Military history of Puerto Rico
The military history of Puerto Rico (Spanish: historia militar de Puerto Rico) dates back to the 16th century when Spanish conquistadors battled against the native Tainos and continues to the present-day. Puerto Rico, now considered a "sub-nation" by the United Nations, was ruled by the Spanish Empire for four centuries before being ceded to the United States under the terms of the 1898 Treaty of Paris following Spain's defeat in the Spanish-American War. Puerto Rico is now a United States territory.
Through the centuries, Puerto Ricans have defended the island against invasions from the British, French and Dutch. As citizens of the United States they have participated in every major conflict in which the United States has been involved from World War I onward. The following is a brief history of the military events in which Puerto Ricans have participated.
Conflict with the Tainos
After the success of Christopher Columbus's first voyage to the New World, he was able to follow up immediately with a second voyage. The second voyage, unlike the first, was colonial rather than exploratory. On November 19, 1493, Columbus discovered the island of Puerto Rico. The island was inhabited by native islanders known as Tainos, who belonged to the Arawak group of Native Americans. The Tanios called the island "Boriken." Christopher Columbus named the island "San Juan Bautista" in honor of Saint John the Baptist. Eventually the island took the name of Puerto Rico ("Rich Port") and the capital city became San Juan. The conquistador Juan Ponce de León was among the many men who accompanied Columbus on this trip.
When Juan Ponce de León arrived in Puerto Rico, he was well-received by the the cacique Agueybana, leader of the Taino tribes in the island. The first colonists, besides the conquistadors, were farmers and miners in search of gold. Ponce de León became the first governor of Puerto Rico by appointment of the Spanish crown. In 1508, he founded the first settlement in Puerto Rico and named it Caparra, it was located between the modern-day cities of Bayamón and San Juan. Shortly after being named Governor, Ponce de León and the other conquistadors forced the Tainos to work in the mines and to construct fortifications. Many Tainos died as a result of this cruel treatment. In 1510, Agueybana II (the Cacique's brother) and a group of Tanios led a Spaniard by the name of Diego Salcedo to a river and drowned him, therefore proving that the white men were not gods as they had thought. Upon realizing that the Spaniards were not divine, Agueybana led the first rebellion in the island, against the better armed Spanish forces. The colonists formed a citizens' militia to defend themselves against the attacks. Agueybana was shot and killed, and the event which was the first military action in Puerto Rico came to an end.Template:Inote
Europeans fight over Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico was considered the "Key to the Antilles" by the Spanish. Its location was important as a waystation and port for Spanish vessels. In 1540, the Spanish settlers began the construction of the fort El Morro ("the promontory") with revenue from Mexican mines. The initial phase of the construction was completed in 1589. El Morro was the island's main military fortification in San Juan and was guarded by professional soldiers. Puerto Rico's only defense was a handful of soldiers and the local militia, made up of volunteers. These units were able to defend themselves against many pirate attacks. On October 11, 1528, the French, in an attempt to capture the island, sacked and burned the settlement of San Germán. They also destroyed many of the island's first settlements—including Guánica, Sotomayor, Daguao and Loiza—before the local militia forced them to retreat. The only settlement that remained was San Juan. Template:Inote
On February 17, 1797, the appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Ramón de Castro, who was also a brigadier general in the Spanish Army, received the news that England had invaded the Caribbean island of Trinidad. Governor Ramón de Castro believed that Puerto Rico would be the next objective of the British and that they would once again attempt to invade the island. He decided to put the militia on alert and to prepare the island's forts against any military action. On April 17, 1797, the British ships approached the coastal town of Loíza attacked San Juan. On April 18, British soldiers and German mercenaries ("Hessians"), landed on Loíza's beach. Under the command of Brigadier Ramón de Castro, British ships were attacked with artillery and mortar fire from both El Morro and the San Gerónimo fortresses. The British tried to take the Martín Peña Bridge twice, which would lead to San Juan, but after fiercely fighting the Spanish forces and local militia they were defeated in both of their attempts. The invasion had failed because a total of 16,000 Puerto Rican volunteers and Spanish troops fought back and defended the island. The British also attacked Aguadilla and Punta Salinas, but they were defeated and the British troops that had landed on the island were taken prisoner. The British retreated on November 12, 1798 and the Puerto Rican militia were awarded many high honors from the Spanish crown. Template:Inote
Spain and Britain were in a constant power struggle in the New World; Puerto Rican privateering was encouraged by the Spanish. Roberto Cofresí or Captain Miguel Enríquez were two of the most famous pirates. Enríquez was a shoemaker by occupation. In the later years of the 18th century, Enríquez decided to try his luck as a pirate. He showed great valor in intercepting English merchant ships and other ships dedicated to contraband that were infesting the seas of Puerto Rico and the Atlantic Ocean in general. In 1811, Miguel Enríquez participated in the expeditionary force, under the command of Juan Rosello, which fought and defeated the British in the island of Vieques. Miguel Enríquez was received as a national hero when he returned the island of Vieques back to the Spanish Empire and to the governorship of Puerto Rico. In recognition for his services, the Spanish Crown awarded Miguel Enríquez with the Medalla de Oro de la Real Efigie, named him "Captain of the Seas and Land" and gave him a letter of marque and reprisal.Template:Inote
The Dutch
The Netherlands was a world military and commercial power by 1625, competing in the Caribbean with the British. The Dutch wanted to establish a military stronghold in the area and decided to send Captian Balduino Enrico (Boudewijn Hendricksz) with the task of capturing Puerto Rico. On September 24, 1625, Enrico arrived at the coast of San Juan with 17 ships and 2,000 men. The governor of Puerto Rico, Juan de Haros, was an experienced military man, and, expecting an attack in the section known as Boqueron, had that area fortified. However, the Dutch took another route and landed in La Puntilla.Template:Inote
De Haro realized that an invasion was inevitable and ordered 300 men stationed at El Morro Castle and the city of San Juan evacuated. He also had former governor Juan de Vargas organize an armed resistance in the interior of the island. On September 25 Enrico attacked San Juan, besieging El Morro Castle and La Fortaleza (the Governor's Mansion). He invaded the capital city and set up his headquarters in La Fortaleza. The Dutch were counterattacked by the civilian militia on land and by the cannons of the Spanish troops in El Morro Castle. The land battle left 60 Dutch soldiers dead and Enrico wounded. The Dutch ships at sea were boarded by Puerto Ricans who defeated those aboard. After a long battle, the Spanish soldiers and volunteers of the city's militia were able to defend the city from the attack and save the island from an invasion. On October 21, Enrico set the La Fortaleza and the city ablaze upon his retreat. He then tried to invade the island by attacking the town of Aguada. However, he was defeated once more by the local militia and finally abandoned the idea of invading Puerto Rico.Template:Inote
Revolt against Spain
The Spanish colonies began to revolt against Spanish rule during this period of time. Brigadier General Antonio Valero de Bernabe was a Puerto Rican military leader who became known as "the Liberator." Valero was a recent graduate from the Spanish Military Academy when Napoleon Bonaparte convinced King Charles IV of Spain to permit him to pass through Spanish soil with the sole purpose of attacking Portugal. When Napoleon refused to leave, the Spanish government declared war. Valero joined the Spanish Army and helped defeat Napoleon's army at the Battle of Zaragoza. Valero became a hero; he was awarded many decorations and was promoted to the rank of colonel. When Ferdinand VII assumed the throne of Spain in 1813, Valero became critical of the new king's policies towards the Spanish colonies in Latin America. He developed a keen hatred of the monarchy, resigned his commission in the army, and headed for Mexico. In Mexico he joined the insurgent army headed by Agustín de Iturbide, in which Valero was named chief of staff. He fought for Mexico's independence from Spain and was victorious. After the Mexican victory, Iturbide proclaimed himself Emperor of Mexico. Since Valero had developed anti-monarchist feelings following his experiences in Spain, he revolted against Iturbide. Things didn't go well for Valero and he tried to escape, but he was captured by a Spanish pirate who turned him over to the Spanish authorities in Cuba, where he was imprisioned. Valero was able to escape from the jail with the help of a group of men that were pro-Bolívar. Upon learning of Bolívar's dream of creating a unified Latin America, including Puerto Rico and Cuba, Valero decided to join him. Valero stopped in St. Thomas where he established contacts with the Puerto Rican independence movement. Valero then proceeded to travel to Venezuela were he was met by General Santander.
He joined Simón Bolívar (1783–1830), and fought alongside him, gaining his confidence and admiration. He was named Military Chief of the Department of Panama, Governor of Puerto Cabello, Chief of Staff of Colombia, Minister of War and Maritime of Venezuela, and in 1849 was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General.Template:Inote
On April 13, 1855, a mutiny broke out among the artillerymen in Fort San Cristobal. They were protesting against an extended two years of military service imposed by the island's Spanish governor, Garcia Cambia. The mutineers pointed their cannons towards San Juan, creating a state of panic among the population. Upon their surrender, the governor had the eight men arrested and sentenced to death by firing squad.
Many Spanish colonies had gained their independence by the mid-1850s. In Puerto Rico there was two groups: the loyalists, who were loyal to Spain, and the independentistas, who advocated the independence. In 1866, Dr. Ramón Emeterio Betances, Segundo Ruiz Belvis, Arturo Alfonso Schomburg and other independence advocates met in New York City where they formed the Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico. An outcome from this venture was the plan of sending an armed expedition from the Dominican Republic to invade the island. Several revolutionary cells were formed in the western towns and cities of Puerto Rico. Two of the most important cells were that of Mayagüez, whose leader was Mathias Bruckman and code named "Capa Prieto" and that of Lares, codenamed "Centro Bravo" and headed by Manuel Rojas. "Centro Bravo" was the main center of operations and was located in the Rojas plantation of El Triunfo. Manuel Rojas was named "Commander of the Liberation Army" by Betances. Mariana Bracetti (wife of Miguel) was named "Leader of the Lares Revolutionary Council." Upon the request of Betances, Bracetti knitted the revolutionary Flag of Lares (Bandera de Lares).
The Spanish authorities found out about the plot and were able to confiscate Betance's armed ship before it arrived in Puerto Rico. The Mayor of the town of Camuy, Manuel Gonzalez (who happened to be the leader of that town's revolutionary cell) was arrested and charged with treason. He was able to hear that the Spanish Army was aware of the independence plot. He then escaped and was able to warn Manuel Rojas. Because of this event, the revolutionists decided to start the revolution as soon as possible and set the date for September 28, 1868. Mathias Bruckman and his men joined up with Manuel Rojas's men and with about 800 men and women, marched and took the town of Lares. This was to be known as "El Grito de Lares." The revolutionists entered the town's church and placed the revolutionary flag knitted by Bracetii on the High Alter as a sign that the revolution had begun. They declared Puerto Rico to be the "Republic of Puerto Rico" and named Francisco Ramirez President of the Republic of Puerto Rico. Manuel and his poorly armed followers proceeded to march on to the town of San Sebastián, armed only with clubs and machetes. The Spanish Army had been forewarned and was waiting for them with superior fire power. When the revolutionists arrived, they were met with deadly fire. The revolt failed and many of the revolutionists were killed and at least 475, including Manuel Rojas and Mariana Bracetii, were imprisoned in the jail of Arecibo and sentenced to death. Some of them fled and went into hiding. Mathias Bruckman was hiding in a local farm when a farm hand by the name of Francisco Quiñones betrayed him and showed the Spanish Authories where Bruckman was. He was executed on the spot. Fearing another revolt, the Spanish Crown disbanded the Puerto Rican Militia, which was composed almost entirely by native born Puerto Ricans in 1869 and organized the Volunteer Institute, composed entirely by Spaniards and their sons.Template:Inote
Spanish-American War
The United States declared war on Spain in 1898, beginning the Spanish-American War. One of the principal objectives was to take control of Spanish possessions of Puerto Rico and Cuba in the Atlantic and the Philippines and Guam in the Pacific. On May 10, 1898, Spanish forces in the fortress of San Cristobal in San Juan exchanged fire with the USS Yale, and on May 12 a fleet of 12 American ships bombarded San Juan. On June 25, the USS Yosemite arrived in San Juan and formed a blockade of the port. On July 25, General Nelson A. Miles entered the southern town of Guánica with 3,300 troops and with the exception of some minor skirmishes, went practically unopposed. One of the most notable skirmishes which Spanish forces and Puerto Rican volunteers had with the Americans occurred on July 26. The Spanish forces engaged the 6th Massachusetts in a firefight in what became known as the Battle of Yauco. Two Spanish soldiers died. The Americans were well-received by the Puerto Rican population in general, which made the invasion much easier, and the Spanish surrendered without any other major incident. The total casualties of the Puerto Rican campaign was 450 Spanish and Puerto Rican dead or wounded while the Americans had four dead and 39 wounded. On August 8, the Spanish-American War ended and upon the signing of the Treaty of Paris on December 10, Puerto Rico became a territory of the United States. The Spanish troops had already left the island by October 18 and the United States named General John R. Brooke as military governor of the island. On July 1, 1899, "The Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry, United States Army" was created, and approved by the U.S. Congress on May 27, 1908. The regiment was a segregated, all-volunteer unit made up of 1,969 Puerto Ricans.Template:Inote
In 1897, Juan Alonso Zayas, born in San Juan, was a Second Lieutenant in the Spanish Army when he received orders to head for the Philippines as commander of the 2nd Expeditionary Battalion stationed in Baler. He arrived in Manila, the capital of the Philippines, in May 1897. There he took a vessel and headed for Baler, located on the island of Luzon. The distance between Manila and Baler is 62 miles (99.78 km) and if traveled through the jungles and badly-built roads, the actual distance would be 144 miles (230 km). At that time a system of communication between Manila and Baler was almost non-existent. The only way Baler received news from Manila was by way of vessels. The Spanish colonial government was under constant attack from local Filipino groups who wanted independence. Zayas's mission was to fortify Baler against any possible attack. Among his plans for the defense of Baler was to convert the local church of San Luis de Tolosa into a fort. The independence advocates, under the leadership of Colonel Calixto Vilacorte, were called "insurgents" (tagalos) by the Spanish crown. On June 28, 1898, they demanded the surrender of the Spanish army. The Spanish governor of the region, Enrique de las Morena y Fossi, refused. Immediately, the Filipinos attacked Baler in a battle that was to last for seven months. Despite being outnumbered and suffering hunger and disease, the Battalion did not capitulate. In the meantime, Zayas and the rest of the Battalion were totally unaware of the Spanish-American War that was going on. On August 1898, the hostilities between the United States and Spain came to an end. The Philippines became a U.S. possession under the accordance of the Treaty of Paris. The Battalion at Baler found out about the Spanish-American War and its aftermath in May 1899 and surrendered on June 2, 1899. They were unaware that they had been fighting for a possession which was no longer theirs. The 32 survivors of Zayas Battalion were sent to Manila, where they boarded a ship for Spain. In Spain, they were given a hero's welcome and became known as Los Ultimos de Baler—"the Last of Baler."Template:Inote
20th century
Puerto Rican National Guard
In 1906, a group of Puerto Ricans met with the appointed governor, Governor Winthrop, and suggested the organization of a Puerto Rican National Guard. The petiton failed because the U.S. Constitution prohibits the formation of any armed force within the United States and its territories without the authorization of Congress. On June 19, 1915, Major General Luis R. Esteves of the U.S. Army, became the first Puerto Rican to graduate from the United States Military Academy (West Point). While he attended West Point, he tutored fellow classmate Dwight D. Eisenhower in Spanish; a second language was required in order to graduate. Esteves graduated first in his class. He was a Second Lieutenant in the 23rd Infantry Division of the army under the command of John J. Pershing, when he was sent to El Paso, Texas in the Pancho Villa Expedition. From El Paso, he was sent to the town of Polvo, where he was appointed mayor and judge by its citizens. Esteves helped organize the 23rd Battalion, which would be composed of Puerto Ricans and be stationed in Panama during World War I. He would also in the future play an key role in the formation of the Puerto Rican National Guard.
World War I
Upon the outbreak of World War I, the U.S. Congress approved the Jones-Shafroth Act, which granted Puerto Ricans citizenship. As a result, many Puerto Ricans became eligible for the draft. On May 3, 1917, the Regiment recruited 1,969 men. On May 17, 1917, the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry was sent to guard the Panama Canal in defense of the Panama Canal Zone. In New York, the 295th and 296th Infantry Regiments of Puerto Rico were created. They fought along the Western Front in France and their reputation earned them the nickname of "the Harlem Hell Fighters" by the Germans. Among them was Lieutenant Pedro Albizu Campos, who later became the leader of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. The Porto Rico Regiment returned to the island on March 1919 and was renamed the 65th Infantry Regiment under the Reorganization Act of June 4, 1920. The need for a Puerto Rican National Guard unit became apparent to Major General Luis R. Esteves, who had served as instructor of Puerto Rican Officers for the Porto Rico Regiment of Infantry at Camp Las Casas in Puerto Rico. His request was met with the approval from the government and Puerto Rican Legislature. In 1919, the first regiment of the Puerto Rican National Guard was formed, and General Luis R. Esteves became the first official Commandant of the Puerto Rican National Guard.Template:Inote
Puerto Rico suffered greatly during the Great Depression of the 1930s and many Puerto Ricans immigrated to the East Coast of the United States looking for jobs and a better way of life. On the island, the unemployment rate continued to rise. Many of the Puerto Ricans who were unable to find a job considered the Armed Forces of the United States a source of employment. Not only were they paid better then the few jobs that were available, but they were also guaranteed three meals a day, clothing and shelter.
World War II
When the United States declared war against the Empire of Japan and Nazi Germany, recruiters were sent to the island. In 1944, the Army Nurse Corps decided to actively recruit Puerto Rican nurses so that Army hospitals would not have to deal with the language barriers. Among them was Lieutenant Carmen Durnier, who became one of the first Puerto Rican female military officers. In 1942, the 65th Infantry underwent an extensive training program and in 1943 it was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus. In 1944, the regiment was sent to North Africa, arriving at Casablanca, where they underwent further training. By April 29, 1944, the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica. On September 22, 1944, the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action on the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava. There was a total of 47 battle casualties. The first Puerto Rican to be killed in action from the 65th Infantry was Sergeant Angel Martinez, from the town of Sabana Grande. On April 20, the 65th overran a sub-camp of the Flossenburg Concentration Camp. On March 18, 1945, the regiment was sent to the District of Manheim and assigned to military occupation duties. In all, the 65th Infantry participated in the battles of Naples-Fogis, Rome-Arno, central Europe and of the Rhineland. On October 27, 1945, the regiment sailed from France, arriving at Puerto Rico on November 9, 1945. The regiment suffered a total of 260 casualties killed in action. Some of the Puerto Ricans who also played an important role during the war were Admiral Horacio Rivero, the highest ranking Hispanic in the history of the U.S. Navy, who provided artillery cover for the Marines landing on Guadalcanal, Marshall Islands and Okinawa and Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle, the first Hispanic Marine Corps general, who had an active role in the Guam Operation and became the Commanding General of the First Marine Divison. He was in charge of the reorganization of Okinawa.Template:Inote
Korean War
During the Korean War, the 65th Infantry was sent to Pusan, Korea, arriving on September 23, 1950. The regiment helped the U.S. Marines to withdraw from the Hauock-on Reservoir in December of that year. They participated in a total of nine combat campaigns, gaining fame and recognition as one of the best regiments in the Army. Among the Puerto Ricans who distinguished themselves from the regiment are Brigadier General Antonio Rodriguez Balinas, Colonel Carlos Betances Ramirez, Master Sergeant Pedro Rodriguez, and Staff Sergeant Modesto Cartagena (the most decorated Hispanic in history). On December 23, 1951, Antonio Rodriguez Balinas, who was a 1st Lieutenant, fearlessly walked through a lethal hail of enemy fire directly toward the hostile bunker of the enemy, hurled his hand grenades and single-handedly completely destroyed the position and its occupants near Sorgyon-Myon. He was awarded two Silver Star medals. On October 28, 1952, Col. Betances, who was the first and only Puerto Rican officer to have commanded an infantry battalion in the Korean War, led his men to the victorious Battle of Jackson Heights. Sgt. Pedro Rodriguez earned two Silver Star Medals within a seven day period for his actions defending Hills 476 and 398. Modesto Cartagena was a Buck Sergeant in 1951 and assigned to Company C, 65 Infantry Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division, Cartagena, "with no regard for his own safety," as the official record states, left his position and charged directly into devastating enemy fire, single-handedly destroying two enemy emplacements on Hill 206, near Yonch'on North Korea. After taking out the emplacements, he was knocked to the ground twice by exploding enemy grenades. Nevertheless, he got up and attacked three more times, each time destroying an enemy emplacement until he was wounded. His family is leading a petition requesting that he be awarded the Medal of Honor. Private First Class Fernando Luis Garcia, who belonged to Company I, 3rd Battalion, 5th Marine Division became the first Puerto Rican recipient of the Medal of Honor when he covered a grenade with his body, saving the lives of his fellow Marines. Major General Salvador E. Felices flew in 19 combat bombing missions over North Korea. In 1956, the 65th Infantry Division was transferred to the Puerto Rican National Guard. 61,000 Puerto Ricans served in the Korean War, including 18,000 Puerto Ricans who enlisted in the continental United States.Template:Inote
Cuban Missile Crisis
The Cuban Missile Crisis was a tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of nuclear missiles in Cuba. On October 22, 1962, Admiral Horacio Rivero was the commander of the American fleet sent by President John F. Kennedy to confront the Soviets by setting up a quarantine (blockade) of the Soviet ships and therefore was in the middle of the Cuban Missile Crisis by being on the front lines of the vessels. The world feared the possibility of nuclear war. On October 28, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev ordered the removal of the Soviet missiles in Cuba and Kennedy ordered an end of the quarantine of Cuba on November 20 bringing an end to the crisis.
Vietnam War
During the Vietnam War, an estimated 48,000 Puerto Ricans served in the four branches of the armed forces. Three Puerto Ricans were awarded the Medal of Honor:
- On November 8, 1966, Captain Euripides Rubio was mortally wounded at Tay Ninh Province, but was able to place a smoke grenade behind enemy lines, saving the lives of his comrades and turning the tide of the battle.
- On November 20, 1967, Private First Class Carlos Lozada was mortally wounded at Dak To, while providing machine gun cover for his battalion.
- On June 28, 1968, Specialist Hector Santiago-Colon distinguished himself at Quang Tri Province at the cost of his own life while serving as a gunner in a mortar platoon.
In 1968, Major General Salvador E. Felices flew 39 combat bombing missions over North Vietnam in a B-52 Stratofortress as commander of the 306th Bombardment Wing. A total of 345 Puerto Ricans died in Vietnam. Template:Inote ref: Vietnam War Casualties by U.S. Geographic Division & Region http://members aol.com/warlibrary/ww3.htm
Operation El Dorado Canyon
On April 14, 1986, in response to acts of terrorism sponsored by Libyan leader Muammar al-Qaddafi—in particular, the Berlin disco bombing of April 6—and against the backdrop of heightened tension and clashes between the Libyan and U.S. navies over Libya's disputed territorial water claims in the Gulf of Sidra, the United States launched a surprise attack on key facilities in Tripoli and other parts of Libya. The attack was code-named Operation El Dorado Canyon.
With the acquiescence of the British government, 24 U.S. Air Force F-111F fighter-bombers took off from U.S. airbases in England. Attacking in the pre-dawn hours of April 15, their main objectives were 22 airfields, terrorist training camps, and other military installations. Captain Fernando L. Ribas-Dominicci, was one of the pilots who participated in the Libyan air raid (codenamed Operation El Dorado Canyon). His F-111 was shot down in action over the disputed Gulf of Sidra off the Libyan coast. Ribas-Dominicci and his weapons systems officer, Captain Paul F. Laurence, were the only U.S. casualties. Al-Qaddafi, who was also personally targeted, escaped harm, but his daughter was killed.Template:Inote
Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm
In 1990, 1,700 Puerto Rican National Guardsmen were among the 20,000 Hispanics deployed to the Persian Gulf in the Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. Four Puerto Ricans lost their lives, including Captain Manuel Rivera of the Marine Corps, a Puerto Rican from the South Bronx who on January 22, 1991, became the first soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield. Rivera had planned on applying for admission to NASA as an astronaut candidate. However, he was assigned to U.S. Marine Corps VMA 331 upon the outbreak of Operation Desert Shield. He served as personnel officer, intelligence officer and logistics officer and flew in many support missions. Rivera was killed during a support mission over the Persian Gulf. His body was never recovered. On January 30, 1991, the U.S. House of Representatives paid tribute to Rivera.Template:Inote
Somalian Civil War
Operation Restore Hope was an American military operation with the support of the United Nations which was formed to deliver humanitarian aid and restore order to the African nation of Somalia, which was suffering from a severe famine, anarchy, and domination by a number of warlords following the collapse of Siad Barre's Marxist government and the outbreak of the Somalian Civil War. On January 30, 1993, Private First Class Domingo Arroyo Jr., a Marine from Puerto Rico, became the first of the 44 American soldiers killed during the operation. He was ambushed in Mogadishu, the capital of Somalia, by Somali warlords.Template:Inote
Afghanistan and Iraq
It is still too early to determine how many Puerto Ricans will perish in the military campaigns in Afghanistan and Iraq. However, among those that have perished are the first two Puerto Rican women to die in a foreign combat zone. On November 2, 2003, Specialist Frances M. Vega became the first female Puerto Rican soldier born in the United States to die in a war zone. A ground-to-air missile was fired by insurgents in Fallujah and it hit the Chinook transport helicopter which Vega was in. She was one of 16 soldiers who lost their lives in the crash that followed. Specialist Selian A. Diaz was devastated upon learning about the death of her friend. On April 4, 2004, Selian died when a convoy in which she and seven other soldiers were riding came under attack near Baghdad, becoming the first Puerto Rican female soldier born on the island to give her life in war. Currently, there are 1,800 Puerto Rican soldiers stationed in Iraq, Kuwait, Afghanistan and Bosnia and Herzegovina.
Over 1,225 Puerto Ricans have died while serving for the United States.
General William W. Harris was quoted in the Puerto Rico Herald as saying, "No ethnic group has greater pride in itself and its heritage then the Puerto Rican people. Nor have I encountered any that can be more dedicated and zealous in support of the democratic principles for which the United States stands. Many Puerto Ricans have fought to the death to uphold them."
See also
References
- Historic Documents of Puerto Rico
- Hispanics in the American Revolution
- Miller,Paul G. ed (1947) "Historira de Puerto Rico" Rand McNally
- Tribute to Capt. Manuel Rivera
- The Passing of Private Firat Class Domingo Arroyo Jr.
- Puerto Rico Herald: Puerto Rico's Proud Military History
- Casualties in Panama Canal Zone
- Caaulties in Vietnam War
- Killed in Action
