Jump to content

Poppers

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by PalmSpringsCub (talk | contribs) at 05:26, 1 December 2019 (Undid revision 927911445 by Tonyinman (talk). Source is valid cultural study from John Mercer of Birmingham School of Media and relevant. If you feel a certain section feels like "advertising", then point out the specific part instead of omitting an entire section. I assume you believe it is the mention of the trainer creators, so I will omit that, but to deny the rest is dishonest.). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

For other uses, see Popper (disambiguation).
A selection of poppers

Popper is a slang term given broadly to drugs of the chemical class called alkyl nitrites that are inhaled. Most widely sold products include the original isoamyl nitrite or isopentyl nitrite, and isopropyl nitrite. Isobutyl nitrite was also used until it was banned by the European Union. In some countries, to evade anti-drug laws, poppers are labelled or packaged as room deodorizers, leather polish, or tape head cleaner.

Popper use has a relaxation effect on involuntary smooth muscles, such as those in the throat and anus.[1][2] It is used for practical purposes to facilitate anal sex by increasing blood flow and relaxing sphincter muscles,[3] initially within the gay community.[4]

"If you trace the bottle of amyl (a type of alkyl nitrite) through late 20th century history, you trace the legacies of gay culture on popular culture in the 20th century." - Dr. Lucy Robinson, Sussex University[4]

The drug is also used or for recreational drug purposes, typically for the "high" or "rush" that the drug can create.

Poppers were part of club culture from the mid-1970s disco scene and returned to popularity in the 1980s and 1990s rave scene.[5]

Ethyl chloride, sometimes labelled as Maximum Impact and sold in aerosol cans, has also been misleadingly marketed as poppers, despite having no historical relation to poppers and not containing alkyl nitrites.[6]

History

19th-century discovery

The French chemist Antoine Jérôme Balard synthesized amyl nitrite in 1844.[7] Sir Thomas Lauder Brunton, a Scottish physician born in the year of amyl nitrite's first synthesis, documented its clinical use to treat angina pectoris in 1867 when patients experiencing chest pains would experience complete relief after inhalation.[8] Brunton was inspired by earlier work with the same agent, performed by Arthur Gamgee and Benjamin Ward Richardson.[8] Brunton reasoned that the angina sufferer's pain and discomfort could be reduced by administering amyl nitrite—to dilate the coronary arteries of patients, thus improving blood flow to the heart muscle.[8]

20th-century presence in 1960s disco and 1970s gay culture

Although amyl nitrite is known for its practical therapeutic applications, the first documented case of recreational use was in 1964[9] during the disco era.[10] The poppers "craze" began in the early 1970s in the LGBT community in gay bars, discothèques and bathhouses,[11] marking its prominent presence in gay culture.[12] It was packaged and sold pharmaceutically in fragile glass ampoules wrapped in cloth sleeves which, when crushed or "popped" in the fingers, released the amyl nitrite for inhalation. Hence the colloquialism poppers.[11] The term extended to the drug in any form as well as to other drugs with similar effects, e.g. butyl nitrite which is packaged under a variety of trade names in small bottles.[11]

In the late 1970s Time magazine[13] and The Wall Street Journal[14] reported that popper use among homosexual men began as a way to enhance sexual pleasure, but "quickly spread to avant-garde heterosexuals". A series of interviews conducted in the late 1970s revealed a wide spectrum of users.[13]

Academic research on nitrites began around the 1970s but came to mixed conclusions over its correlation with AIDS, HIV and Kaposi's sarcoma.[15]

Through the 1970s, use by minors has been described as minimal, due to the ban on sales to minors by major manufacturers (for public relations reasons), and because some jurisdictions regulate sales to minors by statute.[16][needs update] A 1987 study commissioned by the United States Senate and conducted by the Department of Health and Human Services found that less than three per cent of the overall population had ever used poppers.[17][needs update]

21st-century resurgence through New Media in queer subculture

Around mid-2010s, the resurgence of poppers is seen through amateur video compilations known as "popper trainers".[18][19] While most popper trainer compilation videos revolve around gay pornography, genres have expanded to subcultures based on sexuality and gender identities to more specialized fetishes such as BDSM and erotic hypnosis. For example, video compilations exploring themes of bear culture[18] or erotic hypnosis. Elements using text, visuals, audio and music (using rave era music such as techno or trance to mainstream pop) are combined to give viewers an immersive (and sometimes narrative) experience.[20]

As stated by John Mercer, professor of gender and sexuality at the Birmingham City University:

"the practice of making collage 'popper training' videos by repurposing a range of found sources, from still images to amateur video and from webcam footage to extracts from commercial gay porn, with the express purpose of turning masturbation, fuelled by amyl nitrate use...this is a cultural practice and mode of production and consumption that can be framed within a wider set of debates around subjectivity and the state under neoliberalism."[21]

The act of masturbation and using poppers is an activity known as popperbating[21] and has created a subculture of gay men who identify as "popper pigs" who participate in the act.[21]

Chemistry

Main article: Alkyl nitrites

Poppers contain a class of chemicals called alkyl nitrites. To the extent that poppers products contain alkyl nitrites, the following applies.

The following table summarizes alkyl nitrite chemical and physical properties, including chemical structure:[22]

Alkyl nitrite CAS Formula Molecular weight (g·mol−1) Physical state Boiling point (°C)
Amyl nitrite (isoamyl nitrite, isopentyl nitrite) 110-46-3 (CH3)2CH(CH2)2ONO 117.15 Transparent liquid 97–99
Pentyl nitrite (n-pentyl nitrite) 463-04-7 CH3(CH2)4ONO 117.15 Yellow liquid 104
Butyl nitrite (n-butyl nitrite) 544-16-1 CH3(CH2)3ONO 103.12 Oily liquid 78.2
Isobutyl nitrite (2-methylpropyl nitrite) 542-56-3 (CH3)2CHCH2ONO 103.12 Colourless liquid 67
Isopropyl nitrite (2-propyl nitrite) 541-42-4 (CH3)2CHONO 89.09 Clear pale yellow oil 39

Administration and effects

A selection of poppers

Administration

Poppers are inhaled. This is typically done through the nasal or oral cavities, and any conditions which adversely affect the use of the respiratory system should be taken into account before administration commences.

Principal effect

Inhaling nitrites relaxes smooth muscles throughout the body, as well as sphincter muscles of the anus and the vagina.[23] Smooth muscle surrounds the body's blood vessels and when relaxed causes these vessels to dilate resulting in an immediate increase in heart rate and blood flow throughout the body, producing a sensation of heat and excitement that usually lasts for a couple of minutes.[24][25] When these vessels dilate, a further result is an immediate decrease in blood pressure.[26]

Interactions

Alkyl nitrites interact with other vasodilators, such as sildenafil (Viagra), vardenafil (Levitra), and tadalafil (Cialis), to cause a serious decrease in blood pressure, which can cause fainting, stroke, and low blood pressure leading to fainting.[27][needs update]

Side effects

Common side effects of popper abuse includes tachycardia, headaches, migraines, dizziness and fainting.[28][29][30]

Toxicity

The Merck Manual of Diagnosis and Therapy reports insignificant hazard associated with inhalation of alkyl nitrites,[31] and British governmental guidance on the relative harmfulness of alkyl nitrites places them among the less harmful of recreational drugs.[32]

Swallowing poppers (rather than inhaling the vapour) may cause cyanosis, unconsciousness, coma, and complications leading to death. Methemoglobinemia can occur if poppers have been swallowed.[23][33][34][35][36][full citation needed] Accidental aspiration of amyl or butyl nitrites may cause lipoid pneumonia.[37]

Isopropyl nitrite poppers may be a cause of maculopathy (eye damage), as reported in France and the United Kingdom.[38] Some studies have concluded that there may be increased risk for at least temporary retinal damage with habitual popper use in certain users; in a letter to the New England Journal of Medicine,[full citation needed] an ophthalmologist described four cases in which recreational users of poppers suffered temporary changes in vision.[39][full citation needed] Foveal (center-of-gaze) damage has also been described, in six habitual users of poppers.[40][full citation needed]

In June 2014, optometrists and ophthalmologists reported having noticed an increase in vision loss in chronic popper users in the United Kingdom associated with isopropyl nitrite (substitute for isobutyl nitrite which was banned in 2007).[41][42] In November 2014, it was observed maculopathy is a rare complication of isopropyl nitrite abuse. A full recovery of visual acuity in longterm abuse could be demonstrated after drug abstinence.[43]

Early in the AIDS crisis, widespread use of poppers among AIDS patients led to the later disproved hypothesis that poppers contributed to the development of Kaposi's sarcoma, a rare form of cancer that occurs in AIDS patients.[44][45] Modest, short-term reductions in immune function were observed in animal studies.[46][47] A study examining men who have sex with men, and who also take recreational drugs, suggested poppers, when used in a pattern of recreational drug taking could be associated with increase in sexual risk-taking.[48] However, there was no evidence that nitrite use led directly to use of illicit drugs.[12]

Australia

It is illegal to sell poppers as inhalants in Australia, although some, including amyl nitrite, are often sold in sex shops labeled as DVD or leather cleaner.[49]

In June 2018, the Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA) motioned to reschedule alkyl nitrites to be in the same category as heroin and cocaine (Schedule 9).[50] This was met by criticism from the LGBTIQ community for being discriminatory and further evidence was demanded and further consultation sought.[51]

In October 2018, the Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations (AFAO) pointed out the lack of quality evidence provided by the TGA to justify the rescheduling[52] and that use of amyl nitrites has been stable over the past decade with very little evidence of harm despite use by a high proportion of gay men over a long period of time.

A final decision was pushed back from November 29, 2018 to late January or early February 2019 for further consultation with the public.[53]

As of March 2019, two public meetings have taken place in Sydney and Melbourne with The Kirby Institute and the Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society (ARCSHS). Along with 70 written public proposals, there was significant opposition to alkyl nitrites rescheduling.[54] Banning alkyl nitrites was not considered acceptable as their use was said to help reduce harms such as anal injury and blood-borne disease transmission during anal sex.[55]

Publication of a final decision is anticipated in June 2019.

European Union

Since 2007, reformulated poppers containing isopropyl nitrite are sold in Europe; isobutyl nitrite is prohibited.[56]

In France, the sale of products containing butyl nitrite has been prohibited since 1990 on grounds of danger to consumers.[57] In 2007, the government extended this prohibition to all alkyl nitrites that were not authorized for sale as drugs.[58] After litigation by sex shop owners, this extension was quashed by the Council of State on the grounds that the government had failed to justify such a blanket prohibition: according to the court, the risks cited, concerning rare accidents often following abnormal usage, rather justified compulsory warnings on the packaging.[59]

The possession in Germany, Austria and Switzerland is not subject to any regulations regarding anesthetic drugs and is therefore legal; however, the purchase, sale or trade of amyl nitrite without permission violates the drug laws of the corresponding countries. Occasionally, poppers were seized from sex shops, when sold there illegally.[60][61]

In the United Kingdom, poppers are sold in nightclubs, bars, sex shops, drug paraphernalia head shops, over the Internet, and in markets. It is illegal under Medicines Act 1968 to sell them advertised for human consumption. The Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs noted in 2011 that poppers, rather than being psychoactive substance or 'legal high', "appear to fall within the scope of The Intoxicating Substances (Supply) Act 1985".[62] The Psychoactive Substances Act 2016, scheduled to be enacted April 1, 2016, was initially claimed to impose a blanket ban on the production, import and distribution of all poppers.[63] On January 20, 2016 a motion to exempt poppers (alkyl nitrites) from this legislation was defeated.[64] This was opposed by Conservative MP Ben Howlett. Howlett's fellow Conservative MP Crispin Blunt declared that he has used and currently uses poppers. Manufacturers expressed concern over loss of business and potential unemployment.[65][66] In March 2016, the Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs stated that, because alkyl nitrites do not directly stimulate or depress the central nervous system, poppers do not fall within the scope of the Psychoactive Substances Act 2016.[67]

Japan

In 2007, numerous compounds and one plant were listed as designated substances or narcotics. Six of these compounds were alkyl nitrites that were listed as designated substances. After this new designation, the distribution of the alkyl nitrates in the illegal drug market drastically went down. In 2014, the classification of designated substances was changed to "dangerous drugs" in the revised Pharmaceutical Affairs Law. This was to define substances that have high probabilities of nervous system stimulation, suppression, or hallucination[68][69].

Alkyl Nitrates are listed as a part of Japan's "Poisonous and Deleterious Substances Control Act". This act requires for manufacturers, importers, and distributors of the substances listed under this act to acquire a license and be registered under this act before engaging in said relevant business practices. It also requires that the persons under this act to comply and meet the standards set for storing, containing, labelling, transferring, and storing equipment of the substances. Most of the alkyl nitrates are listed under this act including isobutyl nitrites, amyl nitrites, butyl nitrites, methyl nitrites, and isopropyl nitrites.[70]

North America

As of June 2013, Health Canada has banned all distribution and sales of poppers.[71]

In the US, amyl nitrite was originally marketed as a prescription drug in 1937 and remained so until 1960, when the Food and Drug Administration removed the prescription requirement due to its safety record. This requirement was reinstated in 1969, after observation of an increase in recreational use.

Other alkyl nitrites were outlawed in the US by Congress through the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988. The law includes an exception for commercial purpose, defined as any use other than for the production of consumer products containing volatile alkyl nitrites meant for inhaling or otherwise introducing volatile alkyl nitrites into the human body for euphoric or physical effects.[72] The law came into effect in 1990.

See also

References

  1. ^ Zhao P, Tang S, Wang C, Zhang Y, Best J, Tangthanasup TM, et al. (20 January 2017). "Recreational Drug Use among Chinese MSM and Transgender Individuals: Results from a National Online Cross-Sectional Study". PLOS ONE. 12 (1): e0170024. Bibcode:2017PLoSO..1270024Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0170024. PMC 5249205. PMID 28107391.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  2. ^ Schmidt AJ, Bourne A, Weatherburn P, Reid D, Marcus U, Hickson F (December 2016). "Illicit drug use among gay and bisexual men in 44 cities: Findings from the European MSM Internet Survey (EMIS)". The International Journal on Drug Policy. 38: 4–12. doi:10.1016/j.drugpo.2016.09.007. PMID 27788450.
  3. ^ "Sex and Poppers | SexInfo Online". www.soc.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2019-05-21.
  4. ^ a b "How gay culture bottled a formula that has broken down boundaries". The Independent. 22 January 2016. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
  5. ^ "Nitrites". Drugscope. Archived from the original on 5 April 2007. Retrieved 24 April 2007.
  6. ^ Hall TM, Shoptaw S, Reback CJ (January 2014). "Sometimes Poppers Are Not Poppers: Huffing as an Emergent Health Concern among MSM Substance Users". Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health. 19 (1): 118–121. doi:10.1080/19359705.2014.973180. PMC 4399803. PMID 25893032.
  7. ^ Fischer, János; Ganellin, C. Robin (2006). "Chapter 10 : Development of Organic Nitrates for Coronary Heart Disease". Analogue-based Drug Discovery. United States: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 247, 248. ISBN 978-3-527-60749-5. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  8. ^ a b c Fye WB (August 1986). "T. Lauder Brunton and amyl nitrite: a Victorian vasodilator". Circulation. 74 (2): 222–9. doi:10.1161/01.CIR.74.2.222. PMID 3524895.
  9. ^ Lubell, I. Correspondence with Burroughs Wellcome Co., 1964, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, 1967.
  10. ^ "How gay culture bottled a formula that has broken down boundaries". The Independent. 2016-01-22. Retrieved 2019-05-21.
  11. ^ a b c Israelstam S, Lambert S, Oki G (November 1978). "Poppers, a new recreational drug craze". Canadian Psychiatric Association Journal. 23 (7): 493–5. doi:10.1177/070674377802300711. PMID 709498.
  12. ^ a b French R, Power R (1998-01-01). "A Qualitative Study of the Social Contextual Use of Alkyl Nitrites (Poppers) among Targeted Groups". Journal of Drug Issues. 28 (1): 57–76. doi:10.1177/002204269802800104. ISSN 0022-0426.
  13. ^ a b "Rushing to a new high". Time. 17 July 1978. Retrieved 29 April 2007.
  14. ^ Sansweet, Stephen J. (10 October 1977). "wall street journal - A new way to glow and giggle, and get a headache. "Poppers, legally sniffable, becoming a big business; The FDA isn't interested". Wall Street Journal October 10, 1977 Stephen J. Sansweet. Retrieved 10 October 2016 – via http://virusmythpoppersmyth.org/. {{cite news}}: External link in |via= (help)
  15. ^ Haverkos HW, Kopstein AN, Wilson H, Drotman P (October 1994). "Nitrite inhalants: history, epidemiology, and possible links to AIDS". Environmental Health Perspectives. 102 (10): 858–61. doi:10.1289/ehp.94102858. PMC 1567358. PMID 9644194.
  16. ^ Nickerson, Mark; Parker, John; Lowry, Thomas; Swenson, Edward (1979). "Sociology and Behavioral Effects". Isobutyl Nitrite and Related Compounds (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Pharmex, Ltd.[full citation needed]
  17. ^ Kennedy, Edward (committee chair) (1988). Comprehensive Alcohol Abuse, Drug Abuse, and Mental Health Amendments of 1988. Senate Committee on Labor and Human Resources. Report of the Committee on Labor and Human Resources. US Senate. Section 4015.
  18. ^ a b Pringels, Djanlissa; van Bommel, Koen (2019-04-24). "Dit nieuwe pornogenre is top voor mensen met ADHD die houden van popmuziek". Vice (in Dutch). Retrieved 2019-05-21. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ Dancer, David (2017-02-08). "Poppers Training Videos Take the Drug to Terrifying New Heights". Vice. Retrieved 2019-05-23.
  20. ^ Dancer, David (2017-02-08). "Poppers Training Videos Take the Drug to Terrifying New Heights". Vice. Retrieved 2019-05-21.
  21. ^ a b c Mercer, John (2017-04-03). "Popperbate: video collage, vernacular creativity and the scripting of the gay pornographic body" (PDF). Porn Studies. 4 (2): 242–256. doi:10.1080/23268743.2017.1304237. ISSN 2326-8743.
  22. ^ Sutton (1963) [full citation needed]
  23. ^ a b "Amyl Nitrite". Medsafe. New Zealand Medicines and Medical Devices Safety Authority. 18 May 2000. Archived from the original on 11 November 2006. Retrieved 15 March 2007.
  24. ^ "Amyl Nitrite (Professional Patient Advice) - Drugs.com". drugs.com. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
  25. ^ "ADF - Drug Facts - Amyl Nitrite". ADF - Alcohol & Drug Foundation. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  26. ^ Iversen, Les (16 March 2016). "ACMD review of alkyl nitrites ("poppers")" (PDF). gov.uk. www.gov.uk. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
  27. ^ Romanelli F, Smith KM (June 2004). "Recreational use of sildenafil by HIV-positive and -negative homosexual/bisexual males". The Annals of Pharmacotherapy. 38 (6): 1024–30. doi:10.1345/aph.1D571. PMID 15113986.
  28. ^ Wood, Ronald W. (1989). The acute toxicity of nitrite inhalants. National Institute on Drug Abuse. pp. 28–29. hdl:1802/1150.
  29. ^ "Poppers and your health". 13 September 2018. Retrieved 17 October 2018.
  30. ^ Romanelli F, Smith KM, Thornton AC, Pomeroy C (January 2004). "Poppers: epidemiology and clinical management of inhaled nitrite abuse". Pharmacotherapy. 24 (1): 69–78. doi:10.1592/phco.24.1.69.34801. PMID 14740789.
  31. ^ O'Malley, Gerald F.; O'Malley, Rika (January 2016). "Volatile Nitrites". In Porter, Robert S.; et al. (eds.). The Merck Manual Online. Merck & Co. Retrieved 2017-09-16. {{cite encyclopedia}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ Nutt D, King LA, Saulsbury W, Blakemore C (March 2007). "Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse". Lancet. 369 (9566): 1047–53. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60464-4. PMID 17382831.
  33. ^ Dixon DS, Reisch RF, Santinga PH (July 1981). "Fatal methemoglobinemia resulting from ingestion of isobutyl nitrite, a "room odorizer" widely used for recreational purposes". Journal of Forensic Sciences. 26 (3): 587–93. PMID 7252472.
  34. ^ Pruijm MT, de Meijer PH (December 2002). "[Methemoglobinemia due to ingestion of isobutyl nitrite ('poppers')]". Nederlands Tijdschrift voor Geneeskunde. 146 (49): 2370–3. PMID 12510403.
  35. ^ Stalnikowicz R, Amitai Y, Bentur Y (2004). "Aphrodisiac drug-induced hemolysis". Journal of Toxicology. Clinical Toxicology. 42 (3): 313–6. doi:10.1081/clt-120037435. PMID 15362601.
  36. ^ Emergency Medicine: Principles and Practice. Harper & Collins, 2nd edition. 2008. pp. 42–51.[full citation needed]
  37. ^ Hagan IG, Burney K (July–August 2007). "Radiology of recreational drug abuse". Radiographics. 27 (4): 919–40. doi:10.1148/rg.274065103. PMID 17620459.
  38. ^ Davies AJ, Kelly SP, Bhatt PR (June 2012). "'Poppers maculopathy'--an emerging ophthalmic reaction to recreational substance abuse". Eye (correspondence). 26 (6): 888. doi:10.1038/eye.2012.37. PMC 3376285. PMID 22402700.
  39. ^ "A quick high for sex may damage vision". Vision. The New York Times.[full citation needed]
  40. ^ Audo I, El Sanharawi M, Vignal-Clermont C, Villa A, Morin A, Conrath J, et al. (June 2011). "Foveal damage in habitual poppers users". Archives of Ophthalmology. 129 (6): 703–8. doi:10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.6. PMID 21320953.[full citation needed]
  41. ^ Storr, Krystnell (8 July 2014). "More evidence 'poppers' may damage eyesight". Reuters Health.
  42. ^ Gruener AM, Jeffries MA, El Housseini Z, Whitefield L (November 2014). "Poppers maculopathy". Lancet. 384 (9954): 1606. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(14)60887-4. PMID 24954683.
  43. ^ Pahlitzsch M, Mai C, Joussen AM, Bergholz R (2016). "Poppers Maculopathy: Complete Restitution of Macular Changes in OCT after Drug Abstinence". Seminars in Ophthalmology. 31 (5): 479–84. doi:10.3109/08820538.2014.962175. PMID 25398125.
  44. ^ Duesberg P, Koehnlein C, Rasnick D (June 2003). "The chemical bases of the various AIDS epidemics: recreational drugs, anti-viral chemotherapy and malnutrition". Journal of Biosciences. 28 (4): 383–412. doi:10.1007/BF02705115. PMID 12799487.
  45. ^ Schechter MT, Craib KJ, Gelmon KA, Montaner JS, Le TN, O'Shaughnessy MV (March 1993). "HIV-1 and the aetiology of AIDS". Lancet. 341 (8846): 658–9. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(93)90421-c. PMID 8095571.
  46. ^ Romanelli F, Smith KM, Thornton AC, Pomeroy C (January 2004). "Poppers: epidemiology and clinical management of inhaled nitrite abuse". Pharmacotherapy. 24 (1): 69–78. doi:10.1592/phco.24.1.69.34801. PMID 14740789.
  47. ^ James JS (April 1999). "Poppers: large cancer increase and immune suppression in animal tests". AIDS Treatment News (317): 1–2. PMID 11366993.
  48. ^ Herbst JH, Raiford JL, Carry MG, Wilkes AL, Ellington RD, Whittier DK (February 2016). "Adaptation and National Dissemination of a Brief, Evidence-Based, HIV Prevention Intervention for High-Risk Men Who Have Sex with Men". MMWR Supplements. 65 (1): 42–50. doi:10.15585/mmwr.su6501a7. PMID 26916033. National survey data suggest that many MSM consume alcohol and other drugs that can impair judgment and increase risky behavior ... Among MSM populations, methamphetamine, amyl nitrate (poppers), cocaine, and heavy alcohol use (i.e., binge drinking) are the substances most consistently associated with risky sexual behavior ... and increased HIV risk ...
  49. ^ McVeigh, Journalist Sarah (31 January 2017). "Man who died at Rainbow Serpent drank amyl nitrite 'poppers', sources say". triple j. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  50. ^ Administration, Australian Government Department of Health Therapeutic Goods (7 June 2018). "Consultation: Proposed amendments to the Poisons Standard being referred to the June 2018 meetings of the ACCS, ACMS and Joint ACCS/ACMS". Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  51. ^ "LGBTIQ Health Experts Slam Proposed Government Ban On Poppers". QNews. 18 October 2018. Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  52. ^ "Submission to the Publication of interim decision proposing to amend, or not amend, the current Poisons Standard, September 2018" (PDF). Australian Federation of AIDS Organisations. 11 October 2018. Retrieved 2019-05-23.
  53. ^ Administration, Australian Government Department of Health Therapeutic Goods (22 November 2018). "Further public consultation on appropriate access and safety controls (Poisons Standard schedule) for alkyl nitrites". Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  54. ^ Butler, Gavin; Morgans, Julian (2019-04-25). "It Looks Like the Australian Government Probably Won't Ban Amyl". Vice. Retrieved 2019-05-23. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |name-list-format= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  55. ^ Administration, Australian Government Department of Health Therapeutic Goods (2019-03-07). "Public meeting communique: Regulatory options for appropriate access and safety controls for alkyl nitrites". Therapeutic Goods Administration (TGA). Retrieved 2019-05-23.
  56. ^ "Directive 2005/90/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council". Official Journal of the European Union. 18 January 2006.
  57. ^ "Decree 90–274 of 26 March 1990" (in French). Legifrance.gouv.fr. 15 May 2009. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  58. ^ "Decree 2007-1636 of 20 November 2007" (in French). Legifrance.gouv.fr. Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  59. ^ "Conseil d'État, 10ème et 9ème sous-sections réunies, 15/05/2009, 312449, Publié au recueil Lebon". Legifrance.gouv.fr (in French). 15 May 2009. Retrieved 11 January 2016.
  60. ^ "Sexdroge Poppers: Zur Ekstase geschnüffelt". news.de (in German).
  61. ^ ""Poppers" sichergestellt. Polizei entdeckt 400 Flaschen des Schnüffelstoffs in Sex-Shop". Die Welt (in German). 8 December 2005.
  62. ^ "Consideration of the Novel Psychoactive Substances ('Legal Highs')" (PDF). Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs. pp. 52–54.
  63. ^ "publications.parliament.uk" (PDF). Retrieved 31 January 2019.
  64. ^ "House of Commons Hansard Debates for 20 January 2016 (pt 0003)". parliament.uk. Retrieved 29 June 2016.
  65. ^ Sutcliffe, Robert. "UK's biggest poppers manufacturer vows to fight legal high ban on product he's made for 35 years". Mirror.
  66. ^ Tayag, Yasmin. "The UK is at war with synthetic drugs and brain boosters are in the crossfire".
  67. ^ "The Government thought it had banned Poppers but actually accidentally didn't". The Independent. 2016-03-16. Retrieved March 16, 2016.
  68. ^ Feng, Ling-Yi; Wada, Kiyoshi; Chung, Heesun; Han, Eunyoung; Li, Jih-Heng. "Comparison of legislative management for new psychoactive substances control among Taiwan, South Korea, and Japan". The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences. n/a (n/a). doi:10.1002/kjm2.12140. ISSN 2410-8650.
  69. ^ Kikura-Hanajiri, Ruri; Uchiyama, Nahoko; Kawamura, Maiko; Ogata, Jun; Goda, Yukihiro (2013). "[Prevalence of new designer drugs and their legal status in Japan]". Yakugaku Zasshi: Journal of the Pharmaceutical Society of Japan. 133 (1): 31–40. doi:10.1248/yakushi.12-00247-6. ISSN 1347-5231. PMID 23292017.
  70. ^ "Search Results - NITE-CHRIP (NITE Chemical Risk Information Platform)". www.nite.go.jp. Retrieved 2019-11-20.
  71. ^ "Poppers sold across Canada pose serious risks". www.healthycanadians.gc.ca. Retrieved 2019-05-23.
  72. ^ Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1988 (Public Law 1QO-690, section 2404) (15 U.S.C. 2d57a(e)(2)).

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Poppers&oldid=928718162"