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Jehovah's Witnesses

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Jehovah's Witnesses
Overview
Organizational structure
History
Demographics
Literature
Places
People
Watch Tower presidents
Formative influences
Notable former members
Notable scholars
Criticism
Opposition
File:Watchtower-brooklyn.jpg
Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York

Jehovah's Witnesses are an international Christian denomination which had its origins in the United States with the 19th century Millerite and Bible Student movements. They adopted their present name in 1931 under the presidency of Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Believing that all other religions are false, Jehovah's Witnesses reject traditional Christian doctrines such as the Trinity, eternal torment in hell and the immortality of the soul. The central theme of their preaching is God’s Kingdom (that is, God's rule over the Earth) with Jesus Christ as its king. The Witnesses believe this rule began with the Second Coming or presence of Christ. Originally, this was believed to have occurred invisibly in 1874, but this date was later revised to 1914.

Witnesses believe that their faith is the restoration of first-century Christianity. In areas where they are active, they are commonly known for their door-to-door preaching and their objection to blood transfusions, and for not celebrating birthdays or holidays. Their most widely-known publications are the religious magazines The Watchtower and Awake!. Official membership of the organization, counted as those who preach each month, is 6.7 million as of August 2006.[1]

Other Witness teachings include the recognition and use of a personal name for God, translated as Jehovah in English, as vital for acceptable worship. They believe that Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, Adam, thus opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind. It is also taught that 144,000 people will receive immortal life in heaven with Jesus Christ as co-rulers guiding the rest of humankind to perfection on a paradise earth during the 1000 year reign. More specifically, Witnesses believe that in the war of Armageddon, which they believe to be imminent, the wicked will be destroyed. The survivors of this event, along with individuals deemed worthy of resurrection, will form a new society ruled by a heavenly government and have the possibility of living forever in an earthly paradise.

History

Main articles: History of Jehovah's Witnesses, Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses, and Jehovah's Witnesses and governments

Jehovah's Witnesses originated with the religious movement known as Bible Students, which was founded in the late 1870s by Charles Taze Russell. A schism erupted in 1917 at the beginning of the presidency of Russell's successor, Joseph Franklin Rutherford. Those who remained supportive of the Watchtower Society adopted the name Jehovah's Witnesses in 1931 under Rutherford's leadership. Those who did not support Rutherford formed various Bible Student groups which have retained Russell's teachings. Jehovah's Witnesses no longer use "Bible Students" as a name for their religion.

Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916)

In the early 1870s, Russell organized a Bible study group of Second Adventists in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.[2] An interest in Bible prophecy was sparked, in part, by Jonas Wendell. In 1876, Russell met Nelson H. Barbour and subsequently adopted Barbour's eschatology. Like Miller's earlier Great Dissapointment of 1844, Barbour had predicted the visible return of Christ at 1873, and when that failed to occur, he revised the prediction to 1874. [3] [4] Soon after Barbour's second disappointment, his group decided Christ had returned invisibly to Earth in 1874. [5] They differed from most Second Adventists by teaching that all humankind descending from Adam would be given a chance to live in a paradise on Earth.[6] The year 1914 was expected to be the final end, marking a forty-year period from 1874.[7]

In July 1879, Russell broke with Barbour over the concept of substitutionary atonement and he soon began publishing his own magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence (now known as The Watchtower).[8] After the break, Russell retained the bulk of Barbour's eschatological views. He also maintained the Adventist rejection of the traditional view of Hell and by 1882 had rejected the doctrine of the Trinity.[9] He became known as "Pastor Russell", and in 1881 formed the legal entity which developed into the non-profit organization: The Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (currently headquartered in New York City).[10] In 1884, it was incorporated, with Russell as president. He authored the six-volume series, Studies in the Scriptures.[11] Early editions predicted that Armageddon would culminate in the year 1914.[12]Russell also wrote regarding his expectations: "We are not prophesying; we are merely giving our surmises . . . We do not even aver that there is no mistake in our interpretation of prophecy and our calculations of chronology. We have merely laid these before you, leaving it for each to exercise his own faith or doubt in respect to them."[13] In 1914, Russell founded the International Bible Students Association in the United Kingdom.

Following Russell's death on October 31, 1916, an editorial committee of five was set up to supervise the writing of the Watch Tower magazine, as set forth in Russell's Last Will and Testament.[14] On January 6, 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford (also known as "Judge Rutherford") was elected second President of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society. A power struggle soon developed between Rutherford and four of the seven-member Board of Directors of the Society.[15] Matters reached a climax on July 17, 1917 as the book The Finished Mystery was released to the Bethel headquarters staff.[16] Rutherford announced to the staff that he was also dismissing the four directors and replacing them with new members, claiming they had not been legally elected.[17] The four dismissed directors set up the Pastoral Bible Institute and began publishing their own religious journal. Dissension and schisms ensued in congregations worldwide as a result of these events, and of the consequences of new predictions made for the years 1918,[18] 1920[19] and 1925.[20][21]

Joseph Franklin Rutherford (1869-1942)
History of Eschatological Doctrine
Last Days begin Start of Christ's Presence Christ made King Resurrection of 144,000 Judgment of Religion Separating Sheep & Goats Great Tribulation
1879–1920 1799 1874 1878 during Millennium 1914, 1915, 1918, 1920
1920–1923 1914 1878 1878 1925
1923–1925 during Christ's presence
1925–1927 within generation of 1914
1927–1929 1918
1929–1930 1914
1930–1966 1914 1919
1966–1975 1975?
1975–1995 within generation of 1914
1995–present during Great Tribulation imminent

The Finished Mystery, published in 1917, was controversial in its criticism of Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.[22]Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violating the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison. The charges were later dropped.[23]

An emphasis on house-to-house preaching began in 1922.[24] The period from 1925-1933 saw many significant changes in doctrine. Attendance at their yearly Memorial dropped from a high of 90,434 in 1925[25] down to 17,380 in 1928,[26] due to the previous power struggle, the failed prophesies for the year 1925,[27] and the evolving doctrinal changes which alienated those who sided with Russell's views.[28] By 1933, 1914 was seen as the beginning of Christ's presence, his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days" instead of being considered the terminal date in their chronology.[29] The editorial committee was disbanded with Rutherford having the final say regarding what went into Watchtower publications.[30] The offices and election of elders and deacons were also discontinued during this era with all "servants" in local congregations being appointed by headquarters.[31]

Hitler's Nazi Germany persecuted Jehovah's Witnesses and many were imprisoned in concentration camps. Their identifying badge was a purple triangle.[32]"Some five thousand Jehovah's Witnesses were sent to concentration camps where they alone were 'voluntary prisoners', so termed because the moment they recanted their views, they could be freed. Some lost their lives in the camps, but few renounced their faith"[33] During this time period, Witnesses also experienced mob violence in America and were temporarily banned in Canada and Australia because they were perceived as being against the war effort.[34]

Under Rutherford, membership grew from about 21,000 in 1917 to about 115,000 at the time of his death in 1942.

Nathan Homer Knorr succeeded Rutherford as president of the Watch Tower Society. Known as an efficient administrator, Knorr founded the Watchtower Bible School of Gilead to train missionaries, as well as the Theocratic Ministry School to train preaching and teaching at the congregational level. Significant Supreme Court victories involving the rights of free speech and religion for Jehovah's Witnesses have had a great impact on legal interpretation of these rights for others.[35] In 1943, the United States Supreme Court ruled in West Virginia State Board of Education vs. Barnette that school children of Jehovah's Witnesses could not be compelled to salute the flag.

Knorr's vice-president Frederick William Franz became the leading theologian, and is believed to have been the principal translator of the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.[36] Also produced were a Greek-English New Testament interlinear (The Kingdom Interlinear Translation of the Greek Scriptures) and a Bible dictionary (Aid to Bible Understanding).[37] The offices of elder and ministerial servant (deacon) were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.[38] Membership rose from 115,000 to over 2 million under Knorr's presidency.

Watchtower Building facing East River in New York

During the 1960s[39] and early 1970s, various references were made in Witnesses' literature and at assemblies, implying that Christ's thousand-year millennial reign might begin by 1975.[40] The chronology pointing to 1975 was noted in the secular media at the time.[41] From 1975 to 1980, there was a drop in membership following the failure of this prediction.[42] In 1980, the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding the year 1975.[43]

In 1976, the leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses was reorganized, and the power of the presidency passed on to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses. Subsequent presidents of the Watch Tower Society after Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick William Franz, Milton George Henschel and Don A. Adams. However, since 1976, doctrinal and organizational decisions have been made by the Governing Body and they supervise the writing of Watchtower publications.[44] Witnesses no longer teach that the generation of people alive in 1914 will survive until Armageddon,[45] but are encouraged not to lose confidence in "the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment."[46]

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses
Average Publishers, 1945–2005

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. Brazil, Mexico, and the United States are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of August 2006, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 6.5 million members actively involved in preaching.[47] Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 6.7 million.[48] However, there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1980s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2% per annum since 1999.[49] Growth rates and activity reports tend to show significant geographical variation. [50] The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' members, who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial, with over 16.6 million attending in 2006.[51]

Organizational structure

Main article: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses
File:Org chart.jpg
Chart "Watchtower". 1971: 749. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)Template:Replacethisimage

Jehovah's Witnesses are currently led by a small Governing Body located at the Watchtower headquarters. The number of men who make up the Governing Body has ranged from 10 to 17 and now stands at 10. The Governing Body, through the departments of its various legal organizations, directs the operation of the 112 branches throughout the world.[52] Members volunteer to operate these facilities. Each branch assigns circuit overseers who travel among various congregations, spending a week with each. Within each local congregation, elders assigned by the branch organize the congregation's public ministry and schedule various speakers for congregational teaching. They also decide on qualified members of the congregation for the positions of elder or ministerial servant, requiring the approval of higher leadership.

Elders are prominent in congregational matters, particularly in religious instruction and spiritual counseling; ministerial servants generally assist elders in a limited administrative capacity. Elders are unpaid, but Circuit and District overseers receive a small financial living allowance. All baptized Witnesses are considered to be ordained ministers and are expected to be able to provide religious instruction to others. Males are encouraged to qualify for responsibilities in the congregation and to work towards becoming ministerial servants or elders. Within local congregations, the role of women is minimal in terms of responsibility, but they carry out a large proportion of the preaching work, including aiding others in the congregation to become more regular in preaching.

The legal instruments of Jehovah's Witnesses include corporations that represent the denomination in legal matters. Most well known is the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. In 2000, three new non-profit corporations were organized:

Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses coordinates all service (i.e., proselytic) activities, including door-to-door proselytism, circuit and district conventions, etc.

Religious Order of Jehovah's Witnesses coordinates the activities of those involved in full-time service, including pioneers, missionaries, and circuit and district overseers.

Kingdom Support Services, Inc. controls construction of new Kingdom Halls and other facilities and holds the titles to Society-owned vehicles.

Publications

Main article: List of Watchtower publications

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania engages in extensive publication work. In addition to their two magazines— 'The Watchtower' and 'Awake!' — they also publish many brochures, tracts and books including the New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures.

  • The Watchtower has been published since 1879. This magazine is published twice a month and is now available in 158 languages. It is the Witnesses' main journal and its articles are considered authoritative. It features articles primarily dealing with Bible topics and interpretation. Organizational news and biographies of various members are also occasionally included. Beginning in 2008 the first issue of each month will be distributed to the general public. The second issue of each month will not be offered to the public but will contain congregational study articles and other inter-organizational information.
  • Awake!, a general interest magazine, has a wider scope than the Watchtower, publishing articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (1919–1937) and Consolation (1937–1946). It is now published monthly and is available in 81 languages.
  • New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures is a translation of the Protestant Bible canon. This Bible extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" over 200 times in the New Testament. It was translated by the New World Bible Translation Committee from 1950 to 1960, and was last revised in 1984. The translators have opted to remain anonymous but others have identified them as being prominent leaders of the movement.[53]

All publications printed by Jehovah's Witnesses are offered free of charge.

Blood

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood

The official teaching of Jehovah's Witnesses rejects allogeneic and pre-operative autologous transfusions of whole blood, red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma.[54] This is based on an understanding of the biblical admonition to "keep abstaining from blood" based on Acts 15:28, 29 (NWT). Baptized Witnesses who violate the prohibition on blood may be considered to have revoked their membership and may be shunned.[55] However, it is a personal decision on how their "own blood will be handled in the course of a surgical procedure, medical test, or current therapy."[56][57] In current medical practice, whole blood transfusions are very rare, and individual blood components are used instead.[58]While Witnesses may not accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may accept any fractions made from these components.[59][60] However, if a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to them but is permissible.[61]

Jehovah's Witnesses have been known to highlight dangers of blood transfusions. Witness representatives have stated that plasma volume expanders are often sufficient to take care of various medical emergency situations.[62] However, Witnesses explain that their objections to blood transfusions are for religious reasons.[63]

A growing number of hospitals are offering bloodless techniques in medicine and surgery.[64] A number of medical professionals have credited Jehovah's Witnesses and their related organizations for their contribution to the dissemination of information regarding bloodless surgery techniques.[65][66] Experts in the medical surgical profession have collaborated with Jehovah's Witnesses to produce information regarding the benefits of bloodless techniques and therapies.[67]

Witness publications have acknowledged that abiding by this doctrine has led to premature deaths due to blood loss, but there are no published statistics on total deaths.[68] However, regarding the single patient presentation of pregnancy, a 2002 medical journal stated: "In the CEMD the very high risk of mortality in women who refuse blood transfusion was highlighted. The death rate in this group was 1 per 1,000 maternities compared with an expected incidence of less than 1 per 100,000 maternities."[69]

In her article in the Journal of Church and State, Kerry Louderback-Wood alleges that labeling the currently acceptable blood fractions as "minute" in relation to whole blood causes followers to misunderstand the scope and extent of allowed fractions.[70]She also claims that Witness publications exaggerate the medical risks of taking blood and the efficiency of non-blood medical therapies in critical situations.[71]

Ethical concerns in managing blood crisis situations in pediatric cases has sometimes led to transfusions being administered to children against family wishes.[72]Some medical ethicists contend that "serious ethical violations are currently used to enforce the blood policy" among Jehovah's Witnesses, including the suppression of dissident views within the religion.[73]Witness leaders have defended these policies as obedience to scripture and religious conscience.[74]

Beliefs and practices

The following highlights some of the current beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses. As such, it reflects the point of view of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Main article: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

Overview

Kingdom Hall of Jehovah's Witnesses

The entire Biblical canon, excluding the Apocrypha, is considered the inspired word of God. A literal interpretation of the Bible is followed, though it is acknowledged that biblical writers and characters also employed symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism.[75] Only the Bible should be used for determining issues of doctrine. Interpretation of scripture and codification of doctrines is the responsibility of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses.[76]

The Tetragrammaton

God is the creator and supreme being, sovereign of the universe. Using God's name, Jehovah (a derivative of the Tetragrammaton[77]), is a requirement for true worship.[78] Jesus is God's first creation, used by God to create everything else.[79] Jesus is literally the only begotten Son of God, and received his life from God. He is the means through whom to approach God in prayer, and is also the means of salvation for all worthy mankind.[80] His role as mediator of the "new covenant" is limited to those going to heaven,[81] whose number totals 144,000. The vast majority of Jehovahs' Witnesses will live on a renewed paradise on Earth.[82] They believe that Jesus did not die on a cross but on a "torture stake".[83] The holy spirit is not a person but is God's active force.[84] Mary was not perpetually a virgin, but bore more children after Jesus.[85] The soul is the person itself, not an immaterial entity that dwells inside the body.[86] Death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness.[87] Hades or Sheol is the designated common grave of all mankind. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment.[88][89] The "last days" began in 1914 and Armageddon is imminent.[90] All other religions are false and they will shortly come under attack by governments worldwide.[91] After false religion is destroyed, governments also face destruction.[92] Any who are not deemed faithful by God will be destroyed with no hope of resurrection.[93] The fate of some, such as small children or the mentally ill, remains to be decided by God.[94] After Armageddon, an unknown number of people, both righteous and unrighteous, who had died (prior to Armageddon) will be resurrected, with the prospect of living forever in paradise.[95]

Their view of sexual behavior reflects conservative Christian views. Homosexuality and premarital sex are considered sins.[96] Abortion is considered murder.[97] Blood is not to be eaten or transfused.[98] Modesty is heavily encouraged in dress and grooming. Gambling is strictly forbidden.[99] Practices that connote nationalism or false religion are avoided. Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are typically observed; however, common celebrations and religious or national holidays such as Birthdays, Thanksgiving, and Christmas are regarded as unchristian and are not celebrated.[100] The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is strongly encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings. Marriages are required to be monogamous.[101] Vigorous efforts are made to spread their beliefs by all members throughout the world in a variety of ways, with particular emphasis on the Watchtower publications. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with a small number being available in as many as 410 languages.

Jehovah's Witnesses are politically neutral.[102] They feel that their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs.[103] They believe that such an act would be tantamount to worshipping an idol. Members are expected to obey all laws, including the paying of taxes, of the country in which they reside, so long as these do not violate what they view as God's law.[104] The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service, even when such is of a compulsory nature, and by their detachment from secular politics. Before 1996, Jehovah's Witnesses also refused alternatives to military service.[105][106][107] Jehovah's Witnesses are discouraged, but not prohibited under all circumstances, from voting in elections.[108] They believe voting or elections in themselves are harmless, for example, although they would not generally vote to elect a political leader, they would have no problem voting on a trivial issue such as what color balloons to buy for a party.[109] They do not stand for any political office.[110]

Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on helping fellow members, while providing assistance to others in need near the area in which they are working. Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the Rwandan genocide, as well as to Congo refugees.[111] Witnesses have also had an active share in the relief work of hurricane Katrina in the United States of America.[112] However, on-going aid work as provided by some other religious groups, such as soup kitchens, clothing donations, or building homes for the homeless is not practiced. The preaching work is regarded as a form of humanitarian effort by giving people hope for the future.[113]

The most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death (referred to as "the Memorial") held after sundown on the date corresponding to Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar. Onlookers do not partake of the emblems representing Christ's flesh and blood unless they believe they have the heavenly hope. Typically, in most congregations no one partakes since almost all Witnesses [today] believe their hope is to live on a paradise earth. Weekly meetings are also held, featuring a variety of discourses. Elders and ministerial servants deliver the majority of these. But in the "Theocratic Ministry School", one of the five meetings, some male students who are not appointed servants can also give discourses in a class setting. "Sisters are also given opportunity to enroll in the school and present talks in field-service settings—not addressing themselves to the entire audience but, rather, to the one assigned to take the role of householder." .[114] Certain segments also feature audience participation.

Congregational discipline

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and congregational discipline

Congregational discipline is administered by congregation elders through a 'judicial committee'. Only after an accusation (or confession) of serious wrongdoing is made against a baptized member of the congregation, and there appears to be sufficient substance to the accusation, is a judicial committee (usually consisting of three elders) formed to review the facts and to determine if there is sufficient proof of evidence or admission to offer counsel or to administer discipline. Marking is employed when a member persists in conduct that is considered a clear violation of Scriptural principles, yet not of a sufficient seriousness to warrant disfellowshipping. If the conduct of the individual is considered a danger to the members of the congregation, a talk may be given regarding the conduct (without naming the individual), thus 'marking' the member in the minds of those who know of the conduct. Though such a person would not be shunned, social interaction outside of formal worship settings would generally be minimized.[115] Reproof involves sins which are more serious than those for which one would be "marked". Reproof is given before all who have knowledge of the transgression.[116] The most severe discipline, administered as a last resort after previously mentioned assistance has failed, is disfellowshipping. The factor determining whether an individual would be disfellowshipped or not is based on whether the wrongdoer by his actions is giving evidence of repentance. The Judicial Committee asks probing questions and reviews actions of the member being considered, ascertaining which scriptural law or principle has been violated in consultation with guidelines provided by the Governing Body.[117] Baptized members who oppose essential Scriptural doctrine may be disfellowshipped for apostasy.[118]Once the decision to disfellowship has been made, a person has seven days to appeal. If no legitimate appeal is made, the disfellowshipping will be announced to the congregation by letting them know that the person "is no longer one of Jehovah's Witnesses". After a member has been disfellowshipped, all congregation members avoid all association with that person.[119] Exceptions are made in business and family household situations. If the disfellowshipped person is living in the same home with other baptized family members, religious matters are not discussed, with the exception of minors, for whose training parents are still responsible.[120] Disfellowshipped family members outside the home are shunned.[121] Disfellowshipped members are still permitted to attend Kingdom Hall meetings, but are not allowed to take an active part in meetings or the ministry.[122] A member can officially leave the religion by writing a letter stating he no longer wishes to be known a one of Jehovah's Witnesses thus disassociating himself from the congregation and will thereafter be treated the same way as a disfellowshipped person. In rare cases elders may also determine a member has disassociated himself by his actions. Both result in shunning.[123] If a disassociated or disfellowshipped individual requests reinstatement to the congregation, a Judicial Committee, usually consisting of the elders who sat on the original committe if available, is formed to review the evidence. Once a decision is made to reinstate, a brief announcement is made to the congregation that the disfellowshipped member is once again an approved associate of the congregation and one of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Critical views

One of the most outspoken critics of Jehovah's Witnesses is Raymond Franz, a former third-generation Jehovah's Witness. Franz, who served nine years on the Governing Body, uses Galatians 1:16–20 to support his claim that Paul of Tarsus did not view the apostles in Jerusalem as a governing body. He further contends that the council of Jerusalem was an isolated event, and that the creation of a central authority in Christianity was a 4th century development.[124] As well, he argues a sense of guilt is imposed on those not complying with organization arrangements for field service. Further, he contends that engaging in this formal activity became an extra-scriptural requirement placed upon those wanting to qualify for eldership. He claims in addition that an individual's spirituality is judged by the elders on this basis. Further, he is critical of the application of the phrase "house to house" (gr. "kat' oikon") found at Acts 5:42, stating it does not require the idea of consecutive door-to-door visitation. He compares 27 Bible translations, for Acts 2:46, Acts 5:42 and Acts 20:20 showing phrases such as "at home", "at your houses" and "in your homes" are used more often than "house to house".[125] He also maintains that fear of being shunned and/or family break-up/loss causes people to nominally remain members rather than formally disassociate themselves. Also, Franz asserts that the judicial process itself, due to its private and nearly autonomous nature, directly contradicts the precedent found in the Bible and the organization's own teachings, and can be used in an arbitrary manner.[126]

Criticism regarding the procedures on reporting child abuse has also occurred. The current procedure that is followed when allegations of abuse are reported is based on a strict application of the principle at Deuteronomy 19:15: "No single witness should rise up against a man respecting any error or any sin, in the case of any sin that he may commit. At the mouth of two witnesses or at the mouth of three witnesses the matter should stand good" (New World Translation). If an allegation of child abuse is made, and the alleged perpetrator denies it, the local congregational elders will investigate to see if there can be any others who can substantiate the claim. If there are none, the elders do not disfellowship the accused individual, since the accusation may have no merit. However, according to the Jehovah's Witness Office of Public Information: "Even if the elders cannot take congregational action, they are expected to report the allegation to the branch office of Jehovah's Witnesses in their country, if local privacy laws permit. In addition to making a report to the branch office, the elders may be required by law to report even uncorroborated or unsubstantiated allegations to the authorities. If so, we expect the elders to comply. Additionally, the victim may wish to report the matter to the authorities, and it is his or her absolute right to do so."[127] In 1997 it was also stated that, "for the protection of our children, a man known to have been a child molester does not qualify for a responsible position in the congregation" (e.g. serving as elders or ministerial servants). This would be upheld even if the crime was committed years before, or prior to the person's becoming a Witness. The general policy is not premised as punishment to the offender, but seen rather, by the religion, as a means of protecting the congregation's members.[128]

Controversy

Main article: Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses

Witnesses teach that after the death of the last apostle, the Church gradually diverged, in a Great Apostasy, from the original teachings of Jesus on several major points. Thus a number of the doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses differ from those of mainstream Christianity and are considered heresy by some members of these other denominations. Possibly the most controversial doctrinal differences relate to the nature of God and of Jesus, particularly the Jehovah's Witnesses' rejection of the Trinity doctrine. The Encyclopedia Britannica states, "To some Christians the doctrine of the Trinity appeared inconsistent with the unity of God....They therefore denied it, and accepted Jesus Christ, not as incarnate God, but as God's highest creature by Whom all else was created....[this] view in the early Church long contended with the orthodox doctrine."[129] (see Arianism).Thus this view, supported by the Witness today, still generates controversy among mainstream Christians. However, Jehovah’s Witnesses say they are not Arians, "inasmuch as they disagree with Arius’ views in many respects" [130]

Some scholars have criticized the New World Translation, the translation of the Bible published by Jehovah's Witnesses, stating that the group has changed the Bible to suit their doctrine and that the translation contains a number of errors and inaccuracies.[131] Other scholars have defended the translation, one even comparing it to 9 other translations and concluding that the New World Translation "emerges as the most accurate". [132]

A large number of books have been published that are critical of the Watchtower Tract & Bible Society.[133] Critics state that the Watchtower Society has made a number of unfulfilled predictions and doctrinal changes over the years, while claiming that it is the "one and only channel"[134] used by God to continually dispense truth.

Raymond Franz, a former member of the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses, has challenged the Witnesses' policies on blood transfusions, stating that their requirements are inconsistent and contradictory.[135] However, to Witnesses blood as the fluid per se is not the real issue, it is what it represents. They say that "the important thing is that respect has been shown for the sanctity of blood, regard has been shown for the principle of the sacredness of life" represented by the blood.[136][137] When the blood has been drained from an animal, the respect has been shown to God and then a person may eat the meat even though it may contain minute traces of blood.

Critics have also argued that various Witness policies and practices — including the treatment of members who dissociate themselves or who have been disfellowshipped by the congregation, limiting of external information about the group from former members, and the regulation of members' lives — limit the ability of members to exercise personal freedom. Witnesses teach that "freedom to make decisions [is] to be exercised within the boundaries of God’s laws and principles." [138] And that “only Jehovah [is] free to set the standard of what is good and bad.”[139] However, the leadership promotes itself as the channel God uses[140] to interpret and instruct members about "what is good and bad". But rank and file Witnesses will point out that when they compare what they are being taught with the Bible, that they can see for themselves that they are being taught the truth as advocated by the first century Christians (Acts 17:11).

The Watchtower Bible and Tract Society's former affiliation with the Department of Public Information of the United Nations has been controversial. Also controversial has been the view of Jehovah's Witnesses towards other religions.

Some countries such as Uzbekistan, Cuba, Belarus, and the city of Moscow have opposed the building of facilities (such as Kingdom Halls) and the holding of large conventions in their territory. Though such opposition is at times specifically directed at the religious group, at other times more mundane concerns are involved, such as traffic congestion and noise. In some legal cases, (such as Congrégation des témoins de Jéhovah de St-Jérôme-Lafontaine v. Lafontaine (Village)), disputes that have been about appropriate land use have been claimed by the Witnesses to have come out of religious bias.

See also

References

  1. ^ 2007 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, pg. 31: "Peak of Publishers in Kingdom Service — 6,741,444. Average Publishers Preaching Each Month — 6,491,775. Worldwide Memorial Attendance — 16,675,113." A Publisher is defined as an active member who submits a monthly report of time spent preaching.
  2. ^ "Looking back to 1871, we see that many of our company were what are known as Second Adventists."--Zion's Watch Tower, February 1881. Reprints, p. 187. "Second Adventists" is an older name for the Advent Christian Church.
  3. ^ Barbour, N.H. (1871). "Evidences for the Coming of the Lord in 1873: or the Midnight Cry". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ Barbour, N.H. (1874). "The Midnight Cry and Herald of the Morning". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help) See Section under "Our Faith."
  5. ^ Russell explains how he accepted the idea of an invisible return of Christ in 1874 from N.H. Barbour in Watchtower (1906). "Harvest Gatherings and Siftings". Watchtower: 3822. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  6. ^ "The Three Worlds and The Harvest of This World" (PDF). {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  7. ^ The Three Worlds, p. 189.
  8. ^ Online copies of The Watch Tower from 1879–1916 can be viewed by issue at: http://www.mostholyfaith.com/bible/Reprints/index.asp or by article at: http://www.agsconsulting.com/htdbv5/links.htm. These are taken from the 7 volume Watch Tower Reprints published by the Watch Tower Society in 1920 which reprinted all the issues from 1879–1919.
  9. ^ July, 1882 Zion's Watch Tower, Reprints, p. 369. But see "God is Love" in the first issue of Zion's Watch Tower (July, 1879).
  10. ^ Zion’s Watch Tower Tract Society was formed on February 16, 1881, with W. H. Conley as president and C. T. Russell as secretary and treasurer. Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. p. 576.
  11. ^ Originally entitled Millennial Dawn. The titles of the six volumes are: 1) The Divine Plan of the Ages, 2)The Time is At Hand, 3)Thy Kingdom Come, 4)The Day of Vengeance (later retitled The Battle of Armageddon), 5)The At-one-ment Between God and Man, 6)The New Creation
  12. ^ C.T. Russell (1902). The Time is At Hand. Watch Tower. p. 101. The predictions for 1914 were revised in later editions.
  13. ^ See article "Yet Seven Years More" in Zion's Watch Tower, Jan. 1, 1908 (reprint), p. 4110.
  14. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. pp. 64–65.;"C.T. Russell's Last Will and Testament". from the December 1, 1916 Watch Tower. This editorial committee was requested to not write, or be connected with, any other publications.
  15. ^ New by-laws were passed at the time of Rutherford's election that strengthened the President's authority. M.J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed. pp. p. 51. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help) Rutherford, as chief legal counsel for the Watch Tower Society, had written the new by-laws. (See Harvest Siftings II, written by J.F. Rutherford.) Initially, the Board of Directors for the Watch Tower Society accepted this change, but four of the board members withdrew their support. Rutherford published his account of the dispute in "Harvest Siftings". and "Harvest Siftings II". The four directors replied to Rutherford's first booklet in "Light After Darkness". The June 20, 1917 meeting of the full board of directors tabled, for one month, a proposal to return control of the Society to the board (see Rutherford's Harvest Siftings under subheading "Seeds Begin to Bring Forth"), but Rutherford prevented the board from meeting again.
  16. ^ The Finished Mystery. Watchtower., published 1917, was called the seventh volume of Studies in the Scriptures.
  17. ^ A.H. MacMillan. Faith on the March. p. 80. Retrieved December 31, 2006.. The ousted directors disagreed: "...if the directors were not legally elected, neither were the Society's three officers: Rutherford, Pierson, and Van Amburgh. In order to have been chosen officers in January 1917, they would have had to have been legally elected directors. Yet, they had not been, and hence, by Rutherford's own logic, did not hold office legally."—Apocalypse Delayed, M. James Penton, p. 52
  18. ^ "Also, in the year 1918, when God destroys the churches wholesale and the church members by millions, it shall be that any that escape shall come to the works of Pastor Russell to learn the meaning of the downfall of 'Christianity.'"—The Finished Mystery. Watchtower. 1917. p. 485. (later editions read differently)
  19. ^ "And the mountains were not found. Even the republics will disappear in the fall of 1920. And the mountains were not found. Every kingdom of earth will pass away, be swallowed up in anarchy."The Finished Mystery. Watchtower. 1917. p. 258.. (This date was changed in later editions.)
  20. ^ Millions Now Living Will Never Die. Watchtower. 1920. p. 88.. This book was distributed as part of a major lecture program worldwide. See News Clippings from the "Millions Now Living Will Never Die" Campaign (1919-1925)
  21. ^ The Way to Paradise. Watchtower. 1924. pp. 220–235. Scans available at: http://www1.tip.nl/~t661020/wtp/wtp_nl.htm
  22. ^ The Finished Mystery pp. 247-253 468 and 474.
  23. ^ M.J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed. pp. 55–56. Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. pp. 647–654.
  24. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. pp. 259–260.
  25. ^ Your Will Be Done on Earth. Watchtower. 1958. p. 337.
  26. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watchtower. 1959. p. 313.
  27. ^ M. James Penton. Apocalypse Delayed—The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 61. Attendance at the annual Memorial (statistics were published each year in the Watch Tower) shows the growth in the period before 1925. 1919: 17,961, 1922: 32,661, 1923: 42,000, 1924: 62,696, 1925: 90,434. 1926 marked the first decrease: 89,278. There are no published statistics from 1929-1934. In 1935, Memorial attendance was 63,146. "Watchtower". August 15, 1996: 31. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  28. ^ See, for example, When Pastor Russell Died (PDF). Dawn Bible Students Association. 1946. pp. 6–16.
  29. ^ The Harp of God. 1921. pp. 231–236. affirms that “the Lord’s second presence dates from 1874.” "Watchtower". Watchtower. 1922: 71. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) and Prophecy. 1930. pp. 65–66. reiterated this position. The eschatological changes during this period are documented in Thomas Daniels. Historical Idealism and Jehovah's Witnesses (PDF). pp. 3–37. Retrieved February 1, 2006. These are the current teachings of Jehovah's Witnesses regarding 1914, 1918 and 1919. They no longer consider the dates 1799, 1874 and 1878 to have any eschatological significance
  30. ^ A People For His Name by Timothy White, pp. 186-188. The Watchtower, June 15, 1938, p. 185
  31. ^ Proclaimers, p. 214. June 15, 1938 Watchtower
  32. ^ See article on the persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses from the "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  33. ^ Hans Hesse (2001). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime. p. 10.
  34. ^ Barbara Grizzuti Harrison (1978). Visions of Glory. pp. 185, 281. Jayne Persian (December 2005). "The Banning of Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia in 1941" (PDF).
  35. ^ *Writing Their Faith into the Law of the Land: Jehovah's Witnesses, the Supreme Court and the Battle for the Meaning of the Free Exercise Clause, 1939-1945
  36. ^ Since 1942, Witness publications are produced under a policy of anonymity. Former Governing Body member Raymond Franz claims the translators of the New World Translation were Fred Franz, Nathan Knorr, Albert Schroeder and George Gangas. Crisis of Conscience (4th ed.). Commentary Press. 2004. p. 56. 0-914675-23-0.
  37. ^ In 1988, this was replaced by the 2-volume set Insight on the Scriptures.
  38. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. p. 106.
  39. ^ The year 1975 was first mentioned in 1966. See "How Much Longer Will It Be?". Awake!: 17–20. 1966. {{cite journal}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  40. ^ See 1975: 'THE APPROPRIATE TIME FOR GOD TO ACT'. Page 14 of the October 8, 1968 Awake! demonstrates the disclaimer that was made at the time: "Does this mean that the above evidence positively points to 1975 as the complete end of this system of things? Since the Bible does not specifically state this, no man can say...If the 1970s should see intervention by Jehovah God to bring an end to a corrupt world drifting toward ultimate disintegration, that should surely not surprise us.".
  41. ^ "Witnessing the End". Time. 1969. Retrieved September 12, 2006. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  42. ^ Raymond Franz. "1975—The Appropriate Time for God to Act". Crisis of Conscience (PDF). pp. 237–253. Retrieved July 27, 2006.This drop in membership has been variously analyzed. Richard Singelenberg (“The ‘1975′-prophecy and its impact among Dutch Jehovah’s Witnesses”) in Sociological Analysis 50(1)1989, pp 23–40 notes a 9 per cent drop in total publishers (door-to-door preachers) and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers (full-time preachers) in the Netherlands. Stark and Iannoccone have analyzed the impact on US Witnesses. "The Journal of Contemporary Religion" (PDF). 1997: 142–143. {{cite journal}}: |article= ignored (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help) The January 30, 1982 Los Angeles Times ("Defectors Feel 'Witness' Wrath: Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth" by John Dart, p. B4) cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971–1981 of 737,241, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.
  43. ^ The Watchtower, 15 March, 1980, p.17 "With the appearance of the book Life Everlasting—in Freedom of the Sons of God, ... considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. ... there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a buildup of the expectation already initiated. ... persons having to do with the publication of the information ... contributed to the buildup of hopes centered on that date."
  44. ^ 1977 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, p. 258
  45. ^ "A Time To Keep Awake", The Watchtower (November 1, 1995), p. 19 par. 12, and p. 20 par. 15.
  46. ^ "Jesus was concerned that his followers too could become distracted by Satan's world, even to the point that they might 'return to the things behind.' (Luke 17:22, 31) And, indeed, this has happened to some Christians. For years such ones longed for the day when Jehovah will put an end to this wicked world. However, when Armageddon did not occur by the time they expected, they became disheartened. Their confidence in the nearness of Jehovah's day of judgment faded. They slowed down in the ministry and gradually became so involved in the mundane matters of life that little time was left for spiritual matters. (Luke 8:11, 13, 14) In time, they `returned to the things behind'--how sad!" "Watchtower". December 15, 2006: 25–29. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  47. ^ To be counted, an individual must be approved as a minister and report at least 15 minutes in the ministry. In 2006, these reports indicated a total of over 1.3 billion hours.
  48. ^ Yearbooks of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1996–2007.
  49. ^ http://jwfacts.com/index_files/statistics.htm
  50. ^ http://www.sektes.info/stats-e.htm
  51. ^ If Witnesses counted members like other churches, the number of members would then be over 15 million. (See study by Rodney Stark on Jehovah's Witness growth at http://www.geocities.com/rogueactivex/JWGrow-O.pdf and article comparing Mormon and other churches growth, including the Witnesses, at http://www.sltrib.com/ci_2890645).
  52. ^ Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society (2005). "Membership and Publishing Statistics". Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  53. ^ (2004) Crisis of Conscience, 4th, Commentary Press, 56. 0-914675-23-0. Harrison. Visions of Glory. p. 231.
  54. ^ How Can Blood Save Your Life? "How Can Blood Save Your Life?". {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help) Accessed 4 December 2005.
  55. ^ Pay Attention to Yourselves and to All the Flock. Watchtower. 1991. p. 95. "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses". BMJ: 37–39. January 6, 2001.
  56. ^ The Watchtower June 15, 2000 pp. 29-30
  57. ^ Instructions for Filling In the Advance Decision Document, published by Watchtower in Britain, August 2005 p. 1, "addresses autologous transfusion procedures (those that involve the use of your own blood, which may temporarily leave your body…)" A Jehovah's Witness is aware that there is a risk of death yet believes that dying faithfully is better then living and breaking God's command to abstain from blood. Procedures which are permitted include where a "quantity of blood is withdrawn in order to tag it or to mix it with medicine, whereupon it is put back into the patient" and intra-operative cell salvage. The Watchtower October 15, 2000 pp. 30-31
  58. ^ "Fractions Background".
  59. ^ The Watchtower, June 15, 2000 p. 30
  60. ^ Durable Power of Attorney form, published by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, January 2001 p. 1, "I accept all fractions derived from any primary component of blood." Examples of permitted fractions are: Interferon, Immune Serum Globulins and Factor VIII; preparations made from Hemoglobin such as PolyHeme and Hemopure. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: Cell Salvage, Hemodilution, Heart-Lung Machine, Dialysis, Epidural Blood Patch, Plasmapheresis, Labeling or Tagging of Blood and Platelet Gel (Autologous). See November 2006 Our Kingdom Ministry, pp. 5–6
  61. ^ Awake! August 2006 box on P. 11
  62. ^ "Student: 'Well, suppose somebody was just coming to the hospital. They've got a few seconds to live. The only possible way out is a blood transfusion. Well, what's your answer to that?' Witness: 'That situation doesn't exist. Wherever there are cases where a person . . . let's say comes in off the highway here . . . and there is extreme loss of blood. Every emergency room, in every hospital, has a plasma volume expander which can . . .keep the volume up in the system...' Witness: "The need there is to keep the volume up in the system. It's not the blood so much that's needed then, but the volume that must be replaced. These expanders will do it. They are used in emergency situations; they are recommended by Civil Defense organizations when blood is not available. Obviously it works—it has worked on thousands of Jehovah's witnesses." "Awake!". 1976: 15. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  63. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses and Medical Care: "Jehovah's Witnesses refuse blood for religious rather than medical reasons"; accessed July 19, 2006
  64. ^ University of Pennsylvania article
  65. ^ [1] Article from Jehovah's Witnesses official website
  66. ^ MSNBC article on Jehovah's Witnesses and bloodless surgery
  67. ^ Nicolas Jabbour. Transfusion-Free Medicine and Surgery. pp. 15–22.
  68. ^ "In former times thousands of youths died for putting God first. They are still doing it, only today the drama is played out in hospitals and courtrooms, with blood transfusions the issue." "Youths Who Put God First". Awake!: 2. May 22, 1994.
  69. ^ Khadra; et al. (2002). "A criterion audit of women's awareness of blood transfusion in pregnancy". BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help) Singla; et al. (October 2001). "Are women who are Jehovah's Witnesses at risk of maternal death?". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  70. ^ "Jehovah's Witnesses, Blood Transfusions and the Tort of Misrepresentation". Journal of Church and State. 47, Number 4: 816. 2005. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  71. ^ Ibid., p. 808: "[The Watchtower Society] builds a case that other doctors wish all surgeons would become bloodless surgeons, when in fact those doctors recognize the benefits of blood transfusions for those who are in desperate need."
  72. ^ "Medical Emergencies in Children of Orthodox Jehovah's Witness Families" (PDF). Pediatrics and Child Health: 655–658. December 2006. "The Sextuplets: Whose Babies Are They?" (PDF). Macleans: 34–38. February 19, 2007.
  73. ^ "Medical confidentiality and the protection of Jehovah's Witnesses' autonomous refusal of blood". The Journal of Medical Ethics. October 1, 2000. "Refusal of potentially life-saving blood transfusions by Jehovah's Witnesses: should doctors explain that not all JWs think it's religiously required?". The Journal of Medical Ethics. October 1, 2000.
  74. ^ "Jehovah's Witnesses' refusal of blood: obedience to scripture and religious conscience". Journal of Medical Ethics. December 1999.
  75. ^ A Book for All People. Watchtower. 2005.
  76. ^ "Christ Leads His Congregation". Watchtower: 13–16. 2002. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  77. ^ The rendering of the Tetragrammaton is different for different languages: "Geova" in Italian, for example.
  78. ^ "Why True Worship Receives God's Blessing". Watchtower: 17. 1996. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help).
  79. ^ "What Do the Scriptures Say About "the Divinity of Christ"?". Watchtower. 1992: 20–23. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  80. ^ ""His Vital Place in God's Purpose" and "Chief Agent of life"". Insight on the Scriptures Vol. e2. Watchtower. pp. 60–61.
  81. ^ "Consequently, 1 Timothy 2:5, 6 is not using 'mediator' in the broad sense common in many languages. It is not saying that Jesus is a mediator between God and all mankind. Rather, it refers to Christ as legal Mediator (or, "attorney") of the new covenant, this being the restricted way in which the Bible uses the term." (August 15 1989) "Watchtower": 30.
  82. ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Watchtower. 2005. pp. 33–36..
  83. ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Watchtower. p. 204.
  84. ^ Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2. 1988. p. 1019.
  85. ^ "Jesus' Family—Who Were They?". Watchtower: 3. 2003. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  86. ^ "The...Scriptures show 'soul' to be a person, an animal, or the life that a person or an animal enjoys." Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2. 1988. p. 1004.
  87. ^ "Is There LIFE After Death?". Watchtower. 2001. Retrieved January 26, 2006. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  88. ^ "Hell—Eternal Torture or Common Grave?". The Watchtower: 6. 1993. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  89. ^ Insight on the Scriptures Vol. 2. 1988. p. 189.
  90. ^ ""In the Last Days" Since When?". Watchtower: 19. 1980. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  91. ^ Revelation—Its Grand Climax at Hand!. Watchtower. 1988. pp. 257–259.
  92. ^ "Flight to Safety Before the "Great Tribulation"". Watchtower: 14–19. 1996. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  93. ^ "Remaining Organized for Survival Into the Millennium". Watchtower: 19. 1989. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  94. ^ "Strengthening Our Confidence in God's Righteousness". Watchtower: 20. 1998. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  95. ^ ""Death Is to Be Brought to Nothing"". Watchtower: 19–24. 1998. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  96. ^ "Young People Ask... What's Wrong With Premarital Sex?". Awake!: 12. 2004. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  97. ^ "Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness". Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life. Watchtower. 1995. p. 118.
  98. ^ What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Watchtower. pp. 128–129.
  99. ^ Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life. Watchtower. 1995. p. 120.
  100. ^ "Questions From Readers". Watchtower: 30. 1998. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  101. ^ "The Bible's Viewpoint What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?". Awake!: 26. 2004. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  102. ^ "Can You Make the World a Better Place?". Watchtower. 2001. Retrieved January 26, 2006. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  103. ^ ""Salvation Belongs to Jehovah"". Watchtower: 21. 2002. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  104. ^ "God and Caesar". Watchtower: 9. 1996. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  105. ^ "Should Christians Be Pacifists?". Awake!: 22–23. 1997. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  106. ^ ""Salvation Belongs to Jehovah"". Watchtower: 23. 1990. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  107. ^ Watch Tower Information Service (2000). "The Watchtower Society Receives New Light on Alternative Military Service". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  108. ^ ""Question From Readers"". Watchtower: 29. 1999. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  109. ^ "Watchtower". 1999: 28. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  110. ^ "18 "They Are No Part of the World"". Worship the Only True God. Watchtower. 2002. p. 159.
  111. ^ "Christianity in Action: Amid Turmoil". Watchtower. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Retrieved December 4, 2005. Since 1994, Jehovah's Witnesses in Europe alone have sent more than 190 tons of food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies to the Great Lakes region of Africa {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  112. ^ "Awake!". 2006: 14–19. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  113. ^ "Watchtower". November 1, 1966: 647. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  114. ^ "25 "Preaching Publicly and From House to House "". Jehovah’s Witnesses—Proclaimers of God’s Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. p. 569.
  115. ^ "Question From Readers". Watchtower: 31. 1985. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  116. ^ "Giving Reproof "Before All Onlookers"". Watchtower. 1976. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  117. ^ "Questions from Readers". Watchtower. 1979. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  118. ^ Letter to Circuit and District Overseers, From the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society 1980. (Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses, M. J. Penton, p. 349)
  119. ^ "Watchtower". 1988. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  120. ^ "How Can You Help a 'Prodigal' Child?". Watchtower: 16–17. 2001. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  121. ^ "Disfellowshiping—How to View It". Watchtower: 26. 1981. It might be possible to have almost no contact at all with the relative. Even if there were some family matters requiring contact, this certainly would be kept to a minimum {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  122. ^ "Practices of Jehovah's Witnesses". ReligionFacts.
  123. ^ "Those who formally say they do not want to be part of the organization any more are also avoided." — "Beliefs—Frequently Asked Questions" from Official Website: http://www.jw-media.org/beliefs/beliefsfaq.htm accessed August 2, 2006
  124. ^ Raymond Franz. In Search Of Christian Freedom. pp. 44–68.
  125. ^ Raymond Franz. In Search Of Christian Freedom. pp. 202–218.
  126. ^ Raymond Franz (2002). In Search Of Christian Freedom. pp. 374–390.
  127. ^ http://www.jw-media.org/region/global/english/backgrounders/e_molestation.htm
  128. ^ The Watchtower 1997 January 1 p. 29 Let Us Abhor What Is Wicked
  129. ^ Encyclopedia Britannica 1942 edition p.634 "Christianity"
  130. ^ ""We Worship What We Know"". Watchtower (w84 9/1): 28. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  131. ^ Robert M. Bowman Jr, Understanding Jehovah's Witnesses, (Grand Rapids MI: Baker Book House, 1992); Samuel Hass: "While this work indicates a great deal of effort and thought as well as considerable scholarship, it is to be regretted that religious bias was allowed to colour many passages." (Journal of Biblical Literature, December 1955, p. 283).
  132. ^ eg. Jason BeDuhn stated "While it is difficult to quantify this sort of analysis, it can be said the NW[T] emerges as the most accurate of the translations compared." He compared 1) KJV, 2) NRSV, 3)NIV, 4) NAB, 5)NASB 6) Amplified Bible 7)Living Bible (LB), 8) TEV, and 9)(NWT) Truth in Translation: Accuracy and Bias in English Translations of the New Testament, 2004 p.163; Benjamin Kedar , “ I find my feeling repeatedly confirmed that [the OT] reflects an honest endeavor to achieve an understanding of the text that is as accurate as possible....Giving evidence of a broad command of the original language ... I have never discovered in the New World Translation any biased intent to read something into the text that it does not contain.”
  133. ^ e.g., Watters, Randall (2004) Thus Saith Jehovah's Witnesses, Common Sense Publications; Gruss, Edmond (2001) Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?, Xulon Press; Reed, David A. (1990) Index of Watchtower Errors, 1879 to 1989, Baker Books
  134. ^ Watchtower, Apr. 1, 1919; see also Watchtower, May 15, 1933, pp. 154–155; Jul. 15, 1960, pp. 438–439; Our Kingdom Ministry, Sep. 2002, p. 8
  135. ^ Franz, Raymond. "In Search of Christian Freedom" Chapter Nine. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 1991. ISBN 0-914675-16-8. p. 732.
  136. ^ The Watchtower November 1, 1961 p. 669 Questions From Readers
  137. ^ What Does The Bible Really Teach? 2005 P.128
  138. ^ Worship the Only True God chap. 5 p. 43 par. 4 Freedom Enjoyed by Worshipers of Jehovah
  139. ^ The Watchtower June 1 p. 11 par. 7 A Free People but Accountable
  140. ^ The Watchtower September 1, 1991 "Jehovah and Christ - Foremost Communicators" p. 18 par.15

Further reading

Books

  • Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, who is a professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
  • Crisis of Conscience by Raymond Franz, a former Jehovah's Witness who was a member of the Governing Body of the Watch Tower Society for nine years. This book gives a detailed account of the authority structure, practices, doctrines and decision-making practices Franz experienced while serving on the Governing Body. Sample chapters online (require Adobe Acrobat Reader): 1, 9, 10, 11, 12. Publisher: Commentary Press. 420 pages. Hardback ISBN 0-914675-24-9. Paperback ISBN 0-914675-23-0. 4th edition (June 2002)
  • The Gentile Times Reconsidered: Chronology & Christ's Return by Carl O. Jonsson. Jonsson considers the origin of the belief that the Gentile Times began in 607 B.C. and examines several lines of evidence and the methodology for deriving it. ISBN 0-914675-06-0 Publisher: Commentary Press (July, 1998, Fourth edition 2004)
  • Jehovah's Witnesses Defended by Greg Stafford. Stafford reviews and thoroughly explores the most common, and/or prevalent, criticisms made about Jehovah's Witnesses and the Watchtower Bible & Tract Society. http://elihubooks.com/books/
  • A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation by Tony Wills, (2006) 2nd edition. (The first edition was published under the pseudonym Timothy White.) He explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 300 pages. ISBN 978-1-4303-0100-4 Publisher: Lulu Press.
  • Reasoning From the Scriptures with the Jehovah's Witnesses by Ron Rhodes. 444 pages. Harvest House Publishers, 1993. Written from an Evangelical Christian perspective, this book is designed to aid them in dialogues with Witnesses. ISBN 1-56507-106-9

Official websites

Other sites

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