Roman army

The Roman army is the set of land-based military forces employed by the Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and later Roman Empire as part of the Roman military. For its main infantry constituent for much of its history, see Roman legion. For its naval counterpart, see Roman Navy.

Army size and statistics

It is estimated by Edward Gibbon that at the height of the Principate the maximum size of the Roman army was around 376,500 troops. However, Antonio Santosuosso argues that if one includes all the allied Foederati troops fighting on behalf of and in the name of the Roman Empire, then the size of the army in the late Roman Empire was closer to 650,000 - 700,000 men. The Roman Army was arguably the best organized fighting force that the world had ever seen. It was very well organized hierarchically. The main Roman soldier in the Empire was the Legionary; of course, there were other soldiers in the army known as the Auxilia. Auxilia were non-citizens recruited mostly from the provinces. They were paid less than legionaries but at the end of their service they were granted Roman citizenship. The smallest group of legionaries was a "contubernium", this was a group of 8 soldiers that shared a tent and ate together. There were 10 contubernia in a "century". A century was the next largest group of soldiers. A century was group of originally 100 men in the Early Roman Republic but later reduced to 80 men during the Roman Empire. Next were "Cohorts" this was made up of 6 centuries (480 men). A prima cohors was the first cohort in a legion, it was much larger than the other cohorts containing 10 centuries (800 men). Finally, the largest group in the Roman Army was the Legion.There were nine cohorts including the "Prima Cohors" in a Legion. A full-strength legion contained approximatly 6000 men though it was not uncommon for most legions to be under strength

Tactics

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The Romans generally followed the same basic methods in battle, although adjustments were made depending on the enemy, terrain, etc.

The Roman legion was typically deployed in three lines, called the triplex acies. The Maniples (a group of 2 centuries or about 200 men) and later, cohorts, (a group of 3 maniples or 6 centuries) were deployed in a chequerboard fashion, with each line covering the gaps in the line before it.

The legion would advance toward the enemy (early republican legions would try and make as much noise as possible, while later Republican armies would advance silently), the gaps between the maniples or cohorts allowing skirmishers to retreat through the Roman lines. It is important to note that all ancient armies had gaps in their formation, however, the Roman gaps were typically much larger. About 15 meters away from the enemy, the legionaries would halt, throw their pila, and charge with a sudden scream. The combination physical assault of the pila, and the psychological shock of the screaming advance was often enough to rout the opposing force.

Although some historians believe that the first line of hastati would form a solid line by filing their rear lines into the gap between the maniples or cohorts before charging, this belief has some obvious flaws:

1-To spend any more time than was necessary to throw their pila halted in front of the enemy would likely elicit a countercharge.

2-While reforming the legionaries would be disordered, and if countercharged would likely be routed or mowed down as they would be unable to provide a cohesive defense.

However, the theory that the cohorts or maniples retained the gaps even while charging and fighting has some obvious advantages:

1-The gaps would allow the roman commander to add his reserves effectively to any part of the battle instead of committing them all at once or having to file them through the units in front to reach the fighting. (The triarii were almost never used unless the deciding point in a battle had been reached, to the point where the saying, "Going to the Triarii," came to mean a decision made in a desperate situation.)

2-The contention that the opposing army would flow around the maniples and rout each one of them is also invalid because of the fact that the opposing army would also try to maintain its formation. If an army that had a less defined formation like the Gauls did manage to sweep around and attack the first line maniples or cohorts from the sides, the second line would immediately counter-attack, sweeping the disordered enemy at least as far back as the frontline with the surge of fresh troops.

3-Since an army that deployed in a single line was bound to have more staying power in a battle than a less numerous line of hastati, the Romans relied on the knowledge that the enemy troops would tire at the same rate as the hastati, due to psychological if not physical stress, and that the hastati would hold until that critical moment when the principes would attack through the gaps in the first line and hopefully rout the enemy. If the enemy stood its ground, then the process would be repeated with the Triarii as the critical support. This strategy worked because the Triplex Acies allowed the Romans to stategically place and use supporting units so that there were always fresh reserves available to a general to use against the enemy's tired troops.

In an early Republican legion, the first line was made up of the youngest men called Hastati, singular Hastatus. The second line was comprised of more experienced and older troops, called Principes, singular Pricipis. the last line was comprised of the most experienced and oldest troops, called Triarii, singular Triarius. By the late Republican period, however, the Roman army was uniformly comprised of swordsmen, armed like the earlier Principes. It was still typically deployed in the Triplex Acies with the more experienced troops to the rear. As the Roman Army became more professional, it also became more efficient, and by the time of Gaius Marius, the most experienced legionaires were sometimes put in the front line to lead the charge. When Gaius Marius replaced the five previous legionary standards (Boar, Wolf, Horse, Eagle and Minotaur) with a single silver Eagle, the best troops were gathered into a "first" cohort bearing the silver Eagle. The "first" cohort was always the rightmost cohort in the first line, the most honorable position.

Defensive Tactics

Testudo/Tortoise The most common form of defense Roman generals would use was a Testudo or a Tortoise formation. The Romans called this formation a 'Tortoise' of shields because the soldiers would group together to make a semicircle which looked like a tortoise shell. Romans also used the 'Tortoise' when approaching fortified structures. Soldiers would form a rectangle; their shields fit perfectly with one another. A soldier's head and body was protected by rows of shields. In this case the formation was called a Testudo. The Testudo was more mobile than the Tortoise, although both made the soldiers move at very low speeds. Both forms protected the soldiers from enemy arrows.

Cavalry Defense For defense against cavalry, the first rank of each of the front cohorts would make a solid wall of shields, then would level their pila, forming a wall. The second rank would stab over the top of the first rank's heads and/or throw missiles. The men would then brace for impact and rotate to have their shields face the cavalry.

The Orbis The Orbis was the last option a Roman general would take, if the situation looked dire (e.g. surrounded and heavily outnumbered). The formation is literally an orb or circle of men. As was said before this was the last possible option, but it did create several advantages: there was no front or rear, just a solid wall of shields and weapons with the officers and archers in the center giving support where most needed. The Orbis required strict organization and highly disciplined legionaries in order to hold until the last man fell.

Attacking Tactics

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Wedge The wedge was a tactical formation favored by many Roman generals. The formation took the appearance of a row of saw teeth facing the enemy, which would enable the Roman legion to separate the opposing force and break the enemy's formation. Every "tooth" would have 1 soldier in the first rank, 2 in the second, etc. Generally 10-12 ranks made an individual unit of the wedge formation. This also made the most of the customary weapon of the Roman soldiers, the gladius or spatha which were generally around 56-66 cm long, as it would force close combat where it would be difficult to wield larger weapons.

Charge As the name suggests this tactic consisted of running as fast as possible to the enemy, without throwing pilas and then engaging with the enemy. Julius Caesar used this tactic against Pompey. Pompey simply thought that if his soldiers did not counter-charge, the Roman troops would be out of breath when they reached the enemy front line and unable to use their combat experience to its fullest. To counter this possibility Caesar made his troops stop in mid-charge to catch their breath and re-form. The soldiers would then resume the charge and battle the enemy with their full abilities.

Weapons and Equipment

In an early to mid-Republican era legion legionarries ussually bought thier own gear. Hastati, the first line, usually had breastplates and occasionaly wore lorica hamata, or chainmail.The wealthier principes could afford lorica hamata but they were sometimes seen wearing the cheaper cuiriasses.Both hastati and principes were armed with gladii, short 60cm swords, and had two pila (javelins). The Triariis' primary weapon was the hasta, a 2m long spear. They were also armed with the gladius and had an early form of the lorica segmenta. All legionaries had large rectangular shield (scutum) which had rounded corners By the late Republican period, all legionaries carried a gladius, two pila, a new, larger version of the scutum, and wore segmented armour.

Roman Soldier's Main Armor

A set of Roman armor would include one of a variety of body armor types (usually designed to be flexible but strong; a centurion's body armor differs from that of the legionary), a shield (with a special design/decoration for each legion), leggings or greaves, an apron (for decoration and protecting the groin, mostly made of metal), marching sandals (with studs on the sole), a coarse woolen tunic, a belt (showing a soldier's position/rank in the army), and lastly a helmet (with cheek, ear and neck protection). A helmet may also hold a crest.

Personal Armor

The lorica segmentata was a type of armor primarily used in the Roman Empire. The armor itself consist of broad ferrous (iron or steel) strips ('girth hoops') fastened to internal leather straps.
The lorica hamata is a type of chainmail armor used during the Roman Republic as a standard-issue armor for the secondary troops (Auxilia).
The lorica squamata is a type of scale armor used during the Republic and at later periods.
Scutum, (Latin for shield), although it has in modern times come to be associated with the standard squarish, semi-cylindrical type carried by Roman legionaries during the Principate. Republican Era Scuta were an oval shape, and in the late fourth century the roman army began to exchange their squarish scuta for oval or large circular shields.
The cingulum was a military belt worn at all times, even without the rest of the armor.

Personal Weapons

The Pugio, a small dagger.
The Gladius, the short sword, 60 cm (24 inches) long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC until the late Roman Empire.
The Hasta a spear used by Hastati in the times of the early empire.
The Pilum (plural pila), a specialized javelin that would break after being thrown to prevent enemies from re-using it.

Additionally, in the army of the late empire, the gladius was often substituted by a spatha (longsword), up to 1m long, the rectangular scutum was dropped in favour of an oval shield, the earlier pilum had evolved into a differently shaped javelin - lighter and with a greater range - and new weapon types such as thrown darts (plumbatae) were introduced. (Santosuosso, A., Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire, Westview, 2001, p. 190)

Artillery weapons

Ranks

High level ranks

Legatus Legionis/Primus Pilus: The overall Legionary commander. This post was generally appointed by the emperor, was a former Tribune and held command for 3 or 4 years, although could serve for a much longer period. In a province with only one legion, the Legatus was also the provincial governor and in provinces with multiple legions, each legion has a Legatus and the provincial governor has overall command of them all.
The Quaestor: Served as a type of quartermaster general, in charge of purchasing, finance, the collection and distribution of booty, etc. Again, these might perform similar functions on the civilian side.
The Legati: senior commanders under the supremo. Generally they were of senatorial rank and were commissioned by the Senate.
Tribunus Laticlavius: Named for the broad striped toga worn by men of senatorial rank. This tribune was appointed by the Emperor or the Senate. Though generally quite young and less experienced than the Tribuni Angusticlavii, he served as second in command of the legion, behind the Legate.
Praefectus Castrorum: The camp Prefect. Generally he was a long serving veteran who had been promoted through the ranks of the centurions and was 3rd in overall command.
Tribuni Angusticlavii: Each legion had 6 military tribunes of equestrian (knight) class citizens. They were in many cases career officers and served many of the important administrative tasks of the Legion, but still served in a full tactical command function during engagements.

Mid Level ranks

Primus Pilus: The senior centurion of the legion and commander of the first cohort was called the primus pilus ("first rank"), a career soldier and advisor to the legate. While every normal cohort was composed of 5 to 8 centuries, the one that was led by the primus pilus (the first) had about 10 centuries, or 800 men.
Pilus Prior: Senior centurion in any cohort other than the first cohort. Commanded that cohort and served as an advisor to the legion's commander.
Centurions: They were the backbone of the professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day to day life of the soldiers as well as issuing commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct appointments from the Emperor or other higher ranking officials. There were 64 centurions in each legion (10 in the first cohort and 6 in the rest), one to command each centuria of the 10 cohorts. The ranking of centurions were: Pilus Prior, Pilus Posterior, Princepes Prior, Princepes Posterior, Hastatus Prior, and Hastatus Posterior. The Prior centurion of each pair commanded the maniple.
Aquilifer: A single position within the Legion. The aquilifer was the Legion's Standard or Eagle bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious position. The next step up would be a post as a centurion.
Optio: One for each centurion (therefore, there were 64 in a legion), they were appointed by the centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command.
Tesserarius: (Guard Commander) Again there were 64 of these, or one for each centuria. They acted in similar roles to the optiones.
Signifer: Each centuria had a signifer (therefore, there were 64 in a legion). He was responsible for the men's pay and savings, and the standard bearer for the Centurial Signum, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and often topped with an open hand to signify the oath of loyalty taken by the soldiers. It was this banner that the men from each individual centuria would rally around. A soldier could also gain the position of Discentes signiferorum, or standard bearer in training.
Cornicen: (Horn blower) They worked hand in hand with the signifer drawing the attention of the men to the Centurial Signum and issuing the audible commands of the officers.
Imaginifer: Carried the Standard bearing the image of the Emperor as a constant reminder of the troop's loyalty to him.

Low level ranks

Immunes: These were trained specialists, such as surgeons, engineers, surveyors, and architects, as well as craftsmen. They were exempt from camp and hard labor duties due to the nature of their work, and would generally earn slightly more pay than the Milites.
Discens: Milites in training for an immunes position.
Milites Gregarius: The basic private-level foot soldier.
Tirones: The basic new private recruit. A Tirones could take up to 6 months before becoming a full Milites.

Training

Fitness

The main pre-requisite for a member of the Roman Army was fitness, given the long distances they were expected to march.

Group Training

Every day the whole of the legion would practice swimming, running, jumping, fencing and javelin throwing. But, before that happened newcomers would do two sessions of military drill and give their oath of loyalty to their Commander and Emperor.

Drill and weapons training

Both legionary and auxilia troops also did drill training, from fundamentals such as learning military step and the exact formation of ranks, to practicing tactical maneuvers. Roman tactics also required the soldier to be able to respond instantly to commands to change the shape of his formation, not simply to fight as a brave individual, as in barbarian armies. This required extensive training and discipline. Weapons training covered how to handle a sword, both to become accustomed to the weight and balance, and also how to deliver injurious blows to an enemy without exposing the soldier's own body to enemy strikes. Roman sword-fighting as talk was in fact fairly restrained and measured - primarily, the sword was to be used to make short stabbing strokes from behind the protection of the scutum with minimal risk of the soldier receiving counter-strokes. This is in contrast to the rather looser style of slashing blows favoured by many barbarian peoples. The soldier was taught not to engage in wild sword-fights with opponents and especially not to lay himself open to his antagonist while aiming his stroke at him. A favoured tactic taught was to knock one's opponents off their feet with a ram of the scutum (shield), and then to dispatch him with one or more swift downward stabs whilst he was vulnerable on the ground, all the while remaining protected himself by the scutum, which was to remained raised. They also trained in the use of the thrown javelin and pilum.

Times of training

Training was usually an all day event, starting at 6 AM and ending at midnight. Occasionally, trainees would have to work two days in a row without a break.

Common skills

As a minimum, it was expected that all troops would be at least minimally competent at swimming, so as to be able to ford any rivers where it was necessary to cross without the aid of a bridge and also some of them would have to swim in their armour so they could continue fighting.

Special skills

In an army as organizationally complex as the Roman army, physical conditioning, while stressed, was not sufficient. The most intelligent were trained in the special skills needed by the army, and would become officers or immunes in areas such as engineering.

Campaigns

History of the Roman army

From a few score men defending a small hill town in Italy, through a citizen militia consisting of citizen-farmers raised annually for a short campaign before returning to harvest their fields, the Roman army grew to be a professional standing army of several hundred thousand men. Roman historian Edward Gibbon estimates in his book The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire that the peak size of the Roman army in the late imperial period was in the order of 375,000 men.

Branches

References

Secondary Sources

Davies, Roy W. "Service in the Roman Army", Columbia University Press, New York, 1989

Goldsworth, Adrian. "Roman Warfare", "Cassell & Co", London, UK 1999