Boy
A boy is a young male human (usually child or adolescent), as contrasted to its female counterpart, which is called a girl; thus in the wide sense of both terms all mankind, and in the strictest sense youth, can be seen as the complementary pair 'boys and girls'.
The term "boy" is primarily used to indicate biological sex distinctions, cultural gender role distinctions or both. The latter most commonly applies to adult men, either considered in some way immature or inferior, in a position associated with aspects of boyhood, or even without such boyish connotation as age-indiscriminate synonym. The term can be joined with a variety of other words to form these gender-related labels as compound words.
Historically, boys faced discrimination and limitations on the roles they were expected to play in their societies. An ongoing debate about the influences of nature versus nurture in shaping the behavior of girls and boys raises questions about whether the roles played by boys are mainly the result of inborn differences or of socialization. Images of boys in art, literature and popular culture often demonstrate assumptions about gender roles.
Etymology
The word "boy" is recorded since 1154. Its etymology is unclear; it is probably related to East Frisian boi, Old Norse bófi, Dutch boef "(criminal) knave, rogue" and German Bube. These apparently all have their origin in baby talk (like the word baby itself) (Buck 1949: 89).
But there is a theory that English "boy" derives from a theorized Anglo-Saxon word *boia = "boy or servant", thus explaining the English placenames Boyton and Boycott. If so, the word may have originated from the Boii, a Celtic tribe which formerly lived in Bohemia but was driven out by the Germanic Marcomanni tribe taking the area over in Roman times. In the dispersal, many Boii may have become slaves or servants, and their name became a word for "servant". (The same happened later to many Slav people, whence the word slave.)
Scope
An adult male human is a man, but when age is not a crucial factor both terms can be interchangeable, e.g., 'boys and their toys' applies equally to adults and young boys, just as 'Are you mice or men?' can also apply to young boys.
The age boundary is not clear cut, rather dependent on the context or even on individual circumstances. A young man who has not assumed (or has been denied) the traditional roles of a man might also be called a boy. It may feel uncomfortable to a young male upon being referred to as a "man" before he believes he has assumed these roles, such as having a career, a partner, a household of his own, fatherhood. Conversely, it may feel uncomfortable to a male to be called a "boy" if he believes he has assumed the traditional roles of a "man". In mother's/mama's boy, the word emphatically implies a male (minor or adult in years) who is too immature to be independent.
In some traditions boyhood is held to be exchanged for adult manhood, or at least approach it significantly, by certain -in se independent- acts assuming a role deemed to be typical for a "normal" man (though there are limits) as marriage, fathering offspring or military service. Various cultural and/or religious rites of passage serve, partially or specifically, to mark the transition to manhood.
There is often a number of traditional differences in attire between boys and adult men, which may even give rise to a metaphoric term such as broekvent in Dutch (i.e., a boy who has not yet "graduated" from shorts to trousers) and in what is socially accepted as appropriate behaviour, e.g., boys may be publicly seen naked in cultures where men are not.
In English, a youth or a teenager may refer to either male or female. No gender-specific term exists for an intermediate stage between a boy and a man, except "young man".
Many occasions occur when an adult male is commonly referred to as a boy. A person's boyfriend or loverboy may be of any age; this even applies to a 'working' call-boy, toyboy (though usually younger than the client as youth is generally considered attractive). Reflecting the general aesthetic preference for youth, one says pretty boy (e.g. in the nickname of Charles Arthur "Pretty Boy" Floyd, who committed his first bank robbery at age 30) or Adonis (name of a mythological youth) even when a male beauty is clearly of riper age. In terms (used pejoratively or neutrally) for homosexuals such as batty boy (alongside "batty man"; from "bottom") or "bum boy", age is not essential, but the connotation of immaturity can strengthen insulting use.
A man's group of male friends etc. engaged in Male bonding are often called "the boys". It is most common to refer to men, irrespective of age or even in an adult age group, as boys in the context of a team (especially all-male), such as old boys for networking of adult men who attended the same school(s) as boys, or as professional colleagues, e.g. "the boys at the office, - police station etc." (often all adults). The members of a student fraternity can be called frat(ernity) boys, technically preferable to the pleonasm frat-bro(ther), and remain so for life as adults, after graduation.
In sports 'the boys' commonly refers to the team mates; e.g., UK football managers quite often refer to their players as "The boy so-and-so" and this usage is by no means restricted to the youngest players, though it is rarely applied to the most senior.
In some cases, a word using boy is used merely to designate the age of the (male) person, irrespective of the function, as in altar boy, a minor acting as liturgical acolyte, or in Boy Scouts, an organisation specifically for boys. Thus the compound -man can then be replaced by -boy, as in footboy; or boy is simply added, either as a prefix (e.g., in boy-racer) or as a suffix (e.g., in Teddy Boy).
An adult equivalent (with or without -man) is not to be expected when -boy designates an apprentice (for which some languages use a compound with the equivalent of boy, e.g. leerjongen 'learning boy' in Dutch) or lowest rank implying specific on the job training if promotion is to be obtained, as in kitchen-boy. Similarly schoolboy only applies to minors; the modern near-synonym pupil originally designated a minor in Roman law as being under a specific adult's authority, as in loco parentis.
Expressions such as "boys will be boys" (i.e., a male always retains a tendency for boyish games or mischief) allude to stereotypically ascribed characteristics of boys and men; in the term tomboy, a woman's (according to the counterpart-gender stereotype) uncharacteristically bold nature is even described solely by comparing her to a boy.
The use of boy (like kid) in (fantasy or descriptive) nick-names, also for adult men (e.g. Shark Boy for a wrestler with matching costume), may also connote to the informal or naughty image of boyhood.
In such terms as 'city boy' or 'home boy', the age notion is at most anachronistic, as they indicate any male who grew up (or by extension lived a long time) in a certain environment.
Historically, in countries such as the U.S. and South Africa, "boy" was not only a 'neutral' term for domestics but also used as a disparaging racist insult towards non-white males (especially of African descent), recalling their subservient status even after the 20th century legal emancipation (from slavery, evolved to race segregation, viz. Apartheid) and alleged infantility, and many still consider it offensive in that context to this day.
Specific uses and compounds
The following subsections treat some specific contexts where the term boy is frequently used, as such or in compound terms, often 'emancipated' from the age notion as such.
They also show that similar semantic broadness applies to many languages, notably Indo-European; to avoid lengthy duplication, cases may simply be linked here.
- Master was replaced (not for a slave owner or his overseeer etc.) by the late 19th century, as a form of address, especially employed by servants, by Mister (etymologically equal) for the master of the household and other adults, but retained for boys till age 13
Military
The term 'our boys' is commonly used for a nation's soldiers, often with sympathy. Given the physical demands of battle, recruits are preferably in their physical prime, but adult professionals remain included in the term as long as they remain in service.
A case where the term is formally used for (adult) men is sideboy, a member of an even-numbered group of seaman posted in two rows at the Quarterdeck when a visiting dignitary boards or leaves a ship.
In the Ottoman empire, the young, mainly Christian military recruits for life (often forcibly enlisted by 'devshirme') were officially called acemi oglanlar ("novice boys").
Thus "-boy" can enter the nickname for a particular nation's soldiers, e.g. the US (infantry) doughboy.
Furthermore, specific terms refer to minors used in the armed forces:
- drummer boy
- ship's boy is a minor in naval training; boy seaman refers to specific, low-paid apprentice ranks, notably in the Royal Navy; until the middle of the twentieth century, they were the only Navy staff subject (like their civilian age-peers, at home and in school) to physical punishment, usually spanking, traditionally administered on the bare bottom (as in English public schools; the adults were lashed on the backside above the waist), either formally (ordered in court martial, publicly executed on deck) or, more often but less severely, summary; the same was true of a midshipman, also a minor, but indicated with "-man" rather than "-boy", possibly reflecting their higher status as future naval officers. Sometimes in ex-servicemen's parades, an old man is described as "ship's boy" to say that he served so classed in the Navy as a boy.
However, when a minor in military employ is considered (historically often far less restrictive then nowadays) too young to be a 'normal' warrior (illegal under present UN rules, but without precise enforceable age limits), he's called boy soldier, regardless whether he's used as an armed fighter or only in logistic or similar functions such as bearer.
Domestic, residential and similar 'personal' attendants
- Houseboy, or often "boy" for short, became a common term for domestic staff, notably non-European natives in the Asian and African colonies, adopted as such in other languages, e.g. in Dutch and French (also in the Belgian colonies).
- Bellboy was originally a ship's bell-ringer, later a hotel page.
- Busboy is a rank in restaurants restaurants etc. below (head) waiter, fitting for trainees but may be held by ripe adults, even under younger (e.g. better qualified) superiors
- Page, from the Greek παις pais, again in many languages, already in Hellenistic times παιδες βαςιλικοιs paides basilikoi 'royal (i.e. court) boys'.
- Cabin boy
- Cabana boy
- Hamam oğlanı "bath boy" (also called Tellak) working in a Turkish bath.
- Hall boy
- Kitchen boy, belows the cook(s); in a large household there may be specific functions, such as spitboy
Cultural and religious life
- Altar boy (see above)
- Choir boy designates a boy (always a minor) singer in a choir; here applies a specific physiological, aristically relevant criterion: they remain a musical category of their own (boy soprano, also known as a treble) until their voice 'breaks', during puberty, to join one of the male voice registers (contratenor, alto, tenor, baritone or bass); only the castrato may (not guaranteed) remain a soprano as an adult man; historically the term was designed for all-male (mainly church) choirs, with men with already broken voices (often former choir boys), in modern times it also applies to mixed choirs.
Rural life and professions
- Cowboy originally designated a herdsboy employed as cowherd, but lost the age notion, first retaining the connotation of inferior status, later applying to the whole ranch life culture; by contrast "shepherd's boy" (rather herding sheep or goats, representing less capital) remained restricted to minors.
Commercial and other services
Often the term "boy" describes positions of the trainee type, such as stable boy (a junior stable hand).
- Best boy in a film crew denotes the chief assistant, usually of the gaffer or key grip, next in line to be promoted; an example of a use where the term is traditionally unaltered in crediting female incumbents
- Office boy and copy boy refer to a young(est) employee (i.e. lacking experience), in training and/or performing menial services such as making photocopies.
- Even into the early 20th century, the British empire systematically employed boy clerks, including a specific rank of boy copyist, recruited by examination (despite the name, requiring schooling) and reserved for candidates aged 15-18, not retained in that rank after the age of 20.
Certain jobs need so little training or formal qualifications that they can easily be performed as student job, and thus tend to be filled mostly or exclusively by minors, as it would not pay to employ an adult at or above minimum wage. Thus an equivalent word with the compound man (or similar) may be the rarer one, or even inexistent. Examples include delivery boy, errand boy, messenger boy and various specific terms naming the product to deliver, such as paperboy (closest adult counterpart postman), pizza boy (alongside pizzaman). In other cases the compound mentions a crucial attribute of his task, e.g. ballboy (more recently also girls) in tennis.
In some cases his small, light body makes a boy a better choice, e.g. as jockey where no weight handicap is in force.
Role play
In BDSM, the term boy, often in the deliberate misspelling boi, sometimes specified (notably 'domestic' houseboi), refers not to junior age, but to the submissive position in the role play (e.g. father-son, teacher-pupil, owner-slave) at the masters beck and call, also known as bottom, especially if this implies submitting to discipline by the dominant 'top', who may not only command and humiliate the boi at his discretion but even administer punishment (often spanking, making the term bottom most appropriate) at his (dis)pleasure.
Non-function specific analogous terms
Boys, in the strict or a wider sense, are often informally referred to by analogous or metaphorical terms. The literal connotations, which may be ironic or downright pejorative, have often been eroded by common use. Some terms are unisex, with or without (at least historical) preponderance of use for boys:-
- Cub and pup(py) compare boys to the young of predatory animals, the slang tadpole even to that of an amphibian;
- Buck, another animal young, usually refers to a sexually adventurous male youngster
- Sprout compares to a plant's young shoots
- References to the boy's generally lighter physique then a man include stripling 'slender youth' and -rather insulting- slang like half-pint or small-fry
- More specifically, shaveling (or in slang shaver) refers to boys' lesser hair growth then men's before - and densification around puberty
- Various terms refer to children's, often especially boys', lack of adult manners (e.g. "snot(ty) nose(d) (kid)") or to often mischievous behavior, e.g. "rascal", also by analogy with animals, e.g. "monkey", "urchin" (as 'prickly' as a hedgehog); "(spoiled) brat" refers to such undiscipline for lack of firm upbringing.
Analogous uses and popular etymology
By analogy "boy" can also refer as an anthropomorphic term to a young male (or any male) of another animal, either in general or species-specific; in the last case it may even have a specific term, notably derived from a boy's name, such as "billy goat" for a 'boy' goat, or tomcat (known since 1809, for any male cat; but just Tom, applied to male kittens, is recorded since c.1303)
Again by analogy "boy" can occasionally even refer to a 'male' object.
Some words contain 'boy' in English by mistake (folk etymology), actually referring to a (near) homophone such as French bois = "wood" (e.g. in "low boy", a type of furniture, and in "tallboy", both furniture and a high glass or goblet).
Similar originally youth-related terms
- bachelor evolved in the 14th century from "knight in training" (possibly by the staff to train for swrdfight) to "junior member of a guild or university" and by 1386 to "unmarried man"
- cadet
- garçon, the French for boy, a form of the archaic gars (meaning (usually young) man), was adopted in various languages (in English reported since 1788) for a (food or drinks) waiter
- groom (not the etymologically unrelated homophone meaning "husband-to-be") originally meant "young male", possibly related to "gromet" (servant, especially ship's boy), and only in the 1667 was specifically used for a stable man or - boy (even the last not necessarily a youth).
- infant, originally 'child too young to speak' evolved to infantryman 'foot soldier' (also footman) and, in Iberian language, to the princely style infante (this, like the original meaning, unisex).
- knave (Old English cnafa or cnapa, cognate with Dutch knaap, German Knabe, and Knappe, "boy"), originally "a male child", "a boy" (Chaucer, Canterbury Tales: Clerks Tale, I. 388). Like Latin puer, the word was early used as a name for any boy or lad employed as a servant, and so of male servants in general (Chaucer: Pardoners Tale, 1. 204), and especially a journeyman. The current use of the word "knave" for "a man who is dishonest and crafty, a rogue", was however an early usage, and is found in Layamon (c. 1205). In playing-cards the lowest court card of each suit, the jack, representing a medieval servant, is still often called the knave.
- The term junior = 'younger', antonym of senior, occurs in titles as 'lower grade', in terms of service years (not age) or even merely hierarchical, on criteria regardless of experience; equivalent is puisne.
- The term lad', or in the Scottish diminutive form laddie (recorded since 1546): known since c.1300 as ladde "foot soldier," also "young male servant" (attested as a surname from c.1100), possibly from a Scandinavian language (cf. Norwegian -ladd, in compounds for "young man"), perhaps originally a plural of the pp. of lead (v.), thus "one who is led" (by a lord); present meaning "boy, youth, young man" attested from c.1440; in Northern England, and particularly in the county of Lancashire, males of all ages jokingly refer to themselves as being a Lancashire "lad". Lass(ie) is the female counterpart.
- minor now usually applies unisex, but historically there was often a different age limit (a remnant may be the age of sexual consent) or even a legal system in which women were never fully emancipated in the eyes of the law, and so passed from the dominion of their fathers to that of their husbands.
- oac, the Old Irish for "youths", later came to mean "soldier", as in Gallóglaigh (gallowglass)
- The terms squire and esquire, both from Old French esquier (modern French écuyer), itself from Latin scutarius "shield bearer", originally entered English as a boy in attendance to a knight (like page), but were socially promoted and lost their age-connotation.
- The term swain, from Old Norse sveinn, originally meant young man or servant, even as a Norwegian court title) entered English c.1150 as "young man attendant upon a knight" i.e. squire, or junior rank, as in boatswain and coxswain, but now usually means a boyfriend (since 1585) or a country lad (farm laborer since 1579; especially a young shepherd, cognate with Old English swan 'swineherd').
- The term vassal stems from an Old Celtic root *wasso- "young man, squire" (e.g. Welsh gwas "youth, servant," Breton goaz "servant, vassal, man," Irish foss "servant").
- The term valet and its variant "varlet" also derive from "vassal" (above) and apply to male servants, sometimes specifically boys.
- wag, now meaning "person fond of making jokes," is recorded in English since 1553; it derives from the verb to wag (i.e. to make a swinging movement), perhaps in this context as a shortening of waghalter "gallows bird," a person destined to swing in a noose or halter, soon applied humorously to mischievous children (the same notion remains in the Dutch expression voor galg en rad opgroeien), later to all young men without the naughty connotation, finally to witty persons
Social position of boys
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The position of boys in society is usually a function of their dual classification: as male and/or as minor.
As a rule, the younger the boy the more he's regarded primarily as a child, and treated similarly as a girl of the same age; infants and toddlers are 'mothered' by women, fairly indiscriminately. As age progresses, virtually all cultural traditions increase the gender-specificity, often leading to separation of boys from girls, and as they approach adulthood, especially entering puberty, boys usually get more associated with adults, usually mainly with men. Especially in tribal cultures, they often join successive age grades, exclusively for boy within a give age bracket, or remain together as an age set which makes the steps as a group, so the individual members at somewhat different ages.
The formal culmination is often a coming of age ceremony, which is most cultures is (at least historically) gender-specific or exclusively for (future) men.
In ancient Sparta, from the exceptionally early age of seven a citizen's son was taken from his mother to start his education in all-male company, preparing to become a soldier. Though less extreme, other Greek city states (professional soldiers as in Sparta where the exception, citizens mobilized when needed only) also had a form of organized boys-only education, usually with some emphasis on military training, which often was the crux of such adolescent boys corps as the epheboi.
Future differences as adults based largely on birth right (such as aristocratic privilege or hereditary servitude) are often reflected in a different treatment as boys.
In many traditions only a minority enjoys formal schooling -a major asset for future social promotion opportunities- in addition to informal education, and often this advantage is (or was) only common for (certain) boys and may even be forbidden for girls; religious factors may also play a role, e.g. churches restricting the priesthood to men will preferentially school boys (being potential recruits for the clergy, long as major avenue of social promotion). Those who enjoy schooling will generally be (at least largely) exempt from child labor, while the others/lower classes (and often girls) are set to work younger, either in specific functions (often auxiliary or of the apprentice type) or rather just like their parents (usually boys with their father, often in the same profession and/or production unit) or even hired out to supplement the meager household income.
Boys in art
In classical (especially Greek) art, the dominant image of physical beauty, adopted even for the gods, is that of the male athlete, whether a ripe boy or a young adult, in Greek art often a kouros in the nude. Especially the Renaissance followed their example, here as in many things.
Many mythological boys have frequently been represented in various arts, e.g. Venus' often mischievous son Cupid, himself a young god of love which he 'inflicts' on humans by shooting his arrows; in some style periods even multiplied as naked little boys called putti.
In religious art, generally adults preponderate (except as extras), with certain marked, stereotypical exceptions such as the infant Jesus or angels which may even act as 'christianized' putti.
In portrait art, and generally in commissioned work (including funeral art), the subjects are usually determined by the wishes of the (adult) client, so minors are often in the minority, yet in wealthy families especially heirs are (re)presented as part of their social positioning in view of future marriage and succession, generally either as mini-adults or stereotypical youth, e.g. at play or in cozy home scenes.
Some artists displayed a clear predeliction for scenes with boys, in certain cases (especially if frequently depicting revealing poses) believed to have to do with a homo-erotic taste, as is believed of the highly respected Old Master Caravaggio, or Henry Scott Tuke who kept producing such works even though the market circa 1900 was rather unappreciative.
In music, boys' voices before they 'break', of a soprano register unlike adult men, have been most sought-after, especially where female voices were considered inappropriate as often in church and certain theatrical music - this even lead to the practice of physically trying to prevent their 'angelical' voices ever to break by surgically cutting short the hormonal drive to manhood: for centuries, castrato singers, who coupled adult strength and experience with a treble register, starred in contratenor parts, mainly in operatic styles.
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Roman-Egyptian funeral portrait of a young boy -
Two Greek gods: Apollo, patron and model of beauty and athletes, and the young Hyacinthus; 16th c. Italian engraving by Jacopo Caraglio -
Amor Victorious. 1602–03 Caravaggio shows Eros prevailing over other human endeavors: war, music, science, government. -
The Bathers by H. S. Tuke. -
Cupidon, by William-Adolphe Bouguereau, 1875 -
Sir Walter Raleigh and his son, 1602
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See also
Sources and references
Buck, Carl Darling (1949). A Dictionary of Selected Synonyms in the Principal Indo-European Languages. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-07937-6 (1988 reprint).
- This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
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- Boyhood Studies, website and journal for the study of boys
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