Tocharian languages and Juxta: Difference between pages
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The '''juxta''' is an [[organ (anatomy)|organ]] in the males of most [[Lepidoptera]] (i.e. [[moths]]) that supports the [[aedeagus]], the organ used for [[reproduction]] in [[insects]]. The juxta is located between the two valvae. |
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{{Infobox Language |
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|name=Tocharian languages |
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|region=[[Tarim Basin]] in [[Central Asia]] |
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|extinct=[[8th century]] |
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|iso2=ine |
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|familycolor=Indo-European |
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|family=[[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]<br> '''Tocharian''' |
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|script=[[Tocharian script]] |
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|lc1=xto|ld1=Tocharian A |
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|lc2=txb|ld2=Tocharian B |
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}} |
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'''Tocharian''' or '''Tokharian''' is one of the most obscure branches of the group of [[Indo-European languages]]. It consisted of two languages, '''Tocharian A''' (Turfanian, Arsi, or East Tocharian) and '''Tocharian B''' (Kuchean or West Tocharian). These languages were spoken roughly from the [[6th century|6th]] to [[8th century|8th]] centuries; before they became extinct, their speakers were absorbed into the expanding [[Uyghur]] tribes. |
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{{insect-stub}} |
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Both languages were once spoken in the [[Tarim Basin]] in [[Central Asia]], now the [[Xinjiang]] province of [[China]]. The name of the language is taken from the [[Tocharians]] (Greek: Τόχαροι, "Tokharoi") of the Greek historians ([[Ptolemy]] VI, 11, 6). These are sometimes identified with the [[Yuezhi]] and the [[Kushans]], and the term ''Tokharistan'' usually refers to [[1st millennium]] [[Bactria]]. A Turkic text refers to the Turfanian language (Tocharian A) as ''twqry''. Interpretation is difficult, but F. W. K. Müller has associated this with the name of the Bactrian ''Tokharoi''. In Tocharian, the language is referred to as ''arish-käna'' and the Tocharians as ''arya''. |
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[[Category:Entomology]] |
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==Phonemes== |
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[[Category:Arthropod anatomy]] |
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Phonetically, Tocharian is a "[[Centum-Satem isogloss|centum]]" Indo-European language, characterized by the merging of palato-velar consonants with plain velars (*k, *g, *gh), which is generally associated with Indo-European languages of the West European area ([[Italic languages|Italic]], [[Celtic languages|Celtic]], [[Germanic language|Germanic]], [[Greek language|Greek]]). In that sense, Tocharian seems to have been an isolate in the "Satem" phonetic world of Indo-European-speaking East European and Asian populations. |
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[[Category:Animal anatomy]] |
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===Vowels=== |
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{{fact}} |
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* {{IPA|/i/, /e/, /a/}} (transcribed <ā>) {{IPA|/u/, /o/, /ɨ/}} (transcribed <ä>), {{IPA|/ə/}} (transcribed <a>) |
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* Diphthongs (Tocharian B only): {{IPA|/əi/}} (transcribed <ai>), {{IPA|/oi/}} (transcribed <oy>), {{IPA|/əu/}} (transcribed <au>, {{IPA|/au/}} (transcribed <āu>) |
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===Consonants=== |
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* Stops: {{IPA|/p/, /t/, /c/, /k/, /kʷ/}} (transcribed <ku>) |
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* Affricates: {{IPA|/ts/}} |
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* Fricatives: {{IPA|/s/, /ɕ/}} (transcribed <ś>), {{IPA|/ʂ/}} (transcribed {{IAST|<ṣ>}}) |
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* Approximants: {{IPA|/w/, /j/}} (transcribed [y]) |
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* Trills: {{IPA|/r/}} |
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* Nasals: {{IPA|/m/, /n/}} (transcribed {{IAST|<ṃ>}} word-finally), {{IPA|/ɲ/}} (transcribed <ñ>) |
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* Lateral approximants: {{IPA|/l/, /ʎ/}} (transcribed <ly>) |
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Note that the above consonantal values are largely based on the writing of Sanskrit/Prakrit loanwords. A retroflex value for {{IPA|/ʂ/}} is particularly suspect as it is derived from palatalized {{IPA|/s/}}; it was probably a low-frequency sibilant {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (like German spelling <sch>), as opposed to the higher-frequency sibilant {{IPA|/ɕ/}} (like Mandarin Pinyin spelling <x>). |
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==Writing system== |
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[[Image:Tocharian.JPG|thumb|350px|Wooden plate with inscriptions in [[Tocharian]]. [[Kucha]], [[China]], 5th-8th century ([[Tokyo National Museum]])]] |
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[[Image:Tocharian2.gif|thumb|350px|Tocharian abugida (vowels)]] |
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[[Image:Tocharian1.gif|thumb|500px|Tocharian abugida (consonants)]] |
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Tocharian is documented in manuscript fragments, mostly from the [[8th century]] (with a few earlier ones) that were written on palm leaves, wooden tablets and Chinese [[paper]], preserved by the extremely dry climate of the Tarim Basin. Samples of the language have been discovered at sites in [[Kucha]] and [[Karasahr]], including many mural inscriptions. |
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Tocharian A and B are not [[mutually intelligible|intercomprehensible]]. Properly speaking, based on the tentative interpretation of ''twqry'' as related to ''Tokharoi'', only Tocharian A may be referred to as ''Tocharian'', while Tocharian B could be called ''Kuchean'' (its native name may have been ''kuśiññe''), but since their grammars are usually treated together in scholarly works, the terms A and B have proven useful. The common Proto-Tocharian language must precede the attested languages by several centuries, probably dating to the [[1st millennium BC]]. |
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The alphabet the Tocharians were using is derived from the North Indian [[Brahmi]] alphabetic syllabary ([[abugida]]) and is referred to as ''slanting Brahmi''. It soon became apparent that a large proportion of the manuscripts were translations of known [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] works in [[Sanskrit]] and some of them were even bilingual, facilitating decipherment of the new language. Besides the Buddhist and [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] religious texts, there were also monastery correspondence and accounts, commercial documents, caravan permits, and medical and magical texts, and one love poem. Many Tocharians embraced Manichaean duality or Buddhism. |
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==Morphology== |
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Tocharian has completely re-worked the [[noun|nominal]] [[declension]] system of Proto-Indo-European. The only cases inherited from the proto-language are nominative, genitive, and [[accusative case|accusative]]; in Tocharian the old accusative is known as the ''oblique'' case. In addition to these three cases, however, each Tocharian language has six cases formed by the addition of an invariant suffix to the oblique case. For example, the Tocharian A word ''{{IAST|käṣṣi}}'' "teacher" is declined as follows: |
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{| class=wikitable |
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|- |
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! [[Case]] |
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! [[Suffix]] |
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! [[Grammatical number|Singular]] |
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! [[Plural]] |
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|- |
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| colspan=2 | [[nominative case|Nominative]] |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣi}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣiñ}} |
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|- |
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| colspan=2 | [[genitive case|Genitive]] |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣiyāp}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣiśśi}} |
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|- |
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| colspan=2 | [[oblique case|Oblique]] |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣiṃ}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣis}} |
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|- |
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| [[instrumental case|Instrumental]] |
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| -yo |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣinyo}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣisyo}} |
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|- |
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| [[Perlative case|Perlative]] |
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| -ā |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣinā}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣisā}} |
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|- |
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| [[comitative case|Comitative]] |
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| -aśśäl |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣinaśśäl}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣisaśśäl}} |
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|- |
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| [[allative case|Allative]] |
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| -ac |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣinac}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣisac}} |
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|- |
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| [[ablative case|Ablative]] |
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| {{IAST|-äṣ}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣinäṣ}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣisäṣ}} |
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|- |
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| [[locative case|Locative]] |
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| {{IAST|-aṃ}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣinaṃ}} |
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| {{IAST|käṣṣisaṃ}} |
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|} |
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<br clear=all> |
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==Cultural significance== |
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[[Image:QizilDonors.jpg|thumb|300px|"[[Tocharian]] donors", with light hair and light eye color, dressed in [[Sassanian]] style, 6th century CE fresco, [[Qizil]], [[Tarim Basin]]. These frescoes are associated with annotations in Tocharian and [[Sanskrit]] made by their painters.]] |
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The existence of the Tocharian languages and alphabet was not even guessed at, until chance discoveries in the early 20th century brought to light fragments of manuscripts in a then-unknown alphabetic syllabary ([[abugida]]) that turned out to belong to a hitherto unknown branch of the Indo-European family of languages, which has been named 'Tocharian'.<!--Hiding this text awaiting references, see talkpage: The one Indo-European language that seems to hold the most similarity to Tocharian is the ancient [[Hittite language]], which ceased to be spoken around 1000 BC.--> |
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Tocharian has upset some theories about the relations of Indo-European languages and is revitalizing linguistic studies. The Tocharian languages are a major geographic exception to the usual pattern of Indo-European branches, being the only one that spread directly east from the theoretical Indo-European starting point in the [[Kurgan hypothesis|Pontic steppe]]. |
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Tocharian probably died out after [[840]], when the [[Uyghur]]s were expelled from Mongolia by the [[Kirghiz]], retreating to the Tarim Basin. This theory is supported by the discovery of translations of Tocharian texts into Uyghur. During Uyghur rule, the peoples mixed with the Uyghurs to produce much of the modern population of what is now [[Xinjiang]]. |
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{| style="margin:0 auto;font-size: 90%;" class="toccolours" colspan="2" cellpadding="3" |
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|align=center colspan=13 style="background:#ccf"| '''Tocharian vocabulary (sample)''' |
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|- bgcolor="#cdcdcd" |
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!Modern English !! Tocharian A !! Tocharian B !! Irish !! Latin !! Ancient Greek !! Sanskrit !! *Proto-Indo-European |
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|one||sas||{{Unicode|ṣ}}e||aon||ūnus||heis||eka||<nowiki>*</nowiki>''hoinos'' or *''sems'' |
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|two||wu||wi||dó||duo||duo||dvāu||*''duoh<sub>1</sub>'' |
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|- |
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|three||tre||trai||trí||trēs||treis||tri||*''treyes'' |
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|- |
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|four||śtwar||śtwer||ceathair||quattuor||téssares||catvāras||*''k<sup>w</sup>etwores'' |
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|five||päñ||piś||cúig||quīnque||pente||pañka||*''penk<sup>w</sup>e'' |
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|- |
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|six||{{Unicode|ṣ}}äk||{{Unicode|ṣ}}kas||sé||sex||héx||{{Unicode|ṣáṣ}}||*{{PIE|(s)weḱs}} |
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|seven||{{Unicode|ṣ}}pät||{{Unicode|ṣ}}ukt||seacht||septem||heptá||saptá||*''septm'' |
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|eight||okät||okt||hocht||octō||októ||{{Unicode|aṣṭa}}||*{{PIE|oḱtoh<sub>3</sub>}} |
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|nine||ñu||ñu||naoi||novem||ennéa||náva||*''newn'' |
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|ten||śäk||śak||deich||decem||deka||daśa||*{{PIE|deḱm}} |
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|hundred||känt||kante||cead||centum||hekatón||śatám||*{{PIE|ḱmtom}} |
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|father||pācar||pācer||athair||pater||patēr||pitá{{Unicode|ṛ}}||*''ph<sub>2</sub>tēr'' |
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|mother||mācar||mācer||máthair||mater||mētér||mātá{{Unicode|ṛ}}||*''me<sub>2</sub>tēr'' |
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|- |
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|brother||pracar||procer||bráthair||frāter||phrátēr¹||bhrātā{{Unicode|ṛ}}||*''bhre<sub>2</sub>tēr'' |
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|sister||{{Unicode|ṣ}}ar||{{Unicode|ṣ}}er||siúr||soror||éor¹||svas{{Unicode|ṛ}}||*''swesor'' |
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|(horse)³||yuk||yakwe||each||equus||híppos||áśva||*{{PIE|eḱwo-}} |
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|cow||ko||keu||bó||bos²||boûs||gāús||*''g<sup>w</sup>ou-'' |
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|(voice)²||vak||vek||focal¹||vōx||épos¹||vāk||*''wek<sup>w</sup>-'' |
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|to milk||malk||mälk||bligh||mulgēre||amélgein||marjati¹||*''melg-'' |
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|name||ñom||ñem||ainm||nomen||ónoma||nāman||*''nomn'' |
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|} |
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¹ = [[Cognate]], with shifted meaning |
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² = Borrowed cognate, not native. |
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³ = English meaning, unrelated word |
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==See also== |
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{{Indo-European}} |
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*[[Language families and languages]] |
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*[[Tocharians]] |
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==References== |
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*"[http://ccbs.ntu.edu.tw/FULLTEXT/JR-JRAS/sylvain.htm Tokharian Pratimoksa Fragment Sylvain Levi]". ''The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland''. 1913, pp. 109-120. |
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*Mallory, J.P. and Victor H. Mair. ''The Tarim Mummies''. London: Thames & Hudson, 2000. (ISBN 0-500-05101-1) |
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*Schmalsteig, William R. "[http://www.lituanus.org/1974/74_3_01.htm Tokharian and Baltic]." ''Lituanus''. v. 20, no. 3, 1974. |
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*Krause, Wolfgang and Werner Thomas. ''Tocharisches Elemantarbuch''. Heidelberg: Carl Winter Universitätsverlag, 1960. |
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==External links == |
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* [http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/database/titusinx/tochvb.asp Conjugation tables for Tocharian A and B] |
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* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/tocharian.htm Tocharian alphabet (from Omniglot)] |
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* [http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/toch/tochbr.htm Tocharian alphabet (from TITUS)] |
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* [http://www.oxuscom.com/eyawtkat.htm Mark Dickens, 'Everything you always wanted to know about Tocharian'] |
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* [http://www.wordgumbo.com/ie/cmp/toch.htm A Tocharian-to-English dictionary with nearly 200 words] |
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[[Category:Medieval languages]] |
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[[Category:Indo-European languages]] |
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[[Category:Languages of China]] |
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[[Category:Central Asia]] |
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[[Category:Extinct languages of Asia]] |
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[[Category:Tocharians]] |
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[[af:Togaars]] |
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[[an:Idioma tocario]] |
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[[ast:Tocariu]] |
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[[ca:Tokhari]] |
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[[cy:Tochareg]] |
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[[de:Tocharische Sprache]] |
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[[el:Τοχαρικά]] |
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[[es:Idioma tocario]] |
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[[fr:Langues tokhariennes]] |
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[[ko:토카리아어]] |
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[[hr:Toharski jezici]] |
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[[id:Bahasa Tokharia]] |
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[[is:Tokkaríska]] |
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[[it:Tocario]] |
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[[nl:Tochaars]] |
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[[ja:トカラ語]] |
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[[nn:Tokariske språk]] |
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[[pl:Języki tocharskie]] |
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[[pt:Línguas tocarianas]] |
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[[ru:Тохарские языки]] |
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[[sr:Тохарски jeзици]] |
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[[fi:Tokaarilaiset kielet]] |
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[[sv:Tochariska språk]] |
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[[th:ภาษากลุ่มโตคาเรียน]] |
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[[tr:Toharca]] |
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[[zh:吐火罗语]] |
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Revision as of 16:32, 19 November 2006
The juxta is an organ in the males of most Lepidoptera (i.e. moths) that supports the aedeagus, the organ used for reproduction in insects. The juxta is located between the two valvae.
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