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Dude, your 'good sources' of Masih and Cromwell have been discussed to the bone in talk ages ago. You're not bringing any new refs. Peruse through the talk of the past 11 months.
Mitsube (talk | contribs)
5,925 edits
Restored compromise version, I also removed the quote stating that the new ideas were shramanic. Sorry if you disagree with the reliable sources...
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[[Image:statueofshiva.JPG|right|thumb|A statue of Shiva near [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]], [[Delhi]]]]
[[Image:statueofshiva.JPG|right|thumb|A statue of Shiva near [[Indira Gandhi International Airport]], [[Delhi]]]]
[[Image:Gomateswara.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Jainism|Jina]] deity [[Bahubali]] in [[Shravanabelagola]], [[Karnataka]] attracts thousands of devotees.]]
[[Image:Gomateswara.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Jainism|Jina]] deity [[Bahubali]] in [[Shravanabelagola]], [[Karnataka]] attracts thousands of devotees.]]
'''Indian religions''', also called '''Dharmic religions''', are the religious traditions that originated in the [[Indian subcontinent]]<ref name = EB>Adams, C. J., [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38030/classification-of-religions Classification of religions: Geographical], [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]], 2007. Accessed: [[September 5]] [[2007]]</ref>, namely [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Sikhism]], inclusive of their sub-sects and various related traditions. They form a subgroup of the larger class of "[[Eastern religions]]". Indian religions have similarities in core beliefs, modes of worship, and associated practices, mainly due to their common history of origin and mutual influence.
'''Indian religions''', also called '''Dharmic religions''', are the related religious traditions that originated in the [[Indian subcontinent]]<ref name = EB>Adams, C. J., [http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-38030/classification-of-religions Classification of religions: Geographical], [[Encyclopaedia Britannica]], 2007. Accessed: [[September 5]] [[2007]]</ref>, namely [[Hinduism]], [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Sikhism]], inclusive of their sub-sects and various related traditions. They form a subgroup of the larger class of "[[Eastern religions]]". Indian religions have similarities in core beliefs, modes of worship, and associated practices, mainly due to their common history of origin and mutual influence.


The documented history of Indian religions begins with [[historical Vedic religion]], the religious practices of the early [[Indo-Aryans]], which were collected and later [[Redaction|redacted]] into the [[Vedas]], four canonical collections of hymns or [[mantra]]s. The language used, archaic [[Vedic Sanskrit|Sanskrit]], also stems from the same period. The period of the advent, spread, and eventual establishment of this religion lasted from 1,500 BCE to about 500 BCE.
The documented history of Indian religions begins with [[historical Vedic religion]], the religious practices of the early [[Indo-Aryans]], which were collected and later [[Redaction|redacted]] into the [[Vedas]], four canonical collections of hymns or [[mantra]]s. The language used, archaic [[Vedic Sanskrit|Sanskrit]], also stems from the same period. The period of the advent, spread, and eventual establishment of this religion lasted from 1,500 BCE to about 500 BCE.
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Buddhism was historically founded by [[Gautama Siddhartha]], a Sakya prince-turned-ascetic of [[Nepal]], and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a [[decline of Buddhism in India|decline]] in India, but survived in [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]], and remains more widespread in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asian religions|East Asia]]. Jainism is said to have been established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with [[Mahavira]].<ref>[[Harry Oldmeadow]] (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, [[World Wisdom]], Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins." Page 141</ref>
Buddhism was historically founded by [[Gautama Siddhartha]], a Sakya prince-turned-ascetic of [[Nepal]], and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a [[decline of Buddhism in India|decline]] in India, but survived in [[Nepal]] and [[Sri Lanka]], and remains more widespread in [[Southeast Asia|Southeast]] and [[East Asian religions|East Asia]]. Jainism is said to have been established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with [[Mahavira]].<ref>[[Harry Oldmeadow]] (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, [[World Wisdom]], Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins." Page 141</ref>


Classical Hinduism, which arose in the course of the Middle Ages as a result of various influences including a [[syncretism]] and cross-pollination of the [[Sramana]] and the [[Vedic]]/[[Vedantic]] traditions, is divided into numerous [[Hindu denominations|denominations]], primarily [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]], [[Vaishnavism]], [[Smarta]] and much smaller groups like the conservative [[Shrauta]]. [[Hindu reform movements]] and [[Ayyavazhi]] are more recent.
Classical Hinduism, which arose in the course of the Middle Ages as a result of various influences including a [[syncretism]] and cross-pollination of the [[Sramana]] and the [[Vedic]] traditions, is divided into numerous [[Hindu denominations|denominations]], primarily [[Shaivism]], [[Shaktism]], [[Vaishnavism]], [[Smarta]] and much smaller groups like the conservative [[Shrauta]]. [[Hindu reform movements]] and [[Ayyavazhi]] are more recent.


About 90% of Hindus reside in the [[India|Republic of India]], accounting for 83% of its population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-10 |work= |publisher=Adherents.com }}</ref>
About 90% of Hindus reside in the [[India|Republic of India]], accounting for 83% of its population.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html |title=Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents |accessdate=2007-07-10 |work= |publisher=Adherents.com }}</ref>


[[Sikhism]] was founded in the 15th century; its founder, [[Guru Nanak]], was born in the town of [[Talwandi]] in present day [[Pakistan]].
[[Sikhism]] was founded in the 15th century; its founder, [[Guru Nanak]], was born in the town of [[Talwandi]] in present day [[Pakistan]]. The vast majority of its adherents originate in the [[Punjab region]].


==Common traits==
==Common traits==
Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions (even though the meaning of ''dharma/dhamma'' differs per religion), Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.<ref>[[David Frawley|Frawley, David]]. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.</ref><!--- note that only parts of the preceding long sentence are supported by the listed references. user: Andries 16 Sept.2007--><ref>[[Encarta|Encarta encyclopedia]] [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html#s2']"Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."</ref><ref>Westerlund, David ''Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics'' page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."</ref> Common traits can also be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. For example, the head-anointing ritual of ''[[abhiseka]]'' is of importance in three distinct traditions. Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.<ref>c.f. [[Encyclopedia Britannica]], s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"</ref> All three traditions have notions of ''[[karma]]'', ''[[dharma]]'', ''[[samsara]]'', ''[[moksha]]'' and various ''[[yogas]]''. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, ''dharma'' is his duty. For a Jain, ''dharma'' is his conduct. For a Buddhist, ''dharma'' is piety {{Fact}]. For a Jain, ''dharma'' is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind,<ref>"yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana </ref> whereas Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.
Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions (even though the meaning of ''dharma/dhamma'' differs per religion), Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.<ref>[[David Frawley|Frawley, David]]. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.</ref><!--- note that only parts of the preceding long sentence are supported by the listed references. user: Andries 16 Sept.2007--><ref>[[Encarta|Encarta encyclopedia]] [http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761555715/Hinduism.html#s2']"Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."</ref><ref>Westerlund, David ''Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics'' page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."</ref> Common traits can also be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. For example, the head-anointing ritual of ''[[abhiseka]]'' is of importance in three distinct traditions. Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.<ref>c.f. [[Encyclopedia Britannica]], s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"</ref> All three traditions have notions of ''[[karma]]'', ''[[dharma]]'', ''[[samsara]]'', ''[[moksha]]'' and various ''[[yogas]]''. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, ''dharma'' is his duty. For a Jain, ''dharma'' is his conduct. For a Buddhist, ''dharma'' is piety{{fact}}. For a Jain, ''dharma'' is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind,<ref>"yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana </ref> whereas Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.


== History ==
== History ==
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Evidence attesting to [[prehistoric religion]] in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered [[Mesolithic]] rock paintings such as at [[Bhimbetka]], depicting dances and rituals. [[Neolithic]] agriculturalists inhabiting the [[Indus River]] Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.<ref name="Heehs_2002_39">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=39}}.</ref> Other [[South Asian Stone Age]] sites, such as the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]] in central [[Madhya Pradesh]] and the [[Kupgal petroglyphs]] of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient Indians made 'rock music' |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[19 March]] [[2004]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3520384.stm |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref> The [[Harappa]]n people of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], which lasted from 3300–1300 BCE (mature period, 2600-1900 BCE) and was centered around the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra]] river valleys, may have worshiped an important [[mother goddess]] symbolising fertility,<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|1997|p=90}}.</ref> a concept that has recently been challenged.<ref> Sharri R. Clark, The social lives of figurines : recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan. PhD dissertation, Harvard 2007 </ref> Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show small tablets with animals and altars, indicating rituals associated with animal sacrifice.
Evidence attesting to [[prehistoric religion]] in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered [[Mesolithic]] rock paintings such as at [[Bhimbetka]], depicting dances and rituals. [[Neolithic]] agriculturalists inhabiting the [[Indus River]] Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.<ref name="Heehs_2002_39">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=39}}.</ref> Other [[South Asian Stone Age]] sites, such as the [[Bhimbetka rock shelters]] in central [[Madhya Pradesh]] and the [[Kupgal petroglyphs]] of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ancient Indians made 'rock music' |publisher=[[BBC News]] |date=[[19 March]] [[2004]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3520384.stm |accessdate=2007-08-07}}</ref> The [[Harappa]]n people of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]], which lasted from 3300–1300 BCE (mature period, 2600-1900 BCE) and was centered around the [[Indus River|Indus]] and [[Ghaggar-Hakra River|Ghaggar-Hakra]] river valleys, may have worshiped an important [[mother goddess]] symbolising fertility,<ref>{{harvnb|Fowler|1997|p=90}}.</ref> a concept that has recently been challenged.<ref> Sharri R. Clark, The social lives of figurines : recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan. PhD dissertation, Harvard 2007 </ref> Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show small tablets with animals and altars, indicating rituals associated with animal sacrifice.


===Vedic period (early Hinduism)===
===Vedic period===
{{main|Historical Vedic religion}}
{{main|Historical Vedic religion}}
The [[Vedic Period]] is most significant for the composition of the four [[Vedas]], [[Brahmanas]] and the older [[Upanishads]] (both discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important [[Sacred texts|canonical texts]] of Hinduism, and are the source for much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism and related religions.
The [[Vedic Period]] is most significant for the composition of the four [[Vedas]], [[Brahmanas]] and the older [[Upanishads]] (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important [[Sacred texts|canonical texts]] of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism.


The [[Veda]]s reflect the [[liturgy]] and ritual of [[Late Bronze Age]] to [[Early Iron Age]] [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] speaking peoples in India. Religious practices were dominated by the [[Vedic priesthood]] administering domestic [[rituals]]/rites and solemn [[sacrifice]]s. The [[Brahmanas]], [[Aranyakas]] and some of the older [[Upanishad]]s (such as [[Bṛhadāraṇyaka|BAU]], [[Chāndogya|ChU]], [[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana|JUB]]) are also considered Vedic. Many elements of Vedic religion reach back to early Bronze Age [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]] times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE.
The [[Veda]]s reflect the [[liturgy]] and ritual of [[Late Bronze Age]] to [[Early Iron Age]] [[Indo-Aryans|Indo-Aryan]] speaking peoples in India. Religious practices were dominated by the [[Vedic priesthood]] administering domestic [[rituals]]/rites and solemn [[sacrifice]]s. The [[Brahmanas]], [[Aranyakas]] and some of the older [[Upanishad]]s (such as [[Bṛhadāraṇyaka|BAU]], [[Chāndogya|ChU]], [[Jaiminiya Upanishad Brahmana|JUB]]) are also placed in this period. Many elements of Vedic religion reach back to early Bronze Age [[Proto-Indo-Iranian]] times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE.


Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:
Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:
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* The domestic (grihya) rituals deal with the rites of passage from conception to death and beyond.
* The domestic (grihya) rituals deal with the rites of passage from conception to death and beyond.


===Vedanta (latter Hinduism)===
===Vedanta===
{{main|Vedanta}}
{{main|Vedanta}}
The period of ''Vedanta'' (Sanskrit : end of Vedas), typically thought to have begun around 500 BCE, marked the end of the evolution of the Vedas, much as it also marked the end of the semi-nomadic nature of the Indo-Aryan tribes as they formed permanent settlements in the Indo-Gangetic plain and other parts of Northern India. This period began in earnest with the Brahmana discussions on the four canonical [[Vedas]] that finally led to the [[Upanishads]]. While the ritualistic status of the four Vedas remained undiminished, the early Upanishads sought to offer spiritual insights. At this time, the combination of the concepts of [[reincarnation]], the innovative one of [[karma]] and of [[moksha]], among many others. These were to form the core philosophy of the later epics and Hinduism itself.
The period of ''Vedanta'' (Sanskrit : end of Vedas), typically thought to have begun around 500 BCE, marked the end of the evolution of the Vedas, much as it also marked the end of the semi-nomadic nature of the Indo-Aryan tribes as they formed permanent settlements in the Indo-Gangetic plain and other parts of Northern India. This period began in earnest with Brahmanas seeing the four canonical [[Vedas]] in a new light, and finally led to the [[Upanishads]]. While the ritualistic status of the four Vedas remained undiminished, the early Upanishads sought to offer spiritual insights. At this time, the combination of the concepts of [[reincarnation]], the innovative one of [[karma]] and of [[moksha]], were widely becoming accepted in ancient India. They were eventually accepted by Brahmin orthodoxy, and were to form the core philosophy of the later epics and Hinduism itself.<ref>Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 "We know only this much that the doctrine of karma-samsara-jnana-mukti is first seen in the clearest form in the shramanic tradition. It is now even accepted by orthodox brahmins. This doctrine is not clearly spelled out in Rgvedas and not even in the oldest parts of Upanishads called chandogya and Brhadaranyaka." Page 149.</ref><ref>“This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-vedics like Ajivikism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of re-birth after coming in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India. Certainly Jainism and non-vedics [..] accepted the doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith.” Masih, page 37.</ref>


===The Shramana tradition===
===The Shramana tradition===
{{main|Shramana}}
{{main|Shramana}}
The [[Shramana]]s were wandering ascetics. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Sramana tradition.<ref>These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, instead, were concurrent streams of thought in ancient India. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times." </ref> The 24th Jain [[Tirthankar]], [[Mahavira]] (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]]'' (non-violence), ''[[satya]]'' (truthfulness), ''[[asteya]]'' (non-stealing) and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-attachment).
Vedic Brahmanism of Iron Age India co-existed and closely interacted with the parallel non-Vedic [[Shramana]] traditions.<ref>S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, ''Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism'', Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."</ref><ref>Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."</ref><ref>Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur</ref><ref>P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism" </ref> These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but separate movements that influenced each other.<ref>S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times." </ref> The [[Shramana]]s were wandering ascetics. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Shramana tradition, and the early Upanishadic movement was influenced by it.<ref>Karel Werner, ''The Longhaired Sage'' in ''The Yogi and the Mystic.'' Karel Werner, ed., Curzon Press, 1989, page 34. "Rahurkar speaks of them as belonging to two distinct 'cultural strands' ... Wayman also found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension in ancient India and calls them the traditions of 'truth and silence.' He traces them particularly in the older Upanishads, in early Buddhism, and in some later literature."</ref> The 24th Jain [[Tirthankar]], [[Mahavira]] (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]]'' (non-violence), ''[[satya]]'' (truthfulness), ''[[asteya]]'' (non-stealing) and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-attachment).


The historical [[Gautama Buddha]], who was a [[Buddha]], was born into the [[Shakya]] clan of [[Angirasa]]-and-[[Gautama Rishi]] lineage<ref> ''The Life of Buddha as Legend and History'', by Edward Joseph Thomas </ref>, just before the kingdom of [[Magadha]] (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to Kapilavastu and [[Lumbini]], in what is now southern [[Nepal]].
The historical [[Gautama Buddha]], who was a [[Buddha]], was born into the [[Shakya]] clan of [[Angirasa]]-and-[[Gautama Rishi]] lineage<ref> ''The Life of Buddha as Legend and History'', by Edward Joseph Thomas </ref>, just before the kingdom of [[Magadha]] (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to Kapilavastu and [[Lumbini]], in what is now southern [[Nepal]].
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Both Jainism and Buddhism in their present form, spread throughout India during the period of the [[Magadha empire]].
Both Jainism and Buddhism in their present form, spread throughout India during the period of the [[Magadha empire]].


Scholars Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski write that ''"Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism.''"<ref> P. 93 ''World Religions'' By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski </ref> Jainism derives its title from the Sanskrit verb root "ji", meaning ''to conquer''.<ref>P. 103 ''Students' Britannica India'' By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani <ref> It is believed to have originated in the Ganga Basin in between the seventh and fifth centuries.<ref> P. 103 ''Students' Britannica India'' By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani </ref> According to the [[Mahavamsa]], Jainism was present in [[Sri Lanka]] before the arrival of Thera [[Mahinda]].<ref>http://www.lakehouse.lk/budusarana/2006/09/07/Budu23.pdf A comparative study in Jainism and Buddhism, Rohan Jayetilleke, September 07, 2006</ref> Early Tamil Brahmi Jain inscriptions in [[Tamil Nadu]] are dated to second century BCE.<ref>Early Tamil Epigraphy. ''From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D.'' by Iravatham Mahadevan; Chennai: A-Cref and the Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University</ref> Jainism has declined since the 12th century in many regions, but continues to be an influential religion in [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Karnataka]].
Scholars Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski write that ''"Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism.''"<ref> P. 93 ''World Religions'' By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski </ref> Jainism derives its title from the Sanskrit verb root "ji", meaning ''to conquer''.<ref>P. 103 ''Students' Britannica India'' By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani</ref> According to the [[Mahavamsa]], Jainism was present in [[Sri Lanka]] before the arrival of Thera [[Mahinda]].<ref>http://www.lakehouse.lk/budusarana/2006/09/07/Budu23.pdf A comparative study in Jainism and Buddhism, Rohan Jayetilleke, September 07, 2006</ref> Early Tamil Brahmi Jain inscriptions in [[Tamil Nadu]] are dated to second century BCE.<ref>Early Tamil Epigraphy. ''From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D.'' by Iravatham Mahadevan; Chennai: A-Cref and the Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University</ref> Jainism has declined since the 12th century in many regions, but continues to be an influential religion in [[Gujarat]], [[Rajasthan]], [[Madhya Pradesh]], [[Maharashtra]] and [[Karnataka]].


The essential tenants of Buddhism and Hinduism arose from similar ideas best described in the Upanishads, a set of Hindu treatises set down in India largely between the eighth and fourth centuries B.C.<ref>National Geographic January 2008, VOL. 213, #1</ref>. [[Buddhism]] in India spread during the reign of [[Asoka the Great]] of the [[Mauryan Empire]], who patronised [[dharma|Buddhist teachings]] and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.<ref name="Heehs_2002_106">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=106}}.</ref> [[Buddhism in India|Indian Buddhism]] started declining following the rise of [[Puranas|Puranic Hinduism]] during the [[Gupta dynasty]], but continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century. Scholar James Bird writes, "''But when primitive Buddhism originated from Hindu schools of philosophy, it differed as widely from that of later times, as did the Brahmanism of the Vedas from that of the Puranas and Tantras.''"<ref> P. 66 ''Historical researches on the origin and principles of the Bauddha and Jaina religions: embracing the leading tenets of their system, as found prevailing in various countries; illustrated by descriptive accounts of the sculptures in the caves of western India, with translations of the inscriptions ... which indicate their connexion with the coins and topes of the Panjab and Afghanistan.''by James Bird </ref>
[[Buddhism]] in India spread during the reign of [[Asoka the Great]] of the [[Mauryan Empire]], who patronised [[dharma|Buddhist teachings]] and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.<ref name="Heehs_2002_106">{{harvnb|Heehs|2002|p=106}}.</ref> [[Buddhism in India|Indian Buddhism]] started declining following the rise of [[Puranas|Puranic Hinduism]] during the [[Gupta dynasty]], but continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century. Scholar James Bird writes, "''But when primitive Buddhism originated from Hindu schools of philosophy, it differed as widely from that of later times, as did the Brahmanism of the Vedas from that of the Puranas and Tantras.''"<ref> P. 66 ''Historical researches on the origin and principles of the Bauddha and Jaina religions: embracing the leading tenets of their system, as found prevailing in various countries; illustrated by descriptive accounts of the sculptures in the caves of western India, with translations of the inscriptions ... which indicate their connexion with the coins and topes of the Panjab and Afghanistan.''by James Bird </ref>


===Period after 200 BCE===
===Period after 200 BCE===
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<!--Categories-->
<!--Categories-->
[[Category:Indian religions]]
[[Category:Indian religions| ]]
[[Category:Major religious groups]]
[[Category:Religion in India]]
[[Category:Religion in India]]


Revision as of 04:02, 21 August 2008

For religious demographics of the Republic of India, see Religion in India.
A statue of Shiva near Indira Gandhi International Airport, Delhi
Statue of Jina deity Bahubali in Shravanabelagola, Karnataka attracts thousands of devotees.

Indian religions, also called Dharmic religions, are the related religious traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent[1], namely Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism, inclusive of their sub-sects and various related traditions. They form a subgroup of the larger class of "Eastern religions". Indian religions have similarities in core beliefs, modes of worship, and associated practices, mainly due to their common history of origin and mutual influence.

The documented history of Indian religions begins with historical Vedic religion, the religious practices of the early Indo-Aryans, which were collected and later redacted into the Vedas, four canonical collections of hymns or mantras. The language used, archaic Sanskrit, also stems from the same period. The period of the advent, spread, and eventual establishment of this religion lasted from 1,500 BCE to about 500 BCE.

The period from 500 BCE onwards marked the beginning of the Upanisadic or Vedantic period. This period heralded the beginning of much of what became classical Hinduism, with the composition of the Upanishads, later the Sanskrit epics, still later followed by the Puranas. In this period Jainism and Buddhism arose from the sramana traditions.

Buddhism was historically founded by Gautama Siddhartha, a Sakya prince-turned-ascetic of Nepal, and was spread beyond India through missionaries. It later experienced a decline in India, but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka, and remains more widespread in Southeast and East Asia. Jainism is said to have been established by a lineage of 24 enlightened beings culminating with Mahavira.[2]

Classical Hinduism, which arose in the course of the Middle Ages as a result of various influences including a syncretism and cross-pollination of the Sramana and the Vedic traditions, is divided into numerous denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smarta and much smaller groups like the conservative Shrauta. Hindu reform movements and Ayyavazhi are more recent.

About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population.[3]

Sikhism was founded in the 15th century; its founder, Guru Nanak, was born in the town of Talwandi in present day Pakistan. The vast majority of its adherents originate in the Punjab region.

Common traits

Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions (even though the meaning of dharma/dhamma differs per religion), Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism share certain key concepts, which are interpreted differently by different groups and individuals.[4][5][6] Common traits can also be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. For example, the head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in three distinct traditions. Other noteworthy rituals are the cremation of the dead, the wearing of vermilion on the head by married women, and various marital rituals. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.[7] All three traditions have notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha and various yogas. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is his conduct. For a Buddhist, dharma is piety[citation needed]. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind,[8] whereas Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.

History

Prehistory

File:Pashupati.gif
A Harappan seal excavated at Mohenjo Daro (roughly 2000 BCE), showing a figure often called Pashupati, after the epithet of Shiva and Rudra, and sitting in what resembles a padma asana posture.

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings such as at Bhimbetka, depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic agriculturalists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic.[9] Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.[10] The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which lasted from 3300–1300 BCE (mature period, 2600-1900 BCE) and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility,[11] a concept that has recently been challenged.[12] Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show small tablets with animals and altars, indicating rituals associated with animal sacrifice.

Vedic period

Main article: Historical Vedic religion

The Vedic Period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas, Brahmanas and the older Upanishads (both presented as discussions on the rituals, mantras and concepts found in the four Vedas), which today are some of the most important canonical texts of Hinduism, and are the codification of much of what developed into the core beliefs of Hinduism.

The Vedas reflect the liturgy and ritual of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age Indo-Aryan speaking peoples in India. Religious practices were dominated by the Vedic priesthood administering domestic rituals/rites and solemn sacrifices. The Brahmanas, Aranyakas and some of the older Upanishads (such as BAU, ChU, JUB) are also placed in this period. Many elements of Vedic religion reach back to early Bronze Age Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BCE.

Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:

  • The Soma cult described in the Rigveda, descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice (cf. the Iranian haoma ritual) .
  • Fire rituals, also a common Indo-Iranian practice (See Zoroastrianism):
  • The Darsapaurnamasa, the fortnightly New and Full Moon sacrifice
  • The Caturmasya or seasonal sacrifices (every four months)
  • a large number of sacrifices for special wishes (Kāmyeṣṭi)
  • The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice.
  • The Purushamedha, or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the cosmic Purusha and Ashvamedha
  • The rites referred to in the Atharvaveda are concerned with medicine and healing practices, as well as some charms and sorcery (white and black magic).
  • The domestic (grihya) rituals deal with the rites of passage from conception to death and beyond.

Vedanta

Main article: Vedanta

The period of Vedanta (Sanskrit : end of Vedas), typically thought to have begun around 500 BCE, marked the end of the evolution of the Vedas, much as it also marked the end of the semi-nomadic nature of the Indo-Aryan tribes as they formed permanent settlements in the Indo-Gangetic plain and other parts of Northern India. This period began in earnest with Brahmanas seeing the four canonical Vedas in a new light, and finally led to the Upanishads. While the ritualistic status of the four Vedas remained undiminished, the early Upanishads sought to offer spiritual insights. At this time, the combination of the concepts of reincarnation, the innovative one of karma and of moksha, were widely becoming accepted in ancient India. They were eventually accepted by Brahmin orthodoxy, and were to form the core philosophy of the later epics and Hinduism itself.[13][14]

The Shramana tradition

Main article: Shramana

Vedic Brahmanism of Iron Age India co-existed and closely interacted with the parallel non-Vedic Shramana traditions.[15][16][17][18] These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, but separate movements that influenced each other.[19] The Shramanas were wandering ascetics. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Shramana tradition, and the early Upanishadic movement was influenced by it.[20] The 24th Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya (non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment).

The historical Gautama Buddha, who was a Buddha, was born into the Shakya clan of Angirasa-and-Gautama Rishi lineage[21], just before the kingdom of Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to Kapilavastu and Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. The Ajivikas and Samkhyas belonged to another sramana tradtion, both of which did not survive.

Rise and spread of Jainism and Buddhism

Main articles: Buddhism in India, Silk Road transmission of Buddhism, and Greco-Buddhism
Main article: Jain community
Further information: Mauryan period and Gupta period

Both Jainism and Buddhism in their present form, spread throughout India during the period of the Magadha empire.

Scholars Jeffrey Brodd and Gregory Sobolewski write that "Jainism shares many of the basic doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism."[22] Jainism derives its title from the Sanskrit verb root "ji", meaning to conquer.[23] According to the Mahavamsa, Jainism was present in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Thera Mahinda.[24] Early Tamil Brahmi Jain inscriptions in Tamil Nadu are dated to second century BCE.[25] Jainism has declined since the 12th century in many regions, but continues to be an influential religion in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

Buddhism in India spread during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia.[26] Indian Buddhism started declining following the rise of Puranic Hinduism during the Gupta dynasty, but continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until the 12th century. Scholar James Bird writes, "But when primitive Buddhism originated from Hindu schools of philosophy, it differed as widely from that of later times, as did the Brahmanism of the Vedas from that of the Puranas and Tantras."[27]

Period after 200 BCE

Main articles: decline of Buddhism in India, Hindu philosophy, and Pala Empire
Further information: Puranas

After 200 CE several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[28] Hinduism, otherwise a highly polytheistic, pantheistic or monotheistic religion, also tolerated atheistic schools; the thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated around the 6th century BCE is the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nastika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[29] Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[30] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.

Between 400 CE and 1000 CE Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued.[31] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India but survived in Nepal and Sri Lanka.

There were several Buddhistic kings who worshiped Vishnu, such as the Gupta, Pala, Malla, Somavanshi, and Sattvahana.[32] Buddhism survived followed by Hindus. National Geographic[33] edition reads, "The flow between faiths was such that for hundreds of years, almost all Buddhist temples, including the ones at Ajanta, were built under the rule and patronage of Hindu kings."

Modern India

Main articles: Religion in India, Hindu reform movements, Hindutva, and Communalism (South Asia)

Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. British India was partitioned along religious lines into two states, the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The 1947 Partition of India inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi and other parts of India, and 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history.[Δ][34] Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular, though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (punyabhumi), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.[35]

Astika and Nastika categorization

Further information: Astika, Hindu philosophy, and Buddhism and Hinduism

Astika and nastika are sometimes used to categorise Indian religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central actor in this world are termed as astika. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and actor are classified as nastika religions. From this point of view the Vedic religion (and Hinduism) is an astika religion, whereas Buddhism and Jainism are nastika religions.

Another definition of the terms astika and nastika, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Raja Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as astika schools, while Charvaka is classified as a nastika schools. By this definition, both Buddhism and Jainism are classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

All three religions, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, agree that Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism (as well as several Hindu denominations) do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

Sikhism

Main article: Sikhism
Further information: Sikhism and Jainism and Sikhism and Hinduism

Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār [meaning one god]. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world.

Although it began as a relatively neutral faith system that proposed to inculcate the best practices of Hinduism and Islam, over time, its Gurus led followers in various rebellions and battles against the Islamic Mughal rulers of the time, most notably against Aurangzeb.

Status in India

See also: Legal Status of Jainism as a Distinct Religion

Societally, there is little distinction or separation of class between Hindus, Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists owing to near congruence in beliefs and practices.[36][37] Cross-worship and intermarriages are common.[citation needed]

In a judicial reminder, the Indian Supreme Court observed Sikhism and Jainism to be sub-sects or special faiths within the larger Hindu fold,[38] and that Jainism is a denomination within the Hindu fold.[39] Although the government of British India counted Jains in India as a major religious community right from the first Census conducted in 1873, after independence in 1947 Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities.[40] In 2005 the Supreme Court of India declined to issue a writ of Mandamus granting Jains the status of a religious minority throughout India. The Court however left it to the respective states to decide on the minority status of Jain religion.[41][42]

However, some individual states have over the past few decades differed on whether Jains, Buddhists and Sikhs are religious minorities or not, by either pronouncing judgments or passing legislation. One example is the judgment passed by the Supreme Court in 2006, in a case pertaining to the state of Uttar Pradesh, which declared Jainism to be undisputably distinct from Hinduism, but mentioned that, "The question as to whether the Jains are part of the Hindu religion is open to debate.[43] However, the Supreme Court also noted various court cases that have held Jainism to be a distinct religion.

Another example is the Gujarat Freedom of Religion Bill, that is an amendment to a legislation that sought to define Jains and Buddhists as denominations within Hinduism.[44] Ultimately on July 31 2007, finding it not in conformity with the concept of freedom of religion as embodied in Article 25 (1) of the Constitution, Governor Naval Kishore Sharma returned back the Gujarat Freedom of Religion (Amendment) Bill, 2006 citing the widespread protests by the Jains[45] as well as Supreme Court's extra-judicial observation that Jainism is a "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court"[46]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: September 5 2007
  2. ^ Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – "Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with Vedic Hinduism known as Sramana Dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins." Page 141
  3. ^ "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
  4. ^ Frawley, David. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.
  5. ^ Encarta encyclopedia [1]"Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."
  6. ^ Westerlund, David Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."
  7. ^ c.f. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
  8. ^ "yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana
  9. ^ Heehs 2002, p. 39.
  10. ^ "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'". BBC News. 19 March 2004. Retrieved 2007-08-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  11. ^ Fowler 1997, p. 90.
  12. ^ Sharri R. Clark, The social lives of figurines : recontextualizing the third millennium BC terracotta figurines from Harappa, Pakistan. PhD dissertation, Harvard 2007
  13. ^ Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 "We know only this much that the doctrine of karma-samsara-jnana-mukti is first seen in the clearest form in the shramanic tradition. It is now even accepted by orthodox brahmins. This doctrine is not clearly spelled out in Rgvedas and not even in the oldest parts of Upanishads called chandogya and Brhadaranyaka." Page 149.
  14. ^ “This confirms that the doctrine of transmigration is non-aryan and was accepted by non-vedics like Ajivikism, Jainism and Buddhism. The Indo-aryans have borrowed the theory of re-birth after coming in contact with the aboriginal inhabitants of India. Certainly Jainism and non-vedics [..] accepted the doctrine of rebirth as supreme postulate or article of faith.” Masih, page 37.
  15. ^ S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
  16. ^ Y. Masih (2000) In : A Comparative Study of Religions, Motilal Banarsidass Publ : Delhi, ISBN 8120808150 Page 18. "There is no evidence to show that Jainism and Buddhism ever subscribed to vedic sacrifices, vedic deities or caste. They are parallel or native religions of India and have contributed to much to the growth of even classical Hinduism of the present times."
  17. ^ Dr. Kalghatgi, T. G. 1988 In: Study of Jainism, Prakrit Bharti Academy, Jaipur
  18. ^ P.S. Jaini, (1979), The Jaina Path to Purification, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi, p. 169 "Jainas themselves have no memory of a time when they fell within the Vedic fold. Any theory that attempts to link the two traditions, moreover fails to appreciate rather distinctive and very non-vedic character of Jaina cosmology, soul theory, karmic doctrine and atheism"
  19. ^ S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
  20. ^ Karel Werner, The Longhaired Sage in The Yogi and the Mystic. Karel Werner, ed., Curzon Press, 1989, page 34. "Rahurkar speaks of them as belonging to two distinct 'cultural strands' ... Wayman also found evidence for two distinct approaches to the spiritual dimension in ancient India and calls them the traditions of 'truth and silence.' He traces them particularly in the older Upanishads, in early Buddhism, and in some later literature."
  21. ^ The Life of Buddha as Legend and History, by Edward Joseph Thomas
  22. ^ P. 93 World Religions By Jeffrey Brodd, Gregory Sobolewski
  23. ^ P. 103 Students' Britannica India By Dale Hoiberg, Indu Ramchandani
  24. ^ http://www.lakehouse.lk/budusarana/2006/09/07/Budu23.pdf A comparative study in Jainism and Buddhism, Rohan Jayetilleke, September 07, 2006
  25. ^ Early Tamil Epigraphy. From the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D. by Iravatham Mahadevan; Chennai: A-Cref and the Department of Sanskrit and Indian Studies, Harvard University
  26. ^ Heehs 2002, p. 106.
  27. ^ P. 66 Historical researches on the origin and principles of the Bauddha and Jaina religions: embracing the leading tenets of their system, as found prevailing in various countries; illustrated by descriptive accounts of the sculptures in the caves of western India, with translations of the inscriptions ... which indicate their connexion with the coins and topes of the Panjab and Afghanistan.by James Bird
  28. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi.
  29. ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. 227–249.
  30. ^ Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 55.
  31. ^ "The rise of Buddhism and Jainism". Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. 26 July 2004. Retrieved 2007-04-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  32. ^ Durga Prasad, P. 116, History of the Andhras upto 1565 A. D.
  33. ^ January 2008, VOL. 213, #1
  34. ^ Symonds 1950, p. 74.
  35. ^ Ludden 1996, p. 253.
  36. ^ Governor of Gujarat state, Mr. Naval Kishore "Although for the purpose of many personal laws, Jains and Hindus have been treated alike, it is not because they are denominations of Hinduism,"
  37. ^ Supreme court judicial observation, Dec 2004, Bal Patil vs. Union of India "Sikhs and Jains, in fact, have throughout been treated as part of the wider Hindu community which has different sects, sub-sects, faiths, modes of worship and religious philosophies."
  38. ^ Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005 In various codified customary laws like Hindu Marriage Act, Hindu Succession Act, Hindu Adoption and Maintenance Act and other laws of pre and post- Constitution period, the definition of 'Hindu' included all sects and sub-sects of Hindu religions including Sikhs and Jains
  39. ^ Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005. The Supreme Court observed in a judgment pertaining to case of Bal Patil vs. Union of India: "Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."
  40. ^ [Supreme Court observation, Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec 2005 http://www.judis.nic.in/supremecourt/qrydisp.asp?tfnm=27098] The so-called minority communities like Sikhs and Jains were not treated as national minorities at the time of framing the Constitution.
  41. ^ Syed Shahabuddin. "Minority rights are indivisible". The Tribune.
  42. ^ Supreme court of India, in the judgement of Bal Patil vs. Union of India, Dec. 2005. In an extra-judicial observation not forming part of the judgment the court observed :"Thus, 'Hinduism' can be called a general religion and common faith of India whereas 'Jainism' is a special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion. Jainism places greater emphasis on non-violence ('Ahimsa') and compassion ('Karuna'). Their only difference from Hindus is that Jains do not believe in any creator like God but worship only the perfect human-being whom they called Tirathankar."
  43. ^ (para 25, Committee of Management Kanya Junior High School Bal Vidya Mandir, Etah, U.P. v. Sachiv, U.P. Basic Shiksha Parishad, Allahabad, U.P. and Ors., Per Dalveer Bhandari J., Civil Appeal No. 9595 of 2003, decided On: 21.08.2006, Supreme Court of India) [2]
  44. ^ Gujarat Freedom of religions Act, 2003
  45. ^ "Religious freedom Bill returned". The Indian Express. 2007-07-31. Retrieved 2007-09-15.
  46. ^ The Times of India, 11 Mar, 2008 In his letter dated July 27 2007 he had said Jainism has been regarded as "special religion formed on the basis of quintessence of Hindu religion by the Supreme Court".

References

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