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Madhhab (Arabic: مذهب maḏhab, IPA: [ˈmæðhæb], "doctrine"; pl. مذاهب maḏāhib, [mæˈðæːhɪb]; Turkish: mezhep; Urdu: مذہب mezheb) is the generic term for a school of thought within fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). In the first 150 years of Islam, there were numerous madhhahib; several of the Sahābah ("companions" of Muhammad are credited with founding their own. Over centuries they have variously grown, spread, split, and been absorbed; some have become obsolete. As of the Amman message, eight are officially acknowledged by the leaders of the international Muslim community.

Development

It has been asserted that madhhab were consolidated in the 9th and 10th centuries as a means of excluding dogmatic theologians, government officials and non-Sunni sects from religious discourse.^[1] Historians have differed regarding the times at which the various schools emerged. One interpretation is that Sunni Islam was initially^[when?] split into four groups: the Hanafites, Malikites, Shafi'ites and Zahirites.^[2] Later, the Hanbalites and Jarirites developed two more schools; then various dynasties effected the eventual exclusion of the Jarirites;^[3] eventually, the Zahirites were also excluded when the Mamluk Sultanate established a total of four independent judicial positions, thus solidifying the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools.^[1] The Ottoman Empire later reaffirmed the official status of these four schools as a reaction to Shi'ite Persia.^[4] Some are of the view that Sunni jurisprudence falls into two groups: Ahl al-Ra'i ("people of opinions", emphasizing scholarly judgment and reason) and Ahl al-Hadith ("people of traditions", emphasizing strict interpretation of scripture).^[5]

Ibn Khaldun defined only three Sunni madhhahib: Hanafi, Zahiri, and one encompassing the Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali schools.^[6]^[7] Shi'ite historian Ibn al-Nadim named eight groups: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, Zahiri, Imami Shi'ite, Ahl al-Hadith, Jariri and Kharijite.^[3]^[8]

Historically, the fiqh schools were often in violent conflict with one another, vying for favor with the ruling government in order to have their representatives appointed to legislative and especially judiciary positions.^[4] Geographer and historian Al-Muqaddasi once satirically categorized competing madhhahib with contrasting personal qualities: Hanafites, highly conscious of being hired for official positions, appeared deft, well-informed, devout and prudent; Malikites, dull and obtuse, confined themselves to observance of prophetic tradition; Shafi'ites were shrewd, impatient, understanding and quick-tempered; Zahirites haughty, irritable, loquacious and well-to-do; Shi'ites, entrenched and intractable in old rancor, enjoyed riches and fame; and Hanbalites, anxious to practice what they preached, were charitable and inspiring.^[9] While such descriptions were almost assuredly humorous in nature, ancient differences were less to do with actual doctrinal opinions than with maneuvering for adherents and influence.^{[citation needed]}

Established schools

Generally, Sunnis have a single preferred madhhab from region to region, but also believe that ijtihad must be exercised by the contemporary scholars capable of doing so. Most rely on taqlid, or acceptance of religious rulings and epistemology from a higher religious authority in deferring meanings of analysis and derivation of legal practices instead of relying on subjective readings.^[10]^[11]

Experts and scholars of fiqh follow the usul (principles) of their own native madhhab, but they also study the usul, evidences, and opinions of other madhhahib.

Amman message

The Amman message, a three-point ruling issued by 200 Islamic scholars from over 50 countries, recognizes the following legal schools of thought:^[12]

Footnotes

^ ^a ^b "Law, Islamic". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 13 March 2012.
^ Mohammad Sharif Khan and Mohammad Anwar Saleem, Muslim Philosophy And Philosophers, pg. 34. New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1994.
^ ^a ^b Christopher Melchert, The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law: 9th-10th Centuries C.E., pg. 178. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1997.
^ ^a ^b Chibli Mallat, Introduction to Middle Eastern Law, pg. 116. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. ISBN 9780199230495
^ Murtada Mutahhari, The Role of Ijtihad in Legislation, Al-Tawhid volume IV, No.2, Publisher: Islamic Thought Foundation
^ Ignác Goldziher, The Zahiris, pg. 5. Trns. Wolfgang Behn, intro. Camilla Adang. Volume three of Brill Classics in Islam. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 2008. ISBN 9789004162419
^ Meinhaj Hussain, A New Medina, The Legal System, Grande Strategy, January 5th, 2012
^ Devin J. Stewart, THE STRUCTURE OF THE FIHRIST: IBN AL-NADIM AS HISTORIAN OF ISLAMIC LEGAL AND THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS, International Journal of Middle East Studies, v.39, pg.369-387, Cambridge University Press, 2007
^ Louis Massignon, The Passion of al-Hallaj: Mystic and Martyr of Islam. Trans. Herbert W. Mason. Pg. 130. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994.
^ [1]
^ On Islam, Muslims and the 500 most influential figures
^ The Three Points of The Amman Message V.1

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 {{Usul al-fiqh}}
-'''''{{transl|ar|ALA|Madhhab}}''''' ({{lang-ar|مذهب}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|maḏhab}}'', {{IPA-ar|ˈmæðhæb|IPA}}, "doctrine"; pl. {{lang|ar|مذاهب}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|maḏāhib}}'', {{IPA-ar|mæˈðæːhɪb|}}; [[Turkish Language|Turkish]]: '''''mezhep'''''; [[Urdu Language|Urdu]]: مذہب ''{{transl|ar|DIN|mezheb}}'') is a [[Muslim]] school of law or ''[[fiqh]]'' (religious [[jurisprudence]]).  In the first 150 years of [[Islam]], there were many such "schools". In fact, several of the ''[[Sahaba|Sahābah]]'', or contemporary "companions" of [[Muhammad]], are credited with founding their own. The prominent Islamic jurisprudence schools of [[Damascus]] in Syria (often named ''[[Abd al-Rahman al-Awza'i|Awza'iyya]]''), [[Kufa]] and [[Basra]] in Iraq, and [[Medina]] in Arabia survived as the [[Maliki]] ''madhhab'', while the other [[Iraq]]i schools were consolidated into the [[Hanafi]] ''madhhab''. The [[Shafi'i]], [[Hanbali]], [[Zahiri]] and [[Jariri]] schools were established later, though the latter school eventually died out.
+'''''{{transl|ar|ALA|Madhhab}}''''' ({{lang-ar|مذهب}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|maḏhab}}'', {{IPA-ar|ˈmæðhæb|IPA}}, "doctrine"; pl. {{lang|ar|مذاهب}} ''{{transl|ar|DIN|maḏāhib}}'', {{IPA-ar|mæˈðæːhɪb|}}; [[Turkish Language|Turkish]]: '''''mezhep'''''; [[Urdu Language|Urdu]]: مذہب ''{{transl|ar|DIN|mezheb}}'') is the generic term for a school of thought within ''[[fiqh]]'' (Islamic [[jurisprudence]]).  In the first 150 years of [[Islam]], there were numerous ''madhhahib''; several of the ''[[Sahaba|Sahābah]]'' ("companions" of [[Muhammad]] are credited with founding their own.  Over centuries they have variously grown, spread, split, and been absorbed; some have become obsolete.  As of the [[Amman message]], eight are officially acknowledged by the leaders of the international Muslim community.
 ==Development==
-It is claimed that the schools of thought were developed in the 9th and 10th centuries as a means of excluding dogmatic theologians, government officials and non-Sunni sects from religious discourse.<ref name="stewart">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Islamic_law.aspx |title=Law, Islamic |work=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |accessdate=13 March 2012 }}</ref> Historians have differed regarding the time at which each of the various schools had emerged. It is said that Sunni Islam was initially split into four schools: the Hanafites, Malikites, Shafi'ites and Zahirites.<ref>Mohammad Sharif Khan and Mohammad Anwar Saleem, ''Muslim Philosophy And Philosophers'', pg. 34. [[New Delhi]]: Ashish Publishing House, 1994.</ref> Later, the Hanbalites and Jarirites were included to expand Sunni jurisprudence to six schools before various ruling dynasties later narrowed the number down to five at the exclusion of the Jariri school;<ref name=mel>[[Christopher Melchert]], The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law: 9th-10th Centuries C.E., pg. 178. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1997.</ref> eventually, the number was specified at four by the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] in [[Egypt]] creating four independent [[Qadi|judicial positions]], thus solidifying the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools.<ref name="stewart"/> The Ottoman Empire later reaffirmed the official status of these four schools as a reaction to the Shi'ite nature of Persia.<ref name=chib>Chibli Mallat, ''Introduction to Middle Eastern Law'', pg. 116. [[Oxford]]: [[Oxford University Press]], 2007. ISBN 9780199230495</ref> Conversely, some view that Sunni jurisprudence falls into two groups: Ahl al-Ra'i, or people of opinions, due to their emphasis on scholarly judgment and reason; and [[Ahl al-Hadith]], or people of traditions, due to their emphasis on restricting juristic thought to only what is found in scripture.<ref>Murtada Mutahhari, [http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/ijtihad-legislation.htm The Role of Ijtihad in Legislation], [http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/ Al-Tawhid] volume IV, No.2, Publisher: [http://www.itf.org.ir/ Islamic Thought Foundation]</ref>
+It has been asserted that ''madhhab'' were consolidated in the 9th and 10th centuries as a means of excluding dogmatic theologians, government officials and non-Sunni sects from religious discourse.<ref name="stewart">{{Cite web|url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Islamic_law.aspx |title=Law, Islamic |work=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |accessdate=13 March 2012 }}</ref>  Historians have differed regarding the times at which the various schools emerged.  One interpretation is that Sunni Islam was initially{{when?}} split into four groups: the [[Hanafi]]tes, [[Maliki]]tes, [[Shafi'i]]tes and [[Zahiri]]tes.<ref>Mohammad Sharif Khan and Mohammad Anwar Saleem, ''Muslim Philosophy And Philosophers'', pg. 34. [[New Delhi]]: Ashish Publishing House, 1994.</ref>  Later, the [[Hanbali]]tes and [[Jariri]]tes developed two more schools; then various dynasties effected the eventual exclusion of the Jarirites;<ref name=mel>[[Christopher Melchert]], ''The Formation of the Sunni Schools of Law'': 9th-10th Centuries C.E., pg. 178. Leiden: Brill Publishers, 1997.</ref> eventually, the Zahirites were also excluded when the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultanate]] established a total of four independent [[Qadi|judicial positions]], thus solidifying the Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i and Hanbali schools.<ref name="stewart"/>  The Ottoman Empire later reaffirmed the official status of these four schools as a reaction to Shi'ite Persia.<ref name=chib>Chibli Mallat, ''Introduction to Middle Eastern Law'', pg. 116. [[Oxford]]: [[Oxford University Press]], 2007. ISBN 9780199230495</ref>
+Some are of the view that Sunni jurisprudence falls into two groups: ''Ahl al-Ra'i'' ("people of opinions", emphasizing scholarly judgment and reason) and ''[[Ahl al-Hadith]]'' ("people of traditions", emphasizing strict interpretation of scripture).<ref>Murtada Mutahhari, [http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/ijtihad-legislation.htm ''The Role of Ijtihad in Legislation''], [http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/ Al-Tawhid] volume IV, No.2, Publisher: [http://www.itf.org.ir/ Islamic Thought Foundation]</ref>
-[[Ibn Khaldun]], on the other hand, defined the Sunni schools as three: the Hanafi school, the Zahiri school, and a broader, middle school encompassing the Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali schools.<ref>[[Ignác Goldziher]], ''The Zahiris'', pg. 5. Trns. Wolfgang Behn, intro. [[Camilla Adang]].Volume three of Brill Classics in Islam. [[Leiden]]: [[Brill Publishers]], 2008. ISBN 9789004162419</ref><ref>Meinhaj Hussain, A New Medina, [http://www.grandestrategy.com/2012/01/6655434312-chapter-nine-new-medina.html The Legal System], Grande Strategy, January 5th, 2012</ref> [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite]] historian [[Ibn al-Nadim]], on the other hand, divides the Islamic schools of thought into eight groups: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, Zahiri, [[Twelver|Imami Shi'ite]], Ahl al-Hadith, Jariri and [[Kharijites|Kharijite]].<ref name=mel/><ref>[[Devin J. Stewart]], THE STRUCTURE OF THE FIHRIST: IBN AL-NADIM AS HISTORIAN OF ISLAMIC LEGAL AND THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS, [[International Journal of Middle East Studies]], v.39, pg.369-387, [[Cambridge University Press]], 2007</ref> In the modern era, former [[Prime Minister of Sudan]] [[Sadiq al-Mahdi]] defined the recognized schools of Muslim jurisprudence as eight as well, though with different schools: Hanafi, Maliki, Ja'fari, Zaidi, Shafi'i, Hanbali, Zahiri and Ibadi.<ref>Hassan Ahmed Ibrahim, "An Overview of al-Sadiq al-Madhi's Islamic Discourse." Taken from ''The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought'', pg. 172. Ed. Ibrahim Abu-Rabi'. [[Hoboken, New Jersey|Hoboken]]: [[Wiley-Blackwell]], 2008. ISBN 9781405178488</ref>
+[[Ibn Khaldun]] defined only three Sunni ''madhhahib'': Hanafi, Zahiri, and one encompassing the Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali schools.<ref>[[Ignác Goldziher]], ''The Zahiris'', pg. 5. Trns. Wolfgang Behn, intro. [[Camilla Adang]]. Volume three of Brill Classics in Islam. [[Leiden]]: [[Brill Publishers]], 2008. ISBN 9789004162419</ref><ref>Meinhaj Hussain, A New Medina, [http://www.grandestrategy.com/2012/01/6655434312-chapter-nine-new-medina.html The Legal System], Grande Strategy, January 5th, 2012</ref> [[Shia Islam|Shi'ite]] historian [[Ibn al-Nadim]] named eight groups: Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, Zahiri, [[Twelver|Imami Shi'ite]], Ahl al-Hadith, Jariri and [[Kharijites|Kharijite]].<ref name=mel/><ref>[[Devin J. Stewart]], THE STRUCTURE OF THE FIHRIST: IBN AL-NADIM AS HISTORIAN OF ISLAMIC LEGAL AND THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS, [[International Journal of Middle East Studies]], v.39, pg.369-387, [[Cambridge University Press]], 2007</ref>
-Historically, schools were often at violent conflict with one another, vying for favor among ruling governments in order to have their representatives appointed to legislative and especially judiciary positions.<ref name=chib/> Geographer and historian [[Al-Muqaddasi]] once satirically described the adherents of these schools as possessing contrasting personal qualities: Hanafites, conscious of being hired in official positions, appeared deft, well-informed, devout and prudent; the Malikite dull, obtuse and confining himself to observance of Muslim prophetic tradition; the Shafi'ite shrewd, impatient, understanding and quick-tempered; the Zahirite haughty, irritable, loquacious and well-to-do; the Shi'ite entrenched in his old rancor, intractable and enjoys riches and fame; and the Hanbalite anxious to practice what he preaches, charitable and inspiring.<ref>[[Louis Massignon]], ''The Passion of al-Hallaj: Mystic and Martyr of Islam''. Trans. Herbert W. Mason. Pg. 130. [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]]: [[Princeton University Press]], 1994.</ref> While such descriptions were almost assuredly humorous in nature, ancient differences were less to do with actual doctrinal opinions and more with conflict for adherents and influence.
+Historically, the ''fiqh'' schools were often in violent conflict with one another, vying for favor with the ruling government in order to have their representatives appointed to legislative and especially judiciary positions.<ref name=chib/>  Geographer and historian [[Al-Muqaddasi]] once satirically categorized competing ''madhhahib'' with contrasting personal qualities: Hanafites, highly conscious of being hired for official positions, appeared deft, well-informed, devout and prudent; Malikites, dull and obtuse, confined themselves to observance of prophetic tradition; Shafi'ites were shrewd, impatient, understanding and quick-tempered; Zahirites haughty, irritable, loquacious and well-to-do; Shi'ites, entrenched and intractable in old rancor, enjoyed riches and fame; and Hanbalites, anxious to practice what they preached, were charitable and inspiring.<ref>[[Louis Massignon]], ''The Passion of al-Hallaj: Mystic and Martyr of Islam''. Trans. Herbert W. Mason. Pg. 130. [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]]: [[Princeton University Press]], 1994.</ref>  While such descriptions were almost assuredly humorous in nature, ancient differences were less to do with actual doctrinal opinions than with maneuvering for adherents and influence.{{citation needed}}
 ==Established schools==
-[[File:Madhhab Map2.png|thumb|left|600px| While most madh'hab are present in various regions, some regions has specific madh'hab school as their dominant or even official madh'hab.]]
+[[File:Madhhab Map2.png|thumb|left|600px| Some regions have a dominant or official ''madh'hab''; others recognize a variety.]]
-Generally, Sunni Muslims prefer one ''madhhab'' out of the four (normally a regional preference) but also believe that ''[[ijtihad]]'' must be exercised by the contemporary scholars capable of doing so. Most rely on ''[[taqlid]]'', or acceptance of religious rulings and epistemology from a higher religious authority in deferring meanings of analysis and derivation of legal practices instead of relying on subjective readings.<ref>[http://www.sahihmuslim.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=MNJ06&articleID=MNJ060001&articlePages=1]</ref><ref>[http://www.rissc.jo/docs/1N-WithCovers(lowres).pdf On Islam, Muslims and the 500 most influential figures]</ref>
+Generally, Sunnis have a single preferred ''madhhab'' from region to region, but also believe that ''[[ijtihad]]'' must be exercised by the contemporary scholars capable of doing so.  Most rely on ''[[taqlid]]'', or acceptance of religious rulings and epistemology from a higher religious authority in deferring meanings of analysis and derivation of legal practices instead of relying on subjective readings.<ref>[http://www.sahihmuslim.com/sps/sp.cfm?subsecID=MNJ06&articleID=MNJ060001&articlePages=1]</ref><ref>[http://www.rissc.jo/docs/1N-WithCovers(lowres).pdf On Islam, Muslims and the 500 most influential figures]</ref>
-Experts and scholars of ''fiqh'' follow the ''[[usul al-fiqh|usul]]'' (principles) of their own native madhhab, but they also study the usul, evidences, and opinions of other madhhabs.
+Experts and scholars of ''fiqh'' follow the ''[[usul al-fiqh|usul]]'' (principles) of their own native ''madhhab'', but they also study the ''usul'', evidences, and opinions of other ''madhhahib''.
 {{clr}}
@@ Line 35: / Line 36: @@
 *[[Sunni view of the Sahaba]]
 *[[Shia view of the Sahaba]]
+*[[Ibadi]]
 ==Footnotes==