History of poison

The history of poisons (poison being defined as a "substance that causes death or injury when swallowed or absorbed") stretches over a period from before 4500 BC to the present day. Poisons have been used for many purposes across the span of human existence, including as both weapons and anti-venoms and medicines, and have allowed much progress in the branches of medicine, toxicology, science, technology, among others. Poison effected every era it passed through, with the use of poisons for painting weapons in deadly substances in the early ages, and later, its use as a tool of both assassination and medicine. Used for both devious purposes such as political implosion and self-gain through homicide, but also as the catalyst for many medical miracles, poison has been used all over the world for centuries, its development varying from nation to nation and civilisation to civilisation.

Ancient times

Strychnos Toxifera, a plant used for the making of dart and arrow poisons

An example of a flint sword and spear, weapons used for hunting in ancient times.

Archaeological findings provide proof that, while primitive mankind used conventional weapons such as axes and clubs, and later swords, they probably sought more subtle, destructive means of causing death--something that could be achieved through poison. In this search, early humans discovered poisons of varying potency, and applied them to their weapons. This theory is supported by archaeological evidence, because grooves for storing or holding poisons such as tubocurarine were found in their hunting weapons and tools. Some speculate that this use and existence of these strange and noxious substances would have been kept within the more important and higher-ranked members of a tribe or clan, and were seen as emblems of a greater power. This may have also given birth to the stereotypical 'medicine man' or 'witch doctor'.

In ancient mythology

References to poison or poison-like substances are present in the mythological canon of many ancient civilisations and up to the almost-universal 'death' of mythological beliefs. For instance, in Greek mythology, Medea, one of the children of the sun, tried to poison Theseus with a poisoned goblet. Some of the first mythological depictions of the use of poisons come from translations of ancient, Mesopotamian Sumerian texts, in which a being named 'Gula' is mentioned as 'the mistress of spells and witchcraft'. These texts have been dated to c.4500BC. An example of a translated piece of text:

Gula, the woman, the mighty one, the prince of all women

His seed with a poison not curable
Without issue; in his body may she place
All the days of his life,

Blood and pus like water may he pour forth

Egyptian knowledge and uses

Unlike many civilisations, Egyptian knowledge and use can only be dated back to approx. 300 BC. The earliest known Egyptian pharoah, Menes, studied the properties of poisonous plants and venoms, according to early recordings. The Egyptians are also thought to have come into knowledge about elements such as antimony, copper, crude arsenic, lead, opium, and mandrake (among others). Other such secrets were revealed in papyri.Egyptians are now thought to be the first to properly master distillation, and to manipulate the poison that can be retrieved from peach kernels.

Effect

The discovery of poisons had both advantages and disadvantages in probably every civilisation in which it was discovered. The use of poisons for homicide and assassination also caused the need for antidotes for these poisons, and soon after the potential of the poison was realised, the search for ways to detract from or reverse its power began.

Homicide and assassination

A statue of Roman emperor Nero, who used cyanide to dispose of unwanted family members

In Roman times, poisoning carried out at the dinner table or common eating or drinking area was not unheard of, or probably even uncommon, and was happening as early as 331 BC. These poisonings would have been used for self-advantageous reasons in every class of the social order. The writer Livy describes the poisoning of members of the upper class and nobles of Rome, and Roman emperor Nero is known to have favoured the use of poisons on his relatives, even hiring a personal poisoner. His preferred poison was, according to Livy, cyanide.

Search for cure

Once the use and danger of poison was realised, it became apparent that something had to be done. Mithridates, King of Pontos (Turkey) from around 114-63 BC, lived in constant fear of be assassinated by the use of poison, and so became a hard-working pioneer in the search for a cure for poisons. In his position of power, he was able to test poisons on criminals facing execution, and then to test if there was a possible antidote. So afraid was he that he administered daily amounts of poisons in an attempt to make himself immune to as many poisons as he could. Eventually, he discovered a formula, which he named 'Mithridatum'. This was kept totally secret until the invasion of Pompey, who was able to take it back to Rome. Pliny the Younger describes over 50 different poisons. One he descibes as:

The blood of a duck found in a certain district of Pontus, which was supposed to live on poisonous food, and the blood of this duck was afterwards used in the preparation of the Mithridatum, because it fed on poisonous plants and suffered no harm.

Medieval Ages (Europe)

Later, in the Medieval Ages, when the nature of poisons was known better than simply magic and witchcraft, there were sellers and suppliers of potions and poisons, known as apothecaries. Despite the fact that it was now known the medicinal uses of poisons, it was no secret that people bought poisons for less useful and lawful reasons. An excerpt from Chaucer’s Canterbury Tales, a text that existed sometime in the 14th century to the 15th century describes a killer buying poison from an apothecary to rid a rat infestation:

"Poisoning of Queen Bona", by Jan Matejko

And forth he goes – no longer he would tarry –

Into the town unto a ‘pothecary
And prayed him that he woulde sell
Some poison, that he might his rattes quell…
The ‘pothecary answered: "And thou shalt have
A thing that, all so God my soule save,
In all this world there is no creature
That ate or drunk has of this confiture
Not but the montance of a corn of wheat
That he ne shall his life anon forlete.
Yea, starve he shall, and that in lesse while
Than thou wilt go a pace but not a mile

The poison is so strong and violent

This literature about poison was only one of many, and poisons and potions were a very popular source of fictional writing material. There were also academic texts discussing the subject, and both non-fiction and fiction were written in the most part by monks, for they were respected in the ways of knowledge and wisdom, and as such held a large portion over the published works. One example of a non-fiction work is The Book of Venoms, a book describing the known poisons of the time, their effects and uses, written by Magister Santes de Ardoynis in 1424. It also recommended the best known treatments for a given poison. Despite this, it is considered probable that these factual works were not released to the public, and kept within appropriate learned circles for study and to find a better understanding.

Public reaction

If the truth was indeed kept from the public, it did not prevent the spawning of folk-lore and rumors about poisons, and those who used them for purposes that were distasteful to the public. This even caused a level of paranoia within some areas of the societies of England and indeed Europe. This wave of concern was only furthered by the availability of 'medicine' potent enough to cause fatality when secretly administered in an overly intense degree - it provided an easy way to kill, and one which was subtle, quiet, and generally allowed the criminal to remain undetected. Perhaps it was this terrible wave of paranoia that swept the streets, or the public need for answers about these strange toxins and the ways in which to prevent their effects, but many books that were, while wholly inaccurate, based on ways or means to stop poisons became sought for, and fed off the mounting anxiety.

Naturally, seeing the marketing ploy, crafty book salesmen would have served to inflame the issue, and exaggerate the risk so that people would buy their books for a non-existent security. Other salesmen such as jewellery traders willing to sell a supposedly poison-weakening amulet, or a doctor selling a magical cure would have profited greatly in such times of doubt. The information the public so desparartely craved was kept away from them, a treasure of only the highest ranked scholars and scientists, and so the public was really left to make their own panic-induced assumptions.

Renaissance

The use and knowledge of poisons was escalating, and by the Renaisance, the use of poisons for unlawful and reprehensible intentions had peaked, and it was arguably becoming any assassin or murderer's essential tool. This peaking of poison's popularity within crime syndicates and circles would probably have been due at least in part to the new discoveries that were then being made about poison. Italian alchemists for one were, in the 14th and 15th century, realising the potential of the combining of poisonous substances to create even more potent brews than the ones that had been put together, and other new properties of poison were becomintg clearer. A science of the study was forming, something today known as toxicology. So prominently used for homicide in society was poison that one would be fearful even to attend a dinner party for fear of having the food or drink poisoned by either the host or perhaps one of the guests.

Borgias family

The very controversial Pope Alexander VI, also known at birth as Roderic Borja

Cesare Borgias was son of Pope Alexander VI, perhaps one of the most disputed popes in regards to legitimacy, having used his power to promote his five sons to high titles. He was thought to be a hostile and ruthless man, and whether this descriptor was fabricated or not, he was avoided and feared. Borgias was notorious not only for being the son of a very controversial man, but also because he was thought to be a poison-wielding murderer. In the following quote, Apollinaire describes what he believes is a kind of 'Borgias Recipe' used for the disposing of victims:

La Cantarella. That which the Borgias utilised in conjunction with arsenic without knowing it, was phosphorus, a secret which had been divulged to the Borgias by a Spanish monk, who also knew the antidote for it, as well as an antidote for arsenic; one sees, therefore that they were well armed.

A large wave of circulating rumors came into being after the death of Cesare Borgias' father, with several theories pervading the mystery of the fatality, although most ended with the Pope having died in some horrible way involving murder, and then most were to do with poisoning.

Apollinaire's idea was that the pope was poisoned by wine which was infact intended for another at the dinner table, Cardinal de Corneto. Sanuto held a similar theory, except that it involved a box of sweetmeats, instead of wine. The death of the pope received little mourning, which was expected after the unsureness of his role as pope. Historical evidence points toward the fact that the pope was indeed poisoned in some way, and after the body had to be laid down for several days for some reason, the body became rotted, and, to stop suspicion, was only able to be seen at night by candlelight.

Ceasare Borgias' passing did not cause any sadness either, considering the reputation that he had forged for himself. However, one did mourn for this man who had been accused of so many crimes - his sister, Lucrezia, who was also considered a wrongdoer, despite the possibility that she in fact had been held responsible for some of Cesare's crimes.

The Council of Ten

By the 1600s, the use of poison had become an art of sorts, and, in several cities of Italy including Venice and Rome, there were actual schools teaching the ways of poison and the 'art' which had been born. Earlier, in the fifteenth century, a guild of alchemists and poisoners known as the Council of Ten was formed. This cult of poison weilding assassins carried out contracts for people who paid them enough money, and usually anyone contracted for death ended up slain, killed by an undetected dose of lethal substances of varying description.

Neopoliani Magioe Naturalis

Neopoliani Magioe Naturalis was a publication first printed just before 1590 that detailed the art of poisoning, and effective methods of using poison to commit homicide. The most effective way of killing someone with poison, according to the work, was by drugging someone's wine, a method that was very popular at the time. One 'very strong mixture' used in the book is the Veninum Lupinum, which consists of a mix of aconite, taxus baccata, caustic lime, arsenic, bitter almonds and powdered glass mixed with honey. The overall product is a pill approximately the size of a walnut.

16th-18th centuries

By the end of the sixteenth century, the art and popularity of poison had moved from Italy to France, where criminal poisoning was becoming more and more frequent. It is estimated that in the 1570s that there would have been about thirty thousand people people in Paris alone using poison or having some connection to poison in an illegal or immoral way. It was becoming something of which was described as a 'plague' or 'epidemic'. And this epidemic, while obviously contributing greatly to the death toll, was also greatly affecting citizens who had no conection to poison. Many people, nobles especially, were becoming extremely afraid of poisoning. They would attend dinner parties of only the most trusted, and hired only hand-picked servants. Several instances very famous or high-born people who were very afraid of posoining are both Henrietta Anne of England and Henry IV. The princess Henrietta Anne of England was so fearful and aware of poisoning that she instantly made the assumption that she had been poisoned when she was afflicted with a peritonitis due to a duodenal ulcer, while Henry IV, while making a visit to the Louvre, was recorded to have eaten only eggs that he had cooked himself, and drank only water that he had poured for himself! Later, in 1662, Louis XIV limited the sale of poisons within apothecaries, and certain poisons were not to be sold, except to people whom the shopkeeper knew well to be trustworthy.

Louis XIV

Chambre Ardente

At a similar time to the ban of poisons, priests in Notre Dame became so astounded with the number of poison-related confessions that they had listened to that they decided to inform the king about how bad the 'epidemic' of poison actually was. In response to this, the king organised an order specialisec in the investigation of poisonings called the Chambre Ardente Despite the fact that the inquisitors had been sponsered by the sovereign himself, they failed to catch many of the worst and most murderous poisoners, in whom probably had many connections in which were employed to evade punishment. However, in the life of the order, approximately 442 persons were caught and received punishment. The work of this order did cause a backfiring, or side effect that was a magnifying in the interest of poison and how to use them, and, inexplicably, many people actually became actively involved in poison after the birth of an order made to reduce poisonings.

Carlos II, or Charles II, of Spain

In Spain

While criminals based in Italy and England were the first to introduce poison as a means of murder or harm, during this period the use of poison truly was spreading all over Europe. Spain was notable for the fact that it had, by some means or another, commited several failed attempts at the disposal of Queen Elizabeth of England. One person named Dr Lopus, a Jewish physician, was called on by Spain to kill the queen, but he was caught and then later hanged, drawn and quartered for the act. It is thought that some aspects, specifically a character, of Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice may refer to or have been inspired by this Dr.Lopus. After this particular incident, the queens food had to be tasted for poisoning, and much more security was implanted. She was even known to have taken antidotes on a weekly basis for protection.

Conversely, Royal assassination attempts by poison were also domestic in Spain, with several people and groups wanting to kill the monarchs. One successful attempt at this (probable one of few in Europe) was the poisoning of Marie Louise, the wife of Carlos II, who died suddenly in the September of 1689.

20th Century

The same trend continued through the Victorian era, and was still labelled as an epidemic of sorts, and with poison still being considered one of the easiest and simplest ways to commit murder. However, several changes occured in the Victorian era, such as the rise of the life insurance industry, made poisoning the 'fashionable' crime considering the guarenteed and lucrative profit in the killing of a life-ensured relative with a large price on their head. But as the move into the 1900's occured, the technology of preventing poisoning became better and more efficient, and criminal poisoning become much harder than in previous centuries. Criminal poisoning had to be made cleaner and better planned to match the ever-advancing technologies employed against would-be poisoners. However, because of a wider range of educated people, more people were able to understand how to use poison and were intelligent or skilled enough to plan out a logical poison-induced murder, whereas in past times, usually only the select few knowledgeable people enough to conduct the homicide would be successful.

File:Goersuicide.jpg

Goering in his cell after commiting suicide by taking a lethal dose of cyanide.

Old poisons

Poison used in the past were also present in 20th century murders. In the early 20th century, arsenic was often used, but during the mid-century, cyanide became quite popular. It was used during World War Two by captured agents of the Resistance as a means of suicide to escape the heinous torture of their enemies. Nazi war leader Herman Goering even used it to kill himself the night before he was supposed to be hanged during the Nuremberg Trials.

However, new poisons later became more used, so as to outmatch the knowledge of the current toxicology field of science. In this way, weilding a new and unknown poison, a poisoner could kill someone, and the death might be mistaken as an unfortunate case of a rare illness. This put a new strain on toxicology and other branches dealing with poison, and they were forced to work hard to keep up with the criminals who were using poisons that they had nver previously encountered.

Present Day

In the late 20th Century, an increasing number of products used for everyday life proved to be poisonous. The risk of being poisoned nowadays lies more in the accidental factor, where poison be induced or taken by accident. These problems occur more frequently in children, and poisoning is the 4th most common cause of death within young people. Accidental ingestions are most common in children less than 5 years old.

However, hospital and emergency fascilities are much enhanced compared to the first half of the 20th century and before, and antidotes are more available. Antidotes have been found for many poisons, and the antidotes for some of the most commonly known poisons are shown in the table below:

Poison/Drug	Antidote
paracetamol (acetaminophen)	N-acetylcysteine
vitamin K anticoagulants, e.g. warfarin	vitamin K
opioids	naloxone
iron (and other heavy metals)	desferrioxamine
benzodiazepines	flumazenil
ethylene glycol	ethanol or fomepizole
methanol	ethanol or fomepizole
cyanide	amyl nitrite, sodium nitrite & sodium thiosulphate

However, poison still exists as a muderous entity today, but, for a variety of reasons, it is not as popular form of conducting murder as it used to be in past times, probably because of the wider range of ways to kill people and other factors that must be taken into consideration.

A cropduster spreading pesticide.

Uses in the Modern Day

Today, poison is used for a larger variety of purposes that it used to be. While it is still used for many medicines, and is just as effective at killing as it always was, other problems have been solved through poison. Quite often, poison can be used to rid an unwanted infestation by pests or to kill weeds and such, and provides perhaps the most effective way of destroying an infestation. These chemicals, known as pesticides, have been known to have been used in some form since about 2500 BC, but the use of pesticides has increased staggeringly from 1950, and presently approximately 2.5 million tons of industrial pesticides are used each year.

Certain poisons can also be used to preserve foods and building material. For safety and health reasons, the poisons that are used for these purposes are usually found to be somewhat less poisonous than poisons used for weed killing and infestation ridding.

External Links

• History of Poisons

References

• Colins Dictionaries, from the Bank of English (2001). Collins English Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers. p. 594. ISBN 0007666918.

See Also

• List of elements
• List of Extremely Hazardous Substances
• Toxicity
• List of poisonings
• Poison