}''') is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika\|''nāstika'']] or "heterodox" schools of [[Indian philosophy]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2">{{cite book \|last=Balcerowicz \|first=Piotr \|year=2016 \|chapter=Determinism, Ājīvikas, and Jainism \|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism \|location=[[London]] and [[New York City\|New York]] \|publisher=[[Routledge]] \|edition=1st \|series=Routledge Advances in Jaina Studies \|pages=136–174 \|isbn=978-1-317-53853-0 \|quote=The Ājīvikas' doctrinal signature was indubitably the idea of [[determinism]] and [[fate]], which traditionally incorporated four elements: the doctrine of destiny (''niyati-vāda''), the doctrine of predetermined concurrence of factors (''saṅgati-vāda''), the doctrine of intrinsic nature (''svabhāva-vāda''), occasionally also linked to [[Charvaka\|materialists]], and the doctrine of fate (''daiva-vāda''), or simply [[fatalism]]. The Ājīvikas' emphasis on fate and determinism was so profound that later sources would consistently refer to them as ''niyati-vādins'', or ‘the propounders of the doctrine of destiny’. \|access-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-date=24 February 2022 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224002103/https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA136 \|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natalia">Natalia Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN\|978-0791412817}}, pages 20-23</ref><ref name="james">James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", ''The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism'', Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN\|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref> Believed to have been founded in the 5th century BCE by [[Makkhali Gosala\|Makkhali Gosāla]], it was a ''[[Śramaṇa]]'' movement and a major rival of [[Historical Vedic religion\|Vedic religion]], [[Pre-sectarian Buddhism\|early Buddhism]], and [[Jainism]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref>Jeffrey D Long (2009), Jainism: An Introduction, Macmillan, {{ISBN\|978-1845116255}}, page 199</ref> Ājīvikas were organized renunciates who formed discrete communities.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=145-146}} The precise identity of the Ājīvikas is not well known, and it is even unclear if they were a divergent sect of the [[Buddhist]] or the Jains.<ref name="LF26">{{cite book \|last1=Fogelin \|first1=Lars \|title=An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism \|date=2015 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|isbn=978-0-19-994822-2 \|page=26 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|language=en \|access-date=16 November 2019 \|archive-date=3 July 2023 \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703135615/https://books.google.com/books?id=tRV0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 \|url-status=live}}</ref>

	Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />		Original scriptures of the Ājīvika school of philosophy may once have existed, but these are currently unavailable and probably lost.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" /> Their theories are extracted from mentions of Ājīvikas in the secondary sources of [[Indian literature#In archaic Indian languages\|ancient Indian literature]].<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|loc=Chapter 1}} The oldest descriptions of the Ājīvika fatalists and their founder Gosāla can be found both in the [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] scriptures of ancient India.<ref name="Johnson 2009" /><ref name="Balcerowicz2" />{{sfn\|Basham\|1951\|pp=224-238\|ps=:The fundamental principle of Ājīvika philosophy was Fate, usually called ''Niyati''. [[Buddhist texts\|Buddhist]] and [[Jain literature\|Jaina]] sources agree that [[Makkhali Gosala\|Gosāla]] was a rigid determinist, who exalted ''Niyati'' to the status of the motive factor of the universe and the sole agent of all phenomenal change. This is quite clear in our ''locus classicus'', the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]''. Sin and suffering, attributed by [[Āstika and nāstika\|other sects]] to the laws of ''[[karma]]'', the result of evil committed in the previous lives or in the present one, were declared by Gosāla to be without cause or basis, other, presumably, than the force of destiny. Similarly, the escape from evil, the working off of accumulated evil ''karma'', was likewise without cause or basis.}} Scholars question whether Ājīvika philosophy has been fairly and completely summarized in these secondary sources, as they were written by groups (such as the Buddhists and Jains) competing with and adversarial to the philosophy and religious practices of the Ājīvikas.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" /><ref name="dundas" /> It is likely that much of the information available about the Ājīvikas is inaccurate to some degree, and characterizations of them should be regarded carefully and critically.<ref name="Balcerowicz2" />