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Archaeology and the Book of Mormon

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Aztec warriors as shown in the 16th century Florentine Codex (from Vol. IX). Note that each warrior is brandishing a maquahuitl.

The Book of Mormon narrative begins at Jerusalem and follows a route along the borders of the Red Sea, eastward across the Arabian Peninsula, and by boat to the Americas. Joseph Smith said he acquired the Book of Mormon in the state of New York. Between these two bookends, the setting for the main Book of Mormon narrative takes place. There are two major divisions of Book of Mormon archaeology: The Old World and the New World.

The Book of Mormon describes three heavily populated, literate, technologically advanced[1] civilizations in the Americas. The book primarily deals with the Nephites and the Lamanites, who existed in the Americas from about 600 BC to AD 400. It also deals with the rise and fall of the Jaredite nation, which existed in the Americas starting at the time of the Tower of Babel (which many Biblical literalist scholars date to between 3100 BC and 2200 BC) until as late as 400 BC.

Critics and supporters disagree as to whether archaeological findings support or disprove the historicity of the Book of Mormon. Mormon archaeologists and researchers claim that there have been some archaeological findings such as place names, and ruins of the Inca, Maya, and Olmec civilizations that give credence to the Book of Mormon record. Critics and non-Mormon archaeologists disagree with these conclusions and note that the Book of Mormon mentions several animals, plants, and technologies that are not substantiated by the archaeological record between 3100 B.C. to 400 AD in America,[2][3][4][5] including the following: ass,[6] cow,[7] horses, ox, domesticated sheep, swine,[8] goats,[9] elephants,[10] wheat,[11] barley,[12] silk[13] , steel,[14] swords,[10] scimitars, chariots[15] and other elements.

Follow this link for discussion on Genetics and the Book of Mormon [16]

Old World setting

Lehi Trail

The Old World narrative portion has proven much more fruitful for Mormon scholars where there are only two separate, but overlapping theories on the sites described in Lehi's journey to the Ocean, and the identification of locations, such as Nahom, that most Mormon scholars consider to be a confirmed location.[17]

Recent trends in Book of Mormon archaeology have focused on the Arabian peninsula in the Middle East as the early accounts in the Book of Mormon do describe actual locations. Many Mormon researchers are confident that evidence found in Yemen and Oman correlates with the account of Lehi's family's journey southward from Jerusalem to a place on the Arabian peninsula called "Bountiful" by Lehi, where they built ships to come to the Americas.[18]

Another Old World connection to the Book of Mormon occurred in 1997 when an ancient Judean stamp seal was identified as bearing the Hebrew form of the name "Malchiah son of Hammelech".[19] It is argued that this ancient Judean stamp seal belongs to Mulek, a man who is mentioned in the Bible and briefly identified in the Book of Mormon as the only surviving son of Zedekiah, king of Judah.[20]

Lehi's Arabian journey

The Book of Mormon describes a 600 B.C. journey of two families from Jerusalem along the east side of the Red Sea, then east across the Arabian Peninsula from 600 B.C. to 592 B.C. The details and locations encountered on this journey are very clearly described in the text.[21] Through most of the twentieth century, no information was available to confirm the narrative of an encampment at a continually running stream (River of Laman) in a valley (of Lemuel) at the "fount of the Red Sea," of a burial at a place "called Nahom," of a "Bountiful" place on the east side of the Arabian Peninsula where multiple narrative details occur, or of any other detail of Lehi's Arabian journey. In the late twentieth and the early twenty-first centuries, LDS researchers have located plausible candidates for each of these places that they believe correlate with the route of Lehi's journey. Field studies and research on these and other locations related to this subject are ongoing.

Based on extensive text analysis and field work in Arabia, a number of LDS researchers have concluded that plausible locations exist for every important Arabian site mentioned along the route of Lehi's journey. These include, the 'borders near and nearer' the Red Sea, Shazer (where they stopped to hunt), the most fertile parts, the trees from which Nephi made his bow, Nahom, Nephi’s eastwardly trail to Bountiful, and Bountiful.[18]

Most Mormon scholars believe that Lehi and his family interacted with locals during their travels, and even taught the gospel to those they came in contact with.[22] Some scholars even suggest that Lehi's group might have been in bondage to others in the area for a period of time.[23]

People of Lehi

A tribe called the Lehiites (“People of Lehi”) came into existence between the 6th and 4th century B.C. in the area of al-Bad on the Arabian peninsula, and left behinds ruins, including a temple, a ceremonial font and inscriptions.[24] Lynn and Hope Hilton have speculated that the passage of Lehi through this area around 600 B.C. had an influence upon an existing tribe, and that they adopted his name.[25] LDS scholars caution, however, that "far too little is yet known about early Arabia to strengthen a link with the historical Lehi, and other explanations are readily available for every point advanced, attractive and intriguing as they may be to Latter-day Saints."[26]

Valley of Lemuel, River of Laman

The Wadi Tayyib al-Ism, 115 km (72 miles) by trail from Aqaba, is considered to be a plausible location for the River of Laman by some LDS researchers.[27] Another LDS researcher, citing problems with the proposed Wadi Tayyib al-Ism location, indicates that there are a number of other sites along the Gulf of Eilat's eastern shoreline that meet the requirements for this location, such as one of the wadis near the shore at Bir Marsha.[28]

Nahom

Main article: Nahom

The Book of Mormon states that Ishmael, the patriarch of the family that left with Lehi's, was buried "in the place which was called Nahom" early in the journey from Jerusalem to Bountiful. It was also at Nahom that the travelers made a significant change in the direction of their travel from "south-southeast" to "nearly eastward." It is significant that "Nahom" is one of the few places mentioned in the Book of Mormon that was not named by Lehi, thus suggesting that this was a pre-existing place name. This Nahom has been equated by a number of LDS scholars with a location in Yemen referred to as "NHM" (Vowels in ancient Hebrew are spoken but not always written[29]). The name NHM is referred to in inscriptions found on altars dated to about 600 B.C.E.. The altars were found in a location consistent with the location at which Lehi's party would have had to change their route toward the east. The modern name of the location is "Nihm" and it is known as an ancient burial site and is south-southeast of Jerusalem. A turn nearly due east at this location (as described in the Book of Mormon) would bring Lehi's group to the place Bountiful on the eastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula".[30][31]

Bountiful

Main article: Bountiful (Book of Mormon)

LDS scholars believe they have located several plausible locations for the land Bountiful, as well as the place Bountiful where the Book of Mormon says Lehi camped and the harbour where it says Nephi built his ship for the purpose of crossing the ocean to come to the Americas. The location of Salalah was proposed by Hugh Nibley and is supported by Lynn and Hope Hilton.[32] The location at Khor Rori is supported by Potter and Wellington of the Nephi Project.[33] The location of Wadi Sayq (west of Salalah near the border of Yemen) and it's associated harbor Khor Kharfot is supported by Warren Aston.[34]

New World setting

Map showing the possible lands and sites of the Book of Mormon in Mesoamerica

Limited Geography Model

Main article: Limited Geography Model (Book of Mormon)

The Limited Geography Model, formally proposed by LDS scholars in 1984, states that the text of the Book of Mormon narrative itself supports a limited region only hundreds of miles in dimension and that other people were present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival.[35]

After constructing an internal geographical model for the Book of Mormon and then comparing it to other proposed geographical regions, some LDS scholars assert that there is only a single plausible match with the geography in Mesoamerica centered around the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. This area includes the area of current day Guatemala, the southern Mexico States of Tabasco, Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz, and the surrounding area.[36] This region was first proposed as the location of Zarahemla (ruins of Quirigua) in the anonymous newspaper article of October 1, 1842 (Times and Seasons).

Archaeological evidence of large populations

LDS scholars estimate that at various periods in Book of Mormon history, the populations of civilizations discussed in the book, ranged between 300,000 and 1.5 million people.[37] The size of the late Jaredite civilization was even larger. According to the Book of Mormon, the final war that destroyed the Jaredites killed at least two million men.[38] The Book of Mormon describes peoples that were literate, had knowledge of Old World languages, and possessed Old World derived writing systems.[39]

From Book of Mormon population estimates, it is evident that the civilizations described are comparable in size to the civilizations of Ancient Egypt, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome, and the Maya.

Existing ancient records of the New World

Losses of ancient writings occurred in the Old World - in deliberate or accidental fires, in wars, earthquakes, floods, etc. Similar losses occurred in the New World. Much of the literature of the Pre-Columbian Maya was destroyed during the Spanish conquest in the 1500s.[40] On this point, Michael Coe noted:

Nonetheless, our knowledge of ancient Maya thought must represent only a tiny fraction of the whole picture, for of the thousands of books in which the full extent of their learning and ritual was recorded, only four have survived to modern times (as though all that posterity knew of ourselves were to be based upon three prayer books and Pilgrim's Progress).[41]

The Maya civilization also left behind a vast corpus of inscriptions (upwards of ten thousand are known[42]) written in the Maya script, the earliest of which date from around the 3rd century BC with the majority written in the Classic Period (c. 250–900 AD).[43] Mayanist scholarship is now able to decipher a large number of these inscriptions. These inscriptions are mainly concerned with the activities of Mayan rulers and the commemoration of significant events, with the oldest known Long Count date corresponding to December 7, 36 B.C. being recorded on Chiapa de Corzo Stela 2 in central Chiapas.[44] It has been claimed that none of these inscriptions make contact with events, places, rulers, or timeline of Book of Mormon.[45]

Efforts to correlate Book of Mormon cultures with New World cultures

LDS scholars have used the Mesoamerican geographical model to correlate Book of Mormon cultures with known cultures in the region. While such comparisons are performed in order to determine the plausibility of these correlations, it should be noted that neither the text of the Book of Mormon nor the scholars who support it make any definitive claim that the Book of Mormon describes the Olmec or Mayan civilizations.

The Jaredites and the Olmec

See also: Olmec alternative origin speculations

There is no archaeological evidence of the Jaredite people described in the Book of Mormon that is accepted by mainstream archaeologists. Nevertheless, some LDS scholars believe that the Jaredites were the Olmec civilization[46], though archaeological evidence supporting this theory is disputed and circumstantial. Others conclude that the Book of Mormon Jaredites represent an earlier mound builder culture of the Great Lakes region.[47]

Unlike the Jaredites of the Book of Mormon, whose society predominantly situated in lands north of a “narrow neck” of land,”[48] Olmec civilization spread to both the east and west sides of a broad, lateral Central American isthmus (the Isthmus of Tehuantepec) [49].

The Jaredite civilization in the American covenant land is said to have been completely destroyed as the result of a civil war near the time that Lehi's party is said to have arrived in the New World (approximately 590 B.C.). Olmec civilization, on the other hand, flourished in Mesoamerica during the Preclassic period, dating from 1200 BC to about 400 BC. The Olmec civilization suddenly disintegrated for unknown reasons, although archaeological evidence clearly indicates a definite Olmec influence within the Maya civilization that followed (according to Coe). Although the Olmec civilization ended, there are indications that some of the Olmec people survived and interacted with other cultures [50].

While making allowance for the likelihood that Book of Mormon peoples migrated to Mexico and Central America, Joseph Smith nevertheless placed the arrival of the Jaredites in “the lake country of America” (region of Lake Ontario) [51].

The Lamanites, Nephites and The Maya

No strong evidence exists connecting the Maya with either the Lamanites or Nephites of the Book of Mormon. Establishing connections between ruins of the Mayan civilization (for example, Quirigua, Kaminaljuyu, and Tikal in Guatemala, and Copán in Honduras, and Palenque in Mexico) and the cities and civilizations mentioned in the Book of Mormon has been difficult for LDS scholars on a number of fronts. Perhaps the most significant issue is the dating. By Old-World standards, the Mayan ruins are relatively recent; conventional archaeology places the pinnacle of Mayan civilization several centuries after the final events in the Book of Mormon supposedly occurred.

A standard construction practice employed by the Maya was to build new structures on top of older structures. Many older structures are either contained within or their rubble is buried under the structures which were built later.[52] LDS efforts to relate anachronistic Mayan ruins to Book of Mormon cities, however, owes much of its origins to an infatuation with Stephens’ and Catherwood’s discoveries of Mesoamerican ruins, made public more than a decade after the first publication of the Book of Mormon. Stephens made clear his own opinion that the ruins which he and Catherwood came upon, were not of any “great antiquity”.[53] Many enthusiastic LDS either ignored or overlooked this fact.

More than one LDS researcher has pointed out the anachronism and cultural inconsistency of the popular LDS painting depicting “Christ in America” - assuming the work is intended to represent a scene from the Book of Mormon. The painting features the Mayan pyramid of Kukulcan (at Chichen Itza) in the background, ostensibly posing as the Book of Mormon temple in “the land Bountiful”.[54] “Those who look into the subject”, writes one author, “…find that Chichen Itza was a place of untold acts of human sacrifice. Perhaps the painting can be interpreted to represent a visit by Quetzalcoatl to the Yucatan peninsula in the 12th century A.D. or later, but a scene from the Book of Mormon it definitely is not.” [55] The impressive stone complex at Chichen Itza stands in stark contrast to the Israelite prohibition against making hewn-stone altars with steps.[56]

The Nephites

No Central or South American civilization is recognized by academia to correlate with the Nephites of the Book of Mormon. The academically accepted literary setting for the Book of Mormon relates to the “mythic mound builders” of North America.[57] The Book of Mormon makes no mention of Lamanites or Nephites erecting impressive works of hewn stone as did the Maya or various South American peoples.[58] According to LDS scripture, events surrounding the Book of Mormon occurred anciently in the Great Lakes region.[59] The Golden Plates were reported to have been found near this general area. LDS scripture indicates that the voice of the Nephite dead effectively spoke from the dust coincident with the coming forth of the Book of Mormon. It is indicated that the ground upon which Joseph Smith dictated the Book of Mormon record is the same which the saints of the Book of Mormon possessed in life.[60] Numerous aboriginal fortresses of earth and timber were known to have existed in this region.[61]

Systems of measuring time (calendars)

All chronologic dates given in the Book of Mormon are stated in terms of the Nephite calendar. The system of dates used by the rebellious Lamanites is not stated, though the Book of Mormon indicates that Lamanite converts strictly observed the Israelite calendar; inextricably tied to the Torah or Mosaic Law.[62] The highest numbered month mentioned is the eleventh, and the highest numbered day is the twelfth, but the total number of months in a year and the number of days in a month is not explicitly stated[63] Even so, it is evident that Book of Mormon peoples observed lunar cycles, “months”[64], and that the Nephites observed the Israelite Sabbath culminating a seven day week.[65]

The earliest temporal system maintained by the Nephite people is clearly Israelite. This is implied in the fact that they “did observe to keep the judgments, and the statutes, and the commandments of the Lord in all things, according to the Law of Moses.”[66] This would have required observing mandatory Israelite festivals and ordinances at particular seasons according to the calendar which Israel accepted as divinely appointed.[67] The Hebrew calendar is essentially a lunar calendar which tracks temperate seasons in the Northern Hemisphere by allowing a 13th month to be inserted as a leap month when needed.[68]

Most North American tribes relied upon a calendar of 13 months, relating to the yearly number of lunar cycles. Seasonal Rounds and ceremonies were performed each moon. Months were counted in the days between phase cycles of the moon. Calendar Systems in use in North America during this historical period relied on this simple system.[69]

It is significant that Mesoamerica experiences two seasons each year - a "wet" and a "dry season". The Book of Mormon seems to indicate a year in the American Promised Land consisting of more than two seasons, naturally distinguished by weather or climate.[70] As one LDS author points out, this is consistent with the seasonal requirements of the Law of Moses and the placing of Lehi’s covenant land in temperate “northern America” (above and including Jerusalem’s latitude). “In this chosen land it would be possible to keep the “ordinance in his season” as commanded; unlike temperate South America which is seasonally out of phase with Israel, and unlike Central America which experiences a tropical dry season when Israel commemorates their springtime deliverance.”[71] Coon points out that Nephite and Biblical Israelite months (prior to the Babylonian captivity) are similarly numbered, and that the first month of the year in both instances, corresponds to the springtime season of Passover.[72] The first new moon following a critical stage of barley maturation called “the aviv”, designated without undue sophistication, the first of the Nephite / Israelite year.[73]

One of the more distinctive features shared among pre-Columbian Mesoamerican civilizations is the use of an extensive system of inter-related calendars. The epigraphic and archaeological record for this practice dates back at least 2,500 years, by which time it appears to have been well-established.[74] The most widespread and significant of these calendars was the 260-day calendar, formed by combining 20 named days with 13 numerals in successive sequence (13 × 20 = 260).[75] Another system of perhaps equal antiquity is the 365-day calendar, approximating the solar year, formed from 18 'months' × 20 named days + 5 additional days. These systems and others are found in societies of that era such as the Olmec, Zapotec, Mixe-Zoque, Mixtec, and Maya (whose system of Maya calendars are widely regarded as the most intricate and complex among them) reflected the vigesimal (base 20) numeral system and other numbers, such as 13 and 9.

Warfare

LDS scholar Hugh Nibley stated that approximately one-third of the content of the Book of Mormon deals with matters related to warfare[76] Some LDS researchers suggest that the Book of Mormon's account of large-scale warfare has been confirmed by findings in ancient Mesoamerica.[clarification needed][77] Hugh Nibley, on the other hand drew attention to mound builder works of North America as “an excellent description of Book of Mormon strong places”.[78]

Military fortifications

There are ten instances in the Book of Mormon in which cities are described as having defensive fortifications. For example, Alma 52:2 describes how the Lamanites "sought protection in their fortifications" in the city of Mulek.[79]

One archaeologist has noted the existence of ancient Mesoamerican defensive fortifications.[80] According to one article in the Ensign, military fortifying berms are found in the Yucatan Peninsula,[81][82] in the region appropriate to where some LDS scholars[who?] suggest that the wars described in the Book of Mormon could plausibly have occurred. Other researchers find it ironic that such great lengths would be taken to find “Moroniesque”, aboriginal defensive works (fitting Book of Mormon description) so far away from scriptural Cumorah, when such works are known to have existed in the State of New York and eastern United States.[83]

Anachronisms and archaeological findings

See also: Book of Mormon anachronisms

There are a variety of words and phrases in the Book of Mormon that are considered anachronistic as their existence in the text of the Book of Mormon is at odds with archaeological findings.

The text of the Book of Mormon spans a period beginning circa 2500 B.C. to 400 A.D. Each of the anachronisms describes an artifact, animal, plant, or technology that critics and some archaeologists believe did not exist in the Americas during this time period.

LDS scholars and apologists respond to the anachronisms in several ways. One frequent argument is that words chosen by Joseph Smith in the Book of Mormon may have been Old World designations for different New World items.[84]

The list below summarizes the most prominent and problematic anachronisms in the Book of Mormon, as well as perspectives and rebuttals by Mormon apologists.

Horses

A tapir - Some Mormon apologists believe that the word "horse" in the Book of Mormon refers to a tapir in order to explain the anachronism.

Horses are mentioned fourteen times in the Book of Mormon.[85] There is no evidence that horses existed on the American continent during the 2500-3000 year history of the Book of Mormon (2500 B.C. - 400 A.D.) The only evidence of horses on the American continent dates to pre-historic times, but suggests that they became extinct many thousands of years prior to the events depicted in the Book of Mormon (sometime between 12,500 B.C.[86] and 10,000 B.C.[87]). It is widely accepted that horses were extinct in the Western Hemisphere over 10,000 years ago and did not reappear there until the Spaniards brought them from Europe.[88] Horses were not re-introduced to Americas until they were brought to the Caribbean by Christopher Columbus in 1493[89] and to the American continent by Cortés in 1519.[90]

See also: Quaternary extinction event

Mormon apologist John L. Sorenson at FARMS claims that there is fossil evidence that some New World horses may have survived the Pleistocene–Holocene transition,[91] though these findings are disputed by mainstream archaeologists.[92]

Mormon apologist Robert R. Bennett believes that the word "horse" in the Book of Mormon does not refer to the species of horse that modern people are familiar with (Equus caballus), and may refer to animals such as the tapir. He states, "It is ... possible that some Book of Mormon peoples coming from the Old World may have decided to call some New World animal species a "horse" or an "ass." [93] Another LDS apologist notes that horses are featured in 19th century "Mound-Builder" fiction as existing on the American continent prior to the European arrival.[94]

Elephants

Mastodons existed in the Americas, but are known to have gone extinct by 10,000 B.C.

Elephants are mentioned twice in a single verse in the Book of Ether.[95] Mastodons and mammoths lived long ago in the New World, however, as with the prehistoric horse, the archaeological record indicates that they became extinct along with most of the megafauna in the New World around 10,000 B.C. The source of this extinction is speculated to be the result of human predation, a significant climate change, or a combination of both factors.[96][97]

Cattle and cows

Llamas are known to be the only large mammal to have been domesticated in the Americas.

There are six references to cattle made in the Book of Mormon.[98] There is no evidence that Old World cattle (members of the genus Bos) inhabited the New World prior to European contact in the sixteenth century AD.

Apologists point out that the term "cattle," as used in the Book of Mormon and the Bible, is more general and does not exclusively mean members of the genus Bos.[99] Thus, they claim the term "cattle" may refer to mountain goats; llamas; or the ancestor of the American bison.[100] This last candidate, sometimes called the ancient bison, was the most common large herbivore of the North American continent for over ten thousand years and is a direct ancestor of the living American bison.[101]

Sheep

"Sheep" are mentioned in the Book of Mormon as being raised in the Americas by the Jaredites sometime between 2500 B.C. and 600 B.C. Another verse mentions “lamb-skin” (~ A.D. 21)[102] Domestic sheep were first introduced to the Americas during the second voyage of Columbus.

One apologist claims that sheep wool has been found in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica[103] and that big horn sheep are native to North America. Some also suggest that the word "sheep" may refer to another species of animal that resembled sheep.[104]

Goats

Brocket deer - Some LDS apologists believe that "goat" in the Book of Mormon refers to brocket deer in order to explain the apparent anachronism.

Goats are mentioned three times in the Book of Mormon[105] placing them among the Nephites and the Jaredites. In two of the verses, "goats" are distinguished from "wild goats" indicating that there were at least two varieties, one of them possibly domesticated or tamed.

Domesticated goats are not native to the Americas, having been domesticated in pre-historic times on the Eurasian continent. Domestic goats were introduced on the American continent upon the arrival of the Europeans in the 15th century,[citation needed] 1000 years after the conclusion of the Book of Mormon, and nearly 2000 years after they are last mentioned in the Book of Mormon. The mountain goat is indigenous to North America, but there is no archeological evidence that it has ever been domesticated; and it is known for being very aggressive.

Matthew Roper, a FARMS writer, discussed the topic of goats in "Deer as 'Goat' and Pre-Columbian Domesticate." He noted that when early Spanish explorers visited the southeastern United States they found native Americans herding tame deer. Quoting an early historian of Spain, Peter Martyr d'Anghiera recorded:

"In all these regions they visited, the Spaniards noticed herds of deer similar to our herds of cattle. These deer bring forth and nourish their young in the houses of the natives. During the daytime they wander freely through the woods in search of their food, and in the evening they come back to their little ones, who have been cared for, allowing themselves to be shut up in the courtyards and even to be milked, when they have suckled their fawns. The only milk the natives know is that of the does, from which they make cheese."[106]

Mr Roper also noted early Spanish colonists called native Mesoamerican brocket deer goats. He quotes, "Friar Diego de Landa noted, 'There are wild goats which the Indians call yuc." He quoted another friar in the late 16th century, "in Yucatán 'there are in that province ... great numbers of deer, and small goats'".[107]

Swine

The Book of Mormon mirrors two Biblical passages involving swine,[108] and mentions them once in the narrative itself.[109] While this last citation suggests that the swine were domesticated, there have not been any remains, references, artwork, tools, or any other evidence suggesting that swine were ever present in the pre-entrada New World.

Apologists note that Peccaries (also known as Javelinas), which bear a superficial resemblance to pigs, have been present in South America since prehistoric times.[110] LDS authors have similarly suggested North American peccaries (also called “wild pigs”[111]) as the “swine” of the Jaredites.[112]

Critics rebut that there is no archeological evidence that peccaries have ever been domesticated.[113] It is not inconceivable, however, that captured peccaries held in captivity for food or for trade could explain their being listed with Jaredite varieties of cattle. The Book of Mormon does not specifically say the “swine” were domesticated, only that the non-Israelite Jaredites saw “swine” as “useful for the food of man.”[114]

Barley and wheat

Wheat was domesticated in the Old World and was introduced on the American continent by Europeans.

"Barley" is mentioned three times in the Book of Mormon narrative dating to the first and second century B.C.[115] "Wheat" is mentioned once in the Book of Mormon narrative (outside of quotes from the Bible) dating to the same time period.[116] The introduction of domesticated modern barley and wheat to the New World was made by Europeans sometime after 1492, many centuries after the time in which the Book of Mormon is set.

FARMS apologist Robert Bennett offered two possible explanations for this anachronism:[117]

  1. The terms "barley" and "wheat" may actually be referring to other crops in the Americas. To this end, Bennett claims that other crops were given Old World designations by the arriving Spanish.
  2. The terms may refer to genuine varieties of New World barley and wheat, which are as yet undiscovered in the archaeological record.

Bennett postulates that references to "barley" could refer to Hordeum pusillum, also known as "Little Barley," a species of edible grass native to the Americas which was part of the Pre-Columbian Eastern Agricultural Complex. Hordeum pusillum was unknown in Mesoamerica, where there is no evidence of pre-Columbian barley cultivation, but evidence exists that this plant was domesticated in North America in the Woodland periods contemporary with mound builder societies (early centuries A.D.).[118] He states that this information “should caution readers of the Book of Mormon not to quickly dismiss references to pre-Columbian wheat as anachronistic.”.[119]

Additionally, apologists such as Robert R. Bennett also note that the Norse, after reaching North America, claimed to have found what they called “self-sown wheat”.[120]

Critics reject the notion that Hordeum pusillum was the "barley" that Joseph Smith referred to in the Book of Mormon. They also note that the earliest mention of barley in the Book of Mormon dates to 121 B.C.[121] which is several hundred years prior to the date given for the recent discovery of domesticated Hordeum pusillum in North America.

Chariots or wheeled vehicles

Chariots depicted in a Mesopotamian relief circa 2500 B.C. Evidence of chariots or wheeled vehicles has not been found in the Americas.

The Book of Mormon mentions the use of chariots as a mode of transportation five times.[122]

Critics argue that there is no archaeological evidence to support the use of wheeled vehicles in Mesoamerica, especially since many parts of ancient Mesoamerica were not suitable for wheeled transport. Clark Wissler, the Curator of Ethnography at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, noted:

"...we see that the prevailing mode of land transport in the New World was by human carrier. The wheel was unknown in pre-Columbian times."[123]

A comparison of the South American Inca civilization to Mesoamerican civilizations shows the same lack of wheeled vehicles. Although the Incas used a vast network of paved roads (see Inca road system), these roads are so rough, steep, and narrow that they appear to be unsuitable for wheeled use. Bridges that the Inca people built, and even continue to use and maintain today in some remote areas, are straw-rope bridges so narrow (about 2–3 feet wide) that no wheeled vehicle can fit (see image and technology at Inca rope bridges). Inca roads were used mainly by chaski message runners and llama caravans.

Some apologists have pointed to the discovery of wheeled toys left in tombs.[124] Referencing the discovery of wheeled chariot "toys" in Mayan funerary settings, Mormon scholar William J. Hamblin has suggested that the chariots mentioned in the Book of Mormon might refer to mythic or cultic wheeled vehicles.[125] However, several researchers, including W. H. Holmes of the Bureau of American Ethnology suspect that the toys were introduced into the tombs after the arrival of Europeans on the continent. He stated:

"Charnay obtained from an ancient cemetery at Tenenepanco, Mexico, a number of toy chariots of terra cotta, presumably buried with the body of a child, some of which retained their wheels. The possibility that these toys are of a post-discovery manufacture must be taken into account, especially since mention is made of the discovery of brass bells in the same cemetery with the toys." (emphasis in original)[126]

One LDS researcher responds to the lack of evidence with a comparison to Biblical archaeology, suggesting that though there are no archaeological evidences that any of the numerous ancient American civilizations used wheeled transportation, few chariot fragments have been found in the Middle East dating to Biblical times.[127] (apart from the disassembled chariots found in Tutankhamun's tomb) Critics counter that although few fragments of chariots have been found in the Middle East, there are many images of ancient chariots on pottery and frescoes and in many sculptures of Mediterranean origin, thus confirming their existence in those societies. The absence of these images among pre-Columbian artwork found in the New World, they state, does not support the existence of Old World–style chariots in the New World.

Finally, some apologists counter that the debate is immaterial, as the Hebrew word for "chariot" may refer to wheeled or non-wheeled.[128]

Iron and steel

A modern knife with a steel blade. Steel and weapons made of metal were unknown in pre-Columbian America.
Aztec warriors brandishing a maquahuitl, which are made of stone.

Steel and iron are mentioned several times in the Book of Mormon.[129] There is no evidence of steel (hardened iron) or iron production in North, Central, or South America.

Though researchers have shown that primitive metallurgy existed in South America, metal production was only used for adornment purposes. The very earliest metal working dates to 200 A.D. with the Moche culture which is thousands of years after the Jaredite civilization and 800 years after the beginning of the Nephite civilization in the Book of Mormon. Evidence of the production of steel or iron has not been discovered. Metallurgy spread to Central America by 800 AD (long after the Book of Mormon record closes), and never reached North America, where metal working was limited to hammering and shaping metal found in nature.

Between 2004 and 2007, a Purdue University archaeologist, Kevin J. Vaughn, discovered a 2000 year old hematite mine near Nazca, Peru. Although hematite is today mined as an iron ore, Vaughn believes that the hematite was then being mined for use as red pigment. There are also numerous excavations that included iron minerals.[130] He noted:

"Even though ancient Andean people smelted some metals, such as copper, they never smelted iron like they did in the Old World...Metals were used for a variety of tools in the Old World, such as weapons, while in the Americas, metals were used as prestige goods for the wealthy elite."[131]

Apologists counter that the word "steel" may refer to another alloy of hardened metal, based on the English translation of the word "steel" in the King James Version of the Bible - and drawing the parallel between this Hebrew to English translation, and the ostensible translation from Reformed Egyptian to English in the Book of Mormon.[132] Additionally, one LDS writer claims that the order in which the word "steel" is presented in the Book of Mormon (“steel” is listed after “copper” and “brass”, and not immediately following “iron”[133]) would make it more likely that the word "steel" does not refer to an alloy of iron, but one of copper, and would therefore have the ability to rust.[134] It is known that ancient mound building cultures of North American worked meteoric iron.[135]

Metal swords, which had "rusted"

The Book of Mormon makes numerous references to swords and their use in battle.[136] When the remnants of the Jaredites' final battle were discovered, the Book of Mormon narrative states that "the blades thereof were cankered with rust."[137]

Apologists counter that most references to swords do not speak of the material they were made of, and that they may refer to a number of weapons such as the Macuahuitl, a "sword" made of obsidian blades that was used by the Aztecs. It was very sharp and could decapitate a man or horse.[138] However obsidian, a form of stone, cannot rust.

Recording records on metal plates

Main article: Golden plates

In addition to the golden plates from which the Book of Mormon was translated, the narrative itself mentions other writings recorded on metal plates. The difficulty of creating records on metal plates is referenced in the Book of Mormon narrative itself, in which Jacob states: "[A]nd I cannot write but a little of my words, because of the difficulty of engraving our words upon plates."[139]

Recent discoveries in the Old World have provided some evidence that this was an established method for recording information considered important.[140] Copper plates have been used in ancient India to record history. The largest being 3000 plates.[141][9][142][10]

Cimiters

Cimiters are mentioned about ten times in the Book of Mormon.[143] The word "cimiter" (Scimitar) is considered an anachronism since the word was never used by the Hebrews (from which the Book of Mormon peoples came) or any other civilization prior to 450 A.D.[144] As with swords, there is no evidence that native American peoples had metal blades.

The word cimiter (scimitar) has at different times referred to a long curved sword used by the Persians and Turks, a smaller curved knife similar to the kopis of the Turks, or makhaira of the Greeks.

Apologists, including Michael R. Ash and William Hamblin, note that the Book of Mormon does not mention the materials that the "cimiters" were made out of, and they postulate that the word is was chosen by Joseph Smith as the closest workable English word for the weapon used by the Nephites[145] that was not made of metal and was short and curved. Of course, this assumes an unofficial view on the method of translation by Joseph Smith, whereby he had the liberty to choose the best suited word.

System of exchange based on measures of precious metals

The Book of Mormon details a system of weights and measures used by the Nephite society described therin.[146] However, the overall use of metal in ancient America seems to have been extremely limited. A more common exchange medium in Mesoamerica were cacao beans.[147]

Silk

The Book of Mormon mentions the use of silk six times.[148] “Silk” is commonly understood to mean the material that is created from the cocoon of the Asian moth Bombyx mori. It is a foregone conclusion that this material was unknown to the Americas before their discovery.

Latter-day Saint scholar John Sorenson believes that there are several materials which were used in Mesoamerica which the Spanish called "silk" upon their arrival.[149] He alleges that the inhabitants of Mexico used the wild silk spun by a wild silkworm to create a fabric.[150]

LDS apologist Vincent Coon believes that the word "silk" may refer to a fine fabric made of plant fiber, based on comparing the wording in the Book of Mormon with the Hebrew to English translation of the word for “silk” in the King James Version of the Bible.[151] The Book of Mormon plates were ostensibly engraved with a writing system (Reformed Egyptian) that was more compressed than written Hebrew (a language known to the Nephites). [152] Coon suggests that the spoken Nephite language was Hebrew based, and that this was the “the manner of speech” associated with the highly compressed writing on the plates. These engravings included extensive recitations of Hebrew scripture.[153] Coon maintains that the translation of the Nephite plates into the terminology of the King James Bible was deliberate.[154]

Knowledge of Hebrew and Egyptian languages

The "Anthon Transcript", which shows characters transcribed from the Golden Plates (the source of the Book of Mormon). These characters are ostensibly from an unknown language called Reformed Egyptian.

The Book of Mormon describes more than one literate people inhabiting ancient America. The Nephite people are described as processing a language and writing with roots in Hebrew and Egyptian. While Native American oral tradition maintains the existence of some form of pre-Columbian writing among certain North American tribes[155], archaeological evidence shows that the only people known to have developed written languages in America were the Olmecs and Mayans, whose written languages have no resemblance to Hebrew and only superficially resemble Egyptian hieroglyphs.

The National Geographic Society has noted, "Reports of findings of ancient Egyptian Hebrew, and other Old World writings in the New World in pre-Columbian contexts have frequently appeared in newspapers, magazines, and sensational books. None of these claims has stood up to examination by reputable scholars. No inscriptions using Old World forms of writing have been shown to have occurred in any part of the Americas before 1492 except for a few Norse rune stones which have been found in Greenland."[156]

Additionally, linguistic studies on the evolution of the spoken languages of the Americas agree with the widely held model that homo sapiens arrived in America between 15,000 and 10,000 B.C. According to the Book of Mormon, immigrants arrived on the American continent about 2,500 B.C. (the presumed time period of the biblical Tower of Babel).

See also: Linguistics and the Book of Mormon

Apologists argue that the Book of Mormon may not describe the original settlers of the Americas, but a subset of a larger population who settled in a limited region, and that evidence of the knowledge of Hebrew or Egyptian is too sparse to be found. While LDS scripture does not explicitly state that Book of Mormon immigrants were the first postdiluvian people to inhabit the American continent, critics note that this has in fact been a common Mormon presumption in the past. A previous preface to the Book of Mormon (not part of the original text) seems to have been influenced by this tradition.

See also: Limited Geography Model (Book of Mormon)

One LDS researcher believes that the "Anthon Transcript" (an early transcript of characters from the Book of Mormon) seems to resemble some characters in Micmac hieroglyphs[157] This is disputed by Klaus Baer, Egyptologist at the University of Chicago, who called the characters of the transcript nothing but "doodlings".[158]

Compass

The Book of Mormon also states that a "compass" was used by Nephi around 600 B.C. The compass is widely recognized to have been invented in China around 1100 A.D. and remains of a compass have never been found in America.

Apologists counter that the compass used by Nephi (the Liahona) was, according to the narrative, created by God himself and not by the Nephites. They claim that it is possible that the compass used by the Nephites was not copied or used by the civilization, and as such archaeological evidence of compasses may not exist in the Americas. Based on this theory, Joseph Smith would have chosen the word "compass" in his translation of the gold plates as a best fit for the concept of the compass, and as such it is not necessarily an anachronism.

Windows

The Book of Mormon describes that the Jaredite people were familiar with the concept of "windows" near the time of the Biblical Tower of Babel (presumably circa 2000 B.C. See Chronology of the Bible) and that they specifically avoided crafting windows for lighting in their covered seagoing vessels because the windows would be "dashed in pieces" during the ocean voyage.[159] It is claimed that transparent window panes are a more recent invention. The earliest known production of glass dates to 3500 B.C. in Egypt and Mesopotamia, though the specimens are non-transparent beads.[160] The earliest known production of transparent glass panes is much more recent—dating to the 11th century A.D. in Germany[161] which is many hundreds of years after the conclusion of the Book of Mormon record.

Apologists note that the Hebrew word "chalon," translated "window" in Genesis 8:6 in the Bible, refers to an opening or porthole that was covered, but by what is not specified. It is not specifically stated that the window referred to in the Book of Mormon was an opening covered by a transparent material. LDS Apologists argue that the word "window" simply parallels the language of the familiar King James Bible. They claim that a wooden or other covering might have been "dashed in pieces" by the "mountain waves" that would "dash upon" them[162] and that even a thick glass casting would not have provided constant light to the interior of the vessels.[163]

LDS efforts to establish Book of Mormon archaeology

Early attempts

Commencing in the early 1840s, Latter Day Saints sought to support the Book of Mormon with John Lloyd Stephens’ bestseller Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapas, and Yucatan. Stephens’ two volume work was promoted by church members as an essential guide to the ruins of Book of Mormon cities. Archaeological endeavors stemming from this tradition have led to disappointment and confusion among the faithful. In the fall of 1842, an unsigned Mormon newspaper article appearing in Times and Seasons alleged that the ruins of Quirigua, discovered by Stephens, were the very ruins of Zarahemla or some other Book of Mormon city.[164] It is now known that these Central American ruins date more recent than Book of Mormon times.[165] Other unsigned articles followed, including one published shortly after the death of Joseph Smith. Every Latter Day Saint was encouraged to read Stephens' bestseller and to regard the stone ruins described in it as relating to the Book of Mormon.[166]

Additionally, Latter-day Saints have based some of their conclusions regarding archaeology and the Book of Mormon on unproven archaeological data which looked promising at the time but has since been found to be either erroneous and or fraudulent.[167] In recent years, this has caused LDS scholars to take a very critical approach to the work of other LDS researchers on this subject. Mormon scholar John L. Sorenson states that "LDS scholars themselves have attacked the same shoddy scholarship that makes Book of Mormon archaeology a playground for hobbyists."[168] It should be noted, however, that even with LDS methods becoming more erudite, the Central American Zarahemla tradition continues as a major LDS paradigm.

New World Archaeological Foundation

From the mid-1950s onwards, the Church-owned Brigham Young University has sponsored (under the banner of the New World Archaeological Foundation, or NWAF) a large number of archaeological excavations in Mesoamerica, with a focus on the Mesoamerican time period known as the Preclassic (earlier than c. AD 200).[169] The results of these and other investigations, while producing valuable archaeological data, have not led to any widespread acceptance by non-LDS archaeologists of the Book of Mormon account. Citing the lack of specific New World geographic locations to search, Michael D. Coe, a prominent Mesoamerican archaeologist and Professor Emeritus of Anthropology at Yale University, writes, "As far as I know there is not one professionally trained archaeologist, who is not a Mormon, who sees any scientific justification for believing [the historicity of The Book of Mormon], and I would like to state that there are quite a few Mormon archaeologists who join this group".[170] They have, however, led to increased respect for LDS archaeological efforts in the field.[171]

The archaeological investigations of NWAF-sponsored projects have contributed towards the documentation and understanding of pre-Columbian societies, particularly in Mesoamerica. Currently BYU maintains 86 documents on the work of the NWAF at the BYU NWAF website and these documents are used outside both BYU and the LDS church by researchers.

Modern approach and conclusions

Several candidates considered likely by LDS researchers[172] have been proposed for the Middle Eastern sites mentioned in the Book of Mormon. However, fewer distinct landmarks are agreed upon relative to the Book of Mormon’s American setting. LDS scholars, for instance, readily accept traditional biblical sites (e.g. “Carmel”[173]), but there are those who are unwilling to accept the only New World Book of Mormon landmark addressed in LDS scripture, “Cumorah”,[174] because it does not fit the popular Mesoamerican model. Not accepting this landmark makes LDS study in the Western Hemisphere less definite—without a single fixed reference. Because of confusion brought about by attempts to establish a New World archaeology, most Mormon scholars now take a different approach: analyze archaeological findings for parallels and correlations with information found in the Book of Mormon. Although LDS scholars have found no indisputable proof of the book's historicity, they have accumulated a large amount of research to support their conclusions. However, many unanswered questions still remain; and non-Mormon scholars, historians, and archaeologists have concluded that the body of evidence found evidence disputes the conclusions of the LDS scholars, and the historical authenticity of the Book of Mormon itself.

In addition to the search for supporting physical evidence, John L. Sorenson has attempted to apply a "flesh-and-blood" reality to the cultures in the Book of Mormon. This approach uses what the authors refer to as "contextual knowledge" in order to establish a plausible setting for the cultural events of the Book of Mormon within the context of known Mesoamerican historical settings. The goal is to determine places and times at which Book of Mormon events occurred that correlate with similar events in the Mesoamerican historical record.[175]

LDS cultural belief regarding Book of Mormon archaeology

Traditional views of New World population

Most members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints accept the historicity of the Book of Mormon claim that ancient Israelites traveled to the Americas. Some church members believe that the three groups mentioned in the Book of Mormon exclusively populated an empty North and South American Continent. This belief was held by several early members of the church and has persisted to some extent to the present.[176] This view was incorporated by Orson Pratt into his footnotes for the 1879 edition of the Book of Mormon. This view implies an essentially empty America into which the first of the three migrants, the Jaredites, came after leaving the Tower of Babel. However, the LDS Church never gave an official interpretation of the Book of Mormon geography[citation needed], and the geographical footnotes were removed from the 1920 and all subsequent editions of the Book of Mormon. Beginning in the early twentieth century, the traditional claim that the migrations described in the Book of Mormon were the means by which the Western Hemisphere was populated became less prevalent. Whereas early members of the church had used the terms "Lamanite" and "Indian" interchangeably, a 1938 church study guide asserted that "all the Book of Mormon text requires" is a "Hebrew origin for at least a part of Indian ancestry".[177] In the mid-twentieth century Mormon scholar Hugh Nibley proposed that all pre-Columbian remains need not belong to Book of Mormon people and that the notion that the "only people permitted in the hemisphere before Columbus were either descendants of Lehi or of Jared and his brother" was incorrect.[178] John Sorenson demonstrated that the change from the traditional Mormon teaching to the more limited geographical interpretation continued to make headway and that the majority of Mormon authors had come to believe in the new limited geographic interpretation by the mid-twentieth century.[179]

LDS academic views of New World population

LDS scholars, however, have long taken a more critical view regarding the assumption that no other people were present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival.

  • In 1927, Janne M. Sjödahl stated that "students of the Book of Mormon should be cautioned against the error of supposing that all the American Indians are the descendants of Lehi, Mulek and their companions."[180]
  • In 1938 a church study guide for the Book of Mormon stated that "the Book of Mormon deals only with the history and expansion of three small colonies which came to America, and it does not deny or disprove the possibility of other immigrations, which probably would be unknown to its writers."[181]
  • From 1952 onward, LDS scholar Hugh Nibley repeatedly argued that the assumption that there were no other people present in the New World at the time of Lehi's arrival might be incorrect.
  • In 1980 Nibley, referring to archaeological evidence, stated that the assumption of an empty New World represented a "simplistic reading" of the Book of Mormon.[182] By the middle of the twentieth century, most LDS authors held the belief that the Book of Mormon events took place within a limited region in Mesoamerica and that others were present on the continent at the time of Lehi's arrival.[183]
  • This geographical and population model was formally published in the official church magazine, The Ensign, in September 1984[184] and was followed by a book on the subject by LDS anthropologist John L. Sorenson in 1985.[185]

Efforts to correlate ruins and artifacts

Artifacts

Izapa Stela 5

Main article: Izapa Stela 5

In the early 1950s, M. Wells Jakeman of the BYU Department of Archaeology suggested that a complicated scene carved on Stela 5 in Izapa was a depiction of a Book of Mormon event called Lehi's dream, which features a vision of the tree of life.[186] This interpretation is disputed by other Mormon and non-Mormon scholars.[187] Julia Guernsey Kappelman, author of a definitive work on Izapan culture, finds that Jakeman's research "belies an obvious religious agenda that ignored Izapa Stela 5's heritage".[188]

Other artifacts

LDS researcher John Sorenson claims that one artifact, La Venta Stela 3, depicts a person with Semitic features ("striking beard and beaked nose").[189] LDS researchers[who?] have claimed that Copan Stela B depicts elephants; others claim it depicts macaws.[190][191]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ See for example Jarom 1:8 discussing machinery, Mosiah 8:5 and Mosiah 25:5 discussing semi-literateness of the Nephites and Helaman 3:8 and 16 that discusses the heavy population of the Lehite peoples. Similar references may be found about the Jaredites, for which the reader is referred to the Book of Ether [1]
  2. ^ Abanes 2003, pp. 74–77
  3. ^ Wolverton 2004, pp. 84–85
  4. ^ Persuitte 2000, p. 102
  5. ^ Does Archaeology Support the Book of Mormon
  6. ^ 1 Ne. 18: 25, Ether 9: 18
  7. ^ 1 Ne. 18: 25
  8. ^ Ether 9: 18
  9. ^ Ether 9: 18, Enos 1: 21, 1 Ne. 18: 25
  10. ^ a b What is Mormonism? | Book of Mormon Origin | Theology
  11. ^ Mosiah 9: 9
  12. ^ Mosiah 9: 9, Mosiah 7: 22, Alma 11: 7, 15
  13. ^ 1 Nephi 14:7
  14. ^ 1 Nephi 4:9
  15. ^ Alma 18:9
  16. ^ Additionally, critics note that genetic studies show that Amerind genes are almost exclusively of Asiatic origin, name=FagundesFagundes, Nelson J.R. (2008). "Mitochondrial Population Genomics Supports a Single Pre-Clovis Origin with a Coastal Route for the Peopling of the Americas" (pdf). American Journal of Human Genetics. 82 (3): 583–592. Retrieved 2009-11-19. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help) In response many Mormon apologetic scholars and some of the LDS Church's official publications have proposed a more tenuous connection with modern Amerind populations.
  17. ^ See, for example, the documentary Journey of Faith produced by the Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies; see also S. Kent Brown, "New Light from Arabia on Lehi's Trail," in Evidences and Echoes of the Book of Mormon, ed. Donald W. Parry, Daniel C. Peterson, and John W. Welch [Provo, Utah: FARMS, 2002], 55–125, especially 81–85, 88–90
  18. ^ a b Nephi Project Research Discoveries
  19. ^ See Nahman Avigad and Benjamin Sass, Corpus of West Semitic Stamp Seals (Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1997), 55, item no. 15.
  20. ^ Chadwick, Jeffrey R. (2003). "Has the Seal of Mulek Been Found?". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 12 (2). Maxwell Institute: 72–83. Retrieved 2007-04-07.
  21. ^ Southerton 2004, p. 5 "The clarity with which this journey is described has led Mormons, scholars included, to believe that the group traveled south across the Arabian Peninsula to modern-day Yemen or Oman."
  22. ^ There is textual evidence in the Doctrine and Covenants and Book of Mormon that Nephi was involved in missionary work during his travels from Jerusalem to the New World. For example, Doctrine and Covenants 33:8 states "Open your mouths and they shall be filled, and you shall become even as Nephi of old who journeyed from Jerusalem in the wilderness."
  23. ^ Brown, S. Kent (1997). "A Case for Lehi's Bondage in Arabia". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 6 (2). Maxwell Institute: 205–217. Retrieved 2007-01-11.
  24. ^ Hilton & Hilton 1996, p. 75
  25. ^ Hilton & Hilton 1996, p. 47
  26. ^ Aston, Warren (1997). "Review of "Discovering Lehi: New Evidence of Lehi and Nephi in Arabia"". Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  27. ^ Potter, George (1999). "A New Candidate in Arabia for the "Valley of Lemuel"". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 8 (1). Maxwell Institute: 54–63. Retrieved 2007-01-09. This claim was made by George Potter and Craig Thorsted of the Nephi Project on 11 May 1995.Nephi Project
  28. ^ Chadwick, Jeffery R (2005). "The Wrong Place for Lehi's Trail and the Valley of Lemuel". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 17 (2). Maxwell Institute: 197–215. Retrieved 2007-01-08.
  29. ^ Ancient Hebrew Research Center
  30. ^ Jeff Lindsay
  31. ^ Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies
  32. ^ Hilton & Hilton 1996
  33. ^ Book of Mormon Explorers Claim Discoveries, Nephi Project
  34. ^ Aston, Warren P. and Michaela Knoth (1994). In the Footsteps of Lehi: New Evidence for Lehi's Journey across Arabia to Bountiful. Deseret Book Company. ISBN 0-87579-847-0.
  35. ^ Sorenson 1985, pp. 1–48
  36. ^ Sorenson 1985, pp. 35–36
  37. ^ Smith 1997, p. 280
  38. ^ Ether 15:2
  39. ^ E.g. 1 Nephi 13:23 et. seq.
  40. ^ Laughton, Timothy (1998). The Maya. London: Duncan Baird Publishers. p. 26. ISBN 1-84483-016-0."In the late 1560s the Spanish bishop of Yucatan, Fray Diego de Landa, wrote of the Maya: 'These people also made use of certain characters or letters, with which they wrote in their books of ancient matters and sciences. We found a large number of books written in these characters and, as they contained nothing in which there was not superstition and lies of the devil, we burned them all...'"
  41. ^ Coe 2002, p. 199-200
  42. ^ Kettunen, Harri and Helmke, Christophe (2005). Introduction to Maya Hieroglyphs (pdf). Wayeb and Leiden University. p. 6.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. ^ Ibid.
  44. ^ Coe 2002, p. 62
  45. ^ Hougey, Hal (1983). Archaeology and The Book of Mormon. Concord, CA: Pacific Publishing.
  46. ^ Exploring the Lands of the Book of Mormon, by Joseph L Allen PhD printed in the United States
  47. ^ Olive, The Lost Empires & Vanished Races of Prehistoric America, Ch. 3, "The Jaredites - From Babylon to the Promised Land (2000-1800 BC)"; see also Coon, Choice Above All Other Lands, pp. 1-6, 71-72
  48. ^ Ether 10:20-21
  49. ^ Charles C. Mann, 1491 New Revelations of the Americas before Columbus, pp. 236-38. The "Beyond the heartland" section of Wikipedia's Olmec article also contains information on the spread of Olmec culture. Unlike the broad, lateral Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Central America, "the narrow pass" which led into the Book of Mormon "land northward" is described as having water on the west and on the east of it. (Alma 50:34)
  50. ^ Coe 2002, p. 13 Coe states that "much of complex culture in Mesoamerica has an Olmec Origin" and states that an "active interchange of ideas" occurred.
  51. ^ “Traits of the Mosaic History Found Among the Aztaeca Nations, Times and Seasons, June 15, 1842, Vol. 3, No. 16, pp 818-20, Joseph Smith (ED); See also Josiah Priest, “Traits of the Mosaic History found among the Azteca Nations”, pg 202
  52. ^ "Because the Maya had a habit of putting new buildings directly on top of older structures, Preclassic remains are few and far between at sites like Homul [sic] and Tikal that were occupied during the Classic period." David F. Salisbury, "Pushing back Maya origins" taken from [2]
  53. ^ Stephens, John Lloyd, Incident of Travel In Central America, Vol. II, pp. 442-443
  54. ^ 3 Nephi 11:1
  55. ^ Coon, W. Vincent, Choice Above All Other Lands – Book of Mormon Covenant Lands According to the Best Sources, Ch. 6, “Helmets or Head-plates?”, pg. 175
  56. ^ Exodus 20:24 - 26; bookofmormonpromisedland.com_"Ancient Earth & Timber Works of Western NY"
  57. ^ bookofmormonpromisedland.com under “Gross Geographies” see article titled “How Exaggerated Settings for the Book of Mormon Came to Pass” by Coon, W. Vincent (MS Physics, Hebrew language background)
  58. ^ There is no indication that the “walls of stone” mentioned in Alma 48:7 were constructed of hewn stone. The remnants of massive wall piles of stone made by mound builder societies are know to exist in the eastern United State. See for instance May, Wayne N., This Land – One Cumorah, pp.61-68)
  59. ^ (Olive 2000)
  60. ^ 2 Nephi 26:14-16, Mormon 8:23-26, LDS scripture also indicates that Nephite civilization situated near the Great Lakes / Finger Lakes region where the Smith family lived. See Doctrine and Covenants 128:20, Mormon 6:4. Additionally, Doctrine and Covenants section 10 contains a revelation received at Harmony Pennsylvania (less than a hundred miles from the Finger Lakes) in the summer of 1828. Verses 48 through 52 read as follows: “48 Yea, and this was their [ancient saints of the Book of Mormon] faith—that my gospel, which I gave unto them that they might preach in their days, might come unto their brethren the Lamanites, and also all that had become Lamanites because of their dissensions. 49 Now, this is not all—their faith in their prayers was that this gospel should be made known also, if it were possible that other nations should possess this land; 50 And thus they did leave a blessing upon this land in their prayers, that whosoever should believe in this gospel in this land might have eternal life; 51 Yea, that it might be free unto all of whatsoever nation, kindred, tongue, or people they may be. 52 And now, behold, according to their faith in their prayers will I bring this part of my gospel to the knowledge of my people. Behold, I do not bring it to destroy that which they have received, but to build it up.”
  61. ^ Squier, E.G., Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York; See also Coon, W. Vincent, Choice Above All Other Lands – Book of Mormon Covenant Lands According to the Best Sources, pp. 213-218, 225; "Earth & Timber"
  62. ^ Helaman 13:1; 15:4-5
  63. ^ Sorenson, John L (1991). "Seasons of War, Seasons of Peace". Rediscovering the Book of Mormon. Deseret Book Company and FARMS: 250. ISBN 0-87579-387-8. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  64. ^ Omni 1:21
  65. ^ Jarom 1:5, Mosiah 13:16-19
  66. ^ 2 Nephi 5:10; see also 1 Nephi 4:15, 2 Nephi 25:30, Jacob 4:5, Jarom 1:11, Mosiah 2:3, Alma 25:15; 31:8-9, 3 Nephi 1:24-25; 15:2
  67. ^ Exodus 12:1-2; 13:10; see also Coon, Choice Above All Other Lands – Book of Mormon Covenant Lands According to the Best Sources, pp. 69, 106-108, and the section titled “Seasons in the Promised Land and the Festivals of Israel”, pg.116
  68. ^ Coon, for instance cites Alfred Edersheim, The Temple: Its Ministry and Services, pg 136-138
  69. ^ 13 Moons On the Turtles Back. A Native American Year of Moons, ISBN 0-698-11584-8, Putnam and Grossnet Group, 199
  70. ^ Alma 46:40, Mosiah 18:4
  71. ^ Coon, Choice Above All Other Lands, pg. 118
  72. ^ Note that both the Book of Mormon and the Bible agree that Jesus died in "the first month" - Leviticus 23:5-6, Mark 14:12, Helaman 14:20, 3 Nephi 8:5; see also Coon, W. Vincent, Choice Above All Other Lands, Book of Mormon Covenant Lands According to the Best Sources, ch.4, "Joseph Smith's American Israelite Setting", pp. 107-108
  73. ^ Exodus 13:4; see also www.karaite-korner.org/abib.shtml on "aviv"
  74. ^ Marcus, Joyce (1991). "First Dates: The Maya calendar and writing system were not the only ones in Mesoamerica—or even the earliest". Natural History. April: 22–25. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 63 (help)
  75. ^ Coe 2002, p. 59
  76. ^ Nibley, Hugh (1988). Since Cumorah. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book and FARMS. p. 291.
  77. ^ Sorenson, John L (2000). "Last-Ditch Warfare in Ancient Mesoamerica Recalls the Book of Mormon". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 9 (2). Maxwell Institute: 44–53. Retrieved 2007-01-12.
  78. ^ Nibley, Hugh (1988). An Approach to the Book of Mormon. Salt Lake City: Deseret Book and FARMS. pp. 438–439.
  79. ^ Alma 52:2
  80. ^ Coe 2002, p. 100"Bekan in the Chenes region just north of the Peten, which was completely surrounded by massive defensive earthworks some time between the second and fourth centuries B.C. These consist of a ditch and inner rampart, with a total height of 38 ft (11.6 m), and would have been formidable...if the rampart had been surmounted by a palisade."
  81. ^ Ensign September 1984, p. 28.
  82. ^ Becán: Aerial Photo 1
  83. ^ See for instance Ephraim George Squier, Aboriginal Monuments of the State of New York, Originally published in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. 2, 1849; Coon, Vincent, Choice Above All Other Lands, pp. 213-217, 225, 231; May, Wayne, THIS LAND – Only One Cumorah, Ch. 1, “The Battlefield of Jaredites (and the Nephites) by E. Cecil McGavin and Willard Bean”, pg.17, Ch.2 “Cumorah Land”, pg. 31; Olive, P.C., The Lost Lands of the Book of Mormon, Ch. 15, “The Antiquities of Western New York”, pg. 283
  84. ^ "For example, the Spanish called the fruit of the prickly pear cactus a "fig," and emigrants from England called maize "corn," an English term referring to grains in general. A similar practice may have been employed when Book of Mormon people encountered New World plant species for the first time." Bennett 2000
  85. ^ 1 Ne. 18: 25; 2 Ne. 12: 7 (cf. Isa. 2:7); 2 Ne. 15: 28 (cf. Isa. 5:28); Enos 1: 21; Alma 18: 9-10, 12; Alma 20: 6; 3 Ne. 3: 22; 3 Ne. 4: 4; 3 Ne. 6: 1; 3 Ne. 21: 14; Ether 9: 19
  86. ^ Guthrie, R. Dale. "Rapid body size decline in Alaskan Pleistocene horses before extinction". Nature. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
  87. ^ Baker, Barry W. "Late Pleistocene Horse (Equus sp.) from the Wilson-Leonard Archaeological Site, Central Texas" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-12-10. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  88. ^ R. Dale Guthrie, New carbon dates link climatic change with human colonization and Pleistocene extinctions, Nature 441 (11 May 2006), 207-209.
  89. ^ Kirkpatrick, Jay F. "Wild Horses as Native North American Wildlife". Retrieved 2006-12-10. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  90. ^ Singer, Ben. "A brief history of the horse in America; Horse phylogeny and evolution". Canadian Geographic Magazine. Retrieved 2006-12-10.
  91. ^ see references cited in John L. Sorenson, An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon (Salt Lake City: Deseret Book Company, 1996), 295, n.63.
  92. ^ Peterson Daniel C. and Roper, Matthew "Ein Heldenleben? On Thomas Stuart Ferguson as an Elias for Cultural Mormons" FARMS Review: Volume - 16, Issue - 1[3]
  93. ^ (Robert R. Bennett, "Horses in the Book of Mormon," FARMS Research Report. [4])
  94. ^ Coon, Species of Animals in Book of Mormon Country; In Cornelius Mathew’s 1839 novel, Behemoth – A tale of the Mound- Builders, the hero Bokulla rides a “wild steed”. (pp. 99-100) Intending to lend credence to the tale, the notes (pg. 191) cite an alleged discovery of a “small iron shoe, like a horse shoe, encrusted with the rust of ages…”. The "iron shoe" is likely a more recent artifact.
  95. ^ Ether 9:19 "And they also had horses, and asses, and there were elephants..."
  96. ^ Diamond 1999
  97. ^ Sharon Levy, “Mammoth Mystery, Did Climate Changes Wipe Out North America’s Giant Mammals, Or Did Our Stone Age Ancestors Hunt Them To Extinction?, Onearth, winter 2006, pp15-19
  98. ^ See for example Ether 9:18
  99. ^ As in the Book of Mormon, Isaiah 7:25 (KJV) refers to goats and sheep as “lesser cattle”.
  100. ^ See, for example, "Plants and Animals in the Book of Mormon: Possible Solutions to Apparent Problems". Retrieved 2009-06-01. {{cite web}}: line feed character in |title= at position 42 (help)
  101. ^ [5]
  102. ^ 3 Nephi 4:7. Other figurative references to sheep exist (3 Nephi 28:22, 4 Nephi 1:33), but only one states specifically that sheep were raised as cattle by ancient Americans - See Ether 9:18
  103. ^ Sorenson, John L. An Ancient American Setting for the Book of Mormon. Foundation for Ancient Research and Mormon Studies, 1996. 296.
  104. ^ "Plants and Animals in the Book of Mormon: Possible Solutions to Apparent Problems". Retrieved 2009-06-01.
  105. ^ 1 Ne. 18: 25, Enos 1: 21, Ether 9: 18
  106. ^ [6]
  107. ^ Deer as "Goat" and Pre-Columbian Domesticate Matthew Roper
  108. ^ 3 Nephi 7:8; 14:6
  109. ^ Ether 9:17-18
  110. ^ Gongora, J., and C. Moran. 2005. Nuclear and mitochondrial evolutionary analyses of Collared, White-lipped, and Chacoan peccaries (Tayassuidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution; 34: 181-189.
  111. ^ ”peccary”, The New Columbia Encyclpopedia
  112. ^ Olive 2000
  113. ^ "Nor were there any animals [in the Americas] which could be domesticated for food or milk...the peccary, or American hog, is irreclaimable in its love of freedom." - Brinton, quoted in Roberts 1992, pp. 102–103
  114. ^ Ether 9:18
  115. ^ See Alma 11: 7, 15; Mosiah 7: 22; Mosiah 9: 9
  116. ^ See Mosiah 9:9
  117. ^ "Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon". Featured Papers. Maxwell Institute. Retrieved 2007-01-19.
  118. ^ Bennett cites, Nancy B. Asch and David L. Asch, “Archeobotany,” in Deer Track: A Late Woodland Village in the Mississippi Valley, ed. Charles R. McGimsey and Michael D. Conner (Kampsville, Ill. Center for American Archaeology, 1985), 44, pg. 78
  119. ^ Robert R. Bennett, “Barley and Wheat in the Book Mormon”, Provo, Utah: Maxwell Institute.[7]
  120. ^ "Fossum, Andrew. The Norse Discovery of America". Retrieved 2009-06-01.; See also “Leif Ericsson”, The New Columbia Encyclopedia
  121. ^ Mosiah 7:22
  122. ^ Alma 18:9-10,12, Alma 20:6, 3 Nephi 3:22
  123. ^ Wissler, Clark. The American Indian. pp=32-39 - as quoted in Roberts 1992, pp. 99
  124. ^ Phillips, Charles (2005). Aztec & Maya: Life in an Ancient Civilization. London: Hermes House. p. 65. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  125. ^ See Pre-Columbian Contact with the Americas across the Oceans: An Annotated Bibliography
  126. ^ Holmes, W. H. Handbook of Aboriginal American Antiquities. 1919. pp=20 - as quoted in Roberts 1992, pp. 100
  127. ^ Sorenson, p. 59
  128. ^ "Mormon Apologetic & Discussion Board: Were Book of Mormon Horses Used For Transportation?". Retrieved 2009-06-01. Michael R. Ash explains:

    Must a chariot have wheels? In Maya battle imagery the king rides into battle on a litter or cloth-covered framework between two parallel bars--a palanquin. The Book of Mormon never hints at riding or mounting a chariot (and it's never mentioned in a military context), so we cannot confidently conclude what a "chariot" designates. Some biblical passages referring to chariots can also be translated as a "portable couch" or "human-born 'sedan' chair," or even portable thrones. The Talmud even uses the term (translated "chariot" in English) for a nuptial bed. Ash, Michael R. Shaken Faith Syndrome, The Foundation for Apologetic Information and Research, United States of America, 2008, pg=141.

  129. ^ See 1 Nephi 16:18, 2 Nephi 5:15, Jarom 1:8, Ether 7:9
  130. ^ Mound 27 and the Middle Preclassic Period at Mirador, Chiapas, Mexico
  131. ^ Archaeologist 'Strikes Gold' With Finds Of Ancient Nasca Iron Ore Mine In Peru
  132. ^ http://www.fairlds.org/Book_of_Mormon/Steel_in_the_Book_of_Mormon.html article by William Hamblin on steel in the Book of Mormon
  133. ^ 2 Nephi 5:15, Jarom 1:8; Coon, Choice Above All Other Lands – Book of Mormon Covenant Lands According to the Best Sources, pp. 183-185
  134. ^ Mosiah 8:11
  135. ^ MOUND BUILDERS & CLIFF DWELLERS, Lost Civilizations series, edited by Dale M. Brown, 1992, pg. 26
  136. ^ 2 Nephi 5:14
  137. ^ Mosiah 8:11
  138. ^ Roper, Matthew (1999). "Swords and "Cimeters" in the Book of Mormon". Journal of Book of Mormon Studies. 8 (1). Maxwell Institute: 34–43. Retrieved 2007-01-11."Spaniards who faced native Mesoamerican swords in battle were deeply impressed by their deadly cutting power and razorlike sharpness."
  139. ^ Jacob 4:1
  140. ^ While the Book of Mormon would be the longest such record engraved on plates found to date, such engraving is a documented ancient method of preservation Lehi's Jerusalem and Writing on Metal Plates As a point of comparison, the oldest known Biblical verses preserved in archaeology are three verses from the Book of Numbers, chapter 6, verses 24-26, that were on a pair of small silver amulets found by Israeli archaeologist Gabriel Barkay at Ketef Hinnom and dated to the 6th century BC, during the same time period the Book of Mormon events are purported to have taken place. Adams 1994, pp. 204–206 See also the Copper Scroll as a type of record written on metal from the Biblical Era.
  141. ^ http://www.pbs.org/thestoryofindia/
  142. ^ http://www.docstoc.com/docs/9507795/pictorial-motifs-of-indus-script
  143. ^ Enos 1:20, Helaman 1:14
  144. ^ B.H. Roberts noted: "The word [cimiter] is of oriental and uncertain origin and appears in various forms. How it came to be introduced into the speech and writings of the Nephites, and how not used in the other Hebrew literature at an earlier date, is so far as I know, unaccountable. The earliest use of the word I have found is in Gibbon, where referring to the alleged incident of finding the sword of Mars for Attila, he there calls that sword of Mars "cimiter"; but that was about 450 A.D." - Roberts 1992, pp. 112
  145. ^ Ash states: "there is enough Mesoamerican artwork and artifacts that display the basic characteristics of a scimitar that the Book of Mormon is vindicated for its usage." See: http://www.fairlds.org/FAIR_Brochures/Anachronisms3.pdf
  146. ^ Alma 11
  147. ^ Coe 2002, p. 132 "[W]ell into Colonial times the beans served as a form of money in regional markets."
  148. ^ 1 Ne. 13:7, Alma 1:29, Alma 4:6, Ether 9:17, Ether 10:24p
  149. ^ Sorenson 1985, p. 232 "The Spanish reported several kinds of “silk.” One kind of silk was spun from the hair of rabbit’s bellies, another may have come from a wild silkworm, and yet a third came from the pod of the ceiba tree. Spanish chronicles report that types of “silk” were spun and woven in Mesoamerica before their arrival."
  150. ^ Sorenson, John L. "A New Evaluation of the Smithsonian Institution "Statement regarding the Book of Mormon"" (HTTP). Maxwell Institute. Retrieved 2007-01-17. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  151. ^ “The Book of Mormon may simply be telling us that there was more than one fine grade of fabric made from plant fiber.” Coon, Choice Above All Other Lands – Book of Mormon Covenant Lands According to the Best Sources, pg. 148
  152. ^ Mormon 9:32-34
  153. ^ ibid, pp. 49-52, pg. 66, pp. 88-89, pg. 178;1 Nephi 5:10-13, Mosiah 1:3-4
  154. ^ ibid, pp. 39-40, 183-184
  155. ^ Coon, Choice Above All Other lands, pp. 37, 49-51, 178; Coon cites Schmidt, David L., and Marshall, Murdena, Mi’kmaq Hieroglyphic Prayers, Readings in North America’s First Indigenous Script
  156. ^ STATEMENT REGARDING THE BOOK OF MORMON, National Geographic Society as noted here [[8]]
  157. ^ Coon, pp. 175, 178; see also bookofmormonpromisedland.com Q&A, "Native American Writing"
  158. ^ Sunstone, (May–June 1980), 30. An early twentieth century scholar said that the "Carators" document looked more like "deformed English." Charles A. Shook, Cumorah Revisited or, "The Book of Mormon" and the Claims of the Mormons Reexamined from the Viewpoint of American Archaeology and Ethnology (Cincinnati: Standard Publishing Company, 1910), 538.
  159. ^ Ether 2:22-23
  160. ^ Glass, The New Columbia Encyclopedia
  161. ^ http://www.glassonline.com/infoserv/history.html
  162. ^ Ether 2:24
  163. ^ Ether 2:25; 6:10
  164. ^ ”ZARAHEMLA”, Times and Seasons, October 1, 1842, Volume 3, Number 23, p. 927.
  165. ^ Scholars date the ruins of Quirigua to about the eighth century A.D. See Quirigua
  166. ^ ” STEPHEN’S [STEPHENS’] WORKS ON CENTRAL AMERICA”, Times and Seasons, October 1, 1843, Volume 4, Number 22, p. 346; See also Times and Seasons, April 1, 1845, Volume 6, Number 6, pg 855
  167. ^ Gardner & N.D.
  168. ^ Givens 2002, p. 146
  169. ^ New World Archaeological Foundation, online collections at BYU.
  170. ^ Coe 1973, pp. 41–46
  171. ^ Coe 1973, pp. 41–46, Michael Coe notes, "There can be no question that the BYU sponsored New World Archaeological Foundation's program has been an unqualified success. Its twenty years of excavations and exploration in Chiapas have put that state on the archaeological map and have established one of the longest and best archaeological sequences for any part of the New World. Credit for this goes to the foresight of [Thomas Stewart] Ferguson and the original directors, but especially to the first-class [LDS] archaeologists who have carried out the program. First and foremost among them, I would name Gareth W. Lowe, who has been field director for a number of years and who has established himself as the outstanding expert in the field of Formative Mesoamerica. And full praise must be given to the generosity and wisdom of the [LDS] Church leadership in providing financial backing for the foundation. 'Mormon archaeology' is no longer something that brings chuckles in Gentile circles."
  172. ^ Christiansen, Ross T. (1978). "Comment". Ensign: 73. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) Aston 1994
  173. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 128:19
  174. ^ Doctrine and Covenants 128:20
  175. ^ Smith 1997, p. 259-260
  176. ^ Coon, "How Exaggerated Settings for the Book of Mormon Came to Pass”
  177. ^ Berrett, William E (1938). A Guide to the Study of the Book of Mormon. Salt Lake City: Department of Education of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. p. 53. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  178. ^ Nibley 1980
  179. ^ Smith 1997, p. 262
  180. ^ Smith 1997, p. 263;Sjodahl, Janne M (1927). "An Introduction to the Study of the Book of Mormon". Salt Lake City: Deseret News Press.Sjodahl also suggested that the Jaredite population may not have been completely destroyed.
  181. ^ Smith 1997, p. 263;Berrett, William E (1938). A Guide to the Study of the Book of Mormon. Salt Lake City: Department of Education of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. p. 48. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  182. ^ Smith 1997, p. 263; Nibley 1980
  183. ^ Smith 1997, p. 264
  184. ^ Sorenson & September 1984
  185. ^ Sorenson 1985
  186. ^ Jakeman, M. Wells (1953). "An Unusual Tree-of-Life Sculpture from Ancient Central America". University Archaeological Society Newsletter: 26–49.
  187. ^ Clark 1999, pp. 22–33
  188. ^ Guernsey, p. 53.
  189. ^ Sorenson 1990, p. 12
  190. ^ Smith 1925
  191. ^ Tozzer & Allen 2006, p. 343

References

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