Yiddish

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Yiddish (Yid. ייִדיש, yidish) is a Germanic language spoken by about four million Jews throughout the world. The name Yiddish itself means "Jewish" (German: Jüdisch, Swedish: Jiddisch) and is most probably originally short for yidish-taytsh (ייִדיש־טײַטש), or "Jewish German". In its earliest historical phase (13th-14th centuries), Yiddish is referred to by linguists as Judeo-German; occasionally this term is used for later forms of the language as well.

A German dialect?

Yiddish and German share a large portion of their respective vocabularies, and have reasonably similar grammars. It has been claimed that some German speakers are able to understand speech in Yiddish, considering it similar to German spoken by Slavs. These observations lead some observers to describe Yiddish as a dialect of German (like Swiss German) rather than an independent language. However, most linguists consider Yiddish and German to be distinct Germanic languages, pointing out that:

The two languages are generally not mutually comprehensible (this is especially true for German speakers trying to understand Yiddish);
20 to 30 percent of Yiddish vocabulary is not shared with German;
Much of the grammar of Yiddish differs substantially from that of German, some of it having been influenced by contact with other (e.g. Slavic) languages;
The two languages are geographically and culturally distinct. [1]
Yiddish and German are two different standard written languages.

The linguist Paul Wexler has even gone so far as to claim that Yiddish was actually originally a Slavic language whose vocabulary was replaced with German words, though this view is rejected by most other linguists.

Others point out that the distinction between a "language" and a "dialect" is sometimes blurry, noting that:

Languages like Danish, Swedish and Norwegian are far more closely related to each other than Yiddish and German, and are almost completely mutually intelligible, and yet are considered separate languages;
The Eastern and Western dialects of Yiddish are distinct enough that some linguists have suggested they themselves should be considered separate languages.

Yiddish and other languages

Yiddish eventually split into Western (German) Yiddish and Eastern Yiddish. The latter in turn split into North-Eastern (Litvish) Yiddish, Central/Mid-Eastern (Polish/Galician) Yiddish, and South-Eastern (Ukrainian) Yiddish. The Eastern Yiddish dialects and Modern Yiddish contain a great many words derived from Slavic languages.

Like Judaeo-Arabic and Ladino (Judaeo-Spanish), Yiddish is written using an adaptation of the Hebrew alphabet. However, Yiddish itself is not linguistically related to Hebrew, even though it absorbed thousands of Hebrew and Aramaic terms taken from the Tanakh, Mishna, Talmud, and Jewish tradition.

Curiously, Yiddish uses Latin derivatives for many of its words relating to religious rituals, apparently borrowing the terminology from Old French as spoken in Alsace. The presumed path of entry into Yiddish is that the famous rabbi Rashi (1040-1105), and his descendants and disciples the Tosafists, used hundreds of Old French words in their rabbinical writings. Study of Rashi's commentary on the Pentateuch and the Talmud was widespread among medieval Jews; Rashi has also been used by modern scholars as a reliable source for thousands of Old French words. As an example, 'say grace after meals' is, in Yiddish, bentshn (בענטשן), which is cognate with the same term that gave English the word benediction; and Western-Europe dialects of Yiddish use the word orn, derived from Latin orare, to mean 'pray'; and some scholars believe that davnen (דאַװנען), the Eastern European Yiddish word for pray, has a Romance language origin. Other Yiddish words with Romance backgrounds include leyenen (לײענען) 'to read' and tsholnt (טשאָלנט) 'a Sabbath stew' (spelled cholent in English). Many of the Old French words incorporated into Yiddish happen also to have been similarly used by the Catholic Church.

In many cognates shared between Yiddish, German and English, the English pronunciation is often closer to Yiddish than to German. Examples include the indefinite article "a/an" [Yid. אַ a/אַן an; Ger. ein] and the noun "fire" [Yid. פֿײַער fayer; Ger. Feuer].

History

Earliest roots

The Jewish presence in the lands of present-day Germany, known as Ashkenaz in Judaism, is longer than two thousand years, going back to the times of the Roman Empire, and perhaps even earlier to the first exile following the destruction of Solomon's Temple by the Babylonians and the Babylonian captivity. In fact all Jews of western, central, and eastern Europe are known collectively as Ashkenazi, or Germanic Jews. (In contradistinction to the Jews of Southern Europe who are called Sephardi, or Spanish Jews.)

The language of these Jews probably developed over millenia during their long presence in the lands of Ashkenaz. Some speculate that it arose in central Europe between the 9th and 12th centuries as an amalgam of Middle High German dialects (70 to 80 percent of the vocabulary is recognizably German) that also blended heavily with the Jews' religiously-oriented Hebrew and Aramaic terms found in traditional Jewish literature, and from the Romance languages and eventually from the Slavic languages and the Hungarian language as well.

The oldest surviving literary document in Yiddish is a manuscript consisting of four epic poems on biblical and haggadic themes, dating from about 1382, found in Egypt and edited in 1957 by I. Fuks. Little survives from before the era of the printing press, but other relatively early Yiddish writing includes stories based on the Book of Esther, the Sacrifice of Isaac and other biblical themes, but also lengthy chivalric romances on such non-Jewish themes as King Arthur or the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great. The most popular of these was the 650-stanza Bovo-Bukh, composed by Elia Levita in 1507–1508, which has gone through at least forty print editions, beginning in 1541. [Liptzin, 1972, 4-5]

The modern Haskalah

Use of the Western Yiddish dialect began to decline in the 18th century, as The Enlightenment and the Haskalah (Jewish Enlightenment) led German Jews to view Yiddish as a "corrupt German". Between assimilation to German and a the beginnings of the revival of Hebrew, Western Yiddish was largely squeezed out, surviving mainly as a language of "intimate family circles or of closely knit trade groups such as the cattle-dealers of the Eifel Mountains. [Liptzin, 1972, 2]

Farther east, where Jews were not surrounded by German speakers, the Eastern Yiddish dialect continued to thrive. The late 19th century and early 20th century are widely considered the Golden Age of secular Yiddish literature; this period also coincides with the revival of Hebrew as a spoken language, and the revival of Hebrew literature. Some Modern Hebrew words began to find their way into Yiddish, as well.

The three great founders of modern Yiddish literature were Mendele Mocher Sforim, Sholom Aleichem, and I. L. Peretz. Solomon Rabinowitz, better known as Sholom Aleichem (1859–1916), is known as one of the greatest Yiddish authors and humorists, the Yiddish equivalent of Mark Twain. A collection of his stories about Tevye the Milkman was later the basis of the Broadway musical and film Fiddler on the Roof.

The 20th century

At the start of the 20th century, Yiddish was emerging as a major Eastern European language. A rich literature was being published, Yiddish theater and film were booming, and it had even achieved status as one of the official languages of the Belorussian SSR. Educational autonomy for Jews in several countries (notably Poland) after World War I led to an increase in formal Yiddish-language education, standardized pronunciation and spelling, and to the 1925 founding of the Yiddish Scientific Institute, later YIVO Institute for Jewish Research. [Liptzin, 1972, 3] Yiddish emerged as the national language of a large Jewish community in Eastern Europe that rejected Zionism and sought to obtain Jewish cultural autonomy in Europe. It also contended with Modern Hebrew as a literary language among Zionists.

On the eve of World War II, there were 10 million Yiddish speakers, overwhelmingly of the Eastern dialects. [Liptzin, 1972, 2] However, the Holocaust led to a dramatic, sudden decline in the use of Yiddish, as the extensive Jewish communities, both secular and religious, that used Yiddish in their day-to-day life were largely destroyed. Although millions of Yiddish speakers survived the war (including nearly all Yiddish speakers in the Americas), further assimilation in countries such as the United States and the status of Modern Hebrew as the official language of Israel led to a decline in the use of Eastern Yiddish similar to the earlier decline in Western Yiddish.

Soviet Union

In the Soviet Union, much effort was invested in promoting the use of Yiddish during 1920s. Yiddish was then regarded as the language of "Jewish proletariat"; at the same time, Hebrew was considered a "bourgeois" language and its use was generally discouraged. Starting in the 1930s, growing anti-Semitic tendencies in Soviet politics drove Yiddish from most spheres; few Yiddish-language publications survived (among them are the literary magazine Sovetish Heymland and the newspaper Birobidzhaner Shtern). Most Soviet Jews themselves were keen to integrate into the larger Soviet society, and favoured Russian over Yiddish.

United States

In the United States, the Yiddish language bound together Jews from many countries, whose national origin was often as important as their Jewish identity. Within some families, marrying across national origin lines was seen as equivalent to marrying out of the faith. Yiddish language newspapers, such as The Forward served as a forum for Jews of all European backgrounds. In 1925, it was one of seven Yiddish-langauge New York daily newspapers. [Melamed, 1925] American Yiddish music, derived from Klezmer, was another binding mechanism. Michel Gelbart, a very prolific composer, probably best known for "I Have A Little Dreydl", wrote music that was very Jewish and very American. Thriving Yiddish theatre in New York City and (to a lesser extent) elsewhere kept the language vital. Many "Yiddishisms", like "Italianisms" and "Spanishisms" continue to enter spoken New York English, often used by Jews and non-Jews alike without consciousness of the language of origin of the phrases. In the United States, most Yiddish speakers tended not to pass on the language to their children who assimilated and spoke English.

Largely because of the influence of Jewish entertainment figures in the United States, many Yiddish words have entered the American English lexicon. In 1968, the modern American writer Leo Rosten (1908–1997) published The Joys of Yiddish (ISBN 0743406516), an introduction to words of Yiddish origin used in the English of the United States. See also "Yinglish".

In 1978, the European-born secular Yiddish writer Isaac Bashevis Singer, a resident of the United States, received the Nobel Prize in literature.

Israel

Meanwhile, in Israel, Yiddish was displaced by Modern Hebrew. In part this reflected the conflict between religious and secular forces. Many in the larger, secular group wanted a new national language to foster a cohesive identity, while traditionally religious Jews desired that Hebrew be respected as a holy language reserved for prayer and religious study. However, this conflict also reflected the opposing views among secular Jews worldwide, one side seeing Hebrew (and Zionism) and the other Yiddish (and Internationalism) as the means of defining emerging Jewish nationalism.

Many of the older immigrants to Israel from the former USSR (usually those above 50 years of age) speak or understand some degree of Yiddish.

In religious circles, it is the Ashkenazi Haredi Jews, particularly the Hasidic Jews and the Mitnagdim of the Lithuanian yeshiva world who continue to teach, speak and use Yiddish, making it a language used intensely by hundreds of thousands of Haredi Jews today. The largest of these centers are in Bene Beraq and Jerusalem.

Haredi Orthodox Jews

The major exception to the decline of spoken Yiddish can be found in the Haredi Jewish communities all over the world. In the United States, within some of New York State's close-knit religious communities Yiddish is spoken as a home and schooling language, especially in Brooklyn's Borough Park and Williamsburg and outside of the city in Monsey, Kiryas Joel, and New Square. Yiddish is also widely spoken in some smaller Haredi communities in other cities such as London and Montreal. Among most Haredim all over the world, Hebrew is generally reserved for prayer and religious studies, while Yiddish is reserved as a home and business language.

Haredi educational use of Yiddish

Hundreds of thousands of young children have been, and are still, taught to translate the texts of Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy into Yiddish. This process is called "taytsching" or "translating" (Yid. טיַיטשן taytshn). Most Ashkenazi yeshivas' highest level lectures in Talmud and Halakha are delivered in Yiddish by the Rosh yeshiva's as well as ethical talks of mussar. All Hasidic Judaism rebbes use only Yiddish to converse with their followers and to deliver their various Torah talks, classes, and lectures. The linguistic style and vocabulary of Yiddish have influenced the manner in which many Orthodox Jews who attend yeshivas speak English. So much so, that it has been dubbed "Yeshivish".

Orthography

This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.

Although it uses the same alphabet as the Hebrew language, Yiddish uses some digraphs as well as letters modified with diacritics, all of which are considered separate letters in Yiddish orthography. The Yiddish language is an entirely different language than Hebrew, with a different phonology and grammar.

The Yiddish alphabet is:

Shape	YIVO Transliteration	IPA Transcription	Name	Notes
א	(no transcription)	(silent)	shtumer alef	Written before initial י and ו when they function as vowels
אַ	a	a	pasekh alef
אָ	o	ɔ	komets alef
ב	b	b	beys
בֿ	v	v	veys	Only used in words of Semitic origin
ג	g	g	giml
ד	d	d	daled
ה	h	h	hey
ו	u	ʊ	vov
וּ	u	ʊ	melupm vov	Only used when adjacent to ו or before י
ז	z	z	zayen
ח	kh	x	khes	Only used in words of Semitic origin
ט	t	t	tes
י	y, i	j, i	yud	y adjacent to vowels; i otherwise
יִ	i	i	khirik yud	Only used adjacent to another vowel
כּ	k	k	kof	Only used in words of Semitic origin
כ ך	kh	x	kof, lange kof	Lange kof is used at the end of a word
ל	l	l, ʎ	lamed
מ ם	m	m	mem, shlos mem	Shlos mem is used at the end of a word
נ ן	n	n	nun, lange nun	Lange nun is used at the end of a word
ס	s	s	samekh
ע	e	ɛ	ayin
פּ	p	p	pey	Unlike fey, does not change form at the end of a word.
פֿ ף	f	f	fey	The second form is used only at the end of word
צ ץ	tz	ts	tsadek, lange tsadek	Lange tsadek is used at the end of a word
ק	k	k	kuf
ר	r	ʀ	reysh
ש	sh	ʃ	shin
שׂ	s	s	sin	Only used in words of Semitic origin
תּ	t	t	tof	Only used in words of Semitic origin
ת	s	s	sof	Only used in words of Semitic origin

Yiddish also employs several digraphs:

Shape	YIVO Transliteration	IPA	name
װ	v	v	tsvey vovn
זש	zh	ʒ	zayen-shin
טש	tsh	ʧ	tes-shin
ױ	oy	ɔj	vov yud
ײ	ey	ɛj	tsvey yudn
ײַ	ay	aj	pasekh tsvey yudn

A feature of Yiddish spelling is that words of Hebrew origin are written exactly as in Hebrew. (In Soviet publications, however, all words were written according to Yiddish rules.)

Throughout this article, the YIVO transcriptions will be used alongside the Yiddish alphabet.

Grammar

Articles

	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Plural
Nominative	דער der	דאָס dos	די di	די di
Accusative	דעם dem	דאָס dos	די di	די di
Dative	דעם dem	דעם dem	דער der	די di

The indefinite article is אַן an before a word beginning with a vowel and אַ a everywhere else.

Pronouns

	First Person		Second Person		Third Person
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Masculine	Neuter	Feminine	Plural
Nominative	איך ikh	מיר mir	דו du	איר ir	ער er	עס es	זי zi	זײ zey
Accusative	מיך mikh	אונדז undz	דיך dikh	אײַך aykh	אים im	עס es	זי zi	זײ zey
Dative	מיר mir	אונדז undz	דיר dir	אײַך aykh	אים im	אים im	איר ir	זײ zey

Verbs

Conjugation

Yiddish verbs are conjugated for person and number. The present tense of verbs is conjugated thus:

	קױפֿן koyfn 'buy'	פֿאַרלירן farlirn 'lose'
איך ikh	קױפף koyf	פֿאַרליר farlir
דו du	קױפֿסט koyfst	פֿאַרלירסט farlirst
ער er/זי zi/עס es	קױפֿט koyft	פֿאַרלירט farlirt
מיר mir	קױפֿן koyfn	פֿאַרלירן farlirn
איר ir	קױפֿט koyft	פֿאַרלירט farlirt
זײ zey	קױפֿן koyfn	פֿאַרלירן farlirn

Yiddish, unlike German, has ceased to use the inflected past tense, and the perfect tense, constructed with forms of האָבן hobn 'have' (or זײַן zayn 'be') and the past participle of the verb, has taken over its function. Hobn and zayn are conjugated irregularly:

	האָבן hobn	זײַן zayn
איך ikh	האָב hob	בין bin
דו du	האָסט host	ביסט bist
ער er/זי zi/עס es	האָט hot	איז iz
מיר mir	האָבן hobn	זײַנען zaynen
איר ir	האָט hot	זײַט zayt
זײ zey	האָבן hobn	זײַנען zaynen

For example, the past tense of איך קױף ikh koyf 'I buy' is איך האָב געקױפֿט ikh hob gekoyft, and the past tense of איך קום ikh kum 'I come' is איך בין געקומען ikh bin gekumen 'I came'.

Past Participle

The past participle is used extensively in Yiddish. The majority of verbs (weak verbs) form the past participle with the addition of -גע and ט- to the stem, e. g. געקױפֿ&#05D8; gekoyft 'bought.' However, there are also a group of verbs, called strong verbs, which form the past participle with -גע and נ-, accompanied by a vowel change, e. g. געהאָלפֿן geholfn 'helped' from the stem -האָלפֿ helf- 'help.' The vowel change is unpredictable and simply must be learned.

There is no way to tell from the infinitive whether a verb is strong or weak.

Yiddish words and phrases used by English speakers

See related articles:

Yiddish words and phrases used by English speakers

List of English words of Yiddish origin

Yiddish-derived idioms used in English, particularly in the United States:

"Oy Vey"
"Enough already"
"OK by me"
"I need this like a hole in the head"

Books

Cohen, David (Rabbi). Yiddish: A Holy Language. New York, NY: Mesorah Publications. Hebrew language.
Katz, Dovid (Professor), Words on Fire: The Unfinished Story of Yiddish" 2004
Liptzin, Sol, A History of Yiddish Literature, Jonathan David Publishers, Middle Village, NY, 1972, ISBN 0-8246-0124-6.
Weinreich, Uriel. College Yiddish : an introduction to the Yiddish language and to Jewish life and culture. (6th revised ed. New York : YIVO Institute for Jewish Research, 1999.) ISBN 0914512269.

References

Melamed, S.M., "The Yiddish Stage", New York Times, Sep 27, 1925 (X2)

External links