Command menu and Hereditary peer: Difference between pages

The Peerage in the United Kingdom includes several hereditary peers, as well as life peers. Hereditary peers hold titles that may be inherited; even peers who were granted, rather than inherited, hereditary titles are hereditary peers. Formerly, most of them were entitled to a seat in Parliament, but now, hereditary peers do not have an automatic right to sit in the House of Lords. Ninety-two are permitted to sit in the House of Lords under the House of Lords Act 1999, although this reduction has been challenged in the European Court of Human Rights.

An hereditary title is not necessarily a title of the peerage. For instance, Baronets and Baronetesses may pass on their titles, but they are not peers. Similarly, a non-hereditary title may still belong to the peerage, as evidenced by the case of life peers.

Ranks and Titles

The various ranks of the Peerage are, in descending order of rank, Duke, Marquess, Earl, Viscount and Baron, whose feminine equivalents are Duchess, Marchioness, Countess, Viscountess and Baroness respectively. In Scotland, however, "baron" is a feudal rank, and not one of the Peerage. The Scottish equivalent to the English barony is the "Lordship of Parliament," the male holder thereof being known as a Lord of Parliament.

It is also possible to suggest that the Prince is a peerage dignity. The only peerage dignity of that rank ever awarded is the Principality of Wales, which is always created along with the Earldom of Chester, by convention for the heir-apparent to the Crown. Other members of the Royal Family hold the title of Prince, but such titles are not peerage dignities. Members of the Royal Family who have been created peers (most often of the rank of Duke) sit by virtue of those titles; only the Prince of Wales sits by the rank of Prince. Though the holder of the Principality and Earldom could sit in the House of Lords even before the Life Peerages Act, those dignities may not be considered hereditary peers; if a Prince of Wales predeceases the Sovereign, the dignity revests in the Crown rather than being inherited. Nonetheless, the House of Lords Act 1999 provides that, at least for the purposes of that Act, the Principality of Wales and Earldom of Chester are to be treated as hereditary peerages, and therefore do not automatically qualify the holder to sit in Parliament.

Peerage dignities are created by the Sovereign by either writs of summons or letters patent (vide infra). Under modern constitutional conventions, however, no peerage dignity would be created except upon the advice of the Prime Minister.

Inheritance of Titles

The mode of inheritance of an hereditary peerage is determined by the method of its creation. Titles may be created by writ of summons or by letters patent. The former is merely a summons of an individual to Parliament—it does not explicitly confer a peerage—and descent is always to heirs of the body, male and female. The latter method is used to explicitly create a peerage and name the dignity in question. Letters patent may be state the course of descent; normally, only male heirs are allowed to succeed to the peerage. In all cases, only legitimate children may succeed to a title. Under Scottish law, an illegitimate child is legitimated by a future marriage of the parents. Under English and British law, however, a child is illegitimate if the parents are unmarried at the time of birth, and remains illegitimate even after a marriage between them. Thus, a bastard child may succeed to a Scottish peerage, but not an English, Irish or British one, if the parents marry after the birth.

Generally, a peerage passes to the next holder only after the holder for the time being dies. However, Edward IV introduced a procedure known as a writ of acceleration, whereby it is possible for the eldest son of a peer with multiple titles to sit in the House of Lords by virtue of one of his father's subsidiary dignities.

A title becomes extinct when all possible heirs (as provided by the letters patent) have died out. A title becomes dormant if no person has claimed the title, or if no claim has been satisfactorily proven. A title goes into abeyance if there is more than one person equally qualified to be the holder.

In the past, peerages were sometimes forfeit or attainted under Acts of Parliament, most often for the treason of the holder. The blood of an attainted peer was considered "corrupted," so his descendants could not inherit the title. If all descendants of the attainted peer were to die out, however, then an heir from another branch of the family not affected by the attainder may take the title. The Forfeiture Act 1870 abolished corruption of blood; instead of losing the peerage, a peer convicted of treason would merely be disqualified from sitting in Parliament for the period of imprisonment.

The Titles Deprivation Act 1917 permitted the Crown to suspend peerages if their holders had fought against the United Kingdom during the First World War. Guilt was to be determined by a committee of the Privy Council; either House of Parliament could reject the committee's report within forty days of its presentation. In 1919, King George V issued an Order-in-Council suspending the Dukedom of Albany (together with its subsidiary peerages, the Earldom of Clarence and the Barony of Arklow), the Dukedom of Cumberland and Teviotdale (along with the Earldom of Armagh) and the Viscountcy of Taaffe (along with the Barony of Ballymote). Under the Titles Deprivation Act, the successors to the peerages may petition the Crown for a reinstatement of the titles; so far, none of them have chosen to do so.

A peer may also disclaim an hereditary peerage under the Peerage Act 1963. To do so, the peer must deliver an instrument of disclaimer to the Lord Chancellor within twelve months of succeeding to the peerage, or, if under the age of twenty-one at the time of succession, within twelve months of becoming twenty-one years old. If, at the time of succession, the peer is a member of the House of Commons, then the instrument must be delivered within one month of succession; meanwhile, the peer may not sit or vote in the House of Commons. Prior to the House of Lords Act 1999, an hereditary peer could not disclaim a peerage after having applied for a writ of summons to Parliament; now, however, hereditary peers do not have the automatic right to a writ of summons to the House. Irish peerages may not be disclaimed. A peer who disclaims the peerage loses all titles, rights and privileges associated with the peerage; his wife is similarly affected. No further hereditary peerages may be conferred upon the person, but life peerages may be. The peerage remains without a holder until the death of the peer making the disclaimer, when it descends normally.

A title held by someone who becomes monarch is said to merge in the crown and ceases to exist, for the Sovereign cannot hold a dignity from himself. The Dukedom of Cornwall and that of Rothesay, and the Earldom of Carrick, are special cases, which when not in use are said to lapse to the crown: they are construed as existing, but held by no one, during such periods. These peerages are also special because they are never directly inherited. The Dukedom of Cornwall was held formerly by the eldest son of the King of England, and the Dukedom of Rothesay, the Earldom of Carrick, and certain non-peerage titles (Baron of Renfrew, Lord of the Isles and Prince and Great Steward of Scotland) by the eldest son of the King of Scotland. Since those titles have been united, the dukedoms and associated subsidiary titles are held by the eldest son of the monarch. In Scotland, the title Duke of Rothesay is used for life. In England and Northern Ireland, the title Duke of Cornwall is used until the heir-apparent is created Prince of Wales. At the same time as the Principality is created, the Duke is also created Earl of Chester. The Earldom is a special case, because it is not hereditary, instead revesting or merging in the Crown if the Prince succeeds to the Crown or predeceases the monarch.

The Dukedom of Cornwall is associated with the Duchy of Cornwall; the former is a peerage dignity, while the latter is an estate whose income goes to the Duke of Cornwall, or, when there is no Duke, to the Sovereign. The only other Duchy in the United Kingdom is the Duchy of Lancaster, which is also an estate, rather than a peerage dignity. The Dukedom of Lancaster merged in the Crown when Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancaster became King Henry IV. Nonetheless, the Duchy of Lancaster still continues to exist, theoretically run by the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster. Normally, however, the Chancellor does not exercise any actual duties related to the Duchy, so he is normally available as a Minister without Portfolio. The Duchy is the inherited property that belongs personally to the monarch, rather than to the Crown. Thus, while income from the Crown Estate is turned over to the Exchequer in return for a civil list payment, the income from the Duchy forms a part of the Privy Purse, the personal funds of the Sovereign.

Writs of summons

At the beginning of each new Parliament, each peer who has established his right to attend Parliament is issued a writ of summons. Without the writ, no peer may sit or vote in Parliament. Writs of summons generally follow the same form. Firstly, they set out the titles of the Sovereign, and then those of the recipient. Next, they note the date for Parliament's calling and the reason for its calling. This portion of the writ differs based on whether Parliament is at the time sitting, or prorogued, or dissolved. Then, after commanding the recipient to attend, the writ indicates that the Sovereign him or herself witnesses it.

The form of writs issued while Parliament is dissolved is:

Elizabeth the Second by the Grace of God of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and of Our other Realms and Territories Queen Head of the Commonwealth Defender of the Faith To Our right trusty and well beloved XXXX Chevalier Greeting.

Whereas by the advice and assent of Our Council for certain arduous and urgent affairs concerning Us the state and defence of Our United Kingdom and the Church We have ordered a certain Parliament to be holden to Our City of Westminster on the XX day of XX next ensuing and there to treat and have conference with the Prelates Great Men and Peers of Our Realm We strictly enjoining Command you upon the faith and allegiance by which you are bound to Us that the weightness of the said affairs and imminent perils considered (waiving all excuses) you be at the said day and place personally present with Us and with the said Prelates Great Men and Peers to treat and give your counsel upon the affairs aforesaid And this as you regard Us and Our honour and the safety and defence of the said Kingdom and Church and dispatch of the said affairs in nowise do you omit Witness Ourself at Westminster the XX day of XX in the XX year of Our Reign.

In the case of writs issued when Parliament is prorogued, the form of the first sentence of the second paragraph changes to:

Whereas by reason of certain arduous and urgent affairs concerning Us the State and defence of Our United Kingdom and the Church We did lately with the advice and consent of Our Council ordain Our present Parliament to be holden at Our City of Westminster on the XX day of XX in the XX year of Our Reign which Parliament hath been from that time by several adjournments and prorogations adjourned prorogued and continued to and until the XX day of XX now next ensuing at Our City aforesaid to be then there holden. We strictly enjoining Command ...

File:Chas1.JPG

Charles I

In the case of writs issued during a session of Parliament, the form of the first sentence of the second paragraph changes to:

Whereas Our Parliament for arduous and urgent affairs concerning Us the state and defence of Our United Kingdom and the Church is now met at Our City of Westminster We strictly enjoining Command ...

It is established precedent that the Sovereign may not deny writs of summons to qualified peers. In 1626, King Charles I ordered that the writ of summons of John Digby, 1st Earl of Bristol not issue. Lord Bristol had been charged with treason, but was never tried. He complained to the House of Lords, which resolved that the denial of a writ to an eligible peer was without precedent and that the Sovereign should immediately issue a writ of summons, which did occur.

Another case to be considered is when writs of summons are issued to those who are not peers. In such cases, the individual who received the writ and takes a seat in Parliament ipso facto becomes a peer. In fact, most ancient baronies were created merely by summoning an individual to Parliament, thereby making him a peer. Even if a writ of summons is issued, however, a peerage is not created if the recipient fails to take his seat in Parliament, for the writ commands the recipient to be present in Parliament "waiving all excuses." In Abergavenny's (Lord) Case, the House of Lords ruled that, for a peerage to be created, the recipient of the writ must "come to the parliament, and there sit, according to the commandment of the writ; for until that, the writ did not take its effect." Even if the writ is issued in error, the recipient becomes a peer, presuming that he has taken his seat in Parliament. If the mistake is discovered prior to the taking of the seat, the Sovereign may issue a writ of supersedeas revoking the erroneous writ of summons. The writ of supersedeas has not been used in recent times; in the words of the late Lord Williams of Mostyn, "it certainly has not been translated into modern English." If the writ of supersedeas is not issued, and the recipient of the writ does take his seat in the House of Lords, the creation of the peerage cannot be reversed.

Peerages created by writ of summons are presumed to be inheritable only by the recipient's heirs of the body. The House of Lords has settled such a presumption in several cases, including Grey's (Lord) Case of 1640, the Clifton Barony Case of 1673, the Vaux Peerage Case of 1837, the Braye Peerage Case of 1839 and the Hastings Peerage Case of 1841. The meaning of heir of the body is determined by common law. Essentially, descent is by the rules of male primogeniture, a mechanism whereby normally, male descendants of the peer take precedence over female descendants, with children representing their deceased ancestors, and wherein the senior line of descent always takes precedence over the junior line per each gender. These rules, however, are amended by the proviso whereby sisters (and their heirs) are considered co-heirs; seniority of the line is irrelevant when succession is through a female line. In other words, no woman inherits because she is older than her sisters. If all of the co-heirs but one die, then the surviving co-heir succeeds to the title. Otherwise, the title remains abeyant until the Sovereign "terminates" the abeyance in favour of one of the co-heirs. The termination of an abeyance is entirely at the discretion of the Crown.

A writ of acceleration is a type of writ of summons that enables the eldest son of a peer to attend the House of Lords using one of his father's subsidiary titles. The title is strictly not inherited by the eldest son, however; it remains vested in the father. A writ may only be granted if the title being accelerated is a subsidiary one, and not the main title, and if the beneficiary of the writ is the heir-apparent of the actual holder of the title. There have been a total of ninety-four writs of acceleration issued since Edward IV issued the first one, including four writs issued in the previous century. The only individual who recently held a title by writ of acceleration at present is Viscount Cranborne, the Barony of Cecil of Essendon actually being held by the Marquess of Salisbury. (Viscount Cranborne has, upon the death of his father, succeeded to the Marquessate.)

There are no Scottish peerages created by writ; neither can Scottish baronies go into abeyance, for Scots law does not hold sisters as equal heirs regardless of age. Furthermore, there is only one extant barony by writ in the Peerage of Ireland, that of La Poer, now held by the Marquess of Waterford. (Certain other baronies were originally created by writ but later confirmed by letters patent.)

Letters Patent

More often, Letters Patent are used to create peerages. Letters Patent must explicitly name the recipient of the title and specify the course of descent; the exact meaning of the term is determined by common law. Normally, the patent specifies the peer's heirs-male of the body as successors; in such a case, the rules of agnatic succession apply, meaning that succession is through the male line only. Some very old titles, like the Earldom of Arlington, may pass to heirs of the body (not just heirs-male), these follow the same rules of descent as do baronies by writ, and seem able to fall into abeyance as well. Many Scottish titles allow for passage to heirs-general of the body, in which case the rules of male primogeniture apply; they do not fall into abeyance, as under Scots law, sisters are not treated as equal co-heirs.

English and British letters patent that do not specify a course of descent are invalid, though the same is not true for the letters patent creating peers in the Peerage of Scotland. The House of Lords has ruled in certain cases that when the course of descent is not specified, or when the letters patent are lost, the title descends to heirs-male. It is possible for some patents to allow for succession by someone other than an heir-male. Several instances may be cited: the viscountcy of Nelson (to an elder brother and his heirs-male), the earldom of Roberts (to a daughter and her heirs-male), the barony of Amherst of Montreal (to a nephew and his heirs-male) and the dukedom of Dover (to a younger son and his heirs-male while the eldest son is still alive). In many cases, the peer in question had no sons, and the special grant was made to preclude an extinction of the peerage. But in all cases the course of descent specified in the patent must be known in common law. For instance, the Crown may not make a "shifting limitation" in the Letters Patent; in other words, the Patent may not vest the peerage in an individual and then, based on the occurrence of some event other than death (such as succession to a higher title) shift the title to another person. The doctrine was established in the Buckhurst Peerage Case (1876), in which the House of Lords deemed invalid Letters Patent aimed to keep the barony of Buckhurst separate from the earldom of De La Warr. The Patent stipulated that, if the holder of the barony ever inherited the earldom, then he would be deprived of the barony, which would instead pass to the next successor as if the deprived holder died without issue.

Also, it is necessary for English patents to include limitation "of the body," as in "heirs-male of the body." The limitation indicates that only lineal descendants of the original peer may succeed to the peerage. In some very rare instances, the limitation was left out. In the Devon Peerage Case of 1831, the House of Lords permitted an heir who was a collateral descendant of the original peer to take his seat. The precedent, however, was reversed in 1859, when the House of Lords decided in the Wiltes Peerage Case that a patent that did not include the words "of the body" would be held void.

Letters Patent are not absolute; they may be amended or revoked by Act of Parliament. For example, Parliament amended the Letters Patent creating the dukedom of Marlborough in 1706. The patent originally provided that the dukedom could be inherited by the heirs-male of the body of the first Duke, Captain-General Sir John Churchill. One son had died in infancy and the other died in 1703 from smallpox. Under Parliament's amendment to the patent, designed to allow the famous general's honour to live after him, the dukedom was allowed to pass to the Duke's daughters (in order of age) and their heirs-male.

The number of Hereditary Peers

The Peerage used to be an extremely small and exclusive institution. When Henry VII called his first Parliament in the fifteenth century, there were only twenty-nine peers. The Tudor rulers made very few creations of peerages; at the death of Queen Elizabeth, there were just fifty-nine peers in the realm.

Creation of English peerage dignities by Stuart monarchs
Sovereign	Reign	Peers
James I	1603–1625	62
Charles I	1625–1649	59
Charles II	1660–1685	64
James II	1685–1689	8
William III & Mary II	1689–1702	30
Anne	1702–1714	30
Total		253

Thereafter, however, the Peerage experienced a dramatic swelling due to the generosity of the Stuart monarchs. By the time of Queen Anne's death, there were no less than one hundred and sixty-eight peers. At one point, in order to obtain a majority in the House of Lords in her favour, Queen Anne created twelve peers in one day—more than Elizabeth I had created during an entire reign that had lasted for more than half of a century.

Several peers were alarmed at the rapid increase in the size of the Peerage, fearing that their individual importance and power would decrease as the number of Peers increased. Therefore, in 1719, a bill was introduced in the House of Lords to place a limitation on the Crown's power. It sought to permit no more than six new creations, and thereafter one new creation for each other title that became extinct. It did allow, however, the Crown to bestow titles on members of the Royal Family without any such limitation. The Bill was rejected in its final stage in the Lords, but it was passed when it was re-introduced in the next year. Nonetheless, the House of Commons rejected the bill 269 to 177.

George III was especially profuse with the creation of titles, especially due to the desire of some of his Prime Ministers to obtain a majority in the House of Lords. During his twelve years in power, Lord North had about thirty new peerages created. During William Pitt the Younger's seventeen-year tenure, over one hundred and forty new peerages had been awarded.

Hereditary Peers in 1999
Type	Male	Female	Total
Prince	1	0	1
Duke	28	0	28
Marquess	34	0	34
Earl	170	5	175
Viscount	102	0	102
Baron/ Lord	407	12	419
Total	742	17	759

In 1801, Parliament did impose a restriction on the creation of peerages, but only in the Peerage of Ireland. Under the 1801 Act of Union combining Ireland and Great Britain into the United Kingdom, until the number of Irish peers (excluding those who also hold British or English peerages) was reduced to one-hundred, the Sovereign could not create a new Irish peerage until three previous titles became extinct. After the number of Irish peers reached one hundred, the Sovereign could create new titles as often as may have been necessary to maintain that number.

Still, there remained no restrictions on creations in the Peerage of the United Kingdom. Thus, the Peerage continued to swell through the nineteenth century. In the twentieth century, there were even more creations since Prime Ministers were eager to secure majorities in the House of Lords. Peerages were handed out not to honour the recipient but to give him a seat in the House of Lords.

However, with the accession of the Labour government of Harold Wilson in 1964, the practice of granting hereditary peerages abruptly stopped. Since 1964, only five hereditary peerages have been granted—two for members of the royal family, and three additional creations under Margaret Thatcher's government in the mid-1980s.

References

• Blackstone, W. (1765). Commentaries on the Laws of England. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Cox, N. (1997). "The British Peerage: The Legal Standing of the Peerage and Baronetage in the overseas realms of the Crown with particular reference to New Zealand." New Zealand Universities Law Review. (Vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 379-401).
• Farnborough, T. E. May, 1st Baron. (1896). Constitutional History of England since the Accession of George the Third, 11th ed. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
• HL 106-I. (1998–1999).
• House of Lords Act 1999. (c. 34). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
• House of Lords Debates (1998–1999). Vol. 600, col. 1156.
• McCallion, P. (2003). Letter to The Earl Alexander of Tunis.
• "Peerage." (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. London: Cambridge University Press.
• Peerage Act 1963. (1963 c. 48). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.
• Titles Deprivation Act 1917. (7 & 8 George 5 c 47). London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.