Phenotype - Revision history

HeyElliott: WP:DUPREF

2024-09-29T21:19:56Z

← Previous revision		Revision as of 21:19, 29 September 2024
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	Some usages of the term suggest that the phenome of a given organism is best understood as a kind of matrix of data representing physical manifestation of phenotype. For example, discussions led by A. Varki among those who had used the term up to 2003 suggested the following definition: "The body of information describing an organism's phenotypes, under the influences of genetic and environmental factors".<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthors=Varki A, Altheide TK \|title=Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack \|journal=[[Genome Research]] \|volume=15 \|issue=12 \|pages=1746–58 \|date=December 2005 \|pmid=16339373 \|doi=10.1101/gr.3737405 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Another team of researchers characterize "the human phenome <nowiki>[as]</nowiki> a multidimensional search space with several neurobiological levels, spanning the proteome, cellular systems (e.g., signaling pathways), neural systems and cognitive and behavioural phenotypes."<ref name="Neuroscience1">{{cite journal \|vauthors=Siebner HR, Callicott JH, Sommer T, Mattay VS \|title=From the genome to the phenome and back: linking genes with human brain function and structure using genetically informed neuroimaging \|journal=[[Neuroscience (journal)\|Neuroscience]] \|volume=164 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–6 \|date=November 2009 \|pmid=19751805 \|doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.09.009 \|pmc=3013363}}</ref>		Some usages of the term suggest that the phenome of a given organism is best understood as a kind of matrix of data representing physical manifestation of phenotype. For example, discussions led by A. Varki among those who had used the term up to 2003 suggested the following definition: "The body of information describing an organism's phenotypes, under the influences of genetic and environmental factors".<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthors=Varki A, Altheide TK \|title=Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack \|journal=[[Genome Research]] \|volume=15 \|issue=12 \|pages=1746–58 \|date=December 2005 \|pmid=16339373 \|doi=10.1101/gr.3737405 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Another team of researchers characterize "the human phenome <nowiki>[as]</nowiki> a multidimensional search space with several neurobiological levels, spanning the proteome, cellular systems (e.g., signaling pathways), neural systems and cognitive and behavioural phenotypes."<ref name="Neuroscience1">{{cite journal \|vauthors=Siebner HR, Callicott JH, Sommer T, Mattay VS \|title=From the genome to the phenome and back: linking genes with human brain function and structure using genetically informed neuroimaging \|journal=[[Neuroscience (journal)\|Neuroscience]] \|volume=164 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–6 \|date=November 2009 \|pmid=19751805 \|doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.09.009 \|pmc=3013363}}</ref>

	Plant biologists have started to explore the phenome in the study of plant physiology.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Furbank\|first1=Robert T.\|last2=Tester\|first2=Mark\|date=December 2011\|title=Phenomics--technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck\|journal=Trends in Plant Science\|volume=16\|issue=12\|pages=635–644\|doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005\|issn=1878-4372\|pmid=22074787}}</ref>		Plant biologists have started to explore the phenome in the study of plant physiology.<ref name="tplants">{{Cite journal\|last1=Furbank\|first1=Robert T.\|last2=Tester\|first2=Mark\|date=December 2011\|title=Phenomics--technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck\|journal=Trends in Plant Science\|volume=16\|issue=12\|pages=635–644\|doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005\|issn=1878-4372\|pmid=22074787}}</ref>

	In 2009, a research team demonstrated the feasibility of identifying genotype–phenotype associations using [[electronic health records]] (EHRs) linked to DNA [[biobanks]]. They called this method [[phenome-wide association study]] (PheWAS).<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Denny\|first1=Joshua C.\|last2=Ritchie\|first2=Marylyn D.\|last3=Basford\|first3=Melissa A.\|last4=Pulley\|first4=Jill M.\|last5=Bastarache\|first5=Lisa\|last6=Brown-Gentry\|first6=Kristin\|last7=Wang\|first7=Deede\|last8=Masys\|first8=Dan R.\|last9=Roden\|first9=Dan M.\|last10=Crawford\|first10=Dana C.\|date=2010-05-01\|title=PheWAS: demonstrating the feasibility of a phenome-wide scan to discover gene-disease associations\|journal=Bioinformatics\|volume=26\|issue=9\|pages=1205–1210\|doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btq126\|issn=1367-4811\|pmc=2859132\|pmid=20335276}}</ref>		In 2009, a research team demonstrated the feasibility of identifying genotype–phenotype associations using [[electronic health records]] (EHRs) linked to DNA [[biobanks]]. They called this method [[phenome-wide association study]] (PheWAS).<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Denny\|first1=Joshua C.\|last2=Ritchie\|first2=Marylyn D.\|last3=Basford\|first3=Melissa A.\|last4=Pulley\|first4=Jill M.\|last5=Bastarache\|first5=Lisa\|last6=Brown-Gentry\|first6=Kristin\|last7=Wang\|first7=Deede\|last8=Masys\|first8=Dan R.\|last9=Roden\|first9=Dan M.\|last10=Crawford\|first10=Dana C.\|date=2010-05-01\|title=PheWAS: demonstrating the feasibility of a phenome-wide scan to discover gene-disease associations\|journal=Bioinformatics\|volume=26\|issue=9\|pages=1205–1210\|doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btq126\|issn=1367-4811\|pmc=2859132\|pmid=20335276}}</ref>
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	Although a phenotype is the ensemble of observable characteristics displayed by an organism, the word ''[[phenome]]'' is sometimes used to refer to a collection of traits, while the simultaneous study of such a collection is referred to as ''[[phenomics]]''.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Mahner M, Kary M \| title = What exactly are genomes, genotypes and phenotypes? And what about phenomes? \| journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology \| volume = 186 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 55–63 \| date = May 1997 \| pmid = 9176637 \| doi = 10.1006/jtbi.1996.0335 \| name-list-style = amp \| bibcode = 1997JThBi.186...55M \| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Varki A, Wills C, Perlmutter D, Woodruff D, Gage F, Moore J, Semendeferi K, Bernirschke K, Katzman R, Doolittle R, Bullock T \| display-authors = 6 \| title = Great Ape Phenome Project? \| journal = Science \| volume = 282 \| issue = 5387 \| pages = 239–240 \| date = October 1998 \| pmid = 9841385 \| doi = 10.1126/science.282.5387.239d \| s2cid = 5837659 \| bibcode = 1998Sci...282..239V }}</ref> Phenomics is an important field of study because it can be used to figure out which genomic variants affect phenotypes which then can be used to explain things like health, disease, and evolutionary fitness.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Houle D, Govindaraju DR, Omholt S \| title = Phenomics: the next challenge \| journal = Nature Reviews Genetics \| volume = 11 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 855–866 \| date = December 2010 \| pmid = 21085204 \| doi = 10.1038/nrg2897 \| s2cid = 14752610 }}</ref> Phenomics forms a large part of the [[Human Genome Project]].<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Freimer N, Sabatti C \| title = The human phenome project \| journal = Nature Genetics \| volume = 34 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 15–21 \| date = May 2003 \| pmid = 12721547 \| doi = 10.1038/ng0503-15 \| s2cid = 31510391 }}</ref>		Although a phenotype is the ensemble of observable characteristics displayed by an organism, the word ''[[phenome]]'' is sometimes used to refer to a collection of traits, while the simultaneous study of such a collection is referred to as ''[[phenomics]]''.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Mahner M, Kary M \| title = What exactly are genomes, genotypes and phenotypes? And what about phenomes? \| journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology \| volume = 186 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 55–63 \| date = May 1997 \| pmid = 9176637 \| doi = 10.1006/jtbi.1996.0335 \| name-list-style = amp \| bibcode = 1997JThBi.186...55M \| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Varki A, Wills C, Perlmutter D, Woodruff D, Gage F, Moore J, Semendeferi K, Bernirschke K, Katzman R, Doolittle R, Bullock T \| display-authors = 6 \| title = Great Ape Phenome Project? \| journal = Science \| volume = 282 \| issue = 5387 \| pages = 239–240 \| date = October 1998 \| pmid = 9841385 \| doi = 10.1126/science.282.5387.239d \| s2cid = 5837659 \| bibcode = 1998Sci...282..239V }}</ref> Phenomics is an important field of study because it can be used to figure out which genomic variants affect phenotypes which then can be used to explain things like health, disease, and evolutionary fitness.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Houle D, Govindaraju DR, Omholt S \| title = Phenomics: the next challenge \| journal = Nature Reviews Genetics \| volume = 11 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 855–866 \| date = December 2010 \| pmid = 21085204 \| doi = 10.1038/nrg2897 \| s2cid = 14752610 }}</ref> Phenomics forms a large part of the [[Human Genome Project]].<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Freimer N, Sabatti C \| title = The human phenome project \| journal = Nature Genetics \| volume = 34 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 15–21 \| date = May 2003 \| pmid = 12721547 \| doi = 10.1038/ng0503-15 \| s2cid = 31510391 }}</ref>

	Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs.<ref>{{Cite book \| vauthors = Rahman H, Ramanathan V, Jagadeeshselvam N, Ramasamy S, Rajendran S, Ramachandran M, Sudheer PD, Chauhan S, Natesan S, Muthurajan R \| chapter = Phenomics: Technologies and Applications in Plant and Agriculture \| display-authors = 6 \|title=PlantOmics: The Omics of Plant Science \|date=2015-01-01 \|publisher=Springer \| location = New Delhi \|isbn=9788132221715 \|pages=385–411 \|doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2172-2_13 \| veditors = Barh D, Khan MS, Davies E }}</ref><ref~~>{{cite journal \| vauthors~~ = Furbank RT, Tester M \| title = Phenomics – technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck \| journal = Trends in Plant Science \| volume = 16 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 635–644 \| date = December 2011 \| pmid = 22074787 \| doi = 10.1016/j.tplants~~.2011.09.005 }}<~~/~~ref~~>		Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs.<ref>{{Cite book \| vauthors = Rahman H, Ramanathan V, Jagadeeshselvam N, Ramasamy S, Rajendran S, Ramachandran M, Sudheer PD, Chauhan S, Natesan S, Muthurajan R \| chapter = Phenomics: Technologies and Applications in Plant and Agriculture \| display-authors = 6 \|title=PlantOmics: The Omics of Plant Science \|date=2015-01-01 \|publisher=Springer \| location = New Delhi \|isbn=9788132221715 \|pages=385–411 \|doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2172-2_13 \| veditors = Barh D, Khan MS, Davies E }}</ref><ref name="tplants"/>

	Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards [[personalized medicine]], particularly [[drug therapy]].<ref name="monte">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Monte AA, Brocker C, Nebert DW, Gonzalez FJ, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V \| title = Improved drug therapy: triangulating phenomics with genomics and metabolomics \| journal = Human Genomics \| volume = 8 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 16 \| date = September 2014 \| pmid = 25181945 \| pmc = 4445687 \| doi = 10.1186/s40246-014-0016-9 \| author3-link = Daniel W. Nebert \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Once the phenomic database has acquired enough data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to the individual.<ref name=monte/>		Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards [[personalized medicine]], particularly [[drug therapy]].<ref name="monte">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Monte AA, Brocker C, Nebert DW, Gonzalez FJ, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V \| title = Improved drug therapy: triangulating phenomics with genomics and metabolomics \| journal = Human Genomics \| volume = 8 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 16 \| date = September 2014 \| pmid = 25181945 \| pmc = 4445687 \| doi = 10.1186/s40246-014-0016-9 \| author3-link = Daniel W. Nebert \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Once the phenomic database has acquired enough data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to the individual.<ref name=monte/>

Wwhoa: Undid revision 1244887416 by JDjump123 (talk)

2024-09-10T01:27:40Z

Undid revision 1244887416 by JDjump123 (talk)

← Previous revision		Revision as of 01:27, 10 September 2024
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	[[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg\|thumb\|right \|Here the relation between [[genotype]] and phenotype is illustrated, using a [[Punnett square]], for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent [[gene]]s for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).]]		[[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg\|thumb\|right \|Here the relation between [[genotype]] and phenotype is illustrated, using a [[Punnett square]], for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent [[gene]]s for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).]]

	In [[genetics]], the '''~~phenotyp~~''' ({{etymology\|grc\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|φαίνω}}'' ({{grc-transl\|φαίνω}})\|to appear, show\|\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|τύπος}}'' ({{grc-transl\|τύπος}})\|mark, type}}) is the set of observable characteristics or [[phenotypic trait\|traits]] of an [[organism]].<ref name="Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com">{{cite web \| title= Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes \| website=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com \| url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/phenotype?q=phenotype \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.}}</ref><ref name="Understanding Evolution">{{cite web \| title=Genotype versus phenotype \| website=Understanding Evolution \| url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01 \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.}}</ref> The term covers the organism's [[morphology (biology)\|morphology]] (physical form and structure), its [[Developmental biology\|development]]al processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its [[behavior]], and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the [[Gene expression\|expression]] of an organism's genetic code (its [[genotype]]) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called [[Polymorphism (biology)\|polymorphic]]. A well-documented example of polymorphism is [[Labrador Retriever coat colour genetics\|Labrador Retriever coloring]]; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. [[Richard Dawkins]] in 1978<ref name=r1/> and then again in his 1982 book ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' suggested that one can regard [[bird nest]]s and other built structures such as [[caddisfly]] larva cases and [[beaver dam]]s as "extended phenotypes".		In [[genetics]], the '''phenotype''' ({{etymology\|grc\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|φαίνω}}'' ({{grc-transl\|φαίνω}})\|to appear, show\|\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|τύπος}}'' ({{grc-transl\|τύπος}})\|mark, type}}) is the set of observable characteristics or [[phenotypic trait\|traits]] of an [[organism]].<ref name="Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com">{{cite web \| title= Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes \| website=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com \| url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/phenotype?q=phenotype \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.}}</ref><ref name="Understanding Evolution">{{cite web \| title=Genotype versus phenotype \| website=Understanding Evolution \| url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01 \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.}}</ref> The term covers the organism's [[morphology (biology)\|morphology]] (physical form and structure), its [[Developmental biology\|development]]al processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its [[behavior]], and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the [[Gene expression\|expression]] of an organism's genetic code (its [[genotype]]) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called [[Polymorphism (biology)\|polymorphic]]. A well-documented example of polymorphism is [[Labrador Retriever coat colour genetics\|Labrador Retriever coloring]]; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. [[Richard Dawkins]] in 1978<ref name=r1/> and then again in his 1982 book ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' suggested that one can regard [[bird nest]]s and other built structures such as [[caddisfly]] larva cases and [[beaver dam]]s as "extended phenotypes".

	[[Wilhelm Johannsen]] proposed the [[genotype–phenotype distinction]] in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's [[heredity\|hereditary material]] and what that hereditary material produces.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Churchill FB \| title = William Johannsen and the genotype concept \| journal = Journal of the History of Biology \| volume = 7 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 5–30 \| year = 1974 \| pmid = 11610096 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00179291 \| s2cid = 38649212 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Johannsen W \| title = The genotype conception of heredity. 1911 \| journal = International Journal of Epidemiology \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 989–1000 \| date = August 2014 \| pmid = 24691957 \| pmc = 4258772 \| doi = 10.1086/279202 \| jstor = 2455747 }}</ref> The distinction resembles that proposed by [[August Weismann]] (1834–1914), who distinguished between [[germ plasm]] (heredity) and [[somatic cell]]s (the body). More recently, in ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.		[[Wilhelm Johannsen]] proposed the [[genotype–phenotype distinction]] in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's [[heredity\|hereditary material]] and what that hereditary material produces.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Churchill FB \| title = William Johannsen and the genotype concept \| journal = Journal of the History of Biology \| volume = 7 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 5–30 \| year = 1974 \| pmid = 11610096 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00179291 \| s2cid = 38649212 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Johannsen W \| title = The genotype conception of heredity. 1911 \| journal = International Journal of Epidemiology \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 989–1000 \| date = August 2014 \| pmid = 24691957 \| pmc = 4258772 \| doi = 10.1086/279202 \| jstor = 2455747 }}</ref> The distinction resembles that proposed by [[August Weismann]] (1834–1914), who distinguished between [[germ plasm]] (heredity) and [[somatic cell]]s (the body). More recently, in ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.

JDjump123: Added some stuff

2024-09-09T19:40:35Z

Added some stuff

← Previous revision		Revision as of 19:40, 9 September 2024
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	[[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg\|thumb\|right \|Here the relation between [[genotype]] and phenotype is illustrated, using a [[Punnett square]], for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent [[gene]]s for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).]]		[[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg\|thumb\|right \|Here the relation between [[genotype]] and phenotype is illustrated, using a [[Punnett square]], for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent [[gene]]s for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).]]

	In [[genetics]], the '''~~phenotype~~''' ({{etymology\|grc\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|φαίνω}}'' ({{grc-transl\|φαίνω}})\|to appear, show\|\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|τύπος}}'' ({{grc-transl\|τύπος}})\|mark, type}}) is the set of observable characteristics or [[phenotypic trait\|traits]] of an [[organism]].<ref name="Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com">{{cite web \| title= Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes \| website=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com \| url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/phenotype?q=phenotype \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.}}</ref><ref name="Understanding Evolution">{{cite web \| title=Genotype versus phenotype \| website=Understanding Evolution \| url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01 \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.}}</ref> The term covers the organism's [[morphology (biology)\|morphology]] (physical form and structure), its [[Developmental biology\|development]]al processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its [[behavior]], and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the [[Gene expression\|expression]] of an organism's genetic code (its [[genotype]]) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called [[Polymorphism (biology)\|polymorphic]]. A well-documented example of polymorphism is [[Labrador Retriever coat colour genetics\|Labrador Retriever coloring]]; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. [[Richard Dawkins]] in 1978<ref name=r1/> and then again in his 1982 book ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' suggested that one can regard [[bird nest]]s and other built structures such as [[caddisfly]] larva cases and [[beaver dam]]s as "extended phenotypes".		In [[genetics]], the '''phenotyp''' ({{etymology\|grc\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|φαίνω}}'' ({{grc-transl\|φαίνω}})\|to appear, show\|\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|τύπος}}'' ({{grc-transl\|τύπος}})\|mark, type}}) is the set of observable characteristics or [[phenotypic trait\|traits]] of an [[organism]].<ref name="Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com">{{cite web \| title= Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes \| website=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com \| url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/phenotype?q=phenotype \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.}}</ref><ref name="Understanding Evolution">{{cite web \| title=Genotype versus phenotype \| website=Understanding Evolution \| url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01 \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.}}</ref> The term covers the organism's [[morphology (biology)\|morphology]] (physical form and structure), its [[Developmental biology\|development]]al processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its [[behavior]], and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the [[Gene expression\|expression]] of an organism's genetic code (its [[genotype]]) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called [[Polymorphism (biology)\|polymorphic]]. A well-documented example of polymorphism is [[Labrador Retriever coat colour genetics\|Labrador Retriever coloring]]; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. [[Richard Dawkins]] in 1978<ref name=r1/> and then again in his 1982 book ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' suggested that one can regard [[bird nest]]s and other built structures such as [[caddisfly]] larva cases and [[beaver dam]]s as "extended phenotypes".

	[[Wilhelm Johannsen]] proposed the [[genotype–phenotype distinction]] in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's [[heredity\|hereditary material]] and what that hereditary material produces.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Churchill FB \| title = William Johannsen and the genotype concept \| journal = Journal of the History of Biology \| volume = 7 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 5–30 \| year = 1974 \| pmid = 11610096 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00179291 \| s2cid = 38649212 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Johannsen W \| title = The genotype conception of heredity. 1911 \| journal = International Journal of Epidemiology \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 989–1000 \| date = August 2014 \| pmid = 24691957 \| pmc = 4258772 \| doi = 10.1086/279202 \| jstor = 2455747 }}</ref> The distinction resembles that proposed by [[August Weismann]] (1834–1914), who distinguished between [[germ plasm]] (heredity) and [[somatic cell]]s (the body). More recently, in ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.		[[Wilhelm Johannsen]] proposed the [[genotype–phenotype distinction]] in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's [[heredity\|hereditary material]] and what that hereditary material produces.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Churchill FB \| title = William Johannsen and the genotype concept \| journal = Journal of the History of Biology \| volume = 7 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 5–30 \| year = 1974 \| pmid = 11610096 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00179291 \| s2cid = 38649212 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Johannsen W \| title = The genotype conception of heredity. 1911 \| journal = International Journal of Epidemiology \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 989–1000 \| date = August 2014 \| pmid = 24691957 \| pmc = 4258772 \| doi = 10.1086/279202 \| jstor = 2455747 }}</ref> The distinction resembles that proposed by [[August Weismann]] (1834–1914), who distinguished between [[germ plasm]] (heredity) and [[somatic cell]]s (the body). More recently, in ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.

Whatiguana: /* See also */

2024-07-17T03:41:10Z

59.153.102.239: /* Phenome and phenomics */Changed two words to increase the sentence’s coherency.

2024-07-08T18:08:07Z

Phenome and phenomics: Changed two words to increase the sentence’s coherency.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 18:08, 8 July 2024
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	Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs.<ref>{{Cite book \| vauthors = Rahman H, Ramanathan V, Jagadeeshselvam N, Ramasamy S, Rajendran S, Ramachandran M, Sudheer PD, Chauhan S, Natesan S, Muthurajan R \| chapter = Phenomics: Technologies and Applications in Plant and Agriculture \| display-authors = 6 \|title=PlantOmics: The Omics of Plant Science \|date=2015-01-01 \|publisher=Springer \| location = New Delhi \|isbn=9788132221715 \|pages=385–411 \|doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2172-2_13 \| veditors = Barh D, Khan MS, Davies E }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Furbank RT, Tester M \| title = Phenomics – technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck \| journal = Trends in Plant Science \| volume = 16 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 635–644 \| date = December 2011 \| pmid = 22074787 \| doi = 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005 }}</ref>		Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs.<ref>{{Cite book \| vauthors = Rahman H, Ramanathan V, Jagadeeshselvam N, Ramasamy S, Rajendran S, Ramachandran M, Sudheer PD, Chauhan S, Natesan S, Muthurajan R \| chapter = Phenomics: Technologies and Applications in Plant and Agriculture \| display-authors = 6 \|title=PlantOmics: The Omics of Plant Science \|date=2015-01-01 \|publisher=Springer \| location = New Delhi \|isbn=9788132221715 \|pages=385–411 \|doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2172-2_13 \| veditors = Barh D, Khan MS, Davies E }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Furbank RT, Tester M \| title = Phenomics – technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck \| journal = Trends in Plant Science \| volume = 16 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 635–644 \| date = December 2011 \| pmid = 22074787 \| doi = 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005 }}</ref>

	Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards [[personalized medicine]], particularly [[drug therapy]].<ref name="monte">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Monte AA, Brocker C, Nebert DW, Gonzalez FJ, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V \| title = Improved drug therapy: triangulating phenomics with genomics and metabolomics \| journal = Human Genomics \| volume = 8 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 16 \| date = September 2014 \| pmid = 25181945 \| pmc = 4445687 \| doi = 10.1186/s40246-014-0016-9 \| author3-link = Daniel W. Nebert \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Once the phenomic database has acquired ~~more~~ data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to an individual.<ref name=monte/>		Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards [[personalized medicine]], particularly [[drug therapy]].<ref name="monte">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Monte AA, Brocker C, Nebert DW, Gonzalez FJ, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V \| title = Improved drug therapy: triangulating phenomics with genomics and metabolomics \| journal = Human Genomics \| volume = 8 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 16 \| date = September 2014 \| pmid = 25181945 \| pmc = 4445687 \| doi = 10.1186/s40246-014-0016-9 \| author3-link = Daniel W. Nebert \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Once the phenomic database has acquired enough data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to the individual.<ref name=monte/>

	==Large-scale phenotyping and genetic screens==		==Large-scale phenotyping and genetic screens==

59.153.102.239: /* Genes and phenotypes */Fixed the incomplete formation of a sentence.

2024-07-08T17:58:45Z

Genes and phenotypes: Fixed the incomplete formation of a sentence.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 17:58, 8 July 2024
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	[[File:Tortie-flame.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=tortoiseshell cat\|The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.]]		[[File:Tortie-flame.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=tortoiseshell cat\|The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.]]

	Changes in the levels of gene expression can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as environmental conditions, genetic variations, and [[Epigenetics\|epigenetic]] modifications. These modifications can be influenced by environmental factors such as diet, stress, and exposure to toxins, and can have a significant impact on an individual's phenotype. Some phenotypes may be the result of changes in gene expression due to these factors, rather than changes in genotype. An experiment involving [[machine learning]] methods utilizing gene ~~expression~~ measured from RNA sequencing can contain enough signal to separate individuals in the context of phenotype prediction.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Nussinov \|first1=Ruth \|last2=Tsai \|first2=Chung-Jung \|last3=Jang \|first3=Hyunbum \|title=Protein ensembles link genotype to phenotype \|journal=PLOS Computational Biology \|date=2019 \|volume=15 \|issue=6 \|page=e1006648 \|doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006648\|pmid=31220071 \|pmc=6586255 \|bibcode=2019PLSCB..15E6648N \|doi-access=free }}</ref>		Changes in the levels of gene expression can be influenced by a variety of factors, such as environmental conditions, genetic variations, and [[Epigenetics\|epigenetic]] modifications. These modifications can be influenced by environmental factors such as diet, stress, and exposure to toxins, and can have a significant impact on an individual's phenotype. Some phenotypes may be the result of changes in gene expression due to these factors, rather than changes in genotype. An experiment involving [[machine learning]] methods utilizing gene expressions measured from RNA sequencing found that they can contain enough signal to separate individuals in the context of phenotype prediction.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Nussinov \|first1=Ruth \|last2=Tsai \|first2=Chung-Jung \|last3=Jang \|first3=Hyunbum \|title=Protein ensembles link genotype to phenotype \|journal=PLOS Computational Biology \|date=2019 \|volume=15 \|issue=6 \|page=e1006648 \|doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1006648\|pmid=31220071 \|pmc=6586255 \|bibcode=2019PLSCB..15E6648N \|doi-access=free }}</ref>

	== Phenome and phenomics ==		== Phenome and phenomics ==

AnomieBOT: Dating maintenance tags: {{Cn}}

2024-05-30T19:06:29Z

Dating maintenance tags: {{Cn}}

← Previous revision		Revision as of 19:06, 30 May 2024
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	<!--"Behavioral phenotype" redirects here - do not change this section header without adding "{{Anchor\|Definition}}" to the section header (without the quotes); otherwise, your edit will break this redirect.-->		<!--"Behavioral phenotype" redirects here - do not change this section header without adding "{{Anchor\|Definition}}" to the section header (without the quotes); otherwise, your edit will break this redirect.-->

	{{Anchor\|Definition}}Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the [[genotype]] is a phenotype, including [[molecule]]s such as [[RNA]] and [[protein]]s. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by [[Western blot]]ting) and are thus part of the phenotype; human [[Human blood group systems\|blood groups]] are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure.{{cn}}		{{Anchor\|Definition}}Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the [[genotype]] is a phenotype, including [[molecule]]s such as [[RNA]] and [[protein]]s. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by [[Western blot]]ting) and are thus part of the phenotype; human [[Human blood group systems\|blood groups]] are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure.{{cn\|date=May 2024}}
	[[File:ABO Blood Group Phenotypes.jpg\|thumb\|ABO blood groups determined through a Punnett square and displaying phenotypes and genotypes]]		[[File:ABO Blood Group Phenotypes.jpg\|thumb\|ABO blood groups determined through a Punnett square and displaying phenotypes and genotypes]]
	The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its [[wild type]], which would lead to the false statement that a		The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its [[wild type]], which would lead to the false statement that a
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	Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for a particular [[enzyme]] is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oellrich \|first1=A. \|author2=Sanger Mouse Genetics Project \|last3=Smedley \|first3=D. \|title=Linking tissues to phenotypes using gene expression profiles \|journal=Database \|date=2014 \|volume=2014 \|page=bau017 \|doi=10.1093/database/bau017\|pmid=24634472 \|pmc=3982582 }}</ref>		Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for a particular [[enzyme]] is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oellrich \|first1=A. \|author2=Sanger Mouse Genetics Project \|last3=Smedley \|first3=D. \|title=Linking tissues to phenotypes using gene expression profiles \|journal=Database \|date=2014 \|volume=2014 \|page=bau017 \|doi=10.1093/database/bau017\|pmid=24634472 \|pmc=3982582 }}</ref>

	Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including [[Transcription (biology)\|transcriptional]] and post-transcriptional regulation.{{cn}}		Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including [[Transcription (biology)\|transcriptional]] and post-transcriptional regulation.{{cn\|date=May 2024}}

	[[File:Tortie-flame.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=tortoiseshell cat\|The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.]]		[[File:Tortie-flame.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=tortoiseshell cat\|The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.]]

Ozzie10aaaa: /* Genes and phenotypes */

2024-05-30T18:45:29Z

Genes and phenotypes

← Previous revision		Revision as of 18:45, 30 May 2024
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	Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for a particular [[enzyme]] is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oellrich \|first1=A. \|author2=Sanger Mouse Genetics Project \|last3=Smedley \|first3=D. \|title=Linking tissues to phenotypes using gene expression profiles \|journal=Database \|date=2014 \|volume=2014 \|page=bau017 \|doi=10.1093/database/bau017\|pmid=24634472 \|pmc=3982582 }}</ref>		Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for a particular [[enzyme]] is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oellrich \|first1=A. \|author2=Sanger Mouse Genetics Project \|last3=Smedley \|first3=D. \|title=Linking tissues to phenotypes using gene expression profiles \|journal=Database \|date=2014 \|volume=2014 \|page=bau017 \|doi=10.1093/database/bau017\|pmid=24634472 \|pmc=3982582 }}</ref>

	Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including [[Transcription (biology)\|transcriptional]] and post-transcriptional regulation.		Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including [[Transcription (biology)\|transcriptional]] and post-transcriptional regulation.{{cn}}

	[[File:Tortie-flame.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=tortoiseshell cat\|The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.]]		[[File:Tortie-flame.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=tortoiseshell cat\|The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.]]

Ozzie10aaaa: /* Definition */

2024-05-30T18:43:04Z

Definition

← Previous revision		Revision as of 18:43, 30 May 2024
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	<!--"Behavioral phenotype" redirects here - do not change this section header without adding "{{Anchor\|Definition}}" to the section header (without the quotes); otherwise, your edit will break this redirect.-->		<!--"Behavioral phenotype" redirects here - do not change this section header without adding "{{Anchor\|Definition}}" to the section header (without the quotes); otherwise, your edit will break this redirect.-->

	{{Anchor\|Definition}}Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the [[genotype]] is a phenotype, including [[molecule]]s such as [[RNA]] and [[protein]]s. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by [[Western blot]]ting) and are thus part of the phenotype; human [[Human blood group systems\|blood groups]] are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure.		{{Anchor\|Definition}}Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the [[genotype]] is a phenotype, including [[molecule]]s such as [[RNA]] and [[protein]]s. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by [[Western blot]]ting) and are thus part of the phenotype; human [[Human blood group systems\|blood groups]] are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure.{{cn}}
	[[File:ABO Blood Group Phenotypes.jpg\|thumb\|ABO blood groups determined through a Punnett square and displaying phenotypes and genotypes]]		[[File:ABO Blood Group Phenotypes.jpg\|thumb\|ABO blood groups determined through a Punnett square and displaying phenotypes and genotypes]]
	The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its [[wild type]], which would lead to the false statement that a		The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its [[wild type]], which would lead to the false statement that a

Nivamp: /* Definition */

2024-03-05T22:47:00Z

Definition

← Previous revision		Revision as of 22:47, 5 March 2024
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	==Definition==		==Definition==
			{{Redirect\|Phenome\|the speech unit\|Phoneme}}
	<!--"Behavioral phenotype" redirects here - do not change this section header without adding "{{Anchor\|Definition}}" to the section header (without the quotes); otherwise, your edit will break this redirect.-->		<!--"Behavioral phenotype" redirects here - do not change this section header without adding "{{Anchor\|Definition}}" to the section header (without the quotes); otherwise, your edit will break this redirect.-->

← Previous revision		Revision as of 21:19, 29 September 2024
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	Some usages of the term suggest that the phenome of a given organism is best understood as a kind of matrix of data representing physical manifestation of phenotype. For example, discussions led by A. Varki among those who had used the term up to 2003 suggested the following definition: "The body of information describing an organism's phenotypes, under the influences of genetic and environmental factors".<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthors=Varki A, Altheide TK \|title=Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack \|journal=[[Genome Research]] \|volume=15 \|issue=12 \|pages=1746–58 \|date=December 2005 \|pmid=16339373 \|doi=10.1101/gr.3737405 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Another team of researchers characterize "the human phenome <nowiki>[as]</nowiki> a multidimensional search space with several neurobiological levels, spanning the proteome, cellular systems (e.g., signaling pathways), neural systems and cognitive and behavioural phenotypes."<ref name="Neuroscience1">{{cite journal \|vauthors=Siebner HR, Callicott JH, Sommer T, Mattay VS \|title=From the genome to the phenome and back: linking genes with human brain function and structure using genetically informed neuroimaging \|journal=[[Neuroscience (journal)\|Neuroscience]] \|volume=164 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–6 \|date=November 2009 \|pmid=19751805 \|doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.09.009 \|pmc=3013363}}</ref>		Some usages of the term suggest that the phenome of a given organism is best understood as a kind of matrix of data representing physical manifestation of phenotype. For example, discussions led by A. Varki among those who had used the term up to 2003 suggested the following definition: "The body of information describing an organism's phenotypes, under the influences of genetic and environmental factors".<ref>{{cite journal \|vauthors=Varki A, Altheide TK \|title=Comparing the human and chimpanzee genomes: searching for needles in a haystack \|journal=[[Genome Research]] \|volume=15 \|issue=12 \|pages=1746–58 \|date=December 2005 \|pmid=16339373 \|doi=10.1101/gr.3737405 \|doi-access=free }}</ref> Another team of researchers characterize "the human phenome <nowiki>[as]</nowiki> a multidimensional search space with several neurobiological levels, spanning the proteome, cellular systems (e.g., signaling pathways), neural systems and cognitive and behavioural phenotypes."<ref name="Neuroscience1">{{cite journal \|vauthors=Siebner HR, Callicott JH, Sommer T, Mattay VS \|title=From the genome to the phenome and back: linking genes with human brain function and structure using genetically informed neuroimaging \|journal=[[Neuroscience (journal)\|Neuroscience]] \|volume=164 \|issue=1 \|pages=1–6 \|date=November 2009 \|pmid=19751805 \|doi=10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.09.009 \|pmc=3013363}}</ref>

	Plant biologists have started to explore the phenome in the study of plant physiology.<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Furbank\|first1=Robert T.\|last2=Tester\|first2=Mark\|date=December 2011\|title=Phenomics--technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck\|journal=Trends in Plant Science\|volume=16\|issue=12\|pages=635–644\|doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005\|issn=1878-4372\|pmid=22074787}}</ref>		Plant biologists have started to explore the phenome in the study of plant physiology.<ref name="tplants">{{Cite journal\|last1=Furbank\|first1=Robert T.\|last2=Tester\|first2=Mark\|date=December 2011\|title=Phenomics--technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck\|journal=Trends in Plant Science\|volume=16\|issue=12\|pages=635–644\|doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2011.09.005\|issn=1878-4372\|pmid=22074787}}</ref>

	In 2009, a research team demonstrated the feasibility of identifying genotype–phenotype associations using [[electronic health records]] (EHRs) linked to DNA [[biobanks]]. They called this method [[phenome-wide association study]] (PheWAS).<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Denny\|first1=Joshua C.\|last2=Ritchie\|first2=Marylyn D.\|last3=Basford\|first3=Melissa A.\|last4=Pulley\|first4=Jill M.\|last5=Bastarache\|first5=Lisa\|last6=Brown-Gentry\|first6=Kristin\|last7=Wang\|first7=Deede\|last8=Masys\|first8=Dan R.\|last9=Roden\|first9=Dan M.\|last10=Crawford\|first10=Dana C.\|date=2010-05-01\|title=PheWAS: demonstrating the feasibility of a phenome-wide scan to discover gene-disease associations\|journal=Bioinformatics\|volume=26\|issue=9\|pages=1205–1210\|doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btq126\|issn=1367-4811\|pmc=2859132\|pmid=20335276}}</ref>		In 2009, a research team demonstrated the feasibility of identifying genotype–phenotype associations using [[electronic health records]] (EHRs) linked to DNA [[biobanks]]. They called this method [[phenome-wide association study]] (PheWAS).<ref>{{Cite journal\|last1=Denny\|first1=Joshua C.\|last2=Ritchie\|first2=Marylyn D.\|last3=Basford\|first3=Melissa A.\|last4=Pulley\|first4=Jill M.\|last5=Bastarache\|first5=Lisa\|last6=Brown-Gentry\|first6=Kristin\|last7=Wang\|first7=Deede\|last8=Masys\|first8=Dan R.\|last9=Roden\|first9=Dan M.\|last10=Crawford\|first10=Dana C.\|date=2010-05-01\|title=PheWAS: demonstrating the feasibility of a phenome-wide scan to discover gene-disease associations\|journal=Bioinformatics\|volume=26\|issue=9\|pages=1205–1210\|doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btq126\|issn=1367-4811\|pmc=2859132\|pmid=20335276}}</ref>
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	Although a phenotype is the ensemble of observable characteristics displayed by an organism, the word ''[[phenome]]'' is sometimes used to refer to a collection of traits, while the simultaneous study of such a collection is referred to as ''[[phenomics]]''.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Mahner M, Kary M \| title = What exactly are genomes, genotypes and phenotypes? And what about phenomes? \| journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology \| volume = 186 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 55–63 \| date = May 1997 \| pmid = 9176637 \| doi = 10.1006/jtbi.1996.0335 \| name-list-style = amp \| bibcode = 1997JThBi.186...55M \| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Varki A, Wills C, Perlmutter D, Woodruff D, Gage F, Moore J, Semendeferi K, Bernirschke K, Katzman R, Doolittle R, Bullock T \| display-authors = 6 \| title = Great Ape Phenome Project? \| journal = Science \| volume = 282 \| issue = 5387 \| pages = 239–240 \| date = October 1998 \| pmid = 9841385 \| doi = 10.1126/science.282.5387.239d \| s2cid = 5837659 \| bibcode = 1998Sci...282..239V }}</ref> Phenomics is an important field of study because it can be used to figure out which genomic variants affect phenotypes which then can be used to explain things like health, disease, and evolutionary fitness.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Houle D, Govindaraju DR, Omholt S \| title = Phenomics: the next challenge \| journal = Nature Reviews Genetics \| volume = 11 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 855–866 \| date = December 2010 \| pmid = 21085204 \| doi = 10.1038/nrg2897 \| s2cid = 14752610 }}</ref> Phenomics forms a large part of the [[Human Genome Project]].<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Freimer N, Sabatti C \| title = The human phenome project \| journal = Nature Genetics \| volume = 34 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 15–21 \| date = May 2003 \| pmid = 12721547 \| doi = 10.1038/ng0503-15 \| s2cid = 31510391 }}</ref>		Although a phenotype is the ensemble of observable characteristics displayed by an organism, the word ''[[phenome]]'' is sometimes used to refer to a collection of traits, while the simultaneous study of such a collection is referred to as ''[[phenomics]]''.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Mahner M, Kary M \| title = What exactly are genomes, genotypes and phenotypes? And what about phenomes? \| journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology \| volume = 186 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 55–63 \| date = May 1997 \| pmid = 9176637 \| doi = 10.1006/jtbi.1996.0335 \| name-list-style = amp \| bibcode = 1997JThBi.186...55M \| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Varki A, Wills C, Perlmutter D, Woodruff D, Gage F, Moore J, Semendeferi K, Bernirschke K, Katzman R, Doolittle R, Bullock T \| display-authors = 6 \| title = Great Ape Phenome Project? \| journal = Science \| volume = 282 \| issue = 5387 \| pages = 239–240 \| date = October 1998 \| pmid = 9841385 \| doi = 10.1126/science.282.5387.239d \| s2cid = 5837659 \| bibcode = 1998Sci...282..239V }}</ref> Phenomics is an important field of study because it can be used to figure out which genomic variants affect phenotypes which then can be used to explain things like health, disease, and evolutionary fitness.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Houle D, Govindaraju DR, Omholt S \| title = Phenomics: the next challenge \| journal = Nature Reviews Genetics \| volume = 11 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 855–866 \| date = December 2010 \| pmid = 21085204 \| doi = 10.1038/nrg2897 \| s2cid = 14752610 }}</ref> Phenomics forms a large part of the [[Human Genome Project]].<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Freimer N, Sabatti C \| title = The human phenome project \| journal = Nature Genetics \| volume = 34 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 15–21 \| date = May 2003 \| pmid = 12721547 \| doi = 10.1038/ng0503-15 \| s2cid = 31510391 }}</ref>

	Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs.<ref>{{Cite book \| vauthors = Rahman H, Ramanathan V, Jagadeeshselvam N, Ramasamy S, Rajendran S, Ramachandran M, Sudheer PD, Chauhan S, Natesan S, Muthurajan R \| chapter = Phenomics: Technologies and Applications in Plant and Agriculture \| display-authors = 6 \|title=PlantOmics: The Omics of Plant Science \|date=2015-01-01 \|publisher=Springer \| location = New Delhi \|isbn=9788132221715 \|pages=385–411 \|doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2172-2_13 \| veditors = Barh D, Khan MS, Davies E }}</ref><ref~~>{{cite journal \| vauthors~~ = Furbank RT, Tester M \| title = Phenomics – technologies to relieve the phenotyping bottleneck \| journal = Trends in Plant Science \| volume = 16 \| issue = 12 \| pages = 635–644 \| date = December 2011 \| pmid = 22074787 \| doi = 10.1016/j.tplants~~.2011.09.005 }}<~~/~~ref~~>		Phenomics has applications in agriculture. For instance, genomic variations such as drought and heat resistance can be identified through phenomics to create more durable GMOs.<ref>{{Cite book \| vauthors = Rahman H, Ramanathan V, Jagadeeshselvam N, Ramasamy S, Rajendran S, Ramachandran M, Sudheer PD, Chauhan S, Natesan S, Muthurajan R \| chapter = Phenomics: Technologies and Applications in Plant and Agriculture \| display-authors = 6 \|title=PlantOmics: The Omics of Plant Science \|date=2015-01-01 \|publisher=Springer \| location = New Delhi \|isbn=9788132221715 \|pages=385–411 \|doi=10.1007/978-81-322-2172-2_13 \| veditors = Barh D, Khan MS, Davies E }}</ref><ref name="tplants"/>

	Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards [[personalized medicine]], particularly [[drug therapy]].<ref name="monte">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Monte AA, Brocker C, Nebert DW, Gonzalez FJ, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V \| title = Improved drug therapy: triangulating phenomics with genomics and metabolomics \| journal = Human Genomics \| volume = 8 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 16 \| date = September 2014 \| pmid = 25181945 \| pmc = 4445687 \| doi = 10.1186/s40246-014-0016-9 \| author3-link = Daniel W. Nebert \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Once the phenomic database has acquired enough data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to the individual.<ref name=monte/>		Phenomics may be a stepping stone towards [[personalized medicine]], particularly [[drug therapy]].<ref name="monte">{{cite journal \| vauthors = Monte AA, Brocker C, Nebert DW, Gonzalez FJ, Thompson DC, Vasiliou V \| title = Improved drug therapy: triangulating phenomics with genomics and metabolomics \| journal = Human Genomics \| volume = 8 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 16 \| date = September 2014 \| pmid = 25181945 \| pmc = 4445687 \| doi = 10.1186/s40246-014-0016-9 \| author3-link = Daniel W. Nebert \| doi-access = free }}</ref> Once the phenomic database has acquired enough data, a person's phenomic information can be used to select specific drugs tailored to the individual.<ref name=monte/>

← Previous revision		Revision as of 01:27, 10 September 2024
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	[[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg\|thumb\|right \|Here the relation between [[genotype]] and phenotype is illustrated, using a [[Punnett square]], for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent [[gene]]s for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).]]		[[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg\|thumb\|right \|Here the relation between [[genotype]] and phenotype is illustrated, using a [[Punnett square]], for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent [[gene]]s for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).]]

	In [[genetics]], the '''~~phenotyp~~''' ({{etymology\|grc\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|φαίνω}}'' ({{grc-transl\|φαίνω}})\|to appear, show\|\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|τύπος}}'' ({{grc-transl\|τύπος}})\|mark, type}}) is the set of observable characteristics or [[phenotypic trait\|traits]] of an [[organism]].<ref name="Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com">{{cite web \| title= Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes \| website=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com \| url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/phenotype?q=phenotype \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.}}</ref><ref name="Understanding Evolution">{{cite web \| title=Genotype versus phenotype \| website=Understanding Evolution \| url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01 \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.}}</ref> The term covers the organism's [[morphology (biology)\|morphology]] (physical form and structure), its [[Developmental biology\|development]]al processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its [[behavior]], and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the [[Gene expression\|expression]] of an organism's genetic code (its [[genotype]]) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called [[Polymorphism (biology)\|polymorphic]]. A well-documented example of polymorphism is [[Labrador Retriever coat colour genetics\|Labrador Retriever coloring]]; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. [[Richard Dawkins]] in 1978<ref name=r1/> and then again in his 1982 book ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' suggested that one can regard [[bird nest]]s and other built structures such as [[caddisfly]] larva cases and [[beaver dam]]s as "extended phenotypes".		In [[genetics]], the '''phenotype''' ({{etymology\|grc\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|φαίνω}}'' ({{grc-transl\|φαίνω}})\|to appear, show\|\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|τύπος}}'' ({{grc-transl\|τύπος}})\|mark, type}}) is the set of observable characteristics or [[phenotypic trait\|traits]] of an [[organism]].<ref name="Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com">{{cite web \| title= Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes \| website=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com \| url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/phenotype?q=phenotype \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.}}</ref><ref name="Understanding Evolution">{{cite web \| title=Genotype versus phenotype \| website=Understanding Evolution \| url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01 \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.}}</ref> The term covers the organism's [[morphology (biology)\|morphology]] (physical form and structure), its [[Developmental biology\|development]]al processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its [[behavior]], and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the [[Gene expression\|expression]] of an organism's genetic code (its [[genotype]]) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called [[Polymorphism (biology)\|polymorphic]]. A well-documented example of polymorphism is [[Labrador Retriever coat colour genetics\|Labrador Retriever coloring]]; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. [[Richard Dawkins]] in 1978<ref name=r1/> and then again in his 1982 book ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' suggested that one can regard [[bird nest]]s and other built structures such as [[caddisfly]] larva cases and [[beaver dam]]s as "extended phenotypes".

	[[Wilhelm Johannsen]] proposed the [[genotype–phenotype distinction]] in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's [[heredity\|hereditary material]] and what that hereditary material produces.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Churchill FB \| title = William Johannsen and the genotype concept \| journal = Journal of the History of Biology \| volume = 7 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 5–30 \| year = 1974 \| pmid = 11610096 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00179291 \| s2cid = 38649212 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Johannsen W \| title = The genotype conception of heredity. 1911 \| journal = International Journal of Epidemiology \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 989–1000 \| date = August 2014 \| pmid = 24691957 \| pmc = 4258772 \| doi = 10.1086/279202 \| jstor = 2455747 }}</ref> The distinction resembles that proposed by [[August Weismann]] (1834–1914), who distinguished between [[germ plasm]] (heredity) and [[somatic cell]]s (the body). More recently, in ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.		[[Wilhelm Johannsen]] proposed the [[genotype–phenotype distinction]] in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's [[heredity\|hereditary material]] and what that hereditary material produces.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Churchill FB \| title = William Johannsen and the genotype concept \| journal = Journal of the History of Biology \| volume = 7 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 5–30 \| year = 1974 \| pmid = 11610096 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00179291 \| s2cid = 38649212 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Johannsen W \| title = The genotype conception of heredity. 1911 \| journal = International Journal of Epidemiology \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 989–1000 \| date = August 2014 \| pmid = 24691957 \| pmc = 4258772 \| doi = 10.1086/279202 \| jstor = 2455747 }}</ref> The distinction resembles that proposed by [[August Weismann]] (1834–1914), who distinguished between [[germ plasm]] (heredity) and [[somatic cell]]s (the body). More recently, in ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 19:40, 9 September 2024
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	[[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg\|thumb\|right \|Here the relation between [[genotype]] and phenotype is illustrated, using a [[Punnett square]], for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent [[gene]]s for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).]]		[[File:Punnett square mendel flowers.svg\|thumb\|right \|Here the relation between [[genotype]] and phenotype is illustrated, using a [[Punnett square]], for the character of petal color in pea plants. The letters B and b represent [[gene]]s for color, and the pictures show the resultant phenotypes. This shows how multiple genotypes (BB and Bb) may yield the same phenotype (purple petals).]]

	In [[genetics]], the '''~~phenotype~~''' ({{etymology\|grc\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|φαίνω}}'' ({{grc-transl\|φαίνω}})\|to appear, show\|\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|τύπος}}'' ({{grc-transl\|τύπος}})\|mark, type}}) is the set of observable characteristics or [[phenotypic trait\|traits]] of an [[organism]].<ref name="Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com">{{cite web \| title= Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes \| website=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com \| url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/phenotype?q=phenotype \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.}}</ref><ref name="Understanding Evolution">{{cite web \| title=Genotype versus phenotype \| website=Understanding Evolution \| url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01 \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.}}</ref> The term covers the organism's [[morphology (biology)\|morphology]] (physical form and structure), its [[Developmental biology\|development]]al processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its [[behavior]], and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the [[Gene expression\|expression]] of an organism's genetic code (its [[genotype]]) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called [[Polymorphism (biology)\|polymorphic]]. A well-documented example of polymorphism is [[Labrador Retriever coat colour genetics\|Labrador Retriever coloring]]; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. [[Richard Dawkins]] in 1978<ref name=r1/> and then again in his 1982 book ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' suggested that one can regard [[bird nest]]s and other built structures such as [[caddisfly]] larva cases and [[beaver dam]]s as "extended phenotypes".		In [[genetics]], the '''phenotyp''' ({{etymology\|grc\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|φαίνω}}'' ({{grc-transl\|φαίνω}})\|to appear, show\|\|''{{wikt-lang\|grc\|τύπος}}'' ({{grc-transl\|τύπος}})\|mark, type}}) is the set of observable characteristics or [[phenotypic trait\|traits]] of an [[organism]].<ref name="Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com">{{cite web \| title= Phenotype adjective – Definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage notes \| website=Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary at OxfordLearnersDictionaries.com \| url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/phenotype?q=phenotype \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment.}}</ref><ref name="Understanding Evolution">{{cite web \| title=Genotype versus phenotype \| website=Understanding Evolution \| url=https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/article/genovspheno_01 \| access-date=2020-04-29 \| quote=An organism's genotype is the set of genes that it carries. An organism's phenotype is all of its observable characteristics — which are influenced both by its genotype and by the environment.}}</ref> The term covers the organism's [[morphology (biology)\|morphology]] (physical form and structure), its [[Developmental biology\|development]]al processes, its biochemical and physiological properties, its [[behavior]], and the products of behavior. An organism's phenotype results from two basic factors: the [[Gene expression\|expression]] of an organism's genetic code (its [[genotype]]) and the influence of environmental factors. Both factors may interact, further affecting the phenotype. When two or more clearly different phenotypes exist in the same population of a species, the species is called [[Polymorphism (biology)\|polymorphic]]. A well-documented example of polymorphism is [[Labrador Retriever coat colour genetics\|Labrador Retriever coloring]]; while the coat color depends on many genes, it is clearly seen in the environment as yellow, black, and brown. [[Richard Dawkins]] in 1978<ref name=r1/> and then again in his 1982 book ''[[The Extended Phenotype]]'' suggested that one can regard [[bird nest]]s and other built structures such as [[caddisfly]] larva cases and [[beaver dam]]s as "extended phenotypes".

	[[Wilhelm Johannsen]] proposed the [[genotype–phenotype distinction]] in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's [[heredity\|hereditary material]] and what that hereditary material produces.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Churchill FB \| title = William Johannsen and the genotype concept \| journal = Journal of the History of Biology \| volume = 7 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 5–30 \| year = 1974 \| pmid = 11610096 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00179291 \| s2cid = 38649212 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Johannsen W \| title = The genotype conception of heredity. 1911 \| journal = International Journal of Epidemiology \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 989–1000 \| date = August 2014 \| pmid = 24691957 \| pmc = 4258772 \| doi = 10.1086/279202 \| jstor = 2455747 }}</ref> The distinction resembles that proposed by [[August Weismann]] (1834–1914), who distinguished between [[germ plasm]] (heredity) and [[somatic cell]]s (the body). More recently, in ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.		[[Wilhelm Johannsen]] proposed the [[genotype–phenotype distinction]] in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's [[heredity\|hereditary material]] and what that hereditary material produces.<ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Churchill FB \| title = William Johannsen and the genotype concept \| journal = Journal of the History of Biology \| volume = 7 \| issue = 1 \| pages = 5–30 \| year = 1974 \| pmid = 11610096 \| doi = 10.1007/BF00179291 \| s2cid = 38649212 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal \| vauthors = Johannsen W \| title = The genotype conception of heredity. 1911 \| journal = International Journal of Epidemiology \| volume = 43 \| issue = 4 \| pages = 989–1000 \| date = August 2014 \| pmid = 24691957 \| pmc = 4258772 \| doi = 10.1086/279202 \| jstor = 2455747 }}</ref> The distinction resembles that proposed by [[August Weismann]] (1834–1914), who distinguished between [[germ plasm]] (heredity) and [[somatic cell]]s (the body). More recently, in ''[[The Selfish Gene]]'' (1976), Dawkins distinguished these concepts as replicators and vehicles.

← Previous revision		Revision as of 03:41, 17 July 2024
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	* [[Molecular phenotyping]]		* [[Molecular phenotyping]]
	* [[Phenomics]]		* [[Phenomics]]
			* [[Phenotypic trait]]
	* [[Physiome]]		* [[Physiome]]
	* [[Physiomics]]		* [[Physiomics]]

← Previous revision		Revision as of 19:06, 30 May 2024
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	<!--"Behavioral phenotype" redirects here - do not change this section header without adding "{{Anchor\|Definition}}" to the section header (without the quotes); otherwise, your edit will break this redirect.-->		<!--"Behavioral phenotype" redirects here - do not change this section header without adding "{{Anchor\|Definition}}" to the section header (without the quotes); otherwise, your edit will break this redirect.-->

	{{Anchor\|Definition}}Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the [[genotype]] is a phenotype, including [[molecule]]s such as [[RNA]] and [[protein]]s. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by [[Western blot]]ting) and are thus part of the phenotype; human [[Human blood group systems\|blood groups]] are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure.{{cn}}		{{Anchor\|Definition}}Despite its seemingly straightforward definition, the concept of the phenotype has hidden subtleties. It may seem that anything dependent on the [[genotype]] is a phenotype, including [[molecule]]s such as [[RNA]] and [[protein]]s. Most molecules and structures coded by the genetic material are not visible in the appearance of an organism, yet they are observable (for example by [[Western blot]]ting) and are thus part of the phenotype; human [[Human blood group systems\|blood groups]] are an example. It may seem that this goes beyond the original intentions of the concept with its focus on the (living) organism in itself. Either way, the term phenotype includes inherent traits or characteristics that are observable or traits that can be made visible by some technical procedure.{{cn\|date=May 2024}}
	[[File:ABO Blood Group Phenotypes.jpg\|thumb\|ABO blood groups determined through a Punnett square and displaying phenotypes and genotypes]]		[[File:ABO Blood Group Phenotypes.jpg\|thumb\|ABO blood groups determined through a Punnett square and displaying phenotypes and genotypes]]
	The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its [[wild type]], which would lead to the false statement that a		The term "phenotype" has sometimes been incorrectly used as a shorthand for the phenotypic difference between a mutant and its [[wild type]], which would lead to the false statement that a
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	Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for a particular [[enzyme]] is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oellrich \|first1=A. \|author2=Sanger Mouse Genetics Project \|last3=Smedley \|first3=D. \|title=Linking tissues to phenotypes using gene expression profiles \|journal=Database \|date=2014 \|volume=2014 \|page=bau017 \|doi=10.1093/database/bau017\|pmid=24634472 \|pmc=3982582 }}</ref>		Gene expression plays a crucial role in determining the phenotypes of organisms. The level of gene expression can affect the phenotype of an organism. For example, if a gene that codes for a particular [[enzyme]] is expressed at high levels, the organism may produce more of that enzyme and exhibit a particular trait as a result. On the other hand, if the gene is expressed at low levels, the organism may produce less of the enzyme and exhibit a different trait.<ref>{{cite journal \|last1=Oellrich \|first1=A. \|author2=Sanger Mouse Genetics Project \|last3=Smedley \|first3=D. \|title=Linking tissues to phenotypes using gene expression profiles \|journal=Database \|date=2014 \|volume=2014 \|page=bau017 \|doi=10.1093/database/bau017\|pmid=24634472 \|pmc=3982582 }}</ref>

	Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including [[Transcription (biology)\|transcriptional]] and post-transcriptional regulation.{{cn}}		Gene expression is regulated at various levels and thus each level can affect certain phenotypes, including [[Transcription (biology)\|transcriptional]] and post-transcriptional regulation.{{cn\|date=May 2024}}

	[[File:Tortie-flame.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=tortoiseshell cat\|The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.]]		[[File:Tortie-flame.jpg\|thumb\|right\|alt=tortoiseshell cat\|The patchy colors of a tortoiseshell cat are the result of different levels of expression of pigmentation genes in different areas of the skin.]]