Flood basalt - Revision history

Kalbome22 at 03:23, 27 October 2024

2024-10-27T03:23:59Z

← Previous revision		Revision as of 03:23, 27 October 2024
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	The [[lunar mare\|maria]] on the [[Moon]] have been described as flood basalts<ref name=Benes1979>{{cite journal \|last1=Benes \|first1=K. \|year=1979 \|title=Flood basalt volcanism on the Moon and Mars \|journal=Geologie en Mijnbouw \|volume=58 \|number=2 \|pages=209–212}}</ref> composed of picritic basalt.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=O’Hara \|first1=M. J. \|title=Flood Basalts and Lunar Petrogenesis \|journal=Journal of Petrology \|date=1 July 2000 \|volume=41 \|issue=7 \|pages=1121–1125 \|doi=10.1093/petrology/41.7.1121\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Individual eruptive episodes were likely similar in volume to flood basalts of Earth, but were separated by much longer quiescent intervals and were likely produced by different mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oshigami \|first1=Shoko \|last2=Watanabe \|first2=Shiho \|last3=Yamaguchi \|first3=Yasushi \|last4=Yamaji \|first4=Atsushi \|last5=Kobayashi \|first5=Takao \|last6=Kumamoto \|first6=Atsushi \|last7=Ishiyama \|first7=Ken \|last8=Ono \|first8=Takayuki \|title=Mare volcanism: Reinterpretation based on Kaguya Lunar Radar Sounder data: MARE VOLCANISM BASED ON KAGUYA LRS DATA \|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets \|date=May 2014 \|volume=119 \|issue=5 \|pages=1037–1045 \|doi=10.1002/2013JE004568\|s2cid=130489146 \|doi-access=free }}</ref>		The [[lunar mare\|maria]] on the [[Moon]] have been described as flood basalts<ref name=Benes1979>{{cite journal \|last1=Benes \|first1=K. \|year=1979 \|title=Flood basalt volcanism on the Moon and Mars \|journal=Geologie en Mijnbouw \|volume=58 \|number=2 \|pages=209–212}}</ref> composed of picritic basalt.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=O’Hara \|first1=M. J. \|title=Flood Basalts and Lunar Petrogenesis \|journal=Journal of Petrology \|date=1 July 2000 \|volume=41 \|issue=7 \|pages=1121–1125 \|doi=10.1093/petrology/41.7.1121\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Individual eruptive episodes were likely similar in volume to flood basalts of Earth, but were separated by much longer quiescent intervals and were likely produced by different mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oshigami \|first1=Shoko \|last2=Watanabe \|first2=Shiho \|last3=Yamaguchi \|first3=Yasushi \|last4=Yamaji \|first4=Atsushi \|last5=Kobayashi \|first5=Takao \|last6=Kumamoto \|first6=Atsushi \|last7=Ishiyama \|first7=Ken \|last8=Ono \|first8=Takayuki \|title=Mare volcanism: Reinterpretation based on Kaguya Lunar Radar Sounder data: MARE VOLCANISM BASED ON KAGUYA LRS DATA \|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets \|date=May 2014 \|volume=119 \|issue=5 \|pages=1037–1045 \|doi=10.1002/2013JE004568\|s2cid=130489146 \|doi-access=free }}</ref>
	[[File:G19 025499 1789 XI 01S200W.jpg\|thumb\|Flood Basalt on Mars]]		[[File:G19 025499 1789 XI 01S200W.jpg\|thumb\|Flood Basalt on Mars]]
	Extensive flood basalts ~~may be~~ present on Mars.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Jaeger \|first1=W.L. \|last2=Keszthelyi \|first2=L.P. \|last3=Skinner \|first3=J.A. \|last4=Milazzo \|first4=M.P. \|last5=McEwen \|first5=A.S. \|last6=Titus \|first6=T.N. \|last7=Rosiek \|first7=M.R. \|last8=Galuszka \|first8=D.M. \|last9=Howington-Kraus \|first9=E. \|last10=Kirk \|first10=R.L. \|title=Emplacement of the youngest flood lava on Mars: A short, turbulent story \|journal=Icarus \|date=January 2010 \|volume=205 \|issue=1 \|pages=230–243 \|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.09.011\|bibcode=2010Icar..205..230J }}</ref>		Extensive flood basalts are present on Mars.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Jaeger \|first1=W.L. \|last2=Keszthelyi \|first2=L.P. \|last3=Skinner \|first3=J.A. \|last4=Milazzo \|first4=M.P. \|last5=McEwen \|first5=A.S. \|last6=Titus \|first6=T.N. \|last7=Rosiek \|first7=M.R. \|last8=Galuszka \|first8=D.M. \|last9=Howington-Kraus \|first9=E. \|last10=Kirk \|first10=R.L. \|title=Emplacement of the youngest flood lava on Mars: A short, turbulent story \|journal=Icarus \|date=January 2010 \|volume=205 \|issue=1 \|pages=230–243 \|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.09.011\|bibcode=2010Icar..205..230J }}</ref>

	== Uses ==		== Uses ==

Kalbome22 at 03:22, 27 October 2024

2024-10-27T03:22:38Z

← Previous revision		Revision as of 03:22, 27 October 2024
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	The [[lunar mare\|maria]] on the [[Moon]] have been described as flood basalts<ref name=Benes1979>{{cite journal \|last1=Benes \|first1=K. \|year=1979 \|title=Flood basalt volcanism on the Moon and Mars \|journal=Geologie en Mijnbouw \|volume=58 \|number=2 \|pages=209–212}}</ref> composed of picritic basalt.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=O’Hara \|first1=M. J. \|title=Flood Basalts and Lunar Petrogenesis \|journal=Journal of Petrology \|date=1 July 2000 \|volume=41 \|issue=7 \|pages=1121–1125 \|doi=10.1093/petrology/41.7.1121\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Individual eruptive episodes were likely similar in volume to flood basalts of Earth, but were separated by much longer quiescent intervals and were likely produced by different mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oshigami \|first1=Shoko \|last2=Watanabe \|first2=Shiho \|last3=Yamaguchi \|first3=Yasushi \|last4=Yamaji \|first4=Atsushi \|last5=Kobayashi \|first5=Takao \|last6=Kumamoto \|first6=Atsushi \|last7=Ishiyama \|first7=Ken \|last8=Ono \|first8=Takayuki \|title=Mare volcanism: Reinterpretation based on Kaguya Lunar Radar Sounder data: MARE VOLCANISM BASED ON KAGUYA LRS DATA \|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets \|date=May 2014 \|volume=119 \|issue=5 \|pages=1037–1045 \|doi=10.1002/2013JE004568\|s2cid=130489146 \|doi-access=free }}</ref>		The [[lunar mare\|maria]] on the [[Moon]] have been described as flood basalts<ref name=Benes1979>{{cite journal \|last1=Benes \|first1=K. \|year=1979 \|title=Flood basalt volcanism on the Moon and Mars \|journal=Geologie en Mijnbouw \|volume=58 \|number=2 \|pages=209–212}}</ref> composed of picritic basalt.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=O’Hara \|first1=M. J. \|title=Flood Basalts and Lunar Petrogenesis \|journal=Journal of Petrology \|date=1 July 2000 \|volume=41 \|issue=7 \|pages=1121–1125 \|doi=10.1093/petrology/41.7.1121\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Individual eruptive episodes were likely similar in volume to flood basalts of Earth, but were separated by much longer quiescent intervals and were likely produced by different mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oshigami \|first1=Shoko \|last2=Watanabe \|first2=Shiho \|last3=Yamaguchi \|first3=Yasushi \|last4=Yamaji \|first4=Atsushi \|last5=Kobayashi \|first5=Takao \|last6=Kumamoto \|first6=Atsushi \|last7=Ishiyama \|first7=Ken \|last8=Ono \|first8=Takayuki \|title=Mare volcanism: Reinterpretation based on Kaguya Lunar Radar Sounder data: MARE VOLCANISM BASED ON KAGUYA LRS DATA \|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets \|date=May 2014 \|volume=119 \|issue=5 \|pages=1037–1045 \|doi=10.1002/2013JE004568\|s2cid=130489146 \|doi-access=free }}</ref>
			[[File:G19 025499 1789 XI 01S200W.jpg\|thumb\|Flood Basalt on Mars]]

	Extensive flood basalts may be present on Mars.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Jaeger \|first1=W.L. \|last2=Keszthelyi \|first2=L.P. \|last3=Skinner \|first3=J.A. \|last4=Milazzo \|first4=M.P. \|last5=McEwen \|first5=A.S. \|last6=Titus \|first6=T.N. \|last7=Rosiek \|first7=M.R. \|last8=Galuszka \|first8=D.M. \|last9=Howington-Kraus \|first9=E. \|last10=Kirk \|first10=R.L. \|title=Emplacement of the youngest flood lava on Mars: A short, turbulent story \|journal=Icarus \|date=January 2010 \|volume=205 \|issue=1 \|pages=230–243 \|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.09.011\|bibcode=2010Icar..205..230J }}</ref>		Extensive flood basalts may be present on Mars.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Jaeger \|first1=W.L. \|last2=Keszthelyi \|first2=L.P. \|last3=Skinner \|first3=J.A. \|last4=Milazzo \|first4=M.P. \|last5=McEwen \|first5=A.S. \|last6=Titus \|first6=T.N. \|last7=Rosiek \|first7=M.R. \|last8=Galuszka \|first8=D.M. \|last9=Howington-Kraus \|first9=E. \|last10=Kirk \|first10=R.L. \|title=Emplacement of the youngest flood lava on Mars: A short, turbulent story \|journal=Icarus \|date=January 2010 \|volume=205 \|issue=1 \|pages=230–243 \|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.09.011\|bibcode=2010Icar..205..230J }}</ref>

Citation bot: Add: bibcode, doi-access. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Abductive | Category:Volcanic landforms | #UCB_Category 47/49

2024-04-19T11:47:24Z

Add: bibcode, doi-access. | Use this bot. Report bugs. | Suggested by Abductive | Category:Volcanic landforms | #UCB_Category 47/49

← Previous revision		Revision as of 11:47, 19 April 2024
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	[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].		[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].

	Large igneous provinces have been connected to five [[mass extinction]] events,<ref name="VolumeRateCO2">{{cite journal \|last1=Jiang \|first1=Qiang \|last2=Jourdan \|first2=Fred \|last3=Olierook \|first3=Hugo K. H. \|last4=Merle \|first4=Renaud E. \|last5=Bourdet \|first5=Julien \|last6=Fougerouse \|first6=Denis \|last7=Godel \|first7=Belinda \|last8=Walker \|first8=Alex T. \|date=25 July 2022 \|title=Volume and rate of volcanic {{CO2}} emissions governed the severity of past environmental crises \|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] \|volume=119 \|issue=31 \|pages=e2202039119 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.2202039119 \|pmid=35878029 \|pmc=9351498 \|bibcode=2022PNAS..11902039J }}</ref> and may be associated with [[bolide]] impacts.<ref>{{Cite journal \| doi = 10.1016/0031-9201(93)90011-W\| title = A possible K-T boundary bolide impact site offshore near Bombay and triggering of rapid Deccan volcanism\| journal = Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors\| volume = 76\| issue = 3–4\| pages = 189\| year = 1993\| last1 = Negi \| first1 = J. G. \| last2 = Agrawal \| first2 = P. K. \| last3 = Pandey \| first3 = O. P. \| last4 = Singh \| first4 = A. P. \|bibcode = 1993PEPI...76..189N }}</ref>		Large igneous provinces have been connected to five [[mass extinction]] events,<ref name="VolumeRateCO2">{{cite journal \|last1=Jiang \|first1=Qiang \|last2=Jourdan \|first2=Fred \|last3=Olierook \|first3=Hugo K. H. \|last4=Merle \|first4=Renaud E. \|last5=Bourdet \|first5=Julien \|last6=Fougerouse \|first6=Denis \|last7=Godel \|first7=Belinda \|last8=Walker \|first8=Alex T. \|date=25 July 2022 \|title=Volume and rate of volcanic {{CO2}} emissions governed the severity of past environmental crises \|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] \|volume=119 \|issue=31 \|pages=e2202039119 \|doi=10.1073/pnas.2202039119 \|doi-access=free \|pmid=35878029 \|pmc=9351498 \|bibcode=2022PNAS..11902039J }}</ref> and may be associated with [[bolide]] impacts.<ref>{{Cite journal \| doi = 10.1016/0031-9201(93)90011-W\| title = A possible K-T boundary bolide impact site offshore near Bombay and triggering of rapid Deccan volcanism\| journal = Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors\| volume = 76\| issue = 3–4\| pages = 189\| year = 1993\| last1 = Negi \| first1 = J. G. \| last2 = Agrawal \| first2 = P. K. \| last3 = Pandey \| first3 = O. P. \| last4 = Singh \| first4 = A. P. \|bibcode = 1993PEPI...76..189N }}</ref>

	==Description==		==Description==
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	===Generation of melt===		===Generation of melt===
	A tremendous amount of heat is required for so much magma to be generated in so short a time.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} This is widely believed to have been supplied by a [[mantle plume]] impinging on the base of the Earth's [[lithosphere]], its rigid outermost shell.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=White \|first1=Robert \|last2=McKenzie \|first2=Dan \|title=Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts \|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research \|date=1989 \|volume=94 \|issue=B6 \|pages=7685 \|doi=10.1029/JB094iB06p07685\|bibcode=1989JGR....94.7685W }}</ref><ref name="Saunders2005">{{cite journal \|last1=Saunders \|first1=A. D. \|title=Large Igneous Provinces: Origin and Environmental Consequences \|journal=Elements \|date=1 December 2005 \|volume=1 \|issue=5 \|pages=259–263 \|doi=10.2113/gselements.1.5.259}}</ref>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}} The plume consists of unusually hot mantle rock of the [[asthenosphere]], the ductile layer just below the lithosphere, that creeps upwards from deeper in the Earth's interior.{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|p=111}} The hot asthenosphere [[Rifting\|rifts]] the lithosphere above the plume, allowing magma produced by decompressional melting of the plume head to find pathways to the surface.{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|pp=110-111}}{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=57}}		A tremendous amount of heat is required for so much magma to be generated in so short a time.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} This is widely believed to have been supplied by a [[mantle plume]] impinging on the base of the Earth's [[lithosphere]], its rigid outermost shell.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=White \|first1=Robert \|last2=McKenzie \|first2=Dan \|title=Magmatism at rift zones: The generation of volcanic continental margins and flood basalts \|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research \|date=1989 \|volume=94 \|issue=B6 \|pages=7685 \|doi=10.1029/JB094iB06p07685\|bibcode=1989JGR....94.7685W }}</ref><ref name="Saunders2005">{{cite journal \|last1=Saunders \|first1=A. D. \|title=Large Igneous Provinces: Origin and Environmental Consequences \|journal=Elements \|date=1 December 2005 \|volume=1 \|issue=5 \|pages=259–263 \|doi=10.2113/gselements.1.5.259\|bibcode=2005Eleme...1..259S }}</ref>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}} The plume consists of unusually hot mantle rock of the [[asthenosphere]], the ductile layer just below the lithosphere, that creeps upwards from deeper in the Earth's interior.{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|p=111}} The hot asthenosphere [[Rifting\|rifts]] the lithosphere above the plume, allowing magma produced by decompressional melting of the plume head to find pathways to the surface.{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|pp=110-111}}{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=57}}

	The swarms of parallel dikes exposed by deep erosion of flood basalts show that considerable [[crustal extension]] has taken place. The dike swarms of west Scotland and Iceland show extension of up to 5%. Many flood basalts are associated with rift valleys, are located on passive continental plate margins, or extend into [[aulacogen]]s (failed arms of [[triple junction]]s where continental rifting begins.) Flood basalts on continents are often aligned with [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] volcanism in ocean basins.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|pp=57, 380}} The [[Paraná and Etendeka traps]], located in South America and Africa on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean, formed around 125 million years ago as the South Atlantic opened, while a second set of smaller flood basalts formed near the Triassic-Jurassic boundary in eastern North America as the North Atlantic opened.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|p=108}} However, the North Atlantic flood basalts are not connected with any hot spot traces, but seem to have been evenly distributed along the entire divergent boundary.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=381}}		The swarms of parallel dikes exposed by deep erosion of flood basalts show that considerable [[crustal extension]] has taken place. The dike swarms of west Scotland and Iceland show extension of up to 5%. Many flood basalts are associated with rift valleys, are located on passive continental plate margins, or extend into [[aulacogen]]s (failed arms of [[triple junction]]s where continental rifting begins.) Flood basalts on continents are often aligned with [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] volcanism in ocean basins.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|pp=57, 380}} The [[Paraná and Etendeka traps]], located in South America and Africa on opposite sides of the Atlantic Ocean, formed around 125 million years ago as the South Atlantic opened, while a second set of smaller flood basalts formed near the Triassic-Jurassic boundary in eastern North America as the North Atlantic opened.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|p=108}} However, the North Atlantic flood basalts are not connected with any hot spot traces, but seem to have been evenly distributed along the entire divergent boundary.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=381}}
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	===Mass extinctions===		===Mass extinctions===
	[[File:Redstoneslake.jpg\|thumb\|Siberian Traps at Red Stones Lake]]		[[File:Redstoneslake.jpg\|thumb\|Siberian Traps at Red Stones Lake]]
	The eruption of flood basalts has been linked with mass extinctions. For example, the [[Deccan Traps]], erupted at the [[Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary]], may have contributed to the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.<ref name="Wignall2005">{{cite journal \|last1=Wignall \|first1=P. \|title=The Link between Large Igneous Province Eruptions and Mass Extinctions \|journal=Elements \|date=1 December 2005 \|volume=1 \|issue=5 \|pages=293–297 \|doi=10.2113/gselements.1.5.293}}</ref> Likewise, mass extinctions at the [[Permian-Triassic]] boundary, the [[Triassic-Jurassic event\|Triassic-Jurassic]] boundary, and in the [[Toarcian]] [[Age (geology)\|Age]] of the [[Jurassic]] correspond to the ages of large igneous provinces in Siberia, the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, and the [[Karoo-Ferrar]] flood basalt.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}		The eruption of flood basalts has been linked with mass extinctions. For example, the [[Deccan Traps]], erupted at the [[Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary]], may have contributed to the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs.<ref name="Wignall2005">{{cite journal \|last1=Wignall \|first1=P. \|title=The Link between Large Igneous Province Eruptions and Mass Extinctions \|journal=Elements \|date=1 December 2005 \|volume=1 \|issue=5 \|pages=293–297 \|doi=10.2113/gselements.1.5.293\|bibcode=2005Eleme...1..293W }}</ref> Likewise, mass extinctions at the [[Permian-Triassic]] boundary, the [[Triassic-Jurassic event\|Triassic-Jurassic]] boundary, and in the [[Toarcian]] [[Age (geology)\|Age]] of the [[Jurassic]] correspond to the ages of large igneous provinces in Siberia, the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province, and the [[Karoo-Ferrar]] flood basalt.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}

	Some idea of the impact of flood basalts can be given by comparison with historical large eruptions. The [[1783 eruption of Laki\|1783 eruption of Lakagígar]] was the largest in the historical record, killing 75% of the livestock and a quarter of the population of Iceland. However, the eruption produced just {{convert\|14\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava,<ref name=GuilbaudEtal2005>{{cite journal \|last1=Guilbaud \|first1=M.N. \|last2=Self \|first2=S. \|last3=Thordarson \|first3=T. \|last4=Blake \|first4=S. \|year=2005 \|title=Morphology, surface structures, and emplacement of lavas produced by Laki, AD 1783–1784 \|journal=Geological Society of America Special Papers \|volume=396 \|pages=81–102 \|isbn=9780813723969 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efqyc-fh82YC&dq=guilbaud+2005+morphology&pg=PA81 \|access-date=12 January 2022}}</ref>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}} which is tiny compared with the Roza Member of the Columbia River Plateau, erupted in the mid-[[Miocene]], which contained at least {{convert\|1500\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava.<ref name=Allaby2013/>		Some idea of the impact of flood basalts can be given by comparison with historical large eruptions. The [[1783 eruption of Laki\|1783 eruption of Lakagígar]] was the largest in the historical record, killing 75% of the livestock and a quarter of the population of Iceland. However, the eruption produced just {{convert\|14\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava,<ref name=GuilbaudEtal2005>{{cite journal \|last1=Guilbaud \|first1=M.N. \|last2=Self \|first2=S. \|last3=Thordarson \|first3=T. \|last4=Blake \|first4=S. \|year=2005 \|title=Morphology, surface structures, and emplacement of lavas produced by Laki, AD 1783–1784 \|journal=Geological Society of America Special Papers \|volume=396 \|pages=81–102 \|isbn=9780813723969 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efqyc-fh82YC&dq=guilbaud+2005+morphology&pg=PA81 \|access-date=12 January 2022}}</ref>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}} which is tiny compared with the Roza Member of the Columbia River Plateau, erupted in the mid-[[Miocene]], which contained at least {{convert\|1500\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava.<ref name=Allaby2013/>

Hirsutism: /* Uses */ this sentence was very hard for me to parse at first

2024-03-27T14:39:33Z

Uses: this sentence was very hard for me to parse at first

← Previous revision		Revision as of 14:39, 27 March 2024
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	== Uses ==		== Uses ==
	~~The~~ ~~interlocking~~ ~~crystals of flood basalts, which are oriented at random, make trap rock~~ the most durable [[construction aggregate]] of all rock types.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}		Trap rock is the most durable [[construction aggregate]] of all rock types, because the interlocking crystals are oriented at random.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}

	==See also==		==See also==

User3749: Rollback edit(s) by 2603:9000:6FF0:AB0:E66E:72DA:68A4:4A5F (talk): non-constructive (RW 16.1)

2024-02-02T11:37:07Z

Rollback edit(s) by 2603:9000:6FF0:AB0:E66E:72DA:68A4:4A5F (talk): non-constructive (RW 16.1)

← Previous revision		Revision as of 11:37, 2 February 2024
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	[[Image:3-Devils-grade-Moses-Coulee-Cattle-Feed-Lot-PB110016.JPG\|thumb\|[[Moses Coulee]] in the US showing multiple flood basalt flows of the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]]. The upper basalt is Roza Member, while the lower [[canyon]] exposes Frenchmen Springs Member basalt]]		[[Image:3-Devils-grade-Moses-Coulee-Cattle-Feed-Lot-PB110016.JPG\|thumb\|[[Moses Coulee]] in the US showing multiple flood basalt flows of the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]]. The upper basalt is Roza Member, while the lower [[canyon]] exposes Frenchmen Springs Member basalt]]

	A '''flood basalt''' (or '''plateau basalt'''<ref name=Jackson1997fb>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref>) is the result of a giant [[volcanic eruption]] or series of [[eruption]]s that covers large stretches of land or the [[ocean]] floor with [[basalt]] [[lava]]. Many flood basalts have been attributed to the onset of a [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] reaching the surface of the Earth via a [[mantle plume]].<ref name="RichardsDucan1989">{{Cite journal \|author=Mark A. Richards \|author2=Robert A. Duncan \|author3=Vincent E. Courtillot \|year=1989 \|title=Flood Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails \|journal=Science Magazine \|volume=246 \|issue=4926 \|pages=103–107 \|bibcode=1989Sci...246..103R \|doi=10.1126/science.246.4926.103 \|pmid=17837768 \|s2cid=9147772}}</ref> [[List of flood basalt provinces\|Flood basalt provinces]] such as the [[Deccan Traps]] of India are often called ''[[Trap rock\|traps]]'', after the Swedish word ''trappa'' (meaning "staircase"), due to the characteristic stairstep [[geomorphology]] of many associated landscapes~~. I hope you have a great day~~.		A '''flood basalt''' (or '''plateau basalt'''<ref name=Jackson1997fb>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref>) is the result of a giant [[volcanic eruption]] or series of [[eruption]]s that covers large stretches of land or the [[ocean]] floor with [[basalt]] [[lava]]. Many flood basalts have been attributed to the onset of a [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] reaching the surface of the Earth via a [[mantle plume]].<ref name="RichardsDucan1989">{{Cite journal \|author=Mark A. Richards \|author2=Robert A. Duncan \|author3=Vincent E. Courtillot \|year=1989 \|title=Flood Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails \|journal=Science Magazine \|volume=246 \|issue=4926 \|pages=103–107 \|bibcode=1989Sci...246..103R \|doi=10.1126/science.246.4926.103 \|pmid=17837768 \|s2cid=9147772}}</ref> [[List of flood basalt provinces\|Flood basalt provinces]] such as the [[Deccan Traps]] of India are often called ''[[Trap rock\|traps]]'', after the Swedish word ''trappa'' (meaning "staircase"), due to the characteristic stairstep [[geomorphology]] of many associated landscapes.

	[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].		[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].

2603:9000:6FF0:AB0:E66E:72DA:68A4:4A5F at 11:36, 2 February 2024

2024-02-02T11:36:49Z

← Previous revision		Revision as of 11:36, 2 February 2024
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	[[Image:3-Devils-grade-Moses-Coulee-Cattle-Feed-Lot-PB110016.JPG\|thumb\|[[Moses Coulee]] in the US showing multiple flood basalt flows of the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]]. The upper basalt is Roza Member, while the lower [[canyon]] exposes Frenchmen Springs Member basalt]]		[[Image:3-Devils-grade-Moses-Coulee-Cattle-Feed-Lot-PB110016.JPG\|thumb\|[[Moses Coulee]] in the US showing multiple flood basalt flows of the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]]. The upper basalt is Roza Member, while the lower [[canyon]] exposes Frenchmen Springs Member basalt]]

	A '''flood basalt''' (or '''plateau basalt'''<ref name=Jackson1997fb>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref>) is the result of a giant [[volcanic eruption]] or series of [[eruption]]s that covers large stretches of land or the [[ocean]] floor with [[basalt]] [[lava]]. Many flood basalts have been attributed to the onset of a [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] reaching the surface of the Earth via a [[mantle plume]].<ref name="RichardsDucan1989">{{Cite journal \|author=Mark A. Richards \|author2=Robert A. Duncan \|author3=Vincent E. Courtillot \|year=1989 \|title=Flood Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails \|journal=Science Magazine \|volume=246 \|issue=4926 \|pages=103–107 \|bibcode=1989Sci...246..103R \|doi=10.1126/science.246.4926.103 \|pmid=17837768 \|s2cid=9147772}}</ref> [[List of flood basalt provinces\|Flood basalt provinces]] such as the [[Deccan Traps]] of India are often called ''[[Trap rock\|traps]]'', after the Swedish word ''trappa'' (meaning "staircase"), due to the characteristic stairstep [[geomorphology]] of many associated landscapes.		A '''flood basalt''' (or '''plateau basalt'''<ref name=Jackson1997fb>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref>) is the result of a giant [[volcanic eruption]] or series of [[eruption]]s that covers large stretches of land or the [[ocean]] floor with [[basalt]] [[lava]]. Many flood basalts have been attributed to the onset of a [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] reaching the surface of the Earth via a [[mantle plume]].<ref name="RichardsDucan1989">{{Cite journal \|author=Mark A. Richards \|author2=Robert A. Duncan \|author3=Vincent E. Courtillot \|year=1989 \|title=Flood Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails \|journal=Science Magazine \|volume=246 \|issue=4926 \|pages=103–107 \|bibcode=1989Sci...246..103R \|doi=10.1126/science.246.4926.103 \|pmid=17837768 \|s2cid=9147772}}</ref> [[List of flood basalt provinces\|Flood basalt provinces]] such as the [[Deccan Traps]] of India are often called ''[[Trap rock\|traps]]'', after the Swedish word ''trappa'' (meaning "staircase"), due to the characteristic stairstep [[geomorphology]] of many associated landscapes. I hope you have a great day.

	[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].		[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].

OAbot: Open access bot: hdl updated in citation with #oabot.

2024-01-05T11:23:10Z

Open access bot: hdl updated in citation with #oabot.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 11:23, 5 January 2024
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	Some idea of the impact of flood basalts can be given by comparison with historical large eruptions. The [[1783 eruption of Laki\|1783 eruption of Lakagígar]] was the largest in the historical record, killing 75% of the livestock and a quarter of the population of Iceland. However, the eruption produced just {{convert\|14\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava,<ref name=GuilbaudEtal2005>{{cite journal \|last1=Guilbaud \|first1=M.N. \|last2=Self \|first2=S. \|last3=Thordarson \|first3=T. \|last4=Blake \|first4=S. \|year=2005 \|title=Morphology, surface structures, and emplacement of lavas produced by Laki, AD 1783–1784 \|journal=Geological Society of America Special Papers \|volume=396 \|pages=81–102 \|isbn=9780813723969 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efqyc-fh82YC&dq=guilbaud+2005+morphology&pg=PA81 \|access-date=12 January 2022}}</ref>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}} which is tiny compared with the Roza Member of the Columbia River Plateau, erupted in the mid-[[Miocene]], which contained at least {{convert\|1500\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava.<ref name=Allaby2013/>		Some idea of the impact of flood basalts can be given by comparison with historical large eruptions. The [[1783 eruption of Laki\|1783 eruption of Lakagígar]] was the largest in the historical record, killing 75% of the livestock and a quarter of the population of Iceland. However, the eruption produced just {{convert\|14\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava,<ref name=GuilbaudEtal2005>{{cite journal \|last1=Guilbaud \|first1=M.N. \|last2=Self \|first2=S. \|last3=Thordarson \|first3=T. \|last4=Blake \|first4=S. \|year=2005 \|title=Morphology, surface structures, and emplacement of lavas produced by Laki, AD 1783–1784 \|journal=Geological Society of America Special Papers \|volume=396 \|pages=81–102 \|isbn=9780813723969 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efqyc-fh82YC&dq=guilbaud+2005+morphology&pg=PA81 \|access-date=12 January 2022}}</ref>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}} which is tiny compared with the Roza Member of the Columbia River Plateau, erupted in the mid-[[Miocene]], which contained at least {{convert\|1500\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava.<ref name=Allaby2013/>

	During the eruption of the [[Siberian Traps]], some {{convert\|5 to 16\|e6km3\|e6mi3\|abbr=off\|sp=us}} of magma penetrated the crust, covering an area of {{convert\|5\|e6km2\|e6mi2\|abbr=off}}, equal to 62% of the area of the contiguous states of the United States. The hot magma contained vast quantities of [[carbon dioxide]] and [[sulfur oxides]], and released additional carbon dioxide and [[methane]] from deep [[petroleum reservoir]]s and younger [[coal]] beds in the region. The released gases created over 6400 [[diatreme]]-like ''pipes'',<ref name="SaundersReichow2009">{{cite journal \| title=The Siberian Traps and the End-Permian mass extinction: a critical review \| first1=A. \| last1=Saunders \| first2=M. \| last2=Reichow \| journal=Chinese Science Bulletin \| year=2009 \| volume=54 \| issue=1 \| pages=20–37 \| doi=10.1007/s11434-008-0543-7\| bibcode=2009ChSBu..54...20S \| s2cid=1736350 \| url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10119755 }}</ref> each typically over {{convert\|1.6\|km\|mi\|0}} in diameter. The pipes emitted up to 160 trillion tons of carbon dioxide and 46 trillion tons of methane. Coal ash from burning coal beds spread toxic [[chromium]], [[arsenic]], [[Mercury (element)\|mercury]], and [[lead]] across northern Canada. [[Evaporite]] beds heated by the magma released [[hydrochloric acid]], [[methyl chloride]], [[methyl bromide]], which damaged the [[ozone layer]] and reduced ultraviolet shielding by as much as 85%. Over 5 trillion tons of [[sulfur dioxide]] was also released. The carbon dioxide produced extreme greenhouse conditions, with global average sea water temperatures peaking at {{convert\|38\|C\|F}}, the highest ever seen in the geologic record. Temperatures did not drop to {{convert\|32\|C\|F}} for another 5.1 million years. Temperatures this high are lethal to most marine organisms, and land plants have difficulty continuing to photosynthesize at temperatures above {{convert\|35\|C\|F}}. The Earth's equatorial zone became a dead zone.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=McGhee \|first1=George R. \|title=Carboniferous Giants and Mass Extinction: The Late Paleozoic Ice Age World \|date=2018 \|publisher=Columbia University Press \|location=New York \|isbn=9780231180979 \|pages=190–240}}</ref>		During the eruption of the [[Siberian Traps]], some {{convert\|5 to 16\|e6km3\|e6mi3\|abbr=off\|sp=us}} of magma penetrated the crust, covering an area of {{convert\|5\|e6km2\|e6mi2\|abbr=off}}, equal to 62% of the area of the contiguous states of the United States. The hot magma contained vast quantities of [[carbon dioxide]] and [[sulfur oxides]], and released additional carbon dioxide and [[methane]] from deep [[petroleum reservoir]]s and younger [[coal]] beds in the region. The released gases created over 6400 [[diatreme]]-like ''pipes'',<ref name="SaundersReichow2009">{{cite journal \| title=The Siberian Traps and the End-Permian mass extinction: a critical review \| first1=A. \| last1=Saunders \| first2=M. \| last2=Reichow \| journal=Chinese Science Bulletin \| year=2009 \| volume=54 \| issue=1 \| pages=20–37 \| doi=10.1007/s11434-008-0543-7\| bibcode=2009ChSBu..54...20S \| s2cid=1736350 \| url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10119755 \| hdl=2381/27540 \| hdl-access=free }}</ref> each typically over {{convert\|1.6\|km\|mi\|0}} in diameter. The pipes emitted up to 160 trillion tons of carbon dioxide and 46 trillion tons of methane. Coal ash from burning coal beds spread toxic [[chromium]], [[arsenic]], [[Mercury (element)\|mercury]], and [[lead]] across northern Canada. [[Evaporite]] beds heated by the magma released [[hydrochloric acid]], [[methyl chloride]], [[methyl bromide]], which damaged the [[ozone layer]] and reduced ultraviolet shielding by as much as 85%. Over 5 trillion tons of [[sulfur dioxide]] was also released. The carbon dioxide produced extreme greenhouse conditions, with global average sea water temperatures peaking at {{convert\|38\|C\|F}}, the highest ever seen in the geologic record. Temperatures did not drop to {{convert\|32\|C\|F}} for another 5.1 million years. Temperatures this high are lethal to most marine organisms, and land plants have difficulty continuing to photosynthesize at temperatures above {{convert\|35\|C\|F}}. The Earth's equatorial zone became a dead zone.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=McGhee \|first1=George R. \|title=Carboniferous Giants and Mass Extinction: The Late Paleozoic Ice Age World \|date=2018 \|publisher=Columbia University Press \|location=New York \|isbn=9780231180979 \|pages=190–240}}</ref>

	However, not all large igneous provinces are connected with extinction events.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=384}} The formation and effects of a flood basalt depend on a range of factors, such as continental configuration, latitude, volume, rate, duration of eruption, style and setting (continental vs. oceanic), the preexisting [[climate]], and the [[Biota (ecology)\|biota]] resilience to change.<ref>{{Cite journal\|first1=David P.G. \|last1=Bond \|first2=Paul B. \|last2=Wignall\|title=Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update\|journal=GSA Special Papers \|volume=505 \|year=2014 \|pages=29–55 \|doi=10.1130/2014.2505(02)\|isbn=9780813725055 \|url=https://hull-repository.worktribe.com/373637/1/10877%20Bond.pdf}}</ref>		However, not all large igneous provinces are connected with extinction events.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=384}} The formation and effects of a flood basalt depend on a range of factors, such as continental configuration, latitude, volume, rate, duration of eruption, style and setting (continental vs. oceanic), the preexisting [[climate]], and the [[Biota (ecology)\|biota]] resilience to change.<ref>{{Cite journal\|first1=David P.G. \|last1=Bond \|first2=Paul B. \|last2=Wignall\|title=Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update\|journal=GSA Special Papers \|volume=505 \|year=2014 \|pages=29–55 \|doi=10.1130/2014.2505(02)\|isbn=9780813725055 \|url=https://hull-repository.worktribe.com/373637/1/10877%20Bond.pdf}}</ref>

Sciencia58: /* Description */

2023-12-29T07:25:08Z

Description

← Previous revision		Revision as of 07:25, 29 December 2023
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	==Description==		==Description==
	[[Image:Ethiopian highlands 01 mod.jpg\|thumb\|[[Ethiopian Highlands]] basalt]]		[[Image:Ethiopian highlands 01 mod.jpg\|thumb\|[[Ethiopian Highlands]] basalt]]
	[[File:Ages of flood basalt events 1.png\|thumb\|Ages of flood basalt events and oceanic plateaus.<ref>Vincent E. Courtillot, Paul R. Renne: ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631071303000063?via%3Dihub On the ages of flood basalt events]''</ref>]]		[[File:Ages of flood basalt events 1.png\|thumb\|Ages of flood basalt events and oceanic plateaus.<ref>[[Vincent Courtillot]], [[Paul Renne]]: ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631071303000063?via%3Dihub On the ages of flood basalt events]''</ref>]]

	Flood basalts are the most voluminous of all [[Extrusive rock\|extrusive igneous rocks]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Philpotts \|first1=Anthony R. \|last2=Ague \|first2=Jay J. \|title=Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology \|date=2009 \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|location=Cambridge, UK \|isbn=9780521880060 \|edition=2nd \|page=52}}</ref> forming enormous deposits of [[basaltic]] rock<ref name=Jackson1997>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=plateau basalt}}</ref><ref name=Allaby2013>{{cite book \|last1=Allaby \|first1=Michael \|title=A dictionary of geology and earth sciences \|date=2013 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|location=Oxford \|isbn=9780199653065 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref> found throughout the geologic record.<ref name=Jackson1997/>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} They are a highly distinctive form of [[intraplate volcanism]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Schmincke \|first1=Hans-Ulrich \|title=Volcanism \|date=2003 \|publisher=Springer \|location=Berlin \|isbn=978-3-540-43650-8 \|page=107}}</ref> set apart from all other forms of volcanism by the huge volumes of lava erupted in geologically short time intervals. A single flood basalt province may contain hundreds of thousands of cubic kilometers of basalt erupted over less than a million years, with individual events each erupting hundreds of cubic kilometers of basalt.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} This highly fluid basalt lava can spread laterally for hundreds of kilometers from its source vents,{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=53}} covering areas of tens of thousands of square kilometers.{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|p=107}} Successive eruptions form thick accumulations of nearly horizontal flows, erupted in rapid succession over vast areas, flooding the Earth's surface with lava on a regional scale.<ref name=Jackson1997/>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}		Flood basalts are the most voluminous of all [[Extrusive rock\|extrusive igneous rocks]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Philpotts \|first1=Anthony R. \|last2=Ague \|first2=Jay J. \|title=Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology \|date=2009 \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|location=Cambridge, UK \|isbn=9780521880060 \|edition=2nd \|page=52}}</ref> forming enormous deposits of [[basaltic]] rock<ref name=Jackson1997>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=plateau basalt}}</ref><ref name=Allaby2013>{{cite book \|last1=Allaby \|first1=Michael \|title=A dictionary of geology and earth sciences \|date=2013 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|location=Oxford \|isbn=9780199653065 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref> found throughout the geologic record.<ref name=Jackson1997/>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} They are a highly distinctive form of [[intraplate volcanism]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Schmincke \|first1=Hans-Ulrich \|title=Volcanism \|date=2003 \|publisher=Springer \|location=Berlin \|isbn=978-3-540-43650-8 \|page=107}}</ref> set apart from all other forms of volcanism by the huge volumes of lava erupted in geologically short time intervals. A single flood basalt province may contain hundreds of thousands of cubic kilometers of basalt erupted over less than a million years, with individual events each erupting hundreds of cubic kilometers of basalt.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} This highly fluid basalt lava can spread laterally for hundreds of kilometers from its source vents,{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=53}} covering areas of tens of thousands of square kilometers.{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|p=107}} Successive eruptions form thick accumulations of nearly horizontal flows, erupted in rapid succession over vast areas, flooding the Earth's surface with lava on a regional scale.<ref name=Jackson1997/>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}

Sciencia58: /* Description */ Image, source

2023-12-28T15:16:51Z

Description: Image, source

← Previous revision		Revision as of 15:16, 28 December 2023
Line 10:		Line 10:
	==Description==		==Description==
	[[Image:Ethiopian highlands 01 mod.jpg\|thumb\|[[Ethiopian Highlands]] basalt]]		[[Image:Ethiopian highlands 01 mod.jpg\|thumb\|[[Ethiopian Highlands]] basalt]]
			[[File:Ages of flood basalt events 1.png\|thumb\|Ages of flood basalt events and oceanic plateaus.<ref>Vincent E. Courtillot, Paul R. Renne: ''[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1631071303000063?via%3Dihub On the ages of flood basalt events]''</ref>]]

	Flood basalts are the most voluminous of all [[Extrusive rock\|extrusive igneous rocks]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Philpotts \|first1=Anthony R. \|last2=Ague \|first2=Jay J. \|title=Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology \|date=2009 \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|location=Cambridge, UK \|isbn=9780521880060 \|edition=2nd \|page=52}}</ref> forming enormous deposits of [[basaltic]] rock<ref name=Jackson1997>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=plateau basalt}}</ref><ref name=Allaby2013>{{cite book \|last1=Allaby \|first1=Michael \|title=A dictionary of geology and earth sciences \|date=2013 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|location=Oxford \|isbn=9780199653065 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref> found throughout the geologic record.<ref name=Jackson1997/>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} They are a highly distinctive form of [[intraplate volcanism]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Schmincke \|first1=Hans-Ulrich \|title=Volcanism \|date=2003 \|publisher=Springer \|location=Berlin \|isbn=978-3-540-43650-8 \|page=107}}</ref> set apart from all other forms of volcanism by the huge volumes of lava erupted in geologically short time intervals. A single flood basalt province may contain hundreds of thousands of cubic kilometers of basalt erupted over less than a million years, with individual events each erupting hundreds of cubic kilometers of basalt.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} This highly fluid basalt lava can spread laterally for hundreds of kilometers from its source vents,{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=53}} covering areas of tens of thousands of square kilometers.{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|p=107}} Successive eruptions form thick accumulations of nearly horizontal flows, erupted in rapid succession over vast areas, flooding the Earth's surface with lava on a regional scale.<ref name=Jackson1997/>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}		Flood basalts are the most voluminous of all [[Extrusive rock\|extrusive igneous rocks]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Philpotts \|first1=Anthony R. \|last2=Ague \|first2=Jay J. \|title=Principles of igneous and metamorphic petrology \|date=2009 \|publisher=Cambridge University Press \|location=Cambridge, UK \|isbn=9780521880060 \|edition=2nd \|page=52}}</ref> forming enormous deposits of [[basaltic]] rock<ref name=Jackson1997>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=plateau basalt}}</ref><ref name=Allaby2013>{{cite book \|last1=Allaby \|first1=Michael \|title=A dictionary of geology and earth sciences \|date=2013 \|publisher=Oxford University Press \|location=Oxford \|isbn=9780199653065 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref> found throughout the geologic record.<ref name=Jackson1997/>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} They are a highly distinctive form of [[intraplate volcanism]],<ref>{{cite book \|last1=Schmincke \|first1=Hans-Ulrich \|title=Volcanism \|date=2003 \|publisher=Springer \|location=Berlin \|isbn=978-3-540-43650-8 \|page=107}}</ref> set apart from all other forms of volcanism by the huge volumes of lava erupted in geologically short time intervals. A single flood basalt province may contain hundreds of thousands of cubic kilometers of basalt erupted over less than a million years, with individual events each erupting hundreds of cubic kilometers of basalt.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=380}} This highly fluid basalt lava can spread laterally for hundreds of kilometers from its source vents,{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=53}} covering areas of tens of thousands of square kilometers.{{sfn\|Schmincke\|2003\|p=107}} Successive eruptions form thick accumulations of nearly horizontal flows, erupted in rapid succession over vast areas, flooding the Earth's surface with lava on a regional scale.<ref name=Jackson1997/>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}}

70.30.39.193: /* List of flood basalts */

2023-12-20T15:47:24Z

List of flood basalts

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	\|{{sort\|300\|300,000}}		\|{{sort\|300\|300,000}}

	\|[[End-Capitanian extinction event]]<ref>{{Cite journal\|title = A temporal link between the Emeishan large igneous province (SW China) and the end-Guadalupian mass extinction\|author-link1=Mei-Fu Zhou\|last = Zhou\|first = MF \|display-authors=etal \|date = 2002\|journal = Earth and Planetary Science Letters\|doi = 10.1016/s0012-821x(01)00608-2\|volume=196\|issue = 3–4\|pages=113–122\|bibcode =2002E&PSL.196..113Z}}</ref>		\|[[Capitanian mass extinction event\|End-Capitanian extinction event]]<ref>{{Cite journal\|title = A temporal link between the Emeishan large igneous province (SW China) and the end-Guadalupian mass extinction\|author-link1=Mei-Fu Zhou\|last = Zhou\|first = MF \|display-authors=etal \|date = 2002\|journal = Earth and Planetary Science Letters\|doi = 10.1016/s0012-821x(01)00608-2\|volume=196\|issue = 3–4\|pages=113–122\|bibcode =2002E&PSL.196..113Z}}</ref>

	\|-		\|-

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	The [[lunar mare\|maria]] on the [[Moon]] have been described as flood basalts<ref name=Benes1979>{{cite journal \|last1=Benes \|first1=K. \|year=1979 \|title=Flood basalt volcanism on the Moon and Mars \|journal=Geologie en Mijnbouw \|volume=58 \|number=2 \|pages=209–212}}</ref> composed of picritic basalt.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=O’Hara \|first1=M. J. \|title=Flood Basalts and Lunar Petrogenesis \|journal=Journal of Petrology \|date=1 July 2000 \|volume=41 \|issue=7 \|pages=1121–1125 \|doi=10.1093/petrology/41.7.1121\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Individual eruptive episodes were likely similar in volume to flood basalts of Earth, but were separated by much longer quiescent intervals and were likely produced by different mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oshigami \|first1=Shoko \|last2=Watanabe \|first2=Shiho \|last3=Yamaguchi \|first3=Yasushi \|last4=Yamaji \|first4=Atsushi \|last5=Kobayashi \|first5=Takao \|last6=Kumamoto \|first6=Atsushi \|last7=Ishiyama \|first7=Ken \|last8=Ono \|first8=Takayuki \|title=Mare volcanism: Reinterpretation based on Kaguya Lunar Radar Sounder data: MARE VOLCANISM BASED ON KAGUYA LRS DATA \|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets \|date=May 2014 \|volume=119 \|issue=5 \|pages=1037–1045 \|doi=10.1002/2013JE004568\|s2cid=130489146 \|doi-access=free }}</ref>		The [[lunar mare\|maria]] on the [[Moon]] have been described as flood basalts<ref name=Benes1979>{{cite journal \|last1=Benes \|first1=K. \|year=1979 \|title=Flood basalt volcanism on the Moon and Mars \|journal=Geologie en Mijnbouw \|volume=58 \|number=2 \|pages=209–212}}</ref> composed of picritic basalt.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=O’Hara \|first1=M. J. \|title=Flood Basalts and Lunar Petrogenesis \|journal=Journal of Petrology \|date=1 July 2000 \|volume=41 \|issue=7 \|pages=1121–1125 \|doi=10.1093/petrology/41.7.1121\|doi-access=free }}</ref> Individual eruptive episodes were likely similar in volume to flood basalts of Earth, but were separated by much longer quiescent intervals and were likely produced by different mechanisms.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oshigami \|first1=Shoko \|last2=Watanabe \|first2=Shiho \|last3=Yamaguchi \|first3=Yasushi \|last4=Yamaji \|first4=Atsushi \|last5=Kobayashi \|first5=Takao \|last6=Kumamoto \|first6=Atsushi \|last7=Ishiyama \|first7=Ken \|last8=Ono \|first8=Takayuki \|title=Mare volcanism: Reinterpretation based on Kaguya Lunar Radar Sounder data: MARE VOLCANISM BASED ON KAGUYA LRS DATA \|journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets \|date=May 2014 \|volume=119 \|issue=5 \|pages=1037–1045 \|doi=10.1002/2013JE004568\|s2cid=130489146 \|doi-access=free }}</ref>
			[[File:G19 025499 1789 XI 01S200W.jpg\|thumb\|Flood Basalt on Mars]]

	Extensive flood basalts may be present on Mars.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Jaeger \|first1=W.L. \|last2=Keszthelyi \|first2=L.P. \|last3=Skinner \|first3=J.A. \|last4=Milazzo \|first4=M.P. \|last5=McEwen \|first5=A.S. \|last6=Titus \|first6=T.N. \|last7=Rosiek \|first7=M.R. \|last8=Galuszka \|first8=D.M. \|last9=Howington-Kraus \|first9=E. \|last10=Kirk \|first10=R.L. \|title=Emplacement of the youngest flood lava on Mars: A short, turbulent story \|journal=Icarus \|date=January 2010 \|volume=205 \|issue=1 \|pages=230–243 \|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.09.011\|bibcode=2010Icar..205..230J }}</ref>		Extensive flood basalts may be present on Mars.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Jaeger \|first1=W.L. \|last2=Keszthelyi \|first2=L.P. \|last3=Skinner \|first3=J.A. \|last4=Milazzo \|first4=M.P. \|last5=McEwen \|first5=A.S. \|last6=Titus \|first6=T.N. \|last7=Rosiek \|first7=M.R. \|last8=Galuszka \|first8=D.M. \|last9=Howington-Kraus \|first9=E. \|last10=Kirk \|first10=R.L. \|title=Emplacement of the youngest flood lava on Mars: A short, turbulent story \|journal=Icarus \|date=January 2010 \|volume=205 \|issue=1 \|pages=230–243 \|doi=10.1016/j.icarus.2009.09.011\|bibcode=2010Icar..205..230J }}</ref>

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	[[Image:3-Devils-grade-Moses-Coulee-Cattle-Feed-Lot-PB110016.JPG\|thumb\|[[Moses Coulee]] in the US showing multiple flood basalt flows of the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]]. The upper basalt is Roza Member, while the lower [[canyon]] exposes Frenchmen Springs Member basalt]]		[[Image:3-Devils-grade-Moses-Coulee-Cattle-Feed-Lot-PB110016.JPG\|thumb\|[[Moses Coulee]] in the US showing multiple flood basalt flows of the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]]. The upper basalt is Roza Member, while the lower [[canyon]] exposes Frenchmen Springs Member basalt]]

	A '''flood basalt''' (or '''plateau basalt'''<ref name=Jackson1997fb>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref>) is the result of a giant [[volcanic eruption]] or series of [[eruption]]s that covers large stretches of land or the [[ocean]] floor with [[basalt]] [[lava]]. Many flood basalts have been attributed to the onset of a [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] reaching the surface of the Earth via a [[mantle plume]].<ref name="RichardsDucan1989">{{Cite journal \|author=Mark A. Richards \|author2=Robert A. Duncan \|author3=Vincent E. Courtillot \|year=1989 \|title=Flood Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails \|journal=Science Magazine \|volume=246 \|issue=4926 \|pages=103–107 \|bibcode=1989Sci...246..103R \|doi=10.1126/science.246.4926.103 \|pmid=17837768 \|s2cid=9147772}}</ref> [[List of flood basalt provinces\|Flood basalt provinces]] such as the [[Deccan Traps]] of India are often called ''[[Trap rock\|traps]]'', after the Swedish word ''trappa'' (meaning "staircase"), due to the characteristic stairstep [[geomorphology]] of many associated landscapes~~. I hope you have a great day~~.		A '''flood basalt''' (or '''plateau basalt'''<ref name=Jackson1997fb>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref>) is the result of a giant [[volcanic eruption]] or series of [[eruption]]s that covers large stretches of land or the [[ocean]] floor with [[basalt]] [[lava]]. Many flood basalts have been attributed to the onset of a [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] reaching the surface of the Earth via a [[mantle plume]].<ref name="RichardsDucan1989">{{Cite journal \|author=Mark A. Richards \|author2=Robert A. Duncan \|author3=Vincent E. Courtillot \|year=1989 \|title=Flood Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails \|journal=Science Magazine \|volume=246 \|issue=4926 \|pages=103–107 \|bibcode=1989Sci...246..103R \|doi=10.1126/science.246.4926.103 \|pmid=17837768 \|s2cid=9147772}}</ref> [[List of flood basalt provinces\|Flood basalt provinces]] such as the [[Deccan Traps]] of India are often called ''[[Trap rock\|traps]]'', after the Swedish word ''trappa'' (meaning "staircase"), due to the characteristic stairstep [[geomorphology]] of many associated landscapes.

	[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].		[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].

← Previous revision		Revision as of 11:36, 2 February 2024
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	[[Image:3-Devils-grade-Moses-Coulee-Cattle-Feed-Lot-PB110016.JPG\|thumb\|[[Moses Coulee]] in the US showing multiple flood basalt flows of the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]]. The upper basalt is Roza Member, while the lower [[canyon]] exposes Frenchmen Springs Member basalt]]		[[Image:3-Devils-grade-Moses-Coulee-Cattle-Feed-Lot-PB110016.JPG\|thumb\|[[Moses Coulee]] in the US showing multiple flood basalt flows of the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]]. The upper basalt is Roza Member, while the lower [[canyon]] exposes Frenchmen Springs Member basalt]]

	A '''flood basalt''' (or '''plateau basalt'''<ref name=Jackson1997fb>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref>) is the result of a giant [[volcanic eruption]] or series of [[eruption]]s that covers large stretches of land or the [[ocean]] floor with [[basalt]] [[lava]]. Many flood basalts have been attributed to the onset of a [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] reaching the surface of the Earth via a [[mantle plume]].<ref name="RichardsDucan1989">{{Cite journal \|author=Mark A. Richards \|author2=Robert A. Duncan \|author3=Vincent E. Courtillot \|year=1989 \|title=Flood Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails \|journal=Science Magazine \|volume=246 \|issue=4926 \|pages=103–107 \|bibcode=1989Sci...246..103R \|doi=10.1126/science.246.4926.103 \|pmid=17837768 \|s2cid=9147772}}</ref> [[List of flood basalt provinces\|Flood basalt provinces]] such as the [[Deccan Traps]] of India are often called ''[[Trap rock\|traps]]'', after the Swedish word ''trappa'' (meaning "staircase"), due to the characteristic stairstep [[geomorphology]] of many associated landscapes.		A '''flood basalt''' (or '''plateau basalt'''<ref name=Jackson1997fb>{{cite book \|editor1-last=Jackson \|editor1-first=Julia A. \|title=Glossary of geology. \|date=1997 \|publisher=American Geological Institute \|location=Alexandria, Virginia \|isbn=0922152349 \|edition=Fourth \|chapter=flood basalt}}</ref>) is the result of a giant [[volcanic eruption]] or series of [[eruption]]s that covers large stretches of land or the [[ocean]] floor with [[basalt]] [[lava]]. Many flood basalts have been attributed to the onset of a [[hotspot (geology)\|hotspot]] reaching the surface of the Earth via a [[mantle plume]].<ref name="RichardsDucan1989">{{Cite journal \|author=Mark A. Richards \|author2=Robert A. Duncan \|author3=Vincent E. Courtillot \|year=1989 \|title=Flood Basalts and Hot-Spot Tracks: Plume Heads and Tails \|journal=Science Magazine \|volume=246 \|issue=4926 \|pages=103–107 \|bibcode=1989Sci...246..103R \|doi=10.1126/science.246.4926.103 \|pmid=17837768 \|s2cid=9147772}}</ref> [[List of flood basalt provinces\|Flood basalt provinces]] such as the [[Deccan Traps]] of India are often called ''[[Trap rock\|traps]]'', after the Swedish word ''trappa'' (meaning "staircase"), due to the characteristic stairstep [[geomorphology]] of many associated landscapes. I hope you have a great day.

	[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].		[[Michael R. Rampino]] and [[Richard Stothers]] (1988) cited eleven distinct flood basalt episodes occurring in the past 250 million years, creating [[large igneous province]]s, [[lava plateau]]s, and [[mountain range]]s.<ref>{{cite journal \|author=Michael R. Rampino \|author2=Richard B. Stothers\|title=Flood Basalt Volcanism During the Past 250 Million Years\|doi=10.1126/science.241.4866.663\|year=1988\|journal=Science\|volume=241\|issue=4866\|pages=663–668\|pmid=17839077\|bibcode=1988Sci...241..663R\|s2cid=33327812\|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1230982}} [http://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/1988/1988_Rampino_Stothers_1.pdf PDF via NASA]{{dead link\|date=June 2021\|bot=medic}}{{cbignore\|bot=medic}}</ref> However, more have been recognized such as the large [[Ontong Java Plateau]],<ref>{{cite journal\|title=The Ontong Java Plateau\|author1=Neal, C.\|author2=Mahoney, J.\|author3=Kroenke, L.\|url=http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|year=1997\|journal=Large Igneous Provinces: Continental, Oceanic, and Planetary Flood Volcanism, Geophysical Monograph 100\|url-status=dead\|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170101204714/http://www3.nd.edu/~icpmslab/pdfs/OJP_Paper.pdf\|archive-date=2017-01-01}}</ref> and the [[Chilcotin Group]], though the latter may be linked to the [[Columbia River Basalt Group]].

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	Some idea of the impact of flood basalts can be given by comparison with historical large eruptions. The [[1783 eruption of Laki\|1783 eruption of Lakagígar]] was the largest in the historical record, killing 75% of the livestock and a quarter of the population of Iceland. However, the eruption produced just {{convert\|14\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava,<ref name=GuilbaudEtal2005>{{cite journal \|last1=Guilbaud \|first1=M.N. \|last2=Self \|first2=S. \|last3=Thordarson \|first3=T. \|last4=Blake \|first4=S. \|year=2005 \|title=Morphology, surface structures, and emplacement of lavas produced by Laki, AD 1783–1784 \|journal=Geological Society of America Special Papers \|volume=396 \|pages=81–102 \|isbn=9780813723969 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efqyc-fh82YC&dq=guilbaud+2005+morphology&pg=PA81 \|access-date=12 January 2022}}</ref>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}} which is tiny compared with the Roza Member of the Columbia River Plateau, erupted in the mid-[[Miocene]], which contained at least {{convert\|1500\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava.<ref name=Allaby2013/>		Some idea of the impact of flood basalts can be given by comparison with historical large eruptions. The [[1783 eruption of Laki\|1783 eruption of Lakagígar]] was the largest in the historical record, killing 75% of the livestock and a quarter of the population of Iceland. However, the eruption produced just {{convert\|14\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava,<ref name=GuilbaudEtal2005>{{cite journal \|last1=Guilbaud \|first1=M.N. \|last2=Self \|first2=S. \|last3=Thordarson \|first3=T. \|last4=Blake \|first4=S. \|year=2005 \|title=Morphology, surface structures, and emplacement of lavas produced by Laki, AD 1783–1784 \|journal=Geological Society of America Special Papers \|volume=396 \|pages=81–102 \|isbn=9780813723969 \|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=efqyc-fh82YC&dq=guilbaud+2005+morphology&pg=PA81 \|access-date=12 January 2022}}</ref>{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=52}} which is tiny compared with the Roza Member of the Columbia River Plateau, erupted in the mid-[[Miocene]], which contained at least {{convert\|1500\|km3\|\|sp=us}} of lava.<ref name=Allaby2013/>

	During the eruption of the [[Siberian Traps]], some {{convert\|5 to 16\|e6km3\|e6mi3\|abbr=off\|sp=us}} of magma penetrated the crust, covering an area of {{convert\|5\|e6km2\|e6mi2\|abbr=off}}, equal to 62% of the area of the contiguous states of the United States. The hot magma contained vast quantities of [[carbon dioxide]] and [[sulfur oxides]], and released additional carbon dioxide and [[methane]] from deep [[petroleum reservoir]]s and younger [[coal]] beds in the region. The released gases created over 6400 [[diatreme]]-like ''pipes'',<ref name="SaundersReichow2009">{{cite journal \| title=The Siberian Traps and the End-Permian mass extinction: a critical review \| first1=A. \| last1=Saunders \| first2=M. \| last2=Reichow \| journal=Chinese Science Bulletin \| year=2009 \| volume=54 \| issue=1 \| pages=20–37 \| doi=10.1007/s11434-008-0543-7\| bibcode=2009ChSBu..54...20S \| s2cid=1736350 \| url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10119755 }}</ref> each typically over {{convert\|1.6\|km\|mi\|0}} in diameter. The pipes emitted up to 160 trillion tons of carbon dioxide and 46 trillion tons of methane. Coal ash from burning coal beds spread toxic [[chromium]], [[arsenic]], [[Mercury (element)\|mercury]], and [[lead]] across northern Canada. [[Evaporite]] beds heated by the magma released [[hydrochloric acid]], [[methyl chloride]], [[methyl bromide]], which damaged the [[ozone layer]] and reduced ultraviolet shielding by as much as 85%. Over 5 trillion tons of [[sulfur dioxide]] was also released. The carbon dioxide produced extreme greenhouse conditions, with global average sea water temperatures peaking at {{convert\|38\|C\|F}}, the highest ever seen in the geologic record. Temperatures did not drop to {{convert\|32\|C\|F}} for another 5.1 million years. Temperatures this high are lethal to most marine organisms, and land plants have difficulty continuing to photosynthesize at temperatures above {{convert\|35\|C\|F}}. The Earth's equatorial zone became a dead zone.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=McGhee \|first1=George R. \|title=Carboniferous Giants and Mass Extinction: The Late Paleozoic Ice Age World \|date=2018 \|publisher=Columbia University Press \|location=New York \|isbn=9780231180979 \|pages=190–240}}</ref>		During the eruption of the [[Siberian Traps]], some {{convert\|5 to 16\|e6km3\|e6mi3\|abbr=off\|sp=us}} of magma penetrated the crust, covering an area of {{convert\|5\|e6km2\|e6mi2\|abbr=off}}, equal to 62% of the area of the contiguous states of the United States. The hot magma contained vast quantities of [[carbon dioxide]] and [[sulfur oxides]], and released additional carbon dioxide and [[methane]] from deep [[petroleum reservoir]]s and younger [[coal]] beds in the region. The released gases created over 6400 [[diatreme]]-like ''pipes'',<ref name="SaundersReichow2009">{{cite journal \| title=The Siberian Traps and the End-Permian mass extinction: a critical review \| first1=A. \| last1=Saunders \| first2=M. \| last2=Reichow \| journal=Chinese Science Bulletin \| year=2009 \| volume=54 \| issue=1 \| pages=20–37 \| doi=10.1007/s11434-008-0543-7\| bibcode=2009ChSBu..54...20S \| s2cid=1736350 \| url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/10119755 \| hdl=2381/27540 \| hdl-access=free }}</ref> each typically over {{convert\|1.6\|km\|mi\|0}} in diameter. The pipes emitted up to 160 trillion tons of carbon dioxide and 46 trillion tons of methane. Coal ash from burning coal beds spread toxic [[chromium]], [[arsenic]], [[Mercury (element)\|mercury]], and [[lead]] across northern Canada. [[Evaporite]] beds heated by the magma released [[hydrochloric acid]], [[methyl chloride]], [[methyl bromide]], which damaged the [[ozone layer]] and reduced ultraviolet shielding by as much as 85%. Over 5 trillion tons of [[sulfur dioxide]] was also released. The carbon dioxide produced extreme greenhouse conditions, with global average sea water temperatures peaking at {{convert\|38\|C\|F}}, the highest ever seen in the geologic record. Temperatures did not drop to {{convert\|32\|C\|F}} for another 5.1 million years. Temperatures this high are lethal to most marine organisms, and land plants have difficulty continuing to photosynthesize at temperatures above {{convert\|35\|C\|F}}. The Earth's equatorial zone became a dead zone.<ref>{{cite book \|last1=McGhee \|first1=George R. \|title=Carboniferous Giants and Mass Extinction: The Late Paleozoic Ice Age World \|date=2018 \|publisher=Columbia University Press \|location=New York \|isbn=9780231180979 \|pages=190–240}}</ref>

	However, not all large igneous provinces are connected with extinction events.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=384}} The formation and effects of a flood basalt depend on a range of factors, such as continental configuration, latitude, volume, rate, duration of eruption, style and setting (continental vs. oceanic), the preexisting [[climate]], and the [[Biota (ecology)\|biota]] resilience to change.<ref>{{Cite journal\|first1=David P.G. \|last1=Bond \|first2=Paul B. \|last2=Wignall\|title=Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update\|journal=GSA Special Papers \|volume=505 \|year=2014 \|pages=29–55 \|doi=10.1130/2014.2505(02)\|isbn=9780813725055 \|url=https://hull-repository.worktribe.com/373637/1/10877%20Bond.pdf}}</ref>		However, not all large igneous provinces are connected with extinction events.{{sfn\|Philpotts\|Ague\|2009\|p=384}} The formation and effects of a flood basalt depend on a range of factors, such as continental configuration, latitude, volume, rate, duration of eruption, style and setting (continental vs. oceanic), the preexisting [[climate]], and the [[Biota (ecology)\|biota]] resilience to change.<ref>{{Cite journal\|first1=David P.G. \|last1=Bond \|first2=Paul B. \|last2=Wignall\|title=Large igneous provinces and mass extinctions: An update\|journal=GSA Special Papers \|volume=505 \|year=2014 \|pages=29–55 \|doi=10.1130/2014.2505(02)\|isbn=9780813725055 \|url=https://hull-repository.worktribe.com/373637/1/10877%20Bond.pdf}}</ref>