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William Shakespeare
The Chandos portrait, artist and authenticity unconfirmed (National Portrait Gallery, London, currently on display at the National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C.).
The Chandos portrait, artist and authenticity unconfirmed (National Portrait Gallery, London, currently on display at the National Portrait Gallery, Washington, D.C.).
BornApril 1564 (exact date unknown)
Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England
Died23 April 1616
Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England
OccupationPlaywright, poet, actor
Signature
"Shakespeare" redirects here. For other uses, see Shakespeare (disambiguation).

William Shakespeare (IPA: ['wɪliəm 'ʃeɪkspɪə]) (baptised 26 April 1564 – died 23 April 1616)[I] was an English poet and playwright. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer of the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist.[1] His surviving works include approximately 38 plays and 154 sonnets, as well as a variety of other poems.[II]. He is often called England's national poet and the "Bard of Avon" (or simply "The Bard").

Shakespeare was born and raised in Stratford-upon-Avon, and at age eighteen married Anne Hathaway, with whom he had three children. Sometime between 1585 and 1592 Shakespeare moved to London, where he was an actor, writer, and part-owner of the playing company the Lord Chamberlain's Men (later known as the King's Men), with which he found financial success. Shakespeare appears to have retired to Stratford in 1613, where he passed away three years later at the age of 52.

Shakespeare produced most of his known work between 1590 and 1612. He is one of the few playwrights of his time considered to have excelled in both tragedy and comedy, and many of his dramas, including Macbeth, Hamlet and King Lear, are ranked among the greatest plays of Western literature.[2] His works have greatly influenced subsequent theatre and literature, through their innovative use of plot, language, and genre. He is perhaps best known for expressing the wide range of human experience. He created complete human beings at a time when characters in many plays were either flat, or merely archetypes. Thus characters such as Macbeth and Shylock could commit despicable acts, yet still command the audience's sympathy because they were flawed human beings, not monsters. Shakespeare's works have been translated into every major living language[3] and performed all over the world. Shakespeare has even influenced the English language itself, and many of his quotations and neologisms have passed into everyday usage.

Biographers know very little about Shakespeare's private life, especially during the period known as his "lost years".[4] Because of this, there has been considerable speculation about Shakespeare, including whether the works attributed to him were actually written by another playwright, and questions about his sexuality and religious beliefs.[5]

Life

Main article: Shakespeare's life

Early life

John Shakespeare's House in Stratford-Upon-Avon, now the home of the Shakespeare's Birthplace Trust

William Shakespeare (also spelled Shakspere, Shaksper, Shaxper, and Shake-speare)[III][IV] was born in Stratford-upon-Avon in April 1564,[6] the son of John Shakespeare, a successful glover and alderman from Snitterfield, and Mary Arden, a daughter of the gentry.[7] He was their eldest son, and the third child among eight.[8] His birth is widely assumed to have occurred at the family house on Henley Street, the site now known as the "Shakespeare Birthplace"; however, there is no firm evidence and other houses have been claimed as his place of birth.[9][10] The record of Shakespeare's christening is dated 26 April of that year. Because his christening is likely to have happened within 3 days of birth, tradition has settled on 23 April (St George's Day)[V] as his birthday.[11] This date has a convenient symmetry, for Shakespeare died on the same day: 23 April,[I] in 1616.[12]

Shakespeare may have attended King Edward VI Grammar School in central Stratford, but no school records of the time survive.[13] As the son of a prominent town official, he was entitled to attend free of charge.[14] Although Elizabethan-era grammar schools varied in quality, the school probably would have provided an intensive education in Latin grammar and literature.[13] On 28 November 1582, at the age of eighteen, he married twenty-six year old Anne Hathaway.[15] One document identifies her as being "of Temple Grafton," near Stratford, and the marriage may have taken place there.[16] Two neighbours of Hathaway posted bonds stating there were no impediments to the marriage.[17] There appears to have been some haste in arranging the ceremony, presumably because Anne was three months pregnant.[18] On 26 May 1583, Shakespeare's first child, Susanna, was baptised at Stratford.[19] Twin children, a son, Hamnet, and a daughter, Judith, were baptised on 2 February 1585.[20] Hamnet died of the bubonic plague in 1596, aged 11. His date of death is unknown, but he was buried on 11 August.[21]

From his marriage until his appearance on the London theatrical scene, Shakespeare left few historical traces. The period from 1585 (when his twin children were born) until 1592 has become known as Shakespeare's "lost years" because no evidence survives of exactly where he was or why he left Stratford for London.[22] Numerous stories attempt to account for Shakespeare's life during this time: including one that Shakespeare got in trouble for poaching deer, one that he worked as a schoolmaster for the Catholic Hoghton family in Lancashire, and one that he minded the horses of theatre patrons in London. However, little direct evidence supports these stories, and they all appear to have begun circulating after Shakespeare's death.[23][24]

London and theatrical career

By 1592 Shakespeare was a well-known playwright in London and his reputation came under attack by Robert Greene: "an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his Tygers hart wrapt in a Players hyde, supposes he is as well able to bombast out a blanke verse as the best of you: and being an absolute Johannes factotum, is in his owne conceit the onely Shake-scene in a countrey."[25] (Although interpretations differ, the italicised line certainly parodies the phrase "Oh, tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide" which Shakespeare wrote in Henry VI, part 3.)

"All the world's a stage,
and all the men and women merely players:
they have their exits and their entrances;
and one man in his time plays many parts..."

— Famous lines from Shakespeare's comedy

As You Like It, Act II Scene 7

By 1594 Shakespeare was an actor, writer and part-owner of the playing company the Lord Chamberlain's Men, which, like others of the period, was named after its aristocratic sponsor.[26] It became popular enough for the new king, James I, to adopt the company himself, after which it became the King's Men.[26]

In 1596 Shakespeare moved to the parish of St. Helen's, Bishopsgate.[27] In 1598 he appeared at the top of a list of actors in Every Man in His Humour by Ben Jonson,[28] and his name was featured on the title pages of published quartos—a sign that his name itself was a selling point for the volume.[29]

He seems to have moved across the River Thames to Southwark sometime around 1599,[30] the year when he became part-owner of the Globe Theatre.[31] By 1604 he had moved north of the river, lodging just north of St Paul's Cathedral with a Huguenot family named Mountjoy. He helped arrange a marriage between the Mountjoys' daughter and their apprentice Stephen Bellott. When Bellott later sued his father-in-law for defaulting on part of the promised dowry, Shakespeare was called as a witness.[32] According to various documents of legal affairs and commercial transactions, Shakespeare grew rich enough during his stay in London to buy a property in Blackfriars, London, and to own the second-largest house in Stratford, New Place.[33]

There is a tradition that Shakespeare continued to act in various parts of his plays, such as the ghost of Hamlet's father, Adam in As You Like It, and the Chorus in Henry V. This, however, has little scholarly basis.[34]

Later years

Shakespeare's funerary monument in Stratford-upon-Avon

Shakespeare appears to have retired to Stratford in 1613.[13] He died, aged 52, on 23 April 1616[35], the day traditionally presumed to be his birthday. He was married to Anne Hathaway until his death and was survived by her and their two daughters, Susanna and Judith. Although Susanna married Dr John Hall,[36] there are no direct descendants of Shakespeare alive today.[37] Judith married Thomas Quiney but all of their children died very young,[38] and Susanna's daughter Elizabeth Hall died in 1670, marking the end of Shakespeare's lineage.[37]

Shakespeare was buried in the chancel of Holy Trinity Church in Stratford-upon-Avon. He was granted the honour of burial in the chancel, not on account of his literary fame but for purchasing a share of the tithe of the church for £440.[39][40] Shakespeare's funeral monument, on the church wall nearest his grave,[41] has a bust of him posed in the act of writing. Shakespeare may have written his own epitaph:[42]

Good friend, for Jesus' sake forbear,

To dig the dust enclosèd here.
Blest be the man that spares these stones,

And cursed be he that moves my bones.

Works

Plays

Image of Shakespeare from the First Folio (1623), the first collected edition of his plays
Main article: Shakespeare's plays

Many of Shakespeare's plays are reputed to be among the greatest—not only in the English language but in all of Western literature.[43] They have been translated into every major living language[44] and are continually performed all over the world.

Chronology and publication

Shakespeare did not write every word of the plays commonly attributed to him. Several show signs of collaboration, revision, or both. This was not uncommon at the time: collaboration frequently occurred between dramatists.[45]

The chronology of Shakespeare's plays cannot be established accurately. Many of his plays were printed in quarto versions of varying quality during his lifetime; but there is no evidence that Shakespeare was involved in their publication. Some of these have been labelled "bad quartos"; that is, mangled versions of the plays usually believed to have been reconstructed from the faulty memories of some of the players. These bad quartos were described as "stol'n and surreptitious copies" in the First Folio.[46] The First Folio was published by John Heminges and Henry Condell—two of Shakespeare's former colleagues from the King's Men—in 1623, around seven years after Shakespeare's death. It comprised 36 of Shakespeare's plays, and remains the only extant source for seventeen of them.[47][48] The First Folio divided the plays into their traditional categories: tragedies, histories and comedies.

Each play that survives in several texts has signficant textual variants—differences between those texts—both large and small. These corruptions may stem from compositors' misreadings or faulty source material: which may have been Shakespeare's own foul papers, a theatrical prompt-book, or a scribe's fair copy.[49] Other textual variations are harder to discount: for instance, the widely different quarto and folio versions of King Lear. Traditionally, editors have used a conflated Lear which includes every scene from both versions. However, some modern editors see the two as meaningfully distinct works.[50]

Sources

Like many of his contemporaries, Shakespeare based his plays on the works of other playwrights or reworked earlier stories and historical material. Hamlet (c. 1601) is believed to be a reworking of an older, lost play (the so-called Ur-Hamlet),[51] and King Lear of an earlier play, King Leir.[52] For plays on historical subjects, Shakespeare heavily relied on two principal texts: Plutarch's Parallel Lives (from the 1579 English translation by Sir Thomas North) and the 1587 edition of Raphael Holinshed's The Chronicles of England, Scotland, and Ireland.[53] He used the former for his Roman plays and the latter for his history plays, as well as for Macbeth and King Lear. Shakespeare may have borrowed stylistic elements from contemporary playwrights like Christopher Marlowe.[VII]

Performances

Shakespeare's company, the Lord Chamberlain's Men, together with a team of carpenters, built the Globe Theatre from the dismantled timbers of their previous venue.[54] The Globe opened in autumn 1599, in Southwark, on the south bank of the Thames.[55] Most of Shakespeare's post-1599 plays were first staged at the Globe, including Julius Caesar, Macbeth, Othello, King Lear and Hamlet.[56] The Prologue to Henry V refers to its debut venue as "this wooden O".[57] From 1603 the Lord Chamberlain's Men became known as the King's Men after King James, who adopted the company. After 1608 they used the indoor Blackfriars Theatre during the winter and the Globe during the summer.[58]

Among the actors in Shakespeare's playing company were Richard Burbage, Richard Cowley , William Kempe, and both Henry Condell and John Heminges, known today for collecting and editing the plays of Shakespeare's First Folio (1623). Richard Burbage played the title role in the first performances of many of Shakespeare's plays, including Hamlet, Othello, Richard III and King Lear.[59] Richard Cowley played Verges in Much Ado About Nothing. William Kemp played Peter in Romeo and Juliet and possibly Bottom in A Midsummer Night's Dream.

For a history of the performance of Shakespeare's plays, see Performance history.

Sonnets

Main article: Shakespeare's sonnets

"Shall I compare thee to a summer's day?
Thou art more lovely and more temperate..."

— Famous lines from Shakespeare's Sonnet 18. [60]

Shakespeare's sonnets form a collection of 154 poems that deal with themes such as love, beauty, and mortality. The style used has since been called the Shakespearean sonnet, and is still in use today. Poems are divided into 14 lines, with 3 quatrains, followed by a closing couplet; the rhyme scheme being abab cdcd efef gg (each letter corresponding to a rhyming line).[61]

All but two of the 154 poems first appeared in the 1609 publication entitled SHAKE-SPEARE'S Sonnets; while numbers 138 ("When my love swears that she is made of truth") and 144 ("Two loves have I, of comfort and despair") were previously published in a 1599 miscellany entitled The Passionate Pilgrim.[62] The circumstances of the sonnets' publication are unclear. The 1609 text is dedicated to a "Mr. W.H.", described as "the only begetter" of the poems. It is not known whether this was written by Shakespeare or the publisher, Thomas Thorpe, whose initials appear at the bottom of the dedication page. Nor is it known who Mr. W.H. was—though there are many theories, including one that he was the "fair youth" featured in the sonnets[63]—or whether Shakespeare even authorised the publication.[64]

Other poems

Besides his sonnets, Shakespeare wrote three known longer narrative poems: "Venus and Adonis", "The Rape of Lucrece" and "A Lover's Complaint." "Venus and Adonis" and "The Rape of Lucrece" are based on classical works by the Roman poet Ovid, while "A Lover's Complaint" tells the original story of a scorned love—a few scholars question if Shakespeare was the poem's actual author.[65] These poems were all written in the rhyme royal, using the rhyme scheme ababbcc.[66][67] They appear to have been written either in an attempt to win the patronage of a rich benefactor—a common practice of the time—or as the result of such patronage. The Rape of Lucrece and Venus and Adonis were both dedicated to Henry Wriothesley, 3rd Earl of Southampton.[68] Each was written between 1593 and 1594, while theatres were closed because of the plague.[69] Shakespeare also wrote the short poem "The Phoenix and the Turtle", an allegorical look at the death of ideal love. An anthology, The Passionate Pilgrim, was attributed to him upon its first publication in 1599, but only five of its poems would be definitively accredited to Shakespeare, and the attribution was withdrawn in the second edition.[70]

Style

Main article: Shakespeare's style
Detail from statue of Shakespeare in Leicester Square, London.

Although Shakespeare wrote some passages in prose, he wrote a large proportion of his plays and poems in iambic pentameter. In some of his early works, he added punctuation at the end of the iambic pentameter lines to strengthen the rhythm.[71] He and other dramatists at the time used this form of blank verse for much of the dialogue between characters. He used a rhyming couplet to end many scenes in his plays with suspense.[72] A typical example occurs in Macbeth: as Macbeth leaves the stage to murder Duncan (to the sound of a chiming clock), he says,[73]

Hear it not Duncan; for it is a knell
That summons thee to heaven or to hell.

His plays make effective use of the soliloquy, in which a character makes a solitary speech, giving the audience insight to the character's motivations and inner conflict.[74] Among his most famous soliloquies are To be or not to be, All the world's a stage, and What a piece of work is a man. The character either speaks to the audience directly (in the case of choruses, or characters that become epilogues), or more commonly, speaks to himself or herself in the fictional realm.[75] Shakespeare's writing features extensive wordplay of double entendres and clever rhetorical flourishes.[76] Humour is a key element in all of Shakespeare's plays. His works have been considered controversial through the centuries for his use of bawdy punning, to the extent that "virtually every play is shot through with sexual puns"; and in the nineteenth century, popular censored versions of the plays were produced as The Family Shakespeare by Henrietta Bowdler (writing anonymously) and later by her brother Thomas Bowdler.[77] Comic scenes are not confined to Shakespeare's comedies, and are a core element of many of the tragedy and history plays. In Henry IV, Part 1 comic scenes dominate the historical material.[78]

Shakespeare's works express the complete range of human experience.[79] His characters were human beings[80] who commanded the sympathy of audiences when many other playwrights' characters were flat or archetypes.[81] Macbeth commits six murders by the end of the fourth act, and is responsible for many deaths offstage, yet still commands an audience's sympathy until the very end[82] because he is seen as a flawed human being, not a monster.[83] Hamlet knows that he must avenge the death of his father, but he is too indecisive, too self-doubting, to carry this out until he has no choice.[84] His failings cause his downfall, and he exhibits some of the most basic human reactions and emotions. Shakespeare's characters were complex and human in nature. By making the protagonist's character development central to the plot, Shakespeare changed what could be accomplished with drama.[85]

Influence

See also: Shakespeare's influence and Shakespeare's influence on the English language

Shakespeare created some of the most admired plays in Western literature, with Macbeth, Hamlet and King Lear considered among the world's greatest.[86] By expanding the dramatic possibilities of characterisation, plot, language, and genre, Shakespeare came to exert a major influence on subsequent theatre and literature.[87] In Romeo and Juliet, for example, he mixed romance and tragedy to create a new form; until then, romance had not been considered a worthy topic for tragedy.[88] Shakespeare extended the expressive range of soliloquy, using it not only to convey information about characters or events but to explore characters' inner motivations and conflict.[89] His work also heavily influenced later poetry; the Romantic poets even attempted to revive Shakespearian verse drama, though with little success. Literary critic George Steiner described all English poetic dramas from Coleridge to Tennyson as "feeble variations on Shakespearean themes."[90]

Shakespeare influenced novelists such as Thomas Hardy,[91] William Faulkner,[92] and Charles Dickens. The latter quoted Shakespeare liberally, drawing 25 of his titles from his works.[93] Herman Melville frequently used Shakespearean devices such as the extended soliloquy; and Moby Dick's protagonist, Captain Ahab, is a classic tragic hero, inspired by Shakespearean characters such as King Lear.[94] Scholars have also identified 20,000 pieces of music associated with Shakespeare's works, among them two operas by Giuseppe Verdi, Otello and Falstaff, which have earned a critical standing comparable to that of their source plays.[95]

Shakespeare wrote at a time when English grammar and spelling were not yet fixed, and his use of language helped shape modern English, particularly during his rise to fame in the eighteenth century, when writers of dictionaries illustrated word use by quoting the best authors.[96] Samuel Johnson quoted Shakespeare more than any other author in his Dictionary of the English Language, the first authoritative work of its type;[97] and other standardization projects helped ensure the absorption of Shakespearean language into English. Many of Shakespeare's coinages and idiomatic expressions, such as "with bated breath" (Merchant of Venice) and "a foregone conclusion" (Othello), have found their way into everyday English speech.[98]

The literary critic Harold Bloom suggests that Shakespeare has influenced not only contemporary language but the way we think about ourselves, claiming that "all of us were, to a shocking degree, pragmatically reinvented by Shakespeare".[99] He points to Sigmund Freud's use of Shakespearian psychology, in particular that of Hamlet, in devising his influential theories of human nature, and calls Shakespeare "the inventor of psychoanalyis", with Freud its codifier.[100]

Critical reputation

Main articles: Shakespeare's reputation and Timeline of Shakespeare criticism

"He was not of an age, but for all time."

—Ben Jonson, epitaph to Shakespeare.[101]

Shakespeare's contemporaries were usually generous in their response to his work, but he was never revered during his lifetime.[102] In 1598, Francis Meres singled him out from a group of English poets, which he compared to the greats of Greece and Rome, as "the most excellent" among English playwrights in both comedy and tragedy.[103] And the authors of the Parnassus plays performed at St John's College, Cambridge, between 1598 and 1601, mentioned Shakespeare alongside Chaucer, Gower and Spenser.[104] Ben Jonson, in his prefatory poem to the First Folio, extolled Shakespeare as "Soul of the age, the applause, delight, the wonder of our stage"; though he had once remarked that "Shakespeare wanted art".[105]

The critical consensus of the Restoration period, when literary taste favoured the principles of neoclassicism, ranked Shakespeare below John Fletcher and Ben Jonson.[106] The neoclassical critic Thomas Rymer condemned Shakespeare's mixture of the comic and tragic and his failure to observe the three unities of classical theory. Critic and poet John Dryden, however, though often critical of Shakespeare, rated him above Fletcher and Jonson, saying of the latter, "I admire him, but I love Shakespeare".[107] For several decades, Rymer's view held sway; but during the middle years of the eighteenth century, an increasing appreciation of Shakespeare's natural genius began to outweigh the lingering influence of neoclassical criticism; and by the end of the century, Shakespeare was acclaimed as the national poet.[108] The publication of a series of annotated critical editions of his work, most notably those of Samuel Johnson in 1765 and Edmond Malone in 1790, informed and secured his rise to critical pre-eminence.[109] In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Shakespeare's works gradually earned a reputation beyond Britain, benefiting from the advocacy of Voltaire, Goethe, Stendhal and Victor Hugo.[110]

"There is no eminent writer ... whom I can despise so entirely as I despise Shakespeare when I measure my mind against his."

—George Bernard Shaw[111]

During the Romantic era, Shakespeare was championed by such influential figures as the poet and literary philosopher Samuel Taylor Coleridge and the critic August Wilhelm Schlegel, whose translations of the plays were steeped in the spirit of German Romanticism.[112] In the nineteenth century, the critical admiration of Shakespeare's genius evolved into something approaching adulation:[113] "That King Shakespeare," wrote the essayist Thomas Carlyle in 1840, "does not he shine, in crowned sovereignty, over us all, as the noblest, gentlest, yet strongest of rallying signs; indestructible".[114] The Victorians added to Shakespeare’s deification by producing his plays as lavish, reverential spectacles, conceived on the grand scale.[115] At the end of the Victorian period, the critic and playwright George Bernard Shaw mocked the cult of Shakespeare worship as "bardolatry", declaring that the naturalism of Ibsen had rendered Shakespeare obsolete and disposable.[116]

The modernist revolution in the arts during the early twentieth century, however, far from discarding Shakespeare, eagerly enlisted his work in the service of the avant garde. The Expressionists in Germany and the Futurists in pre-revolutionary Moscow mounted modernist productions of Shakespeare's plays; Marxist playwright and director Bertolt Brecht devised an epic theatre under the influence of Shakespeare; and the poet and critic T.S.Eliot argued decisively against Shaw that Shakespeare's "primitiveness" in effect made him truly modern.[117] Eliot, along with G.Wilson Knight and the school of New Criticism, led a movement towards a closer reading of Shakespeare's imagery; but by the 1950s, modernism itself had become a historical phenomenon, replaced by a more diverse set of critical imperatives that no longer regarded the literary text as a sacrosanct artefact with a comprehensible set of meanings.[118] These analytic processes, by the eighties labelled "postmodern", have opened up Shakespeare scholarship to the insights of movements such as structuralism, feminism, African American studies, and queer studies, which reinterpret Shakespeare in the context of contemporary political and cultural concerns.[119] Alongside the traditional, sanctified Shakespeare, widely considered the supreme writer of the English language and the world's greatest dramatist,[1] has evolved a postmodern Shakespeare, adaptable to politicised interpretation and the needs of a diversified cultural market.[119]

Speculation about Shakespeare

Authorship

Main article: Shakespearean authorship question

Around 150 years after Shakespeare's death, doubts began to emerge about the authorship of Shakespeare's works.[120] Alternative candidates proposed include Francis Bacon, Christopher Marlowe, and Edward de Vere, the Earl of Oxford.[121] Although all alternative candidates are rejected in academic circles, popular interest in the subject, particularly the Oxfordian theory, has continued into the 21st century.[122]

Religion

Main article: Shakespeare's religion

Some scholars claim that members of Shakespeare's family were recusant Catholics, at a time when many Catholic practices were illegal, most notably the celebration of mass.[123] The strongest evidence is a Catholic testament of faith signed by John Shakespeare, which was discovered in 1757 in the rafters of his former house in Henley Street, though the manuscript itself is now lost.[124] The prominent Catholic background of Shakespeare's mother, Mary Arden, and the listing of William's daughter Susannah among Stratford residents who "did not appear" at Protestant Easter communion in 1606 add further to the circumstantial evidence.[125] That Shakespeare himself was a Catholic, however, is by no means universally accepted by scholars.[27]

Sexuality

Main article: Sexuality of William Shakespeare

Little direct evidence of Shakespeare's sexuality survives. At 18, he married Anne Hathaway, then 26 and pregnant with Susanna, first of their three children, who was born six months later on 26 May 1583; but after only three years of marriage, he left his family and moved to London.[126] Scholars have pointed to Shakespeare's sonnets, particularly the twenty-six so-called "Dark Lady" sonnets addressed to a married woman, as evidence of affairs with women.[127] In recent decades, some scholars have detected possible homoerotic allusions in Shakespeare's works, concluding that he may have been bisexual; others, however, interpret the same material as the expression of intense friendship rather than sexual love.[128]

Bibliography

Classification

Shakespeare's works include the 36 plays printed in the First Folio of 1623, listed below according to their folio classification as comedies, histories and tragedies.[129] Two plays not included in the First Folio, Pericles, Prince of Tyre, and The Two Noble Kinsmen, are now accepted as part of the canon, scholars acknowledging Shakespeare's major contribution to their composition.[130] No poems were included in the First Folio.

In the late nineteenth century, Edward Dowden classified four of the late comedies as romances, and though many scholars prefer to call them tragicomedies, his term is now the norm.[131] These plays and the associated Two Noble Kinsmen are marked with an asterisk (*) below. In 1896, F.S.Boas coined the term "problem plays" to describe four plays: All’s Well that Ends Well, Measure for Measure, Troilus and Cressida and Hamlet.[132] "Dramas as singular in theme and temper cannot be strictly called comedies or tragedies", he wrote. "We may therefore borrow a convenient phrase from the theatre of today and class them together as Shakespeare's problem plays." [133] The term, much debated and sometimes applied to other plays, remains in use, though Hamlet is definitively classed as a tragedy.[134]

Plays thought to be only partly written by Shakespeare are marked with a † symbol below. Other works occasionally attributed to him are listed as lost plays or apocrypha.

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ^ Dates use the Julian Calendar. Under the Gregorian calendar, Shakespeare was baptised on May 6 and died on May 3.[135]
  2. ^ The exact figures are unknowable. See Shakespearean authorship, Shakespeare's collaborations and Shakespeare Apocrypha for further details.
  3. ^ The point is illustrated by reference to the Stratford Parish Register of 1579: it records the arrangements for the burial of Shakespeare's sister, Anne: "Mr Shaxpers dawter".[136]
  4. ^ Spelling was not fixed in Elizabethan times, hence the variation.[137]
  5. ^ An essay by Harold Brooks suggests Marlowe's Edward II influenced Shakespeare's Richard III,[138] Other scholars discount this, pointing out that the parallels are commonplace. [139]
  6. ^ Most scholars believe that Pericles was co-written with George Wilkins.[140]
  7. ^ The Two Noble Kinsmen was co-written with John Fletcher. [141]
  8. ^ Henry VI, Part 1 is often thought to be the work of a group of collaborators; but some scholars, for example Michael Hattaway, believe the play was wholly written by Shakespeare.[142]
  9. ^ Henry VIII was co-written with John Fletcher. [143]
  10. ^ Brian Vickers argues that Titus Andronicus was co-written with George Peele, though Jonathan Bate, the play's most recent editor for the Arden Shakespeare believes it wholly the work of Shakespeare.[144]
  11. ^ Brian Vickers and others argue that Timon of Athens was co-written with Thomas Middleton, though some commentators disagree.[145]
  12. ^ The text of Macbeth which survives has plainly been altered by later hands. Most notable is the inclusion of two songs from Thomas Middleton's play The Witch (1615)[146]
  13. ^ Cardenio was apparently co-written with John Fletcher.[147]

References

  1. ^ a b "William Shakespeare". Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-06-14., "William Shakespeare". MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-06-14., "William Shakespeare". Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2007-06-14. Cite error: The named reference "encs" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  2. ^ Brown, Calvin Smith; Harrison, Robert L. (1970) Masterworks of World Literature Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 4.
  3. ^ Craig, Leon Harold (2003). Of Philosophers and Kings: Political Philosophy in Shakespeare's "Macbeth" and "King Lear". University of Toronto Press. p. 3. ISBN 0-802-08605-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  4. ^ Honan, Park (2000 Edition). Shakespeare:A Life. USA: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0192825275. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  5. ^ Taylor, Gary (1990). Reinventing Shakespeare: A Cultural History from the Restoration to the Present. Hogarth Press. pp. 145, 210–23, 261–5. ISBN 0-7012-0888-0.
  6. ^ Schoenbaum, Samuel (1987). William Shakespeare: A Compact Documentary Life. Oxford University Press. pp. 24–5. ISBN 0-19-505161-0.
  7. ^ Schoenbaum, 14-22
  8. ^ Schoenbaum, 23–4
  9. ^ Schoenbaum, 18
  10. ^ Michell, John (1996). Who Wrote Shakespeare?. London: Thames & Hudson. pp. 62–63. ISBN 0-500-28113-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  11. ^ Schoenbaum, 24
  12. ^ Schoenbaum, 296
  13. ^ a b c Mobley, Jonnie Patricia (1996). Manual for Hamlet: Access to Shakespeare. Lorenz Educational Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 1-885-56409-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help) Cite error: The named reference "ManualHamlet" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  14. ^ Ackroyd, 53-61
  15. ^ Schoenbaum, 77–8
  16. ^ Schoenbaum, 86–7
  17. ^ Schoenbaum, 78–9
  18. ^ Wood, Michael (2003). Shakespeare. New York: Basic Books, 83. ISBN 0-465-09264-0.
  19. ^ Schoenbaum, 93
  20. ^ Schoenbaum, 94
  21. ^ Schoenbaum, 224
  22. ^ Honigmann, E. A. J. (1999). Shakespeare: The Lost Years (2nd ed.). Manchester University Press. p. 1. ISBN 0-719-05425-7. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  23. ^ Schoenbaum, 95-117
  24. ^ Wood, 97-109
  25. ^ Greenblatt, Stephen (2004). Will in the World How Shakespeare Became Shakespeare. London: Jonathan Cape. p. 210. ISBN 0-224-06276X. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  26. ^ a b Aaron, Melissa D. (2003) Global Economics: A History of the Theatre Business, the Chamberlain's/King's Men, and Their Plays, 1599–1642. Newark, DE: University of Delaware Press.
  27. ^ a b Holland, Peter. (Sept 2004) "Shakespeare, William (1564–1616)", Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press; online ed, Jan 2007. Retrieved 25 June 2007
  28. ^ Adams, J. Q. (1923). A Life of William Shakespeare. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p. 275. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  29. ^ Knutson, Roslyn (2001). Playing Companies and Commerce in Shakespeare's Time. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 17. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  30. ^ Shapiro, James (2005). 1599 A Year in the Life of William Shakespeare. Faber and Faber. p. 122. ISBN 0-571-21480-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  31. ^ Nagler, A.M. (1958). Shakespeare's Stage. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. p. 8. ISBN 0-300-02689-7.
  32. ^ Schoenbaum, 260–4
  33. ^ Bentley, G. E. (1961). Shakespeare: A Biographical Handbook. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 36. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  34. ^ Ackroyd, Peter (2005). Shakespeare: The Biography. London: Chatto and Windus. p. 220. ISBN 1-856-19726-3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  35. ^ Schoenbaum, 24–6, 296
  36. ^ Schoenbaum, 287
  37. ^ a b Schoenbaum, 319
  38. ^ Schoenbaum, 296
  39. ^ Wilson, Ian (1999). Shakespeare: The Evidence. St. Martin's Press. p. 309. ISBN 0-312-20005-6. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  40. ^ Deelman, Christian (1964). The Great Shakespeare Jubilee. Viking Press. p. 15. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  41. ^ Holderness, Graham (2001). Cultural Shakespeare: Essays in the Shakespeare Myth. Univ of Hertfordshire Press. pp. 152–154. ISBN 1-902-80611-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  42. ^ Schoenbaum, 306
  43. ^ Gaskell, Philip (1998). Landmarks in English Literature. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 13–14. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  44. ^ Craig, Leon Harold (2003). Of Philosophers and Kings: Political Philosophy in Shakespeare's "Macbeth" and "King Lear". University of Toronto Press. p. 3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  45. ^ Thomson, Peter Conventions of Playwriting in Wells, Stanley (2003). Shakespeare: an Oxford Guide. Oxford University Press. p. 49. ISBN 0-19-924522-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  46. ^ Pollard, Alfred W. (1909). Shakespeare Quartos and Folios. London: Methuen. pp. xi. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  47. ^ "Covering EJ." The English Journal. (Dec 1993) 82.8, 7
  48. ^ Jackson, MacD. P., The Transmission of Shakespeare's Text in Wells, Stanley (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies (Cambridge University Press, 1986), 166. ISBN 0-521-31841-6
  49. ^ Bowers, Fredson (1955). On Editing Shakespeare and the Elizabethan Dramatists. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 8–10. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  50. ^ Taylor, Gary (1983). The Division of the Kingdoms. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 0198129505. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  51. ^ Shakespeare, William (1982). Harold Jenkins (ed.). Hamlet. London: Methuen. pp. 82–85. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  52. ^ Hunter, G. K. (1997). English Drama 1586-1642: The Age of Shakespeare. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 494–496. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  53. ^ Dutton, Richard and Howard, Jean, ed. (2003). A Companion to Shakespeare's Works: The Histories. Blackwell Publishing. p. 147. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  54. ^ Foakes, R. A. "Playhouses and Players" in Branmuller, A. R. and Hattaway, Michael "The Cambridge Companion to English Renaissance Drama", 6
  55. ^ Nagler, A.M. Shakespeare's Stage. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-02689-7, 7.
  56. ^ Foakes, 6
  57. ^ Henry V, Prologue, line 13.
  58. ^ Foakes, 33
  59. ^ Ringler, William Jr. (1997) "Shakespeare and His Actors: Some Remarks on King Lear" from Lear from Study to Stage: Essays in Criticism edited by James Ogden and Arthur Hawley Scouten, Fairleigh Dickinson Univ Press, 127.
  60. ^ Shakespeare, William (1914). "Sonnet 18". The Oxford Shakespeare: the Complete Works of William Shakespeare. Oxford University Press. Retrieved 2007-06-22. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  61. ^ Schiffer, James (1999). Shakespeare's Sonnets: Critical Essays. Routledge, 6. ISBN 0815323654.
  62. ^ Booth, 333, 342, 545
  63. ^ Smith, Hallet. (1974) "Sonnets," The Riverside Shakespeare, 1745-8. Houghton Mifflin
  64. ^ Booth, 545.
  65. ^ Jackson, MacD P. "A Lover's Complaint Revisited" from Shakespeare Studies edited by Susan Zimmermann, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2004, 267-294.
  66. ^ Hyland, Peter. An Introduction to Shakespeare's Poems Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, 96.
  67. ^ Burrow, Colin. Introduction to The Complete Sonnets and Poems by William Shakespeare, Oxford University Press, 2002, 55.
  68. ^ Chambers, Edmund Kerchever (1936). Shakespeare: A Survey of Facts and Problems. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 1.61. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  69. ^ Frye, Roland Mushat (Jul 2005). Shakespeare: The Art of the Dramatist. Routledge Library Editions: Shakespeare. p. 288. ISBN 0-415-35289-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  70. ^ Feuillerat, Albert (1927). Venus and Adonis, Lucrece, and the Minor Poems. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 187. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  71. ^ Frye, Roland Mushat (Jul 2005). Shakespeare: The Art of the Dramatist. Routledge. p. 185. ISBN 0-415-35289-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
  72. ^ Miller, Carol (2001). Irresistible Shakespeare. New York: Scholastic Professional. p. 18. ISBN 0-439-09844-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  73. ^ Macbeth Act 2, Scene 1
  74. ^ Clemen, Wolfgang H. (1987) Shakespeare's Soliloquies, trans. Charity S. Stokes, Routledge, 11.
  75. ^ Maurer, Margaret (2005). "Shakespeare and the History of Soliloquies". Shakespeare Quarterly. 56 (4): 504. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |month= (help) Retrieved from Proquest on June 6, 2007.
  76. ^ Mahood, Molly Maureen (1988). Shakespeare's Wordplay. Routledge. p. 9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  77. ^ Partridge, Eric (1947). Shakespeare's Bawdy. London: Routledge. pp. preface, xi. ISBN 0-415-05076-6.; Wells, Stanley (2004). Looking for Sex in Shakespeare. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1, 19–20. ISBN 0-521-54039-9.
  78. ^ Kastan, David Scott (ed.) King Henry IV, Part 1 (The Arden Shakespeare:Third Series, Thomson, London 2002) Introduction, 14.
  79. ^ Reich, John J., and Cunningham, Lawrence S. Culture And Values: A Survey of the Humanities Thomson Wadsworth, 2005, 354.
  80. ^ Webster, Margaret. Shakespeare Without Tears Courier Dover Publications, 2000, 194.
  81. ^ Bennett, J. A. W; Gray, Douglas, et al. The Oxford History of English Literature: The Age of Shakespeare Oxford University Press, 1997, 503; Leggatt, Alexander. "Arden of Faversham", in Shakespeare Survey, Stanley Wells (editor), Cambridge University Press, 2002, 121.
  82. ^ Dotterer, Ronald L. Shakespeare: Text, Subtext, and Context Susquehanna University Press, 1989, 91.
  83. ^ McCarthy, Mary. "General MacBeth" from The Tragedy of Macbeth by William Shakespeare, Signet Classic, 1998, 162.
  84. ^ Berryman, John. Berryman's Shakespeare: Essays, Letters and Other Writings Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2001, 114-116.
  85. ^ Frye, Roland Mushat. (2005) Shakespeare:The Art of the Dramatist. Routledge, 118. ISBN 0-415-35289-4
  86. ^ Gaskell, Philip (1998). Landmarks in English Literature. Edinburgh University Press. pp. 13–14. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Brown, Calvin Smith; Harrison, Robert L. Masterworks of World Literature Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1970, 4.
  87. ^ Chambers, Edmund Kerchever (1944). Shakespearean Gleanings. Oxford University Press. p. 35. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  88. ^ Levenson, Jill L. Introduction to Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare, Oxford University Press, 2000, 49-50.
  89. ^ Clemen, Wolfgang H., Shakespeare's Soliloquies Routledge, 1987, 179.
  90. ^ Dotterer, Ronald L. (1989). Shakespeare: Text, Subtext, and Context. Susquehanna University Press. p. 108. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  91. ^ Millgate, Michael, and Wilson, Keith, Thomas Hardy Reappraised: Essays in Honour of Michael Millgate University of Toronto Press, 2006, 38.
  92. ^ Kolin, Philip C. Shakespeare and Southern Writers: A Study in Influence. University Press of Mississippi. p. 124. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  93. ^ Gager, Valerie L (1996). Shakespeare and Dickens: The Dynamics of Influence. Cambridge University Press. pp. 163, 186, 251. ISBN 052145526X. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  94. ^ Bryant, John (1998). "Moby Dick as Revolution", The Cambridge Companion to Herman Melville. Robert Steven Levine (ed.). Cambridge University Press, 82; Falk, Robert (2002). "Shakespeare in America: A Survey to 1900", Shakespeare Survey. Allardyce Nicoll (ed.). Cambridge University Press, 116.
  95. ^ Gross, John (2003). "Shakespeare's Influence", in Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide. Wells, Stanley and Orlin, Lena Cowen (eds.). Oxford University Press, 641–2. ISBN 0-19-924522-3
  96. ^ Crystal, David (2001). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 55–65, 74. ISBN 0521401798.
  97. ^ Wain, John (1975). Samuel Johnson. Viking, 194. ISBN 0670616710.
  98. ^ Lynch, Jack. Samuel Johnson's Dictionary: Selections from the 1755 Work that Defined the English Language. Delray Beach, FL: Levenger Press (2002), 12; Crystal, David (2001). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University Press, 63. ISBN 0521401798.
  99. ^ Bloom, Harold (1999). Shakespeare: The Invention of the Human. New York: Riverhead Books, 17. ISBN 1-573-22751-X.
  100. ^ Quoted by Nicholas Royle (2000), "To Be Announced", in The Limits of Death: Between Philosophy and Psychoanalysis, Joanne Morra, Mark Robson, Marquard Smith (eds.). Manchester University Press. ISBN 0719057515.
  101. ^ Quoted in Bartlett, John, Familiar Quotations, 10th edition, 1919. Retrieved on 14 June 2007.
  102. ^ Dominik, Mark (1988). Shakespeare–Middleton Collaborations. Alioth Press, 9. ISBN 0945088019; Grady, Hugh (2001). "Shakespeare Criticism 1600-1900", in deGrazia, Margreta and Wells, Stanley (eds.), The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Cambridge University Press, 267. ISBN 0-521-65094-1.
  103. ^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 265; Greer, Germaine (1986). William Shakespeare. Oxford University Press, 9. ISBN 0-19-287538-8
  104. ^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 266
  105. ^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 266-7
  106. ^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 269.
  107. ^ Dryden, John, "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy" (1668), cited by Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 269; the quotation appears in Levin, Harry (1986). "Critical Approaches to Shakespeare from 1660 to 1904", 215, in The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies, Wells, Stanley (ed.). Cambridge University Press.
  108. ^ Dobson, Michael (1992). The Making of the National Poet: Shakespeare, Adaptation and Authorship, 1660-1769. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Cited by Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 270.
  109. ^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 270–271; Levin, 217.
  110. ^ Grady cites Voltaire's Philosophical Letters (1733); Goethe's Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (1795); Stendhal's two-part pamphlet Racine et Shakespeare (1823-5); and Victor Hugo's prefaces to Cromwell (1827) and William Shakespeare (1864). Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 272–274.
  111. ^ Shaw, George Bernard, "Blaming the Bard", in The Saturday Review, 26 Sep 1896, quoted in Wilson, Edwin (ed.) (1961), "Shaw on Shakespeare", Dutton & Co., 49-56, at 50.
  112. ^ Levin, 223
  113. ^ Sawyer, Robert (2003). Victorian Appropriations of Shakespeare. Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 113. ISBN 0838639704.
  114. ^ Carlisle, Thomas (1840), "On Heroes, Hero Worship & the Heroic in History". Quoted in Smith, Emma (2004), Shakespeare's Tragedies, Blackwell, 37. ISBN 0631220100.
  115. ^ Schoch, Richard (2002). "Pictorial Shakespeare", in The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Stage, Wells, Stanley and Stanton, Sarah (eds.), Cambridge University Press, 58-59
  116. ^ Grady, Shakespeare Criticism, 276
  117. ^ Grady, Hugh (2001), "Modernity, Modernism and Postmodernism", in Shakespeare and Modern Theatre: The Performance of Modernity. Bristol, Michael, and Kathleen McLuskie (eds.), Routledge, 22–6. ISBN 0415219841.
  118. ^ Hawkes, 292
  119. ^ a b Grady, Modernity, Modernism and Postmodernism, 29.
  120. ^ McMichael, George (1962). Shakespeare and His Rivals, A Casebook on the Authorship Controversy. New York: Odyssey Press. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  121. ^ Gibson, H.N. (2005). The Shakespeare Claimants: A Critical Survey of the Four Principle Theories Concerning the Authorship of the Shakespearean Plays. Routledge. pp. 48, 72, 124. ISBN 0415352908. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  122. ^ Kathman, David "The Question of Authorship" in Wells, Stanley (ed.) (2003). Shakespeare: An Oxford Guide. Oxford University Press. pp. 620, 625–626. ISBN 0-19-924522-3. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help); Love, Harold (2002). Attributing Authorship: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 194–209. ISBN 0521789486; Schoenbaum, S. (1993). Shakespeare's Lives (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-283155-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Holderness, Graham (1988). The Shakespeare Myth. Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-7190-2635-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  123. ^ Pritchard, Arnold (1979). Catholic Loyalism in Elizabethan England. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. p. 3. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  124. ^ Wood, Michael (2003). Shakespeare. New York: Basic Books. pp. 75–78. ISBN 0-465-09264-0. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  125. ^ Wood, 78; Ackroyd, Peter (2005). Shakespeare: The Biography. Doubleday. pp. 29, 451. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  126. ^ Greenblatt, 120-121, 143.
  127. ^ Fort, J. A. "The Story Contained in the Second Series of Shakespeare's Sonnets." The Review of English Studies. (Oct 1927) 3.12, 406-414
  128. ^ Charles, Casey (Fall 1998). "Was Shakespeare gay? Sonnet 20 and the politics of pedagogy". College Literature. Retrieved 2007-04-02. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help); Pequigney, Joseph (1985). Such Is My Love: A Study of Shakespeare's Sonnets University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226655636; Shakespeare, William (1996). The Sonnets. G.Blakemore Evans (ed.) Cambridge University Press; Commentary, 132. ISBN 0521222257.
  129. ^ Boyce, Charles (1996). Dictionary of Shakespeare. Wordsworth, 91, 193, 513. ISBN 1853263729.
  130. ^ Kathman, 629; Boyce, 91.
  131. ^ Edwards, Phillip, "Shakespeare's Romances, 1900-1957," Shakespeare Survey 11 (1958): 1-10; Snyder, Susan, and Curren-Aquino, Deborah, T (eds.) (2007). The Winter's Tale. Cambridge University Press. Introduction. ISBN 0521221587.
  132. ^ Schanzer, Ernest (1963). The Problem Plays of Shakespeare. Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1–10. ISBN 0-4153-5305-X.
  133. ^ Boas, F.S (1896), Shakspere and his Predecessors, 345. Quoted by Schanzer, 1.
  134. ^ Schanzer, 1; Bloom, 325–380; Berry, Ralph (2005). Changing Styles in Shakespeare. Routledge, 37. ISBN 0415353165.
  135. ^ "Calendar Conversions". Yahoo! Geocities. Yahoo!. Retrieved 2007-06-14.
  136. ^ Ackroyd, 66
  137. ^ French, George Russell (1868). Shakspeareanna Genealogica. Cited by Michell, 14.
  138. ^ Morris, Brian Robert (1968). Christopher Marlowe. New York: Hill and Wang, 65-94. ISBN 0-809-06780-3
  139. ^ Taylor, Gary (1988). William Shakespeare: A Textual Companion. Oxford University Press, 116. ISBN 0198129149
  140. ^ Bloom, 30; Hoeniger, F.D (ed.) (1963). Pericles. Arden Shakespeare. Introduction. ISBN 0174435886; Jackson, Macdonald P (2003). Defining Shakespeare: Pericles as Test Case. Oxford University Press, 83. ISBN 0199260508.
  141. ^ Potter, Lois (ed.) (1997). The Two Noble Kinsmen. The Arden Shakespeare, Thomson. Introduction, 1-6. ISBN 1-904271-18-9
  142. ^ Edward Burns (ed.) (2000). King Henry VI, Part 1. The Arden Shakespeare, Thomson. Introduction, 73-84; Hattaway (ed.) (1990). The First Part of King Henry VI by William Shakespeare. Cambridge University Press. Introduction, 43. ISBN 052129634X.
  143. ^ Gordon McMullan (ed.) (2000). King Henry VIII. The Arden Shakespeare, Thomson. Introduction, 198.
  144. ^ Vickers, Brian (2002). Shakespeare, Co-Author: A Historical Study of Five Collaborative Plays. Oxford University Press. 8. ISBN 0199269165; Dillon, Janette (2007). The Cambridge Introduction to Shakespeare's Tragedies. Cambridge University Press, 25. ISBN 0521858178.
  145. ^ Vickers, Brian (2002). Shakespeare, Co-Author: A Historical Study of Five Collaborative Plays. Oxford University Press. 8; Dominik, 16; Farley-Hills, David (1990). Shakespeare and the Rival Playwrights, 1600-06. Routledge, 171–172. ISBN 0415040507.
  146. ^ Brooke, Nicholas, (ed.) (1998). The Tragedy of Macbeth. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 57.
  147. ^ Bradford, Gamaliel Jr. "The History of Cardenio by Mr. Fletcher and Shakespeare." Modern Language Notes (February 1910) 25.2, 51-56; Freehafer, John. "'Cardenio', by Shakespeare and Fletcher." PMLA. (May 1969) 84.3, 501-513.

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