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Military history of Puerto Rico

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Puerto Rico

The recorded military history of Puerto Rico encompasses the period from the 16th century, when Spanish conquistadores battled native Tainos, to the present employment of Puerto Ricans in the United States Armed Forces in the military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Puerto Rico was part of the Spanish Empire for four centuries, when the Puerto Ricans defended themselves against invasions from the British, French, and Dutch. During the mid-19th century, the quest for Latin American independence from Spain spread to Puerto Rico, culminating in the failed revolution known as El Grito de Lares. The island was invaded by the United States during the Spanish-American War; the war ended when Spain officially ceded the island under the 1898 Treaty of Paris. Puerto Rico became a United States territory and a military regiment known as the Porto Rico Regiment was established on the island.

As citizens of the United States, Puerto Ricans have participated in every major United States military engagement from World War I, with Puerto Rico's 65th Infantry Regiment distinguishing themselves in combat during the Korean War.

Conflict with the Tainos

Christopher Columbus discovered the island of Puerto Rico on November 19, 1493 during his second voyage to the New World. The island was inhabited by the Arawak group of indigenous peoples known as Tainos, who called the island "Boriken" or "Borinquen". Columbus named the island San Juan Bautista in honor of Saint John the Baptist. The main port was named Puerto Rico (Rich Port) (eventually the island was renamed Puerto Rico and the port which was to evolve into the capital of the island was renamed San Juan). The conquistador Juan Ponce de León accompanied Columbus on this trip.[1]

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Cacique Agüeybaná greeting Juan Ponce de León

When Ponce de León arrived in Puerto Rico, he was well received by the cacique Agüeybaná, chieftain of the island Taino tribes. Besides the conquistadors, some of the first colonists were farmers and miners in search of gold. In 1508, Ponce de León became the first appointed governor of Puerto Rico, founding the first settlement of Caparra between the modern-day cities of Bayamón and San Juan. After being named Governor, de León and the conquistadors forced the Tainos to work in the mines and to build fortifications; many Tainos died as a result of cruel treatment during their labor. In 1510, Agüeybaná II (Agüeybaná's brother) and a group of Tainos led Diego Salcedo, a Spaniard, to a river and drowned him, proving to his people that the white men were not gods. Upon realizing this, Agüeybaná led the first island rebellion against the better armed Spanish forces. The colonists formed a citizens' militia to defend themselves against the attacks. Agüeybaná II was shot and killed, ending the first recorded military action in Puerto Rico.[2]

Europeans fight over Puerto Rico

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El Morro, Puerto Rico's main military fortification

Puerto Rico was considered the "Key to the Antilles" by the Spanish because of its location as a way station and port for Spanish vessels. In 1540, with revenue from Mexican mines, the Spanish settlers began the construction of Fort San Felipe del Morro ("the promontory") in San Juan. With the completion of the initial phase of the construction in 1589 El Morro became the island's main military fortification, guarded by professional soldiers. The rest of Puerto Rico had to rely on only a handful of soldiers and the local volunteer militia to defend the island against militant and pirate attacks.

The English

In 1585, war broke out between England and Spain. The Anglo-Spanish War was not limited to Europe—extending to Spanish and English territories in the Americas. On November 22, 1595, Sir Francis Drake, the vice-admiral in command of the Royal Navy that overcame the Spanish Armada, and Sir John Hawkins attempted an invasion of the island with 26 vessels. Unable to take the island, Drake set San Juan on fire. In 1596, Drake died of dysentery after another unsuccessful attack on San Juan.[3] On June 15, 1598, the British fleet, led by George Clifford, landed in Santurce and held the island for several months. He was forced to abandon the island upon an outbreak of bacillary dysentery among his troops. In 1599, 400 additional soldiers and 46 cannons were sent to the island along with a new governor, Alonso de Mercado, to rebuild the city.[4]

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Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa, militia commander and national hero

The British continued their attacks against Spanish colonies in the Caribbean, taking minor islands including Vieques east of Puerto Rico. On August 5, 1702, the city of Arecibo, on Puerto Rico's northern coast, was invaded by the British. Armed only with spears and machetes, under the command of Captain Antonio de los Reyes Correa, 30 militia members defended the city from the British, who were armed with muskets and swords. The British were defeated, suffering 22 losses on land and 8 at sea. Reyes Correa was declared a national hero and was awarded the Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie ("Gold Medal of the Royal Image") and the title of "Captain of Infantry" by King Philip V.[5]

Native-born Puerto Rican (criollos) had petitioned the Spanish Crown to serve in the regular Spanish army, resulting in the 1741 organization of the Regimiento Fijo de Puerto Rico. The Fijo served in the defense of Puerto Rico and other Spanish overseas possessions, performing in battles in Santo Domingo, other islands in the Caribbean, and South America, most notably in Venezuela. However, Puerto Rican complaints that the Fijo was being used to suppress the revolution in Venezuela caused the Crown to bring the Fijo home and in 1815 it was mustered out of service.[6]

In 1765, the Spanish Crown sent Field Marshall Alejandro O'Reilly to Puerto Rico to form an organized militia. O'Reilly, known as the "Father of the Puerto Rican Militia", oversaw training to bring fame and glory to the militia in future military engagements, nicknaming the civilian militia the "Disciplined Militia." O'Reilly was later appointed governor of colonial Louisiana in 1769 and became known as "Bloody O'Reilly."[7][8]

General Bernardo de Gálvez, general of the Spanish colonial army in North America

During the American Revolutionary War, Spain lent the rebelling colonists the use of its ports in Puerto Rico, through which flowed financial aid and arms for their cause. Puerto Rican volunteers fought the British, alongside the Continental Army, in the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775, under the command of Captain General Torre. An incident occurred in the coast of Mayagüez, in 1777, between two Continental Navy ships, the Eudawook and the Henry, and a Royal Navy warship, the HMS Glasgow. Both American ships were chased by the larger and more powerful Glasgow. The American ships were close to the coast of Mayagüez; members of the Puerto Rican militia of that town, realizing that something was wrong, signaled for the ships to dock at the town's bay. After the ships docked, the crews of both ships got off and some Mayagüezanos boarded and raised the Spanish flag on both ships. The commander of the Glasgow became aware of the situation and asked the island's governor, Jose Dufresne to turn over the ships. Dufresne refused and ordered the English warship out of the Puerto Rican dock.[9]

The governor of Louisiana, Bernardo de Gálvez, was named general of the Spanish colonial army in North America. In 1779, Galvez and his troops, composed of Puerto Ricans and other Hispanic groups, distracted the British from the revolution by capturing the cities of Baton Rouge, Mobile, Pensacola and St. Louis. Galvez and his troops also provided the Continental Army with guns, cloth, gunpowder and medicine shipped from Cuba up the Mississippi River.[10][11]

On February 17, 1797, the appointed governor of Puerto Rico, brigadier general Ramón de Castro, received the news that England had invaded the island of Trinidad. Believing that Puerto Rico would be the next British objective he decided to put the local militia on alert and to prepare the island's forts against any military action. On April 17, 1797, British ships under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby approached the coastal town of Loíza, to the east of San Juan. On April 18, British soldiers and German mercenaries ("Hessians") landed on Loíza's beach. Under the command of de Castro, British ships were attacked with artillery and mortar fire from both El Morro and the San Gerónimo fortresses. The British twice tried to take the Martín Peña Bridge, a key passage to the San Juan islet, but after fiercely fighting the Spanish forces and local militia, were defeated in both attempts. The invasion failed because a total of 16,000 Puerto Rican volunteers and Spanish troops fought back and defended the island. The British also attacked Aguadilla and Punta Salinas, but they were defeated, and the British troops that had landed on the island were taken prisoner. The British retreated on April 30 to their ships and on May 2 set sail northward. Because of the defeat given to the British forces, governor Ramon de Castro petitioned Spanish King Charles IV for recognition for the victors; he was promoted to Field Marshal and several others were promoted and given pay raises.[12][13]

After Abercromby's defeat the British persisted in invading Puerto Rico with unsuccessful skirmishes on the coastal towns of Aguadilla (December 1797), Ponce, Cabo Rojo, and Mayagüez until 1802 when the war finally came to an end.[14]

Captain Miguel Henriquez

While Spain and Britain were in a power struggle in the New World, Puerto Rican privateering of British ships was encouraged by the Spanish Crown. Captains Miguel Henriquez and Roberto Cofresi were two of the most famous pirates. In the latter half of the 17th century, Henriquez, a shoemaker by occupation, decided to try his luck as a pirate. He showed great valor in intercepting English merchant ships and other ships dedicated to contraband that were infesting the seas of Puerto Rico and the Atlantic Ocean in general. Miguel Henriquez organized an expeditionary force which fought and defeated the British in the island of Vieques. Henriquez was received as a national hero when he returned the island of Vieques to the Spanish Empire and to the governorship of Puerto Rico. In recognition of his service, the Spanish Crown awarded Henriquez the Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie (The Gold Medal of the Royal Image), named him "Captain of the Seas and Land", and gave him a letter of marque and reprisal thus granting him the privileges of privateer.[15]

In the case of Captain Roberto Cofresi, the Spanish government received many complaints from the nations whose ships he attacked. Cofresi and his men attacked eight ships, amongst them an American ship. The Spanish government, which routinely encouraged piracy against other nations, was pressured and felt obliged to pursue and capture the famous pirate. In 1824, Captain John Slout of the U.S. Naval Forces and his schooner "Grampus" engaged Cofresi in a fierce battle. The pirate Cofresi was captured, along with eleven of his crew members, and turned over to the Spanish Government. He was imprisoned in El Castillo del Morro in San Juan. Cofresi was judged by a Spanish Council of War, found guilty, and executed by firing squad on March 29 1825.[16]

The Dutch

The Netherlands was a world military and commercial power by 1625, competing in the Caribbean with the British. The Dutch wanted to establish a military stronghold in the area, and dispatched Captain Balduino Enrico (Boudewijn Hendricksz) to capture Puerto Rico. On September 24, 1625, Enrico arrived at the coast of San Juan with 17 ships and 2,000 men. The governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de Haros, was an experienced military man and, expecting an attack in the section known as Boqueron, had that area fortified. However, the Dutch took another route and landed in La Puntilla.[13]

La Fortaleza, Puerto Rico's governor mansion

De Haro realized that an invasion was inevitable and ordered 300 men stationed at El Morro Castle and the city of San Juan evacuated. He also had former governor Juan de Vargas organize an armed resistance in the interior of the island. On September 25 Enrico attacked San Juan, besieging El Morro Castle and La Fortaleza (the Governor's Mansion). He invaded the capital city and set up his headquarters in La Fortaleza. The Dutch were counterattacked by the civilian militia on land and by the cannons of the Spanish troops in El Morro Castle. The land battle left 60 Dutch soldiers dead and Enrico wounded. The Dutch ships at sea were boarded by Puerto Ricans who defeated those aboard. After a long battle, the Spanish soldiers and volunteers of the city's militia were able to defend the city from the attack and save the island from an invasion. On October 21, Enrico set La Fortaleza and the city ablaze upon his retreat. He then tried to invade the island by attacking the town of Aguada. He was again defeated by the local militia and abandoned the idea of invading Puerto Rico.[13]

French

The British and the Dutch were not the only enemies that Spain faced in the Caribbean during this period. On October 11, 1528, the French sacked and burned the settlement of San Germán during an attempt to capture the island, destroying many of the island's first settlements—including Guánica, Sotomayor, Daguao and Loiza—before the local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained was San Juan.[13]

France had threatened to invade the Spanish Colony of Santo Domingo. In 1808, the Spanish Crown sent their Navy, under the command of Puerto Rican Admiral Ramon Power y Giralt, to prevent the invasion of Santo Domingo by the French by enforcing a blockade. He was successful and was proclaimed a hero by the Spanish Government.[17]

Revolt against Spain

South America

General Antonio Valero de Bernabe, the "Liberator from Puerto Rico"

In the early 19th century the Spanish colonies, in what is known as the Latin American revolutions, began to revolt against Spanish rule. Antonio Valero de Bernabe was a Puerto Rican military leader known in Latin America as the "Liberator from Puerto Rico". Valero was a recent graduate of the Spanish Military Academy when Napoleon Bonaparte convinced King Charles IV of Spain to permit him to pass through Spanish soil with the sole purpose of attacking Portugal. When Napoleon refused to leave, the Spanish government declared war. Valero joined the Spanish Army and helped defeat Napoleon's army at the Battle of Zaragoza. Valero became a hero; he was promoted to the rank of colonel and was awarded many decorations.[18]

When Ferdinand VII assumed the throne of Spain in 1813, Valero became critical of the new king's policies towards the Spanish colonies in Latin America. He developed a keen hatred of the monarchy, resigned his commission in the army, and headed for Mexico. There he joined the insurgent army headed by Agustín de Iturbide, in which Valero was named chief of staff. He fought for and helped achieve Mexico's independence from Spain. After the Mexican victory, Iturbide proclaimed himself Emperor of Mexico. Since Valero had developed anti-monarchist feelings following his experiences in Spain, he revolted against Iturbide. His revolt failed and he attempted to escape from Mexico by way of sea.[18]

Valero was captured by a Spanish pirate, who turned him over to the Spanish authorities in Cuba. Valero was imprisoned but managed to escape with the help of a group of men that identified with Simón Bolívar's ideals. Upon learning of Bolívar's dream of creating a unified Latin America, including Puerto Rico and Cuba, Valero decided to join him. Valero stopped in St. Thomas, where he established contacts with the Puerto Rican independence movement. He then traveled to Venezuela, where he was met by General Francisco de Paula Santander.[18] He next joined Bolívar and fought alongside "The Liberator" against Spain, gaining his confidence and admiration. Valero was named Military Chief of the Department of Panama, Governor of Puerto Cabello, Chief of Staff of Colombia, Minister of War and Maritime of Venezuela, and in 1849 was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General.[19]

Puerto Rico

Fort San Cristobal

On April 13, 1855, a mutiny broke out among the artillerymen at Fort San Cristóbal. They were protesting an extended two years of military service imposed by the island's Spanish governor, Garcia Cambia. The mutineers pointed their cannons towards San Juan, creating a state of panic among the population. Upon their surrender, the governor had the eight men arrested and sentenced to death by firing squad.[20]

Many Spanish colonies had gained their independence by the mid-1850s. In Puerto Rico, there were two groups: the loyalists, who were loyal to Spain, and the independentistas, who advocated independence. In 1866, Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances, Segundo Ruiz Belvis, and other independence advocates met in New York City where they formed the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico. An outcome of this venture was a plan to send an armed expedition from the Dominican Republic to invade the island. Several revolutionary cells were formed in the western towns and cities of Puerto Rico. Two of the most important cells were at Mayagüez, led by Mathias Brugman and code named "Capa Prieto" and at Lares, code-named "Centro Bravo" and headed by Manuel Rojas. "Centro Bravo" was the main center of operations and was located in the Rojas plantation of El Triunfo. Manuel Rojas was named "Commander of the Liberation Army" by Betances. Mariana Bracetti (sister-in-law of Manuel) was named "Leader of the Lares Revolutionary Council." Upon the request of Betances, Bracetti knitted the revolutionary Flag of Lares (Bandera de Lares).[21]

File:Ramon emeterio betances.jpg
Ramón Emeterio Betances
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Original Lares Revolutionary Flag

The Spanish authorities discovered the plot and were able to confiscate Betances's armed ship before it arrived in Puerto Rico. The Mayor of the town of Camuy, Manuel Gonzalez (leader of that town's revolutionary cell), was arrested and charged with treason. He learned that the Spanish Army was aware of the independence plot, and escaped to warn Manuel Rojas. Alerted, the revolutionists decided to start the revolution as soon as possible, and set the date for September 28, 1868. Mathias Brugman and his men joined with Manuel Rojas's men and with about 800 men and women, marched on and took the town of Lares. This was to be known as "el Grito de Lares." The revolutionists entered the town's church and placed Mariana Bracetti's revolutionary flag on the High Altar as a sign that the revolution had begun. They declared Puerto Rico to be the "Republic of Puerto Rico" and named Francisco Ramirez its President. Manuel and his poorly armed followers proceeded to march on to the town of San Sebastián, armed only with clubs and machetes. The Spanish Army had been forewarned, and awaited with superior fire power. The revolutionists were met with deadly fire. The revolt failed, many revolutionists were killed, and at least 475, including Manuel Rojas and Mariana Bracetti, were imprisoned in the jail of Arecibo and sentenced to death.[22][23]

Others fled and went into hiding. Mathias Brugman was hiding in a local farm where he was betrayed by a farmer named Francisco Quiñones; he was captured and executed on the spot. In 1869, fearing another revolt, the Spanish Crown disbanded the Puerto Rican Militia, which had been composed almost entirely of native-born Puerto Ricans, and also the Compañia de Artilleros Morenos de Cangrejos, a separate company of black Puerto Ricans. They then organized the Volunteer Institute, composed entirely of Spaniards and their sons.[24]

Cuba

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General Juan Rius Rivera, Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban Liberation Army

In 1869, the incoming governor of Puerto Rico, Jose Laureano Sanz, in an effort to ease tensions in the island, dictated a general amnesty and released all who were involved with the Grito de Lares revolt from prison.[25] Many of these former prisoners joined the Cuban Liberation Army and fought against Spain. Among the many Puerto Ricans who volunteered to fight for Cuba's independence were Juan Rius Rivera and Francisco Gonzalo Marin, also known as "Pachin Marin."

Juan Rius Rivera was released from prison for his participation in the Lares revolt. He joined the Cuban Liberation Army and was given the rank of General. He fought alongside Gen. Máximo Gómez in Cuba's Ten Years' War. He later fought alongside Gen. Antonio Maceo and upon Maceo's death was named Commander-in-Chief of the Cuban Liberation Army. After Cuba gained its independence, Gen. Juan Rius Rivera became an active political figure in the new nation.[26]

Francisco Gonzalo Marin was a renowned poet and journalist in Puerto Rico who joined the Cuban Liberation Army upon learning of the death of his brother Wecenlao in the battlefields of Cuba. Marin, who was given the rank of Lieutenant, befriended and fought alongside José Martí. In November 1897 Lt. Marin died from the wounds he received in a skirmish against the Spanish Army.[27]

Spanish-American War

Captain Angel Rivero Mendez

The United States declared war on Spain in 1898 following the sinking of the battleship "Maine" in Havana harbor, Cuba. One of the United States's principal objectives in the Spanish-American War was to take control of Spanish possessions Puerto Rico and Cuba in the Atlantic, and the Philippines and Guam in the Pacific.

On May 10, 1898, Spanish forces, under the command of Capt. Angel Rivero Mendez in the fortress of San Cristobal in San Juan, exchanged fire with the USS Yale, and on May 12 a fleet of 12 American ships bombarded San Juan.[28] On June 25, the USS Yosemite arrived in San Juan and blockaded the port. On July 25, General Nelson A. Miles entered the southern town of Guánica with 3,300 troops and, with the exception of some minor skirmishes, went practically unopposed. One of the most notable skirmishes between Spanish forces and Puerto Rican volunteers with the Americans occurred on July 26. The Spanish forces engaged the 6th Massachusetts in a firefight in what became known as the Battle of Yauco. Two Spanish soldiers died. The Americans were well received by the Puerto Rican population in general, making the invasion much easier, and the Spanish surrendered without other major incidents. The total casualties of the Puerto Rican Campaign were 450 dead or wounded Spanish and Puerto Ricans, and 4 dead and 39 wounded Americans.[29]

"1st Kentucky Volunteers" in Puerto Rico, 1898

On August 8, 1898, the Spanish-American War ended, and upon the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States. The Spanish troops had already left by October 18, and the United States named General John R. Brooke as military governor of the island. On July 1, 1899, "The Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry, United States Army" was created, and approved by the U.S. Congress on May 27, 1908. The regiment was a segregated, all-volunteer unit made up of 1,969 Puerto Ricans.[30]

In 1897, before the onset of fighting in Puerto Rico, Juan Alonso Zayas, born in San Juan, was a Second Lieutenant in the Spanish Army when he received orders to head for the Philippines to take command of the 2nd Expeditionary Battalion stationed in Baler. He arrived in Manila, the capital, in May 1897. There he took a vessel and headed for Baler, on the island of Luzon. The distance between Manila and Baler is 62 miles (100 km); if traveled through the jungles and badly-built roads, the actual distance was 144 miles (230 km). At that time a system of communication between Manila and Baler was almost non-existent. The only way Baler received news from Manila was by way of vessels. The Spanish colonial government was under constant attack from local Filipino groups who wanted independence. Zayas's mission was to fortify Baler against any possible attack. Among his plans for the defense of Baler was to convert the local church of San Luis de Tolosa into a fort.[31]

The independence advocates, under the leadership of Colonel Calixto Vilacorte, were called "insurgents" (tagalos) by the Spanish crown. On June 28, 1898, they demanded the surrender of the Spanish army. The Spanish governor of the region, Enrique de las Morena y Fossi, refused; the Filipinos immediately attacked Baler in a battle that was to last for seven months. Despite being outnumbered and suffering hunger and disease, the battalion did not capitulate. In the meantime, Zayas and the rest of the battalion were totally unaware of the Spanish-American War that was going on. On August 1898, the hostilities between the United States and Spain came to an end. The Philippines became a U.S. possession under the accordance of the Treaty of Paris. The battalion at Baler found out about the Spanish-American War and its aftermath in May 1899, and surrendered on June 2, 1899. They were unaware that they had been fighting for a possession that was no longer theirs. The 32 survivors of Zayas Battalion were sent to Manila, where they boarded a ship for Spain. In Spain, they were given a hero's welcome and became known as los Ultimos de Baler—"the Last of Baler."[31]

Puerto Rican National Guard

Major General Luis R. Esteves (Army)

In 1906, a group of Puerto Ricans met with the appointed Governor Winthrop, and suggested the organization of a Puerto Rican National Guard. The petition failed because the U.S. Constitution prohibits the formation of any armed force within the United States and its territories without the authorization of Congress.[32] On June 19, 1915, Major General Luis R. Esteves of the U.S. Army became the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York. While he attended West Point, he tutored fellow classmate Dwight D. Eisenhower in Spanish; a second language was required in order to graduate. He was a Second Lieutenant in the 23rd Infantry Division of the army under the command of John J. Pershing when he was sent to El Paso, Texas in the Pancho Villa Expedition. From El Paso, he was sent to the town of Polvo, where he was appointed mayor and judge by its citizens. Esteves helped organize the 23rd Battalion, which would be composed of Puerto Ricans and be stationed in Panama during World War I. He would also play a key role in the formation of the Puerto Rican National Guard.[33]

World Wars

World War I

Upon the outbreak of World War I, the U.S. Congress approved the Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted Puerto Ricans citizenship.[34] As a result, many Puerto Ricans, with the exception of women, became eligible for the military draft. On May 3, 1917, the Regiment recruited 1,969 men. The 295th and 296 Infantry Regiments were created in Puerto Rico. The first shot of World War I by the U.S. was fired in Puerto Rico by a Puerto Rican serving in the U.S. Army, Lieutenant Teofilo Marxuach. Lt. Marxuach was officer of the day at El Morro Castle, at the entrance to San Juan Bay, when war was declared. An armed supply ship for German submarines in the Atlantic, the Odenwald, tried to force its way out of the bay. Lieutenant Marxuach opened fire from the walls of the fortress and forced the ship to return to port and be interned.[35]

On May 17, 1917, the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was sent to guard the Panama Canal in defense of the Panama Canal Zone.[36]

By 1918, the Army realized that there was a shortage of physicians specializing in anesthesia, a low salary specialty required in the military operating rooms. Therefore, the Army reluctantly began hiring women physicians as civilian contract employees. The first Puerto Rican woman doctor to serve in the Army under contract was Dr. Dolores Piňero from San Juan. She was assigned to the San Juan base hospital where she worked as an anesthesiologist during the mornings and in the laboratory during the afternoons.[37]

In New York, many Puerto Ricans joined the 396th Infantry Regiment which was mostly composed of Afro-Americans. They were not allowed to fight alongside their white counterparts; however, they were permitted to fight as members of a French unit in French uniforms. They fought along the Western Front in France, and their reputation earned them the nickname of "the Harlem Hell Fighters" by the Germans. Among them was Rafael Hernandez, considered by many as Puerto Rico's greatest composer. The 396th was awarded French Croix De Guerre for battlefield gallantry by the President of France. The Porto Rico Regiment returned to Puerto Rico on March 1919 and was renamed the 65th Infantry Regiment under the Reorganization Act of June 4, 1920.[38]

The need for a Puerto Rican National Guard unit became apparent to Major General Luis R. Esteves, who had served as instructor of Puerto Rican Officers for the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry at Camp Las Casas in Puerto Rico. His request was met with the approval of the government and Puerto Rican Legislature. In 1919, the first regiment of the Puerto Rican National Guard was formed, and General Luis R. Esteves became the first official Commandant of the Puerto Rican National Guard.[39][40]

Puerto Rico suffered greatly during the Great Depression of the 1930s, and many Puerto Ricans moved to the East Coast of the United States looking for jobs and a better way of life. On the island, the unemployment rate continued to rise and many Puerto Ricans who were unable to find a job looked to the Armed Forces of the United States as a source of employment. Not only were they paid better than at the few other available jobs, but they were also guaranteed three meals a day, clothing, and shelter.[41]

World War II

World War II was the first conflict in which women, other than nurses, were allowed to serve in the U.S. Armed Forces. However, when the United States entered World War II, Puerto Rican nurses volunteered for service but were not accepted into the Army or Navy Nurse Corps. As a result, many of the island's women work force migrated to the mainland U.S. to work in the factories which produced military equipment. In 1944, the Army Nurse Corps decided to actively recruit Puerto Rican nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language barriers. Among them was Second Lieutenant Carmen Dumler, who became one of the first Puerto Rican female military officers.[42]

The 149th Women's Army Auxiliary Corps (WAAC) Post Headquarters Company was the first WAAC Company to go overseas, setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943. The unit arrived in Northern Africa on January 27, 1943 and rendered overseas duties in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s theatre headquarters. Tech4 Carmen Contreras-Bozak, a member of this unit, was the first Hispanic to serve in the U.S. Women's Army Corps as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions.[43]

Lieutenant Maria Rodriguez Denton (U.S. Navy), born in Guanica, Puerto Rico, was the first known woman of Puerto Rican descent who became an officer in the United States Navy as member of the WAVES. It was Lt. Denton who forwarded the news (through channels) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended.[42]

Lt. Gen. Pedro del Valle, (USMC)

The 65th Infantry, after an extensive training program in 1942, was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus in 1943. In 1944, the regiment was sent to North Africa, arriving at Casablanca, where they underwent further training. By April 29, 1944, the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica. On September 22, 1944, the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava. There were 47 battle casualties with Sergeant Angel Martinez, from the town of Sabana Grande, being the first Puerto Rican to be killed in action from the 65th Infantry. On April 20, the 65th overran a sub-camp of the Flossenburg Concentration Camp. On March 18, 1945, the regiment was sent to the District of Mannheim and assigned to military occupation duties. In all, the 65th Infantry participated in the battles of Naples-Fogis, Rome-Arno, central Europe and of the Rhineland. On October 27, 1945, the regiment sailed from France, arriving at Puerto Rico on November 9, 1945. The regiment suffered a total of 23 soldiers killed in action. Other Puerto Ricans who played an important role during the war were Admiral Horacio Rivero, who was to become the highest ranking Hispanic in the history of the U.S. Navy, provided artillery cover for the Marines landing on Guadalcanal, Marshall Islands, and Okinawa. Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle, the first Hispanic Marine Corps general, who played a key role in the Guadalcanal Campaign and the Battle of Guam, became the Commanding General of the First Marine Division. Del Valle played an instrumental role in the defeat of the Japanese forces in Okinawa and was in charge of the reorganization of Okinawa.[44][45][46]

Revolt against the United States

During the mid-1940s, various pro-independence groups, such as the Puerto Rican Independence Party, which believed in gaining the island's independence through the electoral process, and the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, which believed in the concept of armed revolution, existed in Puerto Rico. On October 30, 1950 the nationalists, under the leadership of Dr. Pedro Albizu Campos staged uprisings in the towns of Ponce, Mayagüez, Naranjito, Arecibo, Utuado, San Juan and Jayuya.

Blanca Canales, nationalist leader of the Jayuya Uprising

The most notable of these occurred in Jayuya in what became known as El Grito de Jayuya (Jayuya Uprising). Nationalist leader Blanca Canales led the armed nationalists into the town and attacked the police station. A small battle with the police occurred; one officer was killed and three others were wounded before the rest dropped their weapons and surrendered. The nationalists cut the telephone lines and burned the post office. Canales led the group into the town square where the illegal light blue version of the Puerto Rican Flag was raised.[47] In the town square, Canales gave a speech and declared Puerto Rico a free Republic. The town was held by the nationalists for three days.[48]

The United States declared martial law in Puerto Rico and sent the Puerto Rico National Guard to attack Jayuya. The town was attacked by U.S. bomber planes and ground artillery. Even though part of the town was destroyed, news of this military action was prevented from spreading outside of Puerto Rico. It was called an incident between Puerto Ricans. The top leaders of the nationalist party, including Albizu Campos and Blanca Canales, were arrested and sent to jail to serve long prison terms.

Griselio Torresola, Albizu Campos's bodyguard, was in the United States at the time of the Jayuya Uprising. Torresola and fellow nationalist Oscar Collazo, were to assassinate President Harry S. Truman. On November 1, 1950, they attacked the Blair House where Torresola and a policeman, Leslie Coffelt, lost their lives. Oscar Collazo was arrested and sentenced to death. His sentence was later commuted to life imprisonment by President Truman and he eventually received a presidential pardon.[49]

Cold War (1947-1991)

After World War II a geopolitical, ideological, and economic struggle emerged between the United States and the Soviet Union which included their respective allies. This struggle was popularly named the Cold War because open hostilities never occurred between the main parties involved. The so-called "war" involved a nuclear and conventional weapons arms race, networks of military alliances, economic warfare and trade embargos, propaganda, espionage, and proxy wars. The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 was the most important direct confrontation. The Korean and Vietnam War were among the major civil wars polarized along Cold War lines.

The USS Cochino incident

The USS Cochino (SS-345), was a Gato-class submarine under the command of Rafael Celestino Benitez. On August 12, 1949, the Cochino, along with the USS Tusk, departed from the harbor of Portsmouth, England. Both diesel submarines were supposed to be on a cold-water training mission, however, according to "Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage,"[50] the submarines were part of an American intelligence operation. They had snorkels that allowed them to spend long periods underwater, largely invisible to an enemy, and they carried electronic gear designed to detect far-off radio signals. The mission of the Cochino and the Tusk was to eavesdrop on communications that revealed the testing of submarine-launched Soviet missiles that might soon carry nuclear warheads. Thus, making this the first American undersea spy missions of the cold war.

The mission was cut short when one the Cochino's 4,000-pound batteries caught fire. Commander Benitez directed the firefighting, trying both to save the ship and his crew from the toxic gases. The crew members of the Tusk rescued all except one Cochino crew member and convinced Commander Benitez, who was the last man on the Cochino, to board the Tusk. The Cochino sank off the coast of Norway two minutes after Benitez's departure. Benitez retired as a Rear Admiral from the Navy in 1957.[51]

The Korean War

Company "C" of the 65th Infantry on patrol

Sixty-one thousand Puerto Ricans served in the Korean War, including 18,000 Puerto Ricans who enlisted in the continental United States.[52] Puerto Ricans distinguished themselves as part of the 65th Infantry Division receiving many awards and recognitions; however, they were also involved in the largest court martial of the Korean War.

On August 26, 1950, the 65th Infantry departed from Puerto Rico and arrived in Pusan, Korea on September 23, 1950. It was during the long sea voyage that the 65th Infantry was nicknamed the "Borinqueneers". The name is a combination of the words "Borinquen" (the Taíno name for Puerto Rico) and "Buccaneers". The men of the 65th were the first infantrymen to meet the enemy on the battle fields of Korea. Among the hardships suffered by the Puerto Ricans was the lack of warm clothing during the cold, harsh winters. The enemy made many attempts to encircle the Regiment, but each time they failed because of the many casualties inflicted by the 65th. On December 1950, the U.S. Marines found themselves at the Chosin Reservoir area. In June 1951, The 65th was part of a task force which enabled the Marines to withdraw from the Hauack-on Reservoir. When the Marines were encircled by the Chinese Communist troops close to the Manchurian border, the 65th rushed to their defense. As a consequence, the Marines were able to return safely to their ships.[40]

Among the battles and operations in which the 65th participated was the Operation "Killer" of January 1951, becoming the first Regiment to cross the Han River. On April 1951, the Regiment participated in the Uijonber Corridor drives and on June 1951, the 65th was the third Regiment to cross the Han Ton River. The 65th was the Regiment that took and held Cherwon and they were also instrumental in breaking the "Iron Triangle" of Hill 717 on July 1951. On November 1951, the Regiment fought off an attack by two Regimental size enemy units, with success. Colonel Juan Cesar Cordero Davila was named commander of 65th Infantry on February 8, 1952, thus becoming one of the highest ranking ethnic officers in the Army. On July 3, 1952, the Regiment defended the MLR for 47 days and saw action at Cognac, King and Queen with successful attacks on Chinese positions. On October the Regiment also saw action in the Cherwon Sector and on Iron Horse, Hill 391, whose lower part was called "Jackson Heights". On September 1952, the 65th Infantry was holding on to a hill known as "Outpost Kelly". Chinese Communist forces that had joined the North Koreans overran the hill in what became known as the Battle for Outpost Kelly. Twice the 65th Regiment was overwhelmed by Chinese artillery and driven off.[53]

In June 1953, the 2nd Battalion conducted a series of successful raids on Hill 412 and in November, the Regiment successfully counterattacked enemy units in the Numsong Valley and held their positions until the truce signing between all parts involved.

Mass court-martial and post-war recognitions

Col. Cordero Davila was relieved of his command by Col. Chester B. DeGavre, a West Point graduate and a "continental" officer from the mainland United States and the officer staff of the 65th was replaced with non-Hispanic officers. DeGavre ordered that the unit stop calling itself the Borinqueneers, cut their special rations of rice and beans, ordered the men to shave off their mustaches and had ome of them wear signs that read "I am a coward". It is believed that as a result of this humiliation, combat exhuastion, and the language barrier where factors that influenced some of the men of Company L of the 65th in their refusal to continue to fight.

In December 1954, 162 Puerto Ricans of the 65th Infantry were arrested, 95 were court martialed, and 91 were found guilty and sentenced to prison terms ranging from 1 to 18 years of hard labor. It was the largest mass court martial of the Korean War. The Secretary of the Army Robert Stevens moved quickly to remit the sentences and granted clemency and pardons to all those involved. Though the men who were court martialed were pardoned, there is currently a campaign for a formal exoneration.[54]

An Army report released in 2001 blamed the breakdown of the 65th on the following factors: a shortage of officers and noncommissioned officers, a rotation policy that removed combat-experienced leaders and soldiers, tactics that led to high casualties, an ammunition shortage, communication problems between largely white, English-speaking officers and Spanish-speaking Puerto Rican enlisted men, and declining morale. The report also found bias in the prosecution of the Puerto Ricans, citing instances of continental soldiers who were not charged after refusing to fight in similar circumstances, before and after Jackson Heights.[55]

The 65th Infantry was credited with battle participation in nine campaigns.[56] Among the distinctions awarded to the members of the 65th were 10 Distinguished Service Cross, 256 Silver Star Medals and 595 Bronze Star Medals. According to "El Nuevo Día Newspaper, 30 May 2004" a total of 756 Puerto Ricans lost their lives in Korea, from all four branches of the U.S. Armed Forces. More then half of these were from the 65th Infantry (This is without including non-Puerto Ricans). The 65th Infantry returned to Puerto Rico and was deactivated in 1956. However, Brig. General Juan Cordero, Puerto Rico's Adjutant General, persuaded the Department of the Army to transfer the 65th Infantry from the regular Army to the Puerto Rican National Guard. This was the only unit ever transferred from active component Army to the Army Guard.[54]

Among the Puerto Ricans from the regiment who distinguished themselves are:Brigadier General Antonio Rodriguez Balinas (awarded two Silver Stars), Colonel Carlos Betances Ramirez (only Puerto Rican officer to command an infantry battalion), Master Sergeant Pedro Rodriguez (awarded two Silver Stars), and Staff Sergeant Modesto Cartagena (the most decorated Hispanic in history). Other Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves were: Private First Class Fernando Luis Garcia, who became the first Puerto Rican recipient of the Medal of Honor when he covered a grenade with his body, saving the lives of his fellow Marines, and Major General Salvador E. Felices who flew in 19 combat bombing missions over North Korea.[57]

Cuban Missile Crisis

Admiral Horacio Rivero, Jr., (U.S. Navy)

The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. On October 22, 1962, Admiral Horacio Rivero was the commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to set up a quarantine (blockade) of the Soviet ships. On October 28, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba, and Kennedy ordered an end of the quarantine of Cuba on November 20, bringing an end to the crisis. Admiral Rivero later served as U.S. Ambassador to Spain (1972–75).[58]

Vietnam War

File:Sp4c. Hector Santiago-Colon.jpg
Sp4c. Hector Santiago-Colón (U.S. Army)

During the Vietnam War, an estimated 48,000 Puerto Ricans served in the four branches of the armed forces.[59] Of the 345 Puerto Ricans who died in combat, 17 were Missing in Action (MIA), and of these, PFC. Humberto Acosta-Rosario is the only one whose body has never been recovered and is currently still listed as MIA.[60] Four Puerto Ricans—Spc4 Hector Santiago-Colon, Captain Euripedes Rubio, PFC Carlos Lozada and Captain Humbert Roque Versace—were awarded the Medal of Honor, the highest United States military decoration. Other Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam and had distinguished military careers include: Major General Salvador E. Felices, Rear Admiral Diego E. Hernandez, Colonel Hector Andres Negroni and Brigadier General Ruben A. Cubero who in 1991 became the first person of Hispanic heritage to be named Dean of Faculty of the United States Air Force Academy.

Two Puerto Ricans who served in Vietnam currently hold positions in the Administration of President George W. Bush. They are Dr. Richard Carmona, a former Green Beret who was awarded two Purple Heart Medals and was appointed Surgeon General in March 2002, and Major General William A. Navas Jr., who was awarded the Bronze Star Medal and was named Assistant Secretary of the Navy in June 6, 2001.

Operation El Dorado Canyon

On April 14, 1986, in response to acts of terrorism sponsored by Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi—in particular, the Berlin disco bombing of April 6—and against the backdrop of heightened tension and clashes between the Libyan and U.S. Navies over Libya's disputed territorial water claims in the Gulf of Sidra, the United States launched a surprise attack on key facilities in Tripoli and other parts of Libya. The attack was code-named Operation El Dorado Canyon.

With the acquiescence of the British government, 24 U.S. Air Force F-111F fighter-bombers took off from U.S. air bases in England. Attacking in the pre-dawn hours of April 15, their main objectives were 22 airfields, terrorist training camps, and other military installations. Captain Fernando L. Ribas-Dominicci was one of the pilots who participated in the Libyan air raid. His F-111 was shot down over the disputed Gulf of Sidra off the Libyan coast. Ribas-Dominicci and his weapons systems officer, Captain Paul F. Lorence, were the only U.S. casualties. Al-Qaddafi, who was also personally targeted, escaped harm, but his daughter was killed.[61]

Recent events

Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope

File:Manuel Rivera.JPG
Captain Manuel Rivera Jr., (USMC)

In 1990, 1,700 Puerto Rican National Guardsmen were among the 20,000 Hispanics deployed to the Persian Gulf in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm as part of the Gulf War. Four Puerto Ricans lost their lives, including Captain Manuel Rivera of the Marine Corps, a Puerto Rican from the South Bronx, who on January 22, 1991 became the first soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield. Rivera was killed during a support mission over the Persian Gulf. On January 30, 1991, the U.S. House of Representatives paid tribute to Rivera.[62]

Operation Restore Hope was an American military operation with the support of the United Nations that was formed to deliver humanitarian aid and restore order to the African nation of Somalia, which was suffering from a severe famine, anarchy, and domination by a number of warlords following the collapse of Siad Barre's Marxist government and the outbreak of the Somalian Civil War. On January 30, 1993, Private First Class Domingo Arroyo Jr., a Marine from Puerto Rico, became the first of the 44 American soldiers killed during the operation. He was ambushed in Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia, by Somali warlords.[63]

21st century campaigns

File:Francis M. Vega.JPG
SPC. Frances M. Vega, (U.S. Army)

In the military campaigns of Afghanistan and Iraq, in what the United States and its allies refer to as the War on Terrorism, among those that have perished are the first three Puerto Rican women to die in a foreign combat zone. They are Specialist Frances M. Vega, Specialist Lizbeth Robles and Specialist Aleina Ramirez Gonzalez. On November 2, 2003, Specialist Frances M. Vega became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born in the United States to die in a war zone. A ground-to-air missile fired by insurgents in Fallujah hit the Chinook transport helicopter Vega was in; she was one of 16 soldiers who lost their lives in the crash that followed. On March 1, 2005 Specialist Lizbeth Robles became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born on the island to die in Iraq when her Humvee was involved in an accident. As of May 2004, there were 1,800 Puerto Rican soldiers stationed in Iraq, Kuwait, Afghanistan and Bosnia and Herzegovina.[64][65]

Over 1,225 Puerto Ricans have died while serving for the United States. The names of those who perished in combat are inscribed in "El Monumento de la Recordacion" (Monument of Remembrance), which was unveiled on May 19, 1996 and is situated in front of the Capitol Building in San Juan, Puerto Rico.[66]

General William W. Harris was quoted in the Puerto Rico Herald as saying, "No ethnic group has greater pride in itself and its heritage then the Puerto Rican people. Nor have I encountered any that can be more dedicated and zealous in support of the democratic principles for which the United States stands. Many Puerto Ricans have fought to the death to uphold them".[67]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Ponce de Leon, Juan. The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 6th ed. 2005. Columbia University Press.
  2. ^ Naraciones historicas by Cayetano Coll y Toste, Pub. Editorial Cultural 1976 Pg.57 ISBN 84-399-5350-X.
  3. ^ "Sir Francis Drake". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ Colle y Toste (1918)and Dr. Oscar Costa-Mandry (1935)
  5. ^ "Year of Captain Correa" (in Spanish). {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  6. ^ "Regimento Fijo de Puerto Rico". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ Instituto de Cultura Puertorriqueña
  8. ^ "The Celtic Connection". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  9. ^ Brenda A.Mari (March 25, 2005). "Something Sweet Like Mango in the Air: A Primer on Mayagüez". Puerto Rico Herald. Retrieved 2006-10-06.
  10. ^ Bernardo De Galvez: Hero of the American Revolution by Lorenzo G. Lafarelle, p. 57 Pub. Eakin Press and Marion Koogler McNay (1992), ISBN 0-89015-849-5
  11. ^ Hector Díaz (March 16, 1996). "Maryland State Resolution on the Role Played by Hispanics In The Achievement of American Independence". Lasculturas.com. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ Municipio de San Juan. Actas del Cabildo 1792-1798., San Juan: M. Pareja, 1967, 287.
  13. ^ a b c d Historias de Puerto Rico by Paul G. Miller, (1947) pgs. 221-237.
  14. ^ Brau, Salvador. Historia de Puerto Rico., San Juan: Editorial Coqui, 1966; 214.
  15. ^ Santiago Maunez Vizcarrondo. "Centro Cultural" (in Spanish). Dra. Antonia Sáez. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ "The Story of...Roberto Cofresí Ramírez de Arellano". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  17. ^ Carmen Leonor Rivera-Lassén y Cristina Fernández. "Biografías - Ramon Power" (in Spanish). El Nuevo Día. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  18. ^ a b c Carmen Leonor Rivera-Lassén y Cristina Fernández. "Biografías - Antonio Valero" (in Spanish). El Nuevo Día. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  19. ^ General Antonio Valero de Bernabe y su aventura de libertad: De Puerto Rico a San Sebastian by Lucas G. Castillo Lara (1991) Pub. Academia Nacional de Historia, ISBN 980-222-616-5
  20. ^ "San Cristobal". National Park Service. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  21. ^ Carlos Rovira (September 2005). "The birth of Puerto Rico's fight for independence". S&L Magazine. Retrieved 2006-10-07.
  22. ^ "Manuel Ronjas". The World of 1898:The Spanish-American War. Library of Congress. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  23. ^ "Mariana Bracetti" (in Spanish). {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  24. ^ El Grito de Lares: Puerto Rico's Revolt for independence, 1868 by Olga J. De Wagenheim (1990) Pub. Waterfront Pr. ISBN 0-943862-51-5
  25. ^ Marisabel Brás. "The changing of the guard:Puerto Rico in 1898". Hispanic Division. Library of Congress. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  26. ^ "General Juan Rius Rivera". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ "Francisco Marin". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  28. ^ "1898 - Adjuntas en la Guerra Hispanoamericana" (in Spanish). {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ Karl Stephen Herrman (2004). From Yauco to Las Marias a Recent Campaign in Puerto Rico. Kessinger Publishing. p. 2. ISBN 1-4191-2123-5.
  30. ^ From Yauco to Las Marias; Being a story of therecent campaign in western Puerto Rico by the independent regular brigade under command of Brigadier general Schwon by Karl Hermann, Pub. R.G. Badger & Co. ASIN 800085A39K.
  31. ^ a b Miguel Hernández Torres. "Juan Alonso Zayas: Un héroe puertorriqueño desconocido" (in Spanish). {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  32. ^ "Puerto Rico National Guard". Globalsecurity.org. May 23, 2005. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ Bruce C. Ruiz (November 1, 2002). "Major General Luis Raúl Esteves Völckers". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |1=, |month=, and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  34. ^ "Jones Act". Library of Congress. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  35. ^ "First US Shot of World War I in Puerto Rico". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  36. ^ "Military Records". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  37. ^ Mercedes Graf (2002). "With high hopes: women contract surgeons in World War I". Minerva: Quarterly Report on Women and the Military: 7. Retrieved 2006-10-10. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  38. ^ 369th Regiment US Army color
  39. ^ Puerto Rico's Fighting 65th U.S. Infantry: From San Juan to Chowon by W.W. Harris (2201), Pub. Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-056-2.
  40. ^ a b "Valerosos". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  41. ^ "Great Depression Photoessay". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ a b Judith Bellafaire. "Puerto Rican Servicewomen in Defense of the Nation". Women In Military Service For America Memorial Foundation. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ "Carmen Contreras-Bozak". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  44. ^ "65th Division". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  45. ^ Puerto Rico's Fighting 65th U.S. Infantry:From San Juan to Chowon by W.W. Harris (2001), Pub Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-056-2.
  46. ^ "Lieutenant General Pedro A. Del Valle, USMC". History Division. United States Marine Corps. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  47. ^ It was against the law to carry a Puerto Rican Flag from 1898 to 1952.
  48. ^ Carlos Rovira. "Remember the 1950 Uprising of October 30:Puerto Rico". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  49. ^ "Blanca Canales". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  50. ^ Blind Man's Bluff: The Untold Story of American Submarine Espionage", (Public Affairs, 1998) by Sherry Sontag and Christopher Drew, with Annette Lawrence Drew, ISBN 0-06-103004-X
  51. ^ Richard Goldstein (April 5, 1999). "Rear Admiral R.C. Benitez, 81, Dies; Led Cold War Rescue". The New York Times. Retrieved 2006-10-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  52. ^ Puerto Rico's Fighting 65th U.S. Infantry by W.W. Harris (2001), Pub. Presidio Press ISBN 0-89141-056-2
  53. ^ "Outpost Kelly". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  54. ^ a b Matthew Hay Brown (May 26, 2002). "New Generation Fights For 65th". Puerto Rico Herald. Retrieved 2006-10-10.
  55. ^ Gilberto Villahermosa (September 1, 2001). "From Glory to Disaster and Back". Army Magazine. Retrieved 2006-10-10.
  56. ^ The campaigns in which the 65th infantry particpated were the UN Defense-1950, UN Offense-1950, CCF Intervention-1950, First UN Counterattack Offensive-1951, UN and CCF Spring Offensive-1951, UN Summer-Fall Offensive-1951, 2nd Korean Winter 1951-52, Korean Summer-Fall-1952 and 3rd Korean Winter-1952-53.
  57. ^ "United States Marine Corps History and Museums Division". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  58. ^ "Profile of Horacio Rivero". Puerto Rico Herald. February 25, 2000. Retrieved 2006-10-03. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  59. ^ "House of Representatives-Special Order" (pdf). Speech on the House Floor. March 2, 2005. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  60. ^ "Research at the National Archives". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  61. ^ Libyan state sponsored terrorism: What did Operation El Dorado Canyon accomplish? by Gregory L. Trebon (1988), Pub. Air Command and Staff College, Air University, ASIN 800071KDLB.
  62. ^ "Tribute to Capt. Manuel Rivera". Library of Congress. May 1, 1991. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  63. ^ "PFC Domingo Arroyo Jr". Library of Congress. February 17, 1993. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  64. ^ "Military City". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  65. ^ Jorge Mariscal. "Bush's War Viewed from the South". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  66. ^ Tim Rivera. "Fallen Heroes Memorial". {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  67. ^ "A tribute to Puerto Rican veterans". Puerto Rico Herald. November 11, 1999. Retrieved 2006-10-02.

References

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