Maritime history

Maritime history is a broad thematic element of global history. As an academic subject, it crosses the boundaries of standard disciplines, focusing on understanding mankind's various relationships to the oceans, seas, and major waterways of the globe. Nautical history records and interprets past events involving ships, shipping, navigation, and seamen.

Maritime history is the broad overarching subject that includes fishing, whaling, international maritime law, naval history, the history of ships, ship design, shipbuilding, the history of navigation, the history of the various maritime-related sciences (oceanography, cartography, hydrography, etc.), sea exploration, maritime economics and trade, shipping, yachting, seaside resorts, the history of lighthouses and aids to navigation, maritime themes in literature, maritime themes in art, the social history of sailors and sea-related communities.

History

Ancient times

Native Americans making a dugout canoe, a practive which they had done for centuries.

The first boats it is presumed were dugout canoes, developed independently by various stone age populations, and used for coastal fishing and travel. The earliest seaworthy boats may have been developed as early as 45,000 years ago, according to one hypothesis explaining the habitation of Australia. In the history of whaling, humans begain whaling in pre-historic times. The oldest known method of catching whales is to simply drive them ashore by placing a number of small boats between the whale and the open sea and attempting to frighten them with noise, activity, and perhaps small, non-lethal weapons such as arrows. Typically, this was used for small species, such as Pilot Whales, Belugas and Narwhals.

The earliest known reference to an organization devoted to ships in ancient India is to the Mauryan Empire from the 4th century BC. The word navigation is derived from the sanskrit word "Navgath" also. It is believed that the navigation as a science originated on the river Indus some 5000 years ago. Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact refers to interactions between the indigenous peoples of the Americas and peoples of other continents – Europe, Africa, Asia, or Oceania – before the arrival of Christopher Columbus in 1492. Many such events have been proposed at various times, based on historical reports, archaeological finds, and cultural comparisons.

In the Indian maritime history, the world's first tidal dock was built in Lothal around 2500 BC during the Harappan civilisation at Lothal near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast. Other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade. Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia, where the Indus Valley was known as Meluhha.

Emperor Chandragupta Maurya's Prime Minister Kautilya's Arthashastra devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under navadhyaksha (Sanskrit for Superintendent of ships) ^[1]. The term, nava dvipantaragamanam (Sanskrit for sailing to other lands by ships) appears in this book in addition to appearing in the Buddhist text, Baudhayana Dharmasastra as the interpretation of the term, Samudrasamyanam. The Mediterranean was the source of the vessel, galley, developed before 1000BC, and development of nautical technology supported the expansion of Mediterranean culture. The Greek trireme was the most common ship of the ancient Mediterranean world, employing the steering power of oarsmen. Mediterranean peoples developed lighthouse technology and built large fire-based lighthouses, most notably the Lighthouse of Alexandria, built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC) on the island of Pharos in Alexandria, Egypt.

File:FirstKnownRudder.jpg

The world's oldest depiction of a rudder. Pottery model of a junk, 1st Century of the Common Era. Guangzhou National Museum (drawing).

In ancient China, during the Warring States (481–221 BC), large rectangular-based barge-like ships with layered decks acted as floating fortresses on wide rivers and lakes. During the Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD), a ship with a stern-post steering rudder along with masts and sails was innovated, known as the junk in Western terminology. By the 5th century, the Chinese were sailing into the Indian Ocean, beginning with the travels of Faxian. Japan had become a naval power by at least the 6th century, with their invasions and involvement in political alliances during the Three Kingdoms of Korea.

Age of Navigation

In ancient India and Arabia the lateen-sail ship known as the dhow was used on the waters of the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, and Persian Gulf. There were also Southeast Asian Seafarers and Polynesians, and the Northern European Vikings, developed oceangoing vessels and depended heavily upon them for travel and population movements prior to 1000 AD. China's ships in the medieval period were particularly massive; multi-mast sailing junks were carrying over 200 people as early as 200 AD.

The Astrolabe was the chief tool of Celestial navigation in early maritime history. It was invented in ancient Greece and developed and by Islamic astronomers. In ancient China, the engineer Ma Jun (c. 200-265 AD) invented the South Pointing Chariot, a wheeled device employing a differential gear that allowed a fixed figurine to always point in the southern cardinal direction.

A Han Dynasty (202 BC–220 AD) ladle-and-basin lodestone south-pointing compass, used by ancient Chinese geomancers, but not for navigation.

The magnetic needle compass for navigation was not written of until the Dream Pool Essays of 1088 AD. It was written by the author, scientist, and statesmen Shen Kuo (1031-1095) of the Song Dynasty, who was also the first to discover the concept of true north (to discern against a compass' magnetic declination towards the North Pole). By at least 1117 AD, the Chinese used a magnetic needle that was submersed in a bowl of water, and would point in the southern cardinal direction.

The first use of a magnetized needle for seafaring navigation in Europe was written of by Alexander Neckham, circa 1190 AD. Around 1300 AD, the pivot-needle dry-box compass was discovered in Europe, its cardinal direction pointed north, similar to the modern-day mariners compass. There was also the addition of the compass-card in Europe, which was later adopted by the Chinese through contact with Japanese pirates in the 16th century.

Age of Exploration

Main article: Age of Exploration

The maritime history of Europe is a term used to describe significant past events relating to the northwestern region of Eurasia in areas concerning shipping and shipbuilding, shipwrecks, naval battles, and military installations and lighthouses constructed to protect or aid navigation and the development of Europe. Although Europe is the world's second-smallest continent in terms of area, is has a very long coastline, and has arguably been influenced more by its maritime history than any other continent.

Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable seas and intersected by navigable rivers running into them in a way which greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce. Great battles have been fought in the seas off of Europe that changed the course of history forever, including the Battle of Salamis in the Mediterranean, the Battle of Gravelines at the eastern end of the English Channel in the summer of 1588, in which the “Invincible” Spanish Armada was defeated, the Battle of Jutland in World War I, and World War II’s U-boat war.

The Age of Discovery was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. They also were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans encountered peoples and mapped lands previously unknown to them. Among the most famous explorers of the period were Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, Pedro Álvares Cabral, John Cabot, Yermak, Juan Ponce de León, Francisco Coronado, Juan Sebastián Elcano, Bartolomeu Dias, Ferdinand Magellan, Willem Barentsz, Abel Tasman, Jean Alfonse, Jacques Cartier, Samuel de Champlain, Willem Jansz, Captain James Cook, Henry Hudson, and Giovanni da Verrazzano.

Age of Sail

Main article: age of sail

The age of sail, technically and formally speaking, is the period in which international trade and naval warfare were both dominated by sailing ships. The age of sail mostly coincided with the age of discovery, from the 15th to the 18th century. This is a significant period during which square rigged sailing ships carried European settlers to many parts of the world in one of the most important human migrations in recorded history. This period was marked by extensive exploration and colonization efforts on the part of European kingdoms. The Sextant, developed in the 1700s, made more accurate charting of nautical position possible.

Like most periodic eras the definition is inexact and close enough to serve as a general description. The age of sail runs roughly from the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the last significant engagement in which oar-propelled galleys played a major role, to the Battle of Hampton Roads in 1862, in which the steam-powered CSS Virginia destroyed the sailing ships USS Cumberland and USS Congress, finally culminating with the advance of steam power, rendering sail power obsolete.

The maritime history of the United States begins proper with the first successful English colony established in 1607, on the James River at Jamestown. It languished for decades until a new wave of settlers arrived in the late 17th century and set up commercial agriculture based on tobacco. The connection between the American colonies and Europe, with shipping as its cornerstone, would continue to grow unhindered for almost two hundred years.

Age of Steam

Main article: steamship

Steam technology was first applied to boats in the 1770's. With the advent of economical steam engines, efficient external combustion heat engines that makes use of the heat energy that exists in steam and converting it to mechanical work, the prime mover was steam for ships. The technology only became relevant to trans-oceanic travel after 1815, the year Pierre Andriel crossed the English Channel aboard the steam ship Élise.

A steamboat, sometimes called a steamer, became the primary method of propulsion is the age of steam power, typically driving a propeller or paddlewheel. Small and large steamboats and riverboats worked on lakes and rivers. Steamships wgradually replaced sailing ships for commercial shipping through the 19th century. From 1815 on, steamships increased significantly in speed and size. Trans-oceanic travel was a particularly important application, with steam powered Ocean liners replacing sailing ships, then culminating in the massive Superliners which included the RMS Titanic. Most warships used steam propulsion until the advent of the gas turbine. Steamships were superseded by diesel-driven ships in the second half of the twentieth century.

Modern era

In the 1900s, the internal combustion engine and gas turbine came to replace the steam engine in most ship applications. A few ships, notably aircraft carriers, nuclear submarines, and Nuclear powered icebreakers make use of Nuclear marine propulsion. Sonar and radio augmented existing navigational technology. An outgrowth of Morse code-based radio transmissions is the modern Global Maritime Distress Safety System.

See also

General

History of submarines, Piracy, Category:Maritime historians

Naval

Carronades, HMS Ambuscade, Gunship, Gun frigate, Frigates, Le Vengeur, Tack (sailing), Minerve

People

Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe

Saints

Benno, Saint Christopher, Nicholas of Myra, Nicholas of Tolentino, Our Lady of Salambao, Peter the Apostle, Zeno of Verona

Further reading

Listed by date

• Shiflett, T. D. (2005). America's Line of Battle: Its Construction & History. Tiger Lily Publications LLC. ISBN 0977607216
• Callo, J. F. (2004). Who's Who in Naval History. ISBN 0415308283
• Harrisse, H. (1980). John Cabot, the discoverer of North America and Sebastian, his son a chapter of the maritime history of England under the Tudors, 1496-1557. London: Stevens.
• Scharf, J. T. (1977). History of the Confederate States navy from its organization to the surrender of its last vessel : Its stupendous struggle with the great navy of the United States; the engagements fought in the rivers and harbors of the South, and upon the high seas; blockade-running, first use of iron-clads and torpedoes, and privateer history. [New York]: Fairfax Press.
• Mahan, A. T. (1969). Types of naval officers drawn from the history of the British Navy; with some account of the conditions of naval warfare at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and of its subsequent development during the sail period. Freeport, N.Y.: Books for Libraries Press.
• Corbett, S. J. S. (1965). Drake and the Tudor navy, with a history of the rise of England as a maritime power. New York: B. Franklin.
• Morison, S. E. (1961). The maritime history of Massachusetts, 1783-1860. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
• Stevens, W. O., & Westcott, A. F. (1942). A history of sea power. New York: Doubleday, Doran & Company, inc.
• Clark, G. R., Stevens, W. O., Alden, C. S., & Krafft, H. F. (1927). A short history of the United States navy. Philadelphia &: J.B. Lippincott company.
• Davenport, C. B., & Scudder, M. T. (1919). Naval officers, their heredity and development. Washington: Carnegie Institution of Washington.
• Law, F. H. (1918). Robert Southey's life of Nelson. New York: Macmillan.
• Stevens, W. O. (1916). The boy's book of famous warships. New York: R.M. McBride & Co.
• Allen, G. W. (1913). A naval history of the American Revolution.
• Hill, F. S. (1905). Twenty-six historic ships. Putnam.
• Burgoyne, A. H. (1903). Submarine navigation past and present. London: G. Richards.
• Hollis, I. N. (1900). The frigate Constitution; the central figure of the Navy under sail. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin and Co.
• Wilson, H. W. (1900). The downfall of Spain; naval history of the Sapnish-American war. London: Low, Marston and Co.
• Colomb, P. H. (1899). Naval warfare, its ruling principles and practice historically treated. London: W.H. Allen and Co.
• Maclay, E. S. (1899). A history of American privateers. New York: D. Appleton and Co.
• Rawson, E. K. (1899). Twenty famous naval battles; Salamis to Santiago. New York: T.Y. Crowell & Co.
• Mahan, A. T. (1898). The influence of seapower upon the French revolution and empire, 1793-1812. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
• Abbot, W. J. (1896). The naval history of the United States. New York: P.F. Collier.
• James, B., Laughton, J. K., & Sulivan, J. Y. F. (1896). Journal of Rear-Admiral Bartholomew James, 1752-1828. [London]: Printed for the Navy Records Society.
• Wilson, H. W. (1896). Ironclads in action; a sketch of naval warfare from 1855 to 1895. London: S. Low, Marston and Co.
• Toogood, C. G., Brassey, T. A., & James, W. (1895). Index to James' Naval history, edition 1886. [London]: Printed for the Navy Records Society.
• Shippen, E. (1883). Naval battles, ancient and modern. Philadelphia [etc.]: J.C. McCurdy & co.
• Hale, E. E. (1880). Stories of the sea told by sailors. Boston: Roberts Brothers.
• Finlay, G., & Tozer, H. F. (1877). A history of Greece, from its conquest by the Romans to the present time, B.C. 146 to A.D. 1864. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
• Norie, J. W. (1842). The naval gazetteer, biographer and chronologist; containing a history of the late wars from 1793 to 1801; and from 1803 to 1815, and continued, as to the biographical part to the present time. London: C. Wilson.
• Brenton, E. P. (1837). The naval history of Great Britain, from the year MDCCLXXXIII. to MDCCCXXXVI.. London: H. Colburn.
• Campbell, J. (1841). Lives of the British admirals, and naval history of Great Britain.
• * Cooper, J. F. (1839). The history of the Navy of the United States of America. Philadelphia: Lea & Blanchard.
• James, W., & Chamier, F. (1837). The naval history of Great Britain: from the declaration of war by France in 1793 to the accession of George IV. London: R. Bentley.
• Schomberg, I. (1802). Naval chronolgy; or, an historical summary of naval & maritime events.
• Hervey, F. (1779). The naval history of Great Britain; from the earliest times to the rising of the Parliament in 1779. Describing, particularly, the glorious atchievements in the last war. Also the lives and actions of illustrious commanders and navigators. London: Printed by W. Adlard, for J. Bew.

External links

Scholarly organisations for the study of maritime history

• International Commission for Maritime History
• Society for Nautical Research
• Canadian Society for Nautical Research
• North American Society for Oceanic History
• Sociéte française d'histoire maritime
• Nederlandse Vereniging voor Zeegeschiedenis
• The Australian Association for Maritime History

Other

• The Institute of Maritime History , a non-profit institute focused on research, preservation and education in maritime history.
• The Sketchbooks of Antoine Roux , Peabody Essex Museum’s interactive feature, showcases sketches and watercolor paintings which depict the maritime culture of Marseille France during the 19th century.
• Maritime Heritage Network, a non-profit collaboration among organizations focused on the maritime history of Puget Sound and the Pacific Northwest.
• The Sextant, an online community of maritime history and nautical archaeology.