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Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni, the last Cardinal Nephew, painted by Francesco Trevisani

A cardinal-nephew (Latin: cardinalis nepos;[1] Spanish: valido de su tío; French: le prince de la fortune)[2] is a cardinal elevated by a pope who is his uncle. The practice of creating cardinal-nephews originated in the Middle Ages, and reached its apex during the 16th and 17th centuries,[3] and is central to the etymology of the word "nepotism," which appeared in the English language circa 1670.[4] Every Renaissance pope, except for Nicholas V, appointed a relative to the College of Cardinals, and the nephew was the most common choice.[5]

From 1566 until 1692, a cardinal-nephew held the curial office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State, known as the Cardinal Nephew (a precursor to the office of the Cardinal Secretary of State), and thus the terms are sometimes used interchangeably.

Eleven popes—Benedict IX, Anastasius IV, Alexander IV, Adrian V, Gregory XI, Eugene IV, Paul II, Alexander VI, Pius III, Julius II, and Clement VII—and two saints—Charles Borromeo and Anselmo da Baggio—were former cardinal-nephews.

History

Before 1566

The Avignon Papacy (1309—1377) produced an unprecedented number of cardinal-nephews.

The creation of cardinal-nephews predates the hierarchical preeminence of cardinals within the Roman Catholic Church, which grew out of the 1059 decree of Pope Nicholas II, In Nomine Domini, establishing cardinal-bishops as the sole electors of the pope, with the consent of cardinal-deacons and cardinal-priests.[6] The first cardinal-nephew Teofilatto (future Pope Benedict IX), nephew to both Pope Benedict VIII (1012—1024) and Pope John X (914—928), was created cardinal by Benedict VIII.[7] The first known cardinal-nephew after 1059 is Saint Anselmo da Baggio, the nephew (some sources say brother) of Pope Alexander II (1061—1073)[7]

Pope Sixtus IV (1471—1484) created more cardinal-nephews than any other pontiff, including three on December 12, 1477, the greatest number of cardinal-nephews elevated at one time.[8] The capituation of the 1464 papal conclave limited the pope it elected (Pope Innocent VIII) to appointing only one cardinal-nephew, along with other conditions designed to increase the power of the College of Cardinals and reduce the pope's ability to dilute that power.[9] A cadinal-nephew could usually expect cushy appointments; for example, Alessandro Cardinal Farnese, cardianl-nephew of Pope Paul III (1534—1549) held sixty-four benefices simultaneously in addition to the vice-chancellorship.[10]

St. Charles Borromeo, cardinal-nephew of Pope Pius IV (1559—1565), had ensured the subordination of the secretarius intimus to the Cardinal Nephew, which became sometimes called the secretarius maior.[11] Pius IV was notorious for nepotism: between 1561 and 1565 he transferred more than 350,000 scudi to his relatives.[12]

The Cardinal Nephew: 1566-1692

Pope Pius V created the curial office of the Cardinal Nephew on March 14, 1566.

Following the end of the Council of Trent (1563), Pope Pius V drew up the terms the office of the Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State, who was to handle the temporarl affairs of the Papal States and the foreign relations of the Holy See. After abortively attempting to divide the duties of the Superintendent between four non-familial cardinals, Pius V acceded to the urgings of the College of Cardinals and his Spanish ambassador, Pius V appointed his grand-nephew, Michele Bonelli, as Superintendent, demarcating his duties with a papal bull of March 14, 1566.[13]

The Cardinal Nephew (also called cardinale padrone[14] or Secretarius Papae et superintendens status ecclesiasticæ[15]: "Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State"[14], Italian: Sopraintendent dello Stato Ecclesiastico[16]) was an official legate of the Roman Curia, approximately equivalent to the Cardinal Secretary of State, which was created two years after the Cardinal Nephew was abolished in 1692.[17][15] The office has been equated by historians as the "prime minister", "alter ego",[14] or "vice-pope."[18] The Cardinal Nephew was generally among a pope's first cardinal creations and traditionally accompanied by a salute from the guns of Castel Sant'Angelo.[19]

Following the Avignon Papacy, the Cardinal Nephew was responsible for the spiritual and temporal governance of the Comtat Venaissin, where the Avignon popes had resided; in 1475, Pope Sixtus IV raised the Diocese of Avignon to to the rank of an archbishopric, to the benefit of his nephew Giuliano della Rovere.[17]

The terms of the office of Cardinal Nephew were established by a papal brief developed and refined by popes Pius V (1566—1572) to Paul V (1605—1621).[14] Pius V was the first to name his cardinal-nephew, Michele Bonelli, explicitly as the "Superintendent of the Ecclesiastical State," although he relentlessly avoided delegating any real autonomy to Bonelli.[20] The Cardinal Nephew was also the correspondence liaison for all papal nuncios and gubernatorial legates, and the prefect for two congregations: the Consulta and the Congregazione del Buon Governo.[16] The Cardinal Nephew was also the captain-general of the papal army and a "channel through which flowed benefices one way and gold the other."[19]

However, these formal functions only came into force during the pontificates of unusually weak popes; most Cardinal Nephews were the de facto rubber stamp of the pontiff himself.[16]

Although Pope Leo XI (1605) died before he was able to elevate his nephew, Roberto Ubaldini, Ubaldini was elevated by Leo XI's successor, Pope Paul V.[21]

Some historians consider Scipione Borghese, cardinal-nephew to Pope Paul V, to be the "prototypical representative" of a cardinal-nephew, unlike those before him, created to "provide for and oversee the permanent social and economic ascent of the reigning papal family into the ranks of the high Roman aristocracy."[22] For example, in 1616, twenty-four of the thirty abbeys belonging to Borghese were rented out, a practice the Council of Trent had attempted to eliminate.[12]

Pope Gregory XIV (1590—1591) began the practice of creating cardinal-nephews whose formal appointment coincided de facto with their nomination, and was thus separate from the ordinal process for creating cardinals,[21] and upon falling ill, authorized his cardinal-nephew, Paolo Emilio Sfondrato, to use the Fiat ut petitur, a power which was later diminsihed at the urging of the College.[23] Paul VI issued a motu proprio on April 30, 1618, formally bestowing on his cardinal-nephew the same authority Pope Clement VIII had given to Pietro Aldobrandini, beginning what historian Laurain-Portemer calls "l'age classique'" of nepotism.[24] Pope Gregory XV's (1621—1623) cardinal-nephew, Ludovico Ludovisi, the first cardinal-nephew known as il cardinale padrone ("the Cardinal boss")[25] accumulated a vast array of benefices: the bishopric of Bologna, twenty-three abbeys, the vice-chancellorship, the directorship of the Signatura, and was able to have most of them redistributed to seventeen of his kinsmen upon his death.[18] Notably, cardinal-nephews were allowed to create facultas testandi to will the fruits of their benefices to secular family members.[18]

As Fabio Chigi, I had a family. As Alexander VII I have none. You won't find my name anywhere in the baptismal registers of Siena.

Pope Alexander VII, 1655[26]

Not all Cardinal Nephews were cardinal-nephews in the strictest sense. In fact, papal historian Valérie Pirie considers not having a nephew a "tremendous asset for a would-be pope" as it left the position open for an ally cardinal.[19] For example, Pope Clement X gave the office to Cardinal Paoluzzi-Altieri, who had recently become the uncle of the husband of Laura Caterina Altieri, the sole heiress of Clement X's family.[27] Many historians consider Olimpia Maidalchini, the sister-in-law of Pope Innocent X (1644—1655), to have been a de facto Cardinal Nephew, although the position was formally held by her son, Camillo Pamfili, (afer Pamfili renounced his cardinalate in order to wed) her nephew, Francesco Maidalchini, and (after Francesco proved incompetent) Camillo Astalli, her cousin.[28][29] According to papal historian Ludwig von Pastor, "the misfortune of Pope Pamfili was that the only person in his family who would have had the qualities necessary to fill such a position was a woman."[29]

Pope Innocent XI (1676—1689) despised the practice as nepotistic and only accepted his election as pope after the College of Cardinals consented to his plans for reform, which included a ban on nepotism.[3] However, Innocent XI backed down after thrice failing to achieve the support of the majority of his cardinals for a bull banning nepotism.[30] Innocent XI refused entreats from within the papal court to bring his only nephew, Livio Odescalchi, the prince of Sirmio, to Rome.[31] Innocent XI's successor, Pope Alexander VIII (1689—1691), is the last pope known to have created a Cardinal Nephew.[3] Alexander VIII also undid another reform of Innocent XI by restoring the revenues of the former Chancery to the Vice-Chancellor, who was, at the time, his cardinal-nephew, Pietro Ottoboni.[15]

Since 1692

Pope Innocent XII abolished the curial office of the Cardinal Nephew on June 22, 1692 and created the office of Cardinal Secretary of State in 1694.

Pope Innocent XII (1691—1700) issued a papal bull on June 22, 1692, Romanum decet pontificem, banning the office of Cardinal Nephew, eliminating various sinecures traditionally reserved for cardinal-nephews, and capping the stipend or endowment the nephew of a pope could receive to 12,000 scudi.[32][33][16] Edith Standen, a consultant to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, calls Pietro, Cardinal Ottoboni the "last and certainly not least magnificent example" of the "splendor of an extinct species, the Cardinal-Nephew."[32]

Until 1692 (and sometimes thereafter), the cardinal-nephew (or a lay nephew) would be the chief archivist of the pope, usually taking the archives with him to a family archive upon the death of the pontiff.[34]

However, following Romanun decet pontificem, only three of the eight popes of the 18th century did not make a nephew or brother cardinal.[30] The College of Cardinals apparently preferred rule by nephews than by favoritism, which they perceived as the alternative; for example, the College urged Pope Benedict XIII (1724—1730) to appoint a cardinal-nephew, whom they hoped would replace Benedict XIII's notorious lieutenant Niccolò Coscia.[26] Pope Gregory XIII (1572—1585) also had to be urged by key figures in the College to appoint his cardinal-nephew: Filippo Boncompagni.[35]

The cardinal-nephews of the 18th century declined in power as the power of the Cardinal Secretary of State, a position created in 1694, increased.[26] The church of Pope Benedict XIII] (1724—1730) is described by historian Eamon Duff as "all the evils of nepotism without the nephew."[36] Neri Corini, cardinal-nephew of Pope Clement XII (1730—1740) was by far the most powerful cardinal-nephew of the 18th century, on account of his uncle's advanced age and blindness.[26] However, Clement XII's successor, Pope Benedict XIV (1740—1758) was described by Hugh Walpole as "a priest without indolence or interest, a prince without favorites, a pope without nephews."[36]

Romualdo Braschi-Onesti, cardinal-nephew of Pius VI (1775—1799) proved to be the last cardinal-nephew. Despite Pius VI's lineage to the noble Cesana family, his only sister had married a man from the poor Onesti family. Therefore, he commissioned a geneaologist to discover (and trump up) some trace of nobility in the Onesti lineage.[37]

After the turbulent 1800 papal conclave, Pope Pius VII (1800—1823) shunned the institution of the cardinal-nephew and instead relied on his Cardinal Secretary of State, Ercole Cardinal Consalvi.[38] During the 19th century, the only nephew of a pope created cardinal was Gabriel della Genga Sermattei, nephew of Pope Leo XII, created cardinal by Pope Gregory XVI on February 1, 1836.[39]

Role in conclaves

Even into the 18th century, the cardinal-nephew was a natural power broker at the conclave following his uncle's death, as a figure whom cardinals desirous of continuing the status quo could rally around.[26] Instruzione al cardinal Padrone circa il modo come si dve procurare una fazione di cardinali con tutti i requisiti che deve avere per lo stabilimento della sua grandezza ("Instructions to the chief cardinal on how to create a faction of cardinals with all the requisites for the establishment of his grandeur"), discovered in the archive of the Santa Maria de Monserrato in Rome offers advice to cardinal-nephews for consolidating power within the College of Cardinals.[2] Another text, the Ricordi data da Gregorio XV al cardinale Lodovisio suo nipote ("Memoir addressed by Gregory XV to his Nephew Cardinal Lodovisio") offers advice for how to rise within the Curia.[40]

An analysis of the five papal conclaves between 1605 and 1644 shows that cardinal-nephews were generally unsuccessfully in electing their chosen candidates, although the victor was usually a cardinal created by the deceased pope.[41] Ten of the twenty-three cardinal electors in the 1492 papal conclave were cardinal-nephews.[42]

Legacy

A Pope's nephew dies twice—the second time like all men, the first time when his uncle dies.

Cardinal Albani[26]

Although the Cardinal Nephew has often been the focal point of criticisms of the Roman Catholic Church, the Catholic Encyclopedia defends the former position as a necessary countermeasure to the intrigue of the old Church.[15]

Gregorio Leti's Papal Nepotism, or the True Relation of the Reasons Which Impel the Popes to make their Nephews Powerful (1627) is one example of contemporary criticism of the institution of the cardinal-nephew; Leti holds the rare distinction of having all of his publications on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum.[43]

List of cardinal-nephews

Note: Some sources refer to cardinals from the (legitimate or illegitimate) sons, brothers, or other relatives of popes as cardinal-nephews.[3]

11th century

File:B Benedikt IX.jpg
Pope Benedict IX, the first cardinal-nephew
Of Benedict VIII (1012—1024)
Of Alexander II (1061—1073)
Of Urban II (1088—1099)

12th century

Of Callixtus II (1119—1124)
Of Honorius II (1124—1130)
Of Innocent II (1130—1143)
Of Anastasius IV (1153—1154)
Of Adrian IV (1154—1159)
Of Lucius III (1181—1185)
Of Celestine III (1191—1198)

13th century

Of Gregory IX (1227—1241)
Of Innocent IV (1243—1254)
Of Urban IV (1261—1264)
Of Gregory X (1271—1276)
Of Nicholas III (1277—1280)
Of Boniface VIII (1294—1303)

14th century

Pope Clement V, the first Avignon Pope, created an unprecedent five cardinal-nephews on the same day.
Of Clement V (1305—1314)
Of John XXII (1316—1334)
Of Benedict XII (1334—1342)
Pope Clement VI created more cardinal-nephews than any other pontiff.
Of Clement VI (1342—1352)
Of Innocent VI (1352—1362)
Of Gregory XI (1370—1378)

15th century

Of Innocent VII (1404—1406)
Of Gregory XII (1406—1415)
Of Martin V (1417—1431)
Of Eugene IV (1431—1447)
Of Callixtus III (1455—1458)

Both were elevated February 20, 1456 and published September 17, 1456:

Of Pius II (1458—1464)
Of Paul II (1464—1471)
Of Sixtus IV (1471—1484)
Of Innocent VIII (1484—1492)
Of Pope Alexander VI (1492—1503)

16th century

Pope Leo X with his cardinal nephew Giulio de' Medici (left, future Pope Clement VII)
Of Julius II (1503—1513)
Of Pope Leo X (1513—1521)
Pope Paul III with his cardinal-nephew Alessandro Cardinal Farnese (left) and his other grandson (right)
Of Paul III (1534—1549)
Of Julilus III (1550—1555)
Of Paul IV (1555-1559)
Saint Charles Borromeo, one of only two canonized cardinal-nephews
Of Pius IV (1559—1565)
Of Pius V (1576—1572)
Of Gregory XIII (1572—1585)
Of Sixtus V (1585-1590)
Of Gregory XIV (1590—1591)
Of Innocent IX (1591)
Of Clement VIII (1592—1605)

17th century

Of Paul V (1605—1621)
The tomb of Pope Gregory XV and his cardinal-nephew Ludovico Ludovisi
Of Gregory XV (1621—1623)
Of Urban VIII (1623—1644)
Of Innocent X (1644—1655)
Of Alexander VII (1655—1667)
Of Clement IX (1667—1669)
Of Clement X (1670—1676)
Of Alexander VIII (1689—1691)

18th century

Romualdo Braschi-Onesti, the last cardinal-nephew
Of Clement XII (1730—1740)
Of Clement XIII (1758—1769)
Of Pius VI (1775—1799)

Similar creatures

Quasi-cardinal-nephews

The cardinal-nephew of antipope Nicholas V, Giacomo Alberti (elevated May 15, 1328), was excommunicated by Pope John XXII.[51] In contrast, the cardinal-nephew of antipope Clement VII, Amedeo Saluzzo (elevated December 23, 1383), abandoned antipope Benedict XIII after having been deposed by him on October 21, 1408, participated in the Council of Pisa and the election of antipope Alexander V, before participating in the Council of Constance and the conclave of Pope Martin V.[51] Gil Sánchez Muñoz, the cardinal-nephew of antipope Clement VIII, refused to submit to Pope Martin V after his uncle abdicated.[54]

Nephews of other popes

Cardinal Nephew of Elevator Elevated Notes
Romano Marin[72] Pope Marinus I Pope Nicholas I cira 867
Giovanni[7] Pope Benedict IX Pope Gregory VI 1045
Cinzio Papareschi[44] Pope Innocent II Pope Adrian IV February 1158
Goffredo da Castiglione[47] Pope Urban III Pope Gregory IX September 18, 1227 future Pope Celestine IV
Giacomo Savelli (grand-nephew) Pope Honorius III Pope Urban IV December 17 (or 24), 1261 future Pope Honorius IV
Matteo Rosso Orsini[47] Pope Nicholas III Pope Urban IV May 22, 1262
Napoleone Orsini Frangipani[47] Pope Nicholas III Pope Nicholas IV May 16, 1288
Francesco Napoleone Orsini[47] Pope Nicholas III Pope Boniface VIII December 12, 1295
Luc Fieschi[47] Pope Adrian V Pope Boniface VIII March 2, 1300
Gaillard de la Mothe[51] Pope Clement V Pope John XXII December 17 (or 18), 1316
Jean de Carmin[51] Pope John XXII Pope Clement VI December 17, 1350
Gilles Aycelin de Montaigu[51] Pope Clement VI Pope Innocent VI September 17, 1361
Guillaume d'Aigrefeuille[51] Pope Clement VI Pope Urban V May 12, 1367
Alessandro Sforza[56] Pope Paul III Pope Pius IV March 12, 1565
Domenico Orsini d'Aragona[69] Pope Benedict XIII Pope Benedict XIV September 9, 1743
Gabriel della Genga Sermattei Pope Leo XII Pope Gregory XVI February 1, 1836

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