Bottom trawling - Revision history

WikiCleanerBot: v2.05b - Bot T20 CW#61 - Fix errors for CW project (Reference before punctuation)

2024-10-09T06:44:31Z

v2.05b - Bot T20 CW#61 - Fix errors for CW project (Reference before punctuation)

← Previous revision		Revision as of 06:44, 9 October 2024
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	===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===		===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===
	Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\| issue=1 \|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Watanabe \|first1=Hayato \|last2=Ito \|first2=Miku \|last3=Matsumoto \|first3=Akira \|last4=Arakawa \|first4=Hisayuki \|date=2016-01-04 \|title=Effects of sediment influx on the settlement and survival of canopy-forming macrophytes \|journal=Scientific Reports \|language=en \|volume=6 \|issue=1 \|page=18677 \|doi=10.1038/srep18677 \|issn=2045-2322 \|pmc=4698636 \|pmid=26726051\|bibcode=2016NatSR...618677W }}</ref> Repeated resuspension can also lead too a hardening of the sea bottom as finer sediments are proportionally more effectively carried away by currents than larger sediments, thus leading to habitat change <ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Oberle \|first1=Ferdinand K.J. \|last2=Swarzenski \|first2=Peter W. \|last3=Reddy \|first3=Christopher M. \|last4=Nelson \|first4=Robert K. \|last5=Baasch \|first5=Benjamin \|last6=Hanebuth \|first6=Till J.J. \|date=July 2016 \|title=Deciphering the lithological consequences of bottom trawling to sedimentary habitats on the shelf \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092479631500233X \|journal=Journal of Marine Systems \|language=en \|volume=159 \|pages=120–131 \|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.008\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..120O }}</ref>.		Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\| issue=1 \|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Watanabe \|first1=Hayato \|last2=Ito \|first2=Miku \|last3=Matsumoto \|first3=Akira \|last4=Arakawa \|first4=Hisayuki \|date=2016-01-04 \|title=Effects of sediment influx on the settlement and survival of canopy-forming macrophytes \|journal=Scientific Reports \|language=en \|volume=6 \|issue=1 \|page=18677 \|doi=10.1038/srep18677 \|issn=2045-2322 \|pmc=4698636 \|pmid=26726051\|bibcode=2016NatSR...618677W }}</ref> Repeated resuspension can also lead too a hardening of the sea bottom as finer sediments are proportionally more effectively carried away by currents than larger sediments, thus leading to habitat change.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Oberle \|first1=Ferdinand K.J. \|last2=Swarzenski \|first2=Peter W. \|last3=Reddy \|first3=Christopher M. \|last4=Nelson \|first4=Robert K. \|last5=Baasch \|first5=Benjamin \|last6=Hanebuth \|first6=Till J.J. \|date=July 2016 \|title=Deciphering the lithological consequences of bottom trawling to sedimentary habitats on the shelf \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092479631500233X \|journal=Journal of Marine Systems \|language=en \|volume=159 \|pages=120–131 \|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.008\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..120O }}</ref>

	Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Avellan \|first1=Astrid \|last2=Duarte \|first2=Armando \|last3=Rocha-Santos \|first3=Teresa \|date=February 2022 \|title=Organic contaminants in marine sediments and seawater: A review for drawing environmental diagnostics and searching for informative predictors \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969721070881 \|journal=Science of the Total Environment \|language=en \|volume=808 \|pages=152012 \|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152012\|pmid=34856284 \|bibcode=2022ScTEn.80852012A }}</ref> Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>		Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Avellan \|first1=Astrid \|last2=Duarte \|first2=Armando \|last3=Rocha-Santos \|first3=Teresa \|date=February 2022 \|title=Organic contaminants in marine sediments and seawater: A review for drawing environmental diagnostics and searching for informative predictors \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969721070881 \|journal=Science of the Total Environment \|language=en \|volume=808 \|pages=152012 \|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152012\|pmid=34856284 \|bibcode=2022ScTEn.80852012A }}</ref> Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>

Citation bot: Alter: pmc, date, journal. Add: pmid, bibcode, page, authors 1-1. Removed URL that duplicated identifier. Removed parameters. Some additions/deletions were parameter name changes. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by GoingBatty | Category:CS1 maint: PMC format | #UCB_Category 3/6

2024-09-08T01:58:51Z

Alter: pmc, date, journal. Add: pmid, bibcode, page, authors 1-1. Removed URL that duplicated identifier. Removed parameters. Some additions/deletions were parameter name changes. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by GoingBatty | Category:CS1 maint: PMC format | #UCB_Category 3/6

← Previous revision		Revision as of 01:58, 8 September 2024
Line 79:		Line 79:

	===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===		===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===
	Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\| issue=1 \|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal \|~~last~~=Watanabe \|~~first~~=Hayato \|last2=Ito \|first2=Miku \|last3=Matsumoto \|first3=Akira \|last4=Arakawa \|first4=Hisayuki \|date=2016-01-04 \|title=Effects of sediment influx on the settlement and survival of canopy-forming macrophytes ~~\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep18677~~ \|journal=Scientific Reports \|language=en \|volume=6 \|issue=1 \|doi=10.1038/srep18677 \|issn=2045-2322 \|pmc=~~PMC4698636~~ \|pmid=26726051}}</ref> Repeated resuspension can also lead too a hardening of the sea bottom as finer sediments are proportionally more effectively carried away by currents than larger sediments, thus leading to habitat change <ref>{{Cite journal \|~~last~~=Oberle \|~~first~~=Ferdinand K.J. \|last2=Swarzenski \|first2=Peter W. \|last3=Reddy \|first3=Christopher M. \|last4=Nelson \|first4=Robert K. \|last5=Baasch \|first5=Benjamin \|last6=Hanebuth \|first6=Till J.J. \|date=2016~~-07~~ \|title=Deciphering the lithological consequences of bottom trawling to sedimentary habitats on the shelf \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092479631500233X \|journal=Journal of Marine Systems \|language=en \|volume=159 \|pages=120–131 \|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.008}}</ref>.		Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\| issue=1 \|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Watanabe \|first1=Hayato \|last2=Ito \|first2=Miku \|last3=Matsumoto \|first3=Akira \|last4=Arakawa \|first4=Hisayuki \|date=2016-01-04 \|title=Effects of sediment influx on the settlement and survival of canopy-forming macrophytes \|journal=Scientific Reports \|language=en \|volume=6 \|issue=1 \|page=18677 \|doi=10.1038/srep18677 \|issn=2045-2322 \|pmc=4698636 \|pmid=26726051\|bibcode=2016NatSR...618677W }}</ref> Repeated resuspension can also lead too a hardening of the sea bottom as finer sediments are proportionally more effectively carried away by currents than larger sediments, thus leading to habitat change <ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Oberle \|first1=Ferdinand K.J. \|last2=Swarzenski \|first2=Peter W. \|last3=Reddy \|first3=Christopher M. \|last4=Nelson \|first4=Robert K. \|last5=Baasch \|first5=Benjamin \|last6=Hanebuth \|first6=Till J.J. \|date=July 2016 \|title=Deciphering the lithological consequences of bottom trawling to sedimentary habitats on the shelf \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092479631500233X \|journal=Journal of Marine Systems \|language=en \|volume=159 \|pages=120–131 \|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.008\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..120O }}</ref>.

	Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|~~last~~=Avellan \|~~first~~=Astrid \|last2=Duarte \|first2=Armando \|last3=Rocha-Santos \|first3=Teresa \|date=2022~~-02~~ \|title=Organic contaminants in marine sediments and seawater: A review for drawing environmental diagnostics and searching for informative predictors \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969721070881 \|journal=Science of ~~The~~ Total Environment \|language=en \|volume=808 \|pages=152012 \|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152012}}</ref> Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>		Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Avellan \|first1=Astrid \|last2=Duarte \|first2=Armando \|last3=Rocha-Santos \|first3=Teresa \|date=February 2022 \|title=Organic contaminants in marine sediments and seawater: A review for drawing environmental diagnostics and searching for informative predictors \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969721070881 \|journal=Science of the Total Environment \|language=en \|volume=808 \|pages=152012 \|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152012\|pmid=34856284 \|bibcode=2022ScTEn.80852012A }}</ref> Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>

	[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|publisher=Elsevier \|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>		[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|publisher=Elsevier \|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>

Operaobscura: Several missing citations added and a sentence on sediment habitat changes added.

2024-09-08T01:08:53Z

Several missing citations added and a sentence on sediment habitat changes added.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 01:08, 8 September 2024
Line 79:		Line 79:

	===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===		===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===
	Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\| issue=1 \|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.{{~~Citation~~ ~~needed~~\|date=~~September~~ ~~2011~~}}		Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\| issue=1 \|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Watanabe \|first=Hayato \|last2=Ito \|first2=Miku \|last3=Matsumoto \|first3=Akira \|last4=Arakawa \|first4=Hisayuki \|date=2016-01-04 \|title=Effects of sediment influx on the settlement and survival of canopy-forming macrophytes \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/srep18677 \|journal=Scientific Reports \|language=en \|volume=6 \|issue=1 \|doi=10.1038/srep18677 \|issn=2045-2322 \|pmc=PMC4698636 \|pmid=26726051}}</ref> Repeated resuspension can also lead too a hardening of the sea bottom as finer sediments are proportionally more effectively carried away by currents than larger sediments, thus leading to habitat change <ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Oberle \|first=Ferdinand K.J. \|last2=Swarzenski \|first2=Peter W. \|last3=Reddy \|first3=Christopher M. \|last4=Nelson \|first4=Robert K. \|last5=Baasch \|first5=Benjamin \|last6=Hanebuth \|first6=Till J.J. \|date=2016-07 \|title=Deciphering the lithological consequences of bottom trawling to sedimentary habitats on the shelf \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S092479631500233X \|journal=Journal of Marine Systems \|language=en \|volume=159 \|pages=120–131 \|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.008}}</ref>.

	Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].{{~~citation~~ ~~needed~~\|date=~~December~~ ~~2020~~}} Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>		Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Avellan \|first=Astrid \|last2=Duarte \|first2=Armando \|last3=Rocha-Santos \|first3=Teresa \|date=2022-02 \|title=Organic contaminants in marine sediments and seawater: A review for drawing environmental diagnostics and searching for informative predictors \|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0048969721070881 \|journal=Science of The Total Environment \|language=en \|volume=808 \|pages=152012 \|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152012}}</ref> Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>

	[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|publisher=Elsevier \|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>		[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|publisher=Elsevier \|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>

Pbsouthwood: Changing short description from "Fishing method for fishing trawlers" to "Fishing method by towing a net along the seafloor"

2024-08-31T08:29:25Z

Changing short description from "Fishing method for fishing trawlers" to "Fishing method by towing a net along the seafloor"

← Previous revision		Revision as of 08:29, 31 August 2024
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	{{Short description\|Fishing method ~~for~~ ~~fishing~~ ~~trawlers~~}}		{{Short description\|Fishing method by towing a net along the seafloor}}
	[[File:RV Celtic Explorer, Galway Bay, Ireland.jpg \| thumb \| The ''[[RV Celtic Explorer\|Celtic Explorer]]'', a [[research vessel]] engaged in bottom trawling]]		[[File:RV Celtic Explorer, Galway Bay, Ireland.jpg \| thumb \| The ''[[RV Celtic Explorer\|Celtic Explorer]]'', a [[research vessel]] engaged in bottom trawling]]
	'''Bottom trawling''' is [[trawling]] (towing a '''trawl''', which is a [[fishing net]]) along the seafloor. It is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthic trawling and [[Demersal zone\|demersal]] trawling. Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean and demersal trawling is towing a net just above the [[benthic zone]]. Bottom trawling can be contrasted with [[midwater trawling]] (also known as [[Pelagic zone\|pelagic]] trawling), where a net is towed higher in the [[water column]]. Midwater trawling catches [[pelagic fish]] such as [[anchovies]] and [[mackerel]], whereas bottom trawling targets both bottom-living fish ([[groundfish]]) and [[semi-pelagic]] species such as [[cod]], [[squid]], [[shrimp]], and [[Sebastes\|rockfish]].		'''Bottom trawling''' is [[trawling]] (towing a '''trawl''', which is a [[fishing net]]) along the seafloor. It is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthic trawling and [[Demersal zone\|demersal]] trawling. Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean and demersal trawling is towing a net just above the [[benthic zone]]. Bottom trawling can be contrasted with [[midwater trawling]] (also known as [[Pelagic zone\|pelagic]] trawling), where a net is towed higher in the [[water column]]. Midwater trawling catches [[pelagic fish]] such as [[anchovies]] and [[mackerel]], whereas bottom trawling targets both bottom-living fish ([[groundfish]]) and [[semi-pelagic]] species such as [[cod]], [[squid]], [[shrimp]], and [[Sebastes\|rockfish]].

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2024-08-21T04:39:28Z

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← Previous revision		Revision as of 04:39, 21 August 2024
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	Trawling is done by a [[Fishing trawler\|trawler]], which can be a small open boat with only {{convert\|30\|hp\|abbr=on}} or a large factory trawler with {{convert\|10000\|hp\|abbr=on}}. Bottom trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing cooperatively ([[pair trawling]]).		Trawling is done by a [[Fishing trawler\|trawler]], which can be a small open boat with only {{convert\|30\|hp\|abbr=on}} or a large factory trawler with {{convert\|10000\|hp\|abbr=on}}. Bottom trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing cooperatively ([[pair trawling]]).

	Global catch from bottom trawling has been estimated at over 30 million tonnes per year, an amount larger than any other fishing method.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Watson\|first1=Reg A.\|last2=Tidd\|first2=A.\|date=2018-07-01\|title=Mapping nearly a century and a half of global marine fishing: 1869–2015\|journal= [[Marine Policy]] \|language=en\|volume=93\|pages=171–177\|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.023\|s2cid=158305071 \|issn=0308-597X\|url=http://osf.io/mcvp5/}}</ref> Concerns about the environmental impacts of bottom trawling have led to changes in gear design, such as the addition of [[turtle excluder device]]s to reduce [[bycatch]], and limitations on locations where bottom trawling is allowed, such as [[marine protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/ocean-issues/fishing-and-farming-methods\|title=Fishing and Farming Methods from the Seafood Watch Program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium\|website=www.seafoodwatch.org\|language=en\|access-date=2018-08-23}}</ref> A 2021 paper estimated that bottom trawling contributed between 600 and 1500 million tons of carbon dioxide a year by disturbing carbon dioxide in the sea floor – emissions approximately equivalent to [[Climate change in Germany\|those of Germany]], or [[Environmental impact of aviation\|the aviation industry]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sala\|first1=Enric\|last2=Mayorga\|first2=Juan\|last3=Bradley\|first3=Darcy\|last4=Cabral\|first4=Reniel B.\|last5=Atwood\|first5=Trisha B.\|last6=Auber\|first6=Arnaud\|last7=Cheung\|first7=William\|last8=Costello\|first8=Christopher\|last9=Ferretti\|first9=Francesco\|last10=Friedlander\|first10=Alan M.\|last11=Gaines\|first11=Steven D.\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z\|journal=Nature\|volume=592\|issue=7854\|language=en\|pages=397–402\|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z\|pmid=33731930\|bibcode=2021Natur.592..397S\|s2cid=232301777 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Einhorn\|first=Catrin\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Trawling for Fish May Unleash as Much Carbon as Air Travel, Study Says\|language=en-US\|work=The New York Times\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/17/climate/climate-change-oceans.html\|access-date=2021-03-18\|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Bottom trawling releases as much carbon as air travel, landmark study finds\|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/17/trawling-for-fish-releases-as-much-carbon-as-air-travel-report-finds-climate-crisis\|access-date=2021-03-20\|website=The Guardian\|language=en}}</ref> However, these values are highly uncertain and have been criticized as overestimates.<ref>{{Cite journal \|~~last~~=Hiddink \|~~first~~=Jan Geert \|last2=van de Velde \|first2=Sebastiaan J. \|last3=McConnaughey \|first3=Robert A. \|last4=De Borger \|first4=Emil \|last5=Tiano \|first5=Justin \|last6=Kaiser \|first6=Michel J. \|last7=Sweetman \|first7=Andrew K. \|last8=Sciberras \|first8=Marija \|date=2023 \|title=Quantifying the carbon benefits of ending bottom trawling \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06014-7 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=617 \|issue=7960 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06014-7 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|~~last~~=Hilborn \|~~first~~=Ray \|last2=Kaiser \|first2=Michel J. \|date=2022 \|title=A path forward for analysing the impacts of marine protected areas \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04775-1 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=607 \|issue=7917 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04775-1 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> International attempts to limit bottom trawling have been ineffective.		Global catch from bottom trawling has been estimated at over 30 million tonnes per year, an amount larger than any other fishing method.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Watson\|first1=Reg A.\|last2=Tidd\|first2=A.\|date=2018-07-01\|title=Mapping nearly a century and a half of global marine fishing: 1869–2015\|journal= [[Marine Policy]] \|language=en\|volume=93\|pages=171–177\|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.023\|bibcode=2018MarPo..93..171W \|s2cid=158305071 \|issn=0308-597X\|url=http://osf.io/mcvp5/}}</ref> Concerns about the environmental impacts of bottom trawling have led to changes in gear design, such as the addition of [[turtle excluder device]]s to reduce [[bycatch]], and limitations on locations where bottom trawling is allowed, such as [[marine protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/ocean-issues/fishing-and-farming-methods\|title=Fishing and Farming Methods from the Seafood Watch Program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium\|website=www.seafoodwatch.org\|language=en\|access-date=2018-08-23}}</ref> A 2021 paper estimated that bottom trawling contributed between 600 and 1500 million tons of carbon dioxide a year by disturbing carbon dioxide in the sea floor – emissions approximately equivalent to [[Climate change in Germany\|those of Germany]], or [[Environmental impact of aviation\|the aviation industry]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sala\|first1=Enric\|last2=Mayorga\|first2=Juan\|last3=Bradley\|first3=Darcy\|last4=Cabral\|first4=Reniel B.\|last5=Atwood\|first5=Trisha B.\|last6=Auber\|first6=Arnaud\|last7=Cheung\|first7=William\|last8=Costello\|first8=Christopher\|last9=Ferretti\|first9=Francesco\|last10=Friedlander\|first10=Alan M.\|last11=Gaines\|first11=Steven D.\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z\|journal=Nature\|volume=592\|issue=7854\|language=en\|pages=397–402\|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z\|pmid=33731930\|bibcode=2021Natur.592..397S\|s2cid=232301777 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Einhorn\|first=Catrin\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Trawling for Fish May Unleash as Much Carbon as Air Travel, Study Says\|language=en-US\|work=The New York Times\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/17/climate/climate-change-oceans.html\|access-date=2021-03-18\|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Bottom trawling releases as much carbon as air travel, landmark study finds\|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/17/trawling-for-fish-releases-as-much-carbon-as-air-travel-report-finds-climate-crisis\|access-date=2021-03-20\|website=The Guardian\|language=en}}</ref> However, these values are highly uncertain and have been criticized as overestimates.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Hiddink \|first1=Jan Geert \|last2=van de Velde \|first2=Sebastiaan J. \|last3=McConnaughey \|first3=Robert A. \|last4=De Borger \|first4=Emil \|last5=Tiano \|first5=Justin \|last6=Kaiser \|first6=Michel J. \|last7=Sweetman \|first7=Andrew K. \|last8=Sciberras \|first8=Marija \|date=2023 \|title=Quantifying the carbon benefits of ending bottom trawling \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06014-7 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=617 \|issue=7960 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06014-7 \|pmid=37165247 \|bibcode=2023Natur.617E...1H \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Hilborn \|first1=Ray \|last2=Kaiser \|first2=Michel J. \|date=2022 \|title=A path forward for analysing the impacts of marine protected areas \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04775-1 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=607 \|issue=7917 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04775-1 \|pmid=35794262 \|bibcode=2022Natur.607E...1H \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> International attempts to limit bottom trawling have been ineffective.

	==History==		==History==
Line 79:		Line 79:

	===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===		===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===
	Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2011}}		Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\| issue=1 \|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2011}}

	Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].{{citation needed\|date=December 2020}} Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>		Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].{{citation needed\|date=December 2020}} Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>

	[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>		[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|publisher=Elsevier \|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>
	Even in areas where the bottom sediments are ancient, bottom trawling, by reintroducing the sediment into the water column, can create [[algae bloom\|harmful algae blooms]].<ref>Giannakourou, A., Orlova, T.Y., Assimakopoulou, G., Pagou, K. (2005) ''Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos Gulf, Greece.'' Continental Shelf Research 25, 2585-2596.		Even in areas where the bottom sediments are ancient, bottom trawling, by reintroducing the sediment into the water column, can create [[algae bloom\|harmful algae blooms]].<ref>Giannakourou, A., Orlova, T.Y., Assimakopoulou, G., Pagou, K. (2005) ''Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos Gulf, Greece.'' Continental Shelf Research 25, 2585-2596.
	</ref><ref>Weaver, Dallas E (2007) [http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html ''Remote Impacts of Bottom Trawling''] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410185854/http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html \|date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Palanques \|first1=A. \|last2=Guillén \|first2=J. \|last3=Puig \|first3=P. \|title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf \|journal=Limnology and Oceanography \|date=July 2001 \|volume=46 \|issue=5 \|pages=1100–1110 \|doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 \|bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10261/244111 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref>		</ref><ref>Weaver, Dallas E (2007) [http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html ''Remote Impacts of Bottom Trawling''] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410185854/http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html \|date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Palanques \|first1=A. \|last2=Guillén \|first2=J. \|last3=Puig \|first3=P. \|title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf \|journal=Limnology and Oceanography \|date=July 2001 \|volume=46 \|issue=5 \|pages=1100–1110 \|doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 \|bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10261/244111 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

	Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle\|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academies Press, Washington, DC</ref><ref>ICES (2006) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES): report of the WorkingGroup on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities. ACE 05:1 179</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|date=2019-02-01\|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK\|journal=Ecosystem Services\|language=en\|volume=35\|pages=67–76\|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013\|issn=2212-0416\|doi-access=free\|last1=Luisetti\|first1=Tiziana\|last2=Turner\|first2=R. Kerry\|last3=Andrews\|first3=Julian E.\|last4=Jickells\|first4=Timothy D.\|last5=Kröger\|first5=Silke\|last6=Diesing\|first6=Markus\|last7=Paltriguera\|first7=Lucille\|last8=Johnson\|first8=Martin T.\|last9=Parker\|first9=Eleanor R.\|last10=Bakker\|first10=Dorothee C.E.\|last11=Weston\|first11=Keith}}</ref>		Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle\|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academies Press, Washington, DC</ref><ref>ICES (2006) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES): report of the WorkingGroup on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities. ACE 05:1 179</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|date=2019-02-01\|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK\|journal=Ecosystem Services\|language=en\|volume=35\|pages=67–76\|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013\|issn=2212-0416\|doi-access=free\|last1=Luisetti\|first1=Tiziana\|last2=Turner\|first2=R. Kerry\|last3=Andrews\|first3=Julian E.\|last4=Jickells\|first4=Timothy D.\|last5=Kröger\|first5=Silke\|last6=Diesing\|first6=Markus\|last7=Paltriguera\|first7=Lucille\|last8=Johnson\|first8=Martin T.\|last9=Parker\|first9=Eleanor R.\|last10=Bakker\|first10=Dorothee C.E.\|last11=Weston\|first11=Keith\|bibcode=2019EcoSv..35...67L }}</ref>

	===Deep sea damage===		===Deep sea damage===

Annh07: Reverted edit by 203.34.148.128 (talk) to last version by Merline303

2024-08-14T03:30:29Z

Reverted edit by 203.34.148.128 (talk) to last version by Merline303

← Previous revision		Revision as of 03:30, 14 August 2024
Line 79:		Line 79:

	===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===		===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===
	Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = ~~men~~ ~~are~~ ~~hotBDf.hjagsgujSDB;jfaerh/lHS:uaehru~~=~~2016JMS~~...~~159..109O~~}}</ref> ~~These~~ ~~plumes~~ ~~introduce~~ a [[~~turbidity~~]] ~~/web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html~~ ~~\|date=2009-04-10~~ ~~}}.</ref>~~ ~~More~~ ~~suspended~~ ~~solids~~ ~~are~~ ~~introduced~~ ~~into~~ ~~the~~ ~~oceans~~ ~~from~~ ~~bottom~~ ~~trawling~~ ~~than~~ ~~any~~ ~~other man-made~~ ~~source~~.<ref>{{~~cite~~ journal \|last1=~~Palanques~~ \|first1=A. \|last2=~~Guillén~~ \|first2=J. \|last3=~~Puig~~ \|first3=P. \|title=~~Impact~~ of ~~bottom~~ ~~trawling~~ on ~~water~~ ~~turbidity~~ ~~and~~ ~~muddy~~ ~~sediment~~ of ~~an unfished~~ continental shelf \|journal=~~Limnology~~ ~~and~~ ~~Oceanography~~ \|~~date~~=~~July 2001~~ \|volume=~~46 \|issue=5~~ \|pages=~~1100–1110~~ \|doi=10.~~4319~~/lo.~~2001~~.46.5.~~1100~~ \|bibcode=~~2001LimOc~~..46.~~1100P~~ ~~\|doi-access=free~~ ~~\|hdl=10261/244111~~ \|~~hdl-access~~=~~free~~ }}~~</ref>~~		Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2011}}

	~~Multiple~~ ~~large-scale~~ ~~reviews~~ on ~~bottom~~ ~~trawling~~ ~~have~~ ~~noted~~ ~~that~~ ~~there~~ is a ~~great~~ ~~need~~ ~~for~~ ~~further~~ ~~studies~~ ~~that~~ ~~properly examine~~ the ~~effects of~~ ~~nutrient~~ and ~~toxin~~ ~~remobilization~~ as ~~well~~ as [[~~Carbon~~ ~~cycle\|carbon~~ ~~cycling~~]],~~<ref>NRC~~ ~~(2002)~~ ~~(National~~ ~~Research~~ ~~Council)~~ ~~Effects~~ of ~~trawling~~ and ~~dredging~~ on ~~seafloor habitat~~. ~~National~~ ~~Academ79</ref>~~ in ~~order~~ to ~~better~~ ~~estimate~~ [[~~greenhouse gas~~ ~~emissions~~]] ~~and~~ ~~hence~~ ~~the~~ ~~impact~~ on [[~~climate~~ ~~change~~]].<ref>{{~~Cite~~ journal\|~~date~~=~~2019-02-01~~\|title=~~Quantifying~~ ~~and~~ ~~valuing carbon~~ ~~flows~~ and ~~stores~~ in ~~coastal~~ ~~and~~ ~~shelf~~ ~~ecosystems~~ ~~in the UK~~\|journal=~~Ecosystem~~ ~~Services\|language=en~~\|volume=35\|pages=~~67–76~~\|~~doi~~=~~10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013\|issn=2212-0416\|doi-access=free~~\|last1=~~Luisetti~~\|first1=~~Tiziana~~\|last2=~~Turner~~\|first2=R. ~~Kerry~~\|last3=~~Andrews~~\|first3=~~Julian E~~.\|last4=~~Jickells~~\|first4=~~Timothy D~~.\|last5=~~Kröger~~\|first5=~~Silke~~\|last6=~~Diesing~~\|first6=~~Markus~~\|last7=~~Paltriguera~~\|first7=~~Lucille~~\|last8=~~Johnson~~\|first8=~~Martin T~~.~~\|last9=Parker\|first9=Eleanor R~~.\|~~last10~~=~~Bakker\|first10=Dorothee C~~.E.~~\|last11=Weston\|first11=Keith~~}}</ref>		Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].{{citation needed\|date=December 2020}} Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>

			[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>
			Even in areas where the bottom sediments are ancient, bottom trawling, by reintroducing the sediment into the water column, can create [[algae bloom\|harmful algae blooms]].<ref>Giannakourou, A., Orlova, T.Y., Assimakopoulou, G., Pagou, K. (2005) ''Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos Gulf, Greece.'' Continental Shelf Research 25, 2585-2596.
			</ref><ref>Weaver, Dallas E (2007) [http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html ''Remote Impacts of Bottom Trawling''] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410185854/http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html \|date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Palanques \|first1=A. \|last2=Guillén \|first2=J. \|last3=Puig \|first3=P. \|title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf \|journal=Limnology and Oceanography \|date=July 2001 \|volume=46 \|issue=5 \|pages=1100–1110 \|doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 \|bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10261/244111 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

			Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle\|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academies Press, Washington, DC</ref><ref>ICES (2006) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES): report of the WorkingGroup on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities. ACE 05:1 179</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|date=2019-02-01\|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK\|journal=Ecosystem Services\|language=en\|volume=35\|pages=67–76\|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013\|issn=2212-0416\|doi-access=free\|last1=Luisetti\|first1=Tiziana\|last2=Turner\|first2=R. Kerry\|last3=Andrews\|first3=Julian E.\|last4=Jickells\|first4=Timothy D.\|last5=Kröger\|first5=Silke\|last6=Diesing\|first6=Markus\|last7=Paltriguera\|first7=Lucille\|last8=Johnson\|first8=Martin T.\|last9=Parker\|first9=Eleanor R.\|last10=Bakker\|first10=Dorothee C.E.\|last11=Weston\|first11=Keith}}</ref>

	===Deep sea damage===		===Deep sea damage===

203.34.148.128: /* Resuspension and biogeochemistry */

2024-08-14T03:18:07Z

Resuspension and biogeochemistry

← Previous revision		Revision as of 03:18, 14 August 2024
Line 79:		Line 79:

	===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===		===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===
	Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = ~~Sarah\|last2~~ ~~= Puig\|first2~~ = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...~~743332P~~}}</ref> ~~Bottom~~ ~~trawling-induced~~ ~~resuspended~~ ~~sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22~~ [[~~gigatonne~~]]s ~~per~~ ~~year,~~ ~~approximately~~ ~~the~~ ~~same~~ as ~~the~~ ~~sediment~~ ~~mass~~ ~~supplied~~ to ~~the~~ ~~continental~~ ~~shelves~~ ~~through~~ ~~the~~ ~~world's~~ ~~rivers~~.<ref>{{~~Cite~~ journal\|last1=~~Oberle~~\|first1=~~Ferdinand K.J~~.\|last2=~~Storlazzi~~\|first2=~~Curt~~ D.\|last3=~~Hanebuth~~\|first3=~~Till~~ ~~J.J.\|date=2016~~\|title=~~What~~ a ~~drag:~~ ~~Quantifying~~ ~~the~~ ~~global~~ ~~impact~~ of ~~chronic~~ ~~bottom~~ ~~trawling~~ on continental shelf ~~sediment~~\|journal=~~Journal~~ of ~~Marine~~ ~~Systems~~\|~~language~~=en\|volume=~~159~~\|pages=~~109–119~~\|doi=10.~~1016~~/j.~~jmarsys~~.~~2015~~.12.~~007~~\|bibcode=~~2016JMS~~...~~159..109O}}</ref>~~ ~~These~~ ~~plumes~~ ~~introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.{{Citation needed~~\|~~date~~=~~September~~ ~~2011~~}}		Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = men are hotBDf.hjagsgujSDB;jfaerh/lHS:uaehru=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] /web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html \|date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Palanques \|first1=A. \|last2=Guillén \|first2=J. \|last3=Puig \|first3=P. \|title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf \|journal=Limnology and Oceanography \|date=July 2001 \|volume=46 \|issue=5 \|pages=1100–1110 \|doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 \|bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10261/244111 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

	~~Bottom~~ ~~trawling~~ ~~can~~ ~~both~~ ~~resuspend~~ ~~and~~ ~~bury~~ ~~biologically~~ ~~recyclable~~ ~~organic~~ ~~material,~~ ~~changing~~ ~~the~~ ~~flow~~ of ~~nutrients~~ ~~and~~ ~~carbon~~ ~~through~~ the ~~food~~ ~~web~~ and ~~thereby~~ ~~alter~~ ~~geomorphological~~ ~~landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for~~ ~~many~~ [[~~persistent~~ ~~organic~~ ~~pollutants~~]], ~~usually~~ ~~[[lipophilic]]~~ ~~pollutants~~ ~~like~~ ~~[[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]],~~ ~~[[Polychlorinated~~ ~~biphenyl\|PCB]]~~ and ~~[[Polycyclic~~ ~~aromatic~~ ~~hydrocarbon\|PAH]]~~.~~{{citation~~ ~~needed\|date=December~~ ~~2020}}~~ ~~Bottom~~ ~~trawling~~ ~~mixes~~ ~~these~~ ~~pollutants into the~~ [[~~plankton\|plankton~~ ~~ecology~~]] ~~where~~ ~~they~~ ~~can~~ ~~move~~ ~~back up the~~ [[~~food~~ ~~chain~~]] ~~and into our food supply~~.<ref>{{~~cite~~ journal\|~~doi~~=~~10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052~~\|title=~~Bottom~~ ~~trawling~~ ~~resuspends~~ ~~sediment~~ and ~~releases~~ ~~bioavailable~~ ~~contaminants~~ in a ~~polluted~~ ~~fjord~~\|journal=~~Environmental~~ ~~Pollution~~\|volume=~~170~~\|pages=~~232–241~~\|~~year~~=~~2012~~\|last1=~~Bradshaw~~\|first1=C.\|last2=~~Tjensvoll~~\|first2=I.\|last3=~~Sköld~~\|first3=M.\|last4=~~Allan~~\|first4=~~I.J~~.\|last5=~~Molvaer~~\|first5=J.\|last6=~~Magnusson~~\|first6=J.\|last7=~~Naes~~\|first7=K.\|last8=~~Nilsson~~\|first8=H.C.\|~~bibcode~~=~~2012EPoll~~.~~170~~.~~.232B~~ }}</ref>		Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle\|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academ79</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|date=2019-02-01\|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK\|journal=Ecosystem Services\|language=en\|volume=35\|pages=67–76\|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013\|issn=2212-0416\|doi-access=free\|last1=Luisetti\|first1=Tiziana\|last2=Turner\|first2=R. Kerry\|last3=Andrews\|first3=Julian E.\|last4=Jickells\|first4=Timothy D.\|last5=Kröger\|first5=Silke\|last6=Diesing\|first6=Markus\|last7=Paltriguera\|first7=Lucille\|last8=Johnson\|first8=Martin T.\|last9=Parker\|first9=Eleanor R.\|last10=Bakker\|first10=Dorothee C.E.\|last11=Weston\|first11=Keith}}</ref>

	[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>
	Even in areas where the bottom sediments are ancient, bottom trawling, by reintroducing the sediment into the water column, can create [[algae bloom\|harmful algae blooms]].<ref>Giannakourou, A., Orlova, T.Y., Assimakopoulou, G., Pagou, K. (2005) ''Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos Gulf, Greece.'' Continental Shelf Research 25, 2585-2596.
	</ref><ref>Weaver, Dallas E (2007) [http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html ''Remote Impacts of Bottom Trawling''] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410185854/http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html \|date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Palanques \|first1=A. \|last2=Guillén \|first2=J. \|last3=Puig \|first3=P. \|title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf \|journal=Limnology and Oceanography \|date=July 2001 \|volume=46 \|issue=5 \|pages=1100–1110 \|doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 \|bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10261/244111 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

	Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle\|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academies Press, Washington, DC</ref><ref>ICES (2006) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES): report of the WorkingGroup on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities. ACE 05:1 179</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|date=2019-02-01\|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK\|journal=Ecosystem Services\|language=en\|volume=35\|pages=67–76\|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013\|issn=2212-0416\|doi-access=free\|last1=Luisetti\|first1=Tiziana\|last2=Turner\|first2=R. Kerry\|last3=Andrews\|first3=Julian E.\|last4=Jickells\|first4=Timothy D.\|last5=Kröger\|first5=Silke\|last6=Diesing\|first6=Markus\|last7=Paltriguera\|first7=Lucille\|last8=Johnson\|first8=Martin T.\|last9=Parker\|first9=Eleanor R.\|last10=Bakker\|first10=Dorothee C.E.\|last11=Weston\|first11=Keith}}</ref>

	===Deep sea damage===		===Deep sea damage===

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	*[[Venezuela]] was the first country to ban industrial trawling in its [[territorial waters]] and EEZ in 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Mendoza\|first=Jeremy\|title=Rise and fall of Venezuelan industrial and artisanal marine fisheries : 1950-2010 \|journal=Fisheries Centre the University of British Columbia Working Paper Series\|s2cid=141051731}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Fischer\|first=Johanne\|date=2010\|title=Review of the implementation of the international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks\|url=http://www.fao.org/tempref/FI/DOCUMENT/COFI/COFI_30/SBD8e.pdf\|journal=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular\|volume=1076}}</ref>		*[[Venezuela]] was the first country to ban industrial trawling in its [[territorial waters]] and EEZ in 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Mendoza\|first=Jeremy\|title=Rise and fall of Venezuelan industrial and artisanal marine fisheries : 1950-2010 \|journal=Fisheries Centre the University of British Columbia Working Paper Series\|s2cid=141051731}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Fischer\|first=Johanne\|date=2010\|title=Review of the implementation of the international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks\|url=http://www.fao.org/tempref/FI/DOCUMENT/COFI/COFI_30/SBD8e.pdf\|journal=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular\|volume=1076}}</ref>
	* [[Hong Kong]] passed legislation banning trawling on 18 May 2011 in an effort to restore the territory's devastated fish stocks and marine ecosystem. The ban came into effect on 31 December 2012. The government paid [[Hong Kong dollar\|HK$]]1.72 billion to affected trawlers in a buyout scheme. Persons who contravene the ban can be fined or imprisoned under the Fisheries Protection Ordinance (Cap 171).<ref>{{cite web\|title=Facts About the Trawling Ban in Hong Kong Waters\|url=http://www.wwf.org.hk/en/whatwedo/conservation/marine/sos/abouttrawlban/\|publisher=WWF Hong Kong\|access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|title=AFCD officers intercept illegal trawler (with photo)\|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201607/26/P2016072600978.htm\|publisher=Hong Kong Government\|date=26 July 2016}}</ref>		* [[Hong Kong]] passed legislation banning trawling on 18 May 2011 in an effort to restore the territory's devastated fish stocks and marine ecosystem. The ban came into effect on 31 December 2012. The government paid [[Hong Kong dollar\|HK$]]1.72 billion to affected trawlers in a buyout scheme. Persons who contravene the ban can be fined or imprisoned under the Fisheries Protection Ordinance (Cap 171).<ref>{{cite web\|title=Facts About the Trawling Ban in Hong Kong Waters\|url=http://www.wwf.org.hk/en/whatwedo/conservation/marine/sos/abouttrawlban/\|publisher=WWF Hong Kong\|access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|title=AFCD officers intercept illegal trawler (with photo)\|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201607/26/P2016072600978.htm\|publisher=Hong Kong Government\|date=26 July 2016}}</ref>
	* [[Sri Lanka]] banned banning trawling in 2017, however, [[Exclusive economic zone of Sri Lanka\|Indian fishermen regularly engage banning trawling]] in Sri Lankan waters.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Muiz \|first1=Sarah \|title=Sri Lankan seas still disturbed by Indian bottom trawling menace \|url=https://www.dailymirror.lk/news-features/Sri-Lankan-seas-still-disturbed-by-Indian-bottom-trawling-menace/131-268447#:~:text=The%20industrial%20practice%20of%20bottom%20trawling%20by%20Indian,fishing%20practice%20which%20has%20been%20effective%20since%202017. \|access-date=9 July 2024 \|publisher=Daily Mirror \|date=4 October}}</ref>		* [[Sri Lanka]] banned banning trawling in 2017, however, [[Exclusive economic zone of Sri Lanka\|Indian fishermen regularly engage banning trawling]] in Sri Lankan waters.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Muiz \|first1=Sarah \|title=Sri Lankan seas still disturbed by Indian bottom trawling menace \|url=https://www.dailymirror.lk/news-features/Sri-Lankan-seas-still-disturbed-by-Indian-bottom-trawling-menace/131-268447#:~:text=The%20industrial%20practice%20of%20bottom%20trawling%20by%20Indian,fishing%20practice%20which%20has%20been%20effective%20since%202017. \|access-date=9 July 2024 \|publisher=Daily Mirror \|date=4 October 2023}}</ref>

	===Lack of regulation===		===Lack of regulation===

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	*[[Venezuela]] was the first country to ban industrial trawling in its [[territorial waters]] and EEZ in 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Mendoza\|first=Jeremy\|title=Rise and fall of Venezuelan industrial and artisanal marine fisheries : 1950-2010 \|journal=Fisheries Centre the University of British Columbia Working Paper Series\|s2cid=141051731}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Fischer\|first=Johanne\|date=2010\|title=Review of the implementation of the international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks\|url=http://www.fao.org/tempref/FI/DOCUMENT/COFI/COFI_30/SBD8e.pdf\|journal=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular\|volume=1076}}</ref>		*[[Venezuela]] was the first country to ban industrial trawling in its [[territorial waters]] and EEZ in 2009.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Mendoza\|first=Jeremy\|title=Rise and fall of Venezuelan industrial and artisanal marine fisheries : 1950-2010 \|journal=Fisheries Centre the University of British Columbia Working Paper Series\|s2cid=141051731}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal\|last=Fischer\|first=Johanne\|date=2010\|title=Review of the implementation of the international plan of action for the conservation and management of sharks\|url=http://www.fao.org/tempref/FI/DOCUMENT/COFI/COFI_30/SBD8e.pdf\|journal=FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Circular\|volume=1076}}</ref>
	* [[Hong Kong]] passed legislation banning trawling on 18 May 2011 in an effort to restore the territory's devastated fish stocks and marine ecosystem. The ban came into effect on 31 December 2012. The government paid [[Hong Kong dollar\|HK$]]1.72 billion to affected trawlers in a buyout scheme. Persons who contravene the ban can be fined or imprisoned under the Fisheries Protection Ordinance (Cap 171).<ref>{{cite web\|title=Facts About the Trawling Ban in Hong Kong Waters\|url=http://www.wwf.org.hk/en/whatwedo/conservation/marine/sos/abouttrawlban/\|publisher=WWF Hong Kong\|access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|title=AFCD officers intercept illegal trawler (with photo)\|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201607/26/P2016072600978.htm\|publisher=Hong Kong Government\|date=26 July 2016}}</ref>		* [[Hong Kong]] passed legislation banning trawling on 18 May 2011 in an effort to restore the territory's devastated fish stocks and marine ecosystem. The ban came into effect on 31 December 2012. The government paid [[Hong Kong dollar\|HK$]]1.72 billion to affected trawlers in a buyout scheme. Persons who contravene the ban can be fined or imprisoned under the Fisheries Protection Ordinance (Cap 171).<ref>{{cite web\|title=Facts About the Trawling Ban in Hong Kong Waters\|url=http://www.wwf.org.hk/en/whatwedo/conservation/marine/sos/abouttrawlban/\|publisher=WWF Hong Kong\|access-date=27 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|title=AFCD officers intercept illegal trawler (with photo)\|url=http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201607/26/P2016072600978.htm\|publisher=Hong Kong Government\|date=26 July 2016}}</ref>
			* [[Sri Lanka]] banned banning trawling in 2017, however, [[Exclusive economic zone of Sri Lanka\|Indian fishermen regularly engage banning trawling]] in Sri Lankan waters.<ref>{{cite news \|last1=Muiz \|first1=Sarah \|title=Sri Lankan seas still disturbed by Indian bottom trawling menace \|url=https://www.dailymirror.lk/news-features/Sri-Lankan-seas-still-disturbed-by-Indian-bottom-trawling-menace/131-268447#:~:text=The%20industrial%20practice%20of%20bottom%20trawling%20by%20Indian,fishing%20practice%20which%20has%20been%20effective%20since%202017. \|access-date=9 July 2024 \|publisher=Daily Mirror \|date=4 October}}</ref>

	===Lack of regulation===		===Lack of regulation===

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	Trawling is done by a [[Fishing trawler\|trawler]], which can be a small open boat with only {{convert\|30\|hp\|abbr=on}} or a large factory trawler with {{convert\|10000\|hp\|abbr=on}}. Bottom trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing cooperatively ([[pair trawling]]).		Trawling is done by a [[Fishing trawler\|trawler]], which can be a small open boat with only {{convert\|30\|hp\|abbr=on}} or a large factory trawler with {{convert\|10000\|hp\|abbr=on}}. Bottom trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing cooperatively ([[pair trawling]]).

	Global catch from bottom trawling has been estimated at over 30 million tonnes per year, an amount larger than any other fishing method.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Watson\|first1=Reg A.\|last2=Tidd\|first2=A.\|date=2018-07-01\|title=Mapping nearly a century and a half of global marine fishing: 1869–2015\|journal= [[Marine Policy]] \|language=en\|volume=93\|pages=171–177\|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.023\|s2cid=158305071 \|issn=0308-597X\|url=http://osf.io/mcvp5/}}</ref> Concerns about the environmental impacts of bottom trawling have led to changes in gear design, such as the addition of [[turtle excluder device]]s to reduce [[bycatch]], and limitations on locations where bottom trawling is allowed, such as [[marine protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/ocean-issues/fishing-and-farming-methods\|title=Fishing and Farming Methods from the Seafood Watch Program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium\|website=www.seafoodwatch.org\|language=en\|access-date=2018-08-23}}</ref> ~~Moreover, a~~ 2021 paper estimated that bottom trawling contributed between 600 and 1500 million tons of carbon dioxide a year by disturbing carbon dioxide in the sea floor – emissions approximately equivalent to [[Climate change in Germany\|those of Germany]], or [[Environmental impact of aviation\|the aviation industry]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sala\|first1=Enric\|last2=Mayorga\|first2=Juan\|last3=Bradley\|first3=Darcy\|last4=Cabral\|first4=Reniel B.\|last5=Atwood\|first5=Trisha B.\|last6=Auber\|first6=Arnaud\|last7=Cheung\|first7=William\|last8=Costello\|first8=Christopher\|last9=Ferretti\|first9=Francesco\|last10=Friedlander\|first10=Alan M.\|last11=Gaines\|first11=Steven D.\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z\|journal=Nature\|volume=592\|issue=7854\|language=en\|pages=397–402\|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z\|pmid=33731930\|bibcode=2021Natur.592..397S\|s2cid=232301777 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Einhorn\|first=Catrin\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Trawling for Fish May Unleash as Much Carbon as Air Travel, Study Says\|language=en-US\|work=The New York Times\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/17/climate/climate-change-oceans.html\|access-date=2021-03-18\|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Bottom trawling releases as much carbon as air travel, landmark study finds\|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/17/trawling-for-fish-releases-as-much-carbon-as-air-travel-report-finds-climate-crisis\|access-date=2021-03-20\|website=The Guardian\|language=en}}</ref> International attempts to limit bottom trawling have been ineffective.		Global catch from bottom trawling has been estimated at over 30 million tonnes per year, an amount larger than any other fishing method.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Watson\|first1=Reg A.\|last2=Tidd\|first2=A.\|date=2018-07-01\|title=Mapping nearly a century and a half of global marine fishing: 1869–2015\|journal= [[Marine Policy]] \|language=en\|volume=93\|pages=171–177\|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.023\|s2cid=158305071 \|issn=0308-597X\|url=http://osf.io/mcvp5/}}</ref> Concerns about the environmental impacts of bottom trawling have led to changes in gear design, such as the addition of [[turtle excluder device]]s to reduce [[bycatch]], and limitations on locations where bottom trawling is allowed, such as [[marine protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/ocean-issues/fishing-and-farming-methods\|title=Fishing and Farming Methods from the Seafood Watch Program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium\|website=www.seafoodwatch.org\|language=en\|access-date=2018-08-23}}</ref> A 2021 paper estimated that bottom trawling contributed between 600 and 1500 million tons of carbon dioxide a year by disturbing carbon dioxide in the sea floor – emissions approximately equivalent to [[Climate change in Germany\|those of Germany]], or [[Environmental impact of aviation\|the aviation industry]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sala\|first1=Enric\|last2=Mayorga\|first2=Juan\|last3=Bradley\|first3=Darcy\|last4=Cabral\|first4=Reniel B.\|last5=Atwood\|first5=Trisha B.\|last6=Auber\|first6=Arnaud\|last7=Cheung\|first7=William\|last8=Costello\|first8=Christopher\|last9=Ferretti\|first9=Francesco\|last10=Friedlander\|first10=Alan M.\|last11=Gaines\|first11=Steven D.\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z\|journal=Nature\|volume=592\|issue=7854\|language=en\|pages=397–402\|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z\|pmid=33731930\|bibcode=2021Natur.592..397S\|s2cid=232301777 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Einhorn\|first=Catrin\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Trawling for Fish May Unleash as Much Carbon as Air Travel, Study Says\|language=en-US\|work=The New York Times\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/17/climate/climate-change-oceans.html\|access-date=2021-03-18\|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Bottom trawling releases as much carbon as air travel, landmark study finds\|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/17/trawling-for-fish-releases-as-much-carbon-as-air-travel-report-finds-climate-crisis\|access-date=2021-03-20\|website=The Guardian\|language=en}}</ref> However, these values are highly uncertain and have been criticized as overestimates.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Hiddink \|first=Jan Geert \|last2=van de Velde \|first2=Sebastiaan J. \|last3=McConnaughey \|first3=Robert A. \|last4=De Borger \|first4=Emil \|last5=Tiano \|first5=Justin \|last6=Kaiser \|first6=Michel J. \|last7=Sweetman \|first7=Andrew K. \|last8=Sciberras \|first8=Marija \|date=2023 \|title=Quantifying the carbon benefits of ending bottom trawling \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06014-7 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=617 \|issue=7960 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06014-7 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last=Hilborn \|first=Ray \|last2=Kaiser \|first2=Michel J. \|date=2022 \|title=A path forward for analysing the impacts of marine protected areas \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04775-1 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=607 \|issue=7917 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04775-1 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> International attempts to limit bottom trawling have been ineffective.

	==History==		==History==

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	{{Short description\|Fishing method ~~for~~ ~~fishing~~ ~~trawlers~~}}		{{Short description\|Fishing method by towing a net along the seafloor}}
	[[File:RV Celtic Explorer, Galway Bay, Ireland.jpg \| thumb \| The ''[[RV Celtic Explorer\|Celtic Explorer]]'', a [[research vessel]] engaged in bottom trawling]]		[[File:RV Celtic Explorer, Galway Bay, Ireland.jpg \| thumb \| The ''[[RV Celtic Explorer\|Celtic Explorer]]'', a [[research vessel]] engaged in bottom trawling]]
	'''Bottom trawling''' is [[trawling]] (towing a '''trawl''', which is a [[fishing net]]) along the seafloor. It is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthic trawling and [[Demersal zone\|demersal]] trawling. Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean and demersal trawling is towing a net just above the [[benthic zone]]. Bottom trawling can be contrasted with [[midwater trawling]] (also known as [[Pelagic zone\|pelagic]] trawling), where a net is towed higher in the [[water column]]. Midwater trawling catches [[pelagic fish]] such as [[anchovies]] and [[mackerel]], whereas bottom trawling targets both bottom-living fish ([[groundfish]]) and [[semi-pelagic]] species such as [[cod]], [[squid]], [[shrimp]], and [[Sebastes\|rockfish]].		'''Bottom trawling''' is [[trawling]] (towing a '''trawl''', which is a [[fishing net]]) along the seafloor. It is also referred to as "dragging". The scientific community divides bottom trawling into benthic trawling and [[Demersal zone\|demersal]] trawling. Benthic trawling is towing a net at the very bottom of the ocean and demersal trawling is towing a net just above the [[benthic zone]]. Bottom trawling can be contrasted with [[midwater trawling]] (also known as [[Pelagic zone\|pelagic]] trawling), where a net is towed higher in the [[water column]]. Midwater trawling catches [[pelagic fish]] such as [[anchovies]] and [[mackerel]], whereas bottom trawling targets both bottom-living fish ([[groundfish]]) and [[semi-pelagic]] species such as [[cod]], [[squid]], [[shrimp]], and [[Sebastes\|rockfish]].

← Previous revision		Revision as of 04:39, 21 August 2024
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	Trawling is done by a [[Fishing trawler\|trawler]], which can be a small open boat with only {{convert\|30\|hp\|abbr=on}} or a large factory trawler with {{convert\|10000\|hp\|abbr=on}}. Bottom trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing cooperatively ([[pair trawling]]).		Trawling is done by a [[Fishing trawler\|trawler]], which can be a small open boat with only {{convert\|30\|hp\|abbr=on}} or a large factory trawler with {{convert\|10000\|hp\|abbr=on}}. Bottom trawling can be carried out by one trawler or by two trawlers fishing cooperatively ([[pair trawling]]).

	Global catch from bottom trawling has been estimated at over 30 million tonnes per year, an amount larger than any other fishing method.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Watson\|first1=Reg A.\|last2=Tidd\|first2=A.\|date=2018-07-01\|title=Mapping nearly a century and a half of global marine fishing: 1869–2015\|journal= [[Marine Policy]] \|language=en\|volume=93\|pages=171–177\|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.023\|s2cid=158305071 \|issn=0308-597X\|url=http://osf.io/mcvp5/}}</ref> Concerns about the environmental impacts of bottom trawling have led to changes in gear design, such as the addition of [[turtle excluder device]]s to reduce [[bycatch]], and limitations on locations where bottom trawling is allowed, such as [[marine protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/ocean-issues/fishing-and-farming-methods\|title=Fishing and Farming Methods from the Seafood Watch Program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium\|website=www.seafoodwatch.org\|language=en\|access-date=2018-08-23}}</ref> A 2021 paper estimated that bottom trawling contributed between 600 and 1500 million tons of carbon dioxide a year by disturbing carbon dioxide in the sea floor – emissions approximately equivalent to [[Climate change in Germany\|those of Germany]], or [[Environmental impact of aviation\|the aviation industry]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sala\|first1=Enric\|last2=Mayorga\|first2=Juan\|last3=Bradley\|first3=Darcy\|last4=Cabral\|first4=Reniel B.\|last5=Atwood\|first5=Trisha B.\|last6=Auber\|first6=Arnaud\|last7=Cheung\|first7=William\|last8=Costello\|first8=Christopher\|last9=Ferretti\|first9=Francesco\|last10=Friedlander\|first10=Alan M.\|last11=Gaines\|first11=Steven D.\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z\|journal=Nature\|volume=592\|issue=7854\|language=en\|pages=397–402\|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z\|pmid=33731930\|bibcode=2021Natur.592..397S\|s2cid=232301777 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Einhorn\|first=Catrin\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Trawling for Fish May Unleash as Much Carbon as Air Travel, Study Says\|language=en-US\|work=The New York Times\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/17/climate/climate-change-oceans.html\|access-date=2021-03-18\|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Bottom trawling releases as much carbon as air travel, landmark study finds\|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/17/trawling-for-fish-releases-as-much-carbon-as-air-travel-report-finds-climate-crisis\|access-date=2021-03-20\|website=The Guardian\|language=en}}</ref> However, these values are highly uncertain and have been criticized as overestimates.<ref>{{Cite journal \|~~last~~=Hiddink \|~~first~~=Jan Geert \|last2=van de Velde \|first2=Sebastiaan J. \|last3=McConnaughey \|first3=Robert A. \|last4=De Borger \|first4=Emil \|last5=Tiano \|first5=Justin \|last6=Kaiser \|first6=Michel J. \|last7=Sweetman \|first7=Andrew K. \|last8=Sciberras \|first8=Marija \|date=2023 \|title=Quantifying the carbon benefits of ending bottom trawling \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06014-7 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=617 \|issue=7960 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06014-7 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|~~last~~=Hilborn \|~~first~~=Ray \|last2=Kaiser \|first2=Michel J. \|date=2022 \|title=A path forward for analysing the impacts of marine protected areas \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04775-1 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=607 \|issue=7917 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04775-1 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> International attempts to limit bottom trawling have been ineffective.		Global catch from bottom trawling has been estimated at over 30 million tonnes per year, an amount larger than any other fishing method.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Watson\|first1=Reg A.\|last2=Tidd\|first2=A.\|date=2018-07-01\|title=Mapping nearly a century and a half of global marine fishing: 1869–2015\|journal= [[Marine Policy]] \|language=en\|volume=93\|pages=171–177\|doi=10.1016/j.marpol.2018.04.023\|bibcode=2018MarPo..93..171W \|s2cid=158305071 \|issn=0308-597X\|url=http://osf.io/mcvp5/}}</ref> Concerns about the environmental impacts of bottom trawling have led to changes in gear design, such as the addition of [[turtle excluder device]]s to reduce [[bycatch]], and limitations on locations where bottom trawling is allowed, such as [[marine protected area]]s.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=http://www.seafoodwatch.org/ocean-issues/fishing-and-farming-methods\|title=Fishing and Farming Methods from the Seafood Watch Program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium\|website=www.seafoodwatch.org\|language=en\|access-date=2018-08-23}}</ref> A 2021 paper estimated that bottom trawling contributed between 600 and 1500 million tons of carbon dioxide a year by disturbing carbon dioxide in the sea floor – emissions approximately equivalent to [[Climate change in Germany\|those of Germany]], or [[Environmental impact of aviation\|the aviation industry]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Sala\|first1=Enric\|last2=Mayorga\|first2=Juan\|last3=Bradley\|first3=Darcy\|last4=Cabral\|first4=Reniel B.\|last5=Atwood\|first5=Trisha B.\|last6=Auber\|first6=Arnaud\|last7=Cheung\|first7=William\|last8=Costello\|first8=Christopher\|last9=Ferretti\|first9=Francesco\|last10=Friedlander\|first10=Alan M.\|last11=Gaines\|first11=Steven D.\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate\|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-021-03371-z\|journal=Nature\|volume=592\|issue=7854\|language=en\|pages=397–402\|doi=10.1038/s41586-021-03371-z\|pmid=33731930\|bibcode=2021Natur.592..397S\|s2cid=232301777 \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news\|last=Einhorn\|first=Catrin\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Trawling for Fish May Unleash as Much Carbon as Air Travel, Study Says\|language=en-US\|work=The New York Times\|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/17/climate/climate-change-oceans.html\|access-date=2021-03-18\|issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web\|date=2021-03-17\|title=Bottom trawling releases as much carbon as air travel, landmark study finds\|url=http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/mar/17/trawling-for-fish-releases-as-much-carbon-as-air-travel-report-finds-climate-crisis\|access-date=2021-03-20\|website=The Guardian\|language=en}}</ref> However, these values are highly uncertain and have been criticized as overestimates.<ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Hiddink \|first1=Jan Geert \|last2=van de Velde \|first2=Sebastiaan J. \|last3=McConnaughey \|first3=Robert A. \|last4=De Borger \|first4=Emil \|last5=Tiano \|first5=Justin \|last6=Kaiser \|first6=Michel J. \|last7=Sweetman \|first7=Andrew K. \|last8=Sciberras \|first8=Marija \|date=2023 \|title=Quantifying the carbon benefits of ending bottom trawling \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-023-06014-7 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=617 \|issue=7960 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-023-06014-7 \|pmid=37165247 \|bibcode=2023Natur.617E...1H \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal \|last1=Hilborn \|first1=Ray \|last2=Kaiser \|first2=Michel J. \|date=2022 \|title=A path forward for analysing the impacts of marine protected areas \|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04775-1 \|journal=Nature \|language=en \|volume=607 \|issue=7917 \|pages=E1–E2 \|doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04775-1 \|pmid=35794262 \|bibcode=2022Natur.607E...1H \|issn=1476-4687}}</ref> International attempts to limit bottom trawling have been ineffective.

	==History==		==History==
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	===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===		===Resuspension and biogeochemistry===
	Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2011}}		Bottom trawling stirs up the sediment at the bottom of the sea. The [[suspended solids\|suspended solid]] plumes can drift with the current for tens of kilometres from the source of the trawling, increasing sedimentation rates in deep environments <ref>{{Cite journal \|doi = 10.1038/srep43332\|title = Bottom-trawling along submarine canyons impacts deep sedimentary regimes\|year = 2017\|last1 = Paradis\|first1 = Sarah\|last2 = Puig\|first2 = Pere\|last3 = Masqué\|first3 = Pere\|last4 = Juan-Díaz\|first4 = Xènia\|last5 = Martín\|first5 = Jacobo\|last6 = Palanques\|first6 = Albert\|journal = Scientific Reports\|volume = 7\| issue=1 \|page = 43332\|pmid = 28233856\|pmc = 5324136\|bibcode = 2017NatSR...743332P}}</ref> Bottom trawling-induced resuspended sediment mass on the world's continental shelves has been estimated at 22 [[gigatonne]]s per year, approximately the same as the sediment mass supplied to the continental shelves through the world's rivers.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Oberle\|first1=Ferdinand K.J.\|last2=Storlazzi\|first2=Curt D.\|last3=Hanebuth\|first3=Till J.J.\|date=2016\|title=What a drag: Quantifying the global impact of chronic bottom trawling on continental shelf sediment\|journal=Journal of Marine Systems\|language=en\|volume=159\|pages=109–119\|doi=10.1016/j.jmarsys.2015.12.007\|bibcode=2016JMS...159..109O}}</ref> These plumes introduce a [[turbidity]] which decreases light levels at the bottom and can affect [[kelp]] reproduction.{{Citation needed\|date=September 2011}}

	Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].{{citation needed\|date=December 2020}} Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>		Bottom trawling can both resuspend and bury biologically recyclable organic material, changing the flow of nutrients and carbon through the food web and thereby alter geomorphological landscapes.<ref name="researchgate.net"/> Ocean sediments are the sink for many [[persistent organic pollutants]], usually [[lipophilic]] pollutants like [[Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane\|DDT]], [[Polychlorinated biphenyl\|PCB]] and [[Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon\|PAH]].{{citation needed\|date=December 2020}} Bottom trawling mixes these pollutants into the [[plankton\|plankton ecology]] where they can move back up the [[food chain]] and into our food supply.<ref>{{cite journal\|doi=10.1016/j.envpol.2012.06.019\|pmid=22842052\|title=Bottom trawling resuspends sediment and releases bioavailable contaminants in a polluted fjord\|journal=Environmental Pollution\|volume=170\|pages=232–241\|year=2012\|last1=Bradshaw\|first1=C.\|last2=Tjensvoll\|first2=I.\|last3=Sköld\|first3=M.\|last4=Allan\|first4=I.J.\|last5=Molvaer\|first5=J.\|last6=Magnusson\|first6=J.\|last7=Naes\|first7=K.\|last8=Nilsson\|first8=H.C.\|bibcode=2012EPoll.170..232B }}</ref>

	[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>		[[Phosphorus]] is often found in high concentration in soft shallow sediments.<ref>{{cite book\|doi=10.1016/B0-08-043751-6/08153-6\|chapter=The Global Phosphorus Cycle\|title=Treatise on Geochemistry\|pages=585–643\|year=2003\|last1=Ruttenberg\|first1=K.C.\|publisher=Elsevier \|isbn=9780080437514}}</ref> Resuspending nutrient solids like these can introduce oxygen demand into the water column, and result in oxygen deficient [[Dead zone (ecology)\|dead zone]]s.<ref>{{cite web \|last1=US Department of Commerce \|first1=National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration \|title=What is a dead zone? \|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/deadzone.html#:~:text=%22Dead%20zone%22%20is%20a%20more%20common%20term%20for,as%20a%20result%20are%20often%20called%20%22dead%20zones.%22 \|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov \|access-date=16 October 2020 \|language=EN-US}}</ref>
	Even in areas where the bottom sediments are ancient, bottom trawling, by reintroducing the sediment into the water column, can create [[algae bloom\|harmful algae blooms]].<ref>Giannakourou, A., Orlova, T.Y., Assimakopoulou, G., Pagou, K. (2005) ''Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos Gulf, Greece.'' Continental Shelf Research 25, 2585-2596.		Even in areas where the bottom sediments are ancient, bottom trawling, by reintroducing the sediment into the water column, can create [[algae bloom\|harmful algae blooms]].<ref>Giannakourou, A., Orlova, T.Y., Assimakopoulou, G., Pagou, K. (2005) ''Dinoflagellate cysts in recent marine sediments from Thermaikos Gulf, Greece.'' Continental Shelf Research 25, 2585-2596.
	</ref><ref>Weaver, Dallas E (2007) [http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html ''Remote Impacts of Bottom Trawling''] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410185854/http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html \|date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Palanques \|first1=A. \|last2=Guillén \|first2=J. \|last3=Puig \|first3=P. \|title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf \|journal=Limnology and Oceanography \|date=July 2001 \|volume=46 \|issue=5 \|pages=1100–1110 \|doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 \|bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10261/244111 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref>		</ref><ref>Weaver, Dallas E (2007) [http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html ''Remote Impacts of Bottom Trawling''] {{webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410185854/http://web.mac.com/deweaver/bottom_trawling/Links_to_Docs.html \|date=2009-04-10 }}.</ref> More suspended solids are introduced into the oceans from bottom trawling than any other man-made source.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Palanques \|first1=A. \|last2=Guillén \|first2=J. \|last3=Puig \|first3=P. \|title=Impact of bottom trawling on water turbidity and muddy sediment of an unfished continental shelf \|journal=Limnology and Oceanography \|date=July 2001 \|volume=46 \|issue=5 \|pages=1100–1110 \|doi=10.4319/lo.2001.46.5.1100 \|bibcode=2001LimOc..46.1100P \|doi-access=free \|hdl=10261/244111 \|hdl-access=free }}</ref>

	Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle\|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academies Press, Washington, DC</ref><ref>ICES (2006) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES): report of the WorkingGroup on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities. ACE 05:1 179</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|date=2019-02-01\|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK\|journal=Ecosystem Services\|language=en\|volume=35\|pages=67–76\|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013\|issn=2212-0416\|doi-access=free\|last1=Luisetti\|first1=Tiziana\|last2=Turner\|first2=R. Kerry\|last3=Andrews\|first3=Julian E.\|last4=Jickells\|first4=Timothy D.\|last5=Kröger\|first5=Silke\|last6=Diesing\|first6=Markus\|last7=Paltriguera\|first7=Lucille\|last8=Johnson\|first8=Martin T.\|last9=Parker\|first9=Eleanor R.\|last10=Bakker\|first10=Dorothee C.E.\|last11=Weston\|first11=Keith}}</ref>		Multiple large-scale reviews on bottom trawling have noted that there is a great need for further studies that properly examine the effects of nutrient and toxin remobilization as well as [[Carbon cycle\|carbon cycling]],<ref>NRC (2002) (National Research Council) Effects of trawling and dredging on seafloor habitat. National Academies Press, Washington, DC</ref><ref>ICES (2006) International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES): report of the WorkingGroup on Ecosystem Effects of Fishing Activities. ACE 05:1 179</ref> in order to better estimate [[greenhouse gas emissions]] and hence the impact on [[climate change]].<ref>{{Cite journal\|date=2019-02-01\|title=Quantifying and valuing carbon flows and stores in coastal and shelf ecosystems in the UK\|journal=Ecosystem Services\|language=en\|volume=35\|pages=67–76\|doi=10.1016/j.ecoser.2018.10.013\|issn=2212-0416\|doi-access=free\|last1=Luisetti\|first1=Tiziana\|last2=Turner\|first2=R. Kerry\|last3=Andrews\|first3=Julian E.\|last4=Jickells\|first4=Timothy D.\|last5=Kröger\|first5=Silke\|last6=Diesing\|first6=Markus\|last7=Paltriguera\|first7=Lucille\|last8=Johnson\|first8=Martin T.\|last9=Parker\|first9=Eleanor R.\|last10=Bakker\|first10=Dorothee C.E.\|last11=Weston\|first11=Keith\|bibcode=2019EcoSv..35...67L }}</ref>

	===Deep sea damage===		===Deep sea damage===