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{{Short description|none}}
{{Jews and Judaism}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
[[Jew]]s first arrived in what is now the [[Serbia|Republic of Serbia]] in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times. The Jewish communities of the [[Balkans]] remained small until the late [[15th century|fifteenth century]], when Jews fleeing the [[Spanish Inquisition|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese Inquisition|Portuguese]] Inquisitions found refuge in [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-ruled areas, including [[Serbia]]. Jewish communities flourished in the [[Balkans]] until the turmoil of [[World War I]]. The surviving communities, including that of [[Serbia]], were almost completely destroyed in the [[Holocaust]] during [[World War II]]. The Jewish community of [[Serbia]] now numbers fewer than 800.
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Serbian Jews
| image = File:Sinagoga_u_Subotici,_Srbija,_008.JPG
| image_caption = A plaque dedicated to the Jews of Subotica murdered in the Holocaust says: "In memory of the 4000 Jews with whom we lived and built Subotica together who perished in fascist death camps in World War II."
|pop = '''787''' (2011 census)<ref name="census2011others">{{cite web |url=http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/WebSite/userFiles/file/Aktuelnosti/Etnicke_zajednice_sa_manje_od_2000_pripadnika_i_dvojako_izjasnjeni.pdf |title=2011 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Serbia: Population according to ethnicity – "Others" – ethnic groups with less than 2.000 members and multiple declared ethnicity |publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia |year=2012 |access-date=13 February 2016 |archive-date=17 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417175637/http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/WebSite/userFiles/file/Aktuelnosti/Etnicke_zajednice_sa_manje_od_2000_pripadnika_i_dvojako_izjasnjeni.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|langs = [[Serbian language|Serbian]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Ladino language|Ladino]], and [[Yiddish]]
|rels = [[Judaism]]
|related-c = [[Sephardi Jews]], [[Ashkenazi Jews]], [[History of the Jews in Montenegro|Montenegrin Jews]]
}}
[[File:Serbia (orthographic projection).svg|thumb|The location of [[Serbia]] including [[Kosovo]] (dark and light green) in [[Europe]]]]
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar |population}}


The '''history of the Jews in Serbia''' is some two thousand years old. The [[Jews]] first arrived in the region during [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times. The Jewish communities of the [[Balkans]] remained small until the late 15th century, when Jews fleeing the [[Spanish Inquisition|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese Inquisition]]s found refuge in the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]-ruled areas, including Serbia.
== History of the community==
===Ancient communities===
Jews first arrived in the region now known as [[Serbia]] in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times, although there is little documentation prior to the [[10th century|tenth century]] [[Anno Domini|AD]]. For the next five hundred years, documentation on the Jews of the [[Balkans]] is sketchy.


The community flourished and reached a peak of 33,000, of whom almost 90% were living in Belgrade and Vojvodina, before [[World War II]]. About two-thirds of Serbian Jews were murdered in [[The Holocaust]], having been particularly targeted as Hitler sought to punish both ethnic Serbs and Jews for German defeat in World War I. After the war, most of the remaining Jewish Serbian population emigrated, chiefly to Israel.
===Spanish refugees===
The Jewish communities of the Balkans were boosted in the [[15th century|fifteenth]] and [[16th century|sixteenth]] centuries by the arrival of Jewish refugees fleeing the [[Spanish Inquisition|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese Inquisition|Portuguese]] Inquisitions. [[Sultan]] [[Bayezid II]] of the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman Empire]] welcomed the Jewish refugees into his Empire. Jews became involved in trade between the various provinces in the Ottoman Empire, becoming especially important in the salt trade <ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html</ref>.


In the 2011 census only 787 people declared themselves as Jewish. The [[Belgrade Synagogue]] continues to function as a synagogue. The renovated [[Subotica Synagogue]], once the fourth largest synagogue building in Europe, is now mainly a cultural space, but is available for services and other religious purposes.<ref>{{cite news| title=Serbia: magnificent Subotica synagogue officially reopened | website=Jewish Heritage Europe | date=27 March 2018 | url=https://jewish-heritage-europe.eu/2018/03/27/serbia-magnificent-subotica-synagogue-officially-reopened/}}</ref> The [[Novi Sad Synagogue]] has been converted into a cultural art space.
===Ottoman rule===
With generally good relations between the Jews and [[Serbs]], the Jewish communities prospered, and by the [[19th century|nineteenth century]] Jewish merchants were largely responsible for the trade routes between the Ottoman Empire's northern and southern territories <ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html</ref>.


==Ancient==
Beginning in [[1804]], the Serbs began to fight the Ottoman Turks for independence. Many Jews were involved in the struggle by supplying arms to the local Serbs, and the Jewish communities faced brutal reprisal attacks from the Ottoman Turks <ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html</ref>. The independence struggle lasted until [[1830]], when Serbia gained its independence.
Jews first arrived on the territory of present-day Serbia in [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times,{{citation needed|date=November 2017}} although there is little documentation prior to the 10th century.


==Ottoman Empire==
The new Serbian government was not friendly toward the Jewish community, and by [[1831]] there were prohibitions against Jews entering some professions. The situation of the Jews briefly improved under the rule of [[Mihailo Obrenović III|Prince Mihailo Obrenović]] (ruled [[1839]]-[[1842]]), but anti-Jewish provisions were reinstated under [[Alexander Karađorđević, Prince of Serbia|Prince Alexander]] (ruled [[1842]]-[[1858]]).
{{See also|History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire}}


The Jewish communities of the Balkans were boosted in the 15th and 16th centuries by the arrival of Jewish refugees fleeing the [[Spanish Inquisition|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese Inquisition|Portuguese]] Inquisitions. [[Sultan]] [[Bayezid II]] of the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman Empire]] welcomed the Jewish refugees into his Empire. Jews became involved in trade between the various provinces in the Ottoman Empire, becoming especially important in the salt trade.<ref name="jvlibrary">{{cite web| url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html |title=Virtual Jewish History Tour – Serbia and Montenegro |publisher=Jewish virtual library}}</ref> In 1663, the Jewish population of [[Belgrade]] was 800.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Jewish Community of Belgrade |url=https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/belgrade |publisher=[[The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot]] |access-date=1 July 2018 |archive-date=23 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200123103201/https://dbs.bh.org.il/place/belgrade |url-status=dead }}</ref>
With the reclamation of the Serbian throne by the [[House of Obrenović|Royal House of Obranović]] under [[Miloš Obrenović]] in [[1858]], restrictions on Jewish merchants were again relaxed, but three years later, in [[1861]] [[Mihailo Obrenović III|Mihailo III]] inherited the throne and reinstated anti-Jewish restrictions.<ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html</ref>.


While the rest of modern-day Serbia was still ruled by the Ottoman Empire, territory of present-day [[Vojvodina]] was part of the [[Habsburg monarchy]]. In 1782, Emperor [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] issued the [[1782 Edict of Tolerance|Edict of Tolerance]], giving Jews some measure of religious freedom. The Edict attracted Jews to many parts of the Monarchy. The Jewish communities of Vojvodina flourished, and by the end of the 19th century the region had nearly 40 Jewish communities.<ref name="bh.org.il">{{cite web|url=http://www.bh.org.il/swj/country.php?country=2&places=18 |title=Synagogues Without Jews – Croatia and Serbia |publisher=Beit Hatfutsot |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060429210444/http://www.bh.org.il/swj/country.php?country=2&places=18 |archive-date=29 April 2006 }}</ref>
[[Image:Sinagoga.jpg|thumb|270px|[[Belgrade Synagogue]]]]
[[Image:Sinagogue.jpg|thumb|270px|[[Novi Sad Synagogue]]]]
[[Image:Sinagoga.JPG|thumb|270px|Synagogue in [[Subotica]]]]
[[Image:Sinagoga u Kikindi.JPG|thumb|270px|Synagogue in [[Kikinda]] destroyed during Axis occupation in WWII]]
The waxing and waning of the fortunes of the Jewish community according to the ruler continued to the end of the [[19th century|19th Century]], when the Serbian parliament lifted all anti-Jewish restrictions in [[1889]].<ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html</ref>


==Independent Serbia and Habsburg Vojvodina==
By [[1912]], the Jewish community of Serbia stood at 5,000. <ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html</ref>.
Many Jews were involved in the [[Serbian Revolution|struggle of Serbs]] for independence from the Ottoman Empire, by supplying arms to the local Serbs, and the Jewish communities faced brutal reprisal attacks from the Ottoman Turks.<ref name="jvlibrary"/> In 1804, when [[Karađorđe]]'s forces invaded the Ottoman Fortress of Smederevo, the Jews were expelled from [[Sabac Municipality|Šabac]] and [[Požarevac]]. The independence struggle lasted until 1830, when Serbia gained its independence.


After Belgrade was liberated, the Jews fell victim to decades of discriminatory taxation and residential restrictions. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Sachar |first1=Howard M. |title=Farewell Espana: The World of the Sephardim Remembered |date=2013 |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8041-5053-8 |page=268 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2RowAAAAQBAJ&q=Jews+Serbia+1803&pg=PA267 |access-date=1 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> During the liberation of Belgrade, contrary to the strict orders issued by Serb leader Karađorđe, some of the rebels destroyed Jewish shops and synagogues. Some Jews were killed and a part of them was forcibly baptised. At the same time in the interior of Serbia rebels expelled Jews from towns and small places.<ref>Jovan Byford; (1995) ''Potiskivanje i poricanje antisemitizma: Secanje na vladiku Nikolaja Velimirovica u savremenoj srpskoj pravoslavnoj kulturi''(in Serbian) p. 103-104; Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji, Beograd, {{ISBN|86-7208-117-X}} [https://www.helsinki.org.rs/serbian/doc/Ogledi06.pdf]</ref>
{{seealso|History of Serbia}}


==House of Obrenović==
In the aftermath of World War I, [[Serbia]] merged with [[Montenegro]], and added areas ruled most recently by [[Austria-Hungary]] (eventually officially defined as [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]] and [[Bosnia-Herzegovina]]) to form the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]], which was soon renamed [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]. [[Serbia]]'s relatively small Jewish community of 13,000 (including 500 in [[Kosovo]])<ref>"Jews of Yugoslavia 1941 – 1945", by Jasa Romano, Federation of Jewish Communities of Yugoslavia, 1980; pp. 573-590.</ref>, combined with the large Jewish communities of the other [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] territories, numbering some 51,700. In the inter-war years ([[1919]]-[[1939]]), the Jewish communities of the [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] flourished.
With the reclamation of the Serbian throne by the [[House of Obrenović|Royal House of Obrenović]] under [[Miloš Obrenović]] in 1858, restrictions on Jewish merchants were again relaxed for some time, but only three years later they faced isolation and humiliation.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rozen |first1=Minna |title=The last Ottoman century and beyond: the Jews in Turkey and the Balkans 1808–1945 : proceedings of the International Conference on "The Jewish Communities in the Balkans and Turkey in the 19th and 20th Centuries through the End of World War II," the Goldstein-Goren Diaspora Research Center, Tel Aviv University, June 5–8, 1995 |date=2002 |publisher=Tel Aviv University, The Goldstein-Goren Diaspora Research Center, The Chair for the History and Culture of the Jews of Salonika and Greece |isbn=978-965-338-045-5 |page=187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UXwMAQAAMAAJ&q=the+Serbian+authorities+demonstrated+a+desire |access-date=1 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> In 1861 Mihailo III inherited the throne and reinstated anti-Jewish restrictions.<ref name="jvlibrary"/> In 1839, Jews were forbidden to open shops on Sundays and during Serbian holidays, causing them great damage because their shops were closed on Saturdays and all Jewish holidays.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lebel |first1=G'eni |title=Until "the Final Solution": The Jews in Belgrade 1521 – 1942 |date=2007 |publisher=Avotaynu |isbn=978-1-886223-33-2 |page=81 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OhEuAQAAIAAJ&q=Jews+Serbia+1840 |access-date=1 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> In [[Serbian parliamentary election, 1877|1877]] a Jewish candidate was elected to the [[National Assembly (Serbia)|National Assembly]] for the first time, after receiving the backing of all parties.<ref name=T2>"News in Brief", ''The Times'', 22 February 1877</ref><ref name=T4>"Servia", ''The Times'', 22 February 1877</ref>


In the 1860s–70s, a part of Serbian newspaper began publishing anti-Jewish articles resulting in threats being raised against the Jews.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hajdarpasic |first1=Edin |title=Whose Bosnia?: Nationalism and Political Imagination in the Balkans, 1840–1914 |date=2015 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-1-5017-0111-5 |page=174 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xe5IDwAAQBAJ&q=Jews+Serbia+1840&pg=PA174 |access-date=1 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> In 1862, a fight broke out between the Austrians and Serbians and Jews in Belgrade had their rights revoked, similar to local uprisings in the 1840s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Vashem |first1=Yad |title=The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust: A-J |date=2001 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-9376-3 |page=111 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MFn3KeENnA0C&q=Jews+Serbia+1840&pg=PA100 |access-date=1 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
Prior to World War II, 10,000 Jews lived in [[Belgrade]], 80% being [[Ladino language|Ladino]]-speaking [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardi]] Jews, and 20% being [[Yiddish]]-speaking [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]] Jews<ref>[[Belgrade synagogue|Belgrade Synagogue]]</ref>.
[[File:Sephardi Jews fleeing from Belgrade to Zemun in 1862.jpg|thumb|250px|right|[[Sephardi Jews]] fleeing from Belgrade to Zemun in 1862]]


During the final stages of the 1877–1878 [[Serbian–Ottoman Wars (1876–1878)|Serbo-Turkish wars]] thousands of Jews emigrated or were expelled by the advancing [[Serbian Army]] along with Turkish and Albanian families.
===The Holocaust===
As the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] and their allies closed in on the [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Yugoslavia]] in March [[1941]], the government of [[Dragiša Cvetković]] and [[Vladko Maček]] enacted anti-Jewish edicts and signed an alliance with the [[Axis powers|Axis Powers]]. The alliance with the [[Nazi Germany|Nazis]] was rejected by most [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavs]], and in April [[1941]] [[Nazi Germany|German]], [[Italy|Italian]], [[Hungary|Hungarian]] and [[Bulgaria|Bulgarian]] troops invaded [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].


In 1879, the "Serbian-Jewish Singer Society" was founded in Belgrade to encourage Serbian-Jewish interaction and friendship. During World War I and World War II the choir was not allowed to perform. It was renamed "[[Baruch Brothers Choir]]" in 1950 and is one of the oldest Jewish choirs in the world still in existence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jobeograd.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=60&Itemid=60 |title=Choir "Baruch Brothers" |publisher=Jewish Community of Belgrade}}</ref> The choir remains a symbol of community unification, although only 20% of the choir members are actually Jewish due to the dwindling Jewish population in the country (in World War II, half of the Jewish population of Serbia was killed).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://mosaicmagazine.com/picks/2015/04/the-baruch-brothers-choir-serbian-jewrys-136-year-old-singing-group/|title=The Baruch Brothers Choir: Serbian Jewry's 136-Year-Old Singing Group|access-date=2018-11-25}}</ref> By 1912, the Jewish community of Kingdom of Serbia stood at 5,000.<ref name="jvlibrary"/> Serbian-Jewish relations reached a high degree of cooperation during World War I, when Jews and Serbs fought side by side against the Central Powers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society.php?yyyy=2014&mm=09&dd=05&nav_id=91514 |title=Exhibition "Jews of Serbia in WWI" opens in Belgrade |publisher=Tanjug |date=5 September 2014}}</ref> 132 Jews died in the Balkan Wars and World War I and in their honour a monument to them was erected in Belgrade at the Jewish Sephardic cemetery.<ref>{{Cite web|last=С|first=Д. Ј.|title=Обнова споменика Јеврејима – српским војницима|url=http://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/374589/Obnova-spomenika-Jevrejima-srpskim-vojnicima|access-date=2021-01-22|website=Politika Online}}</ref>
The [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]] genocide against [[Serbia|Serbian]] (and [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]]) Jews began in September [[1941]], with the Jews of [[Banat]] and [[Belgrade]] being the first to be persecuted. The annihilation of Serbian Jewry was carried out with brutal efficiency by the German army and by the [[Ustashe|Ustaše]], a [[Croatia|Croatian]] paramilitary organization which occupied parts of [[Serbia]]. The [[Ustashe|Ustaše]] murdered between 300,000 and 700,000 [[Serbs]], approximately 40,0000 [[Roma people|Roma (Gypsies)]] and 32,000 [[Jews]] in the territories they controlled. The [[Nazi Germany|Germans]] set up several [[concentration camps]] to murder [[Serbs]], [[Jews]] and [[Roma people|Roma (Gypsies)]], the two main camps being [[Sajmište concentration camp|Sajmište]] and [[Banjica concentration camp|Banjica]]. The [[Ustashe|Ustaše]] also set up [[concentration camps]] at [[Kerestinac]], [[Jadovna]], [[Metajna]] and [[Slana]]. The most notorious, where cruelty of unimaginable proportions was perpetrated against [[Jew|Jewish]] and [[Serbs|Serbian]] prisoners were at [[Pag]] and [[Jasenovac concentration camp|Jasenovac]]. At [[Jasenovac concentration camp|Jasenovac]] alone, 800,000 people were murdered (mostly [[Serbs]]), including 20,000 Jews<ref>"Jews of Yugoslavia 1941 – 1945", by Jasa Romano, p7</ref>.


The waxing and waning of the fortunes of the Jewish community according to the ruler continued to the end of the 19th century, when the Serbian parliament lifted all anti-Jewish restrictions in 1889.<ref name="jvlibrary"/>
By the time [[Serbia]] and [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] were liberated in [[1944]], most of Serbian Jewry had been murdered. Of the 82,500 Jews of [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] alive in [[1941]], only 14,000 (17%) survived the [[Holocaust]]<ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html</ref>. Only 4,000 Serbian Jews had survived the [[Holocaust]]<ref>http://www.bh.org.il/swj/country.php?country=2&places=18</ref>.


[[History of the Jews in North Macedonia|Jews in modern-day North Macedonia]] got their full citizen rights for the first time when the region became a part of [[Kingdom of Serbia]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sekelj|first=Laslo|date=1981|title=ANTISEMITIZAM U JUGOSLAVIJI (1918—1945)|journal=Rev. Za Soc.|volume=XI}}</ref>
===Post-war community===
The '''Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia''' was formed in the aftermath of World War II to coordinate the Jewish communities of post-war [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and to lobby for the right of Jews to emigrate to [[Israel]]<ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Yugoslavia2.html</ref>. The Federation was headquartered in [[Belgrade]], the capital of the post-war [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].


<gallery>
More than half of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] survivors chose to emigrate to [[Israel]] after World War II.
Image:Wiki.Vojvodina VII Subotica 4599 10.jpg|[[Subotica Synagogue]] (now restored and in use)<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://rtv.rs/sr_lat/vojvodina/backa/velicanstvena-sinagoga-za-molitvu-ucenje-i-okupljanje_904247.html|title=Veličanstvena sinagoga za molitvu, učenje i okupljanje}}</ref>
File:Az adai zsinagóga képeslapon.jpg|Synagogue of [[Ada, Serbia]], 1900
File:Sinagoga u Kikindi.JPG|Synagogue of [[Kikinda]]
House of Winterstein family. Jewish temple was in this house.jpg|House of Winterstein family in [[Šid]], 1910 (included a temple)
File:Sinagoga_Bet_Israel.jpg|[[Bet Israel Sephardi Synagogue]] in the Tsar Uros Street, Belgrade, 1908.
File:Former Šabac synagogue.jpg|Jewish synagogue in [[Šabac]], today acting as a museum of Jewish history in the area
</gallery>


==Kingdom of Yugoslavia==
The Jewish community of [[Serbia]], and indeed of all constituent republics in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], was maintained by the unifying power of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia. However, this power ended with dissolution of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] in the [[1990s]].


In the aftermath of World War I, [[Montenegro]], [[Banat]], [[Bačka]], [[Syrmia]], and [[Baranya (region)|Baranja]] joined Serbia through popular vote in those regions, and this [[Greater Serbia]] then united with [[State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs]] (from which [[Syrmia]] had seceded to join Serbia) to form the [[Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]], which was soon renamed [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Yugoslavia]]. Serbia's relatively small Jewish community of 13,000 (including 500 in [[Kosovo]]),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Romano |first1=Jaša |title=Jews of Yugoslavia 1941–1945 |publisher=Federation of Jewish Communities of Yugoslavia |year=1980 |pages=573–590}}</ref> combined with the large Jewish communities of the other [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav]] territories, numbering some 51,700. In the inter-war years (1919–1939), the Jewish communities of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia flourished.
===Yugoslav wars===
The Jews of [[Serbia]] lived relatively peacefully in [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] between World War II and the [[1990s]]. However, the end of the [[Cold War]] saw the breakup of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]], and wars in [[Croatia]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]. There were also a war in the [[Serbia|Serbian]] province of [[Kosovo]]-Metohija and [[NATO]] raids of Serbia and [[Montenegro]].


Prior to World War II, some 31,000 Jews lived in Vojvodina. In Belgrade, Jewish community was 10,000-strong, 80% being [[Ladino language|Ladino]]-speaking [[Sephardi Jews]], and 20% being [[Yiddish]]-speaking [[Ashkenazi Jews]].{{citation needed|date=January 2015}}
While there was little [[Anti Semitism|anti-Semitism]] in [[Serbia]] during the wars, the Jewish community, as with all [[Serbia|Serbians]], suffered as a result of the wars. Many Jews chose to emigrate to [[Israel]] and the [[United States of America|United States]]. During the [[Kosovo War|Kosovo Conflict]], the Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia relocated many of [[Belgrade]]'s Jewish elderly, women and children to [[Budapest]], [[Hungary]] for their safety; many of them emigrated permanently<ref> http://www.bh.org.il/swj/country.php?country=2&places=18</ref>.


The [[Vidovdan Constitution]] guaranteed equality to Jews, and the law regulated their status as a religious community.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Sekelj|first=Laslo|date=1981|title=ANTISEMITIZAM U JUGOSLAVIJI (1918—1945)|journal=Rev. Za Soc.|volume=XI}}</ref>
== Today ==
===Numbers===
Prior to the conflicts of the [[1990s]], approximately 2,500 Jews lived in [[Serbia]]<ref>http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html</ref>, most in [[Belgrade]].


==World War II==
According to the [[2002]] Serbian [[census]], there were 785 Jews in [[Serbia]]. Almost all Jews (91%) in [[Central Serbia]] live in [[Belgrade]]. Forty-percent of [[Serbia|Serbian]] Jews live in [[Vojvodina]]. The results of the [[2002]] [[census]] are displayed below<ref>[http://webrzs.statserb.sr.gov.yu/axd/Zip/VJN3.pdf Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, 2002 Census Results, p12] {{sr icon}}</ref>:
[[Image:Zrtve racije01.jpg|thumb|Monument in [[Novi Sad]] dedicated to killed Jewish and Serb civilians in 1942 raid]]


The Kingdom of Yugoslavia attempted to maintain neutrality during the period preceding World War II. [[Milan Stojadinović]], the prime minister, tried to actively woo [[Adolf Hitler]] while maintaining the alliance with former Entente Powers, UK and France. Nonwithstanding overtures to Germany, Yugoslav policy was not anti-Semitic: for instance, Yugoslavia opened its borders to Austrian Jews following the [[Anschluss]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schneider |first1=Gertrude |title=Exile and Destruction: The Fate of Austrian Jews, 1938–1945 |year=1995 |page=53 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=9780275951399 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Yet6rYdXdhoC}}</ref> Under increasing pressure to yield to German demands for safe passage of its troops to Greece, Yugoslavia signed the [[Tripartite Pact]] with Germany and Italy, like Bulgaria and Hungary. Unlike the other two, the signatory government of [[Vladko Maček|Maček]] and [[Dragiša Cvetković|Cvetković]] was overthrown three days later in a British-supported coup of patriotic, anti-German generals. The new government immediately rescinded the Yugoslav signature on the Pact and called for strict neutrality. German response was swift and brutal: Belgrade was [[Operation Retribution (1941)|bombed without the declaration of war]] on 6 April 1941 and [[Nazi Germany|German]], [[Military history of Italy during World War II|Italian]], [[Hungary during World War II|Hungarian]] and [[Military history of Bulgaria during World War II|Bulgarian]] troops invaded Yugoslavia.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"
! Area !! Jewish<br/>population !! Total<br/>population</tr>
|align="left"| [[Belgrade]] || 415 || 1,576,124</tr>
|align="left"| [[Novi Sad]] || 400 || 299,294</tr>
|align="left"| [[Subotica]] || 89 || 148,401</tr>
|align="left"| [[Pančevo]] || 42 || 127,162</tr>
|align="left"| Rest of [[Serbia]] || 239 || 5,646,314</tr>
|align="left"| '''Total''' || '''1185''' || '''7,498,001'''</tr>
|}


===Holocaust===
The only remaining functioning [[synagogue]] in [[Serbia]] is the [[Belgrade synagogue|Belgrade Synagogue]]. There are also small numbers of Jews in [[Zrenjanin]] and [[Sombor]], with isolated families scattered throughout the rest of [[Serbia]].
{{See also|The Holocaust in Serbia}}


[[Image:Fascist concentration camps in yugoslavia.png|thumb|left|250px|Concentration camps in Yugoslavia in World War II]]
[[Anti Semitism|Anti-Semitism]] in [[Serbia]] is rare, although there have been some anti-Semitic incidents. Many Jews are intermarried.
In [[German-occupied Serbia|Serbia]], German occupiers established concentration camps and extermination policies with the assistance of the puppet government of Milan Nedić.<ref>{{cite web|title=Anti-semitism in Serbia During the World War II|url=http://www.hic.hr/books/seeurope/014e-stefan.htm|work=An International Symposium "SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE 1918–1995"|publisher=Knjige HIC|access-date=9 April 2013|author=Ljubica Stefan|year=1995|archive-date=4 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904182912/http://www.hic.hr/books/seeurope/014e-stefan.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>


The Nazi genocide against Yugoslav Jews began in April 1941.<ref name ="Holocaust in Serbia 1941-1944">{{cite book |last1=Mitrović |first1=M. |last2=Timofejev |first2=A. |last3=Petaković |first3=J. |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/79688953/Holocaust-in-Serbia-1941-1944 |title=Holocaust in Serbia 1941–1944}}</ref> The state of Serbia was completely occupied by the Nazis. The main race laws in the State of Serbia were adopted on 30 April 1941: the ''Legal Decree on Racial Origins'' (Zakonska odredba o rasnoj pripadnosti). Jews from [[Srem]] were sent to Croatian camps, as were many Jews from other parts of Serbia. In rump Serbia, Germans proceeded to round up Jews of Banat and Belgrade, setting up a concentration camp across the river Sava, in the Syrmian part of Belgrade, then given to [[Independent State of Croatia]]. The [[Sajmište concentration camp]] was established to process and eliminate the captured Jews and Serbs. As a result, [[Emanuel Schäfer]], commander of the Security Police and Gestapo in Serbia, famously cabled Berlin after last Jews were killed in May 1942:
The Serbian government recognizes Judaism as one of the seven "traditional" religious communities of [[Serbia]]<ref>http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51578.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2005, Serbia and Montenegro (includes Kosovo) (released by US Department of State)</ref>.


:"Serbien ist ''[[judenfrei]]''."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lvAhAQAAIAAJ&q=emanuel+schafer+judenfrei |title=Jasenovac and the Holocaust in Yugoslavia: analyses and survivor testimonies |first1=Barry M. |last1=Lituchy |page=xxxiii |publisher=Jasenovac Research Institute |year=2006|isbn=9780975343203 }}</ref>
===Ancestry===
Even today, the majority of Serbian Jews are [[Sephardi Jews|Sephardim]] (descendants of refuges from the [[Spanish Inquisition|Spanish]] and [[Portuguese Inquisition|Portuguese]] Inquisitions).


Similarly. [[Harald Turner]] of the SS stated in 1942 that:
== Vojvodina ==
While the rest of [[Serbia]] was still ruled by the [[Ottoman empire|Ottoman Empire]], [[Vojvodina]] &ndash; an autonomous province within the [[Serbia|Republic of Serbia]] &ndash; was ruled by the [[Habsburg Monarchy]] from the end of the [[17th century]]. [[Vojvodina]] too had previously been ruled by the [[Ottoman Empire]], and it was under Ottoman rule that the first Jews settled in the region.


:"Serbia is the only country in which the Jewish question and the Gypsy question has been solved."<ref>{{Cite book| last = Dwork | first = Debórah | title = Holocaust: a history |author2=Robert Jan Pelt |author3=Robert Jan Van Pelt |isbn = 0-393-32524-5| year = 2003 | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | page = 184 | location = New York, N.Y.}}</ref>
In [[1782]], Emperor [[Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor|Joseph II]] issued the [[1782 Edict of Tolerance|Edict of Tolerance]], giving Jews some measure of religious freedom. The Edict attracted Jews to many parts of the [[Habsburg Monarchy]], including [[Vojvodina]]. The Jewish communities of [[Vojvodina]] flourished, and by the end of the [[19th century|19th Century]] the region had nearly 40 Jewish communities.<ref>http://www.bh.org.il/swj/country.php?country=2&places=18</ref>


By the time Serbia and [[History of The Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] were liberated in 1944, most of the Serbian Jewry had been murdered. Of the 82,500 Jews of Yugoslavia alive in 1941, only 14,000 (17%) survived the Holocaust.<ref name="jvlibrary"/> Of the Jewish population of 16,000 in the territory controlled by Nazi puppet government of [[Milan Nedić]], police and secret services murdered approximately 14,500.<ref name = HolocaustEncyclopedia>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Holocaust |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofho0000unse_l4l4 |url-access=registration |publisher=Macmillan Publishing Company |location=New York |year=1990}}</ref><ref>{{citation|chapter-url=http://www.udi.rs/articles/Ristovic_JEWS%20IN%20SERBIA.pdf |chapter=Jews in Serbia during World War Two |last=Ristović |first=Milan |title=Serbia. Righteous among Nations |publisher=Jewish Community of Zemun |year=2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201183714/http://www.udi.rs/articles/Ristovic_JEWS%20IN%20SERBIA.pdf |archive-date=1 February 2014 }}</ref>
[[Image:Zrtve racije01.jpg|thumb|250px|Monument in [[Novi Sad]] dedicated to killed Jewish and Serb civilians in 1942 raid.]]
The [[1931]] [[census]] counted 21,000 Jews in the province (''see also [[Demographic history of Vojvodina]]''). The Jewish communities of [[Vojvodina]], as in the rest of [[Serbia]], were largely destroyed in the [[Holocaust]], particularly in [[Banat]], which was under direct German occupation, and in [[Bačka]], which was under Hungarian occupation. In 1942 raid, the Hungarian troops killed many Jewish and Serb civilians in Bačka (see: [[Crimes of the occupiers in Vojvodina, 1941-1944]]). Synagogues in [[Zrenjanin]] and [[Kikinda]] were demolished during war, while the synagogue in [[Pančevo]] was demolished after war because there were only a few Jews remaining there.


There was a similar persecution of Jews in the territory of present-day Vojvodina, which was annexed by Hungary. In the [[1942 raid in Novi Sad]], the Hungarian troops killed many Jewish and non-Jewish Serb civilians in Bačka.
Today, 329 Jews &ndash; almost half of Serbian Jewry &ndash; live in [[Vojvodina]], most in [[Subotica]], [[Pančevo]], [[Zrenjanin]] and [[Sombor]].


Historian [[Christopher Browning]] who attended the conference on the subject of Holocaust and Serbian involvement stated:<ref>{{cite web |last=Browning |first=Christopher |title=Serbia WWII Death Camp to 'Multicultural' Development? |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/156291#.UWQm58q86jg |publisher=Arutz Sheva – Israel National News |access-date=9 April 2013 |author-link=Christopher Browning|date=29 May 2012}}</ref>
== Notables ==
* [[Moša Pijade]], politician, painter, art critic and publicist
* [[Oskar Davičo]], Serbian poet
* [[David Albahari]], Serbian writer
* Leon Kojen (Cohen), adviser of [[President of Serbia]]; chief negotiator for the status of [[Kosovo]]
* [[Sonja Licht]]
* [[Seka Sablić]], a prominent and popular Serbian actress and comedienne of Jewish origin.
* [[Žarko Korać]], Serbian politician and president of Social Democratic Party and active member of Serbian Parliament.


{{cquote|''Serbia was the only country outside Poland and the Soviet Union where all Jewish victims were killed on the spot without deportation, and was the first country after Estonia to be declared "Judenfrei", a term used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to denote an area free of all Jews.''}}
== Notes and references ==
<div style="references-small"><references/></div>
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html Jewish Virtual Libray, Serbia and Montenegro]
* [http://www.bh.org.il/swj/country.php?country=2&places=18 Synagogues Without Jews - Serbia and Croatia]
* [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Yugoslavia2.html Jews of the Former Yugoslavia After the Holocaust]
* [http://www.jdc.org/p_ee_serbia_history.html American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Serbia-Montenegro]
* [[Belgrade synagogue|Belgrade Synagogue]]
* "''Jews of Yugoslavia 1941 - 1945 Victims of Genocide and Freedom Fighters''", by Jasa Romano, from the English summary in the book ''Jevreji Jugoslavije 1941-1945. Zrtve Genocida I Ucesnici Narodnosloodilckog Rata'', Belgrade: Federation of Jewish Communities of Yugoslavia, 1980; pp. 573-590.


Serbian civilians were involved in saving thousands of Yugoslavian Jews during this period. Miriam Steiner-Aviezer, a researcher into Yugoslavian Jewry and a member of Yad Vashem's Righteous Gentiles committee states: "The Serbs saved many Jews."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/10513/why-is-israel-waffling-on-kosovo/ |title=Why is Israel waffling on Kosovo? |first1=Larry |last1=Derfner |first2=Gil |last2=Sedan |publisher=Jweekly |date=9 April 1999}}</ref> As of 2022, Yad Vashem recognizes 139 Serbians as Righteous Among Nations, the highest number among Balkan countries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Names of Righteous by Country |url=https://www.yadvashem.org/righteous/statistics.html |website=www.yadvashem.org |publisher=Yad Vashem |access-date=3 May 2024 |location=Jerusalem |language=en |date=1 January 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/statistics.asp |title=The Righteous Among The Nations: Names and Numbers of Righteous Among the Nations – per Country & Ethnic Origin |date=1 January 2014 |publisher=Yad Vashem |access-date=20 May 2014 |archive-date=13 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013105541/http://www.yadvashem.org/yv/en/righteous/statistics.asp |url-status=dead }}</ref>
===External links===
* {{sr icon}} [http://www.beograd.org.yu/cms/view.php?id=1408 Official city of Belgrade site about Belgrade Jews]
* {{sr icon}} [http://www.jobeograd.org Jewish community of Belgrade]
* {{sr icon}} {{en icon}} [http://www.joz.org.yu Jewish community of Zemun] (''a district in [[Belgrade]]'')
* {{sr icon}} {{en icon}} [http://www.jim-bg.org Jewish Historical Museum in Belgrade]


===Chetniks===
<br/>{{Ethnic groups of Serbia}}
According to [[Yad Vashem]], the Chetniks initially had an ambivalent attitude towards Jews and, given their status early in the war as a resistance movement against Nazi occupation, a number of Jews served among the Chetnik ranks.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chetniks|url=https://www.yadvashem.org/odot_pdf/microsoft%20word%20-%20160.pdf|website=Yad Vashem - The World Holocaust Remembrance Center|access-date=2023-12-29}}</ref> As the [[Yugoslav Partisans]] grew in number and power, the anti-communist Chetniks became increasingly collaborationist and Jewish Chetniks switched to the partisan ranks. Subsequently, after the first half of 1942, Chetnik propaganda with chauvinist and antisemitic themes became a constant.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoare|n.d.}} {Chauvinist and antisemitic themes in Chetnik propaganda were not confined to the winter and spring of 1941–42, but remained a constant in the months and years that followed – an integral element in a movement whose goal was an ethnically pure Great Serbia inhabited solely by Orthodox Serbs}</ref> In various places in Serbia in the period from the middle of 1942, several hundred Jews were hiding, mostly women and children. According to the testimonies of surviving Jews, the Chetniks of Draža Mihailović persecuted the Jews in that area, and took part in their killing.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Lowenthal |editor-first1=Zdenko |editor-last2=Kovac |editor-first2=Teodor |year=1957 |title=The Crimes of the Fascist Occupants and Their Collaborators against Jews in Yugoslavia |publisher= Federation of Jewish Communities of the Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia |location=Belgrade |url=https://epdf.pub/the-crimes-of-fascist-occupants-and-their-collaborators-against-the-jews-of-yugo.html}}</ref> On many occasions, the Chetniks also handed them over to the Germans.<ref>{{harvnb|Hoare|n.d.}} {As the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust notes: ‘As the Chetniks increased their cooperation with the Germans, their attitude toward the Jews in the areas under their control deteriorated, and they identified the Jews with the hated Communists. There were many instances of Chetniks murdering Jews or handing them over to the Germans.’}</ref>


==Socialist Yugoslavia==
{{multiple image
|align=right
|direction=horizontal
|width=200
|image1=Beogradska sinagoga.jpg
|caption1=[[Belgrade Synagogue]]
|image2=Synagogue de Novi Sad.jpg
|caption2=[[Novi Sad Synagogue]]
}}
The [[Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia]] was formed in the aftermath of World War II to coordinate the Jewish communities of post-war [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]] and to lobby for the right of Jews to immigrate to [[Israel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Yugoslavia2.html |title=Jews of the Former Yugoslavia After the Holocaust |publisher=Jewish virtual library}}</ref> More than half of Yugoslav survivors chose to immigrate to [[Israel]] after World War II.

The Jewish community of Serbia, and indeed of all constituent republics in Yugoslavia, was maintained by the unifying power of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia. This power stopped with the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]] in the 1990s.

==Yugoslav wars==
Prior to the [[Yugoslav Wars]] in the 1990s, approximately 2,500 Jews lived in Serbia,<ref name="jvlibrary"/> mostly in Belgrade.

The Jews of Serbia lived relatively peacefully in Yugoslavia between World War II and the 1990s, when the end of the [[Cold War]] caused the breakup of Yugoslavia and ensuing civil wars.

During the [[Yugoslav Wars]], and international sanctions many Jews chose to immigrate to [[Israel]] and the United States. During the [[Kosovo War|NATO bombing in 1999]], the Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia relocated many of Belgrade's Jewish elderly, women and children to [[Budapest]], Hungary for their safety; many of them emigrated permanently.<ref name="bh.org.il"/>

[[David Bruce MacDonald|David Bruce Macdonald]] states that Serbian nationalists used Jewish imagery, such as the [[Masada|Legend of Masada]], in order to justify claims of Kosovo by comparing anti-semitism and serbophobia.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Macdonald |first1=David Bruce |title=Balkan Holocausts?: Serbian and Croatian Victim Centered Propaganda and the War in Yugoslavia |date=2002 |publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-6467-8 |pages=74, 174 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kBjrJyen4FEC&q=Jewish&pg=PA75 |access-date=16 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref> This theory is supported by Jovan Byford who writes that Serbian nationalists used the Jewish question for the martyrdom myth characteristic of Serbian nationalist discourse in the 1980s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Byford |first1=Jovan |title=Denial and Repression of Antisemitism: Post-communist Remembrance of the Serbian Bishop Nikolaj Velimirovi? |date=2008 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-963-9776-15-9 |pages=118, 137 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XAEauYA7rrMC&q=Jewish&pg=PA125 |access-date=16 January 2020 |language=en}}</ref>

==Modernity==
Manifestations of antisemitism in Serbia are relatively rare and isolated. According to the [[United States Department of State|US State Department]] Report on Human Rights practices in Serbia for 2006: "Jewish leaders in Serbia reported rare incidents of anti-Semitism, including anti-Semitic graffiti, vandalism, small circulation anti-Semitic books, and Internet postings", incidents which must be viewed in the context of small but growing anti-Semitism in Serbia.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2006/78837.htm |title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, Serbia |year=2006}}</ref> In 2013, downtown Belgrade was covered by posters, reportedly distributed by the Serbian branch of [[Blood & Honour]], accusing Jews of being responsible for the [[NATO bombing of Yugoslavia|1999 bombing of the former Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society-article.php?yyyy=2013&mm=03&dd=30&nav_id=85434 |title=Anti-Semitic posters in downtown Belgrade |publisher=B92/Tanjug |date=30 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401234346/http://www.b92.net/eng/news/society-article.php?yyyy=2013&mm=03&dd=30&nav_id=85434 |archive-date=1 April 2013 }}</ref>

The Serbian government recognizes Judaism as one of the seven "traditional" religious communities of Serbia.<ref>[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2005/51578.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2005, Serbia and Montenegro] (includes Kosovo) (released by US Department of State)</ref> The only remaining functioning [[synagogue]]s in Serbia are the [[Belgrade synagogue|Belgrade Synagogue]] and the [[Subotica Synagogue]].

==Demographics==
[[File:Ruma's jewish community's children before WWII.jpg|thumb|[[Ruma]]'s Jewish community's children in 1920]]
[[File:Kladovo transport monument.jpg|thumb|[[Kladovo transport]] monument]]
Censuses:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Etnomozaik.pdf |title=Ethno-confessional and language mosaic of Serbia |publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia |year=2014}}</ref>

* 1953: 1,504
* 1961: 1,250
* 1971: 1,128
* 1981: 683
* 1991: 1,107
* 2002: 1,185 (excluding Kosovo)
* 2011: 787 (excluding [[Kosovo]])

In the 2011 census 787 people declared themselves as Jewish,<ref name="census2011others"/> while 578 stated their religion as Judaism.<ref name="census2011">{{cite web|url=http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Knjiga4_Veroispovest.pdf |title=2011 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Serbia: Religion, Mother Tongue and Ethnicity |publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia |year=2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715000726/http://pod2.stat.gov.rs/ObjavljenePublikacije/Popis2011/Knjiga4_Veroispovest.pdf |archive-date=15 July 2014 }}</ref> About half of them live in Belgrade alone, while almost all the rest are found in Vojvodina (especially in its three largest cities: Novi Sad, Subotica and Pančevo). The results of the 2002 census based on ethnicity and 2011 census based on religion are displayed below:

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"
! City/Region !! Jewish<br />population<ref>[http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/Zip/VJN3.pdf Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, 2002 Census Results, p12] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224224918/http://webrzs.stat.gov.rs/axd/Zip/VJN3.pdf |date=24 February 2009 }}</ref> !! Total<br />population</tr>
|align="left"| Belgrade || 415 || 1,576,124</tr>
|align="left"| Novi Sad || 400 || 299,294</tr>
|align="left"| Subotica || 89 || 148,401</tr>
|align="left"| Pančevo || 42 || 127,162</tr>
|align="left"| Rest of Serbia || 239 || 5,646,314</tr>
|align="left"| '''Total''' || '''1,185''' || '''7,498,001'''</tr>
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;"
! City/Region !! Judaism<ref name=census2011/> !! Total<br />population</tr>
|align="left"| Belgrade || 286 || 1,659,440</tr>
|align="left"| Novi Sad || 84 || 341,625</tr>
|align="left"| Subotica || 75 || 141,554</tr>
|align="left"| Pančevo || 31 || 123,414</tr>
|align="left"| Rest of Serbia || 102 || 4,920,829</tr>
|align="left"| '''Total''' || '''578''' || '''7,186,862'''</tr>
|}

== Notable people ==
[[File:Tommy Lapid at Eichman trial1961.jpg|thumb|[[Tommy Lapid]] reporting from [[Adolf Eichmann]]'s trial, [[Jerusalem]] 1961]]
[[File:Ruben Fuks, President of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Serbia.JPG|thumb|[[Ruben Fuks]], President of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Serbia, 2013]]
[[File:Halbrohr Tamás.jpg|thumb|Halbrohr Tamás]]
* [[David Albahari]], writer
* [[David Albala]], military officer, physician, diplomat, and Jewish community leader
* [[Albert Bogen]], Serbian-born Austrian Olympic silver medalist sabre fencer
* [[Oskar Danon]], composer
* [[Oskar Davičo]], poet
* [[Filip David]], playwright and columnist
* [[Jelena Đurović]], writer, politician and journalist
* [[Predrag Ejdus]], actor
* [[Vanja Ejdus]], actress
* [[Rahela Ferari]], actress
* [[Ivan Ivanji]], writer
* [[Enriko Josif]], composer
* [[Danilo Kiš]], writer
* [[Geca Kon]], publisher
* [[Marko Kon]], pop singer
* [[Gordana Kuić]], novelist
* [[Shaul Ladany]], Israeli Olympian athlete
* [[Tommy Lapid]], former [[Israel]]i politician of Hungarian extraction, born in [[Novi Sad]]
* [[Paulina Lebl-Albala]], writer and feminist
* [[Sonja Licht]], political activist
* [[Lior Narkis]], Israeli singer (mother born in Serbia)
* [[Izidor Papo]], cardiac surgeon, general-colonel of the [[Yugoslav People's Army|Yugoslav Army]] medical unit
* [[Moša Pijade]], politician, painter, art critic and publicist
* [[Dan Reisinger]], Israeli graphic artist
* [[Seka Sablić]], actress<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/kultura.71.html:382318-Seka-Sablic-Kad-porastem-bicu-bogata |title= Seka Sablić: Kad porastem, biću bogata |author=Vukica Strugar | date=3 June 2012 |publisher=Večernje Novosti |language=sr}}</ref>
* [[Erich Šlomović]], art collector
* [[Aleksandar Tišma]], writer
* [[Stanislav Vinaver]], writer, poet, translator and journalist
* [[Mira Adanja Polak]], journalist


== See also ==
{{Europe topic|History of the Jews in}}
{{Portal|Judaism|Serbia}}
* [[Israel–Serbia relations]]
* [[The Holocaust in Serbia]]
* [[Jewish Historical Museum, Belgrade]]
* [[History of the Jews in Kosovo]]
* [[History of the Jews in Yugoslavia]]


== References ==
{{reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
* "''Jews of Yugoslavia 1941 – 1945 Victims of Genocide and Freedom Fighters''", by Jaša Romano, from the English summary in the book ''Jevreji Jugoslavije 1941–1945. Žrtve Genocida i učesnici Narodnooslobodilačkog Rata'', Belgrade: Federation of Jewish Communities of Yugoslavia, 1980; pp.&nbsp;573–590.
* {{cite web |last=Hoare |first=Marko |year=n.d. |title=The Chetniks and the Jews |url=https://znaci.org/00001/177.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110815152631/http://znaci.net/00001/177.pdf |archive-date=2011-08-15}} Extract from ''Genocide and Resistance in Hitler’s Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941–1943'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006 (pp.&nbsp;156–162).
{{refend}}


==External links==
<!--Categories-->
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/serbia.html Serbia Virtual Jewish History Tour], [[Jewish Virtual Library]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Serbia]]
* [https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Yugoslavia2.html Jews of the Former Yugoslavia After the Holocaust]
[[Category:Jewish history]]
* [https://www.bh.org.il/swj/country.php?country=2&places=18 Synagogues Without Jews – Serbia and Croatia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060429210444/http://www.bh.org.il/swj/country.php?country=2&places=18 |date=29 April 2006 }}
[[Category:Jews and Judaism by country|Serbia]]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061002142923/http://www.jdc.org/p_ee_serbia_history.html American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee, Serbia-Montenegro]
* {{in lang|sr|en}} [https://www.jobeograd.org Jewish community of Belgrade]
* {{in lang|sr|en}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20060701062323/http://www.joz.org.yu/ Jewish community of Zemun] (''a district in Belgrade'')
* {{in lang|sr|en}} [https://www.jobeograd.org Jewish Historical Museum in Belgrade]
* {{in lang|sr|en}} [http://www.semlin.info www.semlin.info] Website about the Semlin/Sajmište concentration camp and the Holocaust in Serbia
* [https://www.ushmm.org/museum/exhibit/focus/antisemitism/voices/transcript/?content=20111103 ''Voices on Antisemitism'' Interview with David Albahari] from the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum|U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum]]


{{Ethnic groups in Serbia}}
<!--Other languages-->
{{History of the Jews in Europe}}


[[Category:Jewish Serbian history| ]]
[[he:יהדות סרביה ומונטנגרו]]
[[Category:Judaism in Serbia]]
[[Category:Serbian Jews| ]]

Latest revision as of 16:55, 24 September 2024

Serbian Jews
A plaque dedicated to the Jews of Subotica murdered in the Holocaust says: "In memory of the 4000 Jews with whom we lived and built Subotica together who perished in fascist death camps in World War II."
Total population
787 (2011 census)[1]
Languages
Serbian, Hebrew, Ladino, and Yiddish
Religion
Judaism
Related ethnic groups
Sephardi Jews, Ashkenazi Jews, Montenegrin Jews
The location of Serbia including Kosovo (dark and light green) in Europe
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The history of the Jews in Serbia is some two thousand years old. The Jews first arrived in the region during Roman times. The Jewish communities of the Balkans remained small until the late 15th century, when Jews fleeing the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions found refuge in the Ottoman-ruled areas, including Serbia.

The community flourished and reached a peak of 33,000, of whom almost 90% were living in Belgrade and Vojvodina, before World War II. About two-thirds of Serbian Jews were murdered in The Holocaust, having been particularly targeted as Hitler sought to punish both ethnic Serbs and Jews for German defeat in World War I. After the war, most of the remaining Jewish Serbian population emigrated, chiefly to Israel.

In the 2011 census only 787 people declared themselves as Jewish. The Belgrade Synagogue continues to function as a synagogue. The renovated Subotica Synagogue, once the fourth largest synagogue building in Europe, is now mainly a cultural space, but is available for services and other religious purposes.[2] The Novi Sad Synagogue has been converted into a cultural art space.

Ancient

[edit]

Jews first arrived on the territory of present-day Serbia in Roman times,[citation needed] although there is little documentation prior to the 10th century.

Ottoman Empire

[edit]
See also: History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire

The Jewish communities of the Balkans were boosted in the 15th and 16th centuries by the arrival of Jewish refugees fleeing the Spanish and Portuguese Inquisitions. Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire welcomed the Jewish refugees into his Empire. Jews became involved in trade between the various provinces in the Ottoman Empire, becoming especially important in the salt trade.[3] In 1663, the Jewish population of Belgrade was 800.[4]

While the rest of modern-day Serbia was still ruled by the Ottoman Empire, territory of present-day Vojvodina was part of the Habsburg monarchy. In 1782, Emperor Joseph II issued the Edict of Tolerance, giving Jews some measure of religious freedom. The Edict attracted Jews to many parts of the Monarchy. The Jewish communities of Vojvodina flourished, and by the end of the 19th century the region had nearly 40 Jewish communities.[5]

Independent Serbia and Habsburg Vojvodina

[edit]

Many Jews were involved in the struggle of Serbs for independence from the Ottoman Empire, by supplying arms to the local Serbs, and the Jewish communities faced brutal reprisal attacks from the Ottoman Turks.[3] In 1804, when Karađorđe's forces invaded the Ottoman Fortress of Smederevo, the Jews were expelled from Šabac and Požarevac. The independence struggle lasted until 1830, when Serbia gained its independence.

After Belgrade was liberated, the Jews fell victim to decades of discriminatory taxation and residential restrictions. [6] During the liberation of Belgrade, contrary to the strict orders issued by Serb leader Karađorđe, some of the rebels destroyed Jewish shops and synagogues. Some Jews were killed and a part of them was forcibly baptised. At the same time in the interior of Serbia rebels expelled Jews from towns and small places.[7]

House of Obrenović

[edit]

With the reclamation of the Serbian throne by the Royal House of Obrenović under Miloš Obrenović in 1858, restrictions on Jewish merchants were again relaxed for some time, but only three years later they faced isolation and humiliation.[8] In 1861 Mihailo III inherited the throne and reinstated anti-Jewish restrictions.[3] In 1839, Jews were forbidden to open shops on Sundays and during Serbian holidays, causing them great damage because their shops were closed on Saturdays and all Jewish holidays.[9] In 1877 a Jewish candidate was elected to the National Assembly for the first time, after receiving the backing of all parties.[10][11]

In the 1860s–70s, a part of Serbian newspaper began publishing anti-Jewish articles resulting in threats being raised against the Jews.[12] In 1862, a fight broke out between the Austrians and Serbians and Jews in Belgrade had their rights revoked, similar to local uprisings in the 1840s.[13]

Sephardi Jews fleeing from Belgrade to Zemun in 1862

During the final stages of the 1877–1878 Serbo-Turkish wars thousands of Jews emigrated or were expelled by the advancing Serbian Army along with Turkish and Albanian families.

In 1879, the "Serbian-Jewish Singer Society" was founded in Belgrade to encourage Serbian-Jewish interaction and friendship. During World War I and World War II the choir was not allowed to perform. It was renamed "Baruch Brothers Choir" in 1950 and is one of the oldest Jewish choirs in the world still in existence.[14] The choir remains a symbol of community unification, although only 20% of the choir members are actually Jewish due to the dwindling Jewish population in the country (in World War II, half of the Jewish population of Serbia was killed).[15] By 1912, the Jewish community of Kingdom of Serbia stood at 5,000.[3] Serbian-Jewish relations reached a high degree of cooperation during World War I, when Jews and Serbs fought side by side against the Central Powers.[16] 132 Jews died in the Balkan Wars and World War I and in their honour a monument to them was erected in Belgrade at the Jewish Sephardic cemetery.[17]

The waxing and waning of the fortunes of the Jewish community according to the ruler continued to the end of the 19th century, when the Serbian parliament lifted all anti-Jewish restrictions in 1889.[3]

Jews in modern-day North Macedonia got their full citizen rights for the first time when the region became a part of Kingdom of Serbia.[18]

Kingdom of Yugoslavia

[edit]

In the aftermath of World War I, Montenegro, Banat, Bačka, Syrmia, and Baranja joined Serbia through popular vote in those regions, and this Greater Serbia then united with State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (from which Syrmia had seceded to join Serbia) to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, which was soon renamed Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Serbia's relatively small Jewish community of 13,000 (including 500 in Kosovo),[20] combined with the large Jewish communities of the other Yugoslav territories, numbering some 51,700. In the inter-war years (1919–1939), the Jewish communities of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia flourished.

Prior to World War II, some 31,000 Jews lived in Vojvodina. In Belgrade, Jewish community was 10,000-strong, 80% being Ladino-speaking Sephardi Jews, and 20% being Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews.[citation needed]

The Vidovdan Constitution guaranteed equality to Jews, and the law regulated their status as a religious community.[21]

World War II

[edit]
Monument in Novi Sad dedicated to killed Jewish and Serb civilians in 1942 raid

The Kingdom of Yugoslavia attempted to maintain neutrality during the period preceding World War II. Milan Stojadinović, the prime minister, tried to actively woo Adolf Hitler while maintaining the alliance with former Entente Powers, UK and France. Nonwithstanding overtures to Germany, Yugoslav policy was not anti-Semitic: for instance, Yugoslavia opened its borders to Austrian Jews following the Anschluss.[22] Under increasing pressure to yield to German demands for safe passage of its troops to Greece, Yugoslavia signed the Tripartite Pact with Germany and Italy, like Bulgaria and Hungary. Unlike the other two, the signatory government of Maček and Cvetković was overthrown three days later in a British-supported coup of patriotic, anti-German generals. The new government immediately rescinded the Yugoslav signature on the Pact and called for strict neutrality. German response was swift and brutal: Belgrade was bombed without the declaration of war on 6 April 1941 and German, Italian, Hungarian and Bulgarian troops invaded Yugoslavia.

Holocaust

[edit]
See also: The Holocaust in Serbia
Concentration camps in Yugoslavia in World War II

In Serbia, German occupiers established concentration camps and extermination policies with the assistance of the puppet government of Milan Nedić.[23]

The Nazi genocide against Yugoslav Jews began in April 1941.[24] The state of Serbia was completely occupied by the Nazis. The main race laws in the State of Serbia were adopted on 30 April 1941: the Legal Decree on Racial Origins (Zakonska odredba o rasnoj pripadnosti). Jews from Srem were sent to Croatian camps, as were many Jews from other parts of Serbia. In rump Serbia, Germans proceeded to round up Jews of Banat and Belgrade, setting up a concentration camp across the river Sava, in the Syrmian part of Belgrade, then given to Independent State of Croatia. The Sajmište concentration camp was established to process and eliminate the captured Jews and Serbs. As a result, Emanuel Schäfer, commander of the Security Police and Gestapo in Serbia, famously cabled Berlin after last Jews were killed in May 1942:

"Serbien ist judenfrei."[25]

Similarly. Harald Turner of the SS stated in 1942 that:

"Serbia is the only country in which the Jewish question and the Gypsy question has been solved."[26]

By the time Serbia and Yugoslavia were liberated in 1944, most of the Serbian Jewry had been murdered. Of the 82,500 Jews of Yugoslavia alive in 1941, only 14,000 (17%) survived the Holocaust.[3] Of the Jewish population of 16,000 in the territory controlled by Nazi puppet government of Milan Nedić, police and secret services murdered approximately 14,500.[27][28]

There was a similar persecution of Jews in the territory of present-day Vojvodina, which was annexed by Hungary. In the 1942 raid in Novi Sad, the Hungarian troops killed many Jewish and non-Jewish Serb civilians in Bačka.

Historian Christopher Browning who attended the conference on the subject of Holocaust and Serbian involvement stated:[29]

Serbia was the only country outside Poland and the Soviet Union where all Jewish victims were killed on the spot without deportation, and was the first country after Estonia to be declared "Judenfrei", a term used by the Nazis during the Holocaust to denote an area free of all Jews.

Serbian civilians were involved in saving thousands of Yugoslavian Jews during this period. Miriam Steiner-Aviezer, a researcher into Yugoslavian Jewry and a member of Yad Vashem's Righteous Gentiles committee states: "The Serbs saved many Jews."[30] As of 2022, Yad Vashem recognizes 139 Serbians as Righteous Among Nations, the highest number among Balkan countries.[31][32]

Chetniks

[edit]

According to Yad Vashem, the Chetniks initially had an ambivalent attitude towards Jews and, given their status early in the war as a resistance movement against Nazi occupation, a number of Jews served among the Chetnik ranks.[33] As the Yugoslav Partisans grew in number and power, the anti-communist Chetniks became increasingly collaborationist and Jewish Chetniks switched to the partisan ranks. Subsequently, after the first half of 1942, Chetnik propaganda with chauvinist and antisemitic themes became a constant.[34] In various places in Serbia in the period from the middle of 1942, several hundred Jews were hiding, mostly women and children. According to the testimonies of surviving Jews, the Chetniks of Draža Mihailović persecuted the Jews in that area, and took part in their killing.[35] On many occasions, the Chetniks also handed them over to the Germans.[36]

Socialist Yugoslavia

[edit]
Belgrade Synagogue
Novi Sad Synagogue

The Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia was formed in the aftermath of World War II to coordinate the Jewish communities of post-war Yugoslavia and to lobby for the right of Jews to immigrate to Israel.[37] More than half of Yugoslav survivors chose to immigrate to Israel after World War II.

The Jewish community of Serbia, and indeed of all constituent republics in Yugoslavia, was maintained by the unifying power of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia. This power stopped with the breakup of Yugoslavia in the 1990s.

Yugoslav wars

[edit]

Prior to the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s, approximately 2,500 Jews lived in Serbia,[3] mostly in Belgrade.

The Jews of Serbia lived relatively peacefully in Yugoslavia between World War II and the 1990s, when the end of the Cold War caused the breakup of Yugoslavia and ensuing civil wars.

During the Yugoslav Wars, and international sanctions many Jews chose to immigrate to Israel and the United States. During the NATO bombing in 1999, the Federation of Jewish Communities in Yugoslavia relocated many of Belgrade's Jewish elderly, women and children to Budapest, Hungary for their safety; many of them emigrated permanently.[5]

David Bruce Macdonald states that Serbian nationalists used Jewish imagery, such as the Legend of Masada, in order to justify claims of Kosovo by comparing anti-semitism and serbophobia.[38] This theory is supported by Jovan Byford who writes that Serbian nationalists used the Jewish question for the martyrdom myth characteristic of Serbian nationalist discourse in the 1980s.[39]

Modernity

[edit]

Manifestations of antisemitism in Serbia are relatively rare and isolated. According to the US State Department Report on Human Rights practices in Serbia for 2006: "Jewish leaders in Serbia reported rare incidents of anti-Semitism, including anti-Semitic graffiti, vandalism, small circulation anti-Semitic books, and Internet postings", incidents which must be viewed in the context of small but growing anti-Semitism in Serbia.[40] In 2013, downtown Belgrade was covered by posters, reportedly distributed by the Serbian branch of Blood & Honour, accusing Jews of being responsible for the 1999 bombing of the former Yugoslavia.[41]

The Serbian government recognizes Judaism as one of the seven "traditional" religious communities of Serbia.[42] The only remaining functioning synagogues in Serbia are the Belgrade Synagogue and the Subotica Synagogue.

Demographics

[edit]
Ruma's Jewish community's children in 1920
Kladovo transport monument

Censuses:[43]

  • 1953: 1,504
  • 1961: 1,250
  • 1971: 1,128
  • 1981: 683
  • 1991: 1,107
  • 2002: 1,185 (excluding Kosovo)
  • 2011: 787 (excluding Kosovo)

In the 2011 census 787 people declared themselves as Jewish,[1] while 578 stated their religion as Judaism.[44] About half of them live in Belgrade alone, while almost all the rest are found in Vojvodina (especially in its three largest cities: Novi Sad, Subotica and Pančevo). The results of the 2002 census based on ethnicity and 2011 census based on religion are displayed below:

City/Region Jewish
population[45]		 Total
population
Belgrade 415 1,576,124
Novi Sad 400 299,294
Subotica 89 148,401
Pančevo 42 127,162
Rest of Serbia 239 5,646,314
Total 1,185 7,498,001
City/Region Judaism[44] Total
population
Belgrade 286 1,659,440
Novi Sad 84 341,625
Subotica 75 141,554
Pančevo 31 123,414
Rest of Serbia 102 4,920,829
Total 578 7,186,862

Notable people

[edit]
Tommy Lapid reporting from Adolf Eichmann's trial, Jerusalem 1961
Ruben Fuks, President of the Federation of Jewish Communities in Serbia, 2013
Halbrohr Tamás

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "2011 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Serbia: Population according to ethnicity – "Others" – ethnic groups with less than 2.000 members and multiple declared ethnicity" (PDF). Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
  2. ^ "Serbia: magnificent Subotica synagogue officially reopened". Jewish Heritage Europe. 27 March 2018.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g "Virtual Jewish History Tour – Serbia and Montenegro". Jewish virtual library.
  4. ^ "The Jewish Community of Belgrade". The Museum of the Jewish People at Beit Hatfutsot. Archived from the original on 23 January 2020. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
  5. ^ a b "Synagogues Without Jews – Croatia and Serbia". Beit Hatfutsot. Archived from the original on 29 April 2006.
  6. ^ Sachar, Howard M. (2013). Farewell Espana: The World of the Sephardim Remembered. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. p. 268. ISBN 978-0-8041-5053-8. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  7. ^ Jovan Byford; (1995) Potiskivanje i poricanje antisemitizma: Secanje na vladiku Nikolaja Velimirovica u savremenoj srpskoj pravoslavnoj kulturi(in Serbian) p. 103-104; Helsinški odbor za ljudska prava u Srbiji, Beograd, ISBN 86-7208-117-X [1]
  8. ^ Rozen, Minna (2002). The last Ottoman century and beyond: the Jews in Turkey and the Balkans 1808–1945 : proceedings of the International Conference on "The Jewish Communities in the Balkans and Turkey in the 19th and 20th Centuries through the End of World War II," the Goldstein-Goren Diaspora Research Center, Tel Aviv University, June 5–8, 1995. Tel Aviv University, The Goldstein-Goren Diaspora Research Center, The Chair for the History and Culture of the Jews of Salonika and Greece. p. 187. ISBN 978-965-338-045-5. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  9. ^ Lebel, G'eni (2007). Until "the Final Solution": The Jews in Belgrade 1521 – 1942. Avotaynu. p. 81. ISBN 978-1-886223-33-2. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  10. ^ "News in Brief", The Times, 22 February 1877
  11. ^ "Servia", The Times, 22 February 1877
  12. ^ Hajdarpasic, Edin (2015). Whose Bosnia?: Nationalism and Political Imagination in the Balkans, 1840–1914. Cornell University Press. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-5017-0111-5. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  13. ^ Vashem, Yad (2001). The Encyclopedia of Jewish Life Before and During the Holocaust: A-J. NYU Press. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8147-9376-3. Retrieved 1 January 2020.
  14. ^ "Choir "Baruch Brothers"". Jewish Community of Belgrade.
  15. ^ "The Baruch Brothers Choir: Serbian Jewry's 136-Year-Old Singing Group". Retrieved 25 November 2018.
  16. ^ "Exhibition "Jews of Serbia in WWI" opens in Belgrade". Tanjug. 5 September 2014.
  17. ^ С, Д. Ј. "Обнова споменика Јеврејима – српским војницима". Politika Online. Retrieved 22 January 2021.
  18. ^ Sekelj, Laslo (1981). "ANTISEMITIZAM U JUGOSLAVIJI (1918—1945)". Rev. Za Soc. XI.
  19. ^ "Veličanstvena sinagoga za molitvu, učenje i okupljanje".
  20. ^ Romano, Jaša (1980). Jews of Yugoslavia 1941–1945. Federation of Jewish Communities of Yugoslavia. pp. 573–590.
  21. ^ Sekelj, Laslo (1981). "ANTISEMITIZAM U JUGOSLAVIJI (1918—1945)". Rev. Za Soc. XI.
  22. ^ Schneider, Gertrude (1995). Exile and Destruction: The Fate of Austrian Jews, 1938–1945. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 53. ISBN 9780275951399.
  23. ^ Ljubica Stefan (1995). "Anti-semitism in Serbia During the World War II". An International Symposium "SOUTHEASTERN EUROPE 1918–1995". Knjige HIC. Archived from the original on 4 September 2019. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
  24. ^ Mitrović, M.; Timofejev, A.; Petaković, J. Holocaust in Serbia 1941–1944.
  25. ^ Lituchy, Barry M. (2006). Jasenovac and the Holocaust in Yugoslavia: analyses and survivor testimonies. Jasenovac Research Institute. p. xxxiii. ISBN 9780975343203.
  26. ^ Dwork, Debórah; Robert Jan Pelt; Robert Jan Van Pelt (2003). Holocaust: a history. New York, N.Y.: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 184. ISBN 0-393-32524-5.
  27. ^ Encyclopedia of the Holocaust. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company. 1990.
  28. ^ Ristović, Milan (2010), "Jews in Serbia during World War Two" (PDF), Serbia. Righteous among Nations, Jewish Community of Zemun, archived from the original (PDF) on 1 February 2014
  29. ^ Browning, Christopher (29 May 2012). "Serbia WWII Death Camp to 'Multicultural' Development?". Arutz Sheva – Israel National News. Retrieved 9 April 2013.
  30. ^ Derfner, Larry; Sedan, Gil (9 April 1999). "Why is Israel waffling on Kosovo?". Jweekly.
  31. ^ "Names of Righteous by Country". www.yadvashem.org. Jerusalem: Yad Vashem. 1 January 2022. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
  32. ^ "The Righteous Among The Nations: Names and Numbers of Righteous Among the Nations – per Country & Ethnic Origin". Yad Vashem. 1 January 2014. Archived from the original on 13 October 2016. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
  33. ^ "Chetniks" (PDF). Yad Vashem - The World Holocaust Remembrance Center. Retrieved 29 December 2023.
  34. ^ Hoare n.d. {Chauvinist and antisemitic themes in Chetnik propaganda were not confined to the winter and spring of 1941–42, but remained a constant in the months and years that followed – an integral element in a movement whose goal was an ethnically pure Great Serbia inhabited solely by Orthodox Serbs}
  35. ^ Lowenthal, Zdenko; Kovac, Teodor, eds. (1957). The Crimes of the Fascist Occupants and Their Collaborators against Jews in Yugoslavia. Belgrade: Federation of Jewish Communities of the Federative People's Republic of Yugoslavia.
  36. ^ Hoare n.d. {As the Encyclopedia of the Holocaust notes: ‘As the Chetniks increased their cooperation with the Germans, their attitude toward the Jews in the areas under their control deteriorated, and they identified the Jews with the hated Communists. There were many instances of Chetniks murdering Jews or handing them over to the Germans.’}
  37. ^ "Jews of the Former Yugoslavia After the Holocaust". Jewish virtual library.
  38. ^ Macdonald, David Bruce (2002). Balkan Holocausts?: Serbian and Croatian Victim Centered Propaganda and the War in Yugoslavia. Manchester University Press. pp. 74, 174. ISBN 978-0-7190-6467-8. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
  39. ^ Byford, Jovan (2008). Denial and Repression of Antisemitism: Post-communist Remembrance of the Serbian Bishop Nikolaj Velimirovi?. Central European University Press. pp. 118, 137. ISBN 978-963-9776-15-9. Retrieved 16 January 2020.
  40. ^ "Country Reports on Human Rights Practices, Serbia". 2006.
  41. ^ "Anti-Semitic posters in downtown Belgrade". B92/Tanjug. 30 March 2013. Archived from the original on 1 April 2013.
  42. ^ International Religious Freedom Report 2005, Serbia and Montenegro (includes Kosovo) (released by US Department of State)
  43. ^ "Ethno-confessional and language mosaic of Serbia" (PDF). Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 2014.
  44. ^ a b "2011 Census of Population, Households and Dwellings in the Republic of Serbia: Religion, Mother Tongue and Ethnicity" (PDF). Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia. 2013. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 July 2014.
  45. ^ Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia, 2002 Census Results, p12 Archived 24 February 2009 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ^ Vukica Strugar (3 June 2012). "Seka Sablić: Kad porastem, biću bogata" (in Serbian). Večernje Novosti.
  • "Jews of Yugoslavia 1941 – 1945 Victims of Genocide and Freedom Fighters", by Jaša Romano, from the English summary in the book Jevreji Jugoslavije 1941–1945. Žrtve Genocida i učesnici Narodnooslobodilačkog Rata, Belgrade: Federation of Jewish Communities of Yugoslavia, 1980; pp. 573–590.
  • Hoare, Marko (n.d.). "The Chetniks and the Jews" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 August 2011.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: year (link) Extract from Genocide and Resistance in Hitler’s Bosnia: The Partisans and the Chetniks, 1941–1943, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2006 (pp. 156–162).
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