Jump to content

Typhoid fever

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by 103.19.255.226 (talk) at 07:41, 13 September 2015 (I fixed IT by solving it). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Typhoid fever
SpecialtyInfectious disease

Mental Problems And Mental Diseases is commom

Typhoid fever, also known simply as typhoid, is a symptomatic bacterial infection due to Salmonella typhi.[1] Symptoms may vary from mild to severe and usually begin six to thirty days after exposure.[2][3] Often there is a gradual onset of a high fever over several days.[2] Weakness, abdominal pain, constipation, and headaches also commonly occur.[3][4] Diarrhea and vomiting are uncommon.[4] Some people develop a skin rash with rose colored spots.[3] In severe cases there may be confusion.[4] Without treatment symptoms may last weeks or months.[3] Other people may carry the bacterium without being affected; however, they are still able to spread the disease to others.[5] Typhoid fever is a type of enteric fever along with paratyphoid fever.[1]

The cause is the bacterium Salmonella typhi, also known as Salmonella enterica serotype typhi, growing in the intestines and blood.[3][4] Typhoid is spread by eating or drinking food or water contaminated with the feces of an infected person.[5] Risk factors include poor sanitation and poor hygiene.[1] Those who travel to the developing world are also at risk.[4] Humans are the only animal infected.[5] Diagnosis is by either culturing the bacteria or detecting the bacterium's DNA in the blood, stool, or bone marrow.[1][3][6] Culturing the bacterium can be difficult.[7] Bone marrow testing is the most accurate.[6] Symptoms are similar to that of many other infectious diseases.[4] Typhus is a different disease.[8]

A typhoid vaccine can prevent about 50% to 70% of cases.[5][9] The vaccine may be effective for up to seven years.[1] It is recommended for those at high risk or people traveling to areas where the disease is common.[5] Other efforts to prevent the disease include providing clean drinking water, better sanitation, and better handwashing.[3][5] Until it has been confirmed that an individual's infection is cleared, the individual should not prepare food for others.[3] Treatment of disease is with antibiotics such as azithromycin, fluoroquinolones or third generation cephalosporins.[1] Resistance to these antibiotics has been developing, which has made treatment of the disease more difficult.[1]

In 2010 there were 27 million cases reported.[1] The disease is most common in India, and children are most commonly affected.[1][5] Rates of disease decreased in the developed world in the 1940s as a result of improved sanitation and use of antibiotics to treat the disease.[5] About 400 cases are reported and the disease is estimated to occur in about 6,000 people per year in the United States.[4][10] In 2013 it resulted in about 161,000 deaths – down from 181,000 in 1990 (about 0.3% of the global total).[11] The risk of death may be as high as 25% without treatment, while with treatment it is between 1 and 4%.[1][5] The name typhoid means "resembling typhus" due to the similarity in symptoms.[12]

Signs and symptoms

Rose spots on abdomen of a person with typhoid fever

Classically, the course of untreated typhoid fever is divided into four distinct stages, each lasting about a week. Over the course of these stages, the patient becomes exhausted and emaciated.[13]

  • In the first week, the body temperature rises slowly, and fever fluctuations are seen with relative bradycardia (Faget sign), malaise, headache, and cough. A bloody nose (epistaxis) is seen in a quarter of cases, and abdominal pain is also possible. A decrease in the number of circulating white blood cells (leukopenia) occurs with eosinopenia and relative lymphocytosis; blood cultures are positive for Salmonella typhi or S. paratyphi. The Widal test is negative in the first week.[citation needed]
  • In the second week, the person is often too tired to get up, with high fever in plateau around 40 °C (104 °F) and bradycardia (sphygmothermic dissociation or Faget sign), classically with a dicrotic pulse wave. Delirium is frequent, often calm, but sometimes agitated. This delirium gives to typhoid the nickname of "nervous fever". Rose spots appear on the lower chest and abdomen in around a third of patients. Rhonchi are heard in lung bases.
The abdomen is distended and painful in the right lower quadrant, where borborygmi can be heard. Diarrhea can occur in this stage: six to eight stools in a day, green, comparable to pea soup, with a characteristic smell. However, constipation is also frequent. The spleen and liver are enlarged (hepatosplenomegaly) and tender, and liver transaminases are elevated. The Widal test is strongly positive, with antiO and antiH antibodies. Blood cultures are sometimes still positive at this stage.
(The major symptom of this fever is that the fever usually rises in the afternoon up to the first and second week.)
  • In the third week of typhoid fever, a number of complications can occur:
    • Intestinal haemorrhage due to bleeding in congested Peyer's patches; this can be very serious, but is usually not fatal.
    • Intestinal perforation in the distal ileum: this is a very serious complication and is frequently fatal. It may occur without alarming symptoms until septicaemia or diffuse peritonitis sets in.
    • Encephalitis
    • Respiratory diseases such as pneumonia and acute bronchitis
    • Neuropsychiatric symptoms (described as "muttering delirium" or "coma vigil"), with picking at bedclothes or imaginary objects.
    • Metastatic abscesses, cholecystitis, endocarditis, and osteitis
    • The fever is still very high and oscillates very little over 24 hours. Dehydration ensues, and the patient is delirious (typhoid state). One-third of affected individuals develop a macular rash on the trunk.
    • Platelet count goes down slowly and risk of bleeding rises.
  • By the end of third week, the fever starts subsiding (defervescence). This carries on into the fourth and final week.

Transmission

A 1939 conceptual illustration showing various ways that typhoid bacteria can contaminate a water well (center)

The bacterium that causes typhoid fever may be spread through poor hygiene habits and public sanitation conditions, and sometimes also by flying insects feeding on feces. Public education campaigns encouraging people to wash their hands after defecating and before handling food are an important component in controlling spread of the disease. According to statistics from the United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the chlorination of drinking water has led to dramatic decreases in the transmission of typhoid fever in the United States.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis is made by any blood, bone marrow or stool cultures and with the Widal test (demonstration of antibodies against Salmonella antigens O-somatic and H-flagellar). In epidemics and less wealthy countries, after excluding malaria, dysentery, or pneumonia, a therapeutic trial time with chloramphenicol is generally undertaken while awaiting the results of the Widal test and cultures of the blood and stool.[14]

The Widal test is time-consuming, and often, when a diagnosis is reached, it is too late to start an antibiotic regimen.

The term 'enteric fever' is a collective term that refers to severe typhoid and paratyphoid.[15]

Prevention

Doctor administering a typhoid vaccination at a school in San Augustine County, Texas, 1943

Sanitation and hygiene are the critical measures that can be taken to prevent typhoid. Typhoid does not affect animals, so transmission is only from human to human. Typhoid can only spread in environments where human feces or urine are able to come into contact with food or drinking water. Careful food preparation and washing of hands are crucial to prevent typhoid. Industrialization, and in particular, the invention of the automobile, contributed greatly to the elimination of typhoid fever, as it eliminated the public health hazards associated with having horse manure in the public street.[16]

Two typhoid vaccines are licensed for use for the prevention of typhoid:[17] the live, oral Ty21a vaccine (sold as Vivotif by Crucell Switzerland AG) and the injectable typhoid polysaccharide vaccine (sold as Typhim Vi by Sanofi Pasteur and 'Typherix by GlaxoSmithKline). Both are 50 to 80% protective and are recommended for travellers to areas where typhoid is endemic. Boosters are recommended every five years for the oral vaccine and every two years for the injectable form. An older, killed-whole-cell vaccine is still used in countries where the newer preparations are not available, but this vaccine is no longer recommended for use because it has a higher rate of side effects (mainly pain and inflammation at the site of the injection).[17]

Treatment

The rediscovery of oral rehydration therapy in the 1960s provided a simple way to prevent many of the deaths of diarrheal diseases in general.

Where resistance is uncommon, the treatment of choice is a fluoroquinolone such as ciprofloxacin.[15][18] Otherwise, a third-generation cephalosporin such as ceftriaxone or cefotaxime is the first choice.[19][20][21][22] Cefixime is a suitable oral alternative.[23][24]

Typhoid fever, when properly treated, is not fatal in most cases. Antibiotics, such as ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, amoxicillin, and ciprofloxacin, have been commonly used to treat typhoid fever in microbiology.[25] Treatment of the disease with antibiotics reduces the case-fatality rate to about 1%.[26]

When untreated, typhoid fever persists for three weeks to a month. Death occurs in 10% to 30% of untreated cases.[27] In some communities, however, case-fatality rates may reach as high as 47%.[citation needed]

Surgery

Surgery is usually indicated in cases of intestinal perforation. Most surgeons prefer simple closure of the perforation with drainage of the peritoneum. Small-bowel resection is indicated for patients with multiple perforations.

If antibiotic treatment fails to eradicate the hepatobiliary carriage, the gallbladder should be resected. Cholecystectomy is not always successful in eradicating the carrier state because of persisting hepatic infection.

Resistance

As resistance to ampicillin, chloramphenicol, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and streptomycin is now common, these agents have not been used as first–line treatment of typhoid fever for almost 20 years.[citation needed] Typhoid resistant to these agents is known as multidrug-resistant typhoid (MDR typhoid).

Ciprofloxacin resistance is an increasing problem, especially in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Many centres are shifting from using ciprofloxacin as the first line for treating suspected typhoid originating in South America, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Thailand, or Vietnam. For these people, the recommended first-line treatment is ceftriaxone. Also, azithromycin has been suggested to be better at treating typhoid in resistant populations than both fluoroquinolone drugs and ceftriaxone.[18] Azithromycin significantly reduces relapse rates compared with ceftriaxone.

A separate problem exists with laboratory testing for reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin: current recommendations are that isolates should be tested simultaneously against ciprofloxacin (CIP) and against nalidixic acid (NAL), and that isolates that are sensitive to both CIP and NAL should be reported as "sensitive to ciprofloxacin", but that isolates testing sensitive to CIP but not to NAL should be reported as "reduced sensitivity to ciprofloxacin". However, an analysis of 271 isolates showed that around 18% of isolates with a reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (MIC 0.125–1.0 mg/l) would not be picked up by this method.[28] How this problem can be solved is not certain, because most laboratories around the world (including the West) are dependent on disk testing and cannot test for MICs.

Epidemiology

Incidence of typhoid fever
♦ Strongly endemic
♦ Endemic
♦ Sporadic cases

In 2000, typhoid fever caused an estimated 21.7 million illnesses and 217,000 deaths.[29] It occurs most often in children and young adults between 5 and 19 years old.[27] In 2013 it resulted in about 161,000 deaths – down from 181,000 in 1990.[11] Infants, children, and adolescents in south-central and Southeast Asia experience the greatest burden of illness.[30] Outbreaks of typhoid fever are also frequently reported from sub-Saharan Africa and countries in Southeast Asia.[31][32][33] Historically, in the pre-antibiotic era, the case fatality rate of typhoid fever was 10–20%. Today, with prompt treatment, it is less than 1%.[34] However, about 3-5% of individuals who are infected will develop a chronic infection in the gall bladder.[35] Since S. Typhi is human-restricted, these chronic carriers become the crucial reservoir, which can persist for decades for further spread of the disease, further complicating the identification and treatment of the disease.[36] Lately, the study of Typhi associated with a large outbreak and a carrier at the genome level provides new insights into the pathogenesis of the pathogen.[33][37]

History

In 430 BC, a devastating plague, which some believe to have been typhoid fever, killed one-third of the population of Athens, including their leader Pericles. Following this disaster, the balance of power shifted from Athens to Sparta, ending the Golden Age of Pericles that had marked Athenian dominance in the Greek ancient world. The ancient historian Thucydides also contracted the disease, but he survived to write about the plague. His writings are the primary source on this outbreak, and modern academics and medical scientists consider epidemic typhus the most likely cause. In 2006, a study detected DNA sequences similar to those of the bacterium responsible for typhoid fever in dental pulp extracted from a burial pit dated to the time of the outbreak.[38]

Mary Mallon ("Typhoid Mary") in a hospital bed (foreground): She was forcibly quarantined as a carrier of typhoid fever in 1907 for three years and then again from 1915 until her death in 1938.

The cause of the plague has long been disputed and other scientists have disputed the findings, citing serious methodologic flaws in the dental pulp-derived DNA study.[39] The disease is most commonly transmitted through poor hygiene habits and public sanitation conditions; during the period in question related to Athens above, the whole population of Attica was besieged within the Long Walls and lived in tents.

Some historians believe that English colony of Jamestown, Virginia, died out from typhoid. Typhoid fever killed more than 6000 settlers in the New World between 1607 and 1624.[40]

During the American Civil War, 81,360 Union soldiers died of typhoid or dysentery, far more than died of battle wounds.[41] In the late 19th century, the typhoid fever mortality rate in Chicago averaged 65 per 100,000 people a year. The worst year was 1891, when the typhoid death rate was 174 per 100,000 people.[42]

During the Spanish–American War, American troops were exposed to typhoid fever in stateside training camps and overseas, largely due to inadequate sanitation systems. The Surgeon General of the Army, George Miller Sternberg, suggested that the War Department create a Typhoid Fever Board. Major Walter Reed, Edward O. Shakespeare, and Victor C. Vaughan were appointed August 18, 1898, with Reed being designated the President of the Board. The Typhoid Board determined that during the war, more soldiers died from this disease than from yellow fever or from battle wounds. The Board promoted sanitary measures including latrine policy, disinfection, camp relocation, and water sterilization, but by far the most successful antityphoid method was vaccination, which became compulsory in June 1911 for all federal troops.[43]

The most notorious carrier of typhoid fever, but by no means the most destructive, was Mary Mallon, also known as Typhoid Mary. In 1907, she became the first carrier in the United States to be identified and traced. She was a cook in New York who is closely associated with 53 cases and three deaths.[44] Public health authorities told Mary to give up working as a cook or have her gall bladder removed, as she had a chronic infection that kept her active as a carrier of the disease. Mary quit her job, but returned later under a false name. She was detained and quarantined after another typhoid outbreak. She died of pneumonia after 26 years in quarantine.

Development of vaccination

During the course of treatment of a typhoid outbreak in a local village in 1838, English country doctor William Budd realised the "poisons" involved in infectious diseases multiplied in the intestines of the sick, were present in their excretions, and could be transmitted to the healthy through their consumption of contaminated water.[45] He proposed strict isolation or quarantine as a method for containing such outbreaks in the future.[46] The medical and scientific communities did not identify the role of microorganisms in infectious disease until the work of Louis Pasteur.

Almroth Edward Wright developed the first effective typhoid vaccine.

In 1880, Karl Joseph Eberth described a bacillus that he suspected was the cause of typhoid. In 1884, pathologist Georg Theodor August Gaffky (1850–1918) confirmed Eberth's findings, and the organism was given names such as Eberth's bacillus, Eberthella typhi, and Gaffky-Eberth bacillus. Today, the bacillus that causes typhoid fever goes by the scientific name Salmonella enterica enterica, serovar Typhi.

The British bacteriologist Almroth Edward Wright first developed an effective typhoid vaccine at the Army Medical School in Netley, Hampshire. It was introduced in 1896 and used successfully by the British during the Boer War in South Africa.[47] At that time, typhoid often killed more soldiers at war than were lost due to enemy combat. Wright further developed his vaccine at a newly opened research department at St Mary's Hospital Medical School in London from 1902, where he established a method for measuring protective substances (opsonin) in human blood.

Citing the example of the Second Boer War, during which many soldiers died from easily preventable diseases, Wright convinced the British Army that 10 million vaccines should be produced for the troops being sent to the Western Front, thereby saving up to half a million lives during World War I.[48] The British Army was the only combatant at the outbreak of the war to have its troops fully immunized against the bacterium. For the first time, their casualties due to combat exceeded those from disease.[17]

In 1909, Frederick F. Russell, a U.S. Army physician, adopted Wright's typhoid vaccine for use with the US Army, and two years later, his vaccination program became the first in which an entire army was immunized. It eliminated typhoid as a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in the U.S. military.[49]

Lizzie van Zyl was a child inmate in a British-run concentration camp in South Africa who died from typhoid fever during the Boer War (1899–1902).

Most developed countries saw declining rates of typhoid fever throughout the first half of the 20th century due to vaccinations and advances in public sanitation and hygiene. In 1908, the chlorination of public drinking water was a significant step in the US in the control of typhoid fever. The first permanent disinfection of drinking water in the U.S. was made to the Jersey City, New Jersey, water supply. Credit for the decision to build the chlorination system has been given to John L. Leal.[50] The chlorination facility was designed by George W. Fuller.[51] In 1942 doctors introduced antibiotics in clinical practice, greatly reducing mortality. Today, the incidence of typhoid fever in developed countries is around five cases per million people per year.

A notable outbreak occurred in Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1964. This was due to contaminated tinned meat sold at the city's branch of the William Low chain of stores. No fatalities resulted.

In 2004–05 an outbreak in the Democratic Republic of Congo resulted in more than 42,000 cases and 214 deaths.[27]

Names

The disease has been referred to by various names, often associated with symptoms, such as gastric fever, enteric fever, abdominal typhus, infantile remittant fever, slow fever, nervous fever, and pythogenic fever.

Notable cases

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Wain, J; Hendriksen, RS; Mikoleit, ML; Keddy, KH; Ochiai, RL (21 March 2015). "Typhoid fever". Lancet. 385 (9973): 1136–45. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(13)62708-7. PMID 25458731.
  2. ^ a b Anna E. Newton (2014). "3 Infectious Diseases Related To Travel mental Problems can also occer dude to typhoid". CDC health information for international travel 2014 : the yellow book. ISBN 9780199948499.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h "Typhoid Fever". cdc.gov. May 14, 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g "Typhoid Fever". cdc.gov. May 14, 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2015.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Typhoid vaccines: WHO position paper" (PDF). Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 83 (6): 49–59. Feb 8, 2008. PMID 18260212.
  6. ^ a b Crump, JA; Mintz, ED (15 January 2010). "Global trends in typhoid and paratyphoid Fever". Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. 50 (2): 241–6. doi:10.1086/649541. PMID 20014951.
  7. ^ Alan J. Magill (2013). Hunter's tropical medicine and emerging infectious diseases (9th ed.). London: Saunders/Elsevier. pp. 568–572. ISBN 9781455740437.
  8. ^ Cunha BA (March 2004). "Osler on typhoid fever: differentiating typhoid from typhus and malaria". Infect. Dis. Clin. North Am. 18 (1): 111–25. doi:10.1016/S0891-5520(03)00094-1. PMID 15081508.
  9. ^ Anwar, E; Goldberg, E; Fraser, A; Acosta, CJ; Paul, M; Leibovici, L (2 January 2014). "Vaccines for preventing typhoid fever". The Cochrane database of systematic reviews. 1: CD001261. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001261.pub3. PMID 24385413.
  10. ^ Jackson, BR; Iqbal, S; Mahon, B (27 March 2015). "Updated Recommendations for the Use of Typhoid Vaccine - Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices, United States, 2015". MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report. 64 (11): 305–308. PMID 25811680.
  11. ^ a b GBD 2013 Mortality and Causes of Death, Collaborators (17 December 2014). "Global, regional, and national age-sex specific all-cause and cause-specific mortality for 240 causes of death, 1990–2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013". Lancet. 385 (9963): 117–71. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)61682-2. PMC 4340604. PMID 25530442. {{cite journal}}: |first1= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  12. ^ "Oxford English Dictionary (Online)". www.oed.com. p. typhoid, adj. and n. Resembling or characteristic of typhus {{cite web}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); Missing or empty |url= (help)
  13. ^ "Typhoid". Merriam Webster Dictionary. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  14. ^ Ryan KJ, Ray CG (editors) (2004). Sherris Medical Microbiology (4th ed.). McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-8385-8529-9. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  15. ^ a b Parry CM, Beeching NJ (2009). "Treatment of enteric fever". BMJ. 338: b1159–b1159. doi:10.1136/bmj.b1159. PMID 19493937.
  16. ^ http://www.historic-uk.com/HistoryUK/HistoryofBritain/Great-Horse-Manure-Crisis-of-1894/
  17. ^ a b c Fraser A, Goldberg E, Acosta CJ, Paul M, Leibovici L (2007). Fraser, Abigail (ed.). "Vaccines for preventing typhoid fever". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (3): CD001261. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD001261.pub2. PMID 17636661.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  18. ^ a b Effa EE, Lassi ZS, Critchley JA, Garner P, Sinclair D, Olliaro PL, Bhutta ZA (2011). Bhutta, Zulfiqar A (ed.). "Fluoroquinolones for treating typhoid and paratyphoid fever (enteric fever)". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (10): CD004530. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004530.pub4. PMID 21975746.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Soe GB, Overturf GD (1987). "Treatment of typhoid fever and other systemic salmonelloses with cefotaxime, ceftriaxone, cefoperazone, and other newer cephalosporins". Rev Infect Dis. 9 (4). The University of Chicago Press: 719–36. doi:10.1093/clinids/9.4.719. JSTOR 4454162. PMID 3125577.
  20. ^ Wallace MR, Yousif AA, Mahroos GA, Mapes T, Threlfall EJ, Rowe B, Hyams KC (1993). "Ciprofloxacin versus ceftriaxone in the treatment of multiresistant typhoid fever". Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis. 12 (12): 907–910. doi:10.1007/BF01992163. PMID 8187784.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ Dutta P, Mitra U, Dutta S, De A, Chatterjee MK, Bhattacharya SK (2001). "Ceftriaxone therapy in ciprofloxacin treatment failure typhoid fever in children". Indian J Med Res. 113: 210–3. PMID 11816954.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  22. ^ Коваленко А.Н.; et al. (2011). "Особенности клиники, диагностики и лечения брюшного тифа у лиц молодого возраста". Voenno-meditsinskii zhurnal. 332 (1): 33–39.
  23. ^ Bhutta ZA, Khan IA, Molla AM (1994). "Therapy of multidrug-resistant typhoid fever with oral cefixime vs. intravenous ceftriaxone". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 13 (11): 990–993. doi:10.1097/00006454-199411000-00010. PMID 7845753.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  24. ^ Cao XT, Kneen R, Nguyen TA, Truong DL, White NJ, Parry CM (1999). "A comparative study of ofloxacin and cefixime for treatment of typhoid fever in children. The Dong Nai Pediatric Center Typhoid Study Group". Pediatr Infect Dis J. 18 (3): 245–8. PMID 10093945.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  25. ^ Baron S et al.
  26. ^ Archived 2011-11-02 at the Wayback Machine. World Health Organization
  27. ^ a b c "Typhoid Fever". World Health Organization. Retrieved 2007-08-28.
  28. ^ Cooke FJ, Wain J, Threlfall EJ (2006). "Fluoroquinolone resistance in Salmonella typhi (letter)". Brit Med J. 333 (7563): 353–354. doi:10.1136/bmj.333.7563.353-b. PMC 1539082. PMID 16902221.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  29. ^ Crump, J. A., & Mintz, E. D (2010). "Global trends in typhoid and paratyphoid fever". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 50 (2): 241–246. doi:10.1086/649541. PMID 20014951.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Crump JA, Luby SP, Mintz ED (2004). "The global burden of typhoid fever". Bull World Health Organ. 82: 346–353.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ Muyembe-Tamfum JJ, Veyi J, Kaswa M, Lunguya O, Verhaegen J, Boelaert M (2009). "An outbreak of peritonitis caused by multidrug-resistant Salmonella Typhi in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo". Travel Med Infect Dis. 7 (40): 3. doi:10.1016/j.tmaid.2008.12.006.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  32. ^ Baddam, Ramani, Narender Kumar, Kwai-Lin Thong, Soo-Tein Ngoi, Cindy Shuan Ju Teh, Kien-Pong Yap, Lay-Ching Chai, Tiruvayipati Suma Avasthi, and Niyaz Ahmed (2012). "Genetic fine structure of a Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strain associated with the 2005 outbreak of typhoid fever in Kelantan, Malaysia". Journal of Bacteriology. 194 (13): 3565–3566. doi:10.1128/jb.00581-12.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  33. ^ a b Yap, Kien-Pong; et al. (2012). "Insights from the genome sequence of a Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strain associated with a sporadic case of typhoid fever in Malaysia". J. Bacteriol. 194 (18): 5124–5125. doi:10.1128/jb.01062-12. Cite error: The named reference "Yap et al 2012" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  34. ^ Heymann, David L., ed. (2008), Control of Communicable Diseases Manual, Washington, D.C.: American Public Health Association, pg 665. ISBN 978-0-87553-189-2.
  35. ^ Levine; et al. (1982). "Precise estimation of the numbers of chronic carriers of Salmonella Typhi in Santiago, Chile, an endemic area". J. Infect. Dis. 146: 724–726. doi:10.1093/infdis/146.6.724.
  36. ^ G Gonzalez-Escobedo, JM Marshall, JS Gunn (2010). "Chronic and acute infection of the gall bladder by Salmonella Typhi: understanding the carrier state". Nature Reviews. 9 (1): 9–14. doi:10.1038/nrmicro2490.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  37. ^ Yap, Kien-Pong; et al. (2014). "Comparative genomics of closely related Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strains reveals genome dynamics and the acquisition of novel pathogenic elements". BMC Genomics. 15 (1): 1007. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-1007.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  38. ^ Papagrigorakis MJ, Yapijakis C, Synodinos PN, Baziotopoulou-Valavani E (2006). "DNA examination of ancient dental pulp incriminates typhoid fever as a probable cause of the Plague of Athens". Int J Infect Dis. 10 (3): 206–214. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2005.09.001. PMID 16412683.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  39. ^ Shapiro B, Rambaut A, Gilbert MT (2006). "No proof that typhoid caused the Plague of Athens (a reply to Papagrigorakis et al.)". Int J Infect Dis. 10 (4): 334–335. doi:10.1016/j.ijid.2006.02.006. PMID 16730469.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  40. ^ Byrne, Joseph Patrick (2008). Encyclopedia of Pestilence, Pandemics, and Plagues: A-M. ABC-CLIO. p. 190. ISBN 0-313-34102-8.
  41. ^ Armies of Pestilence: The Effects of Pandemics on History. James Clarke & Co. (2004). p.191. ISBN 0-227-17240-X
  42. ^ "1900 Flow of Chicago River Reversed". Chicago Timeline. Chicago Public Library. Archived from the original on 2007-03-07. Retrieved 2007-02-08.
  43. ^ Walter Reed Typhoid Fever, 1897–1911, http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/typhoid/, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library. University of Virginia.
  44. ^ "Nova: The Most Dangerous Woman in America".
  45. ^ Asimov, Asimov's Biographical Encyclopedia of Science and Technology 2nd Revised edition
  46. ^ Aronson SM (1995). "William Budd and typhoid fever". Rhode Island medicine. 78 (11): 310. PMC 1279260. PMID 8547718.
  47. ^ "Sir Almroth Edward Wright". Encyclopaedia Britannica.
  48. ^ "Library and Archive Catalogue". Royal Society. Retrieved 1 November 2010.
  49. ^ USAMRMC: 50 Years of Dedication to the Warfighter 1958–2008 (PDF). U.S. Army Medical Research & Material Command (2008). 2008. p. 5. ASIN B003WYKJNY.
  50. ^ Leal, John L. (1909). "The Sterilization Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company at Boonton, N.J." Proceedings American Water Works Association. pp. 100–9.
  51. ^ Fuller, George W. (1909). "Description of the Process and Plant of the Jersey City Water Supply Company for the Sterilization of the Water of the Boonton Reservoir." Proceedings American Water Works Association. 110-34.
  52. ^ Ruggles, Eleanor (1944) Gerard Manley Hopkins: A Life. Norton.
  53. ^ Scott, Belinda F.. (1910-09-23) Biography – Henry James Herbert Scott – Australian Dictionary of Biography. Adbonline.anu.edu.au. Retrieved on 2014-05-12.
  54. ^ "Straw for Silence". The Spectator. 203. F.C. Westley. 1959. ISSN 0038-6952. OCLC 1766325. Retrieved March 16, 2011.
  55. ^ Hakaru Hashimoto#Biography
  56. ^ "Heath Bell Recovering After Bout With Typhoid Fever on Vacation". AOL News. 2011. Retrieved 17 October 2011.

Further reading

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Typhoid fever.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Salmonella.


Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Typhoid_fever&oldid=680803106"