Daniel Finch, 2nd Earl of Nottingham and Anti-Americanism: Difference between pages

Anti-American sentiment or anti-Americanism is a hostility towards or disapproval for the government, culture, history, and/or people of the United States of America.

The nature and effects of anti-Americanism are hotly debated. Some see it as based on prejudice, jingoism, and chauvinism and believe it at the root of such extremes as terrorism against Americans. Others denounce it as a propaganda term that downplays legitimate criticism leveled towards the US, particularly in regards to its foreign policy.

Concept

Many see in anti-Americanism a form of chauvinism or racism, sometimes going as far as calling it the "New Anti-Semitism" (e.g. [1], [2], [3]). These views became particularly prominent in the context of the widespread opposition to the 2003 invasion and occupation of Iraq. [4]

Others have argued that anti-American is a loaded term, used to discredit dissent. They argue that the vagueness of the term makes it an effective weapon of propaganda and often compare the usage of anti-Americanism to the fervor aroused by the House Committee on Un-American Activities, calling this tendency the "New McCarthyism" (e.g. [5], [6], [7], [8]).

Many people view certain elements of their country, such as culture and people, as an entirely separate entity from the government and power structures that rule it (in this context, phrases like "love it or leave it" have little relevancy). It is this sentiment that led Thomas Paine to say, "It is the duty of the patriot to protect his country from its government." Noam Chomsky, a critic of American foreign policy, writes:

The concept "anti-American" is an interesting one. The counterpart is used only in totalitarian states or military dictatorships... Thus, in the old Soviet Union, dissidents were condemned as "anti-Soviet." That's a natural usage among people with deeply rooted totalitarian instincts, which identify state policy with the society, the people, the culture. In contrast, people with even the slightest concept of democracy treat such notions with ridicule and contempt. Suppose someone in Italy who criticizes Italian state policy were condemned as "anti-Italian." It would be regarded as too ridiculous even to merit laughter. Maybe under Mussolini, but surely not otherwise.

However, critics of this view respond that certain people do express contempt for America or for the American people, and thus see calling them "anti-American" as justified.

Causes

Some anti-American sentiments started to appear as America entered the competition for influence in the Pacific, and anti-Americanism was widespread in the Central Powers after the U.S. entered First World War. These sentiments became even more widespread during the interbellum and depression. The belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy emerged in countries ruled by national socialists. After the Second World War anti-Americanism grew within the influence of the Soviet Union, and spread to other parts of the world to some extent. Paradoxically the fall of the Soviet Empire may have brought an increase in anti-Americanism, because the US was left as the world's only superpower, and people who formerly saw the US as a bastion against Communism no longer felt the need to support the US for this reason.

Some people believe anti-Americanism is rooted in envy as much as in any legitimate grievance; these people claim that similar feelings have been held towards every other nation that has gained prominence over its contemporaries. Examples include Spain (Black Legend), Great Britain, Imperial China, and the Roman Empire.

For this reason, criticism of America does not necessarily fall into the category of xenophobia. However, many people have specific criticisms of the United States, which are explained below.

American economic philosophy

America is usually perceived as having a free market economy with a strong focus on competitive markets, privatization, and self-sufficiency, based in part on individualism. Some opponents, for example socialists, believe American capitalism is a deeply flawed system that creates massive inequalities. They accuse America of perpetuating and promoting this economic system across the globe, and fighting against the forces of socialism, Marxism, and communism. During the Cold War this was often a primary criticism of the United States by Communist and pro-Communist. However, not all criticism of American economic philosophy is rooted in support for Marxism/socialism/communism. Some see America's high level of military spending as government support for a large sector of the U.S. economy. Cf. also below international trade and trade embargoes.

American domestic policy

In some countries, particularly in Europe, American retention of capital punishment contributes to the general view that the United States continued to engage in barbarous practices, which is perceived as a contradiction to America's insistence on human rights. Europeans often profess being shocked by the widespread popular support the death penalty continues to have in the United States, where as of May 2004 all but 12 U.S. states (as well as all U.S. territories, such as Washington, D.C. and Puerto Rico) have the death penalty. A minority of American states allows people under 18 years old to be sentenced to death for capital crimes — something allowed in only a handful of the world's countries.

All European countries except Belarus have adopted the Sixth Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights, which abolishes capital punishment during peacetime. Japan is general considered the only industrialized nation with a good human rights record that retains capital punishment.

Foreigners, especially Europeans, are often perplexed by America's liberal laws on gun ownership, and interpret this, along with the relatively high rates of murder and violent crime, plus the often violent content of American films and television programs, as meaning that American society had widespread tolerance and acceptance of violence. Gun politics are vigorously debated in the United States by both advocates of the gun-rights advocates like the National Rifle Association and gun-control advocates such as James Brady or Michael Moore.

The War on Drugs is also considered an oppressive activity by many who are socially liberal, both within and outside of the United States. It has resulted in an large prison population, much of it composed of nonviolent drug offenders, who are often economically lower-class. A significant minority of the American population views the War on Drugs as a second Prohibition. It has also resulted in damaging international pressure and intervention directed against other countries involved in the drug trade, such as Colombia.

Some criticize the United States for the low rates of women with important political positions, for example, in the 108th United States Congress only 14 percent of congressmen were women. Several countries have twice these rates (Denmark, Finland, New Zealand, the Netherlands) and some have three times the percentage of women in legislative assemblies (Sweden, 42 percent). The U.S. figures are far above the world average, and higher than some other industrialized countries, notably those with a typically patriarchal culture (Italy, nine percent; Japan, two percent).

All of this contributes to the perceived image of some that the United States was generally more "backwards" and "regressive" than other First World nations, in the sense that it kept old attitudes and values alive which are largely being outphased in Europe and elsewere.

American foreign policy

One of the major reasons for criticism of the United States is its foreign policy. Both before and after it became the most powerful nation in the world, America has opposed and attacked governments and countries, which often have led to long-lived anti-American sentiments, not only in the attacked countries but also in those which feel threatened by American power. In Canada, for example, anti-American sentiment was strengthened by the War of 1812.

Interference in foreign affairs itself has angered many. It was often perceived as an illegitimate interference with the politics of other countries, often with a hegemonial attitude, particularly in Latin America and the Philippines (Philippine-American War).

America's conduct in the Vietnam War also created extensive anti-American sentiment in many countries because of the massive civilian causulties. During this war, the U.S. conducted massive bombing campaigns against Cambodia; an estimated 600,000 civilians were killed, reminding many of the controversial use of the atomic bombs at the end of World War II in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The also used chemicals for deforestation that had devastating long-term environmental effects (see Agent Orange).

It is often criticized that U.S. foreign policies are inconsistent. One example is Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein, who was supported and supplied by the U.S. during the war against Iran in the 1980s. When the Senate passed a bill to condemn the Iraqi use of poison gas, then-president Ronald Reagan threatened to veto the bill if it passed the House. Later U.S. presidents George H. W. Bush and George W. Bush fought two wars against Hussein (Gulf War and 2003 invasion of Iraq).

Critics also claim that the United States supported Afghan mujahedin forces during that country's occupation by the Soviet Union but later fought against them. Others point out that the mujahedin Northern Alliance was America's ally against the Taliban. (See U.S. invasion of Afghanistan).

Some American politicians argue that changes in policy come about because of changing conditions, such as the collapse of many of the world's communist governments, which was once perceived as the greatest threat. The conflict between a widespread interpretation of U.S. actions in terms of geo-strategy, imperialism and economic interests, and the official motivations by means of ideological rhetoric causes an impression of hypocrisy or disrespect for other nations.

Relationship with Israel

Another major cause of anti-American sentiment, especially in the Muslim world, is what many people around the world see as America's blind support for Israel.

American intervention in the Arab-Israeli conflict is widely seen as being unfair and biased towards Israel and against the Palestinians. For instance, many people complain that America were quick to criticize Palestinian terror attacks against Israeli civilians, but usually turned a blind eye towards attacks by the Israeli army against Palestinian civilians, and refused to criticize Israeli wrongdoings. This issue causes huge anger and resentment against America throughout the Muslim world, who believe that America was propping up Israeli military tyranny against Muslims.

There is also a widespread belief in the Muslim world that America's support for Israel was motivated by a racist bias against Arabs, Fundamentalist Christian bias against Islam, or that the American government was controlled by Zionists.

To exacerbate matters, George W. Bush at one point used the word crusade to characterize his war on terrorism. This provoked among many Muslims an association with the Crusades, and Bush later specified that he was using the word in its broader sense and not to refer to a religious war.

Support of undemocratic governments

Another cause of resentment against America in the Middle East is that America supports regimes in many Middle-Eastern countries such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan that are unpopular with many people in those countries, and are seen as oppressive and tyrannical.

Critics have countered, however, that engagement with foreign countries is a way to promote democratic reforms. This approach is also adopted by European countries such as France and the UK.

Undermining democracies

The US role in George Papadopoulos's overthrowing of the Greek democracy, and support for his oppressive military dictatorship 1967-1974, which forced many prominent Greeks to seek refuge in other European democracies, has for the following decades remained a chief source of bad-will across Europe. It is often held to have contributed to the split in NATO and the European Union over the US-led invasion of Iraq.

The United States was also criticized for meddling in the internal politics of some of its democratic allies. For instance, the US government funded some French unions through the National Endowment for Democracy, including some with links to far-right violent groups.

America has frequently supported undemocratic governments, coups, or insurgent movements in Latin America - e.g. Guatemala, Honduras with John Negroponte - and has on many occasions even invaded Latin American countries for the stated reason of preventing the spread of Communism in the Americas or of stemming the drug trade. This self-appointed role as regional power has roots that go back to the Monroe Doctrine from 1832.

The CIA tried to assassinate democratically elected prime minister, Patrice Lumumba of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, until he was eventually killed by forces led by Joseph Mobutu, who was supported by the U.S. [9]

The US provided significant support for General Augusto Pinochet in Chile, who came into power in the Chilean coup of 1973 and whose regime went on to commit many human rights abuses. The role of the CIA in this context is the subject of fierce debate. The coup was particularly resented by supporters of Salvador Allende, the elected Marxist president whom Pinochet deposed.

It has also been alleged that the CIA was involved with the military coups in Brazil and Argentina.

The US provided support for the Contras, a guerilla force which attempted to overthrow Nicaragua's Sandinista government. US President Ronald Reagan, after failing to achieve necessary Congressional support to legally fund the Contras, resorted to funding them through arms sales to Iran, in violation of US law, resulting in the Iran Contra Affair. These incidents, again, have fueled resentment especially of American conservatives. Reagan and the Iran-Contra Affair have been seen as symbols of the evils of American conservatism.

One of the latest examples of alleged US intervention in Latin America is the short-lived coup in Venezuela, where president Hugo Chávez was briefly overthrown on April 11, 2002. Some claim evidence pointed towards US involvement in the coup, especially when in 2004 unclassified information from National Endowment for Democracy showed that several thousand dollars were paid to Venezuelan institutions which promote the overthrow of Chávez and the end of the what is called the Bolivarian Revolution.

The official American government view, which is shared by many, particularly more conservative, Americans, is that American influence (or interference) in Latin American countries was necessary to stop the spread of tyrannical Communism. Others, especially on the far left, charge that America's main primary interest was economic, and that it was willing to do anything to further American corporate interests in the region.

International institutions

America's treatment and use of international institutions such as the United Nations and World Trade Organization is often seen as self-serving and hypocritical in other countries. Critics point to non-payment of UN dues and refusal to heed to International Court of Justice decisions against America on the one hand, and to enthusiastic embrace of international trials against foreign war criminals and UN sanction mechanisms against official enemies on the other. America's veto power in the United Nations Security Council has repeatedly been used to prevent censure of Israel, thereby angering Arab countries and those supporting them in the Israel-Arab conflict. US unilateralism, or "going its own way" on issues varying from the International Criminal Court to the Kyoto Protocol (see below) is also a cause of criticism.

Some also complain about the fact that America has used the veto power in the United Nations Security Council more often than any other country, but considers it an offensive move when their allies use the veto against an American proposition. They claim that being allies does not necessarily imply accepting any American proposition.

It is also held against the United States that it refuses to sign the United Nations convention agreement from 1980 banning the use of napalm and other incendiaries against civilian populations. The same holds for the Ottawa Treaty from 1999 outlawing the use, production, stockpiling and trade in anti-personnel landmines.

International trade and trade embargoes

Some believe that America is not always as committed to free trade as it professes to be. The introduction of tariffs on steel imports in March 2002 was seen by many people outside the US as an instance of America failing to practice what it preaches in terms of free trade. Along with other western countries the United States evades free trade rules using non-tariff barriers to trade, such as antidumping and countervailing duties, and subsidizes its agricultural and textile markets while pressurizing poor countries to open up their markets to the West without any reciprocal trade agreements. A common argument is that subsidized American food exports are artificially cheap, making it impossible to compete against them in world markets, thus causing third world economies harm.

A long-standing irritant in relations between the United States and its neighbor Canada is the American refusal to abide by NAFTA and World Trade Organization decisions and admit Canadian softwood lumber without applying punitive duties.

The continuing embargo against Cuba is seen by a broad range of people as vindictive - and hypocritical in the face of mainland China retaining most favored nation trading status. In 1996 the U.S. passed the Helms-Burton Act, which included a controversial provision which, roughly, allows lawsuits against foreigners who do business with Cuban companies which use property stolen from Americans in the 1959 Cuban Revolution. Some saw this as an offense against other nations' sovereignty and a violation of World Trade Organization rules. And while President Clinton suspended the lawsuit portion of that act, and President Bush has continued its suspension, the act's mere existence is offensive to many.

The US government annually certifies whether other countries cooperate in its War On Drugs; countries which are judged uncooperative are sanctioned economically and diplomatically. This annual review is seen as offensive by many foreign countries, most notably by Mexico.

Arms trade and anti-proliferation measures

Many criticize the United States for boycotting the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty, the Biological Weapons Convention, the Small Arms Treaty, the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, and the anti-personnel landmine banning Ottawa Treaty. It is also known to hold the world's largest arsenal of weapons of mass destruction and to continue development of new types of weapons although, along with many other powers, it campaigns against attempts to build weapons of mass destruction by countries such as Iraq, Iran, and North Korea while ignoring similar alleged programs by Israel.

Many small and poor countries -- which lack nuclear weapons -- consider America's efforts to prevent the further proliferation of nuclear weapons to be a thinly veiled attempt to maintain its military advantage. America and most Western countries counter that these efforts benefit all because proliferation would destabilize many conflict regions, most of them involving poor countries.

Some countries, in particular the People's Republic of China, resent U.S. involvement in what it considers its internal affairs. For example, the U.S. selling weapons to Taiwan and its deep involvement in the Taiwan issue has been seen as offensive by the Chinese government. China also has a conflict with the U.S. government that criticizes China's human rights practices. China accuses the US of ignoring similar questionable practices in other countries, including the United States itself.

American funding of paramilitary groups

America has a history of supplying funds for paramilitary groups that are called freedom fighters by the donors and their allies, but regarded as extremists or terrorists by the victims and their allies. Such funding may be provided by the government, by private citizens, or by a combination of the two. The Contras in Nicaragua are an example of this.

Even a close ally like the United Kingdom has been the target of such action: there is a long history of Americans openly raising funds for both the Provisional Irish Republican Army and the Real Irish Republican Army. Funds for these groups are commonly raised by Irish-Americans, such as (it has sometimes been alleged) members of the Ancient Order of Hibernians, who feel a patriotic sense of involvement in The Troubles in Northern Ireland. (It should be noted that no American government has ever approved of or supported this activity, and that, in general, America has tried to help resolve problems in Ireland, rather than add to them.)

American support for government-sponsored death squads

The U.S. was responsible for arming and training the notorious Atlacatl Battalion in El Salvador. They were responsible for the rape, torture, mutilation, and murder of civilians, including children. A famous example of this was the El Mozote massacre. When word of this massacre got out, it was dismissed by the U.S. government as communist propaganda. In 1992, the United Nation Truth Commission investigated the site of the massacre and found 143 skeletons, including 131 children under the age of twelve. The ammunition found around the site of the massacre was manufactured in Lake City, Missouri.

Shortly after the massacre, Reagan signed Congress's amendment of the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961, which said the El Salvadoran government "is making a concerted and significant effort to comply with internationally recognized human rights" and "is achieving substantial control over all elements of its own armed forces, so as to bring to an end the indiscriminate torture and murder of Salvadoran citizens by these forces." [10]

American religious attitudes

Religion, especially in its more conservative or fundamentalist forms, is stronger in America than in much of the rest of the Western world. People who fear or dislike religious extremism, conservatism, or religion in general may have anti-American attitudes as a result.

Some countries very much resent hearing some Americans state a perceived American moral superiority over the rest of the world. They reject the vision of some American leaders who consider it the role of America to be the nation responsible for preserving the world from "Evil," and strongly disapprove of such initiatives such as "Project for the New American Century." Further concern is generated by US Congress's adoption of the resolution of a day of prayer to ensure the divine protection of America against terrorism and its soldiers. Policies such as these seem to call into question the official position of separation of church and state, and have caused some to see Bush as leading a religious crusade. Those who feel strongly in favor of separation of church and state see various issues as evidence of hypocritical behavior, such as the national motto In God We Trust, the "under God" part of the Pledge of Allegiance, etc. and would favor a more rigid separation.

During the Clinton administration, the United States government repeatedly alleged that some of its European allies, such as France and Germany, did not respect freedom of religion by unfairly discriminating against some minority religions, such as the Church of Scientology, and pressured the government of those countries to adopt different rules. Those countries consider that some of these religions are not bona fide religions, but rather cults with criminal activities; in those countries, the Church of Scientology is widely considered a mafia-like organization practicing extortion from its members and influence peddling with politicians. The American pressures were widely criticized in Europe as unwarranted and uninformed meddling of the American government into the internal affairs of independent countries. Since the coming of the Bush administration, American criticism on those issues has largely receded.

In contrast, people from cultures that have still stronger religious beliefs, Islamic cultures in particular, find offensive the notion of a country of religious tolerance and diversity, with an official separation of church and state.

Perceived American hypocrisy

US politicians and industrial leaders frequently cite principles such as free trade, free speech and democracy, which are held to be universally beneficial; but in practice their actions can sometimes be interpreted as contradicting these principles.

American popular culture

Popular culture -- contemporary music, films, books, advertising, web sites and other computer-based media, and especially television -- is America's most visible and one of its most pervasive exports. There is an enormous American "trade surplus" in cultural matters. In countries without strong cultural protection laws, American music, films, and television programs appear far more frequently than other countries' music, films, and television programs appear in the United States. The home-grown film industries in at least some countries (such as Australia) were bought out and closed down by American interests. The United States has a history of using "free trade" negotiations to open up foreign markets to its cultural products. Many in the US, as well as non-Americans, fear the growing Americanization of the world.

In many countries, such media carry a large body of material that embodies values considerably different from those of much of the viewing public. Some find that most American dramatic narratives were overly violent, hypocritical about sex (combining prudery and exploitation), and portrayed simplistic attitudes to good and evil.

Another concern is the sheer volume of American cultural export, irrespective of any specific concerns with content, which has profound homogenizing effects on societies, limiting opportunities for diverse and original perspectives. Many contend that the market for films and television programs is an uneven playing field; for instance, foreign movies are less frequently imported into the US for show in major theater circuits than imports are shown in other Western countries. Some Americans answer that this was a sign of the high quality of American movies with respect to movies from other countries, and that Americans are not interested in seeing unknown foreign actors in movies, or movies shot in a foreign language. Such explanations are often considered a sign of arrogance, exceptionalism and provincialism on the part of the United States.

Meanwhile, other societies, notably Islamic societies see popular Western culture, and popular American culture above all, as propaganda for a secular, sexually, and socially libertine society. As such, they also object to American values portrayed in popular culture. In other societies some find American culture to be too prudish.

Some non-Americans see trade barriers as a means of protecting their cultures, and view America's lobbying to remove them as insensitivity to this and as cultural imperialism. Many believe that America's political and business establishment viewed culture as a commodity to be freely traded just like any other.

At least in part because popular culture products have become such a significant export industry for the United States, the United States has been steadily increasing the restrictiveness of its copyright laws to help support its entertainment industry at the expense of several previously protected rights. Examples include enforcing the use of DVD region coding to restrict the import of DVDs from foreign markets (permitted by "first sale" doctrine) or the use of "copy prevention" techniques on compact discs to prevent music from being converted to other formats for use by the CD's owner. There has been significant pressure on other nations to do likewise, to such an extent that in January 2002 the U.S. imposed punitive economic sanctions on Ukraine because they failed to pass stricter domestic copyright laws. China, on the other hand, continued to retain most-favored-nation trading status despite being widely recognized as the largest center of intellectual property violation in the world. See also: WIPO, Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act

In the summer of 2004, the German franchises of the Subway sandwich chain, in co-promotion with the film Super Size Me, included tray liners with an image of a fat Statue of Liberty, and the caption, "Warum sind die Amis so fett?" ("Why are Americans so fat?") The implication was that Americans are, in general, overweight because they eat too much fast food.

Perceived American arrogance

The American media, educational system, and politicians often tout the real or supposed merits of their country as unique. Although in American debate other nations are often held up by various groups as better embodying certain values the Americans cherish, cultures or lifestyles of other countries are also often derided, and non-Americans often perceive American attitudes on this point as arrogant.

One recent instance was the response in U.S. media opinion forums to certain nations' strong opposition to the US-led invasion of Iraq. Harshly critical words in opinion pieces appearing even in first class U.S. media, primarily directed against France and the French president Jacques Chirac, was by many foreign observers perceived as a joint campaign by the US government and the US mass media to express aggressive attitudes and counterfactual hate speech against those nations and their governments. [11][12] This influenced the perception of American media, and Americans, in allied countries, including those that were not the subject of equally harsh criticism.

The previous year, during the general election campaigns in allied Germany, the American government unabashedly expressed their support for the opposition. They also publicly promoted the removal of the minister of justice, and after the elections proposed that Germany should disregard her constitution's prohibition against participation in wars of aggression (Article 26), which made even preparations a criminal offence. As this stipulation was created after World War II at the insistence of the Allies, include the U.S., the changed position and the seeming disrespect for an allied democracy's constitution and election process caused some consternation in Germany. Public opinion in one of the more pro-American nations of the world thus shifted somewhat in an anti-American direction.

Americans are often perceived as astonishingly proud of their standard of living, compared to other western countries; of their country's achievements in the fields of international science and business; and for their allegiance to at least some of the ideals of the founders of the country, now often taken for granted in most of the industrialized world, such as freedom and equal justice under the law. Some say that American patriotism was the first patriotism founded on a set of political ideals, rather than on nationalism or ethnicity, although the early Napoleonic era is a challenger on this point. Patriotism in the US often appears offensively arrogant to people from the rest of the world. For example, public persons in America frequently assert America being "the greatest nation that has ever existed on the face of the Earth"; such superlatives may be understood as either diminishing and disparaging the standing of other nations, or as an ignorance that is hard to believe from prominent Americans. While patriotism and nationalism to different degrees exist all throughout the world, no other nation has been as successful, through the modern mass media, in the wholesale export of this view that easily is perceived as less than flattering by international consumers of CNN and Holywood motion picture productions.

Perceived American ignorance

Many, especially in Europe, contend that the American public are generally ignorant of foreign issues and lack historical, geographical, and cultural knowledge of the world outside of the United States; a 2002 study made for National Geographic showed that "US young adults are lagging" in their geographical knowledge compared to young adults in other developed countries. Many contend that such ignorance is reinforced by the Americentrist coverage of American media, and by the emphasis given in America's educational system and media to American issues and the benefits of living in America, while failing to mention that these benefits apply to all modern democratic countries. Few Americans hold passports and travel abroad in comparison to their European counterparts. It is argued that foreign travel is too expensive and inconvenient for most Americans and that someone vacationing within the borders of the United States can experience just as much diversity of climate and terrain as elsewhere. Some non-Americans contend that while this is true, it means that Americans are not exposed to foreign culture in the same way as other nationalities.

America and the environment

The American way of life is regarded by environmentalists as wasteful and environmentally irresponsible. Americans have the highest per-capita consumption of resources and energy in the world, and the fact that the US government does not take decisive action to curb this use creates hostility. For instance, statistics show that the 4% of the world's population that live within the United States creates 25% of the world's carbon dioxide emissions. Critics point out that the United States uses significant more resources per capita than even other industrialized countries who nonetheless maintain a high standard of living.

In reply to these allegations it is said that the United States does have stringent environmental laws which, unlike those in many countries, are actually enforced; that America itself produces a great many of the items it consumes, and that America pays for the resources it imports. Some Americans also point out that the United States is one of the world's leaders in protecting environmental areas with its National Park Service, and in fact the country invented the concept of a national park.

In 1997, the US Senate voted 95-0 that the United States should not become a party to the Kyoto Protocol unless developing nations such as the People's Republic of China (second in emissions), which are presently exempted, are also subject to scheduled limits or reductions of greenhouse gases. This refusal to ratify the Kyoto Protocol is often quoted as an example of America's irresponsibility in this area.

American values

Although it's questionable to what degree non-Westerners understand the concept of American values similar to how it's understood in America, some critics of America point to the multicultural society as a sign of danger and degeneration that could spread and infest other societies. America is often regarded as an "immigrant country", whose lack of apartheid some critiques disdain as "race-mixing". Third Reich critiques of America fall under this category; the U.S. was a portrayed as a nightmare of miscegenation, riddled with Africans, Asians, and Jews. Radical Islam has also been interpreted as opposing American-style religious tolerance, in which Muslims and non-Muslims are not sufficiently separated.

Consequences of anti-Americanism

As with other generalizations of a particular group of people, based on national origin, race, sexuality, religion, etc., in extreme forms anti-Americanism is held to blame for atrocities such as the September 11, 2001 attacks. The groups behind such atrocities typically espouse extreme anti-American rhetoric in which the U.S. is portrayed as an absolute evil and 'barbaric', which perhaps attracts people to violence and makes it easier for terrorists to kill innocent Americans — symbolization and dehumanization are two of Genocide Watch's "8 Stages of Genocide".

Anti-American sentiment has practical implications not only for America but for the rest of the world. For example, anti-American sentiment affects the ability of countries to trade with each other. The United States is often less willing to come to trade agreements with countries which it perceives to be anti-American in some way. Criticism of the United States has contributed to the fact that other countries made trade agreements with the U.S. fail. The perception of anti-American sentiment is also a contributing factor towards the dislike of other nations and their peoples. Such perceptions tend to increase the polarisation of political opinion within the U.S. on matters which relate to countries seen by Americans as being anti-American.

See also:

• Americanism
• Cultural imperialism
• Anti-French sentiment
• Anti-Australian sentiment
• Anti-Semitism
• Hyphenated American
• List of U.S. foreign interventions since 1945

References

• Anti-Americanism by Jean-Francois Revel
• Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire by Chalmers Johnson
• Anti-Americanism by Paul Hollander
• Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies by Ian Buruma, Avishai Margalit

External links

• After the attacks: America's new cold war by Anatol Lieven, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Washington DC
• The BBC: BNP questioned over US fund-raising
• Benjamin Netanyahu, former Israeli prime minister, explores the motives of the Islamic extremists hatred of the West and the U.S.
• Guardian article on The Great Divide between Europe and the United States
• Tony Judt about "The Paradox of American Power"
• Newsweek article explaining Anti-Americanism through history
• CBC News special: How do the world's nations relate to the new American Empire?
• Genocide Watch: 8 Stages of Genocide
• Covert Action in Chile 1963-1973
• Views of U.S. Plummet
• Pew Research Center : A Year After Iraq War
• Story and image of the fat Statue of Liberty accompanying Subway sandwiches in Germany