History of Denmark

Ancient Denmark

People lived in what is today Denmark more than 100,000 years ago, but they were likely forced to leave for a time because of the ice cap that covered the land for some of the intervening time during the ice age. It is thought that people have lived continually in Denmark since around 12,000 BC. Agriculture made inroads around 3000 BC, dramatically changing life in the area.

Vikings

People who became known as Vikings inhabited much of Denmark for the several centuries from the 8th to the 11th AD. They had a more complicated social structure than most previous societies to inhabit the areas and became famous for the raiding and trading throughout the rest of Europe.

During the Viking period, Denmark was a great power based on the Jutland Peninsula, the Island of Zealand, and the southern part of what is now Sweden. In the early 11th century, King Canute united Denmark and England for almost 30 years.

Christianity and the Establishment of Denmark

Various petty kingdoms existed throughout the area now known as Denmark for many years. It is thought that around 980, Harold Bluetooth established a unified kingdom of Denmark. Around the same time, he was visited by a German missionary who, according to legend, survived the ordeal by fire, convincing Harold to convert to Christianity. The new religion, replacing the old Norse mythology, had many advantages for the king. Christianity brought with it some support from the Holy Roman Empire. It also allowed the king to dismiss many of his opponents who were adherents to the old mythology. The church would bring a stable administration to his lands that he could hopefully use to exercise some control over them.

The details of mediaeval politics in Denmark are hopelessly complex, but some attempt will be made to outline some general trends here. After the death of Canute the Great in 1035, England broke away from Danish control and Denmark fell into disarray for some time. Vikings from Norway raided Denmark sporadically. Canute’s nephew Sweyn Estridson (1020-1074) re-established strong royal authority and built a good relationship with the Archbishop of Bremen, who was at that time the Archbishop of all of Scandinavia.

In the early 12th century Denmark became the seat of an independent church province of Scandinavia. Not long after that Sweden and Norway formed their own archbishoprics free of Danish control. The mid 12th century was a difficult time for the kingdom of Denmark. Civil wars rocked the land and created much strife. Eventually, Valdemar the Great (1131-82), gained control of the kingdom, stabilizing it and reorganizing the administration. He and Bishop Absalon rebuilt the country. During Valdemar’s reign a castle was built in the village of Havn, leading eventually to the foundation of Copenhagen, modern capital of Denmark. They built Denmark into a major power in the Baltic Sea. They competed with the Hanseatic League, the Holstein Counts, and the Teutonic Knights for trade, territory, and influence throughout the Baltic. Valdemar and his successors launched various ‘crusades’ to claim terriories, notably modern Estonia. Legend has it that the Danish flag, the Dannebrog fell from the sky during a battle in Estonia in 1219.

The middle ages saw a period of close cooperation between the crown and the church. Thousands of churches were built throughout the country during that time. The economy expanded during the 12th century, based mostly on the lucrative Herring trade, but the 13th century was a period of difficulty and the temporary collapse of royal authority.

Difficulties for the Kings

The kings of Denmark had difficulty maintaining their control of the kingdom in the face of opposition from the nobility and church. There was an extended period of strained relations between the crown and the Popes Rome known as the 'archiepiscopal conflicts.' By the late 13th century, royal power had waned, and the nobility forced the king to grant a charter, considered Denmark's first constitution. A weakened Denmark was a great benefit to both the Hanseatic League and the Holstein Counts. The Holstein Counts began to control large portions of Denmark because the kings would give them fiefs in exchange for money to finance their operations. Consequently, by the 1320s the King was largely bound by the wishes of these counts who owned most of Denmark.

The kingdom continued to fall apart, Skåne passing for a while to the King of Sweden. In 1340 the throne fell to Valdemar Atterdag or "New Day." He was a skilled politician and was able to reunite the old kingdom of Denmark by using the counts against each other. The Black Death which came to Denmark during these years also helped his campaign. He continued to try expanding the kingdom after 1360 which brought him into open conflict with the Hanseatic League. He conquered Gotland much to the displeasure of the League since Visby, an important trading town was located there. Their alliance with Sweden to atack Denmark was initially a fiasco since Danish forces captured a large Hanseatic fleet, ransoming them for an enormous sum. Luckily for the League the Jutland Nobles revolted against the heavy taxes required to fight an expansionistic war in the Baltic; the two forces worked against the king, forcing him into exile in 1370. For several year the Hanseatic League controlled the fortresses on "the sound" between Sweden and Denmark.

Margaret and the Kalmar Union

Main Article: Kalmar Union

Margaret I was the daughter of Valdemar Atterdag. She was married to Håkon VI of Norway in an attempt to join the two kingdoms and perhaps bring in Sweden since Håkon was related to the Swedish royal family. Originally her son, Olaf III was intended to rule the three kingdoms, but due to his early death she took on the role. During her life the three kingdoms including the Faroe Islands, Iceland, Greenland) and present-day Finland), were unified under her capable rule, in what was called the Kalmar Union, made official in 1397.

Her successor, Eric of Pomerania, was wildly incompetent, and was directly responsible for the break up of the Kalmar Union. However, there was still some enthusiasm for the idea, so when Christopher of Bavaria, a distant relative came to the throne, he managed to be elected in all three kingdoms, briefly reuniting Scandinavia. The Swedish nobility grew increasingly unhappy with Danish rule and the union soon became a legal concept with little practical application. In the early 16th century, Christian II came to power. He is quoted as saying, "If the hat on my head knew what I was thinking, I would pull it off and throw it away." This is apparently in reference to his devious, machiavellian political dealings. He had conquered Sweden in an attempt to reinforce the union, and had about 100 leaders of the Swedish anti-unionist forces killed in what came to be known as the Stockholm Bloodbath. The bloodbath destroyed any lingering hope of Scandinavian union.

Reformation

The Reformation, originating in Germany from the ideas of Martin Luther had a strong impact on Denmark; today the national Church of Denmark is Lutheran. The Reformation was introduced in Denmark in 1536. As elsewhere in Europe the spread of protestantism was made possible by the enthusiasm of the government for the idea, mostly because of the increased independence this granted from Rome. There was widespread dissatisfaction with the church and in the early 1530s the people were incited to attack cloisters and churches. When Frederik I died in 1533, a council of Bishops took control of the country and refused to allow the election of Christian III whom they feared would welcome Lutheranism. Armed opposition from nobles and the mayor of Lubeck forced them to accept Christian as king, and sure enough, church lands were soon confiscated (to pay for the armies that had enforced his election) and priests were forced to convert their alliegiance to Lutheranism. Quickly Denmark became a part of the heartland of Lutheranism.

Nationalism

Denmark's provinces in today's southwestern Sweden were lost in 1658, and Norway was transferred from the Danish to the Swedish crown in 1814, following the defeat of Napoleon, with whom Denmark was allied.

The Danish liberal and national movement gained momentum in the 1830s, and after the European revolutions of 1848 Denmark became a constitutional monarchy in 1849.

The Danish king's realm did still consist of four parts: The islands and Jutland, together consisting the kingdom, and then the duchies Schleswig and Holstein, in personal union with the kingdom. Since the early 18th century, and even more so from the early 19th century, the Danes had got used to view the duchies and the kingdom as developing towards becoming one state. This was however not the view of the German majority in the duchies, who also had been enthusiasmed by the liberal and national movements, although as German nationals they aimed at separation from the Danes. The First War of Schleswig was ignited by the constitutional change of 1849, and ended with status quo only thanks to the intervention by England and other Great Powers. After the Second War of Schleswig with Prussia and Austria in 1864, Denmark was forced to cede Schleswig-Holstein to Prussia and adopt a policy of neutrality.

20th century stability

Toward the end of the 19th century, Denmark inaugurated important social and labor market reforms, laying the basis for the present welfare state.

Denmark remained neutral during World War I. Despite its declaration of neutrality at the beginning of World War II, it was invaded by the Germans (Operation Weserübung) April 9 1940 and occupied until it was liberated by the Allied forces May 5 1945. Denmark became a charter member of the United Nations and was one of the original signers of the North Atlantic Treaty.

See also: List of Danish monarchs