User:Ish ishwar/draft

a

i forget what lang this is ???

		Bilabial	Labio-dental	Dental		Retroflex	Palatal	Velar		Uvular		Glottal
				central	lateral			plain	labial	plain	labial
Stop		p		t			k	kʷ	q	qʷ
Nasal	voiceless	m̥		n̥			ŋ̥	ŋ̥ʷ
	voiced	m		n			ŋ	ŋʷ
Fricative	voiceless		f		ɬ	s̱ˁ	ç	x	xʷ	χ	χʷ	h
	voiced		v		ɮ	ẕˁ		ɣ	ɣʷ	ʁ	ʁʷ
Approximant	central					j		w
	lateral			l

apachean hist. ling

• Basso, Keith H.; & Opler, Morris E. (Eds.). (1971). Apachean culture history and ethnology. Anthropological papers of the University of Arizona (No. 21). Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
• Hale, Kenneth; & Harris, David. (1979). Historical linguistics and archeology. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Southwest (pp. 170-177). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 9). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Krauss, Michael E. (1964). The proto-Athapaskan-Eyak and the problem of Na-Dene, I: The phonology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 30 (2), 118-131.
• Krauss, Michael E. (1965). The proto-Athapaskan-Eyak and the problem of Na-Dene, II: The morphology. International Journal of American Linguistics, 31 (1), 18-28.
• Krauss, Michael E. (1973). Na-Dene. In T. A. Sebeok (Ed.), Linguistics in North America (pp. 903-978). Current trends in linguistics. The Hague: Mouton.
• Krauss, Michael E. (1979). Na-Dene and Eskimo. In L. Campbell & M. Mithun (Eds.), The languages of native America: Historical and comparative assessment. Austin: University of Texas Press.
• Opler, Edward E. (1983). The Apachean culture pattern and its origins. In A. Ortiz (Ed.), Southwest (pp. 368-392). W. C. Sturtevant (Gen. Ed.), Handbook of North American Indians (Vol. 10). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Ortiz, Alfonso (Ed.). (1979 & 1983). Southwest (Vols. 9 & 10). Handbook of North American Indians; Sturtevant, W. C. (Ed.). Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution.
• Sapir, Edward. (1916). Time perspective in aboriginal American culture: A study in method. Anthropology series (No. 13), memoirs of the Canadian Geological Survey 90. Ottawa: Government Printing Bureau.
• Sapir, Edward. (1931). The concept of phonetic law as tested in primitive languages by Leonard Bloomfield. In S. A. Rice (Ed.), Methods in social science: A case book (pp. 297-306). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Viet

ask Pham about vowels

Endnotes

Below are four linguists' different descriptions of Vietnamese vowels. Which one is correct? You will have to make your own observations. One thing to keep in mind is that Thompson and Han are not native speakers of Vietnamese, but Nguyễn and Pham are native speakers.

Thompson's vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	iː		ɯː    uː
Upper-Mid	eː		ɤː    oː
Lower-Mid	ɛː		ʌ      ɔː
Upper-Low		ɐ
Lower-Low	aː

Han's vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	i	ɨ	u
Upper-Mid	e		o
Lower-Mid	ɛ	ɜː/ɜ	ɔ
Low		ɐː/ɐ

Nguyễn's vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	i		ɯ    u
Mid	e	əː/ə	o
Low	a	ɐː/ɐ	ɒ

Pham's vowels

	Front	Central	Back
High	i	ɨ	u
Upper-Mid	e	ɘː/ɘ	o
Lower-Mid	ɛː/ɛ		ɔ
Low		ɐ

comparison of orthography & vowel descriptions

Orthography	this website	Thompson	Han	Nguyễn	Pham
i	i	i	i	i	i
ê	e	e	e	e	e
e	ɛ	ɛ	ɛ	a	ɛ
ư	ɨ	ɯ	ɨ	ɯ	ɨ
u	u	u	u	u	u
ô	o	o	o	o	o
o	ɔ	ɔ	ɔ	ɒ	ɔ
ơ	əː	ɤ	ɜː	əː	ɘː
â	ɜ	ʌ	ɜ	ə	ɘ
a	ɐː	a	ɐː	ɐː
ă	ɐ	ɐ	ɐ	ɐ

Tonkin

Tonkin delta (south of Hanoi).