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Japanese tree frog

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Japanese tree frog
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Amphibia
Order: Anura
Family: Hylidae
Genus: Dryophytes
Species:
D. japonicus
Binomial name
Dryophytes japonicus
(Günther, 1859)
Synonyms
  • Hyla arborea japonica Günther, 1859
  • Hyla japonica Günther, 1859
  • Hyla heinzsteinitzi Grach, Plessed and Werner, 2007

Hyla japonica, commonly known as the Japanese tree frog, is a species of anuran native to Japan, China, and Korea. H. japonica is unique in its ability to withstand extreme cold, with some individuals showing cold resistance at temperatures as low as -30°C for up to 120 days.[2] H. japonica are not currently facing any notable risk of extinction and are classified by the IUCN as a species of “least concern.” [3] Notably, H. japonica have been sent to space in a study that explored the effect of microgravity on H. japonica. [4] Hyla japonica is synonymous with Dryophytes japonicus.[5]

Description

H. japonica are on average 32.81±0.96 mm in length.[6] They have an average skull width of 12.02±0.36 mm and an average skull length of 9.38±0.14 mm.[6] The dorsal body of H. japonica is green and the ventral body is white.[5] H. japonica is also characterized by a dark spot on the upper lip below the eye.[5] Female H. japonica, on average, are larger in size compared to male H. japonica.[7] H. japonica has a dark vocal sac.[8]

Habitat and distribution

H. japonica are found in many parts of Asia, specifically in Japan, China, Korea, Mongolia, and Russia.[5] H. japonica inhabits forest-like environments, bushlands, meadows, swamps, and river valleys.[5] H. japonica, like most frog species, inhabit locations with both aquatic and terrestrial features.[5] This is due to the necessity of the frog life cycle for both water and land. [5]

Changes in availability of native H. japonica habitats have resulted in rice paddies serving as lodging for H. japonica. [9]H. japonica seems to be able to inhabit these rice paddies successfully and have a demonstrated preference for sites high in vegetation. [9]

Behavior

The behavior of H. japonica when exposed to microgravity has been experimentally investigated.[10] These frogs, under such microgravity conditions, would bend their neck backwards. These frogs would also walk backwards, an observation consistent with the behavior of sick frogs.[10] The combination of neck backwards movement and backward walking could be indicators of motion sickness in the frogs.[10] H. japonica were shown to adapt to the microgravity and were able to improve their jumping and perching activity over time.[10] H. japonica, under microgravitational conditions, were also observed to attempt to eat but were unable to ingest the food.[10] All the frogs that were sent to space were safely recovered and were observed to resume normal function after 2.5 hours back under normal gravity. [10]

Diet

Hyla japonica forages in both breeding and non-breeding seasons. H. japonica are known to be opportunistic predators.[7] This feature of H. japonica was discovered through analysis that showed a strong correlation between the relative abundance of organisms in a given environment and the prey composition H. japonica for that environment. [7] The highest percentage of H. japonica’s diet is ants, followed by beetles and caterpillars.[7] There does not appear to be a significant difference in the diet composition between the two sexes of H. japonica.[7] However, during the breeding season, males have a higher chance of having an empty stomach due to the heightened energetic cost imposed by breeding. [7]

Mating

Mating system

Male H. japonica are observed to congregate in leks in an attempt to mate with female H. japonica.[11] A lek is an area where males will congregate in order to perform courtship displays in order to mate with females. Male leks seem to form preferentially at spots with significant water resources.[11] Female distribution appears to be skewed towards male lekking sites.[11] These lekking sites were identified by their extremely high male density.[11] Female distribution does not seem to be explained by other factors like water availability, vegetation, or herbicide levels.[11] The lek model that seems to fit the lekking exhibited by H. japonica is the environmental hotspot model.[11] This is because the sites that had the highest male density were those that had significantly high female encounter rates.[11] Thus, there seems to be some bias of lek location towards areas with high female densities.[11] Females need water for oviposition and the preference of male leks to form near water could be a mediating factor in choosing spots close to females.[11]  

Calling

Male H. japonica will call to signal their presence to females and to compete with other males.[8] Notes of H. japonica calls are made up of fine pulses, and exist mainly at the frequency of 1.7 kHz.[8] H. japonica was observed to make the majority, if not all, of their calls at night.[8] H. japonica also seemed to call when they were located on the banks of rice paddies. [8] Note length and note interval was observed to decrease in H. japonica males when temperature increased. [8]

Preference

H. japonica are observed to prefer more shallow and smaller bodies of water for breeding.[12] H. japonica prefer bodies of water termed oxbow lakes, likely due to their freestanding nature and higher chance of being refilled.[12] Oxbow lakes, which are freestanding and regularly refilled, are likely preferred due to the inability of tadpoles to swim along or against strong currents. [12]

Infection effects on calling

H. japonica is susceptible to infection by Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis.[13] Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection causes a disease termed Chytridiomycosis. Chytridiomycosis is an amphibian disease that has devastated many amphibian populations across the world. H. japonica seems to be susceptible to Chytridiomycosis, however the disease does not appear to pose a high burden to this species.[14] In fact, H. japonica has not been observed to suffer from increased morbidity or mortality from Chytridiomycosis[14] H. japonica in Korea seem to have Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis infection rates from 10.6-16.2%.[15]

Chytridiomycosis has been observed to affect the calling of H. japonica in a multitude of different ways. Number of pulses per note and note duration were both observed to be significantly higher in infected H. japonica compared to uninfected H. japonica. [13]

The increased effort devoted to reproductive efforts by infected H. japonica is an interesting result that warrants further research. Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain the observed behavior. First, this increased investment towards reproduction might be a result of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis driving increased reproduction in order to increase spread of infection.[13] Another hypothesis is that H. japonica increases its reproductive effort in the event that they die earlier due to Chytridiomycosis.[13] This behavior would increase the chance of reproductive success by propagating their genes before they die. [13]

Enemies

Predation by the American bullfrog

Lithobates catesbeianus, colloquially known as the American bullfrog, is an exotic predator of H. japonica.[16] Predation by L. catesbeianus has been shown to significantly decrease the bone mineral density of H. japonica. [16] Because bone mineral density can be used as a proxy for food intake, the conclusion that L. catesbeianus predation of H. japonica exerted a predation pressure that reduced food intake of H. japonica can be drawn. [16] Predation by L. catesbeianus was not observed to induce any morphological changes in H. japonica. [16]

Hyla Japonica on a leaf.

Physiology

Predator defense by toxic peptide secretion

H. japonica have evolved against predation in arboreal environments by producing special Anntoxin-like neurotoxins from their skin.[17] Anntoxin is a 60-residue toxic peptide that inhibits ion channels such as tetrodotoxin-sensitive voltage-gated sodium channels.[18] While these peptides display analgesic properties after binding onto ion channels, they can harm and kill predators after frog skin consumption. Such a mechanism deters predators from further frog hunting.[17]

Cold resistance

H. japonica demonstrates the remarkable ability to withstand extremely cold temperatures.[19] H. japonica is able to survive temperatures as low as -35°C.[19] The majority of H. japonica individuals in a population from the Amur River were shown to withstand multiple rounds of -30°C.[19] These H. japonica were shown to survive at -30°C for up to 120 days.[19] Other frog species at this temperature will accumulate ice, which ultimately proves to be lethal but was not observed in H. japonica. [19]

During the exposure to cold, H. japonica seems to produce glycerol.[19] This production of glycerol increases as temperature decreases.[19] It is thought that this glycerol production plays a role in the cold-resistance of H. japonica.[19] However, other frog species have similar glycerol production, but do not have cold resistance to the extent of H. japonica.[19] Thus, the biochemical mechanism for the cold resistance of H. japonica is yet to be fully determined.[19]

Bone mineral density

H. japonica have also been studied in order to determine the predictive ability of bone mineral density on the physiological well-being of frogs. Frogs with observed bone fractures on CT scan did not have significantly different bone mineral densities in comparison to healthy frogs.[20] Thus, these frogs were unlikely to suffer from bone mineral diseases, and their fractures are more likely attributed to trauma-related injury.[20]

Bone mineral density was strongly correlated to snout-vent length in H. japonica.[20] Bone mineral density was not observed to be significantly different between males and females.[20] This lack of difference can be attributed to the similar eating habits of both male and female H. japonica.[20] H. japonica were observed to have fractures distributed similarly in both their forelimbs and hindlimbs. [20]

Bone mineral density was able to effectively evaluate food status and physiological condition in H. japonica.[20] This finding offers a mechanism for determination of food status for anuran populations.[20]

Conservation

Hyla Japonica standing on the ground.

The IUCN determined that the endangerment level of H. japonica is of "Least Concern".[21] The population is listed as stable and non-fragmented.[21] The IUCN lists some potential threats to H. japonica, which are primarily pollution and related to other environmental factors.[21] Specifically, droughts that will occur at a higher frequency due to climate change will negatively affect the habitats of H. japonica as they rely on inland water to survive.[21] In addition, increased agriculture and land for livestock may displace some H. japonica.[21] H. japonica are reported to be able to survive in other habitats, such as rice paddies.[9] Thus, the effects of this shift in potential habitat are unlikely to affect H. japonica due to the ability of H. japonica to survive in habitats ranging from urban to mountainous regions.[7]

Additionally, climate change increases the potential for ranavirus to spread.[22] This virus can infect many amphibians, as well as fish or other cold-blooded species.[23] H. Japonica tadpoles are susceptible to this infection.[22] Symptoms may include abdominal edema and skin hemorrhaging, as well as liver, kidney, and spleen damage.[22] Since ranavirus is an infectious disease, habitat changes that lead to increased animal-animal contact can spread the virus.[22] Ranavirus-related deaths are increasing among amphibians.[22]

Human application

H. japonica males will space their calls out such that males will avoid calling at the same time.[24] This spacing out occurs in order to allow females to listen to each of the males’ calls. In situations where multiple H. japonica males call at the same time, the female is unable to determine the location of each male calling. This makes mating difficult because the female has to be able to locate the male in order to mate. H. japonica males are able to desynchronize their calls with relatively little central organization or communication.[24]

Humans have studied this ability of H. japonica males to behave in a coordinated manner despite no central organization or communication. Humans have used H. japonica observations in order to design wireless communication networks in order to improve efficiency in situations where no central communication hub is present.[24] This area of science and development is termed “swarm intelligence” and further research is currently being conducted. [24]

References

  1. ^ Sergius Kuzmin; Irina Maslova; Masafumi Matsui; Fei Liang; Yoshio Kaneko (2017). "Dryophytes japonicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T55519A112714533. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T55519A112714533.en.
  2. ^ Berman, D. I.; Meshcheryakova, E. N.; Bulakhova, N. A. (2016-11-01). "The Japanese tree frog (Hyla japonica), one of the most cold-resistant species of amphibians". Doklady Biological Sciences. 471 (1): 276–279. doi:10.1134/S0012496616060065. ISSN 1608-3105. PMID 28058600. S2CID 9770169.
  3. ^ IUCN (2004-04-30). "Dryophytes japonicus: Kuzmin, S., Maslova, I., Matsui, M., Liang, F. & Kaneko, Y.: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T55519A112714533". doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2017-1.rlts.t55519a112714533.en. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  4. ^ Izumi-Kurotani, A.; Yamashita, M.; Kawasaki, Y.; Kurotani, T.; Mogami, Y.; Okuno, M.; Oketa, A.; Shiraishi, A.; Ueda, K.; Wassersug, R. J.; Naitoh, T. (1994-08-01). "Behavior of Japanese tree frogs under microgravity on MIR and in parabolic flight". Advances in Space Research. 14 (8): 419–422. Bibcode:1994AdSpR..14h.419I. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(94)90434-0. ISSN 0273-1177. PMID 11537951.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g "AmphibiaWeb - Hyla japonica". amphibiaweb.org. Retrieved 2022-10-26.
  6. ^ a b Kim, Eun-Bin; Kim, Eung-Sam; Sung, Ha-Cheol; Lee, Dong-Hyun; Kim, Geun-Joong; Nam, Dong-Ha (2021-06-01). "Comparison of the skeletal features of two sympatric tree frogs (Hylidae:Hyla)—Hyla japonica and Hyla suweonensis—using three-dimensional micro-computed tomography". Journal of Asia-Pacific Biodiversity. 14 (2): 147–153. doi:10.1016/j.japb.2021.03.002. ISSN 2287-884X. S2CID 233711067.
  7. ^ a b c d e f g Hirai, Toshiaki; Matsui, Masafumi (1 September 2000). "Feeding Habits of the Japanese Tree Frog, Hyla japonica, in the Reproductive Season". Zoological Science. 17 (7): 977–982. doi:10.2108/zsj.17.977. ISSN 0289-0003. S2CID 86529597.
  8. ^ a b c d e f Kuramoto, Mitsuru (1980). "Mating Calls of Treefrogs (Genus Hyla) in the Far East, with Description of a New Species from Korea". Copeia. 1980 (1): 100–108. doi:10.2307/1444138. ISSN 0045-8511. JSTOR 1444138.
  9. ^ a b c Naito, Risa; Sakai, Masaru; Natuhara, Yosihiro; Morimoto, Yukihiro; Shibata, Shozo (1 May 2013). "Microhabitat use by Hyla japonica and Pelophylax porosa brevipoda at Levees in Rice Paddy Areas of Japan". Zoological Science. 30 (5): 386–391. doi:10.2108/zsj.30.386. ISSN 0289-0003. PMID 23646944. S2CID 6823482.
  10. ^ a b c d e f Izumi-Kurotani, A.; Yamashita, M.; Kawasaki, Y.; Kurotani, T.; Mogami, Y.; Okuno, M.; Oketa, A.; Shiraishi, A.; Ueda, K.; Wassersug, R. J.; Naitoh, T. (1994-08-01). "Behavior of Japanese tree frogs under microgravity on MIR and in parabolic flight". Advances in Space Research. 14 (8): 419–422. Bibcode:1994AdSpR..14h.419I. doi:10.1016/0273-1177(94)90434-0. ISSN 0273-1177. PMID 11537951.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i 김준영 (2015). "Lekking behavior in the Japanese treefrog Hyla japonica". 이화여자대학교 대학원.
  12. ^ a b c Borzée, Amaël; Purevdorj, Zoljargal; Kim, Ye Inn; Kong, Sungsik; Choe, Minjee; Yi, Yoonjung; Kim, Kyungmin; Kim, Ajoung; Jang, Yikweon (2019-11-25). "Breeding preferences in the treefrogs Dryophytes japonicus (Hylidae) in Mongolia". Journal of Natural History. 53 (43–44): 2685–2698. doi:10.1080/00222933.2019.1704458. ISSN 0022-2933. S2CID 213060965.
  13. ^ a b c d e An, Deuknam; Waldman, Bruce (2016-03-31). "Enhanced call effort in Japanese tree frogs infected by amphibian chytrid fungus". Biology Letters. 12 (3): 20160018. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2016.0018. PMC 4843226. PMID 26932682.
  14. ^ a b An, Deuknam; Waldman, Bruce (2016-03-31). "Enhanced call effort in Japanese tree frogs infected by amphibian chytrid fungus". Biology Letters. 12 (3): 20160018. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2016.0018. PMC 4843226. PMID 26932682.
  15. ^ Bataille, Arnaud; Fong, Jonathan J.; Cha, Moonsuk; Wogan, Guinevere O. U.; Baek, Hae Jun; Lee, Hang; Min, Mi-Sook; Waldman, Bruce (17 Feb 2020). "Genetic evidence for a high diversity and wide distribution of endemic strains of the pathogenic chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in wild Asian amphibians". Molecular Ecology. 22 (16): 4196–4209. doi:10.1111/mec.12385. PMID 23802586. S2CID 43246245.
  16. ^ a b c d Park, Jun-Kyu; Do, Yuno (2020-07-15). "Evaluating the physical condition of Hyla japonica using radiographic techniques". Science of the Total Environment. 726: 138596. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.726m8596P. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138596. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32305770. S2CID 216029647.
  17. ^ a b Chai, Longhui; Yin, Chuanlin; Kamau, Peter Muiruri; Luo, Lei; Yang, Shilong; Lu, Xiancui; Zheng, Dong; Wang, Yunfei (2021-09-01). "Toward an understanding of tree frog (Hyla japonica) for predator deterrence". Amino Acids. 53 (9): 1405–1413. doi:10.1007/s00726-021-03037-0. ISSN 1438-2199. PMID 34245370. S2CID 235786405.
  18. ^ Wei L, Dong L, Zhao T, You D, Liu R, Liu H, Yang H, Lai R. Analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects of the amphibian neurotoxin, anntoxin. Biochimie. 2011 Jun;93(6):995-1000. doi: 10.1016/j.biochi.2011.02.010. Epub 2011 Mar 3. PMID: 21376777.
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Berman, D. I.; Meshcheryakova, E. N.; Bulakhova, N. A. (2016-11-01). "The Japanese tree frog (Hyla japonica), one of the most cold-resistant species of amphibians". Doklady Biological Sciences. 471 (1): 276–279. doi:10.1134/S0012496616060065. ISSN 1608-3105. PMID 28058600. S2CID 9770169.
  20. ^ a b c d e f g h Park, Jun-Kyu; Do, Yuno (2020-07-15). "Evaluating the physical condition of Hyla japonica using radiographic techniques". Science of the Total Environment. 726: 138596. Bibcode:2020ScTEn.726m8596P. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138596. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 32305770. S2CID 216029647.
  21. ^ a b c d e IUCN (2004-04-30). "Dryophytes japonicus: Kuzmin, S., Maslova, I., Matsui, M., Liang, F. & Kaneko, Y.: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T55519A112714533". doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2017-1.rlts.t55519a112714533.en. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  22. ^ a b c d e Park, Il Kook; Koo, Kyo-Soung; Moon, Kwang-Yeon; Lee, Jin-Gu; Park, Daesik. "PCR Detection of Ranavirus from Dead Kaloula borealis and Sick Hyla japonica Tadpoles in the Wild". Korean Journal of Herpetology: 10–14.
  23. ^ Lesbarrères, D.; Balseiro, A.; Brunner, J.; Chinchar, V. G.; Duffus, A.; Kerby, J.; Miller, D. L.; Robert, J.; Schock, D. M.; Waltzek, T.; Gray, M. J. (2012-08-23). "Ranavirus: past, present and future". Biology Letters. 8 (4): 481–483. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0951. PMC 3391431. PMID 22048891.
  24. ^ a b c d "Frog calls inspire a new algorithm for wireless networks". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2022-10-26.
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