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Comparison of rugby league and rugby union

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Comparison of rugby league and rugby union is possible because of the games' similarities and shared origins. Initially, following the 1895 split in rugby football, rugby league and rugby union differed in administration only. Soon however, the rules of rugby league were modified, resulting in two distinctly different forms of rugby. After 100 years rugby union joined rugby league, and most other forms of football, as an openly professional sport.[1] One the most prominent differences between the two sports today is that rugby league has a system of limited tackles whereas rugby union does not. Also rugby union has retained the prevalent use of scrums. The inherent similarities between rugby league and rugby union has at times led to the possibility of a merger being mooted[2] and experimental hybrid games have been played that use a mix of the two sports' rules.[3]

History

Further information: History of rugby league and History of rugby union
A cartoon lampooning the divide in rugby. The caricatures are of Rev. Frank Marshall, an arch-opponent of payments and James Miller, a long-time opponent of Marshall. The caption underneath reads:
Marshall: "Oh, fie, go away naughty boy, I don't play with boys who can’t afford to take a holiday for football any day they like!"
Miller: "Yes, that’s just you to a T; you’d make it so that no lad whose father wasn’t a millionaire could play at all in a really good team. For my part I see no reason why the men who make the money shouldn’t have a share in the spending of it."

The precursor to both rugby union and rugby league was rugby football. During this early period different schools used different rules, on many occasions agreeing upon them shortly before commencement of the game.[4] In 1871, English clubs met to form the Rugby Football Union (RFU). Rugby football spread to Australia and New Zealand, with games being played in the early to mid nineteenth century.[5] In 1892, charges of professionalism were laid against Yorkshire clubs after they compensated players for missing work. A proposal to pay players up to six shillings when they missed work because of match commitments was voted down by the RFU. On 27 August 1895, prominent Lancashire clubs declared that they would support their Yorkshire colleagues in their proposal to form a professional Northern Union and the Northern Rugby Football Union, usually called the Northern Union (NU), was formed.[6] The rugby union authorities issued sanctions against clubs, players and officials involved in the new organisation, extending to amateurs who played with or against Northern Union sides. After the schism the separate codes were named "rugby league" and "rugby union".[7]

In 1906, All Black George William Smith joined with Albert Henry Baskerville to form a team of professional rugby players. George Smith cabled a friend in Sydney and three professional matches were arranged between a NSW rugby team before continuing onto the UK. This game was played under the rugby union laws and it wasn't until the team, nicknamed the All Golds, arrived in Leeds that they learnt the new Northern Union laws. Meanwhile in Sydney a meeting was organised to look at forming a professional rugby competition in Australia. The meeting resolved that a "New South Wales Rugby Football League" (NSWRFL) should be formed, to play the Northern Union rules. The first season of the NSWRFL competition was played in 1908, and has continued to be played every year since.

During rugby league's 1921–22 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain, the Northern Rugby Football Union tried to arrange a match in Paris, but opposition from the Rugby Football Union-aligned French Rugby Federation made it impossible.[8] In France rugby league split from rugby union in the 1930s. In 1948 the French instigated the formation of the International Rugby League Board as the world governing body for rugby league. France, New Zealand, Britain and Australia (who joined a few months later) were the founding countries. The International Rugby Football Board (IRFB) had formed prior to the schsim in 1886 and remained the international governing body for rugby union, although it originally only consisted of England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland. Australia, New Zealand and South Africa joined the IRFB in 1948, France in 1978 and Argentina, Canada, Italy and Japan in 1991.

On 26 August 1995 the IRFB, now known as the International Rugby Board, declared rugby union an "open" game and thus removed all restrictions on payments or benefits to those connected with the game.[9]

Rugby union had previously been a medal sport at four Olympic games, in Paris (1900), London (1908), Antwerp (1920) and Paris (1924), and will return to the Olympics in 2016 and 2020[10] in the sevens form. Rugby union sevens is a core event at both the Commonwealth Games and the Asian Games. The oldest international rugby union competition is the Six Nations Championship, starting in 1883 with games played between England, Wales, Ireland and Scotland. France joined in 1910 and Italy in 2000. In 1996 the Southern Hemisphere teams of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand started their own annual international competition known as the Tri Nations; it adopted its current name of The Rugby Championship when Argentina joined in 2012. The major annual international competition in rugby league is the Four Nations, first played in 1999. It originally involved Britain, Australia and New Zealand before expanding to include a fourth invited nation in 2009. Rugby league introduced its World Cup in 1954 and it has been held intermittently since, in various formats. Rugby union's first World Cup was held in 1987 and it is contested every four years.

Etymology

See also: Football (word)

In the United Kingdom, rugby union or rugby league fans rarely refer to their sport as "football" as in most cases this would refer to association football. Across the United Kingdom, rugby union is usually referred to simply as 'rugby' but in the North of England, the word 'rugby' could refer to either sport,[11][12] but usually means 'rugby league'. The nickname "rugger", which developed in England's elite schools, almost always refers to rugby union.

In France, rugby union is called rugby à quinze (rugby with 15) or simply "rugby" whilst rugby league is known as rugby à treize (rugby with 13) or jeu à treize (game with 13) or treize (13).[13][14]

Gameplay

Further information: Rugby league gameplay and Rugby union gameplay

Since the 1895 schism, changes have taken place to the laws of both rugby union and rugby league football so that now they are distinct sports.[15] The laws of rugby league football have been gradually changed with the aim of creating a faster,[16] more entertaining and spectator-friendly sport.[17] Player numbers were reduced to thirteen a side, creating more space for attacking play, and rucks and mauls were replaced with a play-the-ball restart.[18] Changes to the laws of rugby union have been less extreme, although there have been adjustments in scoring as the game become more try oriented rather than focusing on goals.[19] In 2009 major law changes were implemented with the aim of making union simpler and more open.[20]

Rugby union has more laws than rugby league[21][22] and it has been described as being more a complex game.[23][24] Rugby league in turn has been described as a simpler game that is easier for spectators to understand.[25] Mat Rogers, an Australian dual-code rugby international player, has said "Rugby [union] is very complicated and rugby league is much more simple in comparison". England's Chris Ashton, also a dual international, has said that union has "more of a tactical side, more that can happen in a game". Ireland's Tom Court, has said "Rugby Union is a complex game with certain closed skills like scrummaging and line-out lifting and rugby league requires a higher level of fitness to compete at the highest level".[26]

Possession

A big difference in gameplay between the two games is that rugby league has shed from its laws several opportunities for possession to be contested that rugby union has retained: contesting the ball after the tackle, on the ground in rucks and through mauls.[27] When the ball goes into touch, possession in rugby union is contested through a line-out, while in rugby league a scrum restarts play. The lesser focus on contesting possession means there are fewer stoppages of play in rugby league,[28] with the ball typically in play for 50 out of the 80 minutes compared to around 35 for professional rugby union.[29] As the ball is in play more and there are fewer players (13 compared to 15) to cover the field it has been implied that rugby league is the more physically demanding sport.[30][31]

In union a team can hold onto and use the ball for as long as they are able, while the oppositions aim is to take possession of the ball from them. In league each team can be tackled six times before handing over possession. After being tackled five times, the attacking team will usually kick the ball either in an attacking kick or for territory. As the ball can only be contested during a one on one tackle in league there is a greater scope for a turnover to occur in rugby union.[32] A study commissioned by the IRB found that between the years 2002 and 2004 possession was retained by the attacking team in 13 out of 14 tackles in rugby union.[32] Collins has argued that the six tackle rule in rugby league offers a more even distribution of possession despite fewer opportunities to contest it.[32] In both games the attacking team loses possession if they drop or pass the ball forward, which results in a scrum being awarded to the defending team.

In union possession can also be contested at line-outs (played after the ball has gone into touch) and scrums. In the same study it was found that the team with the ball at a scrum regained possession 90 percent of the time, while the team with the ball at a lineout regained possession 80 percent of the time.[32] League does not have a lineout, but does utilise a scrum to restart play. It is uncommon for modern rugby league scrums to be contested, with the side awarded the scrum almost always gaining possession.[33] Possession can also be contested following kicks to restart play from the halfway, 22 metre in both games (and from the goal line in league). Generally league restarts are likely to go for distance unless possession is needed quickly (usually if a team is behind with very little time left to play).[34] Union restarts are more likely to be short to allow players to contest possession in the air.[35]

Possession may change the same ways in both games:

  1. When the ball is kicked to the opposing team, this can be done at any time but it is normal to punt on the last tackle in rugby league.
  2. Following an unsuccessful kick at goal. If the kick at goal misses and goes dead play is restarted with a drop out (at the 22 metre line in union and 20 metres in league).
  3. When an opposing player intercepts a pass.
  4. When the player in possession drops the ball and it is recovered by an opposition player.
  5. If a player knocks the ball forward or throws a forward pass the other team is awarded a scrum.
  6. If a player commits an illegal play the opposing team is awarded a penalty and will receive the ball.

Possession may change in rugby league in a number of unique ways:

  1. In rugby league if the ball goes out of play, the opposition are awarded a scrum. If this is from a kick going into touch on the full this is called ball back and the scrum is formed where contact with the ball was made. Otherwise, under recent rule changes, the scrum is formed 20 metres from the point of touch. Penalties and 40/20 kicks are exceptions to this rule.
  2. If a one-on-one tackle is attempted, the tackler can legally strip the ball from the attacking player.
  3. In rugby league, an automatic handover takes place when the team in possession runs out of tackles.

Possession may change in rugby union in a number of unique ways

  1. In rugby union if the ball goes out of play the opposition may be awarded a line-out. The opposition are awarded a line out if the team in possession kicks the ball out of play and they haven't been awarded a penalty before the kick.
  2. In rugby union the attacking team may lose possession in a scrum, line out, maul, ruck or tackle.

Tackling

See also: tackle (football move)

In both games tackling is permitted to either bring down the player in possession of the ball or prevent them from making forward progress. Tackling or interfering with a player who is not in possession of the ball is not permitted. In rugby union players must try to grasp a player when making the tackle.[36] Rugby league players are allowed to make tackles using just their shoulder (termed a shoulder charge). The use of the shoulder charge in rugby league has been debated,[37] with the National Rugby League doctors calling for it to be outlawed.[38] Tripping with the leg is not allowed in either code. However, in rugby league, if a tackling player has both hands on the ball carrier, he is allowed to use his legs to bring him to ground.

In rugby league, a tackle is deemed to be complete when the elbow of the arm holding the ball touches the ground, or the player is held in an upright tackle. The ball cannot be further advanced and a play-the-ball or handover must take place. In rugby union, a tackle is deemed to be complete when the player in possession is held on the ground; that player must play the ball (either releasing it, passing it, or if over the try line grounding the ball) immediately. In rugby league a play the ball takes place after each tackle. In rugby union, play does not stop when a player is forced to the ground in a tackle, as the tackled player must immediately play the ball, and the tackler must roll away, which will generally mean a ruck will form.

The laws of rugby league specifically outlaw the so-called 'voluntary tackle': players are not allowed to go to ground unless they are effectively tackled by an opponent, though in practice this rule is rarely applied. There was no equivalent law in rugby union, in the past going to ground with the ball and protecting it was practised, but in the modern game deliberately falling on the ground to gain an advantage is outlawed by Law 14: "The game is to be played by players who are on their feet. A player must not make the ball unplayable by falling down." A player who falls to ground with the ball or on it must immediately release or pass the ball, or get up with it.

Scoring

Union and league have the same ways of scoring, but there are significant differences in the points awarded, and few minor differences in the laws governing the scoring of tries.

The try is the main way of scoring in both codes; there are some subtle differences between the two codes, but the most obvious difference is that a try is worth 5 points in rugby union and 4 points in rugby league. In both games, a conversion following a try is worth 2 points. A player tackled just short of the try-line in rugby union can legitimately reach across it and place the ball down for a try. This is not allowed in rugby league unless the momentum of the player continues to take him over the line in one continuous movement. If the tackle is complete, such a move would constitute a 'double movement' and the try would be disallowed.

A drop goal is worth 3 points in union and 1 in league. A penalty goal is worth 3 points in union and 2 points in league.

Field

Further information: Rugby league playing field and Rugby union playing field
A rugby union field
A rugby league field

A rugby league field is between 112 and 122 metres long by 68m wide. The distance between try-lines is always 100 metres. There are lines going across the field which mark every ten metres. An in-goal area extends six to eleven metres beyond each goal-line. At the goal line is a set of goal posts in the shape of the letter 'H', used for other forms of point scoring: drop goal, penalty and conversion. A rugby union field is a maximum of 144 metres long by 70m wide. The length from try line to try line is always 100 metres: the only varying distances on a rugby field are the width of the playing field, and the distance from try line to the dead ball line. Lines are painted at the dead ball line, try line, 22 metre line, 10 metre line (broken line) and half way. Lines are also located 5 metres away from the try line and touch line and 15 metres away from the touch line. At the goal line is a set of goal posts in the shape of the letter 'H', used for other forms of point scoring: drop goal, penalty and conversion.

Players

Further information: Rugby league positions and Rugby union positions

A maximum of 15 players can play rugby union at any one time whereas rugby league permits 13 players.

Many of the positions have similar names but in practice are very different. The position known as 'flanker' has no equivalent in rugby league; rugby league centres are split into left and right centre rather than inside and outside centres.

The reduction in the importance of the scrum and the removal of the ruck and line out, from Rugby League has meant the difference in skill sets and body types between different positions has become less obvious where as in union players specialise more.[39] For instance, props and hookers in rugby union tend to be among the physically strongest players with high levels of scrummaging and mauling skills, but (traditionally) with limited speed and ball-handling skills. In rugby league, props and hookers may be no slower or less adept at handling the ball than other players because they are not required to perform the physical aspects of scrummaging or contesting possession after a tackle and subsequently they are not required to perform the specialist skills of their rugby union counterparts where size is an advantage. Similarly, locks in union tend to be very tall, as this helps at lineouts; while this is not a necessity for league second rows and may even be a disadvantage. Scrum-half is also a more specialised position in rugby union: the number 9 initiates most moves by his or her team and must be an excellent passer of the ball, whereas in rugby league it is common for any player acting as 'dummy half' to do so.

The similarity between the two games has meant that players can switch between the two codes. League initially recruited big name players from union, like Herbert "Dally" Messenger in 1907,[40] and the RFU responded by banning any player that played rugby league for life.[41] A push into converting union players to rugby league, such as All Blacks John Gallagher, Frano Botica and Va'aiga Tuigamala, occurred in the 1980s and 1990s.[42] When rugby union became professional league players were allowed to play for rugby union teams, leading to a reversal in crosscode switching. Gallagher, Botica and Tuigamala returned to union and league players such as Wendell Sailor, Mat Rogers, Lote Tuqiri, Henry Paul and Iestyn Harris, took up rugby union contracts.[42] Sailor, Rogers, Tuqiri, Paul and Harris have subsequently switched back to rugby league. Players who achieve play international rugby in both codes are known as dual-code internationals.

Laws

Use of a 'sin bin' was introduced by rugby league in 1980.[43] Rugby union had been experimenting with the same concept since 1979,[44] although it was not formally sanctioned until 2001.[45]

Video referee technology was first used for rugby league in 1996[46] and for rugby union in 2001.[45]

In rugby league the ball may be thrown or knocked out of play deliberately while in union those are penalty offences. Kicking the ball out of play is legal in both codes.

When taking free or penalty kicks with a 'tap and go' option, rugby league permits a stylised kick with the ball being tapped against the foot or lower leg while union requires the ball to leave the hands of the kicker. This difference in emphasis on a relatively trivial phase of play can be seen as indicative of the core differences between the games. In league, the kick is stylised as its purpose is to restart the game and to move to the run and tackle main play as quickly as possible. In union, where every phase of play has some element of competition, the trivial need to release the ball at any kick can result in a fumble that may give the opposition a chance to either contest possession or, if 'knocked-on', will cause them to be awarded a scrum.

Cross-code games

In 1909, when the new "Northern Union" code was still in its infancy, a match between the Kangaroos and the Wallabies was played before a crowd of around 20,000, with the rugby league side winning 29-26.[47] With the wartime Emergency League suspended, Leeds Rugby League reverted to rugby union during World War I to play a one-off challenge game against the Royal Navy Depot from Plymouth in 1917. This was pre-cursor to the following Christmas when two Challenge games were organised between the two sides but this time with one of each code. The Navy won the union game 9-3 on Christmas Eve but proved equally adept at league recording a 24-3 win on 28 December. During World War II, the RFU relaxed its restrictions on rugby league players playing rugby union. In 1943, a Northern Command army rugby league side defeated a Northern Command union side 18-11 at Headingley under rugby union laws. The following year a Combined Services rugby league side beat a Combined Services union side 15-10 at Bradford again at rugby union. These were the only league v union matches played until 1996.[48]

With both sports becoming professional matches between union and league teams have been played. In May 1996, Bath Rugby and Wigan RLFC, who were then England's top union and league sides respectively, made history by playing against each other at both codes of rugby. Wigan won 82-6 in the first match, played under league rules, and lost the second 44-19 under union rules. Since then other games have been played between union and league teams using the laws of one of the codes, or in some cases using a different set of laws each half. The inherent similarities between rugby league and rugby union has at times led to the possibility of a merger being mooted[2] and experimental hybrid games have been played that use a mix of the two sports' rules.[3]

Demographics

Traditionally, the two rugbys have been seen as divided along class lines, with union associated more with the middle class, and league with the working class.[49] One of the main reasons for the split was union's enforcement of the amateur principle, meaning that working class players could not afford to take time off work to play the sport.[50] In Australia the two codes were also strongly divided down class lines.[51]

Finance and scale

In the UK, the 'two codes' of rugby are very different in scale and turnover. The turnover of the RFL was reported as £29m in 2011.[52] For comparison, the turnover of the Rugby Fooball Union in 2011 was £130m.[53] The number of rugby union players in England is 1.99 million which includes 131,000 senior male players.[54] The number of players participating in any capacity in Rugby League in England (including wheelchair users) is about 100,000.[55] The number of league players in Australia is 58,000 and the number of Union players 42,000.[56] The number of rugby union players in New Zealand is estimated to be 129,000, with 22,000 playing rugby league.[57]

See also

References

  1. ^ Gilbert, Ian (10 October 2003). "The bluffer's guide". The Age. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
  2. ^ a b Jones, Chris (9 October 2000). "It's all a code merger mystery". London Evening Standard. UK: ES London Limited. Retrieved 21 September 2010.
  3. ^ a b Growden, Greg (12 May 2011). "Hybrid rugby union-league experiment". Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 22 June 2012.
  4. ^ Marshall 1951, pp. 13–14
  5. ^ History of the ARU
  6. ^ Baker, Andrew (20 August 1995). "100 years of rugby league: From the great divide to the Super era". Independent, The. independent.co.uk. Retrieved 25 September 2009. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  7. ^ Tony Collins (2006). "Schism 1893–1895". Rugby's great split: class, culture and the origins of rugby league football (2nd ed.). Routlage. pp. 87–120. ISBN 0-415-39616-6.
  8. ^ Collins, Tony (2006). Rugby League in Twentieth Century Britain: A social and cultural History. UK: Taylor & Francis. pp. 70–71. ISBN 978-0-415-39614-1. Retrieved 27 February 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  9. ^ "History of the RFU". RFU. Retrieved 28 September 2011.
  10. ^ "Golf & rugby voted into Olympics". BBC Sport. 9 October 2009. Retrieved 21 June 2012.
  11. ^ "Tributes to super-fit Glossop rugby ace Alex Kaiser found dead in his van". Manchester Evening News. 9 May 2012.
  12. ^ Janine Yaqoob (13 April 2012). "St Helens bar has licence suspended after rugby player allegedly assaulted". Liverpool Echo.
  13. ^ Règles du rugby à XV par francerugby.fr
  14. ^ Régles du Rugby à XIII, codification empruntée au site de la Ligue régionale de Midi-Pyrénées
  15. ^ Hamilton, Garth (18 June 2007). "Black and White and Grey". Archived from the original on 25 July 2010.
  16. ^ newzealandnow.govt.nz. "Sports". Life in New Zealand. New Zealand Government. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
  17. ^ Cunneen, Chris (2001). The best ever Australian Sports Writing. Australia: Black Inc. p. 314. ISBN 1-86395-266-7. Retrieved 19 February 2011. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  18. ^ "Rule changes". Interviews. The Rugby League Oral History Project. 2007. Archived from the original on 6 January 2010. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
  19. ^ "Scoring through the ages rugbyfootballhistory.com". Retrieved 24 June 2012.
  20. ^ "IRB Guide to Experimental Law Variations". 4 August 2008. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
  21. ^ "Laws of the Game: Rugby Union 2007." International Rugby Board, Dublin, 2007. Online version retrieved 22 October 2007.
  22. ^ The ARL Laws of the Game, 2007. The Australian Rugby Football League. Online version retrieved 22 October 2007.
  23. ^ =Peter Fitzsimons (19 May 2007). "What they said". Sydney Morning Herald.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
  24. ^ Spiro Zavos (09/06/2009). "Sonny could be something under a canny Kiwi coach". Sydney Morning Herald. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  25. ^ Howell, Andy (7 May 2007). "R League: Sport can flourish in Wales". Western Mail. Media Wales Ltd. Retrieved 21 November 2009. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  26. ^ Damian Flint (11.14.11). "LEAGUE v UNION goes to Court!". {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  27. ^ Telfer, Jim (5 May 2010). "It's Le Crunch for Magners League". STV. Archived from the original on 25 July 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
  28. ^ George Caplan, Mark Adams (2007). BTEC National: Sport. Heinemann. p. 99. ISBN 0-435-46514-7, 9780435465148. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
  29. ^ Cleary, Mick (5 October 2000). "Talking Rugby: No code like the old code". telegraph.co.uk. Telegraph Media Group Limited. Archived from the original on 25 July 2010. Retrieved 21 November 2009. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  30. ^ Breivik, Simon L. (2007). Sport And Exercise Physiology Testing Guidelines: The British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences Guide. Taylor & Francis. p. 257. ISBN 0-415-36141-9, 9780415361415. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Thomsen, Ian (10 January 1998). "Football Players Are Awfully Tough, but Enough for Rugby?". New York Times. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
  32. ^ a b c d Collins, Tony (6 May 2010). "Mythbusters: The 'Contest for Possession'". Rugby Reloaded. Archived from the original on 25 July 2010. Retrieved 25 July 2010.
  33. ^ Christopher Boy (29 March 2011). "Rugby league greats of different eras say rugby league scrum is a showpiece of the modern gam". Fox Sports.
  34. ^ "Five of the best: grand final controversies". Sydney Morning Herald. 1 October 2004.
  35. ^ Will Greenwood (20 April 2012). "If you want to control the game, you must control the restart, just ask 'chargedown' Charlie Hodgson". The Telegraph. Retrieved 29 June 2012. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |deadurl= ignored (|url-status= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ Law 10.4 (g)
  37. ^ http://www.news.com.au/sport/nrl/no-consensus-on-who-shoulders-blame/story-fndujljl-1226437124272
  38. ^ http://www.foxsports.com.au/league/nrl-premiership/south-sydney-star-greg-ingliss-shoulder-charge-on-dean-young-reignites-debate-on-banning-the-tackle/story-fn2mcuj6-1226432426057
  39. ^ "League V Union goes to court". Retrieved 15 June 2012.
  40. ^ http://www.abc.net.au/news/2007-06-24/dally-messenger-reinstated-to-nswru-record-books/79020
  41. ^ http://www.rfu.com/TwickenhamStadium/WorldRugbyMuseum/RugbyHistory/AmateurEra
  42. ^ a b http://www.irishrugby.ie/news/11928.php
  43. ^ Gatt, Ray (30 March 1981). "Ella stars and bears out Big Jack's faith". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
  44. ^ "Scots against sin bin". The Glasgow Herald. 24 March 1979. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
  45. ^ a b Cleary, Mick (4 April 2001). "World Cup play-offs abandoned". The Telegraph. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
  46. ^ Reuter (8 October 1996). "Aussie rebels to follow Euro lead". New Straits Times. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
  47. ^ "Kangaroos v. Wallabies". West Coast Times. New Zealand. 6 September 1909. p. 4. Retrieved 3 December 2009. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  48. ^ http://www.napit.co.uk/viewus/infobank/rugby/superleague/history.php
  49. ^ Bowden, David (4 September 2009). "Tackling rugby union's superiority complex". Spiked. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
  50. ^ http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/sport/working-class-formed-a-league-of-their-own/story-e6frexni-1111118120858
  51. ^ Tony Collins (2006). Rugby's great split: class, culture and the origins of rugby. p. 180.
  52. ^ http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/rugby-league/18895913
  53. ^ http://www.thelawyer.com/part-of-the-union/1012357.article
  54. ^ http://www.irb.com/unions/union=11000002/index.html
  55. ^ http://www.code13rugbyleague.com/2012/02/10/player-participation-passes-100000/
  56. ^ http://fulltext.ausport.gov.au/fulltext/2000/ascpub/numbers_game.htm
  57. ^ http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_percent_of_new_zealand_play_rugby

Further reading

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