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2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami

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The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was a magnitude 9.0 undersea earthquake on December 26, 2004 which generated tsunamis that caused one of the deadliest natural disasters in modern history.

Animation of the tsunami caused by the earthquake. (See also the full-length version)

Note: tsunamis have very low height while traveling over deep ocean, and oceangoing vessels in their path will usually not even notice them; high waves only occur when shallow water is reached, typically near coastlines.

This rare type of earthquake known as a megathrust earthquake struck at 00:58:53 UTC (07:58:53 local time) in the Indian Ocean off the western coast of northern Sumatra, Indonesia. It was the largest earthquake on Earth since the 9.2-magnitude Good Friday Earthquake of 1964, and tied for fourth largest since 1900.

The tsunamis devastated the shores of Indonesia, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand and other countries with waves of up to 15 m in height. Even the east coast of Africa (especially Somalia) was hit, despite being located 4,500 km (2,800 miles) or more west of the epicenter.

The plight of the many affected people and countries prompted a widespread humanitarian response.

Quake characteristics

 
Locations of the initial earthquake and aftershocks.

The earthquake was initially reported as 6.8 on the Richter scale. On the moment magnitude scale, which is more accurate for quakes of this size [1], the earthquake's magnitude was first reported as 8.1 by the U.S. Geological Survey, but after further analysis they increased this first to 8.5 and 8.9 and finally 9.0 [2].

Since 1900, the only earthquakes recorded with a greater magnitude were the 1960 Great Chilean Earthquake (magnitude 9.5) and two Alaskan quakes: the 1964 Good Friday Earthquake in Prince William Sound (9.2) and a March 9 1957 quake [3] in the Andreanof Islands (9.1). The only other recorded earthquake of magnitude 9.0 was in 1952 off the southeast coast of Kamchatka [4]. Each of these megathrust earthquakes also spawned tsunamis (in the Pacific Ocean), but the death toll from these was significantly lower, primarily because of the lower population density along the coasts. In these earthquakes deaths ranged from nine to a few thousand (see Top 10 earthquakes).

The hypocentre was at 3.316°N, 95.855°E, some 160 km (100 mi) west of Sumatra, at a depth of 30 km (18.6 mi) below mean sea level (initially reported as 10 km). This is at the extreme western end of the "Ring of Fire", an earthquake belt that accounts for 81% of the world's largest earthquakes [5]. The quake itself (apart from the tsunamis) was felt as far away as Bangladesh, India, Malaysia, Myanmar, Singapore, Thailand and the Maldives.

The earthquake was unusually large in geographical extent. An estimated 1,200 km (750 mi) of faultline slipped 20 m (60 ft) along the subduction zone where the India Plate dives under the Burma Plate. The seabed of the Burma plate is estimated to have risen several metres vertically up over the India plate, creating shock waves in the Indian Ocean that traveled at up to 800 km/h (500 mi/h), forming tsunamis when they reached land.

The India Plate is part of the great Indo-Australian Plate, which underlies the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal, and is drifting northeast at an average of 6 cm/yr (2 in/yr) (or 20 m (60 ft) per 330 years; i.e. this earthquake moved this fault 330 years worth). The India Plate meets the Burma Plate (which is considered a portion of the great Eurasian Plate) at the Sunda Trench. At this point the India Plate subducts the Burma Plate which includes the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands and northern Sumatra. The India Plate slips deeper and deeper beneath the Burma Plate until the increasing temperature and pressure turns the subducting edge of the India Plate into magma which eventually pushes the magma above it out through the volcanoes (see Volcanic arc). This process is interrupted by the locking of the plates for several centuries until the build up of stress causes their release resulting in a massive earthquake and tsunami. The volcanic activity that results as the Indo-Australian plate subducts the Eurasian plate has created the Sunda Arc.

 
Tectonic plates at epicentre (Credit: USGS)

Aftershocks and other earthquakes

Numerous aftershocks of magnitude between 5.7 and 6.3 were reported off the Andaman Islands in the hours and days that followed. Aftershocks off the Nicobar Islands were also reported, including ones of magnitude 7.1 [6], and 6.6 [7]. Other aftershocks between magnitude 5.0 and 6.5 occurred near the location of the original quake. See also: USGS current earthquake information.

The earthquake came just three days after a magnitude 8.1 earthquake in a completely uninhabited region west of New Zealand's sub-Antarctic Auckland Islands, and north of Australia's Macquarie Island [8]. This would normally be unusual, since earthquakes of magnitude 8 or more typically occur only about once per year on average [9]. Seismologists have speculated about a possible connection between these two earthquakes, saying that the former one might have been a catalyst to the Indian Ocean earthquake, as the two quakes happened on opposite sides of the Indo-Australian tectonic plate [10].

Coincidentally, the earthquake struck almost exactly one year (within an hour) after a magnitude 6.6 earthquake killed an estimated 30,000 people in the city of Bam in Iran [11].

Power of the earthquake

The total energy released by a magnitude 9.0 earthquake is equivalent to 32,000 megatons of TNT [12] or 133 exajoules (1.33×1020 joules). This exceeds the total amount of energy consumed in the United States in one year by 30%, or the energy released by the wind of a hurricane like Hurricane Isabel over a period of 70 days [13]. Using the mass-energy equivalence formula E = mc2, this amount of energy is equivalent to a mass of about 1500 kg (3300 lb). Equivalently, this amount of energy is enough to boil 10,000 litres (2,600 US gallons) of water for every person on Earth. Note that each unit of the magnitude scale represents a 31.6-fold increase in energy; every two units signifies 1,000 times more energy.

The shift of mass and the massive release of energy very slightly altered the Earth's rotation. The exact amount is yet undetermined, but theoretical models suggest the earthquake may have shortened the length of a day by as much as three microseconds (3 µs) and caused the Earth to minutely "wobble" on its axis by up to 2.5 cm (1 inch) [14], [15]. However, due to tidal effects of the Moon, the length of a day increases by 15 µs every year, so any rotational speedup due to the earthquake will be quickly lost. Similarly, the natural Chandler wobble of the Earth can be up to 15 m (50 ft).

Based on one seismic model, some of the smaller islands southwest of Sumatra may have moved southwest up to 20 m (66 ft). The northern tip of Sumatra, which is on the Burma Plate (the southern regions are on the Sunda Plate), may also have moved southwest up to 36 m (118 ft). However, other models suggest that most of the movement would have been vertical rather than lateral. Onsite measurements using GPS will be used to determine the extent and nature of actual geophysical movement.

Tsunami characteristics

 
See larger version

The earthquake triggered massive tsunamis that struck the coasts of the Indian Ocean, the deadliest tsunamis by far in all of recorded history.

See a full-length animation of how the waves travelled — large file (about 1 MB) — to see exactly how and why some countries were more badly affected than others

Because the 1200 km of faultline affected by the quake was in a nearly north-south orientation, the greatest strength of the tsunami waves was in an east-west direction. Bangladesh, which lies at the northern end of the Bay of Bengal, had very few casualties despite being a low-lying country regularly devastated by cyclones.

Coasts that have a land mass between them and the tsunami's location of origin are usually safe; however, tsunami waves can sometimes diffract around such land masses. Thus, the Indian state of Kerala was hit by tsunamis despite being on the western coast of India. Also, distance alone is no guarantee of safety: Somalia was hit harder than Bangladesh despite being much farther away.

Due to the distances involved, the tsunamis took anywhere from fifteen minutes to seven hours (for Somalia) to reach the various coastlines (see travel time maps: [16] ). The hardest hit areas of Indonesia were hit very quickly; on the other hand Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly two hours later. Thailand also took about two hours to be hit, despite its closer distance, because the tsunami travelled more slowly in the shallow seas off its western coast.

Failure to detect the tsunamis

Despite the time lapse measured in hours, nearly all of the victims were taken completely by surprise.

This is partly because of the fact that a tsunami is not easy to detect while it is still travelling over deep ocean. In deep water, a tsunami has a very low height and is undetectable by the ordinary observer — aerial surveillance or satellite photos or oceangoing vessels will not notice it. It is only when the tsunami reaches shallow water (typically near a coastline) that its waves reach large heights. The very word "tsunami" means "harbor wave" in Japanese: fisherman would return from fishing in deep water to find harbors devastated by a wave that they themselves had not even noticed.

Only a warning system that monitors data from a network of automated sensors can detect a tsunami in deep water. No such warning system existed in the Indian Ocean due to the rarity of tsunamis in that ocean — the last major one to hit land was caused by the Krakatoa eruption of 1883.

Tsunamis usually occur along the Pacific Ocean coasts of the "Ring of Fire", and a warning system has been in place there since 1965. However, only the extreme western edge of the "Ring of Fire" lies within the Indian Ocean; nearly all of it is in the Pacific. Therefore tsunamis are rare in the Indian Ocean and a warning system there had not been a priority.

Even though scientists were well aware of the potential danger of a tsunami following any undersea earthquake, the lack of a tsunami montoring system in the Indian Ocean meant that they had no way to know for sure that it had actually occurred or how strong it would be. They could only detect a lack of any danger to Pacific Ocean coasts, which were fully shielded behind large land masses and experienced only minor fluctuations in sea level as part of a global ripple effect. Scentists were also hampered by the fact that the initial estimate for the magnitude of the earthquake was 8.1 (this was a factor in the failure of Thai meteorologists to issue a warning [17]); the final determination of 9.0 was not made until after the tsunamis had already struck.

Unfamiliarity with warning signs

In the minutes preceding a tsunami strike, the sea often recedes temporarily from the coast. People in Pacific regions are more familiar with tsunamis and often recognize this phenomenon as a sign to head for higher ground; however in the Indian Ocean region, this rare sight reportedly induced people, especially children, to visit the coast to investigate and collect fish stranded in as much as 2.5 km of exposed beachland, with fatal results. Chegonio needs your help

Damage and casualties

 
Countries most directly affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.

The death toll from the earthquake, the tsunamis and the resultant floods was reported to be more than 150,000, with tens of thousands of people reported missing, and over a million left homeless. Early news reports about eight hours after the earthquake spoke of a toll only in the "hundreds", but the numbers rose steadily over the following week.

Relief agencies report that one-third of the dead appear to be children. This is a result of the high proportion of children in the populations of many of the affected regions and the fact that children were the least able to resist being dragged by the surging waters. Coastal fishing communities and their fisherfolk, some of the poorest people in the region, have been the most devastated with high loss of life as well as boats and fishing gear.

In addition to the large number of local residents, up to 5,000 foreign tourists (mostly Europeans) enjoying the peak travel season were among the dead, especially Scandinavians [18]. The European nation hardest hit may have been Sweden [19].

States of emergency were declared in Sri Lanka, Indonesia and Maldives. The United Nations has declared that the current relief operation will be the costliest one ever. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan has stated that reconstruction would probably take between five and ten years. Governments and NGOs fear the final death toll may double as a result of diseases, prompting a massive humanitarian response.

This is the most deadly and destructive tsunami in recorded history, the previous record being the 1703 tsunami at Awa, Japan that killed over 100,000 people ([20]) and one of the ten worst earthquakes ([21]).

For purposes of establishing timelines of local events, the time zones of affected areas are: UTC+3: (Kenya, Madagascar, Somalia, Tanzania); UTC+4: (Mauritius, Réunion, Seychelles); UTC+5: (Maldives); UTC+5:30: (India); UTC+6: (Bangladesh, Sri Lanka); UTC+6:30: (Cocos Islands, Myanmar); UTC+7: (Indonesia (western), Thailand); UTC+8: (Malaysia, Singapore). Since the quake occurred at 00:58:53 UTC, add the above offsets to find the local time of the quake. A list of times can be found at a USGS site.

Template:2004 Indian Ocean earthquake casualties

A description of the countries most affected by the earthquake and resulting tsunamis is below. To make the article easier to read, the description of nations with fewer than a dozen casualties, as well as the account of nations that have lost citizens who were travelling abroad, are listed as other countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake.

India

 
Much of the area adjacent to the Marina Beach in Chennai was covered by water from the tsunami
Main article: 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake in India

The current official number of casualties in India is 8,942 [22], the overwhelming majority of them being in the state of Tamil Nadu. There are still about 7,000 people missing in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The estimated number of casualties in India is between 14,000 and 15,000, split roughly equally between the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Indian mainland.

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands lie just north of the earthquake epicentre, and the tsunami reached a height of 15 m in the southern Nicobar Islands. The official death toll there is 712, and about 7,000 are still missing. The unofficial death toll (including those missing and presumed dead) is estimated to be about 7,000. One fifth of the population of the Nicobar Islands is said to be dead, injured or missing [23]. Chowra Island in the Nicobars has lost two thirds of its population of 1,500. Entire islands have been literally washed away, and the island of Trinket has been split in two [24]. Communications have not been restored with the Nancowry group of islands, some of which have been completely submerged, with the total number of the population still out of contact exceeding 7,000 [25]. The Indian Air Force base in Car Nicobar, near the epicentre, is reported to have been severely damaged ([26]).

The Andaman and Nicobar Islands are home to several aboriginal tribes such as the Jarawa, the Sentinelese, the Shompen, the Onge and the Great Andamanese. Most of these tribes have maintained their aboriginal lifestyle for centuries, and government policy has been to not interfere with them unless absolutely essential. The tribal population is extremely low (the largest tribe has about 1,000 individuals, while the smallest have less than 50) and tribal census data is not reliable (partly as a consequence of the no-interference policy). Most of the native islanders survived the tsunami because they live on higher ground or far from the coast [27] and no tribe has been completely lost, though many individual tribe members were lost [28]. Nearly all the tribes are of great importance and interest to anthropologists and linguists, due to their unique culture and language.

On mainland India, the entire eastern coast was affected, killing more than 7,000 and rendering thousands injured and/or homeless. Most of the people killed were fisherfolk who lived along the coast, and most of those missing on the mainland are those who were out at sea. The official death toll in Tamil Nadu, which was most affected, is 7,397. The official death toll in Pondicherry is 560. A total of 105 have died in Andhra Pradesh so far, and Kerala (though lying in the tsunami shadow region on the west coast of India) was also affected with 168 deaths and thousands rendered homeless.

The death toll in Tamil Nadu stands at 7,397, most of whom were women and children. It is reported that 5,500 were killed in Nagapattinam district alone, 600 in Cuddalore district, 800 in Kanyakumari district and 200 in the state capital of Chennai. It was reported that survey and rescue helicopters could not land immediately in Nagapattinam and Cuddalore districts due to floods and rains. Those killed in Kanyakumari include pilgrims taking a holy dip in the sea. Of about 700 people trapped at the Vivekananda Rock Memorial off Kanyakumari, 650 were rescued while the search is on for others. In Chennai along the Marina Beach, people taking part in various sports activities (including children) and those who were having a Sunday morning walk along the beach were washed away, in addition to the fisherfolk who lived along the shore and those out at sea. The death toll at Velankanni in Nagapattinam district is currently 1,500. Most of these people were visiting the Basilica of the Virgin Mary for Christmas, while others were residents of the town. The nuclear power station at Kalpakkam was shut down after water rushed into the plant. No radiation leak or damage to the reactor was reported [29]. About 100 casualties were reported from Kalpakkam, all power plant personnel and their families.

The Indian Army, Navy and Coast Guard were pressed into service for undertaking rescue operations and to air-drop food to the tsunami victims. The chief ministers of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh announced ex gratia relief for those affected by the tsunamis. The Indian Army, Navy and Coast Guard have also been helping variety of affected areas in Sri Lanka.

Indonesia

File:Banda Aceh Before and After 2004 Tsunami.jpg
Part of Banda Aceh shore before and after the tsunami, see also larger versions: before, after (Credit: DigitalGlobe).

Indonesia's Ministry of Health confirmed almost 80,000 dead, mainly in the northern province Aceh of the island Sumatra. In addition, the Indonesian ambassador to Malaysia said that up to 400,000 may be dead in villages that "show no signs of life", though the accuracy of this claim is unknown ([30], [[31]). Nine thousand are reported dead in the provincial capital of Banda Aceh and nearby towns, where dozens of buildings were destroyed in the initial earthquake. The town of Meulaboh, which had a population of 120,000 before the tsunami, was struck by a series of seven waves, killing an estimated third of the town's population according to government officials. Northern Sumatra was unusual in the regional disaster in that it took damage from the earthquake itself as well as the tsunami. Hundreds of thousands of people have been rendered homeless ([32]).

Government officials were very concerned over the lack of reports from the many small islands dotting the western coast of Sumatra, such as the islands of Simeulue and Nias, among the poorest areas in Indonesia. On Nias island official accounts gave the number of dead at 122 (source: Media Indonesia Online via the Ministry of Health), while various unconfirmed sources (mostly from phone calls by relatives living in Jakarta) report death tolls of over 600; others say the number is more likely to go well over 1000. A report from an early aid flight to the island of Simeulue indicated that only five killed, due in part to a quick evacuation of the shores prompted by island folklore recounting the devastation that followed a 1907 earthquake and tsunami ([33]). Reports have surfaced that the small islets off the coast of Nias island in the Sirombu district are still relatively intact ([34]), but high waves still prevent locals from attempting to reach the islands (niasisland.com). Confirmation and communications to the islands are further hampered by damage to telecommunication infrastructures, where phone lines are broken and radio networks have been said to be down due to bad weather. This infrastructure damage has severely hampered the distribution of aid.

Most of the damage was the result of the tsunamis that struck the coastal regions of Aceh and North Sumatra provinces. Ten metre tall tsunamis passed the tip of the island to race south down the Straits of Malacca and strike along the northeast coast near the town of Bireun. The west coast of Sumatra was about 100 km (60 mi) from the epicentre and is believed to have taken heavy damage. At least five villages were completely destroyed. Overflights of the region show that thousands of homes remain underwater. An Indonesian navy ship bringing aid supplies to Meulaboh was forced to turn away after it was unable to dock because of damage to the port. Reports indicate that survivors survived for days eating nothing but coconuts and looting has been reported in stricken Acehnese towns.

The unmanageably high number of corpses strewn all over the cities and countrysides, limited resources and time for identifying bodies, and the very real threat of cholera, diphtheria and other diseases have prompted emergency workers to create makeshift mass graves. One of the most urgently required supplies now are body bags ([35]).

More information on the humanitarian situation in Indonesia may be found in the Indonesia section of the humanitarian response page.

Malaysia

 
The wave crashing into the road at Tanjung Tokong, Penang

Despite its proximity to the incident, Malaysia escaped the kind of damage that struck countries thousands of miles further away. Since the epicenter was on the western coast of Sumatra, the island largely shielded the country from the worst of the tsunami. The country's worst affected areas were the northern coastal areas and outlying islands like Penang and Langkawi. Local TV stations broadcasting tsunami alerts within the hour of the quake and simple but effective red flag warning system used by lifeguards on beaches in some resort areas in Penang were credited to reducing the number of fatalities.

The number of deaths currently stands at 66 with 52 in Penang, 10 in Kedah, 3 in Perak and 1 in Selangor. The deaths at Penang were reported to include many picnickers and children who were playing on open public beaches. No deaths are reported among foreign tourists yet. Houses in fishing villages along coastal areas were damaged in Batu Maung and Bayan Lepas in Penang. Coastal areas in Peninsular Malaysia e.g. 13 villages in Kuala Muda, Kedah and Kuala Triang in Langkawi island were also affected. About a quarter of holiday vessels anchored in Rebak and Telaga harbour in Langkawi were also damaged. The waves sent parked motorcycles crashing and cars washed with mud at stretches along Gurney Drive in Penang. The biggest loss from a single family was when 5 of Zulkifli Mohamad Noor's 7 children were killed when the tsunami struck at Pasir Panjang beach. Sinkholes which were reported in Kampar and Ipoh for 3 days running have been investigated and determined not to be earthquake related.

For more information on the aftermath of the earthquake in Malaysia, see the section on the humanitarian response page.

Maldives

 
Malé, the capital island of Maldives was severely hit by the tsunamis.

In the Maldives, 76 were killed and 32 reported missing, with both figures expected to rise as communication links are restored. Two-thirds of the capital city Malé was flooded during the early hours of the day. Outlying low-level atolls were badly affected and some low lying islands were completely submerged, including some of the major resorts, during the high tide.

The government has declared a state of national disaster ([36]) and a special task force has been set up to provide aid and supplies. Rescue efforts have been hampered by loss of communication capability, as well as the lack of a prior rescue or relief plan for a disaster of this nature.

Myanmar (Burma)

Independent media reports 86 people killed in Myanmar due to the tsunami. Although loss of life and property in Myanmar is suspected to be higher than reports suggest, damage is not expected to be as high as in neighboring Thailand due to various factors, most significantly the numerous islands off the coast of Myanmar which served to dissipate the force of the tsunami. Most of the force of the earthquake shockwave moved in an east-west direction so the Thai coast took a direct hit, while the coast of Myanmar runs from south to north, saving it from a direct hit. Also contributing to Myanmar's apparent lack of devastation is the fact that is it less populated and developed than neighboring Thailand; political instability has prevented the country from capitalising on the thriving regional tourism industry. Therefore, while the death toll is reasonably expected to be higher than currently reported, it is unlikely to reach levels experienced by Thailand. Representatives of several relief organizations (including the UN, WHO, International Red Cross and Myanmar Red Cross) have visited affected areas and confirm Myanmar's relatively unscathed situation [37]. The Bangkok Post estimates 800 citizens of Myanmar working in Thailand during the event have been lost; these are included in the Thai numbers.

Somalia

Villages and coastal communities in Somalia, as far as 4,500 km (2,800 mi) from the epicentre of the earthquake, were swept away and destroyed by the huge waves. Presidential spokesperson Yusuf Mohamed Ismail of the transitional government has stated that at least 200 people are dead and more than 50,000 have been displaced. Most of damage is in semi-autonomous Puntland , especially the northeastern island of Hafun, 1150 km (715 mi) northeast of Mogadishu. In Puntland, rising waters engulfed the town mosque of Brava and the villages of Beyla, Garacad, Muduy and Nugaal were reported destroyed. Much of the 1,000 km (621 mi) coast is controlled by various clan-based militias, making obtaining accurate information difficult. The first aid supplies from the United Nations reached Hafun on Thursday. [38]

Sri Lanka

Sri Lankan authorities report 27,268 confirmed deaths [39], mostly children and the elderly. The south and east coasts were worst hit. One and a half million people have been displaced from their homes. The death toll continues to rise as the threat of infectious diseases breaking out has turned into a fact, with doctors confirming first cases of cholera.

File:Tsunami animation kalutara small.gif
Before/after animation of Kalutara, Sri Lanka beach neighborhood. Credit: DigitalGlobe.
(See also the large, interpreted version.)

About 1,200 dead were counted at Batticaloa in the east. At Trincomalee in the northeast, where the tsunami reached more than 2 km (1.25 mi) inland, 800 were reported dead. In neighboring Amparai district alone, more than 5,000 dead. The naval base at Trincomalee is reported to be submerged. About 1000 more dead were counted in Mullaitivu and Vadamaradchi East [40]. A train, the "Sea Queen", moving between Colombo and Galle, with 1,600 passengers was struck by a tsunami, killing all but 300 on board.

Across the island collections are being taken for those who have lost everything, vans with PA systems driving around calling on people to give whatever they can. Even in the poorest, most remote areas people flock to the roadside to hand over money, clothes, bottles of water and bags of rice and lentils.

Apart from homes, many hotels were also reported to have been damaged. Hotels along the south coast were full of both foreign tourists and Sri Lankans making use of the long Christmas weekend. Twenty thousand soldiers were deployed in government-controlled areas to assist in relief operations and maintain law and order after sporadic looting. Curfews had been imposed in some areas to curb looting. Chinese light antipersonnel mines of type T-72A, left after the two-decade civil war, are feared to have been washed up and spread by the surge of water. The Norwegian Peoples' Aid Organization is currently assembling a team of mine sweepers to assess the situation.

It has been noted that in the Yala National Park, many animals seem to have moved to higher regions in order to escape the disaster. It is unclear how they detected the coming disaster, although a sixth sense, perhaps the ability to hear the infrasound rumble of the tremors or approaching tsunami, was mentioned in reports. Another possible reason is that many animals can run faster than people, enabling them to outrun the tsunami.

The test match ground at Galle, where international cricket is played, has been devastated.

For more on the humanitarian situation in Sri Lanka, see the humanitarian response page.

Thailand

The Thai government reports 4,510 [41] confirmed deaths, 8,953 injuries [42] and 6,475 [43] missing. The popular tourist resort of Phuket was badly hit. The smaller but increasingly popular resort area of Khao Lak some 80 km north of Phuket was hit far worse and there are said to be around 700 corpses on the beach in Khao Lak, while the total amount of dead in Khao Lak may exceed 2,000. The severity of the situation in Khao Lak is probably explained by the fact, that unlike the high-rising city of Phuket, the village of Khao Lak only had low built bungalows instead of high-rise concrete hotels. Khao Lak also has an extensive area of flatland only a few metres above the sea level, on which most bungalows were situated.

Thailand deputy interior minister Sutham Sangprathum reports over 700 tourists among Thailand's casualties. The bodies of 44 foreign tourists are reported to have been recovered at Phuket. Hundreds of holiday bungalows on the Phi Phi Islands were washed out to sea. Tuk-tuk drivers were quick to offer assistance, driving victims to hospital and higher ground and away from the surging waters. Local reports say many scuba divers were found dead, with their bodies torn apart by the tsunami. Bhumi Jensen, grandson of HM King Bhumibol Adulyadej, is confirmed dead.

Other countries

Main article: Other countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

A number of other countries were also affected either directly or indirectly by the earthquake. Countries such as Tanzania lost citizens as the tsunami struck its shores and other countries suffered significant property damage. Meanwhile, nations like Oman and Australia reported only non-deadly ocean swells. Citizens from countries from around the world have been killed, or remain missing, in the aftermath of the natural disaster. Many foreigners were visiting the famed beaches of Thailand and Sri Lanka during the Christmas vacation.

Casualties in historical context

File:2004 indian ocean earthquake tectonic.jpg
Regional map showing physiographic features, tectonic plate movements, and locations of volcanoes, earthquakes, and impact craters (Credit: USGS)

The earthquake was the fourth most powerful recorded since 1899, and the estimates of the final death toll now range from 460,000 to 650,000 due to the ensuing tsunami. The deadliest earthquakes since 1899 were the Tangshan, China earthquake of 1976, in which at least 255,000 were killed, the Ashgabat, Turkmenistan earthquake of 1948 (110,000), the Tsinghai, China earthquake of 1927 (200,000), the Great Kanto earthquake which struck Tokyo in 1923 (143,000), and the Gansu, China earthquake of 1920 (200,000). The deadliest known earthquake in history occurred in 1556 in Shaanxi, China, with an estimated death toll of 830,000, though figures from this time period may not be reliable [44].

This 2004 tsunami appears to be the most deadly tsunami in recorded history. The most deadly tsunami in history prior to 2004 was the result of an earthquake near Awa, Japan in 1703 that killed 100,000. The tsunami created by the 1883 explosion of Krakatoa is thought to have resulted in 36,000 deaths. The most deadly tsunami between 1900 and 2004 occurred in the Messina, Italy where the earthquake and tsunami killed 70,000 in 1908. The most deadly tsunami in the Atlantic resulted from the 1755 Lisbon earthquake that, combined with the toll from the actual earthquake and resulting fires, killed over 100,000.

Early warning systems

 
Relative size of a 10 m (33 ft) wave

See also: Tsunami - Warning systems

The death toll of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was particularly high due to the lack of an early warning system for tsunamis comparable to the one that has existed for the Pacific Ocean since 1965. The latter [45] was put into place in the aftermath of tsunamis resulting from the magnitude 9.2 Good Friday Earthquake of 1964.

The first reaction of many to the the disaster has been to question governmental priorities in not having constructed such a system, but as the region had not seen a large tsunami since the Krakatoa eruption of 1883, it was not previously felt justified.

The US Geological Survey has stated that if a monitoring and warning system had been in place, the loss of life could have been reduced, especially in areas that were struck by tsunamis a couple of hours after the initial tremor, such as Sri Lanka and India and Thailand.

In the aftermath of the earthquake, there has been a flurry of proposals to extend the tsunami warning system to the Indian Ocean, and it seems likely that this will happen. India has already announced that it will do so [46], and Malaysia has proposed the same [47]. Thailand is also expected to join; it is already a member of the Pacific tsunami warning system, but all of its ocean buoys, which relay information from wave sensors on the ocean floor, are on the east (Pacific) coast of the country.

Some have even proposed creating a global tsunami warning system that would cover the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean as well.

Post-tsunami humanitarian situation

Main article: Humanitarian response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake

A great deal of humanitarian aid is needed due to widespread damage to infrastructure, food and water shortages, and economic damage. World Health Organization crisis chief David Nabarro stated that the baseline for past crises suggests that a a further 50,000 deaths from diseases and other causes would not be exceptional ([48]). Epidemics are of special concern, as they are highly likely due to the high population density and tropical climate of the affected areas. The United Nations has stated that the largest relief operation in history is underway. The overwhelming concern of humanitarian and government agencies is to provide fresh drinking water to contain the spread of diseases such as cholera, diphtheria, dysentery and typhoid. Nations all over the world have so far provided over 2 billion of U.S. dollars in aid for damaged regions, with the Japan government offering the most at $500 million, the United States government offering $350 million, the World Bank offering $250 million, UK government and public offering $140 million and Swedish government and public offering $125 million. Officials estimate that billions of dollars will be needed.

Conflicting priorities

Significant effort is being spent in burying bodies hurriedly, explicitly to prevent the spread of disease. However, the public health threat of unburied trauma victims is not as great as that of those who die of infectious disease; the World Health Organization (WHO) characterises it as "negligible" in comparison. Furthermore, improperly buried corpses may contaminate underground water supplies. Many argue that the limited resources available should be focused on the survival and health needs of the living. On the other hand, religious and cultural practices, the culinary distaste of unburied bodies, and the negative impact on morale of leaving the dead unattended to, continue to motivate for prompt burial.

See also

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