Estonia - Revision history

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2025-01-09T13:32:32Z

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JorkaSSS: /* Culture */

2025-01-07T17:02:34Z

Culture

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	==Culture==		==Culture==
			{{Very long section\|date=January 2025}}
	{{Main\|Culture of Estonia}}		{{Main\|Culture of Estonia}}
	{{See also\|List of Estonians}}		{{See also\|List of Estonians}}

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Nikkimaria: /* Demographics */ trim

2024-12-30T02:24:59Z

Demographics: trim

← Previous revision		Revision as of 02:24, 30 December 2024
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	The Estonian society has undergone considerable changes since the country had restored full independence in 1991.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/report__estonia_is_most_westernized_of_former_soviet_union_members/\|title=Report: Estonia is most westernised of former Soviet Union members\|work=[[The Baltic Times]]\|date=May 1, 2018\|access-date=November 29, 2021}}</ref> Some of the more notable changes have taken effect in the level of stratification and distribution of family income. The [[Gini coefficient]] has held steadily higher than the European Union average (31 in 2009),<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610232357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html \|date=10 June 2010 }}. . Retrieved 7 November 2011</ref> although it has clearly dropped. The registered unemployment rate in January 2021 was 6.9%.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916215536/https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar \|url-status=live \|archive-date=16 September 2020 \|title=Töötuse määr \|trans-title=Unemployment rate \|publisher=Statistics Estonia \|language=Estonian \|access-date=20 September 2021 }}</ref>		The Estonian society has undergone considerable changes since the country had restored full independence in 1991.<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.baltictimes.com/report__estonia_is_most_westernized_of_former_soviet_union_members/\|title=Report: Estonia is most westernised of former Soviet Union members\|work=[[The Baltic Times]]\|date=May 1, 2018\|access-date=November 29, 2021}}</ref> Some of the more notable changes have taken effect in the level of stratification and distribution of family income. The [[Gini coefficient]] has held steadily higher than the European Union average (31 in 2009),<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html CIA World Factbook] {{Webarchive\|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610232357/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html \|date=10 June 2010 }}. . Retrieved 7 November 2011</ref> although it has clearly dropped. The registered unemployment rate in January 2021 was 6.9%.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar \|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916215536/https://www.stat.ee/et/avasta-statistikat/valdkonnad/tooelu/tooturg/tootuse-maar \|url-status=live \|archive-date=16 September 2020 \|title=Töötuse määr \|trans-title=Unemployment rate \|publisher=Statistics Estonia \|language=Estonian \|access-date=20 September 2021 }}</ref>

	Estonia's population on 31 December 2021 (1,331,824 people) was about 3% higher than in the previous census of 2011. ~~84% of people residing in Estonia in 2021 lived in Estonia at the time of the previous census as well. 11% had been added by births and 5% by immigration over the ten years 2011–2021. Nowadays,~~ 211 different self-reported ethnic groups are represented in the country's population and 243 different mother tongues are spoken. Census data indicate that Estonia has continued to stand out among European countries for its highly educated population – 43% of the population aged 25–64 have a university education, which puts Estonia in 7th place in Europe (Estonian women rank 3rd ~~in terms of educational attainment~~).<ref name="PopulationByNationality">{{cite web \|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC223&ti=POPULATION+BY+THE+PLACE+OF+RESIDENCE+AND+MOTHER+TONGUE&path=../I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/08Ethnic_nationality._Mother_tongue._Command_of_foreign_languages/&lang=1 \|title=Population by the place of residence and mother tongue, statistical database: Population Census 2000\|date=July 2010\|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)\|access-date=19 June 2009}}</ref>		Estonia's population on 31 December 2021 (1,331,824 people) was about 3% higher than in the previous census of 2011. 211 different self-reported ethnic groups are represented in the country's population and 243 different mother tongues are spoken. Census data indicate that Estonia has continued to stand out among European countries for its highly educated population – 43% of the population aged 25–64 have a university education, which puts Estonia in 7th place in Europe (Estonian women rank 3rd).<ref name="PopulationByNationality">{{cite web \|url=http://pub.stat.ee/px-web.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=PC223&ti=POPULATION+BY+THE+PLACE+OF+RESIDENCE+AND+MOTHER+TONGUE&path=../I_Databas/Population_census/PHC2000/08Ethnic_nationality._Mother_tongue._Command_of_foreign_languages/&lang=1 \|title=Population by the place of residence and mother tongue, statistical database: Population Census 2000\|date=July 2010\|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)\|access-date=19 June 2009}}</ref>

	More people of different ethnic origin live in Estonia than ever before, however the share of Estonians in the population has remained stable over the three censuses (2000: 68.3%; 2011: 69.8%; 2021: 69.4%). Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% of people speak it as their mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language. Compared with previous censuses, the proportion of people who speak Estonian has increased (2000: 80%; 2011: 82%), particularly due to people who have learned to speak Estonian as a foreign language (2000: 12%; 2011: 14%). It has been estimated that 76% of Estonia's population can speak a foreign language. As of 2021 census data, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia (overtaking the top position from Russian~~, which had still been the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia in 2011 and earlier censuses~~). An estimated 17% of the native Estonian-speaking population speak a dialect of Estonian.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/news/results-population-census-have-been-published\|title=The results of the 2021 population and housing census have been published\|date=December 2022\|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)\|access-date=11 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="PopulationByNationality"/>		More people of different ethnic origin live in Estonia than ever before, however the share of Estonians in the population has remained stable over the three censuses (2000: 68.3%; 2011: 69.8%; 2021: 69.4%). Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% of people speak it as their mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language. Compared with previous censuses, the proportion of people who speak Estonian has increased (2000: 80%; 2011: 82%), particularly due to people who have learned to speak Estonian as a foreign language (2000: 12%; 2011: 14%). It has been estimated that 76% of Estonia's population can speak a foreign language. As of 2021 census data, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia (overtaking the top position from Russian). An estimated 17% of the native Estonian-speaking population speak a dialect of Estonian.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/news/results-population-census-have-been-published\|title=The results of the 2021 population and housing census have been published\|date=December 2022\|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)\|access-date=11 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="PopulationByNationality"/>

	===Ethnicity and citizenship===		===Ethnicity and citizenship===

DJ Sturm: /* Transportation */

2024-12-28T03:20:02Z

Transportation

← Previous revision		Revision as of 03:20, 28 December 2024
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	[[Highways in Estonia\|Road infrastructure in Estonia]] is extensive, with 16,982 km of state-managed roads, including 12,716 km of paved surfaces, ensuring reliable transport across the country.<ref>[https://www.transpordiamet.ee/eesti-teedevork Eesti teedevõrk]</ref> Major highways such as the [[Narva Highway]] ([[European route E20\|E20]]), [[Tartu Highway]] ([[European route E263\|E263]]), and [[Pärnu Highway]] ([[European route E67\|E67]]), are essential for both local and international travel. Estonia has a high rate of car ownership, with most households owning at least one vehicle, and nearly half owning two, particularly in rural areas where 97% of households have a car.<ref>[https://www.if.ee/ifist/pressiruum/2022/uuring-eesti-inimestel-on-erakordselt-palju-autosid Uuring: Eesti inimestel on erakordselt palju autosid]</ref> Active transport, including [[cycling]] and [[walking]], is also notable, especially in urban areas, where around 3% of employed residents cycle to work and about 15% walk. In total, nearly half of city residents and one-third of rural residents engage in walking or cycling as part of their daily travel.<ref>[https://www.transpordiamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024-01/Rattastrateegia_Lähteseisukohad.pdf Eesti rattastrateegia koostamise lähteseisukohad]</ref>		[[Highways in Estonia\|Road infrastructure in Estonia]] is extensive, with 16,982 km of state-managed roads, including 12,716 km of paved surfaces, ensuring reliable transport across the country.<ref>[https://www.transpordiamet.ee/eesti-teedevork Eesti teedevõrk]</ref> Major highways such as the [[Narva Highway]] ([[European route E20\|E20]]), [[Tartu Highway]] ([[European route E263\|E263]]), and [[Pärnu Highway]] ([[European route E67\|E67]]), are essential for both local and international travel. Estonia has a high rate of car ownership, with most households owning at least one vehicle, and nearly half owning two, particularly in rural areas where 97% of households have a car.<ref>[https://www.if.ee/ifist/pressiruum/2022/uuring-eesti-inimestel-on-erakordselt-palju-autosid Uuring: Eesti inimestel on erakordselt palju autosid]</ref> Active transport, including [[cycling]] and [[walking]], is also notable, especially in urban areas, where around 3% of employed residents cycle to work and about 15% walk. In total, nearly half of city residents and one-third of rural residents engage in walking or cycling as part of their daily travel.<ref>[https://www.transpordiamet.ee/sites/default/files/documents/2024-01/Rattastrateegia_Lähteseisukohad.pdf Eesti rattastrateegia koostamise lähteseisukohad]</ref>

	The [[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport]], located in the capital city, is the largest airport in Estonia ~~and~~ ~~serves~~ as a [[~~Airline~~ ~~hub\|hub~~]] ~~for~~ ~~the~~ ~~national airline~~ [[Nordica (airline)\|Nordica]]. It ~~also~~ ~~functions~~ as a secondary hub for [[AirBaltic]]<ref>{{cite news \|title=Latvian airBaltic becomes number one airline in Estonia \|url=http://estonianworld.com/business/airbaltic-becomes-number-one-airline-in-estonia/ \|work=Estonian World \|date=4 May 2016 \|access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> and [[LOT Polish Airlines]].<ref>{{cite news \|first=Siiri \|last=Liiva \|url=http://majandus24.postimees.ee/3915711/nordica-lennukipark-taeieneb-ajutiselt-uehe-loti-lennukiga \|title=Nordica lennukipark täieneb ajutiselt ühe LOTi lennukiga \|newspaper=Postimees Majandus \|publisher=Postimees \|date=18 November 2016 \|access-date=19 November 2016 \|language=et}}</ref> Since 1998, the airport has seen a consistent annual increase in passenger traffic, averaging 14.2%. On 16 November 2012, Tallinn Airport reached a significant milestone by welcoming its two millionth passenger for the first time in history.<ref>{{cite news \|title=FOTOD: Vaata, kuidas saabus Tallinna lennujaama kahe miljones reisija \|url=http://majandus.delfi.ee/news/uudised/fotod-vaata-kuidas-saabus-tallinna-lennujaama-kahe-miljones-reisija.d?id=65274122 \|publisher=delfi.ee \|language=et \|date=16 November 2012 \|access-date=17 November 2012}}</ref> Other airports with regular passenger flights include [[Tartu Airport]], [[Pärnu Airport]], [[Kuressaare Airport]], and [[Kärdla Airport]].<ref>[https://saartehaal.postimees.ee/8099867/lennati-kolmnurka-kuressaare-lend-kais-kaks-hommikut-labi-kardla Kuressaare lend käis kaks hommikut läbi Kärdla]</ref>		The [[Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport]], located in the capital city, is the largest airport in Estonia. Following the bankruptcies of the national airline [[Estonian Air]] in 2015 and [[Nordica (airline)\|Nordica]] in 2024,<ref>[https://news.err.ee/1609540846/estonian-airline-nordica-formally-files-for-bankruptcy Estonian airline Nordica formally files for bankruptcy]</ref> the Tallinn airport remains a secondary hub for [[AirBaltic]]<ref>{{cite news \|title=Latvian airBaltic becomes number one airline in Estonia \|url=http://estonianworld.com/business/airbaltic-becomes-number-one-airline-in-estonia/ \|work=Estonian World \|date=4 May 2016 \|access-date=6 May 2016}}</ref> and [[LOT Polish Airlines]].<ref>{{cite news \|first=Siiri \|last=Liiva \|url=http://majandus24.postimees.ee/3915711/nordica-lennukipark-taeieneb-ajutiselt-uehe-loti-lennukiga \|title=Nordica lennukipark täieneb ajutiselt ühe LOTi lennukiga \|newspaper=Postimees Majandus \|publisher=Postimees \|date=18 November 2016 \|access-date=19 November 2016 \|language=et}}</ref> Other airports with regular passenger flights include [[Tartu Airport]], [[Pärnu Airport]], [[Kuressaare Airport]], and [[Kärdla Airport]].<ref>[https://saartehaal.postimees.ee/8099867/lennati-kolmnurka-kuressaare-lend-kais-kaks-hommikut-labi-kardla Kuressaare lend käis kaks hommikut läbi Kärdla]</ref>

	===Natural resources and mining===		===Natural resources and mining===

Per exemplum: lead updates

2024-12-25T10:33:52Z

lead updates

← Previous revision		Revision as of 10:33, 25 December 2024
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	Present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BC. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages\|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Northern Crusades]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web\|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/\|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta\|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After more than six centuries of rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order\|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)\|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule\|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening\|Estonian national identity]] began to reemerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then-warring [[Russian Republic\|Russian]] and [[German Empire\|German]] empires. Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], <!--as a result of the worldwide [[Great Depression]] Estonia briefly experienced [[authoritarianism\|rule]] [[rule by decree\|by decree]] during the [[political violence\|politically non-violent]] "[[era of silence]]" in 1934–38. -->Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II\|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[Estonia in World War II\|World War II]], however the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied]]; first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)\|1940]], then [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)\|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union\|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–91 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, the position expressed by [[European Parliament]], which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal \| last=European Parliament \| title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania \| journal=Official Journal of the European Communities \| volume=C 42/78 \| date=January 13, 1983 \| url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states\|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)\|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)\|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile\|government-in-exile]]. Following the 1988–90 "[[Singing Revolution]]" against Soviet rule, the nation's full independence was restored on [[Estonian Restoration of Independence\|20 August 1991]].		Present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BC. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages\|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Northern Crusades]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web\|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/\|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta\|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After more than six centuries of rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order\|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)\|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule\|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening\|Estonian national identity]] began to reemerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then-warring [[Russian Republic\|Russian]] and [[German Empire\|German]] empires. Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], <!--as a result of the worldwide [[Great Depression]] Estonia briefly experienced [[authoritarianism\|rule]] [[rule by decree\|by decree]] during the [[political violence\|politically non-violent]] "[[era of silence]]" in 1934–38. -->Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II\|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[Estonia in World War II\|World War II]], however the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied]]; first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)\|1940]], then [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)\|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union\|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–91 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, the position expressed by [[European Parliament]], which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal \| last=European Parliament \| title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania \| journal=Official Journal of the European Communities \| volume=C 42/78 \| date=January 13, 1983 \| url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states\|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)\|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)\|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile\|government-in-exile]]. Following the 1988–90 "[[Singing Revolution]]" against Soviet rule, the nation's full independence was restored on [[Estonian Restoration of Independence\|20 August 1991]].

	Estonia is a [[developed country]] with a [[World Bank high-income economy\|high-income]] advanced [[Economy of Estonia\|economy]]. It is a democratic [[unitary parliamentary republic]], administratively subdivided into 15 ''maakond'' [[Counties of Estonia\|(counties)]]. It is one of the least populous members of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. Estonia has consistently ranked highly in international rankings for [[quality of life]],<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.prosperity.com/globe/estonia\|title=Estonia (Ranked 21st)\|website=Legatum Prosperity Index 2020}}</ref> [[Education Index\|education]],<ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-50590581\|title=Pisa rankings: Why Estonian pupils shine in global tests\| work=BBC News \|date=2 December 2019}}</ref> [[Press Freedom Index\|press freedom]], digitalisation of public services<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://e-estonia.com/estonia-top-3-in-un-e-government-survey-2020/\|title=Estonia among top 3 in the UN e-Government Survey 2020\|date=24 July 2020\|website=e-Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.alphr.com/technology/1007520/how-a-former-soviet-state-became-one-of-the-worlds-most-advanced-digital-nations/\|title=How A Former Soviet State Became One Of The World's Most Advanced Digital Nations\|first=Theresa\|last=Harold\|work=Alphr\|date=October 30, 2017\|access-date=November 29, 2021}}</ref> and the prevalence of technology companies.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://2020.stateofeuropeantech.com/chart/746-3309\|title=Number of start-ups per capita by country\|website=2020.stateofeuropeantech.com}}</ref>		Estonia is a [[developed country]] with a [[World Bank high-income economy\|high-income]] advanced [[Economy of Estonia\|economy]] and a member of the [[Eurozone]]. It is a democratic [[unitary parliamentary republic]], administratively subdivided into 15 ''maakond'' [[Counties of Estonia\|(counties)]]. With a population of 1.37 million, it is one of the least populous members of the [[European Union]] and [[NATO]]. Estonia is among the [[Corruption Perceptions Index#2020–2023\|least corrupt]] countries in the world and has the lowest level of corruption among the former [[Soviet Union]] states. Estonia has consistently ranked highly in international rankings for [[quality of life]],<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.prosperity.com/globe/estonia\|title=Estonia (Ranked 21st)\|website=Legatum Prosperity Index 2020}}</ref> [[Education Index\|education]],<ref>{{Cite news\|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/education-50590581\|title=Pisa rankings: Why Estonian pupils shine in global tests\| work=BBC News \|date=2 December 2019}}</ref> [[Press Freedom Index\|press freedom]], digitalisation of public services<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://e-estonia.com/estonia-top-3-in-un-e-government-survey-2020/\|title=Estonia among top 3 in the UN e-Government Survey 2020\|date=24 July 2020\|website=e-Estonia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web\|url=https://www.alphr.com/technology/1007520/how-a-former-soviet-state-became-one-of-the-worlds-most-advanced-digital-nations/\|title=How A Former Soviet State Became One Of The World's Most Advanced Digital Nations\|first=Theresa\|last=Harold\|work=Alphr\|date=October 30, 2017\|access-date=November 29, 2021}}</ref> and the prevalence of technology companies.<ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://2020.stateofeuropeantech.com/chart/746-3309\|title=Number of start-ups per capita by country\|website=2020.stateofeuropeantech.com}}</ref>

	==Name==		==Name==

ExRat: /* Soviet occupation */ Forest Brothers. Not THE Forest Brothers, as there were many.

2024-12-24T14:56:32Z

Soviet occupation: Forest Brothers. Not THE Forest Brothers, as there were many.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:56, 24 December 2024
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	{{Main\|Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Occupation of the Baltic states\|Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)}}		{{Main\|Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Occupation of the Baltic states\|Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)}}
	Following the renewed Soviet occupation of Estonia, thousands of Estonians once again joined the [[Forest Brothers]] to resist Soviet rule. This armed resistance was particularly intense in the immediate post-war years, but Soviet forces eventually wore it down through relentless attrition tactics, bringing an end to organized armed resistance by the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raun\|first1=Toivo U.\|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated\|page=174 \|year=2002\|publisher=Hoover Press\|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The Soviet regime also intensified its [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union\|policy of collectivisation]], forcing Estonian farmers to abandon private agriculture and join state-run collectives. When locals resisted, authorities launched a campaign of terror, culminating in March 1949 with [[Operation Priboi\|operation ''Priboi'']] – the mass deportation of around 20,000 Estonians to the [[Gulag\|gulag system]] in Siberia.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Misiunas \|first1=Romuald \|title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 \|date=1983 \|publisher=University of California Press \|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles \|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 \|page=78 \|url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up \|access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Full collectivization followed shortly after, marking a new phase of Soviet control over Estonia's economy.<ref name="Miljan110"/><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Purs\|first1=Aldis\|title=Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since 1945\|page=335\|year=2013\|publisher=Reaktion Books\|isbn=9781861899323}}</ref>		Following the renewed Soviet occupation of Estonia, thousands of Estonians once again joined the [[Forest Brothers]] to resist Soviet rule. This armed resistance was particularly intense in the immediate post-war years, but Soviet forces eventually wore it down through relentless attrition tactics, bringing an end to organized armed resistance by the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raun\|first1=Toivo U.\|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated\|page=174 \|year=2002\|publisher=Hoover Press\|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The Soviet regime also intensified its [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union\|policy of collectivisation]], forcing Estonian farmers to abandon private agriculture and join state-run collectives. When locals resisted, authorities launched a campaign of terror, culminating in March 1949 with [[Operation Priboi\|operation ''Priboi'']] – the mass deportation of around 20,000 Estonians to the [[Gulag\|gulag system]] in Siberia.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Misiunas \|first1=Romuald \|title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 \|date=1983 \|publisher=University of California Press \|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles \|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 \|page=78 \|url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up \|access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Full collectivization followed shortly after, marking a new phase of Soviet control over Estonia's economy.<ref name="Miljan110"/><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Purs\|first1=Aldis\|title=Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since 1945\|page=335\|year=2013\|publisher=Reaktion Books\|isbn=9781861899323}}</ref>
	[[File:Estonian forest brothers relaxing and cleaning their guns after a shooting exercise in Veskiaru, Järva County, Estonia, 1953. (47953893422).jpg\|thumb\|right\|~~The~~ [[Forest Brothers]] in 1953]]		[[File:Estonian forest brothers relaxing and cleaning their guns after a shooting exercise in Veskiaru, Järva County, Estonia, 1953. (47953893422).jpg\|thumb\|right\|[[Forest Brothers]] in 1953]]
	Simultaneously, the Soviet Union initiated [[Russification]] policies that sought to reshape Estonia's demographics and dilute its cultural identity. Large numbers of ethnic [[Russians in Estonia\|Russians]] and other [[Soviet people\|Soviet citizens]] were resettled in Estonia, threatening to turn native Estonians into a minority in their own homeland.<ref name="Taagepera97">{{Cite book\|last1=Taagepera\|first1=Rein\|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State\|page=128\|year=2013\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=9781136678011}}</ref> Between 1945 and 1989, the proportion of ethnic Estonians in the country dropped from 97% to 62%.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Puur \|first1=Allan \|last2=Rahnu \|first2=Leen \|last3=Sakkeus \|first3=Luule \|last4=Klesment \|first4=Martin \|last5=Abuladze \|first5=Liili \|date=22 March 2018 \|title=The formation of ethnically mixed partnerships in Estonia: A stalling trend from a two-sided perspective \|url=https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol38/38/38-38.pdf \|journal=[[Demographic Research (journal)\|Demographic Research]] \|volume=38 \|issue=38 \|page=1117 \|doi=10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.38 \|access-date= 7 January 2020\|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Communist Party of Estonia]], dominated by ethnic Russians, acted as a mechanism for this demographic shift. Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Misiunas \|first1=Romuald \|title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 \|date=1983 \|publisher=University of California Press \|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles \|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 \|page=96 \|url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up \|access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Estonians faced additional hardships, as thousands were forcibly conscripted into Soviet conflicts, including the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] and the [[Chernobyl disaster]] cleanup.		Simultaneously, the Soviet Union initiated [[Russification]] policies that sought to reshape Estonia's demographics and dilute its cultural identity. Large numbers of ethnic [[Russians in Estonia\|Russians]] and other [[Soviet people\|Soviet citizens]] were resettled in Estonia, threatening to turn native Estonians into a minority in their own homeland.<ref name="Taagepera97">{{Cite book\|last1=Taagepera\|first1=Rein\|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State\|page=128\|year=2013\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=9781136678011}}</ref> Between 1945 and 1989, the proportion of ethnic Estonians in the country dropped from 97% to 62%.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Puur \|first1=Allan \|last2=Rahnu \|first2=Leen \|last3=Sakkeus \|first3=Luule \|last4=Klesment \|first4=Martin \|last5=Abuladze \|first5=Liili \|date=22 March 2018 \|title=The formation of ethnically mixed partnerships in Estonia: A stalling trend from a two-sided perspective \|url=https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol38/38/38-38.pdf \|journal=[[Demographic Research (journal)\|Demographic Research]] \|volume=38 \|issue=38 \|page=1117 \|doi=10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.38 \|access-date= 7 January 2020\|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Communist Party of Estonia]], dominated by ethnic Russians, acted as a mechanism for this demographic shift. Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Misiunas \|first1=Romuald \|title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 \|date=1983 \|publisher=University of California Press \|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles \|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 \|page=96 \|url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up \|access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Estonians faced additional hardships, as thousands were forcibly conscripted into Soviet conflicts, including the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] and the [[Chernobyl disaster]] cleanup.

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2024-12-23T01:47:09Z

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← Previous revision		Revision as of 01:47, 23 December 2024
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	\| established_event1 = [[Estonian Declaration of Independence\|Declaration of independence]]		\| established_event1 = [[Estonian Declaration of Independence\|Declaration of independence]]
	\| established_date1 = {{nowrap\|23–24 February 1918}}		\| established_date1 = {{nowrap\|23–24 February 1918}}
	\| established_event2 = Joined the [[League of Nations]]
	\| established_date2 = {{nowrap\|22 September 1921}}
	\| established_event4 = [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|German and Soviet occupations]]		\| established_event4 = [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|German and Soviet occupations]]
	\| established_date4 = 1940–1991		\| established_date4 = 1940–1991
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	\| footnote_a = {{note\|chronology\|\|Estonia regained its [[de facto]] independence in 1991. Throughout the 1940–1941 and 1944–1991 [[Soviet occupation]], Estonia's [[de jure]] state continuity was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile.}}		\| footnote_a = {{note\|chronology\|\|Estonia regained its [[de facto]] independence in 1991. Throughout the 1940–1941 and 1944–1991 [[Soviet occupation]], Estonia's [[de jure]] state continuity was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile.}}
	}}		}}
	'''Estonia''',{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|ɛ\|s\|ˈ\|t\|oʊ\|n\|i\|ə}} {{respell\|ess\|TOH\|nee\|ə}}, {{langx\|et\|Eesti}} {{IPA\|et\|ˈeˑstʲi\|\|Et-Eesti-female.oga}}}} officially the '''Republic of Estonia''',{{efn\|{{langx\|et\|Eesti Vabariik}} ({{Literal translation\|Free state of Estonia}})}} is a country by the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe]].{{efn\|name=location\|Located in [[Northern Europe]], Estonia has also been classified as [[Eastern Europe\|Eastern]] or [[Central Europe]] in some contexts. Various sources classify Estonia differently for statistical and other purposes. For example, the [[United Nations]],<ref name="UN">{{cite web\|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions\|title=United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions\|website=Unstats.un.org}}</ref> and [[Eurovoc]]<ref name="op.europa.eu">{{cite web \|title=Estonia - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU \|url=https://op.europa.eu/en/web/eu-vocabularies/concept/-/resource?uri=http://eurovoc.europa.eu/5619&lang=en \|website=op.europa.eu \|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classify Estonia as part of [[Northern Europe]], the [[OECD]]<ref name="Directorate">{{cite web\|url=http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=303\|title=OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) Definition\|first=OECD Statistics\|last=Directorate\|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref> classifies it as a [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an country, the [[CIA World Factbook]]<ref name="CIA">{{cite web\|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/\|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]\|title=Estonia\|date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classifies it as Eastern Europe.<!--recent version of online ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' locates it in northeastern Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|title=Estonia\|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Estonia\|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica\|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>--> Usage varies greatly in press sources.}} It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the [[Baltic Sea\|sea]] across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by ~~[[Lake Peipus]] and~~ [[Russia]]. The territory of Estonia consists of the [[mainland]], the larger islands of [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]], and over 2,300 other islands and [[islet]]s on the east coast of the Baltic Sea,<ref name="ERR_area" /> covering a total area of {{convert\|45335\|km2\|sqmi}}. [[Tallinn]] and [[Tartu]] are the two [[List of cities and towns in Estonia\|largest urban area]]s. The [[Estonian language]] is the [[official language]] and the [[first language]] of the [[Estonians\|majority]] of the population of 1.4 million.<ref name="rahvaloendus.ee">{{cite news \|title=Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown \|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/uudised/rahvaloendus-eesti-rahvaarv-ja-eestlaste-arv-kasvanud \|access-date=5 June 2022 \|publisher=Statistics Estonia \|date=June 1, 2022}}</ref>		'''Estonia''',{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|ɛ\|s\|ˈ\|t\|oʊ\|n\|i\|ə}} {{respell\|ess\|TOH\|nee\|ə}}, {{langx\|et\|Eesti}} {{IPA\|et\|ˈeˑstʲi\|\|Et-Eesti-female.oga}}}} officially the '''Republic of Estonia''',{{efn\|{{langx\|et\|Eesti Vabariik}} ({{Literal translation\|Free state of Estonia}})}} is a country by the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe]].{{efn\|name=location\|Located in [[Northern Europe]], Estonia has also been classified as [[Eastern Europe\|Eastern]] or [[Central Europe]] in some contexts. Various sources classify Estonia differently for statistical and other purposes. For example, the [[United Nations]],<ref name="UN">{{cite web\|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions\|title=United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions\|website=Unstats.un.org}}</ref> and [[Eurovoc]]<ref name="op.europa.eu">{{cite web \|title=Estonia - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU \|url=https://op.europa.eu/en/web/eu-vocabularies/concept/-/resource?uri=http://eurovoc.europa.eu/5619&lang=en \|website=op.europa.eu \|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classify Estonia as part of [[Northern Europe]], the [[OECD]]<ref name="Directorate">{{cite web\|url=http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=303\|title=OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) Definition\|first=OECD Statistics\|last=Directorate\|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref> classifies it as a [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an country, the [[CIA World Factbook]]<ref name="CIA">{{cite web\|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/\|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]\|title=Estonia\|date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classifies it as Eastern Europe.<!--recent version of online ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' locates it in northeastern Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|title=Estonia\|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Estonia\|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica\|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>--> Usage varies greatly in press sources.}} It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the [[Baltic Sea\|sea]] across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Russia]]. The territory of Estonia consists of the [[mainland]], the larger islands of [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]], and over 2,300 other islands and [[islet]]s on the east coast of the Baltic Sea,<ref name="ERR_area" /> covering a total area of {{convert\|45335\|km2\|sqmi}}. [[Tallinn]] and [[Tartu]] are the two [[List of cities and towns in Estonia\|largest urban area]]s. The [[Estonian language]] is the [[official language]] and the [[first language]] of the [[Estonians\|majority]] of the population of 1.4 million.<ref name="rahvaloendus.ee">{{cite news \|title=Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown \|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/uudised/rahvaloendus-eesti-rahvaarv-ja-eestlaste-arv-kasvanud \|access-date=5 June 2022 \|publisher=Statistics Estonia \|date=June 1, 2022}}</ref>

	Present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BC. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages\|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Northern Crusades]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web\|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/\|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta\|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After more than six centuries of rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order\|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)\|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule\|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening\|Estonian national identity]] began to reemerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then-warring [[Russian Republic\|Russian]] and [[German Empire\|German]] empires. Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], <!--as a result of the worldwide [[Great Depression]] Estonia briefly experienced [[authoritarianism\|rule]] [[rule by decree\|by decree]] during the [[political violence\|politically non-violent]] "[[era of silence]]" in 1934–38. -->Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II\|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[Estonia in World War II\|World War II]], however the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied]]; first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)\|1940]], then [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)\|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union\|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–91 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, the position expressed by [[European Parliament]], which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal \| last=European Parliament \| title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania \| journal=Official Journal of the European Communities \| volume=C 42/78 \| date=January 13, 1983 \| url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states\|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)\|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)\|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile\|government-in-exile]]. Following the 1988–90 "[[Singing Revolution]]" against Soviet rule, the nation's full independence was restored on [[Estonian Restoration of Independence\|20 August 1991]].		Present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BC. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages\|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Northern Crusades]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web\|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/\|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta\|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After more than six centuries of rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order\|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)\|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule\|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening\|Estonian national identity]] began to reemerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then-warring [[Russian Republic\|Russian]] and [[German Empire\|German]] empires. Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], <!--as a result of the worldwide [[Great Depression]] Estonia briefly experienced [[authoritarianism\|rule]] [[rule by decree\|by decree]] during the [[political violence\|politically non-violent]] "[[era of silence]]" in 1934–38. -->Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II\|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[Estonia in World War II\|World War II]], however the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied]]; first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)\|1940]], then [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)\|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union\|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–91 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, the position expressed by [[European Parliament]], which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal \| last=European Parliament \| title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania \| journal=Official Journal of the European Communities \| volume=C 42/78 \| date=January 13, 1983 \| url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states\|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)\|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)\|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile\|government-in-exile]]. Following the 1988–90 "[[Singing Revolution]]" against Soviet rule, the nation's full independence was restored on [[Estonian Restoration of Independence\|20 August 1991]].
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	{{Main\|Geography of Estonia}}		{{Main\|Geography of Estonia}}
	[[File:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Satellite image of Estonia during spring]]		[[File:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Satellite image of Estonia during spring]]
	Estonia is in [[Europe]],{{efn\|name=location}} on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], on the [[East European Plain]].<ref name="Raukas_2018">{{cite journal\|last=Raukas\|first=Anto\|author-link=Anto Raukas\|title=Briefly about Estonia \|journal=Dynamiques Environnementales\|year=2018\|volume=42\|issue=42 \|url=https://journals.openedition.org/dynenviron/2230?lang=en\|doi=10.4000/dynenviron.2230\|issn=2534-4358\|pages=284–291\|s2cid=240432618 \|access-date=5 March 2023\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="EEA">{{Cite web\|url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/countries-regions/countries/estonia\|title=Estonia\|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]\|date=15 March 2021\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/\|title=Methodology \|publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the sea across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by ~~[[Lake Peipsi]] and~~ [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Saar\|first1=Asmu\|editor-last=Raukas\|editor-first=Anto\|editor-link1=Anto Raukas\|chapter=Üldandmed\|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld\|page=9\|year=2002\|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus\|language=et\|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> It covers an area of {{convert\|45335\|km2\|sqmi\|0\|abbr=on}}, of which 4.6% is internal waters.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/>		Estonia is in [[Europe]],{{efn\|name=location}} on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], on the [[East European Plain]].<ref name="Raukas_2018">{{cite journal\|last=Raukas\|first=Anto\|author-link=Anto Raukas\|title=Briefly about Estonia \|journal=Dynamiques Environnementales\|year=2018\|volume=42\|issue=42 \|url=https://journals.openedition.org/dynenviron/2230?lang=en\|doi=10.4000/dynenviron.2230\|issn=2534-4358\|pages=284–291\|s2cid=240432618 \|access-date=5 March 2023\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="EEA">{{Cite web\|url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/countries-regions/countries/estonia\|title=Estonia\|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]\|date=15 March 2021\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/\|title=Methodology \|publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the sea across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Saar\|first1=Asmu\|editor-last=Raukas\|editor-first=Anto\|editor-link1=Anto Raukas\|chapter=Üldandmed\|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld\|page=9\|year=2002\|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus\|language=et\|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> It covers an area of {{convert\|45335\|km2\|sqmi\|0\|abbr=on}}, of which 4.6% is internal waters.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/>

	The Estonian coastline stretches for {{convert\|3794\|km\|mi\|0}} and features [[Cliffed coast\|limestone cliffs]] along the northern coast as well as its largest islands.<ref name="EEA"/><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/information-about-estonia\|title=Information about Estonia\|publisher=[[Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications\|Estonian Information System Authority]]\|date=9 November 2022\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> The total number of [[List of islands of Estonia\|Estonian islands]], including those in internal waters, is 2,355, of which 2,222 are in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are [[Saaremaa]], [[Hiiumaa]] and [[Muhu]]. Estonia is experiencing a gradual rise from the sea, altering its coastal geography.<ref>[http://www.loodusajakiri.ee/eesti_loodus/artikkel2550_2547.html Kopli ja Paljassaare poolsaar olid veel hiljaaegu saared]</ref>		The Estonian coastline stretches for {{convert\|3794\|km\|mi\|0}} and features [[Cliffed coast\|limestone cliffs]] along the northern coast as well as its largest islands.<ref name="EEA"/><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/information-about-estonia\|title=Information about Estonia\|publisher=[[Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications\|Estonian Information System Authority]]\|date=9 November 2022\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> The total number of [[List of islands of Estonia\|Estonian islands]], including those in internal waters, is 2,355, of which 2,222 are in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are [[Saaremaa]], [[Hiiumaa]] and [[Muhu]]. Estonia is experiencing a gradual rise from the sea, altering its coastal geography.<ref>[http://www.loodusajakiri.ee/eesti_loodus/artikkel2550_2547.html Kopli ja Paljassaare poolsaar olid veel hiljaaegu saared]</ref>

WikiCleanerBot: v2.05b - Bot T20 CW#61 - Fix errors for CW project (Reference before punctuation - Pipe in external link)

2024-12-19T04:16:35Z

v2.05b - Bot T20 CW#61 - Fix errors for CW project (Reference before punctuation - Pipe in external link)

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	More people of different ethnic origin live in Estonia than ever before, however the share of Estonians in the population has remained stable over the three censuses (2000: 68.3%; 2011: 69.8%; 2021: 69.4%). Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% of people speak it as their mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language. Compared with previous censuses, the proportion of people who speak Estonian has increased (2000: 80%; 2011: 82%), particularly due to people who have learned to speak Estonian as a foreign language (2000: 12%; 2011: 14%). It has been estimated that 76% of Estonia's population can speak a foreign language. As of 2021 census data, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia (overtaking the top position from Russian, which had still been the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia in 2011 and earlier censuses). An estimated 17% of the native Estonian-speaking population speak a dialect of Estonian.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/news/results-population-census-have-been-published\|title=The results of the 2021 population and housing census have been published\|date=December 2022\|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)\|access-date=11 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="PopulationByNationality"/>		More people of different ethnic origin live in Estonia than ever before, however the share of Estonians in the population has remained stable over the three censuses (2000: 68.3%; 2011: 69.8%; 2021: 69.4%). Estonian is spoken by 84% of the population: 67% of people speak it as their mother tongue and 17% as a foreign language. Compared with previous censuses, the proportion of people who speak Estonian has increased (2000: 80%; 2011: 82%), particularly due to people who have learned to speak Estonian as a foreign language (2000: 12%; 2011: 14%). It has been estimated that 76% of Estonia's population can speak a foreign language. As of 2021 census data, English is the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia (overtaking the top position from Russian, which had still been the most widely spoken foreign language in Estonia in 2011 and earlier censuses). An estimated 17% of the native Estonian-speaking population speak a dialect of Estonian.<ref>{{cite web \|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/news/results-population-census-have-been-published\|title=The results of the 2021 population and housing census have been published\|date=December 2022\|publisher=Statistics Estonia (government agency at the area of administration of the Ministry of Finance)\|access-date=11 May 2024}}</ref><ref name="PopulationByNationality"/>

	Estonia's 2024 Global Hunger Index (GHI) score is <mark>less than 5</mark>, which indicates a low level of hunger.<ref>{{Cite web \|title=Global Hunger Index Scores by 2024 GHI Rank \|url=https://www.globalhungerindex.org/ranking.html \|access-date=2024-12-17 \|website=Global Hunger Index (GHI) - peer-reviewed annual publication designed to comprehensively measure and track hunger at the global, regional, and country levels \|language=en}}</ref>

	===Ethnicity and citizenship===		===Ethnicity and citizenship===

← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:56, 24 December 2024
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	{{Main\|Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Occupation of the Baltic states\|Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)}}		{{Main\|Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Occupation of the Baltic states\|Baltic states under Soviet rule (1944–1991)}}
	Following the renewed Soviet occupation of Estonia, thousands of Estonians once again joined the [[Forest Brothers]] to resist Soviet rule. This armed resistance was particularly intense in the immediate post-war years, but Soviet forces eventually wore it down through relentless attrition tactics, bringing an end to organized armed resistance by the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raun\|first1=Toivo U.\|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated\|page=174 \|year=2002\|publisher=Hoover Press\|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The Soviet regime also intensified its [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union\|policy of collectivisation]], forcing Estonian farmers to abandon private agriculture and join state-run collectives. When locals resisted, authorities launched a campaign of terror, culminating in March 1949 with [[Operation Priboi\|operation ''Priboi'']] – the mass deportation of around 20,000 Estonians to the [[Gulag\|gulag system]] in Siberia.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Misiunas \|first1=Romuald \|title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 \|date=1983 \|publisher=University of California Press \|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles \|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 \|page=78 \|url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up \|access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Full collectivization followed shortly after, marking a new phase of Soviet control over Estonia's economy.<ref name="Miljan110"/><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Purs\|first1=Aldis\|title=Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since 1945\|page=335\|year=2013\|publisher=Reaktion Books\|isbn=9781861899323}}</ref>		Following the renewed Soviet occupation of Estonia, thousands of Estonians once again joined the [[Forest Brothers]] to resist Soviet rule. This armed resistance was particularly intense in the immediate post-war years, but Soviet forces eventually wore it down through relentless attrition tactics, bringing an end to organized armed resistance by the 1960s.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raun\|first1=Toivo U.\|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated\|page=174 \|year=2002\|publisher=Hoover Press\|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref> The Soviet regime also intensified its [[Collectivization in the Soviet Union\|policy of collectivisation]], forcing Estonian farmers to abandon private agriculture and join state-run collectives. When locals resisted, authorities launched a campaign of terror, culminating in March 1949 with [[Operation Priboi\|operation ''Priboi'']] – the mass deportation of around 20,000 Estonians to the [[Gulag\|gulag system]] in Siberia.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Misiunas \|first1=Romuald \|title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 \|date=1983 \|publisher=University of California Press \|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles \|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 \|page=78 \|url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up \|access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Full collectivization followed shortly after, marking a new phase of Soviet control over Estonia's economy.<ref name="Miljan110"/><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Purs\|first1=Aldis\|title=Baltic Facades: Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania since 1945\|page=335\|year=2013\|publisher=Reaktion Books\|isbn=9781861899323}}</ref>
	[[File:Estonian forest brothers relaxing and cleaning their guns after a shooting exercise in Veskiaru, Järva County, Estonia, 1953. (47953893422).jpg\|thumb\|right\|~~The~~ [[Forest Brothers]] in 1953]]		[[File:Estonian forest brothers relaxing and cleaning their guns after a shooting exercise in Veskiaru, Järva County, Estonia, 1953. (47953893422).jpg\|thumb\|right\|[[Forest Brothers]] in 1953]]
	Simultaneously, the Soviet Union initiated [[Russification]] policies that sought to reshape Estonia's demographics and dilute its cultural identity. Large numbers of ethnic [[Russians in Estonia\|Russians]] and other [[Soviet people\|Soviet citizens]] were resettled in Estonia, threatening to turn native Estonians into a minority in their own homeland.<ref name="Taagepera97">{{Cite book\|last1=Taagepera\|first1=Rein\|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State\|page=128\|year=2013\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=9781136678011}}</ref> Between 1945 and 1989, the proportion of ethnic Estonians in the country dropped from 97% to 62%.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Puur \|first1=Allan \|last2=Rahnu \|first2=Leen \|last3=Sakkeus \|first3=Luule \|last4=Klesment \|first4=Martin \|last5=Abuladze \|first5=Liili \|date=22 March 2018 \|title=The formation of ethnically mixed partnerships in Estonia: A stalling trend from a two-sided perspective \|url=https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol38/38/38-38.pdf \|journal=[[Demographic Research (journal)\|Demographic Research]] \|volume=38 \|issue=38 \|page=1117 \|doi=10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.38 \|access-date= 7 January 2020\|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Communist Party of Estonia]], dominated by ethnic Russians, acted as a mechanism for this demographic shift. Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Misiunas \|first1=Romuald \|title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 \|date=1983 \|publisher=University of California Press \|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles \|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 \|page=96 \|url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up \|access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Estonians faced additional hardships, as thousands were forcibly conscripted into Soviet conflicts, including the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] and the [[Chernobyl disaster]] cleanup.		Simultaneously, the Soviet Union initiated [[Russification]] policies that sought to reshape Estonia's demographics and dilute its cultural identity. Large numbers of ethnic [[Russians in Estonia\|Russians]] and other [[Soviet people\|Soviet citizens]] were resettled in Estonia, threatening to turn native Estonians into a minority in their own homeland.<ref name="Taagepera97">{{Cite book\|last1=Taagepera\|first1=Rein\|title=The Finno-Ugric Republics and the Russian State\|page=128\|year=2013\|publisher=Routledge\|isbn=9781136678011}}</ref> Between 1945 and 1989, the proportion of ethnic Estonians in the country dropped from 97% to 62%.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Puur \|first1=Allan \|last2=Rahnu \|first2=Leen \|last3=Sakkeus \|first3=Luule \|last4=Klesment \|first4=Martin \|last5=Abuladze \|first5=Liili \|date=22 March 2018 \|title=The formation of ethnically mixed partnerships in Estonia: A stalling trend from a two-sided perspective \|url=https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/vol38/38/38-38.pdf \|journal=[[Demographic Research (journal)\|Demographic Research]] \|volume=38 \|issue=38 \|page=1117 \|doi=10.4054/DemRes.2018.38.38 \|access-date= 7 January 2020\|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Communist Party of Estonia]], dominated by ethnic Russians, acted as a mechanism for this demographic shift. Occupying authorities carried out campaigns of ethnic cleansing, mass deportation of indigenous populations, and mass colonization by Russian settlers.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Misiunas \|first1=Romuald \|title=The Baltic States, Years of Dependence: 1940-1990 \|date=1983 \|publisher=University of California Press \|location=Berkeley, Los Angeles \|isbn=978-0-520-04625-2 \|page=96 \|url=https://archive.org/details/balticstatesyear00misi/page/n7/mode/2up \|access-date=September 1, 2022}}</ref> Estonians faced additional hardships, as thousands were forcibly conscripted into Soviet conflicts, including the [[Soviet–Afghan War]] and the [[Chernobyl disaster]] cleanup.

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	\| established_event1 = [[Estonian Declaration of Independence\|Declaration of independence]]		\| established_event1 = [[Estonian Declaration of Independence\|Declaration of independence]]
	\| established_date1 = {{nowrap\|23–24 February 1918}}		\| established_date1 = {{nowrap\|23–24 February 1918}}
	\| established_event2 = Joined the [[League of Nations]]
	\| established_date2 = {{nowrap\|22 September 1921}}
	\| established_event4 = [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|German and Soviet occupations]]		\| established_event4 = [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|German and Soviet occupations]]
	\| established_date4 = 1940–1991		\| established_date4 = 1940–1991
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	\| footnote_a = {{note\|chronology\|\|Estonia regained its [[de facto]] independence in 1991. Throughout the 1940–1941 and 1944–1991 [[Soviet occupation]], Estonia's [[de jure]] state continuity was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile.}}		\| footnote_a = {{note\|chronology\|\|Estonia regained its [[de facto]] independence in 1991. Throughout the 1940–1941 and 1944–1991 [[Soviet occupation]], Estonia's [[de jure]] state continuity was preserved by diplomatic representatives and the government-in-exile.}}
	}}		}}
	'''Estonia''',{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|ɛ\|s\|ˈ\|t\|oʊ\|n\|i\|ə}} {{respell\|ess\|TOH\|nee\|ə}}, {{langx\|et\|Eesti}} {{IPA\|et\|ˈeˑstʲi\|\|Et-Eesti-female.oga}}}} officially the '''Republic of Estonia''',{{efn\|{{langx\|et\|Eesti Vabariik}} ({{Literal translation\|Free state of Estonia}})}} is a country by the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe]].{{efn\|name=location\|Located in [[Northern Europe]], Estonia has also been classified as [[Eastern Europe\|Eastern]] or [[Central Europe]] in some contexts. Various sources classify Estonia differently for statistical and other purposes. For example, the [[United Nations]],<ref name="UN">{{cite web\|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions\|title=United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions\|website=Unstats.un.org}}</ref> and [[Eurovoc]]<ref name="op.europa.eu">{{cite web \|title=Estonia - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU \|url=https://op.europa.eu/en/web/eu-vocabularies/concept/-/resource?uri=http://eurovoc.europa.eu/5619&lang=en \|website=op.europa.eu \|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classify Estonia as part of [[Northern Europe]], the [[OECD]]<ref name="Directorate">{{cite web\|url=http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=303\|title=OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) Definition\|first=OECD Statistics\|last=Directorate\|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref> classifies it as a [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an country, the [[CIA World Factbook]]<ref name="CIA">{{cite web\|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/\|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]\|title=Estonia\|date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classifies it as Eastern Europe.<!--recent version of online ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' locates it in northeastern Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|title=Estonia\|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Estonia\|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica\|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>--> Usage varies greatly in press sources.}} It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the [[Baltic Sea\|sea]] across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by ~~[[Lake Peipus]] and~~ [[Russia]]. The territory of Estonia consists of the [[mainland]], the larger islands of [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]], and over 2,300 other islands and [[islet]]s on the east coast of the Baltic Sea,<ref name="ERR_area" /> covering a total area of {{convert\|45335\|km2\|sqmi}}. [[Tallinn]] and [[Tartu]] are the two [[List of cities and towns in Estonia\|largest urban area]]s. The [[Estonian language]] is the [[official language]] and the [[first language]] of the [[Estonians\|majority]] of the population of 1.4 million.<ref name="rahvaloendus.ee">{{cite news \|title=Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown \|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/uudised/rahvaloendus-eesti-rahvaarv-ja-eestlaste-arv-kasvanud \|access-date=5 June 2022 \|publisher=Statistics Estonia \|date=June 1, 2022}}</ref>		'''Estonia''',{{efn\|{{IPAc-en\|ɛ\|s\|ˈ\|t\|oʊ\|n\|i\|ə}} {{respell\|ess\|TOH\|nee\|ə}}, {{langx\|et\|Eesti}} {{IPA\|et\|ˈeˑstʲi\|\|Et-Eesti-female.oga}}}} officially the '''Republic of Estonia''',{{efn\|{{langx\|et\|Eesti Vabariik}} ({{Literal translation\|Free state of Estonia}})}} is a country by the [[Baltic Sea]] in [[Northern Europe]].{{efn\|name=location\|Located in [[Northern Europe]], Estonia has also been classified as [[Eastern Europe\|Eastern]] or [[Central Europe]] in some contexts. Various sources classify Estonia differently for statistical and other purposes. For example, the [[United Nations]],<ref name="UN">{{cite web\|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/#geo-regions\|title=United Nations Statistics Division- Standard Country and Area Codes Classifications (M49)-Geographic Regions\|website=Unstats.un.org}}</ref> and [[Eurovoc]]<ref name="op.europa.eu">{{cite web \|title=Estonia - EU Vocabularies - Publications Office of the EU \|url=https://op.europa.eu/en/web/eu-vocabularies/concept/-/resource?uri=http://eurovoc.europa.eu/5619&lang=en \|website=op.europa.eu \|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classify Estonia as part of [[Northern Europe]], the [[OECD]]<ref name="Directorate">{{cite web\|url=http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/detail.asp?ID=303\|title=OECD Glossary of Statistical Terms - Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) Definition\|first=OECD Statistics\|last=Directorate\|website=stats.oecd.org}}</ref> classifies it as a [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an country, the [[CIA World Factbook]]<ref name="CIA">{{cite web\|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/estonia/\|publisher=[[CIA World Factbook]]\|title=Estonia\|date=24 December 2023}}</ref> classifies it as Eastern Europe.<!--recent version of online ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' locates it in northeastern Europe.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia\|title=Estonia\|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Estonia\|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica\|access-date=24 December 2023}}</ref>--> Usage varies greatly in press sources.}} It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the [[Baltic Sea\|sea]] across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Russia]]. The territory of Estonia consists of the [[mainland]], the larger islands of [[Saaremaa]] and [[Hiiumaa]], and over 2,300 other islands and [[islet]]s on the east coast of the Baltic Sea,<ref name="ERR_area" /> covering a total area of {{convert\|45335\|km2\|sqmi}}. [[Tallinn]] and [[Tartu]] are the two [[List of cities and towns in Estonia\|largest urban area]]s. The [[Estonian language]] is the [[official language]] and the [[first language]] of the [[Estonians\|majority]] of the population of 1.4 million.<ref name="rahvaloendus.ee">{{cite news \|title=Population census: Estonia's population and the number of Estonians have grown \|url=https://rahvaloendus.ee/en/uudised/rahvaloendus-eesti-rahvaarv-ja-eestlaste-arv-kasvanud \|access-date=5 June 2022 \|publisher=Statistics Estonia \|date=June 1, 2022}}</ref>

	Present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BC. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages\|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Northern Crusades]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web\|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/\|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta\|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After more than six centuries of rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order\|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)\|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule\|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening\|Estonian national identity]] began to reemerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then-warring [[Russian Republic\|Russian]] and [[German Empire\|German]] empires. Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], <!--as a result of the worldwide [[Great Depression]] Estonia briefly experienced [[authoritarianism\|rule]] [[rule by decree\|by decree]] during the [[political violence\|politically non-violent]] "[[era of silence]]" in 1934–38. -->Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II\|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[Estonia in World War II\|World War II]], however the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied]]; first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)\|1940]], then [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)\|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union\|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–91 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, the position expressed by [[European Parliament]], which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal \| last=European Parliament \| title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania \| journal=Official Journal of the European Communities \| volume=C 42/78 \| date=January 13, 1983 \| url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states\|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)\|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)\|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile\|government-in-exile]]. Following the 1988–90 "[[Singing Revolution]]" against Soviet rule, the nation's full independence was restored on [[Estonian Restoration of Independence\|20 August 1991]].		Present-day Estonia has been inhabited by humans since at least 9,000 BC. The [[Ancient Estonia#Early Middle Ages\|medieval indigenous]] population of Estonia was one of the last [[pagan]] civilisations in Europe to adopt [[Christianity]] following the [[Northern Crusades]] in the 13th century.<ref>{{Cite web\|url= https://legacarta.intracen.org/country/est/\|title= Country Profile – LegaCarta\|access-date= 26 November 2019}}</ref> After more than six centuries of rule by the [[State of the Teutonic Order\|Teutonic Order]], [[Duchy of Estonia (1219–1346)\|Denmark]], [[Estonia under Swedish rule\|Sweden]], and the [[Russian Empire]], a distinct [[Estonian national awakening\|Estonian national identity]] began to reemerge in the mid-19th century. This culminated in the 1918 [[Estonian Declaration of Independence]] from the then-warring [[Russian Republic\|Russian]] and [[German Empire\|German]] empires. Democratic throughout most of the [[interwar period]], <!--as a result of the worldwide [[Great Depression]] Estonia briefly experienced [[authoritarianism\|rule]] [[rule by decree\|by decree]] during the [[political violence\|politically non-violent]] "[[era of silence]]" in 1934–38. -->Estonia declared [[Neutral powers during World War II\|neutrality]] at the outbreak of [[Estonia in World War II\|World War II]], however the country was [[Occupation of the Baltic states\|repeatedly contested, invaded, and occupied]]; first by the [[Soviet Union]] in [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)\|1940]], then [[Nazi Germany]] in 1941, and ultimately [[Soviet re-occupation of the Baltic states (1944)\|reoccupied in 1944]] by, and annexed into, the USSR as an [[National delimitation in the Soviet Union\|administrative subunit]] ([[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic\|Estonian SSR]]). Throughout the 1944–91 Soviet occupation,<ref>See, for instance, the position expressed by [[European Parliament]], which condemned "the fact that the occupation of these formerly independent and neutral States by the Soviet Union occurred in 1940 following the Molotov/Ribbentrop pact, and continues." {{cite journal \| last=European Parliament \| title=Resolution on the situation in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania \| journal=Official Journal of the European Communities \| volume=C 42/78 \| date=January 13, 1983 \| url=/media/wikipedia/en/8/80/Europarliament13011983.jpg}}</ref> Estonia's ''[[de jure]]'' [[State continuity of the Baltic states\|state continuity]] was [[Baltic Legations (1940–1991)\|preserved]] by [[Estonian Diplomatic Service (1940–1991)\|diplomatic representatives]] and the [[Estonian government-in-exile\|government-in-exile]]. Following the 1988–90 "[[Singing Revolution]]" against Soviet rule, the nation's full independence was restored on [[Estonian Restoration of Independence\|20 August 1991]].
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	{{Main\|Geography of Estonia}}		{{Main\|Geography of Estonia}}
	[[File:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Satellite image of Estonia during spring]]		[[File:Satellite image of Estonia in April 2004.jpg\|thumb\|right\|Satellite image of Estonia during spring]]
	Estonia is in [[Europe]],{{efn\|name=location}} on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], on the [[East European Plain]].<ref name="Raukas_2018">{{cite journal\|last=Raukas\|first=Anto\|author-link=Anto Raukas\|title=Briefly about Estonia \|journal=Dynamiques Environnementales\|year=2018\|volume=42\|issue=42 \|url=https://journals.openedition.org/dynenviron/2230?lang=en\|doi=10.4000/dynenviron.2230\|issn=2534-4358\|pages=284–291\|s2cid=240432618 \|access-date=5 March 2023\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="EEA">{{Cite web\|url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/countries-regions/countries/estonia\|title=Estonia\|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]\|date=15 March 2021\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/\|title=Methodology \|publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the sea across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by ~~[[Lake Peipsi]] and~~ [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Saar\|first1=Asmu\|editor-last=Raukas\|editor-first=Anto\|editor-link1=Anto Raukas\|chapter=Üldandmed\|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld\|page=9\|year=2002\|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus\|language=et\|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> It covers an area of {{convert\|45335\|km2\|sqmi\|0\|abbr=on}}, of which 4.6% is internal waters.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/>		Estonia is in [[Europe]],{{efn\|name=location}} on the eastern shores of the [[Baltic Sea]], on the [[East European Plain]].<ref name="Raukas_2018">{{cite journal\|last=Raukas\|first=Anto\|author-link=Anto Raukas\|title=Briefly about Estonia \|journal=Dynamiques Environnementales\|year=2018\|volume=42\|issue=42 \|url=https://journals.openedition.org/dynenviron/2230?lang=en\|doi=10.4000/dynenviron.2230\|issn=2534-4358\|pages=284–291\|s2cid=240432618 \|access-date=5 March 2023\|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="EEA">{{Cite web\|url=https://climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu/en/countries-regions/countries/estonia\|title=Estonia\|publisher=[[European Environment Agency]]\|date=15 March 2021\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/\|title=Methodology \|publisher=[[United Nations Statistics Division]]\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> It is bordered to the north by the [[Gulf of Finland]] across from [[Finland]], to the west by the sea across from [[Sweden]], to the south by [[Latvia]], and to the east by [[Russia]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Saar\|first1=Asmu\|editor-last=Raukas\|editor-first=Anto\|editor-link1=Anto Raukas\|chapter=Üldandmed\|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld\|page=9\|year=2002\|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus\|language=et\|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> It covers an area of {{convert\|45335\|km2\|sqmi\|0\|abbr=on}}, of which 4.6% is internal waters.<ref name="Raukas_2018"/>

	The Estonian coastline stretches for {{convert\|3794\|km\|mi\|0}} and features [[Cliffed coast\|limestone cliffs]] along the northern coast as well as its largest islands.<ref name="EEA"/><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/information-about-estonia\|title=Information about Estonia\|publisher=[[Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications\|Estonian Information System Authority]]\|date=9 November 2022\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> The total number of [[List of islands of Estonia\|Estonian islands]], including those in internal waters, is 2,355, of which 2,222 are in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are [[Saaremaa]], [[Hiiumaa]] and [[Muhu]]. Estonia is experiencing a gradual rise from the sea, altering its coastal geography.<ref>[http://www.loodusajakiri.ee/eesti_loodus/artikkel2550_2547.html Kopli ja Paljassaare poolsaar olid veel hiljaaegu saared]</ref>		The Estonian coastline stretches for {{convert\|3794\|km\|mi\|0}} and features [[Cliffed coast\|limestone cliffs]] along the northern coast as well as its largest islands.<ref name="EEA"/><ref>{{Cite web\|url=https://www.eesti.ee/en/republic-of-estonia/republic-of-estonia/information-about-estonia\|title=Information about Estonia\|publisher=[[Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications\|Estonian Information System Authority]]\|date=9 November 2022\|access-date=5 March 2023}}</ref> The total number of [[List of islands of Estonia\|Estonian islands]], including those in internal waters, is 2,355, of which 2,222 are in the Baltic Sea. The largest islands are [[Saaremaa]], [[Hiiumaa]] and [[Muhu]]. Estonia is experiencing a gradual rise from the sea, altering its coastal geography.<ref>[http://www.loodusajakiri.ee/eesti_loodus/artikkel2550_2547.html Kopli ja Paljassaare poolsaar olid veel hiljaaegu saared]</ref>

← Previous revision		Revision as of 04:16, 19 December 2024
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	In 1199, Pope [[Innocent III]] declared a [[Livonian Crusade\|crusade]] to "defend the Christians of [[Livonia]]".<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Tyerman\|first1=Christopher\|author-link = Christopher Tyerman\|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades\|page=[https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690 690]\|year=2006\|publisher=Harvard University Press\|isbn=9780674023871\|url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690}}</ref> Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King [[Valdemar II]] unsuccessfully invaded [[Saaremaa]]. The German [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]], who had previously subjugated [[Livonians]], [[Latgalians]], and [[Selonians]], started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over the next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of the Estonian resistance was [[Lembitu]], an elder of [[Sakala County]], but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the [[Battle of St. Matthew's Day]], where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at [[Lindanise]], defeated the Estonians in the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], and started conquering Northern Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Kasekamp\|first1=Andres\|title=A History of the Baltic States\|page=14 \|year=2010\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan\|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raukas\|first1=Anto\|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld\|page=278\|year=2002\|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus\|language=et\|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were [[Battle of Lihula\|repelled]] by the Oeselians. In 1223, a major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except Tallinn, but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last ''maakond'' (county) to surrender.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Kasekamp\|first1=Andres\|title=A History of the Baltic States\|page=15 \|year=2010\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan\|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raukas\|first1=Anto\|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld\|page=279\|year=2002\|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus\|language=et\|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>		In 1199, Pope [[Innocent III]] declared a [[Livonian Crusade\|crusade]] to "defend the Christians of [[Livonia]]".<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Tyerman\|first1=Christopher\|author-link = Christopher Tyerman\|title=God's War: A New History of the Crusades\|page=[https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690 690]\|year=2006\|publisher=Harvard University Press\|isbn=9780674023871\|url=https://archive.org/details/godswarnewhistor00tyer/page/690}}</ref> Fighting reached Estonia in 1206, when Danish King [[Valdemar II]] unsuccessfully invaded [[Saaremaa]]. The German [[Livonian Brothers of the Sword]], who had previously subjugated [[Livonians]], [[Latgalians]], and [[Selonians]], started campaigning against the Estonians in 1208, and over the next few years both sides made numerous raids and counter-raids. A major leader of the Estonian resistance was [[Lembitu]], an elder of [[Sakala County]], but in 1217 the Estonians suffered a significant defeat in the [[Battle of St. Matthew's Day]], where Lembitu was killed. In 1219, Valdemar II landed at [[Lindanise]], defeated the Estonians in the [[Battle of Lyndanisse]], and started conquering Northern Estonia.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Kasekamp\|first1=Andres\|title=A History of the Baltic States\|page=14 \|year=2010\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan\|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raukas\|first1=Anto\|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld\|page=278\|year=2002\|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus\|language=et\|isbn=9985701151}}</ref> The next year, Sweden invaded Western Estonia, but were [[Battle of Lihula\|repelled]] by the Oeselians. In 1223, a major revolt ejected the Germans and Danes from the whole of Estonia, except Tallinn, but the crusaders soon resumed their offensive, and in 1227, Saaremaa was the last ''maakond'' (county) to surrender.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Kasekamp\|first1=Andres\|title=A History of the Baltic States\|page=15 \|year=2010\|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan\|isbn=9780230364509}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raukas\|first1=Anto\|title=Eesti entsüklopeedia 11: Eesti üld\|page=279\|year=2002\|publisher=Eesti Entsüklopeediakirjastus\|language=et\|isbn=9985701151}}</ref>

	After the crusade, the territory of present-day south Estonia and Latvia was named [[Terra Mariana]]; later on it became known simply as [[Livonia]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Plakans\|first1=Andrejs\|title=A Concise History of the Baltic States\|page=54 \|year=2011\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|isbn=9780521833721}}</ref> Northern Estonia became the Danish [[Danish Estonia\|Duchy of Estonia]], while the rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and [[prince-bishopric]]s of [[Bishopric of Dorpat\|Dorpat]] and [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek\|Ösel–Wiek]]. In 1236, after suffering a [[Battle of Saule\|major defeat]], the Sword Brothers merged into the [[Teutonic Order]] becoming the [[Livonian Order]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=O'Connor\|first1=Kevin\|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States\|pages=9–10\|year=2006\|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group\|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> The eastern border with the [[Novgorod Republic]] was fixed after the [[Battle on the Ice]] took place on [[Lake Peipus]] in 1242, where the combined armies of the Livonian Order and Estonian infantry were defeated by Novgorod.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Nicolle\|first=David\|author-link=David Nicolle\|title=Lake Peipus 1242: Battle of the Ice\|year=1996\|publisher=Osprey Publishing\|isbn=9781855325531\|page=41}}</ref> The southeastern region of [[Setomaa]] remained under Russian rule until the 20th century and the indigenous [[Setos]] were converted to [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Kupari \|first1=Helena \|last2=Vuola \|first2=Elina \|title=Orthodox Christianity and gender: dynamics of tradition, culture and lived practice \|date=2020 \|publisher=Routledge \|location=Abingdon New York (N.Y.) \|isbn=9781138574205 \|page=98 \|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9780203701188-6/ask-embarrassing-questions-women-religion-andreas-kalkun \|access-date=15 December 2024}}</ref><ref>Laur, Kadri. ''[https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1670368&dswid=-6689\| Identity and Heritage on a Changing Border: The Estonian Seto Case.]'' 2022. Uppsala University Campus Gotland, Master's Thesis in Conservation. ''[[DiVA (open archive)\|DiVA]]''. </ref>		After the crusade, the territory of present-day south Estonia and Latvia was named [[Terra Mariana]]; later on it became known simply as [[Livonia]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Plakans\|first1=Andrejs\|title=A Concise History of the Baltic States\|page=54 \|year=2011\|publisher=Cambridge University Press\|isbn=9780521833721}}</ref> Northern Estonia became the Danish [[Danish Estonia\|Duchy of Estonia]], while the rest was divided between the Sword Brothers and [[prince-bishopric]]s of [[Bishopric of Dorpat\|Dorpat]] and [[Bishopric of Ösel–Wiek\|Ösel–Wiek]]. In 1236, after suffering a [[Battle of Saule\|major defeat]], the Sword Brothers merged into the [[Teutonic Order]] becoming the [[Livonian Order]].<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=O'Connor\|first1=Kevin\|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States\|pages=9–10\|year=2006\|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group\|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> The eastern border with the [[Novgorod Republic]] was fixed after the [[Battle on the Ice]] took place on [[Lake Peipus]] in 1242, where the combined armies of the Livonian Order and Estonian infantry were defeated by Novgorod.<ref>{{cite book\|last=Nicolle\|first=David\|author-link=David Nicolle\|title=Lake Peipus 1242: Battle of the Ice\|year=1996\|publisher=Osprey Publishing\|isbn=9781855325531\|page=41}}</ref> The southeastern region of [[Setomaa]] remained under Russian rule until the 20th century and the indigenous [[Setos]] were converted to [[Eastern Orthodoxy]].<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Kupari \|first1=Helena \|last2=Vuola \|first2=Elina \|title=Orthodox Christianity and gender: dynamics of tradition, culture and lived practice \|date=2020 \|publisher=Routledge \|location=Abingdon New York (N.Y.) \|isbn=9781138574205 \|page=98 \|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9780203701188-6/ask-embarrassing-questions-women-religion-andreas-kalkun \|access-date=15 December 2024}}</ref><ref>Laur, Kadri. ''[https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1670368&dswid=-6689 Identity and Heritage on a Changing Border: The Estonian Seto Case.]'' 2022. Uppsala University Campus Gotland, Master's Thesis in Conservation. ''[[DiVA (open archive)\|DiVA]]''. </ref>

	Initially, the Estonian nobles who accepted baptism were able to retain their power and influence by becoming [[vassal]]s of the Danish king or the church; they intermarried with newcomer Crusader familiers and over the centuries become [[Germanisation\|Germanised]], leading to the [[ethnogenesis]] of the [[Baltic Germans]].<ref>Kristjan Kaljusaar. ''[https://oes.ut.ee/wp-content/uploads/Kaljusaar.pdf Virumaa läänimehed 13. sajandi esimesel poolel]''. ''Õpetatud Eesti Seltsi aastaraamat'' / ''Annales Litterarum Societatis Esthonicae'', 2021, 31−64, 2023</ref> The Estonian pagans rose several times against foreign Christian rule. During the decades following initial Christianization, there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major [[St. George's Night Uprising\|uprising]] encompassed North Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order suppressed the rebellion by 1345, and in 1346 the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raun\|first1=Toivo U.\|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated\|page=20 \|year=2002\|publisher=Hoover Press\|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=O'Connor\|first1=Kevin\|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States\|page=10\|year=2006\|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group\|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority.<ref>{{cite book \|last= Pekomäe\|first= Vello\|title= Estland genom tiderna\|year= 1986\|publisher= VÄLIS-EESTI & EMP\|location= Stockholm \|language= sv\|isbn= 91-86116-47-9\|page=319}}</ref> For the subsequent centuries [[Low German]] remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside.<ref>{{cite book \|last1= Jokipii\|first1= Mauno\|editor1-first= Mauno\|editor1-last= Jokipii\|title= Baltisk kultur och historia\|year= 1992 \|language= sv\|isbn= 9789134512078\|pages= 22–23\|publisher= Bonniers}}</ref>		Initially, the Estonian nobles who accepted baptism were able to retain their power and influence by becoming [[vassal]]s of the Danish king or the church; they intermarried with newcomer Crusader familiers and over the centuries become [[Germanisation\|Germanised]], leading to the [[ethnogenesis]] of the [[Baltic Germans]].<ref>Kristjan Kaljusaar. ''[https://oes.ut.ee/wp-content/uploads/Kaljusaar.pdf Virumaa läänimehed 13. sajandi esimesel poolel]''. ''Õpetatud Eesti Seltsi aastaraamat'' / ''Annales Litterarum Societatis Esthonicae'', 2021, 31−64, 2023</ref> The Estonian pagans rose several times against foreign Christian rule. During the decades following initial Christianization, there were several uprisings against the Teutonic rulers in Saaremaa. In 1343, a major [[St. George's Night Uprising\|uprising]] encompassed North Estonia and Saaremaa. The Teutonic Order suppressed the rebellion by 1345, and in 1346 the Danish king sold his possessions in Estonia to the Order.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Raun\|first1=Toivo U.\|title=Estonia and the Estonians: Second Edition, Updated\|page=20 \|year=2002\|publisher=Hoover Press\|isbn=9780817928537}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1=O'Connor\|first1=Kevin\|title=Culture and Customs of the Baltic States\|page=10\|year=2006\|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group\|isbn=9780313331251}}</ref> The unsuccessful rebellion led to a consolidation of power for the upper-class German minority.<ref>{{cite book \|last= Pekomäe\|first= Vello\|title= Estland genom tiderna\|year= 1986\|publisher= VÄLIS-EESTI & EMP\|location= Stockholm \|language= sv\|isbn= 91-86116-47-9\|page=319}}</ref> For the subsequent centuries [[Low German]] remained the language of the ruling elite in both Estonian cities and the countryside.<ref>{{cite book \|last1= Jokipii\|first1= Mauno\|editor1-first= Mauno\|editor1-last= Jokipii\|title= Baltisk kultur och historia\|year= 1992 \|language= sv\|isbn= 9789134512078\|pages= 22–23\|publisher= Bonniers}}</ref>
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	{{Main\|Estonian Declaration of Independence\|Estonian War of Independence\|History of Estonia#Interwar period (1920–1939)}}		{{Main\|Estonian Declaration of Independence\|Estonian War of Independence\|History of Estonia#Interwar period (1920–1939)}}
	[[File:Kuperjanovi partisanide patarei.jpg\|thumb\|Kuperjanov's infantry battalion in the War of Independence]]		[[File:Kuperjanovi partisanide patarei.jpg\|thumb\|Kuperjanov's infantry battalion in the War of Independence]]
	During [[World War I]], over 100,000 Estonian men were mobilized into the [[Imperial Russian Army]]. Of these, approximately 8,000 to 10,000 perished, and one in five suffered injuries.<ref>Kuldkepp, M. (2016). Liisi Esse, ''[https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2016.1251068\| Eesti sõdurid Esimeses maailmasõjas: Sõjakogemus ja selle sõjajärgne tähendus]''. ''Journal of Baltic Studies'', 48(1), 99–101.</ref> In the turmoil of war, ideas for establishing an Estonian national army began to take root, while the shortages and hardships on the home front led to civil unrest. In 1917, following the [[February Revolution]], the [[Russian Provisional Government]] finally conceded to Estonian political demands: the two main separate governorates inhabited by Estonians were merged into one, Estonia was given the status of an [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia\|granted autonomy]], and the [[Estonian Provincial Assembly]] was formed through democratic elections.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1= Calvert \|first1=Peter\|title= The Process of Political Succession \|page=67 \|year=1987\|publisher= Springer \|isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref>		During [[World War I]], over 100,000 Estonian men were mobilized into the [[Imperial Russian Army]]. Of these, approximately 8,000 to 10,000 perished, and one in five suffered injuries.<ref>Kuldkepp, M. (2016). Liisi Esse, ''[https://doi.org/10.1080/01629778.2016.1251068 Eesti sõdurid Esimeses maailmasõjas: Sõjakogemus ja selle sõjajärgne tähendus]''. ''Journal of Baltic Studies'', 48(1), 99–101.</ref> In the turmoil of war, ideas for establishing an Estonian national army began to take root, while the shortages and hardships on the home front led to civil unrest. In 1917, following the [[February Revolution]], the [[Russian Provisional Government]] finally conceded to Estonian political demands: the two main separate governorates inhabited by Estonians were merged into one, Estonia was given the status of an [[Autonomous Governorate of Estonia\|granted autonomy]], and the [[Estonian Provincial Assembly]] was formed through democratic elections.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1= Calvert \|first1=Peter\|title= The Process of Political Succession \|page=67 \|year=1987\|publisher= Springer \|isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref>

	In November 1917, the [[Bolsheviks]] [[Bolshevik coup\|seized power]] in Estonia, declaring the Provincial Assembly disbanded. In response, the Assembly established the [[Estonian Salvation Committee]], which played a crucial role during the brief period between the Bolshevik retreat and the [[Operation Faustschlag\|arrival of German forces]]. On 23 February 1918 in Pärnu and on 24 February in Tallinn, the committee [[Estonian Declaration of Independence\|declared Estonia's independence]], forming the [[Estonian Provisional Government]]. Shortly thereafter, [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I\|German occupation]] commenced, accompanied by an attempt to create the [[United Baltic Duchy]], which aimed to establish a [[client state]] of the [[German Empire]] in the region. However, following Germany's defeat in World War I, the Germans were compelled to transfer power back to the Estonian Provisional Government on 19 November 1918.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Calvert\|first1=Peter\|title= The Process of Political Succession \|page=68 \|year=1987\|publisher= Springer \|isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1= Kasekamp\|first1= Andres\|title= The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia \|page=9 \|year=2000\|publisher= Springer \|isbn=9781403919557}}</ref>		In November 1917, the [[Bolsheviks]] [[Bolshevik coup\|seized power]] in Estonia, declaring the Provincial Assembly disbanded. In response, the Assembly established the [[Estonian Salvation Committee]], which played a crucial role during the brief period between the Bolshevik retreat and the [[Operation Faustschlag\|arrival of German forces]]. On 23 February 1918 in Pärnu and on 24 February in Tallinn, the committee [[Estonian Declaration of Independence\|declared Estonia's independence]], forming the [[Estonian Provisional Government]]. Shortly thereafter, [[German occupation of Estonia during World War I\|German occupation]] commenced, accompanied by an attempt to create the [[United Baltic Duchy]], which aimed to establish a [[client state]] of the [[German Empire]] in the region. However, following Germany's defeat in World War I, the Germans were compelled to transfer power back to the Estonian Provisional Government on 19 November 1918.<ref>{{Cite book\|last1=Calvert\|first1=Peter\|title= The Process of Political Succession \|page=68 \|year=1987\|publisher= Springer \|isbn= 9781349089789}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book\|last1= Kasekamp\|first1= Andres\|title= The Radical Right in Interwar Estonia \|page=9 \|year=2000\|publisher= Springer \|isbn=9781403919557}}</ref>
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	===Science and technology===		===Science and technology===
	{{See also\|Space science in Estonia}}		{{See also\|Space science in Estonia}}
	Estonia is a member of the international scientific organisations [[CERN]],<ref>{{Cite web \|url=https://cerncourier.com/a/estonia-becomes-24th-member-state/ \|title=Estonia becomes 24th Member State \|website=CERN Courier \|date=16 September 2024 }}</ref> [[ESA]],<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web\|url=http://www.eas.ee/kosmos/en/estonian-space-office/news/article/460-estonia-is-full-member-of-esa-from-1-of-september-2015 \|title=Estonia is a full member of ESA starting from 1st of September 2015 \| Estonian Space Office \|website=Eas.ee \|access-date=2016-02-11}}</ref>, [[Euratom]] and [[UNESCO]]. The [[Estonian Academy of Sciences]] is the [[national academy]] of science. The strongest public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research is the [[National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics]] (NICPB; Estonian KBFI). {{As of\|2015}}, Estonia spends around 1.5% of its GDP on [[Research and Development]], compared to an EU average of around 2.0%.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP)\|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?end=2015&locations=EE&name_desc=false&start=1998&view=chart\|year=2015\|publisher=World Bank\|access-date=19 January 2019}}</ref>		Estonia is a member of the international scientific organisations [[CERN]],<ref>{{Cite web \|url=https://cerncourier.com/a/estonia-becomes-24th-member-state/ \|title=Estonia becomes 24th Member State \|website=CERN Courier \|date=16 September 2024 }}</ref> [[ESA]],<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web\|url=http://www.eas.ee/kosmos/en/estonian-space-office/news/article/460-estonia-is-full-member-of-esa-from-1-of-september-2015 \|title=Estonia is a full member of ESA starting from 1st of September 2015 \| Estonian Space Office \|website=Eas.ee \|access-date=2016-02-11}}</ref> [[Euratom]] and [[UNESCO]]. The [[Estonian Academy of Sciences]] is the [[national academy]] of science. The strongest public non-profit research institute that carries out fundamental and applied research is the [[National Institute of Chemical Physics and Biophysics]] (NICPB; Estonian KBFI). {{As of\|2015}}, Estonia spends around 1.5% of its GDP on [[Research and Development]], compared to an EU average of around 2.0%.<ref>{{cite web\|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP)\|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?end=2015&locations=EE&name_desc=false&start=1998&view=chart\|year=2015\|publisher=World Bank\|access-date=19 January 2019}}</ref>
	[[File:ESTCube orbiidil 2.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=ESTCube-1 micro satellite orbiting globe and beaming light to Estonia\|[[ESTCube-1]] was the first Estonian satellite.]]		[[File:ESTCube orbiidil 2.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=ESTCube-1 micro satellite orbiting globe and beaming light to Estonia\|[[ESTCube-1]] was the first Estonian satellite.]]
	Estonia has established a strong information technology sector, a development partly attributed to the ''[[Tiigrihüpe]]'' project initiated in the mid-1990s. The country is often cited as one of the most "wired" and advanced in Europe concerning e-government initiatives.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe], August 2007</ref> The [[E-residency of Estonia\|e-residency program]], launched in 2014, extended various digital services to non-residents. Notable tech innovations include [[Skype]], developed by Estonia-based engineers [[Ahti Heinla]], [[Priit Kasesalu]], and [[Jaan Tallinn]], who also created [[Kazaa]].<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207073839/https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN\|url-status=dead\|archive-date=7 February 2012\|date=6 September 2006\|first=Andreas\|last=Thomann\|title=Skype – A Baltic Success Story\|publisher=credit-suisse.com\|access-date=24 February 2008}}</ref> Other notable [[Startup company\|startups]] that originated from Estonia include [[Bolt (company)\|Bolt]], [[GrabCAD]], [[Fortumo]] and [[TransferWise\|Wise]]. The country reportedly holds the highest startup-per-person ratio globally, with 1,291 startups as of January 2022, including seven unicorns, translating to nearly one startup for every 1,000 Estonians.<ref>{{cite news\|date=11 July 2013\|title=Not only Skype\|newspaper=The Economist\|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2013/07/estonias-technology-cluster\|access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=Estonian Startup Database\|url=https://startupestonia.ee/startup-database\|access-date=2022-01-11\|website=Startup Estonia\|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|date=2022-01-07\|title=The Estonia-Singapore tech corridor: A conversation with Priit Turk, Estonian ambassador to Singapore\|url=https://kr-asia.com/the-estonia-singapore-tech-corridor-a-conversation-with-priit-turk-estonian-ambassador-to-singapore\|access-date=2022-01-11\|website=KrASIA\|language=en}}</ref>		Estonia has established a strong information technology sector, a development partly attributed to the ''[[Tiigrihüpe]]'' project initiated in the mid-1990s. The country is often cited as one of the most "wired" and advanced in Europe concerning e-government initiatives.<ref>[https://www.wired.com/politics/security/magazine/15-09/ff_estonia Hackers Take Down the Most Wired Country in Europe], August 2007</ref> The [[E-residency of Estonia\|e-residency program]], launched in 2014, extended various digital services to non-residents. Notable tech innovations include [[Skype]], developed by Estonia-based engineers [[Ahti Heinla]], [[Priit Kasesalu]], and [[Jaan Tallinn]], who also created [[Kazaa]].<ref>{{cite web\|url=https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207073839/https://infocus.credit-suisse.com/app/article/index.cfm?fuseaction=OpenArticle&aoid=163167&coid=7805&lang=EN\|url-status=dead\|archive-date=7 February 2012\|date=6 September 2006\|first=Andreas\|last=Thomann\|title=Skype – A Baltic Success Story\|publisher=credit-suisse.com\|access-date=24 February 2008}}</ref> Other notable [[Startup company\|startups]] that originated from Estonia include [[Bolt (company)\|Bolt]], [[GrabCAD]], [[Fortumo]] and [[TransferWise\|Wise]]. The country reportedly holds the highest startup-per-person ratio globally, with 1,291 startups as of January 2022, including seven unicorns, translating to nearly one startup for every 1,000 Estonians.<ref>{{cite news\|date=11 July 2013\|title=Not only Skype\|newspaper=The Economist\|url=https://www.economist.com/blogs/schumpeter/2013/07/estonias-technology-cluster\|access-date=24 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|title=Estonian Startup Database\|url=https://startupestonia.ee/startup-database\|access-date=2022-01-11\|website=Startup Estonia\|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web\|date=2022-01-07\|title=The Estonia-Singapore tech corridor: A conversation with Priit Turk, Estonian ambassador to Singapore\|url=https://kr-asia.com/the-estonia-singapore-tech-corridor-a-conversation-with-priit-turk-estonian-ambassador-to-singapore\|access-date=2022-01-11\|website=KrASIA\|language=en}}</ref>