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"ISS" redirects here. For other uses, see ISS (disambiguation).
International Space Station

International Space Station photographed following separation from the Space Shuttle Discovery, December 19 2006

International Space Station insignia

ISS Statistics
Crew: 3 As of
March 07 2007
Perigee: 319.6 km (172.6 NM) "
Apogee: 346.9 km (187.3 NM) "
Orbital period: 91.20 minutes "
Inclination: 51.63 degrees "
Orbits per day: 15.79 "
Days in orbit: 3,029 "
Days occupied: 2,316 "
Total orbits: 47,466 "
Distance traveled: ≈2,000,000,000 km (≈1,100,000,000 NM) "
Average speed: 27,743.8 km/h (17,239.2 mi/h) "
Mass: 213,800 kg ( 471,444 lbs) December 19 2006
Width: 73 m (240 ft) across solar arrays March 07 2007
Length: 44.5 m (146 ft) along core "
Height: 27.5 m (90 ft) "
Living volume: 425 m³ (15,000 ft³) December 19 2006
Air pressure: 101.3 kPa[1] "
Configuration

International Space Station current elements. Click to enlarge.

International Space Station

The International Space Station (ISS) is a research facility currently being assembled in outer space above the Earth. The station's Low Earth Orbit varies from 319.6 km to 346.9 km above the planet's surface, where it travels at an average speed of 27,743.8 km per hour, completing 15.7 orbits per day. The ISS is a joint project between five space agencies: the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA, United States), the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roskosmos, Russian Federation), the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA, Japan), the Canadian Space Agency (CSA, Canada) and the European Space Agency (ESA, Europe).[2]

The Brazilian Space Agency (AEB, Brazil) participates through a separate contract with NASA. The Italian Space Agency similarly has separate contracts for various activities not done in the framework of ESA's ISS works (where Italy also fully participates).

The ISS is a continuation of what began as the U.S. Space Station Freedom, the funding for which was cut back severely. It represents a merger of Freedom with several other previously planned space stations: Russia's Mir 2, the planned European Columbus and the Japanese Experiment Module. Construction of the station is currently underway, with a projected completion date of 2010. The ISS is currently larger than any previous space station.

The ISS has been continuously inhabited since the first resident crew entered the station on November 2 2000, thereby providing a permanent human presence in space. The crew of Expedition 15 are currently aboard. The station is serviced primarily by Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft and by U.S. Space Shuttle orbiters. At present the station has a capacity for a crew of three. Early crewmembers all came from the Russian or U.S. space programs. German ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter joined the Expedition 13 crew in July 2006, becoming the first crewmember from another space agency. The station has however been visited by astronauts from 14 countries, and the Expedition 16 crew will include members from all five space agencies forming the ISS partnership. ISS was also the destination of the first five space tourists.

Origins and start of the program

Zarya and Node 1 in 1999

In the early 1980s, NASA planned Space Station Freedom as a counterpart to the Soviet Salyut and Mir space stations. It never left the drawing board, and with the end of the Soviet Union and the Cold War it was cancelled. The end of the Space race prompted the U.S. administration officials to start negotiations with international partners Europe, Russia, Japan and Canada in the early 1990s, in order to build a truly international space station. This project was first announced in 1993 and was called Space Station Alpha.[3] It was planned to combine the proposed space stations of all participating space agencies: NASA's Space Station Freedom, Russia's Mir-2 (the successor to the Mir space station, the core of which is now Zvezda) and ESA's Columbus that was planned to be a stand-alone spacelab.

Throughout the 1990s, construction delays hit the project, budget projections were heavily revised and the ISS structure was modified frequently. The ISS has been, as of today, far more expensive than originally anticipated. The ESA estimates the overall cost from the start of the project in the late 1980s to the prospective end in 2016 to be in the region of $130 billion (€100 billion).[4]

The first section, the Zarya Functional Cargo Block, was put in orbit in November 1998 on a Russian Proton rocket. Two further pieces (the Unity Module and Zvezda service module) were added before the first crew, Expedition 1, was sent. Expedition 1 docked to the ISS on November 2, 2000, and consisted of U.S. astronaut William Shepherd and two Russian cosmonauts, Yuri Gidzenko, and Sergei Krikalev.

The Columbia disaster and changes in construction plans

Columbia lifting off on its final mission.

Columbia disaster and consequences

After the breakup of Columbia on February 1 2003, and the subsequent two and a half year suspension of the U.S. Space Shuttle program, followed by problems with resuming flight operations in 2005, there was some uncertainty over the future of the ISS until 2006.

The Space Shuttle Program resumed flight on July 26 2005 with the STS-114 mission of Discovery. This mission to the ISS was intended both to test new safety measures implemented since the Columbia disaster, and to deliver supplies to the station. Although the mission succeeded safely, it was not without risk; foam was shed by the external tank, leading NASA to announce future missions would be grounded until this issue was resolved.

Between the Columbia disaster and the resumption of Shuttle launches crew exchanges were carried out solely using the Russian Soyuz spacecraft. Starting with Expedition 7, two-astronaut caretaker crews were launched, instead of the previous crews of three. Because the ISS had not been visited by a shuttle for an extended period, a larger than planned amount of waste accumulated, temporarily hindering station operations in 2004. However Progress transports and the STS-114 shuttle flight took care of this problem.

Changes in construction plans

Upgrading the International Space Station

ISS construction is now far behind the original planned schedule for completion in 2004 or 2005. This is mainly due to the halting of all NASA Shuttle flights following the Columbia disaster in early 2003 (although there had been prior delays due partly to Shuttle problems, and partly to delays stemming from the Russian space agency's budget constraints). During the shuttle stand-down, construction of the ISS was halted and the science conducted aboard was limited due to the crew size of two.

As of the beginning of 2006, many changes have been made to the originally planned ISS, even before the Columbia disaster. Modules and other structures have been canceled or replaced and the number of Shuttle flights to the ISS has been reduced from previously planned numbers. Still, the newest ISS Shuttle launch manifest and the current ISS design scheme reveal that more than 80% of the hardware planned to be part of the ISS in the late 90s, is still planned to be orbited to the ISS by its scheduled completion date in 2010.

In March 2006, a meeting of the heads of the five participating space agencies accepted the new ISS construction schedule that plans to complete the ISS by 2010.[5] A crew of six is expected to be established in 2009, after the Shuttle's next 12 construction flights following the second Return to Flight mission STS-121. Requirements for stepping up the crew size include enhanced environmental support on the ISS, a second Soyuz permanently docked on the station to function as a second 'lifeboat', more frequent Progress flights to provide double the amount of consumables, more fuel for orbit raising maneuvers, and a sufficient supply line of experimental equipment.

Current status

After the successful completion of two Return to Flight missions, ISS assembly resumed with the launch of STS-115 on September 9, 2006. On December 9, 2006 STS-116 lifted off for the second Space Shuttle assembly mission since the Columbia disaster. It took with it the first Swedish astronaut, Christer Fuglesang. EVAs conducted by Fuglesang and other members of the STS-116 crew upgraded the electrical system of the space station. Station power is now supplied for the first time from solar arrays attached to the permanent truss structure.

Structures and design

International Space Station mockup at Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas
See also: ISS assembly sequence

The space station is located in orbit around the Earth at an altitude of approximately 360 km (220 miles), a type of orbit usually termed low Earth orbit (The actual height varies over time by several kilometers due to atmospheric drag and re-boosts). It orbits Earth in a period of about 90 minutes (1 hr 30 mins); by November 2006 it had completed more than 45,500 orbits since launch of the Zarya module on November 20 1998.

The ISS, when completed, will be essentially made of a set of communicating pressurized modules connected to a truss, on which are attached four large pairs of photovoltaic modules. The pressurized modules and the truss will be perpendicular: the truss spanning from starboard to port and the habitable zone extending on the aft-forward axis. Although during the construction the station attitude may vary, when all four photovoltaic modules are in their definitive position the aft-forward axis will be parallel to the velocity vector.[6]

A total of 10 main pressurized modules (Zarya, Zvezda, Destiny, Unity Module -also called Node 1-, Node 2, Node 3, Columbus, Kibo, MLM and the RM) are currently scheduled to be part of the ISS by its completion date in 2010.[7] A number of smaller pressurized sections will be adjunct to them (Soyuz spacecrafts (permanently 2 as lifeboats - 6 months rotations), Progress transporters (2 or more), the Quest and Pirs Airlocks, as well as periodically the MPLM, the ATV and the HTV).

Power supply

Main article: Electrical system of the International Space Station

The source of electrical power for the ISS is the sun: light is converted into electricity through the use of solar panels. Before assembly flight 4A (shuttle mission STS-97, November 30, 2000) the only power source was the Russian solar panels attached to the Zarya and Zvezda modules: the Russian segment of the station uses 28 volts dc (like the Shuttle). In the rest of the station, electricity is provided by the solar panels attached to the truss at a voltage ranging from 130 to 180 volts dc. The power is then stabilized and distributed at 160 volts dc and then converted to the user-required 124 volts dc. Power can be shared between the two segments of the station using converters, and this feature is essential since the cancellation of the Russian Science Power Platform: the Russian segment will depend on the U.S. built solar arrays for power supply.[8]

Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS)

Using a high-voltage (130 to 160 volts) distribution line in the so-called U.S. part of the station led to smaller power lines and thus weight savings.

Life support

The ISS Environmental Control and Life Support System provides or controls elements such as atmospheric pressure, oxygen levels, water, and fire extinguishing, among other things. The highest priority for the life support system is the ISS atmosphere, but the system also collects, processes, and stores water and waste used and produced by the crew. For example, the system recycles fluid from the sink, shower, urine, and condensation. Activated charcoal filters are the primary method for removing byproducts of human metabolism from the air. [9]

Pressurized modules already launched

Cosmonaut Sergei Krikalev inside the Zvezda Service Module, November 2000
March 10 2001 - The Leonardo Multi-Purpose Logistics Module rests in Discovery's payload bay during STS-102.

Currently, the ISS consists of only four main pressurized modules; two Russian modules Zarya and Zvezda and two US modules Destiny and Node 1. Zarya was the first module launched by a Proton rocket in November 1998, followed by a shuttle mission that connected Zarya with Node 1, the first of three node modules, 2 weeks after Zarya had been launched. This bare 2-module core of the ISS remained unmanned for the next one and a half years, until in July 2000 the Russian module Zvezda was added, allowing a minimum crew of two astronauts or cosmonauts to be on the ISS permanently.

Since 2000, the only main pressurized module delivered to the ISS was the Destiny Laboratory Module by STS-98 in 2001. The US Lab was also the first science module delivered to the ISS, whereas Zarya provides electrical power, storage, propulsion, and guidance functions and Zvezda provides living quarters, a life support system, a communication system, electrical power distribution, a data processing system, a flight control system, and a propulsion system. Node 1's primary function is to link different modules together, however fluids, environmental control and life support systems, electrical and data systems are also routed through Node 1 to supply work and living areas of the station.

Other pressurized sections of the current configuration of the ISS are the Quest Airlock and the Pirs Airlock. Soyuz spacecraft and Progress spacecraft docked to the ISS also extend the pressurized volume. At least one Soyuz spacecraft has to stay docked permanently as a 'lifeboat' and is replaced every six months by a new Soyuz as part of crew rotation.

Although not permanently docked with the ISS, a Multi-Purpose Logistics Module (MPLM) forms part of the ISS during Shuttle missions that include the MPLM. The MPLM is attached to Node 1 and is used for resupply and logistics flights.

Pressurized modules to be launched

Harmony (Node 2) — October 2007

Node 2

As of March 2006, nearly all already built pressurized modules are planned to be launched by the Space Shuttle after return to flight with STS-121 in July 2006. If the current Shuttle launch sequence is not disrupted materially, Harmony (formerly known as Node 2), will be launched in the second half of 2007 by STS-120[10]. Harmony was built by the Italian Space Agency, however its ownership has been already transferred to NASA as part of a bartering agreement between NASA and ESA.[11] Harmony will contain eight racks that provide air, electrical power, water and other systems essential to support life on the spacecraft and is scheduled to be the hub for the Columbus module and Kibo.

Columbus Laboratory Module — December 2007

File:ESA Columbus module.jpg
Columbus Laboratory Module

The next Shuttle flight after Node 2 is scheduled to bring the European module Columbus to the ISS by STS-122(Discovery). Columbus will be the second module mainly dedicated to science on the ISS, including the Fluid Science Laboratory (FSL), the European Physiology Modules (EPM), the Biolab, the European Drawer Rack (EDR) and various storage racks.

Japanese Experiment Module — 2008/2009

Japanese Experiment Module, aka Kibō module

The Japanese Experiment Module (also known as JEM or Kibo) is the next pressurized module on the schedule. It consists of two pressurized sections and one exposed facility. Three shuttle flights are needed to bring the Kibo laboratory into orbit. The pressurized sections are scheduled to fly in the second half of 2008 and in the first half of 2009. Kibo will be mounted on Harmony, on the opposite side to the Columbus module.

Multipurpose Laboratory Module — 2009

The Russian space agency has announced that the Multipurpose Laboratory Module (MLM) is scheduled to be launched by a Proton rocket in 2009. The MLM is the main Russian science module, and depending on its actual launch date the third or fourth science module to be launched to the ISS. It will be equipped with an altitude control system that can be used as a backup by the ISS and will be docked onto the Zvezda docking port. The European Robotic Arm will be launched together with MLM, mated on its surface for a later deployment in space, according to an agreement signed in October 2005 between ESA and Roskosmos.

Node 3 and Cupola — 2010

File:ISS Cupola module.jpg
Cupola

Node 3 is currently scheduled for the beginning of 2010 on the next to last Shuttle flight. Like Harmony, Node 3 was built in Italy by the Italian Space Agency, but is owned by NASA. It will be used as a storage compartment as its original purpose to be a hub for the Habitation Module as well as the Crew Return Vehicle, is no longer relevant - both items were cancelled in 2001. One of the curiosities of the ISS, the Cupola 'space window' is currently scheduled to be flown together with Node 3. ESA has finished construction and is storing the Cupola until its flight with Node 3.

Docking Cargo Module — 2010

NASA's ISS schedule did include one Russian Research Module (RM) as part of the ISS that would have been docked to Zarya and was rumoured to fly to the ISS at some point after 2010 on a Russian Proton rocket. Construction on this module had never begun, which cast doubt on its actual delivery to the ISS. Its replacement, the Russian Docking Cargo Module, made from the already-built hull of the Science Power Module, is reported to be scheduled for launch onboard STS-131 in 2010.[1] It will dock to the nadir Zarya port, just as was planned for the RM. It will be used mainly to store cargo, and also to preserve a docking port for Soyuz/ Progress after the arrival of Node 3.

Unpressurised elements

There is also a large unpressurised truss system partially in place that will eventually support the prominent solar arrays, as well as external experiments like the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer and the Plasma Contactor Unit [2].

An addition to unpressurized experiment accommodations on ISS is being developed by the Goddard Space Flight Center, called EXPRESS Logistics Carrier, or ELC (formerly EXPRESS Pallet). "EXPRESS" stands for "Expedite the Processing of Experiments to the Space Station". Several ELC units will be installed on the exterior of ISS to provide a home for space science experiments. ELC units provide not just a berth for experiments, but also provide power, heat, and command & telemetry links to experiments.

Cancelled elements

Visiting spacecraft

File:Atv.jpg
ATV

Planned

  • European (ESA) Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) ISS resupply spacecraft (scheduled for November 2007)[7]
  • Japanese (JAXA) H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) resupply vehicle for Kibo module (scheduled for 2009)
  • Orion possible crew rotation and as resupply transporter (officially scheduled for 2014)

Proposed

Current assembled components

See also: ISS assembly sequence

Building the ISS requires more than 40 assembly flights. Of these flights, currently 33 are planned to be Space Shuttle flights, with 20 ISS-shuttle flights currently flown and 13 more planned between 2007 and 2010. Other assembly flights consist of modules lifted by the Russian Proton rocket or in the case of the Pirs Airlock by a Soyuz rocket.

In addition to the assembly and utilization flights, approximately 30 Progress spacecraft flights are required to provide logistics until 2010. Experimental equipment, fuel and consumables are and will be delivered by all vehicles visiting the ISS: the Shuttle, the Russian Progress, the European ATV (prospectively from May 2007 onwards) and the Japanese HTV.

When assembly is complete, the ISS will have a pressurized volume of approximately 1,000 cubic meters, a mass of approximately 400,000 kilograms, approximately 100 kilowatts of power output, a truss 108.4 meters long, modules 74 meters long, and a crew of six.

As of December 2006 the station consists of several modules and elements:

Element Flight Launch Vehicle Launch date
(GMT) 		Length
(m) 		Diameter
(m) 		Mass
(kg)
Zarya FGB 1 A/R Proton rocket 20 November 1998 12.6 4.1 19,323
Unity Node 1 2A - STS-88 Endeavour 4 December 1998 5.49 4.57 11,612
Zvezda Service Module 1R Proton rocket 12 July 2000 13.1 4.15 19,050
Z1 Truss 3A - STS-92 Discovery 11 October 2000 4.9 4.2 8,755
P6 Truss - Solar Array* 4A - STS-97 Endeavour 30 November 2000 73.2 10.7 15,824
Destiny 5A - STS-98 Atlantis 7 February 2001 8.53 4.27 14,515
Canadarm2 6A - STS-100 Endeavour 19 April 2001 17.6 0.35 4,899
Joint Airlock - Quest Airlock 7A - STS-104 Atlantis 12 July 2001 5.5 4.0 6,064
Docking Compartment - Pirs Airlock 4R Soyuz rocket 14 September 2001 4.1 2.6 3,900
S0 Truss 8A - STS-110 Atlantis 8 April 2002 13.4 4.6 13,971
Mobile Base System for Canadarm2 UF-2 - STS-111 Endeavour 5 June 2002 5.7 2.9 1,450
S1 Truss 9A - STS-112 Atlantis 7 October 2002 13.7 4.6 14,124
P1 Truss 11A - STS-113 Endeavour 24 November 2002 13.7 4.6 14,003
External Stowage Platform (ESP-2) LF 1 - STS-114 Discovery 26 July 2005 4.9 3.65 2,676
P3/P4 Truss - Solar Array 12A - STS-115 Atlantis 9 September 2006 73.2 10.7 15,824
P5 Truss 12A.1 - STS-116 Discovery 10 December 2006 13.7 3.9 12,598

*P6 Truss to be relocated to its final position, the P5 truss mounting position, on STS-120.

,The Element, Flight, and Launch dates need to be updated from actuals flown - several are incorrect.
From a NASA employee - I will try to do it when I have time.

Agreement

File:ISS Agreements hi.jpg
Cover page of the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement signed on January 28, 1998

The legal structure that regulates the space station is multi-layered. The primary layer establishing obligations and rights between the ISS partners is the Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (IGA), an international treaty signed on January 28 1998 by fifteen governments involved in the Space Station project: the ISS consists of the United States, Canada, Japan, the Russian Federation, and eleven Member States of the European Space Agency (Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Italy, The Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the United Kingdom). Article 1 outlines its purpose:

This Agreement is a long term international co-operative framework on the basis of genuine partnership, for the detailed design, development, operation, and utilisation of a permanently inhabited civil Space Station for peaceful purposes, in accordance with international law.[13]

The IGA sets the stage for a second layer of agreements between the partners referred to as 'Memoranda of Understanding' (MOUs), of which four exist between NASA and each of the four other partners. There are no MOUs between ESA, Roskosmos, CSA and JAXA due to the fact that NASA is the designated manager of the ISS. The MOUs are used to describe the roles and responsibilities of the partners in more detail.

A third layer consists of bartered contractual agreements or the trading of the partners' rights and duties, including the 2005 commercial framework agreement between NASA and Roskosmos that sets forth the terms and conditions under which NASA purchases seats on Soyuz crew transporters and cargo capacity on unmanned Progress transporters.

A fourth legal layer of agreements implements and supplements the four MOUs further. Notably among them is the ISS code of conduct, setting out criminal jurisdiction, anti-harassment and certain other behavior rules for ISS crewmembers.[14]

Utilization

The nadir window in the Destiny lab
The Zarya module

There is a fixed percentage of ownership for the whole space station. Rather Article 5 of the IGA sets forth that each partner shall retain jurisdiction and control over the elements it registers and over personnel in or on the Space Station who are its nationals.[13] Therefore, for each ISS module only one partner retains sole ownership. Still, the agreements to use the space station facilities are more complex.

The three planned Russian segments Zvezda, the Multipurpose Laboratory Module and the Russian Research Modules are made and owned by Russia which, as of today, also retains its current and prospective usage (Zarya, although constructed and launched by Russia, has been paid for and is officially owned by NASA). In order to use the Russian parts of the station, the partners use bilateral agreements (third and fourth layer of the above outlined legal structure). The rest of the station, (the U.S., the European and Japanese pressurized modules as well as the truss and solar panel structure and the two robotic arms) has been agreed to be utilized as follows (% refers to time that each structure may be used by each partner):

  1. Columbus: 51% for ESA, 49% for NASA and CSA (CSA has agreed with NASA to use 2.3% of all non-Russian ISS structure)
  2. Kibo: 51% for JAXA, 49% for NASA and CSA (2.3%)
  3. Destiny Lab: 100% for NASA and CSA (2.3%) as well as 100% of the truss payload accommodation
  4. Crew time and power from the solar panel structure, as well as rights to purchase supporting services (upload/download and communication services) 76.6% for NASA, 12.8% for JAXA, 8.3% for ESA and 2.3% for CSA

Costs

The most cited figure of an estimate of overall costs of the ISS is 100 billion (very often cited as USD; ESA, the only agency actually stating potential overall costs on its website, estimates €100 billion[4]). Giving a precise cost estimate for the ISS is, however, not straightforward; it is, for instance, hard to determine which costs should actually be contributed to the ISS program or how the Russian contribution should be measured, as the Russian space agency runs at considerably lower USD costs than the other partners.

NASA

Overview

NASA's budget projections currently see an end to ISS funding in 2017 in order to free funds for the Vision for Space Exploration

The overall majority of costs for NASA are incurred by flight operations and expenses for the overall management of the ISS. Costs for initially building the U.S. portion of the ISS modules and external structure on the ground and construction in space as well as crew and supply flights to the ISS do account for far less than the general operating costs (see annual budget allocation below).

NASA does not include the basic Space Shuttle program costs in the expenses incurred for the ISS program, despite the fact that the Space Shuttle has been nearly exclusively used for ISS construction and supply flights since December 1998.

NASA's 2007 budget request lists costs for the ISS (without Shuttle costs) as $25.6 billion for the years 1994 to 2005.[15] For each of 2005 and 2006 about $1.7 to 1.8 billion are allocated to the ISS program. The annual expenses will increase until 2010 when they will reach $2.3 billion and should then stay at the same level, however inflation-adjusted, until 2016, the defined end of the program. NASA has allocated between $300 and 500 million for program shutdown costs in 2017.

2005 ISS budget allocation

NASA allocates about 125 million US dollars annually to EVAs

The $1.8 billion expensed in 2005 consisted of:[16]

  • Development of new hardware: $70 million were allocated to core development, for instance development of systems like navigation, data support or environmental.
  • Spacecraft Operations: $800 million consisting of $125 million for each of software, extravehicular activity systems, and logistics and maintenance. An additional $150 million is spent on flight, avionics and crew systems. The rest of $250 million goes to overall ISS management.
  • Launch and Mission operations: Although the Shuttle launch costs are not considered part of the ISS budget, mission and mission integration ($300 million), medical support ($25 million) and Shuttle launch site processing ($125 million) is within the ISS budget.
  • Operations Program Integration: $350 million was spent on maintaining and sustaining U.S. flight and ground hardware and software to ensure integrity of the ISS design and the continuous, safe operability.
  • ISS cargo/crew: $140 million was spent for purchase of supplies, cargo and crew capability for Progress and Soyuz flights.

Shuttle costs as part of ISS costs

File:Upgrading Hubble during SM1-2.jpg
The only non-ISS related Shuttle flight between 2006 and 2010 will be a Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission in 2008

Only costs for mission and mission integration and launch site processing for the 33 ISS-related Shuttle flights are included in NASA's ISS program costs. Basic costs of the Shuttle program are, as mentioned above, not considered part of the overall ISS costs by NASA, because the Shuttle program is considered an independent program aside from the ISS. Since December 1998 the Shuttle has however been used nearly exclusively for ISS flights (since the first ISS flight in December 1998 until December 2006 only 5 flights out of 25 flights have not been to the ISS and only the planned Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission (see STS-125) in 2008 will not be ISS-related out of 14 planned missions until the end of the Space Shuttle program in 2010).

Shuttle program costs during ISS operations from 1999 to 2005 (disregarding the first ISS flight in December 1998) have amounted to approximately $24 billion (1999: $3,028.0 million, 2000: $3,011.2 million, 2001: $3,125.7 million, 2002: $3,278.8 million, 2003: $3,252.8 million, 2004: $3,945.0 million, 2005: $4,319.2 million). In order to derive the ISS-related costs, expenses for non-ISS flights need to be subtracted, which amount to 20% of the total or about $5 billion. For the years 2006-2011 NASA projects another $20.5 billion in Space Shuttle program costs (2006: $4,777.5 million, 2007: $4,056.7 million, 2008: $4,087.3 million, 2009: $3,794.8 million, 2010: $3,651.1 million and 2011: $146.7 million). If the Hubble servicing mission is excluded from those costs, ISS-related costs will be approximately $19 billion for Shuttle flights from 2006 until 2011. In total, ISS-related Space Shuttle program costs will therefore be approximately $38 billion.

Overall ISS costs for NASA

Assuming NASA's projections of average costs of $2.5 billion from 2011 to 2016 and the end of spending money on the ISS in 2017 (about $300-500 million) after shutdown in 2016 are correct, the overall ISS project costs for NASA from the announcement of the program in 1993 to its end will be about $53 billion (25.6 billion for the years 1994-2005 and about 27 to 28 billion for the years 2006-2017).

There have also been considerable costs for designing Space Station Freedom in the 1980s and early 1990s, before the ISS program started in 1993. Plans of Space Station Freedom were reused for the International Space Station.

To sum up, although the actual costs NASA views as connected to the ISS are only half of the $100 billion figure often cited in the media, if combined with basic program costs for the Shuttle and the design of the ISS' precursor project Space Station Freedom, the costs reach $100 billion for NASA alone.

ESA

ESA calculates that its contribution over the 30 year lifetime of the project will be €8 billion.[17] The costs for the Columbus Laboratory total more than €1 billion already, costs for ATV development total several hundred million and considering that each Ariane 5 launch costs around €150 million, each ATV launch will incur considerable costs as well. In addition ESA has constructed a ground control station in the South of Germany in order to control the Columbus Laboratory.

JAXA

The development of the Kibo Laboratory, JAXA's main contribution to the ISS, has cost about 325 billion yen (about $2.8 billion)[18] In the year 2005, JAXA allocated about 40 billion yen (about 350 million USD) to the ISS program.[19] The annual running costs for Kibo will total around $350 to 400 million. In addition JAXA has committed itself to develop and launch the HTV-Transporter, for which development costs total nearly $1 billion. In total, over the 24 year lifespan of the ISS program JAXA will contribute well over $10 billion to the ISS program.

Roskosmos

A considerable part of the Russian Space Agency's budget is used for the ISS. Since 1998 there have been over two dozen Soyuz and Progress flights, the primary crew and cargo transporters since 2003. The question, how much Russia spends on the station, measured in USD, is, however, not easy to answer. The two modules currently in orbit are derivatives of the Mir program and therefore development costs are much lower than for other modules; in addition, the exchange rate between ruble and USD is not adequately giving a real comparison to what the costs for Russia really are.

The $20 million each space tourist has paid for an available seat on a Soyuz to the ISS is only offsetting a very small part of Russia's financial contribution to the ISS.

CSA

Canada, whose main contribution to the ISS is the Canadarm2, estimates that through the last 20 years it has contributed about C$1.4 billion to the ISS.[20]

Criticism

The ISS Centrifuge Accommodations Module built by JAXA for NASA, one of the most ambitious science modules, will not be part of the completed ISS

There are many critics of the ISS, especially with regard to the biggest partner, NASA. These critics view the project as a waste of both time and American tax money, inhibiting progress on more useful projects. For instance, critics argue that the widely quoted estimate of US$100 billion lifetime cost could pay for dozens of robotic spacecraft missions, that it could be used for other space exploration, that it could be better spent on problems on Earth, or that it would be better not to spend the taxes.[21][22]

Some critics argue that very little serious scientific research was ever convincingly planned for the ISS.[23] They note that actual research has been trivial even compared to low expectations, although the ISS has been in orbit since 1998 and occupied since 2000. They point out that the scientific merit of experiments conducted on the shuttle and on other space stations have been negligible compared to most other funded science in space or on the ground. Other critics suppose that the ISS could accommodate important research, and believe that the cancellation of ambitious science modules, such as the Centrifuge Accommodations Module, are unwarranted. They say that the planned ISS structure meets few of the scientific objectives of the station proposed in the 1990s.

Two technical aspects of the ISS's design have been heavily criticized:

  1. It requires too much maintenance, and in particular too much maintenance by risky, expensive EVAs;[24]
  2. Its orbit is too highly inclined, meaning American launches need to carry more fuel.[25]

In general, the most economical orbits to reach are equatorial orbits reached from equatorial launch sites, due to the rotation of the Earth.[25] The choice of the ISS's inclination arose from the political realities of the American desire to heavily involve Russia, as the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan is at a high latitude. Russia's involvement, in turn, saved the space station from abandonment after Columbia disintegrated in 2003.

In response to some of these criticisms, advocates of manned space exploration say that criticism of the ISS project is short-sighted, and that manned space research and exploration have produced billions of dollars' worth of tangible benefits to people on Earth. By some estimates, the indirect economic return from spin-offs of human space exploration has been many times the initial public investment.[26] However, critics argue that these estimates assume rather than conclude a good ratio of return on NASA's spending. Another study concluded that the NASA's rate of return from spinoffs is actually very low, except for aeronautics work that has led to aircraft sales.[27]

Critics also say that NASA is often casually credited with "spin-offs" (such as Velcro and portable computers) that were developed independently for other reasons.[28] NASA maintains a list of spinoffs from the construction of the ISS, as well as from work performed on the ISS.[29] However, NASA's official list is much narrower and more arcane than dramatic narratives of billions of dollars of spin offs.

It is therefore debatable whether the ISS, as distinct from the wider space program, will be a major contributor to society. Some advocates argue that apart from its scientific value (or lack thereof), it is an important example of international cooperation.[30] Others claim that the ISS is an asset that, if properly leveraged, could allow more economical manned Lunar and Mars missions.[31] Either way, advocates argue that it misses the point to expect a hard financial return from the ISS; rather, it is intended as part of a general expansion of spaceflight capabilities.

Expeditions

See also: List of International Space Station Expeditions

All permanent station crews are named "Expedition N", where N is sequentially increased after each expedition. Expeditions have an average duration of half a year.

The International Space Station is the most-visited spacecraft in the history of space flight. As of September 11, 2006, it has had 159 (non-distinct) visitors. Mir had 137 (non-distinct) visitors (See Space station). The number of distinct visitors of the ISS is 124 (see list of International Space Station visitors).

Miscellaneous

Yuri Malenchenko was the first person to be married in space

Space tourism and weddings

As of 2007 there have been five space tourists to the ISS, each spending around US$25 million; they all went there aboard Russian supply missions. There has also been a space wedding when cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko on the station married Ekaterina Dmitrieva, who was in Texas.

Golf Shot Around The World was an event in which, on an EVA, a special golf ball, equipped with a tracking device, was hit from the station and sent into its own low Earth orbit for a fee paid by a Canadian golf equipment manufacturer to the Russian Space Agency. The task was supposed to be performed on Expedition 13, but the event was postponed, and took place on Expedition 14.[32][33]

Microgravity

At the ISS altitude, the gravity from the Earth is still 88% of that at sea level. The state of weightlessness is a result of the fact that the ISS is in constant free fall, which according to the equivalence principle is indiscernible from being in a state where all forces, including gravity, are absent. However, due to (1) the drag resulting from the residual atmosphere, (2) vibratory acceleration due to mechanical systems and the crew on board the ISS, (3) orbital corrections by the on-board gyroscopes or thrusters, and (4) the spatial separation from the real centre of mass of the ISS, the environment on the station is often described as microgravity, with a level of gravity on the order of 2 to 1000 millionths of g (the value varies with the frequency of the disturbance; the low value occurs at frequencies below 0.1 Hz, the higher value at frequencies of 100 Hz or more).[34]

In Star Trek: Deep Space Nine, Captain Benjamin Sisko had a model of the International Space Station in his office on Deep Space Nine. The International Space Station also appeared in the opening credits of Star Trek: Enterprise.

In Stargate SG1, the International Space Station's orbit had to be shifted to avoid a collision with debris from a Goa'uld mothership destroyed in Earth's orbit during Anubis's attack at the end of season Seven, much to the irritation of the then Russian crew who thought if the United States made the mess, they should get around to cleaning it up.

The International Space Station played a minor role in the 2004 movie, The Day After Tomorrow.

In CBS's CSI show NUMB3RS, the character Larry Fleinhardt leaves on a 6-month trip to the ISS.

In the novel World War Z by Max Brooks the ISS plays a role in keeping the satellites around the Earth in working order. The ex-crew member telling his account of the war talks about what the crew saw and witnessed far above the earth.

In the Playstation2 videogame .hack//G.U. The ISS is referred to as "nearing completion" in a news clip found on the world news message board within the game. This is due to the storyline of the game occurring sometime in 2010.

In the movie Mission to Mars, there is an ISS look-alike called the World Space Station, which additionally features a large ring-shaped component with artificial gravity.

See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to International Space Station.

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Other

References

  1. ^ "International Space Station Status Report #06-7". NASA. 2006-02-17. Retrieved 2006-05-16.
  2. ^ 10 of its member states are currently participating; Austria, Finland, Ireland, Portugal, and the United Kingdom chose not to participate; Greece and Luxembourg joined ESA later."ESA - Human Spaceflight and Exploration - European Participating States". ESA. Retrieved 2005-07-03.
  3. ^ GAO (1994). "Space Station: Impact of the Expanded Russian Role on Funding and Research" (PDF). GAO. Retrieved 2006-11-03. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ a b "How Much Does It Cost?". International Space Station. European Space Agency. 9 August 2005. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  5. ^ flightglobal.com "NASA commits to Shuttle missions to International Space Station". International Space Station. FlightGlobal. 3 March 2006. {{cite web}}: Check |url= value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  6. ^ "What are the ISS attitudes?" (Flash). NASA. Retrieved 2006-09-11.
  7. ^ a b "NASA - Consolidated Launch Manifest". NASA. Retrieved 2006-07-15.
  8. ^ "Boeing: Integrated Defense Systems - NASA Systems - International Space Station - Solar Power". Boeing. Retrieved 2006-06-05.
  9. ^ Breathing Easy on the Space Station science.nasa.gov, 13 November 2000. Retrieved 3 January 2007.
  10. ^ http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/sts120/index.html
  11. ^ The Columbus module will be flown to the ISS by Shuttle in return for ESA manufacturing both Harmony and Node 3 for NASA.
  12. ^ With the cancellation of the Habitations Module, sleeping places are now spread throughout the station. There will be three in the Russian segment once the ISS is completed and three in the US segment. It is however not necessary to have a separate 'bunk' in space at all, many visitors just strap their sleeping bag to the wall of a module, get into it and sleep.
  13. ^ Farand, Andre. "Astronauts' behaviour onboard the International Space Station: regulatory framework" (pdf). International Space Station. UNESCO. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  14. ^ "NASA 2007 Budget and 2006 Strategic Plan". International Space Station. NASA. 2006. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  15. ^ "International Space Station Major Events FY 2005" (PDF). International Space Station. NASA. 2005. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
  16. ^ ESA: ISS Human Spaceflight and Exploration
  17. ^ Etranger World: Major Changes for Japan's space sector
  18. ^ Space News: Japan Seeking 13 Percent Budget Hike for Space Activities
  19. ^ "International Space Station facts and figures". Retrieved 2007-01-28.
  20. ^ "A waste of space". Mail & Guardian. Retrieved 2007-01-28.
  21. ^ "A "Station" in Space and NASA's Deceptions on Earth". Retrieved 2007-01-28.
  22. ^ Park, Bob. "SPACE STATION: MAYBE THEY COULD USE IT TO TEST MISSILE DEFENSE". Retrieved 2007-01-28.
  23. ^ The trouble with space stations Jeff Foust, The Space Review, 12 September 2005. Retrieved 10 September 2006.
  24. ^ a b Up, Up, and Away www.astrosociety.org. Retrieved 10 September 2006.
  25. ^ Jerome Schnee. "The Economic Impacts of the U.S. Space Program". Retrieved 2007-01-28. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |month= and |coauthors= (help)
  26. ^ NASA Technological Spinoff Fables www.fas.org. Retrieved 17 September 2006.
  27. ^ Park, Robert. "The Virtual Astronaut". The New Atlantis. Retrieved 2007-01-28. {{cite news}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  28. ^ NASA Center for AeroSpace Information (CASI). "International Space Station Spinoffs" (HTML). NASA. Retrieved 2006-09-14. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  29. ^ International Space Station: Human Residency Third Anniversary Space Today Online, 2003. Retrieved 17 September 2006.
  30. ^ Interview with Niolai Sevostianov, President, RSC Energia: The mission to Mars is to be international MarsToday.com, 2005-12-11. Retrieved 2007-01-16.
  31. ^ http://www.e21golf.com/
  32. ^ http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewnews.html?id=1093
  33. ^ "European Users Guide to Low Gravity Platforms" (PDF). European Space Agency. Retrieved 2006-05-16.
Official ISS pages at the participating space agencies' websites
Other ISS links

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