The Mongol invasions of Europe were centered in their destruction of the Ruthenian states, especially Kiev, under the leadership of Subutai. The Mongols then invaded the Kingdom of Hungary and the fragmented Poland (see History of Poland (966–1385)), the former invasion commanded by Batu Khan, a grandson of Genghis Khan, and the latter a diversion commanded by Kadan, also a grandson of Genghis Khan, though both invasions were also masterminded by Subutai.
Historians have debated since the 1200s whether or not the Eastern European campaigns of the Mongols had macrohistorical importance. Most military historians believe they essentially were diversions, meant to frighten the Western powers sufficiently to keep them out of the Mongols' affairs in the East, specifically in Russia. The evidence does indicate that Batu Khan was primarily interested in securing the western frontiers of his Russian conquests, and only after the swift destruction of both the Hungarian and Polish armies did he begin thinking about the conquest of Western Europe. Mongolian records indicate that Subutai was planning a complete conquest of the remaining European powers, beginning with a winter attack on Austria and other states of the Holy Roman Empire, when he was recalled to Mongolia upon the death of Ögedei Khan. [1]
The famous remark of King Louis IX of France that he was going to fight the Tartars and would either send them back to hell or be himself sent to paradise was a sign of the fear the Mongol invasions aroused. The European invasions were a third theater of operations, second to both the Middle East and Song China. It is believed that Western Europe would have been unable to withstand a Mongol onslaught and the history of Europe would have been dramatically altered. This belief is founded on the destruction of the armies of Poland (which was supported by German allies) and Hungary within a two day period by the Mongols with relative ease. Military historians agree there is no reason to believe other European armies would have fared any better. [citation needed] It should be noted that a small Mongol force was repelled by the army of Venceslas I of Bohemia.
Invasion of Europe (1241-1242)
The Mongols invaded central Europe in three groups. One group defeated an alliance which included forces from the fragmented Poland (see History of Poland (966–1385)) and members of various Christian military orders, led by Henry II the Pious, Duke of Silesia at [Blood" (of Genghis Khan), all of Europe might have fallen as easily as Poland and Hungary. It should be noted that thspies into Poland, Hungary, and as far as Austria, in preparation for an attack into the heartland of Europe. Having got a clear picture of the European kingdoms, he brilliantly prepared an attack nominally commanded by Batu Khan and two other princes of the blood. Batu Khan, son of Jochi, was the overall leader, but Subutai was the actual commander in the field, and as such was present in both the northern and southern campaigns against Russia and the Ukraine. He commanded the central column that moved against Hungary. While Kadan's northern force won the Battle of Liegnitz and Güyük's army triumphed in Transylvania, Subutai was waiting for them on the Hungarian plain. The newly reunited army then withdrew to the Sajo River where they inflicted the tremendous defeat on King Bela IV of Hungary at the Battle of Mohi. Subutai masterminded the operation, and it was proven to be one of his greatest victories.
Invasion of Hungary
Around 1241 Hungary looked much like any other feudal kingdom of Europe. Although the throne was still inherited by the successors of Arpad, the authority and power of the king were greatly curtailed. The rich magnates cared less about the national security of the whole in some circumstances, and made the king only 'primus inter pares', first among equals. Bela IV, tried to restore the king's former authority and power without much success. Thus, Hungary lived in a "happy feudal anarchy" at the time when the Mongols began to expand toward Europe.
The Hungarians had first learned about the Mongol threat in 1229, when King Andrew granted asylum to some fleeing Russian boyars. In 1237, a Dominican friar, Julianus, who was sent on a mission to lead back to Hungary a small band of Magyars (those who had not yet migrated still lived as nomads on the banks of the upper Volga), was sent back to King Bela with a letter from Batu Khan. In this letter, Batu Khan called upon the Hungarian king to surrender his kingdom unconditionally to the Tatar forces or face complete destruction. Bela did not reply. Two more Mongol messages were brought to Hungary: the first, in 1239, by the defeated Cuman tribes, who asked for and received asylum in Hungary, and the second, in February, 1241, by the defeated Polish princes.
Only now did King Bela call his magnates to join his army in defense of the country. He also asked the papacy and the Western European rulers for additional help. Foreign help came in the form of a small knight-detachment under the leadership of Frederick, Prince of Austria, but they were too few to influence the outcome of the campaign. The majority of the Hungarian magnates Mongol danger; some of them perhaps even hoped that a defeat of the royal army would force Bela to discontinue his centralization efforts and thus strengthen their own power.
Although the Mongol danger was not serious and not real, Hungary was prepared to deal with it, as in the minds of the people (who had lived free from nomadic invasions for the last few hundred years) a new invasion seemed impossible. The population was no longer a soldier population. Only the rich nobles were trained as heavy-amored cavalry. The Hungarians had long since forgotten the light-cavalry strategy and tactics of their ancestors, which were almost the same as those now used by the Mongols.
The Hungarian army (some 60,000 on the eve of the Battle of Muhi) was made up of brave individual knights without tactical knowledge, discipline, or talented, expert commanders. Inasmuch as the Hungarian army had no trained light cavalry at all, King Bela welcomed the Cuman king, Kotony, and his fighters. They were not only experts in nomadic warfare, but on two occasions they had already proved that they could fight successfully against the Mongols. But the sudden change from a migrating, warrior life to a civilized, settled, peaceful way of life was to traumatic for the Cumans. Soon a rumor began to circulate in Hungary that the Bela had given asylum to the Cumans who were regarded as rebels and traitors in the Mongol Empire.
If this were true, then King Bela had taken an unnecessarily great risk which proved to be detrimental to his plans. When some hot-headed Hungarians attacked the Cuman camp and killed their king, the Cumans escaped to the south, looting, ravaging the countryside, and slaughtering the surprised Magyar population. The Austrian troops moved back to Austria shortly thereafter to "enlist more Western help." The Hungarians remained alone.
Arriving at the Hernad River without having been challenged to a fight by the Mongols, the army encamped on April 10, 1241. The area proved terrain impracticable for the battle formation of a heavy-cavalry army. The Mongols began their attack the next night. Soon, it was clear that the Hungarians were losing the battle. The king escaped with the help of his faithful and brave bodyguard, but the rest of the army was either killed without mercy by the Mongols or drowned in the rivers while attempting an escape.
The interested in invading Europe as much as halting his cousin Hulagu Khan from destroying the Holy Land. Berke had converted to Islam before and watched with horror as his cousin destroyed the Abbasid Caliph, the spiritual head of Islam as far as Berke was concerned. The Mamluks of Egypt, learning through spies that Berke was both a Muslim and not fond of his cousin, appealled to him for help and were careful to nourish their ties to him and his Khanate.
Both entities were Turkic in origin.[1] Most of the Mamluks were of Turkic descent and Berke's Khanate was. Thus, the Khanate was Turkic in culture and had more in common with their brother Muslim Turkic Mamluks than with the Mongol shamanist Hulagu and his horde. Thus, when Hulagu Khan began to mass his army for war against the Mamluk-controlled Holy Land, they swiftly appealed to Berke Khan who sent armies against his cousin and forced him to defend his domains in the north.
Hulagu returned to his lands by 1262, but instead of being able to avenge his defeats, had to turn north to face Berke Khan, suffering severe defeat in an to collect booty he needed to pay for his wars against Hulagu from 1262-65.
Later campaigns
Against Poland (1259 and 1287)
In 1259, 18 years after the first attack, two tumens (20,000 men) from the Golden Horde, under the leadership of Berke, attacked Poland after raiding Lithuania. This attack was commanded by Nogai Khan and general Burundai. Lublin, Sandomierz, Kraków, and Bytom were ravaged and plundered by Nogai's army. Berke had no intention of occupying or conquering Poland.
An unsuccessful raid followed in 1287, led by Telubuga. Lublin and Sandomierz were successful raided, but they were defeated in Kraków. Despite this, Kraków was devastated. This raid consisted of less than one tumen, since the Golden Horde's armies were tied down in conflict with the Il-Khanate. The force sent was not sufficient to meet the full Polish army, nor did it have any siege engineers or equipment to breach city walls. It raided a few caravans, burned a few small towns, and fled when the Polish army was mustered.
Against Lithuania (1259 and 1275)
The Mongols also raided the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the campaign of 1259. There was another raid against Lithuania in 1275, as the Lithuanians were emerging as a rival to Mongol power.
Against Thrace (1265)
During the reign of Berke there was also a raid against Thrace. In the winter of 1265 Nogai Khan led a Mongol raid of two tumens (20,000 soldiers)against the territories of Bulgaria and Byzantine Eastern Thrace. In the spring of 1265 he defeated the armies of Michael VIII Palaeologus. After this Thrace was plundered by Nogai's army, and the Byzantine emperor made a alliance with the Golden Horde, giving his daughter Euphrosyne in marriage to Nogai.
Invasion of Hungary (1284)
In the 1280s Nogai Khan led an invasion of Hungary. But as with later invasions, it was repelled handily, the Mongols losing much of their invading force. The outcome could not have contrasted more sharply with the 1241 invasion, mostly due to the reforms of Béla IV of Hungary, which included advances in military tactics and, most importantly, the widespread building of stone castles, both in response to the crushing defeat of the Hungarian Kingdom in 1241.
References
- ^ Amitai-Preiss, Reuven. The Mamluk-Ilkhanid War
- Chambers, James -- The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe
- Hildinger, Eric -- Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500 B.C. to A.D. 1700
- Morgan, David -- The Mongols, ISBN 0-631-17563-6
- Nicolle, David, -- The Mongol Warlords, Brockhampton Press, 1998
- Reagan, Geoffry -- The Guinness Book of Decisive Battles, Canopy Books, NY (1992)
- Saunders, J.J. -- The History of the Mongol Conquests, Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd, 1971, ISBN 0-8122-1766-7
- Sicker, Martin -- The Islamic World in Ascendancy: From the Arab Conquests to the Siege of Vienna, Praeger Publishers, 2000
- Soucek, Svatopluk -- A History of Inner Asia, Cambridge, 2000