Shivaji: Difference between revisions

Shivaji

File:Shivaji Maharaj.jpg Shivaji
Birth name:	Shivaji Bhonslé
Title:	King of the Maratha Empire
Birth:	February 19, 1627
Birthplace:	Shivneri Fort near Pune, India
Death:	April 3, 1680
Succeeded by:	Sambhaji
Marriage:	Saibai, Soyarabai, Putalabai, Kashibai
Children:	Sambhaji, Rajaram, and three daughters

Shivaji Bhonslé, also known as Chhatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonslé (Marathi: छत्रपती शिवाजीराजे भोसले)() was the founder of the Maratha empire in western India in 1674. Using guerrilla tactics superbly suited to the rugged mountains and valleys of the region, he annexed a portion of the then dominant Mughal empire. He is still considered a hero in the present-day state of Maharashtra, and stories of his exploits have entered into folklore. He was one of the pioneers of commando actions, though the term "commando" is modern .

The political scene before Shivaji

File:Raigad Shivaji Side.JPG

Chatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Shivaji started his rise to power in what is now the state of Maharashtra in the Deccan, close to the power centres of Southern India.

In 1292, Allauddin Khilji defeated the Yadavas of Devgiri, but the Yadavas continued to rule till 1310. But a branch of the Yadavas ruled parts of Konkan/Khandesh for a century. While the Maratha capital fell to invaders, the regional lords held their sway.

In 1453, an invasion of Bahamani in the region of Vishalgarh was defeated. Over time, an understanding evolved between the sultanates and lords and their erstwhile master Yadavas. The Yadavas became vassal of Bahamani.In 1492, the Bahamani sultanate broke into five kingdoms called "Shahi".

In 1565, the allied Deccan sultanates had vanquished the Vijayanagara Empire at Talikota. By the time Shivaji began his military career, power in the region was shared by three Sultanates - Bijapur and Ahmednagar and Golconda. They engaged in a continuous game of mutual alliances and aggressions.

Meanwhile, in northern India, the Mughals held sway under the Emperor Shah Jahan.

Early life

Shivneri Fort, where Maharaj was born

Shivaji was born in 1627, in the Shivneri Fort which is 60 kilometers north of Pune. His father, Shahaji, was a jagirdar of Adilshah, the sultan of Bijapur in present-day Karnataka. His mother, Jijabai, was daughter of Lakhuji Jadhav. The Bhosales and Yadavas both belong to 96 royal Maratha clans, who were the most influential Kshatriya rulers of yore.

During Shivaji's childhood, several Maratha generals were serving under the Sultanates, similar to Shahaji. Shahaji attempted to build a kingdom on the ruins of Nizamshahi kingdom of Ahmednagar, but was defeated by a combined force of the Mughals and Adilshah in 1636. He was forced to leave the region around Pune as per the treaty. He was inducted by Adilshah and offered a distant jagir near present-day Bangalore, so as to dispel from his mind any ambitions he may have entertained about political independence. But he was allowed to keep his old land tenures and holdings in Pune.

Foundation of empire

Shivaji with Jijamata

Shahaji appointed the young Shivaji under the care of his mother Jijabai to manage the Pune holdings. A small council of ministers was appointed to assist Shivaji in the administration which included Shamrao Nilkanth as Peshwa, Balkrishna Pant as Muzumdar, Raghunath Ballal as Sabnis and Sonopant as Dabir. Apart from these ministers, military commanders Kanhoji Jedhe and Baji Pasalkar were appointed to look after Shivaji's training. Dadoji Kondadev was appointed to look over overall training. Under such conditions, Shivaji took oath of swarajya at the temple of Raireshwar and assumed administrative responsibility in 1644. Shahaji got Lal Mahal built at Pune. A royal seal was handed over to Shivaji which reads in Sanskrit: "Shivaji, son of Shahaji, is growing like the crescent of the new moon. He is there to rule for the welfare of the people". Thus Shivaji started his career as an independent young prince of a small kingdom on a mission. Shivaji used the title of Raja (king) only after Shahaji died.

Thus his parents made an indelible imprint on his impressionable mind. Shahaji's failed attempts at political independence, his exceptional military capabilities and achievements, his knowledge of Sanskrit, Hindu ethos and patronage of the arts, his war strategies and peacetime diplomacy, all have inspired him. His mother, having lost her father and three brothers to a plot hatched by the Nizamshah, had enough bitter experience of wayward and callous alien rule to instill in Shivaji's mind a natural love for self-determination and aversion for external political domination. Her piety and commitment to indigenous culture made him peerless (as confirmed by even otherwise inimical chroniclers, Khafi Khan especially) in his tolerant attitude towards other religions and treatment of women and non-combatants. Shahaji's vision, Jijabai's motivation, and able training by military commanders were the greatest influences that groomed Shivaji into a brave and fearless military leader as well as a responsible administrator. Young Shivaji, the protegé that he was, took little time to apply what he had learnt.

Confrontation with the local Sultanates

He carried out his first military action by capturing Bijapur kingdom's Torna fort at age 16, in 1646. By 1647 he had captured Kondana and Rajgad forts and had complete control of the Pune region.

By 1659 Shivaji had captured forts in the Western Ghats and along the Konkan coast. In a bid to sabotage this move of marathas, Adilshah got Shahaji arrested by deceitful means, and sent one army against Sambhaji at Banglore and one against Shivaji at Purandhar. However both brothers defeated the invading armies and secured release of their father. Later, Sambhaji was killed by Afzal Khan, Bijapur's finest general in the siege of Kanakgiri. Then Afzal Khan was sent to destroy Shivaji, in an effort to put down what was seen by Bijapur as a revolt.

Battle of Pratapgarh (30 November, 1659)

Main article: Battle of Pratapgarh

Shivaji vanquished Afzal Khan in the battle of Pratapgarh which was fought on November 30, 1659. This feat made Shivaji the hero of Maratha folklore and legend. All contemporary powers of the Indian subcontinent were shocked to see the outcome of the battle. Immediately after the battle, Shivaji in the brilliant moves of cavalry conquered the area right upto the Panhala fort stretching over 200 kms.

Battle of Kolhapur (28 December, 1659)

Main article: Battle of Kolhapur

To counter it , another army of over 10,000 was sent against Shivaji, commanded by Bijapuri general Rustemjaman. Shivaji with 5000 cavalry attacked near Kolhapur. In a swift movement, Shivaji attacked the centre of the enemy while his wings attacked from the flanks. In a pitched battle,the enemy was crushed and Rustemjaman fled.

Battle of Pavan Khind (July, 1660)

Main article: Battle of Vishalgarh

Now Adil Shah sent an Abyssinian general of repute, Siddi Jauhar 1660. Shivaji took up a position at the fort Panhala, near present day Kolhapur, on the borders of his dominion. The Mughals also sent contingents under the celebrated Shaista Khan, who camped at Pune. Shivaji in a strategic move decided to break the siege of the fort, so that the enemy would scatter. Then war would be fought on a vast territory . In a gallant rear-guard defense Baji Prabhu Deshpande held the enemy in the battle of Pavan Khind and Shivaji pierced through the enemy, relaunched an attack and won a victory in the battle of Vishalgarh. However Panhala was surrendered to Siddi Jauhar. After this scuffle, a truce was made between Shivaji and Adilshahi through Shahaji acknowledging the independent position of Shivaji. This remained the situation till the death of Shahaji, when Shivaji was free to deal with the Mughals.Thus Marathas became a power to reckon with.

Clash with the Mughals

Next phase was clash with the Mughals who had defeated Shahaji and annexed territories which Shivaji now wanted to recover. He frequently raided the Mughal territory to the north of his small kingdom, carrying out guerilla attacks against an empire at the height of its power.

Shahista Khan

As mentioned Shahista Khan, Aurangzeb's maternal uncle, seized Pune and the fort of Chakan. His vast army was more than a match for Shivaji's troops and he was an experienced commander who had defeated Shahaji in this region in 1636. But though he held Pune for almost a year, he had little further success and his troops looted peasants and villages in frustration.

Battle of Umberkhind

An Uzbek general, Kartalab Khan, was sent on a mission by him to attack and reduce Shivaji's forts in the Konkan on 3 Feb,1661. He left Pune with 30,000 troops. This time the Mughals did not march openly, since they wanted to surprise Shivaji. But Shivaji took them by surprise at a pass known as 'Umber Khind', near present-day Pen, attacked them from all sides and defeated. The defeated army was allowed a safe passage. A lady commander Raibagan who fought from mughal side was released with honour true to Shivaji's policy towards women.

Attack on Mughal camp HQ

Shivaji's next target was the Mughal camp at Pune. In April 1663 he led a small group, in the guise of a marriage party, on a daring attack on the residence of the Khan, who was occupying a small palace (Lal Mahal) which had been Shivaji's childhood residence. However it was surrounded by not less than 40,000 mughal troops. The attack was successful, though the Khan managed to escape with the loss of three fingers, cut off by Shivaji as he jumped out of a window. Shivaji managed to escape, fooling pursuing Mughals with torches attached to bulls in the pass known as 'Katraj Ghat', and beat off an attack at Kondana the next day. The narrow escape made the Khan give up the fight and withdraw from Pune. He was left untouched after Shaistekhan's wife pleaded with Shivaji for his life. That was to be a biggest mistake in Shivaji's life.

Battle of Surat

Main article: Battle of Surat

In the Battle of Surat,Shivaji challenged mughal Fauzdar of Suratwho avoided the battle .Instead of battle,he sent an emissary who tried to assassinate Shivaji.As a result the town was attacked and put to the sack.Hoewever no men or women were molested or taken as slave.Poor were spared.

Mirza Raje Jai Singh

The Mughal emperor Aurangzeb was angered by Shivaji's attacks on the Mughal empire in Maharashtra and sent a large army to finish him off, led by Raja Jai Singh of Amber. Shivaji's army was defeated badly. The commander of the key Purandhar fort was killed in its defence (see Murarbaji)in the battle of Purander.Faced with overwhelming force, Shivaji opted for peace and surrendered, accepting in the 1665 Treaty of Purandar the loss of about 90% of his territory and 23 of his forts. He was allowed to retain some strategic forts. He accepted a position of a mansabdar for his son Sambhaji in the Mughal military hierarchy.

Trip To Agra and Escape

In 1666, Aurangzeb summoned Shivaji to Agra, along with his six year old son Sambhaji. In Agra, on 12 May 1666, Aurangzeb made Shivaji stand with the lowly commoners in his court, an intentional insult. Deeply offended, Shivaji stormed out of court and was promptly placed under house arrest.

From his spies, Shivaji came to know that Aurangzeb planned to shift him to a secure location from where escape would be impossible. So he feigned sickness and requested to be allowed to send sweets to temples in Agra as an offering. After several days of sending out boxes containing sweets, Shivaji disguised himself as a palanquin bearer and managed to sneak out without being seen.( Another theory is that he escaped by hiding in the box of sweets) Sambhaji had sneaked out a couple of days earlier, disguised as the son of a brahmin who had come to pray for Shivaji's quick recovery.

In the years 1667-69, Shivaji lay low. The Mughals had the impression that he was now a spent force and would not cause them any more trouble. Then in January 1670 Shivaji's forces launched a concerted attack on Mughal garrisons in Maharashtra. The force of the assault was overwhelming and within six months Shivaji had regained most of his old territory. His army was much larger now: about 40,000 cavalry, backed by 60,000 infantry. From 1670 to 1674 Shivaji continued to expand his territory at the expense of the Adilshahi and the Mughals.

Battle of Sinhagad

Bust of Tanaji on top of Simhagad Fort

One fort on the outskirts of Pune, Kondana, was still under the control of a Mughal general. On February 4, 1670 Shivaji deputed one of his most senior and trusted generals, Tanaji Malusare, to head a mission to capture Kondana. Tanaji Malusare was already busy with his son's marriage. But for him duty came first, and he chose to go on the mission although Shivaji tried to convince him to attend his son's marriage and then take the mission. In the Battle of Sinhagad, the fort was scaled during the dead of the night, but victory was secured with loss of Tanaji. This battle is quite polpular in folklore.

When Shivaji learned that he has lost his loyal and trusted friend, he said "Gad ala pan sinh gela", meaning We have won the fort, but lost the Lion.

Coronation

Statue Commemorating the coronation of Maharaj in Raigad

Against this background in pursuit of royal seal given by his father, Shivaji did coronation. On that occasion, he extended the council of ministers to Ashtapradhan (eight ministers). Rajayabhishek was not easy task because Bramhins are against it because they considerd Shivaji and marathas are sudra according to vedic dharma hence they don’t have right to rule or to became king but Shivaji offer lots of money to gagabhatta because of money he was ready to do rajayabhisheka but because shivaji knows that bramhins anytime can denied on the basis of cast so Shivaji also perform Rajyabhshaka by non-vedik custom with the help of Nishchalpuri With this revolutionary rajyabhisheka shivaji become a “shakkarta”means he started his own calendar called “rajyabhisheka shak” .But later on peshava when they got power they forcefully refused to that “shak” and started “fasly shak” of mughals.

A new era was started which is known as the 'Rajybhishek era'. New gold coin known as 'Shivrai' was brought into circulation. Shivaji was formally crowned Chatrapati ("Holder of the Umbrella", representing the protection he bestowed on his people) on June 6, 1674 at the Raigad fort, and given the title Kshatriya Kulavantas Simhasanadheeshwar Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj. Pandit Gaga Bhatt, renowned as Vedonarayana (Greatest exponent of Vedic discourse), a Brahmin from Varanasi, officially presided over the ceremony. Shivaji insisted on an Indrabhishek ritual, which had fallen into disuse since the 9th century.The same was performed. A few days later a second ceremony was carried out, this time according to the Bengal school of Tantricism and presided over by Nischal Puri.

Henry Oxinden (later Acting President of the Bombay Presidency) from the British East India Company was present at the ceremony.

Southern expedition (Dakshin digvijaya)

At the end of 1676, Shivaji launched a wave of conquests in southern India with a massive force of 50,000 (30,000 cavalry & 20,000 infantry). He defeated and captured the forts at Vellore and Jinji in modern-day Tamilnadu. He also signed a friendship treaty with the Kutubshah of Golconda. These victories proved quite crucial during future wars. Jinjee served as Maratha capital for 9 years during 27 years of war.

Death and succession

Shivaji died in 1680 at Raigad, after running a fever for three weeks.

Ruins of the Raigad Fort, which served as a capital for Maratha Empire.

After his death, his elder son Sambhaji and his step-mother Soyarabai fought for control of the kingdom. After a brief struggle Sambhaji was crowned king. Aurangzeb's son, Prince Akbar, rebelled against his father and was sheltered by Sambhaji. The emperor and his entourage moved to the Deccan in 1681 to coordinate the assault on the Marathas and were initially successful, but they were defeated and withdrew in 1707. This war of 27 years was a tribute to Shivaji's genius, even after his death, people fought along with his army to preserve the swarajya.

Shivaji's rule

Shivaji established an effective civil and military administration. He also built a powerful navy and erected new forts like Sindhudurg and strengthened old ones like Vijayadurg on the west coast. The Maratha navy held its own against the British, Portuguese and Dutch till Maratha internal conflict brought their downfall in 1756.

But he is well known for his fatherly attitude towards his subjects. He believed that the state belonged to the people. He encouraged all socio-economic groups to participate in the ongoing political changes. To this day he is remembered as a just and welfare-minded king.He brought revolutionary changes in military,fort arhitecture,society and politics.

Revolution in military organisation

Shivaji's genius is most evident in his military organisation which lasted till the demise of the maratha empire.

• Standing army belonging to the state called as paga
• Creation of part time soldiers from peasants who used to work for eight months in the field and supported four months in war. This light infantry was his innovation and they are the one who excelled in commando like actions
• Allowing all classes to participate in the war which was hitherto banned earlier
• Creation of intelligence department
• Introduction of field craft viz. Guierrila warfare, commando actions, flank attacks
• Erection of a grand chain of forts as garrisons details are given below
• Innovation of weapons and innovative use of traditional weaopons like tiger claw. 'Vita' was a weapon invented by Shivaji
• Regimentation of the almost entire society. That is, almost all population living in settlements and villages nearby the forts was involved in the defense. His 7 ministers out of 8 were required to go for war
• Creation of a powerful line of second in command. For example, Suryaji in the battle of Sinhgarh, Anand Makaji in the battle of Nesari.
• Creating all wings of army viz. Cavalry, Infantry and Navy
• The only Hindu king who established a form of a superior 'MERITROCRACY' which can be called as 'HUMANE MERITROCRACY' which allowed for rewarding a person only based on his talent, qualities and performance and not based on his house of birth, caste,creed,etc. He was also humane in giving out judgement to his followers who failed to live up to his expectations. This is what separated Shivaji from all other hindu kings

Revolution in fort architecture

Pratap Gad

Perhaps nothing expresses shivaji's constructive genius else than his magnificient chain of forts running across the rugged western ghats.He brought revolutionary changes in the construction,plan,location,interior or exterior of the forts.The conspicuous changes are as below:

• Design changes with the topography and in harmony of the contour,no monotony of design
• No orante palaces or dance floors or gardens
• No temple complexes
• Not much difference in the area of higher or lower ranks
• Marvelous acoustics in the capital
• A hill fort is supported by a seafort
• Sanskritization of fort names
• Community participation in the defense of forts
• Three tier administration of forts
• System of inspection of forts by higher ups including king
• Distinct feature of forts like double line fortification of Pratapgad,citadel of Rajgad
• Foresight in selection of sites

He formed a great chain of forts numbering 300 or more over a stretch of 1000 km(Fort Salher near Nashik to Fort Jinjee near Madras).Shivaji's Fort proved formidable during 27 years war against mughals.

Shivaji and Sanskrit

Perhaps the house of Shivaji was one of the royal families who were well acquainted with Sanskrit and promoted it. The root can be traced from Shahaji who supported Jayram Pindye and many like him. Shivaji's seal was prepared by him. Shivaji inherited this and developed that taste. He named his forts as Sindhdurg, Prachandgarh, Suvarndurg etc. He named Ashta Pradhan (council of ministers) as per Sanskrit nomenclature viz. Nyayadhish, Senapati etc. He had kept a provision for learning the Vedas. He got Rajya Vyavahar Kosh (a political treatise) prepared.

After his death Sambhaji, who was himself a Sanskrit scholar (his verse - Budhbhushanam), continued it. His grandson Shahu spent his entire childhood in Mughal captivity, which affected his taste. But even he showered gifts on learned Brahmins. Serfoji II from the Thanjavur branch of the Bhonsle continued the tradition by printing the first book in Marathi Devnagari.

Sambhaji issued one danapatra which is in sanskrit composed by himself in which he writes about his father as'1)Yavanarambha gritat mlechakshaydiksha:It means shivaji has taken oath and was on mission to finish off invaders 2)Dillindraman pradhvanspatu:who has defeated king of delhi(Mughal) 3)Vijayapuradhishwar prathtarmanya bhujchachayay:Whose help was sought by king of Vijapur(Adilshah)

Shivaji and Religion

Mouni Maharaj Samadhi Temple,Patgaon Kolhapur

Shivaji was a deeply religious Hindu, and respected all religions within the region. Shivaji had great respect for Warkari saints like Tukaram and others. Shivaji met and took anugaha of Mouni Maharaj in year 1676 on his southern visit Mouni Maharaj temple and samadhi at Patgaon in Kolhapur district. Shahaji had donated a huge piece of land to Shaha-Sharif Durga of Ahmednagar. Shivaji generally did not give land to any particular person except on a rare occasion. Shivaji had one-third Muslims in his forces, especially in the navy. Shivaji's most trusted general in all his military campaigns was Haider Ali Kohari, a Muslim. Not only that, many of his other generals were Muslims too, Darya Sarang was chief of armoury, Ibrahim Khan and Daulat Khan were prominent in his naval division and Siddi Ibrahim was chief of his cannon division. The first thing Shivaji did after a conquest was to promulgate protection of mosques and Muslim tombs. Shivaji had great respect for the Sufi tradition of Islam. Shivaji used to pray at the mausoleum of the great Sufi Muslim saint Baba Sharifuddin. He also used to visit the abode of another great Sufi saint, Shaikh Yacub of the Konkan, and take his blessings. He used to call Hazrat Baba of Ratnagiri bahut thorwale bhau, meaning "great elder brother". Kafi Khan, the Mughal historian, and also Bernier, a French traveler, speaks highly of his religious policy. He was against forced conversion, which he opposed successfully. He also brought back converts like Netaji Palkar & Bajaji in Hinduism. He did not forcefully convert any captive or defeated person. He had prohibited slavery in his kingdom.

Shivaji was extremely humane to all his subjects, whichever religion they practised. Shivaji applied a humane and liberal policy on the Muslim women of his state. One instance, which shows Shivaji's respect for women, irrespective of their religion, nationality, or creed is well-documented. Shivaji's army had defeated the Subhedar of Kalyan and had brought in the daughter in law of the Subhedar. When she was brought to Shivaji's palace, Shivaji respectfully apologized to her, and appreciated her beauty by saying, "If my mother had been so beautiful, I would have inherited such beauty..." and returned her to her family.

The secularism practised by Shivaji can be observed in an admonishing letter he wrote to Aurangzeb, in which he wrote:

"Verily, Islam and Hinduism are terms of contrast. They are used by the true Divine Painter for blending the colours and filling in the outlines. If it is a mosque, the call to prayer is chanted in remembrance of him. If it is a temple, the bells are rung in yearning for him alone."

Mouni Maharaj samadhi

Remembering Shivaji

A statue of Shivaji in the Birla Mandir, Delhi

Because of his struggle against an imperial power, Shivaji became an icon of freedom fighters (along with the Rani of Jhansi) in the Indian independence struggle that followed two centuries later.

He is remembered as a just and wise king and his rule is called one of the six golden pages in Indian history. A political party, the Shiv Sena, claims to draw inspiration from him. School texts in Maharashtra glorify his period. And in recent years organisations such as the Sambhaji Brigade have adopted a new religion known as Shiv Dharma, with Shivaji as its principal deity.

Devotional and political approaches to Shivaji have clashed with historical ones. The publication in 2003 of James W. Laine's Shivaji: Hindu King in Islamic India sparked controversy in India for its inclusion of jokes allegedly derogatory of Shivaji. In December 2003 one of those thanked by Laine, historian Shrikant Bahulkar, was assaulted and had his face blackened by Shiv Sena activists. And then on 5 January 2004 the Sambhaji Brigade attacked the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute in Pune, Maharashtra, doing considerable damage to the holdings.

Sahar International Airport in Mumbai was renamed Chatrapati Shivaji International Airport in Shivaji's honour.

Associates of Shivaji

Some of Shivaji's close associates were also his primary army chieftains, and have entered folklore along with him. These include Tanaji Malusare, Baji Pasalkar, Bajiprabhu, Firangoji Narsala, Murarbaji, Prataprao Gujar, Kanhoji Jedhe, Kondaji Farjand, Balaji Avji Chitnis, Netaji Palkar and Lay Patil Koli, and Khando Ballal Under Shivaji, many men of talent and enterprise rose into prominence .They carried forward his mission and ensured defeat of Mughals in the war of 27 years. These include Ramchandrapant amtya, Santaji Ghorpade, Dhanaji Jadhav, Parsoji Bhosale, Harji raje Mahadik, Kanhoji Aangre.

Accounts of contemporary foreign travellers

Many foreign travellers who visited India during Shivaji's time wrote about him.

• The Abbe Carre was a French traveller who visited India around 1670; his account was published as Voyage des Indes Orienteles mele de plusiers histories curieuses at Paris in 1699. Some quotes: "Hardly had he won a battle or taken to town in one end of the kingdom than he was at the other extremity causing havoc everywhere and surprising important places. To this quickness of movement he added, like Julius Caesar, a clemency and bounty that won him the hearts of those his arms had worsted." "In his courage and rapidity he does not ill resemble that great king of Sweden, Gustavus Adolphus."

• The French traveller Francois Bernier wrote in his Travels in Mughal India. "I forgot to mention that during pillage of Sourate, Seva-ji, the Holy Seva-ji! Respected the habitation of the reverend father Ambrose, the Capuchin missionary. 'The Frankish Padres are good men', he said 'and shall not be molested.' He spared also the house of a deceased Delale or Gentile broker, of the Dutch, because assured that he had been very charitable while alive."

References

• Apte, B.K. (editor), Chhatrapati Shivaji: Coronation Tercentenary Commemoration Volume, Bombay: University of Bombay (1974-75)
• Duff, Grant," History of Marhattas",London
• Desai, Ranjeet, Shivaji the Great, Janata Raja (1968), Pune: Balwant Printers - English Translation of popular Marathi book.
• Joshi, Ajit, Agryahun Sutka, Marathi, Pune: Shivapratap Prakashan (1997)
• More, Vasantrao, "James Laine: A research scholar or a barbarian?", Marathi, Shivsangram Prakashan (2004), Kolhapur
• Parulekar, Shyamrao, Yashogatha Vijaya durg, Vijay Durg (1982)
• Phule, Mahatma Jyotiba, Chatrapati Shivaji Raje Bhonsle Yanche Powade, Marathi, (1869)
• Sarkar, Jadunath, "Shivaji and his times", Calcutta
• Zakaria, Rafique, "Communal Rage in Secular India", Popular Prakashan, Mumbai (2003)

See also

• Sivaji Ganesan
• Marathas
• Maratha Empire
• List of people known as The Great
• Secularism
• Maratha Clan System

External links

General historical and laudatory sites

• Real History of Shivaji Maharaj
• A website dedicated to Shivaji
• A blog dedicated to Shivashahir Babasaheb Purandare's Shivacharitra.
• Marathi Bestselling book 'Janata Raja' by Ranjeet Desai available in English
• Some forts captured and ruled by Shivaji
• Mouni Maharaj Guru of Raje Shivaji

Criticism of historical narratives

• the controversy over James Laine’s Shivaji (Complete Review Quarterly)
• a review of Laine's Shivaji (Asia Times)