Denialism
Denialism is a term used to describe the position of governments, business groups, interest groups or individuals who reject propositions that are strongly supported by scientific or historical evidence and seek to influence policy processes and outcomes accordingly.[1] The term has been used in relation to 'holocaust denial', 'AIDS reappraisal',[2][3][4][5][6] and 'climate change denial'[7][8][9] and the creation-evolution controversy.[10]
The terms "denialism", "denialist" and "denier", which have been in use since the mid-1990s, are generally viewed by those so labeled as pejorative since they carry the implication that the person or group denies scientific or historical truths. Those to whom the term 'denialists' is applied have used terms such as 'revisionist', 'skeptic', 'contrarian', or 'dissident' to describe their own position.
Methodology and Tactics
Denialism is a form of propaganda, and covers a spectrum of activities from simply like-minded individuals signing letters of dissent to elaborate and professional grey or black propaganda campaigns that incorporate legitimate advertising and marketing agencies using false flag tactics.
Denialism can arise from personal ideologies, corporations seeking greater profits or to safeguard profits, industry groups seeking to protect markets from damaging facts and information, political groups seeking to further agendas, or combinations of these working in concert as interest groups on issues of mutual interest. Despite the disparity between these groups and the motives behind them, the tactics used by denialists are largely similar. Common features include:[11]
- Conspiracy - Such as suggesting scientists have an ulterior motive for their research or they are part of some hidden plan or agenda.[12]
- Selectivity - Relying upon discredited or flawed work supporting their idea while dismissing more credible work or presenting discredited or superseded papers to make a field look like it's based on weak research. The selective use of evidence by denialists includes quote mining and cherry picking.
- False experts - Citing paid, partisan scientists or self-appointed 'experts,' often from an unrelated field, inflating favorable 'evidence' while discounting the contradictory, often while misrepresenting the significance of each.[13][14][15]
- Impossible expectations - Seeking to prevent the implementation of sound policies or acceptance of a theory by citing the absence of 'complete' or 'absolute' knowledge.
- Misrepresentations and logical fallacies - Denialists sometimes employ one or more of these logical fallacies: red herring, straw man, appeal to consequences, and argument by metaphor. An example of the misuse of metaphors and analogies is the watchmaker analogy. A common misrepresentation used in the intelligent design movement is the intentional use of the term Darwinism when what is being objected to is evolution. An example of an appeal to consequences is the common neo-creationist claim that an acceptance of evolution (Darwinism) leads to social ills such as the atrocities committed by Hitler's Nazi regime.[16]
Additional propaganda techniques that, while sometimes convincing, are not necessarily valid include: flag-waving, glittering generalities, intentional vagueness, oversimplification, rationalization, slogans, stereotyping, testimonial, unstated assumption.
Ideological denialism
Ideologies that conflict with commonly accepted scientific theories or facts can drive their holders to engage in personal forms of denial to favor personal beliefs or to avoid having to reconcile those beliefs with evidence that contradicts them.[17]
Common forms of denialism arising from ideologies are holocaust denial, AIDS reappraisal, the anti-vaccination movement and the creation-evolution controversy.[18]
Corporate denialism
International corporations such as ExxonMobil have been heavily criticized for contributing to scientists and scientific experimentation disputing the scientific consensus on global climate change.[7] ExxonMobil has strenously denied the accusations, stating that "The recycling of this type of discredited conspiracy theory diverts attention from the real challenge at hand: how to provide the energy needed to improve global living standards while also reducing greenhouse gas emissions."[19] Newsweek [20] and Mother Jones [21] have published articles stating corporations have funding the climate change denial "denial industry".
Political denialism
The current Bush Administration's replacement of previous science advisors with industry experts or scientists tied to industry and its refusal to submit the Kyoto Protocol for ratification due to uncertainties they assert are present in the climate change issue have been cited as examples politically-motivated denialism in the press.[22][23][24] The general class of genocide denial, of which holocaust denial is a subset, is another form of political denialism.[25]
Conspiracy theories and cranks
Denialism also takes the form of conspiracy theories, such as the government blew up the World Trade Center, not terrorists, and the Apollo Moon Landing hoax accusations.
Mark and Chris Hoofnagle, brothers who have worked together in identifying the activities of activists and defining the topic, say cranks are a common form of denialist.[26] Chris, an attorney and consumer protection advocate, is the author of The Denialists' Deck of Cards which defines the common attributes of denialism.[27]
See also
- Denial
- Agnotology
- Anti-intellectualism
- Artificial controversy
- Astroturfing
- Disinformation
- False flag
- Fear, uncertainty and doubt
- Non-denial denial
- Obscurantism
- Politicization of science
- Politics of global warming
- Propaganda
- Revisionism
References
- ^ See, e.g., Stoff, Rick (2007). "'Denialism' and muddying the waters". St. Louis Journalism Review. 37 (296): 21–33, 2p.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - ^ Kim, Richard (2007-03-02). "Harper's Publishes AIDS Denialist". The Nation.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - ^ Cotton, John L. and Randall J. Scalise. AIDS Denial is Pseudoscience. Department of Physics Southern Methodist University.
- ^ Sitze, Adam (2004). "Denialism" (PDF). South Atlantic Quarterly. 103 (4): 769–811.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - ^ Watson, James (2006). "Scientists, activists sue South Africa's AIDS 'denialists'" (PDF). Nature Medicine. 12 (1): 6.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - ^ "Editorial: Denying science" (PDF). Nature Medicine. 12 (4): 369. 2006.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - ^ a b The denial industry George Monbiot. Guardian Unlimited, September 19, 2006.
- ^ Ellen Goodman (9 February 2007). "No change in political climate". The Boston Globe. Retrieved 2008-08-30.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Deniers of global warming harm us Joel Connelly. Seattle Post-Intelligencer, July 10, 2007.
- ^ "The dangers of creationism in education". Council of Europe. Retrieved 2007-08-03.
- ^ Mark Hoofnagle, "What is Denialism?" March 18, 2007.
- ^ The Denialists Michael Specter. The New Yorker, March 12, 2007.
- ^ [1]
- ^ [2]
- ^ Train wreck, thy name is Egnor! Orac. Respectful Insolence, March 12, 2007
- ^ Does Darwinism Devalue Human Life? Richard Weikart. The Human Life Review. Discovery Institute, March 1 2004.
- ^ The dead hand of denialism Edwin Cameron. Mail & Guardian (Johannesburg), April 17, 2003.
- ^ Smith TC, Novella SP (2007) HIV Denial in the Internet Era. PLoS Med 4(8): e256 doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040256
- ^ http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2007/08/07/gore-exxon.html
- ^ http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20122975/site/newsweek/
- ^ http://www.motherjones.com/news/featurex/2005/05/exxon_chart.html
- ^ The Truth About Denial Sharon Begley. Newsweek August 13, 2007.
- ^ Timeline, Climate Change and its Naysayers Newsweek August 13, 2007.
- ^ Dickinson, Tim (2007-06-20). "The Secret Campaign of President Bush's Administration To Deny Global Warming". Current Biology. Rolling Stone. Retrieved 2007-07-14.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ See, e.g., Elizabeth Strakosch (2005) "The Political Methodology of Genocide Denial" [3]
- ^ Mark Hoofnagle. Crank HOWTO Denialism Defined. Denialism Blog. ScienceBlogs. May 31, 2007.
- ^ Chris Hoofnagle. Denialists' Deck of Cards: An Illustrated Taxonomy of Rhetoric Used to Frustrate Consumer Protection Effort.
External links
- Smith TC, Novella SP (2007) HIV Denial in the Internet Era. PLoS Med 4(8): e256 doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040256 - Compares HIV denialism to other major forms of denialism.
- The denial industry, The Guardian, 19 September 2006
- ExxonSecrets.org, Using data found in Exxon official documents, this site lists those organizations that have either taken money from Exxon or that work closely with those that have, and which present unfavorable findings from other organizations as "junk science" while labelling the findings they welcome as "sound science"
- Denialism blog at Scienceblogs
- Denialists Give Up Blog.
- The Denialists' Deck of Cards explains how corporate lobbyists use denialism tactics to defeat reform legislation.
- Denialism.com A resource for identifying and refuting denialist arguments.